SL HABவயங்காரங்க TN S SK Tar VAO RE Fa TDARKS பpைaneere பாக sa UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN SI QUE HIS PLKINSULAM.AMONAM CIRCUMSPICE 18.17 Wu IIIԱIII:, ՄԱՐԴԸ on TV MO LITHIBITI Le ARTES SCIENTIA LIBRARY VERITAS OF THE Yoon huarats inuni TI:ENOR W.CUV.W.00 o WILLIAM WILLS OOV ) 1799 THE NEW ENCYCLOPÆDIA; DICTIONARY OR, MODERN UNIVERSAL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES . ON A NEW AND IMPROVED PLAN IN WHICH ALL THE RESPECTIVE SCIENCES ARE ARRANGED INTO THE ARTS DIGESTED INTO COMPLETE SYSTEMS, DISTINCT TREATISES, And Philoſophical Subjects introduced in ſeparate Diſſertations. ALSO, The DETACHED PARTS of KNOWLEDGE ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED, and COPIOUSLY EXPLAINED, according to the BEST AUTHORITIES. Including all the material Information that is contained in CHAMBERS's CYCLOPÆDIA, the ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, AND THE FRENCH ENCYCLOPEDIE. The Whole containing a copious DIGEST and DISPLAY of the complete THEORY and PRACTICE of the LIBERAL and MECHANICAL ARTS. 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By the New and Improved Plan of incorporating COMPLETE SYSTEMS on the SCIENCES, and DISTINCT TREATISES on the respektive ARTS, this work compriſes, independent of the Alphabetical Arrangement, A GENERAL CIRCLE OF SCIENCE; LIBRARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE AND FORMS THE MOST COMPREHENSIVE THAT WAS EVER PUBLISHED IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. IN THREE VOLUMES. BY WILLIAM HENRY HALL, ESQUIRE. The Second Edition: Reviſed, Corrected, and Enlarged, with conſiderable Additions, Improvements, and modern Diſcoveries, BY THOMAS AUGUSTUS LLOYD, Alifted by Gentlemen of Scientific Knowledge. NON SIBI, SED PATRIÆ, CATO, VOL. III. Illuſtrate with upwards of One Hundred and Fifty large ſuperb Copper-Plates, accurately deſcriptive of the different Subjects to which they refer. LONDON: PRINTED FOR C. COOKE, No. 17, PATER-NOSTER-Row; AND SOLD BY THE BOOKSELLERS ON BATH, BRISTOL, BIRMINGHAM, CANTERBURY, CAMBRIDGE, COVENTRY, CHESTER, DERBY, EXETER, GLOUCESTER, HERE FORD, HULL, IPSWICH, LEEDS, LIVERPOOL, LEICESTER, MANCHESTER, NEWCASTLE, NORWICH, NOTTINGHAM, NORTHAMPTON, OXFORD, READING, SALISBURY, SHERBORN, SHEFFIELD, SHREWSBURY, WORCESTER, WINCHESTER, YORK; AND BY ALL OTHER BOOKSELLERS IN ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND, 뾰 ​AE ㅌ ​5 H/8 1297 Gentib M, TACUS. 2- 250 ECS E M. ED. M A G M M A G 11-30-49 A liquid confonant, and the 12th letter of the alphabet. | inſomuch that a learned man and a magian became equivalent The ſound of this letter is formed by ſhutting the lips, terms. The vulgar looked ontheir knowledge as ſupernatural; and and thereby intercepting the breath, as it is ſtrongly exprelled hence thoſe who practiſed wicked and miſchievous arts, taking through the mouth and noſtrils jointly. Its found is always the upon themſelves the name of magians, drew on it that ill-figni- fame in Engliſh, it ſuffers no conſonant after it in the beginning fication which the word magician now bears among us. This of words and ſyllables, unleſs in ſome derived from the Greek, fect ſtill fubfifts in Perſia under the denomination of gaurs, as amneſty, &c. where they watch the ſacred fire with the greateſt care, and MACACO, or MACAUCO, in zoology, a ſpecies of the never ſuffer it to be extinguiſhed. third genus Lemur. See LEMUR. For a repreſentation, ſee Magic Lantern, an optic machine contrived by Kircher, plates of MAMMALIA, Genus III. (ſee his Ars Magna Lucis et Umbræ, p. 768, 769,) by means MACAW, MACCAW, or MACAO, in ornithology, the whereof little painted images are repreſented on an oppoſite Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the genus Pfittacus. See PsIT wall of a dark room, magnified to any bigneſs at pleaſure. See the Syſtem of Optics. MACCABEES, two apocryphal books of Scripture ; fo MAGICAL Picture, in electricity, firſt contrived by Mr. called from Judas the ſon of Mattathias, ſurnamed Maccabæus, Kinnerley. For a copious deſcription, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. II. either on account of his yalour, or becauſe he bore on his ſtan Art. III. Exp. IV. dard the firſt letters of a ſentence in Exodus, which joined to MAGNA Charta, the great charter of the liberties of Bri- gether, form the name Maccabee. The Hebrews call them tain, and the baſis of our laws and privileges. This charter The books of the Aſamonæans, becauſe (according to Joſephus and may be ſaid to derive its origin from king Edward the Confeſſor, Euſebius) Mattathias was the ſon of Hafamoneus, or Aſamoneus, who granted ſeveral privileges to the church and ſtate by charter: which was the name of the family. The firſt book of the theſe liberties and privileges were alſo granted and confirmed by Maccabees is an excellent hiſtory; and comes neareſt to the ſtyle king Henry I. by a celebrated great charter now loft ; but which and manner of the ſacred hiſtorians of any extant. The ſecond was confirmed or re-enacted by king Henry II. and king John. book does not by any means equal the accuracy and excellency Henry III. the ſucceſſor of this laſt prince, after having cauſed of the firſt. 12 men to make enquiry into the liberties of England in the reign There is alſo a third book of Maccabees, containing the hiſ of Henry I. granted a new charter; which was the ſame as the tory of the perſecution of Ptolemy Philopater againſt the Jews preſent magna charta. This he ſeveral times confirmed, and in Egypt, and their ſufferings under it; and ſeems to have been as often broke; till, in the 37th year of his reign, he went to written by fome Alexandrian Jew in the Greek language, not Weſtminſter-hall, and there, in the preſence of the nobility and long after the time of Siracides. It is in moſt of the ancient biſhops, who held lighted candles in their hands, magna charta manuſcript copies of the Greek Septuagint, particularly in the was read, the king all the time holding his hand to his breaſt, Alexandrian and Vatican, but was never inſerted into the vul- and at laſt folemnly ſwearing faithfully and inviolably to obſerve gar Latin verſion of the Bible, nor conſequently into any of our all the things therein contained, &c. Then the biſhops extin- English copies. Moreover, Joſephus's Hiſtory of the Martyrs guiſhing the candles, and throwing them on the ground, they that ſuffered under Antiochus Epiphanes, is found in ſome all cried out, “ Thus let him be extinguiſhed, and ſtink in hell, manuſcript Greek Bibles, under the name of the fourth book who violates this charter.” It is obſerved, that, notwithſtand- of the Maccabees. ing the folemnity of this confirmation, king Henry, the very MACE, the ſecond coat or covering of the kernel of the next year, again invaded the rights of his people, till the barons nutmeg, is a thin and membranaceous ſubſtance, of an oleagi- entered into a war againſt him; when, after various ſucceſs, he nous nature, and a yellowiſh colour ; being met with in flakes of confirmed this charter, and the charter of the foreſt, in the an inch or more in length, which are divided into a multitude of 52d year of his reign. ramifications. It is of an extremely fragrant, aromatic, and This charter confirmed many liberties of the church, and re- agreeable flavour'; and of a pleaſant, but acrid, oleaginous dreſſed many grievances incident to feodal tenures, of no ſmall taſte. Mace is carminative, ftomachic, and aſtringent: and moment at the time; though now, unleſs conſidered attentively, poffeſſes all the virtues of nut-meg, but has leſs aſtringency. and with this retroſpect, they ſeem but of trifling concern. But, The oils of mace and nutmeg, whether prepared by diſtillation beſides theſe feodal proviſions, care was alſo taken therein to or expreſſion, are ſo much of the ſame nature, that they may protect the ſubject againſt other oppreſſions, then frequently be indiſcriminately uſed for one another on all occaſions. They ariſing from unreaſonable amercements, from illegal diſtreſſes, give eaſe in cholics, and often in nephritic caſes, taken inter or other proceſs for debts or ſervices due to the crown, and from nally from one drop to five or ſix of the diſtilled oil, or an equal | the tyrannical abuſe of the prerogative of purveyance and pre- quantity of the expreſſed ; and externally, they are of uſe to ſtop vomitings and hiccoughs, only by being rubbed on the re of excluſive fiſheries; and the erection of new bridges ſo as to gion of the ſtomach. The nurſe's have a cuſtom of applying oppreſs the neighbourhood. With reſpect to private rights, it oil of mace by expreſſion to childrens' navels to eaſe their gripes, eſtabliſhed the teſtamentary power of the ſubject over part of his and that often with ſucceſs; and we are aſſured, by authors of perſonal eitate, the reſt being diſtributed among his wife and credit, that, when rubbed on the temples, it promotes ſleep. children; it laid down the law of dower, as it hath continued MACKREL, in ichthyology, the Engliſh name of a well ever ſince; and prohibited the appeals of women, unleſs for the known ſea-fiſh of the ſcomber kind: it is a ſpecies of the genus death of their huſbands. In matters of public police and na- Scomber. See SCOMBER. tional concern, it enjoined an uniformity of weights and mea- MADDER, in botany, the Engliſh name of the genus Rubia. fures; gave new encouragement to commerce, by the protection See RUBIA. The culture of that ſpecies of madder which is of merchant ſtrangers; and forbad the alienation of lands in uſed by the dyers and callico printers, and which grows natu mortmain. With regard to the adminiſtration of juſtice, be- rally in the Levant, is an article of conſiderable advantage to fides prohibiting all denials or delays of it, it fixed the court of the Dutch, inſomuch that at an average of ſeveral years paſt common-pleas at Weſtminſter, that the ſuitors might no longer they have received from us more than 180,000l. per annum. It be harraſſed with following the king's perſon in all his pro- might be proſecuted here with equal ſucceſs. For the method greſſes: and at the ſame time brought the trial of illues home to of cultivation, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. VIII. the very doors of the freeholders, by directing aſlizes to be taken See alſo the Treatiſe on DYEING, Sect. II. It appears from in the proper counties, and eſtabliſhing annual circuits : it alſo the calculations of an ingenious writer, that, ſuppoſing the land corrected ſome abuſes then incident to the trials by wager of to be worth 4os. per acre, and excluding the original price of law and of battle; directed the regular awarding of inqueſts for the plants, the whole expence of cultivating it with madder, is life or member ; prohibited the king's inferior miniſfers from 151. 18s. 2d. and that the produce of it is 521. 125. 2d. ſo that holding pleas of the crown, or trying any criminal charge, the clear profit is 361. 145. "The root of the common madder, whereby many forfeitures might otherwiſe have unjuſtly accrued cultivated for the uſe of the dyers, is an excellent aperient and to the exchequer; and regulated the time and place of holding diuretic. It is preſcribed with great ſucceſs in obſtructions of the the inferior tribunals of juſtice, the county-court, the ſheriff's liver and ſpleen, in ſuppreſſions of the menſes and urine, and in torn, and court-leet. It confirmed and eſtabliſhed the liberties dropſies, jaundices, and cachexies. It is alſo recommended as a of the city of London, and all other cities, boroughs, towns, vulnerary, and ſaid to be peculiarly excellent in the diſſolving and ports of the kingdom. And laſtly, (which alone would coagulated blood. The college of Edinburgh makesitan ingredient have merited the title that it bears, of the great charter,) it in the icteric decoction, which is prepared by boiling an ounce protected every individual of the nation in the free enjoyinent of madder, the ſame quantity of turmeric, and the ſame quantity of his life, his liberty, and his property, unleſs declared to be of the roots and leaves of celandine, in three pints of water to forfeited by the judgment of his peers or the law of the land. a quart, to which, when ſtrained and cooled, the juice of two This excellent charter, ſo equitable, and beneficial to the ſub- hundred millepedes is added : a quarter of a pint of this liquor ject, is the moſt ancient written law in the kingdom. By the is taken twice a day, or oftener. The dyers prepare a red co 25th Edward I. it is ordained, that it ſhall be taken as the com- lour with it, and uſe it alſo as a firſt tint for ſeveral others. mon law; and by the 43d Edward III. all ſtatutes made againſt MADNESS, mania, in medicine. See the Syſtem. it are declared to be void. MAGI, or MAGIANS, an ancient religious ſect in Perſia, MAGNET, MAGNES, the loadſtone; a fort of ferruginous and other Eaſtern countries. Their prieſts were the moſt ſkilful ſtone, in weight and colour reſembling iron ore, and very hard mathematicians and philoſophers of the ages in which they lived, and heavy; endued with divers extraordinary properties, at- No. 98. Vol. III, 3 tractive Flop parodytic limbs they alfo afit digeſtion; and will often manier as il fixe de that for protes bife da nd's for felony in the ſame M A G M A G 2. may tractive, inclinatory, &c. The magnet is indeed a true iron ore, axis parallel to the former, and more or leſs in the inſide of the from which a conſiderable portion of iron may be extracted, and magnet. We find, by experience, that two magnets attract is uſually found in iron mines, and ſometimes in very large each other by the poles of different denominations; whereas, on pieces, half magnet, half common ore. Its colour is different, the contrary, the two ſimilar poles repel each other. By a great white, blue, red, black, but moſtly ferruginous, according to number of experiments we alſo learn, that the force of a magnet, the different countries it is brought from. The ancients in attraction and repulſion, reaches ſometimes farther, fometimes reckoned five kinds of magnets, different in colour and virtue; not ſo far. The activity of ſome reaches to fourteen feet, and the Ethiopic, Magneſian, Boeotic, Alexandrian, and Natolian. that of others is inſenſible within eight or nine inches; the ſphere They alſo took it to be of two kinds, male and female; but of activity is greater on certain days than on others, without its the chief uſe they made of it was in medicine; eſpecially for ever appearing that the heat, moiſture, or drought of the air the cure of burns, and defluxion on the eyes. The moderns, contribute any thing to this effect. more happy, take it to conduct them in their voyages. See In order to communicate the magnetic virtue effectually, theſe NAVIGATION. methods are made uſe of: 1. It has been diſcovered that iron The moſt diſtinguiſhing properties of the magnet are, that it rubbed upon one of the poles of the magnet, acquires a great attracts iron, thus ſerving the purpoſes of the chymiſt in diſco deal more virtue than from any other part thereof, and this is vering or ſeparating ſmall particles of iron, mixed with other more conſiderable from an armed than a naked magnet. matters, and that it points to the poles of the world; and in The more gently the iron is preſſed, and the more it is preſſed other circumſtances, alſo, dips or inclines to a point beneath the againſt the pole, the more magnetical it becomes. 3. It is horizon, directly under the pole; and that it communicates more convenient to impregnate iron on one pole than on both theſe properties, by touch, to iron. On which foundation are ſucceſſively. 4. The iron is much better impregnated by pref- formed the mariners needles; both the horizontal, and the in- ſing it uniformly, and in the ſame direction, according to its clinatory, or dipping-needles. length, than by rubbing it by the middle; and the extremity Variation of the MAGNET. The cauſe of the variation of the which touches the pole laſt retains the moſt virtue. 5. A piece needle has remained hitherto without any demonſtrative diſco of poliſhed ſteel, or a bit of pointed iron, receives more virtue very; yet ſince its declination, and inclination, or dipping, do than a ſimple piece of iron of the ſame figure; and, cæteris both of them manifeſtly indicate the cauſe to be ſomewhere in paribus, a piece of iron that is long, ſmall and pointed, is more the earth, it has given occaſion to philoſophy to frame hypo Itrongly impregnated than that of any other form. The com- theſes for a ſolution, which makes the earth a large or general munication of the magnetic virtue does not ſenſibly impair that magnet or loadſtone, of which all the leſſer ones are but ſo many of the loadſtone; though it has been obſerved that ſome mag- parts or fragments, and being poſſeſſed of the ſame virtue, will, nets have communicated a greater power to iron to raiſe weights, when left to move freely, have the ſame diſpoſition and ſimila than they had themſelves, but without impairing their own force, rity of poſition, and other circumſtances. The moſt conſider or adding any thing to the weight of the iron. able of theſe hypotheſes is that of the late fagacious Dr. Halley, Artificial MAGNETS, are ſteel bars impregnated with the vir- which is this: the globe of the earth is one great magnet, tues of the magnet, ſo that they poſſeſs all the properties, and having four magnetical poles or points of attraction, near each be uſed inſtead of, the natural loadſtone. pole of the equator two; and that in thoſe parts of the world MAGNETISM, the virtue or power that the magnet has of which lie near adjacent to any one of thoſe magnetical poles, attracting iron, &c. The primary properties of magnetiſm are the needle is chiefly governed thereby, the neareſt pole being as follows: 1. Every loadſtone has two points or poles, which always predominant over the more remote one. Of the north emit the magnetic virtue moſt copiouſly. 2. One of thoſe poles poles, that which is neareſt to us he ſuppoſes to be in the meri- attracts, the other repels iron, but no other body. 3. Their dian of the land's end, which governs the variations in European virtue is communicated to iron by the touch, which renders it Tartary and the North Sea; the other he places in a meridian magnetic. magnetic. 4. A piece of iron ſo touched by the loadſtone, and paſſing through California, about 15 degrees from the north nicely ſufpended on a ſharp point, will be determined to feitle pole of the world, which governs the needle in North America, itſelf in a direction nearly north and ſouth. 5. The end of the and the oceans on either ſide. In like manner he accounts for needle touched by the ſouth pole of the ſtone will point north- the variations in the ſouthern hemiſphere. See DIPPING wards, and the contrary. 6. Needles touched by the ſtone will Needle. dip below the horizon, or be directed on the touched part to a The variation of the needle has, within a century paſt, under- point within the earth's ſurface. This is called the dipping- gone a remarkable alteration; for at London it was obſerved by needle. 7. This virtue is alſo to be communicated to iron, by Mr. Burrows, in the year 1580, to be 11° 15' eaſt: after that, a ſtrong attrition all one way; whence files, drills, &c. are in the year 1622, it was obſerved by Mr. Gunter to be but 6º always to be found magnetical. 8. Iron rods or bars acquire a eaſt. In the year 1634, Mr. Gellibrand obſerved it to be 4° 5' magnetic virtue by ſtanding long in one poſition. 9. Fire totally eaſt. In 1657, it was obſerved by Mr. Bond to be nothing at deſtroys this virtue, by making the ſtone or iron red-hot. all, that is, the needle pointed directly to the north. After this, This power is exerted ſenſibly to the diſtance of ſeveral feet. in the year 1672, Dr. Halley obſerved it to be 2° 30' weſtward; II. It is ſenſibly continued through the ſubſtance of ſeveral con- and again, in the year 1692, he found it 6° weſt. Since then, tiguous bodies or pieces of iron, as keys, &c. 12. It pervades in the year 1722, Mr. Graham, by moſt accurate experiments, the pores of the hardeſt bodies: and, 13. equally attracts the iron found it to be 14° 13', and at preſent it is between 19 and 20 in vacuo as in open air. To the above properties of the load- degrees; and in ſome places it has been found to be 23° weſt fone we ſhall add the following, viz. That the ſame pole of ward. the ſtone will communicate to a piece of iron the power of at- The ingenious Muſchenbroek has, with indefatigable pains tracting or repelling the ſame end of a touched needle, by draw- and application, made experiments of the attractions and repul- ing it different ways thereon: or thus, if a piece of iron be drawn fions of loadſtones in refpect to iron and to each other, but to the right hand, and attracts, it will repel if drawn to the left, could never find any regular proportion in the increaſe of at which is not a little wonderful. By a ſmart ſtroke of a hammer traction in their approach to, or decreaſe of attraction in their on the untouched end of the dipping-needle, the magnetic vir- receſs from, one another; only that the force of the magnetic tue may be cauſed to come all to that end from the other, ſo as virtue did increaſe in the approach to, and diminiſh in the re to make it dip on that ſide, as much as it did on the other ſide ceſs from, the ſtone, but not exactly as the diſtance, nor as the before: and, on the contrary, by ſuch a ſtroke, ſometimes, it ſquare-or cube of the diſtance reciprocally, nor in any propor may be made to dip much more on the touched end than before. tion reducible to numbers; and therefore he very reaſonably con Again, ſometimes by ſtriking it, the needle which dipped be- jectures, that the repulſions and attractions diſturb one another, fore, will be reſtored to its equilibrium, as if the virtue had ſo as to confound the proportion; nor are we able to hope for made its eſcape, or were uniformly diffuſed over all the needle. any other rule concerning this matter, till a way be found, if So capricious are the phænomena of this amazing power. ever it can be, of ſeparating the attracting from the repelling Animal MAGNETISM, a ſympathy lately ſuppoſed by ſome per- parts. The poles of a loadſtone are not to be looked upon as fons to exiſt between the magnet and the human body; by means two ſuch invariable points as never to change place; for, accord of which the former became capable of curing many diſeaſes ing to Mr. Boyle, the poles of a little bit of magnet may be in an unknown way, ſomething reſembling the performances changed by applying them to the more vigorous poles of another, of the old magicians. as has been confirmed by Dr. Knight, who can change at plea The fanciful ſyſtem, to call it by no worſe name, of animal ſure the poles of a natural magnet, by means of iron bars mag magnetiſm, appears to have originated, in 1774, from a Ger- netically impregnated. Upon gently cutting a magnet through man philoſopher, named Father Hehl, who greatly recommended the middle of its axis, each piece becomes a complete magnet; the uſe of the magnet in medicine. M. Meſmer, a phyſician of for the parts that were contiguous under the equator before the the ſame country, by adopting the principles of Hehl, became magnet was cut, become poles, and even poles of different the direct founder of the ſyſtem ; but, afterwards deviating names; ſo that each piece may become equally a north or ſouth from the tenets of his initructor, he loit his patronage, as well pole, 'according as the ſection was made nearer the ſouth or as that of Dr. Ingenhouſz, which he had formerly enjoyed. north pole of the large magnet; and the ſame thing would hap- Meſmer had already diſtinguiſhed himſelf by “ A Diſſertation pen in any other ſub-diviſions. But upon cutting a magnet on the Influence of the Stars upon the Human Body,” which he longitudinally, there will then be four poles, the ſame as before publicly defended in a theſis before the univerſity of Vienna ; the cutting; only that there ſhall be formed in each piece a new but he was ſo unable to ſtand before the oppoſition of Hehl and Ingenhouſz, 10. 1 I M A G M A H Ingenhouſz, that his ſyſtem fell almoſt inſtantly into difrepute. 1 by the ſounds. The internal part of the platform was ſaid to be Meſmer appealed to the academy of ſciences at Berlin; but ſo contrived as to concentrate the magnetiſm, and was the re- they rejected his principles as deftitute of foundation, and un ſervoir whence the virtue diffuſed itſelf among the patients. Its worthy of the ſmalleſt attention. He then made a tour through ſtructure, however, is not mentioned ; but the committee fatiſ- Germany, publiſhing every where the great cures he performed fied themſelves, by means of a needle and electrometer, that by means of his animal magnetiſm, while his enemies every where neither common magnetiſm nor electricity was concerned. purſued him with detections of the falſehood of his aſſertions. Beſides the different ways of receiving the magnetiſm already Meſmer, ſtill undaunted by ſo many defeats, returned to mentioned, viz. by the iron, cord, and piano forte, the pa- Vienna; but meeting there with no better ſucceſs than before, tients alſo had it directly from the Doctor's finger, and a rod he retired to Paris in the beginning of the year 1778. Here which he held in his hand, and which he carried about the face, he met with a very different reception. He was firſt patronized head, or ſuch parts of the patient as were diſeaſed; obferving by the author of the Dictionnaire des Merveilles de la Nature; in always the direction of what he called the poles. The princi- which work a number of his cures were publiſhed, Meſmer pal application of magnetiſm, however, was by preſſure of the himſelf receiving likewiſe an ample teſtimony of his candour hands or fingers on the hypochondria or lower regions of the and ſolid reaſoning. Our phyſician foon collected fome patients; ftomach. and in the month of April, 1778, retired with them to Creteil, The effects of theſe operations upon Deflon's patients were from whence he in a ſhort time returned with them perfectly very different. Some felt nothing, neither had the magnetiſm cured. His ſucceſs was now as great as his diſappointment had any effect whatever upon them. Some ſpit, coughed, ſweat, been before. Patients increaſed ſo rapidly that the Doctor was and felt, or pretended to feel, extraordinary heats in different foon obliged to take in pupils to aſſiſt him in his operations. parts of the body. Many women, but very few men, had con- Theſe pupils ſucceeded equally as well as Meſmer himſelf; and vulſions, which Deflon called their criſis, &c. The commiſ- ſo well did they take care of their own emolument, that one of ſioners at laſt found that they could come to no ſatisfactory con- them, named M. Dellon, realized upwards of 100,000l. ſter clufion while they attended in this public way, and therefore ling. in 1779, Meſmer publiſhed a memoir on the ſubject of determined to try the experiments themſelves privately. As the Animal Magnetiſm, promiſing afterwards a complete work upon fluid itſelf, however, was totally imperceptible by any of the the ſame, which ſhould make as great a revolution in philofophy ſenſes, they could only aſcertain themſelves of its exiſtence by as it had already done in medicine. ultimately curing diſeaſes, or by its obfervable effects upon the The new ſyſtem now gained ground daily; and foon became human body. Being well aſſured, however, that, though many ſo falhionable, that the jealouſy of the faculty was thoroughly diſeaſes were cured, it would not amount to any proof of the awakened, and an application concerning it was made to go exiſtence of animal magnetiſm, they determined to obſerve its vernment. In conſequence of this a committee was appointed effects on the animal economy. For this purpoſe they made to enquire into the matter, conſiſting partly of phyſicians, and the following experiments: partly of members of the royal academy of feiences, with Dr. 1. They tried it upon themſelves, and felt nothing. Benjamin Franklin at their head. This was a thunderſtroke to the 2. Seven of Deflon's patients were magnetified at Dr. Frank- fupporters of the new doctrine.—Meſmer himſelf refuſed to lin's houſe, four of whom felt nothing; three felt, or affected have any communication with the committee ; but his moſt ce to feel, ſomething. lebrated pupil Deflon was leſs ſcrupulous, and explained the 3. Several perſons in a higher ſphere of life were magnetiſed, principles of his art in the following manner : and felt nothing. 1. Animal magnetiſm is an univerſal fluid, conſtituting an 4. The commiſſioners, now determined to diſcover what abſolute plenum in nature, and the medium of all mutual influ ſhare imagination had in this buſineſs, blind-folded ſeveral of ence between the celeſtial bodies and betwixt the earth and ani the common people, and made them ſometimes think that they mal bodies. were magnetiſed, at other times they magnetiſed them without 2. It is the moſt fubtile fluid in nature; capable of a flux and letting them know that they did ſo; the conſequence was, that reflux, and of receiving, propagating, and continuing all kinds when they fuppoſed themſelves magnetiſed, the patients like- of motion. wife thought they felt ſomething, and vice verſa. 3: The animal body is ſubjected to the influences of this fluid 5. A magnetiſed tree was ſaid to produce convulſions; a by means of the nerves, which are immediately affected by it. young man, blindfolded, fell into convulſions when he imagined 4. The human body has poles and other properties analogous himſelf near the tree, though he was really at a conſiderable to the magnet. diſtance from it. Deflon accounted for this on the principle of 5. The action and virtue of animal magnetiſm may be com all trees being magnetic: but in this caſe, every one, ſuſcepti- municated from one body to another, whether animate or in ble of magnetiſm, would be ſeized with convulſions when he animate. approached a tree. The ſame influence of imagination was 6. It operates at a great diſtance without the intervention of obſerved in a woman accuſtomed to have convulſions when mag- netiſed. They came on when nothing was done to her, on 7. It is increaſed and reflected by mirrors; communicated, being told, when blindfolded, that ſhe was magnetiſed. propagated, and increaſed by found; and may be accumulated, Other inſtances are given, from which it was evident, either that concentrated, and tranſported. the patients were impoſtors, or in ſuch a moſt wreched ſtate of debi- 8. Notwithſtanding the univerſality of this fluid, all animal lity, both of mind and body, that the moſt trifling effects of the bodies are not equally affected by it; on the other hand, there foriner had the moſt powerful effects on the latter. The commiſ- are ſome, though but few in number, the preſence of which fioners therefore entirely diſapproved of the whole. The touchy deſtroys all the effects of animal magnetiſm. imitation, and imagination, they concluded, were the great 9. By means of this fluid nervous diſorders are cured imme cauſes of the effects produced by Mr. Deflon's operations ; and diately, and others mediately; and its virtues, in ſhort, extend by means of theſe they ſuppoſed that convulſions, which in them- to the univerfal cure and preſervation of mankind. " ſelves are a very violent diſorder, might be ſpread much farther From this extraordinary theory, Meſmer, or M. Dellon, had than could be wiſhed, even through a whole city. It was ob- fabricated a paper, in which he ſtated that there was in nature ſerved that the operator ſometimes preſſed ſtrongly, and for a but one diſeafe and one cure, and that this cure was animal length of time, upon different parts of the body, particularly magnetiſm; and laſtly, M. Deflon engaged, 1. To prove to the hypochondria and pit of the ſtomach; and it is well known the commiſſioners, that ſuch a thing as animal magnetiſm exiſted: that a ſtrong preſſure on theſe parts will produce diſagreeable 2. To prove the utility of it in the cure of diſeaſes : after ſenſations in thoſe who enjoy perfect health, which he was to communicate to them all that he knew It is needleſs to add more upon this ſubject, than that Mef- the ſubject. The commiſſioners accordingly attended in the mer complained of the report of the commiſſioners, petitioned room where the patients underwent the magnetical operations. parliament, was by them commanded to diſcover the myſteries The apparatus conſiſted of a circular platform made of oak, and of his doctrine, and that it is now exploded by every man of raiſed about a foot and a half from the ground; which platform ſenſe. The concluſion of the academicians concerning it was, was called the baquet. At the top of it were a number of holes, that it is not entirely uſeleſs even to philoſophy; as it is one in which were iron rods with moveable joints, for the purpoſe of fact more to be conſigned to the hiſtory of the errors and illu- applying them to any part of the body. The patients were fions of the human mind, and a ſignal inſtance of the power of placed in a circle round, each touching an iron rod, which he imagination. could apply to any part of the body at pleaſure; they were MAGPYE, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of a well known joined to one another by a cord paſſing round their bodies, the ſpecies of the Genus Corvus, or the corvus pica, in the Linnæan deſign being to increaſe the effect by communication. In the ſyſtem. For the claſſification, ſee the Syſtem. For the de- corner of the room was a piano forte, on which ſome airs were ſcription, fee Corvus. played, occaſionally accompanied with a ſong. Each of the MAHOGANY, a ſpecies of the Genus Cedrus. For a de- patients held in his hand an iron rod ten or twelve feet long; the ſcription, ſee CEDRUS. intention of which, as Dellon told the coinmiſſioners, was to MAHOMETANISM, MAHOMETISM, MOHAMMEDISM; concentrate the magnetiſm in its point, and thus to render its the ſyſtem of religion broached by Mahomet, and ſtill adhered to effects more ſenſible. Sound is another conductor of this mag- 1 by his followers. Mahomet was born at Mecca in Arabia, in the netiſm; and in order to communicate the magnetiſm to the year of Chriſt 571 or 572, according to the moſt probable opi- pano forte, nothing more is neceſſary than to bring the iron nion: in the thirty-eighth year of his age he began to withdraw rod near it. Some magnetiſm is alſo furniſhed by the perſon himſelf into a ſolitary cave near Mecca, called the cave of Hira, who plays it; and this magnetiſm is tranſmitted to the patients for the purpoſe of forming his fyſtem of impoſture; the propa- No. 98. Vol. III. 6N gation any body. upon M A H M A M ran. gåtion of which he commenced in the fortieth year of his age, dies at the reſurrection; the approach of which will be known when he aſſumed the title of the apoſtle of God: and having | by certain ſigns that precede it. gained nine diſciples, ſome of whom were the principal men of They maintain that infidels only will be liable to eternal the city, in the forty-fourth year of his age he openly publiſhed puniſhment; but the Mollems or believers will be delivered his impofture to the people of Mecca, and declared himfelf a thence, after they have expiated their crimes by their ſufferings. prophet ſent by God to recover them from Paganiſm, and to This place of puniſhment is ſeparated from paradiſe by a wall, teach them the true religion. However, he was obliged to ſo ſmall in breadth as to admit the bleſſed and damned to con- abandon Mecca, and to ſettle at Medina, on the 16th of July, verſe together. The righteous will be refreſhed by drinking at A. D. 622, the year of the hegira, or Mahometan epocha : here the pond of their prophet, and then admitted info paradiſe, ſitu- his party conſiderably increaſed, and having made ſeveral fuc ated in the feventh heaven, and next to the throne of God; ceſsful excurſions againſt the Arab tribes, and conſtrained them where they will feed on the moſt delicious fruits; be cloathed in by force to embrace his religion, his ſovereignty was eſtabliſhed the moſt ſplendid filken garments; refreſhed with rivers of water, in 628, and he united in himſelf the ſacred character of chief wine, milk and honey; and entertained with the moſt delightful pontiff of his religion, as well as the royal; both which cha muſic, and the raviſhing girls of paradiſe with black eyes, the racters he tranſmitted to all his ſucceſſors, who, by the title of enjoyment of whoſe company will be a principal felicity of the caliphs, reigned after him. But they were afterwards deprived faithful. It of the regal authority; firſt by the governors of the provinces, appears from the Koran, that women as well as mien will who, about the year of the hegira, 325, aſſumed it to themſelves, not only be punished for their evil actions, but alſo receive the and made themſelves kings in their reſpective governments; rewards of their good deeds, and that both will enjoy a perpetual and then by others who aroſe on this diſtraction of the empire youth. The orthodox doctrine with reſpect to predeſtination is; to uſurp upon them, till at laſt they had nothing left but the that every thing which happens in this world proceedeth en- name and ſhadow of what they had once been. In the year of tirely from the divine will, and is irrevocably fixed from all Chriſt 629, Mahomet, at the head of an army of ten thouſand eternity. As to the four fundamental points of religious prac- men, reduced Mecca, and extended his conqueſts, with his re tice, Mahomet is ſaid to have declared, that the practice of re- ligion, through moſt parts of Arabia : and the remaining Arabs ligion is founded on cleanlineſs, which is one half of the faith, ſubmitted and embraced his impoſture in 631. In the next and the key of prayer, without which it will not be heard by year he died at Medina, being, according to ſome hiſtorians, God. Such is the opinion which the Mahometans entertain of fixty-three years of age. cleanlineſs, that it is purely on this account they ſeem to have Mahometaniſm is embraced by the Turks, Perſians, and feve- adopted circumciſion, though it be not mentioned in the Korar. sal nations among the Africans, and many among the Eaſt In Mahomet has obliged his followers to pray five times every dians. Brerewood ſays, that if we divide the known countries twenty-four hours, at certain ſtated times, turning their faces of the earth into thirty equal parts, five of them are Chriſtians, towards the temple at Mecca, which is pointed by a niche in fix Mahometans, and nineteen Pagans. The ſyſtem of Maho their moſques: the life and ſpirit of prayer, they hold as the metaniſm is contained in the Koran, commonly called the Alco inward diſpoſing of the heart ; nor do they ever perform this See the article ALCORAN. duty in ſumptuous apparel, nor ſuffer their women to attend The firſt and chief article of the Mahometan creed is, that them on theſe occaſions. Alms among the Mahometans are there is no other God but one God; which they have from the legal and voluntary; the giving of which is frequently inculcated Koran, where theſe words are repeated inceſſantly: there is no in the Koran. Faſting is called by Mahomet, the gate of reli- other God but he. Your God is the only God. I am God, and gion; and his followers are expreſsly required to fait during the This grand axiom of their theology month of Ramadan ; which they obſerve by abſtaining from feems to have been taken from the Jews, who were continually meat, drink, and women, from day-break till ſun-ſet. Beſides · rehearling thoſe words of Deuteronomy, Hear, O Iſrael! the this, they have ſeveral other voluntary faſts. The pilgrimage Lord our God is One. to Mecca is ſo neceſſary a point of practice, that, according to For this reaſon the Mahometans account all ſuch as own any a tradition of Mahomet, he who dies without performing it, may thing of number in the divinity to be infidels or idolaters. And as well die a Jew or a Chriſtian; and it is expreſsly commanded accordingly, one of the firft leilons they teach their children is, in the Koran. The various ceremonies preſcribed to thoſe who that God is neither male nor female, and conſequently can have perform this pilgrimage are extremely abſurd and ridiculous, and no children. The ſecond article of Mahometaniſm conſiſts in appear to be relics of idolatrous ſuperſtition. this, that Mahomet was ſent from God. By which they exclude Beſides the fundamental points of faith and practice above re- all other religions ; under pretence that their prophet was the cited, the Mahometans are required by the Koran to abſtain laſt and greatest of all the prophets that God would ever ſend, froin wine, gaming, uſury, divining by arrows, the eating of and that as the Jewiſh religion ceaſed with the coming of the blood and ſwines' fleſh, and whatever dies of itſelf, or is lain Meſſiah, ſo likewiſe the Chriſtian religion was to be abrogated in honour of any idol, or ſtrangled, or killed by an accident, or with the coming of Mahomet. Not but they own Moſes and by any other beait. The Koran allows Polygamy within certain Jeſus Chriſt to have been great prophets; but Mahomet they limits; forbidding any man to have more than four, whether hold to be The Prophet, by way of excellence, commiſſioned to wives or concubines; but Mahomet had the privilege of mar- purge the holy ſcriptures of the Old and New Teſtament, which rying as many wives, and keeping as many concubines as he they allow, from the corruption introduced in them by Jews pleaſed. It allows alſo of divorce; but ſeverely puniſhes forni- and Chriſtians, and to reſtore the law of God to its original cation and adultery. purity; and the paraclete or comforter promiſed in the ſcrip The rapid ſucceſs which attended the propagation of this religion, was owing to cauſes that are plain and evident, and The Mahometans call their religion Iſam, denoting, as fome ſay, mult remove, or rather prevent, our furprize, when they are reſignation or ſubmiſion to the ſervice and commands of God; attentively conſidered. attentively conſidered. The terror of Mahomet’s arms, and but, according to others, formed from the root ſalama, fignify- the repeated victories which were gained by him and his ſuc- ing to be ſaved, and therefore the ſame with the religion or ſtate of ceffors, were, no doubt, the irreſiſtble arguments that perſuaded ſalvation, and they divide it into two diſtinct parts, viz. mian, ſuch multitudes to embrace his religion, and ſubmit to his do- i. e. faith or theory; and din, i. e. religion or practice: and teach, minion. Beſides, his law was artfully and marvellouſly adapted that it is built on five fundamental points, one belonging to to the corrupt nature of man; and, in a more particular man- faith, and the other four to practice. Under the confellion of ner, to the manners and opinions of the eaſtern nations, and faith already recited, they comprehend fix diſtinct branches, viz. the vices to which they were naturally addicted: for the articles belief in God; in his angels; in his ſcriptures; in his prophets ; of faith which it propoſed were few in number, and extremely in the reſurrection and day of Judgment; and in God's abſolute ſimple; and the duties it required were neither many nor diffi- decree and predeſtination both of good and evil. The four cult, nor ſuch as were incompatible with the empire of appe- points relating to practice, are prayer, under which are com tites and paſſions. prehended thoſe walhings or purifications which are neceſſary MAJOR, in logic, is underſtood of the firſt propoſition of a preparations required before prayer ; alms; faſting; and the regular fyllogiſm. It is called major, becauſe it has a more ex- pilgrimage to Mecca. The Mahometans are taught by the Ko tenſive ſenſe than the minor propoſition, as containing the prin- ran, that God, in divers ages of the world, gave revelations of cipal term. of the world, gave revelations of cipal term. See the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. V. his will in writing to ſeveral prophets, the whole, and every MALACHI, the Prophecy of, is one of the canonical books word of which, it is abſolutely neceſſary for every good Moſlem of the Old Teſtament, written by Malachi, who was probably to believe. Mahomet acknowledges the divine authority of the contempory with Nehemiah, and lived about 428 years before Pentateuch, Pſalms, and Goſpels, and often appeals to the con Chriſt. The chief corruptions which he charges upon the Jews ſonancy of the Koran with thoſe writings, and to the prophe are the ſame with thoſe for which they were reproved by Ne- cies which he pretended were contained concerning himſelf, hemiah; he forbids them to expect any farther ſucceſſion of pro- which the Jews and Chriſtians have ſuppreſſed. At death, they phets, exhorts them to obſerve the law of Moſes, and prediets maintain, that the bodies of thoſe who believe the unity of God, the coming of Elias, or John the Baptiſt, as the forerunner of and the miſſion of Mahomet, reſt in peace, and are refreſhed the Mefliah. with the air of Paradiſe: otherwiſe they are grievouſly torment MAMMALIA, a name given by Linnæus to his firſt or ed. The ſouls of the former are conveyed to heaven, where a principal claſs of animals, which comprehends not only all the place is aſſigned them according to their merit and degree; thoſe | animals generally ſtiled quadrupeds, but alſo the cetaceous order, of the wicked are tormented, till they are rejoined to their bo and the human ſpecies. 3 tures. M A M M A L I A. and many 1991 SUS 301 HE authors who have written on quadrupeds are numerous, M. Briſſon in 1756 publiſhed a ſyſtem, in which he has ar. THI of them very ancient; ancient; their accounts alſo are ranged animals by the number or defect of their teeth ; beginning proved to be in many caſes imaginary or fabulous. Later authors with thoſe that are toothleſs, ſuch as the ant-eater, and ending have much improved the ſcience; and many valuable works are with thoſe that have the greateſt number, ſuch as the opoffum. publiſhed in various languages on this ſubjectBut as it would By this arrangment, ſome quadrupeds, very diſtant from each other be impoflible to do juſtice to the merits of each, we ſhall content in their manners, are too nearly connected. We ſhall ſay no- ourſelves with mentioning principally thoſe of our own country- thing of M. Buffon's Hiſtory of Quadrupeds, though it contains men, which are chiefly in Engliſh, to which we ſhall ſubjoin a much information ; as he has diſregarded ſyſtematic arrangement. liſt of the ſcientific works that are moſt in uſe. Our valuable The branch of natural hiſtory now under our conſideration is and much reſpected naturaliſt Ray's Synopſis of Quadrupeds,prin- the moſt comprehenſive of all others, extending not only through- ted in London in 1693, is an excellent work. Edwards's Na out that part of the animal kingdom, generally termed Quadru- tural Hiſtory of Birds, publiſhed in 1750, and his Gleanings of peds, (the lizard tribe excepted,) but including alſo the cetaceous Natural Hiſtory, 1758, 1760, and 1764, contain fome excellent order, or whales, and the human ſpecies. This claſs at firſt figures of quadrupeds. The Hiſtory of Animals by Dr. Hill, in fight appears to unite animals, not only totally diffimilar in their folio, 1752, is not deſtitute of merit. The Natural Hiſtory of outward appearance, but in no reſpect analogous in their habits Carolina, by Mr. Cateſby, contains ſome few animals ; but we and diſpoſitions. A more nice inſpection, and cloſer examination, are more particularly indebted to Mr. Pennant for his Britiſh will, however, ſoon convince us of their ſimilarity and near alli- Zoology, in folio, 1766; in 8vo. 1768; Pennant's Indian Zoology, ance. The outward appearance indeed affords an aſtoniſhing vaa 4to, 1769. Synoplis of Quadrupeds, October 1771. To theſe | riety, but the inward ſtructure is nearly alike in all the genera. we may add the Outlines of Natural Hiſtory of Great Britain and They breathe through lungs, are viviparous, and ſuckle their Ireland, by Dr. Berkenhout; and the Hiſtory of the Earth, and young by means of mammillæ or teats, which differ in ſituation, animated Nature, by Dr Goldſmith; and above all, a general and are more or leſs, in proportion to the number of young Hiſtory of Quadrupeds with wooden figures, engraved by T. brought forth by each fpecies. Bewick, publithed lately at Newcaſtle upon Tyne; a work that If we take the pains to examine the internal ſtructure and muſt immortalize the name of the engraver, and give an ex wonderful mechaniſm of the human frame, and compare it cellent outline to the reader of this branch of knowledge. And with that of beaſts, as exemplified in our Syſtems of Anatomy much uſeful information may be acquired from the Eleinents and Comparative Anatomy, we ſhall find an aſtoniſhing ſimi- of Natural Hiſtory, by our Botanic Profeffor at Cambridge, Mr. | larity and agreement: compoſed of the ſame materials, fur- Thomas Martin, B. D. niſhed with the ſame organs, which are acted upon exactly in The ſyſtem of Mr.Ray obtained very generally among natura the ſame manner; they are equally liable to accident, decay, liſts, till, in the year 1735, Linnæus firit publiſhed his Syitem. and putrefaction. It appears evident that we are a connecting This was followed by ſeveral others, varying in the arrangment link of that great chain by which all beings are united, and it is of the animal kindgdom, even to the laſt edition of 1767. Under | poſſible that we are much further removed from the firſt great the claſs, which he denominates MAMMALIA, he comprehends mover of all things, than from the moſt minute and apparently not only all the animals which we call quadrupeds (the lizard ge-trifling part of the creation. nus, or rather the reptiles pedati excepted) but alſo the cetaceous order, or whales, cachalots, and porpoiſes; juſtifying this arrange- CLASSICAL CHARACTERS. ment of whales with quadrupeds, from the agreement of theſe The term mammalia has been adopted by Linnæus in prefe- animals in the ſtructure of the heart, in the reſpiration by means rence to any other, as being more exprellive; for although all of lungs, in their having movcable eye-lids and ears, in being vi that claſs of animals called quadrupeds, the lizard tribe except- viparous, furniſhed with teeth, and other particulars, by which ed, are arranged in this claſs, yet it alſo comprehends the ceta- they differ fomaterially from fiſhes, as more than to counterbalance ceous order, as whales, porpoiſes, &c. and alſo the human their living with them in the ſame element. ſpecies; all of which are furniſhed with mammæ, or breaſts, and Mr. Pennant, in his Synopſis of Quadrupeds, and profeſſor Mar- univerſally ſuckle their young, which is their diſtinguiſhing cha- tin, in his Elements of Natural Hiitory, by including ſome ani racteriſtic. mals that were unknown to Linnæus, and giving the rank of ſpe The heart has two auricles, and two ventricles; with a warm cies to ſeveral that were conſidered by him as varieties, have ex red blood. They breathe by means of the lungs reciprocally. tended the number of mammalia to two hundred and eighty-nine Their jaws are incumbent, covered, furniſhed with teeth. The ſpecies. Mr Klein, in 1751, publiſhed a new ſyſtem of quadru- males have an external penis. The females a clitoris and nymphæ; peds, intitled Quadrup. Diſpoſitio breviſque Hiſt. Natur, in which are viviparous and ſuckle. The organs of ſenſe are the tongue, he diſtributes them into two orders; the firſt comprehending thoſe nofe, eyes, ears, papillæ. The covering (a few genera and the whoſe feet are terminated by one or more hoofs, and the ſecond whole of order 7 excepted) is hair. They are ſupported by thoſe which are digitated; and each of theſe orders is ſubdivided four legs (order 1, 7 and 8 excepted.) The body is terminated into five families or claſſes. In his firſt order he follows the general by a tail in moſt of the ſpecies. The neck has ſeven vertebræ! arrangement of Mr. Ray, which he has conſiderably improved : but in the ſecond, by a ſervile regard to a method founded on the SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT. number of toes, he has combined very oppoſite animals; the cámėl There are three particular diſtinctions in this claſs of animals : and the floth, the mole and the bat, the glutton and the ape. the firſt is Digitated or Clawed, the ſecond Hoofed, and the third Mr. Pennant has introduced ſome uſeful alterations in his Hif-Deftitute of Hoofs and Claws; as follows: I. DIGITATED OR CLAWED. tory of Quadrupeds: this ingenious naturaliſt has followed Mr. ORDER 1. Primates. Four teeth, fore canine ſingle, Ray in his greater diviſion of animals into hoofed and digitated; ORDER 2. Bruta. Fore teeth or cutting teeth none. but, after the manner of Mr. Klein, he has formed ſeparate ORDER 3. Feræ. Fore teeth, 6, 2, 10, conical, canine ſingle. genera of the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tapiir, and muſk. The ORDER 4. Glires. Fore teeth, two; canine none, apes are continued in the rank in which Mr. Ray placed them, II. HOOFED, and are followed by the maucaucos. The carnivorous animals ORDER 5. Pecora. Fore teeth, none above. are arranged according to the ſyſtem of Linnæus, omitting the ſeal, ORDER 6. Belluæ. Före teeth, above and below. mole, ſhrew, and hedge-hog. The herbivorous or frugivorous III. DESTITUTE OF HOOFS AND CLAWS. quadrupeds occupy the claſs alligned them by Mr. Ray, to which ORDER 7. Cete. Teeth various in the different genera. he has alloted likewiſe the threw, the mole, and the hedge-hog. Characteriſtic Deſcription of the ORDERS. ORDER I. PRIMATES. The fourth ſection of digitated quadrupeds conſiſts of thoſe which Four parallel cutting teeth in the upper jaw; ſharp; one canine are abſolutely deſtitute of cutting teeth, ſuch as the ſloth and on each ſide. Two pectoral mammæ. Feet like hands, with flat armadillo. The fifth ſection is formed of thoſe which are deſti nails. Frugivorous. tute of teeth of every kind, ſuch as the manis and ant-eater. The ORDER II. BRUTA. third and fourth orders or diviſions which Mr. Pennant has added, No cutting teeth; feet with ſtrong claws. The two firſt genera are the pinnated and the winged quadrupeds; the firſt comprehends feed on herbs and fruits, the two laft on infekts. the walrus, the ſeals, and (in conformity to preceding writers) the ORDER III. FERÆ. manati. But theſe, he obſerves, ſeem as the links between the Six ſharp cutting teeth in the upper jaw, one canine on each quadrupeds and the cetaceous animals. The bats are winged fide; feet digitated with ſubulate claws: for this order there are quadrupeds, and form the next gradation from this to the claſs of exceptions which will be ſhewn under their general characters. ORDER IV. GLIRES. birds. See Pennant's Hiſt. of Quadrupeds, ed. 8vo. 1781. Two ſharp cutting teeth in each jaw, but remote from the Preface. grinders; no canine teeth; feet digitated. Herbivorous or Frugivo- Some naturaliſts object to the method adopted by Ray and others, of dividing animals into ſanguineous, or ſuch as have blood, ORDER V. PECORA. and exſanguineous, or ſuch as have no blood ; alledging, that all No cutting teeth in the upper jaw. ; fix or eight in the lower animals are ſanguineous, fince all have a vital fluid circulating jaw, very remote from the grinders; feet hoofed, cloven ; Herbia through veins and arteries, though it be not of a red colour in all. The elſential character of the blood is not in its crimſon colour, ORDER VI. BELLUÆ. but in its office: in which view every fluid, by whoſe motion Cutting teeth in both jaws obtuſe; feet hoofed. Herbivorous. ORDER VII. CETE. through veſſels the life of an animal is ſuſtained, may be deno- minated blood. But this is rather a diſpute about words than Breathing apertures on the head; pectoral fins; tail placed hori- zontally; no claws, Food moſtly fiſh, element the water. things. CLASSIFICATION rous. vorous. Μ Α Μ Μ Α LI Α. genus contains GENUS 27. CLASSIFICATION of the GENERIĆ CHARACTERS. ORDER IV. GLIRES, ORDER I. PRIMATES, Genus 21. Hystrix. Porcupine. Body covered with quills, GENUS 1. Homo. Man. Linnæus has given great offence to This genus comprehends four ſpecies, viz. Criſtata, Prehenſilis, many perſons by placing man among the brute creation; but we Dorſata, Macroura. agree with Dr. Pulteney, “ that he, though human, ſtands as an GENUS 22. LEPUS. Hare. Fore-teeth above, double. This ge- animal in the ſyſtem of nature, at the head of this order; and as nus comprehends four ſpecies, Timidus, Cuniculus, Capenſis, ſuch is here deſcribed, with his ſeveral varieties, obfervable in Braſilienſis. the different quarters of the globe, in a manner, and with an Genus 23. CASTOR. Beaver. Fore-teeth above, truncated, accuracy, peculiar to our author, and which we may venture to and hollowed. There are three fpecies of this genus, viz. Fiber, fay is no where elſe to be met with. But man is not left by Lin Mofchatus, Zibethicus. ncus to contemplate bimſelf merely as fuch; but he is led to the GENUS 24. Mus. Rat. Fore-teeth above ſubulated. This ge conſideration of what he ought to be, as an intelligent and moral nus comprehends twenty-one ſpecies, viz. Porcellus, Aguti, Le- being; in a comment on the Grecian Sage's dietate, Know Thyſelf : porinus, Citellus, Lemmus, Paca, Marmota, Monax, Cricetus, by the true application of which, he cannot but be ſufficienty ele Terreſtris, Amphibius, Rattus, Muſculus, Avellanarius, Querci- vated above every humiliating idea which can otherwiſe ariſe from nus, Gregarius, Sylvaticus, Striatus, Longipes, Jaculus, Vo- ſuch an affociation. There are five ſpecies of this genus accord lans. ing to Linnæus, viz. Americanus, Europæus, Afiaticus, Afer, Genus 25. SCIURUS. Squirrel. Fore-teeth above cuneated; Monſtrofus. See Man. below compreſſed. This genus comprehends eleven ſpecies, viz. GENUS 2. SIMIA. Ape. Cutting teeth 4, above and below Vulgaris, Niger, Cinereus, Flavus, Palmatus, Getulus, Striatus, cloſe, one canine tooth on each lide ſeparate; grinders obtuſe. Glis, Æftuans, Volans, Sagitta. This 33 ſpecies, and is divided into 3 families, viz. GENUS 26. NOCTILIO. The firſt Family are without tails, and called Apes, of which there There is but one ſpecies of this genus, viz. Americanus. We are three ſpecies, viz. Satyrus, Sylvanus, Inuus. have omitted the deſcription and repreſentation of this genus, as The ſecond Family have ſhort tails, and are called Baboons. it is the general opinion of naturaliſts at this time, that Sebal's There are three ſpecies, viz. Nemeſtrina, Apedia, Sphinx. figure, from which Linnæus formed it, is only a variety of the The third Family have long tails, and are called Monkeys. There Veſpertilio, or common Bat; at the ſame time we think it in- are 27 ſpecies, viz. Maimon, Hamadryas, Veter, Silenu, Faunus, cumbent on us, to retain it in the order of claſlification, as well to Belzebul, Seniculus, Paniſcus, Cynomolgus, Cynocephalus, Diana, avoid confuſion, as to preſerve an uniform adherence to the ſyſtem, Sabæa, Cephus, Trepida, Aygula, Pithecia, Nictitans, Jacchus, as laid down by the immortal Linnæus. Had we omitted it, Came- Oedipus, Roſalia, Midas, Fatuellus, Apella, Capucina, Sciura, lus would have been the 26th inſtead of the 27th genus, and Mof- Morta, Syrichta. chus the 27th inſtead of the 28th, and ſo on to the cloſe of the Genus. 3. Lemer. Macauco. Cutting teeth, 4 above, 6 be Syſtem, by which means the whole order from genus 26 would low ; canine one, clofe; grinders, ſublobate; the firſt longer and have been perverted, and the Syſtem of courſe greatly deranged. fharper. This genus comprehends five ſpecies, viz. Tardigradus, ORDER V. PECORA. Mongoz, Macaco, Catta, Volans. CAMELUS. Camel. No horns; fore-teeth in the GENUS 4. VesPERTIL10. Bat. Fore toes elongated, and con lower jaw 6. Canine, 3 in the upper, 2 in the lower jaw. Upper nected by membranes, performing the office of wings. This genus lip cloven. Hoofs not divided through. This genus comprehends comprehends fix ſpecies, viz. Vampyrus, Spectrun, Perſpicillatus, four ſpecies, viz. Dromedarius, Bactrianus, Glama, Pacos. Spaſma, Auritus, Murinus. Genus 28. Moschus. Mufk. No horns; one canine tooth on each ſide in the upperjaw, ſtanding out of the mouth. There are ORDER II. BRUTA. three ſpecies of this genus, viz. Moſchiferus, Grimia, Pygmæus. Genus 5. ELEPHAS. Elephant. Tuſks and grinders only: GENUS 29. CERVUS. Deer. Horns ſolid, branched, deciduous; long proboſcis. There is only one fpecies of this genus, vize no canine teeth. This genus comprehends ſeven ſpecies, viz. Camelopardalis, Alces, Elaphus, Tarandus, Dama, Capreolus, Elephas. Guineenſis. Genus 6. TAICHECHUS. Walrus. Tuſks above only; grinders Genus 30. CAPRA. Goat. Horns hollow, erect, bending back ; formed of a rugged bony ſubſtance; hinder feet formed into fins. There are two fpecies of this genus, viz. Roſmarus, Manatus. no canine teeth. This genus comprehends twelve ſpecies, viz. Hircus, Ibex, Mambrica, Rupicapra, Depreſſa, Reverſa, Ga- GENUS 7. BRADYPUS. Sloth. Grinders only ; firft grinders long; body hairy. There are two fpecies of this genus, viz. zella, Cervicapra, Bezoartica, Dorcas, Tatarica, Ammon. Tridactylus, Didactylus. Genus 31. Ovis. Sheep. Horns hollow, wrinkled, ſpiral; no canine teeth. This genus comprehends three fpecies, viz. Aries, Genus 8. MYRMECOPHAGA. Ant-eater. No teeth. Body hairy. Guineenſis, Strepficeros. This genus comprehends four ſpecies, viz, Didactyla, Tridactyla, Genus 32. Bos. Ox. Horns hollow, extending outwards, Jubata, Tetradactyla. ſmooth; no canine teeth; a dewlap. This genus comprehends Genus 9. MANIS. No teeth, body ſcaly. There are two fix fpecies, viz. Taurus, Bonaſus, Biſon, Grunniens, Bubalis, fpecies of this genus, viz. Pentadactyla, Tetradactyla. Indicus. Genus 10. DASYPUS. Armadillo. Grinders only; no canine ORDER VI. BELLUÆ. teeth; covering of the body cruſtaceous. This genus comprehends fix fpecies, viz. Unicinctus, Tricinétus, Quadricinctus, Sexcinc- GENUS 33. Equus. Horſe. Fore teeth 6 and 6; canine ſingle, remote; hoofs undivided. There are three ſpecies of this tus, Septemcinétus, Novemcinctus. genus, viz. Caballus, Afinus, Zebra. ORDER III. FERÆ. GENUS 34. HIPPOPOTAMUS. River Horfe. Fore teeth 6 above, and 4 below; canine ſingle and truncated. Profeſſor Martin and GENUS 11. PAOCA. Seal. Fore-teeth above 6; below 4. There Mr. Pennant deſcribe this animal as having only four cutting teeth are three fpecies of this genus, viz. Urſina, Leonina, Vitulina. above and below. There is but one ſpecies of this GENUS 12. CANIS, Dog. Fore-teeth 6, and 6; middle ones Amphibius. above; lobated. This genus comprehends nine ſpecies. As there GENUS 35. Sus. Hog. Fore teeth, 4 above, 6 below; canine are many varieties in the firſt ſpecies, called Canis Familiaris, or teeth 2 above and 1 below; the inferior ones ſtanding out of the Dog, we have divided them into five families, viz. Canes Venatici, mouth are called tuſks; ſnout long, truncated. This genus com- or Dogs of the Chace; Canes Aucupientes, or Fowling Dogs; Canes prehends five ſpecies, viz. Scrofa, Porcus, Tajacu, Hydrochæris, Agreftes, or Farm Dogs; Canes Hybrydes, or Mongrel Dogs; and Barbyruſſa. Canes Aquatici, or Water Dogs. The other fpecies are the follow GENUS 36. RHYNOCEROS. Fore teeth, two in each jaw on ing; Lupus, Hyæna, Vulpes, Alopex, Lagopus, Aureus, Mexica- both fides; horn folid, conical on the noſe. There is but one fpe- cies of this genus, viz. Unicornis. GENUS 13. Felis. Cat. Fore-teeth 6, and 6: lower ones, equal; ORDER VII. CETE. . tongue very rough. This genus comprehends feven ſpecies, viz. GENUS 37. MONODON. Narwal. Two long, ſtrait, fpiral teeth, Leo, Tigris, Pardus, Onca, Pardalis, Catus, Lynx, perforating the upper lip. There is but one ſpecies of this genus, GENUS 14. VIVERRA. Civet. Fore-teeth 6, and 6: middle viz. Monoceros. ones below, ſhort. This genus comprehends fix ſpecies, viz. GENUS 38. BALÆNA. Whale. Horny laminæ, inſtead of teeth, Ichneumon, Nafur, Narica, Putorius, Žibetha, Genetta. in the upper jaw. This genus comprehends four ſpecies, viz. Genus 15. MUSTELA. Weafel. Fore-teeth 6, and 6; lower Myſticetus, Phyſalus, Boops, Muſculus. ones cloſe together; 2 placed inwards. This genus comprehends GENUS 39. PHYSETER, Cachalot. Teeth in the lower jaw only. eleven ſpecies, viz. Lutris, Lutra; Lutreola, Barbara, Gulo, Mar This genus comprehends foúr ſpecies, viz. Catodon, Macrocepha- tes, Putorius, Furo, Zibellina, Erminea, Nivalis. lus, Microps, Turſio. GENUS 16. URSUS. Bear, Fore-teeth 6, and 6 upper ones GENUS 40. DELPHINUs. Dolphin. Teeth in both jaws. There hollowed. Toes 5 and 5: walks on the whole heel. Tongue are three fpecies of this genus, viz. Phocæna, Delphis, Orca, fmooth; ſnout long; ničitating membrane ; a bent bone to the penis. This genus comprehends four fpecies, viz. Arctos, Meles, In this Syſtem we have not entered into a general deſcription of all the Lotor, Luſcus. Animals which compoſe this part of Natural Hiſtory, but have confi- Genus 17. DIDDELPHIS. Opoffum. Fore-teeth above 10; below ned ourſelves to the Claſſification, in order to convey to our Readers a 8. Toes 5, and 5; hind-feet like a hand. A falſe belly in ſome fpecies. This genus comprehends five fpecies," viz. Marſupialis, clearer knowledge of the Syftematical arrangement. It was therefore Philander, Opoſſum, Murina, Dorſigera. deemed more eligible to give their peculiarities under their reſpective Ge- GENUS 18. TALPA. Mole. Fore-teeth 6 above; 8 below: fore neric Names. Should any of our Readers wiſh to have a know ledge of feet broad, hind ſmall. There are two ſpecies of this the particulars above alluded to, they are referred to the various Genera , of the ſeveral Orders, as they are inſerted in the courſe of the Alphabet, Europæa, Afiatica. in which is included an enumeration of ſeveral Species of each reſpective Genus 19. Sorex. Shrew. Fore-teeth 2 above; 4 below : ears Genus. ſmall, ſnout long and ſlender. This genus comprehends five For particular information concerning the Claſſification of the other fpecies, viz, Criſtatus, Minutus, Aquaticus, Murinus, Araneus. GENUS 20. ERINACEUS. Hedge-hog. Fore-teeth, 2 above, diſ- branches of Zoolagy, ſee the Claffes which compoſe the animal kingdom, tant; 2 below, nearer together. There are three ſpecies of this ge- | Zoology, 836, under the titles of Ornithology, Ichthyology, Entomology, Vermeology, nus, viz. Europæus, Inauris, Malaccenfis, T. LLOYD genus, viz. nus, Thous. 1 Clapis. MermmaliaOrders. Primates:fpermus 1. Home, Gjemo. 2. Shimia. Vers lupstem of: Mammalia . tirto Genu. Ilomo, Jan Tarien Eumpeus or European . Genus . Simiu, Species 2. Saturus Tap 2. Chimpanzee. Genus 2. Sumia, species 2. Sadrus Tarien 1. Oranoutang. Gews Simia Species 3. Inuws or Barbary Ape.. Genus 2. Simia, Species o Sphinx or Great Baboon Genus 2. Simia, Species 4.Vemestrina or Pig-tailed Baboon. Genus 2. Simia, Species 35. Nasutus Niger or black-nosed Jonkey'. Genus Simia, Species 34 Jfice or Tlite Jonker. Genus ?. Simia, Species 8.Jlamadryas or Dog-faced Baboon .00 militara lama ve ario E Genus ? Simia, Species 18. Srba or Green Jonker Gems 2. Simia, Specvier 19. dephus er ite-velit Tonker. Published in the latdir. 77/ Cena 2 Simiu, species ? cr Strine ! Plate 2 ار /. tafi MammaliaOrder to Primates. Order 2. Bretar Order 3'erogenus 3 Semur:genen wipertitti, Genuss. (lephas.ljonus 6:Srichecrisljenos : Bradyprus, ljenos o. Myrmecophaga , Genurg. Manas tjentus ni. Deasy peas fonus iPhoen Seat System of Mummaline Order 1.Genus 3. Special Tardigradus or Tailers Vacuuco. Onter Llientu 3. species 2. Hongos or Mongoo: Betoon! Order 7. Genu 3. Species I.Catta or Ring-tailed Macuco . Order 7. Cena 3. Species 6. Haus or Mellow Tlacanco. Order 7. Genus I. Species 6. Durinur or Short-eared Bat. Order 2. Genus 5. Species 7. Elephas.or Plephant. Hirintotietee Order 2. Genus 6. Species I. Rosmarus or Sea Worse. Örder 2. Genus 7. elpecies 1. TridacnlworThree-cloured Sloth. Order 2. Genus 8. Species 2. Didaclusor Lerrer Int-eater. Order 2.Genus 8. Species 3. Jubata.or Great Anteater. Order 2. Genus 9. Species 7. Pentadactyla or Scal Lizard. Order 2. Genur 10. Species 1. Sarcinctus or Sar banded Armadillo. Order 2.Genus 70. Species 7. Duodecemcinctus or Fuelve-banded Armadillo. Order 2. Genus 11. Species ). Usinalusine Seal or Sea Bear. Order 3.Genus II. Species 3 litulina, Tituline Seal or Sea Call. Engrared for the Roral Enciclopædia l Published as the Id directs, bom' C. Cooke, 1917. Paternoster Row'. Ilankins sculp 5. Mammalia, Orders. Jero, Cronus 12. ( De Sepstem of Manmalia. WO Order 3.Genus 12. Species I. Familiaris, Variety I.Leporarius or Grey hound. Order 3.Genus 12. Species IVarien ?. Cerrerarius or Stag hound. Order 3.Genus 12.Species 2 Variet 3. Tulperarius or Far hound Order 3.Genus 12.Species Ilarien-). Tertagus or Lurcher. Order 3.Genus 72. Species ..Tarieg: 5. Terrarius or Terrier. Onder 3. benus 12. Spacier / Jarien" 0. Hispaniolus, Inder or Pointer. Inchi Order 3.Genus R.Species I Variety 7. Hispaniolus, Subsidens or Seuer. Order 3.Gius M. fpecies Tarien S. Hispaniolus Saltator or Cocker. Order 3.Genus 72. Species I Marien 9. _dequaticus minor or Smaltlaer Spaniel. Order 3. Genus 12. Species I Variet:10. Iquaticus majoror largellater Spaniel. Order 3.dienus 12.Species Tarien 71.. Iquaticus Americanuis or Ventoundland Dog. Order 3.Genus 12. Species / Varien 72 Iquaticus Thirsutus orRougler Doc. Order 3.lienus 12.Species / Tarier 13. Pastoralis or Shepherds Dog. Order 3.lienus 72. Species Tarie:14. Tolosus or Vlastill Order 3.tienus 12. Species / Jariety 15. Lanienser Bull Do, Order 3. Genus 12. Species I.Varien 16. Dalmaticus or Dalmatian Dog. Order 3.Gronur 12. Species I Varien: 17 Septentrionalis or tirenland Doc. Order 3.Genus 12. Species I Variet 18 Meridionalis or New South Wales Dog, Tingnamed in the Keratineralopardit Mixed on the heilinn on 19/ 777 vor wereld Plate / Claps 1.0 1.Mammalia, Order 3. Fera, Gemus 12. (anis, Genus 13. Selis. Ve Sipstem of Mammalia. SOLL Order 3. Genu 12. Species 2 Lupus or Trolf. Order 3.Genus 12. Species 3. Hvæna Variety L.Striatus. Orter 3. Genus 12. Species 3. Hana Tarien 2. Maculatus. Order 3.Genus 12. Species 4. Vulpes or Fox. Order 3.Genus 12. Species 6. Lagopus or Artic Fox. Ordej 3. Genus 12. Species 7. Aureus or Jackal. ta Order 3. Genus 13. Species 1. Lee or lion Vrter 3.Genus 13. Species 2. Tigris, Tariety 1. Striatus or Striped Tiger. Order 3. Genus 13. Species 2.Tigris, Tarien: 2. Niger or Black Tiger'. Order 3.Genus 13. Species 3, Pardus or Panther. Order 3.Genus 13. Species 4.Onea, Variety 7. Maculatus or Spotted Ounce. 204 Order 3.Genus 13. Species 4.Onca Tarie 2. Striatus or Striped Ounce. Order 3.Genus 13. Speies 1. Onca Tariety' 3. Ruber' or Red Ounce. Order 3.Genus 13. Species 5. Pardalis Variety 1. Americanus or American Leopard. Order 3. Genus 13. Species 5 Pardalis Tariety 2. Mericanus or Mexican Osceiot. Order 3. Genus 13. Species 5. Pardalis Tarieţi 3. Montanus or Jlountain lat. Engraved for Falls Encyclopædia,& Printed for C. Cooke,1.927 Paternoster Row. Order 3. Genus 13 Species I Variety I Catus Sylvestris or Cat of the Woods. Plates lapisao llammalia. Order 3. Ferw.Genus 13. Selis. Genus 11. Viverra. Gjenus 15. Mustela.Gjemns 10. Ursus. Vec Sopstem of Mammalia. base Order 3 Genus 13. Species 6. Catus, Tariety' 2. Angorensis or Cat of Igora. Order 3. Genus 13. Species 7. Lynur Tariet: 1. Europaus or Europamn Lanx, Order 3.Genus 13. Species 711722, Tarien: 2. Inicus or Persian hna es Order 3. Genus 11. Species l. Idneumon Order 3.Genus 11. Species 2. Nasua, Coati or Brasilian Teasel. Order 3. Cenus 14. Species 1. Putorius or Striped Skunk Order 3.Genus Il. species 3. Zibethra Tarieti 2 lithiqaris or Common Goet. Order 3.Genus 71. Species 5. Zibeihalarien'?. Innulatus or Innulated lüet. Order 3.Genus 17.Species 6. Genetta or Genett Order 3.Genus 15. Species I. Lutres or ser Otter. Order 3.Genus 15.Species 2. Lutra or Common (ler. Order 3. Genus 15.Species 6. Jates or Martin Order 3.Genus 15. Species 7. Putorius or Pole Cat. Order 3.Genus 15. Species 8. Furo or Ferret. Order 3. Genus 15. Species 9. Zibellina or Sable. mer sum Order 3.Genus 15. Species 10 Erminalariek. 2. Tulaaris or Common Ermine. *Order 3. Geius 15.Species 10. Ermina , Tarien L. libus or ilhite Ermine. TEIE Order 3. Genus 15. Species Il. Nialis or Steat. ws Order 3.Genius 16. Species I Iretou, Order 3.Cenu 16. Species 1. Irctos , Tarien It wils or Brown Bear. Taien 2 bus or White Bear. Imanthe Rural Enclopedia Public 17thalie by crooke 1:2 Partenair R. Huys to Mammalia. Orderskino Order Sliptosiljemus hollisvusljennor Bridelphosiljemas kai kalpo Gonus 19. Song: Gyermos a:Crinacrusljenis 9. Mysvin : Wher System of Mammalia. Yhd Order 3. Genus 76. Species 2. Meles or European Badoer. Oriter 3.Genus 16. Species 3. Loter or Racoon. Under 3.Genus 10. Species 4. Lucus or Glutton. Order 3.Genus 77. Species 1. Tarsupialis or Jurine Opossum. Order 3. Genus 17.Species 3. Oporsum or Sardgou. Order 3. Genus 17. Species 6. Maculatus or Spotted Opoisum . Onter 3. Genus 17. Species 7. Tolans or Flying Opoisum. Vre همه 2004 Order 3. Gemus 17. Species 8 Kanguroo or Men Holland Opossum. Order 3.Genus 17. Species 2. Scuro, Similis or Squirrel-like Opoſsum Lainen es Order 3.Genus 18. Species 1. Europeusor European Jole. anulinimalnie Order 3. Genus 18. Species 3. Radiatus of Radiated Hole. Order 3.Grenus 19. Species 5. Araneus or Field Mouse. wall Order 3.Genus 20. Species LEuropeus or Common Teda e llog. Order 3. Genus 20. Species 2. Inauris or Earleſs Hedge Jog. Order 3.Genuis 19. Species i. Cæclis or Blind House. tak Order 3.Genus 20. Species 3. J/alaccensis or Malacca Hledge Hog. Order 1.6 eur 27. Species I Tristata or Crested Porcupine, Order 1.Genus 27. Species 3. Dorsata or Canadian Porcupine , Ennal wor the krvalline vlopadia, Publishid as wwe let itirmus, by Ch. 1877.7*W lih... Tilor alpi Plate ? Clafs 1. Mammalia, Order f'Glinis, Geru. 22. Tepung, Genus 23.(aster ; Genus 24. Mo, Genus 25. Sciurus, leethe System of Mammalia ? Order 4.Genus 22.Species 7. Timidus or Hare. Order 4. Genus 22. Species 2. Cuniculus, Variety Z.Tild Rabbit . Order 4. Genus 22. Species 2. Cuniculus laurien 2. Tame Rabbit. Order 4. Genus 23. Species 1. Fiber or Common Beaver . Order 4. Genus 23. Species 2. Moschatus or Blusk Rat. Order 4.Genus 24. Species 3. Zibethicus or Musk Rat of Canada . Order 4. Genus 21. Species 1 Porcellus or Guinea Pig Order 4. Genus 24.Species 2. Aguti or Long nosed Car. Order 4.Genus 24. Species 5. Lemmus or Lapland Ilarmot Order 4.Genus 24. Species 7. Marmota, Variety 1 Alpinus or Alpine Marinot . Order 1.Genus 24.Species 7. Marmota, Tarien Americanus or American Marmot. Order 1.Genus 24.Species 6. Paca or Spotted Cany. W Order 4.Genus 24.Species 8. Honar or Marmot of Canada. Order 4.Genus 24.Species 2. Gricetus or German Marmot. Order 4. Gemus 24. Species 10. Terrestris or Short tailed Field Mouse. PRISUSTURILE Order 4.Genus 21. Species 11. Amphibius or later Rat. Order 4.Genus 24. Species 12. Rattus or Common Rat. Order 4. Genus 24. Species 13. Musculus or Comunon Mouse . 60 hery Order 1.Genus 24.Species 14. bellanarius or Dormouse. Order 4. Genus 21.Species 17. Sylvaticus or Long tailed field Dlouse. "Order 4.Genus 24. Species 20. Jaculus or Jerboa. E oran ha pas Order 4. Genus 25. Species 1. Vulgaris or Common Squarel. Order 1. Genus 25. Species 2. Striatus or Striped Squirrel. Enarnet for the Royal Encyclopædia, l Published in the kit directs, lo c Cooke, 17.17, Paternoster Rom Order 4.Genus 25. Species 3. Volans or Fhring Squirrel . Talor sculp Plate 8. Clapis 1 Mammalia, Oider-i-Perma, Spenus 27. Camelnz. (ponu: 28:Moscher, Gjennos 2). Cerra Venus 30. Capra. Srce System in Mummalia Order 5. Genus 27. Species 7. Dromedarius or Dromedar. Order 5. Genus 27. Species 2 Bactrianus or Bactrian Camel. Order 5. Genus 28.Species 1. Moschus, Joschiterus or. Husk himal. d La 43 Order 3. Genus 29. Species / tamelopardalis or lameleopard. un WE Nemesa allac Order 5. Genus 29. Species 2. Jlces or Ek. Smo Order 5. Genus 29. Species 3. Elaphus or Red Deer. Order 5. Genus 29. Species t. Tarantus or Rein Deer. Ve 6. Order 5. Genur 29. Species 5. Dama or Fallour Deer. Order 5.Genus 29. Species 6. Capreolus or Roebuck, Order 5. Genus 30. Species 7. Hircus, Tariet: 1. Common Goat. Order 5.Genus 30.Species 1.Hiraus, Tarien: 2. Ingotensis or Goat of Angora. Order 5.Genus 30 Species 2. Iber or Mountain Goat. Enarmed for the Road Enriclopeedia, l Published as the Id directe, bi Crooke, 1997, Paternorier Kow. II Talor sculp ( hafi l-Mammalia, Order 13. Leora.gents *30( naporis. Genus 351.0 ris, genus 32. We lpsom v/ Mammalia? Order 5.6enus 30. Species 3. llanbrina or Syrian Goat. Order 5. Genus 30. Species t. Rupicapra or Chamois Goat. Order 5.Genus 30. Species 8. Ceniapra or Common Intelope. Order 5.Genus 30. Species /2. Capra, Immon or Husmon. Order 5.Genus 30. Species 13. Capra, liricanus or Gru. Onter 5.Genus 30. Species 18. lapra, Phaleratus or Pied Goat. Order 3. Genus 31. Species I tries Tarieg: 3. Lesteriensis or Leicestershire Ram, Onter 5 Genus 31. Species 1. Old Iries or Common Ram. Order 5. Genus 31. Species 2. trieslarien ? Lincolniensis or Lincolnshire Ram. Order 5. Genus 37. Species 3. Strepsiceros of Cretan Sheep. Order 5. Genus 31. Species 1. Tartaricus or Tartarian Sleep. Order 3.Genus 31. Species t. Julticornis or Jan-horned Sheep. Order 5. Genus 32. Species 1. Bos Taurus or Comunion Bull. Order 5. Genus 32. Species I. Taurus Varieb' 2. Lancastriensis or Lancashire Bull. Engraved for the Roral incrdopædia, & Published as the Ict directs, by CCooke, 1917, Paternoster Row Clapis lummalia, Odori, boom, Order 0:5 Beltu, lepenais 31.3 p. 23.com Comunis ". Hij proposamej (pemi.... Das pms:30. Rhinoceron los e Suposem opi Hummalin. Order 5.Genus 32.Species 3. Bison Isiaticus, or Il'ild Bull of Isia. Order 5.Genus 32. Species II rus Europausor Furopean 7ld Bull. Order 5. Cenus 32 Species 5. Bubalis or Bullalo. DU NO Order 6. Genius 33. Species L.Caballus, Tariety 1. Cursor or Racer. Order 6. Genus 33. Species I Caballur, Tariet 2. Tenator or Thunter. Order 6.Genus 33.Species 1.Caballus, Tariety 3. Jugalis or Draught Horse , Order 6.6enus 33. Species I.Caballus, Tariety 1 Jumentum or Cart Llorse. Order 6. Genus 33. Species 2. Isinus Britannicusor British I. Onter 0.Genus 33. Species 3 Zebra or Irian 118. Onder 6. Genus 35. Species 1. Scrola, Tarien Illansuetus or common Boar, Onder 6.Genus 3 1.Species 2. Ilippopotamus, Aasutus or Long-nosed Tapir. Order 6. benus 31. Species 2. Ilippopotamu, Imphibius or sea llorse. Order 6. Genus 35.Species 4. Thidrochoris or River Hog. Onter 6.Genus 35. Species Scola, Tarie 2 Sestris or Mild Boar. Order 6. Genus 35. Species 3. Tajacu or Hexican flog. Onder 6.Genus 35. Species 5. Babrulsa or Babiroursa. Order 6.Genus 35. Species 6. Ethiopicus or Ethiopian Boar. Order 6. Genus 36. Species 1. Unicornis or single horned Rhinoceros MAN Μ Α Ν more MAMMON, the god of riches, according to ſome authors; of the mammoth have been found. For o bones of the mam- though others deny that the word ſtands for ſuch a deity, and un moth, as I have before obſerved, have been ever found further derſtand by it only riches themſelves. Our Saviour ſays, We fouth than the ſalines of the Holſton, and they have been found cannot ſerve God and mammon ; that is, be religious and worldly as far north as the Arctic circle. Thoſe, therefore, who are of ininded at the ſame time. opinion that the elephant and mammoth are the ſame, muſt be- MAMMOTH, or MAMMUTH, the name of a huge animal lieve, 1. That the elephant known to us can exiſt and multiply now unknown, to which are ſaid to have belonged thoſe taſks, in the frozen zone; or, 2. That an internal fire may once have bones, and ſkeletons of vaſt magnitude, which have been fre warmed thoſe regions, and ſince abandoned them, of which, how- quently found in different parts of Siberia, as well in the moun ever, the globe exhibits no unequivocal indications; or, 3. That tains as the valleys; likewiſe in Ruſſia, Germany, and North the obliquity of the ecliptic, when theſe elephants lived, was ſo America. Many ſpecimens of them may be ſeen in the Impe- great as to include within the tropics all thole regions in which rial cabinet at Peterſburgh; in the British, Dr. Hunter's, and the bones are found; the tropics being, as is before obſerved, the the late Sir Aſhton Lever’s muſeums, and in that of the Royal natural limits of habitation for the elephant. But if it be ad- Society. A deſcription of the mammoth is given by Muller in mitted that this obliquity has really decreaſed, and we adopt the the Recueil des Voyages au Nord. “ This animal, he ſays, is higheſt rate of decreaſe yet pretended, that is, of one minute in a four or five yards high, and about 30 feet long, His colour is century, to transfer the northern tropic to the arctic circle, it would greyish, His head is very long, and his front very broad. On carry the exiſtence of theſe ſuppoſed elephants 250,000 years each fide, preciſely under the eyes, there are two horns, which | back ; a period far beyond our conception of the duration of ani- he can move and croſs at pleaſure, In walking he has the power mal bones left expoſed to the open air, as theſe are in many in- of extending and contracting his body to a great degree.” | ſtances. Beſides, though theſe regions would then be ſuppoſed Iſbrandes Ides gives a ſimilar account; but he is candid enough within the tropics, yet their winters would have been too ſevere to acknowledge, that he never knew any perſon who had ſeen for the ſenſibility of the elephant. They would have had, too, the mammoth alive. Mr. Pennant, however, thinks it " but one day and one niglit in the year; a circumſtance to which than probable, that it ſtill exiſts in ſome of thoſe remote parts of we have no reaſon to fuppoſe the nature of the elephant fitted, the vaſt new continent, impenetrated vet by Europeans. However, it has been demonſtrated, that if a variation of obli- In the year 1767, Dr. Hunter, with the ailiſtance of his bro- quity in the ecliptic takes place at all, it is vibratory, and never ther Mr. J. Hunter, had an opportunity of inveſtigating more exceeds the limits of nine degrees, which is not ſufficient to bring particularly this part of natural hiſtory, and has evidently proved, theſe bones within the tropics. One of theſe hypotheſes, or ſome that theſe foffil bones and tuſks are not only larger than the ge other equally arbitrary and inadmiſſible to cautious philoſophy, nerality of clephants, but that the taſks are more twiſted, or have muſt be adopted to ſupport the opinion that theſe are the bones more of the ſpiral curve, than elephants teeth; and that the of the elephant, of the elephant. For my own part, I find it eaſier to believe thigh and jawbones differ in ſeveral reſpects from thoſe of the that an animal may have exiſted, reſembling the elephant in his elephant: but what put the matter beyond all diſpute was the tuſks and general anatomy, while his nature was in other re- ſhape of the grinders, which clearly appeared to belong to a car ſpects extremely different. From the 30th degree of fouth lati : nivorous animal, or at leaſt to an animal of the mixed kind; and tude to the 30th of north, are nearly the limits which nature has to be totally different from thoſe of the elephant, which is well fixed for the exiſtence and multiplication of the elephant known know not to be of the carnivorous, but graminivorous kind, to us. Proceeding thence north wardly to 361 degrees, we enter both by the form of its grinders and by its never taſting animal thoſe affigned to the mammoth. The further we advance north, food.-Some have ſuppoſed theſe foſſil bones to belong to the the more their veſtiges multiply as far as the earth has been ex- hippopotamus or river-horſe ; but there are many reaſons againſt plored in that direction; and it is as probable as otherwiſe, that this fuppoſition, as the hippopotamus is even much ſmaller than this progreſſion continues to the pole itſelf, if land extends ſo far. the elephant, and has ſuch remarkably ſhort legs, that his belly | The centre of the frozen zone then may be the acme of their reaches within three or four inches of the ground. vigour, as that of the torrid is of the elephant. Thus nature ſeems North America ſeems to be the quarter where the remains in to have drawn a belt of ſeparation between theſe two tremendous queſtion moſt abound. On the Ohio, and in many parts farther animals, whoſe breadth indeed is not preciſely known, though north, tuſks, grinders, and ſkeletons of unparalleled magnitude, at preſent we may ſuppoſe it about 64 degrees of latitude; to which can admit of no compariſon with any animal at preſent have aſſigned to the elephant the regions ſouth of theſe confines, known, are found in vaſt numbers, ſome lying on the ſurface of and thoſe north to the mammoth, founding the conſtitution of the earth, and fome a little below it. A Mr. Stanley, taken pri- the one in her extreme of heat, and that of the other in the ex- foner by the Indians near the mouth of the Taniſfee, relates, as treme of cold. When the Creator has therefore ſeparated their Mr. Jefferſon informs us, that after being transferred through nature as far as the extent of the ſcale of animal life allowed to feveral tribes, from one to another, he was at length carried over this planet would permit, it ſeems perverſe to declare it the ſame, the mountains weſt of the Miſſouri to a river which runs weſt from a partial reſemblance of their tulks and bones. But to wardly ; that theſe bones abounủed there; and that the natives whatever animal we aſcribe theſe remains, it is certain ſuch a deſcribed to him the animal to which they belonged as ſtill exiſt one has exiſted in America, and that it was the largeſt of all ter- ing in the northern parts of their country. reſtrial beings of which any traces have ever appeared.” It is remarkable (continues he) that the tuſks and ſkeletons MAN, the head of the animal creation, is a being who feels, have been aſcribed by the naturaliſts of Europe to the elephant, reflects, thinks, contrives, and acts; who has the power of chang- while the grinders have been given to the hippopotamus or river- | ing his place upon the earth at pleaſure ; who poſſeſſes the fa- horſe. Yet it is acknowledged, that the tuſks and ſkeletons are culty of communicating his thoughts by means of ſpeech; and much larger than thoſe of the elephant, and the grinders many who has dominion over all other creatures on the face of the times greater than thoſe of the hippopotamus, and eſſentially dit. globe. Animated and enlightened by a ray from the Divinity, ferent in form. Wherever theſe grinders are found, there alſo furpaſſes in dignity every material being. He ſpends leſs of we find the tuſks and ſkeleton ; but no ſkeleton of the hippopo- his time in ſolitude, than in ſociety and in obedience to thoſe laws tamus nor grinders of the elephant. It will not be ſaid that the which he himſelf has framed. hippopotamus and elephant came always to the fame ſpot, the In the Syſtema Nature, MAN (Homo) is ranked as a diſtinct former to depoſit his grinders, and the latter his tuſks and ſke genus of the order Primates or “ Chiefs,” belonging to the leton. For what became of the parts not depoſited there? We Mammalia claſs of animals, or thoſe which nouriſh their young muſt agree, then, that theſe remains belong to each other; that by means of lactiferous teats or paps. Of this genus he is the they are of one and the fame animal; that this was not an hippo- only ſpecies, and denominated Sapiens, as being endowed with potamus, becauſe the hippopotamus had no tuſks nor ſuch a wiſdom far ſuperior to, or rather in excluſion of, all other frame, and becauſe the grinders differ in their ſize as well as in animals. He varies, from climate, education, and habits; and the number and form of their points. That it was not an ele the following varieties, excluſive of wild men, are enumerated by phant, I think aſcertained by proofs equally deciſive. I will not Linnæus. avail myſelf of the authority of the celebrated anatomiſt, Hunter, a Americans.“ Of copper coloured complexion, choleric con- who, from an examination of the form and ſtructure of the tuſks, | ftitution, and remarkably erect.”—Their hair is black, lank, and has declared them effentially different from thoſe of the elephant; coarſe; their noſtrils are wide ; their features harſh, and the chin becauſe another anatomiſt, D’Aubenton, equally celebrated, has is fcantily ſupplied with beard. Are obſtinate in their tempers, declared, on a like examination, that they are preciſely the ſame. free and ſatisfied with their condition; and are regulated in all Between ſuch authorities I will ſuppoſe this circumitance equivocal. their proceedings by traditional cuſtoms-Paint their ſkin with But, 1. The ſkeleton of the mammoth (for ſo the incognitum red ſtreaks. has been called) beſpeaks an animal of five or fix times the cubic Europeans. “Of fair complexion, fanguine temperament, volume of the elephant, as M. de Buffon has admitted. 2. The and brawny form.”—The hair is flowing, and of various ſhades grinders are five times as large, are ſquare, and the grinding ſur of brown: the eyes are moſtly blue.--They are of gentle man- face ſtudded with four or five rows of blunt points: whereas thoſe ners, acute in judgment, of quick invention, and governed by of the elephant are broad and thin, and their grinding ſurface fixed laws.-Dreſs in cloſe veſtments. fiat. 3. I have never heard an initance, and ſuppoſe there has y Afiatics. “ Of footy complexion, melancholic temperament, been none, of the grinder of an elephant being found in America. and rigid fibre.”—— The hair is ſtrong, black, and lank; the eyes 4. From the known temperature and conſtitution of the elephant, a dark brown.-They are of grave, haughty, and covetous man- he could never have exiſted in thoſe regions where the remains ners; and are governed lyy opinions.--Dreſs in looſe garments. 60 3 Africans. No.99 M AN M A N À Africans. “ Of black complexion, phlegmatic temperament, on each foot. This ſpecies is very fimilar to the former only and relaxed fibre.”—The hair is black and frizley; the ſkin ſoft the tail of it is much longer in proportion to the body; and ſuch and Gilky; the noſe Alat; the lips are thick; and the female has parts as want fcales, inſtead of being naked, are covered with a a natural apron, and long lax breaſts.-They are of crafty, in ſoft hair. It is alſo found in the Eaſt-Indies. dolent, and careleſs diſpoſition, and governed in their actions by MANNA, in the materia medica, the juice of certain trees of caprice.-Anoint the ſkin with greafe. the aſh kind, either naturally concreted on the plants, or exfic- €. Monfiers. Of theſe there are ſeveral varieties; the firſt and cated and purified by art. There are ſeveral forts of manna in fecond of which, in the following liſt, are occafioned by pecu the ſhops. The larger pieces, called flake manna, are uſually liarity of climate, while the reſt are produced by artifical ma preferred; though the ſmaller grains are equally good, provided. nagement. 1. Alpini; The inhabitants of the northern moun- they are white or of a pale yellow colour; very light, of a ſweet, tains: they are finall in ſtature, active and timid in their diſpo not unpleaſant taſte, and free from any viſible impurities. Some fitions. 2. Pantagonici : The Patagonians of South America ; of people injudiciouſly prefer the fat honey-like manna to the fore- valt fize, and indolent in their manners. 3. Monorchides: The going; this has either been expoſed to a moiſt air, or damaged by Hottentots; having one teſticle extirpated. 4. Imberbes: Moſt ſea or other water. This kind of manna is ſaid to be ſometimes of the American nations; who eradicate their beards and the counterfeited by a compoſition of ſugar and honey mixed with a hair from every part of the body except the ſcalp, 5. Macroce little fcammony; there is alſo a factitious manna, which is white phali: The Chineſe ; who have their heads artificially forced and dry, ſaid to be compoſed of ſugar, manna, and ſome purga- into a conical form. 6. Plagiocephali: The Canadian Indians ; tive ingredient, boiled to a proper, conſiſtence. This may be diſ- wło have the fore part of their heads flattened, when young, by tinguithed by its weight, folidity, untranſparent whiteneſs, and compreſſion. by its taſte, which is different from that of manna. Manna is a MANATI, or ſea-cow, in Mammalia, a ſpecies of the genus mild, agreeable laxative; and may be given with ſafety to chil- Trichecus. For deſcription of the genus and ſpecies appertain- dren and pregnant women : nevertheleſs, in ſome particular ing to it, fee TRICHECUS. conſtitutions, it acts very unkindly, producing flatulencies and MANDAMUS, in law, a writ that iſſues out of the court of diſtenſions of the viſcera: theſe inconveniencies may be prc- king's-bench, ſent to the corporation, commanding them to admit vented by the addition of any grateful warm aromatic. It or reſtore a perſon to his office. This writ alſo lies where juſtices operates ſo weakly, that it does not produce the full effect of a of the peace refuſe to admit a perſon to take the oaths in order to cathartic, unleſs taken in large doſes; and hence it is rarely qualify himſelf for enjoying any poft or office; or where a biſhop | given in this intention by itſelf . It may be commodiouſly dif- or archdeacon refuſes to grant a probate of a will, to admit an folved in the purging mineral waters, or joined to the cathartic executor to prove it, or to ſwear a church-warden, &c. Tarefalts, fenna, rhubarb, or the like. Geoffroy recommends acuat- MANDARIN, a name given to the nobility and magiſtracy | ing it with a few grains of emetic tartar: by this inanagement, of the eaſtern countries, eſpecially to thoſe of China. There are he ſays, bilious ſerum will be plentifully evacuated, without any in China nine orders of mandarins, or nine degrees of nobility; nauſea, gripes, or other inconvenience. It is remarkable, that which have as many different animals for their characteriſtics. the efficacy of this drug is greatly promoted (if the account of The firſt is diſtinguiſhed by a crane, the ſecond by a lion, the Valliſnieri is to be relied on) by a ſubſtance which is itſelf very third by an eagle, the fourth by a peacock, &c. There are in flow of operation, viz. cafia. See CasiA. all thirty-two or thirty-three thouſand mandarins in China. MANNA-TREE, is a ſpeciss of the ath, and a native of Cala- The mandarinate is not hereditary, nor are any raiſed to it but bria in Italy. men of letters. Mandarin is alſo a name which the Chineſe A great quantity of fine manna is gathered at Carini in Sicily, give to the learned language of the country. Beſides the proper oozing from a kind of ash-tree, with a bark ſimilar to that of the and peculiar language of each nation and province, they have one ebony, and a leaf ſomewhat like the acacia. M. de Non, who common to all the learned men in the empire. This they call gives an account of this manna, ſays, that it is produced from the mandarine tongue, or the language of the court. Their pub- young trees about ſeven or eight years old, when they are only ſic officers, as notaries, lawyers, judges, and chief magiſtrates, | about eight feet high. Inciſions are then made horizontally in write and ſpeak the mandarin. the bark, and from theſe the manna flows. The inciſions are MANGANESE, or MAGNESIA NIGRA, a dark-coloured made from the earth to the top of the tree, and are repeated every mineral employed in glaſs works for purifying the glaſs, by two days, from the end of July till the circulation is ſtopped in taking away the colour it has already, or by ſuperadding a new the courſe of the year, or till the manna becomes worſe in qua- colour to it . It is alſo uſed in the glazing of earthen ware, where lity. It exſudes firſt as a white frothy liquor, extremely light, it communicates a black colour. From its property of render- pleaſant to the taſte, and of an agreeable flavour, which is coagu- ing glaſs colourleſs, it has ſometimes been called the ſoap of lated by the heat of the ſun, and aſſumes an appearance fome- glaſs. For an account of its cres, reductions, properties, what reſembling ſtalactites. This is the beſt kind, and by the and uſes, ſee the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part. III. Chap. I. people of that country is called lachrymatory or cane manna. The Sect. 6. inferior kind appears firſt in the form of a glutinous and higher MANGEL WURZEL, or Root of Scarcity, a plant lately coloured liquor, which is received on the leaves of the Indian fig, introduced into this kingdom. For the method of and the advan which are placed for that purpoſe at the foot of the tree. This tages ariſing froin its cultivation, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICUL alſo congeals by the heat of the ſun ; though it is more heavy, TURE, Sect. XV. purgative, and of much leſs value, than the former. It is called MANIA, madneſs, in medicine, the moſt violent and acute fat manna: In this part only reſides the faint and diſagreeable ſpecies of delirium, ariſing from a perturbation of the imagina- | favour obſervable in manna; for the cane manna is of an agree- tion and judgment. See the Syſtem, Genus 48. For the diſtin-able flavour, and of an excellent ſtomachic quality. guiſhing characteriſtics of the mania, or raving or furious mad MANNERS, the plural noun, has various fignifications; as, neſs, according to the opinions of ſeveral eminent phyſicians, to The general ways of life, the morals, or habits, of any perſon or gether with the different methods of treatment, ſee the Syſtem | people ; alſo, ceremonious behaviour, or ſtudied civility. See of Medicine, Genus 48. the next article. MANIS, the Scaly Lizard, in mammalia, a genus of qua Good MANNERS, according to Swift, is the art of making thoſe drupeds belonging to the order of bruta. There are two ſpecies: people eaſy, with whom we converſe. Whoever makes the feweſt the firſt of which is the pentadactyla, or ſcaly lizard, with five perfois uneaſy, is the beſt bred in the company. As the beſt law toes on each foot. The head is ſmaller than the neck; the eyes is founded upon reaſon, fo are the beſt manners, And as ſome ſmall; the length of the body, including the tail, is from lawyers have introduced unreaſonable things into common law, fix to eight feet. The whole body is covered with hard ſcales, fo likewiſe many teachers have introduced abſurd things into excepting the under part of the head and neck, the breaſt, the common good manners. One principal point of this art is to ſuit belly, and the internal fide of each leg. Betwixt the ſcales of our behaviour to the three ſeveral degrees of men ; our fuperiors, this animal there are ſome hairs like the briſtles of a hog, browniſh our equals, and thoſe below us. For inſtance, to preſs either of at the points. The ſcales are of a reddiſh colour, very hard, the two former to eat or drink, is a breach of manners; but a convex above, and concave below. The ſcales are unconnected; tradeſman or a farmer muſt be thus treated, or elſe it will be dif- and the animal can raiſe or lower them at pleaſure, like the ficult to perſuade them that they are welcome. Pride, ill-na- quills of the porcupine. When irritated, he erects his ſcales, ture, and want of fenſe, are the three great ſources of ill-man- and rolls himſelf up like a hedge-hog. In this ſituation, neither ners: without ſome one of theſe defects, no man will behave the lion, tiger, nor any other animal can hurt him. It is a mild himſelf ill for want of experience; or, of what, in the language inoffenſive creature, is flow of motion, and has no other method of fools, is called knowing the World. of eſcaping the purſuit of man, but by concealing himſelf in cran “ I defy (proceeds our author) any one to aſſign an incident nies of rocks, and in holes which they dig in the ground, and wherein reaſon will not direct us what we are to ſay or to do in where they likewiſe bring forth their young. It is a native of company, if we are not milled by pride or ill nature. Therefore, the Eaſt-Indies, and is very rare, It lives in woods and marſhy I inſiſt that good ſenſe is the principal foundation of good man- places; feeds on ants, which it takes by laying its long tongue ners; but becauſe the former is a gift which very few among man- acroſs their paths, which is covered with a viſcous faliva, ſo that kind are poffeffed of, therefore all the civilized nations of the the infects which attempt to paſs over it cannot extricate them world have agreed upon fixing ſome rules for common behaviour, ſelve';. For repreſentation, ſee 2 Genus 9, Species 1. beſt ſuited to their general cuſtoms, or fancies, as a kind of arti- The ſecond is the tetradactyla, or ſcaly lizard, with four toes ficial good-ſenſe to lupply the defects of reaſon. Without which, the are very Μ Α Ν M A R the gentlemanly part of dunces would be perpetually at cuffs, as that he could not be admitted into her preſence with a tied-up they ſeldom fail when they happen to be drunk, or engaged in perriwig; that hiş equipage was not arrived; and that he had en- fquabbles about women or play. And, God be thanked, there deavoured in vain to borrow a long one among all his valets and hardly happeneth a duel in a year, which may not be imputed to pages. My lord turned the matter to a jeſt, and brought the one of thoſe three motives. Upon which account, I ſhall be prince to her majeſty: for which he was highly cenſured by the exceedingly ſorry to find the legiſlature make any new laws againſt | whole tribe of gentlemen uſhers ; among whom Monſieur Hoff- the practice of duelling; becauſe the methods are eaſy, and many, man, an old dull reſident of the emperor's, had picked up this for a wiſe man to avoid a quarrel with honour, or engage in it material point of ceremony ; and which, I believe, was the beſt with innocence. And I can diſcover no political evil in ſuffering leſſon he had learned in five and twenty years reſidence. bullies, ſharpers, and rakes, to rid the world of each other by a “ I make a difference between good-manners and good-breeding ; method of their own, where the law hath not been able to find although in order to vary my expreſſion, I am ſometimes forced an expedient. to confound them. By the firſt, I only underítand the art of re- " As the common forms of good-manners were intended for membering, and applying, certain ſettled forms of general beha- regulating the conduct of thoſe who have weak underſtandings ; | viour. But good-breeding is of a much larger extent: for beſides ſo they have been corrupted by the perſons for whoſe uſe they an uncommon degree of literature ſufficient to qualify a gentleman were contrived. For theſe people have fallen into a needleſs and for reading a play, or a political pamphlet, it taketh in a great endleſs way of multiplying ceremonies, which have been ex compaſs of knowledge ; no leſs than that of dancing, fighting, tremely troubleſome to thoſe who practiſe them, and inſupport-gaming, making the circle of Italy, riding the great horſe, and able to every body elſe; inſomuch that wiſe men are often more ſpeaking French ; not to mention ſome other ſecondary or fubal- uneaſy at the over-civility of theſe refiners, than they could pol- tern accompliſhments, which are more eaſily acquired. So that ſibly be in the converſations of peaſants or mechanics. the difference between good-breeding and good manners lieth in 56 The impertinences of this ceremonial behaviour are no this, that the former cannot be attained to by the beſt underſtand- where better ſeen than at thoſe tables where ladies preſide, who | ings without ſtudy and labour, whereas a tolerable degree of value themſelves upon account of their good breeding; where a reaſon will inſtruct us in every part of good manners without man muſt reckon upon paſſing an hour without doing any one other affiftance.” thing he hath a mind to, unleſs he will be ſo hardy as to break MANOR, or MANNOR, an ancient lordſhip or royalty ; con- through all the ſettled decorum of the family. She determineth fiſting of demeſnes and ſervices, and of a court baron, as incident what he loveth beſt, and how much he shall eat; and if the maſter thereto. Manor is the fame with what was formerly called baro- of the houſe happeneth to be of the fame diſpoſition, he proceedeth | nia, barony. A manor is a kind of noble ſee, granted out partly in the ſame tyrannical manner to preſcribe in the drinking part: to tenants, for certain ſervices to be performed, and partly reſerved at the ſame time you are under the neceſſity of anſwering a thou to the uſe of the lord's family ; with juriſdiction over his tenant, fand apologies for your entertainment. And although a good deal for the lands, or eſtates, held of him, For the original of moners, of this humour is pretty well worn off among many people of the we are told there was anciently a certain compaſs of ground, beſt faſhion, yet too much of it ſtill remaineth, eſpecially in the granted by the king to ſome men of worth, for him and his heirs country; where an honeſt gentleman aſſured me, that having been to dwell upon, and to exerciſe ſome juriſdiction, more or leſs, kept four days againſt his will at a friend's houſe, with all the within that circuit, ſuch as he thought good to grant; but per- circumſtances of hiding his boots, locking up the ſtable, and other forming ſuch ſervices and paying fuch yearly rent, as by this contrivances of the like nature, he could not remember, from the grant was required. Now the lord afterwards parcelling the fame moment he came into the houſe to the moment he left it, any one to other meaner men, received rent and ſervices from them, and thing wherein his inclination was not directly contradicted; as if by that means, as he became tenant to the king, the inferiors be- the whole family had entered into a combination to torment him. came tenants to him. But at this time a manor rather fignifies a But, beſides all this, it would be endleſs to recount the many juriſdiction, and royalty incorporeal, than the land and ſuit : for fooliſh and ridiculous accidents I have obſerved among thoſe un a man may now have a manor in groſs, i. e. the right and intereſt fortunate profelytes to ceremony. I have ſeen a ducheſs fairly of a court baron, with the perquifites, and another enjoy every knocked down by the precipitancy of an officious coxcoinb run foot of land belonging to it. ning to ſave her the trouble of opening a door. Monſieur Buys, MANSLAUGHTER, is a ſpecies of feloninus homicide, and the Dutch envoy, whoſe politics and manners were much of a denotes the unlawful killing of a man, without any malice, either fize, brought a fon with him about 13 years old, to a great table expreſs or implied; which may be either voluntarily, upon a ſud- The boy and his father, whatever they put on their den heat; or involuntarily, but in the commiſfion of ſome unlaw . plates, they firſt offered round in order, to every perſon in the com ful act. As when two perſons, who before meant no harm to pany; ſo that we could not get a minute's quiet during the whole one another, falling out on ſome ſudden occaſion, the one kills dinner. At laſt their two plates happened to encounter, and with the other; this is voluntarily manſlaughter. But in this and every ſo much violence, that being china, they broke in twenty pieces other caſe of homicide upon provocation, if there be a ſufficient and ſtained half the company with wet ſweatmeats and cream. time for paffion to fubfide, and reaſon to interpoſe, and the per- “ There is a pedantry in manners as in all arts and ſciences, ſon provoked afterwards kills the other, this is deliberate revenge and ſometimes in trades. Pedantry is properly the overrating and amounts to murder. When a workman flings down a ſtone any kind of knowledge we pretend to, and if that kind of know or piece of timber into a ſtreet, and kills a man; this may be ei- ledge be a trifle in itſelf, the pedantry is the greater. For which ther miſadventure, manſlaughter, or murder, according to the cir- reaſon I look upon fiddlers, dancing maſters, heralds, maſters of cumſtances attending it: if it were in a country village, and he the ceremony, &c. to be greater pedants than Lipſius, or the calle out to all people to have a care, it is miſadventure only; but elder Scaliger. With theſe kinds of pedants, the court, while if it were in London, or other populous towns, where people are I knew it, was always plentifully ſtocked: I mean from the gen- | continually paſſing by, it is manſlaughter, though he gives loud tleman uſher (at leaſt) incluſive, downward to the gentleman- warning; and murder, if he knows of their paſſing, and gives no porter; who are generally ſpeaking, the moſt inſignificant race warning at all. of people that this iſland can afford, and with the ſmalleſt tincture MANUAL Exerciſe, See the Treatiſe on Military Afairs. of good manners, which is the only trade they profeſs. For be MANURING of Ground, the application of a matter proper ing wholly illiterate, converſing chiefly with each other, they for meliorating the ſoil, and rendering it more fertile. For an reduce the whole ſyſtem of breeding within the forms and circles account of the ſeveral manures animal, natural, and artificial, of their ſeveral offices: and as they are below the notice of ini and the ſoils to which they are reſpectively adapted, ſee Syſtem niſters, they live and die in court under all revolutions, with of AGRICULTURE, Sect. II. great obſequiouſneſs to thoſe who are in any degree of credit or MARBLE, in natural hiſtory, a genus of fofiils; being bright favour, and with rudeneſs and infolence to every body elſe. and beautiful ſtones, compoſed of ſmall ſeparate concretions, mo- From whence I have long concluded, that good-manners are not derately hard, notgiving fire with ſteel, fermenting with and ſolu- a plant of the court-growth: for if they were, thoſe people who ble in acid menſtrua, and calcining in a ſlight fire. Marble, when have underſtandings directly of a level for ſuch acquirements, chymically examined, appears to conſiſt of calcareous earth united and who have ſerved ſuch long apprenticeihips to nothing elſe, with much fixed air ; and is, like limeſtone or chalk, capable would certainly have picked them up. For as to the great officers of being converted into a ſtrong quicklime. Dr. Black derives who attend the prince's perſon or councils, or preſide in his fa- the origin of marble, as well as limeſtone and marle, from the mily, they are a tranſient body, who have no better a title to ſame ſource, viz. from the calcareous matter of fhells and litho- good-manners than their neighbours, nor will probably have re- phyta. In one kind of limeſtone known by the name of Port- courſe to gentlemen uſhers for inſtruction. So that I know lit-land ſtone, and conſiſting of round grains united together, it was tle to be learned at court on this head, except in the material cir- ſuppoſed to be compoſed of the ſpawn of fiſh ; but compariſons cumſtance of dreſs; wherein the authority of the maids of ho of other phenomena have explained it. It is plain that it has been nour muſt indeed be allowed to be almoſt equal to that of a fa produced from a calcareous ſand, which is found on the ſhore of vourite actreſs. ſome of the iſlands in the ſouthern climates. By the conſtant agi- " I remember a paffage my lord Bolingbroke told me: that tation the ſofter parts are worn off, and the harder parts remain in going to receive prince Eugene of Savoy at his landing, in order the form of particles that are highly poliſhed, and which are after- to conduct him immediately to the queen, the prince ſaid he was wards gradually made to concrete together by cauſes of which we much concerned that he could not ſee her majeſty that night: for have yet no knowledge. There are indeed fome few of the line. Monſieur Hoffman (who was then by) had aſſured his highneſs, ſtones and marbles in which we cannot diſcover any of the relics of at court. MAR MAR careous matter. culture as a manure. of the ſhells; but there are many ſigns of their having been in a For a cppious, account aſcertaining its qua- diffolved or liquified ſtate ; ſo we cannot expect to ſee the remains lity and directing its uſes, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. of the form of the ſhells: but even in many of the marbles that II.-Marle is dug in many places of Great Britain and Ireland. have the greateſt appearance of a completé mixture, we ſtill find In digging for it in Ireland, they meet with horns and other cu- often the confuſed remains of the ſhells of which they have been rious foſſils. The marle always lies in the bottoms of low bogs, originally compoſed. We ſhould ſtill find it difficult to conceive and is found by boring with augres made for that purpoſe. It how fuch maſſes thould have derived their orign from ſhells; but, uſually lies at five, ſeven, or nine feet depth. The obtaining it confidering the many collections that we have an opportunity of in many places is attended with very confiderable expence in ſeeing in their ſteps towards this proceſs, and a little concreted to-draining off the water. The manner of digging it is this: They gether, ſo that by their going a ſtep further they might form lime- employ fix able labourers and a ſupernumerary; and theſe cut up ftone and marbles, we thall foon fee the poſſibility of their being a hole of 12 feet ſquare, which is ſuppoſed a pit that this number all produced in the fame manner. Thus vaſt quantities of ſhells of men can manage in one day. Two men dig, iwo throw it up, have been found in the province of Turin in France; and indeed and two throw it by, and the ſupernumerary man ſupplies defects there is no place where they have not been found. The litho- on all occaſions. For the firſt three feet they dig through a fuzzy Under this lies a Itratum of phyta likewife ſeem to be a very fruitful ſource of this kind of eartl, fit for making turf or fuel. carth. In the cold climates, where the moderate degree of heat gravel, of about half a foot; under this often, for three feet more, is not fo productive of animal liſe, we have not ſuch an opportu- there is a more kindly mofs, which would make better fuel. nity of obferving this: but in the hot climates, the ſea, as well as This lower ſtratum is always full of foſfile wood, which is uſually the fand, ſwarms with innumerable animals; and, at the bottom, ſo foft that the fpade cuts as eaſily through it as through the earth with thoſe that produce the corals and madripores. We learn it lies in. it lies in. Under this, for the thicknels of about three inches, is Theſe appear from the hiſtory of a ſhip that was faok in a ſtorm in the Gulf | found a ſeries of leaves, principally of the oak. Theſe of Mexico, the vaſt growth there is of theſe bodies. About 30 years very fair to the eye, but fall to pieces on being touched; and this after, they attempted to dive into it to get out a quantity of itratum is ſometimes interrupted by vaſt heaps of ſeed, which ſilver ; but they found great difficulty in getting it, from the ſhip leem to be broom or furze feed. In ſome places there appear ber- being overgrown with coral. Sir Hans Sloane, in his Philofo- ries of different kinds, and in others ſeveral ſpecies of ſea-plants ; phical Tranſactions, and in his hiſtory of Jamaica, obſerves, that all lying in the ſame confuſed manner as the oak leaves. Under the ſhip's timber, the iron, and money, were all concreted by the this vegetable ftratum there lies one of blue clay, half a foot growth of the calcareous matter. So in a tract of many thouſands thick, and uſually full of ſea-ſhells. This blue clay is not ſo of years the quantity of it thould be very great; and as this is tough as common clay; but is thrown carefully up, and uſed as going on through a very great extent of the botto:n of the ſea, it marle in ſome places. Under this always appears the true marle, will produce very extentive as well as maffy collections of cal the ſtratum of which is uſually from two fo four feet thick, and fometimes much more. This marle tooks like buried liine, and Elaſtic Marble, an extraordinary ſpecies of foſſil which has ſur- is full of thells, which are uſually of a ſmall ſize, and of the prited all the naturaliſts who have ſeen it. There are ſeveral periwinkle kind; but there are ſeveral other forts at times found iables of it preſerved in the houſe of Prince Borgheſe at Romne, among them. Among this marle, and often at the very bottom and ſhown to the curious. F. Jacquer, a celebrated mathema- of it, are found great numbers of very large horns of the deer tician, has given a deſcription in the Literary Gazette of Paris, kind, which are vulgarly called elk's horns. Theſe, where they but the naturaliſts cannot be contented with it. If permiſſion join to 19.2 head, are thick and round; and at that joining there was given to make the requiſite experiments, this curious pheno- grows out a branch, which is about a foot long, and leems to have menon might be better illuſtrated. There are five or fix tables hung juſt over the creature's eyes: it grows itill round for about of that marble; their length is about two feet and a half, the a foot above this; and then ſpreads out broad, and terminates breadth about ten inches, and the thickneſs a little leſs than three. in branches long and round, terminating with a ſmall bend. They were dug up, as the Abbé Fortis was told, in the feod of The labourers are obliged to work in a hurry in all theſe pits, ſo Mondragone; the grain is of Carrareſe marble, or perhaps of the that they ſeldom bring out the horns whole. There are alſo, at fineſt Greek. They ſeem to have ſuffered ſome attack of fire: times, found the leg-bones and other parts of the ſkeletons of though the firft degree of pulverization obſervable in the angles, the ſame beaſts; but this more rarely, only a few together, and can, perhaps, ſcarcely be called that of imperfect calcination. but few in places. They are very dry, do not yield to external impreſſion, reſound Dr. Black is of opinion, that all kinds of marle derive their to the hammer, like other congenerous marble, and are perliaps origin from the calcareous matter of thells and lithophyta. fuſceptible of a poliſh. Being ſet on end, they bend, oſcillating MARMOTTA, a ſpecies of the genus Mus in MAMMALIA, backward and forward ; when laid horizontally, and raiſed at one For deſcription of the genus and ſeveral ſpecies , fèe Mus. For end, they form a curve, beginning towards the middle ; if placed repreſentation, ſee Plate VII. Genus 24. Species 7. on a table, and a piece of wood or any thing elſe is laid under MARQUE, or Letters of MARQUE, in military affairs, are them, they make a falient curve, and touch the table with both letters of repriſal, granting the ſubjects of one prince or ſtate liberty ends. Notwithſtanding this flexibility, they are liable to be to make repriſals on thoſe of another. broken if indifcreetly handled ; and therefore one table only, and MARQUIS, a title of honour, next in dignity to that of duke. that not the beſt, is ſhown to the curious. Formerly they were A marquis is created by patent; his mantle has double ermine, all together in the prince's apartment on the ground-foor. three doublings and a half; his title is moſt noble; and his coronet Marine-Acid, a name given to one of the component parts of has pearls and ſtrawberry-leaves intermixed round, of equal height. fea falt. See the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part I. Chap. V. See the Syſtem of HERALDRY, Sect. VI. and Plate 6. Sect. IV. MARRIAGE, a contract, both civil and religious, between a Under the article BLEACHING we have taken notice of the man and woman, by which they engage to live together in mu- properties of the dephlogiſticated acid of ſea-falt in whitening tual love and friendſhip for the ends of procreation. The firft in- cloth, habitants of Greece lived together without marriage. Cecrops Mr. Chaptal obſerves, that this acid may be applied to the king of Athens, was the firſt author of this honourable inſtitution whitening of paper and old prints; and by its means (he fays) among that people. After the commonwealths of Greece were they obtain a whiteneſs which they never had before. Common ſettled, marriage was very much encouraged by their laws; and ink' diſappears by its action, but it has no effect upon printer's the abſtaining from it was diſcountenanced, and in many places ink.-It thickens oils, and calcines metals to ſuch a degree, that puniſhed. The Lacedæmonians were particularly remarkable the proceſs may be much expedited by its means. It diffolves for their ſeverity towards thoſe who deferred marrying, as well as metals without efferveſcence, and precipitates mercury from its to thoſe who wholly abſtained from it. The Athenians had an folutions, converting it into corroſive ſublimate.-It acts, like-expreſs law, that all commanders, orators, and perſons entruſted wiſe, very vigorouſly upon metallic calces, forming with them with any public affair, ſhould be married men. Polygamy, or falts more readily than other acids. the having more than one wife at a time, was not commonly to- MARINĖ Acid- Air. For its nature and properties, ſee the lerated in Greece. See POLYGAMY. Syſtem of AEROLOGY, Sect. XI. We find but few laws in the books of Mofes concerning the in- St. MARK's Goſpel, a canonical book of the New Teſtament, | ftitution of marriage; he reſtrained the liraelites from marrying being one of the four Goſpels. St. Mark wrote his Goſpel at with certain degrees of conſanguinity, but we find that poly- Rome, where he accompanied St. Peter, in the year of Chriſt 64 gamy, though no expreſſly allowed, is however tacitly implied in or 65. Many of the moſt ancient writers affert that St. Mark the laws of Moles: there is a particlar law that obliged a mau, was no more than an amanuenſis or interpreter to St. Peter, who whoſe brother died without iſſue, to marry his widow, and raiſe dictated this Goſpel to him; others affirm that he wrote it after up children to his brother. The Hebrews purchaſed their wives, St. Peter's death. The learned have been alſo divided as to the by paying down a competent dowry for them; and a man was at language this Goſpel was wrote in, foine affirming it was com- liberty to marry, not only in any of the 12 tribes, but even out of poled in Greek, which is the more general and probable opinion, them, provided it was with ſuch nation as uſed circumcifion. others in Latin. Several of the ancient heretics received only the The Romiſh church requires of the clergy perpetual abſtinence Goſpel of St. Mark: others, among the Catholics, rejected the from marriage; and has advanced this inftitution to the dignity of twelve laſt verſes of this Goſpel. The goſpel of St. Mark is pro- a facrament. The church of England, though ſhe does not con- perly an abridgement of that of St. Matthew. ſider marriage as a facrament, yet looks upon it as an inſtitution MARLE, a kind of calcareous earth, very much uſed in agri- 10 ſacred, as that it ought always to be celebrated by an ecclefi- fiaftical M A R M A S aſtical perſon ; but marriages, without this ſanction, are not there excellent marriage ſettlement by Blackſtone, in the appendix to fore null and void. There is no canon of this church, which for the ſecond volume of his Commentaries. bids marriages to be ſolemnized at any time. The canonical MARS, in Pagan worſhip and mythology, the god of war. He hours for celebrating of matrimony, are from eight to twelve in was, according to fome, the ſon of Jupiter and Juno. The the forenoon. The impediments to marriage are ſpecified in amours of Mars and Venus, and the manner in which Vulcan canon 102 of the Engliſh church, and are theſe: 1. A preceding caught and expoſed tliem to the laughter of the other gods, have marriage or contract, or any controverſy or fuit depending on the been deſcribed by ſeveral of the ancient poets. He is repreſented fame. 2. Conſanguinity or affinity. 3. Want of conſent of as having ſeveral wives and miſtreſſes, and a conſiderable number parents, or guardians, &c. of children. He was held in the higheſt veneration by the Ro- Marriage, according to our law, cannot be diſſolved but by mans, both from his being the father of Romulus their founder, death, breach of faith, or other notorious miſbehaviour. A mar and from their inclination to conqueſt; and had magnificent tem- riage in reputation, as among the quakers, is allowed to be ſuf- ples erected to him at Rome. Mars is uſually repreſented in a ficent to give title to a perſonal eſtate; though in the caſe of a chariot, drawn by furious horſes. He is completely armed; and perſon married by a diſſenting miniſter, who was not in orders, it extends his ſpear with the one hand, and graſps a ſword, im- has been held, that where a huſband demands a right due to him brued in blood, with the other. He has a fierce and favage aſ- as ſuch by the ecclefiaftical law, he ought to prove himſelf a pect. Diſcord is repreſented preceding his car ; and Clamour, huſband, thereby to be intitled to it; and yet this marriage is not Fear, and Terror, appear in his train. The victims facrificed to altogether a nullity, becauſe by the laws of nature, the contract him were the wolf, the horſe, the wood-pecker, the vulture, and is binding. On a promiſe of marriage, if it be mutual on both the cock. fides, damages may be recovered in caſe either party refuſes to Mars, in aſtronomy, one of the five planets, and of the three marry: and though no time for the marriage be agreed on, if the ſuperior ones; its place being between the earth and Jupiter, plaintiff aver that he offered to marry the defendant, who refuſed See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. it, an action is maintainable for the damages ; but no action ſhall MARSHALSEA. See COURT. be brought upon any agreement, except it is in writing, and ſigned MARSHY, or Marsh Lands, a name given by our farmers by the party to be charged. to a ſort of paſture land, or grazing ground, which lies near the For the better preventing clandeſtine marriages, and the in- fea, rivers or fence. For the method of draining maríhy lands, conveniences ariſing therefrom, an act of parliament was paſſed, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. XIX. wherein the following regulations were made, viz. That from MARSUPIALIS, a ſpecies of the genus Diadelphis, in Mam- and after March 25, 1754, banns of matrimony ſhall be pub- malia. For deſcription of the Genus and ſeveral species, ſee liſhed in the pariſh church, or ſome public chapel belonging to the DIADELPHIS. For repreſentation, ſee Plate, VI, Genus 17, pariſh wherein the parties dwell, upon three Sundays before the Species 1. marriage, during the time of ſervice, immediately after the ſecond MARTES, or MĂRTIN, ä fpecies of the genus Muſtela, in leſſon; and where the parties dwell in different pariſhes, the banns Mammalia. For deſcription of the Genus and ſeveral Species, ſhall be publiſhed in both; and the marriage ſhall be folemnized in ſee MUSTELA. For fepreſentation, ſee Plate V, Genus 15, the church or chapel wherein the banns were publiſhed, and no Species 6. where elſe: and it is alſo required, that both or either of the par MARTYR, a perſon who ſuffers torments, and even death, in ties to be married do reſide four weeks at leaſt in the pariſh where defence of the truth of the goſpel and their religion. Anciently the bannis are publiſhed. Nothing in this act deprives the arch thoſe who were baniſhed for the faith, were called martyrs, and biſhop of Canterbury of his uſual right of granting ipecial licenſes alſo thoſe who periſhed in the holy wars. St. Stephen is called to marry at any convenient time or place. All marriages ſolem- the proto martyr, or firſt martyr. Nineteen thouſand ſeven hun- nized contrary to the foreſaid regulations, ſhall be void; and the dred are computed to have ſuffered martyrdom with St. Irenæus perſon ſolemnizing the ſame, ſhall be adjudged guilty of felony, at Lyons, under the empire of Severus : fix thouſand fix hundred and be tranſported for 14 years to his majeſty's colonies. Mar and fixty-ſix ſoldiers of the Theban legion are faid to have been riages folemnized by licenſe, where either of the parties (not being martyred in Gaul: Father Papebroch reckons fixteen thouſand a widow or widower,) ſhall be under age, without the conſent of Abyſſinian martyrs, and one hundred and fifty thouſand others the father firſt had (if living,) or of the guardians or one of them, under Dioclefian alone. and, where there ſhall be no guardians, (if living and unmarried,) There is ſcarce any faith or religion that does not pretend to its or of the guardian appointed by chancery, ſhall be void to all in- martyrs : Mahometans, heathens, idolaters, &c. all have their tents and purpoſes. Where any ſuch guardian ſhall be non com martyrs. In the ancient church, the acts, ſayings, ſufferings, and pus mentis, or in parts beyond the ſea, or ſhall refuſe their conſent deaths, of the martyrs, were preſerved with great care, in order to a proper match, the party may apply by petition to the lord to be read on certain days, and thus propoſed as models to future chancellor, lord keeper, or lords commiſſioners of the great ſeal, ages : and yet, notwithſtanding all this diligence, we have but very who ſhall proceed on ſuch a petition in a ſummary way; and Tittle left of them: the greateſt part of them having been deſtroy- where the marriage propoſed ſhall appear to be proper, they ſhall ed during that dreadful perſecution, which Dioclefian carried on judicially declare the ſame to be ſo by an order of court, which for ten years, with freſh fury, againſt the Chriſtians: for a moſt ſhall be deemed effectual. All marriages ſhall be folemnized in diligent ſearch was then made after all their books and papers ; the preſence of two or more credible witneſſes beſides the mi and all of them that were found were committed to the flames, niſter, and an entry thereof ſhall be immediately made in a re Euſebius, indeed, compoſed a martyrology, but it never reached giſter kept for that purpoſe. This act ſhall not extend to the down to us; and thoſe ſince compiled are extremely ſuſpected, marriages of any of the royal family, nor to Scotland, por to From the eighth century downwards, ſeveral Greek and Latin thoſe perſons called quakers, nor to thoſe profeſſing the Jewiſh writers endeavoured to make up the loſs, by compiling, with vaſt religion. In Scotland, the parties living together as man and labour, accounts of the lives and actions of the ancient martyrs : wife, or declaring themſelves ſo before witneſſes, makes a valid but moſt of them have given us little elſe than a ſeries of fables, though informal marriage. adorned with profuſion of rhetorical flowers, and friking images, Policy of encouraging MARRIAGE. Dr. Halley obſerves, that as the wiſer, even among the Romih doctors, frankly acknow- the growth and increaſe of mankind is not ſo much ſtinted by any ledge. Nor are thoſe records, that paſs under the name of Mar- thing in the nature of the ſpecies, as it is from the cautious diffi- tyrology, worthy of ſuperior credit, fince they bear the moſt evi- culty moſt people make to adventure on the ſtate of marriage, dent marks both of ignorance and fallhood. from the proſpect of the trouble and charge of providing for a fa MARTYROLOGY, in the church of Rome, is a catalogue mily: nor are the poorer ſort of people herein to be blamed, who, or liſt of martyrs, including the hiſtory of their lives and fufferings beſides themſelves and families, are obliged to work for the pro for the ſake of religion. The term comes from prietors of the lands that feed them; and of ſuch does the greater nefs,” and asyw, “ dico,” or neyw; “ colligo.” part of mankind confift. Were it not for the backwardneſs to The martyrologies draw their materials from the kalendars of marriage, there might be four times as many births as we find; for particular churches, in which the ſeveral feſtivals dedicated to by computation, there are 15,000 perſons above 16 and under 453 them are marked; and which ſeem to be derived from the prac- of which at leaſt 7000 are women capable of bearing children ; tice of the ancient Romans, who inſerted the names of heroes yet there are only 1238, or a little more than a fixth part of theſe, and great men in their faſti, or public regiſters. The martyrolo- that breed yearly : whereas were they all married, it is highly gies are very numerous, and contain many ridiculous and even probable that four of fix ſhould bring forth a child every year, the contradictory narratives; which is eaſily accounted for, if we political conſequences of which are evident. Therefore as the conſider how many forged and ſpurious accounts of the lives of ftrength and glory of a kingdom or ſtate conſiſts in the multitude ſaints and martyrs appeared in the firſt ages of the church, which of ſubjects, celibacy above all things ought to be diſcouraged, as the legendary writers afterwards adopted without examining into by extraordinary taxing, or military ſervice : and on the contrary, the truth of them. However, ſome good critics, of late years, thoſe who have numerous families ſhould be allowed certain pri- have gone a great way towards clearing the lives of the ſaints and vileges and immunities, like the jus trium liberorum among the martyrs from the monſtrous heap of fiction they labour under. Romans; and eſpecially, by effectually providing for the ſubfift We have alſo ſeveral proteſtant martyrologies, containing the fuf- ence of the poor. ferings of the reformed under the papiſts; viz. 'an Engliſh martya MARRIAGE Settlement, is a legal açt, previous to marriage, rology, by J. Fox; with others by Clark, Bray, Southwell, &c. whereby a jointure is ſecured to the wife after the death of the Thofe who are inclined to be farther informed on this ſubject are huſband. Thefe ſettlements ſeem to have been in uſe among the referred to Dr. Southwell's edition of Fox's Martyrology. ancient Germans, and their kindred nation the Gauls. See an MASCULINE, the ſtronger of the two fexes. See MALE. 6P MASCULINE, μαρτυρο 66 wit- No. 99 Sklep pro- MAS M A S MASCULINE, is more ordinarily uſed in grammar to ſignify the gates and entrances of the king's palace all beſmeared with the firſt and worthieſt of the genders of nouns. See GENDER.. their blood. The maſculine gender is that which belongs to the male kind, or From the city of Paris the maſſacre ſpread almoſt throughout fomething analogous to it. Moſt fubftantives are ranged under the whole kingdom. In the city of Meaux they threw above the heads of maſculine or feminine. This in ſome caſes, is done two hundred into jail; and after they had raviſhed and killed a with a ſhow of reaſon, but in others is merely arbitrary, and for great number of women, and plundered the houfes of the that reaſon is found to vary according to the languages, and even teftants, they executed their fury on thoſe they had impriſoned, according to the words introduced from one language into another. and calling them out one by one, they were killed, as Thuanus Thus the names of trees are generally feminine in Latin, and expreſſes like ſheep in a market; the bodies of ſome were flung maſculine in the French. Farther, the genders of the ſame word into ditches, and of others into the river Maine. In Orleans are ſometimes varied in the ſame language. Thus alvus, accord- they murdered above five hundred men, women, and children, ing to Priſcian, was anciently maſculine, but is now become and enriched themſelves with their ſpoil. The ſame cruelties feminine. And navire, a fhip, in French, was anciently femi were practiſed at Angers, Troyes, Bourges, La Charité, and nine, but is now maſculine. See Syſtem of GRAMMAR, Part. I. eſpecially at I.yons, where they inhumanly deſtroyed above eight Chap. I. Sect. I. hundred proteſtants ; children hanging on their parents necks; MASONS, Free or Accepted, a very ancient fociety, or body of parents embracing their children ; putting ropes about the necks men, ſo called, either from ſome extraordinary knowledge of ma of fome, dragging them through the ſtreets, and throwing them, ſonry or building, which they are ſuppoſed to be maſters of, or mangled, torn, and half-dead, into the river. becauſe the firſt founders of the ſociety were perſons of that pro- It would be endleſs to mention the butcheries committed at feſſion. They are now very confiderable both for numbers and Valence, Romaine, Rouen, &c. We ſhall, therefore, only add, character; being found in every country in Europe, and conſiſt that, according to Thuanus, above thirty thouſand proteſtants ing principally of perſons of merit and conſideration. As to an were deſtroyed in this maſſacre, or, as others with greater proba tiquity, they lay claim to a ſtanding of ſome thouſand years; and bility affirm, above one hundred thouſand, it is ſaid, can trace up their original as early as the building of So Thuaius himſelf calls this a moſt deteſtable villainy; and, in lornon's temple. It is very doubtful when they were firſt intro abhorrence of St. Bartholomew's day, uſed to repeat theſe words duced into this country: ſome have traced the origin of maſonry of P. Statius, Silv. v. iii. ver. 88. &c. in general to the year 674: and it is certain that, after that time, Excidat illa dies ævo, ne poſtera credant many of our public buildings, in the Gothic ſtyle, were erected Secula. Nos certe taceamus, et obruta multa by men in companies, who, as ſome ſay, called themſelves free, be Nožte tegi proprie patiamus crimina gentis. cauſe they were at liberty to work in any part of the kingdom. In the words of Job, chap. iii. ver. 3. &c. “ Let that day perith ; Others have derived the inſtitution of free maſons from a combi and let it not be joined unto the days of the year. Let darkneſs nation among the maſons not to work without an advance of and the ſhadow of death ſtain it,” &c. And yet, as though this wages, when they were fummoned from ſeveral counties, by writs had been the moſt heroic tranſaction, and could have procured of Edward III. directed to the ſheriffs, to aſſiſt in rebuilding immortal glory to the authors of it, medals were ftruck' at Paris and enlarging the caſtle, together with the church and chapel of in honour of it. St. George, at Windſor: accordingly it is ſaid, that the maſons But how was the news of this butchery received at Rome, that agreed on tokens, &c. by which they might know one another, faithful city, that holy mother of churches ! How did the vicar of and to aſſiſt one another againſt being impreſſed, and not to work Chriſt, the ſucceſſor of Peter, and the father of the Chriſtian unleſs free, and on their own terms. What the end of their inſti- world, reliſh it? Let Thuanus tell the horrid truth. When the tution is, feems ſtill, in ſome meaſure, a ſecret; though ſo much news, ſays he, came to Rome, it was wonderful to ſee how they of it as is known appears laudable enough, as it tends to promote exulted for joy. On the 6th of September, when the letters of friendſhip, fociety, mutual aſſiſtance, and good fellowſhip. The the pope's legate were read in the aſſembly of the cardinals, by brothers of this fraternity are ſaid to be poffefſed of a great number which he aſſured the Pope that all was tranſacted by the expreſs of ſecrets, which have been religiouily obſerved from age to age. will and command of the king, it was immediately decreed that MAss, in a religious ſenſe, denotes the office, or public prayers the pope ſhould march with his cardinals to the church of St. made in the Romilh church, at the celabration of the euchariſt. Mark, and in the moſt ſolemn manner give thanks to God Romifh divines define the maſs, an oblation made to God, where for ſo great a bleſſing conferred on the fee of Rome and the in, by the change of a fenfible object by virtue of a divine inſti Chriſtian world; and that on the Monday after, folemn maſs tution, the fovereign dominion of God over all things is acknow ſhould be celebrated in the church of Minerva ; at which the ledged. This they eſteem the greateſt and moſt auguſt ceremony pope, Greg. XIII. and cardinals were preſent; and that a jubilee in uſe in the church; as being the ſacrifice of the new law, ſhould be publiſhed throughout the whole Chriſtian world, and wherein the body and blood of Jeſus Chriſt are offered up to the cauſe of it declared to be, to return thanks to God for the ex- God. There is a great variety of maſſes in the Romiſh church; tirpation of the enemies of the truth and church in France. In the maſs acquiring new titles, and appellations, according to the the evening the cannon of St. Angelo were fired, to teſtify the different rites, intentions, and manners, in which it is performed, public joy; the whole city illuminated with bonfires; and no one as well as other circumſtances. ſign of rejoicing omitted that was uſually made for the greateſt MASSACRE, a term uſed to ſignify the ſudden and promiſ- victories obtained in favour of the Roman church. cuous butchery of a multitude. The moſt atrocious example of Second Pariſian Maſſacre, Sept. 2, 1792.-More recent though this kind upon record is that called the Pariſian Maſſacre or not leſs miſchievous in its effects, was the anarchy by which this Maſſacre of St. Bartholemew's Day. The Pariſian maſſacre was ill-fated city was doomed, a ſecond time to become the center of carried on with ſuch deteftable perfidy, and executed with ſuch every calamity incidental to human nature. Precluded from en- a bloody cruelty, as would ſurpaſs all belief, were it not atteſted tering into a copious detail of the particulars, with which this by the moſt undeniable evidence. In the year 1572, in the reign tragic ſcene abounds, as it would exceed the limits of our work, of Charles IX. many of the principal proteſtants were invited to we ſhall confine ourſelves to the great outline, and juſt ſketch Paris, under a ſolemn oath of ſafety, upon occaſion of the mar a conciſe narrative of authenticated facts. riage of the king of Navarre with the French king's ſiſter, viz, The pufillanimity of the late king, and the imbecillity of his the king of Navarre's mother, Coligni admiral of France, with miniſters, had ſuffered that ſpirit of revolution which had mani- other nobles. The queen-dowager of Navarre, a zealous pro feſted itſelf during the laſt four years of the reign of that unfor- teſtant, was poiſoned by a pair of gloves before the marriage was tunate monarch to acquire a moſt alarming aſcendancy. In the folemnized; and on the 24th of Auguſt 1572, being Bartholo year 1792, it burſt forth with unextinguiſhable fury; every effort mew's day, about day-break, upon the toll of the bell of the to ſtifle its flaine proved abortive; the monarchy fell with the church of St. Germain, the butchery began. The admiral was monarch; religion and the laws were overthrown; the reins of bafely murdered in his own houſe; and then thrown out of the government were ſeized by an ufurping faction, and the property window, to gratify the malice of the duke of Guiſe : his head was and even lives of the citizens fubjected to the caprice and cruelty afterwards cut off, and ſent to the king and queen-inother, and of an armed, ungovernable rabble. From the roth of Auguſt, the his body, after a thouſand indignities offered to it, hung up by the day on which the king was depoſed, to the ad of Sept. the day feet on a gibbet. After this, the murderers ravaged the wliole on which this horrid maſſacre was perpetrated, every ſpecies of city of Paris, and butchered in three days above ten thouſand vice and infamy that can degrade humanity, was univerſally pre- lords, gentlemen, preſidents, and people of all ranks. An hor valent. Servants informed againſt their maſters and dragged them le ſcene of things, ſays Thuanus, when the very ſtreets and to priſon, and debtors were ſuffered to arreſt their creditors. The paſſages reſounded with the noiſe of thoſe that met together for prieſts were conſidered as inimical to the general cauſe, as neceſ- murder and plunder; the groans of thoſe who were dying, and farily attached to that ſyſtem of government which protected the ſhrieks of ſuch as were juſt going to be butchered, were every them in the exerciſe of their functions; they were therefore very where heard ; the bodies of the ſlain thrown out of the windows ; narrowly watched by the adverſe party, by whom a mandate was the courts and chambers of the houſes filled with them ; the dead iſſued, requiring all the clergy to take the oath preſcribed by the bodies of others dragged through the ſtreets, their blood running faction, who had uſurped the government, and ſubjecting thoſe down the channels in ſuch plenty, that torrents ſeemed to empty who ſhould refuſe compliance within a limited time, to the pe- themſelves in the neighbouring river: and, in a word, an innu- nalty of expulſion from the country, as enemies to the common- merable multitude of men, women with child, maidens, and wealth. As the clergy were now become generally obnoxious; children, were all involved in one common deſtruction; and this mandate was enforced with the utmoſt rigour, and numbers of M AS M A T of theſe unfortunate men were impriſoned in Paris, and in almoſt | and burſts of laughter of thoſe favages increaſed in proportion to every city of France on the moſt frivolous pretences: the greater the number of victims that fell. When the greater part were mumber however retired into convents and ſeminaries till the deſtroyed, the murderers again took to their ſmall arms, and did time fixed for their tranſportation ſhould arrive; and even thoſe not ceafe firing till every creature was exterminated. It is im- who took the oaths were branded with ſo odious a ſtigma, that poffible to calculate preciſely the number deſtroyed, but it has they were not only expoſed to the inſults, but the vengeance of been eſtimated at 6000. Towards the cloſe of the maſſacres, the mob by appearing in the ſtreet in their fecular dreſs. The | Petion the mayor of Paris went to the Bicetre, and addreſſed the ordinary priſons being found not ſufficiently capacious to contain murderers in the language of humanity and philosophy; but he who the victims daily ſeized upon by the rapacious hands of theſe had not till now attempted to ſave a ſingle victim, met with fiends in power; convents, ſeminaries, and even churches were a pointed retort. He took his leave, and on going away, uttered converted into priſons. A report having been circulated, that theſe horrible words : "“ Well, children, make an end of it. The the king's friends meditated an attempt to reſcue the priſoners body of this arch-villain has ſince been found in a wood, almoſt and effect his reſtoration ; fear alarmed the leaders of the re torn to pieces. publican party; nightly meetings were held; liſts of profcription The fate of one woman who ſuffered among the priſoners were made out, and all perfons merely ſuſpected of attachment murdered at the Conciergerie, is ſo deſcriptive of that Nero-like to the royal cauſe were hurried into confinement, that they might cruelty by which the murderers were actuated, that the writer be cut off without the tedious formality of trial, and that the of this article who has ſeen and converſed with the woman a few odium of their murder might be transferred from thoſe ſanguinary weeks before her death, cappot omit its recital. She had for- monſters Danton, Roberipierre, and Marat, who are now no merly been a noſe-gay girl of the Palais Royal, and was charged more, to the deluded perpetrators of the horrid act. with having, in a fit of jealouſy, mutilated her lover, a grenadier Paris exhibited a ſcene of horror and conſternation on the eve in the Swiſs Guards. She had been already condemned, but had of the maſſacre that beggars deſcription. An order was ifſued obtained a temporary reprieve. She was now tied to a ſtake that ſtrict ſearch ſhould be made, under pretence that large ſtores naked; her legs were expanded; her feet nailed to the ground; of arms were concealed: all the ſhops were cloſed before funſet; her breaſts chopped off with a ſword; and, to compleat the tor- an awful gloom and folemn ſilence pervaded the city, as har- tures of her death, both fire and ſword were made uſe of in a bingers of the approaching tremendous event: the barriers were manner which decency and humanity forbid him to deſcribe. fhut and guarded with the ſtricteſt vigilance, and to prevent the We cannot clole this article without ſuggeſting a reflection on poflibility of eſcape by water, boats filled with armed men were the oppoſite cauſes which have produced fimilar effects. The ftationed on the river. Amidſt the general conſternation, huſbands maſſacre of St. Bartholomew, in 1572, was the conſequence of a forced themſelves from the arms of their wives; fathers em- blind and furious zeal for the intereſt of the church of Rome. braced and with reluctant ſtruggle tore themſelves from their The pope, whoſe office demands that he should be humane, pure, children. All the laws of decency, modeſty, and chaſtity, were and virtuous, not only rejoiced in the deſtruction of ten thou- ſacrificed to perfonal ſecurity; the virtuous brother ſought an ſand of his fellow creatures, becauſe they differed in religious opi- aſylum in the bed of his fifter, where he conceived no ſuſpicion nion with him, but even inſulted the Deity in iſſuing a procla- could be entertained of his being found; the affectionate huſband mation for a public thankſgiving, at which mockery he aſſiſted in in the arms of the courtezan, and every individual had recourſe perſon, and commanded medals to be fruck in commemora- to fome retreat, hoping to eſcape detection; for all was horror, tion of the horrid deed. Subſequent to that tranſaction, and frenzy, and deſpair. Here was heard the ſound of the muffled through the progreſs of light and reaſon, the Romifh religion hainmer with cautious ſtroke preparing a corner for concealment. has been gradually on the decline, and juſt 220 years from There was found a wretch almoſt breathleſs from the exceſſive that dreadful period, in the ſame month, and in the ſame city, preſſure of a wainfccat nailed upon him; to elude the ſearch of the ſucceffors of thoſe very prieſts who in the firſt maſſacre his fell purſuers'; another was almoſt ſuffocated with fear and heat had plotted the deſtruction of the proteſtants, for their defection between two matraſſes ; and another, tortured by the tenſion of his from the Romiſh church, bled, in the ſecond, for no other crime finews from being rolled up in a caſk, was almoſt deprived of the than their attachment to that very religion which had been fo ſenfe of exiſtence : but the panic of danger apprehended, ſo power- fatal to the proteſtants in the firſt. Nature recoils and humanity fully prevailed as to deaden for the moment all ſenſation of pain. fickens at the relation of ſuch ſcenes of martyrdom and blood, On that memorable night ſo many victims were immolated in the and we gladly diſmiſs the ſubject with expreſſing our coincidence dungeons of Paris, that the emiſſaries of death ſeemed baffled in ex- in the opinion of an inſpired writer, that the ways of Providence ploring additional objects to ſatiate their relentleſs cruelty ; nor, are inſcrutable and paſt finding out. indeed, could fuch have been found, was there a place to ſecure MASTER of Arts, the firſt degree taken up in foreign uni- them till they ſhould be dragged out to the general carnage. verſities, but the ſecond in ours; candidates not being admitted to Such was the diſmal prelude that gave dreadful note of prepa. it till they have ſtudied in the univerſity ſeven years. ration. The priſons, convents, ſeminaries, and churches, were MASTERS of Chancery are uſually choſen' out of the barriſters filled with victims devoted to ſlaughter; the time of execution of the common law; and fit in chancery, or at the rolls, as affift- drew near, and the dawn of that day of blood appeared. The ants to the lord chancellor, and maſter of the rolls. See Court of murderers commenced the horrid ſcene with the maſſacre of the CHANCERY. prieſts in the abbey, and thence proceeded to the convent of the MASTER of the Rolls, a patent officer for life, wlao has the cuf- Carines, where 183 ecclefiaftics were butchered by about thirty tudy of the rolls and patents which paſs the great ſeal; and of the aſiaffins. Theſe victims were brought out one by one from the records of the chancery. See Court of CHANCERY. church, maſſacred in the porch, and their carcaſſes piled in a MASTICATION, MASTICAT10, in medicine, the action of heap, exhibited as a ſpectacle to glut the rage of a barbarous mul- chewing, or of agitating the folid parts of our food between the titude, fraught with a demoniacal ſpirit, and deſtitute of every teeth, by means of the motion of the jaws, the tongue, and the feeling that is allied to humanity. As an eternal blot in the lips, whereby it is broken into ſmall pieces, impregnated with fa- annals of France, there were at this eventful period, no lefs than liva, and ſo fitted for deglutition, and a more eaſy digeſtion in the nine diſtinct ſcenes of ſlaughter exhibited in Paris, in which ſtomach. The mixture of ſaliva with the food is of abſolute ne- (between Tueſday the 2d and Friday the 5th of September) cefſity; for the ſaliva, imbibed within the parts of it diffolves the there fell by the moſt horrid acts of cruelty upwards of 8000 ſalts hid in them; and by ſo doing, prepares the food for fermen- victims, to the frantic fury and more than ſavage ferocity of a tation in the ſtomach. The food, therefore, has the beginning of band of lawleſs miſcreants. its digeſtion from the faliva, and its concluſion from the ferment As we cannot conſiſtently with the plan of our work enter in the ſtomach. into a detail of the numerous crimes which have ſtamped an MATERIA MEDICA, a general name for every ſubſtance enternal infamy on the capital of France ; we shall ſelect one or uſed in medicine, and by ſome extended even to every article uſed two inſtances which appear to be moſt deſerving of notice, and as food or drink. leave our readers to form a judgment of the new philoſophy of the Thus the materia medica becomes exceedingly extenſive : how- Gallic world, who have ſtiled themſelves the Regenerators of Eu ever, before we enter upon any particular diſcuſſion of the rope! The maſſacre of the Bicetre hoſpital was the ſcene of the ſubject, it appears proper to give ſome general idea of medicines moſt durable, the moſt bloody, and the moſt ſhocking carnage. and their operation. The work of death never ceaſed one inſtant for eight ſucceſſive A medicine, properly ſo called, is a ſubſtance which, when ap- days and nights ; pikes, fwords, and muſquets, not being ſufficient plied to the living human body, makes ſuch an alteration in it as to execute the horrid deſigns of theſe ferocious affaſſins, they had either to prevent the approach of diſeaſe, or to remedy a morbid recourſe to the uſe of cannon. Then, for the firſt time were ſtate wlien already preſent. Such ſubſtances as may be uſed for priſoners ſeen fighting for their dungeons, and their chains: they theſe purpoſes without any great preparation are called ſimple me- made a long and deadly reſiſtance, but were ſubdued in the fol- dicines, or ſimples; and with theſe the writers on materia medica lowing manner: A certain number of theſe unhappy creatures are chiefly converſant, In treatiſes written profeſſedly on this were parted off into a yard; the cannon was then brought, and ſubject, it is common to give a particular deſcription of each ar- while the affaffins pretended to point it at one of the corners of ticle, the characteriſtic marks by which it may be diſtinguiſhed the yard, where moſt of the priſoners ſeemed to be crowded; from all other ſubſtances, and the methods by which an adultera- when the latter began to run off to the other ſide in order to tion or an imperfection inay be diſcovered in it, together with the avoid the direction of the canon, the murderers in the interim doſe in which it can ſafely be given : but as all theſe particulars are turning it about, fired off old iron at the flying group. The joy taken notice of in different parts of the work they are omitted here. M A T M E A MATHEMATICS, the ſcience of quantity ; or ſcience that Civil Archite&ture, (now become a branch of mathematies) or confiders magnitudes either as computable, or meaſurable. The buildings. Muſic, founds, and their effects on the ear. For the word in its original, udebyone, fignifies diſcipline, or ſcience, in the elements of each of theſe, ſee the reſpective Syſtems. general, and ſeems to have been applied to the doctrine of quan Pure mathematics have one peculiar advantage, they that occa- tity, either by way of eminence, or becauſe, as this had the ſtart fion no diſputes among wrangling diſputants, as in other branches of all other ſciences, the reſt took their common name from it. of knowledge; and the reaſon is, becauſe the definitions of the For the origin of the mathematics, Joſephus dates it before the terms are premiſed, and every body that reads a propoſition has flood, and makes the ſons of Seth obſervers of the courſe and or the ſame idea of every part of it. Hence it is eaſy to put an end der of the heavenly bodies: he adds, that to perpetuate their diſ to all mathematical controverſies, by ſhowing, either that our coveries, and ſecure them from the injuries either of a deluge, or adverſary has not ſtuck to his definitions, or has not laid down confiagration, they had them engraven on two pillars, the one of true premiſes, or elſe that he has drawn falſe concluſions from true ſtone the other of brick; the former of which, he ſays, was principles; and in caſe we are able to do neither of theſe, we muſt ſtanding in Syria in his days. The firſt who cultivated mathema- acknowledge the truth of what he has proved. It is true, that tics after the flood, were the Affyrians and Chaldeans; from whom in mixed mathematics, where we reaſon mathematically upon the ſame Joſephus adds, they were carried by Abraham to the phyſical ſubjects, we cannot give ſuch juſt definitions as the geo- Egyptians ; who proved ſuch notable proficients, that Ariſtotle metricians: we muſt therefore reſt content with deſcriptions ; makes no ſcruple to fix the firſt riſe of mathematics among them. and they will be of the ſame uſe as definitions, provided we are From Egypt, five hundred eighty-four years before Chriſt, they conſiſtent with ourſelves, and always mean the ſame thing by paſſed into Greece through the hands of Thales, who, having thoſe terms we have once explained. Dr. Barrow gives a moſt learned geometry of the Egyptian prieſts, taught it in his own elegant deſcription of the excellence and uſefulneſs of mathema- country. After Thales, comes Pythagoras ; who, among other tical knowledge, in his inaugural oration, upon being appointed mathematical arts, paid a peculiar regard to arithmetic ; fetching profeſſor of mathematics at Cambridge. the greateſt part of his philofophy from numbers: he was the firſt, The mathematics, he obſerves, effectually exerciſe, not vainly as Laertius tells us, who abſtracted geometry from matter ; and delude, nor vexatiouſly torment, ftudious minds with obſcure to him we owe the doctrine of incommeaſurable magnitude, and fubtilties; but plainly demonſtrate every thing within their reach, the five regular bodies, beſides the firſt principies of muſic and draw certain concluſions, inſtruct by profitable rules, and unfold aſtronomy. Pythagorus was ſucceeded by A nagoras, Oenopi- pleaſant queſtions. Theſe diſciplines likewiſe inure and corro. des, Briſo, Antipho, and Hippocrates of Chinos; who all applied borate the mind to a conſtant diligence in ſtudy; they wholly de- themſelves particularly to the quadrature of the circle, the dupli- liver us from a credulous fimplicity, moſt ſtrongly fortify us cature of the cube, &c. but the laſt with moſt ſucceſs: this laſt againſt the vanity of ſcepticiſm, effectually reſtrain us from a raſh is alſo mentioned by Proclus, as the firſt who compiled elements preſumption, moſt eaſily incline is to a due aſſent, and perfectly of mathematics. ſubject us to the government of right reaſon. While the mind Democritus excelled in mathematics as well as phyſics; though is abſtracted and elevated from ſenſible matter, diſtinctly views none of his works, in either kind, are extant: the deſtruction of pure forms, conceives the beauty of ideas, and inveſtigates the which ſome authors aſcribe to Ariſtotle. The next in order is harmony of proportions; the manners themſelves are ſenſibly cor- Plato, who not only improved geometry, but introduced it into rected and improved, the affections compoſed and rectified, the phyſics, and fo laid the foundation of a ſolid philoſophy. Out of fancy calmed and ſettled, and the underſtanding raiſed and ex- his ſchool proceeded a crowd of mathematicians. Eudoxus was cited to more divine contemplations. the firſt founder of a ſyſtem of aſtronomy. Menechimus invented MATRIX, or UTERUS, in anatomy, the womb, or that the conic ſections, and Theudius and Hermotimus improved the part of the female of any kind, wherein the fætus is conceived, elements. As for Ariſtotle, his works are ſo ſtored with mathe and nouriſhed till the time of its delivery. See the Syſtem, Part matics, that Blancanus compiled a whole book of them: out of V. Sect. XII. his ſchool came Eudemus and Theophraſtus; the firſt of whom MATTHEW, or Goſpel of St. MATTHEW, wrote his goſpel wrote of numbers, geometry, and inviſible lines; the latter a ma in Judæa, at me requeſt of thoſe he had converted; and it is thematical hiſtory. To Ariſteus, Iſidorus, and Hypſicles, we thought he began in the year 41, eight years after Chriſt's reſurrec- owe the books of ſolids; which, with the other books of elements tion. It was written, according to the teſtimony of all the ancients, were improved, collected, and methodized by Euclid, who died in the Hebrew or Syriac languages; but the Greek verſion, which two hundred and eighty four years before Chriſt. A hundred now paſſes for the original, is as old as the apoſtolical times. years after Euclid, came Eratoſthenes and Archimedes. Cotem MAYOR, or MAIOR, the chief magiſtrate or governor in the porary with the latter was Conon, a geometrician, and aſtrono- cities, and moſt corporation towns of England; choſen annually Soon after came Apollonius Pergæus, whoſe conics are by his peers out of the number of the aldermen. . See ALDER- ſtill extant. To him are likewiſe aſcribed the fourteenth and fifteenth books of Euclid, which are ſaid to have been contract The any place is the king's lieutenant, and with the ed from Hypſicles. Hipparchus and Menelaus wrote on the ſub aldermen and common-council, can make laws, called bye-laws, tenſes in a circle, the latter alſo on ſpherical triangles; Theodo for the government of the place. He has alſo the authority of a fius's three books of ſpherics are ſtill extant. All theſe, Mene kind of judge, to determine matters, and to mitigate the rigour of laus excepted, lived before Chriſt. the law. King Richard I. A. D. 1189, firſt changed the bailiffs A. D. 70, Ptolemy of Alexandria was born; the prince of of London into mayors; by whoſe example others were afterwards aſtronomers, and no mean geometrician : he was ſucceeded by the appointed. Mayor's of corporations are juſtices of peace, pro tem- philoſopher Plutarch, of whom we have ſtill extant ſome mathe- pore, and they are mentioned in ſeveral ſtatutes; but no perſon matical problems. After him came Eutocius, who commented ſhall bear any office of magiſtracy concerning the government of on Archimedes, and occaſionally inentions the inventions of any town, corporation, &c. that hath not received the ſacrament, Philo, Diocles, Nicodemus, Sporus, and Heron, on the dupli- according to the church of England, within one year before his cature of the cube. To Ctefebes of Alexandria we owe our election, and who ſhall not take the oaths of ſupremacy, &c. pumps; and Geminus, who came foon after, is preferred by Pro Stat. 13 Car. II. cap. I. clus to Euclid himſelf. Diophantus of Alexandria was a great MEADOW, in huſbandry, in its general ſignification, means maſter of numbers, and the firſt inventor of algebra : and among paſture, or grafs land, annually mown for hay; but is more par- others of the ancients, Nicomachus is celebrated for his arithme- ticularly applied to lands that are ſo low as to be too moiſt for tical, geometrical, and muſical works; Serenus, for books on the cattle to graze upon them, in winter, without ſpoiling the ſward. ſection of the cylinder; Proclus, for his comments on Euclid; For the method of overflowing and draining meadow-grounds, and Theon has the credit, among ſome, of being author of the ſee AGRICULTURE, - Sect. XIX. books of Elements aſcribed to Euclid. The laſt to be named MEAT, See Food, DIET, DRINK, &c. among the ancients is Pappus of Alexandria, who flouriſhed Method of preſerving fleſh-meat without Spices, and with very A. D. 400, and is celebrated for his books of mathematical col little falt. Jones, in his Miſcellanea Curioſa, gives us the follow- lections ftill extant. ing deſcription of the Mooriſh Elcholle, which is made of beef, Mathematics are commonly diſtinguiſhed into pure and ſpecu- mutton, or camel's fleſh, but chiefly beef, and which they cut all lative, which conſider quantity abſtractedly; and mixed, which in long ſlices, and let it lie for 24 hours in a pickle. They then treat of magnitude as fubfiſting in material bodies, and conſe remove it out of thoſe jars or tubs into others with water; and quently are interwoven every where with phyſical conſiderations. when it has lain a night, they take it out, and put it on ropes in Mixed mathematics are very comprehenſive; ſince to them may the ſun and air to dry. When it is thoroughly dried and hard, be referred Hydroſtatics, which conſider the laws of fluids, or of they cut it into pieces of two or three inches long, and throw it bodies gravitating in fluids. Pneumatics, the air, with regard to into a pan or caldron, which is ready with boiling oil and ſuet the laws and menſuration thereof. Hydraulics, the motion of ſufficient to hold it, where it boils till it be very clear and red fluids. Optics, direct light or viſion. Catoptrics, reflected viſion. when cut. After this they take it out, and ſet it to drain ; and Dioptrics, refracted viſion. Perſpective, the images of objects, in when all is thus done it ſtands to cool, and jars are prepared to order to delineate or repreſent thein. Aftronomy, the univerſe, put up in, pouring upon it the liquor in which it was fried; and and the phenomena of the heavens. Geography, the earth, both as ſoon as it is thoroughly cold, they ſtop it up cloſe. It will as in itſelf, and as in its affections. Hydrography, the ſea, prin- keep two years; will be hard, and the hardeſt they look upon to cipally as navigable. Gnomonics, or Dialling, ſhadows, in order be the beſt done. This they diſh up cold, ſometimes fried with for determining the hour of the day. Military Architecture, the eggs and garlic, ſometimes ſtewed, and lemon ſqueezed on it. ſtrength of places, with regard to their defence againſt an enemy. It is very good any way, either hot or cold. mer. MEN. mayor of it SYSTEM OF MECHANICS. M" INTRODUCTION. the other hand, the weight of the load that is to be raiſed, and the ECHANICS, Mechanica Moravixn, a mixed mathematical friction, tend to retard the motion of the engine; and when theſe ſcience, which confiders motion, and moving powers, foress, viz. thoſe that tend to accelerate it, and thoſe that tend to their nature and laws, with the effects thereof, in machines, &c. retard it, become equal, the engine then proceeds with the uni- It is diſtinguiſhed by Sir Iſaac Newton into practical and rational form motion it has acquired. mechanics: the fornier treats of the mechanical powers and of their In mechanics we have to conſider matter, forces exerted various combinations: rational mechanics comprehends the whole thereon, the motions and velocities produced, &c. We ſhall, theory of motion, and thews, when the powers or forces are given, therefore, in the firſt place take notice of the properties of matter. how to determine the motions that are produced by them; and SECT. I. MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES. vice verſa. That part of mechanics, which conſiders the motion of bodies ariſing from gravity, is by ſome called ſtatics ; in dif By the word maiter is here meant every thing that has length, tinction from that part which conſiders the mechanical powers, breadth, and thickneſs, and reſiſts the touch. and their application, and which is properly called mechanics. The inherent properties of matter are ſolidity, inactivity, mo- See MECHANICAL Powers. bility, and diviſibility. The term mechanics has of old been, and ſtill is, uſed in a dou The ſolidity of matter ariſes from its having length, breadth, ble ſenſe in very different ſciences, both with reſpect to their ob- thickneſs; and hence it is, that all bodies are comprehended un- je&ts and principles. For the name mechanics is applied equally der fome ſhape or other, and that every particular body hinders to that ſcience which treats of the equilibrium and compariſon of all others from occupying the ſame part of ſpace which it poffef- powers; and to that ſcience in which the nature, generation, and ſeth. Thus, if a piece of wood or metal be ſqueezed ever ſo hard alteration of motion are explained. To avoid ainbiguity, there between two plates, they cannot be brought into contact. And fore, it would be proper to give the name ſtatics to the ſcience of even water or air has this property; for if a ſmall quantity of it the equilibrium and compariſon of powers, and to reſtrain the be, fixed between any other bodies, they cannot be brought to term mechanics to the ſcience of motion. touch one another. Dr. Prieſtley and ſome others have indeed Theſe two ſciences not only differ as to their objects and prin- denied this property to matter ; and ſuppoſed, that if a ſufficient ciples, but alſo with reſpect to the times in which they have been degree of force was applied to two bodies, they might actually cultivated. Some of the principles of ſtatics were eſtabliſhed by exiſt in the ſame place at the ſame moment: but ſuch abſtruſe Archimedes; but Galileo laid the firſt foundation of mechanics, ſpeculations cannot be of any ſervice in mechanics, the very foun- when he inveſtigated the deſcent of heavy bodies : and ſince his dation of which is built on the oppoſite principle, and neceſſarily time, by the aſiſtance of the new methods of computation, a great implies the impenetrability or folidity of matter. progreſs has been made, particularly by Sir Iſaac Newton, in his Inactivity or Paſſiveneſs of Matier. Since matter always en- Principia. This admirable work is now rendered more accef- deavours to continue in the ſtate that it is in, whether of reſt or ſible to beginners by the learned comment of the fathers le Seur motion, therefore, if one bedy contains twice or thrice as much and Jacquier, printed, with the text, at Geneva, 1739, 4to. matter as another body does, it will have twice or thrice as much 1742, 4. vols. 4to. inactivity; that is, it will require twice or thrice as much force to The doctrine of machines or engines is a principal branch of give it an equal degree of motion, or to ſtop it after it hath been niechanics; but has not as yet been treated as it deſerves. We put into ſuch a motion. A great deal of this inactivity, how- thall here inſert a few obſervations on this uſeful ſubject, from a ever, we are aſſured, ariſes from gravity ; for in thoſe caſes late eminent author. In treating of machines, we ſhould conſi- wherein gravity is not oppoſed, a ſmall body will ſet a very large der the weight that is to be raiſed, the power by which it is to be one in motion. taiſed, and the inſtrument or engine by which this effect is to be Mobility of Matter. We find that all matter is capable of being produced. There are two principal problems that ought to be moved, if a ſufficient degree of force be applied to overcome its reſolved in treating of each of them. The firſt is, to determine inactivity or reſiſtance, or the force of gravity which acts upon the proportion, which the power and weight ought to have to each all terreſtrial bodies. other, that they may juſt ſuſtain one another, or be in equilibrio. Diviſibility of Matter. Since matter can never be annihilated The ſecond is, to determine what ought to be the proportion of by cutting or breaking, we can never imagine it to be cut into the power and weight to each other, in a given machine, that it ſuch ſmall particles; but that if one of them is laid on a table, may produce the greateſt effect poſlible, in a given time. the uppermoſt ſide of it will be further from the table than the All the writers on mechanics treat of the firſt of theſe problems, undermoſt fide. Moreover, it would be abfurd to ſay that the but few have conſidered the ſecond, though equally uſeful with the greateſt mountain on earth has more halves, quarters, or tenth other. As to the firſt problem, this general rule holds in all pow- parts, than the ſmalleſt particle of matter has; wherefore the di- ers: ſuppoſe the engine to move, and reduce the velocities of the viſibility of matter has no end. power and weight to the reſpective directions in which they act ; We have many ſurpriſing inſtances of the ſmallneſs to which find the proportions of thoſe velocities; then if the power be to matter can be divided by art: of which the two following are the weight as the velocity of the weight is to the velocity of the very remarkable. power; or, which amounts to the ſame thing, if the power mul 1. If a pound of ſilver be fuſed with a ſingle grain of gold, the tiplied by its velocity, gives the ſame product as the weight mul- gold will be equally diffuſed through the whole filver; ſo that tiplied by its velocity; this is the caſe wherein the power and weight taking one grain from any part of the maſs (in which there can ſuſtain each other, and are in equilibrio; fo that in this caſe, the be no more than the 5760th part of a grain of gold) and diſſolving one would not prevail over the other, if the engine was at reſt ; it in aqua fortis, the gold will fall to the bottom. 2. The gold- and if it is in motion, it would continue to proceed uniformly, if beaters can extend a grain of gold into a leaf containing 50 ſquare it were not for the friction of its parts, and other reſiſtances. inches; and this leaf may be divided in 500oco parts. For an The ſecond general problem in mechanics is, to determine the inch in length can be divided into 100 parts, every one of which proportion which the power and weight ought to bear to each will be viſible to the bare eye: confequently a ſquare inch can be other; that when the power prevails, and the machine is in motion, divided into 10000 parts, and 50 ſquare inches into 500000. the greateſt effect poſſible may be produced by it in a given time. And if one of theſe parts be viewed with a microſcope that mag- It is manifeft, that this is an enquiry of the greateſt importance, nifies the diameter of an object only ten times, it will magnify though few have treated of it. When the power is only a little the area 100 times ; and then the rooth part of a 50000oth part greater than that which is ſufficient to ſuſtain the weight, the mo of a grain (that is, the 50 millionth part) will be viſible. Such tion is too ſlow; and though a greater weight is raiſed in this caſe, leaves are commonly uſed in gilding; and they are ſo very thin, it is not fufficient to compenſate the loſs of time. When the that if 124500 of them were laid upon one another, and preſſed weight is much leſs than that which the power is able to ſuſtain, together, they would not exceed one inch in thickneſs. it is raiſed in leſs time; and this may happen not to be ſufficient Yet all this is nothing in compariſon of lengths that nature goes to compenſate the loſs ariſing from the ſmallneſs of the load. It in the diviſion of matter. For Mr. Leewenhoek tells us, that ought, therefore, to be determined when the product of the weight, there are more animals in the milt of a ſingle cod fiſh, than there multiplied by its velocity, is the greateſt poſſible; for this product are men upon the whole earth: and that, by comparing theſe ani- meaſures the effect of the engine in a given time, which is always mals in a microſcope with grains of common ſand, it appeared the greater in proportion as the weight which is raiſed is greater, that one ſingle grain is bigger than four millions of them. Now and as the velocity with which it is raiſed is greater. We ſhall each animal muſt have a heart, arteries, veins, muſcles and nerves, therefore ſubjoin foine inſtances of this kind, that may be de- otherwiſe they could neither live nor move. How inconceivably monſtrated from the common elementary geometry; wiſhing | ſmall then muſt the particles of their blood be, to circulate through that farther improvements may be made in this moſt uſeful part the ſmalleſt ramifications and joinings of their arteries and veins! of mechanics. It has been found by calculation, that a particle of their blood When the power prevails, and the engine begins to move, the muſt be as much ſmaller than a globe of the tenth part of an inch motion of the weight is at firſt gradually accelerated. The action in diameter, as that globe is ſmaller than the whole earth; and of the power being ſuppoſed invariable, its influence in accelerating | yet, if theſe particles be compared with the particles of light, they the motion of the weight decreaſes, while the velocity of the will be found to exceed them as much in bulk as mountains do weight increaſes. Thus the action of a ſtream of water, or air, ſingle grains of fand. For, the force of any body ſtriking againſt upon a wheel, is to be eſtimated only from the exceſs of the ve an obſtacle is directly in proportion to its quantity of matter mul- locity of the fluid above the velocity already acquired by the part tiplied into its velocity: and ſince the velocity of the particles of of the engine which it ſtrikes, or from their relative velocity. On light is demonſtrated to be at leaſt a million timesgreater than the velocity No.99. 6 Q M E C H ANIC S. up the a velocity of a dannon-ball, it is piain, that if a million of theſe inſtantaneouſly, it is called percuſſion or impulſe. If conſtantly, it particles were as big as a ſingle grain of ſand, we durſt no more is an accelerated force. open our eyes to the light, than we durſt expoſe them to fand ſhot IV. Velocity is a property of motion, by which it paſſes over a point-blank from a cannon. certain ſpace in a certain time, and is greater or leſs, according as Another property of (or it may be an attendant on) matter, is it paſſes over a greater or leſs ſpace in a given time. attraction. This ſeems rather to be infuſed, or preſent with, than V. Motion is the continual or ſucceſſive change of place. If inherent in matter. Of this there are four kinds, viz. coheſion, a body moves equally, it is called equable or uniform motion. If it gravitation, magnetiſm, and electricity. increaſes or decreaſes, it is called accelerated or retarded motion. The Attraction of Coheſion is that by which the ſmall parts of When it is compared with ſome body at reſt, it is called abſolute matter are inade to ſtick and cohere together. Of this we have motion. But when compared with other bodies in motion, it is feveral inſtances, ſome of which follow: 1. If two drops of quick-called relative motion. ſilver are placed near each other, they will run together and be VI. Direction of Motion, is the courſe or way to which the come one large drop. 2. If two poliſhed plates of marble or braſs body extends, or the line it moves in. be put together, with a little oil between them to fill pores VII. Quantity of Motion, is the motion which a body has, in their furfaces, and prevent the lodgment of any air, they will conſidered both in regard to its velocity and quantity of matter, cohere ſo ſtrongly, even if ſuſpended in an exhauſted receiver, that This is alſo called the momentum of a body. the weight of the lower plate will not be able to ſeparate it from VIII. Vis inertia is the innate force of matter by which it the upper one. In putting theſe plates together, the one ſhould refifts any change, ſtriving to preſerve its preſent ſtate of reſt or be tubbed upon the other, as a joiner does two pieces of wood motion. when he glues them. 3. If two pieces of cork, equal in weight, IX. Gravity is their force wherewith a body endeavours to are put near each other in a baſon of water, they will move equal- fall downwards. It is called abſolute gravity in empty ſpace, and ly faſt toward each other with an accelerated motion, until they relative gravity when immerſed in fluid. meet: and then, if either of them is moved, it will draw the other X. Specific Gravity is a greater or leſſer weight of bodies of the after it. If two corks of unequal weights are placed near each fame magnitude ; or it is the proportion between their weights. other, they will approach with accelerated velocities inverſely pro- This proceeds from the natural denſity of bodies. See a Table portionate to their weights: that is, the lighter cork will move as of the Specific Gravities of Bodies, with the methods of deter- much faſter than the heavier, as the heavier exceeds the lighter in mining the ſame, in our Syſtem of HYDROSTATICS. weight. This ſhews, that the attraction of each cork is in direct XI. Centre of Gravity is that point within a body, from which proportion to its weight or quantity of matter. This kind of at- if it be ſuſpended, it will remain at reſt in any given poſition. traction reaches but to a very ſmall diſtance; for if two drops of XII. Centre of Motion is a fixed point about which a body quickſilver are rolled in duſt, they will not run together, becauſe moves, and the axis of motion is a fixed line which it moves about. the particles of duſt keep them out of the ſphere of each others XIII. Power and Weight, when oppoſed to one another, ſig- attraction. When the ſphere of attraction ends, a repulſive force nify the body that moves another, and the moved body reſpective- begins: thus, water repels moſt bodies till they are wet ; and ly, viz. the body which communicates motion is the Power, and hence it is that a finall needle, if dry, ſwims great, that we find that which receives it is the weight. it almoſt impoſſible to mix them in ſuch a manner as not to fe XIV. Equilibrium is the balance of two or more forces, ſo parate again. If a ball of light wood is dipt in oil, and then put as to remain at reſt. into water, the water will recede ſo as to form a channel of ſome XV. Streſs is the effect which any force has to break a beam depth all around the ball. or other body; and ſtrength is the reſiſtance which a body is ca- Attraction of Gravitation is that power by which diſtant bodies pable of making againſt any ſtraining force. tend towards one another. Of this we have daily inſtances in the XVI. Friction is the reſiſtance which a machine ſuffers by falling of bodies to the earth. By this power in the earth it is, the parts rubbing againſt one another. that bodies, on whatever ſide, fall in lines perpendicular to its ſur- POSTULATA. face; and conſequently, on oppoſite ſides, they fall in oppoſite di- rections, towards the centre : and by this power it is, that bodies earth may be looked upon as a plane. For ſuch a ſmall part of it as iſt. It muſt be granted that a ſmall part of the ſurface of the on the earth's ſurface are kept to it on all ſides, ſo that they can- we have here occaſion to conſider does not ſenſibly differ therefrom. not fall from it. And as it acts upon all bodies in proportion to 2d. That heavy bodies deſcend in lines parallel to one another, their reſpective quantities of matter, without any regard to their For though in ſtrictneſs they tend to a point, viz, the earth's centre, bulks or figures, it accordingly conſtitutes their weight. As the attraction of any large body, this earth, for inſtance, yet it is at ſuch a diſtance, that at the earth's ſurface, thoſe lines do not ſenſibly differ from parallel lines. conſifts of the united attractions of all its parts; it thence follows, 3d. The ſame body is of the ſame weight in all places on or that if a body deſcends from the ſurface towards the centre of the near the earth's ſurface. For the difference is not ſenſible. carth, it would continually become lighter and lighter, the parts 4th. For the eaſe of calculation, it is ſuppoſed that all bodies above attracting it, as well as thuſe below; in which caſe it is de- are perfectly ſmooth ; all planes perfectly even ; all bodies or monſtrated by mathematicians, that the gravity would decreaſe in machines to move without friction; all lines ſtreight and inflex- the ſame proportion with the diſtance from the centre. ible, without weight or thickneſs; cords extremely pliable, and The force or power of gravity, is as the quantity of matter; for, as every particle of matter has its proper gravity, the effect of foon. Allowances for fri&tion muſt be made mere from expe- the whole muſt be in proportion to the number of the attracting riments, than any actual theory. particles; that is, as the quantity of matter in the whole body. FUNDAMENTAL AXIOMS, OR LAWS OF MOTION. Gravity, like all other emanations which proceed or iſſue from a iſt. Every body endeavours to remain in its preſent ſtate, whe- centre, decreaſes as the ſquare of the diſtance increaſes, that is, a ther it be at reſt, or moving uniformly in a right line. Hence if body at twice the diſtance of another, attracts with only a fourth a body moved forward in vacuo, or empty ſpace, ſo that it meets part of the force; at thrice the diſtance, with a ninth part; at four with no reſiſtance, it would move on uniformly for ever without times the diſtance, with a ſixteenth part; and ſo on. change of velocity. Beſides the univerſal properties above-mentioned, there are 2d. The alteration of motion by any external force, is always bodies which have properties peculiar to themſelves; ſuch as the proportional to that force, and is made in the direction of the right loadſtone, in which the moſt remarkable are theſe: 1. It attracts line, in which the force acts. iron and ſteel only. 2. It conſequently turns one of its ſides to 3d. To every action, there is always oppoſed an equal re-action, the north and another to the ſouth, when ſuſpended by a thread or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other, are always that does not twiſt. 3. It communicates all its properties to a equaland directed to contrary parts For whatever draws or preſſes piece of ſteel when rubbed upon it, without loſing any itſelf. See another, is as much drawn or preſſed by that other. If you preſs a MAGNETISM. ſtone with your finger, the finger is alſo preſſed by the ſtone. Ifa Several bodies, particularly amber, glaſs, jet, ſealing wax, agate, body impinge upon another, and by its force change the motion of and almoſt all precious ſtones, have a peculiar property of attract- | the other, that body alſo, becauſe of the equality of mutual preſſure, ing and repelling light bodies when heated by rubbing. This is will undergo an equal change in its own motion, towards the con- called electrical attraction. See ELECTRICITY, trary part. The changes made by thoſe actions are equal, not in the velocities, but in the motions of bodies; and therefore ſince the SECT. II. motioris are equally changed, the changes of the velocities made to- GENERAL LAWS OF MOTION. wards contrary parts, are reciprocally proportional to the bodies, But though this Law of Motion of Sir Iſaac Newton, is ſuffi- DEFINITION I. Body, in mechanics, is the maſs or quantity ciently evident to an intelligent mind, it has been cavilled at by of matter in motion, or to be put in motion or acted on. A body many; and many through an unaccountable ignorance in the com- that yields to a ſtroke, and recovers its figure again, is called an prehenſion of this one Maxim, have attempted to ſubvert even his elaſtic body; and one that will not do ſo, is named a non whole Syſtem of Philoſophy, and have gained profelytes among claſtic body. the lower claſs of readers. But ſince, as it has been repeatedly 11. Denſity, is the proportion of the quantity of matter in any fhewn by the learned, that the objectors have never advanced any body to the quantity of matter in another body of the fame ſize or thing but empty motion, reſulting from a dull comprehenſion, the bigneſs. truth of this Axiom will remain, and continue to the honour of III. Force, is a power exerted on a body to move it. If it acts its renowned author, as long as things and time endure. T. Platii vinocul; (typeratros prosperimewis om, dereleruited Motrin. slow Sipstem vfi Hochumi. 1'iql. I'0.3. 114.2 P O S. R M OB F1.5. for Fig. e 010 1 1 1) G 02 97 G B 100.8. Mechanical Power, gecording so the latest Improvementumelweing Whics Pusent Convenivie Billey, Sea System of Mechanics . 2 Apparatus for the Iledge Smeatons Pulley Fig.2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig.5. Fig: 6. VETERIN Fig:7 IP W F'iy Thitelalley PU در ۱۶ $y RH. SAAN W a 448**nmanida P Fig: 8. tra Q P T 9 19 P lig: 1. Power: 12 GUM Weight 144 T R Fig. 9. TLOON B. P P X Fig. 10, P D E 2 B CI F A Fig. 11. P W 3 D C t 3 B A 2 7 1 B A 12 IL 10 9 8 7 6 5 + 3 2 Z Fig. 12, G Fig. 13 P Р TV Z W 6 12 o Mechanic bemers, will their Application in Cranes Mills other Compound Engines. Vc Vystem of Mechanics . . Section 3 1 A L M M B H H H DI B Fig.18. Fig. 22. Fig.19. Fig.11. Fig.23. Fig.13. A А е в be C H Η P Н I d E L D F X N МГ E R C F EES H Н B S t Fig.12. D Fig: 247 e G! BE G E Q y с M 3 B R K K G 2 q 프 ​P A D B Fig:14. B Fig1. Fig. 15. Fig. 21 Fig. 3. B nd B B 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 P W C等​) F E! b WH Fig.2. B Altan Fig:17. Fig.20. T k 12 G S 72 D G A K, PO T E Fig. 4. SK S S L R B 1 W S P L M K к Q Fig. 16. I n Р. ba ve k W H Η T WA 2400 B H Fig:10. B D B с F F Fig.5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig:8. Fig:9. D I H Η C С I A K K Engraved for Halló Encyclopaedia,& Printed for C.Cooke , Paternoster Row. Lodge sculp MECHANICS. fame time. the is 1 on, To theſe three grand Axioms may be added the following: equal velocities; and therefore, as it gives no mechanical advant- 4th. The motion of any body is made up of the ſum of the tage, it cannot properly be reckoned among the mechanical powers. A lever of the firſt kind is repreſented by the bar ABC, fig. 13, motions of all the parts. 5th. The weights of all bodies in the ſame place, are propor-loofen large ftones in the ground, or raiſe great weights to ſmall Plate II. fupported by the prop under B. Its principal uſe is to tional to the quantities of matter they contain. 6th. The vis inertiæ of any body is proportional to the quan- heights, in order to have ropes put under them for raiſing them higher by other machines. Thie tity of matter. parts AB, and BC, on different 7th. Every body will deſcend to the loweſt place it can get to. ends of the prop, are called the arms of the lever : the end A of Ath. Two equal forces acting againſt one another in contrary raiſed, or to the reſistance to be overcome; and the power applied the ſhorter arm AB being applied to the weight intended to be directions, deſtroy one another's effects. And unequal forces act to the end of the longer arm BC. only with the diference of them. gth. When a body is kept in equilibrio, the contrary forces in In making experiments with this machine, the ſhorter arm AB muſt be as much thicker than the longer arm C, as will be ſuffi- any line of direction are equal. 1 oth. If a certain force generate any motion, an equal force cient to balance it on the prop. This fuppofed, let P repreſent acting in a contrary direction, will deſtroy as much motion in the a power whoſe intenſity is equal to 1 ounce, and W a weight whoſe intenſity is equal to 12 ounces. Then, if the power be 1 2 11th. If a body is drawn by a rope, all the parts of the rope are times as far from the prop as the weight is, they will exactly equally ſtretched: and the force in any part acts in direction of counterpoife; and a ſmall addition to the power P will cauſe it to deſcend, and raiſe the weight W; and the velocity with which that part; and it is the ſame thing whether the rope is drawn out at length, or palles over ſeveral pullies. See the Articles Motion, riſes, as 12 to 1: that is, directly as their diſtances from the the power deſcends will be to the velocity with which the weight PENDULUMS, and Section IV. of this Syſtem. prop, and conſequently, as the ſpaces through which they move. Hence, SECT. III. MECHANICAL POWERS. it is plain, that a man who by his natural ſtrength, without the help of any machine, could ſupport 100 weight, will by the help of this lever be enabled to ſupport 1200. The Foundation of all Mechanics. If we conſider bodies in mo- If the weight be leſs, tion, and compare them together, we may do this either with re- or the power greater, the prop may be placed ſo much farther from fpect to the quantities of matter they contain, or the velocities with height. For univerſally, if the intenſity of the weight multiplied the weight; and then it can be raiſed to a proportionably greater which they are moved. The heavier any body is, the into its diſtance from the prop be equal to the intenſity of the power required either to move it or to ſtop its motion ; and power multiplied into its diſtance from the again, the ſwifter its moves, the greater is its force. So that the prop, the power and whole momentum or quantity of force of a moving body is the weight will exactly balance each other; and a little addition to the reſult of its quantity of matter multiplied by the velocity with power will raiſe the weight. Thus, in the preſent inſtance, the weight W is 12 ounces, and its diſtance from the which it is moved. And when the products ariſing from the mul- prop inch; and 12 multiplied by 1 is 12; the power P is equal to i tiplication of the particular quantities of matter in any two bo- dies by their reſpective velocities are equal, the momenta or en- ounce, and its diſtance from the prop is 12 inches, which mul- tire forces are fo too. Thus, ſuppoſe a body, which we ſhall tiplied by I is 12 again; and therefore there is an equilibrium be- tween them. So, if a power equal to 2 ounces be applied at the call A, to weigh 40 pounds, and to move at the rate of two miles in a minute; and another body, which we ſhall call B, to weigh diſtance of 6 inches from the prop, it will juſt balance the weight W; for 6 multiplied by 2 is 12, as before. And a power equal only four pounds, and to move twenty miles in a minute; the en- tire forces with which theſe two bodies would ſtrike againſt any to 3. ounces placed at 4 inches diſtance froin the prop would be obſtacle would be equal to each other, and therefore it would re- the ſame; for 3 times 4 is twelve ; and ſo in proportion. quire equal powers to ſtop them. For 40 multiplied by 2 gives for finding the weights of different bodies by one fingle weight The ſtatera or Roman ſteelyard is a lever of this kind, contrived So, the force of the body A ; and 20 multiplied by 4 gives 80, placed at different diſtances from the prop or centre of motion D, the force of the body B. Upon this eaſy principle depends the whole of mechanics; and Fig. I. Plate III. For, if a ſcale hangs at A, the extremity of the it hold univerſally true, that when two bodies are ſuſpended by thorter arm AB, and is of ſuch as weight as will exactly counter- any machine, ſo as to act contrary to each other, if the machine poiſe the longer arm BC ; if this arm be divided into as many be put into motion, and the perpendicular aſcent of one body I (which we may ſuppoſe to be 1 pound) will ſerve for weighing equal parts as it will contain, each equal to AB, the ſingle weight multiplied into its weight be equal to the perpendicular deſcent of the other body multiplied into its weight, theſe bodies, how any thing as heavy as itſelf, or as many times heavier as there are unequal foever in their weights, will balance one another in all diviſions in the arm BC, or any quantity between its own weight ſituations : for, as the whole aſcent of one is performed in the and that quantity. As for example, if I be i pound, and placed fame time with the whole deſcent of the other, their reſpective the ſcale at A: if it be removed to the ſecond diviſion at 2, it will at the firſt diviſion 1 in the arm BC, it will balance i pound in velocities muſt be directly as the ſpaces they move through: and the excefs of weight in one body is compenſated by the exceſs of balance 2 pounds in the ſcale : if to the third, 3 pounds ; and ſo velocity in the other. on to the end of the arm BC. If each of theſe integral diviſions Upon this principle it is eaſy to compute the power of any me- be ſubdivided into as many equal parts as a pound contains ounces, chanical engine whether ſimple or compound; for it is but only terpoiſe what is in the ſcale, the pounds and odd ounces therein and the weight I placed at any of theſe ſubdiviſions, ſo as to coun- inquiring how much ſwifter the power moves than the weight are by that means aſcertained. does (i.e. how much farther in the ſame time), and juſt ſo much is the power increaſed by the help of the engine. To this kind of lever may be reduced ſeveral ſorts of inſtru- ments, ſuch as ſciſſars, pinchers, ſnuffers ; which are made of The Mechanic Powers. The ſimple machines, uſually called levers acting contrary to one another: their prop or centre of mo- mechanical powers, are fix in number, viz. the lever, the wheel and tion being the pin which keeps them together. axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the ſcrew. They In common practice, the longer arm of this lever greatly exa. are called mechanical powers, becauſe they help us to raiſe weights, ceeds the weight of the ſhorter ; which gains great advantage, move heavy bodies, and overcome reſiſtances, which we could not becauſe it adds ſo much to the power. effect without them. A lever of the ſecond kind has the weight between the prop and 1. A lever is a bar of iron or wood, one part of which being the power. In this, as well as the former, the advantage gained is ſupported by a prop, all the other parts turn upon that prop as as the diſtance of the power from the prop to the diſtance of the their centre of motion: and the velocity of every part or point is weight from the prop: for the reſpective velocities of the power directly as its diſtance from the prop. Therefore, when the and weight are in that proportion ; and they will balance each weight to be raiſed at one end is to the power applied at the other other when the intenſity of the power, multiplied by its diſtance to raiſe it, as the diſtance of the power from the prop is to the is to the from the prop, is equal to the intenſity of the weight multiplied diſtance of the weight from the prop, the power and weight will by its diſtance from the prop. Thus, if AB, Fig. 12, Plate II. be exactly balance or counterpoiſe each other : and as a common a lever on which the weight W of 6 ounces hangs at the diſtance lever has but very little friction on its prop, a very little addi- of 1 inch from the prop G, and a power P equal to the weight of tional power will be ſufficient to raiſe the weight. I ounce hangs at the end B, 6 inches from the prop, by the cord There are four kinds of levers. 1. The common fort, where CD going over the fixed pulley E, the power will juſt ſupport the the prop is placed between the weight and the power; but much weight: and a ſmall addition to the power will raiſe the weight nearer to the weight than the power. 2. When the prop is at i inch for every 6 inches that the power defcends. one end of the lever, the power at the other, and the weight be This lever ſhews the reaſon why two men carrying a burden fween them. 3. When the prop is at one end, the weight at the upon a ſtick between them, bear unequal ſhares of the burden in other, and the power applied between them. 4. The bended the inverſe proportion of their diſtances from it. For it is well lever, which differs only in form from the firſt fort, but not in known, that the nearer any of them is to the burden, the greater property. Thoſe of the firſt or ſecond kind are often uſed in me ſhare he bears of it: and if he goes directly under it, he bears the chanical engines; but there are few inſtances in which the third whole. So if one man be at G, and the other at P, having the pole fort is uſed. or ſtick AB reſting on their ſhoulders; if the burden or weight A common balance is a lever of the firſt kind; but as both its ends W be placed five time as near the man at G, as it is to the man are at equal diſtances from its centre of motion, they move with at P, the former will bear five times as much weight as the latter. This M E CHANIC S. This is likewiſe applicable to the caſe of two horſes of unequal than a man could have by pulling it round by the edge, becauſe the ſtrength, to be ſo yoked, as that each horſe may draw a part pro- winch would have no greater velocity than the edge of the wheel portionable to his ſtrength; which is done by dividing the beam ſo, has, which we here ſuppoſe to be ten times as great as the volocity that the point of traction may be as much nearer to the ſtronger of the riſing weight: ſo that in this caſe the power gained would horſe than to the weaker, as the ſtrength of the former exceeds be as 1o to I. But if the length of the winch be 12 inches, the that of the latter. power gained would be as 20 to 1: if 18 inches (which is long To this kind of lever may be reduced oars, rudders of ſhips, enough for any man to work by), the power gained would be as doors turning upon hinges, cutting-knives which are fixed at the 30 to 1; that is, a man could raiſe 30 times as much by ſuchan en- point of the blade, and the like. gine, as he could by his natural ſtrength without it, becauſe the If in this lever we ſuppoſe the power and weight to change velocity of the handle of the winch would be 30 times as great as places, ſo that the power may be between the weight and the prop, the velocity of the riſing weight; the abſolute force of any engine it will become a lever of the third kind: in which, that there may being in proportion of the velocity of the power ta the velocity of be a balance between the power and the weight, the intenſity of the weight raiſed by it. But then, juſt as much power or advan- the power muſt exceed the intenſity of the weight juſt as much tage is gained by the engine, ſo much time is loſt in working it. as the diſtance of the weight' from the prop exceeds the diſtance In this ſort of machines it is requiſite to have a racket-wheel G of the power from it. Thus, let E, Fig. 11, Plate II. be the prop on one end of the axle, with a catch H to fall into its teeth ; of the lever AB, and W a weight of 1 pound, placed three times which will at any time ſupport the weight, and keep it from de- as far from the prop, as the power P'acts at F, by the cord C fcending, if the workman ſhould, through inadvertency or care- going over the fixed pulley D, in this caſe, the power muſt be leffneſs, quit his hold whilſt the weight is raiſing. And by this equal to three pounds, in order to ſupport the weight. means, the danger is prevented which might otherwiſe happen To this ſort of lever are generally referred the bones of a man's by the running down of the weight when left at liberty. arm: for when we lift a weight by the hand, the muſcle that ex 3. The Pulley. The third mechanical power or engine conſiſts erts its force to raiſe that weight, is fixed to the bone about one either of one moveable pulley or a ſyſtem of pullies ; fome in a block tenth part as far below the elbow as the hand is. And the elbow or caſe which is fixed, and others in a block which is moveable being the centre, round which the lower part of the arm turns, and riſes with the weight. For though a ſingle pulley that only the muſcle ruſt therefore exert a force ten times as great as the turns on its axis, and riſes not without the weight, inay ſerve to weight that is raiſed. change the direction of the power, yet it can give no mechanical As this kind of lever is a diſadvantage to the moving power, it advantage thereto; but is only as a team of a balance, whoſe arms is never uſed but in caſes of neceſſity; ſuch as that of a ladder, are of equal length and weight. Thus, if the equal weights W which, being fixed at one end, is by the ſtrength of a man's arms and P hang by the cords upon the pullies whoſe block is fixed to reared againſt a wall. And in clock-work, where all the wheels a beam they will counterpoiſe each other, juſt in the ſame manner may be reckoned levers of this kind, becauſe the power that as if the cord were cut in the middle, and its two ends hung upons moves every wheel, except the firſt, acts upon it near the centre the hooks fixed in the pulley at equal diſtances from its centre. of motion by means of a ſmall pinion, and the reſiſtance it has to But if a weight W hangs at the lower end of the moveable overcome acts againſt the teeth round its circumference. block of the pulley above the weight W, Fig. 3. Plate II.and the The fourth kind of lever differs nothing from the firſt, but in cord goes under the pulley to the wheel above, it is plain that the being bended for the ſake of convenience. B, Fig. 9, Plate II. is half of the cord bears one half the weight, and the other half the a lever of this ſort, bended at the part above W, which is its prop, other; for they bear the whole between them. Therefore, what- or centre of motion. Pis a power acting upon the longer arm B ever holds the upper end of either rope, fuítains one half of the by means of a cord going over the pulley; and W is a weight of weight: and if the cord which adheres to the weight P be drawn reſiſtance acting upon the end of the ſhorter arm. If the power up ſo as to raiſe the pulley to the wheel, the cord will then be ex- P be to the weight W as the bar above W is to B, they are in tended to its whole length, all but that part which goes under the equilibrio. Thus, ſuppoſe W to be 5 pounds acting at the dif- pulley: and conſequently, the power that draws the cord will have tance of one foot from the centre of motion above the pedeſtal, moved twice as far as the pulley with its weight W; on which ac- and P to be 1 pound acting at B five feet from the centre above count, a power whoſe intenſity is equal to one half of the weight the pedeital, the power and weight will juſt balance each other. will be able to ſupport it, becauſe if the power moves (by means A hammer drawing a nail is a lever of this fort. of a ſmall addition) its velocity will be double the velocity of the 2. The ſecond mechanical power is the wheel and axle, in which weight; as may be ſeen by putting thecord over the wheel (which the power is applied to the circumference of the wheel, and the only changes the direction of the power, without giving any ad- weight is raiſed by a rope which coils about the axle as the wheel vantage to it), and hanging on the weight P, which is equal only is turned round. Here it is plain that the velocity of the to one half of the weight W; in which caſe there will be an equi- muſt be to the velocity of the weight, as the circumference of the librium, and a little addition to P will cauſe it to deſcend, and wheel is to the circumference of the axle : and conſequently, the raiſe W through a ſpace equal to one half of that through which power and weight will balance each other, when the intenſity of P deſcends. Hence the advantage gained will be always equal to the power is to the intenſity of the weight as the circumference twice the number of pullies in the moveable or undermoſt block. of the axle is to the circumference of the wheel. Let AB, Fig. 2, So that, when the upper or fixed block, Fig. 4. Plate III. contains Plate III. repreſent a wheel, CD its axle, and ſuppoſe the cir two pullies, which only turn on their axes, and the lower or move- cumference of the wheel to be 8 times as great as the circumfer- able block U contains two pullies, which not only turn upon their ence of the axle; then, a power P equal to 1 pound hanging by axes, but alſo riſe with the block and weight; the advantage gain- the cord I, which goes round the wheel, will balance a weight W of ed by this is as 4 to the working power. Thus, if one end of 8 pounds hanging by the rope K, which goes round the axle. And the rope KMOQ be fixed to a hook at I, and the rope paſſes over as the friction on the pivots or gudgeons of the axle is but ſmall, the pullies N and R, and under the pullies L and P, and has a a ſmall addition to the power will cauſe it to deſcend, and raiſe the weight T, of one pound, hung to its other end at T, this weight weight: but the weight will riſe with only an eighth part of the will balance and ſupport a weight W of four pounds hanging by a velocity wherewith the power deſends, and conſequently through hook at the moveable block U, allowing the ſaid block as a part no more than an eighth part of an equal ſpace, in the ſame time. of the weight. And if as much more power be added, as is fuffi- If the wheel be pulled round by the handles S, S, the power will cient to overcome the friction of the pullies, the power will de- be increaſed in proportion to their length. And by this means, ſcend with four times as much velocity as the weight riſes, and any weight may be raiſed as high as the operator pleaſes. conſequently through four times as much ſpace. To this ſort of engine belong all cranes for raiſing great weights; Fig. 7, Plate II. The two pullies in the fixed block above, and and in this caſe, the wheel may have cogs all round it inſtead of all round it inſtead of the moveable block below, are in the ſame caſe with thoſe laſt handles, and a ſmall lantern or trundle may be made to work in mentioned; and thoſe in the lower block give the ſame advantage the cogs, and be turned by a winch; which will make the power power. of the engine to exceed the power of the man who works it, as As a ſyſtem of pullies has no great weight, and lies in a ſmall much as the number of revolutions of the winch exceed thoſe of compaſs, it is eaſily carried about; and can be applied, in a great the axle D, when multiplied by the exceſs of the length of the many caſes, for raiſing weights, where other engines cannot. But winch above the length of the ſemidiameter of the axle, added to they have a great deal of friction on three accounts: I. Becauſe the femidiameter or half thickneſs of the rope K, by which the the diameters of their axes bear a very conſiderable proportion to weight is drawn up. Thus, ſuppoſe the diameter of the rope and their own diameters: 2. Becauſe in working they are apt to rub axle taken together to be 12 inches, and conſequently half their againſt one another, or againſt the ſides of the block: 3. Becauſe diameters to be 6 inches; ſo that the weight W will hang at 6 of the ſtiffneſs of the rope that goes over and under them. inches perpendicular diſtance from below the centre of the axle; The common method of arranging pullies in their blocks, may and let us ſuppoſe the wheel AB, which is fixed on the axle, to be reduced to two. The firſt conſiſts in placing them one by the have 80 cogs, and to be turned by means of a winch 6 inches long, ſide of another, upon the ſame pin ; the other, in placing them fixed on the axis of a trundle of 8 ſtaves or rounds, working in the directly under one another, upon ſeparate pins. Each of theſe cogs of the wheel. It is plain, that the winch and trundle would methods is liable to inconvenience. Mr. SMEATON, in order to make I o revolutions for one of the wheel AB, and its axis D, on avoid the impediments to which theſe coinbinations are ſubject, which the rope K winds in raiſing the weight W; and the winch propoſes to combine theſe two methods in one. Accordingly, the being no longer than the fum of the ſemidiameters of the great pullies, as in Fig. 2. Plate II. are placed in each block in two axle and rope, the trundle could have no inore power on the wheel tiers; ſeveral being upon the ſame pin as in the firſt method, and power to the every MECHANICS. ſo on. in every one having another under it as in the ſecond; and ſo that, the laſt term would be always equal to the whole number of terms. when the tackle is in uſe, the two tiers that are the remoteſt from « Since then the evolutions of equal and diſtinct pullies are mea one another, are ſo much larger in diameter than thoſe that are ſured by their velocities, and that it is poflible to find any propor- neareſt, as to allow the lines of the former to go over the lines of tion of velocity on a ſingle body, running on a center; viz. by the latter without rubbing. From this conſtruction ariſes a new ſearching proportionate diſtances from ſuch center, it follows, that method of reeving the line upon the fhieves; for here, whatever be if the diameters of certain grooves in the ſame ſubſtance, be ex- the number of thieves, the fall of the tackle will be always upon actly adapted to the above ſeries, (ſuppoſing the line inelaſtic and the middle ſhieve, or on that next to the middle, according as the of no magnitude) the neceſſity of uſing ſeveral pullies in each frame number of pullies in each pin is odd or even. To do this, the will vaniſh, and with it ſome of thoſe difficulties to which, it muſt line is fixed to ſome convenient part of the upper block, and be owned, this uſeful machine is ſtill liable. brought round the middle Thieve of the larger tier of the under « Theſe were the ideas that ſuggeſted this improvement, and block; from thence round one of the ſame fort next the centre one produced the pulley repreſented in Fig. 1. Plate II. where, again, of the other block; and ſo on, till the line comes to the outſide O, P, are the frames; Q, R, are pullies, and a, b, c, up to 1, fhieve, where the laſt line of the larger tier falls upon the firſt thieve the coils of line by which the weight is ſupported; a is the line of of the ſmaller; and being reeved round thoſe, till it comes at the fraction, commonly called the fall, which paſſes over and under the oppoſite ſide, the line from the laſt thieve of the ſmaller tier again, proper grooves, in the order the letters indicate, till it is faſtened riſes to the firſt of the larger, whence it is conducted round, till it to the upper frame juſt above n. The grooves however in practice ends on the middle ſhieve of the upper block on the larger tier. are not nor can be arithmetical progreſſionals; for the diameter of Multiplying Pullies, or pullies that act one upon another, are the line or rope employed, muſt in all caſes be deducted from each exceedingly advantageous in mechanics. In Plate II. Fig. 5, we term; without which the ſmaller grooves, to which the ſaid dia- have a repreſentation of pullies of this kind; that pulley over meter bears a greater proportion than to the larger ones, will tend which the rope paſſes to the power or weight P, is a fixed pulley, to riſe and fall faſter than the larger, and thus introduce confuſion the other five are moveable, but each having one end of that rope and worſe defects than thoſe the invention is intended to obviate. which paſſes under them, fixed to the beam. In this conſtruction, « The ſection annexed to the former figure ſhews the method if the weight, W, be fixed to the loweſt pulley, it will only re of turning the groove and hollowing the back of the pulley, in or- quire half the power at P, to raiſe or ſuſtain it, that it would do if der to obtain lightneſs and fave materials. It is needleſs here to fixed to the pulley next above it; and when fixed at that next inſiſt on the advantages attending theſe pullies, or to attempt a fur- pulley, it will only require half the power or weight at P, to ther deſcription of the principle which I ſuppoſe is now well under- ſuſtain it, that it would do if fixed at the next higher pulley, and ſtood. Suffice it to ſay, that lateral friction, and a ſhaking motion, Thus, if a weight of 321b. be fixed to the hook of the which ſo much affect the common pulley, are quite done away firſt or uppermoſt moving pulley, then a power or weight equal to this caſe by the length of bearing. And left this circumſtance 161b. at P, will ſuſtain it, or keep the whole in equilibrio. If ſhould offer an idea of weakneſs, I would obſerve that to have pins the weight be fixed to the next lower pulley, a power at P. of 81b. for the pullies to run on, is not the only, nor perhaps the beſt method; will counterbalance it; if fixed to the next below that, a power but that I ſometimes uſe centers fixed to the pullies, and revolving at P, equal to 41b. will be ſuficient; if the weight be fixed to the on a very ſhort bearing in the fide of the frame, by which ſtrength 4th moving pulley, then the requiſite weight at P will be only is increaſed, and friction very much diminiſhed; for, to the laſt 21b; and if the weight W, of 321b. be fixed at the loweſt pulley, moment the motion of the pulley is perfectly circular; and this then ilb. at P. 'will ſuſtain it, and the leaſt imaginable increaſe of very circumſtance is the cauſe of its not wearing out the center as power or weight at P, will actually raiſe the weight W. Hence foon as it would, afliſted by the ever increaſing irregularities of a by encreaſing the number of ſuch pullies, the greateſt weights at gullied bearing W, may be raiſed by the ſmalleſt power at P, each additional pul “ I ſhall only add that theſe pullies, when well executed, apply ley increaſing the power in a duplicate ratio. to roaſting jacks and other machines of that nature, with peculiar The next ſubject that claims our attention, is the Patent Con- advantage, both as to the time of going, and their own durability; centric Pulley, invented by Mr. James White, and applied with and that it is poſſible to produce a ſyſtem of ſuch pullies, of fix or great fucceſs to the raiſing heavy weights by the application of a eight parts only, and adapted to the pockets, that ſhall raiſe ſmall power, as well as to thoſe purpoſes that may be termed ne wards of an hundred weight by means of a ſkain of ſewing ſilk, or gative; where a confiderable weight with a ſlow motion is em a clue of common thread." ployed to produce a quicker and leſs intenſe one; as in the caſe of [We cannot but conſider this Pulley as a great improvement in roaſting jacks or other machines, of which weight is the motive Mechanics, and of the higheſt utility; at the ſame we cordially em- principle. We are favoured with the following deſcription of it brace this opportunity of informing the public, that the very ingenious from the inventor. Inventor and Patentee, applies in the moſt unexpenſive and ſimple me- " Fig. I. is a front view of the concentric pulley, accompanied thods, the principles of Mechanics to many uſeful purpoſes in the arts with a ſection for its better explanation. The letters O, P, in and commerce; by which conſiderable ſavings and convenience will dicate two frames, containing each a fingle pulley, revolving on accrue to the purchaſers; having long devoted to a knowledge of theſe a pin pointed out by the dotted lines Q and R in the figure. Each ſubjects, the utmoſt efforts of a mind evidently formed for the ſucceſsful of theſe pullies has fix grooves in it of diameters proportionate to purſuit of ſuch ſtudies.] the quantity of line they involve from their relative ſituations in the 4. The Inclined Plane. The fourth mechanical power is the in- Syſtem. For, ſuppoſing each of the grooves a diſtinct pulley, and clined plane; and the advantage gained by it is as great as its length their diameters all equal; it is evident that, if the weight 144 were exceeds its perpendicular height. Let AB, Fig. 5, Plate III. be to be raiſed, by pulling at S, till the pullies touched each other; a plane parallel to the horizon, and CD a plane inclined to it; the firſt pully, or R, muſt receive that length of line as many times and ſuppoſe the whole length CD to be three times as great as the told as there are parts of the line hanging between it and the lower perpendicular height GF: in this caſe, the cylinder E will be pulley. Now, in this caſe, there are twelve parts of the ſame ſupported upon the plane CD, and kept from rolling down upon line, formed by its revolving about fix upper and fix lower pullies it, by a power equal to a third part of the weight of the cylinder. or grooves. Therefore, as much line muſt paſs over the firſt pul- | Therefore, a weight may be rolled up this inclined plane with a ley R, as is equal to twelve times the diſtance of the two pullies: third part of the power which would be fufficient to draw it up but, from a mere view of the figure, the ſecond pulley (which is by the ſide of an upright wall. If the plane was four times as the firſt in the lower frame and marked Q ,) cannot receive, or long as high, a fourth part of the power would be fufficient; and conduct, ſo much line as the former, by what is equal to the dif ſo on in proportion. Or, if a pillar was to be raiſed from a floor tance between them. In like manner the third pulley (which is to the height GF, by means of the engine ABDC, (which would the ſecond in the upper frame) involves leſs than the laſt men then act as a half wedge, where the reſiſtance gives way only on tioned; and ſo on, in a retrograde progreſſion, to the laſt pulley; one ſide) the engine and pillar would be in aquilibrio when the which only receives one twelfth part of the whole. For this takes power applied at GF was to the weight of the pillar as GF to its ſhare of line n, from a fixed point in the upper frame that gives GD; and if the power be increaſed, to as to overcome the fric- it nothing: whereas all the others, in the ſame frame, receive tion of the engine againſt the floor and pillar, the engine will be their line, as it were, partly by going to fetch it, and partly by the driven, and the pillar raiſed: and when the engine has moved its line coming to meet the pulley: both which motions will be eaſily whole length upon the foor, the pillar will be raiſed the whole noticed, though in different degrees, at all the other pullies, if at height of the engine from G to F. tended to by a diligent obferver. The force wherewith a rolling body deſcends upon an inclined “Now, on the ſuppoſition that theſe pullies are equal in ſize, plane, is to the force of its abſolute gravity, by which it would and free to move as determined by the line paſſing about them, it deſcend perpendicularly in a free ſpace, as the height of its plane appears evident evident from the nature of the Syſtem (and is daily proved is to its length. For, ſuppoſe the plane AB, Fig. 6, Plate III. to in the uſe of the common pulley) that the number of their revolu be parallel to the horizon, the cylinder C will keep at reſt upon tions, and conſequently their velocities, muſt be in proportion to any part of the plane where it is laid. If the plane be ſo elevated, the number of ſuſpending parts that are between the fixed point that its perpendicular height D is equal to half its length AB, in abovementioned, and each pulley reſpectively. Thus R would go Fig. 7, Plate III, the cylinder will roll down upon the plane with 12 times round, while the pulley under which the part n of the line a force equal to half its weight; for it would require a power paſſed, if equal to it, would revolve once only: and the interme (acting in the direction of AB) equal to half its weight, to keep diate time and velocities would be members of the ſame ſeries of it from rolling. If the plane AB, Fig. 8, Plate III. be elevated, arithmetical progreſſionals; of which, if the firſt number were 1, ſo as to be perpendicular to the horizon, the cylinder C will de- * 6 R ſcend up- N° 100. MECHANICS. ſcend with its whole force of gravity, becauſe the plane contributes as is equal to the ſum of the ſeparate powers acting upon the hall nothing to its ſupport or hindrance; and therefore it would wedges when the bar was between them. require a power equal to its whole weight to keep it from To confirm this by an experiment, let two cylinders, as O and deſcending. R, Fig. 4, Plate II. be drawn towards one another by lines run- Let the cylinder C, Fig. 9, Plate III. be made to turn upon ning over fixed pullies, and a weight of 40 ounces hanging at the flender pivots in the frame D, in which there is a hook, e, with a lines belonging to each cylinder: and let a wedge of 40 ounces line G tied to it ; let this line go over the fixed purley H, and have weight, having its back juſt as thick as either of its fides is long, its other end tied to the hook in the weight I. If the weight of be put between the cylinders, which will then aêt againſt each the body I, be to the weight of the cylinder C, added to that of with a reſiſtance equal to 40 ounces, whilſt its own weight en- its frame D, as the perpendicular height of the plane LM is to deavours to bring it down and ſeparate them: and here, the power its length AB, the weight will juſt ſupport the cylinder upon the of the wedge’s gravity impelling it downwards, will be to the re- plane, and a ſmall touch of a finger will either cauſe it to aſcend fiſtance of both the cylinders againſt the wedge, as the thickneſs or deſcend with equal eaſe: then, if a little addition be made to of the wedge is to the length of both its ſides; for there will then the weight I, it will deſcend, and draw the cylinder up the plane. be an equilibrium between the weight of the wedge and the re- In the time that the cylinder moves from A to B, it will riſe ſiſtance of the cylinders againſt it, and it will remain at any height through the whole height of the plane ML; and the weight will between them; requiring juſt as much power to puſh it upward deſcend from H to K, through a ſpace equal to the whole length as to pull it downward. If another wedge of equal weight and of the plane AB. depth with this, and only half as thick, be put between the cylin- If the plane be made to move upon rollers or friction-wheels, ders, it will require twice as much weight to be hung at the ends and the cylinder be ſupported upon it; the ſame power will draw of the lines which draw them together, to keep the wedge from the plane under the cylinder, which before drew the cylinder up going down between them. That is, a wedge of 40 ounces, the plane, provided the pivots of the axes of the friction-wheels be whoſe back is only equal to half the length of one of its fides, ſmall, and the wheels themſelves be pretty large. For let the will require 80 ounces to each cylinder, to keep it in equilibrium machine ABC, Fig. 10, Plate III. (equal in length and height to between them: and twice 80 is 160, equal to 4 times 40. So ABM, Fig. 9.) be provided with four wheels, whereof two appear that the power will be always to the reſiſtance, as the thickneſs of at D and E, and the third under C, whilſt the fourth is hid from the back of the wedge is to the length, not of its own ſide, but fight by the horizontal board a. Let the cylinder F be laid upon of both its fides. His bris la stelle the lower end of the inclined plane CB, and the line G be extended The beſt way for making a wedge with its apparatus for trying from the frame of the cylinder, about 6 feet parallel to the plane parallel to the plane experiments, is as follows: ob blowing tinik CB; and, in that direction, fixed to a hook in the wall; which Let WWV be two flatſurfaces, each about 15 inches long and will ſupport the cylinder, and keep it from rolling off the plane. three or four in breadth, joined together by a hinge at V; and let Let one end of the line H be tied to a hook at C in the machine, a bar go acroſs WW, on which the ſaid ſurfaces WWV may be and the other end to a weight K, the ſame as drew the cylinder up open to any angle not more than 60 degrees, and then fixed at the plane before. If this line be put over the fixed pulley I, the the given angle by means of two ſcrews above WW. It will weight K will draw the machine along the horizontal plane L, and then repreſent the wedge with its end x, which enters the wood, under the cylinder F: and when the machine has been drawn the and it will alſo repreſent the two ſides of the wedge againſt which whole length CB, the cylinder will be raiſed to d, equal to the the wood acts in cleaving. By means of the bar which goes acroſs perpendicular height AB, above the horizontal part at A. To the above WW, the wedge may be opened ſo as to adjuſt the inclined plane may be reduced all hatchets, chiſſels, and other thickneſs of its back in any proportion to the length of either of edge-tools which are chamfered only on one ſide. its fides ; but not to exceed that length: and any weight may be 5. The Wedge. The fifth mechanical power or engine is the hung to the wedge upon the hook x, which weight, together with wedge; which may be conſidered as two equally inclined planes the weight of the wedge itſelf, may be conſidered as the impelling DEF and CEF, Fig. II, Plate III. joined together at their power, which is all the ſame in experiment whether it be laid upon baſis eEF; then, DC is the whole thickneſs of the wedge at its the back of the wedge to puſh it down, or hung to its edge to pull back ABCD, where the power is applied; EF is the depth or it down. Let O, R, be two wooden cylinders, each about iwo height of the wedge; DF the length of one of its ſides, equal to inches thick, where they touch the outſides of the wedge WWV; CF the length of the other ſide; and OF is its ſharp edge, which and let their ends be made like two round flat plates, to keep the is entered into the wood intended to be ſplit by the force of a wedge from ſlipping off endwiſe between them. Let a ſmall cord hammer or mallet ſtriking perpendicularly on its back. with a loop on one end of it go over a pivot in the end of the cy- Thus, ABb, Fig. 12, Plate III. is a wedge driven into the cleft linders O and R, and the cords on the right hand of the figure, CDE of the wood FG. When the wood does not cleave at any which adhere to the weight P, belonging to the cylinder O, go diſtance between the wedge, there will be an equilibrium between the fixed pullies r, r, on the right hand ſide, and be faſtened at their the power impelling the wedge downward, and the reſiſtance of other ends to the bar above the weight on the right hand on which the wood acting againſt the two ſides of the wedge; if the power any weight may be hung at pleaſure. In the like manner let the be to the reſiſtance, as half the thickneſs of the wedge at its back cords on the left hand of the figure belonging to the cylinder R, go is to the length of either of its ſides; that is as Aa to Ab, or Ba over the fixed pullies r, r, on the ſame ſide, to the bar above the to Bb. And if the power be increaſed, ſo as to overcome the fric weight P, on which a weight may be hung equal to that on the tion of the wedge and the reſiſtance ariſing from the cohefion or other ſide. Theſe weights, by drawing the cylinders towards one ſtickage of the wood, the wedge will be drove in, and the wood another, may be conſidered as the reſiſtances of the wood acting ſplit alunder. equally againſt oppoſite ſides of the wedge; the cylinders them- But when the wood cleaves at any diſtance before the wedge felves being fuſpended near and parallel to each other, by their (as it generally does), the power impelling the wedge will not be pivots in the loops on the lines which lead up to I, at the top of the to the reſiſtance of the wood, as half the thickneſs of the wedge is to figure, which lines may be fixed to hooks in the cieling of the the length of one of its fides, but as half its thickneſs is to the The longer theſe lines are, the better; and they ſhould length of either ſide of the cleft, eſtimated from the top or acting never be leſs than four feet each. The farther alſo the pullies r, r, part of the wedge. For if we ſuppoſe the wedge to be lengthened both on the right and left, are from the cylinders O and R, the down from b to the bottom of the cleft, at E, the ſame proportion truer will the experiments be; and they may turn upon pins fixed will hold; namely, that the power will be to the reſiſtance, as into the wall. half the thickneſs of the wedge is to the length of either of its In this machine, the weights P, P, on both ſides, and the weights ſides; or, which amounts to the ſame thing, as the whole thick in centre which hang to x, may be varied at pleaſure, ſo as to be neſs of the wedge is to the length of both its ſides. adjuſted in proportion of the length of the wedge's ſides to the Some writers have advanced, that the power of the wedge is to thickneſs of its back: and when they are fo adjuſted, the wedge the reſiſtance to be overcome, as the thickneſs of the back of the will be in equilibrio with the reſiſtance of the cylinders. wedge is to the length only of one of its fides; which ſeems very The wedge is a very great mechanical power, fince not only ſtrange : for, if we ſuppoſe AB, Fig. 14, Plate III. to be a ſtrong wood, but even rocks can be ſplit by it; which would be impoffi- inflexible bar of wood or iron fixed into the ground at CB, and ble to effect by the lever, wheel and axle, or pulley; for the force D and E to be two blocks of marble lying on the ground on oppo of the blow, or ſtroke, ſhakes the cohering parts, and thereby ſite ſides of the bar; it is evident that the block D may be ſepa makes them ſeparate the more eaſily. Read rated from the bar to the diſtance d, equal to ab, by driving the 6. The Screw. The ſixth and laſt mechanical power is the ſcrew: inclined plane or half wedge abo down between them ; and the which cannot properly be called a ſimple machine, becaufe it is never block E may be ſeparated to an equal diſtance on the other ſide, in uſed without the application of a lever or winch to aſſiſt in turning like manner, by the half wedge cdo. But the power impelling it: and then it becomes a compound engine of a very great force, each half wedge will be to the reſiſtance of the block againſt its either in preſſing the parts of bodies cloſe together, or in raiſing ſide, as the thickneſs of that half wedge is to the length of its act great weights. It may be conceived to be made by cutting a piece ing ſide. Therefore the power to drive both the half wedges is to of paper ABC (Fig. 14, Plate III.) into the form of an inclined both the reſiſtances, as both the half backs is to the length of both plane or half wedge, and then coiling it round a cylinder AB the acting ſides, or as half the thickneſs of the whole back is to (Fig. 15, Plate III.) And here it is evident that the winch E the length of either ſide. And if the bar be taken away, the blocks muſt turn the cylinder once round before the weight of reſiſtance put cloſe together, and the two half wedges joined to make one, D can be moved from one ſpiral winding to another, as from d to it will require as much force to drive it down between the blocks, therefore as much as the circumference of a circle deſcribed by the over room. ܪ C MECHANICS. or 3 a E, the handle of the winch is greater than the interval or diſtance be chine in pulling it up, would nearly amount to a third part of the tween the ſpirals, ſo much is the force of the ſcrew. Thus fup force which the machine exacts. The large capſtan and pulley, poſing the diſtance between the ſpirals to be half an inch, and the uſed in launching a man of war, would in theory do it moſt effec- length of the winch to be 12 inches; the circle deſcribed by the tually. A ſimple lever, drawn a proper length by the imagination, handle of the winch where the power acts will be 76 inches nearly, would do it as well; it would even fulfil the great boaſt of Archi- about 152 half inches, and conſequently 152 times as great as medes, it would remove the earth itſelf. The learned often amuſe the diſtance between the ſpirals: and therefore a power at the themſelves with fancies like theſe; and it was for this that Cicero handle, whoſe intenſity is equal to no more than a ſingle pound, called Archimedes a trifler. will balance 152 pounds acting againſt the ſcrew; and as much COMPOUND ENGINES. additional force, as is ſufficient to overcome the friction, will raiſe A Carriage to go without any other Force than what it receives the 152 pounds; and the velocity of the power will be to the velo- from the Paſengers. By means of wheels ſome people have con- city of the weight as 152 10 1. Hence it appears, that the longer trived carriages to go without horſes, or any other moving power the winch be made, and the nearer the ſpirals are to one another, than what was given by the paſſengers, by the wind, &c. One ſo much the greater is the force of the ſcrew, tim ignis toro ods of theſe is repreſented by Fig. 18, Plate 111. It is moved by the A machine for ſhewing the force or power of the ſcrew may be footman behind it; and the fore-wheels, which act as a rudder, contrived in the following manner. Let the wheel C, Fig. 16. are guided by the perſon who fits in the carriage. aby Plate III. have a ſcrew a b on its axis, working in the teeth of the Between the hind wheels, is placed a box, in which is concealed wheel D, which ſuppoſe to be 48 in number. It is plain, that for the machinery that moves the carriage. AA, (Fig. 19, Plate III.) every time the wheel C and ſcrew a b are turned round by the is a ſmall axis fixed into the box. Bis a pulley, over which runs winch A, the wheel D will be moved one tooth by the ſcrew and rope, whoſe two ends are faſtened to the ends of the two levers therefore, in 48 revolutions of the winch, the wheel D will be or treddles CD, whoſe other ends are fixed in ſuch manner in the turned once round. Then, if the circumference of a circle de-piece E, which is joined to the box, that they can eaſily move up fcribed by the handle of the winch be equal to the circumference and down. F, F, are two flat pieces of iron that are joined to of a groove e round the wheel D, the velocity of the handle will be the treddles, and take the teeth of the two wheels H, H, which 48 times as great as the velocity of any given point in the groove. are fixed on the ſame axis with the hind wheels of the carriage I, 1. Conſequently, if a line G (above number 48) goes round the groove It is evident, that when the footman behind preſſes down one and has a weight of 48 pounds hung to it below the pedeſtal EF, of the treddles, ſuppoſe C, with his foot, he muſt bring down one a power equal to one pound at the handle will balance and ſupport of the pieces of iron F, and conſequently turn the wheel H that is the weight. To prove this by experiment, let the circumferences next to it, and at the ſame time, by means of the rope that goes of the grooves of the wheels C and D be equal to one another ; over the pulley, he muſt raiſe the other treddle D, together with and then if a weight H of one pound be ſuſpended by a line going its piece F, which being thruſt down will turn the other w heel H; round the groove of the wheel C, it will balance a weight of 48 and ſo alternately; and as the great wheels are fixed on the ſame pounds hanging by the line G; and a ſmall addition to the weight axis, they muſt neceſſarily move at the ſame time. H will cauſe it to deſcend, and ſo raiſe up the other weight. It is eaſy to conceive, that if the end of the treddles next E, in- If the line G, inſtead of going round the groove e of the wheel ſtead of being placed behind the carriage, were turned the oppoſite D, goes round its axle I ; the power of the machine will be as much way, ſo as to come under the feet of the perſon who ſits in it, he increaſed, as the circumference of the groove e exceeds the circum might move it with equal or even with greater facility, than the ference of the axle: which, fuppoſing it to be fix times, then one footman, as it would then be charged with the weight of one per- pound at H will balance 6 times 48, or 288 pounds hung to the ſon only. 09 biseda line on the axle: and hence the power or advantage of this machine A machine of this kind will afford a ſalutary recreation in a gar- will be as 288 to one. That is to ſay, a man who by his natural den or park, or on any plain ground; but in a rough or deep road ftrength could lift an hundred weight, will be able to raiſe 288 muſt be attended with more pain than pleaſure. hundred, or 14. z. ton weight by this engine, qu 4991 yang Grill OF MILLS AND CRANES. But the following engine is ſtill more powerful, on account of its - A common Mill. In a common brealt-mill, Fig. 20, Plate III. having the addition of four pullies: and in it we may look upon where the fall of water may be about ten feet, AA is the great all the mechanical powers as combined together, even if we take wheel, which is generally about 17 or 18 feet in diameter, reck- in the balance. For as the axis D of the bar AB, Fig. 17. Plate III. oned from the outermoft edge of any float board at a to that of its is in its middle at C, it is plain, that, if equal weights are fuf- oppoſite float at b. To this wheel the water is conveyed through pended upon any two pins equidiſtant from the axis C, they will a channel; and by falling upon the wheel turns it round. counterpoiſe each other. It becomes a lever by hanging a ſmall On the axis BB of this wheel, and within the mill-houſe, is a weight P upon the pin n, and a weight as much heavier upon either wheel D, about 8 or 9 feet diameter, having 61 cogs, which turn of the pins b, c, d, e, or f, as in proportion to the pins being ſo a trundle E, containing ten upright ſtaves or rounds; and when much nearer the axis, The wheel and axle FG is evident, ſo is theſe are the number of cogs and rounds, the trundle will make the ſcrew E; which takes in the inclined plane, and with it the 6 16 revolutions for one revolution of the wheel. half wedge. Part of a cord goes round the axle, the reſt under the The trundle is fixed upon a ſtrong iron axis called the ſpindle, lower pullies K, m, over the upper pullies L, n, and then it is tied the lower end of which turns in a braſs foot fixed at F, in the to a hook at m in the lower or moveable block, on which hangs horizontal bearn ST, called the bridge tree; and the upper part of the weight W. har odw-G front the ſpindle turns in a wooden buſh fixed into the nether-millionė in this machine, if the wheel F has 30 teeth, it will be turned which lies upon beams in the floor YY. The top part of the once round in 30 revolutions of the bar AB, which is fixed on ſpindle above the buſh is ſquare, and goes into a ſquare hole in a the axis D of the ſcrew E: if the length of the bar is equal to ſtrong iron croſs a b c d, (See Fig. 21, Plate III.) called the rynd; twice the diameter of the wheel, the pins a and n at the ends of the under which, and cloſe to the buſh, is a round piece of thick lea- bar will move 60 times as faſt as the teeth of the wheel do ; and ther upon the ſpindle, which it turns round at the ſame time that conſequently, one ounce at P will balance 60 ounces hung upon a it does the rynd. tooth at q in the horizontal diameter of the wheel. Then, if the The rynd is let into grooves in the under ſurface of the running diameter of the wheel F is 10 times as great as the diameter of the millſtone G (Fig. 20.); and fo turns it round in the ſame time that axle G, the wheel will have io times the velocity of the axle; and the trundle E is turned round by the cog-wheel D. This Mill- therefore one ounce Pat the end of the lever AC will balance 10 ſtone has a large hole quite through its middle, called the eye of times 60, or 600 ounces hung to the rope H which goes round the the ſtone, through which the middle part of the rynd and upper end axle. Laſtly, if four pullies be added, they will make the velocity of the ſpindle may be ſeen; whilſt the four ends of the rynd lie of the lower block K, and weight W, four times leſs than the hid below the ſtone in their velocity of the axle: and this being the laſt power in the machine, The end T of the bridge-tree TS (which ſupports the upper which is four times as great as that gained by the axle, it makes millſtone G upon the ſpindle) is fixed into a hole in the wall; and the whole power of the machine 4 times 6oo, or 2400. So that a the end S is let into a beam QR, called the brayer, whoſe end R man who could lift 100 weight in his arms by his natural ſtrength, remains fixed in a mortiſe; and its other end Q hangs by a ſtrong would be able to raiſe 2400 hundred weight by this engine. iron rod P, which goes through the floor YY, and has a ſcrew-nut By one or more of theſe ſimple powers, all great weights are its top at 0 ; by the turning of which nut, the end Q of the raiſed to conſiderable heights; but in them all, the more they dimi- | brayer is raiſed or depreſſed at pleaſure, and conſequently the niſh the weight, the more flow they are in their operations, and bridge-tree TS and upper millſtone. By this means, the upper conſequently the more do they retard the workman's diſpatch ; millſtone may be ſet as cloſe to the under one, or raiſed as high and univerſálly the more ſimple they are, the more expeditious. from it, as the miller pleaſes. The nearer the millſtones are to Beſides this, their friction or rubbing againſt each other greatly di- | one another, the finer they grind the corn; and the more remote miniſhes their power. The friction in the balance is lealt, it is from one another, the coarſer. more in the lever, increaſed in the axle and wheel, yet more in the The upper millſtone G is incloſed in a round box H, which pulley, but moſt of all in the ſcrew. In general, in combined en does not touch it any where; and is about an inch diſtant from its gines, upon account of this friction, they will require a third part edge all round. On the top of this box ſtands a frame for hold- more of power to move them, than the theory allows. For this ing the hopper, kk, to which is hung the ſhoe, I, by two lines faſ- reaſon, therefore, it will for ever be impoſſible to fulfil the boaſt of tened to the hind part of it, fixed upon hooks in the hopper, and Wilkins, who vaunted that he could pull up an oak by the roots by one end of the crook-ſtring K faſtened to the fore part of it at i, with a ſingle horſe hair ; for the force requiſite to work the ma the other end being twiſted round the pin L. As the pin-is turned grooves. on one MECHANICS. may be rows. one way, the ſtring draws up the ſhoe cloſer to the hopper, and ſo horizontal levers be fixed into the axle C below the wheel D, then leſſens the aperture between them; and as the pin is turned the horſes put to theſe levers for turning the mill: which is other way, it lets down the ſhoe, and enlarges the aperture. often done where water cannot be had for that purpoſe. There is a ſquare hole in the top of the ſpindle, in which is put A Wind-mill . The working parts of a wind-mill differ very the feeder e, Fig. 21. This feeder (as the ſpindle turns round) jogs little from thoſe of a water-mill: only the former is turned by the the ſhoe 1, three times in each revolution, and ſo cauſes the corn to action of the wind upon four fails, every one of which ought (as run conſtantly down from the hopper K, through the ſhoe, into the is generally believed) to make an angle of 545 degrees with a plane eye of the mill-ſtone, where it falls upon the top of the rynd, and perpendicular to the axis on which the arms are fixed for carrying is, by the motion of the rynd and the leather under it, thrown be them ; it being demonſtrable, that when the fails are ſet to ſuch low the upper ſtone, and ground between it and the lower one. an angle, and the axis turned end-ways toward the wind, the wind The violent motion of the ſtone creates a centrifugal force in the has the greateſt power upon the fails. But this angle anſwers only corn going round with it, by which means it gets farther and far to the caſe of a vane or fail juſt beginning to move: for, when the ther from the centre, as in a ſpiral, in every revolution until it be vane has a certain degree of motion, it yields to the wind; and thrown quite out; and, being then ground, it falls through a ſpout then that angle muſt be increaſed to give the wind its full effect. M, called the mill-eye, into the trough N. A crane is an engine by which great weights are raiſed to certain In order to cut and grind the corn, both the upper and under heights, or let down to certain depths. It conſiſts of wheels, axles millſtones have channels or furrows cut into them, proceeding ob pullies, ropes, and a gib or gibbet. When the rope H, Fig. 23, liquely from the centre towards the circumference. And theſe Plate III. is hooked to the weight K, a man turns the winch A, furrows are each cut perpendicularly on one ſide and obliquely on on the axis whereof is the trundle B, which turns the wheel C, on the other into the ſtone, which gives each furrow a ſharp edge, whoſe axis D is the trundle E, which turns the wheel F with its and in the two ſtones they come as it were againſt one another upright axis G, on which the great rope HH winds as the wheel like the edges of a pair of ſciſſars; and ſo cut the corn, to make turns; and going over a pulley I, at the end of the arm d of the it grind the eaſier when it falls upon the places between the fur- gib ccde, it draws up the heavy burden K; which being raiſed to Theſe are cut the ſame way in both ſtones when they lie a proper height, as from a ſhip to the quay, is then brought over upon their backs, which makes them run croſs-ways to each other the quay by pulling the wheel Z round by the handles z, z, which when the upper ſtone is inverted by turning its furrowed ſurface turns the gib by means of the half wheel b fixed on the gib poſt cc. towards that of the lower. For, if the furrows of both ſtones lay and the ſtrong pinion a fixed on the axis of the wheel z. This the ſame way, a great deal of the corn would be driven onward wheel gives the man that turns it an abſolute command over the in the lower furrows: and fo come out from between the ſtones gib, ſo as to prevent it from taking any unlucky ſwing, ſuch as without ever being cut. often happens when it is only guided by a rope tied to its arm d; A leſs quantity of water will turn an overſhot-mill, where the and people are frequently hurt, ſometimes killed, by ſuch ac- wheel has buckets inſtead of float-boards, than a breaſt-mill, cident. where the fall of the water ſeldom exceeds half the height A b of The great rope goes between two upright rollers i and k, which the wheel. So that, where there is but a ſmall quantity of water, turn upon gudgeons in the fixed beams f and g; and as the gib is and a fall great enough for the wheel to lie under it, the bucket, turned towards either ſide, the rope bends upon the roller next that or overſhot wheel is always uſed. But where there is a large body fide. fide. Were it not for theſe rollers, the gib would be quite unma- of water, with a little fall, the breaſt or float-board wheel muſt take nageable; for the moment it were turned ever ſo little towards place. any fide, the weight k would begin to deſcend, becauſe the rope Thoſe who recollect what has been ſaid concerning the accele would be ſhortened between the pulley I and axis G; and ſo the ration of bodies falling freely by the power of gravity acting con gib would be pulled violently to that fide, and either be broken to ftantly and uniformly upon them, may perhaps alk, Why Ihould pieces, or break every thing that came in its way. Theſe rollers the motion of the wheel be equable, and not accelerated, ſince the muſt be placed ſo that the ſides of them round which the rope water acts conſtantly and uniformly upon it? The plain anſwer bends may keep up the middle of the bended part directly even is, that the velocity of the wheel can never be ſo great as the velo with the center of the hole in which the upper gudgeon of the gib city of the water that turns it; for if it ſhould become ſo great, turns in the beam f. The truer theſe rollers are placed the eaſier the power of the water would be quite loft upon the wheel, and the gib is managed, and the leſs apt to ſwing either way by the then there would be no proper force to overcome the friction of force of the weight K. the geers and attrition of the ſtones. Therefore, the velocity with A ratchet wheel Q is fixed upon the axis D, near the trundle E; which the wheel begins to move, will increaſe no longer than till and into this wheel falls the catch or click R. This hinders the its momentum or force is balanced by the reſiſtance of the ma machine from running back by the weight of the burden K, if a chine; and then the wheel will go on with an equable motion. man who raiſes it ſhould happen to be careleſs, and ſo leave off A hand-mill. If the cog-wheel D fig. 20, Plate III. be made about working at the winch A ſooner than he ought to do. 18 inches diameter, with 30 cogs, the trundle as ſmall in proportion, When the burden K is raiſed to its proper height from the ſhip, with 10 ſtaves, and the millſtones be each about two feet in diame and brought over the quay by turning the gib about, it is let down ter, and the whole work be put into a ſtrong frame of wood, as re gently upon the quay, or into a cart ſtanding thereon, in the follow- preſented in the figure, the engine will be a hand-mill for grinding ing manner: A man takes hold of the rope tt (which goes over the corn or malt in private families. And then, it may be turned by pully v, and is tied to a hook at S in the catch R) and ſo diſen- a winch inſtead of the wheel AA; the millſtone making three gages the catch from the ratchet-wheel Q; and then, the man at revolutions for every one of the winch. If a heavy fly be put upon the winch A turns it backward, and lets down the weight K. But the axle B, near the winch, it will help to regulate the motion. if the weight pulls too hard againſt this man, another lays hold If the cogs of the wheel and rounds of the trundle could be put of the handle V, and by pulling it downward draws the gripe in as exactly as the teeth are cut in the wheels and pinions of a U cloſe to the wheel Y, which by rubbing hard againſt the gripe clock, then the trundle might divide the wheel exactly; that is to hinders the too quick deſcent of the weight; and not only ſo, but ſay, the trundle might have a given number of revolutions for even ſtops it at any time if required. By this means heavy goods one of the wheel, without a fraction. But as any exact number may be either raiſed or let down at pleaſure, without any danger of is not neceſſary in mill-work, and the cogs and rounds cannot be hurting the men who work the engine. ſet in ſo truly as to make all the intervals between them equal; a When part of the goods are craned up, and the rope is to be ſkillful mill-wright will always give the wheel what he calls a hunt let down for more, the catch R is firſt diſengaged from the ratchet- ing cog; that is, one more than what will anſwer to an exact di- wheel Q, by pulling the cord t; then the handle q is turned half viſion of the wheel by the trundle. And then, as every cog comes round backward, which, by the crank n n in the piece o, pulls to the trundle, it will take the next ſtaff or round behind the one down the frame h between the guides m and m (in which it ſlides in which it took in the former revolution: and by that means will a groove) and ſo diſengages the trundle B from the wheel C: and wear all the parts of the cogs and rounds which work upon one then, the heavy hook B, at the end of the rope H, deſcends by its another equally, and to equal diſtances from one another, in a lit own weight, and turns back the great wheel F with its trundle E tle time; and ſo make a true uniform motion throughout the whole and the wheel C; and this laſt wheel acts like a fly againſt the work. Thus, in the above water-mill, the trundle has 10 ſtaves, wheel F and hook B, and ſo hinders it from going down too quick; and the wheel 61 cogs. whilſt the weight X keeps up the gripe U from rubbing againſt the Sometimes, where there is a fufficient quantity of water, the wheel Y, by means of a cord going from the weight, over the cog-wheel AA, Fig. 22, Plate III. turns a large trundle BB, on pulley w, to the hook W in the gripe; ſo that the gripe never whoſe axis C is fixed the horizontal wheel D, with cogs all round touches the wheel, unleſs it be pulled down by the handle V. its edge, turning two trundles E and F at the ſame time; whoſe When the crane is to be ſet at work again for drawing up ano- axes or ſpindles G and H turn two millſtones I and K, upon the ther burden, the handle q is turned half round forwards; which, by fixed ſtones L and M. And when there is not work for them the crank nn, raiſes up the frame h, and cauſes the trundle B to lay both, either may be made to lie quiet, by taking out one of the hold of the wheel C; and then, by turning the winch A, the bur- ſtaves of its trundle, and turning the vacant place towards the den of goods K is drawn up as before. cog-wheel D. And there may be a wheel fixed on the upper end The crank n n turns pretty ſtiff in the mortiſe near 0, and ſtops of the great upright axle C for turning a couple of boulting mills; againſt the farther end of it when it has got juſt a little beyond the and other work for drawing up the ſacks, fanning and cleaning the perpendicular; ſo that it can never come back of itſelf: and there- corn, ſharpening of tools, &c. fore, the trundle B can never come away from the wheel C, until A Horſe-mill. If, inſtead of the cog-wheel AA and trundle BB, the handle a be turned half round. 9 The M ÉCH A NIC S. S The great rope runs upon rollers in the lever LM, which keep it follows, that if the whole maſs of the wheels were accumulated ft from bending between the axle at G and the pulley I. This in this circumference, its inertia would be truly eſtimated by the lever turns upon the axis N by means of the weight O, which is quantity of matter moved; but ſince the parts of the wheels move juſt ſufficient to keep its end L up to the rope; ſo that, as the great with different velocities, their effects in reſiſting the communication axle turns, and the rope coils round it, the lever riſes with the rope, of inotion to A and B by their inertia will be different; thoſe parts and prevents the coilings from going over one another. which are furtheft from the axis reſiſting more than thoſe which The power of this crane may be eſtimated thus: Suppoſe the revolve nearer, in a duplicate proportion of thoſe diſtances. If trundle B to have 13 ſtaves or rounds, and the wheel C to have the figures of the wheels were regular, from knowing their weights 78 ſpur-cogs; the trundle E to have 14 ſtaves, and the wheel F and figures, the diſtances of their centres of gyration from their 56 cogs. Then, by multiplying the ſtaves of the trundles, 13 and axes of inotion would become known, and conſequently an 14, into one another, their product will be 182: and by multiply equivalent weight, which being accumulated uniformly in the cir- ing the cogs of the wheels, 78 and 56, into one another, their pro cumference a b c d, would exert an inertia equal to that of the duct will be 4368; and dividing 4368 by 182, the quotient will wheels in their conſtructed form. But as the figures are wholly be 24: which ſhews, that the winch A makes 24 turns for one irregular, recourſe muſt be had to experiment, to afſign what equi- turn of the wheel F and its axle G on which the great rope or valent quantity of matter, which being accumulated uniformly in chain HIH winds. So that, if the length or radius of the winch the circumference of the wheel a bc d, would reſiſt the communi- A were only equal to half the diameter of the great axle G, ad- cation of motion to A in the ſame manner as the wheels. ded to half the thickneſs of the rope H, the power of the crane In order to aſcertain the inertia of the wheel a b c d, with that would be as 24 to one; but the radius of the winch being double of the friction wheels, the weights A, B, being removed, the fol- the above length; it doubles the faid power, and ſo makes it as 48 lowing experiment was made. to I; in which caſe, a man may raiſe 48 times as much weight by A weight of thirty grains was affixed to a ſilk line (the weight this engine as he could do by his natural ſtrength without it, of which was not ſo much as I of a grain, and conſequently too making proper allowance for the friction of the working parts. inconſiderable to have ſenſible effect in the experiment) this line Two men may work at once, by having another winch on the op- | being wound round the wheel a b c d, the weight 30 grains by de- poſite end of the axis of the trundle under B; and ſo make the ſcending from reſt communicated motion to the wheel, and by power ſtill double. many trials was obſerved to deſcribe a ſpace of about 384 inches If this power be thought greater than what may be generally in 3 ſeconds. From theſe data the equivalent maſs or inertia of wanted, the wheels may be made with fewer cogs in proportion the wheels will be known from this rule: to the ſtaves in the trundles; and ſo the power may be of whatever Let a weight P, be applied to communicate motion to a fyftem degree is judged to be requiſite. But if the weight be ſo great as of bodies (Fig. 24, Plate III.) by means of a very ſlender and will require yet more power to raiſe it (ſuppoſe a double quantity) flexible line going round the wheel SDM, through the centre of then the rope H may be put under a moveable pulley, as d, and the which the axis paſſes (G being the common centre of gravity, g end of it tied to a hook in the gib at £; which will give a double the centre of gravity of the matter contained in this line, and o the power to the machine, and ſo raiſe a double weight hooked to the centre of oſcillation). Let this weight deſcend from reſt through block of the moveable pulley. any convenient ſpace s inches, and let the obſerved time of its de- When only ſmall burdens are ſo raiſed, this may be quickly ſcent be t ſeconds, then if I be the ſpace through which bodies done by men puſhing the axle G round by the handſpokes y, yy,y; deſcend freely by gravity in one ſecond, the equivalent weight having firſt diſengaged the trundle B from the wheel C: and then, WXSg x ŠO PXt2 .-P. this wheel will only act as a Ay upon the wheel F; and the catch ſought = SD2 os R will prevent its running back, if the men ſhould inadvertently Here we have p=30 grains, t=3 ſeconds, l=193 inches, leave off puſhing before the burden be unhooked from ß. PX 12 1 30X9X193 Laſtly, when very heavy burdens are to be raiſed, which might s= 38.5 inches; and -P= - 30 = 1323 endanger the breaking of the cogs in the wheel F; their force 385 againſt theſe cogs may be much abated by men puſhing round the grains; or 24 ounces. handſpokes y, y, y, y, whilſt the man at A turns the winch. This is the inertia equivalent to that of the wheel abcd, (Fig. I. We have only ſhewn the working parts of this crane, without Plate I.) and the friction wheels together: for the rule extends to the whole of the beams which ſupport them; knowing that theſe the eſtimation of the inertia of the maſs contained in all the wheels. are eaſily ſuppoſed, and that if they had been drawn, they would The reſiſtance to motion therefore ariſing from the wheel's have hid a great deal of the working parts from fight, and alſo inertia, will be the ſame as if they were abſolutely removed, and a confuſed the figure. maſs of 2 ounces were uniformly accumulated in the circumfe- SECT. IV. ATWOOD's EXPERIMENTS ON rence of the wheel a b c d. This being premiſed let the boxes A MOTION ACCELERATED. and B be replaced, being ſuſpended by the ſilk line over the wheel Among the experiments of different artiſts for aſcertaining the or pulley a bed, and balancing each other: ſuppoſe that any weight quantities of accelerated motion; there are none that we have met m be added to A ſo that it ihall deſcend; the exact quantity of with ſo well adapted to the purpoſe, as the apparatus of Mr. At matter moved, during the deſcent of the weight A, will be af- wood, F.R. S. which, as he obſerves, at once diſcovers to the un certained, for the whole maſs will be A+B+m+2 oz. derſtanding, the quantity of matter moved, the conſtant force which In order to avoid troubleſome computations in adjuſting the moves it, the ſpace deſcribed from reſt, the time of deſcription, and quantities of matter moved and the moving forces, ſome determi- the velocity acquired. nate weight of convenient magnitude may be aſſumed as a 1. Of the Maſs moved.' In order to obſerve the effects of the ſtandard, to which all the others are referred. This ſtandard moving force, which is the object of any experiment, the interfer- weight in the ſubſequent experiments is of an ounce, and is re- ence of all other forces ſhould be prevented: the quantity of mat preſented by the letter m. The inertia of the wheels being there- ter moved therefore, conſidering it before any impelling force has fore=2 ounces, will be denoted by 11 m. A and B are two been applied, ſhould be without wêight: for although it be impof- boxes conſtructed ſo as to contain different quantities of matter, ſible to abſtract the natural gravity or weight from any ſubſtance according as the experiment may require them to be varied: the whatever, yet, the weight may be ſo counteracted as to be of no ſen weight of each box, including the hook to which it is ſuſpended, ſible effect in experiments. Thus in the inſtrument conſtructed to =r{ oz. or according to the preceding eſtimation, the weight illuſtrate this ſubject experimentally, A, B, Plate I. Fig. 1. repre of each box will be denoted by 6 m; theſe boxes contain ſuch ſent two equal weights affixed to the extremities of a very fine weights as are repreſented by Fig. 4. Plate I. each of which and Aexible filk line: this line is ſtretched over a wheel or fixed weighs an ounce, ſo as to be equivalent to 4 m; other weights pulley abcd, moveable round an horizontal axis: the two weights of į an oz.=2 m, 1 =m, and aliquot parts of m, ſuch as į m, A, B being preciſely equal and acting againſt each other, remain im, may be alſo included in the boxes, according to the conditions in equilibrio; and when the leaſt weight is fuperadded to either of the different experiments hereafter deſcribed. (ſetting aſide the effects of friction) it will preponderate. When If 4} oz. or, 19 m, be included in either box, this with the A, B, are ſet in motion, by the action of any weight m, the ſum weight of the box itſelf will be 25 m; ſo that when the weights A A+B+m would conſtitute the whole maſs moved, but for the and B, each being 25 m, are balanced in the manner above repre- inertia of the materials which muſt neceſſarily be uſed in the ſented, their whole maſs will be 50 m, which being added to the communication of motion : theſe materials conſiſt of 1. The wheel inertia of the wheels 11 m, the ſum will be 61 m. Moreover, abcd over which the line ſuſtaining A and B paſſes. 2. The four three circular weights, ſuch as that which is repreſented at Fig. 5. friction wheels on which the axle of the wheel a b c d refts: the uſe are conſtructed; each of which= 1 oz. or m; if one of theſe be of theſe wheels is to prevent the loſs of motion, which would be added to A and one to B, the whole maſs will now become 63m per- occafioned by the friction of the axle if it revolved on an immove- fectly in equilibrio, and moveable by the leaſt weight added to either able ſurface. 3. The line by which the bodies A and B are con (ſetting aſide the effects of friction) in the ſame manner preciſely nected ſo as when ſet in motion to move with equal velocities. as if the ſame weight or force were applied to communicate motion The weight and inertia of the line are too ſmall to have ſenſible to the maſs 63 m, exiſting in free ſpace and without gravity: effect on the experiments, but the inertia of the other materials juſt 2. The moving Force. Since the natural weight or gravity of mentioned conſtitute a conſiderable proportion of the maſs moved, any given ſubſtance is conſtant, and the exact quantity of it eaſily and muſt be taken into account. Since when A and B are put in eſtimated, it will be convenient here to apply a weight to the maſs motion, they muſt neceſſarily move with a velocity equal to that of A, as a moving force : thus, when the ſyſtem conſiſts of a maſs= the circumference of the wheel a bed to which the line is applied; 63 m. according to the preceding deſcription, the whole being per- * 6 S rectly N° 100. MECHANICS. m I or part of fectly balanced, let a weight i oz. or m ſuch as is repreſented in form of a circular weight. Suppoſe the maſs A, Fig. 3. Plate f. Fig. 5, be applied on the maſs A ; this will communicate motion to have deſcended by conſtant acceleration of force of m, for any to the whole ſyſtem : by adding a quantity of matter m to the given time or through a given ſpace : let a circular frame be ſo affixed former maſs 63 m, the whole quantity of matter moved will now to the ſcale, contiguous to which the weight deſcends, that A may become 64 m, and the moving force being =m, this will give the paſs centrally through it, and that this circular frame may inter- cept the rod m by which the body A has been accelerated from force which accelerates the deſcent of A- 64m' 64 quieſcence. After the moving force m has been intercepted at the the accelerating force by which the bodies deſcend freely towards end of the given ſpace or time, there will be no force operating on the earth's ſurface. any part of the ſyſtem, which can accelerate or retard its motion; By the preceding conſtruction, the moving force may be altered this being the caſe, the weight A, the inſtant after m has been without altering the maſs moved ; for fuppoſe the three weights m, removed, muſt proceed uniformly with the velocity which it two of which are placed on A, and one on B to be removed, then had acquired that inſtant: in the ſubſequent part of its deſcent, the will A balance B. If the weights 3 m be all placed on A, the mov velocity being uniform, will be meaſured by ſpace deſcribed in any ing force will now become 3m, and the maſs moved 64 m as before, convenient number of ſeconds. 3m 3 Other uſes of the Inſtrument. It is needleſs to deſcribe particu- and the force which acceelerates the deſcent of A part 64m 64 larly, but it may not be improper juft to mention the further uſes of the force by which gravity accelerates bodies in their free deſcent of this inſtrument; ſuch as the experimental eſtimation of the ve- to the ſurface. locities communicated by the impact of bodies elaſtic and nonelaſtic; Suppoſe it were required to make the moving force 2 m, the the quantity of reſiſtance oppoſed by fluids, as well as for various maſs moved continuing the ſame. In order to effect this, let the other purpoſes; theſe uſes we ſhall not infift on, but the properties three weights, each of which =m, be removed: A and B will ba of retarded motion being a part of the preſent fubject, it may be lance each other ; and the whole maſs will be 61 m: let į m, Fig. 6. neceſſary to ſhew in what manner the motion of bodies reſiſted by be added to A, and į m to B, the equilibrium will fill be preſerved, conſtant forces are reduced to experiment by means of the inftru- and the maſs moved will be 62 m; now let 2 m be added to A, the ment above deſcribed, with as great eaſe and preciſion as the pro- moving force will be 2m, and the maſs moved 64 m, as before ; | perties of bodies uniformly accelerated. A fingle inſtance will be wherefore the force of acceleration =jz part of the accelera ſufficient: thus, fuppoſe the maſs contained in the weights A and B tion of gravity. Theſe alterations in the moving force may be fig. 3. Plate I. and the wheels to be 61 m, when perfectly in equi- made with great eaſe and convenience in the more obvious and ele librio, let a circular weight m be applied to B, and let two long mentary experiments, there being no neceſſity for altering the weights or rods, each =m, be applied to A, then will A deſcend contents of the boxes A and B; but the proportion and abſolute by the action of the moving force m, the maſs moved being 64 m: quantities of the moving force and maſs moved may be of any af ſuppoſe that when it has deſcribed any given ſpace by conſtant ac- figned magnitude, according to the conditions of the propoſition celeration, the two rods m are intercepted by the circular frame to be illuſtrated. above deſcribed, while A is deſcending through it; the velocity 3. Of the Space deſcribed. The body A, Fig. 1. deſcends in acquired by that deſcent is known, and when the two rods are in- a vertical line; and a ſcale about 64 inches in length graduated tercepted, the weight A will begin to move on with the velocity into inches and tenths of an inch is adjuſted vertical, and ſo placed acquired, being now retarded by the conſtant force m; and ſince that the deſcending weight A may fall in the middle of a ſquare the maſs moved is 62 m, it follows, that the force of retardation ſtage, fixed to receive it at the end of the deſcent: the beginning will be oz part of that force whereby gravity retards bodies thrown of the deſcent is eſtimated from o on the ſcale, when the bottom perpendicularly upwards. The weight A will therefore proceed of the box A is on a level with o. The deſcent of A is terminated along the graduated ſcale in its deſcent with an uniformly retarded when the bottom of the box ſtrikes the ſtage, which may be fixed motion, and the ſpaces deſcribed, times of motion, and velocities at different diſtances from the point o, ſo that by altering the po- deſtroyed by the reſiſting force, will be ſubject to the ſame mea- fition of the ſtage, the ſpace deſcribed from quieſcence may be of ſures as in the examples of accelerated motion above deſcribed. any given magnitude leſs than 64 inches. In the foregoing deſcriptions, two ſuppoſitions have been ar 4. The Time of Motion is obſerved by the beats of a pendu- fumed, neither of which are mathematically true: but it may be dulum, which vibrates ſeconds : and the experiments intended to eaſily ſhewn that they are ſo in a phyſical ſenſe: the errors occa- illuſtrate the elementary propoſitions, may be eaſily ſo conſtructed in that the time of motion ſhall be a whole number of ſeconds; the I. The force which communicates motion to the ſyſtem has eſtimation of the time therefore admits of conſiderable exactneſs , been aſſumed conſtant, which will be true only on a ſuppoſition provided the obſerver takes care to let the bottom of the box A be that the line, at the extremities of which the weights A and B gin its deſcent preciſely at any beat of the pendulum; then the co. fig. 1, are affixed, is without weight. In order to make it evident, incidence of the ſtroke of the box againſt the ſtage, and the beat of that the line's weight and inertia are of no ſenſible effe&t, let a the pendulum at the end of the time of motion, will ſhew how caſe be referred to, wherein the body A deſcends through 48 inches nearly the experiment and the theory agree together. There from reſt by the action of the moving force m, when the maſs might be various mechanical devices thought of for letting the moved is 64 m; the time wherein A deferibes 48 inches, is in- weight A begin its deſcent at the inſtant of a beat of the creaſed by the effects of the line's weight by no more than dulum ; let the bottom of the box A, when at o on the ſcale, reſt part of a ſecond: the time of deſcent being 3.9896 ſeconds, when on a flat rod, held in the hand horizontally, its extremity being the ſtring's weight is not conſidered ; and the time when the ftring's coincident with o; by attending to the beats of the pendulum, weight is taken into account=4.0208 ſeconds; the difference and with a little practice the rod which ſupports the box A may between which is wholly inſenſible by obſervation. be removed at the diſtance the pendulum beats, ſo that the deſcent 2. The bodies have alſo been ſuppoſed to move in vacvo, of A ſhall commence at the ſame inftant. whereas the air's reſiſtance will have ſome effect in retarding their 5. Of the Velocity acquired. It remains only to deſcribe in what | motion ; but as the greateſt velocity communicated in theſe expe. manner the velocity acquired by the deſcending weight A, at any riments cannot much exceed that of about 26 inches in a ſecond, given point of the ſpace through which it has deſcended, is made (fuppofe the limit 26.2845) and the cylindrical boxes being about evident to the ſenſes. The velocity of A's deſcent being continu I 4 inches in diameter, the air’s aſſiſtance can never increaſe the ally accelerated will be the ſame in no two points of the ſpace de time of deſcent in ſo great a proportion as that of 240: 241; its ſcribed : this is occaſioned by the conſtant action of the moving effects therefore will be inſenſible in experiment. force; and ſince the velocity of A at any inſtant, is meaſured by The effects of friction are almoſt wholly removed by the friction the ſpace which would be deſcribed by it, moving uniformly for a wheels; for when the ſurfaces are well poliſhed and free from duſt given time with the velocity it had acquired at that inſtant, this | &c. if the weights A and B be balanced in perfect equilibrio, and meaſure cannot be experimentally obtained, except by removing the whole mals confiſts of 63 m, according to the example already the force by which the deſcending bodies' acceleration was cauſed. deſcribed, a weight of 1į grains, or at moſt 2 grains, being added In order to thew in what manner this is effected particularly, either to A let A and B=25 m each, ſo as toge fhews that the effects of friction will not be ſo great as a weight ther to be some this with the wheels, inertia 11 m will make of the core 2 grainster In some cafes, however, especially in experie to B, theſe bodies will balance each other, and the whole maſs will ſenſible ; but may be very readily and exactly removed by adding be 63 m. If a weight m be added to A, motion will be communi a ſmall weight 1.5 or 2 grains to the deſcending body, taking cated, the moving force being m, and the maſs moved 64 m. In care that the weight added is ſuch as is in the leaſt degree ſmaller eſtimating the moving force, the circular weight =m was made than that which is juſt ſufficient to ſet the whole in motion, when uſe of as a moving force; but for the preſent purpoſe of thewing A and B are equal and balance each other, before the moving the velocity acquired, it will be convenient to uſe a flat rod, the force is applied. weight of which is alſo=m, Fig. 8. Plate I. Let the bottom of We have rather been copious in the deſcription of this appa- the box A be placed on a level with o on the ſcale, the whole maſs ratus, as it is a new improvement, and very curiouſly illuſtrates being as deſcribed above=63 m, perfectly balanced in equilibrio. thoſe principles of motion, which had hitherto been only eſtabliſhed Now let the rod, the weight of which =m, be placed on the by theory: at leaſt, we do not recollect any invention before this upper ſurface of A; this body will deſcend along the ſcale preciſely that could afford ſuch a ſtriking proof of the Principles of Gravi- in the ſame manner as when the moving force was applied in the tation and Motion Accelerated. pen- 3 I 2 TO000 SYSTEM OF MEDICINE. TH HISTORY. virtues or powers to her, which are her ſervants, and by means of THE art of Medicine is in itſelt ſo noble, and ſo generally uſe. which ſhe performs all her operations in the bodies of animals; ful to mankind, that many have thought it came originally they diſtribute the blood, ſpirits, and heat, through all parts of the from God by expreſs revelation; and, accordingly we find the body, which by this means receive life and ſenſation. And in heathens with one voice afcribing the origin of the medicinal art other places he tells us, that it is this faculty which gives nouriſh- to their gods. But it is evidently of human invention; and man ment, preſervation, and growth to all things. kind were naturally led to it from caſual obſervations on the dif The health or fickneſs of the body he reckoned to conſiſt in the eaſes to which they found themſelves ſubject. At what time me ſtate of the four humours. Theſe are the blood, phlegm, the yel. dicine was firſt reduced to rules, and began to be practiſed as an low bile, and the melancholy or black bile. The blood, he ſays, art is not known. The moſt ancient phyſicians we read of were is naturally hot and moiſt, of colour red, and ſweet to the taſte : thoſe who embalmed the patriarch Jacob by order of his ſon Jo- the phlegm is cold and moiſt, white, viſcid, and ſaltiſh; the bile feph. The ſacred writer ſtyles theſe phyſicians ſervants to Jo- yellow, dry, viſcid, bitter, and drawn from the fat part of the ſeph: from whence we may be aſſured that they were not prieſts, blood or aliments; the melancholy, black bile, he ſaid, was cold, as the firſt phyſicians are generally ſuppoſed to have been : for in and dry, very viſcid, windy and fermentative. On theſe four that age we know the Egyptian prieſts were in ſuch high favour, | humours, according to him, depend health and ſickneſs. that they retained their liberty, when through a public calamity, Of all the cauſes of diſeaſes, mentioned by Hippocrates, all the reſt of the people were made ſlaves to the prince. the moſt general are diet and air. On the ſubject of diet he What ſeems moſt probable on this ſubject is, that religion and has compoſed ſeveral books, and in the choice of this he was medicine came to be mixed together only in conſequence of that exactly careful; and the more ſo, as his practice turned almoſt degeneracy into ignorance and ſuperſtition, which ſome time or wholly upon it. He alſo conſidered the air very much; he or other hath taken place among all nations. The Egyptians, we examined what winds blew ordinarily or extraordinarily ; he know, came at laſt to be funk in the moſt ridiculous and abſurd conſidered the irregularity of the ſeaſons, the riſing and ſetting ſuperſtition; and then indeed it is no wonder to find their prieſts of ſtars, or the time of certain conſtellations; alſo the time commencing phyſicians, and mingling charms, incantations, &c. of the folſtices and of the equinoxes; thoſe days in his opinion, with their remedies. That this was the caſe, though long after the producing great alterations in certain diſtempers. But what hath days of Joſeph, we are very certain ; and indeed it ſeems as natu chiefly contributed to procure the vaſt reſpect generally paid to ral for ignorance and barbariſm to combine religion with phyſic, as Hippocrates, is his induſtry in obſerving the moſt minute circum- it is for a civilized and enlightened people to keep them ſeparate. Itances of diſeaſes, and his exactneſs in nicely deſcribing every Hence we fee, that among all modern barbarians their prieſts or thing that happened before, and every accident that appeared at conjurors are their only phyſicians. the ſame time with them; as alſo what appeared to give eaſe, and The Greeks too had ſeveral perſons to whom they attributed the what to increaſe the malady, which is what we call writing the hif- invention of phyſic, particularly Prometheus, Apollo, or Pæan, tory of a difeofe. and Æfculapius; which laſt was the moſt celebrated of any. But Hippocrates alſo enquired into the ſtate of the pulſe, or the beat- here we muſt obſerve, that as the Greeks were a very warlike peo- ing of the arteries. According to Galen he was the firſt phyfia ple, their phyſic ſeems to have been little elſe than what is now cian that made uſe of the word pulſe in the ſenſe in which it is called ſurgery, or the cure of wounds, fractures, &c. Hence, now commonly taken; that is to ſay, for the natural and ordinary Æſculapius, and his pupils Chiron, Machaon, and Podalirius, are beating of the arteries. For the moſt ancient phyſicians, and even celebrated by Homer only for their ſkill in curing theſe, without Hippocrates himſelf, for a long time, by this word, underſtood the the leaſt inention of their attempting the cures of internal diſeaſes. | violent pulſation that is felt in an inflamed part, without putting We are not, however to ſuppoſe, that they confined themſelves the fingers to it. It is obſerved, however, by Galen, and other entirely to ſurgery. They no doubt would occaſionally preſcribe phyſicians, that Hippocrates touches on the ſubject of the pulſe for internal diſorders ; but as they were moſt frequently converſant more ſlightly than any other on which he treats. But that our with wounds, we may naturally ſuppoſe the greateſt part of their celebrated phyſician underſtood ſomething even on this ſubject, is fkill to have conſiſted in knowing how to cure theſe. eaſily gathered from ſeveral paſſages in his writings; as when he The practice of theſe ancient Greek phyſicians, notwithſtand- obſerves, that in acute fevers the pulſe is very quick and very ing the praiſes beſtowed on them by their poets, ſeems to have great ; and when he makes mention, in the ſame place, of trem- been very limited, and in ſome caſes even pernicious. All the bling pulſes, and thoſe that beat flowly; when he obſerves that in external remedies applied to Homer's wounded heroes were fo ſome diſeaſes incident to women, when the pulſe ſtrikes the finger mentations, while inwardly their phyſicians gave them wine, | faintly, and in a languiſhing manner, it is a ſign of approaching ſometimes mingled with cheeſe ſcraped down. This laſt we death. know muſt have been pernicious in many caſes by increaſing the From this account of Hippocrates, it will appear, that he was inflammation: and it is very probable, that ſuch an improper ex not ſo much taken up with reaſoning on the phænomena of diſ- hibition was merely a conſequence of their ignorance; as we ſee eaſes, as of reporting them. He was content to obſerve theſe old women in this country will give ardent ſpirits to thoſe who phænomena exactly, to diſtinguiſh diſeaſes by them, and judged are ſeized with inflammatory fevers, in order to prevent their pa of the event by comparing them exactly together. For his ſkill in tients from fainting: A great deal of their phyſic alſo conſiſted in prognoſtics he was indeed very remarkable, as we have already charms, incantations, amulets, &c. of which, as they are com mentioned, inſomuch that he and his pupils were looked upon by mon to all ſuperſtitious and ignorant nations, it is ſuperfluous to the vulgar as prophets. What adds very much to his reputation is, take any farther notice. Among the Greeks, however, Æſcula that he lived in an age when phyſic was altogether buried in ſuper- pius, as he was reckoned the moſt eminent practitioner of his ſtition, and yet he did not ſuffer himſelf to be carried away by it; time, ſo his name continued to be revered after his death; he was on the contrary, on many occalions, he expreſſes his abhorrence ranked amongſt the gods; and the principal knowledge of the me of it. One of his principal maxims was this, That, to preſerve dicinal art remained with his family to the time of Hippocrates, health, we ought not to overcharge ourſelves with too much eat- who reckoned himſelf the ſeventeenth in a lineal deſcent from Æfing, nor neglect the uſe of exerciſe and labour. culapius, and who was truly the firſt who treated of medicine in a Here we cannot help taking notice of the prodigious diſparity regular and rational manner. between the delicacy of the people in our days, and in thoſe of At laſt the Grecian philoſophers attempted to introduce parti- | Hippocrates: for he takes great pains to tell the difference between cular theories into the medicinal art. Pythagoras, who lived about the fleſh of a dog, a fox, a horſe, and an aſs; which he would not the both Olympiad, and founded the Italic ſchool, is the firſt we have done, if at that time they had not been uſed for victuals, at read of who began to take theſe things into conſideration. leaſt by the common people. With regard to drink, he takes pains This may be a ſufficient ſpecimen of the antient philoſophic me to diſtinguiſh the good waters from the bad He adviſes to mix dicine, of which we ſhall now take no farther notice, but proceed wine with an equal quantity of water: and this he ſays, is the to give a brief account of the ſtate in which the art was left by juft proportion ; by uling which the wine will expel what is hurt- Hippocrates, whoſe name has been celebrated through ſo many tul to the body, and the water will ſerve to temper the acrimony ages. According to Soranus, Hippocrates was born in the iſland of of the humours. Venery, in his opinion, is wholeſome, provided Cos, in the firſt year of the 88th Olympiad; but others make him people conſult their ſtrength, and do not purſue it to excefs; older, ſo that the exact tine in which he lived cannot be aſcertained. which he finds fault with on all occaſions, and would have it avoid- The works attributed to him are very voluminous, but evi ed alſo in relation to ſleep and watching. In his writings are like- dently done by different perſons, as many of them are contradic wiſe to be found ſeveral remarks concerning good and bad air ; tory to each other, ſo that it is difficult to determine thoſe which and he makes it appear that the good or bad diſpoſition of this ele- are really his writings, and thoſe which are not. Some indeed ment does not depend ſolely on the difference of the climate, but are ſo ſceptical on this head, as to deny that we have proper evi on the ſituation of every place in particular. He ſpeaks alſo of dence that any of thoſe works really belong to Hippocrates: in the good and bad effects of the paſſions, and would have us uſe a moſt of the writings of Hippocrates, we find a general principle great deal of moderation in regard to them. Hippocrates gives acknowledged which is called nature. To this principle he alſo the following inſtruction : “ We ought, (ſays he) to mind with afcribes a mighty power. “Nature (ſays he) is of herſelf fufficient a great deal of attention what gives eaſe, and what creates pain; to every animal. She performs every thing that is neceſſary to what is eaſily ſupported, and what cannot be endured.” We them, without needing the leaſt inſtruction from any one how to ought not to do any thing rafhly; but ought to pauſe, or wait do it.” Upon this footing, as if nature had been a principle en without doing any thing: by this way, if you do the patient no dowed with knowledge, he gives her the title of juft, and aſcribes good, you will at leaſt do him no hurt. Theſe are the principal and MECH A NIC S. Taya own. and moſt general maxims of the practice of Hippocrates, and which In one of his books entitled, “Of the eſtabliſhment of proceed upon the ſuppoſition laid down at the beginning, viz. that medicine,” he defines the art to be one which teaches to preſerve nature cures diſeaſes. We next proceed to conſider particularly health and cure diſeaſes. In another book, however, he propoſes the remedies employed by him, which will ſerve to give us further the following definition: “ Medicine (ſays he) is a ſcience which inſtructions concerning his practice. teaches what is ſound, and what is not ſo; and what is of an indif- Diet was the firſt, the principal, and oftentimes the only remedy ferent nature, or holds a medium between what is found and what made uſe of by this great phyſician to anſwer the greateſt part of is the reverſe.” the intentions above-mentioned. That he ſpoke the truth in this His method of cure differed little from that of Hippocrates : but reſpect is plain from what we have already obſerved concerning the from the ſpecimen of Galen's method of teaching the medicinal treatment of the wounded heroes by the pupils of Æſculapius. art, it is evident that his ſyſtem was little elſe than a heap of fpe- There were many diſeafes for which he judged the bath was a culations, diſtinctions, and reaſonings ; whereas that of Hippo- proper remedy; and he takes notice of all the circumſtances that crates was founded immediately upon facts, which he had either are neceſſary in order to cauſe the patient to receive benefit from it. obferved himſelf, or had from the obſervations of others. In con- In chronical diſternpers Hippocrates approved very much of ex ſequence of the eſtabliſhment of ſuch a ſyſtem, the medicinal art, erciſe, though he did not allow it in acute ones : but even in theſe as well as others during the dark ages of popery, came to be re- he did not think that a patient ought always to lie a-bed; but tells duced to a heap of quibbling diſtinctions and metaphyſical non- us, that « we muſt ſometimes puſh the timorous out of bed, and ſenſe. After the days of Galen, however, the knowledge of medi- rouze up the lazy." cine did not immediately decline. Dr. Freind is of opinion that it When our phyſician found that diet and exerciſe were not ſuf continued to advance till the year 6oo. He cenſures Mr. Le Clerc ficient to eaſe nature of a burden of corrupted humours, he was for placing the phyſicians Oribafius, Aëtius, Alexander, and Paulus obliged to make uſe of other means, of which purgation was the Ægineta, all without any Ægineta, all without any diſtinction, in the fourth century: and principal one. ſtill more for placing Diocles Caryſtius 500 years after Chriſt, Blood-letting was another method of evacuation pretty much when he ſhould, according to him, have been placed 300 years uſed by Hippocrates. Another aim he had in this, beſides the before him. . mere evacuation, was to divert or recal the courſe of the blood Oribafius flouriſhed about the year 360, and was phyſician to when he imagined it was going where it ought not. A third end the emperor Julian. He ſpeaks very fully of the effects of bleeding of bleeding was to procure a free motion of the blood and ſpirits. by way of ſcarification, a thing little taken notice of by former In a pleuriſy he directs to take blood from the arm of the ſide af writers. fected; and for the ſame reaſon in pains of the head, he directs Aëtius lived very near the end of the fifth, or in the beginning the veins of the noſe and forehead to be opened. Theſe directions, of the ſixth century. Many paſſages in his writings ferve to however, we now know to be almoſt entirely ſuperfluous, and to ſhew us how much the actual and potential cautery were uſed by have proceeded from Hippocrates's ignorance of the blood's cir the phyſicians of that age. He alſo takes notice of the worms culation. bred in different parts of the body called dracunculi, which were When bleeding and purging, which were the principal and unknown to Galen. He feeems alſo to be the firſt Greek writer moſt general means uſed by Hippocrates for taking off a plethora, among the Chriſtians who gives us any ſpecimen of medicinal proved inſufficient for that purpoſe, he had recourſe to diuretics ſpells and charms; ſuch as that of a finger of St. Blaſius for re- and fudorifics. moving a bone which ſticks in the throat, and another in relation Of the external remedies preſcribed by Hippocrates, fomentations to a fiſtula. He gives a remedy for the gout, which he calls the were the chief. Theſe were of two kinds. The one was a ſort grand drier: the patient is to uſe it for a whole year, and obſerve of bath, in which the patient fat in a veſſel full of a decoction of the following diet each month. “In September, he muſt eat and ſimples appropriated to his malady; ſo that the part affected was drink milk: in October, he muſt eat garlic: in November ab- This was chiefly uſed in diſtempers of ſtain from bathing: in December, he muſt eat no cabbage: in the womb, of the arms, the bladder, the reins, and generally all the January, he is to take a glaſs of pure wine in the morning: in parts below the diaphragm. The ſecond way of fomenting was, February, to eat no beet: in March, to mix ſweet things both in to take warm water and put it into a ſkin or bladder, or even into eatables and drinkables : in April, not to eat horſe-radiſh: nor in a copper or earthen veſſel, and to apply it to the part affected. May, the fiſh called Polypus: in June to drink cold water in a morn- From preſcribing the bath it is evident that Hippocrates minutely ing; in July to avoid venery: and laſtly, in Auguft to eat no mal- obſerved the effects of the ſeveral remedies he preſcribed; and lows." This may ſufficiently ſhow the quackery of thoſe times, particularly in this inſtance of infuſing the virtues of his medicines and how fuperftition was beginning to mix itſelf with the art. through the abſorbent Syſtem. Though he had not a knowledge Alexander, who Aouriſhed in the reign of Juſtinian, is a more of this ſet of veſſels, which are but of late diſcovery, it more evi original author than either of the two former. He confines him- dently points out the merit of this great man, as he diſcovered the ſelf directly to the deſcribing the ſigns of diſeaſes, and the methods effect without knowing the cauſe. of cure, without meddling with anatomy, the materia medica, or Gargles, a kind of fomentation for the mouth, were alſo known ſurgery, as all the reſt did. to Hippocrates. In the quinſey he uſed a gargle made of marjo Paulus was born in the iſland Ægina, and lived in the 7th cen- ram, favory, celery, mint, and nitre, boiled with water and a little tury. He tranſcribes a great deal from Alexander and other phy- vinegar. When this was ſtrained, they added honey to it, and ficians. His deſcriptions are ſhort and full. He treats particu- waſhed their mouths frequently with it. 'Oils and ointments were | larly of women's diſorders; and ſeems to be the firſt inſtance upon likewiſe much uſed by Hippocrates, with a view to mollify and record of a profeſſed man-midwife, for ſo he was called by the Ara- abate pain, to ripen boils, reſolve tumours, refreſh after wearineſs, bians; and accordingly he begins his book with the diſorders in- make the body ſupple, &c. It is worth our obſervation, that the cident to pregnant women. He treats alſo very fully of ſurgery; compound medicines of Hippocrates were but very few, and com and gives fome directions, according to Dr. Freind, not to be poſed only of four or five ingredients at moſt; and that he not found in the moſt antient writers. only underſtood pharmacy, or the art of compounding medicines, With this phyſician cloſes the period of the Greek claſſical phyſi- but prepared ſuch as he uſed himſelf, or cauſed his ſervants to cians. As for the weſtern parts of the world, every art and ſcience had prepare them in his houſe by his directions. been long loſt in them, by the inundation of Goths and other barba- The firſt phyſician of eminence who differed conſiderably in rous nations who over-ran the Roman empire. The Arabians, who his practice from Hippocrates was Praxagoras. From fome au about this time over-ran the eaſtern parts of the world, were at firſt thors we learn that he accounted for diſeaſes from the qualities of as great enemies to learning of all kinds as the Goths; but at length the humours, of which he reckoned ten forts, whereas Hippocrates they applied themſelves to the ſtudy of ſeveral ſciences, particu- ſuppoſed only four. larly medicine. They were for the moſt part, indeed, only copiers About the 131ſt year after Chriſt, in the reign of the emperor of the Greeks; we are, however, indebted to them for ſome im- Adrian, lived the celebrated Galen, a native of Pergamus, whoſe provements. They were the firſt who introduced chymical reme- name makes ſuch a conſpicuous figure in the hiſtory of phyfic. dies, though of theſe they uſed but few, nor did they make any con- At this time the dogmatic, empiric, methodic, and other ſects, had fiderable progreſs in the chymical art. Anatomy was not in the each their abettors. The methodics were held in great eſteem, leaſt improved by them, nor did ſurgery receive any advancement and looked upon to be ſuperior to the dogmatics, who were till the time of Albucacis, who lived, probably, in the 12th century. ſtrangely divided among themſelves, ſome of them following Hip- | They added a great deal to botany and the materia medica, by pocrates, others Eraſiſtratus, and others Aſclepiades. Galen the introduction of new drugs, of the aromatic kind eſpecially, undertook the reforination of medicine, and ſeems to have been of from the eaſt, many of which are of confiderable ufe. They alſo that ſect which was called eclectic, from their chooſing out of dif found out the way of making ſugar ; and by help of that, fyrups; ferent authors what they eſteemed good in them, without being which two new materials are of great uſe in mixing up compound particularly attached to any one more than the reſt. This decla- medicines, ration he indeed ſets out with; but, notwithſtanding this, he fol With regard to their practice, in ſome few particulars they de- lows Hippocrates much more than any of the reſt. Though be viated from the Greeks. They deviated from Hippocrates, in fore his time ſeveral phyſicians had commented on the works of particular, in one very trivial circumſtance, which produced a Hippocrates, yet Galen pretends that none of them had under terrible controverſy. The queſtion was, Whether blood in a ſtood his meaning beſides himſelf. His firſt attempt therefore was pleuriſy ought to be drawn from the arm of the affected fide, to explain the works of Hippocrates; with which view he wrote or the oppofite? Hippocrates had directed it to be drawn from the a great deal, and after this ſet about compoſing a fyſtem of his arm of the affected fide; but the Arabians, following ſome other ancient MEDICINE. an ancient phyſicians, ordered it to be drawn from the oppoſite one. the capital and vital function of the body, and that upon it the Such was the ignorance of thoſe ages, that the univerſity of Sala life and health did immediately depend. The blood was con- manca in Spain made a decree, that no one ſhould dare to let ſidered as it were the primum mobile of the whole body; and to blood but in the contrary arm; and endeavoured to procure an ſomething in the blood all the diſorders to which the human edict from the emperor Charles V. to ſecond it; alledging that the race are liable, were thought to be owing. About this time other method was of no leſs pernicious conſequence to medicine, alſo, the laws of mechanics began to be better and more gene- than Luther's hereſy had been to religion. rally underſtood; and various theories were formed with a de- By reaſon of the general decay of learning in the weſtern parts ſign to account for all the phenomena of the human body upon of the world, the Greek writers became totally forgot, becauſe mathematical or mechanical principles. Calculations were made nobody could read the language; and the Arabians, though concerning the diameters of the veſſels, their gradual dimi- moſtly copiers from them, enjoyed all the reputation that was nution, the friction of the blood againſt their ſides, the force due to the others. The Arabian phyſic was introduced into of the heart, &c. Thus were mathematics introduced into Europe very early, with the moſt extravagant applauſe: and not phyſic, and every thing relative to the human body was thought only this, but other branches of their learning came into repute to be performed by the mere force of ſuch mechanical pow- in the weſt; inſomuch that in the 11th century, the ſtudies of ers as we are acquainted with, and whoſe effects we obſerve in natural philoſophy and the liberal arts were called the ſtudies of pumps, ſteam-engines, and other hydraulic machines. the Saracens. This was owing partly to the cruſades under The conſequences of this doctrine, however, foon deſtroyed the taken againſt them by the European princes; and partly to the principles on which it was founded; and ſuch prodigious powers ſettlement of the Moors in Spain, and the intercourſe they and were attributed to the action of ſome parts of the body, as were other Arabians had with the Italians. much more than ſufficient to deſtroy the texture of the parts From this time to the end of the 15th and beginning of the themſelves. Upon the whole, the immediate conſequences of 16th century, the hiſtory of phyſic furniſhes us with no intereſting Dr. Harvey's moſt important diſcovery, were, that all the vain and particulars. This period, however, is famous for the introduction fanciful theories of the ancients were thrown afide, and others of chymiſtry into medicine, and the diſcovery of three new diſtem more rational eſtabliſhed in their place. Such were the progreſs pers, the ſweating ſickneſs, the venereal diſeaſe, and the ſcurvy. and the general principles and modes of practice which prevailed The ſweating ſickneſs began in 1483, in the army of Henry VII. in former times. With reſpect to thoſe of more modern date, upon his landing at Milfordhaven, and ſpread itſelf at London they are ſo various and numerous that as we cannot enter into from the 21ſt of September to the end of October. It returned a detail of them, conſiſtently with the limits of our work, we refer here five times and always in ſummer; firſt in 1485, then in 1506, our readers to the theories of profeſſors, and proceed to point out afterwards in 1517, when it was ſo violent that it killed many in the moſt approved methods of practice, according to modern uſe. the ſpace of three hours, ſo that numbers of the nobility died, and of the coinmonalty in ſeveral towns often the one half periſhed. PRACTICE OF MEDICINE: It appeared the fourth time in 1528, and then proved mortal in fix Or the Description and Cure of the principal Diſeaſes incident hours; many of the courtiers died of it, and Henry VIII. himſelf to Human Nature, arranged in Systematic Order. was in danger. In 1529, and only then, it infeſted the Nether Sauvages was the firſt who attempted to arrange diſeaſes accord- lands and Germany, in which laſt country it did much miſchief. ing to the plan ſuggeſted by Sydenham; and his work ſtill conti- The laſt return of it was in 1551. nues the only one that merits the title of Methodical Noſology. For In the beginning of the 16th century, the famous chymiſt Pa- though Linnæus, Vogel, Cullen and Sagar, have ſucceſſively en- racelſus introduced a new ſyſtem into medicine, founded on the deavoured to improve his method of claflification, they have con- principles of his art. The Galenical ſyſtem had prevailed till tented themſelves with an enumeration and arrangement of the his time; but their practice had greatly degenerated, and was be different genera, without entering into their deſcription and cure: come quite trifling and frivolous. The phyſicians rejected the ſo that, though we have ſince had various Schemes of Arrangement, uſe of opium, mercury, and other efficacious remedies. Paracel we have had, properly ſpeaking, no complete Syſtem of Noſology; fus, who made uſe of theſe, had therefore greatly the advantage that is, no complete Courſe of Medicine according to any of theſe over them; and now all things relating to medicine were explained arrangements . Preſuming, therefore, that a Practice formed on imaginary chymical principles. It will eaſily be conceived upon the moſt approved Claſlification, in imitation of the work of that a practice founded in this manner could be no other than the Sauvages, might be eſteemed an acquiſition by our readers, we moſt dangerous quackery. At this time, however, it was neceſ have endeavoured to execute that taſk in ſuch a manner, as to ex- fary; for now a new diſeaſe over-ran the world, and threatened hibit the moſt approved methods of treatment, with the lateſt diſ- greater deſtruction than almoſt all the old ones put together, both coveries and improvements in the healing art. by the violence of its ſymptoms, and its baffling the moſt powerful remedies at that time known. This was the venereal diſeaſe, CLASS I. PYREXIÆ; which is ſaid to have been imported from the Weſt-Indies by the Or FEBRILE DISEASES IN GENERAL, companions of Chriſtopher Columbus. Its firſt remarkable ap- ORDER I. FEBRES. pearance was at the fiege of Naples in 1494, from whence it was GENUS I. TERTIANA; the TERTIAN, or THIRD DAY FEVER. foon after propagated through Europe, Aſia, and Africa. The fymptoms with which it made the attack at that time were exceed Deſcription. This diſeaſe comes on in the morning, or from ingly violent, much more ſo than they are at preſent; and conſe breakfaſt to dinner time. It begins with a remarkable ſhivering, quently were utterly unconquerable by the Galeniſts. The quacks increaſing frequently to a kind of convulſive ſhaking of the limbs. and chymiſts, who boldly ventured on mercury, though they no The extremities are always cold, ſometimes remarkably ſo. The doubt deſtroyed numbers by their exceſſive uſe of it, yet fhewed cold for the moſt part is firſt perceived about the lumbar regions, that a remedy for this terrible diſtemper was at laſt found out, and and from thence aſcending along the ſpine, turns toward the pit that a proper method of treating it might ſoon be fallen upon. of the ſtomach. Sometimes it begins in the firſt joint of the Shortly after, the Weſt-Indian ſpecific, guaiacum, was diſcovered: fingers and tip of the noſe. Sometimes it attacks only a particular the materia medica was enriched with that and many other valua part of the body, as one of the arms, the ſide of the head, &c. ble medicines, both from the Eaſt and Weſt-Indies; which con This cold is preceded by a heavy and fleepy torpor, languor and tributed confiderably to the improvement of the practice of phyfic. laſlitude, which we are partly to aſcribe to real weakneſs, and The ſcurvy likewiſe began to ſpread during the courſe of this cen partly to mere lazineſs. To theſe fymptoms ſucceed yawning and tury. The mariners of Saxony called it ſcharbock, which in their ſtretching; after which the cold comes on as above deſcribed, not language, fignifies inflammation ; and this it ſeems was one way in unfrequently with a pain of the back, and a troubleſome ſenſation which it at firſt appeared, and terminated often in a gangrene. It of tenſion in the precordia and hypochondria. To this fucceed broke out among the Portugueſe ſailors in ſome of their voyages nauſea and vomiting; and the more genuine the diſeaſe, the more to the Eaſt-Indies, certainly does the vomiting come on, by which a great deal of The revival of learning, which now took place throughout Eu- tough mucous matter, and ſometimes bilious ſtuff or indigeſted rope, the appearance of theſe new diſtempers, and the natural food, is evacuated during the firſt paroxyſms. In ſome there is fondneſs of mankind for novelty, contributed greatly to promote only a violent ſtraining to vomit, without bringing up any thing: the advancement of medicine as well as other ſciences. ſometimes, inſtead of theſe ſymptoms, a diarrhoea occurs; and this It was not, however, till the year 1628 that a foundation was chiefly in weak, phlegmatic, and aged people, or where an indi- laid for a ſolid and rational ſyſtem. This was done by Dr. Har- | geſted mucous faburra has long remained in the primæ viæ. vey, who diſcovered the circulation of the blood; which may juſtly When theſe ſymptoms have continued for an hour or two, the be reckoned the moſt capital diſcovery that ever was made with cold begins to go off, and is fucceeded by a laſſitude, languor, and regard to the practice of medicine. Aaccidity of the whole body, but chiefly in the limbs, with an un- Before this time every phyſician had ſome kind of theory of his eaſy foreneſs as if the parts had been bruiſed; excepting in thoſe own, yet, as all theſe were built upon principles ín themſelves er caſes where the nauſea continues for a longer time. After this roneous, and inconſiſtent with what has been fince diſcovered con- languor a heat comes on, the increaſe of which is generally flow, cerning the ſtructure of the human body, they are now quite un but ſometimes otherwiſe, with pain of the head, thirſt, and bitter- worthy of notice. But, on the diſcovery of the circulation of the neſs in the mouth. The pulſe is quick and unequal; fometimes blood, matters took a different turn, and phyſicians began to aim beating 130 ſtrokes in a minute. As ſoon as this heat hath at eſtabliſhing a theory of medicine upon more folid and conſiſtent abated, a little moiſture or ſweat is obſerved to break forth; not principles. It was generally agreed, that the circulation was always indeed in the firſt, but always in the ſucceeding paroxyſms, * 6 T and N° 1OO. MEDICINE. and the urine lets fall a quantity of lateritious ſediment. The is ſufficient to prevent the return of another paroxyſm. But this whole paroxyſm is ſcarce ever over in leſs than fix hours, more is not always the caſe; for a ſevere fit will often attack a patient frequently eight, and in violent caſes extends to twelve hours; but who hath taken ſuch a quantity. When this happens, the pati- that which exceeds 12 hours is to be reckoned a fpurious kind, ent ought to perſevere during the following intermiſſions, with an and approaching to the nature of continued fevers. All theſe increaſe of the doſe, till five or fix ounces at leaſt have been taken. ſymptoms, however, are repeated every third day, in ſuch a man The medicine alſo ought not to be omitted as ſoon as one fit is ner that the patient is quite free from fever for at leaſt 24 hours. ſtopped, but ſhould be continued in a ſmaller doſe for at leaſt ten the paroxyſms return much about the ſame time, though ſoine days or a fortnight. Even for ſeveral months after the diſeaſe is. times a little ſooner or later. entirely removed, it would be adviſeable to take a little bark oc- Cauſes of this Diſeaſe, and Perſons ſubject to it. The genuine caſionally in damp weather, or during an eaſterly wind, to prevent tertian attacks men rather than women, young people rather than a relapſe: Where the intervals between the fits are ſhort, as in old; the latter being more ſubject to anomalous tertians. It quotidians and double tertians, from one to two drachms of it likewiſe ſeizes the luſty and active, rather than the lazy and indo- ought to be taken every two or three hours. lent. Thoſe, however, who are very ſenſible and apt to nauſeate their meat, fall eaſily into a tertian fever. The cauſe, according The cauſe, according Genus II. QUARTANA; the QUARTAN or Fourth Day to Dr. Cullen, is the miaſma of marſhy places, and that only. FEVER. Other phyſicians have taken in many more cauſes, almoſt every Deſcription. The genuine quartan, according to Juncker, keeps thing indeed which debilitates the body : but the Doctor denies its form more exactly than other intermittents; ſcarcely coming that any of theſe, though they may diſpoſe the body for receiving on at any other time than four or five in the afternoon. The cold the diſeaſe, or may augment it, can by any means produce it is leſs violent than in the tertian; but is very perceptible, though without the concurrence of the marſh miaſma. it doth not proceed to ſuch a height as to make the limbs ſhake; Prognoſis. The genuine ſimple tertian, unleſs improper medi and continues for about two hours. It is preceded and accom- cines are adminiſtered, is generally very eaſily cured; nay, the vul panied by a languor both of body and mind. There is ſeldom any gar reckon it of ſuch a ſalutary nature, that after it they imagine vomiting unleſs when the ſtomach is manifeſtly overloaded with a perſon becomes more ſtrong and healthy than before. Hippo-aliment; neither is there any diarrhæa, but the belly in general crates hath juſtly obſerved; that theſe fevers terminate of their own is rather bound, not only on the days on which the paroxyſm takes accord after ſeven or nine paroxyſms. Juncker tells us, that it place, but alſo on the intermediate ones. The heat, which ſlowly frequently terminates before the ſeventh paroxyſm, but rarely be ſucceeds the cold, is leſs troubleſome to the patient by its violence fore the fourth. He alſo denies that any thing critical is to be ob than by the uneaſy dryneſs of the ſkin, which is ſcarce ever moiſt- ſerved in its going off: but in this he differs from Vogel, who tells ened with ſweat. This heat rarely continues longer than four or us, that the urine, for ſome days after the fever is quite gone off, ſix hours, unleſs perhaps at the firſt or ſecond paroxyſm. It is appears ſlimy, and lets fall much ſediment. The latter alſo in- accompanied alſo with a giddineſs and dull pain of the head. On forms us, that beſides the common criſis by ſweat and urine, the the termination of the paroxyſm, the patient returns to a middling tertian hath one peculiar to itſelf, namely, dry ſcabby ulcers break ſtate of health, and continues in the ſame for the reſt of the inter- ing out upon the lips. Theſe ſometimes appear about the third mediate days; only there remains ſomewhat of a loathing, and a or fourth paroxyſm; and then we may venture to foretel that the deep-ſeated pain, as if the perſon was all over bruiſed or broken, diſeaſe will go off ſpontaneouſly after the ſeventh. But though which kind of ſenſation the phyſicians are wont to call ofteocopus. the diſeaſe is never dangerous, in cold climates at leaſt, when The fit returns every fourth day, and that preciſely at the fame properly treated; yet the improper uſe of hot and ſtimulating me hours, being rarely poſtponed. dicines may change it into a continued fever, more or leſs dan Cauſes of, and Perſons ſubject to this Diſorder. The ſame general gerous according to the quantity of medicines taken and the con cauſes concur in producing this as in other intermittents, namely, îtitution of the patient; in which caſe the prognoſis muſt be re marſhy miaſmata, and whatever can diſpoſe the body to be eally gulated by the particular ſymptoms which occur. affected by them. Studious people, and thoſe of a melancholic The treatment of all genuine intermittents, whether tertians, turn are ſaid to be particularly ſubject to quartans; but what are quotidians, or quartans, being preciſely the ſame, the general me the immediate cauſes which produce a return of the fits every fourth thod of cure applicable to them all may be here given, to which day, inſtead of every day, or every third day, muft no doubt lie for it will be eaſy to refer when we come to deſcribe the others. ever concealed, as depending upon the ſecret and inexplicable me- In treating intermittent fevers, phyſicians have formed indica chaniſm of the human body. tions of cure according to their different theories. The followers Prognoſis. A ſimple quartan, where there is no reaſon to dread of Boerhaave, Stahl, &c. who imagined that the diſeaſe proceeded any induration of the viſcera, may very certainly admit of a cure ; from a lentor or other diſorder in the blood and juices, always and the prognoſis can never be unfavourable, unleſs in caſes of ex- thought it neceſſary to correct and evacuate theſe peccant humours treme weakneſs, or where the diſtemperhath been unſkilfully treated. by emetics and purgatives before they attempted to ſtop the diſ Cure. This does not in the leaſt differ from that which hath eaſe by the bark or any other medicine. The bark indeed ſeems been laid down for the ſimple tertian, and which it is therefore to be held in very little eſtimation by them; ſince Vogel affirms, needleſs to repeat here. that this medicine, inſtead of deſerving to have the preference of To the tertian or quartan fevers alſo belong the Erraticæ of au- all other febrifuge medicines, ought rather to be ranked among thors. As all thoſe abovementioned differ only in the flight cir- the loweſt of the whole; and for this reaſon he aſcribes the cures cumſtance of the type from the intermitting and remitting tertians hereafter mentioned, by the external application of the bark, en already deſcribed at length, it is unneceſſary here to take up time tirely to nature. in deſcribing every minute circumſtance related by phyſicians The circumſtances which may eſpecially prevent the fulfilling concerning them, eſpecially as it could contribute nothing towards of theſe two indications, and therefore give occaſion to the third, the laying down a better method of cure than what hath been al- are, a phlogiſtic diatheſis prevailing in the ſyſtem, and congeſtions ready ſuggeſted. fixed in the abdominal viſcera. The firſt muſt be removed by blood-letting and the antiphlogiſtic regimen; the ſecond, by vo- Genus III. QUOTIDIANA; the QUOTIDIAn or DAILY FEVER. miting and purging. It is not, however, very common for intermittents to be cured Deſcription. This kind of fever generally comes on about fix by medicines given during the time of the paroxyſm. The bark or ſeven o'clock in the morning, beginning with a conſiderable de- is the medicine to which we are chiefly to truſt. Our phyſicians gree of cold and ſhivering, which laſts for about an hour ; and is are now generally agreed, that very little preparation of the body often accompanied with vomiting, or ſpontaneous diarrhea, or is requiſite previous to the adminiſtration of the bark, in inter both. It is ſucceeded by a pretty ſtrong heat, accompanied with mitting fevers. It is ſufficient to cleanſe the ſtomach and alimen thirft, reſtleſſneſs, and pain of the head. When the heat abates tary canal by an emetic or cathartic. Where the diſeaſe is attended a little, a ſpontaneous ſweat commonly follows, and the whole with ſickneſs or nauſea, fix or eight grains of ipecacuanha may be paroxyſm rarely exceeds fix hours. It returns, however, every given: but where there are no ſymptoms of this kind, it is bet day almoſt always at the ſame hour, unleſs it is evidently diſturbed. ter to give a ſtomachic purge, as an ounce or two of tinctura ſacra, Cauſes of, and Perſons fubje£t to, the Diſeaſe. - The ſame general or a few grains of pil. Rufi . Theſe are to be adminiſtered in the cauſes are to be afligned for the quotidian as for other intermittents. intermiſſion, immediately after the paroxyſm hath ceaſed, ſo that This kind occurs but rarely: and is ſaid to attack people of a their operation may be over before its return; and after their ope- phlegmatic temperament rather than any other; alſo old people ration is compleated, the bark may be given with perfect ſafety. rather than young, and women rather than men. The prognoſis. If the paroxyſm be moderate, we need not have recourſe to the and method of cure are not different from thoſe of tertians and bark till another fit hath manifeſted the true nature of the diſeaſe: quartans, but if it proves ſevere, there is often an abſolute neceſſity for ad- CONTINUED FEVERS. miniſtering the bark on the firſt intermiſſion of the fever, and even with hardly any preparation of the patient. GENUS IV. SYNOCHA. The bark hath been often obſerved to fail in removing inter Deſcription. The fynocha, or diary fever, begins without any mittents, from not continuing the uſe of it for a fufficient length of ſenſation of cold or thivering, unleſs there is ſome internal time, from adminiſtering it in too ſmall a doſe, or from giving it inflammation, or the ſmall pox or meaſles happen to be preſent. in an improper form. It was a prevailing opinion, that an ounce, A continual heat without any intermiſſion conſtitutes the eſſence or an ounce and an half of the bark, taken during one intermiſſion, or this diſeaſe. The heat, however, is more tolerable than in the fynocha MEDICINE. ſynocha properly ſo called. In ſome the pains of the head are fourteen, eighteen, or twenty days; nay, ſometimes much longer. pungent and throbbing, anſwering to the pulſations of the arteries ; | All perſons grow deaf and ſtupid towards the end of this diſeaſe but in others they are dull and heavy. The face is red and bloat- | (ſome extremely deaf), though too quick and apprehenſive at the ed ; and there is a remarkable laſſitude of the limbs, with a great, beginning; inſomuch that the leaſt noiſe or light greatly offended full, and frequent pulſe. The urine is red, and depoſits a ſedi them. Many from their immoderate fears ſeem to hurry them- ment almoſt of the colour of orange-peel; and in the very firit day | ſelves out of life, where little danger is apparent at the beginning: of the diſeaſe, ſigns of concoction, (according to the Hippocratic nay, fome will not allow themſelves to ſleep, from a vain fear of phraſe), appear in it. The fever commonly goes off with a gen- dozing quite away; and others, from the vaſt hurry, anxiety and tle ſweat, but more rarely with an hæmorrhage of the noſe. confufion they are ſenſible of in it, or at their a waking. Its ſhorteſt period is 24 hours; but if it goes beyond the fourth Cauſes of, and perſons ſubject to, this Diſorder. The nervous day, it is then a ſynocha properly ſo called. fever is a conſequence of contagion received by means of ſome Cauſes of, and Perſons ſubje&t to, this Diſeaſe. As we have already corrupted animal-fubftance. It moſt commonly attacks perſons of remarked of intermittents, ſo muſt we alſo now remark of conti weak nerves, a lax habit of body, and a poor thin blood, thoſe nued fevers, that it is impoſſible to diſcover thoſe minute cauſes, who have ſuffered great 'evacuations, a long dejetion of ſpirits, which occaſioned the difference of type betwixt one inflammatory | immoderate watchings, ſtudies, fatigue, &c. alſo thoſe who have fever and another, though moſt authors pretend to enumerate uſed much crude unwholfome food, vapid impure drinks, or who theſe with great certainty. Thus Juncker tells us, that the cauſe have been confined long in damp foul air; who have broken the of the ſimple ephemera is plethora, together with any immoderate vigour of their conſtitutions by ſalivations, too frequent purging, agitation and commotion of the fluids while in that ſtate. Vogel | immoderate venery, &c. Hence we ſee that the diſeaſe conſiſts reckons among the cauſes of his febris diaria, paſſions of the mind, principally in an extreme debility of the nervous ſyſtem; for, when pain, want, expoſure to the ſun, &c. a repulſion or abſorption people are prepared for this fever by having their nerves already of certain humours; wounds, fractures, luxations, &c. : ſo that weakened, the contagious particles immediately attack the nervous in general we may reckon every thing tending to increaſe the ac ſyſtem, without ſo much affecting the ſtate of the blood or juices, tion of the arterial ſyſtem to be in certain circumſtances a cauſe of though the latter are greatly affected in the putrid malignant fevers, inflammatory fever. fever. Hence we find thoſe are more ſubject to the Prognoſis. In nervous fevers, the prognoſis is very much the fynocha whoſe conſtitution is either naturally robuſt, or who ſame with that of the putrid malignant kind. are expoſed to thoſe cauſes which tend to produce an increaſed ac Cure. This fever is produced by a contagion affecting the ner- tion of the arterial ſyſtem ; ſuch as hard labour, high living, &c. vous ſyſtem of a perſon already debilitated, and thus producing Prognoſis. The moſt ſimple kind of ſynocha, that is, the ephe- weakneſs in an extreme degree. mera or diary fever, is commonly cured 'without the aſſiſtance of In contagious diſeaſes, of which this is one, we know, both medicine; and therefore the prognoſis is for the moſt part favour from the effects which appear, and froin diſſections, that the tone able: yet, if it is improperly treated by heating medicines, it may of the heart and arteries is conſiderably diminiſhed; and that tonic eaſily be converted into the other kind; or, if there is a putrid | remedies are therefore properly indicated. We are to conſider diſpoſition of the fluids, into a fever of a very dangerous nature, theſe remedies as of two kinds ; 1. The power of cold; 2. That The ſame thing is to be underſtood even of the moſt violent kind ; 1 of tonic medicines, for ſimple inflammatory fevers are not dangerous unleſs compli The power of cold as a tonic in fevers may be employed in two cated with an affection of ſome particular part, as the pleura, ways; either as thrown into the ſtomach, or as applied to the ſurface ftomach, &c. of the body. As the power of cold may be communicated from any Cure. Here Dr. Cullen objects to the hypotheſis of thoſe who one part to every other part of the ſyſtem, ſo it will be readily allowed are for leaving the cure of continued fevers to the operations of that the ſtomach is a part as fit as any other for this communication, nature; becauſe theſe operations are neither certain in themſelves, and that cold drink taken into the ſtomach may prove an uſeful tonic nor are they ſo well underſtood as to enable us to regulate them in fevers. This the experience of all ages has confirmed; but at properly; and it is likewiſe poſſible to ſuperſede them by art. the ſame time it has been frequently obſerved, that, in certain cir- The plan therefore on which he proceeds is, to form his indica cumſtances, cold drink taken into the ſtomach has proved very tions of cure upon the means of obviating the tendency to death hurtful; and therefore that its uſe in fevers requires fome limita- in fevers; and theſe he reduces to three. 1. To moderate the vio tions. What theſe limitations ſhould be, and what are all the cir- Jence of re-action. 2. To remove or obviate the cauſes of debility, cumſtances which may forbid the uſe of cold drink, it is difficult as before-mentioned; and, 3. To obviate or correct the tendency to determine; but it ſeems clearly forbidden in all caſes where a of the fluids to putrefaction, will be noticed under the following phlogiſtic diatheſis prevails in the ſyſtem, and more eſpecially when Genus. there are topical affections of an inflammatory nature. Genus V. TYPHUS; the Typhus, or Slow Nervous Fever. The other method of employing cold as a tonic, is by applying Deſcription. Of all the deſcriptions we have of the nervous fe it to the ſurface of the body, as a refrigerant power fit to moderate ver, that of Dr. Huxham is the beſt. According to him, the pa the violence of reaction; but probably it may here alſo be conſi- tient at firſt grows ſomewhat liſtleſs, and feels llight chills, and dered properly as a tonic, and uſeful in caſes of debility. Not only ſhudders, with uncertain fluſhes of heat, and a kind of wearineſs cool air, but cold water alſo, may be applied to the ſurface of the all over, like what is felt after great fatigue. This is always at body as a tonic. The ancients frequently applied it with advantage tended with a ſort of heavineſs and dejection of ſpirit, more or leſs to particular parts as a tonic; but it is a diſcovery of modern of a load, pain, or giddineſs of the head; a nauſea and diſreliſh of times, that, in the caſe of putrid fevers attended with much debi- every thing ſoon follows, without any conſiderable thirſt, but fre-lity, the body may be waſhed all over with cold water. This was quently with urging to vomit, though little but inſipid phlegm is firſt practiſed at Breſlaw in Silefia, as appears from a diſſertation brought up. Though a kind of lucid interval of ſeveral hours under the title of Epidemia Verna, quæ Wratiſaviam anno 1737 ſometimes intervenes, yet the ſymptoms return with aggravation, afflixit, to be found in the Aeta Nat. Curioſ. vol. x. And from eſpecially towards night: the head grows more giddy or heavy; other writers it appears, that the practice has paſſed into ſome of the heats greater; the pulſe quicker, but weak; with an oppreſſive the neighbouring countries; but in this iſland it doth not appear kind of breathing. A great torpor, or obtuſe pain and coldneſs, that we have yet had any experience of it. affe&s the hinder part of the head frequently, and oftentimes a The medicines which have been employed in fevers as tonics heavy pain is felt on the top all along the coronary ſuture; this, and are various. If the faccharum ſaturni hath been found uſeful, it is that of the back-part of the head, generally attend nervous fevers, probably as a tonic rather than as a refrigerant, and the ens veneris, and are commonly ſucceeded by ſome degree of a delirium. The or other preparations of iron which have been employed, can act pulſe during all this time is quick, weak, and unequal; ſometimes as tønics only. The preparations of copper, from their effects in fluttering and ſometimes for a few moments flow; nay, even in epilepſy, are preſumed to poſſeſs a tonic power; but whether their termitting, and then with a ſudden fluſh in the face, immediately uſe in fevers be founded on their tonic or emetic powers, is uncer- very quick, and perhaps ſoon after ſurpriſingly calm and equal; tain. And upon the whole there may no doubt occur fome in- and thus alternately. The tongue at the beginning is ſeldom or ſtances of fevers being cured by tonics taken from the foſſile king- never dry or diſcoloured, but ſometimes covered with a thin whitiſh dom; but the vegetable tonics are the moſt efficacious, and among mucus : at length, indeed, it often appears very dry, red, and chap- theſe the Peruvian bark certainly holds the firſt place. ped, or of the colour of pomegranate rind; but this moſtly at the ſtate The bark has commonly been conſidered as a ſpecific, or a re- or cloſe of the diſeaſe: yet however dry the tongue and lips ſeem, medy of which the operation was not underſtood. We muſt ob- the patient ſcarce ever complains of thirſt, though ſometimes of a ſerve, however, that, as in many caſes the effects of the bark are heat in the tongue. Frequently profuſe ſweats pour forth all at perceived ſoon after its being taken into the ſtomach, and before it once about the ninth, tenth, or twelfth day, commonly coldiſh and can poſſibly be conveyed to the maſs of blood, we may conclude, clammy on the extremities; oftentimes very thin ſtools are dif- that its effects do not ariſe from its operating on the fluids: and charged, and then nature ſinks apace; the extremities grow cold, muſt therefore depend upon its operating on the nerves of the fto- the nails pale or livid. This delirium ſometimes ends in a pro- mach, and being thereby communicated to the reſt of the nervous found coma, or unconquerable propenſity to ſleep, and that ſoon in ſyſtem. This operation ſeems to be a tonic power, the bark being eternal ſleep. The ſtools, urine, and tears, run off involuntarily, a remedy in many caſes of debility, particularly in gangrene: and and denounce a ſpeedy diſſolution, as the vaſt tremblings and if its operation may be explained from its poffefling a tonic power, twitchings of the nerves and tendons are preludes to a general con we may eaſily perceive why it is improper when a phlogiſtic dia- vulſion, which at once ſnaps off the thread of life. In one or other theſis prevails; and from the ſame view we can aſcertain in what of theſe ways are the fick carried off, after having languiſhed for caſes of continued fever it may be admitted. Of MEDICINE. Of all the ſtiinulants which may be properly employed, wine ſmell. The tongue, though only white at the beginning, grows feems to be the moſt eligible. It has the advantage of being grate- daily more dark and dry; ſometimes of a ſhining livid colour, ful to the palate and ſtomach, and of having its ſtimulant parts fo with a kind of dark bubble at top; ſometimes exceeding black; much diluted, that it can be conveniently given in ſmall doſes; and fo continues for many days together; nor is the tinge to be got and therefore it may be employed with ſufficient caution; but it off many times for ſeveral days, even after a favourable criſis: at is of little ſervice unleſs taken pretty largely. It may be ſuſpected the height of the diſeaſe, it generally becomes vaſtly dry, ſtiff, and that wine has an operation analogous to that of opium; and on black, or of a dark pomegranate colour. Hence the ſpeech is very good grounds. But we can diſtinctly remark its ſtimulant power inarticulate, and ſcarce intelligible. The thirſt in the increaſe of only: which renders its effects in the phrenitic delirium manifeſtly the fever is commonly very great, ſometimes unquenchable; and hurtful; and in the mild delirium depending on debility, as re yet no kind of drink pleaſes, but all ſeem bitter and mawkiſh; at markably uſeful. other times, however, no thirſt is complained of, though the mouth The other method of cure is to correct or obviate the tendency and tongue are exceedingly foul and dry; this is always a danger- in the fluids to putrefaction. This may be done, I, By avoiding ous fymptom, and ends in a frenzy or coma. The lips and teeth, any new application of putrid or putreſcent matter. 2. By eva are furred up with a very black tenacious fordes. At the onſet of cuating the putrid or putreſcent matter already preſent in the body. the fever, the urine is often crude, pale, and vapid, but grows much 3. By correcting the putrid or putreſcent matter remaining in the higher coloured in the advance, and frequently reſembles a ſtrong body by diluents and antiſeptics. 4. By ſupporting the tone of lixivium, or citrine urine, tinged with a ſmall quantity of blood; the vefſels, and thereby reſiſting further putrefaction, or obviating it is without the leaſt ſediment or cloud, and ſo continues for many its effects. 5. By moderating the violence of re-action, conſidered days together: by degrees it grows darker, like dead ſtrong high- as a means of increaſing putrefaction. coloured beer, and ſmells very rank and offenſive. In petechial fe- The further application of putrid or putreſcent matter may be vers, the urine hath often been ſeen almoſt black and very fetid. The avoided, 1. By removing the patient from places filled with cor ftools, eſpecially near the ſtate, or in the decline of the fever, are rupted air. 2. By preventing the accumulation of the patient's for the moſt part intolerably fetid, green, livid, or black, frequently own effluvia, by a conſtant ventilation, and by a frequent change of with ſevere gripes and blood. When they are more yellow or bed-clothes and body-linen. 3. By the careful and ſpeedy re brown, the leſs the danger: but the higheſt when they run off in- moval of all excremental matters from the patient's chamber. ſenſibly, whatever their colour may be. It is likewiſe a very bad 4. By avoiding animal food. fymptom when the belly continues tenſe, ſwollen, and hard, after The putrid or putreſcent matter already preſent in the body, profufe ftools, for this is generally the conſequence of an infiam- may be evacuated partly by frequent evacuations of the contents mation or mortification of the inteſtines. A gentle diarrhea is of the inteſtines; and more effectually ſtill by ſupporting the ex often very beneficial, and ſometimes ſeems to be the only way cretions of perſpiration and urine by the plentiful uſe of diluents. which nature takes to carry off the morbific matter. That which remains in the body may be rendered more mild and y Sometimes black, livid, dun, or greeniſh ſpots appear, which al- innocent by the uſe of diluents, or may be corrected by the uſe of ways indicate a high degree of malignity; however, the more florid antiſeptics. Theſe laſt are of many and various kinds; but which the ſpots are, the leſs danger is to be feared. It is alſo a good fign of them are conveniently applicable, or more particularly ſuited to when the black or violet petechiæ become of a brighter colour. the caſe of fevers , is not well aſcertained. Thoſe moſt certainly The large, black, or livid (pots, are almoſt always attended with applicable and uſeful are aceſcent aliments, acids of all kinds, and profuſe hæmorrhages; and the ſmall, duſky, brown ſpots, like neutral ſalts. freckles, are not much leſs dangerous than the livid or black; The progreſs of putrefaction may be conſiderably retarded, and though they are ſeldom accompanied with fluxes of blood: excel- its effects obviated, by ſupporting the tone of the veſſels; and this fively profuſe, cold, clammy ſweats are often concomitant, by may be done by tonic medicines, of which the chief are cold, and which alſo they ſometimes vaniſh, though without any advantage the Peruvian bark, as already mentioned. The violence of re to the patient. The eruption of the petechiz is uncertain; fome- action increaſing the tendency to putrefaction, may be moderated times they appear on the fourth or fifth day, though ſometimes not by the means already mentioned under ſynocha. Theſe are the till the eleventh, or even later. The vibices, or large, dark proper indications to be obſerved in the cure of the flow nervous greeniſh marks, ſeldom appear till very near the fatal period. Fre . fever. quently alſo we meet with efforence like the meazles in malignant Towards the decline of the fever alſo, where the ſweats are fevers, but of a much more dull and livid hue; in which the ſkin, abundant and weakening, ſmall doſes of the tincture of the bark, eſpecially on the breaſt, appears as it were marbled or variegated. with ſaffron and ſnake-root are given with the greateſt advantage. This in general is an ill fymptom, and is often attended with fatal frequently interpoſing a doſe of rhubarb to carry off the putrid conſequences. colluvies in the firſt paſſages; which withal makes the remiffions Sometimes about the rith or 14th day, on the coming on of or intermiſſions that often happen in the decline of nervous diſeaſes / profuſe ſweats, the petechiæ diſappear, and vaſt quantities of white more diſtinct and manifeft, and gives a fairer opportunity of throw-miliary puſtules break out. This is ſeldom found of any conſider- ing in the bark; for in the proper exhibition of this medicine we able advantage; but an itching, ſmarting, red raſh, commonly are to place our chief hope of curing both the nervous and putrid | gives great relief; and fo do the large, fretting, watery bladders, malignant fevers. which upon the back, breaſt, ihoulders, &c. A GENUS VI. FEBRIS PESTILENS, MALIGNA; Putrid, | ſcabby eruption likewiſe about the lips and noſe is certainly one of Peſtilential, or Malignant Fever. the falutary ſymptoms; and the more hot and angry it is, ſo much Deſcription. This is a diſeaſe of the moſt dangerous nature, as, the better. But of much more uncertain and dangerous event are beſides the extreme debility of the nervous ſyſtem, there is a rapid the brown coloured aphthæ ; nor are thoſe that are exceeding white tendency of the fluids to putrefaction, which ſometimes cuts off and thick like lard, of a very promiſing aſpect. They are ſoon the patient in a few days, nay, in the warm climates, in 12 or 14 ſucceeded by great difficulty of ſwallowing, pain and ulceration hours; or if the patient recovers, he is for a long time, even in this of the fauces, ceſophagus, &c. and with an inceſſant fingultus: the country, in an exceedingly weak ſtate, and requires many weeks to whole prime vie become at laſt affected; a bloody dyſentery recover his former health. comes on, followed by a fphacelation of the inteſtines; as is evi- The putrid fevers according to Huxham, make their attack dent from the black, fanious, and bloody ſtools, extremely fetid with much more violence than the flow nervous ones; the rigors and infectious. Vibices, or large, black, and bluiſh marks re- are ſometimes very great, though ſometimes ſcarce felt; the heats ſembling bruiſes, are frequently ſeen towards the cloſe of the much ſharper and permanent; yet, at firſt, ſudden, tranſient, and fever; and, when attended with lividity and coldneſs of the extre- remittent: the pulſe more tenſe and hard, but commonly quick and mities, are certain tokens of approaching death. In ſome caſes, ſmall; though ſometimes flow, and ſeemingly regular for a time, the blackneſs hath been known to reach almoſt to the elbows, and and then fluttering and unequal. The head-ach, nauſea, and vo the hands have been dead cold for a day or two before the death of miting, are much more conſiderable even from the beginning the patient. Sometimes a ſevere fixed pain is felt in one or both temples, or Such are the general appearances of the putrid malignant fever over one or both eye-brows; frequently in the bottom of the orbits in this country, among thoſe who enjoy a free air, and are not of the eyes. The eyes always appear very dull, heavy, yellowiſh, crouded together, or expoſed to the cauſes of infection: but in and very often a little infamed. The countenance ſeems bloated, jails, hoſpitals, or other places where the fick are crowded, and in and more dead-coloured than uſual. Commonly the temporal ar ſome meaſure deprived of the benefit of the free air, the ſymptoms teries throb much, and a tinnitus aurium is very troubleſome; a are if poſſible, more terrible. ſtrong vibration alſo of the carotid arteries frequently takes place Cauſes of, and Perfors ſubject to, this Diſorder. The cauſe of in the advance of the fever, though the pulſe at the wriſt may be this fever, as well as that of the flow nervous fever, is an infection ſmall, nay, even flow: this is a certain ſign of an impending deli or contagion from ſome diſeafed animal body, or from cor- rium, and generally proceeds from ſome conſiderable obſtructions rupted vegetables; and therefore is very little, if at all, different in the brain from thoſe peftilential diſorders which have ariſen after battles, Few or none of theſe fevers are without a ſort of lumbago, or when great numbers of dead bodies were allowed to lie above pain in the back and loins; always an univerſal wearineſs or fore- ground and infect the air with their effluvia. This is confirmed neſs is felt, and often much pain in the limbs. Sometimes a great by an obſervation of Foreftus, who was eye-witnefs to a diſtemper heat, load, and pain, affect the pit of the ſtomach, with perpetual of this kind, (which indeed he calls a a plague), owing to the ſame vomiting of porraceous or black choler, and a moſt troubleſome cauſe, attended with buboes and a high degree of contagion. The fingultus; the matter diſcharged is frequently of a very nauſeous ſame author alſo gives an account of a malignant fever breaking many times riſe out M E DIC IN E. fut at Egmont in North Holland, occaſioned by the rotting of a ternal heating medicines aggravated the fymptoms; and in theſe whale which had been left on the ſhore. We have a like obſerva caſes bliſters were of the greateſt ſervice. Fomentations of vine- tion of a fever affecting the crew of a French ſhip, by the putre gar, and warm water for the feet, our author is of opinion, would faction of ſome cattle which they had killed on the iſland of Nevis, anſwer better than either ſinapiſms or bliſters, provided they were in the Weſt Indies. Theſe men were ſeized with a pain in their long enough and often enough applied. In the inflammatory fe- head and loins, great weakneſs, and a diſorder of the ſtomach, vers, he has known theſe fomentations have little effect for the firſt accompanied with fever. Some had carbuncles ; and on others hour, and yet ſucceed afterwards. For internal medicine, the purple fpots appeared after death. bark was omitted for ſome time, but the patient was continued Galen aſſigns two cauſes for peſtilential fevers: 1. The great with an acidulated drink, viz. barley-water and vinegar; and heat of the weather, when the humours happen to be in a more treated alſo with camphire, pulvis contrayerva compoſitus, and nitre, putreſcent ſtate than uſual. 2. A putrid ſtate of the air, ariſing as was uſual in the beginning of the fever. If the delirium was either from a multitude of dead bodies left unburnt, as after a bat of the low kind, a decoction of the bark and wine were the only tle, or from the evaporation of corrupted lakes and marſhes. remedies ; for in no inſtance was the delirium perfectly removed Prognoſis, In theſe fevers we cannot draw a prognoſtic from till the time of the criſis. It muſt alſo be obſerved, that a delirium any fymptom by itſelf; and perhaps all of them together are more may ariſe in putrid fevers from two oppoſite errors ; one from fallible than in others. Generally the following are good; turbid large and repeated bleeding, and the other from wine, and the urine in the decline of the diſeaſe: and at that time a gentle ſweat cordial medicines being taken too early. It appears therefore how or moiſture diffuſed over the body, or even the ſkin ſoft, and the nice the principles are that regard the cure; as neither a hot nor a tongue moist; or to have fome looſe ftools, ſucceeded by a dia cool regimen will anſwer with every patient, or in every ſtate of phoreſis: the pulſe to riſe by wine or cordials, with an abatement the diſeaſe. of the ſtupor, tremor, and other affections of the brain. Deaf If a diarrhæa came on the decline of a fever, it was moderated, neſs is rather a good fign. The bad ſigns are, a fubfultus tendinum: but not ſuppreſſed, by adding an opiate to the uſual medicines, the eyes much inflamed and ſtaring; the ſpeech quick, and the For, though the looſeneſs may be conſidered as critical; yet, as found of the voice altered ; a high delirium ; perpetual watchful the ſick were too low to bear evacuations, there was a neceſſity neſs ; conſtant fickneſs at the ſtomach, and vomitings; frequent for reſtraining it in ſome meaſure; and it has often been obſerved, ftools, with a ſinking pulſe, and the diſorder of the head increaſed ; that when it has been treated in this manner, about the uſual coldneſs of the extremities, and a tremulous motion of the tongue. time of the criſis, the patient has fallen into a gentle ſweat, It is obſerved to be among the worſt ſigns when the patient com- which has carried off the diſeaſe. In proportion to the putrid na- plains of blindneſs; when he ſwallows with difficulty, or cannot ture of the ſtools, opiates and aſtringents were uſed with the put out his tongue when deſired; when he can lie on his back greater caution. only, and pulls up his knees ; or when, inſenſible, he endeavours Sometimes the patient falls into an irregular intermittent ; to uncover his breaſt, or makes frequent attempts to get out of which, if not of an hectic nature, from an internal abſceſs, may bed, without afligning any reaſon. If to any of theſe are added, proceed from neglecting to clear the prime via. For it is eaſy to ichorous, cadavorous, and involuntary ſtools, it is a ſign of a mor conceive, that after a long fever, of ſuch a putrid nature, often tification of the bowels, and approaching death. It will not ſeem attended with languor of the bowels, the fæces may be ſo much ſtrange to find moſt of theſe prognoſtics common to the advanced accumulated, and ſo corrupted, as to occaſion new diſorders. In ſtate of other fevers, when we conſider, that from whatever cauſe ſuch caſes, after proper evacuation by purge, the bark was almoſt fevers begin, by a long continuance the humours are corrupted, an infallible remedy. and the brain and nerves affected much in the ſame manner as in GENUS VII. SYNOCHUS or HECTIC FEVER. thoſe which ariſe from infection. Prevention and Cure. As diſtempers of the putrid kind never This is a contagious diſtemper, being a complication of a ſynocha, ariſe without an infection received, from ſome quarter or other, and typhus; we ſhall therefore refer to what hath been already ſaid the methods of prevention muſt evidently be reduced to two ge concerning theſe diſeaſes. neral heads. I. To avoid receiving the affection into the body; The hectic is reckoned by Dr. Cullen to be merely fymptoma- and, 2. To put the body in ſuch a ſituation as may enable it to re tic ; as indeed ſeems very probable, ſeeing it always accompanies fiſt the infection when received. abſorption of pus into the blood, from internal ſuppurations, or Gure. It now remains to conſider the proper method of cur- indeed from ſuch as are external, provided they are very large, or ing putrid fevers, on the ſuppoſition that the infection hath been of a bad kind. allowed to operate till the blood becomes radically tainted, and of Deſcription. The beſt deſcription of this diſorder we have, is conſequence the nervous ſyſtem affected to ſuch a degree, that its that by Dr. Heberden. According to him, the appearance of the power cannot be reſtored by any of the ſimple medicines before hectic fever is not unlike that of the genuine intermittent; from mentioned. Here all authors agree that a change of air, when it which, however, the diſeaſe is very different in its riature, as well can be effected, is abſolu'ely neceſſary, and often contributes more as infinitely more dangerous. In the true intermittent, the three towards the removing of the diſeaſe than all the medicines that ſtages of cold, heat, and ſweat, are far more diſtinctly marked, the can be exhibited. whole fit is much longer, the period which it obſerves is more con- Vomits muſt be uſed with caution; for, though they may be of ſtant and regular, and the intermiſſions are more perfect, than in uſe by way of prevention, yet in the advanced ſtate of the diſeaſe, the hectic fever. For in the latter, even in the cleareſt remiffion, when the patient has all along complained of a ſickneſs at ſto there is uſually a feveriſh quickneſs perceptible in the pulle, which mach, they are evidently unſafe. Here the antiſceptic quality of ſeldom fails to exceed the utmoſt limit of a healthy one, by at leaſt fixed air is of much uſe, and the neutral draughts given in the ten ſtrokes in a minute. act of efferveſcence are generally attended with happy effects. The chillneſs of the hectic fever is ſometimes ſucceeded by heat, Nay, clyfters of fixed air itſelf have been found very ſerviceable. and ſometimes immediately by a ſweat, without any intermediate Even in very bad ſtages of the diſtemper, where a putrid and col ſtate of heat. The heat will ſometimes come on without any re- liquative looſeneſs hath taken place, clyfters of fixed air have been markable chilneſs preceding; and the chilneſs has been obſerved known to alleviate the ſymptoms. We muſt not, however, put to go off without being followed either by heat or ſweat. The too much confidence in medicines of this kind. Mild aſtringent duration of theſe ſtages is ſeldom the ſame for three fits together, cordials, eſpecially the wine and Peruvian bark, are the only re and, as it is not uncommon for one of them to be wanting, the fources in theſe diſorders. Concerning the former, Sir John length of the whole fit muſt vary much more than in the true inter- Pringle obſerves, in the low ſtate of theſe fevers, and in great mittent; but in general it is much ſhorter. finkings, which either come after unſeaſonable bleedings, or long The hectic fever will return with great exactneſs, like an intera want of nouriſhment, it was a moſt grateful and efficacious cor mittent, for two, or perhaps three fits; but Dr. Heberden informs dial, to which nothing was comparable. Perhaps there is no rule us, that he does not remember ever to have known it keep the more neceſſary in this ſtate, than not to let the patient, when low, ſame period for four fits ſucceſſively. The paroxyſm will now and remain long without taking ſomething cordial and nouriſhing; as then keep off for ten or twelve days; and at other times, eſpecially many have been obſerved paft recovery, by being ſuffered to paſs a when the patient is very ill, it will return ſo frequently on the ſame whole night without any ſupport, about the time of the criſis. In day, that the chilneſs of a new fit, will follow immediately the the advanced ſtate of this fever the ſick are remarkably low; and ſweat of the former. It is not unuſual to have many threatenings therefore Hoffman adviſes, in ſuch caſes, that they ſhould be con of a ſhivering return in the ſame day; and ſome degree of drowzi. ftantly kept in bed, and not permitted even to fit up in it. In the neſs is apt to attend the ceſſation of a fit. laſt ſtage of this fever, as well as in that of the ſea-ſcurvy, it would The urine in a true intermittent, is clear in the fits and turbid in ſeem that the force of the heart was too ſmall to convey the blood the intervals; but in the hectic fever it is liable to all kinds of irre- to the brain, except when the body is in an horizontal poſture. gularity. It will be equally clear or turbid in both ſtages; or tur- But, however neceſſary wine and the bark may be in the low bid in the fits and clear in the intervals; and ſometimes, it will be, ſtages of this fever, we muſt remember, that theſe remedies are to as in a true internisittent, clear during the fever, and thick at the be adminiſtered only as antiſeptics and ſupporters of the vis vita, going off. without aiming at thoroughly raiſing the pulſe, or relieving the Hectic patients often complain of pains like thoſe of the rheu- head, or at forcing a ſweat by them, before nature points that way. matiſm, which either affect by turns almoſt every part of the body, If the delirium increaſed upon uſing wine, if the eyes looked wild, or elſe return conſtantly to the ſame part; which is often at a great or the voice became quick, there was reaſon to apprehend a phre diſtance from the ſeat of the principal diſorder, and, as far as is nitis; and accordingly it was obſerved, that at ſuch tiines all in known without any peculiar connection with it. Thoſe pains Nº IOI. 6U are M E D I C I N E. are ſo violent in fome patients as to require a large quantity of thoſe deplorable circumſtances, there has ariſen a ſwelling not far opium. As far as Dr. Heberden has obſerved, they are common, from the probable ſeat of the diſorder, and yet without any diſcover- where the hectic ariſes from ſome ulcer open to the external air, as able communication with it. This ſwelling has come to an ab- in cancers of the face, breaſt, &c. Joined with this fever, and ſceſs; in conſequence of which the pulſe has ſoon returned to its ariſing probably from one common cauſe, he has been ſurpriſed to natural ſtate, as have alſo the appetite, fleſh, and ſtrength. What ſee ſwellings of the limbs, neck, or trunk of the body, riſe up al nature has performed in thoſe rare caſes, Dr. Heberden acquaints moſt in an inſtant, as if the part was all at once grown fatter. US, he has often endeavoured to imitate, by making iſſues or apply- Theſe ſwellings are not painful, hard, or diſcoloured, and they con ing bliſters near the ſeat of the diſeaſe; but he cannot ſay with the tinue for ſeveral hours. faine ſucceſs. Dr Heberden has ſeen this fever attack thofe who ſeemed in to It ſeems at preſent, Dr. Heberden obſerves, the opinion of many lerable health, in a ſudden and violent manner, like a common in practitioners, that the gangrenes will be ſtopped, and ſuppuration flammatory one; and, like that, alſo, in a very ſhort time, bring become more kindly, by the uſe of bark; and therefore this reme- them into imminent danger of their lives ; after which it has begundy is always either adviſed or permitted in the irregular fever joined to abate, and to afford hopes of a perfect recovery. But though the with fuppurations and gangrenes; but he affirms he does not re- danger might be over for the preſent, and but little of a fever re member ever to have ſeen any good effect from the bark, in this fe- main, yet inat little has ſoon Thewed that it was kept up by ſome ver, unattended with an apparent ulcer; and even in gangrenes it great miſchief within, and, proving unconquerable by any reme fo often fails, that in ſucceſsful caſes, where it has been adminiſter- dies, has gradually undermined the health of the patient, and never ed, there muſt be room for ſuſpicion that the cure was owing to ceaſed, except with his life. This manner of its beginning, how. another cauſe. Dr. Heberden acknowledges, at the ſame time, that ever, is extraordinary; it much oftener diſſembles its firength at he never ſaw any harm from the bark in theſe, or indeed in any firſt ; and creeps on ſo flowly, that the ſubjects of it, though they other caſes, except a purging or fickneſs, of no conſequence, where be not perfectly well , yet for ſome months hardly think themſelves it has happened to diſagree with the ſtomach, or where the latter ill; complaining only of being fooner tired with exerciſe than has been loaded, by taking the medicine too faſt, eſpecially in dry uſual, of want of appetite, and falling away. But, gentle as the boluſes, wrapped in wafer-paper. ſymptoms may ſeen, if the pulſe be quicker than ordinary, ſo as to In hectic illneſſes, where all other means have proved ineffectual, have the artery to beat 90 times, and perhaps 120 times in a mi a journey to Bath is uſually propoſed by the friends, and wiſhed for nute, there is the greateſt reaſon to be apprehenſive of the event. by the fick; but Dr. Heberden juftly obſerves, that, beſides the fa- In no diſorder perhaps is the pulſe of more uſe to guide our judg tigue, and many inconveniencies of a journey to a dying perſon, ment than in the hectic fever : yet even here we muſt be upon our the Bath waters are peculiarly hurtful in this fever, which they guard, and not truſt entirely to this criterion ; for one in about 20 never fail to increaſe, and thereby aggravate the ſufferings, and patients, with all the worſt ſigns of decay, from ſome incurable haften the death of the patient.de cauſe, which irreſiſtibly goes on to deſtroy his life, will ſhew not ORDER II. PHLEGMASIÆ; OR INFLAMMATIONS. the ſmalleſt degree of quickneſs, or any other irregularity of the Genus VIII. PHLOGOSIS; Heat and painful Tenſion of pulſe, to the day of his death. fome External or Internal Part. Cauſes, &c. This fever will ſupervene whenever there is a great This diſeaſe is a ſynocha fever, accompanied with an inflamma- collection of matter formed in any part of the body ; but it more tion of ſome particular part, either external or internal, and conſe- particularly attends upon the inflammation of a ſchirrhous gland, quently varies very much in its form, and the degree of danger at- and even upon one that is ſlight and only juſt beginning; the fever tending it, according to the ſituation and functions of the part af- growing worſe in proportion as the gland becomes more inflamed, fected with topical inflammation. ulcered, or gangrenous. And ſuch is the lingering nature of thoſe For the cure of inflammations Dr. Cullen lays down the fol- glandular diſorders, that the firſt of thoſe ſtages will continue for lowing indications. 1. To remove the remote cauſes when they many months, and the ſecond for many years. are evident, and continue to operate, 2. To take off the phlogiſ- Lying-in women, on account of the violence ſuſtained in deli tic diatheſis affecting the whole ſyſtem, or the particular part. 3: very, generally die of this fever. Women of the Women of the age of near 50 To take off the ſpaſm of the particular part, by remedies, applied and upwards, are particularly liable to it. For, upon the ceſſation to the whole ſyſtem, or to the part itſelf. of their natural diſcharge, the glands of the breaſts, ovaries, or This means of removing the remote cauſes will readily occur; womb, too commonly begin to grow ſchirrous, and proceed to be from conſidering the particular nature and circumſtances of the cancerous. Not only theſe, but the glandular parts of all the abdo different kinds. Acrid matters muſt be removed, or their a&tion minal viſcera, are diſpoſed to be affected at this particular titne, and muſt be prevented, by the application of demulcents. Compreſſing to become the ſeats of incurable diſorders. and over-ſtretching powers muſt be taken away ; and, from their The injuries done to the ſtomach and liver by hard drinking, ſeveral circumſtances the means of doing ſo will be obvious. are attended with fimilar ſymptoms, and terminate in the fame The means of taking off the phlogiſtic diatheſis of the ſyſtem are the ſame with thoſe already mentioned, under the cure for fynocha. Dr.Heberden obſerves, that the ſlighteſt wound, by a fine pointed The means of taking off the ſpaſm alſo from the particular part, inftrument is known, upon fome occaſions, to bring on the greateſt are much the ſame with thoſe already mentioned. Only it is to be diſturbances, and the moſt alarming ſymptoms, nay, even death it remembered, that topical bleedings, ſuch as cupping with ſcarifica- ſelf. For not only the wounded part will ſwell and be painful, but, tion, applying leeches, &c. are in this caſe much more indicated; by turns, almoſt every part of the body; and very diſtant parts and that ſome of the other remedies are to be directed more parti- have been known to come even to fuppuration. Theſe ſymptoms cularly to the part affected, as ſhall be more fully conſidered when are conſtantly accompanied with this irregular intermittent, which we treat of thoſe diſeaſes attended with particular inflammations. laſts as long as any of them remain. When a tendency to fuppuration is perceived, the proper indi- Prognoſis. This anomalous fever is never leſs dangerous than cation is to promote the production of perfect pus as much as pof- when it belongs to a kindly ſuppuration, into which all the diſeaſed fible. For this purpoſe various remedies, ſuppoſed to poſſeſs a parts are melted down, and for which there is a proper outlet. ſpecific power, have been propoſed: but it does not appear that The ſymptoms and danger from ſome ſmall punctures, with any of them are poffefſed of a virtue of this kind ; and, in our au- their concomitant fever, moſt frequently gives way, in a few days, thor's opinion, all that can be done is to favour the ſuppuration, by though in ſome perſons they have continued for two or three ſuch applications as may ſupport a moderate heat in the part, by months, and in others have proved fatal. ſome tenacity confine the perſpiration, and by an emollient quality The inflammation of internal ſchirrous glands, or of thoſe in the may weaken the coheſion of the teguments, and favour their ero- breaſts, ſometimes goes off, and the fever, which depended upon it, fion. As all abſceſſes are occaſioned by the effuſion of fluids, and ceaſes; but it much oftener happens, that it proceeds to cancerous as in the caſe of certain effufions a ſuppuration becomes not only and gangrenous ulcers, and terminates in death. unavoidable, but deſirable, it may be ſuppoſed that moſt of the Gure. The ſame medicines are not likely always to fuit a fever, means of procuring a reſolution by diminiſhing the force of circu- which, ariſing from very different cauſes, is attended with ſuch a lation, &c. ought to be avoided. But as we obſerve on the one variety of ſymptoms. A mixture of aſafoetida and opium, has, in hand, that a certain degree of increaſed impetus, or of the original fome perſons, ſeemed fingularly ſerviceable in this fever, when fymptoms of inflammation, is neceſſary to produce a proper ſup- brought on by a ſmall wound; but in moſt other caſes the princi- | puration, ſo it is then eſpecially neceſſary to avoid thoſe means of pal, if not the ſole attention of the Phyſician muſt be employed reſolution which may diminiſh too much the force of circulation. in relieving the ſymptoms, by tempering the heat, by preventing And, on the other hand, as the impetus of the blood, when violent, both coſtiveneſs and purging, by procuring ſleep, and by checking is found to prevent the proper ſuppuration; fo, in ſuch caſes, though the ſweats. If at the ſame time, continues Dr. Heberden, he put a tendency to ſuppuration may have begun, it the body into as good general health as may be, by air, exerciſe, continue thoſe means of refolution which moderate the force of the and a proper courſe of mild diet, he can perhaps do nothing better circulation. For further obſervations reſpecting abſceſſes fee the than to leave all the reſt to nature. In ſome few fortunate patients Article Abscess. nature appears to have ſuch reſources as may afford reaſon for en When an inflammation has taken a tendency to gangrene, that tertaining hopes of cure, even in very bad caſes. For ſome have event is to be prevented by every poſſible means; and theſe muſt recovered from this fever attended with every ſymptom of an abdo be different, according to the nature of the ſeveral cauſes; but after minal viſcus incurably diſeaſed, after all probable methods of relief a gangrene has in ſome degree taken place, it can be cured only by from art had been tried in vain, and after the fleſh and ſtrength the ſeparation of the dead from the living parts. This, in certain were ſo exhauſted as to leave ſcarce any hopes from nature. In circumſtances can be performed, and moſt properly, by the knife. manner. may be proper to In MEDICIN E. gangrene ariſes In other caſes it can be done by exciting a ſuppuratory inflamma The inflammation of the membranes of the eye affects eſpecially tion on the verge of the living part, whereby its coheſion with the and moſt frequently, the adnata, and appears in a turgeſcence of its dead part may be every where taken off, ſo that the latter may fall veſſels ; ſo that the red veſſels, which are naturally there, become off by itſelf. While this is doing, it is proper to prevent the fur not only increaſed in ſize, but many more appear than in a natural ther putrefaction of the part, and its ſpreading wider. For this ſtate. purpoſe various antiſeptic applications have been propoſed : but The ophthalmia membranarum requires the remedies proper for Dr. Cullen is of opinion, that while the teguments are entire, theſe inflammation in general; and when the deeper ſeated membranes applications can hardly have any effect; and, therefore, that the are affected, and elpecially when a pyrexia is preſent, large general fundamental procedure muſt be to ſcarify the part, ſo as to reach bleedings may be neceſſary. But this laſt is ſeldom the caſe; and, the living ſubſtance, and, by the wounds made there, to excite the for the moſt part, the ophthalmia is an affection purely local, ac- fuppuration required. By the ſame inciſions alſo we give acceſs companied with little or no pyrexia. General bleedings therefore to antiſeptics, which may both prevent the progreſs of the putre have little effect upon it, and the cure is chiefly to be obtained by faction in the dead, and excite the inflammation neceſſary on the topical bleedings, that is, blood drawn from the veſſels near the in- verge of the living parts. flamed part; and opening the jugular vein, or the temporal ar- When the gangrene proceeds from the loſs of tone, and when tery; may be conſidered as in ſome meaſure of this kind. It is this, communicated to the neighbouring parts, prevents that inflam commonly ſufficient to apply a number of leeches round the eye ; marion which is requiſite to the ſeparation of the dead parts from and it is perhaps ſtill better to draw blood by cupping and ſcarifying the living, it will be neceſſary to obviate this loſs of tone by tonic upon the temples. In many caſes, the moſt effectual remedy is to medicines given internally; and for this purpoſe the Peruvian bark ſcarify the internal ſurface of the interior eye-lid, and to cut the has been found to be moſt effectual. But when the gangrene turgid veſſels upon the adnata itſelf. from the violence of inflammation, the bark may not only fail of Beſides blood-letting, purging as a remedy ſuited to infiamma- proving a remedy, but may do harm : for its power, as a tonic, is tion in general, has been conſidered as peculiarly adapted to inflam- eſpecially ſuited to thoſe caſes of gangrene which proceed from an mation in any part of the head, and therefore to ophthalmia; and original loſs of tone, as in the caſe of palſy and oedema; or in thoſe it is ſometimes uſeful: but for the reaſons given before, with re- caſes where a loſs of tone takes place, while the original inflam ſpect to general bleeding, purging, in the caſe of ophthalmia does matory ſymptoms are reinoved. not prove uſeful in any proportion to the evacuation excited. For On the other hand, Mr. Bell is of opinion, that inciſions made relaxing the ſpaſm in the part; and taking off the determination of with a view to admit the operation of antiſeptic medicines in gan the fluids to it, bliſtering near the part has commonly been found grenes, as well as the remedies themſelves, muſt be pernicious, by uſeleſs. reaſon of the irritation they occaſion, and by the danger of wound Ophthalmia, as an external inflammation, admits of topical ap- ing blood-veſſels, nerves, tendons, &c. alſo by allowing free paf-plications. All thoſe, however, which increaſe the heat, and re- ſage for the putreſcent fluids into the parts not yet affected. And lax the veſſels of the part, prove hurtful; and the admiſſion of cool unleſs they are carried ſo deep as to reach the found parts, air to the eye, and the application of cooling and aſtringent medi- applications of the antiſeptic kind can never have any effect in cines, which at the ſame time do not produce irritation, prove uſe- anſwering the purpoſe for which they were intended. The fame ful. In the cure of this diſtemper indeed, all irritation muſt care- author alſo remarks, that all the advantages commonly obſerved, fully be avoided, particularly that of light ; and the only certain from the great number of applications recommended for gangrene, means of doing this is by keeping the patient in a dark chamber. are obtained with more eaſe, and generally too with more certain In the opthalmia tarſi, the ſame medicines may be neceſſary as ty, from the uſe of ſome gentle ſtimulating embrocation ; which, are already recommended for the ophthalmia membranarum. How- by exciting a ſlight irritation upon the ſurface, eſpecially when ever, as the ophthalmia tarſi may often depend upon an acrimony afliſted by a free uſe of the bark, produces, for the moſt part, ſuch depoſited in the ſebaceous glands of the part, ſo it may require va- a degree of inflammation as is wiſhed for. With this view he rious internal remedies, according to the variety of the acrimony has frequently known a weak ſolution of ſal ammoniac, a drachm in fault; for which we muſt refer to the confideration of ſcrophula, of the ſalt to two ounces of vinegar and fix of water, for a mixture ſyphilis, or other diſeaſes, with which this ophthalmia may be con- of a very proper ſtrength for every purpoſe of this kind. But the nected; and where theſe ſhall not be evident, certain remedies, degree of ſtimulus can eaſily be either increaſedor diminiſhed, ac more generally adapted to the evacuation of acrimony, ſuch as cording to circumſtances, by uſing a larger or ſmaller proportion mercury may be employed. In the opthalmia tarſi, it almoſt of the ſalt. conſtantly happens that ſome ulcerations are formed on the tarſus. Whenever, either by the means recommended, or by a natural Theſe require the application of mercury and copper, which exertion of the fyſtem, a ſlight inflammation appears, between the alone may ſometimes cure the whole affection; and they may be diſeaſed and ſound parts, we may in general, with tolerable certain uſeful even when the diſeaſe depends upon a fault of the whole ty, expect, that in due time the parts will be ſeparated ; and when ſyſtem. a full ſuppuration is once fully eſtabliſhed, there can be little doubt Both in the ophthalmia membranarum, and in the ophthalmia that the mortified parts will be ſoon and eaſily removed. tarſ, it is neceſſary to obviate that glueing together of the eye-lids, A complete reparation being effected, the remaining ſore is to which commonly happens in ſleep; and which may be done by be treated in the manner deſcribed under the article GANGRENE; inſinuating a little of any mild unctuous medicine between the with a proper attention, at the ſame time, to the ſupport of the eye-lids, before the patient ſhall go to ſleep. general ſyſtem, by the continuance of a nouriſhing diet, the bark The flighter kinds of inflammations, from the duſt or the ſun, and ſuch quantities of wine as may ſeem neceſſary. may be removed by fomenting with warm milk and water, adding With regard to the bark, however, it is proper to take notice of a ſmall portion of brandy; and by anointing the borders of the another caſe of mortification in which it is likewiſe unſucceſsful, as eye-lids with unguentum tutiæ, or the like, at night, eſpecially well as in that attended with a high degree of inflammation; and when thoſe parts are excoriated and ſore. But in bad caſes, after that is, in thoſe mortifications of the toes and feet, common in old the inflammation has yielded a little to evacuations, the coagulum people, or which ariſe from any cauſe increaſing the rigidity of | aluminoſum of the London diſpenſatory, ſpread on lint, and applied the veſſels to ſuch a degree as to prevent the motion of the fluids at bed-time, has been found the beſt external remedy. Before the through them. In this caſe Mr. Pott has diſcovered, that all kinds uſe of the latter, the ſolution of white vitriol is preſcribed with ad- of warm applications are unſucceſsful; but that by the free uſe of vantage; and in violent pains it is of ſervice to foment frequently opium, together with ſedatives and relaxants externally applied, he with a decoction of white poppy-heads. has frequently ſeen the tumefactions of the feet and ancles ſubſide, GENUS X.PHRENITIS,PHRENZY, or Inflammation of the Brain. the ſkin recover its natural colour, and all the mortified parts ſepa The true phrenitis, or inflammation of the membranes or ſub- rate in a very ſhort time, leaving a clean ſore. But as to ſcarifica ſtance of the brain, is very rare as an original diſeaſe: but as a tions, or any other attempt to ſeparate artificially the mortified from fymptom of others much more frequent. the found parts, he thinks them very prejudicial, by giving pain; Deſcription. The ſigns of an impending phrenzy are, immo- which is generally of itſelf violent in this diſeaſe, and which ſeems derate and continual watchings ; or, if any ſleep is obtained, it is to have a great ſhare in producing the other evils. diſturbed with dreams and gives no refreſhment; acute and laſting Genus IX. OPHTHALMIA, or Inflammation of the Eyes. pains, eſpecially in the hind part of the head and neck ; little Cauſes. From the diſtinctions which authors have invented in thirit, a great and flow reſpiration, as if proceeding from the bot- the ophthalmia, it is evident, that by far the greateſt part of them tom of the breaſt; the pulſe ſometimes ſmall and ſlow, fome- are ſymptomatic, or merely the conſequences of other diſorders pre times quick and frequent; a ſuppreſſion of urine; and forgetful- ſent in the habit ; and therefore the remedies muſt be directed to neſs. The diſtemper when preſent may be known by the follow- wards the removal of theſe primary diſorders ; and when they are ing ſigns: The veins of the head ſwell, and the temporal arteries gone the ophthalinia will be removed of courſe. The inflamma throb much; the eyes are fixed, ſparkle, and have a fierce aſpect ; tion of the eye may be conſidered as of two kinds; according as the ſpeech is incoherent, and the patient behaves very roughly it is ſeated in the membranes of the ball of the eye, when it is to the bye-ſtanders, with furious attempts to get out of bed, not named ophthalmia membranarum; or as it is ſeated in the ſebaceous indeed continually, but returning as it were by paroxyſms ; glands placed in the tarſus, or edges of the eye-lids, in which caſe the tongue is dry, rough, yellow, or black; there is a cold- it may be termed ophthalmia tarſi. Theſe two kinds are very fre neſs of the external parts; a proneneſs to anger; chattering of quently connected together, as the one may excite the other; but the teeth ; à trembling of the hands, with which the fick ſeem to they are ſtill to be diſtinguiſhed, according as the one or the other be gathering themſelves, and actually do gather the naps off the may happen to be the primary affection. bed-clothes, Cauſes M E D I C IN E. Cauſes of, and Perſons fubject to this Diſorder. People of a hot Beſides thele, bliſtering and rubefacient medicines are applied and bilious habit of body, and ſuch as are of a paſſionate diſpoſition, with ſucceſs, as well as antiphlogſtic purgatives; and every part are apt to fall into a phrenzy. The fame danger are thoſe in who of the antiphlogſtic regimen is to be obſerved, except the applica- uſe much ſpices, or are given to hot and ſpiriiuous liquors; who tion of cold. Sir John Pringle recommends a thick piece of Aannel have been expoſed more than uſual to the ſun, or obliged to undergo moiſtened with two parts of common ſweet oil, and one of ſpirit- immoderate Itudies or watchings; who are ſubject to head-achs, or of-hartſhorn, for in a larger proportion, if the ſkin will bear it,) in whom ſome cuſtomary hæmorrhages have been ſtopped; or the applied to the throat, and renewed once every four or five hours. diſeaſe may ariſe from ſome injury offered to the head externally. By this means the neck, and ſometimes the whole body, is put into Dr. Pringle obſerves, that the phrenitis, when conſidered as an a ſweat, which, after bleeding, either carries off or leſſens the in- original diſeaſe, is apt toattack ſoldiers in the ſummer ſeaſon, when flammation. When the diſeaſe takes a tendency to ſuppuration, they are expoſed to the heat of the ſun, and eſpecially when alleep nothing will be more uſeful than the taking into the fauces the and in liquor. A fymptomatic phrenzy is alſo more frequent in ſteams of warm water. When the abſceſs is attended with much the army than elſewhere, on account of the violence done to all ſwelling, if it break not ſpontaneouſly, it ought to be opened by a fevers, when the ſick are carried in waggons from the camp to an lancet ; and this does not require much caution, as even the in- hoſpital, where the very noiſe, or light alone, would be ſufficient, fiammatory ſtate may be relieved by ſome ſcarification of the ton- with more delicate natures, to raiſe a phrenzy. fils. Dr. Cullen has never ſeen any caſe requiring bronchotomy. Prognoſis. Every kind of phrenzy, whether idiopathic, or ſymp- THE MALIGNANT, FUTRID, OR ULCEROUS SORE THROAT, tomatic, is attended with a high degree of danger ; and, unleſs removed before the fourth day, a gangrene or ſphacelus of the me No account of this diſtemper was publiſhed in this country till ning es readily takes place, and the patient dies delirious. The the year 1748, when a very accurate one was drawn up by Dr. following are the molt fatal fymptonis : a continual and furious | Fothergill, and in 1752 by Dr. Huxham. The latter obſerves, deliriun, with watching; thin watery urine, white fæces, the that this diſeaſe was preceded by long, cold, and wet ſeaſons; by urine and ftools running off involuntarily, or a total ſuppreſſion which probably the bodies of people were debilitated, and more of theſe excretions; a ready diſpoſition to become ſtupid, or to faint; apt to receive contagion, which poſſibly alſo might be produced trembling, rigor, chattering of the teeth, convulſions, hiccup, by the ſtagnant and putrid waters. coldneſs of the extremities, trembling of the tongue, ſhrill voice, He obſerves that in a few hours after the ſeizure, and ſometimes a ſudden ceffation of pain, with apparent tranquillity. The fol cotemporary with it, a ſwelling and foreneſs of the throat was per- lowing are favourable : Sweats, apparently critical, breaking out; ceived, and the tonſils became very tumid and inflamed, and many a ſeeming effort of nature to términate the diſeaſe by a diarrhæa; times the parotid and maxillary glands ſwelled very much, and very a large hæmorrhage from the noſe; ſwellings of the glands be ſuddenly, even at the very beginning; ſometimes ſo much as even hind the ears ; hæmorrhoids. to threaten ſtrangulation. The fauces alſo very ſoon appeared of Cure. This is not different from the cure of inflammation in a high florid red, or rather of a bright crimſon colour, very ſhining general; but here the moſt powerful remedies are to be immedi ånd glolly; and moſt commonly on the uvula, tonſils, velum pala- ately employed. Large and repeated bleedings are eſpecially ne tinum, and back part of the pharynx, ſeveral whitiſh or afh- cellary, and theſe too taken from veſſels as near as poſſible to the coloured ſpots appeared ſcattered up and down, which oftentimes part affected. The opening the temporal artery has been recom increaſed very.faſt, and ſoon covered one or both the tonfils, uvula, mended, and with ſome reaſon ; but as the practice is attended &c. thoſe in the event proved floughs of ſuperficial ulcers, which with fome inconveniencies, perhaps the opening of the jugular | ſometimes, however, eat very deep into the parts. parts. The tongue at veins may prove more effectual; with which, however, may be this time, though only white and moiſt at the top, was very foul at joined the drawing of blood from the temples by cupping and ſca the root, and covered with a thick yellowiſh or brown coat. The rifying. It is alſo probable that purging may be of more uſe in breath alſo now began to be very nauſeous; which offenfive fmell this than in ſome other inflammatory affections, as it may operate increaſed hourly, and in ſome became at length intolerable, and by revullion. For the ſame purpoſe of revulſion, warm pediluvia that too ſometimes even to the patients themſelves. The noftrils are a remedy, but rather ambiguous. The taking off the force of likewiſe in many were greatly inflamed and excorialed, conti- the blood in the veſſels of the head by an erect polture is generally nually dripping down a moft' ſharp ichor, or fanious matter, fo uſeful. Bliſtering is alſo uſeful, but chiefly when applied near to exceſſively acrid, that it not only corroded the lips, cheeks, and the part affected. In ſhort, every part of the antiphlogiſtic regi hands of the children that laboured under the diſeaſe, but even the men is here neceſſary, and particularly the admiſſion of cold air. fingers and arms of the very nurſes that attended them: a ſudden Even cold ſubſtances applied to the head have been found ufeful; ftoppage of this rheum from the mouth and noſtrils actually and the application of ſuch refrigerants as vinegar is certainly choaked ſeveral children; and ſome ſwallowed ſuch quantities of proper. Opiates are hurtful in every inflammatory ſtate of the it, as occaſioned excoriations of the inteſtines, violent gripings, brain. On the whole, however, it muſt be remarked, that prac- dyſentery, &c. nay, even excoriations of the anus and buttocks. titioners are very uncertain with regard to the means proper to Not only the noſtrils, fauces, &c. were greatly affected by this be uſed in this diſeaſe; and the more ſo, that the ſymptoms by extremely ſharp matter, but the wind-pipe itſelf was fometimes which the diſeaſe is commonly judged to be preſent, appear fome much corroded by it, and pieces of its internal membrane were times without any internal inflammation; and on the other ſpit up, with much blood and corruption; and the patients lin- hand, dillections have ſhewn that the brain has been inflamed, gered on for a conſiderable time, and at length died tabid; though where few of the peculiar fymptoms of infammation had appeared there were more frequent inſtances of its falling ſuddenly and vio. before, lently on the lungs, and killing in a peripneumonic manner. GENUS XI. CYNANCHE Tonſillaris; the Inflammatory QUINSY. An early and kindly eruption, however, was moſt commonly a Dr. very good omen; and, when ſucceeded by a very copious deſqua- Deſcription. This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane mation of the cuticle, one of the moſt favourable ſymptoms that of the fauces, affecting principally that congeries of mucous folli occured; but when the eruption turned of a doſky or livid colour, cles which forms the tonſils; and from thence ſpreading along the or prematurely or ſuddenly receded, every ſymptom grew worſe, velum and uvala, ſo as frequently to affect every part of the mu and the utmoſt danger impended, eſpecially if purple, or black, cous membrane. The diſeaſe appears by ſome tumour and redneſs | ſpots appeared up and down, as ſometimes happened; the urine of the parts; is attended with a painful and difficult deglutition; a grew limpid, and convulfions came on, or a fatal ſuffocation foon troubleſome clammineſs of the mouth and throat; a frequent, but cloſed the tragedy. difficult, excretion of mucus; and the whole is accompanied with The diſeaſe was generally at the height about the fifth or ſixth pyrexia. The inflammation and tumour are commonly at firſt moſt day in young perſons, in the elder not fo foon; and the criſis many conſiderable in one tonſil; and afterwards, abating in that, increaſe times was not till the eleventh and twelfth, and then very imperfect : in the other. This difeaſe is not contagious. ſome adults, however, were carried off in two or three days; the Cauſes , of, and Perſons ſubject to, the Diſorder. This diſeaſe is diſtemper either falling on the lungs, and killing in a peripneu- commonly occaſioned by cold externally applied, particularly monic manner, or on the brain; and the patient either died raving about the neck. It affects eſpecially the young and ſanguine; and or comatoſe. In ſome, the diſeaſe brought on a very troubleſome a diſpoſition to it is often acquired by babit. It occurs eſpecially It occurs eſpecially cough, purulent expectoration, hæmoptoe, and hectic; in which in the ſpring and autumn, when viciffitudes of heat and cold fre they lingered on for ſeveral weeks, and then died tabid. quently take place. In ſome few patients our author obſerved, ſome time before the Prognoſis. This ſpecies of quinſy terminates frequently by re fatal period, not only the face bloated, fallow, ſhining, and greaſy ſolution, ſometimes by ſuppuration, but hardly ever by gangrene; as it were, but the whole neck vaftly ſwoln, and of a cadaverous though in ſome caſes ſloughy ſpots appear on the fauces: the look; and even the whole body became in ſome degree ædematous; prognoſis therefore is generally favourable. and the impreſſion of a finger would remain fixed in a part, the Cure. Here fome bleeding may be neceſſary; but large and ſkin not riſing again as uſual; an indication that the blood ſtagna- general evacuations are ſeldom beneficial. The opening of the ted in the capillaries, and that the elaſticity of the fibres was quite ranular veins ſeems to be an inſignificant remedy, according to Dr. loft. Cullen, but is recommended as efficacious by Sir John Pringle: Prognoſis. This may be eaſily gathered from the above de- and leeches fet on the external fauces are ſerviceable. The inflam- ſcription. The malignant and putrid tendency of the diſeaſe is mation may be often relieved by moderate aſtringents, and particu- evident, and an increaſe of the ſymptoms which ariſe from that Jarly by acids, applied to the parts affected. In many cafes, no putreſcent diſpoſition of the body muſt give an unfavourable prog- thing has been found to give more relief than the vapour ofwarm noftic; as, on the contrary, a decreaſe of theſe, and an apparent water received into the fauces. increaſe 4 M EDICINE. may be MATION. increaſe of the viz vitæ, are favourable; in general, what is ob expectoration, is the cauſe of that ceſſation of ſpitting which pre- ſerved to be favourable in this, and vice verſa. cedes the fatal event ; for in many caſes the expectoration has Cure. In this the ſeptic tendency of the diſeaſe is chiefly to be ceaſed, when no other ſymptoms of debility have appeared, and keptin view. The debility with which it is attended, renders all when, upon diſſection, the bronchiæ have been full of liquid mat- evacuations by bleeding and purging improper, except in a few in ter. Nay, it is even probable, that in ſome caſes, ſuch an effu- Itances where the debility is leſs, and the inflammatory ſymptoms fion may take place without any ſymptoms of violent inflammation more conſiderable. The fauces are to be preſerved from the effects which had appeared before, and thus account for thoſe unexpected of the acrid matter poured out upon them, and are therefore to be fatal terminations which have ſometimes happened. frequently waſhed by antiſeptic gargles or injections; and the The evacuation moſt frequently attending, and ſeeming to have putreſcent ſtate of the whole ſyſtem ſhould be guarded againſt and the greateſt effect in promoting reſolution, is an expectoration of a corrected by internal antiſeptics, eſpecially by the Peruvian bark thick, white, or yellowiſh matter, a little ſtreaked with blood, co- given in the beginning, and continued through the courſe of the pious, and brought up without much or violent coughing. Very diſeaſe. Emetics, both by vomiting and nauſeating, prove uſeful. frequently the reſolution of this diſeaſe is attended with, and per- When any conſiderable tumour occurs, bliſters, applied externally, haps produced by, a ſweat, which is warm, fluid, copious, over will be of ſervice, and in any caſe proper to moderate the the whole body, and attended with an abatement of the frequency inflammation. of the pulſe, heat of the body, and other febrile ſymptoms. GENUS XII. PNEUMONIA. PNEUMONIC INFLAM Cauſes of, and Perſons ſubject to the diſorder. The remote cauſe of pneumonic inflammation is commonly cold applied to the body, Under the general head of Pneumonia, are comprehended all in- obſtructing perſpiration, and determining to the lungs, while at flammations of the thoracic viſcera, or membrane lining the in the ſame time the lungs themſelves are expoſed to the action of ſide of that cavity ; as the ſymptoms do not ſufficiently diftinguiſh cold. Theſe circumſtances operate chiefly when an inflammatory the ſeat of the affection, nor does a difference in the ſituation of the diatheſis prevails in the ſyſtem; and therefore, upon perſons of affected place make any difference in the cure. the greateit vigour, in cold climates, in the winter ſeaſon, and Deſcription. Pneumonic inflammation, however various in the particularly in the ſpring, when viciſſitudes of heat and cold are ſeat, always diſcovers itſelf by pyrexia, difficult breathing, cough, frequent. This diſeaſe however may ariſe in any ſeaſon when and pain in ſome part of the thorax. It almoſt always comes on ſuch varieties take place. Other remote cauſes alſo may have with a cold ſtage, and is accompanied with the other ſymptoms of a ſhare in producing this diſtemper ; ſuch as every means of ob- pyrexia ; though, in ſome few inſtances, the pulſe may not be ſtructing, ftraining, or otherwiſe injuring, the pneumonic or- more frequent, nor the heat of the body increaſed beyond what is gans. natural. Sometimes the pyrexia is from the beginning accompa Prognoſis. In pneumonic inflammations a violent pyrexia is al- nied with the other ſymptoms : but frequently is formed fome ways dangerous. The danger, however, is chiefly denoted by the hours before them, and particularly before the pain is felt. The difficulty of breathing. When the patient can lie on one ſide only ; pain is alſo different in different caſes, and felt in different parts of when he can lie on neither ſide, but only on his back; when he the thorax, but moſt frequently in one ſide. It has been ſaid to cannot breathe with tolerable eaſe, except when the trunk of his affect the right ſide more frequently than the left; but this in un body is erect; when even in this poſture the breathing is very dif- certain, and we are ſure that the left ſide has been very often affect ficult, and attended with a turgeſcence and Aluſhing of the face, ed. Sometimes it is felt as it were under the ſternum ; ſometimes with partial ſweats about the head and neck, and an irregular in the back, between the ſhoulders; and when in the ſides, its pulſe, theſe circumſtances mark the difficulty of breathing in dif- place has been higher or lower, more forward or backward ; ferent degrees; and conſequently, in proportion, the danger of the but the place of all others moſt frequently affected is about the diſeaſe. A frequent violent cough, aggravating the pain, is always ſixth or ſeventh rib, near the middle of its length, or a little more the ſymptom of an obſtinate diſeaſe; and as the diſeaſe is ſeldom forward. or never reſolved without ſome expectoration, fo a dry cough muſt But as the ſymptoms never clearly indicate where the ſeat of the always be an unfavourable ſymptom. diſeaſe is, there is but little foundation for the different names by When the pains which had at firſt affected one ſide only, ſhall which it hath been diſtinguiſhed. The term pleuriſy is improperly afterwards ſpread into the other; or when, leaving the fide firſt limited to that inflammation which begins in and chiefly affects affected, they paſs entirely into the other ; theſe are always marks the pleura coſtalis; but this is a rare occurrence; and that becauſe of a dangerous diſeaſe. A delirium coming on during a pneumo- the pnemonia much more frequently begins in the pleura, inveſt nic inflammation is always a ſymptom denoting much danger. ing the lungs, producing all the ſymptoms which belong to what If the diſeaſe continues beyond the 14th day it will terminate in a has been called the pleuritis vera, It ſeems probable, that every ſuppuration or phthiſis. The termination by gangrene is much acute inflammation begins in membranous parts ; and in every more rare than has been imagined: and when it does occur, it diſſection of perſons dead of peripneumony, the external mem is uſually joined with the termination by effufion ; the ſymp- brane of the lungs, or ſome part of the pleura, has appeared toms of the one being hardly diſtinguiſhable from thoſe of the to have been conſiderably affected. An inflammation of the pleura other. covering the upper ſurface of the diaphragm, has been diſtinguiſhed Gure. This muſt proceed upon the general plan mentioned by the appellation of paraphrenitis, as ſuppoſed to be attended with under Synocha ; but, on account of the importance of the part the peculiar ſymptoms of delirium, riſus ſardonicus, and other affected, the remedies inuſt be employed early, and as fully as convulſive motions : but it is certain that an inflammation of that poſſible. Venefection is chiefly to be depended on; and may be portion of the pleura, and affecting alſo even the muſcular ſub done in either arm as the ſurgeon finds moſt convenient ; and ſtance of the diaphragm, has often taken place without any of the the quantity taken away ought in general to be as large as the pa- ſymptoms abovementioned ; nor do any accounts of diſſections tient's ſtrength will allow. The remiſſion of pain, and the relief ſupport the opinion that an inflammation of the pleura covering of reſpiration during the flowing of the blood, may limit the quan- the diaphragm is attended with delirium more commonly than any tity to be then drawn; but if theſe ſymptoms of relief do not ap- other pneumonic inflammation. It is to be obſerved, however, pear, the bleeding ſhould be continued till the ſymptoms of a be- that though the inflammation may begin in one particular part of ginning fyncope come on. It is ſeldom that one bleeding, how- the pleura, the morbid affection is commonly comrnunicated to the ever large, will cure this diſeaſe; and though the pain and diffi- whole extent of the membrane. culty of breathing may be much relieved by the firſt bleeding, The pneumonic inflammation, like others, may terminate by theſe ſymptoms commonly, and after no long interval, recur, often reſolution, ſuppuration, or gangrene: but is has alſo a termination with as much violence as before. In this caſe the bleeding is to be peculiar to itſelf; namely, when it is attended with an effuſion repeated even on the ſame day, and perhaps to the ſame quantity of blood into the cellular texture of the lungs, which, foon inter as before. Sometimes the ſecond bleeding may be larger than the rupting the circulation of the blood through the viſcus, produces firſt. There are perſons, who, by their conſtitution, are ready to a fatal ſuffocation. This indeed appears to be the moſt common faint even upon a ſmall bleeding; and in ſuch perſons this may termination of pneumonic inflammation when it ends fatally ; for prevent the drawing ſo much blood at firſt as a pnuemonic inflam- upon the diſſection of almoſt every perſon dead of this diſeaſe, it mation may require: but as the ſame perſons are found to bear appears that ſuch an effuſion had happened. It ſeems likewiſe after-bleedings better than the firſt, this allows the ſecond and ſub- probable, that an effuſion of this kind is ſometimes made into the ſequent bleedings to be larger, and to ſuch a quantity as the ſymp- cavity of the bronchiæ ; for in ſome perſons, who have died after toms of the diſeaſe may ſeem to require. labouring under a pneumonic inflammation, for a few days only, Bleedings are to be repeated according to the ſtate of the ſymp- the bronchiæ have been found filled with a conſiderable quantity of toms, and they will be more effectual when practiſed in the courſe ferous and thickiſh fluid, which muit be conſidered rather as the of the firſt three days than afterwards; but they are not to be effufion abovementioned, having had its thinner parts taken off omitted though four days of the diſeaſe may already have elapſed. by reſpiration, than as a pus ſo fuddenly formed in the inflamed If the phyſician has not been called in time, or the firſt bleedings part. have not been ſufficiently large, or even though they ſhould have Dr. Cullen is of opinion that the effuſion into the bronchiæ procured ſome remiſſion, yet upon the return of the urgent fymp- abovementioned, often concurs with the effuſion of red blood into tems, bleeding may be repeated at any time within the firſt fort- the cellular ſubſtance of the lungs, to occaſion the fatal ſuffocation night, or even after that period, if a ſuppuration be not evident, or which frequently terminates peripneumony ; that the effufion of if after a ſeeming ſolution the diſeaſe ſhall have returned. ſerum alone may have this effect : and that the ſerum poured out In a more advanced ſtate, and when the ſymptoms have ſuffered in a certain quantity, rather than any debility in the powers of a conſiderable remiſſion, we may then truſt the cure to the expec- * toration Nº IOI. MEDICINE. tory diſeaſes. promot- hot; The gums, Eoration alone. It is not obſerved that bleeding, during the firſt | giſtic regimen likewiſe carried to a greater height than in the prea. day of the diſeaſe, ſtops expectoration ; on the contrary, it hath monia ; but the general method is the ſame as in other infamma- been often found to promote it; and it is only in a more advanced ſtate of the diſeaſe, when the patient has been already exhauſted by Genus XIV. GASTRITIS, cr Inflammation of the STOMACH large evacuations and a continuance of his illnefs, that bleeding feems to put a ſtop to expectoration ; and even then, this ſtoppage Deſcription. The infiammation of the ſtomach is attended ſeems not to take place ſo much from the powers of expectoration with great heat and pain in the epigaſtric region, extreme anxiety, being weakened by bleeding, as by its favouring the ſerous effu an almoft continual and painful hiccup, with a moſt painful vo- fion in the bronchiæ, already taken notice of. miting of every thing taken into the ſtomach. Somerimes a tem- Beſides bleeding, every part of the antiphlogiſtic regimen ought porary madneſs enſues ; and there is an inſtance in the Edinburgh here to be carefully employed: the patient muſt keep out of bed Medical Eſſays, of the diſorder being attended with an hydropho- as much as he can bear; muſt have plenty of warm diluting drinks, bia. The pulfe is generally more funk than in other inflamma- impregnated with vegetable acids, accompanied with nitre or ſome tions, and the fever inclines to the nature of a typhus. The dif- other cooling neutral ſalt; and the belly alſo ought to be kept order is commonly of the remitting kind, and, during the reniſ- open by emollient glyíters or cooling laxative medicines. Vo ſions, the pulſe frequently intermits. During the height of the miting is dangerous; but it hath been found uſeful to exhibit eme- diſeaſe, a mortal phrenzy frequently ſupervenes. The diſeaſe ter- tics in nauſeating doſes; and in a fomewhat advanced ſtate of minates on the fourth, ſeventh, ninth day, or from the eleventh the diſeaſe, theſe doſes have been found the beſt means of to the fifteenth; and is more apt to end in a gangrene than pneu- ing expectoration. Fomentations and poultices to the pained part monic inflammations, and more frequently in a fchirrus than in an have been found uſeful ; but bliſtering is found to be much more abfcefs. effectual. A bliſter, however, ought not to be applied till at leaſt Cauſe, &c. The inflammation of the ſtomach may ariſe from any one bleeding hath been premiſed, as veneſection is leſs effectual acrid ſubſtance taken into it; from a vehement paſſion ; too large when the irritation of a bliſter is preſent. If the diſeaſe is mode draughts of cold liquor, eſpecially when the perſon is very rate, a bliſter may be applied immediately after the firſt bleeding; from a ſurfeit; a ſtoppage of perſpiration ; repulſion of the gout; but in violent caſes, where it may be preſumed that a ſecond bleed opiates; inflammations of the neighbouring viſcera ; or from exter- ing may ſoon be neceſſary after the firſt, it will be proper to delay nal injuries, ſuch as wounds, contulions, &c. It affects chiefly the bliſter till after the ſecond bleeding, wlien it may be fuppoſed thoſe of a plethoric habit, and hot bilious conftitution. that the irritation occaſioned by the bliſter will be over, before Prognoſis. This diſeaſe is always very dangerous, and the prog- another bleeding becomes neceſſary. It may frequently be of uſe nofis doubtful, which alſo muſt always be in proportion to the le- in this diſeaſe to repeat the bliſtering; and in that caſe the plaiſters verity of the ſymptoms. A ceſſation of pain, coldneſs about the fhould always be applied fomewhere on the thorax, for, when ap- præcordia, great debility, with a languid and intermitting pulſe, plied to more diftant parts they have little effect. The keeping with an abatement of the hiccup, denote a gangrene and ſpeedy the bliſtered parts open, and making what is called a perpetual death. From the ſenſibility of the ſtomach alſo, and its great con- bliſter, has much leſs effe&t than a freſh bliſtering. nection with the reſt of the ſyſtem, it mut be obvious that an in- Many methods have been propoſed for promoting expectoration, flammation of it, by whatever cauſes produced, may be attended but none appear to be ſufficiently effectual; and ſome of them, with fatal conſequences. The tendency to ſuppuration may be being acrid ſtimulant ſubſtances, are not very ſafe. The known by the ſymptoms continuing but in a moderate degree for uſually employed, ſeem to be too heating; the ſquills leſs ſo; but more than one or two weeks, and by a conſiderable remiſſion of they are not very powerful, and ſometimes inconvenient by the the pain, while a ſenſe of weight, and an anxiety, ſtill remain. conſtant nauſea they occaſion. The volatile alkali inay be of When an abſceſs has been formed, the frequency of the pulſe is ſervice as an expectorant, but it ought to be reſerved for an ad at firſt abated : but ſoon after it encreaſes, with frequent cold fhi- vanced ſtate of the diſeaſe. Mucilaginous and oily demulcents verings, and an exacerbation in the afternoon and evening ; fol- appear to be uſeful, by allaying that acrimony of the mucus which lowed by night-ſweats, and other ſymptoms of hectic fever. Theſe occaſions too frequent coughing; and which coughing prevents at length prove fatal, unleſs the abſceſs open into the cavity of the the ſtagnation and thickening of the mucus, and thereby its becom ſtomach, the pus be evacuated by vomiting, and the ulcer foon ing mild. The receiving the ſteams of warm water into the lungs, healed. impregnated with vinegar, has often proved uſeful in promoting Cure. It appears from diffections, that the ſtomach may very expectoration; and for this purpoſe the machine, called the inhaler, often be inflamed when the characteriſtic marks of it have not ap- lately invented by Mr. Mudge, ſurgeon at Plymouth, promiſes to peared ; and therefore we cannot lay down any general rules for be of great ſervice; but, of all others, the antimonial emetics, given the cure of this diſeaſe. When the ſymptoms appear in the man- in nauſeating doſes, promiſe to be the moſt powerful for promoting ner above deſcribed, the cure is to be attempted by large and re- expectoration. The kermes mineral hath been greatly recom peated bleedings employed early in the diſeaſe; and from theſe we mended; but doth not ſeem to be more efficacious than emetic are not to be deterred by the weakneſs of the pulſe, for it has com- tartar, or antimonial wine; and the doſe of the kerınes is much monly become fuller and ſofter after the operation. A bliſter ought more uncertain than that of the others. alſo to be applied to the region of the ſtomach ; and the cure will Though this diſeaſe often terminates by a ſpontaneous ſweating, be affifted by fomentations of the whole abdomen, and by fre- this evacuation ought not to be excited by art, unleſs with much quent emollient and laxative glyſters. The irritability of the ſto- caution. If, however, the ſweats be partial and clammy only, and mach in this diſeaſe will admit of no medicines being thrown into a great difficulty of breathing ſtill remain, it will be very dangerous it ; and if any can be ſuppoſed neceſſary, they muſt be exhibited in to encourage them. glyſters. Diluting drinks may be tried; but they muſt be of the Phyſicians have differed much with regard to the uſe of opiates very mildeſt kind, and given in ſmall quantities at a time. Opiates in pneumonic affections. It appears, however, that, in the begin in whatever manner exhibited, are very hurtful during the firſt ning of the diſeaſe, and before bleeding and bliſtering have pro days of the diſeaſe ; but when the violence of the diſeaſe ſhall have duced ſome remiſion of the pain, and of the difficulty of breathing, abated, and when the pain and vomiting recur at intervals only, opiates have a very bad tendency, by their encreaſing the difficulty opiates given in glyfters may frequently be employed with advan- of breathing and other inflammatory fymptoms ; but in a more ad tage. A tendency to gangrene in this diſeaſe is to be obviaied only vanced ſtate of the diſeaſe, when the difficulty of breathing has by the means juſt now mentioned ; and when it does actually ſu- abated, and when the urgent ſymptom is a cough, proving the chief pervene, it admits of no remedy. A tendency to ſuppuration is to cauſe of the continuance of pain and want of reſt, opiates may be be obviated by the fame means employed early in the diſeaſe. Af- employed with great advantage and fafety. ter a certain period it cannot be prevented by any means whatever ; VOMICA, or Abſceſs of the Lungs. and, when actually begun, muſt be left to nature; the only thing This ſometimes follows pneumonia, though the caſe is not fre that can be done by art to avoid all irritation. quent. The fymptoms of it ſo much reſemble the phthiſis, that Genus XV. ENTERITIS, or inflammation of the INTESTINES, it can moſt properly be treated of under that head. Deſcription. This diſeafe ſhews itſelf by a fixed pain in the ab- Genus XIII. CARDITIS, or Inflammation of the HEART. domen, attended with fever, vomiting, and coſtiveneſs. The pain Deſcription. This diſeaſe is attended with all the ſymptoms of is often felt in different parts of the abdomen, but more frequently pneumonia, but in a higher degree; it is beſides ſaid to be accoin ſpread over the whole, and is particularly violent about the navel. panied with hydrophobic ſymptoms, fainting, palpitation of the Gaufes, &c. Inflammations of the inteſtines may ariſe from the heart, a ſeeming madneſs, ſunk and irregular pulle, watery eyes, ſame cauſes as thoſe of the ſtomach; though commonly the former and a dejected countenance, with a dry and black tongue. On dif will more readily occur from cold applied to the lower extremities, fection, the heart and pericardium are found very much inflamed, or to the belly itſelf. It is alſo found ſupervening on the ſpaſmodic and even ulcerated, with many polypous concretions. colic, incarcerated hernia, and volvulus. Caules, &c. The ſame as in poeumonia. Prognoſis. Inflammations of the inteſtines have the ſame ter- Prognoſis. In the carditis the prognoſis is more unfavourable minations with thoſe of the ſtomach, and the prognoſis in both than in the pneumonia; and, indeed, unleſs the diſeaſe very quickly caſes is much the ſame. terminates, it muſt prove fatal, on account of the conſtant and vio- Cure. The cure of enteritis is in general the ſame with that of lent motion of the heart, which exaſperates the inflammation, and gaſtritis : but in the former there is commonly more acceſs to the increaſes all the ſymptoms. introduction of liquids, of acid, aceſcent, and other cooling reme- Cure. Here bleeding is neceſſary in as great a degree as the p2 dies, and even of laxatives; but as a vomiting frequently attends tient can poſſibly bear, together with bliſtering, and the antiphlo. the enteritis, care muſt be taken not to excite that vomiting by the quantity MEDICIN E. ureter. quantity or quality of any thing thrown into the ſtomach. With Cure. This is not at all different from what hath been already regard to the ſuppuration and gangrene of the inteſtines following laid down concerning the hepatitis. the enteritis, the ſame thing is to be underſtood as is mentioned Genus XVIII. NEPHRITIS: or, Inflammation of the KidNies. under the GASTRITIS. Eryſipetalous ENTERITIS. Concerning this nothing farther Deſcription. The nephritis has the ſame ſymptoms in common can be ſaid, than what had been already delivered concerning the with other inflammations; but its diſtinguiſhing mark is the pain gaſtritis. in the region of the kidney, which is fometimes obtuſe and fome- GENUS XVI. HEPATITIS ; or, Inflammation of the Liver. times pungent. The pain is not increafed by the motion of the trunk of the body, ſo much as a pain of the rheumatic kind affecting Deſcription. The inflammation of the liver is thought to be of the ſame region. It may alſo frequently be diſtinguiſhing by its two kinds, acute and chronic: but the latter very often does not ſhooting along the courſe of the ureter, and is frequently attended diſcover itſelf except by an abſceſs found in the liver after death, with a drawing up of the teſticle, and a numbneſs of the limb on and which is ſuppoſed to have been occaſioned by ſome degree of the ſide affected; though indeed theſe ſymptoms moſt commonly inflammation ; for this reaſon the chronic inflammation cannot be attend the inflammation ariſing from a calculus in the kidney or deſcribed, and we ſhall only here treat of the acute hepatitis. The diſeaſe is alſo attended with frequent vomiting, and The acute hepatitis is attended with a conſiderable fever; a fre often with coſtiveneſs and colic pains. The urine is moſt com- quent, ſtrong, and hard pulſe ; high coloured urine; an aeute pain inonly of a deep red colour, and is voided frequently, and in a in the right hypochondrium, increaſed by preſſing upon the part. ſmall quantity at a time. In more violent caſes the colour is The pain is very often in ſuch a part of the ſide as to make it ap commonly colourleſs. pear like a pleuriſy; and frequently like that, is increaſed on in Ceufes, &c. The remote cauſes of this diſeaſe may be various ; {piration. The diſeaſe is alſo commonly attended with a cough, as external contuſion, violent, or long continued riding; ſtrains of which is generally dry, but ſometimes moiſt; and when the pain the muſcles of the back incumbent on the kidnies; various acrids, thus reſembles a pleuriſy, the patient cannot lie eaſily except on the in the courſe of circulation, conveyed to the kidney ; and perhaps fide affected. The pain is frequently extended to the clavicle, and ſome other internal cauſes not yet well known ; the moſt frequent to the top of the ſhoulder, and is attended ſometimes with hiccup, is that of calculous matter obſtructing the tubuli uriniferi, or cal- and ſometimes with vomiting. Some have added jaundice, or a culi, formed in the pelvis of the kidnies, and either ſticking there, yellowneſs in the eyes, to the ſymptoms of this diſtemper; but or fallen into the ureter. experience fhews that it hath often occurred without any ſuch Prognoſis. This is not different from that of other inflamma- fymptom. tory diſeaſes. Cauſes, &c. The remote cauſes of hepatitis are not always to Cure. This is to be attempted by bleeding, external fomenta- be diſcerned, and many have been aſſigned on a very uncertain tion, frequent emollient glyfters, antiphlogyſtic purgatives, and by foundation. It has been ſuppoſed that the diſeaſe may be an affec the free uſe of mild and demulcent liquids. The ule of bliſters is tion either of the extremities of the hepatic artery, or thoſe of the ſcarce admiſſible, or at leaſt will require great care to avoid any vena portarum; but of the laſt there is no proof, nor is the ſuppo conſiderable abſorption of the cantharides. ſition at all probable. The inflammation on the concave ſurface Genus XIX. CYSTITIS; or, Inflammation of the BLADDER of the liver, may be readily communicated to the gall bladder and The inflammation of the bladder, from internal cauſes, is a very biliary ducts: and this perhaps is the only caſe of idiopathic he- patitis, attended with jaundice. rare diſtemper; and when it does at any time occur, is to be cured Prognoſis. The inflammation of the liver, like others, may in the ſame manner with other inflammations, avoiding only the end uſe of cantharides. When the diſeaſe ariſes from the internal uſe by reſolution, fuppuration, or gangrene ; and the tendency to the one or to the other of thoſe events may be known from what has of theſe fies, camıphire is recommended, beſides other cooling me- been already mentioned concerning the prognoſis in gaſtritis. The dicines, and particularly cooling and emollient glyfters. reſolution of hepartitis is often the conſequence of, or is attended Genus XX. HYSTERITIS; or, Inflammation of the Uterus. with evacuations of different kinds. An hæmorrhage, ſometimes Deſcription. The diſeaſe is often confounded with that called the from the noſe, and ſometimes from the hæmorrhoidal veſſels, gives | puerperal, or child-bed fever ; but is very eſſentially different from a ſolution of the diſeaſe. Sometimes the ſame thing is accompliſhed it, as will be ſhewn in its proper place. The inflammation of the by a bilious diarrhæa; and ſometimes the reſolution is attended uterus is often apt to terminate by gangrene : there is a pain in the with ſweating, and an evacuation of urine, depoſiting a copious ſe head with delirium; and the uterine region is ſo exceedingly ten- diment. Sometimes it may be cured by an eryſipelas appearing in der, that it cannot bear the moſt gentle preſſure without intolerable fome external part. When the diſeaſe hath ended in ſuppuration, pain. When the fundus uteri is inflamed, there is great heat, the pus collected may be diſcharged by the billiary ducts; or, if the throbbing and pain, above the pubes; if its poſterior part, the pain fuppurated part does not adhere anywhere cloſely to the neighbour is more confined to the loins and rectum, with a teneſmus; if its ing parts, into the cavity of the abdomen: but if, during the firſt anterior part it ſhoots from thence towards the neck of the bladder, ftate of inflammation, the affected part of the liver ſhall have formed and is attended with a frequent irritation to make water, which is a cloſe adheſion to ſome of the neighbouring parts, the diſcharge, voided with difficulty; and if its fides, or the ovaria, are affected, after ſuppuration may be various, according to the different ſeat of the pain will then dart into the inſide of the thighs. the abſceſs. Cauſes, &c. Inflammations of the uterus, and indeed of the reſt Cure. For the cure of hepartitis, we muſt have recourſe to the of the abdominal viſcera, are very apt to take place in lying-in general means of removing other inflammatory diſorders, Bleed women : the reaſon of, which ſeems to be the ſudden change pro- ing is to be uſed according to the degree of fever and pain. Blif duced in the habit, and an alteration in the courſe of the circulating ters are to be applied: fomentations of the external parts, emolli blood by the contraction of the uterus after delivery. The preſſure ent glyfters, gentle laxatives, diluents and refrigerents, are alſo of the gravid uterus being ſuddenly taken off from the aorta de- uſeful. But when a fuppuration has been formed, and the abſceſs ſcendens after delivery, the reſiſtance to the impulſe of the blood points outwardly, the part muſt be opened, the pus evacuated, and paſſing through all the veſſels derived from it, and diſtributed to the ile ulcer healed according to the ordinary method in uſe for healing contiguous viſcera, will be conſiderably leſſened: it will therefore abſceſſes and ulcers in other parts. ruſh into thoſe veſſels with a force ſuperior to their reſiſtance, and Genus XVII. SPLENITIS ; or, Inflammation of the SPLEEN. by putting them violently on the ſtretch, may occaſion pain, in- flammation and fever. This contraction of the uterus alſo renders Deſcription. This diſeaſe, according to Junker, comes on with its veſſels impervious to the blood, which had freely paſſed through a remarkable ſhivering, ſucceeded by a moſt intenſe heat and very great thirſt; a pain and tumour are perceived in the left hypochon- quently a much larger quantity will be thrown upon the contigu- them for the ſervice of the child, during pregnancy; and conſe- drium, and the paroxyſms for the moſt part aſſume a quartan form. When the patients expoſe themſelves for a little to the free air, ous parts, which will ſtill add to their diſtenſion, and increaſe their their extremities immediately grow very cold. If an hæmorrhage tendency to inflammation. happens, the blood flows out of the left noftril. The other ſymp-pected to produce an obſtruction of the lochia ; but the fever pro- Prognoſis . An inflammation of the uterus generally may be ex- toms are the ſame with thoſe of the hepatitis. Like the liver, duced ſeldom proves mortal, unleſs the inflammation is violent, and it is alſo ſubject to a chronic inflammation, which often happens ends in a gangrene. after agues, and is commonly called the ague cake. Cauſes, &c. The cauſes of this diſtemper are, in general, the Cure. This is to be attempted by the ſame general means already fame with thoſe of other inflammatory diſorders; but thoſe which recommended, and the management of this diſorder entirely coin- determine the inflammation to that particular part more than ano- cides with that of the puerperal fever. ther, are very much unknown. It attacks perſons of a very pletho GENUS XXI. RHEUMATISMUS; the RHEUMATISM. ric and fanguine habit of body rather than others. Prognoſis. What hath been ſaid of the inflammation of the Deſcription. The rheumatiſm is particularly diſtinguiſhed by liver applies alſo to that of the ſpleen, though the latter is leſs pains affecting the joints, and for the moſt part the joints alone; dangerous than the former. Here alſo a vomiting of black matter but ſometimes alſo the muſcular parts. Very often they ſhoot which in other acute diſeaſes is ſuch a fatal omen, ſometimes proves along the courſe of the muſcles, from one joint to another, and are critical, according to the teſtimony of Junker. Sometimes the always much increaſed by the action of the muſcles belonging to hæmorrhoids prove critical ; but very often the inflammation the joint or joints affected. The larger joints are thoſe moſt terminates by ſchirrus. frequently affected, ſuch as the hip joint and knees of the lower extremities THE ACUTE RHEUMATISM. M E DICI N E. ment. extremities, and the ſhoulders and elbows of the upper ones. The ring the firſt days of the diſeaſe, ſeem to be neceſſary, and accord- ancles and 'wriſts are alſo frequently affected; but the ſmaller | ingly, have been very much employed; but to this forne bounds joints, ſuch as thoſe of the toes or fingers, ſeldom ſuffer. The are to be ſet; for very profuſe bleedings occaſion a ſlow recovery, pains do not commonly remain long in the ſame joint, but frequent and, if not abſolutely effectual, are ready to produce a chronic rheu- ly ſhift from one to another, and ſometimes return to joints formerly matiſm. effected ; and in this manner the diſeaſe often continues for a long To avoid that debility of the ſyſtem which general bleedings are time. The pyrexia hath an exacerbation every evening, and is apt to occaſion, the urgent ſymptom of pain may be often relieved moſt conſiderable during the night, when the pains alſo become by topical bleedings ; and when any ſwelling or redneſs have come more violent; and it is at the ſame time that the pains ſhift their upon a joint, the pain may very certainly be relieved by topical place from one joint to another. Theſe ſeem to be alſo increaſed bleedings; but as the pain and continuance of the diſeaſe ſeem to during the night, by the body being covered more cloſely, and kept depend more upon the phlogiſtic diatheſis of the whole ſyſtem than warmer. upon the affection of particular parts, ſo topical bleedings will not A joint, after having been for ſome time affected with pain, com ſupply the place of the general bleedings propoſed above. monly becomes alſo affected with ſome ſwelling and redneſs, To take off the phlogiſtic diatheſis prevailing in this diſeaſe, purg- which is painful to the touch. It ſeldom happens that a ſwelling ing may be uſeful, if procured by medicines which do not ſtimulate coming on does not take off the pain entirely, or ſecure the joint the whole ſyſtem, as neutral falts, and other medicines which have againſt a return of it. The blood is always fizy. The acute rheu a refrigerant power. Purging however is not ſo uſeful as bleeding, matiſm differs from all other inflammatory diſeaſes, in not being in removing phlogiſtic diathelis; and when the diſeaſe has become Tiable to terminate in fuppuration : this rarely happens ; but the general and violent, frequent ſtools are inconvenient, and even hurt- diſeaſe ſometimes produces effuſions of a tranſparent gelatinous ful, by the motion and pain which they occaſion. fluid into the ſheaths of the tendons. In this diſeaſe external applications are of little ſervice. Fomen- Sometimes the rheumatiſm will continue for ſeveral weeks; tations, in the beginning of the diſeaſe, rather aggravate than re- however, it ſeldom proves fatal, and it is rare that the pyrexia con lieve the pains. The rubefacients and camphire are more effectual; tinues to be conſiderable for more than two or three weeks. While but they generally only ſhift them from one part to another, and do the pyrexia abates in its violence, if the pains of the joints conti not prove any cure of the general affection. Bliſtering may alſo be nue, they are leſs violent, more limited in their place, being con very effectual in removing the pain from a particular part, but fined commonly to one or a few joints only; and are leſs ready to will be of little uſe, except where the pains are much confined to change their place, a particular part. Cauſes, &c. This diſeaſe is frequent in cold, and more uncom The ſeveral remedies above-mentioned moderate the violence of mon in warm climates. It appears moſt frequently in autumn the diſeafe, and ſometimes remove it entirely; but they ſometimes and ſpring ; leſs frequently in winter, whilſt the froſt is conſtant ; fail, and leave the cure imperfect. The attempting a cure by large and very ſeldom during the heat of ſummer. It may, however, and repeated bleedings is attended with many conveniencies; and occur, at any ſeaſon, if viciſſitudes of heat and cold be for the time the moſt effectual and ſafe method of cure is, after ſome general frequent. For the moſt part the acute rheumatiſm ariſes from bleedings, for taking off, or at leaſt diminiſhing, the phlogiſtic di- the application of cold to the body, when unuſually warm, or when atheſis, to employ ſweating, conducted by the rules laid down when the cold is applied to one part of the body, whilſt the other parts ſpeaking of the cure of fynocha. Opiates, except where they are are kept warm; or laſtly, when the application of cold is long directed to procure ſweat, always prove hurtful, in every ſtage of continued, as when moiſt or wet cloaths are applied to any part of this diſeaſe. The Peruvian bark has been ſuppoſed a remedy in the body. Theſe cauſes may affect perſons of all ages ; but the ſome caſes; but it is ſeldom found uſeful, and is frequently hurt- rheumatiſm ſeldom appears either in very young or in elderly per ful. It ſeems only fit for thoſe caſes in which the phlogiſtic diathefis ſons, and moſt commonly occurs from the age of puberty to that is much abated, and at the ſame time the exacerbations of the diſeaſe of 35. alſo affect perſons of any conſtitution, are manifeſtly periodical, with conſiderable remiſſions interpofed. but they moſt commonly affect thoſe of a ſanguine tempera- Calomel, and other preparations of mercury, have been recom- mended in ſome caſes of acute rheumatiſm; they are only uſeful in The proximate cauſe of rheumatiſm hath by many been ſuppoſed caſes approaching to the nature of the chronic kind. to be a lentor in the fluids obſtructing the veſſels of the part. While Genus XXII. CHRONIC RHEUMATISM. we cannot find either evidence or reaſon for ſuppofing that the rheu- matiſm depends on any change in the ſtate of the fluids, we muſt Deſcription. When the pyrexia attending the acute rheumatiſm conclude that the proximate cauſe of it is the ſame with that of hath ceaſed; when the ſwelling and redneſs of the joints are entirely other inflammations not depending upon a direct ſtimulus. gone, but pains ſtill continue to affect certain joints, which remain In the caſe of rheumatiſm, it is ſuppoſed that the moſt common ſtiff, feel uneaſy upon motion, changes of weather, or in the night- remote cauſe of it, that is, cold applied, operates eſpecially on the time only; the diſeaſe is then called the chronic rheumatiſm, as it veſſels of the joints, theſe being leſs covered by a cellular texture often continues for a very long time. than thoſe of the intermediate parts of the limbs. It is farther The limits between the acute and chronic rheumatiſms are not ſuppoſed, that the application of cold produces a conſtriction of always exactly marked. When the pains are ſtill ready to ſhift the extreme veſſels, and at the ſame time an increaſe of tone or their place; when they are eſpecially ſevere in the night-time; phlogiſtic diatheſis in the courſe of them, from which ariſes an in when, at the ſame time they are attended with ſome degree of py- creaſed impetus of the blood, and at the ſame time a reſiſtance to rexia, and with ſome ſwelling, and eſpecially ſome redneſs, of the the free paſſage of it, and conſequently inflammation and pain. joints ; the diſeaſe is to be conſidered as partaking of the nature of It is alſo ſuppoſed, that the reſiſtance formed excites the vis medica the acute rheumatiſm. But when there is no longer any degree of trix, to a further increaſe of the impetus of the blood; and to ſup- | pyrexia remaining; when the pained joints are without redneſs ; port this, a cold ſtage ariſes, a ſpaſm is formed, and a pyrexia and when they are cold and ſtiff; when they cannot eaſily be made to plogiſtic diatheſis are produced in the whole ſyſtem. ſweat; or when, while a free and warm ſweat is brought out on Hence the cauſe of rheumatiſm appears to be exactly analogous the reſt of the body, it is only clammy and cold on the pained joints ; to that of inflammations depending on an increaſed afflux of blood and when further, the pains of theſe are increaſed by cold, and re- to a part, while it is expoſed to the action of cold. But there ſeems lieved by heat, applied to them; the caſe is to be conſidered as that to be further in this diſeaſe ſome peculiar affection of the muſcular of a purely chronic rheumatiſm. fibres. Theſe ſeem to be under fome degree of rigidity; and there The chronic rheumatiſm may affect different joints; but is fore leſs eafily admit of motion, and are pained upon the exertions eſpecially apt to affect thoſe which are ſurrounded with many mul- of it. This alſo ſeems to be the affection which gives opportunity cles, and thoſe of which the muſcles are employed in the moſt con- to the propagation of pains from one joint to another, and which ſtant and vigorous exertions. Such is the caſe of the vertebræ of are moſt ſeverely felt in the extremities, terminating in the joints, the loins, the affection of which is named lumbago; or of the hip- becauſe, beyond theſe the oſcillations are not propagated. This joint, when the diſeaſe is named iſchias, or ſciatica. affection of the muſcular fibres explains the manner in which ſtrains The diſtinction of the rheumatic pains from thoſe reſembling and ſpaſms produce rheumatic affections; and on the whole, ſhews, them which occur in the fiphylis and ſcurvy muſt be obvious, either that with an inflammatory affection of the fanguiferous ſyſtem, from the ſeat of the pains, or from the concomitant ſymptoms pe- there is alſo, in rheumatiſm, a peculiar affection of the muſcular culiar to thoſe diſeaſes. The diſtinction of the rheumatiſm from fibres, which has a conſiderable ſhare in producing the phænomena the gout will be more fully underſtood from what is laid down in of the diſeaſe. the following genus. Cure. Here we muſt remember, that in the acute rheumatiſm Cauſes , &c. The phænomena of the purely chronic rheumatiſm, there is an inflammatory affection of the parts, and a phlogiſtic di lead us to conclude, that its proximate cauſe is an atony both of the atheſis of the whole ſyſtem. The cure therefore requires, in the blood veſſels and of the muſcular fibres of the part affected, to- firlt place, an antiphlogiſtic regimen, and particularly a total abſti-gether with ſuch a degree of rigidity and contraction in the latter nence from animal food, and from all fermented, or ſpirituous li as frequently attend them in a ſtate of atony. quors: ſubſtituting a mild vegetable or milk diet, and the plentiful Cure. From the view juſt now given of the proximate cauſe of uſe of ſoft diluting liquors. On this principle, blood-letting is the chronic rheumatiſm, the indication of cure muſt be, to reſtore the chief remedy of acute rheumatiſm. The blood is to be drawn in activity and vigour of the vital principal in the part. The reme- large quantity; and the bleeding is to be repeated in proportion to dies are either external or internal. the frequency, fulneſs, and hardneſs of the pulſe, and the violence The external are, the ſupporting the heat of the part, by keep- of the pain. For the moſt part, large and repeated bleedings, du- | ing it conſtantly covered with fannel; the insreaſing the heat of I the M E DI C IN E. he part by external heat, applied either in a dry or humid form; as, when the fits are frequent, the paroxyfins become alſo longer, he diligent uſe of the fleſh bruſh, or other means of friction ; the fo, in the advanced ſtate of the diſeaſe, the patient is hardly ever application of electricity in ſparks or ſhocks; the application of tolerably free from it, except perhaps for two or three months in cold water by affufion or immerſion ; the application of eſſential ſummer. oils of the moſt warm and penetrating kind; the application of ſalt The progreſs of the diſeaſe is alſo marked by the parts which it brine; and laſtly, the employment either of exerciſe, of the part affects. At firſt, it commonly affects one foot only ; afterwards itſelf as far as it can eaſily bear, or by riding, or other mode of geſ every paroxyſm affects both feet, the one after the other; and, as tation. the diſeaſe proceeds, it not only affects both feet at once, but, after The internal remedies are, I. Large doſes of eſſential oils drawn having cealed in the foot which was fecondly attacked, returns from refinous ſubſtances, ſuch as turpentine. 2. Subſtances con again into the firſt, and perhaps a ſecond time alſo into the other. taining ſuch oils, as guaiac. 3. Volatile alkaline falts. 4. Theſe Its changes of place are not only from one foot to another, but or other medicines directed to procure ſweat; and 5. Calomel, or from the feet into other joints, eſpecially thoſe of the upper and fome other preparation of mercury, in ſmall doſes, continued for lower extremities; ſo that there is hardly a joint of the body that ſome time. Beſides theſe, there are ſeveral others recommended; on one occaſion or other is not affected. It ſometimes affects two as bleeding, general and topical; burning, bliſtering, and iſſues different joints at the ſame time, but more commonly is at any one but theſe are oniy uſeful when the diſeaſe ftill partakes of the na time ſevere in a ſingle joint only, and paſſes ſucceſſively froin one ture of the acute rheumatiſm. joint to another, ſo that the patient's affliction is often pro- tracted for a long time. Genus XXIII. ODONTALGIA, the TOOTH-ACH. When the diſeaſe has often returned, and the paroxyſms have Deſcription. This well known diſeaſe makes its attack by a become very frequent, the pains are commonly leſs violent than moſt violent pain in the teeth, moſt frequently in the molares, but they were at firſt; but the patient is more affected with fickneſs, more rarely in the inciſorii, reaching ſometimes up to the eyes, and the other ſymptoms of the atonic gout, which ſhall be hereafter and ſometimes backward into the cavity of the ear. At the ſaine mentioned. time there is a manifeſt determination to the head, and a remark- After the firſt paroxyſm of the diſeaſe, the joints which have able tenſion and inflation of the veſſels takes place, not only in been affected are entirely reſtored to their former fuppleneſs and the parts next to that where the pain is ſeated, but over the whole ſtrength : but after the diſeaſe has recurred very often, the joints head. Cauſes, &c. The tooth ach is ſometimes merely a rheumatic af- affected do neither ſo ſuddenly nor entirely recover their former ſtate, but continue weak and ſtiff; and theſe effects at length pro- fection, ariſing from cold, but more frequently from a carious ceed to ſuch a degree, that the joints loſe their motion entirely. tooth. It is alſo a ſymptom of pregnancy, and takes place in ſome In many perſons, but not in all, after the diſeaſe has frequently nervous diſorders; it may attack perſons at any time of life, though recurred, concretions of a chalky nature are formed upon the out- it is moſt frequent in the young and plethoric. . ſide of the joints, and, for the moſt part, immediately under the Cure. Many empirical remedies have been propoſed for the cure ſkin. The matter ſeems to be depoſited at firſt in a fluid form, of the tooth-ach, but none have in any degree anſwered the pur- afterwards becoming dry and firm. In their firm ſtate, theſe con- poſe. When the affection is purely rheumatic, bliſtering behind cretions are a friable earthy ſubſtance, entirely ſoluble in acids. the ear will almoſt always remove it; but when it proceeds from After they have been formed, they contribute, with other circum- a carious tooth, the pain is much more obſtinate. In this caſe it ftances, to deſtroy the motion of the joint. In moſt perſons who hath been recommended to touch the pained part with a hot iron, have laboured under the gout for many years, a nephritic affection or with oil of vitriol, in order to deſtroy the aching nerve; to comes on, and diſcovers itſelf by all the ſymptoms which uſually hold ſtrong ſpirits in the mouth; to put a drop of oil of cloves attend calculous concretions in the kidneys, and which we ſhall into the hollow of the tooth, or a pill of equal parts of opium and have occaſion to deſcribe in another place. All that is neceſſary camphire. The Peruvian bark hath alſo been recommended, and to be obſerved here is, that the nephritic affection alternates with perhaps with more juſtice, on account of its tonic and antiſeptic paroxyſms of the gout; and that the two affections, the nephritic powers ; but very often all theſe remedies will fail, and the only and the gouty, are hardly ever preſent at the ſame time. This infallible cure is to draw the tooth, alſo may be obſerved, that children of gouty or nephritic parents GENUS XXIV. PODAGRA, the GOUT. commonly inherit one or other of theſe diſeaſes; but whichever The Regular Gout. may have been the principal diſeaſe of the parent, ſome of the Deſcription. What we call a paroxyſm of the gout is principally children have the one, and ſome the other. In ſome of them, the conſtituted by an inflammatory affečtion of ſome of the joints. nephritic affection occurs alone, without any gout fupervening; This ſometimes comes on ſuddenly, without any warning, but is and this happens to be frequently the caſe of the female children of generally preceded by ſeveral ſymptoms ; ſuch as the ceaſing of a gouty parents. In the whole of the account already given, we have deſcribed the moſt common form of the diſeaſe. ſweating which the feet had commonly been affected with before ; an unuſual coldneſs of the feet and legs; a frequent numbneſs, al. The principal circumſtance, in what we term the regular gout, ternating with a ſenſe of prickling along the whole of the lower is the inflammatory affection of the joints; and whatever ſymptoms extremities; frequent cramps of the muſcles of the legs; and an we can perceive to be connected with, or to depend upon, the dif- unuſual turgeſcence of the veins. Theſe ſymptoms take place for poſition which produces that inflammatory affection, but without feveral days, ſometimes for a week or two, before a paroxyſm comes its taking place or being preſent at the ſame time, we name the ir- on; but commonly, upon the day immediately preceding it, the regular gout. Of ſuch irregular gout there are three different ſtates, appetite becomes greater than uſual. which we name the ATONIC, the RETROCEDENT, and the Mis- The circumſtances of paroxyſms are the following. They PLACED Gout. come on moſt commonly in the ſpring ; and ſooner or later, ac The firſt is, when the gouty diatheſis prevails in the ſyſtem; cording as the vernal heat ſucceeds ſooner or later to the winter's but, from certain cauſes, does not produce the infiammatory af- cold; and, perhaps, ſooner or later alſo, according as the body fection of the joints. In this caſe the morbid ſymptoms which ap- may happen to be more or leſs expoſed to viciſſitudes of heat and pear, are chiefly affections of the ſtomach, ſuch as loſs of appetite, cold. The attacks are ſometimes felt firſt in the evening, but more indigeſtion, and its various circumſtances of fickneſs, nauſea, vo- commonly about two or three o'clock of the morning. The pa miting, flatulency, acid eructations, and pains in the region of the roxyſın begins with a pain affecting one foot, moſt commonly in ſtomach. Theſe ſymptoms are frequently accompanied with pains the ball or firſt joint of the great toe, but ſometimes in other parts and cramps in ſeveral parts of the trunk, and the upper extremities of the foot. With the coming on of this pain, there is commonly of the body, which are relieved by the diſcharge of wind from the more or leſs of a cold ſhivering; which, as the pain increaſes, ſtomach. Together with theſe affections of the ſtomach, there gradually ceaſes; and is ſucceeded by a hot ſtage of pyrexia, which commonly occurs a coſtiveneſs; but ſometimes a looſeneſs, with continues for the ſame time with the pain itſelf. From the firſt cholic pains. Theſe affections of the alimentary canal are often attack, the pain becomes, by degrees, more violent, and continues attended with all the ſymptoms of hypochondriaſis, as dejection of in this ſtate, with great reſtleſsneſs of the whole body, till next mind, a conſtant and anxious attention to the ſlighteſt feelings, an midnight, after which it gradually remits; and after it has continued imaginary aggravation of theſe, and an apprehenſion of danger for 24 hours from the commencement of the firſt attack, it com from them. In the ſame atonic gout, the viſcera of the thorax monly ceaſes entirely; and, with the coming on of a gentle ſweat, alſo are ſometimes affected; and palpitations, faintings, and aſthma. allows the patient to fall aſleep. The patient, upon coming out occur. In the head alſo achs,giddineſs,apoplectic and paralytic affec- of this ſleep in the morning, finds the pained part affected with tions. When the ſeveral ſymptoms now mentioned occur in ha- ſome redneſs and ſwelling, which, after having continued for ſome bits, having the marks of a gouty diſpoſition, this may be ſuſpected days, gradually abate. to have laid the foundation of them; and eſpecially when either, When the diſeaſe, after having thus remained for ſome time in in ſuch habits, a manifeſt tendency to the inflammatory affection a joint, ceaſes entirely, it generally leaves the perſon in very perfect has formerly appeared, or when the ſymptoms mentioned are in- health, enjoying greater eaſe and alacrity in the functions of both termixed with, and are relieved by ſome degree of the inflamma- body and mind than he had for a long time before experienced. tory gout. In ſuch caſes there can be no doubt of conſidering the At the beginning of the diſeaſe, the returns of it are ſometimes whole as a ſtate of the gout. only once in three or four years: but, as it advances, the Another ſtate of the diſeaſe we name the retrocedent gout. This intervals become ſhorter, and at length the attacks are annual; af- occurs when an inflammatory ſtate of the joints has, in the uſual terwards they come twice each year; and at length recur ſeveral manner, come one, but without ariſing to the ordinary degree of times during the whole courſe of autumn, winter, and ſpring ; and pain and inflammation ; or at leaſt without theſe continuing for N°101. 6Y * the M E D I C I N E. the uſual time, or without their receding gradually in the uſual with inert medicines, or have rafhly employed thoſe of the moſt manner ; theſe affections of the oints ſuddenly and entirely ceaſe, pernicious tendency. We are much diſpoſed to believe the im- while ſome internal part becomes affected. The internal part moſt poſſibility of a cure of the gout by medicines; and more certainly of commonly affected is the ſtomach; which then is affected with ſtill inclined to think, that, whatever may be the poſſible power anxiety, fickneſs, vomiting, or violent pain: but ſometimes the in medicines, yet no medicine for curing the gout has hitherto been ternal part is the heart, which gives occaſion to a ſyncope; fome found; although almoſt every age has preſented a new remedy, all times it is the lungs, which are affected with aſthma ; and ſome hitherto offered have, very ſoon after, been either neglected as uſe- times it is the head, given occaſion to apoplexy or pally. In all leſs, or condemned as pernicious. theſe caſes there can be no doubt of the ſymptoms being all a part Dr. Cullen contends, that a great deal can be done towards the of the ſame diſeaſe, however different the affection may ſeem to be cure of the gout by a regimen: and is firmly perſuaded, that any in the part which it attacks. man, who, early in life, will enter upon the conſtant practice of The third ſtate of irregular gout which we name the miſplaced, bodily labour, and of abſtinence from animal food, will be preſerved is when the gouty diathefis, inſtead of producing the inflammatory entirely from the diſeaſe. affection of the joints, produces an inflammatory affection of ſome Whether there be any other means of radically curing the gout, internal part, and which appears from the ſame ſymptoms that at the Doctor is not ready to determine. There are hiſtories of caſes tend the inflanimations of thoſe parts, ariſing from other cauſes. of the gout, in which it is ſaid, that by great emotions of mind, by Whether the gouty diathefis does ever produce ſuch inflammation wounds, and by other accidents, the ſymptoms have been ſuddenly of the internal parts without having firſt produced it in the joints, relieved, and never again returned; but how far theſe accidental or if the inflammation of the internal part be always a tranſlation cures might be imitated by art, or would ſucceed in other caſes, is from the joints previouſly affected, we dare not determine; but, at leaf extremely uncertain. even ſuppoſing the latter to be always the caſe, we think the differ The practices proper and neceſſary in the treatment of the gout, ence of the affection of the internal part muſt ſtill diſtinguiſh the are to be conſidered under two heads : Firſt, As they are to be miſplaced from what we have named the retrocedent gout. employed in the intervals of paroxyſms; or, ſecondly, As during the With regard to the miſplaced gout, Dr. Cullen, whom we here time of theſe. In the intervals of paroxyſms, the indications are, follow, tells us, that he never met with any caſe of it in his practice, to prevent altogether the return of paroxyſms; or at leaſt to render nor does he find any diſtinctly marked by practical writers, except them leſs frequent, and more moderate. During the time of pa- that of a pnuemonic inflammation. roxyſms the indications are, to moderate the violence and ſhorten It is commonly ſuppoſed, that there are ſome caſes of rheuma the duration of them, as much as can be done with ſafety. tiſm which are ſcarcely to be diſtinguiſhed from the gout ; but 1. It has been already obſerved, that the gout may be entirely theſe, our author thinks, are but few; and that the two diſeaſes prevented by conſtant bodily exerciſe, and by a low diet ; and Dr. may be for the moſt part diſtinguiſhed with great certainty, by ob Cullen is of opinion, that this prevention may take place even in ſerving the prediſpoſition, the antecedents, the parts affected, the perſons who have hereditary diſpoſitions to the diſeaſe. Even when recurrences of the diſeaſe, and its connection with the ſyſtem ; the diſpoſition has diſcovered itſelf by ſeveral paroxyſms of inflam- which circumſtances, for the moſt part, appear very differently in matory gout, he is perſuaded that labour and abſtinence will abſo- the two diſeaſes. lutely prevent any returns of it for the reſt of life. Theſe, there- Cauſes, &c. The gout is generally an hereditary diſeaſe : but fore, are the means of anſwering the firſt indication to be purſued ſome perſons, without any hereditary diſpoſition, ſeem to acquire in the intervals of paroxyſms. it : and in ſome an hereditary diſpoſition may be counteracted from Exerciſe, in perſons diſpoſed to the gout is directed to two pure various cauſes. It attacks the male ſex eſpecially; but it fome poſes. One of theſe is the ſtrengthening of the tone of the ex- times, though more rarely, attacks alſo the female. The females treme vefſels ; and the other, the guarding againſt a plethoric ſtate. liable to it are thoſe of the more robuſt and full habits; and it very For the former, if exercife be employed early in life, and before in- often happens to thoſe before the menſtrual evacuation hath ceaſed. temperance has weakened the body, a very moderate degree of it Dr. Cullen hath alſo found it occurring in ſeveral females whoſe will anſwer the purpoſe; and for the latter, if abſtinence be at the menſtrual evacuations were more abundant than uſual. fame time obſerved, little exerciſe will be neceſſary. With reſpect The gout ſeldom attacks eunuchs; and when it does, feems to to exerciſe, this in general is to be obſerved, that it ſhould never fall upon thoſe who happen to be of a robuſt habit, to lead an in be violent; for, if violent, it cannot be long continued, and muſt dolent life, and to live very full. It attacks eſpecially men of robuſt always endanger the bringing on an atony in proportion to the vio- and large bodies, who have large heads, are of full and corpulent lence of the preceding exerciſe. In more advanced ſtates of the habits, and whoſe ſkins are covered with a thicker rete mucoſum, diſeaſe, however, when there is ſome diſpoſition to a paroxyſm, which gives a coarſer ſurface. To ſpeak in the ſtyle of the ancient much walking will bring it on; either as it weakens the tone of phyſicians the gout will ſeldom be found to attack thoſe of a ſan the lower extremities, or as it excites an inflammatory diſpoſition guine, or ſuch as are of a purely melancholic temperament: but in them; and thus it ſeems to be, that ſtrains or contuſions often very readily thoſe of a cholerico-ſanguine temperament. It is how bring on a paroxyſm of the gout. ever, very difficult to treat this matter with preciſion. The gout Abſtinence, the other part of our regimen for preventing the ſeldom attacks perſons employed in conſtant bodily labour, or thoſe gout, is of more difficult application. If an abſtinence from ani- who live much upon vegetable aliment. It does not commonly at mal food be entered upon early in life, while the vigour of the tack men till after the age of 35; and generally not till a ſtill later ſyſtem is yet entire, there is no doubt of its being both ſafe and period. There are indeed inſtances of the gout appearing more ear effectual ; but, if the motive of this diet ſhall not have occurred till ly; but theſe are few in compariſon of the others. When the the conſtitution hath been broken by intemperance, or by the de gout does appear early in life, it ſeems to be in thoſe who have the cline of life, a low diet may then endanger the bringing on an atonic hereditary diſpoſition very ſtrong, and to whom the remote cauſes ſtate, the ſafety of an abſtemious courſe may be greater or leſs, ac- hereafter mentioned have been applied in a very confiderable degree.cording to the management of it. It is animal food which eſpe- The occaſional cauſes of the diſeaſe ſeem to be of two kinds. | cially difpoſes to the plethoric and inflammatory ſtate, and that Firſt, thoſe which induce a plethoric ſtate of the body. Secondly, food is to be therefore eſpecially avoided; but, on the other hand, thoſe which, in plethoric habits, induce a ſtate of debility. Of the it is vegetable aliment of the loweſt quality that is in danger of firſt kind are a ſedentary, indolent manner of life, and a full diet of weakening the ſyſtem too much, by not affording fufficient nou- animal food. Of the ſecond kind of occaſional cauſes which induce riſhment, and more particularly of weakening the tone of tthe ſto- debility, are exceſs in venery; intemperance in the uſe of intoxicat mach by its aceſcency. It is therefore a diet of a middle nature, ing liquors; indigeſtion, produced either by the quantity or quality that is to be choſen ; and milk is preciſely of this kind, as contain- of the aliments; exceſſive evacuations; the ceaſing of uſual la- ing both animal and vegetable matter. The farinacious feeds are bour ; a ſudden change from a very full to a very ſpare diet; the next to be choſen ; and are the food moſt proper to be joined with large uſe of acids and aceſcent; and laſtly, cold applied to the lower milk. extremities. The former ſeem to act by increaſing the prediſpo With reſpect to drink, fermented liquors are uſeful only when fition; the latter are commonly the exciting cauſes, both of the firſt they are joined with animal food, and that by their aceſcency; and attacks, and of the repetitions of the diſeaſe. their ſtimulus is only neceſſary from cuſtom. When, therefore, ani- With reſpect to the proximate cauſe of the gout, it hath generally mal food is to be avoided, fermented liquors are unneceſſary, and by been thought that it depends on a certain morbific matter always increaſing the aceſcency of vegetables, the liquors may be hurtful. preſent in the body; and that this matter, by certain cauſes, thrown The ſtimulus of fermented, or ſpirituous liquors is not neceſſary to upon the joints or other parts, produces the ſeveral phænomena the young and vigorous, and, when much employed, impairs the of the diſeaſe. tone of the ſyſtem. Theſe liquors therefore are to be avoided, ex- Cure. In entering upon this, we muſt obſerve, in the firſt place, cept fo far as cuſtom and the declining ſtate of the ſyſtem may have that a cure has been commonly thought impoſſible; and we ac rendered them neceſſary. For preventing or moderating the regu. knowledge it to be very probable, that the gout, as a diſeaſe of the lar gout, water is the only proper drink. whole habit, and very often depending upon original confirma By obviating the prediſpoſition, and by avoiding the exciting tion, cannot be cured by medicines, the effects of which are always cauſes, the gout may be entirely prevented: but, as the meaſures very tranſitory, and ſeldom extend to the producing any.conſiderable neceſſary for this purpoſe, will, in moſt caſes, be purſued with dif- change of the whole habit. It would perhaps have been happy ficulty, and even with reluctance, men have been very deſirous to for gouty perſons if this opinion had been implicitly received by find a medicine which might anſwer the purpoſe, without any re- them; as it would have prevented their having been ſo often the ſtraint on their manner of living. To gratify this deſire, phyſicians dupes of ſelf-intereſted pretenders, who have either amuſed them have propoſed, and, to take advantage of it, empirics have feigned many I M E D I C IN E. many remedies, as we have already obſerved, Of what nature ſe From theſe reflections it will appear, that ſome danger muſt at- veral of theſe remedies have been, it is difficult to ſay: but of thoſe tend every external application to the parts affected, during a pa- which are unknown, we conclude, from their having been only of roxyſm; and that therefore the common practice, of committing temporary fame, and from their having ſoon fallen into neglect, the perſon to patience and flannel alone is eſtabliſhed upon the beſt that they have been either inert or pernicious, and therefore ſhall foundation. Opiates give the moſt certain relief from pain; but, make no enquiry after them; and ſhall now remark only upon one when given in the beginning of gouty paroxyſms, occaſion theſe to or two known remedies for the gout which have been lately in return with greater violence. When, however the paroxyſms vogue. ſhall have abated in their violence, but ſtill continue to return, ſo One of theſe is what has been named in England the Portland as to occaſion painful and reſtleſs nights, opiates may then be given powder. This is not a new medicine, but is mentioned by Galen, with ſafety and advantage, eſpecially in the caſe of perſons advanced and with ſome little variation in its compoſition, has been men in life, and who have been often affected with the diſeaſe. When, tioned by the writers of almoſt every age ſince that time. It ap- after paroxyſms have ceaſed, fome ſwelling and ſtiffneſs ſhall re- pears to have been at times in faſhion, and to have again fallen in main in the joints, theſe ſymptoms are to be diſcuſſed by the dili- to neglect; and our author thinks that this laſt has been owing to gent uſe of the fleſh-bruſh. Purging, immediately after a paroxyſm, its having been found to be in many inſtances, pernicious. In will be always employed with the hazard of bringing it on every inſtance we have known of its exhibition for the length of again. time prefcribed, the perſons who had taken it were indeed after Thus far of the REGULAR Gout. We now proceed to conſider wards free from any inflammatory affection of the points; but they the management of the diſeaſe when it has become IRREGULAR. were affected with many ſymptoms of the atonic gout; and all, 1. In the atonic gout, the cure is to be accompliſhed by carefully foon after finiſhing their courſe of the medicine, have been attacked avoiding all debilitating cauſes; and by employing, at the ſame time, with apoplexy, aſthma, or dropſy, which droved fatal. the means of ſtrengthening the fyftem in general, and the ſtomach Another remedy which has had the appearance of preventing in particular. the gout, is an alkali in various forms; ſuch as the fixed alkali, For ſtrengthening the ſyſtem in general, we recommend frequent both mild and cauſtic, lime-water, ſoap, and abſorbent earths. exerciſe on horſeback, and moderate walking. Cold bathing alſo Since it became common to exhibit theſe medicines in nephritic may anſwer the purpoſe ; and may be ſafely employed, if it appear and calculous caſes, it has often happened that they were given to to be powerful in ſtimulating the ſyſtem, and be not applied when thoſe who were at the ſame time ſubject to the gout; and it has the extremities are threatened with any pain. For ſupporting the been obſerved, that under the uſe of theſe medicines, gouty perſons tone of the ſyſtem in general, when threatened with atonic gout, have been longer free from the fits of their diſeaſe. That, however, ſome animal food ought to be employed, and the more aceſcent theuſe of thele medicines has entirely prevented the returns of vegetables ought to be avoided. In the ſame caſe, ſome wine alſo gout, Dr. Cullen obſerves, that he never puſhed the uſe of thoſe may be neceſſary : but it ſhould be in moderate quantity, and of medicines for a long time, being apprehenſive that the long con the leaſt aceſcent kinds: and if every kind of wine ſhall be found tinued uſe of them might produce a hurtful change in the ſtate of to increaſe the acidity of the ſtomach, ardent ſpirits and water muſt the Auids. is be employed As the preventing the gout depends very much on ſupporting For ſtrengthening the ſtomach, bitters and the Peruvian bark the tone of the ſtomach, and avoiding indigeſtion ; ſo coſtiveneſs, by may be employed; but care muſt be taken that they be not con- occafioning this, is very hurtful to gouty perſons. It is therefore ſtantly employed for any great length of time. The moſt effectual neceſſary for ſuch perſons to prevent or remove coſtiveneſs, and, by medicine for ſtrengthening the ſtomach is iron, which may be em- a laxative medicine, when needful; but it is at the ſame time proper, ployed under various preparations; but the beſt appears to be the that the medicine employed ſhould be ſuch as may keep the belly re ruit, in fine powder, which may be given in very large doſes. For gular, without much purging, Aloetics, rhubarb, magneſia alba, fupporting the tone of the ſtomach, aromatics may be employed, or flowers of fulphur, may be employed, as the one or the other but ſhould be uſed with caution, as the frequent and large uſe of may happen to be beſt ſuited to particular perſons. them have an oppoſite effect; and they ſhould therefore be given 2. Theſe are the ſeveral meaſures to be purſued in the intervals only in compliance with former habits, or for palliating preſent of the paroxyſms; and we are next to mention the meaſures pro ſymptoms. When the ſtomach happens to be liable to indigeſtion, per during the time of them. gentle vomits may be frequently given, and proper laxatives ſhould As during the time of paroxyſms the body is in a feveriſh ſtate, be always employed to obviate or to remove coſtiveneſs. no irritation fhould then be added to it; and every part, therefore, In the atonic gout, or in perſons liable to it, to guard againſt of the antiphlogiſtic regimen, except the application of cold, ought cold is eſpecially neceſſary; and the moſt certain means of doing to be ſtrictly obſerved. Another exception to the general rule may this is by repairing to a warm climate during the winter ſeaſon. In occur, when the tone of the ſtomach is weak, and when the patient the more violent caſes, bliſtering the lower extremities may be has been before much accuſtomed to the uſe of ſtrong drink; for uſeful ; but that remedy ſhould be avoided when any pain threatens then it may be allowable, and even neceſſary, to give ſome animal the extremities. In perſons liable to the atonic gout, iſſues may food, and a little wine. be eſtabliſhed in the extremities, as in ſome meaſure a ſupplement That no irritation is to be added to the ſyſtem during the pa to the diſeaſe. roxyſms of gout, except in the caſes mentioned, is entirely agreed 2. A ſecond caſe of the irregular gout is the retrocedent. When upon among phyſicians : but it is a more difficult matter to deter this affects the ſtomach and inteſtines, relief is to be inſtantly at- mine whether, during the time of paroxyſms, any meaſures may be tempted by the free uſe of ſtrong wines, joined with aromatics, purſued to moderate the violence of reaction, and of inflamınation. and given warm; or, if theſe ſhall not prove powerful enough, ar- Dr. Sydenham has given it as his opinion, that the more violent dent ſpirits muſt be employed, and are to be given in a large doſe. the inflammation and pain, the paroxyſms will be the ſhorter, as In moderate attacks, ardent ſpirits, impregnated with garlic or with well as the interval between the preſent and the next paroxyſm alla foetida, may be employed; or, even without the ardent ſpirits, longer : and if this opinion be admitted as juſt, it will forbid the uſe a ſolution of aiſa fætida, with the volatile alkali, may anſwer the of any remedies which might moderate the inflammation which purpoſe. Opiates are often an effectual remedy ; and may be is, to a certain degree, undoubtedly neceſſary for the health of the joined with aromatics, as in the eleétuarium thebaicum; or they body. On the other hand, acute pain preſſes for relief; and, al may be uſefully joined with volatile alkali and camphire. Muſk though a certain degree of inflammation may ſeem abſolutely ne has likewiſe proved uſeful in this diſeaſe. When the affection of ceſſary, it is not certain but that a moderate degree of it may an the ſtomach is accompanied with vomiting, this may be encouraged ſwer the purpoſe : and it is even probable, that, in many caſes, the by taking draughts of warm wine, at firſt with water, and after- violence of inflammation may weaken the tone of the parts, and wards without it; having at length recourſe, if neceſſary, to ſome thereby invite a return of paroxyſms. It ſeems to be in this way, of the remedies abovementioned, and particularly the opiates. In that, as the diſeaſe advances, the paroxyſms become more fre like manner, if the inteſtines be affected with a diarrhoea, this is at quent. firſt to be encouraged, by taking plentifully of weak broth; and From theſe laſt conſiderations it ſeems probable, that, during the when this ſhall have been done ſufficiently the tumult is to be time of paroxyſms, ſome meaſures may be taken to moderate the quieted by opiates. violence of the inflammation and pain, and, particularly, that, in When the retrocedent gout ſhall affect the lungs, and produce its firſt paroxyſms, and in the young and vigorous, blood-letting at aſthma, this is to be cured by opiates, by antiſpaſmodics, and per- the arm may be practiſed with advantage : but this practice cannot haps by bliſtering on the back or breaſt . When the gout, leaving be repeated often with ſafety; becauſe blood-letting not only weak the extremities, Thall affect the head, and produce pain, vertigo, kens the tone of the ſyſtem, but may alſo contribute to produce apoplexy, or palſy, our reſources are very precarious. The mof plethora. However, bleeding by leeches on the foot, and upon the probable means of relief is, bliſtering the head ; and, if the gout infamed part, may be practiſed and repeated with greater ſafety; and ſhall have receded entirely from the extremities, bliſters may be inſtances have been known of its having been practiſed with ſafety, applied to theſe alſo. Together with theſe bliſterings, aromatics to moderate and ſhorten paroxyſms; but how far it may be car and the volatile alkali, may be thrown into the itomach. ried we have not had experience enough to determine. 3. The third caſe of the irregular gout is the miſplaced ; that is Camphire, and ſome aromatic oils, have the power of allaying when the inflammatory affection of the gout, inſtead of falling upon the pain, and of removing the inflammation from the part affected : the extremities, falls upon ſome internal part. In this caſe, the but theſe remedies commonly make the inflammation only ſhift diſeaſe is to be treated by blood-letting, and by ſuch other remedies from one part to another, and therefore with the hazard of its as would be proper in an idiopathic inflammation of the ſame falling upon a part where it may be more dangerous ; and they have parts. ORDER fometimes rendered the gout retrocedent. j M E DICI N E. ORDER III. EXANTHEMATA. to avoid any of the debilitating cauſes which render the body fuf- ceptible of infection, as a ſpare diet, intemperance in drinking, ex- CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. ceſs in venery, cold, fear, or other depreſſing paſſions of the mind. A full diet of animal food is alſo to be avoided, becauſe it increaſes GENUS XXV. PESTIS, the PLAGUE. the irritability of the body, and favours the operation of contagion ; Deſcription. The circumſtances peculiarly characteriſtic of this and indigeftion, whether from the quantity or quality of the food, diſeale, eſpecially of its more violent and dangerous ſtates, are, contributes very much to the fame. Ito 1. The great loſs of ſtrength in the animal functions, which often Beſides there, it is probable that the moderate uſe of wine and appears early in the diſeaſe. 2. The ftupor, giddineſs, and conſe ſpirituous liquors, moderate exerciſe, and the cold bath, may be of quent ſtaggering, which reſembles drunkennels, or the head-ach, uſe, tonic medicines alfo, of which the Peruvian bark is deferved- and various delirium, all of them denote a great diſorder in the ly accounted the chief, may alſo be uſed with great probability of functions of the brain. 3. Anxiety, palpitation, ſyncope, and eſpe ſucceſs. If any thing is to be expected from antiſeptics, Dr. Cul- cially the weakneſs and irregularity of the pulſe, denote a conſider len thinks camphire preferable to any other. In general, however, able diſturbance in the action of the heart. 4. Nauſea and vomit every one is to be indulged in the medicine of which he hath the ing, particularly the vomiting of bile, which thews an accumulation beſt opinion, provided it is not evidently hurtful. of vitiated bile in the gall-bladder, and biliary ducts, and from Cure. Here the indications are the ſame as in fever in general, thence derived into the inteſtines and ſtomach; which denote a but are not all equally important. The meaſures for moderating confiderable ſpaſm, and loſs of tone in the extreme veſſels on the the violence of reaction, which operate by diminiſhing the action of ſurface of the body. 5. The buboes and carbuncles, which de- the heart and arteries, have ſeldom any place here, excepting that note an acrimony prevailing in the fluids ; and, laſtly, The pete the antiphlogiſtic regimen is generally proper. Some phyſicians chiæ, hæmorrhages, and colliquative diarrhæa, which denote a have recommended bleeding, and Sydenham even ſeems to think putreſcent tendency prevailing, in a great degree, in the maſs of it an effectual cure; but many other phylicians deem it, for the moſt blood. part unneceſſary, and in many caſes hurtful. Purging has alſo To theſe characteriſtics of the plague, we ſhall add one, men been recommended ; and in ſome degree it may be uſeful, in draw- tioned by Sir John Pringle, which, though perhaps leſs frequent ing off the putreſcent matter frequently preſent in the inteſtines; than the others, yet ſeems worthy of notice. It is this, That in but a large evacuation this way may certainly be hurtful. the plague there is an extraordinary enlargement of the heart and The moderating the violence of re-action, as far as it can be done, liver. In nine dillections of bodies, dead of the plague, at Mar by taking off the ſpaſm of the extreme veſſels, is a meaſure of the feilles, this extraordinary enlargement of the heart is taken notice utmoſt neceſſity in the cure of the plague; and the whole of the of in them all, and of the liver in ſeven of them. The account means formerly mentioned, as ſuited to this indication, are ex- was ſent to the Royal Society, by M. Didier, one of the phyſicians tremely proper. The giving an emetic at the firſt approach of the to the King of France, and hath been publiſhed in the Philoſophi diſeaſe, would probably be of great ſervice; and it is probable, cal Tranſactions. that at ſome other periods of the diſeaſe, emetics might be uſeful, The author takes notice, that the heart and liver were of double both by evacuating bile abounding in the alimentary canal, and by the natural fize. The preternatural enlargement, Dr. Pringle taking off the ſpaſm of the extreme veſſels. kert thinks, is owing to the relaxation of the ſolid parts, by which From ſome principles with reſpect to fever in general, and with means they become unable to reſiſt the impetus of the blood, and reſpect to the plague in particular, that after the exhibition of the therefore are eaſily extended; as in the caſe of infancy, where the firſt vomit, the body ſhould be expoſed to ſweat ; but this ſweat growth is remarkably quick; and a ſimilar enlargement he takes ſhould be raiſed only to a moderate degree, though it muſt be con- notice of in the fcurvy, and other putrid diſeaſes. tinued for 24 hours, or more, if the patient bears it eaſily. Cauſes, &c. From a conſideration of the ſymptoms above-men The ſweating is to be excited and conducted according to the tioned may be concluded, that the plague is owing to a ſpecific con rules laid down under SYNOCHA ; and muſt be promoted by the tagion, oftener ſuddenly producing the moſt conſiderable debility in plentiful uſe of diluents, rendered more grateful by vegetable acids, the nervous ſyſtem or moving powers, and of a general putreſcency or more powerful by being impregnated with ſome portion of neu- in the fluids. Sallad tral falts. To ſupport the patient under the continuance of the Prevention. Here we refer to all thoſe methods of preventing ſweat, a little weak broth, acidulated with the juice of lemons, may and removing the incipient contagion of putrid fevers, which have be given frequently, and ſometimes a little wine, if the heat of the been ſo fully enumerated. The diſeaſe never ariſes in the northern body be not conſiderable. If ſudorific inedicines are judged ne- parts of Europe, but in conſequence of being imported from ſome ceſſary, opiates will be found moſt effectual and ſafe ; but they other country. The magiſtrate's firſt care therefore ought to be ſhould not be combined with aromatics, and probably may be more to prevent the importation ; and this may generally be done by a effectual if joined with a portion of emetics, and of neutral falts. ekue attention to bills of health, and to the proper performance of But if, notwithſtanding the uſe of emetics and ſudorifics in the be- quarantines. The quarantines of perſons may, with ſafety, be ginning, the diſeafe ſhould ſtill continue, the cure muſt turn upon much leſs than 40 days; and if this were allowed, the execution the uſe of means for obviating debility and putreſcency; and for of the quarantine would be more exact and certain, as the this purpoſe tonic medicines, eſpecially the Peruvian bark, and temptation to break it would be in a great meaſure avoided. cold drink are the moſt proper, With reſpect to the quarantine of goods, it cannot be perfect, Genus. XXVI. VARIOLA; the SMALL Pox. unleſs the ſuſpected goods be unpacked, duly ventilated, and other *** means be employed for correcting the infection they may carry ; Deſcription. In the diſtinet ſmall pox, the diſeaſe begins with and if all this be properly done, it is probable that the time com a ſynocha or inflammatory fever. It generally comes on with monly preſcribed for quarantine may be alſo ſhortened. A ſecond ſome ſymptoms of a cold ſtage, and commonly with a conſider- meaſure, in the way of prevention is required, when an infection able languor and drowſineſs. A hot ſtage is ſoon formed, and has reached and prevailed in any place, to prevent that infection becomes more conſiderable on the ſecond and third day. During from ſpreading into others. This can only be done by pre this courſe children are liable to frequent ſtartings from their flum- venting the inhabitants or the goods of any infected place bers; and adults, if they are kept a-bed, are diſpoſed to much from going out of it, till they have undergone a proper quaran ſweating. On the third day, children are ſometimes affected with tine. The third meaſure, and which ought to be employed with one or two epileptic fits. Towards the end of the third day the great care, is, to prevent the infection from ſpreading among the eruption commonly appears, and gradually increaſes during the inhabitants of a place in which it has ariſen ; and, in this caſe, a fourth ; appearing firſt on the face, and ſucceſſively on the infe- great deal may be done by the magiſtrate. 1. By allowing as many rior parts, ſo as to be completed over the whole body on the fifth of the inhabitants as are free from infection, and are not neceſſary day. From the third day the fever abates, and by the fifth it to the ſervice of the place, to go out of it. 2. By diſcharging all entirely ceaſes. The eruption appears firſt in ſmall red ſpots, aſſemblies, or unneceſſary intercourſe of the people. 3. By order hardly prominent, but by degrees riſing into pimples. There are ing fome neceſſary communications to be performed without con generally but few on the face; but even when more numerous, tact. 4. By making ſuch arrangements and proviſions as may they are ſeparate and diftin&t from one another. On the fifth or render it eaſy for the families remaining to ſhut themſelves up in ſixth day a ſmall veſicle, containing an almoſt colourleſs fuid, ap- their own houſes. 5. By allowing perſons to quit houſes where pears on the top of each pimple. For two days theſe veſicles in- an infection appears, upon condition that they go into lazarettoes. creaſe in breadth only, and there is a ſmall hollow pit in their 6. By ventilating, and purifying, and deſtroying, at the public ex middle, ſo that they are not raiſed into ſpheroidical puſtules till the pence, all infected goods. 7. By avoiding hoſpitals, and provid-eighth day. Theſe puſtules, from their firſt formation, continue ing ſeparate apartments for infected perſons. The fourth and laſt to be ſurrounded with an exactly circular inflamed margin, which part of the buſineſs of prevention reſpects the conduct of perſons when they are numerous diffuſes fome infammation over the neigh- neceſſarily remaining in infected places, eſpecially thoſe obliged | bouring ſkin, ſo as to give ſomewhat of a damaſk roſe colour to to have ſome communication with perſons infected. Thoſe the ſpaces between the puſtules. As the puſtules increaſe in fize, obliged to remain in places infected, but not to have any near the face ſwells conſiderably, if they are numerous on it; and the communication with the ſick, muſt avoid all near communication eye-lids particularly, are ſo much ſwelled, that the eyes are entirely with other perſons or their goods; and it is probable that a ſmall Chut. As the diſeaſe proceeds, the matter in the puſtules becomes diſtance will ſerve, if, at the ſame time, there be no ſtream of air by degrees more opaque and white, and at length affumes a yel- to carry the effluvia of perſons or goods to ſome diſtance. Thoſe lowiſh colour. On the eleventh day, the fwelling of the face is who are obliged to have a near communication with the ſick ought abated, and the puftules ſeem quite full. On the top of each a darker M E D I C IN E. comes on, event. hem darker fpot appears; and at this place the puſtule, on the eleventh | reſpect to the fluids of the human body, which aſſimilates a great day, or foon after, is ſpontaneoully broken, and a portion of the part of them to its own nature ; and it is probable, that the quan- matter oozes out; in conſequence of which the puftule is fhri- tity thus aſſimilated is, in proportion to their ſeveral bulks, nearly velled, and fubfides; while the matter oozing out dries, and forms the ſame in different perſons. This quantity paſſes again out of a cruſt upon its ſurface. Sometimes only a little of the matter the body, partly by inſenſible perſpiration, and partly by being oozes out, and what remains in the 'puſtule becomes thick and even depoſited in puſtules; but if the quantities generated be nearly hard. After fome days, both the cruſts and the hardened puſtules equal, the quantities paſſing out of the body the two ways above- fall off, leaving the ſkin which they covered of a browniſh red co mentioned are very unequal in different perſons. The cauſes lour; nor doth it reſume its natural coloúr till inany days after. which determine more of the variolous matter to paſs by perſpira- In fome caſes, where the matter of the púſtules has been more tion, or to form puſtules, are probably certain circumſtances of the liquid, the cruſts formed by it-are later in falling off, and the part ſkin, which determine more or leſs of the variolous matter to ſtick they covered ſuffers fome deſquamation, which occaſions a ſmall in it, or to paſs freely through it. The circumſtance of the ſkin, hollow or pit in it. which ſeems to determine the variolous matter to ſtick in it, is a On the legs and hands the matter is frequently abſorbed; fo certain ſtate of inflammation depending much on the heat of it: that at the height of the diſeaſe, theſe puſtules appear as empty as thus we have many inſtances of parts of the body, from being more veſicles. On the tenth and eleventh days, as the ſwelling of the heated, having a greater number of puſtules than other parts. face fubfides, a ſwelling ariſes in the hands and feet; but which Thus parts covered with plaſters, eſpecially thoſe of the ſtimulant again ſubſides as the puſtules come to maturity. When the puf- kind, have more puftules than others. Certain circumſtances tules on the face are numerous, ſome degree of pyrexia appears on alſo, ſuch as adult age, and full living, determining to a phlogiſtic the tenth and eleventh days, but diſappears again after the puſtules diatheſis, ſeem to produce a greater number of puitules, and vice are fully ripened; or perhaps remains in a very ſlight degree till verſa. It is therefore probable, that an inflammatory ſtate of the the puſtules on the feet have finiſhed their courſe; and it is feldom whole ſyſtem, and more particularly of the ſkin, gives occaſion to that any fever continues longer int the diſtinct ſmall pox. When a greater number of puſtules; and the cauſes of this may produce the puſtules are numerous on the face, upon the ſixth or ſeventh moſt of the other circumſtances of the confluent ſmall-pox, ſuch day ſome uneaſineſs in the throat, with a hoarſeneſs in the voice, as the time of eruption, the continuance of the fever, the effuſion and a thin liquid,is poured out from the inouth. Theſe of a more putreſcent matter and leſs fit to be converted into pus, fymptoms increaſe with the ſwelling of the face; and the liquids | together with the form and other circumſtances of the puítules. of the inouth and throat becoming thicker are with difficulty Prognoſis. The more exactly the diſeaſe retains the form of thrown out; and there is at the ſame tiine ſome difficulty in ſwal the diſtinct kind, it is the ſafer; and the more completely the diſ- Jowing, ſo that liquids taken in to be ſwallowed are frequently re eaſe takes the form of the confluent kind it is the more dangerous. jected or thrown out by the noſe. But all theſe affections of the It is only when the diſtinct kind ſhews a great number of puſtules fauces are abated as the ſwelling of the face ſubſides. on the face or otherwiſe, by fever or putreſcency, approaching to In the confluent ſmall-pox all the fyinpiðms' above-mentioned the circumſtances of the confluent, that the diſtinct kind is attended are much more ſevere. The eruptive féver particularly is more with any danger. 'violent; the pulſe is more frequentand more contracted, approach In the confluent kind the danger is always very conſiderable: *ing to that ſtate of pulſe which is obſerved in typhus. The coma and the more violent and permanent the fever is, the greater the is more conſiderable, and there is fréquently a delirium. Vomit- danger; and eſpecially in proportion to the increaſe of the ſymp- ing alſo frequently attends, eſpecially at the beginning of the diſ toms of putreſcency. When the putrid diſpoſition is very great, eale. In very young infants epileptic fits are ſometimes frequent the diſeaſe ſometimes proves fatal before the eighth day ; but in on the firſt days of the diſeaſe, and" ſometimes prové fatal before moſt caſes death happens on the eleventh, and ſometimes not till any eruption appears, or they uſher in a very conflueạt and pu the fourteenth or ſeventeenth day. Though the ſmall-pox may trid ſmall-pox. The eruption appears more early on the third not prove immediately fatal, the more violent kinds are often fol- day, and it is frequently preceded or accompanied with an eryfi- lowed by a morbid ſtate of the body, ſometimes of very dangerous pelatous effloreſcence. Sometimes the eruption appears in cluſters Theſe conſequences, according to Dr. Cullen, may be like the meaſles. When the eruption is completed, the pimples imputed ſometimes to an acrid matter produced by the preceding are always more numerous upon the face, and at the ſame time diſeaſe, and depoſited in different parts; and ſometimes to an in- ſmaller and leſs eminent. Upon the eruption the fever ſuffers flammatory diatheſis produced and determined to particular parts fome remiſſion, but never goes off entirely; and after the fifth or of the body. fixth day it increaſes again, and continues to be conſiderable Cure. The art of medicine hath never yet afforded a method throughout the remaining part of the diſeafe. The veſicles formed of preventing the eruption of the finall-pox after the contagion is on the top of the pimples appear ſooner; and while they increaſe received; all that can be done is, to render the diſeaſe more mild, in breadth, they do not retain a circular, but are every way of an which is generally effected by INOCULATION. It is not to be irregular figure. Many of them run into one another, inſomuch ſuppoſed that the mere giving of the infection artificially could that very often the face is covered with one veſicle rather than make any difference in the nature of the diſeaſe, was it not that with a number of puſtules. The veſicles, as far as they are any certain precautions are commonly uſed in the caſe of thoſe who way ſeparated, do not ariſe to a ſpheroidal form, but remain flat, are inoculated, which cannot be uſed in the caſe of thoſe who re- and ſometimes the whole of the face is of an even ſurface. When ceive them naturally. Theſe meaſures, according to Dr. Cullen, , the puſtules are in any meaſure ſeparated, they are not bounded are chiefly the following. by an infamed margin, but the part of the ſkin that is free from 1. The chooſing for the ſubject of inoculation perſons other- puſtules is commonly pale and flaccid. The liquor that is in the wiſe free froin the diſeaſe, and not liable from their age or other- puſtules changes from a clear to an opaque appearance, and be wiſe to any incidental diſeaſe. 2. The chooſing that time of comes whitiſh or browniſh, but never acquires the yellow colour life which is moſt favourable to a mild diſeaſe. 3. The choof- and thick conſiſtence that appears in the diſtinct ſmall-pox. The ing for the practice a ſeaſon moſt favourable to a mild diſ- fwelling of the face, which only fometimes attends the diſtinct 4. The preparing the perſon to be inoculated, by en- {mall-pox, always attends the confluent kind; it alſo comes on joining abſtinence from animal-food for ſometime before in- more early, and ariſes to a greater height, but abates conſiderably oculation. 5. The preparing the perſon by courſes of mer- on the tenth or eleventh day. At this time the puſtules or veſicles curial and antimonial medicines.. 6. The taking care at the break and ſhrivel; pouring out at the fame time a liquor, which time of inoculation to avoid cold, intemperance, fear, or other is formed into brown or black cruſts, which do not fall off for circumſtances which might aggravate the future diſeaſe. After a long time after. Thoſe of the face, in falling off, leave the ſkin theſe preparations and precautions, the chooſing a fit matter fubject to a deſquamation, which pretty certainly produces pittings. to be employed in inoculation, by taking it from a perſon of On the other parts of the body the puſtules of the confluent ſmall a ſound conſtitution, and free from any diſeaſe, or fufpicion of it; pox are more diſtinct than on the face; but never acquire the by taking it from a perſon who has had the ſmall-pox of the moſt fame maturity and conſiſtence of pus as in the properly diſtinct benign kind; and laſtly, by taking the matter from ſuch perſon as kind. 'The falivation, which ſometimes only attends the diſtinct ſoon as it has appeared in the puſtules, either on the inocu. ſmall-pox, very conſtantly attends the confluent; and both the ſa- | lated, or on other parts of the body. 8. The introducing, by in- livation and the affection of the fauces above-mentioned, are, eſpe- oculation, but a ſmall portion of the contagious matter. 9. After cially in adults, in a higher degree. In infants a diarrhæa comes inoculation, the continuing of the vegetable diet, at the ſame tiine frequently in place of a ſalivation. employing frequent purging. 10. Both before and after inocu-* In this kind of ſmall-pox there is often a very conſiderable pu- lation, taking care to avoid external heat, either from the ſun, ar- freſcency of the fluids, as appears from petechiæ, ferous veſicles, tificial fires, warm chambers, much clothing, or being much in under which the ſkin thews a diſpoſition to gangrene, and from bed; and, on the contrary, expoſing the perſon to a free and bloody urine or other hæmorrhages; all of which ſymptoms fre- cool air. II. Upon the appearance of the eruptive fever, the quently attend this diſeaſe. In the confluent ſmall-pox alſo, the rendering that moderate by the employment of purgatives; by the fever, which had only fuffered a remiſſion from the eruption to the uſe of cooling and antiſeptic acids; and eſpecially by expoſing the maturation, at or immediately after this period is frequently re- | perſon frequently to a cool air, at the ſame time giving freely of newed again with confiderable violence. This is what has been cold drink. 12. After the eruption, the continuing the applica- called the ſecondary fever, and is of various duration and event. tion of cool air, and the uſe of purgatives, during the courſe of Caufes, &c. It is evident that the ſmall-pox is originally pro the diſeaſe, till the puſtulęs are fully ripened. duced by a contagion; and that this contagion is a ferment with As the common infection may often ſeize perſons under a dif- 62 eaſed eaſe. 7. part N° 102. MEDICIN E. ous. cafed ftate, which may render the ſmall pox more violent, it is evi- j the ſmall-pox, and therefore he is to be treated in every reſpect as tient that inoculation muſt have a great advantage by avoiding ſuch if he had the diſeaſe received by inoculation. concurrence. But as the avoiding of this may in the main time It frequently happens, eſpecially in infants, that during the frequently leave perfons expoſed to the cominon infection, it is well | eruptive fever of the ſmall-pox, convulſions occur. Of theſe, if torth while to inquire what are the diſeaſed ſtátes which ſhould re-only one or two fits appear on the evening preceding the eruption: ítrain from the practice of inoculation. they give a prognoſtic of a mild diſeaſe, and require no remedy: Though inoculation hath been practiſed with ſafety upon per but if they occur more early, are violent, and frequently repeated, fons of all ages, yet there is reaſon to conclude, that adults are they are very dangerous, and require a ſpeedy remedy; and here more liable to a violent diſeaſe than perſons of younger years. At bleeding and bliſtering are of no ſervice, the only effectual medicine the ſame time it is obſerved, that children, in the time of their firſt is an opiate given in a large doſe. dentition, are liable from the irritation of that, to have the ſmall Theſe are the remedies neceſſary during the eruptive fever; and pox rendered more violent; and that infants, before the time of den- if, upon the eruption, the puſtules on the face are diftinct, and their tition, upon receiving the contagion of the ſmall-pox are liable to number few, the diſeaſe requires no further remedies. But when, be afflicted with epileptic fits, which frequently prove fatal. Hence upon the eruption, the number of pimples on the face is conſidera- it is evident, that though circumſtances may admit and approve of ble, when they are not diſtinct; and eſpecially if, upon the fifth inoculation at any age, yet for the moſt part it will be advantageous day, the fever does not ſuffer a conſiderable remiſſion; the diſeaſe to chooſe perſons after the firſt dentition is over, and before the time ſtill requires a great deal of attention. If, after the eruption, the of puberty. The operation of inoculation may be performed at fever ſhall ſtill continue, the avoiding of heat and the continuing to any ſeaſon of the year: yet as it is certain that the cold of winter expoſe the body to a cool air will ſtill be proper. increaſe the inflammatory, and the heats of ſummer increaſe If the fever is conſiderable, with a full hard pulſe, in an adult per- may the putreſcent, ſtate of the ſmall-pox, it is highly probable that ino- ſon, a bleeding will be neceſſary, and more certainly a cooling pur- culation may have ſome advantage from avoiding the extremes ei- gative: but it will be ſeldom neceſſary to repeat the bleeding, as a ther of cold or heat. loſs of ſtrength very ſoon comes on; but the repetition of a purga- As the uſe of animal food may increaſe both the inflammatory tive, or the frequent uſe of laxative glyſters, is commonly advantage- and putreſcent ſtate of the human body, ſo it muſt render perſons, in When a loſs of ſtrength, with other marks of a putreſcent receiving the contagion of the ſmall-pox, leſs ſecure againſt a vio- tendency of the fluids, appears, the Peruvian bark muſt be given in lent diſeaſe: and therefore inoculation may derive ſome advantage ſubſtance, and in a large quantity. In the fame caſe, the uſe of acids by enjoining abſtinence from animal food, for ſome time before the and of nitre is advantageous, and commonly it is proper alſo to give operation is perfor:ned: but we are of opinion, that a longer time is wine very freely.. From the fifth day of the diſeaſe throughout the neceſſary than what is commonly preſcribed. whole courſe of it, it is proper to give an opiate once or twice a- It has commonly been ſuppoſed, that inoculation derives ſome day; taking care at the ſame time to obviate coſtivenefs, by purga- advantage from the choice of the matter employed in it; but it is tives or by laxative glyſters. From the eighth to the eleventh day very doubtful if any choice be here neceſſary, or can be of any be- of a violent diſeaſe, it will be of a violent diſeaſe, it will be proper to lay on bliſters ſucceſſively nefit in determining the ſtate of the diſeaſe. It is not indeed proba- on different parts of the body, and that without regard to the parts ble that there is any difference of contagion producing the ſmall-being covered with puftules. Bliſters are alſo to be applied to the pox'; for there are innumerable inſtances of the contagion ariſing external fauces, in caſe of difficult deglutition, and viſcid ſaliva and from a perſon who labours under the diſtinct ſmall-pox producing mucus, which are thrown out with difficulty, at the ſame time that the confluent kind, and the contrary. Since the practice of inocu- detergent gargles are to be diligently uſed. During the whole lation hath been introduced, it hath alſo been obſerved, that the courſe of this diſeaſe, when a conſiderable fever is preſent, antimo- fame variolous matter would in one perſon produce the diſtinct, nial medicines may be given in nauſeating doſes with advantage, and in another the confluent ſmall-pox. It is therefore highly pro- and theſe cominonly anſwer the purpoſe of purgatives. The re- bable, that the difference of the ſmall-pox does not depend upon any medies above-mentioned are frequently proper from the fifth day difference of the contagion, but upon fome difference in the ſtate of till the ſuppuration is finiſhed. But as after that period the fever the perſons to whom it is applied, or in the ſtate of certain circum is ſometimes continued and increaſed; or as ſometimes, when there ftanees concurring with the application of the contagion. was little or no fever before, a fever now ariſes and continues with Some have ſuppoſed, that inoculation has an advantage over the conſiderable danger; this is called the ſecondary fever, and requires natural infection, by introducing only a ſmall portion of contagious a particular treatment. matter into the body; but this is by no means well aſcertained. When the ſecondary fever follows the diſtinct ſmall-pox, and Is it not known what quantity of contagion is introduced into the the pulſe is full and hard, the caſe is to be treated as an inflamma- body by the common infection of the ſmall-pox: and it is probable tory affection, by bleeding and purging; but the ſecondary fever the quantity is not great: nor, though it were larger than that which follows the confluent kind, is to be conſidered as a putrid thrown in by inoculation, it is certain what the effects would be. diſeaſe, and bleeding is improper. Some purging may be necef- A certain quantity of ferment may be neceſſary to excite fermenta- fary, but the remedies to be chiefly depended upon are the Peruvian tion in a given maſs; but when that quantity is given, the fermen- bark and acids. When the ſecondary fever firſt appears, whether tation and aſſimilation, are extented to the whole mafs: and we do after a diſtinct or confluent ſmall-pox, it is uſeful to exhibit an not find that a greater quantity than is juſt neceſſary, either increaſes antimonial emetic, in nauſeating doſes, but in ſuch a manner as to the activity of the ferimentation, or more certainly ſecures the affi- produce ſome vomiting. For avoiding the pits which frequently milation of the whole. In the caſe of the ſmall-pox, a conſidera- follow the ſmall-pox, no method hitherto propoſed feems to be ble difference in the quantity of the contagion introduced, hath not ſufficiently certain. ſhewn any effects in modifying the diſeaſe. GENUS XXVII. VARICELLA, or the CHICKEN-Pox. - Purging has the effect of diminiſhing the activity of the fangui This is a very flight diſeaſe; and is attended with ſo little ferous fyſtem, and of obviating the inflammatory ſtate of it; and danger, that it would not merit any notice, if it were not apt to therefore it is probable, that the frequent uſe of cooling purgatives be confounded with the finall-pox, and thus give occafion to an gives a conſiderable advantage to the practice of inoculation; and opinion that a perſon might have the ſmall-pox twice in his life; probably this is alſo obtained by diminiſhing the determination to or they are apt to deceive into a falſe ſecurity thoſe who have the ſkin. never had the ſmall-pox, and make them believe that they are ſafe, It is probable that the ſtate of the ſmall-pox depends very much when in reality they are not. upon the ſtate of the eruptive fever, and particularly in avoiding the The patients ſcarce ſuffer any thing throughout the whole pro- inflammatory ſtate of the ſkin; and therefore it is alſo probable, greſs of this illneſs, except fome languidneſs of ſtrength and ſpi- that the meaſures taken for moderating the eruptive fever, and in- rits and appetite, all which is probably owing to the confining of flammatory ſtate of the ſkin, afford the greateſt improvement which themſelves to their chamber. Remedies are not likely to be much has been made in the practice of inoculation. It hath been the wanted in a diſeaſe attended with hardly any inconvenience, and practice of inoculators to continue the uſe of purgatives and the ap- which in fo ſhort a time is certainly cured of itſelf. The prin- plication of cold air after the eruption; but it cannot be ſaid to cipal marks by which the chicken-pox may be diſtinguiſhed from give any particular advantages to inoculation, and the employment the ſmall-pox are, of purgatives ſeems often to have lead to an abuſe. When the ſtate 1. The appearance, on the ſecond or third day from the eruption, of the eruption is determined, when the number of puſtules is very of that veſicle full of ſerum upon of that veſicle full of ſerum upon the top of the pock. ſmall, and the fever hath entirely ceaſed, the ſafety of the diſeaſe 2. The cruſt, which covers the pocks on the fifth day; at which may be ſaid to be aſcertained, and further remedies abſolutely fu- | time thoſe of the ſmall-pox are not at the height of their fuppu- perfluous: in ſuch caſes therefore the uſe of purgatives is unneceſ ration. Foreign medical writers hardly ever mention the name ſary, and may be hurtful. of this diſtemper; and the writers of our own country ſcarce It remains now only to conſider the treatment of the ſmall-pox, mention any thing more of it than its name. From the great when the fymptoms ihall be violent, as may ſometimes happen, militude between the two diſtempers, it is probable, that, inſtead even after inoculation and every remedy and precaution have been of the ſmall-pox, ſome perſons have been inoculated from the uſed. The cauſe of this is not aſcertained, but it ſeems to be a pu- chicken-pox; and that the diſtemper which has ſucceeded, has been treſcent tendency of the fluids. When therefore, from the prevail- miſtaken for the ſmall-pox by haſty or unexperienced obſervers. ing of the ſmall-pox as an epidemic, and more eſpecially when it is Genus XXVIII. RUBÉOLA; the MEASLES. known that a perſon not formerly affected with the diſeaſe has been Deſcription. This diſeaſe begins with a cold ſtage, which is expoſed to the infection, if ſuch perſon ſhould be attacked with the foon followed by a hot, with the ordinary ſymptoms of thirſt, , ſymptoms of fever, there can be little doubt that it is the fever of heat, anorexia, anxiety, fickneſs, and vomiting; and theſe are more N more or leſs conſiderable in different caſes. Sometimes from the finall-pox might led to the application of cold air during the beginning, the fever is ſharp and violent; often, for the firſt two eruptive fever of the meaſles, the analogy with catarrh is greatly days, it is obſeure and inconſiderable ; but always becomes violent againſt the practice. When the eruption is upon the ſkin, we have before the eruption, which commonly happens on the fourth day. i had many inſtances of cold air making it diſappear, and thereby This eruptive fever, from the beginning of it, is always attended producing much diſorder in the ſyſtem ; and we have alko had fre- with hoarſeneſs , a frequent hoarſe dry cough, and frequently with quent inſtances of this diſorder being removed by reſtoring the heat ſome difficulty of breathing. At the ſame time, the eye-lids are of the body, and thereby again bringing out the eruption. fomewhat ſwelled; the eyes are a little inflamed, and pour out GENUS XXIX. SCARLATINA. The SCARLET FEVER. tears ; and with this, there is a coryza, and frequent ſneezing: The Mild SCARLET FEVER. For the moſt part, a conſtant drowſineſs attends the beginning of The mild ſcarlet fever is deſcribed by Sydenham, who tells us this diſeaſe. The eruption appears firſt in ſmall red points ; but that he can ſcarce account it a diſeaſe; and indeed nothing more ſoon after, a number of theſe appear in cluſters, which do not ſeems to be neceſſary in the treatment of it than an antiphlogiſtic ariſe in viſible pimples, but, by the touch, are found to be a little regimen, avoiding the application of cold air and cold drink. The prominent. This is the caſe on the face: but, in other parts of diſeaſe however ſometimes rages epidemically, and is attended with the body, the prominency, or roughneſs; is hardly to be perceived. very alarming ſymptoms, bearing no ſmall reſemblance to the On the face, the eruption retains its redneſs, or has it increaſed cynanche maligna, in which caſe it is called ſcarlatina anginoſa.. for two days: but, on the third, the vivid redneſs is changed to a The Scarlatina Anginoſa, or SCARLET FEVER, with ulcerated browniſh red ; and, in a day or two more, the eruption entirely Fore Tbroat. diſappears, while a meally defquamation takes place. During the The beſt deſcription of this diſtemper hath been publiſhed by whole time of the eruption, the face is ſomewhat turgid, but fel- | Dr. Withering in the year 1778. This diſeaſe made its appear- dom conſiderably ſwelled. Sometimes, after the eruption has ap- ance, we are told, at Birmingham and the neighbouring villages, peared, the fever ceaſes entirely: but this is feldom the caſe; and about the middle of May 1778. It continued all its force and more commonly the fever continues or is increaſed after the erup- frequency to the end of October ; varying, however, in ſome of tion, and does not ceaſe till after the deſquamation. After the its ſymptoms, as the air grew colder. In the beginning of No- ſame period, alſo, a diarrhoea frequently comes on, and continues vember it was rarely met with ; but towards the middle of that for ſome time. It is common for meaſles, even when they have month, when the air became warmer, it increaſed again, and in not been of a violent kind, to be followed by inflammatory affec- fome meaſure reſumed thoſe appearances it poſſeſſed in the ſum- tions, particularly ophthalmia and phthiſis. If the blood be drawn ier months, but which it had lost during the cold winds in Otto- from a vein in the meaſles, with the circumſtances neceſſary to fa- ber. It affected children more than adults; but feldom occurred vour the ſeparation of the gluten, this always appears ſeparated, in the former under two years of age, or in the latter when once and lying on the ſurface of the craffamentum, as in inflammatory they had paſſed their fiſtieth year. diſeaſes. For the moſt part, the meaſles, even when violent, are Deſcription. With various general ſymptoms of fever, the pa- without any putrid tendency; but in ſome caſes, ſuch a tendency tient at firſt complains of a dejection of ſpirits, a ſlight ſoreneſs or appears both in the courſe of the diſeaſe, and eſpecially after the rather ſtiffneſs in the neck, with a ſenſe of ſtraitneſs in the muſcles ordinary courſe of it is finiſhed. See Dr. Watſon, in London of the neck and ſhoulders, as if they were bound with cords. Med. Obf. vol. iv. art. II. The ſecond day of the ſever this ſoreneſs in the throat increaſes, Cauſes. The meafles are occaſioned by ſome kind of contagion, and the patients find a difficulty in ſwallowing; but the difficulty the nature of which is not underſtood; and which, like the former, ſeems lefs occaſioned by the pain excited in the attempt, or by the affects a perſon only once in their lives. ſtraitneſs of the paſſage, than by an inability to throw the necef- Prognoſis . From the deſcription of this diſtemper already gi- fary muſcles in action. The ſkin feels hot and dry, but not hard; ven, it appears that the meaſles are attended with a catarrhal af- and the patients experience frequent, ſmall, pungent pains, as if fection, and by an inflammatory diatheſis to a conſiderable de touched with the point of a needle. The breath is hot and burn- gree ; and therefore the danger of them is to be apprehended ing to the lips, and thirſt makes them wiſh to drink ; but the chiefly from the coming on of a pneumonic inflammation. tendency to fickneſs, and the exertions neceſſary in deglutition, Cure. From the conſideration mentioned in the prognoſis, it are ſo unpleaſant, that they ſeldom care to drink much at a time. will be obvious, that the remedies eſpecially neceffáry are thoſe They have much uneaſineſs alſo. from want of reſt during the which may obviate and diminiſh the inflammatory diatheſis; and night. In the morning of the third day, the face, neck, and breaſt, therefore, in a particular manner, blood-letting. This remedy appear redder than uſual: in a few hours this redneſs becomes uni- may be employed at any time in the courſe of the diſeaſe, or after verſal, and increaſes to fuch a degree of intenſity, that the face, the ordinary courſe of it is finiſhed. It is to be employed more body, and limbs, reſemble a boiled lobſter in colour, and are evi- or leſs, according to the urgency of the ſymptoms of fever, cough, dently ſwollen. Upon preſſure the redneſs vaniſhes, but foon re- and dyſpnoea; and generally may be employed very freely. But, turns again. The ſkin is ſmooth to the touch, nor is there the as the ſymptoms of pneumonic inflammation ſeldom come on dur- leaſt appearance of pimples or puſtules. The eyes and noſtrils par- ing the eruptive fever ; and, as this is ſometimes violent, immedi- take more or leſs of the general redneſs ; and in proportion to the ately before the eruption, though a ſufficiently mild diſeaſe be to intenſity of this colour in the eyes, the tendency to delirium pre- follow; bleeding is feldom very neceſſary during the eruptive fever, vails. Things continue in nearly this ſtate for two or three days and may often be reſerved for the times of greater danger which longer, when the intenſe ſcarlet gradually abates, a brown colour are perhaps to follow. Aſliſtance may alſo be drawn from cool- ſucceeds; and the ſkin becoining rough, peels off in ſmall fcales. ing purgatives; and particularly from bliſtering on the ſides, or be- The tumefaction ſubſides at the ſame time, and the patients gra- tween the ſhoulders. The dry cough may be alleviated by the dually recover their ſtrength and appetite. During the whole large uſe of demulcent pectorals, mucilaginous, oily, or ſweet. courſe of the diſeaſe, the pulſe is quick, ſmall, and uncommonly For moderating and quieting the cough in this diſeaſe, opiates cer- feeble; the urine ſmall in quantity; the fub-maxillary glands tainly prove the moſt effectual means, whenever they can be ſafely ſomewhat enlarged and painful to the touch. The velum pen- employed. In the meaſles, in which an inflammatory ſtate pre- dulum palati, the uvula, the tonfils, and gullet; as far as the eye vails in a conſiderable degree, opiates may be ſuppoſed to be inad can reach, partake of the general redneſs and tumefaction. miſſible ; and, in thoſe caſes in which a high degree of prexia and Theſe are the moſt uſual appearances of this diſorder ; but it dyſpnea fhew either the preſence, or at leaſt the danger, of pneu- too frequently affumes a much more fatal form. In ſome children monic inflammation, opiates might be very hurtful: but, in caſes the delirium commences in a few hours after the firſt attack; the in which the dyſpnoea is not conſiderable, and in which bleeding, ſkin is intenſely hot; the ſcarlet colour appears on the firſt or ſe- to obviate or abate the inflammatory ſtate, has been duly employed; cond day, and they die very early on the third. Others again, who in ſuch caſes, while the cough and watchfulneſs are the urgent ſurvive this rapid termination, inſtead of recovering, as is uſual, fymptoms, opiates may be ſafely exhibited, and with great ad about the time the ſkin begins to get its natural colour, fall into a vantage. In all the exanthemata, there is an acrimony diffuſed kind of lingering, and die at laſt in the courſe of ſix or eight weeks. over the ſyſtem, which gives a conſiderable irritation ; and, for In adults, circular livid ſpots were frequently obſerved about obviating the effects of this, opiates are uſeful, and always proper, the breafi, knees, and elbows ; alſo large blotches of red, and when no particular contra-indication prevails. others of white intermixed, and often changing places. When the deſquamation of the meaſles is finiſhed, though then Happy would it be, our author obſerves, if the baneful influence there ſhould be no diſorder remaining, phyſicians have thought it of this diſorder terminated with the febrile ſymptoms. But in neceſſary to purge the patient ſeveral times, with a view to draw off ten or fifteen dâys from the cellation of the fever, and when a the dregs of this diſeaſe, that is, a portion of the morbific matter complete recovery might be expected, another train of ſymptoms which is ſuppoſed to remain long in the body. occur, which at laſt frequently terminate fatally. The patients, From our late experience of the uſe of cold air in the eruptive after a few days amendment, feel a ſomething that prevents their fever of the ſmall-pox, ſome phyſicians have been of opinion that farther approach to health ; an unaccountable langour and debility the practice may be transferred to the meaſles; but experience de- prevails, a ſtiffneſs in the limbs, an accelerated pulſe, diſturbed termines our opinion to the contrary. We are certain, that exter- hleep, diſreliſh to food, and a ſcarcity of urine. Theſe fymptoms, nal heat inay very hurtful in the meaſles, as in moſt other in we are told, are ſoon ſucceeded by ſwellings of a real dropſical na- flammatory diſeaſes: and, therefore, that the body ought to be ture, forming ſometimes an anaſarca, and on other occaſions an kept in a moderate temperature during the whole courſe of the aſcites. meaſles. Analogy, though ſo often the refource of phyſicians, is Dr. Withering, after examining the accounts given of this frequently fallacious ; and further, though the analogy with the diſeaſe by different authors, proceeds to the diagnoſis. It may be diſtinguished be M È É DIC IN E. diftinguiſhed, he obſerves; from the petechial fever, by the eruption of weight and anxiety in the cheſt, ſome uneaſineſs in breathing; in the latter appearing feldom before the fourth day, by the regu- pain of the breaſt or other parts of the thorax, and ſome ſenſe of larity and diſtinctneſs of the ſpots, and by its principally occupying heat under the ſternum ; and very often it is preceded by a faltiſh On the other hand, in the taſte in the mouth. Immediately before the appearance of blood, ſcarlet fever, the eruption generally appears about the third day; a degree of irritation is at the top of the larynx. The perſon at- conſiſts either of broad blotches, or elſe one continued redneſs, tempts to relieve this by hawking, which brings up a little florid which ſpreads over the face and the whole body. and ſomewhat frothy blood. The irritation returns ; and in the In the fever called purpura, the, puſtules are prominent, keep fame manner blood of a ſimilar kind is brought up, with foine their colour under preſſure, and never appear early in the diſeaſe ; noiſe in the wind-pipe, as of air paſſing through a fluid. Some- whereas in the ſcarlet fever, the eruption appears more early, is time, however, at the very firſt, the blood comes up with coughing, not prominent, but perfectly ſmooth to the touch, and becomes or at leaſt ſomewhat of coughing accompanies the hawking above- quite white under preſſure. mentioned. The blood is ſometimes at firſt in a very ſmall quantity, Although the purple fever and ſcarlatina may be connected by and ſoon diſappears; but in other caſes, eſpecially when it fre- ſome general cauſe, yet our author takes occaſion to obſerve, that| quently recurs, it is in greater quantity, and often continues to ap- they cannot be mere modifications of the ſame eruption : for ex pear at times for ſeveral days together. It is ſometimes profuſe, amples occur, he ſays, of the fame perſon being firſt ſeized with but rarely in ſuch a quantity, as either by its excefs or by a ſudden one of theſe diſorders, and afterwards with the other; but he ne fuffocation to prove immediately mortal. immediately mortal. It is not always eaſy to ver met with an inſtance of the ſame perſon having the ſcarlet diſcover whether the blood evacuated by the mouth proceeds from fever twice; and he believes it to be as great an improbability as the internal ſurface of the mouth itſelf, froin the fauces or adjcin- a repetition of the ſmall-pox. ing cavities of the noſe, from the ſtomach, or from the lungs. It Caufes. Our author affirms that the immediate cauſe of this is, however, very neceſſary to diſtinguiſh the different caſes, by the diſeaſe is a poiſon of a peculiar kind, communicable by contagion. following conſiderations. 2. That this poiſon firſt takes poffeffion of the mucous membrane 1. When the blood proceeds from ſome part of the internal lining the fauces and the noſe; and either by its action upon the ſurface of the mouth, it comes out without any hawking or cough- ſecretory glands, or upon the mucus itſelf, aſſimilates that mucus ing; and generally, upon inſpection, the cauſe is evident. to its own nature. 3. That it is from this beginning, and from 2. When blood appears from the fauces, or adjoining cavities this only, that it ſpreads to the ſtomach, &c. and at length acts of the noſe, it may be brought out by hawking, and ſometimes by upon the ſyſtem at large. 4. That its firſt action upon the nerves, coughing. In this caſe there may be a doubt concerning its real is of a ſedative or debilitating nature. 5. That in conſequence of fource, and the patient may be allowed to pleaſe himſelf with the certain laws of the nervous fyſtem, when the debilitating effects thoughts that the blood doth not come from the lungs. But the operate upon the cenſorium commune, a reaction takes place; phyſician muſt remember that the lungs are much more frequently and that this re-action is, cæteris paribus, proportioned to the debi- the ſource of hæmoptyſis than the fauces. The latter ſeldom hap- litating power. 6. That, in confequence of this re-action of the pens but to perſons who have before been liable to an. hæmorrage nervous ſyſtem, the vibratory motion of the capillary blood veſſels from the noſe, or to fome evident cauſe of eroſion; and in moſt dependent thereon is greatly increaſed : an unuſually large quan- caſes, by looking into the fauces, the diſtillation of the blood -from tity of blood is accumulated in thoſe veſſels; the heart and large thence will be perceived. blood veſſels are deprived of their cuſtomary proportion; and 3. When blood proceeds from the lungs, the manner in which it hence, though ſtimulated to more frequent contraction, the pulſe is brought up will commonly ſhew from whence it comes ; but in- muſt neceſſarily be fçeble. 7. That as violent exertions are fol- dependent of that, it may alſo be known from the cauſes of "lowed by debility, upon the ceſſation of the fever, the capillary vef- hæmoptyſis from the lungs, to be afterwards mentioned, having fels, which had acted with ſuch unuſual violence, are left in a ſtate preceded. . of extreme debility, and are long in recovering their tone; hence. 4. When vomiting accompanies the throwing out of blood from it is that ſo many patients afterwards become dropſical. Our the mouth, we may generally know the ſource from whence it author now proceeds to the conſideration of the different remedies, proceeds, by conſidering that blood does not proceed fo frequently which either are at preſent in common uſe, or have been recom From the ſtomach as from the lungs; that blood proceeding from mended as proper in this diſeaſe. . the ſtomach commonly appears in greater quantity than from the Cure. Blocd-letting has been recommended by authors; but lungs. The pulmonary blood alſo is uſually of a florid colour, ſuch was the ſtate of the pulſe in this diſorder, at leaſt during the and mixed with a little frothy mucus only; but the blood from the ſummer months, that it was not in any inſtance thought adviſe- | ftomach is of a darker colour, more grumous, and mixed with the able to take away blood. In ſome caſes, indeed, where the fiery other contents of the ſtomach. The coughing or vomiting; as the redneſs of the eyes ſeemed to demand the uſe of leeches, they were one or the other happens firſt to ariſe, may ſometimes point out had recourſe to, but never with any advantage. In the harveſt the ſource of the blood; and this hath alſo its peculiar antecedent months, when the pulſe was more firm, and when ſuffocation ſigns and cauſes. ſeemed to be threatened from the fwelling in the fauces, blood Cauſes, &c. An hæmoptyſis may be produced at any time of life Jetting was ſometimes adviſed, but ſtill with lefs advantage than by external violence; and, in adult perſons, while the arterial one would have expected in alınoſt any other ſituation. pelthora prevails in the fyſtem, i. e. froin the age of 16 to 35, an Vomiting.) This, our author obferves, ſeems to be the remedy hæmoptyſis may at any time be produced merely by a plethoric of nature ; and he is ſurpriſed how it ſhould have been omitted by ſtate of the lungs. More frequently, however, it ariſes from a feveral authors, who have gone before him. Vomiting, he ſays, faulty proportion between the capacity of the lungs and that of the moſt amply fulfils the indications ariſing both from a conſideration reſt of the body. Thus it is often an hereditary diſeaſe, which im- of the cauſe and of the effe&ts; and a liberal uſe of the remedy plies a peculiar and faulty conformation: uteh he holds forth as the true foundation for ſucceſsful practice in This diſeaſe eſpecially happens to perſons who diſcover the ſcarlet-fever and fore-throat. His common form of emetic is a ſmaller capacity of their lungs by the narrowneſs of their cheſt. conbination of tartar emetic and ipecacuanha, given in pretty It happens alſo to perſons of a ſlender delicate make, of which a ſmart dozes; and theſe are to be repeated at leaſt once in 48 hours, long neck is a mark; to perſons of much fenfibility and irritability, and in the worſt cafes ſo often as twice in 24 and therefore of quick parts; to perſons who have formerly been Purging.] The action of purgatives is conſidered by our author | liable to hæmorrhages from the noſe; to thoſe who have ſuffered a as altogether repugnant to the curiative indications in this diſeaſe; fuppreſſion of any uſual hæmorrhage, the moſt frequent inſtance for the poiſon, as formerly remarked, being received into the ſyf- of which is in females, who have ſuffered a fuppreſlion of their tem by the fauces, the operation of a purge, inſtead of diſcharging menſtrual flux ; and laſtly, to perſons who have ſuffered the am- it, can only promote its diffuſion along the alimentary canal; and putation of any conſiderable limb. in fact, we are told, that when even a ſpontaneous purging fu- One of the exciting cauſes, and perhaps a frequent one, is exter- pervenes in this diſeaſe, the patients fink ſo amazingly faſt, that it nal heat ; which, even when in no great degree, brings on the is not within the reach of art to ſupport them. diſeaſe in ſpring, and the beginning of ſummer, while the heat ra- Injected gargles of contrayerva decoction, ſweetened with oxy- rifies the blood more than it relaxes the ſolids, which had before mel of ſquills , &c. were found very beneficial in bringing always been contracted by the cold of winter. Another exciting cauſe is large quantities of viſcid ropy ſtuff from the fauces. any violent exerciſe of reſpiration. In the prediſpoſėd, alſo, the Animal food and fermented liquors were denied the patients, diſeaſe may be occaſioned by any degree of external violence. and nothing allowed but tea, coffee, chocolate, milk and water, Prognoſis. The hæmoptyſis may ſometimes be no more dange- gruel, barley-water, and ſuch articles. With reſpect to the drop-rous than a hæmorrhage from the noſe ; as when it happens to fe- fical diſorder which ſo frequently ſucceeds to this complaint, it males in conſequence of a fuppreſſion of their menſes ; when was never obſerved, our author remarks, when the preceding without any marks of prediſpoſition, it ariſes from external vio- ſymptoms had been properly treated. fence: or, from whatever cauſe ariſing, when it leaves no cough, Our author concludes his eſſay with an enumeration of ſeveral | dyſpnea, or other affection of the lungs, behind it. But even in caſes, treated according to the principles above laid down. The theſe caſes, a danger may ariſe from too large a wound being made fucceſsful termination of theſe caſes demonſtrates the propriety of in the veſſels of the lungs, from any quantity of red blood being the practice which he has recommended. left to ſtagnate in the cavity of the bronchiæ, and particularly ORDER IV. HÆMORRHAGIÆ; Hamorrhages. from any determination of the blood being made into the veſſels of Genus XXX HÆMOPTYSIS, or ſpitting of Blood. the lungs, which by renewing the hæmorrhage may have theſe Deſcription. The hæmoptyſis commonly begins with a ſenſe confequences. Cure. hours. M EDICINE. Cure. On this ſubject Dr. Callen differs from thoſe who pre row cheſt, and a remarkable prominence of the proceſſes of the fcribe chalybeates and the Peruvian bark in the cure of hæmoptyſis. os facrum. To theſe marks we may add, that of ſound teeth, Both of theſe, he obſerves, contribute to increaſe the phlogiſtic dia which, as the diſeaſe advances, uſually become of a milky white thefis then prevailing in the ſyſtem, and the hemoptyſis from pre colour, and more or leſs tranſparent. Of thoſe who are carried diſpoſition is always accompanied with fuch a diatheſis. Inſtead off by this diſeaſe, Dr. Simmons aſſerts, the greater number will of theſe, therefore, he recommends blood-letting in greater or be found never to have had a carious tooth. ſmaller quantity, and more or leſs frequently repeated as the ſymp Perſons of the above deſcription often remain for a long time toms ſhall direct. At the ſame time cooling purgatives are to be without feeling any other inconvenience than fome oppreſſion at employed, and every part of the antiphlogiſtic regimen is to be the breaſt in moiſt weather, or in hot apartments. Their breathing ftri&ly enjoined. In the London Medical Obſervations, the uſe is eaſily hurried, ſometimes by the flighteſt motion; and they be- of nitre is greatly recommended by Dr. Dickſon, to whoin its come languid, paler, and thinner. All this while, however, they efficacy was known by Dr. Letherland, phyſician to St. Thomas's feel no heat or painful ſenſation in the breaſt. As the evil increaſes, Hoſpital. The moſt commodious method of exhibiting it he the patient begins to be attacked with a ſlight, frequent, and dry found was in an electuary. Four ounces of conſerve of roſes were cough, which is moſt troubleſome in the night time. This, how- made into an electuary with half an ounce of nitre; of which the ever, by proper care, is often relieved; and the patient remains in bulk of a large nutmeg was directed to be given, four, fix, or this ſtate for a conſiderable time, and even for many years, if he is eight times a day, according to the urgency of the caſe. The good ſenſible of his danger, and careful to guard againſt it by a ſuitable effects of this, our author tells us, have often aſtoniſhed him; and manner of living. More commonly, however, we find the cough when given early in the diſeaſe, he ſays he can depend as inuch increaſing, and ſometimes accompanied with more or leſs of ca- upon it for the cure of an hemoptyſis, as on the bark for the cure tarrh. This is uſually aſcribed to cold; and but too generally of an intermittent. He agrees with Dr. Cullen, however, that in neglected, till the diſeaſe becomes alarming by its obſtinacy and thoſe caſes where there is any hardneſs in the pulſe, and which al- its effects. This may be conſidered as the beginning, or firſt period, „moſt always happens, there is a neceſſity for veneſection. A cool of the diſeaſe. During this ſtage, the cough is ſometimes dry from regimen, and quiet of body and mind, are certainly uſeful; but the firſt; and ſometimes, when it fets in the form of a catarrh, is Dr. Cullen obſerves, that ſome kinds of geſtation, ſuch as failing, attended with more or leſs expectoration of mucus. and travelling in an eaſy carriage on ſmooth roads, have often Deſcription. When the diſeaſe has been neglected, or our at- proved a remedy. When the cough is very troubleſome, it is ab- tempts to remove it in the beginning have failed, both of which folutely neceſſary to exhibit frequently a ſmall doſe of an opiate. circumſtances but too frequently happen, the patient begins to Dr. Dickſon alſo informs us, that the nitre joined with ſperma- complain of a ſoreneſs, and of ſlight lancinating pains ſhooting. ceti , or pulv. e tragacanth. comp. has produced equally good effects through the breaſt, ſometimes in the direction of the mediaſtinum, with the electuary above-inentioned; in the compoſition of which and ſometimes confined chiefly to one fide. The foreneſs is the Doctor at firſt conſidered the conſerve only as a vehicle for the pretty conſtant, and much increaſed by the cough. The pain in nitre, though he means not to inſinuate that the former is totally the ſide often prevents the patient from lying on the ſide affected; deftitute of efficacy. and this inability of lying, except on one ſide, frequently occurs PHTHISIS, or CONSUMPTION of the LUNGS. even when no ſuch pain is felt. In this ſtage of the diſeaſe, fluih- Sometimes, notwithſtanding all the care we can take, the ing heats are felt in the palms of the hand and ſoles of the feet: hamoptyſis will degenerate into a phthiſis pulonalis, or con the breathing is ſhort and laborious; and it is not long before the ſumption of the lungs; and ſometimes an hæmoptyſis will patient begins to expectorate a thin and frothy phlegm, at firſt in be the conſequence of this dangerous diſorder. It hath been in- ſmall quantities, coughed up with difficulty and foreneſs, and now deed ſuppoſed, that an ulceration of the lungs, or phthifis, and then ſtreaked with blood: this may be conſidered as the inflam- was the natural and almoſt neceſſary conſequence of an hæ matory period of the diſeaſe, to which fucceeds the ſuppurative ſtage. moptyſis: but, this is in general a miſtake; for there are many In the latter, the expectoration becomes more copious and purulent, inſtances of an hæmoptyſis from external violence without being the breath proportionably offenſive, and the exacerbations of the followed by any ulceration. The ſame thing hath often been ob- hectic more conſiderable: an increaſed quickneſs of the pulſe ſerved where the hæmoptyſis aroſe from an internal cauſe; and comes on about the middle of the day; but the moſt conſiderable this not only in young perſons, when the diſeaſe returned for ſeve- paroxyſm of the fever is at night, and at firſt continues till towards ral times, but when it has often recurred during the courſe of a morning, cominonly till three or four o'clock, when it ter- long life; and it may eaſily be conceived, that a rupture of the minates in a ſweat, which uſually begins upon the breaſt. As the veliels of the lungs, as well as of the veſſels of the noſe, may be diſeaſe advances, the ſweats become more profuſe, and ſometimes ſometimes healed. The cauſes of phthiſis, therefore, may be re come on almoſt as ſoon as the pulſe begins to quicken, but without duced to five heads. 1. An hæmoptyfis. 2. A fuppuration of the affording any relief to the patient. During the exacerbations, we lungs in conſequence of a pneumonia. 3. A catarrh. 4. An obſerve a circumſcribed redneſs of the cheeks, while the reſt of the aſthma; and, 5. Tubercles. face is pale, and appears as if it were not clean waſhed. The A phthiſis, indeed, moſt commonly ariſes from tubercles. Dr. Dr. coſtiveneſs that commonly accompanies the beginning of the diſ- Simmons informs us, that he has had opportunities of inſpecting eaſe is uſually ſucceeded by a diarrhoea; the ſpitting leſſens, and the bodies of ſeveral people who died in this way, and never found all the purulent matter ſeems to be carried downwards. The them totally abſent. He liath likewiſe ſeen them in ſubjects of waſting of the fat and the loſs of nouriſhment occaſion the nails different ages, who had been troubled with no fymptoms of an af to curve inwards, the hair to fall off, and the eyes to ſink in their fection of the breaſt during their lifetime. In theſe, however, fockets. In the mean time, the legs commonly ſwell; till at they were ſmall, and few in number. This proves that they may length death cloſes a ſcene which is melancholy to all but the pa- exiſt without inconvenience till they begin to diſturb the functions tient himſelf, who in general continues ſenſible to the laſt moment, of the lungs by their ſize and number; or till ſome degree of in and even then indulges a vain hope of prolonging a miſerable ex- flammation is excited, either by accidental cauſes, or by certain iſtence. In ſome caſes, and that not unfrequently, a delirium changes that take place within their ſubſtance; for as yet we know comes on towards the cloſe of the diſeaſe. but little of their true nature. Theſe little tumours vary in their The hectic fever that attends this and ſome other chronic diſ- conſiſtence; in ſome they are compoſed of a pulpy ſubſtance, and eaſes, is evidently the effect of acrimony, and moſt commonly of in others approach more to the nature of fcirrhus. They are pus abſorbed and carried into the circulation. The nature of this moſt commonly formed in confequence of a certain conſtitutional acrimony, and the different irritability of different patients, are pro- prediſpoſition; but whatever is capable of occaſioning a morbid bably the ſources of the variety we obſerve in fevers of this deno- irritability of the lungs ſeems to be capable of generating them. mination; a variety which is doubtleſs much greater than we are Thus the ſpaſmodic aſthma frequently ends in tubercles and con aware of. Thus we find that the matter of the ſmall-pox excites fumption; and it is not unuſual for millers, ſtone-cutters, and a fever of this kind; but this ſecondary fever, as it is called, differs others, to die conſumptive, from their being ſo conſtantly expoſed from the hectic attendant on conſumptions; nor does the latter to duſt, which in theſe caſes probably acts by producing ſimilar correſpond with that which ſometimes accompanies the ſuppura- concretions: and Dr. Kirkland obſerves, that ſcythe-grinders are tion of a cancerous ulcer. In the pulmonary conſumption, or at ſubject to a diſeaſe of the lungs, from particles of fand mixing leaſt in the third ſtage of it, the fever induced is truly of the pu- with iron duſt, which among themſelves they call the grinders rot. trid kind, and has been well denominated febris hectica putrida by Tubercles likewiſe often have their ſource from a ſcrophulous | the judicious Morton, who conſiders it as being combined with a acrimony; and ſome eminent phyſicians have ſuppoſed that the peripneumonic or inflammatory fever, which recurs as often as generality of pulmonary conſumptions are of this kind. This no freſh tubercles begin to inflame. For although we have named tion, however, they have carried too far: they have probably been one period of the diſeaſe, the inflammatory, and another the ſuppu- miſled by theſe tuberculous concretions which, without good rea rative period, yet we are not to ſuppoſe that the latter is exempt fon, have been ſuppoſed to be diſeaſed glands, and of courſe ana from inflammation. While matter is poured into the bronchiæ, logous to the glandular affections we meet with in the ſcrophula. or abſorbed and carried into the ſyſtem from one part of the lungs, Tubercles may likewiſe ſometimes be owing to the ſudden repul- other parts are in a crude ſtate of inflammation, or advancing towards fion of cutaneous eruptions, or of the matter of exanthemata, &c. fuppuration ; fo that, on examining the lungs of perſons who die or to other cauſes. conſumptive, we find ſome tubercles that are ſmall and juſt formed, The perſons who are moſt liable to conſumption are thoſe of a fome that are large and full of matter, and others that are in a ſtate fair complexion, fine and ſoft ſkin, florid cheeks, and a ſlender | of ulceration. This eaſily accounts for the occaſional combina- make; with high cheek bones, hollow temples, long neck, nar tion of inflammatory ſymptoms with thoſe of the putrid hectic. When No. 102 7 A MEDICINE. . When the matter abſorbed is a laudable pus, as in the caſe of a bark is ſo far from curing the hectic ariſing from diſtempered pſoas abſceſs, we find the form of the hectic differing from either | lungs, that, according to the beſt of his obſervations, it not only of thoſe we have mentioned. takes up that time which might probably have been better em- Cure. When the cough fets in the form of a catarrh, and ployed in the uſe of other medicines, but for the moſt part aggra- thin appears to be occaſioned by an increaſed ſecretion of a vates the diſeaſe beyond remedy. Indeed it will be found by every faltiſh mucus irritating the membrane of the trachea, all ju- / attentive obſerver, that, whenever pus, or any kind of matter ex- dicious practitioners agree in recommending an attention to cites an hectic, by being abſorbed and carried into the circulation, regimen, the free uſe of diluting liquors, bland emulfions, ſmall the bark will never fail to exaſperate the complaint, eſpecially if doſes of nitre, the taking away a few ounces of blood if it is accompanied with any degree of inflammatory diatheſis, unleſs there be much inflammation, the inhaling the ſteams of warm the matter has a free outlet from the ſyſtem; as in the caſe of water, and the cccafional uſe of ſuch a doſe of elixir paregoricum abſceſſes, for inſtance, in which we often find the bark productive as will be ſufficient to allay the irritation of the bronchiæ, and to of excellent effects. It is likewiſe well known to be uſed as a promote a gentle moiſture on the ſkin. Theſe methods will ge- tonic, to obviate the effects of fluor albus, or any other immoderate nerally be found to be efficacious, eſpecially if the patient's cham- evacuation in delicate perſons, which, by enteebling the ſyſtem, ber is of a moderate temparature, and he carefully avoids expoſure very often lays the foundation of phthilis: but the moment we to a cold, damp, or raw air, till the complaint is removed. In have reaſon to ſuſpect that the lungs are ulcerated, it ought to be caſes in which the cough has been obſtinate, and the inflamma- laid aſide; and in the genuine tuberculous confumption, it is at tory ſymptoms conſiderable, Dr. Simmons has often experienced all times inadmiſſible. the great advantages of the warm bath, the heat of which did not In phthifical complaints, a prudent trial of the bark ſeems ne- exceed 92°. When this is had recourſe to, the patient ſhould re- ceſſary. Small doſes of the decoction, either alone, or joined with main in it only a very few minutes, and go ſoon afterwards to bed; the faline mixture or ſuch other additions as the phyſician thinks but not with a view to force a ſweat by an increaſed weight of proper, may be given. But if the breath becomes more tight and bed-clothes, as is too often injudiciouſly practiſed. oppreſſed, the cough dry, the pulſe more quick and hard, and eſpe- Patients of a confumptive habit, who have had an attack of this | cially if flight tranſitory pains or ſtitches about the thorax are kind at'the beginning of winter, are particularly liable to a return more frequently complained of, a perſeverance in the uſe of the of the complaint during the continuance of the cold ſeaſon, on the bark will increaſe the diſeaſe. If fuch alſo ſhould be the appear- ſlighteſt occaſion and with greater violence. A relapſe is therefore ances in the progreſs of the diſeaſe, or, from whatever cauſe, if the to be carefully guarded againſt; and nothing will be found to do bark is accompanied with ſuch effects, the uſe of it ought to be this more effectually than the uſe of focks and a flannel under- withheld. waiſtcoat. The uſe of flannel has been condemned by ſeveral If, on the other hand, no pain, tightneſs, or oppreſlion, is per- medical writers as increaſing the inſenſible perſpiration; but in ceived, and there appears a manifeſt abatement of the ſymptoms, the preſent caſe, to ſay nothing of ſome others in which it may it will be adviſeable to proceed. The adminiſtration of this me- not be uſeful, it will in general be found to have the beſt effects. dicine, however, requires a judicious obſerver; and it ought nei- It will prevent a too great determination to the lungs, and ſhould ther to be given in the early inflammatory ſtage of this diſeaſe, nor not be left off till the approach of ſummer. In ſome few inſtances be continued in any ſubſequent period, if it produces the effects in which flannel was found to have a diſagreeable effect, a piece of abovementioned. By its tonic virtues it will often enable nature dimity, worn over the breaſt next the ſkin, prevented the return of to conquer many difficulties. In corfimation of this remark, colds and coughs in perſons of a delicate habit, who had before | Dr. Fothergill farther obſerves, that he has ſeen it of uſe in pro- been liable to them on the ſlighteſt occaſions. In theſe caſes, cir- moting expectoration, when this became deficient from want of cumſtances that are ſeemingly of the moſt trifling nature become ſtrength towards the end of peripneumonic fevers; but that it of importance. ſtops this diſcharge, changes flight wandering pains into ſuch as In the catarrhal cough juſt now mentioned, many practitioners are fixed, and increaſes thein with all their conſequences, in a va- are too eager to adminiſter the Peruvian bark, with the view, as riety of caſes. they term it, of bracing up the patient: but this never fails to in The elixir of vitriol is often exhibited in conſumptive caſes, creaſe the cough, and of courſe to do great and very often irrepa- with no leſs impropriety than the bark. This medicine, from its table miſchief. The oily remedies ſeldom fail to exaſperate this aftringency, is obviouſly improper in the inflammatory ſtate of the cough, which at firſt is dry, frequent, and often extremely violent, diſeaſe. But in the latter ſtage, when a general tendency to putrę- but which ſeldom fails to give way to one or two gentle pukes, and faction takes place, it is ſerviceable in reſiſting the effect; it re- the occaſional uſe of mild purges. The cough, as in other caſes, ſtrains the colliquative ſweats; and if the lungs are not injured often continues from habit after the cauſe that gave riſe to it has paſt repair, it is allowed to be a very uſeful auxiliary: been removed, and may then be checked by opiates. Various are the opinions concerning the efficacy of Briſtol water In theſe different periods of the diſeaſe, the curative indications in this diſeaſe. The experienced author laſt mentioned informs are ſufficiently obvious. To prevent the formation of freſh tuber- us, that he has ſeen many perſons recover, from pulmonary diſeaſes cles; to obviate the inflammation of thoſe already formed ; to after drinking theſe waters, whoſe cure ſeemed to be doubtful froin promote their reſolution; to allay morbid irritability, the cough, any other proceſs; and he thinks this circumſtance, added to the and other troubleſome fymptoms; and, above all, to check the general reputation of the Briſtol waters in phthiſical caſes, affords tendency to hectic, are the views that every rational phyſician pro- fufficient inducement to recommend the trial of them in the early poſes to himſelf in the treatment of the genuine conſumption. Itage of ſuch complaints. It is, however, before the approach of a We know of no medicines that can exert their ſpecific effects. confirmed phthiſis that patients ought to repair to Briſtol; other- upon the lungs by diſſolving tuberculous concretions; nor is it | wiſe a journey thither will not only be without benefit, but may probable, from what we know of the aniinal oeconomy, that any | even prove detrimental. Some have imagined, that the journey, fuch will ever be diſcovered. Yet medicines that operate in a ge a better air, change of ſituation and of objects, have contributed to neral manner upon the ſyſtem, may, by promoting abſorption, the patient's recovery; and theſe may doubtleſs be of advantage. and diminiſhing the determination to the lungs, tend to diſperſe | It ſeems, however, that the water drank freſh at the pump, actually tubercles, or to prevent their formation. There are not wanting contains principles conducive to the recovery of patients effected inſtances of wonderful recoveries in caſes where the evil was fup- with phthifical complaints. It ſeems to poſſeſs a llight calcareous poſed to be beyond the power of phyſic; and in ſome, where na- ſtypticity, and perhaps the air it contains may alſo have an antiſeptic ture was left to herſelf; ſo that a phyſician who has obſerved the quality. On the whole, it appears to be an efficacious medicine, various and powerful reſources nature has within herſelf, will be and is often found of remarkable benefit to conſumptive patients. very cautious how he aſſerts that a diſeaſe is incurable. Change of air, ſometimes even from good to bad, is of great The moſt formidable effects of ulcerated lungs are the abſorption conſequence in all chronic diſeaſes of the lungs. In conſumptive and confequent hectic. It ſeems evident, that, in many caſes, caſes, however, the air of all large cities is found to be particularly death is brought on by this, rather than by the lungs themſelves injurious. In this diſeaſe, the pulſe, calm in the morning, be- being rendered unfit for the purpoſes of reſpiration. So that if comes more frequent in the afternoon and night, attended with we can obviate the effects of the abſorption, diminiſh the preter- heat and other feveriſh fymptoms. Exerciſe, therefore, at this time, natural determination to the lungs, and fulfil the other general in can only add to the miſchief of the fever. For this reaſon he pru- dications juſt now mentioned, we may very often enable nature to dently recommends to all hectic perſons, eſpecially thoſe who Thall recover herſelf. It may be alledged indeed, that the phyſician's | travel to diſtant places on account of a better air, or the benefit art has hitherto proved very unſucceſsful in theſe caſes; but may expected from any particular water, that their travelling ſhould be not this be owing to the remedies that are adopted being very of- flow, confined to a very few hours, and only in the morning. ten ſuch as are inimical to the cure? Horſe exerciſe, however, ſeems to be chiefly beneficial in thoſe The bark is, perhaps, the moſt commonly employed of any, and caſes where conſumption is a fecondary diſeaſe. It may likewiſe often confided in as an ultimate reſource in theſe caſes. But be- be uſeful in obviating an attack of phthiſis, or in carrying off a dry ſides this, the elixir of vitriol, the balſams, and frequent bleedings, huſky cough in a perſon of a conſumptive habit, when there is rea- have each had their partizans. The uſe of bliſters and iſſues, ſon to ſuppoſe that no tubercles are as yet formed. On the other opiates, a milk and vegetable diet, exerciſe, and change of air, are hand, in the confirmed phthiſis, when the lungs are inflamed or pretty generally recommended by all. Concerning the bark, De- ulcerated, much or violent exerciſe will be improper; and there fault long ago obſerved, that it had been productive of great miſ- have been inſtances where the death of the patient was evidently chief in conſumptive caſes; and Dr. Fothergill , in a paper pub- | accelerated by it. Riding on horſeback agitates the viſcera more liſhed by him on this ſubject, very judiciouſly remarks, that the than walking, and is therefore preferable to it in many chronic diſeaſes; MEDICINE. very conſider- to any diſeaſes; but when a preternatural determination to the lungs has | hoides cæcæ or blind, piles. Sometimes the diſeaſe appears without taken place, it will be liable to increaſe the evil. the verge of the anus in diſtinct ſeparate tumours; but frequently The beſt adapted diet in conſumptive caſes, is milk, particularly only one tumid ring appears, ſeeming as it were the anus puſhed that of aſſes. It may however be remarked, that there are conſti- without the body. Sometimes theſe tumours appear without any tutions in which this ſalutary nutriment ſeems to diſagree. A previous diſorder of the body; but more frequently, before the propenſity to generate bile, or too ſtrong a diſpoſition to aceſcency, blood begins to flow, and ſometimes even before the tumours are from a weakneſs of the digeſtive organs, both merit attention. formed, varicus affections are perceived in different parts of the Whey, either from cows or goats milk, appears to be more ſuita- body; as head-ach, vertigo, ſtupor, difficulty of breathing, ſickneſs, ble in the former caſe; and for correcting acidity, lime-water may colic pains, pain of the back and loins, and frequently a conſider- be added to the milk. Dr. Simmons obſerves, that the patient's able degree of pyrexia; while along with theſe ſymptoms there is taſte ſhould be conſulted ; and ſays that moderate uſe of animal a ſenſe of fullneſs, heat, itching, and pain, in and about the anus. food, where the ſalted and high-ſeaſoned kinds are avoided, is not Sometimes the diſeaſe is preceded by a ferous diſcharge from the to be denied. Shell-fiſh, particularly oyſters, are uſeful, as well | anus; and ſometimes this ſerous diſcharge, accompanied with as ſnails ſwallowed whole, or boiled in milk. ſwelling, ſeems to come in place of the diſcharge of blood, and to A remark which has been judiciouſly made by Dr. Fothergill, relieve the above-mentioned diſorders of the ſyſtem. This ſerous ought not to be omitted in the account of this diſeaſe. It is, that diſcharge hath therefore been named the hamorrhois alba. young delicate females, from the age of 15 or 16, and upwards, are In this diſeaſe the quantity of blood diſcharged is different upon often ſubject to conſumptions. When the diſeaſe has advanced different occaſions. Sometimes it flows only when the perſon conſiderably, the menfes, if they have made their appearance, moſt goes to ſtool, and commonly follows the diſcharge of fæces. In generally ceaſe. This alarms their female friends, and they call other caſes it flows without any diſcharge of fæces; and then ge- upon the phyſician to uſe his utmoſt endeavours for reſtoring the nerally in conſequence of the diſorders above-mentioned, when it diſcharge; believing the ceſſation of it to be the immediate cauſe is alſo commonly in larger quantity. This is often of the phthiſical complaint. Induced by their ſolicitations, me- able, and, by the repetition, ſo great, that we could hardly ſuppoſe dicines have ſometimes been adminiſtered, that, without obtaining the body to bear it but with the hazard of life. Indeed, thoughi this end, have tended to aggravate the diſtemper. This deficiency rarely, it has been ſo great as to prove ſuddenly fatal, as probably is often of no real diſadvantage in thoſe caſes; and in many the was the cafe with ARIUS and COPERNICUS. Theſe conſiderable evacuation would prove injurious, by diminiſhing the ſtrength, diſcharges occur eſpecially to perſons who have been frequently which is already too much impaired. Even ſmall bleedings at the liable to the diſeaſe. They often induce great debility, and fre- regular periods, have often done more harm than good. A ſudden quently a leucophlegmatia or dropſy, which prove fatal. Some- ſuppreſſion may require bleeding; but when the evacuation fails times the tumours and diſcharges of blood in this diſeaſe recur ex- through want of ſtrength, and from poverty of blood, the renewal actly at ſtated periods. In the decline of life it frequently happens, of it increaſes the diſeaſe. that the hæmorrhoidal flux, formerly frequent, ceaſes to flow; and Beſides theſe remedies, Dr. Simmons ſtrongly recommends a in that caſe it generally happens that the perſons are affected with frequent repetition of vomits. Many phyſicians have ſuppoſed apoplexy or palſy. Sometimes hæmorrhoidal tumours are affected that where there is any increaſed determination to the lungs, vo with inflammation, which ends in ſuppuration, and gives occaſion mits do miſchief; but our author is perſuaded, that inſtead of aug- to the formation of fiſtulous ulcers in thoſe parts. menting they diminiſh this determination; and that much good The hæmorrhoidal tumours have often been conſidered as vari- may be expected from a prudent uſe of this remedy, than which ces or dilatations of the veins; and in ſome caſes varicous dilata- none has a more general or powerful effect on the ſyſtem. If any tions have appeared upon diſſection. Theſe, however, do not ap- remedy is capable of diſperſing a tubercle, he believes it to be pear; and Dr. Cullen is of opinion that they are uſually formed vomits. The affectations of the liver, that ſometimes accompany by an effuſion of blood into the cellular texture of the inteſtine pulmonary complaints, give way to repeated emetics ſooner than near to its extremity. When recently formed they contain fluid other remedy. In ſeveral caſes where the cough and the blood, but after they remain for ſome time they are uſually of a matter expectorated, the fluſhing heats, loſs of appetite, and other former conſiſtence. ſymptoms, threatened the moſt fatal event; the complaints were Cauſes, &c. It would ſeem probable, that the hæmorrhoidal tu- greatly relieved, and in others wholly removed, by the frequent uſe mours are produced by ſome interruption of the free return of the of emetics. Other ſuitable remedies were indeed employed at the blood from the rectum, by which a rupture of the extremities of ſame time; but the relief the patients generally experienced after the veins is occaſioned. But conſidering that the hæmorrhage oc- the emnetic, was a ſufficient proof of its falutary operation. By this, curring here is often preceded by pain, inflammation, and a febrile however, our author does not mean that vomits will be uſeful in ſtate, and with many other ſymptoms which ſhew a connection of every period of the diſeaſe, or in every patient. In general, it will the topical affection with the ſtate of the whole ſyſtem, it is pro- be found that the earlier in the diſeaſe emétics are had recourſe to, bable that the interruption of the venous blood produces a confi- the more likely they will be to do good, and the leſs likely to do derable reſiſtance to the motion of the venous blood through the harm. The caſes in which this may be reckoned improper, are arteries, and conſequently that the diſcharge of blood is commonly commonly thoſe in which the diſeaſe is rapid in its progreſs; or in froin the latter. Some have thought, that a difference of the hæ- that ſtage of it, when there is great debility, with profuſe colliqua- morrhois, and of its effects upon the ſyſtem, might ariſe from the tive ſweats. difference of the hæmorrhoidal veſſels from whence the blood iſ With regard to the drains, ſuch as bliſters, iſſues, and ſetons, ſued. But we can ſcarce ever diſtinguiſh the veſſels from which that are ſo frequently recommended in pulmonary complaints, there the blood flows; and the frequent inoſculations of both arteries is leſs danger of abuſe from them, than from the practice of vene- and veins belonging to the lower extremity of the rectum, will ſection. The diſcharge they excite is not calculated to weaken render the effects of the hæmorrhage much the ſame, from what- the patient much; and the relief they have ſo often been found to ever fource it proceeds. afford, is a ſufficient reaſon for giving them a trial. Bliſters, as is With regard to the hæmorrhoids, they are, for the moſt part, well known, act in a twofold manner; by obviating ſpaſm, and merely a topical affection. They take place before the period of producing revulfion: Iſſues and ſetons ac chiefly in the latter of life at which a venous plethora happens. They happen to females, theſe two ways; and in this reſpect their effects, though leſs ſudden in whom a venous plethora determined to the hæmorrhoidal veſſels and leſs powerful at firſt, are more durable from the continuance cannot be ſuppoſed; and they happen to both ſexes, and to of the diſcharge they occaſion. It is perhaps hardly neceſſary to ſons of all ages, from cauſes which do not affect the ſyſtem, and remark, that, if much ſervice is to be expected from either of theſe are manifeſtly ſuited to produce a topical affection only. remedies, they ſhould be applied early in the diſeaſe. The inge Theſe cauſes are, in the firſt place, the frequent voiding of hard nious Mr. Mudge, who experienced the good effects of a large and bulky fæces, which, by their long ſtagnation in the rectum, ſcapulary iſſue on his own perſon, very properly obſerves, that the and eſpecially when voided, muſt neceſſarily preſs upon the veins diſcharge in theſe caſes ought to be conſiderable enough to be felt. of it, and interrupt the courſe of the blood in them. For this rea- But it is ſeldom poſlible for us to prevail on the delicate perſons, ſon the diſeaſe ſo frequently happens to thoſe who are habitually who are moſt frequently the victims of this diſeaſe, to fubinit to coſtive. From the ſame cauſes, the diſeaſe happens frequently to the application of a cauſtic between the ſhoulders. The diſcharge thoſe who are ſubject to a prolapſus ani. In voiding the fæces, it produced by a ſeton is by no means inconſiderable; and as in theſe almoſt always happens that the internal coat of the rectum is more caſes there is generally ſome inflammatory ſtitch, fome part of the or lefs protruded; and, during this protruſion, it ſometimes happens breaſt that is more painful or more affected by a deep inſpiration that the ſphincter ani is contracted: in conſequence of this, a than the reſt, a ſeton in the fide, as near as can be to the ſeat of ſtrong conſtriction is made, which preventing the fallen-out gut the inflammation, will be an uſeful auxiliary. Our author has from being replaced, and at the ſame time preventing the returni ſeen it evidently of great uſe in ſeveral caſes. of blood from it, occaſions a conſiderable ſwelling, and the forina- GENUS XXXI. HÆMORRHOIS, the HEMORRHOIDI, tion of a tumid ring round the anus. or PILES. Upon the ſphincter's being a little relaxed, as it is immediately Deſcription. The diſcharge of blood from ſmall tumours on after its ſtrong contraction, the portion of the gut which had fallen the verge of the anus conſtitutes what is called the hæmorrhoids or out is commonly taken into the body again; but by the frequent piles. They are diſtinguiſhed into the external and internal, ac- repetition of the accident, the ſize and fulneſs of the ring formed cording to the ſituation of the tumours, either without or within by the prolapſed inteſtine is much increaſed. It is therefore more the anus. Sometimes, however, theſe tumours appear without flowly and difficultly replaced; and in this conſiſts the chief unea- diſcharging any blood; and in this caſe they are called the hæmorr- fineſs of hæmorrhoidal perſons. As the internal edge of this ring is per- MEDICINE. currence. is neceſſarily divided by clefts, the whole often puts on the appear- | ani, the frequent waſhing of the anus with cold water may be uſe ance of a number of diſtinct ſwellings; and it alſo frequently hap- | ful. . When the flux has actually come on, we are to moderate it penis, that ſome portions of it are more confiderably ſwelled, be as much as poſſible, by cauſing the patient to lie in a horizontal come more protuberant, and form thoſe ſmall tumours more poſture on a hard bed: by avoiding exerciſe in an erect poſture, ſtrictly called hæmorrhoids, or riles. uſing a cool diet, and avciding external heat. But with reſpect to From confidering that the preſſure of the fæces, and other cauſes the further cure of this diſeale, we muſt obſerve, that there are interrupting the return of venous blood from the lower extremity only two caſes in which it is common for hæmorrhoidal perſons to of the rectum, may operate a good deal higher up than that extre call for medical aſſiſtance. The one is, when the affection is ac- mity, we may underſtand how tumours may be formed within the companied with much pain; and the other, when the piles are ac- anus; and probably it alſo happens, that ſome of the tumours companied with exceſſive bleeding. In the firſt caſe, we muſt formed without the anus may continue when taken within the body, conſider whether the piles are external or internal. The pain of and even be increaſed by the cauſes juſt mentioned. Thus may the the external piles happens eſpecially when a conſiderable protruſion production of internal piles be explained, which, on account of of the rectum has happened; and while it remains unreduced, it their ſituation and bulk, are not protruded on the perſon's going is ſtrangled by the conſtriction of the ſphincter; and at the ſame to ſtool, and are therefore more painful. time no bleeding happens to take off the ſwelling of the protruded The production of piles is particularly illuſtrated by this, that | portion of the inteſtine; and ſometimes an inflammation ſuper- pregnant women are frequently affected with the diſeaſe. This is venes, which greatly aggravates the pain. In this caſe, emollient to be accounted for, partly by the preſſure of the uterus upon the fomentations and poultices are ſometimes of ſervice, but the appli- rectum, and partly by the coſtive habit to which pregnant women cation of leeches is generally to be preferred. are liable. Many inſtances of piles happen for the firſt time during In caſe of exceſſive bleeding, we are on all occaſions to endea- the ſtate of pregnancy: and there are few women who have borne vour to moderate the flux, even where the diſeaſe has occurred as children, that are afterwards entirely free from piles. Purgatives a critical diſcharge; for if the primary diſeaſe ſhall be entirely and alſo, eſpecially thoſe of the inore acrid kind, and particularly aloe- radically cured, the preventing any return of the hæmorrhois tics, are apt to produce the piles, when frequently uſed; and as entirely ſafe and proper. It is only when the diſeaſe ariſes from a they ſtimulate particularly the great guts, they may be juſtly plethoric habit, and from a ſtagnation of blood in the hypochondriac reckoned among the exciting cauſes of this diſeaſe. region, or when, though originally topical, it hath by frequent re- Prognoſis. Though the hæmorrhoids are commonly, as we have petition becom habitual, and has thereby acquired a connection faid, to be eſteemed a topical diſeaſe, they may, by frequent repe with the ſyſtem, that any doubt can ariſe about curing it entirely. tition, become habitual and connected with the whole ſyſtem. It | In any of theſe caſes, however, we are of opinion that it will be is to be particularly obſerved, that when the hæmorrhoidal diſeaſe proper to moderate the bleeding, left, by its continuance or repeti- has either been originally, or has become a ſyſtematic affection, it tion, the plethoric ſtate of the body, and the particular determi- then acquires a particular connection with the ſtomach; ſo that nation of the blood into the hæmorrhoidal vefſels, be increaſed, and certain affections of the ſtomach excite the hæmorrhoidal diſeaſe, the return of the diſeaſe be too much favoured. In all caſes of ex- and certain ſtates of this diſeaſe excite the diſorders of the ſtoinach. ceſſive bleeding, or any approach to it, aſtringents both internal and It hath been an almoſt univerſally received opinion, that the hæ external may be ſafely and properly applied; not indeed to induce morrhoidal flux is a falutary evacuation, which prevents many dif an immediate and total ſuppreffion; but to moderate the hæmorr- eaſes that would otherwiſe have happened; and that it even con- hage, and by degrees to ſuppreſs it altogether; while at the ſame tributes to give long life: and as this opinion hath been ſtrenuouſly time ineaſures are taken for the removing the neceſlity of its re- adopted by Dr. Stahl, it hath had a very conſiderable influence on In caſe of a connection between the hæmorrhoidal af- the practice of phyſic in Germany. But we can never expect to fection and the ſtate of the ſtomach, the ſame method is to be uſed reap much benefit from this flux, which at firſt is purely topical; in the atonic gout. and, granting that it ſhould become habitual, it is never proper to Genus XXXII. MENORRHAGIA, or Immoderate Flow of be encouraged. It is a naſty, diſagreeable diſeaſe; ready to go to the MENSES. exceſs, and thereby to prove hurtful, and ſometimes even fatal. At Deſcription. The quantity of the menſtrual flux is different in beſt it is liable to accidents, and thus to unhappy conſequences. different women, and likewiſe in the ſame wonran at different Even the firſt approaches of the diſeaſe are to be guarded againſt; times. An unuſual quantity therefore is not always to be confi- and though it ſhould have proceeded for ſome time, it ought dered as morbid: but when a larger flow of the menſes has been always to be moderated, and the neceſſity of it ſuperſeded. preceded by head-ach, giddineſs, or dyſpnoa; has been uſhered in Cure. When any evident cauſe for this diſeaſe is perceived, we by a cold ſtage, and is attended with much pain of the back and ought immediately to attempt a removal of that cauſe. One of the loins, with a frequent pulſe, heat and thirſt; it may then be confi- moſt frequent remote cauſes is an habitual coſtiveneſs; which muſt dered as preternaturally large. On the other hand, when the face be obviated by a proper diet, as the perſon's own experience will becomes pale, the pulſe weak, an unuſual debility is felt in exer- beſt direct: or if the management of diet be not effectual, the belly ciſe, and the breathing is hurried by little labour; when the back muſt be kept open by medicines, which may prove gently laxative, becomes pained from any continuance in an erect poſture, In moſt caſes it will be of advan- when the extremities become frequently cold, and when at tage to acquire a habit with regard to time, and to obſerve it exactly. night the feet appear affected with oedematous ſwelling; from all Another cauſe of the hæmorrhoids to be eſpecially attended to is theſe ſymptoms we may conclude, that the flow of the menſes, the prolapſus ani, which is apt to happen on a perſon's having a hath been immoderate, and has already induced a dangerous ſtate ftool. If this ſhall occur to any conſiderable degree, and be not at of debility. The debility, induced in this caſe, often appears the ſame time eaſily and immediately replaced, it moſt certainly alſo by affections of the ſtomach, an anorexia, and other fynp- produces piles, or increaſes them when otherwiſe produced. Per toms of dyſpepſia; by a palpitation of the heart, and frequent fons therefore who are liable to this prolapfus, ſhould, after having faintings; by a weakneſs of mind, liable to ſtrong emotions from been at ſtool, take great pains to have the gut immediately re- | ſlight cauſes, eſpecially thoſe preſented by ſurpriſe. A flow of the placed, ying down in an horizontal poſture, and preſſing gently menfes attended with barrenneſs, in married women, may gene- upon the anus, till the reduction ſhall be completely obtained. rally be conſidered as preternatural and morbid. Generally, alſo, When this prolapſus is occafioned only by the voiding of hard and that flow of the menſes may be conſidered as immoderate, which bulky fæces, it is to be removed by obviating the coſtiveneſs which is preceded and followed by a leucorrhoea. occaſions it. But in ſome perſons it is owing to a laxity of the Cauſes, &c. The proximate cauſe of the menorrhagia is either rectum; and in thoſe it is often moſt conſiderable on occaſion of the effort of the uterine veſſels preternaturally increaſed, or a pre- looſe ſtool. In theſe caſes, it is to be treated by aſtringents, and ternatural laxity of the extremities of the uterine arteries. The proper artifices to keep the gut in its place. remote cauſes may be, 1. Thoſe which increaſe the plethoric ſtate When the diſeaſe has frequently recurred from negled, and is of the uterine veſſels: as a full and nouriſhing diet, much ſtrong thus in ſome meaſure eſtabliſhed, the methods above-mentioned liquor, and frequent intoxication. 2. Thoſe which determine the are no leſs proper; but in this caſe ſome other meaſures muſt alſo blood more copiouſly and forcibly into the uterine veſſels; as vio- be uſed. It is eſpecially proper to guard againſt a plethoric ſtate | lent ſtrainings of the whole body; violent ſhocks from falls; of the body; and therefore to avoid a fedentary life, full diet, and ſtrokes or contuſions on the lower belly; violent exerciſe, particu- intemperance in the uſe of ſtrong liquor, which in all caſes of hæ- |larly in dancing; and violent paſſions of the mind. 4. Thoſe morrhagy is of the moſt pernicious conſequence. which particularly irritate the veſſels of the uterus; as exceſs in Exerciſe of all kinds is of great ſervice in obviating and removing venery; the exerciſe of venery in the time of meſtruation ; a cof- a plethoric ſtate of the body; but upon occaſion of the hæmor- tive habit, giving occaſion to violent ſtraining at ſtool; and cold rhoidal flux, when this is immediately to come on both walking and applied to the feet. 4. Thoſe which have forcibly overſtrained riding, as increaſing the determination of the blood into the hæ the extremities of the uterine veſſels; as frequent abortions, fre- morrhoidal veſſels, are to be avoided. At other times, when no quent child-bearing without nurſing, and difficult tedicus labours. ſuch determination is already formed, theſe modes of exerciſe may | Or, laſtly, thoſe which induce a general laxity; as living much in very properly employed. warm chambers, and drinking much of warm enervating liquors, Another method of removing plethora is by cold bathing ; but ſuch as tea, coffee, &c. this muſt be employed with caution. When the hæmorrhoidal Cure. The treatinent and cure of the menorrhagia, muſt be flux is approaching, it may be dangerous to divert it; but during different, according to the different cauſes of the diſeaſe. In all the intervals of the diſeaſe, cold bathing may be employed with caſes, the firſt attention ought to be given to avoiding the remote ſafety and advantage; and in thoſe who are liable to a prolapſus cauſes, whenever that can be done; and by ſuch attention the diſeaſe may a be MEDICINE. uterus, be often entirely cured. When the remote cauſes cannot be may evident from the return of the menſes, after the fuor albus has avoided, or when the avoiding them has been neglected, and a been taken away. Indeed, when this diſcharge appears about the copious menſtruation has come on, it ſhould be moderated as age of 13 or 14, and returns once a month, with ſymptoms like much as poſſible, by abſtaining from all exerciſe at the coming thoſe of the menſes, then it may deemed ſtrictly natural, and on or during the continuance of the menſtruation; by avoiding therefore ought not to be ſtopped. even an erect polture as much as poſſible; by ſhunning external Prognoſis. The fluor albus may be diſtinguiſhed into two kinds. heat, and therefore warm chambers and ſoft beds; by uſing a light The firſt ariſes from a fimple weakneſs, or the relaxation of the and cool diet; by taking cold drink, at leaſt as far as former ſolids; which may either be general, where the whole bodily ſyſtein habits will allow ; by avoiding venery; by obviating coſtiveneſs, is enervated and unſtrung; or partial, where the womb only is or removing it by laxatives which give little ſtimulus. The ſex thus affected, in conſequence of hard labour, frequent miſcar- are commonly negligent, either in avoiding the remote cauſes, riages, a ſuppreſſion or immoderate quantity of the menfes, or a or in moderating the firſt beginnings of this diſeaſe. It is by ſuch ſprain of the back or loins. neglect that it ſo frequently becomes violent and of difficult cure; In the firſt caſe, the diſcharge being generally mild, may be and the frequent repetition of a copious menſtruation may be ſafely taken away. In the ſecond, it may proceed fro n a vitiated, conſidered as a cauſe of great laxity in the extreme veſſels of the or impure blood, where the body, from thence, is loaded with groſs humour, which nature for her own ſecurity and relief thus When the immoderate flow of the menſes ſhall ſeem to be owing endeavours to carry off, In ſuch caſes, the diſcharge is often of a to a laxity of the veſſels of the uterus, as may be concluded from reddish colour, like that from old ulcerous fores; being ſometimes the general debility and laxity of the perſon's habit; from the re ſo ſharp as to excoriate the contiguous parts, and occafion a ſmart- mote cauſes that have occaſioned the diſeaſe; from the abſence ing and heat of urine. of the ſymptoms which denote increaſed action in the veſſels of A deep-ſeated, darting pain, with a forcing down, attending the uterus; from the frequent recurrence of the diſeaſe; and par ſuch a diſcharge, is a very dangerous and alarming ſign, and indi- ticularly from this, that the perſon in the intervals of menſtrua cates an ulceration or cancerous ſtate of the womb. This ma- tion is liable to a leucorhæa; in ſuch a caſe, the diſeaſe is to be lignant ſtate of the diſeaſe, if of long continuance, is extremely treated, not only by employing all the means above-mentioned for difficult of cure; and diſpoſes the patient to barrenneſs, a bearing moderating the hæmorrhage, but alſo by avoiding all irritation, down, the dropſy, or a conſumption. every irritation having the greater effect in proportion as the vel Cure, &c. The cauſes of thoſe two kinds of this diſeaſe being fels are more lax and yielding. If, in ſuch a caſe of laxity, it different, ſo they will require a very different inethod of cure. ſhall appear that ſome degree of irritation concurs, opiates may To anſwer this intention ; in the firſt caſe, nothing will be more be employed to moderate the diſcharge; but in uſing theſe much proper than nouriſhing fimple food, ſuch as veal broths, jellies, caution is requiſite. If, notwithſtanding theſe meaſures having freſh eggs, and milk diet. The acid fruits will alſo be proper ; been taken, the diſcharge ſhall prove very large, aſtringents, both and the patient may take a reſtorative, ſtrengthening infuſion, external and internal, may be employed. In ſuch caſes, Dr. which will give firmneſs to the body, and aſſiſt the weakened fibres Hunter aſks, May ſmall doſes of emetics be of ſervice? of the womb in returning to their natural ſtate. When the menorrhagia depends on the laxity of the uterine The ſame inethod may be uſed with ſucceſs, where the fluor veſſels, it will be proper, in the intervals of menſtruation, to em albus follows the menfes, as already obſerved. ploy tonic remedies; as cold bathing, and chalybeates. The ex The Tunbridge or Spa waters may be drank at the fame time; erciſes of geſtation alſo may be very uſeful, both for ſtrengthen and if neceſſary, an infuſion of green tea, or pure ſmith’s-forge- ing the whole ſyſtem, and for taking off the determination of the water, may be uſed with a womb-fyringe as an injection twice blood to the internal parts. Theſe remedies may be employed a-day. Should the diſeaſe prove uncommonly obſtinate ; the pa- in all caſes of menorrhagia, from whatever cauſe it may have tient may go into the cold bath every other day; and alſo drink proceeded, if it ſhall have already induced a conſiderable degree lime-water with milk, which will expedite the cure, and prevent of debility in the body. a relapſe. A volatile liniment, and afterwards a ſtrengthening ABORTION. plaſter, may be applied to the ſmall of the back. Deſcription. The fluor albus, female weakneſs, or whites, as By way of caution, ſhe ſhould abſtain from the immoderate uſe commonly called, is a diſeaſe of the womb and its contiguous parts ; of tea; and be removed into a dry clear air; or if ſhe is obliged to from which a pale coloured, greeniſh or yellow fluid is diſcharged, remain in one leſs proper, ſhe may apply the fleſh-bruſh, and wear attended with loſs of ſtrength, pain in the loins, bad digeſtion, a flannel ſhift next her ſkin, impregnated with the fumes of burn- and a wan fickly aſpect. ing frankincenſe, or any of the grateful aromatic gums. Cold Cauſes, &c. The quantity, colour, and conſiſtence of the diſ ſpring-water pumped on the loins, or a bliſtering plaſter applied charge chiefly depend upon the time of its duration, the patient's to the bottom of the ſpine or back, are both very powerful in habit of body, and the nature of the cauſe by which it was pro their effects, and have ſometimes ſucceeded after other remedies duced. Taking cold, ſtrong liquor, immoderate heat and moiſ had been tried in vain. ture, or violent exerciſe, are all obſerved to produce a bad effect, In the ſecond ſort of the diſeaſe, where the diſcharge is ſharp as to its quantity and quality. and of long ſtanding, it would be extremely dangerous to ſuppreſs Weakly women of lax ſolids, who have had many children, it ſuddenly, either by aftringents internally taken, or applied as and long laboured under ill health, are of all others the moſt injections, until the blood is freed from its impurities by proper ſubject to this diſagreeable diſeaſe ; from which they unfortunately purgatives, and otherwiſe corrected by ſuch medicines as not only ſuffer more ſevere penance than others, as the niceſt ſenſations carry off the ſharp ſcorbutic ſalts and putrid juices, but alſo im- are often connected with ſuch a delicacy of bodily frame as ſub part to it that ſoft balmy quality of which it had been deprived. jects them to it. A purging potion may be taken twice a week, and in the in- In Holland it is very frequent, from the dampneſs of its fitu tervals an alterative pill night and morning After this courſe ation ; the ſurrounding air being ſo overcharged with inoiſture as has been continued a fortnight or three weeks, ſhe may begin to relax the body, ſtop perſpiration, and throw it upon the bowels, with the ſtrengthening, bitter infuſion, or other tonic, in the or womb; producing in the firſt, a diarrhea or flux; in the laft, quantity of a tea-cupful twice a day, or more, as her ſtomach will the fluor albus, or female weakneſs. allow. The diſcharge proceeds from the veſſels ſubſervient to menſtru The ſame fort of food and regimen will here be proper as in the ation ; becauſe, in delicate habits, where thoſe veſſels are weak, firſt kind of the diſeaſe. The patient ſhould abſtain from malt and conſequently remain too long uncontracted, the fluor albus liquors, and drink rice-water, in each pint of which half an ounce ſometimes immediately follows the menſes, and goes off by de of gum arabic has been diſſolved; or if the is weak, and of a cold grees as they gradually cloſe. It alſo comes from the mucous bloated habit of body, a little French brandy may be added occa- glands of the womb, as is particularly evident in very young fe fionally. "males of eight and ten years old ; in whom, though very rarely, When ſhe begins to take the bitter infuſion, it will be proper to it has been obſerved, and where it muſt then neceſſarily have ef uſe the Tunbridge or Pyrmont water for common drink; but if caped from thoſe parts; for the uterine veſſels are not ſufficiently thoſe cannot conveniently be had, the artificial Spa water, impreg- enlarged for its paſſage at ſo early a period. nated with iron and fixed air, will make an excellent ſubſtitute. Sometimes, as in women with child, it proceeds from the pal- If it ſhould render her coftive, and occaſion the head-ach; the ſage to the womb, and not from the womb itſelf; which, during may defiſt, and drink imperial water or a little fenna-tea ſweetened pregnancy, is cloſely ſealed up, ſo that nothing can paſs from with manna, till thoſe complaints are removed. thence till the time of labour. The application of thoſe inſtru In ſhort, as this is a malady of the moſt diſagreeable kind, which, ments called peſſaries, from the pain and irritation they occaſion, by long continuance or neglect, becomes difficult of cure, and are alſo apt to bring on this diſcharge. Hence we may conclude, often produces an ulceration of the womb, bearing down, barrenneſs, that this diſeaſe may happen although the blood is in a pure ſtate. a dropſy, or conſumption; it were to be wiſhed, that women, on Here the fault ſeems to be placed in the veſſels or ſtrainers, by ſuch occaſions, would be more attentive to their own ſafety, by which the fluids are vitiated and changed from their natural uſing poſſible means, in due time, to prevent thoſe diſorders. qualities. Dr. Leake ſays, he has attended more patients labouring under The fluor albus has been ſuppoſed to ſupply the want of the the fluor albus in the autumn than at any other ſeaſon of the year, menſes; becauſe, where the firſt prevails, the laſt is generally ei eſpecially when the weather was uncommonly moiſt and cold : moſt ther irregular, or totally wanting : but it might more properly be of them were cured by change of diet, an increaſed perſpiration, ſaid, that the preſence of the fluor albus, which is a preternatural and the proper uſe of Peruvian bark with aromatics. He obſerved, evacuation, occaſions the abſence of that which is natural; as is that ſeveral about this time who eſcaped the diſorder, were viſited 7 B with No. 102. M E D I C IN E. with bad colds, a defluxion of rheum on the throat, or a diarrhoea, | dangerous; but it is ſometimes in both reſpects otherwiſe. When which were removed by a ſimilar treatment. a catarrh has been occaſioned by a violent cauſe, when it has been As women are ſometimes connected with thoſe who do not aggravated by improper management, and eſpecially when it has conſcientiouſly regard their ſafety, it is a circumſtance of the ut been rendered more violent by freſh and repeated applications of moſt conſequence to diſtinguiſh a freſh venercal infection from the cold, it often paſſes into a pneumonic inflammation, attended fluor albus or whites; for, if the firſt is miſtaken for the laſt, and with the utmoſt danger. is either neglected or treated accordingly, the diſorder may un Unleſs, however, ſuch accidents as thoſe happen, a catarrh, in fortunately end in a confirmed lues or pox. found perſons not far advanced in life, is always a ſlight and ſafe The following ſigns will beſt inform the patient whether there diſeaſe: but, in perſons of a phthifical diſpoſition, a catarrh may is occaſion for her doubts or not. readily produce an hemoptyſis, or perhaps form tubercles in the A freſh infection, called gonorrhæa, is malignant and inflam- lungs; and, more certainly in perſons who have tubercles already matory; the fluor albus moſt commonly ariſes from relaxation and formed in the lungs, an accidental catarrh may occafion the in- bodily weakneſs: and therefore, the remedies proper in the firſt flammation of theſe tubercles, and in conſequence produce a diſorder would render the laſt more violent, by locking up and phthiſis pulmonalis. confining the infectious matter. In elderly perſons, a catarrh ſometimes proves a dangerous diſ- In the gonorrhæa, the diſcharge chiefly proceeds from the eaſe. Many perſons as they advance in life, and eſpecially after parts contiguous to the urinary paſſage, and continues whilſt the they have arrived at old age, have the natural mucus of the lungs menſes flow; but in the fluor albus, it is ſupplied from the ca poured out in greater quantity, and requiring a frequent expecto- vity of the womb and its paſſage, and then the menſes are ſeldom ration. If, therefore, a catarrh happen to ſuch perſons, and in- regular. creaſe the afflux of fluids to the lungs, with ſome degree of in- In the gonorrhea, an itching, inflammation, and heat of urine, | flammation, it may produce the peripneumonia notha, which in are the fore-runners of the diſcharge; the orifice of the urinary | ſuch caſes is very often fatal. of paſſage, is prominent and painful, and the patient is affected with | Cauſes, &c. The proximate cauſe of catarrh ſeems to be an a frequent irritation to make water. In the fluor albus, pains in increaſed afflux of fluids to the mucous membrane of the noſe, the loins, and loſs of ſtrength, attend the diſcharge; and if any fauces, and bronchiæ, along with ſome degree of inflammation af inflammation or heat of urine follow, they happen in a leſs de- fecting the ſame. The latter circumſtance is confirmed by this, gree, and only after a long continuance of the diſcharge, which, that, in the caſe of catarrh, the blood drawn from a vein com- becoming ſharp and acrimonious, excoriates the ſurrounding parts. | monly exhibits the ſame inflammatory cruft which appears in the In the gonorrhæa, the diſcharge ſuddenly appears without any caſe of phlegmafiæ. The remote cauſe of catarrh is moſt com- evident cauſe; but in the fluor albus, it comes on more ſlowly, monly cold applied to the body. This application of cold pro- and is often produced by irregularities of the menſes, frequent ducing catarrh is generally evident and oblerved; and would al- abortion, ſprains, or long-continued illneſs. ways be ſo, were men acquainted with and attentive to the cir- In the gonorrhæa, the diſcharge is greeniſh or yellow, leſs in cumſtances which determine cold to act upon the body, quantity, and not attended with the ſame ſymptoms of weakneſs. In The application of cold which occaſions a catarrh, probably the fluor albus, it is alſo often of the ſame colour, eſpecially in bad operates by ſtopping the perſpiration uſually made by the fkin, and habits of body, and after long continuance; but is uſually more which is therefore determined to the mucous membrane of the offenſive, and redundant in quantity. See the article ABORTION. parts above-mentioned. As a part of the weight which the body Order V. PROFLUVIA, Pyrexia; with an increafed Secre- daily loſes by inſenſible evacuation, is owing to an exhalation from the lungs, there is probably a connection between this exhalation tion. GENUS XXIII. THE CATARRH. and the cutaneous reſpiration, fo that the one may be increaſed Deſcription. The catarrh is an increaſed excretion of nucus according as the other is diminiſhed; and therefore we may un- from the mucous membrane of the noſe, fauces, and bronchiæ, derſtand how the diminution of cutaneous perſpiration, by the attended with pyrexia. des application of cold, may increaſe the afflux of Auids to the lungs, Practical writers and noſologiſts have diſtinguiſhed the diſeaſe and thereby produce a catarrh. by different appellations, according as it happens to affect thoſe Dr. Cullen obſerves that there are ſome obſervations of Dr. different parts of the mucous membrane, the one part more or leſs James Keil which may render this matter doubtful; but ſays there than the other: but Dr. Cullen is of opinion, that the diſeaſe in is a fallacy in thoſe obſervations. The evident effects of cold in thoſe different parts is always of the ſame nature, and proceeds producing coryza, leave the matter, in general, without doubt; from the ſame cauſe in the one as in the other. Very commonly and there are ſeveral other obſervations which thew a connection indeed thoſe different parts are affected at the ſame time; and between the lungs and the ſurface of the body. therefore there is little room for the diſtinction mentioned. The Whether from the ſuppreſſion of perſpiration, a catarrh be pro- diſeaſe has been frequently treated of under the title of tufis, or duced merely by an increaſed afflux of fluids, or whether further cough; and a cough, indeed, always attends the chief form of the matter of perſpiration be at the ſame time determined to the catarrh, that is, the increaſed excretion from the bronchiæ; but it mucous glands, and there excites a particular irritation, may be is ſo often alſo a ſymptom of many other affections, which are uncertain ; but our author thinks the latter ſuppofition is moſt pro- very different from one another, that it is in our opinion improperly bable. Although, in the caſe of a common catarrh, which is in uſed as a generic title. many inſtances ſporadic, it may be doubtful whether any mor- The diſeaſe generally begins with ſome difficulty of breathing bific matter be applied to the mucous glands; we are, however, through the noſe, and with a ſenſe of ſome fulneſs ſtopping up that certain that the ſymptoms of a catarrh do frequently depend upon paſſage. This again is often attended with ſome dull pain and a ſuch a matter being applied to theſe glands, as appears from the ſenſe of weight in the forehead, as well as a ſtiffneſs in the motion caſe of meaſles, chincough, and eſpecially from the frequent oc- of the eyes. Theſe feelings, ſometimes at their very firſt begin- currence of contagious and epidemical catarrhs. ning, and always ſoon after, are attended with the diſtillation of a The phenomena of contagious catarrhs have been much the thin fluid from the noſe, and ſometimes from the eyes; and theſe ſame with thoſe of the others; and the diſeafe has always been fluids are often found to be ſomewhat acrid, both by their taſte and particularly remarkable for this, that it has been the moſt widely by their fretting the parts over which they paſs. Theſe ſymptoms and generally ſpreading epidemic known. It has ſeldom appeared conſtitute the coryza and gravedo of authors, and are commonly in any one country of Europe, without appearing ſucceſſively in attended with a ſenſe of laffitude over the whole body. Some every different part of it; and, in ſome inſtances, it has been allo times cold ſhiverings are felt; at leaſt the body is more ſenſible transferred to America, and has been ſpread there in like manner, than uſual to the coldneſs of the air; and with all this the pulſe | ſo far as we have had opportunities of being informed. The ca- is more frequent than ordinary, eſpecially in the evenings. tarrh from contagion appears with nearly the ſame fymptoms as Theſe ſymptoms have ſeldom continued long before they are ac thoſe above-mentioned. It ſeems often to come on in conſequence companied with ſome hoarſeneſs, and a fenſe of roughneſs and fore of the application of cold. It comes on with more cold ſhivering neſs in the trachea, with ſome difficulty of breathing, expreſſed by than the catarrh ariſing from cold alone ; and the former does alſo ſenſe of ſtraitneſs in the cheſt, and with a cough which ſeems to not only ſooner ſhew febrile ſymptoms, but to a more confiderable ariſe from fome irritation felt at the glottis. This cough is gener degree. Accordingly, it more ſpeedily runs its courſe, which is ally at firſt dry and painful, occaſioning pains about the cheſt, and commonly finiſhed in a few days. It ſometimes ends by a ſpon- more eſpecially in the breaſt; ſometimes, together with theſe ſymp taneous ſweat; and this, in ſome perſons, produces a miliary erup- toms, pains reſembling thoſe of the rheumatiſm are felt in ſeveral tion. It is, however, the febrile ſtate of this diſeaſe eſpecially, parts of the body, particularly about the neck and head. With all that is finished in a few days; for the cough and other catarrhal theſe ſymptoins, the appetite is impaired, ſome thirſt ariſes, and a ſymptoms do frequently continue longer, and often when they feveriſh laſſitude is felt all over the body. Theſe ſymptoms mark appear to be going off, they are renewed by any freſh application the height and violence of the diſeaſe; but commonly it does not of cold. continue long. By degrees the cough becomes attended with a Cure. The cure of catarrh is nearly the ſame, whether it pro- more copious excretion of mucus; which is at firſt thin, but gra- | ceeds from cold or contagion; only in the latter cafe remedies are dually becoming thicker, is brought up with leſs frequent and leſs commonly more neceſſary than in the former. In the caſes of a laborious coughing. The hoarſeneſs and foreneſs of the trachea moderate diſeaſe, it is commonly ſufficient to avoid cold, or to ab- are alſo relieved or removed; and the febrile ſymptoins abating, | ſtain from animal-food for fome days, or perhaps for the ſame the expectoration becomes again leſs, and the cough leſs frequent, time to lie a-bed, and, by taking frequently fome inild and diluent till at length they ceaſe altogether. drink, a little warmed, to promote a very gentle ſweat, and after Such is generally the courſe of this diſeaſe, neither tedious nor this to take care to return very gradually only to the uſe of the free a wir M E D I C IN E. air. When the diſeaſe is more violent, not only the antiphlogiſtic diſappointed by my aſſurances or his own expectations, it is eilen regimen, exactly obſerved, but various remedies alſo, become ne tially neceſſary that the following remarks, with regard to the time cellary. To take off the phlogiſtic diatheſis, which always attends and manner of uſing this proceſs, ſhould be ftrily attended to. this diſeaſe, blood letting, more or leſs, according as the ſymptoms « Firſt, That as tender valetudinary people are but too well ſhall require, is the proper remedy. After blood-letting for re acquainted with the firſt notices of the diſorder, the remedy muſt, ſtoring the determination of the fluids to the ſurface of the body, or ought to be, uſed the ſame evening; which will, in an ordi- and at the ſame time for expediting the ſecretion of mucus in the nary ſeizure, be attended with an immediate cure: but if the lungs, which may take off the inflammation of its membrane, vo ſoreneſs of the reſpiratory organs, or the petulance of the cough, miting is the moſt effectual means. For the laſt mentioned pur- ſhew the cold which has been contracted to have been very ſevere, poſe, it has been ſuppoſed that ſquills, gum-ammoniac, the vola the inhaler, without the opiate, ſhould be again repeated for the tile alkali, and ſome other medicines, might be uſeful; but their ſame time the next morning. efficacy has never been found conſiderable: and if ſquills have ever Secondly, if the uſe of the inhaler, &c. is delayed till the ſe- been very uſeful, it ſeems to have been rather by their emetic than cond night, it will be always right to repeat it again the next morn- by their expectorant powers. When the inflammatory affections ing without the opiate, but with it if the ſeizure has been violent. of the lungs ſeem to be conſiderable, it is proper, beſides blood “ And, laſtly, if the cough is of ſome days ſtanding, it will be letting, to apply bliſters to the back or ſides. always neceſſary to employ both parts of the proceſs at night and As a cough is often the moſt troubleſome circumſtance of this the ſucceeding morning, as the firſt ſimple inflammatory miſchief diſeaſe, ſo demulcents may be employed to alleviate it. But after is now moſt probably aggravated by an additional one of a chronic the infammatory fymptoms are much abated, if the cough ſtill re tendency. mains, opiates afford the moſt effectual means of relieving it; and, “ But if, through the want of a timely application, or a total in the circumſtances juſt now mentioned, they may be very ſafely neglect of this or any other remedy, the cough ſhould continue to employed. After the inflammatory and febrile ſtates of this dif- | harraſs the patient, it is, particularly in delicate and tender confti- eaſe are very much gone, the moſt effectual means of diſcuſſing all tutions, of the utmoſt conſequence to attempt the removal of it as remains of the catarrhal affection, is by ſome exerciſe of geſtation ſoon as poſſible, before any floating acrimony in the conftitution diligently employed. (from the perpetual irritation) receives an habitual determination Beſides the remedies above-mentioned, Mr. Mudge, in a trea to an organ ſo eſſential to life as the lungs. tiſe on this diſeaſe, recommends the ſteam of warm water from the If the patient expectorates with eaſe and freedom a thick and inhaler, as a moſt efficacious and ſafe remedy for a catarrh, and well-digeſted inoffenſive phlegın, there is generally but little doubt which indeed he ſeems to conſider as little leſs than infallible : of his ſpitting off the diſorder, with common care, in a few days; but he gives a caution to people in health, who may accidentally and till that is accompliſhed, a proper doſe of elixir paregoricum fee his machine, not to niake the experiment of breathing through for a few ſucceſſive nights will be found very uſeful in ſuppreſſing cold water with it, or they will be almoſt certain of catching a fe- the fatiguing irritation and ineffectual cough, occaſioned by a vere cold with it. His directions for thoſe troubled with the ca matter which, dripping in the early ſtate of thie diſeaſe into the tarrh are as follow :*** motion bronchiæ during the night, is commonly at that time too thin to “ In the evening, a little before bed-time, the patient, if of be diſcharged by thoſe convulſive efforts. adult age, is to take three drachms, or as many tea-ſpoonfuls, of If, however, notwithſtanding a free and copious expectoration elixir paregoricum, in a glaſs of water: if the ſubject is younger, the cough ſhould ſtill continue, and the diſcharge, inſtead of re- for inftance, under five years old, one tea-ſpoonful; or within moving the complaint, ſhould itſelf, by becoming a diſeaſe, be a that and ten years, two. Each tea-ſpoonful contains ſomewhat greater expence than the conſtitution can well ſupport, it is pot- leſs than one quarter of a grain of opium. About three quarters ſible that a tender patient may ſpit off his life through a weak of an hour after, the patient ſhould go to bed, and, being covered relaxed pair of lungs, without the leaſt appearance of purulence, warm, the inhaler three parts filled with water nearly boiling, or any ſuſpicion of ſuppuration. In thoſe circumſtances, beſides, (which, from the coldneſs of the metal, and the time it ordinarily as was mentioned before, increaſing the general perſpiration by takes before it is uſed by the patient, will be of a proper degree of the falutary friction of a flannel waiſtcoat, change of ſituation, warmth,) and being wrapped up in a napkin, but ſo that the and more eſpecially long journeys on horſeback, conducted as valve in the cover is not obſtructed by it, is to be placed at the much as poſlīble through a thin, ſharp, dry air, will ſeldom fail arm-pit, and the bed clothes being drawn up and over it cloſe to of removing the complaint. the throat, the tube is to be applied to the mouth, and the patient “ But, on the contrary, if the cough ſhould, at the ſame time ſhould inſpire and expire through it about twenty minutes or half that it is petulant and fatiguing to the breaſt, continue dry, buiky, and without expectoration ; provided there is reaſon to hope that “ It is very evident, as the whole act of reſpiration is per no tubercles are forming, or yet actually forined, there is not per- formed though the machine, that in inſpiration the lungs will be haps a more efficacious remedy for it than half a drachm of gum filled with air which will be hot, and loaded with vapour, by paf- ammoniacum, with 18 or 20 drops of laudanum, made into pills, fing through the body of water; and in expiration, all that was and taken at bed-time, and occaſionally repeated. This excellent contained in the lungs will, by mixing with the ſteam on the ſur- remedy Sir John Pringle did me the honour to communicate to face of the water, be forced through the valve in the cover, and me; and I have accordingly found it, in a great many inſtances, ſettle on the ſurface of the body under the bed-cloaths. amazingly ſucceſsful, and generally very expeditiouſly ſo; for it 66 The great uſe of this particular conſtruction of the inhaler is ſeldom fails to produce an expectoration, and to abate the dif- this. Firſt, as there is no neceſſity, at the end of every inſpiration, treſſing fatigue of the cough. In thoſe circumſtances I have to remove the tube from the mouth, in order to exſpire from the likewiſe found the common remedy of Zſs or Bij of ba'l. ſulph. lungs the vapour which had been received into them, this machine aniſat. taken twice a-day, in a little powdered ſugar, or any other may therefore be uſed with as much eaſe by children as older peo- vehicle, a very efficacious one. I have alſo, many times, known ple. And, ſecondly, as a feveriſh habit frequently accompanies a falutary revulſion made from the lungs by the ſimple applica- the diſorder, the valve in that reſpect alſo is of the utmoſt impor- tion of a large plaſter, about five or fix inches diameter, of fix tance: for a ſweat, or at leaſt a free perſpiration, not only relieves Burgund. between the ſhoulders; for the perſpirable matter, the patient from the reſtleſs anxiety of a hot, dry, and ſometimes which is locked up under it, becomes ſo ſharp and acrid, that in a parched ſkin, but is alſo, of all others, the moſt eligible evacuation few days it ſeldom fails to produce a very conſiderable itching, for removing the fever; and it will be generally found, that, after ſome little tendency to inflammation, and very frequently a great the inhaler fo conſtructed hath been uſed a few minutes, the warm number of boils. This application fhould be continued (the vapour under the cloaths will, by ſettling upon the trunk, produce plafter being occaſionally changed) for three weeks or a month, a ſweat, which will gradually extend itſelf to the legs and feet. or longer, if the complaint is not ſo ſoon removed. “In a catarrhous fever, or any feveriſh habit attending this “ And here I cannot help obſerving, that, though ſeemingly a cough, it would be proper to take a draught of warm thin whey trifling, it is, however, by no means a uſeleſs caution to the tender a few minutes before the inhaler is uſed; and after the proceſs is patient, not to expoſe his ſhoulders in bed, and during the night, over, the ſweat which it has produced may be continued by occa to the cold; but when he lies down to take care they are kept ſional ſmall draughts of weak warm whey or barley water. The warm, by drawing the bed-cloathes up cloſe to his back and neck. fweating is by no means fo neceſſary to the cure of the catarrhous “ If, however, notwithſtanding theſe means, the cough, con- cough, as that the ſucceſs of the inhaler againſt that complaint at tinuing dry or unattended with a proper expectoration, ſhould per- all depends upon it; yet I cannot help once more remarking, that ſevere in harraſſing the patient; if, at laſt, it ſhould produce, toge- when this diſorder happens to be accompanied with a feverith ther with a foreneſs, ſhooting pains through the breaſt and between habit, the advantages of this particular conſtruction will be very the ſhoulders, attended alſo with ſhortneſs of the breath: and if, important. added to this, fluſhes of the cheeks after meals, ſcalding in the • After this reſpiratory proceſs is over, the patient uſually paſſes hands and feet, and other ſymptoms of a hectic, ſhould accompany the night without the leaſt interruption from the cough, and feels the diſorder ; there is certainly no time to be loft, as there is the no farther moleſtation from it than once or twice in the morning greateſt reaſon to apprehend that ſome acrimony in the habit is de- to throw off the trifling leakage which, unperceived, had dripped | termined to the tender ſubſtance of the lungs, and that conſequently into the bronchiæ and veſicles during the night; the thinner parts tubercular fuppurations will follow. In this critical and danger- of which being evaporated, what remains is foon got rid of with ous ſituation, I think I can venture to ſay, from long experience, a very gentle effort that, accompanied from change of air and occaſional bleedings, cannot, however, 'take leave of this part of my ſubject, the patient will find his greateſt ſecurity in a drain from a large without pointedly obſerving, that if the patient means not to be ſcapular iſſue, aſhiſted by a diet of affes milk and vegetables.” GENUS an hour. 61 M EDICIN E. GENUS XXXIV. DYSENTERIA, the DYSENTERY. ſomewhat more powerful muſt be employed; and nothing is more Deſcription. The dyſentery is a diſeaſe in which the patient proper or convenient than tartar emetic, given in ſmall doſes, and has freqüent ſtools, accompanied with much griping, and followed at ſuch intervals as may determine their operation to be chiefly by a teneſmus. The ſtools, though frequent, are generally in by ſtool. ſmall quantity; and the matter voided is chiefly mucus, ſome- Vomiting has been held a principal remedy in this diſeaſe; and times mixed with blood. At the ſame time, the vatural fæces may be uſefully employed in the beginning of the diſeaſe, with a ſeldom appear; and, when they do, it is generally in a compact view to both the ſtate of the ſtomach and of the fever: but it is and hardened form. This diſeaſe occurs eſpecially in ſummer not neceſſary to repeat it often ; and, unleſs the emetics employed and autumn, at the ſame time with autumnal, intermittent, and operate alſo by ſtool, they are of little ſervice. Ipecacuanha is by remittent fevers; and with theſe it is often complicated. It no means a ſpecific; and it proves only uſeful when ſo managed comes on ſometimes with cold ſhiverings and other ſymptoms of as to operate chiefly hy ſtool. pyrexia ; but more commonly the ſymptoms of the topical affec-For relieving the conſtriction of the colon, and evacuating the tion appear firſt. The belly is coſtive, with an unuſual flatu- retained fæces, glyſters may ſometimes be uſeful; but they are lence in the bowels. Sometimes, though more rarely, ſome feldom ſo effectual as laxatives, given by the mouth ; and acrid degree of diarrhea is the firſt appearance. In moſt caſes, the glyſters, if they be not effectual in evacuating the colon, may diſeaſe begins with griping, and a frequent inclination to go to prove hurtful by ſtimulating the rectum too much. ftool. In indulging this, little is voided, but ſome teneſmus The frequent and ſevere griping attending this diſeaſe, leads attends it. By degrees the ſtool becomes more frequent, the almoſt neceſſarily to the uſe of opiates; and they are very effectual griping more ſevere, and the teneſmus more conſiderable. With for the purpoſe of relieving from the gripes; but, by occaſioning theſe ſymptoms there is a loſs of appetite, and frequently ſickneſs, an interruption of the action of the imall guts, they favour the nauſea, and vomiting, alſo affecting the patient. At the ſame conſtriction of the colon, and thereby aggravate the diſeaſe. time there is always more or leſs of pyrexia preſent. It is ſome- From our account of the nature of this diſeaſe, it will be fuffi- times of the remittent kind, and obſerves a tertian period. Some- ciently obvious, that the uſe of aſtringents in the beginning of it times the pyrexia is manifeſtly inflammatory, and very often of a muſt be abſolutely pernicious. muſt be abſolutely pernicious. Whether an acrid matter be the putrid kind. Theſe febrile ftates continue to accompany the dif- original cauſe of the dyſentery may be uncertain ; but, from the eaſe during its whole courſe, eſpecially when it terminates foon indigeſtion, and the ſtagnation of fluids, which attend the diſeaſe, in a fatal manner. In other caſes, the febrile ſtate almoſt entirely we may ſuppoſe that ſome acrid matters are conſtantly preſent in diſappears, while the proper dyſenteric fymptoms remain for a the ſtomach and inteſtines, and therefore that demulcents may be long time after. always uſefully employed. At the ſame tinie, from this confi- Accompanied with theſe circumſtances, the diſeaſe proceeds for deration that mild oily matters thrown into the inteſtines in con- a longer or a ſhorter time. When the pyrexia attending it is of a fiderable quantity always prove laxative; therefore the oleaginous violent inflammatory kind, and more eſpecially when it is of a demulcents are the moſt uſeful. very putrid nature, the diſeaſe often terminates fatally in a very As this diſeaſe is ſo often of an inflammatory or of a putrid na- few days, with all the marks of a ſupervening gangrene. When ture, it is evident that the diet employed in it ſhould be vegetable the febrile ſtate is more moderate, or diſappears altogether, the dif- and aceſcent. Milk in its entire ftate, is of doubtful quality in eaſe is often protracted for weeks, and even for months; but, even many caſes; but ſome portion of the cream is often allowable, and then, after a various duration, it often terminates fatally, and ge- whey is always proper. At the beginning of the diſeaſe, abſor- nerally in conſequence of a return and conſiderable aggravation of bents ſeem to be fuperfluous; and, by their aſtringent and ſeptic the inflammatory and putrid ſtates. In ſome caſes, the diſeaſe powers, they may be hurtful. ceaſes ſpontaneouſly; the frequency of ſtools, the griping, and when this diſeaſe is complicated with an intermittent, and is teneſmus, gradually diminiſhing, while natural ſtools return. In protracted from that circumſtance chiefly, it is to be treated as an other caſes, the diſeaſe, with moderate fymptoms, continues long, intermittent, by adminiſtering the Peruvian bark, which in the ear- and ends in a diarrhea, ſometimes accompanied with lienteric lier periods of the diſeaſe is hardly to be admitted. See DYSENTERY. ſymptoms.austo CLASS II. NEUROSES; Cauſes . The dyſentery often does manifeſtly ariſe from the ap- AN INJURY CF THE SENSE AND MOTION, WITHOUT ANY plication of cold, but the diſeaſe is always contagious; and, by the LOCAL AFFECTION. propagation of ſuch contagion, independent of cold, or other ex- ORDER I. COMATA. citing cauſes, it becomes epidemic, in camps and other places. It Genus XXXV. APOPLEXY ; the Sanguineous APOPLEXY. is, therefore, to be doubted if the application of cold ever produces Deſcription. In this diſeaſe the patients fall ſuddenly down, the diſeaſe, unleſs where the ſpecific contagion has been previouſly and are deprived of all ſenſe and voluntary motion, but without received into the body: and, upon the whole, it is probable that a convulſions. A giddineſs of the head, noiſe in the ears, coruſca- ſpecific contagion is to be conſidered as always the remote cauſe tions before the eyes, and redneſs of the face, uſually precede. of this diſeaſe. ca nu The diſtinguiſhing ſymptom of the diſeaſe is a deep ſleep, attend- The common opinion has been that the diſeaſe depends upon ed with violent ſnorting; if any thing is put into the mouth, it an acrid matter thrown upon or by ſome means generated in the is returned through the noſe; nor can any thing be ſwallowed inteſtines, exciting their periſtaltic motion, and thereby producing without fhutting the noſtrils; and even when this is done, the the frequent ſtools which occur in this diſeaſe. But this fuppofi- perſon is in the utmoſt danger of ſuffocation. Sometimes apo- tion cannot be admitted; for, in all the inſtances known, of acrid plectic patients will open their eyes after having taken a large ſubſtances applied to the inteſtines, and producing frequent ſtools, doſe of an emetic; but if they ſhew no ſign of ſenſe, there is not as might be expected from acrid ſubſtances applied to any length the leaſt hope of their recovery. Sometimes the apoplexy ter- of the inteſtines . This, however, is not the caſe in dyſentery, in minates in an hemiplegia ; in which caſe it comes on with a which the ftools, however frequent, are generally in very ſmall diſtortion of the mouth towards the found fide, drawing of the quantity, and ſuch as may be ſuppoſed to proceed from the lower tongue the ſame way, and ſtammering of the ſpeech. Diffec- parts of the rectum only. With reſpect to the ſuperior portions tions ſometimes thew a rupture of ſome veſſels of the meninges, of the inteſtines, and particularly thoſe of the colon, it is probable or of the brain itſelf; though ſometimes, if we may believe they are under a preternatural and conſiderable degree of con Dr. Willis, no defect is to be obſerved either in the cerebrum or ſtriction : for, as we have ſaid above, the natural fæces are ſeldom cerebellum. voided; and when they are, it is in a form which gives reaſon to Cauſes, &c. The general cauſe of the ſanguineous apoplexy ſuppoſe they have been long retained in the cells of the colon, and is a plethoric habit of body, with a determination to the head. conſequently that the colon had been affected with a preternatural | The diſeaſe therefore may be brought on by whatever violently conſtriction. This is confirmed by almoſt all the diſſections which urges on the circulation of the blood ; ſuch as ſurfeits, intoxica - have been made of the bodies of dyſenteric patients; in which, tion, violent pafſions of the mind, immoderate exerciſe, &c. It when gangrene had not entirely deſtroyed the texture and form of takes place, however, for the moſt part, when the venous plethora the parts, conſiderable portions of the great guts have been found hath fubfiſted for a conſiderable time in the ſyſtem. For that rea- affected with a very confiderable conſtriction. ſon it commonly does not attack people till paſt the age of 60 ; The proximate cauſe of dyſentery, or at leaſt the chief part of and that whether the patients are corpulent and have a ſhort the proximate cauſe, ſeems to conſiſt in a preternatural conſtriction neck, or whether they are of a lean habit of body. Till people of the colon, occaſioning, at the ſame time, thoſe ſpaſmodic efforts are paſt the age of childhood, apoplexy never happens. which are felt in ſevere gripings, and which efforts, propagated Prognoſis. This diſeaſe very often kills at its firſt attack; and downwards to the rectum, occaſion there the frequent mucous few ſurvive a repetition of the fit; ſo that thoſe who make men- ſtools and teneſius. tion of people who have ſurvived ſeveral attacks of the apoplexy, Cure. The moſt eminent of our late practitioners, and of greateſt have probably miſtaken the epilepſy for it. In no diſeaſe is the experience in this diſeaſe, ſeem to be of opinion, that it is to be prognoſis more fatal; ſince thoſe who ſeem to be recovering from cured moſt effectually by purging, affiduouflly employed. The a fit, are frequently and ſuddenly carried off by its return, with- means may be various : but the moſt gentle laxatives are uſually out either warning of its approach, or poſſibility of preventing it, ſufficient; and, as the medicine muſt be frequently repeated, theſe The good ſigns are when the diſeaſe apparently wears off, and are the moſt ſafe, the more eſpecially as an inflammatory ſtate ſo the patient evidently begins to recover ; the bad ones are when frequently accompanies the diſeaſe. Whatever laxatives produce all the ſymptoms continue and increaſe. an evacuation of natural fæces, and a conſequent remiſſion of the Curc. This is to be attempted, by large and repeated bleedings; fymptoms, will be ſufficient to effectuate the cure. But, if the emetics and ſtimulating glyſters. The body is to be kept in a gentle laxatives ſhall not produce the evacuation now mentioned, ſomewhat erect poſture, and the head kept up. APOPLEXY MEDICINE. two inu has formato APOPLEXY from Poiſons. boll Genus XXXVI. PARALYSIS, the Palsy. The poiſons which bring on an apoplexy when taken internally Deſcription. The pally ſhews itſelf by a ſudden loſs of tone and are thoſe of the ſtimulant and ſedative kind, as ſpirituous liquors, vital power in a certain part of the body. In the flighter degrees opium, and the more violent kinds of vegetable poiſons. The of the diſeaſe, it only affects a a particular muſcle, as the ſphincter vapours of mercury, or of lead, in great quantity, will ſometimes of the anus or bladder, thus occafioning an involuntary diſcharge produce a ſimilar effect; though commonly they produce rather of excrement or of urine; of the muſcles of the tongue, which à paralyſis, and operate ſlowly. The vapours of charcoal, or occaſions ſtammering, or loſs of ſpeech; of the muſcles of the fixed air, in any form, breathed in great quantity, alſo produce an larynx, by which the patient becomes unable to ſwallow ſolids, apoplexy, or a ſtate very ſimilar to it; and even cold itſelf produces and ſometimes even liquids alſo. In the higher degrees of the dif- a fatal ſleep, though without the apoplectic ſnorting. To enume- eaſe, the paralytic affection is diffuſed over a whole limb, as the rate all the different fymptoms which affect the unhappy perſons who have ſwallowed opium, or any of the ſtronger vegetable poiſons, foot, leg, hand, or arm; and ſometimes it affects a whole ſide of the body, in which caſe it is called hemiplegia; and ſometimes, is impoſſible, as they are ſcarce to be found the ſame in any which is the moſt violent caſe, it affects all the parts below the patients. The ſtate induced by them ſeems to differ ſomewhat waiſt, or even below the head, though this laſt is exceedingly rare. from that of a true apoplexy; as it is commonly attended with con- vulſions, but hath the particular diſtinguiſhing ſign of apoplexy, In theſe violent caſes, the ſpeech is either very much impeded, or totally loſt. Convulſions often take place in the found fide, with namely, a very difficult breathing or ſnorting, more or leſs violent the cynic ſpaſm or involuntary laughter, and other diſtortions of according to the quantity of poiſonous matter ſwallowed. the face. Sometimes the whole paralytic part of the body becomes Of the poiſonous effects of fixed air Dr. Percival gives the fol- « All theſe noxious vapours, whether ariſing the paralytic parts gradually decay and ſhrivel up, ſo as to become livid, or even mortifies before the patient's death; and ſometimes lowing account. from burning charcoal, the fermenting grape, the Grotto del Cani, (ſee GROTTO) or the cavern of Pyrmont, operate nearly in the fame manner. When accumulated and confined, their effects are Cauſes, &c. Palfies moſt commonly ſupervene the different ſpe- cies of coma, eſpecially the apoplexy. They are alſo occaſioned often inſtantaneous; they immediately deſtroy the action of the by any debilitating power applied to the body, eſpecially by ex- brain and nerves, and in a moment arreſt the vital motions. When more diffuſed, their effects are ſlower, but ſtill evidently mark out ceſſes in venery. Sometimes they are a kind of criſis to other diſ- a direct affection of the nervous ſyſtem. tempers, as the colic of Poictou, and the apoplexy. The hemi- ation! * « Thoſe who are expoſed to the vapours of the fermenting plegia eſpecially often follows the laſt mentioned diſeaſe. Aged people, and thoſe who are by any other means debilitated, are ſub- grape, are as inſtantly deſtroyed as they would be by the ſtrongeſt electrical ſhock. A ſtate of inſenſibility is the immediate effect ject to pally; which will fometimes alſo affect even infants, from the repulſion of exanthemata of various kinds. Palſies are alſo the upon thoſe animals which are thruſt into the Grotto del Cani, or infallible conſequences of injuries of the large nerves. the cavern of Pyrmont: the animal is deprived of motion, lies as if dead; and if not quickly returned into the freſh air, is irrecover- Prognoſis. Except in the flighter caſes of palſies, we have little room to hope for a cure; however, death doth not immediately able. And if we attend to the hiſtories of thoſe who have ſuffered follow even the moſt ſevere paralytic affections. In an hemiple- from the vapours of burning charcoal, we ſhall in like manner find, that the brain and moving powers are the parts primarily af- gia it is not uncommon to ſee the patients live ſeveral years; and even in the paraplegia, if death does not enſue within two or fected. three weeks, it may not take place for a conſiderable time. It is “ A perſon was left reading in bed with a pan of charcoal in a a promiſing ſign when the patient feels a flight degree of painful corner of the room. On being viſited early the next morning, he itchineſs in the affected parts; and if a fever ſhould ariſe, it bids was found with his eyes ſhut, his book open and laid on one ſide, fair to cure the palſy. When the ſenſe of feeling remains, there his candle extinguiſhed, and to appearance like one in a deep ſleep. is much more room to hope for a cure than when it is gone, as Stimulants and cupping glaffes gave no relief; but he was ſoon well as the power of motion. But when we obſerve the Aeſh to recovered by the free acceſs of freſh air. waſte, and the ſkin to appear withered and dry, we may look upon “ Were the following cautions generally attended to, they might the diſeaſe to be incurable. Convulſions ſupervening on a pally in ſome inſtances be the happy means of preſerving life. Never are a fatal ſign, to be confined with burning charcoal in a ſmall room, or where Cure. Many remedies have been recommended in palfies: but there is not a free draught of air by a chimney or ſome other way. it muſt be confeſſed, that, except in the flighter caſes, medicines Never to venture into any place in which air has been long pent ſeldom prove effectual; and before any ſcheme of cure can be laid up, or which from other circumſtances ought to be fufpected; un- leſs ſuch ſuſpected place be either previouſly well ventilated, or put down, every circumſtance relative to the patient's habit of body and previous ſtate of health ſhould be carefully weighed. If an to the teſt of the lighted candle. For it is a ſingular and well- hemiplegia or paraplegia ſhould come on after an apoplexy, at- known fact, that the life of flame is in ſome circumſtances ſooner tended with thoſe circumſtances which phyſicians have ſuppoſed affected and more expeditiouſly extinguiſhed by noxious vapours, to denote a viſcid ſtate of the blood, a courſe of the attenuant than animal life. gums, with fixed alkaline falts, and chalybeate waters, may do “ The moſt obvious, effectual, and expeditious means of relief ſervice; to which it will be proper to add frictions with the vola- to thoſe who have unhappily ſuffered from this cauſe, are ſuch as tile liniment all down the ſpine; but in habits where the blood is will diſlodge and waſh away the poiſon, reſtore the energy of the rather inclined to the watery ſtate, it will be neceſſary to give eme- brain and nerves, and renew the vital motions. Let the patient tics from time to time; to apply bliſters, and cut iſſues. therefore be immediately carried into the open air, and let the air The natural hot baths are often found uſeful in paralytic caſes; be fanned backwards and forwards to aflift its a&ion: let cold wa- and where the patients cannot avail themſelves of theſe, an artificial ter be thrown on the face; let the face, mouth and noſtrils, be re bath may be tried by diffolving ſalt of ſteel in water, and impregnat- peatedly waſhed; and as ſoon as practicable, get the patient to ing the water with fixed air. Frictions of the parts and ſcourging drink ſome cold water. But if the caſe is too far gone to be thus them with nettles, have alſo been recommended, and may do fer- relieved, let a healthy perſon breathe into the mouth of the patient; vice, as well as volatile and ſtimulating medicines taken inwardly. and gently force air into the mouth, throat, and noſtrils. Frictions, cupping, bleeding, and bliſters, are likewiſe indicated. And if, ORDER II. ADYNAMIÆ. after the inſtant danger is removed, a fever be excited, the method br Diminution of the Involuntary Motions. of cure muſt be adapted to the nature and prevailing ſymptoms of the fever." Lou Genus XXXVII. SYNCOPE, or FAINTING.NO With regard to the poiſon of opium, Dr. Mead recommends Deſcription. A fyncope begins with a remarkable anxiety about the following method of cure. Beſides evacuations by vomiting, the heart; after which follows a ſudden extinction, as it were, not bleeding, and bliſtering, acid medicines and lixivial ſalts are pro only of the animal powers, and actions, but alſo of the vital per. Theſe contract the relaxed fibres, and by their diuretic powers, ſo that the patients are deprived of pulſe, ſenſe, and mo- force make a depletion of the veſſels. Our author ſays he hath tion, all at once. In thoſe caſes which phyſicians have diſtinguiſhed given repeated doſes of a mixture of ſalt of wormwood and juice by the name of leipothyrnia, the patient does not entirely loſe his of lemons, with extraordinary ſucceſs. ſenſes, but turns cold and pale; and the pulſe continues to beat, APOPLEXY froin Paſions of the Mind. though weakly; the heart alſo ſeems to tremble rather than beat; Apoplexies from violent paſſions may be either fanguineous or and the reſpiration is juſt perceptible. But in the true ſyncope or ferous, though more commonly of the former than the latter ſpe- full aſphyxia, not the ſmalleſt ſign of life can be perceived; the cies. The treatment is the fame in either caſe. Or they may face hath a death-like paleneſs, the extremities are cold, the eyes partake of the nature of catalepſy; in which caſe the inethod of fhut, or at leaſt troubled; the mouth ſometimes ſhut, and ſome- treatment is the ſame with that of the genuine catalepſy. times gaping wide open; the limbs flaccid, and the ſtrength quite APOPLEXY from Suffocation. gone; as ſoon as they begin to recover, they fetch deep and heavy This is the kind of apoplexy which takes place in thoſe who fighs. are hanged or drowned. For the treatment of thoſe perſons, ſee Cauſes, &c. Fainting is occaſioned moſt commonly by profuſe the articles HANGING and DROWNING. evacuations, eſpecially of blood; but it may happen alſo from Beſides the ſpecies above-mentioned, the apoplexy is a ſymptom violent paſſions of the mind, from furfeits, exceſſive pain, &c. in many other diſtempers, ſuch as fevers both continued and inter- People of delicate conſtitutions are very ſubject to it from flight mitting, exanthemnata hyſteria, epilepſy, gout, worms, ifchuria, cauſes ; and ſometimes it will ariſe from affections of the heart and ſcurvy. and large vefſels, not eaſy to be underſtood. Fainting is alſo a * 7 C ſymptom IS N° 103 MEDICINE. no ſymptom of many diſorders, eſpecially of that fatal one called a tonic medicines, which can remove from the ſtomach and ſyſtem polypus of the heart, of the plague, and many putrid diſeaſes. that debility on which the diſeaſe depends. But, previous to their Prognoſis . When fainting happens in the begirning of any uſe, it will be neceſſary to evacuate the contents of the alimentary acute diſtemper, it is by no means a good omen; but when it canal by vomits or purgatives. If there is a tendency to putreſ- takes place in the increaſe or at the height of the diſeaſe, the dan cency, antiſeptics muſt then be exhibited; but more frequently ger is ſomewhat leſs; but in general, when fainting comes on with there is a prevailing acidity which creates an intolerable heart-burn. out any evident cauſe, it is to be dreaded. In violent hæmorrhages To palliate this fymptom, magneſia alba may be given : which is it is favourable; as the bleeding veſſels thus have time to contract much preferable to the common teſtaceous powders, as being pur- and recover themſelves, and thus the patient may eſcape. gative when diſſolved in an acid, while the others are rather aſtrin- Cure. When perſons of a full habit faint through exceſs of gent. In the third volume of the Medical Obſervations, we have paſſion, they ought to be blooded without delay, and Thould drink an account of two caſes of dyſpepſia attended with a very uncom- vinegar or lemon juice diluted with water; and, after the bowels mon degree of cardialgia, in which magneſia was ſo ſucceſsful, are emptied by a clyſter, take a paregoric draught and go to bed. that we can ſcarce doubt of its efficacy in flighter degrees of the The general effects of a ſudden fright have been mentioned on diforder. See the Article DIGESTION. a former occaſion. When theſe are ſo violent as to require medi Order III. SPASMI ; Irregular Motions of the Muſcles, or cal aid, our firſt endeavours muſt be to take off the ſpaſmodic con- Txalqons Muſcular Fibres. ud nedov ſtriction, and reſtore freedom to the circulation; by bleeding, if GENUS XXXIX. CONVULSION. the habit be at all inclined to fulneſs; and by giving a mixture, Deſcription. When convulſions attack only particular parts of with equal parts of the vinum antimoniale and elixir paregoricum, the body, they are generally attended with ſome kind of paralyſis in ſome agreeable vehicle, which will bring on ſleep, and encou at the ſame time, by which means the affected parts are alternately rage perfpiration. It was formerly mentioned, that convulſions, convulſed and relaxed; a permanent convulſion, or unnatural con- or even an epilepſy, may be brought on by frights; which ſhould traction, of particular muſcles, is called a ſpaſm or cramp. Theſe make people cautious of playing fooliſh tricks in this way. partial convulſions may attack almoſt any part of the body ; and In order to revive the patients, they ought to be laid along in a are not unfrequently fymptomatic, in fevers, the cholera morbus, horizontal poſture, in an airy place; the legs, thighs, and arms, &c. The involuntary ſtartings of the tendons, the picking of the are to be rubbed with hot flannels; very ſtrong vinegar, or falt of bed-clothes, &c. in acute diſeaſes, &c. are all of them convulſive hartſhorn, or the ſpirit of this or of fal ammoniac are to be held to diſorders. the noſtrils, and rubbed into them, or, being properly diluted, Cauſes. Convulſions, not only of particular parts, but alſo over poured down the throat; cold water is to be ſprinkled on the face the whole body, often take place from cauſes not very evident. and neck; and when by theſe means the patient ſhall be ſufficiently Sometimes they ſeem to depend on a certain delicacy or irritability revived, wine boiled up with ſome grateful aromatic, is to be given lity, as to be strongly affc&ed by the flighteſt cauſes. Delicate of the nervous ſyſtem, which is framed with ſuch exquiſite ſenſibi- in the proper quantity. In the fainting conſequent upon profuſe uterine hæmorrhages, women are often ſubject to hyſterical convulſions, as alſo hypo- it will be a ſafer practice to abſtain from all heating and ſtimulant chondriac people. Convulfions, however, often take their riſe from things; as life, in theſe caſes, is preſerved by the coagulation of wounds, irritations of the ſtomach and inteftines by worms, poi- the blood in the extremities of the open veſſels; which might ſons, violent cathartics and emetics, &c. and very often they be prevented by the pouring in hot wine, or volatile alkaline are ſymptomatic, as in dentition, the ſmall pox, and many kinds fpirits. own south of fevers. Genus XXXVIII. DYSPEPSIA, or Difficulty of Digestion. "Prognoſis. Except in ſome few caſes, convulſive diſorders are Deſcription. It is by no means eaſy to define exactly the dif- always to be dreaded; but lefs in young people than in ſuch as are temper called dyſpepſia, when conſidered as an original diſeaſe, advanced in life. Thoſe ſeeing there are very few maladies which ſome way or other do not berty will generally create which attack girls under the age of pus on the appearance of the menſes; and ſhew themſelves by an affection of the ſtomach ; and much more boys have likewiſe a chance of being relieved as they advance in difficult ſtill muſt it be to enumerate all its ſymptoms. The moſt life: but in grown up people, unleſs the cauſe is very evident, a remarkable , however, and the moſt common, are the following: cure is hardly to be expected. Want of appetite; diſtenſion of the ſtomach when no food hath Cure. See EPILEPSY. Choose been taken for ſome time before; flight dejection of ſpirits; a D Genus. XL. EPILEPSY, or FALLING SICKNESS. gradual decay of the muſcular ſtrength; languor, and averſion to Deſcription. The epilepſy often attacks ſuddenly, and without motion; the food which is taken without appetite, is not well di- giving any warning: but more frequently is preceded by a pain in geſted; the ſtomach and inteſtines are much diſtended with flatus, the head, laſſitude, ſome diſturbance of the ſenſes, unquiet ſleep, whence the patients are tormented with ſpaſms, gripes, and ſick unuſual dread, dimneſs of fight, a noiſe in the ears, palpitation of neſs: frequently a limpid water, having an acid or putrid taſte, is the heart, coldneſs of the joints, and in ſome there is a ſenſation of brought up; ſometimes the food itſelf is thrown up by mouthfuls; formication or a cold air, &c. aſcending from the lower extremities and ſometimes, though rarely, the ſame is ſwallowed again, after towards the head. In the fit, the perſons fall ſuddenly to the the manner of ruminating animals. While matters are in this fi- ground (whence the name of the falling ſickneſs), frequently with a tuation, the heart ſometimes palpitates, and the breath is quick, violent cry ; The thumbs are ihut up cloſe in the palms of the and drawn with difficulty; the head achs and is giddy; and ſome hands, and are with difficulty taken out; the eyes are diſtorted, ſo times both theſe ſymptoms are continual, and very violent, inſo that nothing but the whites are to be ſeen; all ſenſation is ſuf- much that the patient is not only tormented with pain, but ſtaggers pended, inſomuch, that by no ſmell, noiſe, or otherwiſe, nor even as if he was drunk. By reaſon of the too great aceſcency or pu by pinching the body, can they be brought to themſelves; they trefaction of the aliment, a cardialgia or heartburn comes on, and froth at the mouth with a hiſſing kind of noiſe; the tongue is fre- in this ſituation a ſpontaneous diarrhæa fometimes carries off the quently lacerated by the teeth, and there is a violent convullive mo- diſeaſe; but in other caſes there is an obſtinate coſtiveneſs, at tion of the arıms and legs. Sometimes, however, the limbs, inſtead tended with colic-pains. Frequently the pulſe is quick, ſometimes of being agitated by convulſive motions, are all ſtiff, and the patients flow, but always weak: the circulation is ſo languid that the blood are as immoveable as a ſtatue. In children the penis is erected; can ſcarce reach the extreme veſſels, or at leaſt ſtagnates in them, and in young men there is an emiſſion of the ſemen, and the urine ſo that the face becomes livid, fwelled, and has an unuſual ap is often thrown out to a conſiderable diſtance. At length there is a pearance; and at the ſame time that the circulation and nervous remiſſion of the ſymptoms, and the patients recover after a longer power are in this languid ſtate, the perſpiration becomes leſs co or ſhorter interval ; when they complain of a pain, torpor, and pious; the ſkin becomes dry and corrugated; the natural heat, heavineſs of the head, with a laſſitude of all the joints. eſpecially of the extremities, is much diminiſhed; the tongue is Cauſes, &c. The diffećtion of epileptic ſubjects has fhewn a white; and an univerſal laxity takes place, inſomuch that the variety of morbid appearances, which may be ſuppoſed to have uvula and velum pendulum palati are ſometimes enlarged to ſuch contributed to the diſeaſe, ſuch as, indurations in the brain or me- a degree as to become extremely troubleſome. ninges; caries of the internal ſurface of the cranium; projections Cauſes, &c. The cauſes of dyſpepſia may be any thing which of the boney ſubſtance of the ſame, preſſing upon the brain, col- debilitates the ſyſtem in general, but in a particular manner affects lections of ſerum or purulent matter, and earthy concretions with- the ſtomach. Such are opium taken in immoderate quantities, in the ſcull; beſides many others which are recorded by Bonetus, which hurts by its ſedative and relaxing powers; ſpirituous liquors Morgagni, and Lieutaud. But often the cauſes are impoflible to drunk to exceſs; tobacco, tea, coffee, or any warm relaxing liquor, be diſcovered; for even in thoſe who have died of the diſeaſe, the taken in too great quantity; acid, unripe fruits ; vomits or purges brain and all other parts of the nervous ſyſtem have been appa- too frequently taken ; an indolent ſedentary life, &c. &c. All theſe rently found. The diſeaſe will attack ſtrong as well as weak peo- act chiefly upon people of a weak and delicate habit; for the ple; and in thoſe who are ſubject to it, any conſiderable exceſs in robuſt and hardy ſeldom labour under a dyſpepſia, or at moſt a drinking, a ſurfeit, violent paſſion, or venery, &c. will certainly very ſlight one. bring on a fit. Some have epileptic paroxyſms returning periodi- Prognoſis . When a dyſpepſia firſt occurs, it is frequently re cally after conſiderable intervals. moved without great difficulty; when it is fymptomatic, we muſt Prognoſis. If the epilepſy come on before the time of puberty, endeavour to cure the primary diſeaſe; but when it frequently re there are ſome hopes of its going of at that time. But it is a bad turns with ſymptoms of great debility, heĉtic, or dropſy, we have ſign when it attacks about the pilt year, and ſtill worſe if the fits great reaſon to dread the event. grow more frequent; for then the animal fun&lions are often de- Cure. A radical cure of dyſpepſia is only to be expected from Itroyed, as well as thoſe of the mind, and the patient becomes itupid VE SH and M E DIC IN E. is 2 and fooliſh. Sometimes it will terminate in melancholy or mad proper to bliſter the nape of the neck. A very ſtrong infuſion of neſs, and ſometimes in a mortal apoplexy or pally. It hath ſome roaſted coffee has been found to give eaſe in an aſthmatic parox. times, however, been obſerved, that epilepſies have been removed yſm. Dr. Pringle ſays it is the beſt abater of the paroxyſms of by the appearance of cutaneous diſeaſes, as the itch, ſınall-pox, the periodic aſthma that he has ſeen. The coffee ought to be of meaſles, &c. While the diſeaſe is recent, therefore, we are not the beſt Moco, newly burnt, and made very ſtrong immediately to deſpair of a cure; but if it is of long ſtanding, or hereditary, there after grinding it. He commonly ordered an ounce for one diſh : very can be removed. 91 od blod | which is to be repeated freſh after the interval of a quarter, or half Cure. In all convulſive diſorders, excepting thofe which are an hour; and which is to be taken without milk or fugar. The cured by nature about the time of puberty, the cure by artificial medicine in general is mentioned by Muſgrave in his treatiſe de means is very difficult. Numberleſs ſpecifics have been recom Arthritide anomala ; but he firſt heard of it from a phyſician in mended, but all of them have failed of anſwering the expectation. | Litchfield, who had been informed by the old people of that place, When the cauſe can be diſcovered, that muſt be removed. In that Sir John Floyer, during the latter end of his life, kept free other caſes, the cold bath, valerian root, caſtor, muſk, opium, the from, or at leaſt lived eaſy under his aſthma, from the uſe of very foetid gums, Peruvian bark, with the whole tribe of nervous and ſtrong coffee. This diſcovery, it ſeems, he made after the publica. antiſpaſmodic medicines, have been recommended : but none of cation of his book upon that diſeaſe. Dr. Percival ſays he has fre- theſe, or indeed any combination of them, have been found gener- quently directed coffee in the aſthma, with great ſucceſs. dulos ally uſeful; though the ſlighter, or ſymptomatic caſes, may often In the intervals of the fits, perſons ſubject to the aſthma, eſpee be removed by them. ban cially the humid ſpecies, ſhould take emetics from time to time. Of late the calx, improperly called the flowers, of zinc, have ob An infuſion of tobacco is an emetic that has been found very fer- tained ſuch reputation in convulſive diſorders as to be received into viceable in ſome aſthmatic caſes; and ſmoaking or chewing the the Edinburgh difpenfatory. They were propoſed by Dr. Gau ſame has been known to prevent the frequency and ſeverity of the bius as an antiſpaſmodic, in his Adverfaria; and their efficacy paroxyſms. They ſhould alſo uſe the lac ammoniaci, with a due hath ſince been confirmed by various oblervations. In an inaugu- proportion of oxymel ſcilliticum and vinum antimoniale, with a view ral diſſertation publiſhed by Dr. Hart at Leyden, the medical vir to promote expectoration; or the gum ammoniac, and others of tues of the flowers of zinc are conſidered. He obſerves, that they ſimilar virtues, may be formed into pills, and combined with have long been uſed externally, chiefly for inflammations of the ſoap, as before mentioned for the dyſpnea pituitofa: or a maſs eyes from acrid lymph. Glauber firſt propoſed the internal uſe may be compoſed of aſafetida and balſam of Tolu, with ſyr. ex of them; and Gaubius diſcovered them to be the remedy of the allio ; and theſe pills may be waſhed down by a medicated wine celebrated empiric Luddemannus under the title of luna fixata. impregnated with ſquills, horſe-radiſh root, and muſtard-ſeed; or After this he exhibited them with ſucceſs in convulſive and ſpal a ſtrong bitter infuſion, with a little antimonial wine. modic diſeaſes. Our author ſuppoſes, that they act either as ab The dry or ſpaſmodic aſthma, during the extreme violence of the forbents, or as poſſeſſing a ſpecific virtue: but is a ſtrong advo- fit, is beſt relieved by opiates; and ſometimes very large doſes cate for their efficacy, on whatever principles they may operate; are required. But, in order to obtain permanent relief, nothing and, in favour of his opinion, relates ſeven caſes in which they is found to anſwer better than the radix ipecacuanha, in ſmall doſes. proved ſucceſsful. Dr. Gaubius affirms that he has uſed the Three, five, eight or ten grains, according to the ſtrength and flowers of zinc in caſes of the chincough, hyſteric hiccough, and conſtitution of the patient, given every other day, have been pro- ſpaſmus cynicus; that they frequently did more than other medi ductive of the happieſt effects; acting ſometimes as an evacuant, cines, but were by no means ſucceſsful in every caſe. The other pumping up the viſcid phlegm ; at others, as an antiſpaſmodic or cures mentioned by Dr. Hart are ſimilar to thoſe above mentioned, | ſedative. Iſſues are generally recommended in both ſpecies, and and it does not appear that he ever ſaw a confirmed epilepſy cured will often be found uſeful. The frequent uſe of honey has alſo by this medicine. proved beneficial; ſee the Article HONEY. In the firſt volume of Edin. Medical Commentaries, p. 204. we Changes of weather are uſually felt very ſenſibly by aſthmatic peo- have an account by Mr. Benjamin Bell, of a man afflicted with ple, who in general cannot live with tolerable eaſe in the atmoſphere a confirmed epilepſy, who was conſiderably relieved by the flowers of large cities. A light diet of meats that are eaſy of digeſtion, and of zinc. He was about 35 years of age, and had been ſubject to not flatulent, is requiſte for afthmatic people; and the exerciſe of the diſeaſe for ten years. riding is indiſpenſably neceſſary. See the Article ASTHMA. Dr. Percival relates ſome caſes of epilepſy which ſeem to have GENUS XLII. COLICA. The Colic. Dupa been cured by the flowers of zinc; and in other caſes, where the Deſcription. The colic is chiefly known by a violent pain in difeaſe was not entirely removed by it, the ſpaſms were neverthe the abdomen, commonly about the umbilical region. The pain leſs much mitigated. The good effects of flowers of zinc as an reſembles various kinds of ſenſations, as of burning, twifting, antiſpaſmodic are alſo atteſted by Dr. Haygarth of Cheſter and boring, a ligature drawn very tight, &c. The belly is generally very Dr. White of York. The former gives a teſt of their goodneſs coſtive, though fometimes there is a violent evacuation of bilious be of uſe to thoſe who do not prepare them, namely; matters upwards and downwards. that the true flowers of zinc when ſtrongly heated become yellow, The pain comes on generally after a meal, and ſoon occaſions but reaſſume their white colour on being allowed to cool. The nauſea and vomiting. Sometimes the diſeaſe is attended with PY- latter gives a caſe of hiera noſos, or ſtrange convulſions of almoſt rexia, violent thirſt, and a full pulſe; the vomiting becomes more all the muſcles of the body, cured by zinc, after a number of violent, and excrementitious matters are thrown up with the moſt other remedies had failed. The patient, however, had been for- exquiſite pain and tention of the abdomen; an hickup comes on, merly much relieved by Ward's antimonial pill. which continues obſtinately; till at laſt a ceſſation of pain and GENUS XLI. ASTHMA. foetid breath indicate a mortification of the inteſtines, and apa The aſthma is a chronic diſeaſe, which may continue to give proaching death. Sometimes the periſtaltic motion of the inteſ- very great diſtreſs, at intervals, for a conſiderable number of tines is ſo totally inverted, that all the contents of the inteſtines years. Sir John Floyer, when he wrote his celebrated treatiſe, are evacuated by the mouth, and even clyfters will be vomited; had laboured under repeated paroxyſms for 30 years. which conſtitutes that diſeaſe commonly called the iliac paſſion. The common diſtinction is into humid and dry; the former is Cauſes, &c. Colics may ariſe from any ſudden check given to accompanied with an expectoration of mucus or purulent matter, perſpiration, as by violent cold applied to any part of the body, but the latter is not ſo attended. In the genuine humoral aſthma, eſpecially to the lower extremities and abdomen. Very frequently the patients are obliged to lean forward ; the inſpiration is ſhort they are occaſioned by auſtere, acid, or indigeftible aliments taken and ſpaſmodic; and the expiration very ſlow. Afthmatic perſons into the ſtomach. By any of theſe a violent colic, or indeed an have generally ſome warning of the attack, from a languor, loſs iliac paffion, may be occaſioned; for this laft, though commonly of appetite, oppreſſion, and ſwelling of the ſtomach, from flatulence, accounted a different ſpecies of the diſeaſe, differs from a colic in which precede the fit; but it is uſually in the middle of the night, no other way than in being in every reſpect in a much higher de- that the violent difficulty of breathing comes on. gree. In thoſe who have died of this diſeaſe and been diſſected, The duration of the paroxyfm is uncertain, as it will ſometimes the gut hath ſometimes been found twiſted ; but more commonly terminate in three or four hours, while at other times it ſhall con there hath been an introfuſception of the inteſtine, that is, one part tinue for as many days; nay, it has been known to laſt three weeks of the gut ſeems to have entered within the other. In the Edin- without intermiſſion. While it ſubliſts, the patient is in very burgh Medical Eſſays, Vol. III. we have a diſſertation on the uſe great diſtreſs, not being able to lie in bed, nor ſcarcely to ſpeak or of the warm bath in the bilious colic, in which the author derives expectorate, ſo great is the difficulty of breathing; and yet, not the diſorder from a ſpaſmodic conſtriction of the inteſtine, occa- withſtanding all this apparent interruption to the free paſſage of fioned by the acrimony of the bile. fioned by the acrimony of the bile. By this he ſays, the inteſtine the blood through the lungs, an inflammation here ſeldom or ne is not only contracted into an unuſual narrowneſs, but coats of it ver ſupervenes a fit of the aſthma. As the paroxyſm wears off, have been found, upon diſſection, ſo cloſely joined, that no paſa and the breathing becomes free, there is more or leſs of an expec- fage could be made downwards more than if they had been ſtrongly toration of mucus; and the urine, from being pale and limpid, tied by a ligature, becomes high-coloured, and lets fall a copious ſediment. If this happens in the human body, there is the greateſt danger In order to obtain relief in the fit, we muſt ſometimes bleed, un of a mortification, becauſe the part which is conſtricted, and at any leſs extreme weakneſs or old age ſhould forbid, and repeat rate diſpoſed to inflammation, hath that diſpoſition very much in- cording to the degrees of ſtrength and fulneſs: a purging clyfter, creaſed by its confinement within the other, and by the preſſure with a ſolution of aſafoetida, muſt be immediately injected; and if of the contents of the alimentary canal from the ſtomach down- the violence of the ſymptoms ſhould not ſpeedily abate, it will be wards upon it. An iliac paſſion may alſo ariſe from the ſtrangu- lation which may SI it ac- MÉDICINE. SIVU Bungong ation of part of the inteftine in a hernia; and even a very ſmall others, the coſtiveneſs had continued for a much longer tiine. portion of it thus ſtrangulated may occaſion a fatal diſeaſe. In the Other remedies are, the blowing air into the inteſtines by means Medical Obſervations, Vol. IV. however, we have an account of of a bellows, and the injecting clyſters of the ſmoke of tobacco. an iliac paſſion ariſing from a very different cauſe, which could But neither of theſe feem very capable of removing the diſeaſe. neither have been ſuſpected nor cured by any other way than the They can affect only the parts below the obſtruction; while, to operation of gaſtrotomy, or opening the abdomen of the patient, eure the diſeaſe, it is neceſſary that the obſtructed parts themſelves in order to remove the cauſe of the diſorder. The patient, a wo ſhould be reached by the medicine, and therefore we have not many man of about 28 years of age, after ſuffering extreme torture for well atteſted inſtances of their ſucceſs. The cold water gives a ſix days. The body being opened, fome quantity of a dirty co general and very conſiderable ſhock to the ſyſtem, checks the per- loured fluid was found in the cavity of the abdomen. The jejunum fpiration, and thus drives the humours inward upon the inteſtines, and ileum were greatly diſtended with air. A portion of the omen by which they receive a much more effectual ſtimulus than can be tum adhered to the meſentery, near that part where the ileum ter ſuppoſed to ariſe from any kind of clyſter. But when all methods minates in the cæcum. From this adheſion, which was cloſe to have failed, the only chance the patient can have for life is by a the ſpine, there ran a ligamentous cord or proceſs about two inches manual operation. slow and a half long, unequally thick, in ſome places not thicker than a In thoſe colics which are attended with faintings, &c. from the packthread; which by its other extremity adhered to the coats of beginning, and which generally attack hyſterie woinen and other the ileum, about two inches above the cæcum. This cord formed debilitated perſons, all kinds of evacuations are pernicious; and a circle with the meſentery, large enough to admit a hen's egg the cure is to be attempted by anodynes and cordials, which will to paſs through it. The chord had formed a nooſe (in a manner feldom fail of ſucceſs. See the Article Colic. difficult to be explained), which included a doubling of about two GENUS XLII. LUMBRICI INTESTINORUM; Maw, or inches of the lower end of the ileum; and was drawn ſo tight, that gong Belly Worms. To it not only put a ſtop to the paſſage of every thing through the Thoſe infeſting the human body are chiefly of three kinds: the bowels, and brought on a gangrene of the ſtrangulated part, but it afcarides, or round and ſhort white worm; the teres, or round and had even cut through all the coats of the inteſtine on the oppoſite long worm; and the tænia, or tape-worm. fide to the meſentery, and made an aperture about an inch long. The aſcarides have uſually their ſeat in the rectum. The round In the Memoirs of the Academy of Surgery are mentioned ſeveral worms are about a ſpan long, round and ſmooth: they are ſeated for fimilar caſes. the moſt part in the upper ſmall inteſtines; but ſometimes they are Prognoſis. The colic is never to be reckoned void of danger, as lodged alſo in the ſtornach, and in any part of the inteſtines, even it may unexpectedly terminate in an inflammation and gangrene of to the rectum. The tape-worms are from two to forty feet long, the inteſtines . Thoſe ſpecies of it which are attended with purging according to the teſtimony of Platerus; they generally poffefs the muſt be conſidered as much leſs dangerous than thoſe in which the whole track of the inteſtines, but eſpecially the ileum; they very vomiting is very violent. The iliac paſſion, or that attended with much reſemble a tape in their appearance, whence the name of Foto the vomiting of fæces, is always to be accounted highly dangerous ; tape worm. but if the paſſage through the inteſtines is free, even though their In the Medical Tranſactions, Vol. II. Dr. Heberden gives a periſtaltic motion ſhould be inverted, and clyſters evacuated by the very accurate account of the ſymptoms produced by the afcarides, mouth, there is much more hope of a cure, than when the belly is from an eminent phyſician who was troubled with them all his obſtinately coſtive, and there is ſome fixed obſtruction which ſeems life. They brought on an uneaſineſs in the rectum, and an almoſt to bid defiance to all remedies. ou intolerable itching in the anus; which ſenſations moſt uſually came Cure. As the chief danger in colics ariſes from an inflamma on in the evening, and prevented ſleep for ſeveral hours. They tion and conſequent mortification of the inteſtines, it is eſſentially were attended with heat, ſometimes ſo conſiderable as to produce neceſſary, in the firſt place, to diminiſh the tendency to a pyrexia, a ſwelling in the rectum both internally and externally; and if if there ſhould happen to be any. This is accompliſhed by bleed theſe ſymptoms were not foon relieved, a teneſmus was brought on, ing, emollient injections, warm bathing, and cooling medicines with a mucous dejection. Sometimes there was a griping pain in taken inwardly. Dr. Porter ſtrongly recommends the warm bath the lower part of the abdomen a litle above the os pubis. If this in thoſe colics attended with violent evacuations of bile. He fup- pain was very ſevere, a bloody mucous followed, in which there poſes it to do ſervice by relaxing the conſtriction of the inteſtines, were often found aſcarides alive. They were alſo ſometimes ſuf- and thus preventing or removing the introſuſception. In the mean pected of occaſioning diſturbed ſleep, and ſome degree of head-ach. time opiates may be given to eaſe the pain, while every method is On this caſe Dr. Heberden obſerves, that the general health of tried, by cathartics and clyſters of various kinds, to procure a ſtool. the patient did not ſeem to have ſuffered from the long continuance In obſtinate caſes, where ſtimulating cathartics have proved in of the diſeaſe, nor the immediate inconveniencies of the diſorder effectual, the milder kinds, ſuch as manna, ſenna, oleum ricini, itſelf to have increaſed. • It is, (fays he) perhaps univerſally &c. will ſucceed; but where every thing of this kind fails, re true, that this kind of worms, though as difficult to be cured as courſe muſt be had to ſome of the more extraordinary methods. any, yet is the leaſt dangerous of all. They have been known to Some have recommended the ſwallowing of leaden bullets, on a accompany a perſon through the whole of a long life, without any fuppofition that by their weight they would force through the ob reaſon to ſuſpect that they had haſtened its end. As in this cafe ſtruction into the gut; but theſe ſeem inuch more likely to create there was no remarkable' fickneſs, indigeſtion, giddineſs, pain of than to remove an obſtruction. It is impoffible they can act by the ſtomach, nor itching of the noſe. their gravity, becauſe the inteſtines do not lie in a ſtraight line The above mentioned patient uſed purging and irritating cly- from the pylorus to the anus; and though this were actually the ſters with very little ſucceſs. Limewater was alſo uſed as a clyſter; caſe, we cannot ſuppoſe that the weight of a leaden bullet could which brought on a coſtiveneſs, but had no good effect. Six grains prove very efficacious in removing either a fpafinodic conſtriction, of ſalt of ſteel were difölved in fix ounces of water, and injected. or an obſtruction from any other cauſe. But when we conſider, This clyſter in a few minutes occaſioned an itching in the rectum, not only that the inteſtines conſiſt of a great multitude of ſolids, griped a little without purging, and excited a teneſmus . Some but that their periſtaltic motion (by which only the contents are few aſcarides were brought off with it; but all of them were alive. forced through them) is inverted, the futility of this remedy muſt The uneaſy ſituation in the rectum did not abate till fome warm be evident. It might rather be ſuppoſed to aggravate the diſeaſe; milk was thrown up. Whenever the teneſmus or mucous ftools as the lead, by its preſſure, would tend to fix the introfuſception were thought worth the taking notice of, warm milk and oil ge- more firmly, or puſh it ſtill further on. The fame thing may be nerally gave immediate relief. Oil given as a clyſter ſometimes ſaid of quickſilver: not to mention the pernicious conſequences to brought off theſe animalcules: the oil ſwam on the ſurface of the be apprehended from ſwallowing large quantities of this mineral, mucus, and the aſcarides were alive and moving in the mucus it- even if it ſhould prove efficacious in relieving the patient for the felf, which probably hindered the oil from coming in contact with preſent. Another method hath been propoſed, in the Medical them and killing them. Effays, for relieving the miſerable patients in this diſorder, which The Doctor alſo obſerves, that mucus or ſlime is the proper neft at leaſt can be attended with no bad conſequences, and in many of the aſcarides, in which they live, and is perhaps the food by which cafes hath been known to do ſervice. The patient is to be taken they are nouriſhed; and it is this mucus which preſerves them un- out of bed , and made to walk about the cold floor of a damp hurt, though ſurrounded with many other liquors , the immediate apartment. . is daſhed on his feet, legs, and thighs; and this muſt be continued what inſtinct they find it out in the human body, and by what for an hour or longer, if a flool is not procured before that time, means they get at it; but it is obſervable in many other parts of though this will generally be the cafe much ſoooner. The exerciſe nature, as well as here, that where there is a fit foil for the hatching doth not at all impair the patient's ſtrength, but rather adds to it; and growth of animals and vegetables, nature has taken fufficient and ſome very remarkable inſtances are adduced in the fixth volume care that their feeds ſhould find the way thither. Worms are ſaid of the Medical Efays, where this proved effe&tual after all other to have been found in the inteſtines of infants born dead. Purges, medicines had failed. In one perſon the diſeaſe had come on with by leffening this flime, never fail to relieve the patient: and it is an habitual coſtiveneſs, and he had been for a week tormented with not unlikely, that the worins which are not the moſt violent pain and vomiting, which could be ſtopped neither quickened motion of the inteſtines, may, for want of a proper by anodynes nor any other medicines, the ſharpeſt clyfters being re- quantity of it, languiſh, and at laſt die; for if the aſcarides are turned unaltered, and all kinds of purgatives thrown up ſoon after taken out of their mucus, and expoſed to the open air, they be- they were ſwallowed; but by the above mentioned method, a ſtool come motionleſs, and apparently die in a very thort time. Dr. was procured in 35 minutes, and the patient recovered. In ſome Heberden ſuppoſes that the kind of purge made uſe of is of little conſequence MEDICINE. eaſily taken, and conſequence in the cure of all other worms as well as aſcarides ; and the treatment proper to expel it. Almoſt all of them mention the inſects being always defended by the mucus from the imme the fern-root, but at the ſame time they point out other remedies diate action of medicines; and that therefore thoſe purges are the as poſſeſſing equal efficacy. Amongſt theſe we find the bark of beſt which act briſkly, and of which a repetition can be moft eaſily the root of the mulberry-tree, the juice of the auricula muris; borne. Purging waters are of this fort, and jalap eſpecially for the roots of chamæleon niger, ginger, Zedoary; decoctions of mug- children; two or more grains of which, mixed with ſugar, are moſt wort, ſouthernwood, worm-wood, penny-royal, origanium, hyffop, may be repeated daily. and in general of all bitter and aromatic plants, &c. Some of them From the cafe above mentioned, and from Dr. Heberden's ob- direct the ſpecific to be ſimply mixed and taken in wine or honey fervations, we may eaſily ſee why it is ſo difficult to deſtroy theſe and water; others join to it the uſe of ſome purgative remedy, which inſects; and why anthelmintics, greatly celebrated for ſome cures, they ſay adds to its efficacy. are yet ſo far from being ſpecifics in the diſeaſe. As the worms In Sweden, it has been a practice to drink ſeveral gallons of cold which reſide in the cavities of the human body are never expoſed water, and then to take ſome draſtic purge. Boerhaave fays, that to the air, by which all living creatures are invigorated, it is evi he himſelf ſaw a tænia meaſuring 300 ells expelled from a Ruſſian dent, that in themſelves they muſt be the moſt tender and eaſily by means of the vitriolum martis. All theſe methods, however, deſtructible creatures imaginable, and much leſs will be requiſite have been too often ineffectual. to kill them than any of our common inſects. The moſt perni GENUS XLIV. DIARRHOEA, or LOOSENESS. cious ſubſtances to any of the common inſects are oil, cauſtic fixed This is occafioned by the too great quantity of matter thrown alkali, lime, and lime water. The oil operates upon them by | into the alimentary canal; and what is diſcharged hath not the ap-. ſhutting up the pores of their bodies; the lime-water, lime, and pearance of excrements, but is much whiter, and of a thinner con- cauſtic alkali, by diſſolving their very ſubſtance. In the caſe of ſiſtence. Voracious people who do not fufficiently chew their food, inteſtinal worms, however, the oil can have very little effect upon gormandizers, and even thoſe who ſtammer in their ſpeech, are ſaid them, as they are defended from it by the moiſture and mucus of to be liable to this diſeaſe. In flighter caſes it is removed without the inteſtines; the like happens with lime-water; and therefore it any medicine, or by a doſe of rhubarb; but where the matters have is neceſſary that the medicine ſhould be of ſuch a nature as to de- acquired a putrid taint, the diſorder may be exceedingly protracted ſtroy both mucus and inſects together; for which purpoſe the and become dangerous. In this caſe lenient antiſeptic purgatives cauſtic fixed alkali is at once ſafe and efficacious, nor is it probable are to be made uſe of, after which the cure is to be completed by that any caſe of worms whatever could reſiſt the proper uſe of this aftringents. medicine. A very large doſe of any ſalt indeed will alſo deſtroy The Bilious DIARRHOEA. the mucus, and deſtroy the worms; but it is apt to inflame and This diſtemper ſhews itſelf by copious ſtools of a very yellow excoriate the ſtomach and inteſtines, and thus to produce worſe colour, attended with gripes and heat of the bowels, thirſt, bitter- diſtempers than that which it was intended to cure. neſs, and dryneſs of the mouth, yellowneſs of the tongue, and fre- The long round worms ſeem to be the moſt dangerous which quently follows an intermitting or bilious fever. When the fever infeſt the human body, as they often pierce through the ſtomach is gone, the diarrhoea is to be removed by acidulated and cooling and inteſtines, and thus bring on a miſerable death. The com drinks, with ſmall doſes of nitre. mon ſymptoms of theſe are nauſea, vomiting, looſeneſs, fainting, lo The Mucous DIARRHOEA. fender intermitting pulſe, itching of the noſe, epileptic fits. By This kind of diarrhea, beſides the matters uſually excreted, is the confumption of the chyle, they produce hunger, paleneſs, attended with a copious dejection of the mucus of the inteſtines with weakneſs, coſtiveneſs, tumour of the abdomen, eructations, and great pain; while the patient daily pines away, but without any rumbling of the inteſtines; but it is from the perforation of the fever. Perſons of all ages are liable to it, and it comes on uſually inteſtines that the diſeaſe proves ſo frequently fatal. A child may in the winter-time; but is ſo obſtinate, that it will ſometimes con- be known to have worms, from the cold tenperament, paleneſs of tinue for years. In obſtinate looſeneſſes of this kind, vomits fre- the countenance, livid eye-lids, hollow eyes, itching of the noſe, quently repeated are of the greateſt ſervice. It is alſo very benefi- voracity, ſtartings, and grinding of the teeth in ſleep; and more cial to keep the body warm, and rub the belly with ſtimulating eſpecially by a very fætid breath. Very frequently, however, ointments ; at the ſame time that aftringent clyfters, rhubarb, and they are voided by the mouth and anus, in which caſe there is no ſtomachic medicines, are to be exhibited. Starch clyfters are very room to doubt. In the Medical Commentaries, Vol. II. we have often efficacious. Some kinds of looſeneſs are contagious; and an account of the inteſtines being perforated by a worm, and yet Sir John Pringle mentions a ſoldier who laboured under an obſtinate the patient recovered. The patient was a woman troubled with diarrhea, who infected all thoſe that uſed the ſame privy with him- an inflammation in the lower part of the abdomen. The pain was ſelf. In the looſeneſs which frequently followed a dyſentery, the fo violent, that for fix days ſhe could not ſleep; the tumour then fame author tells us that he began the cure with giving a vomit of broke, diſcharged upwards of a pound of thin watery fanies, im- ipecacuanha, after which he put the patients on a courſe of aſtrin- mediately after which the excrements followed. The next day gents. He uſed a mixture of three drachms of extract of logwood, fhe was extremely low; her pulſe could ſcarcely be felt; the ex diſſolved in an ounce and a half of ſpirituous cinnamon-water, to tremities were cold; and there was a conſiderable diſcharge from which was added ſeven ounces of common water, and two drachms the wound, which had already begun to mortify. She got a de of japonic tincture. Of this the patient took two ſpoonfuls once coction of the bark with wine, which alleviated the ſymptoms: but in four or five hours, and ſometimes alſo an opiate at bed-time. in removing the mortified parts, a worm was found among them He recommends the fame medicine in obſtinate diarrhæas of all nine inches long, and as thick as an eagle's quill. By proper ap kinds. A decoction of fimarauba bark was alſo found effectual, plications, the diſcharge of excrements ceaſed, and ſhe recovered when the dyſenteric fymptoms had gone off. Dr. Huck, who perfect health. She was ſenſible of no accident giving riſe to the uſed this remedy in North-America, alſo recommends it in diar- inflammation; ſo that in all probability it aroſe entirely from the rhæas. Two or three ounces of it are to be boiled in a pound and worm itſelf. See the Article ASCARIS. a half of water to a pound, and the whole quantity taken through- The tænia, or tape-worm, as it is called, is one of thoſe moſt out the day. He began with the weakeſt decoction; and, when difficult to be cured. It is of two kinds, tenia folium and tenia the ſtomach of the patient could eaſily bear it, he then ordered the lata; for a deſcription of which, ſee the article TÆNIA. The ſtrongeſt: but at the ſame time he acknowledges, that, unleſs the reaſon of its being ſo difficult to cure, is, that though portions of fick found themſelves ſenſibly better within three days from the it are apt to break off and be diſcharged, it is endowed with a time they began the medicine, they ſeldom afterwards received any power of reproduction, ſo that the patient is little or nothing better. benefit from it. But when all aſtringents have failed, Sir John The ſymptoms occafioned by it are not different froin thoſe above Pringle informs us, he hath known a cure effected by a milk and deſcribed. A ſpecific againſt the tenia lata was ſo much cele farinaceous diet; and he thinks in all caſes the diſorder would be brated in France, that the king thought proper to purchaſe it from much more eaſily removed, if the patients could be prevailed on the proprietor Madame Nouffer. to abſtain entirely from ſpirituous liquors and animal food. If the This ſpecific, however, is not to be conſidered as a new diſco milk by itſelf ſhould turn four on the ſtomach, a third part of lime- very; the efficacy of fern in caſes of tænia having been known water may be added. In one caſe he found a patient receive more long ago. Theophraſtus preſcribes its root, in doſes of four drams, benefit from good butter-milk than from ſweet-milk. The chief given in water ſweetened with honey, as uſeful in expelling flat drinks are decoctions of barley, rice, calcined hartſhorn, toaſt and worms. Dioſcorides orders it in the ſame doſe, and adds, that its water, or milk and water. effects are more certain when it is mixed with four oboli (40 grains) | GENUS XLV. DIABETES, or too great a Quantity of Urine. of ſcammony or black hellebore; he particularly requires that gar- lic ſhould be taken before hand. Pliny, Galen, Oribafius, and Deſcription. The diabetes firſt ſhews itſelf by dryneſs of the Aëtius, aſcribe the ſame virtue to fern; and are followed in this mouth and thirſt, white frothy ſpittle, and the urine in ſomewhat by Avicenna, and the other Arabian phyſicians. larger quantity than uſual. A heat begins to be perceived in the Simon Paulus, quoted by Ray and Geoffroy, conſiders it as the bowels, which at firſt is a little pungent, and gradually increaſes. moſt efficacious of all poiſons againſt the flat worm, and as being The thirſt continues to augment by degrees, and the patient gradu- the baſis of all the ſecret remedies extolled by empirics in that dif- ally loſes the power of retaining his urine for any length of time. eaſe. Andry (gênêr des Vers, p. 246, 249) prefers diſtilled fern It is remarkable, that, though the patients drink much, the quan- water to the root in powder, or he employs it only in the form of tity of urine always exceeds what is drank. When the urine is an opiate, or mixed with other ſubſtances. retained a little while, there is a ſwelling of the loins, ilia, and Theſe are not the only authors who have mentioned the tænia ; teſtes; the ſtrength gradually decays; the ſkin is dry and thrivelled; many others have deſcribed this worm, the ſymptoms it excites, ædematous ſwellings ariſe in various parts of the body, but after- wards N° 103 * 7D MEDICINE. wards fubfide without relieving the diſeaſe in the leaſt; and the , notwithſtanding this, it is extremely difficult of cure, and rarely patient is frequently carried off by convulſions. admits of any thing elſe than being palliated; for though it ſhould Cauſes. Theſe are exceedingly obſcure and uncertain; ſpaſms ſeem to be conquered by medicine for a time, it very quickly re- of the nervous ſyſtem, debility, and every thing inducing it, but turns, and that from the flighteſt cauſes. eſpecially ſtrong diuretics and immoderate venery, have been ac Cure. The moſt powerful remedy hitherto diſcovered in hy- cuſed as bringing on the diabetes. It hath, however, occurred in per- fteric caſes is opium, or the ſolution of it called laudanum. By this fons where none of all theſe cauſes could be ſuſpected; nor have commonly the moſt violent paroxyſms are ſtopped, though it is not the beſt phyſicians been able to determine it. Diffections have fufficient to accompliſh a radical cure. In Home's Clinical Ex- only ſhewn that the kidneys were in an enlarged and relaxed ftate. periments we find an inſtance of a cure performed by venefection, In one of Dr. Home's patients who died, they ſmelled four ; though this remedy hath been generally condemned in hyſterical which ſhewed that the urine peculiar to diabetes came from the kid caſes. Aſafoetida ſeems to ſtand next in virtue to opium; though neys, and was ſent directly from the inteſtines by a retrograde mo with ſome it diſagrees, and occaſions pains in the ſtomach and vo- tion of the lymphatics, as ſome imagine. miting. Æther will alſo frequently remove an hyſteric fit: but Prognoſis. The diabetes is rarely cured, unleſs when taken at its effects are of ſhort duration; and if it do not effect a cure foon the very beginning, which is ſeldom done; and in a confirmed after its exhibition, no ſervice is to be expected either by perſever- diabetes, the prognoſis muſt therefore be unfavourable. ance in the uſe of it or by increaſing the doſe, and with ſome con- Gure. The only hopes of a cure in this diſtemper are from aſtrin- ftitutions it diſagrees to ſuch a degree as to occaſion convulſions. gent and ſtrengthening medicines, ſuch as the bark in ſubſtance, If the patient is feized with a violent fit, fo that ſhe can ſwallow with ſmall doſes of rhubarb; decoction of the bark, with the acid nothing, which is frequently the cafe, it will be proper to apply elixir of vitriol; the cold infuſion of the bark; Dover's powder; | fome ſtrong volatile alkali to her noſe; or if that be not at hand, alum-whey ; lime-water; antimonials combined with tin&tura The the vapour of burning feathers is ſometimes very efficacious. A baica. The body ſhould be kept conſtantly open, either with rhu- / plaſter of galbanum and aſafætida will alfo prove ſervicable: but barb, or the infuſion of ſenna joined with rhubarb. The common it muſt be remembered, that none of theſe things will prevent the drink ſhould be rice-water, barley-water, lime-water and milk; return of the diſeaſe; and therefore a radical cure is to be at- lime-water alone; fage, balm, or mint-tea; ſmall beer, ſimple wa tempted by exerciſe, the Peruvian bark, chalybeates, mineral wa- ter, and water acidulated with the vitriolic acid. In ſeven months, ters, and other tonics. theſe remedies judiciouſly varied, may make ſome progreſs in re Genus XLVII. HYDROPHOBIA; the Dread of WATER. moving the diſeaſe. In Dr. Home's patients, all theſe medicines, Deſcription. This diſeaſe commonly does not make its attack and many others, were tried without the leaſt good effect; inſomuch till a conliderable time after the bite. In ſome few inſtances it that he uſes this remarkable expreſſion : “ Thus theſe two patients hath commenced in ſeven or eight days from the accident; but have exhauſted all that experience had ever recommended, and al- generally the patient continues in health for 20, 30, or 40 days, or moſt all that theory could ſuggeſt; yet, in both caſes, the diſeaſe has even much longer. The_bite hath been healed long before that reſiſted all the means of cure uſed." It is remarkable, that though time, frequently with the greateſt eaſe; though ſometimes it refifts feptics were given to both, in ſuch quantity as evidently to produce all kinds of healing applications, and forms a running ulcer which a putreſcency in the prime viæ, the urine remained unaltered, both diſcharges a quantity of matter for many days. The patient be- in quantity and quality. See the Article DIABETES, comes melancholy, loves folitude, and hath a ſickneſs at ſtomach. GENUS XLVI. HYSTERIA, HYSTERICS. Sometimes the peculiar fymptom of the diſeaſe, the dread of water Deſcription. The hyſteria is a convulſive diſeaſe which comes comes on all at once. Sometimes the diſeaſe begins like a com- on at uncertain intervals, ſometimes longer and ſometimes ſhorter, mon ſore throat; and the foreneſs daily increaſing, the hydropho- but at no ſtated time. The paroxyſms commonly begin with a bic ſymptoms ſhew themſelves like a convulſive ſpaſm of the muſ- languor and debility of the whole body; yawning, ſtretching, and cles of the fauces. Dr. James, in his treatiſe on canine madneſs, reſtleſſneſs. A ſenſe of coldneſs, alſo, in the extremities, almoſt mentions a boy ſent out to fill up two bottles with water, who was always precedes, and for the moſt part remains during the whole fo terrified by the noiſe of the liquid running into them, that he time of the paroxyſm. To this ſometimes ſucceeds a ſenſe of fled into the houſe crying out that he was bewitched. He men- heat; and the two ſenſations alternate with each other in different tions alſo the caſe of a farmer, who, going to draw ſome ale from parts of the body. The face is ſometimes fluſhed and ſometimes the caſk, was terrified to ſuch a degree at its running into the vef- pale; and ſometimes the paleneſs and fluſhing come alternately. ſel, that he ran out in great haſte with the ſpigot in his hand. There is a violent pain in the head; the eyes become dim, and But in whatever manner this fymptom comes on, it is certain that pour out tears; there is a rumbling and inflation of the inteſtines; the moſt painful ſenſations accompany every attempt to ſwallow a ſenſation is felt like that of a globe aſcending from the lower part of liquids. Nay, the bare ſight of water, of a looking-glaſs, of any the abdomen or hypogaftrium, which ſometimes ſeems to roll along thing clear or pellucid, will give the utmoſt uneaſineſs, or even the whole alimentary canal. It afcends to the ſtomach, ſometimes throw them into convulſions. ſuddenly, ſometimes ſlowly; and there produces a ſenſe of inflation With regard to the affection of the mind itſelf in this diſeaſe, it and weight, together with anxiety, nauſea, and vomiting. At laſt does not appear that the patients are deprived of reaſon. Some it comes up to the throat, where it produces a ſenſe of ſuffocation, have, merely by the dint of reſolution, conquered the dread of and difficulty of breathing or ſwallowing. All this time there are water, though they never could conquer the convulſive motions the moſt violent pains both in the external and internal parts of which the contact of liquids occafioned: while this reſolution hath the abdomen; the muſcles are convulſed: the navel is drawn in been of no avail; for the convulſions and other ſymptoms increa- wards; and there are frequently ſuch ſpaſms of the inteſtines, that fing, have almoſt always deſtroyed the unhappy patients. neither clyſters can be injected, nor even flatus paſs downwards. In this diſeaſe there ſeems to be an extreme ſenſibility and irri- Sometimes the paroxyſm remits after theſe ſymptoms have conti- tability of the nervous ſyſtem. The eyes cannot bear the light, or nued for a certain time; but more frequently the patients fall into the fight of any thing white; the leaſt touch or motion offends fainting fits; ſometimes they lie without motion, as if they were in them, and they want to be kept as quiet and in as dark a place as a deep ſleep; ſometimes they beat their breaſts violently and conti- poſſible. In all there is a great flow of viſcid faliva into the nually with their hands, and ſometimes they are ſeized with general mouth; which is exceedingly troubleſome to the patients, as it has convulſions, and the diſeaſe puts on an appearance of an epilepſy. the ſame effect upon their fauces that other liquids have. This In ſome patients the extremities become cold and ſtiff, and the therefore they perpetually blow off with violence, which in a pa- body has the appearance of one in a catalepſy. Sometimes a moſt tient of Dr. Fothergill's occafioned a noiſe not unlike the hollow violent beating pain takes place in ſome part of the head, as if a barking of a dog, and which he conjectures might have given riſe nail was driving into it, and all viſible objects ſeem to turn round; to the common notion, that hydrophobous patients bark like dogs. grievous pains attack the loins, back, and bladder, and the patients They have an inſatiable thirſt; but are unable to get down any make a ſurpriſing quantity of urine as limpid as water : which laſt drink, except with the utmoſt difficulty; though ſometimes they is one of the fureſt ſigns of the diſeaſe. The mind is very much can ſwallow bread ſoaked in liquids, ſlices of oranges, or other affected as well as the body. Sometimes the patients are tor fruits. There is a pain under he ſcrobiculus cordis, and the pa- mented with vain fears; ſometimes they will laugh, at other times tients mournfully point to that place as the ſeat of the diſeaſe. Dr. cry immoderately; and ſometimes their temper becomes ſo peevith Vaughan is of opinion that it is this pain, rather than any diffi- and fretful, that they cannot enjoy a moment's quiet. culty in ſwallowing, which diſtreſſes the patient on every attempt Cauſes, &c. The general cauſe of hyſteria is thought by the to drink. The voice is commonly plaintive and mournful ; but beſt phyſicians to conſiſt in a too great mobility and irritability of Dr. Vaughan tells us there is a mixture of fierceneſs and timidity the nervous ſyſtem, and of conſequence may be brought on by in the countenance, which he cannot deſcribe, but by which he whatever debilitates and renders the body irritable. Hence the could know an hydrophobous perſon without aſking any queſtions, diſeaſe moſt frequently attacks females of a weak and lax habit of In this diſtemper, indeed, the ſymptoms are fo various, that they the body, though there are ſome inſtances of men alſo attacked by cannot be enumerated; for we ſeldom read two caſes of hydro- it. The diſeaſe generally comes on between the time of puberty phobia which do not differ very remarkably in this reſpect. Some and the age of 35, and makes its attacks during the time of men ſeem to have at times a furious delirium, and an inclination to ſpit ſtruation more frequently than at any other. It alſo more uſually at or bite the byſtanders; while others ſhew no ſuch inclination, ſeizes barren women and young widows, than ſuch as are bearing but will even ſuffer people to wipe the inſide of their mouths with children. the corner of a handkerchief, in order to clear away the viſcid ſaliva Prognoſis. Though the appearance of this diſeaſe is ſo very which is ready to fuffocate them. In ſome male patients there is terrible, it ſeldom proves mortal unleſs by wrong treatment: but an involuntary erection of the penis, and emiſſion of the ſemen ; and MEDICINE. and the urine is forced away by the frequent return of the ſpaſms. mended in fri&tions, and to be taken inwardly in the form of ca- In a letter from Dr. Wolf of Warſaw to Henry Baker, F. R. S. lomel and turbith-mineral, in order if poſſible to raiſe a flight ſa- dated Warſaw, Sept. 26th, 1767, we have the following melan livation, on which the efficacy was thought to depend. Beſides choly account of the caſes of five perſons who died of the hydro- this, venefection, opium, the bark, camphire, have been tried phobia: “ None of them quite loft their right ſenſes; but they in very large quantities; the warm bath; and, in ſhort, every were all talking without intermiſſion, praying, lamenting, de- thing which human invention could ſuggeſt . (pairing, curſing, fighing, ſpitting a frothy ſaliva, ſcreeching, The laſt celebrated antidote againſt the poiſon of a mad dog. ſometimes belching, retching, but rarely vomiting. Every mem hath been known for ſome years by the name of the Ormſkirk me- ber is convulſed by fits, but moſt violently from the navel up dicine. The true compoſition of this is kept a ſecret by the pro- to the breaſt and oeſophagus. The fit comes on every quar prietors : however, it hath been analyſed, and the following com- ter of an hour; the fauces are not red, nor the tongue dry. The poſition publiſhed by Dr. Heyſham as perfectly fimilar to it in all pulſe is not at all feveriſh, and when the fit is nearly over like a reſpects. found pulſe. The face grows pale, then brown, and during the « Take half an ounce of chalk, three drachms of Armenian fit almoſt black; the lips livid: the head is drowſy, and the ears bole, ten grains of alum, one drachm of elecampane in powder ; tingling; the urine limpid. At laſt they grow weary; the fits mix them altogether, and add fix drops of oil of aniſe." are leſs violent, and ceaſe towards the end; the pulſe becomes They muſt certainly be very credulous who can put confidence weak, intermittent, and not very quick ; they ſweat, and at laſt in ſuch an inſignificant medicine as a preſervative againſt the hy- the whole body becomes cold. They compoſe themſelves quietly drophobia : however, there is a poſſibility that there may be ſome as if to get ſleep, and ſo they expire. unknown ingredient in the genuine powder; for it is difficult to Cauſes, &c. In no diſeaſe whatever are we more at a loſs to analyſe powders after the ingredients are thoroughly mixed toge- diſcover the cauſes than in the hydrophobia. In dogs, foxes, and ther. The efficacy of the medicine therefore muſt depend on the wolves, it ſeems to come on ſpontaneouſly; though this is con virtues of that unknown ingredient, if any ſuch there is. teſted by ſome authors. It is ſaid, that the cauſes commonly aſ Many inſtances might be adduced of the inefficacy of this pre- figned, viz. heat, feeding upon putrid fleſh, want of water, &c. tended ſpecific: the danger of acquieſcing in which, will, it is are not ſufficient for producing the diſtemper. It does not appear hoped, create a due degree of caution in thoſe to whom they who that madneſs is more frequent among dogs in the warm than in are ſo unfortunate as to be bit by a mad animal may commit the cold climates; nay, in the iſland of Antigua, where the cli themſelves. Of the great variety of remedies which have had mate is very hot, and the water very ſcarce, the dogs are faid not their day of reputation, there is not one which has not poſſeffed to be ſubje&t to this diſtemper. the credit ſome time or other, of preventing the noxious effets With regard to the immediate cauſe among mankind, there is ariſing from the bite of a mad dog. A more adequate experience not the leaſt doubt that the hydrophobia is occaſioned by the ſaliva has with all of them diſcovered the deception. It was above ob- of the mad animal being mixed with the blood. It doth not ap- ſerved, that the hydrophobia is by no means the infallible confe- pear that this can operate through the cuticula; but, when that quence of being bit by a mad animal: and that of between 20 and is rubbed off, the ſmalleſt quantity is ſufficient to communicate the 30 perſons who were bit by the dog which gave the fatal wound diſeaſe, and a ſlight ſcratch with the teeth of a mad animal hath to one of Dr. Vaughan's patients, not one felt the leaſt ill effect been found as pernicious as a large wound. It is certain alſo, that but himſelf. « In the above number (ſays the Doctor) were ſome the infection hath been communicated by the bites of dogs, cats, who took the Ormſkirk Medicine; others went to the ſalt-water; wolves, foxes, weaſels and ſwine, when in a ſtate of madneſs. and a part of them uſed no remedy, who yet fared equally well When we attempt to inveſtigate the nature of the cauſe of the with the moſt attentive to their injury. The ſame thing has often hydrophobia by diſſections, our inquiries are commonly diſap- happened before; and much merit, I doubt not, has been attri- pointed. In two bodies opened by Dr. Vaughan, there was not buted to the medicine taken, from that celebrated one of Sir George the leaſt morbid appearance; in the very fauces, where we might | Cobb, down to the infallible one which my good Lady Bountiful's have expected that the diſeaſe would have ſhewn itſelf moſt evi receipt-book furniſhes. dently, there was not the leaſt appearance even of inflammation. From all that has been ſaid the reader will judge how far the The ſtomach, inteſtines, diaphragm, æſophagus, &c. were all in hydrophobia is capable of being fubdued by any of the medicinal a natural ſtate: neither do we find in authors of credit any certain powers which have yet been tried. Some eminent phyſicians af- accounts of morbid appearances in the bodies of hydrophobous ſert that it is totally incurable ; and alledge that the inſtances re- 97 perſons after death. On corded by different authors of its cure, have not been the genuine Prognoſis. When a perſon is bit, the prognoſis with regard to the kind, but that which comes on ſpontaneouſly, and which is by enſuing hydrophobia is very uncertain. All thoſe who are bit do no means ſo dangerous. Indeed two of Dr. Wolf's patients re- not fall into the diſeaſe; nay, Dr. Vaughan relates, that out of 30 covered, where the diſeaſe ſeems to have been perfectly genuine : bit by a mad dog, only one was ſeized with the hydrophobia. but in theſe the poiſon ſeemed to vent itſelf partly on ſome other During the interval betwixt the bite and the time the diſeaſe comes place beſides the nervous ſyſtem. In one the blood was evidently on, there are no ſymptoms by which we can judge whether it will infected, as it had an abominable foetor; and the other had a vi- appear or not. When once it hath made its appearance, the prog olent pain and ſwelling in the belly. In all the others it ſeemed noſis is exceedingly fatal. ton dy to have attacked only the nervous ſyſtem: which perhaps hath not Prevention and Cure. It hath been generally allowed by practi the ſame ability to throw off any offending matter that the vaſcular tioners, that though the hydrophobia may be prevented, yet it can ſyſtem hath. ſeldom or ever be cured after it has made its appearance. A great Dr. Wolf himſelf adopts this hypotheſis, that perhaps the ſerum number of different methods of prevention have been attempted. may become frothy; but in blood drawn from a vein not the leaſt Bathing in cold water, eſpecially in the ſea, and drinking ſea-wa fault appears either in the ſerum or craſſamentum. He affirms, ter for a certain time, have been preſcribed, and by ſome ac however, that the duodenum appears to be one of the parts firſt counted a certain preventative. preventative. When this was known to fail, and principally affected; and as it is not inflamed, it would ſeem a long courſe of antiphlogiſtic regimen, violent ſubmerſion in wa that the affection it ſuſtains muſt ariſe from the vitiated ſtate of its ter even to danger of drowning, and keeping the wounded place juices. open with cauteries, were recommended. To this extreme ſe Be this as it will, however, in the hydrophobia, the ſtomach verity Dr. Mead objected; and in his treatiſe on this ſubject en ſeems totally, or in a great meaſure, to loſe the power which at deavours to thew, that in all ages the greateſt ſucceſs hath been other times it poſſeſſes. Two grains of cuprum ammoniacale were reaped from diuretics, for which reaſon he propoſes the following repeatedly given to a child of eight years of age without effect ; powder : « Take aſh-coloured ground-liver-wort, half an ounce; but this doſe would occaſion violent vomiting in a ſtrong healthy black pepper, two drachms: reduce them ſeparately to powder, man. Something or other therefore muſt have prevented this ſub- then mix them together.” But this medicine, which was inſerted ſtance from acting on the nervous coat of the ſtomach; and this, in former editions of the London Diſpenſatory under the name of we can only ſuppoſe to have been the exceedingly diſordered ſtate Pulvis Antilyſus, has long loſt its credit. of the gaſtric juice, which occafioned ſuch violent irritation through There is a famous Eaſt-India medicine compoſed of 24 grains the whole body, that the weaker ſtimulus of the medicine was en- of native and as much factitious cinnabar, made into a powder with tirely loft. It would ſeem proper therefore to conſider the ſtomach 16 grains of muſk. This is called the Tonquin medicine, and muſt in hydrophobic caſes as really containing a poiſonous matter, be taken in a tea-cup full of arrack or brandy; and is ſaid to ſecure which could not be expelled by vomiting, becauſe it is renewed as the patient or 30 days, at the expiration of which it is to be re faſt as evacuated. The indication therefore muſt be, to change its peated, but if he has any ſymptoms of the diſeaſe, it muſt be re nature by ſuch medicines as are certainly more powerful than the peated in three hours, which is ſaid to be ſufficient for a cure. poiſon ; and this indication will naturally lead us to think of large The firſt doſe is to be taken as ſoon after the bite as poſſible. doſes of alkaline ſalts. Theſe, it is certain, will deſtroy any ani- Another celebrated remedy is Palmarius's powder, compoſed of mal ſubſtance with which they come in contact, and render even the leaves of rue, vervian, fage, polypody, wormwood, inint, the poiſon of ſerpents inactive. By exhibiting a few doſes of them, mugwort, balm, betony, St. John's-wort, and leffer centaury. | larger no doubt than what could be ſafely done on other occaſions, Theſe herbs muſt be gathered in their prime, dried ſeparately in we ſhould be certain to change the ſtate of the ſtomachic juices; the ſhade, and then powdered. The doſe is a drachm, or a drachm and thus might free the patient from thoſe intolerable ſpaſms and a half, taken every day. which always occaſion death in ſuch a ſhort time. Dr. Wolf A remedy which might promiſe to be more efficacious than any ſeems inclined to think that volatile alkalies were of ſervice; but of theſe hitherto mentioned is mercury. This hath been recom the above hypotheſis would incline us to uſe rather the fixed kind. At MEDICINE. At any time it ſeems vain for phyſicians to truſt much to the power they may think, that, by thus tormenting the body, they render of opium; mercury, mulk or cinnabar, either ſingly, or combined themſelves more acceptable to the divine Being, and expiate the hei- in any poſſible way. The bark hath alſo failed, and the moſt ce nous fins of which they may imagine themſelves to have been guilty. lebrated ſpecifics have been found ineffectual. Alkalies are the Cure, &c. All the ſpecies and degrees of madneſs which are next moſt powerful remedies which the materia medica affords, and hereditary, or that grow up with people from their early youth, are they cannot be more unſucceſsful than the others have generally been. out of the power of phyſic; and fo, for the moſt part, are all ma- Where corroſive mercury hath been ſwallowed, alkaline falt is niacal caſes of more than one year's ſtanding, let them ariſe from recommended to deſtroy the poiſon which nature cannot expel by what ſource foever. Very often, mere waſte, or the dregs of ſome vomiting; and why ſhould not ſomething be attempted to deſtroy particular diſeaſe, ſuch as the ague, ſmall-pox, or a nervous fever, the poiſon which the ſtomach ſeems to ſecrete in the hydrophobia, Thall occaſion different degrees of fooliſhneſs, or madneſs. In theſe and which nature attempts to expel, though in vain, by violent caſes, the cure muſt not be attempted by evacuations; but, on the efforts to vomit? contrary, by nouriſhing diet, clear air, moderate exerciſe, and the But whatever plan may be purſued in the hopes of curing this uſe of wine: whereas, in almoſt all the other maniacal caſes which dreadful malady after any ef the ſymptoms have made their appear ariſe from different ſources, and which come on in conſequence of ance, we ought, in every inſtance of the accident that gives riſe to intemperate living, violent paſſions, or intenſe thinking, it is ge- it, to direct our immediate care to prevention, as being perhaps the nerally held, that evacuations of only real ground of hope: and the moſt certain and efficacious way the conſtitution of the patient be ſuch as abſolutely forbids them. of preventing the ill conſequences, is inſtantly (if it may be done) Blood is moſt conveniently drawn either from the arm or jugu- to cut out the piece in the place that happens to be bitten. Dr. lars; and if the weakneſs be ſuch as renders it improper to take James, indeed, ſays, that he would have little opinion of cutting away much blood, we may apply cupping-glaſſes to the occiput. or cauteriſing, if ten minutes were ſuffered to elapſe from the re Vomiting, in weakly people, muſt be excited by the vinum ipen ceiving of the bite before the operation was performed. But in cacuanhæ; but, in the more robuſt, by emetic tartar, or antimonial an inaugural diſſertation lately publiſhed at Edinburgh by Dr. wine: the moſt efficacious cathartics, are the infuſion or tincture of Parry, the author is of opinion that exciſion will be of uſe a con black hellebore, or infuſion of ſenna, quickened with tincture of fiderable time after the bite is received. He adopts this opinion jalap; but if there be ſuppreſſion of the menſes, or hæmorrhoidal from what happens in the ſmall-pox, where the blood doth not diſcharge, then aloetic purges will be more proper. In general, ſeem to receive the infection till ſome days after inoculation hath mad people require very large doſes, both of the emetics and ca- been performed. A ſecond inflammation, he tells us, then takes thartics, before any conſiderable operation enſues. place, and the infection is conveyed into the blood. In like man Dr. Monro affures us, that the evacuation by vomiting is infi- ner, when the hydrophobous infection is about to be conveyed into nitely preferable to any other: the prodigious quantity of phlegm, the blood, according to him, the wound, or its cicatrix, begins with which the patients in this diſeaſe abound, he ſays, is not to be again to be inflamed; and it is this ſecond inflammation which does got the better of but by repeated vomits; and he obſerves, that the all the miſchief. Exciſion, or the cautery, will therefore be effec purges have not their right effect, or do not operate to ſo good pur- tual any time betwixt the bite and the ſecond inflammation of the poſe, until the phlegm is broken and attenuated by frequent eine- wound. Without implicitly truſting to this doctrine, however, tics. He mentions the caſe of a gentleman who had laboured under or conſidering it as in any degree aſcertained in what manner the a melancholy for three years, from which he was relieved entirely poiſon diffuſes itſelf, by what marks its progreſs may be known, or by the uſe of vomits, and a proper regimen. Increaſing the dir- how foon the fyftem may be irremediably tainted with its malig- | charge by urine, is alſo of the greateſt moment, eſpecially when any nity; it is undoubtedly fafeſt not to loſe unneceſſarily a moment's degree of fever is preſent. The cu The cutaneous diſcharges are alſo to be time in applying the knife. This, or a dilation of the wound, promoted, for which purpoſe the hot bath is of the higheſt ſervice if it be ſmall, Dr. Vaughan conſiders as the only prophylactics that in maniacal caſes. Hoffman aſſerts, that he has ſeen numerous in- can be depended upon. In the latter caſe, he directs to fill the ſtances, both of inveterate melancholy and raging madneſs, happily wound with gunpowder, and ſet fire to it; which would produce cured by means of warm bathing; bleeding and nitrous medicines a laceration of the part, and poſlībly the action of ignited powder having been premiſed. Camphor has alſo been highly commended; upon the poiſon may have its uſe. but, if we believe Dr. Locker of Vienna, not very deſervedly. On theſe caſes Dr. Wolf makes the following obſervations. Both reaſon and experience ſhew the neceſſity of confining ſuch 6 Thus we ſee, that the bark, the mercury, the acids, the muſk, as are deprived of their ſenſes; and no ſmall ſhare of the manage- the feeding on the moſt famous herbs, the ſweating, the cura anti ment conſiſts in hindering them to hurt themſelves, or do miſchief phlogiſtica, are no ſpecifics.” to other perſons. It has ſometimes been uſual to chain and to beat ORDER IV. VESANIÆ; Diſorders of the Judgment. them: but this is both cruel and abſurd; ſince the contrivance GENUS XLVIII. MELANCHOLIA, MELANCHOLY Madneſs . called the ſtrait waiſtcoat, anſwers every purpoſe of reſtraining the The treatment of the melancholic madneſs, being nearly ſimilar patients, without hurting them. to that of the maniac; we ſhall refer our readers to the following It is of great uſe in practice to bear in mind, that all mad people Genus. are cowardly, and can be awed even by the menacing look of a Genus XLIX. MANIA, RAVING or FURIOUS Madneſs. o very expreſſive countenance; and when thoſe who have charge of Although theſe diſtempers may be conſidered as diſtinct genera, them once impreſs them with the notion of fear, they eaſily ſubmit yet they are ſo nearly allied, and ſo readily change into each other, to any thing that is required. The phyſician however, ſhould never that it ſufficiently juſtifies the treating of them both at once. deceive them in any thing, but more eſpecially with regard to their The diſtinguiſhing characteriſtic of madneſs, according to Dr. diſtemper : for as they are generally conſcious of it themſelves, Battie, is a falſe perception; and under this general character may they acquire a kind of reverence for thoſe who know it; and by be comprehended all kinds of what is called madneſs, from the moſt letting them ſee that he is thoroughly acquainted with their com- filly ſtupidity and idiotiſm to the moſt furious lunacy. Frequently plaint, he may very often gain ſuch an aſcendant over them that the different kinds of madneſs are changed into each other by the they will readily follow his directions. caſual excitement of ſome paffion: thus, an idiot may become fu It is a more difficult matter to manage thoſe whoſe madneſs is riouſly mad, by being put in a violent paffion; though this does not accompanied either with exceſſive joy, or with great dejection and ſo often happen as the change of melancholy into the raving mad- deſpondency, than thoſe who are agitated with rage: and all that neſs, and vice verſa. can be done is to endeavour to excite contrary ideas, by repreſſing It is a very ſurpriſing circumſtance, that mad people are not only the immoderate fits of laughter in the one kind by chiding or threat- lefs liable to be ſeized with infectious diſorders than thoſe who are ening, (taking care, however, not abſolutely to terrify them, which in perfect health, but even when labouring under other diſeaſes, if can never be done without danger, and has often added to the miſery the patients chance to be ſeized with madneſs, they are ſometimes of the unhappy ſufferer); and diſpelling the gloomy thoughts in freed from their former complaints. Of this kind Dr. Mead relates the other, by introducing pleaſing concerts of muſic, or any other two very remarkable inſtances. ſpecies of entertainment which the patients have been known to On the other hand, it has been known, that an intermittent delight in while they had the uſe of their reaſon. fever, ſupervening madneſs of long ſtanding, has proved a cure Though bliſtering the head has generally been directed, Dr. for the madneſs: the ſenſes having returned, when the fever ter Mead ſays he has oftner found it to do harm than ſervice: but he minated. Dr. Monro ſaw two inſtances of this himſelf, and men recommends iſſues in the back; and adviſes to keep the head always tions it as an obſervation of his predeceffor in the care of Bethlem cloſe ſhaved, and to waſh it from time to time with warm vinegar. hoſpital. Opium is uſually forbidden in maniacal caſes, as ſuppoſing that it Another remarkable circumſtance is, that immoderate joy, long always increaſes the diſturbance; but there are inſtances where continued, as effectually diſorders the mind as anxiety and grief. large doſes of this medicine have been found to prove a cure, and For it was obſervable in the famous South-Sea year, when ſo many perhaps if it were tried oftner we ſhould find powerful effects from immenfe fortunes were ſuddenly gained, and as ſuddenly loſt, that it: there certainly cannot much harm enſue from a few doſes, more people had their heads turned, from the prodigious flow of unex which may be immediately diſuſed if they ſhould be found to exaſ- pected riches, than from the entire loſs of their whole ſubſtance. perate the diſeaſe. Mad people, eſpecially of the melancholic kind, ſometimes ob The diet of maniacal patients ought to be perfectly light and ftinately perſevere in doing things which muſt excite great pain; thin: their meals ſhould be moderate; but they ſhould never be whence it ſhould ſeem as if their minds were troubled with ſome ſuffered to live too low, eſpecially while they are under a courſe of diſtracting notions, which make them patiently bear the preſent phyſic: they ſhould be obliged to obſerve great regularity in their diſtreſs, leſt more ſevere tortures ſhould be inflicted; or poſſibly hours: even their amuſements ſhould be ſuch as are beſt ſuited to their MEDICINE. their diſpoſition; and after the diſeaſe appears to be ſubdued, cha But Dr. Fothergill obferves, that a ſtrict adherence to vegetable lybeate waters and the cold bath will be highly proper, to ſtrengthen diet reduces exuberant fat more certainly than any other means that their whole frame, and ſecure them againſt a relapſe. he knows. of; and gives two caſes wherein this regimen ſucceeded CLASS III. CACHEXIÆ. remarkably well. The famous Dr. Cheyne thus brought himſelf A depraved Habit of the whole or greateſt Part of the Body. down, from a moſt unwieldy bulk, to a reaſonable weight; as he him- ORDER I. MARCORES; a Wafting of the whole Body. ſelf informs us. See the articles CORPULENCY and ABSTINENCE. Genus L. TABES, or Waſting of the Body. Genus LIII. PNEUMATOSIS, EMPHYSEMA, Windy Swelling; This diſorder is occaſioned by the abſorption of pus from ſome The emphyſema ſometimes comes on ſpontaneouſly; but more ulcer external or internal, which produces an hectic fever. The frequently is occafioned by wounds of the lungs, which giving vent primary indication therefore muſt be to heal the ulcer, and thus to the air, that fluid inſinuates itſelf into the cellular texture, and take away the cauſe of the diſeaſe. If the ulcer cannot be healed, often blows it up to a ſurpriſing degree. It muſt be obſerved, the patient will certainly die in an emaciated ſtate. But for the pro- however, that it is only in caſes of laceration of the lungs where per treatment of the tabes proceeding from this cauſe, ſee the arti this diſeaſe can take place; for in a ſimple wound, the effufion of cles ULCER, and SYPHILIS, &c. blood always prevents the air from getting out. The cure is to be GENUS LI. ATROPHY, or NERVOUS CONSUMPTION. accompliſhed by the ſcarifications and compreſſes, and in ſome Deſcription. This is a waſting of the body, without any re caſes only by the paracenteſis of the thorax. markable fever, cough, or difficulty of breathing; but attended GENUS LIV. TYMPANITES, the TYMPANY. with want of appetite, and a bad digeſtion, whence the whole body This is an inflation of the abdomen, and is of two kinds: 1. That grows languid, and waſtes by degrees. Dr. Cullen, however, in which the flatus is contained in the inteſtines, in which the pa- afferts, that ſome degree of fever, or at leaſt of increaſed quickneſs tient has frequent exploſions of wind, with a ſwelling of the belly of the pulſe, always attends this diſeaſe. frequently unequal. 2. When the flatus is contained in the cavity Cauſes. Sometimes this diſtemper will come on without any evi- of the abdomen; in which caſe the ſwelling is more equal, and the dent cauſe. Sometimes it will ariſe from paſſions of the mind; belly founds when ſtruck, without any conſiderable emiſſion of from an abuſe of ſpirituous liquors; from exceſſive evacuations, flatus. In both caſes the reſt of the body falls away. eſpecially of the ſemen, in which caſe the diſtemper hath got the Cauſes, &c. The tympany fometimes takes place in thoſe who name of tabes dorſalis. It will ariſe from mere old age or from have been long troubled with flatulencies in the ſtomach and in- famine. teſtines. It happens frequently to women after abortion; to both Prognoſis. This diſtemper, from whatever cauſe it may ariſe, is ſexes after the ſuppreſſion of the hemorrhoides; and ſometimes very difficult to cure, and often terminates in a fatal dropſy. from tedious febrile diſorders injudiciouſly treated. Cure. Stomachic and nervous medicines are only to be depended Prognoſis . This diſeaſe is generally very obſtinate, and for the upon in this caſe. The Peruvian bark, elixir of vitriol, and cha moſt part proves fatal by degenerating into an aſcites. Sometimes, lybeates, are excellent; and the diet hould be as light and nutritive if the patient be healthy and ſtrong, the diſeaſe may terminate fa- as poflible. In that ſpecies of the diſtemper occaſioned by vene vourably, and that the more readily if it has followed ſome other real exceſſes, it is ſo eiſentially neceſſary to abſtain from them, that diſorder. A hectic conſumption, dry cough, and emaciated coun- without it the beſt remedies will prove uſeleſs. But this is ſo ſeldom tenance in a tympany, with a ſwelling of the feet, denote approach- complied with, that the tabes dorſalis almoſt always proves mortal. | ing death in a very ſhort time. ORDER II. INTUMESCENTIÆ; External Tumours. Cure. The cure of the tympany is to be attempted by carmi- GENUS LII. POLYSARCA, or CORPULENCY. native, reſolvent, and ſtomachic medicines, gentle laxatives, and at In a natural and healthy ſtate, the fat, or animal oil, is not al laſt tonics, eſpecially chalybeates. lowed to diffuſe itſelf throughout the cellular interſtices at large, Genus LV. PHYSOMETRA, or Windy SWELLING of but is confined to the places where ſuch an oily fluid is neceſſary, the Uterus. by a particular apparatus of diſtinct veſicles. But in many confti The treatment of this is not different from that of the tympany. tutions the oily part of the blood appears to exceed the requiſite GENUS LVI. ANASARCA, or WATERY SWELLING over proportion, and eaſily ſeparates from the other conſtituent parts; the Whole Body. and then it is apt to accumulate in ſuch quantities, that we may In this diſeaſe the feet firſt begin to fwell, eſpecially in the even- ſuppoſe it to burſt thoſe veficles which were originally deſtined to ing, after exerciſe, and when the patient has ſtood or fat long; hinder it from ſpreading too far. which ſwelling riſes frequently to the thighs. By lying in bed, the The increaſe of the omentum particularly, and the accumulation ſwelling becomes leſs, or even almoſt diſappears. In the pro- of fat about the kidneys and meſentery, ſwell the abdomen, and greſs of the diſeaſe, the ſwelling often riſes to the hips, loins, and obſtruct the motions of the diaphragm; whence one reaſon of the belly, and at laſt covers the whole body. This diſeaſe, beſides the difficulty of breathing which is peculiar to corpulent people; while other ſymptoms hereafter mentioned under Ascites, is attended the heart, and the large veſſels connected therewith, are in like with a remarkable difficulty of breathing. For the cure, ſee As- manner ſo encumbered, that neither the ſyſtaltic nor ſubſultory CITES. Only it may be here noticed, that in anafarca it is uſual motion can be performed with ſufficient freedom, whence weak to ſcarify the feet and legs. By this means the water is often dif- neſs and ſlowneſs of the pulſe: but when the whole habit is in a charged: but the operator muſt be cautious not to make the inciſion manner overwhelmed with an oily fluid, the enlargement of the too deep; they ought barely to penetrate through the lkin; and cellular interſtices will neceſſarily interrupt the general diſtribution eſpecial care muſt be taken, by ſpirituous fomentations and proper and circulation throughout the nervous and vaſcular ſyſtems; im- digeſtives, to prevent a gangrene. Dr. Fothergill obſerves , that peding the action of the muſcular fibres, and producing inſenſibi the ſafeſt and moſt efficacious way of making theſe drains is by the lity, fomnolency, and death. inſtrument uſed for cupping, called a ſcarfícator; and he always Theſe caſes are the more deplorable, as there is but little prof- orders it to be ſo applied as to make the little wounds tranſverſely; pect of a cure. For the animal oil is of too groſs a nature to be as they not only diſcharge better, but are alſo longer in healing, eaſily taken up by abſorption: and we know, that when fuids are than when made longitudinally. accumulated in the cellular ſyſtem, there are only two ways in Genus LVII. ASCITES, or Dropsy of the Abdomen. which they can be carried off or eſcape; namely, by the abſorbents, Deſcription. This diſeaſe aſſumes three different forms: 1.When which take their riſe from the cellular interſtices, and through the the water immediately waſhes the inteſtines. 2. When it is in- pores of the ſkin by tranſudation. terpoſed between the abdominal muſcles and peritonæum; or, Another misfortune is, that the diſeaſe ſteals on ſo impercep 3. It may be contained in ſacs and hollow glands, in which caſe it tibly, that it becomes inveterate by the time that people begin to is called the encyſted dropſy. Some phyſicians of great reputation think of purſuing the proper means of relief. have aſſerted, that the water was often placed within the duplica- Soap has been propoſed as a remedy to melt down and facilitate ture of the peritoneum: but this is alledged by Dr. Milman to the abſorption of the fat in corpulent people; and Dr. Fleming be a miſtake, as that membrane is looked upon by the beſt anato- fome years ago publiſhed a little treatiſe, wherein he recommends miſts to be ſingle; and he thinks that the abovementioned phyſici- this medicine, and relates the caſe of a gentleman who is ſaid to ans have been led into the miſtake from obſerving the water col- have received conſiderable benefit from it. But perhaps the ſoap- | lected in the cellular ſubſtance of the peritonæum. lees would be more powerful, and might be more eaſily taken, In the beginning of an aſcites the patient becomes languid, fheathed, as hereafter directed, when recommended as a diffolvent breathleſs, and hath an averſion to motion: his belly fwells; and of the ſtone. when ſtruck, the found of fluctuating water is perceptible; there Lieutaud adviſes to take acetum fcilliticum in ſmall doſes, with is a difficulty of breathing when the belly is preſſed. There is an frequent purging and briſk exerciſe. But it will ſeldom happen almoſt continual thirſt, which in the progreſs of the diſeaſe be- that the patients will be found ſufficiently ſteady to perſiſt in any comes very urgent; the urine is thick, in ſmall quantity, and red. of theſe courſes, it being the nature of the diſorder to render them The pulſe is ſmall and frequent; and as the belly ſwells, the other irrefolute and inattentive to their condition. Therefore the prin- parts waſte away. A fever at laſt ariſes, which, conſtantly in- cipal uſe of rules muſt be with a view to prevention; and perſons creaſing, at laſt carries off the patient. Theſe ſymptoms are moſt. . who are diſpoſed to corpulency ſhould take care in time to prevent urgent where the waters are in immediate contact with the intel- it from becoming an abſolute diſeaſe, by uſing a great deal of exer tines; in the other kinds the reſt of the body is leſs waſted; nor ciſe, not indulging in ſleep, and abridging their meals, eſpecially is there fo great thirſt or dificulty of breathing. that of fupper. Salted meats are leſs fattening than ſuch as are Cauſes, &c. The immediate cauſe of the dropfy is a greater effu- freſh; and drinking freely of coffee is recoinmended to corpulent fion of ſerum by the exhalent arteries than the abſorbents can take people. up. This may be occaſioned either by too great a quantity of * liquid N° 103. 7 E MEDICINE. men. liquid thrown out by the former, or by an inability of the latter to aliments; and the fame thing happens to thoſe who drink immo. perform their office. This commonly happens in people whoſe derately of fpirituous liquors. bodies are of a weak and lax texture, and hence women are more Prognoſis. When the dropſy ariſes from a ſcirrhus of the liver ſubject to this malady than men; chlorotic girls eſpecially are or ſpleen, or any of the other viſcera, the prognoſis muſt always be very apt to become dropſical. fatal, as alſo when it ariſes from diſorders of the lungs. Neither Sometimes, however, this diſeaſe is occaſioned by a debility of a debility of is the caſe more favourable to thoſe in whom the ſmall veſſels are the vital powers, by great evacuations of blood, or by acute diſeaſes ruptured, and pour out their liquids into the cavity of the abdo. accidentally protracted beyond their uſual period; and although Thoſe certainly die who have polypi in the veſſels, or this cauſe feeis very different from a laxity of fibres, yet the dropfy tumours compreſſing the veins and veſſels of the abdomen. A ſeems to be produced in a ſimilar manner by both. For the vital dropſy ariſing from obſtructions in the menſenteric glands is powers being debilitated by either of theſe cauſes, naturally bring likewiſe difficult to cure, whether ſuch obſtruction ariſe from on a certain debility and laxity of the ſolids; and on the other a bad habit of body, or from any other cauſe; but if we can by hand, a debility of the ſolids always brings on a debility of the vital any means remove the diſeaſe of the glands, the dropfy eaſily powers; and from this debility of the vital powers in both caſes it ceaſes. But in thoſe who fall into dropſy without any diſeaſe pre- often happens, that thoſe humours which ought to be expelled ceding, it is not quite ſo dangerous; and even though a diſeaſe hath from the body are not, but accumulate by degrees in its cavities. preceded, if the patient's ſtrength is not greatly weakened, if the There is, however, this difference between the two kinds of dropſy reſpiration is free, and the perſon is not affected with any particu- ariſing from theſe two different cauſes : That in the one which lar pain, we may entertain great hopes of a cure. But where a ariſes from laxity, the folid parts are more injured than in that great loſs of blood is followed by a fever, and that by a dropſy, which ariſes from a debility of the vital powers. In the former, the patients almoſt always die, and that in a ſhort time; but they therefore, the water ſeems to flow out from every quarter, and the are very frequently cured who fall into this diſeaſe without any pre- body ſwells all over. But when the diſeaſe is occaſioned by a de ceding hæmorrhage. bility of the vital powers, though the ſolids are leſs damaged, yet Cure. In the cure of this diſeaſe authors chiefly mention two the power of the heart being much diminiſhed, and the humours indications. 1. To expel the fuperfluous quantity of water; and, ſcarce propelled through the extreme veſſels, the thin liquids by 2. To prevent its being again collected. But before we proceed to which, in a healthy itate, the body is daily recruited, are carried by ſpeak of the remedies, it is neceſſary to take notice, that by the ani- their own weight either into the cavities or into the cellular texture, mal economy, if a great evacuation of a fluid takes place in any Hence thoſe aqueous effuſions which follow great evacuations of part of the body, all the other fluids in the body are directed to blood, or violent looſeneſſes, begin in the more depending parts wards that part, and thoſe which lie as it were lurking in different of the body, gradually aſcending, till they arrive at the cavity of parts will be immediately abſorbed, and thrown out by the ſame the abdomen, or even the thorax. paffage. Hence the humours which in hydropic perfons are extra- But another and much more fufficient cauſe for the production vaſated into the different cavities of the body will be thrown into of dropfy is an obſtruction of the circulation ; and this may take the inteſtines, and evacuated by purgatives; or by diuretics will be place from polypi in the heart or large veſſels, and hard ſwellings thrown into the kidneys, and evacuated by urine. It is not, how. in the abdomen. Inſtances have been obſerved of a dropfy ariſing ever, only neceſſary to excite theſe evacuations in order to remove from ſteatomatous tumours in the omentum, and many more from this malady, but they muſt be aſſiduouſly promoted and kept up a ſcirrhous liver or fpleen, and from an infarction and obſtruction till the abundant humour is totally expelled. For this reaſon Sy- of the meſenteric glands, by which means the lymph coming from denham has adviſed purgatives to be adminiſtered every day, unleſs, the extremities is prevented from ariving at the heart. either through the too great weakneſs of the body, or the violent Laſtly, whatever, either within or without the veſſels, contracts operation of the purgative, it ſhall be neceſſary to interpoſe a day or ſhuts up their cavities, produces a more copious and eaſy tranſ or two now and then ; becauſe if any conſiderable intervals are million of the thin humours through the exhalent arteries, at the allowed to take place between the exhibition of the purgatives, an fame time that it prevents their return by the abſorbent veins. opportunity is given to the waters of collecting again. In this This hath been eſtabliſhed by experiment. For Lower having method, however, there is the following inconvenience, that, when perforated the right ſide of the thorax in a dog, tied the vena cava the waters are totally evacuated, the ſtrength is at the ſame time ſo and fewed up the wound. The animal languiſhed for a few much exhauſted, that the diſtemper commonly returns in a very hours, and then died. On diſſection, a great quantity of ſerum ſhort time. Hence almoſt our only hopes of curing a dropfy, con- was found in the abdomen, as if he had long laboured under an fiſt in gently evacuating the waters by means of diuretics. But aſcites. In like manner, having tied the jugular veins of another the efficacy of theſe is generally very doubtful. Dr. Friend hath dog, a ſurprizing ſwelling took place in thoſe parts above the li- long ago obſerved, that this part of medicine is of all others the gatures, and in two days the creature died. On diſſection, all the moſt lame and imperfect; but a certain French phyſician named muſcles and glands were vaſtly diſtended, and quite pellucid, with Bacher, lately found a method of making the diuretics much more limpid ſerum. From theſe experiments, and ſome caſes of dif ſucceſsful. His reputation became at laſt ſo great, that the French eaſe mentioned by different authors, it appears, that when the veins king thought proper to purchaſe his ſecret for a great ſum of mo- are obſtructed ſo that they cannot receive the arterial blood, the ney. The baſis of his medicine was hellebore-root, the malignant ſerum is ſeparated as by a filtre into the more open cavities and qualities of which he pretended to correct. laxer parts of the body, while the thicker part ſtagnates, and is But though Bacher was firmly of opinion that his pills cured the collected in the proper blood veſſels. dropfy by reaſon of the correction; yet it is certain, that, in the The too great tenuity of the humours is very frequently accuſed hands of other practitioners, his pills have failed. It is alſo certain as the cauſe of dropſy; and many authors have aſſerted, that dropſy that different medicines will prove equally efficacious in dropſical might ariſe merely from a fuperabundance of water in the blood. cafes, provided a regimen is made uſe of. For this fome experiments of Haleſius are quoted, from which they For a great number of ages it hath been recommended to drop- would infer, that when a great quantity of aqueous fluid is intro fical patients to abſtain as much as poſſible from drink, and thus to duced into the blood, the ſuperfluous fluid ought by no means to the torments of their diſeaſe was added that of an intolerable thirſt; and how great this torment was, we underſtand from an exam- veins in the common courſe of circulation, but by being effuſed ple of a friend of king Antigonus, who, having been cloſely into the cavities ſhould produce a dropfy. But this can only happen watched both by order of the phyſicians and alſo of the king, was when the vital powers are very much diminiſhed; for, in a natu ſo unable to bear the raging thirft occaſioned by his diſeaſe, that he ral ſtate, the ſuperfluous quantity is immediately thrown out by the ſwallowed his own excrements and urine, and thus ſpeedily put an ſkin or kidneys; and agreeable to this we have an experiment of end to his life. Dr. Milman ſhews at great length the pernicious Schultzius, who induced a dropſy in a dog by cauſing him to drink tendency of this practice. He maintains that it is quite contrary a great quantity of water ; but he had firſt bled him almoſt ad de- to the ſentiments of Hippocrates and the beſt ancient phyſicians. liquium, ſo that the vital powers were in a manner oppreſſed by the He aſſerts, that unleſs plenty of diluting drink is given, the beſt deluge of water. In this manner do thoſe become hydropic, who diuretics can have no effect. He condemns alſo in the ſtrongeſt are feized with the diſeaſe on drinking large quantities of water, terms the practice of giving dropſical patients only dry, hard, and either when wearied with labour, or weakened by ſome kinds of indigeſtible aliments. Theſe would oppreſs the ſtomach even of diſeaſes. Dr. Fothergill relates an inſtance of a perſon who, being the moſt healthy, and how much more muſt they do fo to thoſe adviſed to drink plentifully of barley water, in order to remove a who are already debilitated by labouring under a tedious diſorder? fever, rafhly drank 12 pounds of that liquor every day for a month, | By what means alſo are theſe aliments to be diſſolved in the ſtomach, and thus fell into an almoſt incurable diſtemper. But if this quan when drink is withheld ? In this diſeaſe the ſaliva is viſcid, and in tity had been taken only during the prevalence of the fever, he ſmail quantity; from whence it may be reaſonably conjectured, would, in all probability, have ſuffered no inconvenience. that the reſt of the fluids are of the ſame nature, and the gaſtric The remote cauſes of dropſy are many and various. Whatever juices likewiſe depraved. Thus the aliments lie long in the ſto- relaxes the folids in ſuch a manner as to give an occaſion of accu mach; and if the viſcera were formerly free of obſtructions, they mulation to the ferous fluids, diſpoſes to the dropſy. A lazy, indo are now generated; the ſtrength fails; perſpiration and other ex- lent life, rainy, wet weather, fwampy or low ſoils, and every thing cretions are obſtructed; the viſcid and pituitous humours produced which conduces to vitiate the viſcera, or inſenſibly to produce ob- by theſe kinds of food float about the præcordia, and increaſe the ſtructions in them, paves the way for a dropſy. Hence thoſe are diſeaſe, while the ſurface of the body becomes quite dry. Nay, fo ready to fall into the diſeaſe who uſe hard and viſcid aliments, ſuch much does this kind of diet conſpire with the diſeaſe, that 1000 as poor people in ſome countries who are fed with unwholeſome pounds of fluid will ſometimes be imbibed in a few days by hydro- pic MEDICINE. pic perſons who take no drink. Even in health, if the body from corroded, and death enſues after a long ſcene of miſery. The any cauſe becomes dry, or deprived of a conſiderable part of its prognoſis in this reſpect muſt be regulated entirely by the nature juices, as by hunger, labour, &c. it will imbibe a conſiderable of the ſymptoms. quantity of moiſture from the air; ſo that we muft impute the Cure. It was long ſuppoſed, that ſcrophula depended upon an above-mentioned extraordinary inhalation, in part at leaſt, to the acid acrimony of the fluids; and this, it is probable, gave riſe to denial of drink, and to the nature of the aliment given to the fick. the uſe of burnt ſponge, different kinds of ſoap, and other alkaline The following is the method, related by Dr. Milman, of his prac ſubſtances, as the beſt remedies for acidity. But although a fore- tice in the Middleſex hoſpital. neſs of the ſtomach and primæ viæ dues no doubt frequently occur If the patient is not very much debilitated, he is ſometimes in theſe complaints, yet it ſeems to be entirely the conſequence of treated with the purging waters, and a doſe of jalap and calomel al that general relaxation which in ſcrophula fo univerſally prevails, ternately. On the intermediate. days he gets a faline mixture, and which does not render it in the leaſt neceſſary to fuppofe a ge- with 40 or 60 drops of acetum fciliticum every ſixth hour; drink neral aceſcency of the fluids to take place; as the one very frequent- ing with the purgatives oat-gruel and ſome thin broths. That he ly, it is well known, even in other complaints, occurs without might the better aſcertain what ſhare the liquids given along with the leaſt ſuſpicion of any acid acrimony exiſting. This is alſo the medicines had in producing a copious flow of urine, he ſome rendered very probable from the indolent nature of ſcrophulous times gave the medicines in the beginning of the diſtemper without tumours, which have been known to ſubſiſt for years without giving allowing the drink: but though the ſwellings were uſually dimi any uneaſineſs; which could not have been the caſe, if an acid, niſhed a little by the purgatives, the urine ſtill continued ſcanty, or any other acrimony, had prevailed in them. and the patients were greatly weakened. Fearing, therefore, lelt, Gentle mercurials are ſometimes of uſe as reſolvents in ſcrophu. by following this courſe, the ſtrength of the ſick might be too much lous ſwellings; but nothing has ſuch conſiderable influence as a fre- reduced, he then began his courſe of diuretic medicines, giving quent and copious uſe of Peruvian bark. Cold bathing too, eſpe- large quantities of barley-water with a little fal diureticus ; by cially in the fea, together with frequent moderate exerciſe, is often which means, ſometimes in the ſhort ſpace of 48 hours after the of fingular ſervice here; as is likewiſe change of air, eſpecially to courſe was begun, the urine flowed out in a very large quantity : a warm climate. but as ſaline drinks are very diſagreeable to the taſte, a drink was In the ſcrophulous inflammation of the eyes, or ophthalmia ſtru- compoſed purpoſely for hydropic perſons, of half an ounce of cream moſa, the bark has alſo been given with extraordinary advantage : of tartar diſſolved in two pounds of barley-water, made agreeably and we meet with an inſtance of its having cured the gutta roſacea ſweet with ſyrup, adding one or two ounces of French brandy. in the face; a complaint which is ſo often difficult to remove, To this compoſition Dr. Milman was induced by the great and is extremely diſagreeable to the fair ſex. From the various praiſes given to cream of tartar by fome phyſicians in hydropic caſes related of tumified glands it appears, that when the habit is cafes. In the Aeta Bononienſia, 15 caſes of hydropic patients are relaxed and the circulation weak, either from conſtitution or acci- narrated who were cured only by taking half an ounce of cream of dent, the bark is a moſt efficacious medicine, and that it acts as a tartar daily. But it is remarkable, that by theſe very patients the reſolvent and diſcutient. It will not, however, ſucceed in all caſes; cream of tartar was taken for 20, 30, nay 40 days, often without but there are few in which a trial can be attended with much detri- any perceptible effect; yet when diſſolved in a large quantity of ment. Dr. Fothergill obſerves, that he has never known it avail water, it thewed its ſalutary effects frequently within as many hours, much where the bones are affected, nor where the ſcrophulous tu- by producing a plentiful flow of urine. This liquor is now the mour is ſo ſituated as to be accompanied with much pain, as in common drink of hydropic patients in the hoſpital above-mentioned, the joints, or under the membranous coverings of the muſcles; for of which they drink at pleaſure along with their medicines. when the diſeaſe attacks thoſe parts, the perioſteum feldom eſcapes Among purgative medicines Dr. Milman recommends the radix without ſome injury, by which the bone will of courſe be likewiſe feneke; but ſays, when the decoction of it is too ſtrong, he always affected. Here the bark is of no effect : inſtead of leſſening, it found it excite vomiting, and thus greatly to diſtreſs the patients : rather increaſes the fever that accompanies thoſe circumſtances; but when only half an ounce or fix drachms of the root are uſed and, if it does not really aggravate the complaint, it ſeems at leaſt to a pound of decoction, inſtead of a whole ounce, he found it an to accelerate the progreſs of the diſeaſe. excellent remedy. Various are the modes in which the bark is adminiſtered; but The water having been drawn off, we are to put the patient on a Dr. Fothergill makes uſe of a decoction, with the addition of ſome courſe of ſtrengtheners; ſuch as the cortex and filings of iron, with aromatic ingredients and a ſmall quantity of liquorice-root, as a fome of the warm aromatics, and a due proportion of rhubarb in form in which a ſufficient quantity may be given without exciting fuſed in wine. Enjoin briſk exerciſe and frictions on the belly, diſguſt. The powder foon becomes diſagreeable to very young with ſuch a courſe of diet as ſhall be light and nouriſhing. patients; and the extract ſeems not ſo much to be depended upon When the patient can by no other means be relieved, the ope as may have been imagined, In making the extract, it is expoſed fation of paracenteſis muſt be had recourſe to. to ſo much heat, as muſt have ſome effect upon its virtues, perhaps ORDER III. IMPETIGINES; Cachexies deforming the Skin to their detriment. In adminiſtering it, likewiſe, if great care be and External Parts of the Body. not taken to mix it intimately with a proper vehicle, or ſome very Genus LVIII. SCROPHULA, or KING's-Evil. ſoluble ſubſtance, in weak bowels it very often purges, and thereby Deſcription. This diſeaſe ſhews itſelf by hard, ſcirrhous, and not only diſappoints the phyſician, but injures the patient. A often indolent tumors, which ariſe by degrees in the glands of the ſmall quantity of the cortex Winteranus added, gives the medicine a neck, under the chin, arm-pits, and different parts of the body; grateful warmth; and a little liquorice, a few raiſins, gum arabic but moſt commonly in the neck, and behind the ears. In proceſs or the like, added to the decoction before it is taken from the fire, of time, the cellular ſubſtance, ligaments of the joints, and even by making the liquor viſcid, enables it to ſuſpend more of the the bones themſelves, are affected. In ſcrophula the ſwellings are fine particles of the bark; by which proceſs the medicine is not much more moveable than thoſe of the ſchirrous kind; they are geo only improved in efficacy, but at the ſame time rendered leſs diſ- nerally ſofter, and ſeldom attended with much pain: they are te- agreeable. dious in coming to fuppuration; are very apt to diſappear ſuddenly, In indolent ſwellings of the glands from viſcid humours, ſea- and again to riſe in ſome other part of the body. We may like water alſo has been ſtrongly recommended by Dr. Ruſſel. wife mention as characteriſtic circumſtances of this diſeaſe, a re Dr. Fothergill alſo acquaints us, that the cicuta is not without markable ſoftneſs of the ſkin, a kind of fulneſs of the face, ge a conſiderable ſhare of efficacy in removing ſcrophulous diſorders. nerally with large eves, and a very delicate complexion. He mentions the caſe of a gentlewoman, about 28 years of age, Cauſes. A variety of cauſes have been mentioned as tending to afflicted from her infancy with ſcrophulous complaints, fevere oph- produce ſcrophula, viz. a crude indigeſtible food; bad water ; thalmies, glandular ſwellings, &c. cured by the extračium cicutæ living in damp, low ſituations ; its being an hereditary diſeaſe, and taken conſtantly for the ſpace of a year. He obſerves, however, in ſome countries endemic, &c. But whatever may in different that when given to children even in very ſmall doſes, it is apt to circumſtances be the exciting or prediſpofing cauſes of the ſcro produce ſpaſmodic affections; for which reaſon he rarely exhibits it phula, the diſeaſe itſelf either depends upon, or is at leaſt much to them when very young, or even to adults of very irritable habits. connected with, a debility of the conſtitution in pro- Our author gives ſeveral other inſtances of the ſucceſs of cicuta bably of the lymphatic ſyſtem in particular, the complaint always in ſcrophulous caſes, and even in one which ſeemed to be not far fhewing itſelf by ſome affections of the latter. And that debility removed from a confirmed phthiſis; but owns that it feldom had has at leaſt a conſiderable influence on its production is probable, ſuch good effect afterwards ; yet he is of opinion, that where there not only from the manifeft nature of ſome of the cauſes ſaid to are ſymptoms of tubercles forming, a ſtrumous habit, and a ten- be productive of fcrophula, but likewiſe from ſuch remedies as are dency to phthiſis, the cicuta will often be ſerviceable. It is ano- found moſt ſerviceable in the cure, which are all of a tonic invi dyne, corrects acrimony, and promotes the formation of good mat- gorating nature. With regard to the quality of the medicine; our author Prognoſis. The ſcrophula is a diſtemper which often eludes the obferves, the extract prepared from hemlock before the plant ar- moſt powerful medicines, and therefore phyſicians cannot with rives at maturity, is much inferior to that which is made when the any certainty promiſe a cure. It is ſeldom, however, that it proves hemlock has acquired its full vigour and is rather on the verge of mortal in a ſhort time, unleſs it attacks the internal parts, ſuch as decline; juſt when the flowers fade, the rudiments of the ſeeds the lungs, where it frequently produces tubercles that bring on a become obſervable, and the habit of the plant inclines to yellow, fatal conſumption. When it attacks the joints, it frequently pro feems the proper time to collect the hemlock. It has then had duces ulcers, which continue for a long time, and gradually waſte the full benefit of the ſummer-heat, and the plants that grow in the patient; while in the mean time the bones become foul and expoſed places will generally be found more vigorous than thoſe that grow in so general, and ter. MEDICINE. grow in the ſhade. The leſs heat it undergoes during the prepara at leaſt they are confined to certain places; fcorbutic ones are of * tion the better. Therefore, if a conſiderable quantity of the dry more irregular form, fpread wider, and frequently affect the whole powder of the plant, gathered at a proper ſeaſon, is added, the leſs mouth. 5. Venereal ulcers are for the moſt part hollow, and ge- boiling will be neceſſary, and the medicine will be the more effica rally covered at the bottom with a white or yellow flough; but ſcor- cious. But let the extract be prepared in what manner foever it butic ones are more apt to grow up into looſe fungi. 6. Venereal may, provided it is made from the genuine plant, at a proper ſea ulcers are red in their circumference, but fcorbutic ones are always fon, and is not deſtroyed by boiling; the chief difference obſervable livid. 7. Venereal ulcers frequently rot the fubjacent bones, the in uſing it is, that a larger quantity of one kind is required to pro- fcorbutic ones ſeldom or ever. . 8. And laſtly, Venereal ulcers are duce a certain effect than of another. Twenty grains of one fort of | moſtly combined with other ſymptoms which are known to be vene- extract have been found equal in point of efficacy to thirty, nay near real; fcorbutic ones with the diſtinguiſhing ſigns of ſcurvy, ſuch as forty of another; yet both of them made from the genuine plant, ftrait breathing, liſtneſinefs, ſwelling of the legs, rotten gums, &c. and moſt probably prepared with equal fidelity. To prevent the in Another ſure fign of the confirmed lues, are certain deep-ſeated conveniences ariſing from this uncertainty, it ſeems always expe nocturnal pains, particularly of the ſhins, arms, and head. As dient to begin with ſmall doſes, and proceed, ſtep by ſtep, for any fuperficial wandering pains, that have no fixed feat, and till the extract produces certain effects, which ſeldom fail to ariſe which affect the membranes of the muſcles and ligaments of the from a full doſe. Theſe effects are different in different conſtitu- joints, they, for the moſt part, will be found to belong to the gout tions. But, for the moſt part, a giddineſs affecting the head, and or rheumatiſm, and can never be conſidered as venereal unleſs ac-: motions of the eyes as if ſomething puſhed them outwards, are companied with fome other evident figns; but with regard to the firſt felt; a flight fickneſs, and trembling agitation of the body; pains that are deeply ſeated, and always fixed to the ſame place, a laxative ſtool or two. One or all theſe ſymptoms are the and which affect the middle and more folid part of the ulna, tibia, marks of a full doſe, let the quantity in weight be what it and bones of the cranium, and rage chiefly and with greateſt vio- will. Here we muſt ſtop till none of theſe effects are felt; lence in the fore-part of the night, fo that the patient can get no and, in three or four days advance a few grains more. From reſt till morning approaches, theſe may ſerve to convince us that general experience, all who have uſed this medicine to any the diſeaſe has ſpread itſelf throughout the whole habit, whether good purpoſe agree, that the cicuta ſeldom procures any benefit , they be accompanied with other fymptoms of the lues or not. though given for a long time, unleſs in as large a doſe as the pa- Gummata in the fleſhy parts, nodes in the perioſteum, ganglia upoir tient can bear without ſuffering any of the inconveniences above the tendons, tophi upon the ligaments, exoftofes upon the bones, mentioned. and fici at the verge of the anus, are all of them ſigns of the con. Patients commonly bear a greater quantity of the extract at firmed lues: theſe are hard indolent ſwellings; but as they fome- night than at noon, and at noon than in the morning. Two times ariſe independent of any venereal infection, and perhaps may ounces may be divided into thirty pills, not gilt. Adults begin proceed from a fcrophulous taint, unleſs they are accompanied, with two in the morning, two at noon, and three or four at night, or have been preceded, by ſome of the more certain and evident with directions to increaſe each doſe, by the addition of a pill to | fymptoms of the lues, we muſt be cautious about pronouncing each, as they can bear it. them venereal. When theſe ſwellings are not owing to the fyphi- GENUS LIX. SYPHILIS, the LUES VENEREA, or French Pox. litic virus, they are very ſeldom painful, or tend to enflame and ASTRUC, who wrote the hiſtory of the lues venerea, is fully con fuppurate; whereas thoſe that are venereal uſually do, and if they vinced that it is a new diſeaſe, which never appeared in Europe till lie upon a bone generally bring on a caries. ſome time between the years 1494 and 1496, having been im- . Theſe then are the principal and moſt evident ſigns of the con- ported from America by the companions of Chriſtopher Colum- firmed lues. firmed lues. There are others which are more equivocal, and bus; though this opinion is not without its opponents. which, unleſs we can fairly trace them back to ſome that are more The venereal infection, however, cannot, like the contagious certain, cannot be held as ſigns of the venereal diſeaſe: Such are miaſmata of the ſmall-pox and ſome other diſeaſes, be carried 1. Obſtinate inflammations of the eyes, frequently returning with through the air, and thus ſpread from place to place: for unleſs it great heat, itching and ulceration of the eye-lids. 2. A ſinging is tranſmitted from the parents to the children, there is no other and hiſling noiſe in the ears, with ulcers or caries in the bones of way of contracting the diſeaſe but by actually touching fome per the meatus auditorius. 3. Obftinate head-achs. 4. Obſtinate cu- ſon who is affected. Thus, when a nurſe happens to labour un taneous eruptions, of the itchy or leprous appearance, not yielding der the diſeaſe, the infant that ſhe fuckles will receive the infec to the milder methods of treatment. 5. Swellings of the bones; tion; as, on the other hand, when the child is infected, the nurſe and 6. Wandering and obſtinate pains. None of theſe ſymptoms is liable to receive it: and there have even been inſtances known, however can be known to be venereal, except they happen to co- of lying-in women being infected very violently, from having em incide with ſome one or other of the more certain ſigns. Upon ployed a perſon to draw their breaſts who happened to have vene the whole, we are firſt to diſtinguiſh and conſider the ſeveral fymp- real ulcers in the throat. It may be caught by touching venereal toms apart; and then, by comparing them with each other, a clear ſores if the cuticle be abraded or torn, and in this way accoucheurs judgment may be formed upon the general review.. and midwives have ſometimes been infected ſeverely. Dr. Mac Prognoſis . Being thoroughly convinced that the caſe is venereal, bride ſays, the moſt inveterate pox he ever ſaw, was caught by a we are to conſider, firſt of all, whether it be of a longer or ſhorter midwife who happened to have a whitlow on one of her fingers, date; for the more recent it is, it will, cæteris paribus, be leſs when the delivered a woman ill of the lues venerea. But by far difficult to remove. But there are other circumſtances which will the moſt ready way of contracting this diſeafe is by coition, the afiſt us in forming a prognoftic as to the event. As, genital parts being much more bibulous than the reſt of the body. 1. The age of the patient. The diſorder is more dangerous to When the diſorder is communicated, the places where the mor infants and old people, than to ſuch as are in the flower and vigour bific matter enters are generally thoſe where it firſt makes its ap- of life, in whom fome part of the virus may be expelled by ex- pearance; and as coition is the moſt uſual way of contracting it, | erciſe, or may be ſubdued in ſome degree by the ſtrength of the ſo the firſt ſymptoms uſually appear on or near the pudenda. conftitution. The patients own account will, for the moſt part, help us to 2. The ſex. Though women are for the moſt part weaker diſtinguiſh the diſeaſe; but there are ſometimes caſes wherein we than men, and therefore ſhould ſeem leſs able to reſiſt the force of cannot avail ourſelves of this information, and where, inſtead of any diſeaſe, yet experience hews that this is eaſier borne by them confeſſing, the parties ſhall conceal all circumſtances; while, on than by men: which ſeems owing to the menſtrual and other the other hand, there are now and then people to be met with, uterine diſcharges, by which perhaps a good ſhare of the virus may who perſuade themſelves, that ſymptoms are venereal, which in be carried off immediately from the parts where it was firſt ap- reality are owing to ſome other cauſe: and therefore it is of the plied; for it is obſervable, that whenever theſe diſcharges are ob- utmoſt importance to inform ourſelves thoroughly of the nature of ſtructed, or ceaſe by the ordinary courſe of nature, all the lymp- thoſe ſymptoms and appearances which may be conſidered as pa toms of this diſeaſe grow worſe. thognomic ſigns of lues venerea. In the firſt place, when we find 3. The habit of body. Perſons who have acrid juices will be lia- that the local ſymptoms, ſuch as chancres, buboes, phymoſis, and able to ſuffer more from the venereal poiſon than ſuch as have their the like, do not give way to the uſual methods; or when theſe blood in a milder ſtate; hence, when people of a ſcorbutic or ſcro- complaints, after having been cured, break out again without a phulous habit contract venereal diſorders, the ſymptoms are al- freſh infection; we may juſtly ſuſpect that the virus has entered ways remarkably violent, and difficult to cure. And for the ſame the whole maſs of lymph; and if at the ſame time ulcers break reaſons, the confirmed lues is much more to be dreaded in a per- out in the throat, and the face is deformed by callous tubercles fon already inclined to an aſthma, phthiſis, dropſy, gout, or any covered with a brown or yellow ſcab, we may be aſſured that the other chronic diſtemper, than in one of a ſound and healthy con- caſe is now become a confirmed lues, which will require a mercu ftitution. For, as the original diſeaſe is increaſed by the acceſſion rial courſe. of the venereal poiſon, ſo the lues is aggravated by being joined Venereal ulcers affecting the mouth are diſtinguiſhable from thoſe to an old diſorder. The more nuinerous the ſymptoms, and the which are ſcorbutic, in the following manner: 1. Venereal ulcers more they affect the bones, the more difficult the cure; but if firſt affect the tonſils, fauces, and uyula; then the gums, but theſe the acrimony ſhould ſeize on the nobler internal parts, ſuch as the very rarely: on the contrary, ſcorbutic ulcers affect the gums firſt brain, the lungs, or the liver, then the diſeaſe becomes incurable, of all; then the fauces, tonfils, and uvula. 2. Venereal ulcers fre and the patient will either go off ſuddenly in an apoplectic fit, or quently ſpread to the noſe; ſcorbutic ones never. 3. Venereal ul fink under a conſumption. cers are callous in the edges; fcorbutic ones are not ſo. 4. Vene Cure. Some practitioners have affirmed, that the diſeaſe may real ulcers are circumſcribed, and, for the moſt part, are circular, be totally extirpated without the uſe of mercury: but, excepting in fight MEDICINE. ſlight caſes, it appears from the moſt accurate obſervations that this neceffary to be rubbed in, as this will vary according to circum- grand ſpecific is indiſpenſable ; whether it be introduced through ſtances; but we are always to continue the frictions for a fort- the pores of the ſkin, in the form of ointments, plaſters, waſhes, night at leaſt, after all fymptoms of the diſeaſe ſhall have totally &c. or given by the mouth, diſguiſed in the different ſhapes of diſappeared; and when we have done with the mercury, warm pills, troches, powders, or ſolutions. bathing, and ſudorific decoctions of the woods, are to be con- Formerly it was held as a rule, that a ſalivation ought to be tinued for ſome time longer. Some venereal caſes are ſo Very raiſed, and a great diſcharge excited. But this is now found to obſtinate as not to yield to mercury; and ſome of the particular be unneceſſary: for, as mercury acts by ſome ſpecific power in ſymptoms will remain even after repeated courſes, particularly fubduing and correcting the venereal virus, all that is required the nodes and ſwellings of the perioſteum. Theſe are fometimes is to throw in a ſufficient quantity of the medicine for this purpoſe; cured by a decoction of the roots of mezereon, an ounce being and if it can be diverted from the ſalivary glands, ſo much the boiled in a gallon of water down to two quarts ; a pint of this better, ſince the inconveniences attending a ſpitting are ſuch as decoction is to be conſumed in the courſe of a day. Such other we ſhould always wiſh to avoid. 3100 ſymptoms as are found to reſiſt mercury, may perhaps be con- Mercury, when combined with any faline ſubſtance, has its quered by a long continuance of the decoction of ſarſaparilla, aided activity prodigiouſly increaſed; hence the great variety of chy- by the warmth of a ſouthern climate. mical preparations, which have been contrived to unite it with This is a general ſketch of the methods of treatment for the different acids. confirmed lues ; but for a complete hiſtory of the diſeaſe, and for Corroſive fublimate is one of the moſt active of all the mercu- ample directions in every ſituation, we refer to Aſtruc, and his rial preparations, inſomuch as to become a poiſon even in very abridger Dr. Chapman. We have to add, however, that a ſmall doſes. It therefore cannot be given in ſubſtance; but muſt method of curing this diſeaſe by funnigation has been lately re- be diffolved, in order to render it capable of a more minute divi commended in France: but it ſeems not to meet with great en- fion. We may ſee, by looking into Wiſeman ; that this is an couragement. The moſt recent propoſal for the cure of the vene- old medicine, though ſeldom given by regular practitioners. How | real diſeaſe is that of Mr. Clare, and conſiſts in rubbing a ſmall it came to be introduced into fo remote a part of the world as Si- | quantity of mercury on the inſide of the cheek; by which means beria, is not eaſily found out; but Dr. Clerc, author of the Hif- we not only avoid the inconveniences of unction, but alſo the toire Naturelle de l'Homme Malade, aſſures us, that the ſubli-purgative effects that are often produced by this medicine when mate ſolution has been of uſe there time out of mind. It appears taken into the ſtomach. to have been totally forgotten in other places, until of late years, Genus LX. SCORBUTUS, the Scurvy. when the Baron Van Swieten brought into vogue; ſo that now, ifb Deſcription. The firſt indication of the ſcorbutic diatheſis, is we credit Dr. Locker, they uſe no other mercurial preparation at generally a change of colour in the face, from the natural and Vienna. The number of patients cured by this remedy alone in healthy look to a pale and bloated complexion, with a liſtleſſneſs, the hoſpital of St. Mark, which was under the care of that gen- and averſion to every ſort of exerciſe; the gums ſoon after be- tleman, from 1754 to 1761 incluſive, being 4880.indb so come itchy, ſwell , and are apt to bleed on the lighteſt touch ; the The way to prepare the ſolution is, to diſſolve as much fublimate breath grows offenſive ; and the gums ſwelling daily more and in any kind of ardent fpirit (at Vienna they uſe only corn-brandy) more, turn livid, and at length become extremely fungous and pu- as will give half a grain to an ounce of folution. The doſe to a trid, as being continually in contact with the external air ; which grown perſon is one ſpoonful mixed with a pint of any light pti- in every caſe favours the putrefaction of ſubſtances diſpoſed to run fan or barley water, and this to be taken morning and evening: into that ſtate, and is indeed abſolutely requiſite for the production the patients ſhould keep moſtly in a warm chamber, and lie in of actual rottenneſs . But what is very remarkable in this diſeaſe, bed to fweat after taking the medicine : their diet ſhould be light: notwithſtanding the various and immenſe load of diſtreſs under and they ought to drink plentifully throughout the day, of whey, which the patients labour, there is no ſickneſs at the ſtomach, the ptiſan, or barley water. If the folution does not keep the belly appetite keeps up, and the ſenſes remain entire almoſt to the very open, a mild purge muſt be given from time to time; for Locker laſt; when lying at reſt, they make no complaints, and feel little obſerves, that thoſe whom it purges two or three times a day, get diſtreſs or pain; but the moment they attempt to riſe, or ſtir them- well ſooner than thoſe whom it does not purge: he alſo ſays, that felves, then the breathing becomes difficult, with a kind of ſtraitneſs it very feldom effects the mouth, but that it promotes the urinary or catching, and great oppreſſion, and ſometimes they have been and cutaneous diſcharges. This courſe is not only to be continued known to fall into a ſyncope. This catching of breath upon mo- till all the ſymptoms diſappear, but for ſome weeks longer. The tion, with the loſs of ſtrength, dejection of ſpirit, and rotten gums, ſhorteſt time in which Locker uſed to let the patients out, was ſix are held as the eſſential or diſtinguiſhing fymptoms of the diſeaſe. weeks ; and they were continued on a courſe of decoction of the The ſkin is generally dry, except in the very laſt ſtage, when the woods for ſome weeks after they left off the ſolution. od patients become exceedingly ſubject to faintings, and then it grows This method has been introduced both in Britain and Ireland, clammy and moiſt; in fome it has an anſerine appearance; but though by no means to the excluſion of others; but it appears, much oftener it is ſmooth and ſhining; and, when examined, is that the folution does not turn out ſo infallible a remedy, either in found ſpread over with ſpots not riſing above the ſurface, of a red- theſe kingdoms, or in France, as they ſay it has done in Germa- diſh, bluiſh, livid, or purple colour, with a ſort of yellow rim ny. It was feldom ever found to perform a radical cure, and the round them. At firſt theſe ſpots are for the moſt part fmall, but frequent uſe of it proved in many caſes highly prejudicial. It has in time they increaſe to large blotches. The legs and thighs are therefore been ſucceeded in practice by a remedy firſt recommended the places where they are moſtly ſeen; more rarely on the head by Dr. Plenck, and ſince improved by Dr. Saunders ; conſiſting and face. Many have a ſwelling of the legs, which is harder, and of mercury united with mucilage of gum arabic, which is ſaid to retains the impreſſion of the finger longer than the common drop- render its exhibition perfectly mild and ſafe. For particulars, we fical or truly ædematous ſwellings. The flighteſt wounds and refer to Dr. Saunders's treatiſe. Ifitis determined to have recourſe | bruiſes, in fcorbutic habits, degenerate into foul and untoward ul. to the mercurial frictions, the patient muſt be prepared by going cers. And the appearance of theſe ulcers is ſo ſingular and uniform, into the warm bath fome days ſucceſſively; having been previouſly that they are eaſily diſtinguiſhed from all others. Scorbutic ulcers blooded if of a plethoric habit, and taking a doſe or two of ſome afford no good digeſtion, but a thin and fetid ichor mixed with proper cathartic. The patient being fitted with the neceſſary ap- | blood, which at length has the appearance of a coagulated gore paratus of flannels, is then to enter on the courſe. If the perſon lying caked on the ſurface of the fore, not to be ſeparated or be of a robuſt habit, and in the prime of life, we may begin with wiped off without ſome difficulty. The fleſh underneath theſe two drachms of the unguentum cæruleum fortius,(Ph. Lond) which foughs feels to the probe ſoft and ſpungy, and is very putrid. is to be rubbed in about the ankles by an afiiſtant whoſe hands are Neither detergents, nor eſcharoties, are here of any ſervice; for covered with bladders: then having intermitted a day, we may ex- though ſuch floughs be with great pains taken away, they are pend two drachms more of the ointment, and reſt for two days ; | found again at the next dreſſing, where the ſame fanguinous pu- after which, if no foreneſs of the mouth comes on, uſe only one strid appearance always preſents itſelf. Their edges are generally drachm at every ſubſequent friction afcend till the ointment of a livid colour, and puffed up with excreſcences of proud fleſh Thall reach the trunk of the body, after which the rubbings are to ariſing from below the ſkin. As the violence of the diſeaſe en- be begun at the wriſts, and from thence gradually extended to the creaſes, the ulcers ſhoot out a ſoft bloody fungus, which often Thoulders. In order to prevent the mercury from laying too much riſes in a night's time to a monſtrous fize; and although deſtroyed hold of the mouth, it muſt be diverted to the ſkin, by keeping the by cauteries, actual or potential, or cut away with the knife, is patient in a conſtant perſpiration from the warmth of the room, found at next dreſſing as large as ever. It is a good while, how- and by drinking plentifully of barley-water, whey, or ptiſan ; but ever, before theſe ulcers, bad as they are, come to effect the if, nevertheleſs, the mercury ſhould tend to raiſe a ſpitting, then, bones with rottenneſs. Theſe appearances will always ferve to from time to time, we are either to give ſome gentle cathartic, or aſſure us that an ulcer is ſcorbutic; and ſhould put us on our order the patient into a vapour-bath: and thus we are to go on, guard with reſpect to the giving mercurials, which are the moſt rubbing in a drachm of the ointment every ſecond, third, or pernicious things that can be adminiſtered in theſe caſes. fourth night, according as it may be found to operate ; and on The pulſe is variable ; but moſt commonly flower and more the intermediate days, either purging or bathing, unleſs we ſhould feeble than in the time of perfect health. A ſtiffneſsin the tendons chooſe to let the ſalivation come on; which, however, it is and weakneſs in the joints of the knees, appear early in the diſeaſe; much better to avoid, as we ſhall thus be able to throw in a but as it grows more inveterate, the patients generally loſe the uſe of larger quantity of mercury. 5 mo bitne Mottaviido their limbs altogether; having a contraction of the flexor-tendons It is impoſſible to aſcertain the quantity of mercury that is in the ham, with a ſwelling and pain in the joint of the knee. Somc ; and No. 104. 7 F MEDICINE. Some have their legs monſtrouſly ſwelled, and covered over with fcorbutic diatheſis ſhould take place, even though they enjoy the livid (pots or eechymoſes; others have had tumours there; fome, advantages of pure air and wholeſome diet. But theſe are folitary though without ſwelling, have the calves of the legs and the fleſh caſes, and very rarely ſeen ; for whenever the ſcurvy ſeizes num- of the thighs quite indurated. As perſons far gone in the ſcurvy bers, it will be found to depend on a combination of the major are apt to faint, and even expire, on being moved and brought part, or perhaps all, of the following circumſtances. out into the freſh air, the utmoſt care and circumſpection are re 1. A moiſt atmoſphere, and more eſpecially if cold be joined to quilite when it is neceſſary to ſtir or remove them. this moiſture. 2. Too long ceſſation from bodily exerciſe, whe- Scorbutic patients are at all times, but more eſpecially as the ther it be from conſtraint, or a lazy flothful diſpoſition. 3. De- diſcaſe advances, extremely ſubject to profuſe bleedings from dif- jection of mind. 4. Neglect of cleanlineſs, and want of fuffi- ferent parts of the body; as from the noſe, gums, inteſtines, lungs, cient cloathing. 5. Want of wholeſome drink, either of pure &c. and from their ulcers, which generally bleed plentifully if water, or fermented liquors. And 6. above all, the being obliged the fungus be cut away. It is not eaſy to conceive a more diſmal to live continually on ſalted meats, perhaps not well cured, and diverſified ſcene of miſery than what is beheld in the third without a due proportion of the milder farinaceous or mucilagi- and laſt ſtage of this diſtemper; it being then that the anomalous nous vegetables, ſufficient to correct the pernicious tendency of and more extraordinary ſymptoms appear, fuch as the burſting the ſalt, by ſupplying the bland oil and faccharine matter requi- out of old wounds, and the diſſolution of old fractures that have ſite for the purpoſes of nutrition. been long united. Prevention and Cure. The ſcurvy may be prevented, by obvi- Cauſes. The term ſcurvy hath been indiſcriminately applied, ating and correcting thofe circumſtances in reſpect of the non-na- even by phyſicians, to almoſt all the different kinds of cutaneous turals which were mentioned as contributing to the diſeaſe, and foulneſs; owing to ſome writers of the laſt century, who compre- laid down as cauſes. It is therefore a duty highly incumbent on hended ſuch a variety of fymptoms under this denomination, that officers commanding at ſea, or in garriſons, to uſe every poſſible there are few chronic diſtempers which may not be fo called, ac- precaution; and, in the firſt place, to correct the coldneſs and cording to their ſcheme ; but the diſeaſe here meant is the true moiſture of the atmoſphere, by fufficient fires; in the next, to ſee putrid fcurvy, ſo often fatal to ſeamen, a d to people pent up in that their men be lodged in dry, clean, and well ventilated births, garriſons without ſufficient ſupplies of found animal food, and freſh or apartments; thirdly, to promote cheerfulneſs, and enjoin fre- vegetables: or which is ſometimes known to be endemic incertain quent exerciſe, which alone is of infinite uſe in preventing the countries, where the nature of the foil, the general ſtate of the feurvy: fourthly, to take care that the cloathing be proper, and atmoſphere, and the common courſe of diet, all combine in pro- cleanlineſs of perſon ſtrictly obſerved: fifthly, to fupply them with ducing that ſingular fpecies of corruption in the maſs of blood, wholeſome drink, either with pure water, or ſound fermented li- which conſtitutes this diſeaſe; for the appearances, on diffecting quors; and if ſpirits be allowed, to have them properly diluted fcorbutic ſubjects, fufficiently ſhew that the ſcurvy may, with with water, and ſweetened with molaffes or coarſe fugar: and great propriety, be termed a diſeaſe of the blood. laſtly, to order the falted meats to be ſparingly uſed, or ſometimes Dr. Lind has, in a poſtſcript to the third edition of his treatiſe entirely abſtained from ; and, in their place, let the people live on the fcurvy, given the reſult of his obfervations drawn from on different compoſitions of the dried vegetables, freſh meat and the diffection of a conſiderable number of victims to this fatal recent vegetables being introduced as often as they can poſſibly malady, from which it appears that the true ſcorbutic ſtate, in an be procured. SE advanced ſtage of the diſtemper, conſiſts in numerous effuſions of A cloſe attention to theſe matters will, in general, prevent the blood into the cellular interfices of moſt parts of the body, ſu- fcurvy from making its appearance at all, and will always hinder perficial as well as internal ; particularly the gums, ard the legs; it from ſpreading its influence far. But when theſe precautions the texture of the former, being almoſt entirely cellular, (and theſe have been neglected, or the circumſtances ſuch that they cannot cells naturally occupied by pure blood) and the generally depend be put in practice, and the diſeaſe hath actually taken place, our ént ſtate of the latter, rendering theſe parts, of all others in the whole endeavour muſt be to reſtore the blood to its original ſtate whole body, the moſt apt to receive, and retain the ſtagnant blood, of ſoundneſs: and happily, ſuch is the nature of this diſeaſe when its craſis comes to be deſtroyed, and it looſes that glutinous (which confirms the hypotheſis that it is ſeated in the groſs fluids, quality which, during health, hinders it from eſcaping through and particularly the blood), that if a fufficiency of new matter, of the pores in the coats of the blood-veſſels. the truly mild nutritious fort, can be thrown into the circulation A dropfical indiſpoſition, eſpecially in the legs and breaſt, was while the fleſhy fibres retain any tolerable degree of firmneſs, the frequently, but not always, obſerved in the ſubjects that were patient will recover; and that in a ſurpriſingly ſhort ſpace of time, opened, and the pericardium was ſometimes found diſtended with provided a pure air, comfortable lodgings, ſufficient cloathing, water ; the the water, thus collected, was often ſo ſharp as to ſhrivel cleanlineſs, and exerciſe, lend their neceffary aid. the hands of the diffector ; and in ſome inſtances, where the ſkin This being the caſe, the plan of treatment is to be conducted happened to be broken, it irritated and feſtered the wound. almoſt entirely in the dietetic way; as the change in the maſs of The fleſhy fibres were found fo extremely lax and tender, and blood, which is neceſſary to produce, muſt be brought about by the bellies of the muſcles in the legs and thighs fo ſtuffed with the things that can be received into the ſtomach by pints, or pounds, effufed ſtagnating blood, that it was always difficult, and ſometimes and not by thoſe which are adminiſtered in drops or grains, impoſſible, to raiſe or ſeparate one muſcle from another. He ſays, drachms or ounces. For here, as the ſubtile fluids are not ſenſibly that the quantity of this effufed blood was amazing ; in ſome bo- affected, and there is no diſorder of the nervous ſyſtem, we have dies it ſeemed that almoſt a fourth part of the whole maſs had el no need of thoſe active drugs, which are indiſpenſibly neceſſary caped from the veſſels ; and it often lay in large concretions on the in febrile or nervous diſeaſes; the ſcorbutic diatheſis being quite perioſteum, and in ſome few inſtances under this membrane, im- oppoſite to that which tends to produce a fever, or any ſpecies of mediately on the bone. And yet, notwithſtanding this diffolved | fpafmodie diforder ; nay Dr. Lind ſays, he has repeatedly found, and depraved ſtate of the external fleſhy parts, the brain always ap- that even the infection of an hoſpital fever is long reſiſted by a peared perfectly found, and the viſcera of the abdomen, as well as fcorbutic habit. thofe in the thorax, were, in general, found quite uncorrupted. It will now naturally occur to the reader, what thoſe alimentary There were ſpets indeed, from extravaſated blood, obſerved on ſubſtances muſt be which bid the faireſt to reſtore the blood to its the meſentery, inteſtines, ftomach, and omentum ; but theſe ſpots healthy ftate ; and he needs ſcarcely to be told, that they are of were firm, and free from any mortified taint; and, more than thoſe kinds which the ſtomach can bear with pleaſure though once, an effuſion of blood, as large as a hand's breadth, has been ſeen taken in large quantities, which abcund in jelly or mucilage, and on the ſurface of the ſtomach; and what was remarkable, that very which allow theſe nutritious parts to be eaſily developed ; for ſubject was not known while living to have made any complaint though the viſcera in ſcorbutic patients may be all perfectly ſound, of fickneſs, pain, or any other diſorder, in either ſtomach, or bowels. yet we cannot expect, that either the digeſtive fluids, or organs, Theſe circumſtances, and appearances, with many others that are fhould poſſeſs the ſame degrees of power, which enable them, dur- not here enumerated, all prove to a demonſtration the putrefcenting health, to convert the crude dry farinacea, and the hard falted ſtate of the blood, and yet Dr. Lind takes no ſmall pains to com fleſh of animals, into nouriſhment. We muſt therefore ſearch for bat the idea of the fcurvy's proceeding from animal-putrefaction; the antiſcorbutic virtue in the tender ſweet fleſh of graminivorus a notion, which, according to him, “may, and hath miſled animals ; in new milks, and in the mucilaginous juices of recent phyſicians to propoſe and adminiſter remedies for it altogether vegetables, whether they be fruits, leaves or roots. ineffectual." 190 lai10 10 vided they be freſh, and ſucculent, and of ſuch mildneſs as will He alſo, in the preface to his third edition, talks of the miſchief permit them to be abundantly taken, it is of little importance done by an attachment to deluſive theories; ſays, " it is not pro- whether they be ſweet or four, aceſcent or alkaleſcent; for ſuch bable that a remedy for the ſeurvy will ever be diſcovered from is the power of the alimentary fermentation, that by the time the a preconceived hypotheſis, or by ſpeculative men in the cloſet, chyle is ready to enter the lacteals, their native qualities are obli- who have never ſeen the diſeaſe, or who have ſeen at moſt only terated, and the oily faccharine matter which lay hid in the mu- a few caſes of it,” and adds, “ that though a few partial facts | cilage entirely extricated. and obſervations may, for a little, flatter with hopes of greater The four juices of lemons, oranges, and limes, have been gene- ſucceſs, yet more enlarged experience muſtever evince the fallacy rally held as antiſcorbutics in an eminent degree, and their power of all poſitive affertions in the healing art. 9 best aſcribed to their acid ; from an idea that acids of all kinds are the And hence we may underſtand how it may poſſibly happen that only correctors of putrefaction. But the general current of prac- when perſons are greatly weakened by ſome preceding diforder, tical obſervations thews, and our experiments confirm it, that the and at thefame time debarred the uſe of proper bodily exerciſe, the virtue of theſe juices (and, we preſume, of every other that has been And pro- MEDICI NE. the accordingly tried. pro- been known to cure the ſeurvy) depends on their aërial principle, | krout; (cabbage leaves cut ſmall, fermented and ſopped in the ſea and conſequently reſides in the mucilage, whether it be ſweet or cond ſtage of fermentation.) A pound of this was ſerved to each four ; accordingly, while perfectly recent and in the mucilaginous man twice a-week, while they were at ſea. He had alſo a libe- ſtate, and eſpecially if mixed with wine and ſugar, the juices of ral ſupply of portable ſoup; of which the men had generally an any of theſe fruits will be found a moſt grateful and powerful | ounce three days in the week, boiled up with their peaſe; and antiſcorbutic. Diete ſometimes it was ſerved to them oftener : and when they could But if the belly ſhould not be looſened by the uſe of the freſh get freſh greens, it was boiled up with them, and made ſuch an vegetables, nor the ſkin become ſoft and moiſt, then they muſt be agreeable meſs, that it was the means of making the people eat aſſiſted by ſtewed prunes, or a decoction of tamarinds with cream a greater quantity of greens then they would otherwiſe have done. of tartar, in order to abate the coſtiveneſs; and by drinking a And what was ſtill of further advantage, they were furniſhed with light decoction of the woods, and warm bathing, in order to relax ſugar, in lieu of butter or oil, which is feldom of the ſweeteſt pores of the ſkin; for nothing contributes more to the reco- fort; ſo that the crew were undoubtedly great gainers by the ex- very of fcorbutic patients than moderate ſweating. We are al- change. ways to be careful that ſcorbutic perſons, after a long abſtinence In addition to all theſe advantages of being ſo well provided and fruits, be not permitted to eat voraciouſly at firſt, with every neceſſary, either in the way of diet or medicine, Cap- left they fall into a fatal dyſentery. tain Cook was remarked attentive to all the circumſtances re- All this, however, that has been laid down as neceſſary towards fpecting cleanlineſs, exerciſe, ſufficient cloathing, proviſion of the cure, fuppoſes the patients to be in ſituations where they can pure water, and purification of the air, in the cloſer parts of be plentifully furniſhed with all the requiſites; but unhappily the ſhip. now to the theſe things are not to be procured at ſea, and often deficient in Newly brewed Spruce-beer (madefrom a decoction of the tops of garriſons: therefore, in order that a remedy for the ſcurvy might the ſpruce fir, and molaſſes is an excellent antifcorbutic; acts ini never be wanting, Dr. Macbride, in the year 1762, firſt con the ſame way that the wort does, and will be found of equal effi- ceived the notion, that infuſion of malt, commonly called wort, cacy, therefore' may be ſubſtituted. But in ſituations were nei- might be ſubſtituted for the common antiſcorbutics, and it was ther the one nor the other can be had, a moſt falutary meſs may be prepared from oatmeal, by infuſing it in water, in a wooden More than three years elapſed, before any account arrived of veſſel, till it ferments, and begins to turn ſouriſh ; which gene- the experiment's having been made : at length, ten narratives of rally happens, in moderately warm weather, in the ſpace of two caſes were received, wherein the wort had been tried, with very days. The liquor is then ſtrained off from the grounds, and boiled remarkable ſucceſs; and this being judged a matter of much im down to the conſiſtence of a jelley, which is to be cat with wine portarice to the ſeafaring part of mankind, theſe were immediately and ſugar, or with butter and ſugar. communicated to the public in a pamphlet with the title of An Genus LXI. ICTERUS, the JAUNDIÇE. hiſtorical account of a new method of treating the ſcurvy at Sea. Deſcription. The jaundice firſt ſhews itſelf by a littleffneſs and This was in 1767'; but ſince that time a conſiderable number want of appetite, the patient becomes dull, oppreſſed, and generally of letters and medical journals, ſufficient to make up a large vo coſtive. Theſe ſymptoms have continued but a very ſhort time, lume, have been printed, particularly by the ſurgeons of his Ma- when a yellow colour begins to diffuſe itſelf over the tunica albugi- jeſty's ſhips that have been employed of late years for making diſ nea, or white part of the eye, and the nails of the fingers; the urine Certain it is, that in many becomes high coloured, with the yellowiſh ſediment capable of inſtances it has ſucceeded beyond expectation. Brugtinging linen; the ſtools are whitiſh or grey. In ſome there is a During Captain Cook's laſt voyage, the moſt remarkable in moſt violent pain in the epigaſtric region, which is conſiderably in reſpect of the healthineſs of the crew, that ever was performed, creaſed after meals. Sometimes the patient hath a continual the wort is acknowledged to have been of fingular uſe.ro on penſity to ſleep; but in others there is too great watchfulneſs and In a letter which this very celebrated and ſucceſsful circumna- ſometimes the pain is ſo great, that though the patient be ſleepy he vigator wrote to Sir John Pringle, he gives an account of the me cannot compoſe himſelf to reſt. The pains come by-fits; and all thods purſuing for preſerving the health of his people; and which the women who have had the jaundice and borne children, agree, were productive of ſuch happy effects, that he performed “a voy that they are more violent than labour-pains. As the diſeafe in- age of three years and 18 days, through all the climates from 52 creaſes, the yellow colour becomes more and more deep ; an itch- deg. north to 71 deg. fouth, with a loſs of one man only by dif- ing is felt all over the ſkin; and even the internal membranes of eaſe, and who died of a complicated and lingering illneſs, with the viſcera, the bones, and the brain itſelf, become tinged, as hath out any mixture of ſcurvy. Two others were unfortunately been ſhewn from diffections, where the bones have been found tin- drowned, and one killed by a fall; ſo that out of the whole num-ged ſometimes for years after the jaundice hath been cured. ber (118) with which he ſet out from England, he loft only four. In like manner, all the ſecretions are affected with the yellow He ſays that much was owing to the extraordinary attention of colour of the bile, which in this diſeaſe is diffuſed throughout the the admiralty, in cauſing ſuch articles to be put on board as either whole maſs of fluids. The ſaliva becomes yellow and bitter: the by experience or conjecture were judged to tend moſt to preſerve urine exceſſively high-coloured in ſuch a manner as to appear al- the health of feamen ; and with reſpect to the wort, he expreſſeth moſt black; nay, the blood itſelf is ſometimes ſaid to appear of a himſelf as follows. yellow colour when drawn from a vein ; yet Dr. Heberden ſays “ We had on board a large quantity of malt, of which was that he never ſaw the milk altered in its colour, even in caſes of made ſweet wort, and given (not only to thoſe men who had ma very deep jaundice, In proceſs of time the blood begins to acquire nifeſt ſymptoms of the ſcurvy, but to ſuch alſo as were, from cir a tendency to diſſolution and putrefaction; which is known by the cumſtances, judged to be moſt liable to that diſorder) from one or patient's colour changing from a deep yellow to a black or dark two to three pints in the day to each man, or in ſuch proportion yellow. Hæmorrhages enſue from various parts of the body, and as the ſurgeon thought neceſſary, which ſometimes amounted to the patients frequently die of an apoplexy; though in fome the dif- three quarts in the 24 hours: this is without doubt one of the beſt eaſe degenerates into an incurable dropſy; and there have not antiſcorbutic ſea-medicines yet found out ; and, if given in time, been wanting inſtances of ſome who have died of the dropfy after will, with proper attention to other things, I am perſuaded, pre the jaundice itſelf had been totally removed. vent the ſcurvy from making any great progreſs for a conſiderable Cauſes. As the jaundice conſiſts in a diffuſion of the bile time: but I am not altogether of opinion that it will cure it, in throughout the whole fyſtem, it thence follows, that whatever may an advanced ſtate, at ſea.”sonatsgels bar favour this diffuſion is alſo to be reckoned among the cauſes of On this laſt point, however, the Captain and his Surgeon dif- jaundice. Many diſputes have ariſen concerning the manner in fer; for this gentleman pofſitively aſſerts, and his journal (in Dr. which the bile is reſorbed into the blood; but it is now generally Macbride's poffeffion) confirms it, that the infuſion of malt did agreed that it is taken up by the lymphatics of the gall-bladder and effect a cure in a confirmed caſe, and at ſea. biliary ducts. Hence, a jaundice may ariſe from any thing ob- The malt, being thoroughly dried, and packed up in ſmall ſtructing the paſſage of the bile into the duodenum, or from any caſks, is carried to ſea, where it will keep found, in every variety thing which alters the ſtate of the lymphatics in ſuch a manner as of climate, for at leaſt two years: when wanted for uſe it is to to make them capable of abſorbing the bile in its natural ſtate. be ground in a hand-mill, and the infuſion prepared from day to Hence the jaundice may ariſe from ſchirrhi of the liver or other day by pouring three meaſures of boiling water on one of the viſcera preſſing upon the biliary ducts, and obſtructing the paſſage ground malt; the mixture being well maſhed, is left to infuſe for of the bile ; from fiatus diftending the duodenum, and ſhutting up 10 or 12 hours, and the clear infuſion then ſtrained off. The the entrance of the ductus communis choledochus into it; from patients are to drink it in ſuch quantities as many be deemed necef- the ſame orifice being plugged up by viſcid bile, or other fordes : ſary, from one to three quarts in the courſe of 24 hours: a pa- but by far the moſt frequent cauſe of jaundice is the formation of nado is alſo neceſſary to be made of it, by adding biſcuit, and calculi . Theſe are found of almoſt all fizes, from that of a currants or raiſins; and this palatable meſs is uſed by way of fo- ſmall pea to that of a walnut, or bigger; are of different colours ; lid food. This courſe of diet, like that of the recent vegetables, and ſometimes appear as if formed in the inward part by cryſtalli- generally keeps the bowels ſufficiently open; but in caſes where zation, but of lamellæ on the outer part, though ſometimes the coſtiveneſs nevertheleſs prevails, gentle laxatives muſt be inter- outward part is covered with rough and ſhining cryſtals, while the poſed from time to time, together with diaphoretics, and the to inward part is lamellated. Theſe enter into the biliary duets, and pical aſſiſtants, fomentations and gargles, as in the common way obſtruct them, cauſing a jaundice, with violent pain for ſome of management. time ; and which can be cured by no means till the ſtone is either Captain Cook was alſo provided with a large ſtock of four I paſſed entirely through the ductus communis, or returned into the gall MEDICINE. a in a A gall-bladder. Sometimes, in the opinion of many celebrated phy- common evacuation by fool; nor can all the attempts to ſupply ſicians, the jaundice is occaſioned by ſpaſmodic conſtructions of the the want of bile in the inteſtines, by bitters and other ſtomachies, biliary ducis; but this is denied by others, and it is not yet afcer- reftore the patient to his wonted appetite and vigour, If the pain tained whether theſe ducts are capable of being affected by ſpaſm be very violent, we mufton a'l occaſions have recourſe to opiates or not, as the exiſtence of muſcular fibres in them hath not with or if the blood hath acquired a tendency to diffolution, it muſt be certainty been diſcovered. It cannot, however, be denied that vi counteracted by proper antiſeptics. olent fits of paſſion have often produced jaundice, ſometimes tem-If the diſeaſe goes off, its return muſt be prevented by a courſe porary, but frequently permanent. This hath been by ſome of tonic medicines, particularly the Peruvian barkand antiſepties. deemed a ſufficient proof of the ſpaſmodiccontraction of the ducts; In the Eaſt-Indies, mercury hath been lately recommended as but their opponents ſuppoſe, that the agitation occaſioned by the exceedingly efficacious in diforders of the liver, eſpecialiy thofe paſſion might puſh forward ſome biliary concretion into a narrow which follow intermitting and remitting fevers. Dr. Monro, in part of the duct, by which means a jaundice would certainly be his Obſervations on the means of prefenting the health of foldiers, produced, till the concretion was either driven backward or for- acquaints us, that he has ſeen ſome icteric caſes which, he thought, ward into the duodenum altogether. on ollbea received benefit from taking a few grains of mercurius dulcis at In a very relaxed ſtate of the body there is alſo an abſorption of night, and a purge next morning; and this repeated two or three the bile, as in the yellow fever ; and indeed in all putrid diſorders times a week. RSS units there is a kind of yellowiſh taint over the ſkin, though much leſs berat ben CLASS IV. LOCALES. wodas las than in the true jaundice. The reaſon of this is, that in theſe dif- 50 450 An Affection of some Part, but not of the whole Body. orders there is uſually an increaſed ſecretion of bile, commonly of ioasa ou ORDER I. DYSÆSTHESIÆ. la thinner conſiſtence than in a healthy ſtate, while the orifices of The Senſes depraved or deſtroyed from a Diſeaſe of the external the lymphatics are probably enlarged, and thus ready to abſorb argimin me wham Organs. boni fluid fomewhat thicker than what they ought to take up 109 AGENUS LXII. CALIGO, the CATARACT. healthy ſtate ; but theſe diſorders are of ſhort duration in compa- A cataract is an obſtruction of the pupil, by the interpofition of riſon with the real jaundice, which ſometimes laſts for many years. fome opaque ſubſtance which either diminiſhes or totally extin- - Prognoſis. As jaundice may ariſe from many different cauſes, guiſhes the fight. It is generally an opacity in the cryſtalline hu- ſome of which cannot be difcovered during the patient's life, the mour. In a recent or beginning cutaract, the fame medicines are prognofis mufton this account be very uncertain. The only cafes to be uſed as in the gutta ſerena ; and they will ſometimes ſucceed. which admit of a cure are thoſe depending upon biliary concre But when this does not happen, and the cataract becomes firm, ic tions, or obſtructions of the biliary ducts by viſcid bile : for the muſt be couched, or rather extracted; Dr. Buchan fays he has re- ſtones are ſeldom of fuch a ſize but that the ducts will let them folved a recent cataract by giving the patient fome purges with paſs through, though frequently not without extreme pain. In-calomel, keeping a poultice of freſh hemlock conſtantly upon the deed this pain, though ſo violent, and almoſt intolerable to the fick eye, and a perpetual bliſter on the neck. perfon affords the beſt prognoſis; as the phyſician may readily | GENUS LXIII. AMAUROSIS, the GUTTA SERENA. affure his patient, that there is a great hope of his being relievedfrom gutta ſerena is an abolition of the fight without any apparent it. The coming on of a gentle diarrhoea attended with bilious cauſe or fault in the eyes. When it is owing to a decay or waſt- ſtools, together with the ceilation of pain, are ſigns of the diſeaſe | ing of the optic nerve, it does not admit of a cure; but when it being cured. We are not, however, always to conclude, becauſe proceeds from a compreſſion of the nerves by redundant humours, the diſeafe is not attended with acute pain, that it is therefore in theſe may in fome meaſure be drained off, and the patient relieved. curable; for frequently the paſſage of a ſtone through the biliary For this purpofe, the body muſt be kept open with the laxative ducts is accompanied only with a ſenſation of flight uneaſineſs. mercurial pills. If the patient be young, and of fanguine habit, Cure. When the jaundice arifes from indurated ſwellings or he may be bled. Cupping with fearifications on the back part of ſchirrhi of the viſcera, it is abfolutely incurable; nevertheleſs, as the head will likewiſe be of uſe. A running at the noſe may be theſe cannot always be diſcovered, the phyſician muſt proceed in promoted by volatile ſalts, ſtimulating powders, &c. But the moit every caſe of jaundice as if it aroſe from calculi. The indications likely means of relieving the patient, are iſſues or bliſters kept here are, 1. To diffolve the concretions; and, 2. To prevent their open for a long time on the back part of the head, behind the ears, formation a ſecond time. But unhappily the medical art hath not or on the neck ; which have been known to reſtore fight even after yet afforded a ſolvent for biliary concretions. They cannot even it had been for a conſiderable time loft. Should theſe fail, recourſe be diſſolved when taken out of the body either by acids or alkalies, muſt be had to a mercurial ſalivation; or, what will perhaps an- or any thing beſides a mixture of oil of turpentine and ſpirit of ſwer the purpofe better, 12 grains of the corroſive ſublimate of wine, and theſe ſubſtances are by far too irritating to be given in mercury may be diffolved in an Engliſh pint and a half of brandy, fufficient quantity to affect a concretion in the biliary ducts. Boer and a table-ſpoonful of it twice a day, drinking half a pint of the haave obferves, that diſeaſes of the liver are much worſe to cure decoction of farſaparilla after it. Of late electricity hath been than thoſe in any other part of the body ; becaufe of the difficulty much celebrated as efficacious, when no other thing could do there is in getting at the part affected, and the tedious and round-ſervice. Oratoi bogbo ; w stufoto to songitud about paffage the blood hath to it. The only method of cure now GENUS LXIV. PARACUSIS, or Depravation of HEARING. attempted in the jaundice is, to expel the calculus into the in The functions of the ear may be injured by wounds, ulcers, or teſtines; for which vomits and exerciſe are the principal medicines. any thing that hurts its fabric. The hearing may likewiſe be hurt The former are juſtly reckoned the moſt efficacious medicines, by exceſſive noiſe; violent colds in the head; fevers; hard wax, as they powerfully Thake all the abdominal and thoracic viſeera; or other ſubſtances ſticking in the cavity of the ear; too great a and thus tend to diſlodge any obſtructing matter that may be con- degree of moiſture or dryneſs of the ear. Deafneſs is very often tained in them. But if there be a tendency to inflammation, vo the effect of old age, and is incident to moſt people in the decline mits muſt not be exhibited till bleeding has been premiſed. We of life. Sometimes it is owing to an original fault in the ftructure muſt alſo proceed with caution if the pain is very ſharp; for in all or formation of the ear itſelf. When this is the caſe it admits of caſes where the diſeaſe is attended with violent pain, it will be ne no cure; and the unhappy perſon not only continues deaf, but ge- ceſſary to allay it by opiates before the exhibition of an emetic. nerally likewiſe dumb for life. There is alſo danger, that, by a continued uſe of vomits, a ſtone When deafnefs is the effect of wounds, or ulcers of the ears, which is too large to paſs, may be ſo impacted in the ducts, that or of old age, it is not eaſily removed. When it proceeds from it cannot even be returned into the gall-bladder, which would cold of the head, the patient muſt be careful to keep his head warm otherwiſe have happened. In all caſes therefore, if no relief fol- eſpecially in the night; he ſhould likewiſe take fome gentle purges, lows the exhibition of the ſecond or third doſe, it will be prudent and keep his feet warm, and bathe them frequently in luke-warm to forbear their farther uſe for ſome time. water at bed-time. When deafneſs is the effect of a fever, it ge- Of all kinds of exerciſe, that of riding on horſe back, is moſt nerally goes off after the patient recovers. If it proceeds from dry to be depended upon in this diſeaſe. It operates in the ſame man wax ſticking in the ears, it may be ſoftened by dropping oil into ner with vomits, namely, by the ſhake it gives to the viſcera ; and afterwards they muſt be fyringed with warm milk and therefore the cautions neceſſary to be obſerved in the uſe of vomits water. STO are alſo neceſſary to be obſerved in the uſe of riding. Cathartics If deafneſs proceeds from dryneſs of the ears, which may be alſo may be of ſervice, by cleanſing the prime viæ, and foliciting known by looking into them, half an ounce of the oil of ſweet al- a diſcharge of a bile into the inteſtines; but they muſt not be of monds, and the fame quantity of liquid opodeldoc, or tincture of too draſtic a nature, or they may produce incurable obſtructions, aſafætida, may be mixed together, and a few drops of it put into by bringing forward ſtones that are too large to paſs. Anodynes, the ear every night at bed-time, ſtopping them afterwards with a the warm bath, and faponaceous medicines, are ſerviceable by their little wool, or cotton. little wool, or cotton. Some, inſtead of oil, put a ſmall ſlice of the relaxing quality. Soap hath been ſuppoſed to do ſervice as a fol fat of bacon into each ear, which is faid to anſwer the purpoſe vent; but this is now found to be a miſtake, and it acts in no other very well. When the ears abound with moiſture, it may be way than as a relaxant. drained off by an iſſue or feton, which ſhould be made as near the But when all means of relief fail, as in caſes of fchirrhus, we can affected part as poſſible. Sie then only attempt to palliate the ſymptoms, and preſerve the pati Neither the eyes not ears ought to be tampered with ; they ent's life as long as poſſible. This is beſt accompliſhed by diu- are tender organs, and require a very delicate touch. For this retics; for thus a great quantity of bilious matter is evacuated, and reaſon, what we would chiefly recommend in deafneſs, is to keep the ſyſtem is freed from the bad confequences which enſue on its the head warm. From whatever cauſe the diſorder proceeds, thisis ſtagnation in the habit. But even this is by no means equal to the always proper; and more benefithas often been derived from it alone, them; down in M E DICINE. + in the moſt obſtinate caſes of deafneſs, than from any medicines bite, together with a fulneſs of the lips of the urethra, and ſome whatever. degree of tenſion in the penis, the urinary canal feeling as if GENUS. LXV. ANOSMÍA, or Defeat of SMELLING. tightened, and the urine flowing in a ſmall and unequal ſtream: Caufes. The ſenſe of ſmelling may be diminiſhed or deſtroyed a little whitiſh mucus is to be ſeen about the orifice of the ure: by diſeaſes; as, the moiſture, dryneſs, inflammation, or ſuppu-thra, and oozing from it when ſlightly preſſed, eſpecially if the ration of that membrane which lines the inſides of the noſe, com- preſſure is made on the ſpot where the foreneſs is moſt felt. The monly called the olfactory membrane ; the compreſſion of the diſcharge foon increaſes in quantity, and varies in its colour ac- nerves which ſupply this membrane, or ſome fault in the brain cording to the degree of inflammation. The patient feels a fen- itſelf at their origin. A defect, or too great a degree of folidity fation of heat and pain in evacuating his urine, particularly at of the ſmall ſpungy bones of the upper jaw, the caverns of the certain ſpots of the urethra, and above all towards its orifice ; forehead, &c. may likewiſe impair the ſenſe of ſmelling. It may and the involuntary erections to which he is ſubject from the ſti- alſo be injured by a collection of fetid matter in thoſe caverns, mulus, particularly when warm in bed, occaſion a diſtortion or which keeps conſtantly exhaling from them. Few things are curvature of the penis, attended with exquiſite pain. When the more hurtful to the ſenſe of ſmelling than taking great quantities inflammation is violent, the glans appear tumid and tranſparent, of ſnuff. ob brun the tenſion extends through the whole of the penis, the perinzum Cure. When the noſe abounds with moiſture, after gentleeva- is affected with ſwelling and redneſs, and even the loins, buttocks, cuations, ſuch things as tend to take off irritation and coagu- and anus, ſympathize and afford a very uneaſy ſenſation. Some- late the thin ſharp ſerum may be applied ; as the oil of aniſe times the prepuce inflames about the end of the penis, and can- mixed with fine flour, camphire diſſolved in oil of almonds, &c. not be drawn back, occaſioning what is called a phymoſis; at The vapours of amber, frankincenſe, gum-maſtic; and benjamin, others, as in the paraphymaſis, it remains in an inflamed ffate be- may likewiſe be received into the noſe and mouth. For moiſten- | low the glans, ſo that it cannot be drawn forwards ; and, if the ing the mucus when it is too dry, fome recommend ſnuff made ſtricture and inflammation are violent, may terminate in gan- of the leaves of marjoram, mixed with the oil of amber, marjo- | grene. Now and then, eſpecially when there is a phymoſis, we ram, and aniſeed ; or a ſternutatory of calcined white vitriol, 12 may perceive a hard chord extending along the back of the pes grains of which may be mixed with two ounces of majoram-wa-nis. This is an infamed lymphatic, and may be conſidered as ter and filtrated. The ſteam or The ſteam or vapour of vinegar upon hot iron a prelude to a bubo. received up the noſtrils is likewiſe of uſe for ſoftening the mucus, In mild caſes, the ſeat of the diſeaſe is in the urethra, not far opening obſtructions, &c. moms from its orifice; but it frequently happens that the virus infi- If there be reaſon to ſuſpect that the nerves which ſupply the nuates itſelf much higher up, ſo as to affect Cowper's glands, the organs of ſmelling are inert or want ſtimulating ; volatile ſalts proſtate, and parts very near to the neck of the bladder. ſtrong ſnuffs, and other things which occaſion ſneezing, may be in the generality of caſes, the inflammation goes on increaſing applied to the noſe. The forehead may likewiſe be anointed with for ſeveral days, commonly for a week or a fortnight when me- balſam of Peru, to which may be added a little of the oil of amber. dicines are taken; after which, the ſymptoms begin to abate ; Genus LXVI. AGHEUSTIA, or Defeet of Tasting. and the running, when left to itſelf, gradually leſſons in quantity, Cauſe. The taſte may be diminiſhed by cruſts, filth, mucus, and becomes whiter and thicker, till at length it totally ſtop sa apthæ, pellicles, warts, &c. covering the tongue: it may be de- The colour of the mucus, however, is by no means a certain praved by a fault of the ſaliva, which being diſcharged into the guide in theſe caſes : for in many patients it is of a yellowiſh, mouth, gives the ſame ſenſation as if the food which the perſon and ſometimes of a greeniſh hue to the very laſt; but in general takes had really a bad taſte; or it may be entirely deſtroyed by it becomes more conſiſtent towards the clofe of the diſeaſe. injuries done to the nerves of the tongue and palate. Few things In women, the parts of generation being fewer and more ſimple, prove more hurtful either to the ſenſe of taſting or ſmelling than the diſeaſe is leſs complicated than in men. Sometimes the va- obſtinate colds, eſpecially thoſe which affect the head. gina only is affected ; and when this happens, the ſymptoms are Cure. When the taſte is diminiſhed by filth, mucus, &c. the very trifling; but in general it comes on with an itching and tongue ought to be ſcraped, and frequently waſhed with a mix ſenſation of heat as in the other ſex ; and is attended with in- ture of water, vinegar, and honey, or ſome other detergent. flammation of the nymphæ, inſide of the labiæ, clitoris, carun- When the ſaliva is vitiated, which feldom happens unleſs in culæ myrtiformes, the orifice and ſometimes the whole of the fevers or other diſeaſes, the curing of the diſorder is the cure of meatus urinarius. meatus urinarius. Very often the deep-ſeated glands of the this ſymptom. To relieve it, however, in the mean time, the vagina are affected, and it is fometimes difficult to diſtinguiſh following things may be of uſe: if there be a bitter taſte, it may the diſcharge of a gonorrhæa from that of the fluor albus. be taken away by vomits, purges and other things which evacuate Cauſes, &c. Many ingenious arguments have of late been ad- bile: what is called a nidorous taſe, ariſing from putrid humours, vanced to prove, that the gonorrhea and the lues venerea are is corrected by the juice of citrons, oranges, and other acids: a different affections, originating from two diſtinct ſpecies of virus; ſalt taſte is cured by plentiful dilution with watery liquors: an and this controverſy ſtill, perhaps, remains to be decided by fu- acid taſte is deſtroyed by abſorbents and alkaline falts, as powder ture facts. Certain it is, that in 19 of 20 caſes of gonorrhæa, of ovſter-ſhells, fált of wormwood, &c. no fymptom whatever of ſyphilis appears ; and that the diſeaſe When the ſenſibility of the nerves which ſupply the organs of readily admits of cure without having recourſe to thoſe reme- taſte is diminiſhed, the chewing horſe-radiſh, or other ſtimulating dies which are univerſally requiſite for combating the contagion ſubſtances, will help to recover it. Nou of ſyphilis. It is by no means wonderful, that in ſome caſes both ORDER II. APOCENOSES. contagions, ſuppoſing them different, ſhould be communicated Flux of Blood or ſome other Humour more copious than uſual. at the ſame time. But as undeniable proof that the contagion in GENUS LXVII. PROFUSIO, or Flux of BLOOD. both caſes is preciſely the ſame, it has been alledged by fome, For the treatment of this genus, fee MENORRHAGIA, HÆ that the matter of a chancre introduced into the urethra will ge- MOPTYSIS, &c. wo nerate a gonorrhea, and that the diſcharge from a gonorrhea Genus LXVIII. EPHIDROSIS, or Exceſive SWEATING. will produce chancre, bubo, and every other ſymptom of fyphilis. This is generally fymptomatic; and occurs in almoſt all fevers, On the other hand, however, it is contended, that when experi- but eſpecially in the latter ſtages of the hectic. Sometimes it is a ments of this nature are conducted with the greateſt accuracy, primary diſeaſe, ariſing merely from weakneſs: and then eaſily the matter of fyphilis uniformly produces fyphilis, and that of admits of a cure by the uſe of the Peruvian bark, the cold bath, gonorrhea, gonorrhea only. Without pretending to decide on and other tonics. which of theſe experiments the greateſt dependence is to be put, GENUS LXIX. ENURESIS, an Involuntary Flux of Urine. we may only obſerve, that while an almoſt inconceivably ſmall This is a diſtemper which frequently affects children, other portion of fyphilitic matter applied to the glans penis, from con- wiſe healthy, when aſleep; and is extremely diſagreeable. Often nection with an infected female, infallibly produces ſyphilis if it it is merely the effect of lazineſs, and may be driven off by pro be not ſpeedily removed, the matter of gonorrhæa, in every in- per correction; but ſometimes it proceeds from an atony or weak ſtance of that diſeaſe, is applied to the whole ſurface of the glans neſs of the ſphincter of the bladder. Many ridiculous cures have penis for many days together without producing almoſt any bad been preſcribed for it, among the reſt field-mice dried and pow- effect whatever. effect whatever. From this, therefore, there is ground for in- dered. Tonics are frequently of uſe ; but fometimes the differring, either that it is not capable of being abſorbed, or that if temper proves obſtinate, in ſpite of every thing we can uſe. In abſorbed it is innocent. the Medical Obſervations we find bliſters greatly recommended But while there have been diſputes with regard to the pecu- in this diſeaſe, when applied to the region of the os facrum. There liar nature of the matter in gonorrhea, there have alſo been con- are many cafes in which the power of bliſters in removing this troverſies with reſpect to the ſource from whence it is derived. diſtemper ſeems to exceed that of every other medicine whatever. While ſome ſuppoſe it to be principally purulent matter ariſing GENUS LXX. GONORRHEA, or CLAP. or from ulcerations, others affert that no ſuch ulceration is ever pro- The gonorrhea is a flux of viſcid matter of various colours, duced in the urethra hy gonorrhea. They contend that the in- from the urethra in men, and the vagina in women. It com creaſed fecretion in theſe caſes is exactly ſimilar to what happens monly proceeds from coition with a perſon infected with the ve in the catarrh. But the compariſon will by no means hold good nereal diſeaſe, and is the firſt fymptom by which that diſeaſe in every particular: in the latter the whole membrane of the uſually ſhews itſelf. noſe is equally irritated; whereas in the gonorrhoea, only parti- Deſcription. The firſt ſymptoms of the diſeaſe in men, are cular parts of the urethra ſeem to be affected. The diſeaſe, in the mmonly a ſenſation at the end of the penis not unlike a flea-' gencrality of caſes, ſeldom extends more than an inch and a half along No. 104 MEDICINE Mild purges; along that ca nal, and in many is confined (at leaſt in the be- / fymptoms continue. Every thing that tends to excite the vene- ginning) to a ſma'l ſpot about an inch from the extremity of the real imagination ſhould be ſtudiouſly avoided; for whatever pro- glans. The diſcharge is produced from that part of the urethra motes erections of the penis will increaſe the inflammation, and where the pain is felt; and the patient, when he voids his urine, of courſe add fuel to the diſeaſe. For the fame reaſons much feels no ſmarting till it reaches the infamed ſpot: but as the walking or riding on horſeback will be hurtful, from the irritation diſorder increaſes, the inflammation affects a greater number kept up in the perinæum by ſuch means. Violent exerciſe of of points, juſt in the ſame manner as chancres affect different any kind, or any thing that is liable to increaſe the heat and parts of the glans. It might be ſuppoſed that diſſection would momentum of the blood, will of courſe be improper. at once clear up this matter, and put an end to the diſpute; but The drinking freely of mild, cooling, mucilaginous liquors, this is far from being the caſe. Dr. Simmons has ſeen ſeveral | ſuch as linſeed-tea, orgeat, whey, milk and water, almond emul- urethras opened in perſons who had a gonorrhea at the time of fion, and the like, will be extremely uſeful, by diluting the urine, their death : in three of them the ſurface of the urethra, as in and preventing its ſalts from ſtimulating the urethra. When the the caſes related by Morgagni, appeared for ſome way down of a heat and pain in making water are very conſiderable, mucilaginous flight red colour, and in all of them was covered with mucus ; ſubſtances are found to have the beſt effect, particularly the gum but without any appearance of ulceration, except in two diffec- tragacanth. It is a common practice to give equal doſes of this tions at Paris, in which moſt of the gentlemen preſent were con gum, or gum-arabic, and nitre, and to diffolve nitre in the pa- vinced that they ſaw evident marks of it: but Dr. Simmons tient's drink, with a view to leſſen the inflammation. But in theſe ſays, that the appearances were to him not fufficiently ſatisfac- | caſes nitre is always improper; it is known to be a powerful tory to enable him to decide with certainty on the ſubject. On diuretic, its chief action being upon the urinary paſſages; ſo that the other hand, when we conſider that the diſcharge in a gonor-| the ſtimulus it occaſions will only ſerve to increaſe the evil it is rhæa is ſometimes tinged with blood, and that when this hap- intended to alleviate. Cream of tartar, on account of its diuretic pens a little blood veſſel is no doubt ruptured, we can have no quality, will be equally improper. Our view here is not to pro. reaſon to doubt that an ulceration may, and ſometimes does, mote a preternatural flow of urine ; for the virus, being infolu- happen in theſe caſes; eſpecially as we often obſerve an exco ble in water, cannot be waſhed away by ſuch means : but our riation near the orifice of the urethra. It is certain, that wherever object ought to be, to render the urine that is fecreted as mild there is cofiderable inflammation, there will we danger of ulcera= and as little ſtimulating as poſſible. tion. Beſides, from a neglected, or badly-treated gonorrhea, which conſtitute another material part of the ge. we often ſee fiſtulas in perineo, and other ulcers of the urethra, neral remedies, are no doubt extremely uſeful when exhibited penetrating through its ſubſtance, and affording a paſſage to the with prudence : but it is well known that the abuſe of purgative urine. And there can be no doubt that flight ulcerations of this medicines in this diſeaſe has been productive of numerous evils. canal often occur, and are afterwards perfectly obliterated, in a Formerly it was a pretty general practice to give a large doſe of fimilar manner to what happens in the papillæ of the tongue, the calomel at bed-time, three or four times a week; and to work it tonſils, &c. Such an obliteration will the more readily take off the next morning, with a ſtrong doſe of the pilula cocciæ, or place in a part like the urethra, defended with mucus, and not ſome other draſtic purge. This method was perſevered in for expoſed to the air, which is known no have to little effect in ſeveral weeks: and as the conſtant effect of a violent draſtic hardening a cicatrix. purge is to promote abſorption from every cavity, the venereal But whether ulcers take place or not, whether the virus of virus was frequently carried into the ſyſtem, and produced a gonorrhæa be preciſely of the ſame kind with that which gives confirmed lues ; or, if the patient eſcaped this evil, he at leaſt ſyphilis, or of a different kind, there is reaſon from the pheno- | found himſelf troubled with an obſtinate gleet, and, perhaps, his mena of the diſeaſe to conclude, that the matter firſt acts by conſtitution materially injured : the effect of ſuch a method be- mixing with the mucus at the extremity of the urethra ; and that ing (eſpecially in irritable habits) to weaken the ſtomach and from thence it is propagated upwards, particularly where the ex- bowels, and lay the foundation of hypochondrial complaints. cretories of mucus are moſt numerous ; and that on the parts to Violent purging likewiſe often occaſions ſtrangury, hernia hu which it is applied, it operates as a peculiar irritating cauſe. The moralis, and other troubleſome fymptoms. Now that we are conſequences of this irritation will be inflammation and an in well acquainted with the doctrine of abſorption, this abfurd prac- creaſed ſecretion of mucus; and ſo far the complaint will be lo tice is very deſervedly fallen into diſrepute ; for ſurely no man, cal. In ninety-nine caſes of an hundred a local affection of this who is converſant with anatomy, will, at this time of day, at- kind conſtitutes the whole of the diſeaſe ; and of this inflamma- tempt to diſcharge the virus of a gonorrhoea by ſtool, when he tion, ulcerations within the urethra, ſtrictures, and other local knows that it muſt firſt be taken up by the lymphatics, and car- affections, may be the conſequence. But whether a diſeaſe of ried into the circulation ; and yet, ftrange as it may ſeem, fuch the habit ever takes place, unleſs when the contagion of ſyphilis is our attachment to old cuſtoms, that we ſtill every now and is communicated with that of gonorrhæa, ſtill remains to be de then meet with caſes in which this pernicious method has been termined by future obſervations and experiments. adopted. Nothing can be more variable than the period at which the The topical remedies that are uſed conſiſt chiefly of different diſeaſe makes its appearance after infection. Perhaps, at a me forts of injections, the ingredients of which are extremely va- dium, we may place it between the 4th and 14th day ; but in rious; but their modes of operation may in general be referred ſome caſes it happens within 24 hours; and in others, not be to their mucilaginous and ſedative, or to their detergent, ſtimu- fore the end of five or even fix weeks: neither of theſe extremes, lating, and aftringent qualities. In the hands of fkilful practi- however, are common. tioners, great advantages may doubtleſs be derived from the uſe With the view of preventing gonorrhea, ſome have adviſed, of theſe remedies, but, on the other hand, the improper and un- that the alkali either in its mild or cauſtic ſtate, properly diluted ſeaſonable adminiſtration of them may prove a ſource of irrepara- with water, ſhould be injected into the urethra ; and there can ble miſchief to the patient. be no doubt, that by this means the contagious matter, when it We know that mucilaginous and oily injections will tend to hath entered the urethra, may be removed. A removal may alſo allay the local inflammation ; and that a ſedative injection, ſuch be effected by the injection of a weak folution of corroſive ſub as a ſolution of opium, will leffen the irritability of the parts, limate, which ſeems to act not by diffolving the mucus but by and of courſe produce a ſimilar effect: the utility of ſuch appli- producing an augmented ſecretion. That in ſome caſes the dif cations is therefore ſufficiently obvious. order admits of a natural cure, there can be no doubt; the in A detergent injection, or one that will act upon the mucus of creaſed fecretion of mucus carrying off the virus faſter than it is the urethra, increaſe the diſcharge of it, waſh it away, and with formed, till at length the infection is wholly removed : But it is it the venereal virus that is blended with it, can only be uſed as equally certain, that in every caſe, by the application of ſuitable a prophylactic before the ſymptoms of infection have made their remedies to the inflamed part, we may ſhorten the duration of appearance. A ſolution of cauſtic, properly diluted, will anſwer the complaint, and abridge the ſufferings of the patient, with the this purpoſe. this purpoſe. But great circumſpection is neceſſary in the uſe fame certainty and ſafety as we are enabled to remove the effects of this kind of injection. If it be too weak, it can be of no of an ophthalmia or any other local inflammation, by proper efficacy; and if it be too ſtrong, it may prove dangerous to the topical applications. patient. A ſuppreſſion of urine hath been brought on by the Cure. From the foregoing deſcription of the progreſs of the improper uſe of an injection of this kind. When the ſymptoms diſeaſe, it will eaſily be perceived that the chief curative indi- of inflammation have once made their appearance, the ſtimulus cations are to ſubdue inflammation, and remove the virus that of ſuch an injection muſt be extremely hazardous. Excoriation occaſions it. of the urethra has but too often been produced by remedies of General remedies, ſuch as occaſional blood-letting, a cooling this ſort in the hands of adventurous and unſkilful practitioners. diet, the liberal uſe of diluting liquors, and mild purges, are by While the inflammation of the urethra continues, every thing all allowed to be uſeful and even neceſſary. that ſtimulates it muſt be hurtful. If the injection excites a pain- The utility, and even the neceſſity of a cooling regimen are ful ſenſation in the urethra, as is but too often the caſe, it will ſufficiently obvious; wines and ſpirituous liquors, ſpiceries, a be liable to produce ſwelled teſticles, difficulty in making water, fish-diet, much animal food, and ſalted and high ſeaſoned diſhes excoriation, and other effects of increaſed inflammation : if by of every fort, will conſtantly add to the complaint. The patient its aſtringency, the running is checked before the virus that ex- Thould eat meat only once a-day, and that ſparingly. He ſhould He ſhould cited the diſcharge is properly ſubdued, the patient will be ex- abſtain from hot ſuppers. Milk, mild vegetables, and fruit ſhould poſed to all the dangers of a confirmed lues; and, perhaps, to a conſtitute the principal part of his diet while the inflammatory / variety of local complaints, ſuch as obſtructions in the urethra, and MEDICINÉ. and abſceſſes in perinæo, which are well known to be ſometimes not approve this mode of practice. I can, however, from much owing to applications of this fort improperly managed. experience, affert, that it is both the moſt eaſy, elegant and ef- When the infiammation has ſubſided, gently ſtimulating and ficacious method of cure, and that any bad conſequences ariſing aftringent injections may be uſed with ſafety, and with conſidera- from it muſt be owing to the ignorance or miſconduct of the prac- ble advantage: for as the inflammation is at firſt excited by the titioner himſelf, and not the remedy. Many, for example, uſe ftimulus of the venereal virus, fo when the former begins to lefſen ſtrong preparations of lead, all of which are dangerous when ap- we may be aſſured that the activity of the latter has abated in plied to the internal ſurface of the body, others uſe eſcharotics , proportion ; and, in general, when the inflammatory ſymptoms which inflame and injure the parts. I have known a gonorrhea are entirely removed, it will be found that the mucus is no lon- actually cured by an injection made of green-tea, and would ger of an infectious nature, but is merely the effect of an in- always recommend gentle methods where they will ſucceed. creaſed fecretion, and of relaxation. Mild aſtringents will there When the pain and inflamation are ſeated high towards the neck fore ſerve to brace and ſtrengthen the veſſels fecreting mucus, of the bladder, it will be proper frequently to throw up an emo- and in this way will leſſen the diſcharge, and greatly promote lient lient clyſter, which beſides the benefit of procuring ſtools, will the cure. It is certain, that in the greater number of caſes, a ſerve as a fomentation to the inflamed parts. gonorrhoea, which if treated by internal remedies alone would Soft poultices, when they can conveniently be applied to the continue for five or fix weeks, or longer, may, when judiciouſly parts, are of great ſervice. They may be made of the flour of treated with injections, be cured in a fortnight, and very often in | linſeed, or of wheat bread and milk, ſoftened with freſh butter leſs time. The great aim, therefore, of the practitioner ought or ſweet oil. When poultices cannot be conveniently uſed, to be at firſt to make uſe of ſuch injections only as will tend to cloths wrung out of warm water or bladders filled with warm lubricate the ſurface of the urethra, and to counteract and def- milk and water, may be applied. I have often known the troy the ſtimulus of the virus : as the inflammation abates, he moſt excruciating pains, during the inflammatory ſtate of the may add ſome gently aſtringent preparation to a mucilaginous gonorrhæa, relieved by one or other of theſe applications: and ſedative injection ; taking care that its aſtringency be ſuited Few things tend more to keep off the inflammation in the to the ſtate of the diſeaſe, and to the irritability of the patient. fpermatic veſſels, than a proper truſs for the ſerotum. It ought Amongſt a great variety of ſubſtances, mercury in different forms to be ſo contrived as to ſupport the teſticles, and ſhould be worn is one of thoſe that is the moſt frequently employed in injections. from the firſt appearance of diſeaſe till it has ceaſed ſome weeks. All theſe mercurial injections have more or leſs of aftringency; The above treatment will ſometimes remove the gonorrhoea ſo and, according to Dr. Simmons, it is ſolely to this property that quickly, that the perſon will be in doubt whether he really la- we are to aſcribe their effects ; for the idea of their correcting the boured under that diſeaſe. This, however is too favourable a venereal virus was originally introduced, and has been continued turn to be often expected. It more frequently happens, that we upon miſtaken principles. are able only to procure abatement or remiſſion of the infiamma- Calomel, mixed with the mucus diſcharged in a gonorrhoea, has tory ſymptoms, fo far as to make it ſafe, to have recourſe to the no more power in deſtroying the infectious properties of that mu great antidote mercury. cus than cerufſe or any other preparation would have. A diluted Many people on the firſt appearance of a gonorrhæa fly to the folution of ſublimate injected into the urethra will, like a ſolu uſe of mercury. This is a bad plan. Mercury is often not at tion of verdigriſe, or blue vitriol, or any other ſtyptic, conſtringe all neceffary in a gonorrhæa, and when taken too early, it does the mouths of the lacunæ ; but this is all that it will do, for it miſchief. It may be neceſſary to complete the cure, but can will never lefſen the infectious nature of the virus. The ſame never be proper at the commencement of it. thing may be obſerved of crude mercury extinguiſhed by means “ When bleeding, purging, fomentations and the other things of mucilage, or of mercurial unction, blended with the yolk of recommended, have eaſed the pain, foftened the pulſe, relieved an egg, and which, when thrown up into the urethra, will act the heat of the urine, and rendered the involuntary erections leſs nearly in the fame manner as balſam of copaiva, or any other frequent, the patient may begin to uſe mercury in any form that is ſtimulating injection. For the truth is, that mercury has no leaſt diſagreeable to him.” This plan of Dr. Buchan is now'uni- power over the venereal virus, until it has been introduced into verſally followed by the firſt practitioners. the body, undergone certain changes , with which we are, and. The mercurial pill of the London Diſpenſatory, on account of probably Thall for ever remain, unacquainted. The local ap- the turpentine that enters into its compoſition, will fometimes paſs plication of mercury can therefore have no other effects than through the body undiffolved, and of courſe can then be of no uſe what it derives from its ſtimulating and aſtringent properties: but when the mercury is extinguiſhed by means of honey, and for the mercury not being abſorbed in the urethra, of courſe can made into pills, in the manner directed in the laſt edition of the not be carried into the fyftem ; and even if it could, the quan- Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, it becomes as mild and perhaps as tity that would be introduced in this way would be too minute to efficacious a preparation as any, Its efficacy will depend on its be of any efficacy. The ſtimulus of calomel, however, has often not irritating the bowels, and fo paſſing off by ſtools; care muſt been found of conſiderable efficacy; and in women, when the likewiſe be taken to prevent its affecting the mouth. Of the chy- vagina only was affected, after waſhing the parts well, the cure mical preparations of mercury the mildeſt and leaſt irritating is has been accompliſhed by rubbing them repeatedly with mercurial calomel. It may be given from gr. iß. to gr. iii. at bed-time, oc- ointment. caſionally interpoſing a mild purgative to preventit from ſalivating ; As the gonorrhea is often a local affection, it may be imagined, but in general the mercurial pill juſt mentioned is to be preferred. perhaps, that the internal uſe of mercury is unneceſſary towards When there is no chancre or bubo, no appearance, in ſhort the cure. Very often indeed this complaint may be removed that the infection is likely to be carried into the ſyſtem, it would without having recourſe to mercurials. Sometimes patients have be improper to adminiſter corroſive ſublimate, the mercurius cal- been met with whoſe general health has been greatly impaired by cinatus, or any other of the more acrid preparations of mercury. a long continued uſe of mercury in ſuch caſes, while the original When there is no reaſon to ſuſpect a venereal taint, aſtringent diſeafe, the gonorrhea, was rendered much worſe by it. In ſome injections will be of the greateſt ſervice. It will be neceſſary, at it degenerated into a gleet, that was cured with extreme difficulty, the ſame time, to attend to the health of the patient, by giving in others it brought on a variety of diſtreſſing ſymptoms. In caſes the bark, chalybeate waters, cold bathing, and ſuch other reme- of gonorrhæa, therefore, whenever mercury is adminiſtered, it dies as will tend to ſtrengthen the ſyſtem. When there is no ten- ought not to be with a view to expedite the cure, but merely to dency to inflammation, the balſam of copaiva, may be preſcribed obviate the dangers of abſorption. When the infection is appa- with advantage in large doſes. Dr. Simmons ſays he once ſaw a rently ſlight, and the inflammation and the ſymptoms trifling, we complaint of this ſort removed by applying a bliſter to the peri- may proceed without the aſſiſtance of mercury, eſpecially, if the næum, after it had reſiſted a variety of other remedies. In the patient is of a weak, relaxed, and irritable habit, likely to be in Medical Obſervations alſo we have an account of the gleet and in- jured by mercurial medicines. On the other hand, whenever the continence of urine removed at once by a bliſter to the os ſacrum. diſcharge is violent, the inflammation conſiderable, or the ſeat of In general, however, the other methods abovementioned will be the diſeaſe high upon the urethra, it is adviſeable to give mercu fufficient to remove it, though fometimes it will continue for a rials in ſmall doſes, and in ſuch forms as ſeem the beſt adapted to long time in ſpite of all our endeavours to check it. Other kinds the conſtitution of the patient. of gonorrhea, in which the femen itſelf is ejected, eſpecially dur- The following is the method of treatment recommended by Dr. ing ſleep, may be cured by tonics, and a mild cooling regimen. Buchan. ORDER III. EPISCHESES. “ To effect a cure aſtringent injections will generally be found Suppreſſion of Evacuations. neceſſary. Theſe may be in various ways prepared ; but I think GENUS LXXI. OBSTIPATIO; COSTIVENESS. thoſe made with the white vitriol are both moſt ſafe and effica Coſtiveneſs is ſometimes occaſioned by debility in dyſpeptic cious. They can be made ſtronger or weaker as circumſtances perfons, ſometimes it is the effect of rigidity, and ſometimes it is may require; but it is beſt to begin with the moſt gentle, and ſymptomatic of the colic. It may proceed from an exceflive heat increaſe their power, if neceſſary. I generally order a drachm of of the liver ; drinking rough red wines, or other aſtringent liquors; phite vitriol to be diffolved in eight or nine ounces of common too much exerciſe, eſpecially on horſeback : it may likewiſe pro- or roſe water, and an ordinary fyringe full of it to be thrown up ceed from a long uſe of cold inſipid food, which does not ſufficiently three or four times a day. If this quantity does not perform a ſtimulate the inteſtines. Sometimes it is owing to the bile not de- cure, it may be repeated, and the dofe increaſed. ſcending to the inteſtines, as in the jaundice; and at other times, Although it is now very common to cure the gonorrhea by it proceeds from diſeaſes of the inteſtines themſelves, as a palfy, aftringent injections, there are ſtill many practitioners, who do ſpaſm, tumours, a cold dry ſtate of the inteſtines, &c. Exceſſive MEDICINE. Exceſſive coſtiveneſs is apt to occaſion pains of the head, vomit mallow roots have been boiled, injecting at the ſame time an emol- ing, colics, and other complaints of the bowels. It is peculiarly lient clyſter. After the poffet-drink has been vomited up, and the hurtful to hypochondriac and hyſteric perſons, as it generates wind clyſter returned, give a pretty large doſe of an opiate. But if the and other grievous ſymptoms. patient is old or weak, or ſubject to the vapours, bleeding may be Perſons who are generally coſtive ſhould live upon a moiſten- omitted, eſpecially if his urine at the beginning of the fit is coffee ing and laxative diet ; as roaſted or boiled apples, pears, ſtewed coloured and mixed with gravel; but as to other things, the cure prunes, raiſins, gruels with currants, butter, honey, ſugar, and is the ſame. Huxham greatly recommends an emollient bath pre- ſuch like. Broths with ſpinage, leeks, and other ſoft pot-herbs, pared of a decoction of marſh-mallow root, linſeed, fenugreek are likewiſe proper. Rye-bread, or that which is made of a ſeed, and flowers of chamomile, to which may be added a few mixture of wheat and rye together, ought to be eat. white-poppy ſeeds. By the uſe of this bath he ſays he has ſeen Coſtiveneſs is increaſed by keeping the body too warm, and by the moſt cruel fit of thegravelſuddenly ended, when neither copious every thing that promotes the perſpiration ; as wearing flannel, bleeding nor opiates had the leaſt effect. bleeding nor opiates had the leaſt effect. Mild diureti:s are alſo lying too long a-bed, &c. of ſervice. Hoffman recommends dulcified ſpirit of nitre as pro. The drink ſhould be of an opening quality. All ardent ſpirits, per to relax the ſpaſtic ſtricture. It is to be taken with ſuitable dif- auſtere and aſtringent wines, as port, claret, &c. ought to be tilled waters, and ſyrup of poppies; or in broth, with a few ſpoon- avoided. Malt-liquor that is fine and of a moderate ſtrength, is fuls of oil of ſweet almonds. Turpentine glyſters are alſo ac- counted very proper. Butter-milk, whey, and other watery liquors, are very ſerviceable; and may be prepared of ten ounces of likewiſe proper, and may be drank in turns, as the patient's in decoction of chamomile, with half an ounce of turpentine diſſolved clination directs. in the yolk of an egg, with as much honey. The ſal drureticus, Thoſe who are troubled with coſtiveneſs ought, if poſſible, to or terra foliata tartari, is much eſteemed by ſome, when taken remedy it by diet, as the conſtant uſe of medicines for that purpoſe along with an opiate. along with an opiate. But when the ſtone is too big to paſs, Ar- isattended with many inconveniences, and often with bad confe- buthnot recommends a cool and diluent diet to hinder the further quences. In time the cuſtom becomes neceſſary, and generally growth of it. Whey, linſeed, decoction of marſh-mallows, and ends in a total relaxation of the bowels, indigeſtion, loſs of appe- gently reſolving diuretics, are alſo proper. To put a ſtop to the tite, waſting of the ſtrength, and death. vomiting, balſamum traumaticum may be uſed with ſucceſs when The learned Dr. Arbuthnot adviſes thoſe who are troubled with almoſt every other means have failed. coſtiveneſs to uſe animal-oils, as freſh butter, cream, marrow, fat 3. The iſchuria veſichalis may ariſe from a ſtone in the blad- broths, eſpecially thoſe made of the internal parts of animals, as der; and this indeed is the moſt common cauſe of it: but there the liver, heart, midriff, &c. He likewiſe recommends the ex are certain caſes in which, though the uſual quantity of urine, or preſſed oils of mild vegetables, as olives, almonds, piſtaches, and perhaps more, is paſſed, the patient dies from the retention of a the fruits themſelves; all oily and mild fruits, as figs; decoc ſtill greater quantity in the bladder. Of this Dr. Home gives tions of mealy vegetables; theſe lubricate the inteſtines : fome ſa the following inſtance. ponaceous ſubſtances which ſtimulate gently, as honey, hydromel, - A body being opened, it appeared that the tumour which was or boiled honey and water, unrefined ſugar, &c. TEM ſo diſtinctly felt in the left ſide of the abdomen, was owing to a The doctor obſerves, that ſuch lenitive ſubſtances are proper diſtenſion of the bladder with urine. Its fundus reached to for perſons of dry artrabilarian conſtitutions, who are ſubject to about the diviſion of the aorta into the iliacs; it entirely filled aſtriction of the belly and the piles, and will operate when ſtron the pelvis, and contained between five and ſix pounds of urine of ger medicinal ſubſtances are ſometimes ineffectual ; but that ſuch a pale colour. On examining the external furface, its neck, and lenitive diet hurts thoſe whoſe bowels are weak and lax. He like the beginning of the urethra, were found to be ſurrounded with wiſe obſerves, that all watery ſubſtances are lenitive ; and that a fcirrhoſity, which impeded the evacuation of the urine. The even common water, whey, ſour milk, and butter-milk, have that bladder itfelf was much thickened, but not more in one part effect. That new milk, eſpecially aſſes milk, ſtimulates ſtill more than another. The ureters entered naturally ; but were much when it fours on the ſtomach ; and that whey, turned four, will thickened in their upper half near the kidney. The kidneys purge ſtrongly, That moſt garden-fruits are likewiſe laxative ; were ſomewhat enlarged; particularly the left, which had ſeveral and that ſome of them, as grapes, will throw ſuch as take them watery veſicles on its external ſurface. The diſeaſe was mif- immoderately, into a cholera morbus, or incurable diarrhæa. taken for an aſcites ; and the catheter, was not tried; but in When the body cannot be kept open without medicine, gentle another caſe the uſe of this inſtrument was apparently of more doſes of rhubarb may be taken twice or thrice a week. This is ſervice than any internal medicines. not near ſo injurious to the ſtomach as aloes, jalap, or the other GENUS LXXIII. DISURIA, or DIFFICULTY OF MAKING draſtic purgatives, ſo much in uſe. Infuſions of fenna and manna WATER. may likewiſe be taken, or half an ounce of foluble tartar diffolved A difficulty of making water may ariſe from many different in water-gruel. About the ſize of a nutmeg of lenitive electuray cauſes; as from ſome acrid matter in the blood, cantharides, for taken twice or thrice a day, generally anſwers the purpofe very inſtance: and hence a ſtrangury very often fucceeds the applica - well. no tion of bliſters. In many caſes it ariſes from a compreſſion of Genus LXXII. ISCHURIA; or SUPPRESSION of Urine. fome of the neighbouring parts ; of the uterus, for inſtance, This diſtemper is diſtinguiſhed into various ſpecies, according in a ſtate of pregnancy. Or it may ariſe from a ſpaſmodic af. as the ſeat of it in the kidneys, the ureters, the bladder, or the ure fection of the bladder, or rather its ſphincter ; or from an inflam- thra ; and hence theſe ſpecies are named renalis, ureterica, veſica- mation of theſe parts, or others near them. Hence the diſeaſe lis, and urethralis. is diſtinguiſhed into ſo many ſpecies, the cure of which depends 1. Iſchuria renalis, or a ſuppreſſion of urine from an affection upon the remedies indicated by their different caufes. But the of the kidneys, happens but rarely; however Dr. Home in his moſt common as well as the moſt dangerous ſpecies is that ariſing Clinical Experiment deſeribes the effects of it on a patient who from a calculous concretion, or y was under his trcatment, but died after all the probable means STONE in the BLADDER. were uſed for his relief. The ſigns of a ſtone in the bladder are, pain, eſpecially about 2. The iſchuria ureterica is alſo a rare diſeaſe, unleſs the ob the ſphincter ; and bloody urine, in conſequence of riding or ſtruction proceeds from a ſtone or clot of blood ſtopping up the being jolted in a carriage ; a ſenſe of weight in the perinæum ; paffage. Gravel or ſtones indeed, are very frequently formed in an itchineſs of the glans penis ; ſlimy ſediment in the urine; and the kidneys; and, by falling into the ureters, occafion an iſchuria, frequent ſtoppages in making water; a teneſmus alſo comes on with violent pain, and ſymptoms more or leſs urgent in proportion while the urine is diſcharged: but the moſt certain ſign is, when to the ſize and ſhape of the ſtones. Sometimes it is attended with the ſtone is felt by the finger introduced into the anus, or by the coldneſs of the extremities, nauſea and vomiting, and ſpaſtic con- catheter. ítrictions of the præcordia, a difficulty of making water, conſtipation Cauſes, &e It is nct eaſy to ſay what the particular cauſes of the belly, difficulty of breathing, ſtupor of the thigh, retrac are that occaſion the earthy particles of the fluids to run together, tion of the teſticle to the os pubis, inquietude, loſs of ſtrength, ſyn- and from thoſe calculous concretions which are found in different cope, and convulfion fits. When the violent pain has continued parts of the body, and eſpecially in the organs for ſtraining off for ſeveral days and nights without intermiſſion, and has brought and diſcharging the urine. the patient exceeding low, and the ſuppreſſion of urine is com The gout and ſtone are generally ſuppoſed to have ſome affi- plete, with coldneſs of the extremities and convulſions of the ten nity, becauſe gouty people are for the moſt part afflicted with the dons, death is at hand. Nor is it a good ſign when the ſtone con gravel. But, perhaps, this is chiefly owing to their long confine- tinues long in in the ureter; for then the appetite decays, a nauſea ment, and to the lying on the back, which people who labour and retching to vomit fupervene, and the patient is conſumed with under the gout are often obliged to ſubmit to; ſince the want a hectic heat. Sometimes the pain is attended with an inflam- of exerciſe, and this poſture, will naturally favour the ſtag- mation of the ſtomach and inteſtines; and ſometimes the diſeaſe nation of grofs matters in the kidneys: beſides, there are many ends in a dropſy of the breaſt, or lethargy, which foon carry off inſtances of people feverely affliéted with the ſtone for the greateſt the patient, part of a long life, who have never had the leaſt attack of the The indications of cure are, to exclude the ſtone as eaſily as pof- gout. fible, and prevent the breeding of others. the breeding of others. If the patient is of a Whatever may be the particular cauſe of the difpofition to fanguineous temperament, Sydenham recommends to take away | lithiaſis, the kidneys appear to be the moſt likely places for the ten ounces of blood from the affected fide ; and then to give the earthy particles to concrete or run together, becauſe of the great patient a gallon of poffet-drink in which two ounces of marih- | quantity of blood which paſſes through the renal arteries, and MEDICINE. which comes immediately from the heart, fraught with various calculus: and hence it is that the cauſtic fixed alkaline falt is newly-received matters, that have not undergone much of the ſuch a powerful diffolvent of the ſtone: but this being of a very action of the veſſels, and therefore cannot as yet be ſuppoſed to acrid nature, it requires to be well ſheathed by means of fome ge- be thoroughly aſſimilated. latinous or mucilaginous vehicle. Veal-broth is as convenient as Anatomiſts who have carefully examined the kidneys in the any for this purpoſe, and accordingly it is uſed by thoſe who make human ſubject, particularly M. Bertin, informs us, that there a ſecret of the cauſtic alkali as a vehicle for the foap-lees. are two ſets of tubuli uriniferi ; the one continued directly from Mr. Blackrie, who has taken much pains in the inquiry, has the extremities of the renal artery, and the other ſpringing from proved very ſatisfactorily, that Chittick’s noftrum is no other than that veſicular texture which is conſpicuous in the kidney. ſoap-lees given in veal-broth, which the patients fend every day It is in this veſicular part of the kidney that we preſume the to the Doctor, who returns it mixed up with the medicine, in a earthy particles firſt ſtagnate and coaleſce: for it is hardly to be cloſe veſſel ſecured by a lock. ſuppoſed, that ſuch ſolid matters could be allowed to ſtop in the It is not every caſe, however, that either requires or will bear extremities of the renal arteries, ſince the blood, and the urine a courſe of the cauſtic alkali. Some calculi are of that ſoft and ſeparated from it, muſt flow through theſe vefſels with great de- friable nature, that they will diſſolve even in common water; and grees of force and velocity; but in the intermediate veſiculæ the there are caſes wherein it appears that the conſtant uſe of ſome earthy particles may lie, and there attracting each other, ſoon very ſimple decoction or infuſion of an inſignificant vegetable, has come to acquire ſenſible degrees of magnitude, and thus become brought away large quantities of earthy matter, in flakes which ap- fand or gravel. As long as this ſand or gravel formed in the ve- parently have been united together in layers to form a ſtone. Dr. ficular part of the kidney lies quiet, there will be no pain or Macbride aſſures us, that a decoction of raw coffee, only 30 berries uneaſineſs, until the concretions become large enough to preſs in a quart of water, boiled till it acquired a deep greeniſh colour either on the adjoining tubuli, or on the blood veſſels; then a taken morning and evening to the quantity of eight or ten ounces, ſenſe of weight, and a kind of obtufe pain in the loins, will be with ten drops of ſweet ſpirit of nitre, had the powerful effect of felt. But when the ſmall pieces of earthy matter ſhall be dif- bringing away, in the courſe of two months, as much earthy matter lodged and waſhed off by the force of the circulating fluids, or in flakes as filled a large tea-cup. The patient was far advaned looſened by ſome ſpaſmodic actions of the motory fibres in theſe in years; and, before he began this decoction, had been reduced parts, they will in their paſſage create pain, raiſe different degrees to great extremities by the continuance of pain and other diſtreff- of inflammation, or perhaps lacerate ſome blood-veſſels, and ing ſymptoms : he was purged occaſionally with oleum ricini. cauſe bloody urine. When theſe little earthy concretions happen An infuſion of the feeds of daucus ſylveſtris ſweetened with ho- to be detained in the pelvis of the kidney, or any other place ney, is another ſimple and approved remedy; and has been found where a flow of urine continually paſſes, they ſoon increaſe in to give conſiderable eaſe in caſes where the ſtomach could not bear ſize, and become calculi, from the conſtant acceſſion of earthy any thing of an acrid nature: the leaves of the uva urſi were particles, which are attracted by the original bit of ſand, which ſtronglv recommended by the late very celebrated De Haen. But thus becomes the nucleus of a ſtone. where the ſtomach will bear it, and there is no ulceration in the It is an opinion which Hippocrates firſt advanced, and which caſe, nor exceſſive ſenſibility in the uropoietic organs, either the has been almoſt univerſally adopted by his followers, and hath ſoap-lees in new milk or veal-broti, or ſoap-pills, and lime-water, remained till lately uncontroverted, that the ſtone and gravel are will bid faireſt to do effectual ſervice, either by Giffolving the ſtony generated by the uſe of hard water. And from this quality, concretions, or at leaſt rendering the ſharp points and rugged ſurface which the waters of certain ſprings poſſeſs of depoſiting a large leſs capable of injuring the ſenlible membranes of the parts where earthy ſediment, either in the aquæducts through which they are theſe bodies lodge, or happen to paſs through. conveyed, or in the veſſels in which they are boiled or preſerved, In ſuch caſes as will not allow us to think of diffolving the ſtony it was obvious to infer, that in paſſing through the kidneys, and concretions, and where the only ſcheme is to palliate and procure eſpecially whilſt retained in the bladder, they would let fall their eaſe from time to time, little more can be done than to keep the groffer particles, which by the continued appoſition of freſh mat bowels open occaſionally by ſome gentle cathartic, and waſh off ter, connected by the animal gluten, and compacted by the muſ as much of the looſe gravelly matter and ſlime as can be removed cular action of that organ, would in time form a calculus, fuffi- by ſuch mild diuretic infuſions and decoctions as ſhall be found ciently large to produce a train of the moſt excruciating ſymp- to paſs freely and fit well on the ſtomach. Perſons afflicted with toms. And this reaſoninga priori has been ſuppoſed to be confirmed the ſtone ſhould be careful in reſpect of their diet, and ſtudiouſly by facts and experience, for not to mention the authority of Hip- avoid all heavy and flatulent food, as well as high ſauces that are pocrates, Dr. Liſter has obſerved, that the in abitants of Paris apt to turn rancid. For the fame reaſon, butter and acids are to are peculiarly ſubject to the ſtone in the bladder. Nicholas de be ſhunned; for theſe often create heart-burning, and every thing Blegny has related the hiſtory of one who was diſſected at Paris, that offends the ſtomach raiſes the nephritic pain; ſuch is the ſym- in whom the pylorus, a great part of the duodenum, and the pathy that obtains between the digeſtive and the uropoietic organs. ſtomach itſelf, were found incruſtated with a ſtony matter, to the There have been ſurgeons bold enough to entertain an idea of thickneſs of a finger's breadth. And it is well known, that the cutting even into the kidney, in order to extract a ſtone: this, water of the river Seine, with which that city is ſupplied, is ſo however, except in caſes where an abſceſs has been formed, and impregnated with calcareous matter, as to incruſtate, and in a nature points out the way, is merely chimerical. But cutting ſhort time to choak up the pipes through which it runs. But on into the bladder for the ſame purpoſe is an ancient and well the other hand it is objected, that the human calculus is of ani- known operation, and often crowned with ſucceſs. But a deſcrip- mal origin, and by chymical analyſis appears to bear very little tion of this operation belongs to Surgery; and here we ſhall analogy to the ſtony concretions of water. only make this remark, that a ſurgeon ſhould never begin Dr. Percival informs us that a gentleman of Mancheſter, who his operation, until he and his afliftants are perfectly ſatisfied, had been long ſubject to nephritic complaints, and often voided frem actually feeling the ſtone, that there is one in the bladder; ſmall ſtones, was adviſed to refrain from his own pump-water, becauſe it has ſometimes happened, that when the inciſion has which is uncommonly hard, and to drink conſtantly the ſofter been mad, no ſtone could be found: and the patient having water of a neighbouring ſpring; and that this change alone, with died in conſequence of the operation, and the body being opened, out the uſe of any medicine, hath rendered the returns of this it has appeared that the ſymptoms which occafioned the belief diſorder much leſs frequent and painful. A lady alſo, much af- A lady alſo, much af- of a ſtone in the bladder aroſe from ſome other cauſe. fected with the gravel, was induced by the peruſal of the firſt edi When a dyſuria proceeds from an acrimonious matter thrown tion of Dr. Percival's Efſay, to try the effect of ſoft water; and into the blood, it may be readily cured by bleeding, emollient by the conſtant uſe of it remained two years entirely free from clyfters, cooling and diluting drinks with gum arabic or gum tra- her diſorder. gacanth, linſeed tea, or the warm bath. When it ariſes from When an inflammation is actually raiſed, the diſeaſe is known inflammations of the bladder or parts adjoining to it, we are to by the name of nephritis, which has been already treated of. regard it only as a ſymptomatic affection ; and the remedies uſed As ſoon as the ſtone paſſes through the ureter, and falls into the to remove the primary diſeaſe will alſo remove the dyfuria bladder, the pain and other nephritic ſymptoms ceaſe; and every Sometimes it may ariſe from an ulcer of the bladder, in which thing will remain quiet, either till the ſtone is carried into the caſe it is generally incurable ; a mild nutritious diet will, how- urethra, or until it has remained long enough in the bladder to ever, protract the patient's life. acquire weight ſufficient to create new diſtreſs. GENUS LXXIV, AMENORRHEA, If a ſtone happens to be ſmooth, and of a roundiſh form, it may SUPPRESSION of the MENSES. lie in the bladder and acquire confiderable bulk before it can be This, with ſome other ſymptoms, as dyſpepſia, yellowiſh, or perceived by the patient; but when it is angular, or has a rugged greenith colour of the ſkin, unuſual appetites, &c. conititutes the ſurface, even though it may be ſmall in ſize, yet it ſeldom fails to chloroſis already treated of, and which feldom or never appears raiſe pain, and occaſion bloody urine, or the diſcharge of a ſimy without a ſuppreſſion of the menſes. fluid, with teneſmus, and difficulty in making water. Veneſection is recommended as an excellent remedy; the There have been various attemptsand pretences made to diſſolve Doctor gives three inſtances of its ſucceſs, and ſays he could give the ſtone. The things which have been found moſt effectual are many more. It acts by removing the plethoric ſtate of the uterus, thoſe that powerfully abforb the fixed air from bodies, and at the relaxing the fibres, and giving the veffels full play ; ſo that their ſame time readily combining with oils, render them miſcible with affection overcomes all reſiſtance, and the evacuation takes place, water. There is ſcarce any earthy ſubſtance that abounds more It is of no great moment from whence the blood is taken; the fa- in oil, and alſo contains ſuch a quantity of fixed air as the human phæna vein, will, perhaps, empty the uterus moft; but it is diffi- cult No. 104. 7 H MEDICIN E. and cult to get the proper quantity from it, and it cannot be ſo well remarkable, that in thoſe caſes, after curing the fiftula lacrymalis, meaſured. The powder of ſavine is a powerful remedy; and no other diſeaſe was occafioned by it, as blindneſs, inflammation, proved ſucceſsful in three caſes out of four in which it was tried. &c. by ſuppreſſing that diſcharge. It was given in the quantity of half a drachm twice a-day. It is a Ulcers, or open fores of every kind, even of a long ſtanding, are ſtrong topical ſtimulus, and ſeems improper in plethoric habits. generally diſpoſed to heal by electrization. The general effects Madder rootisa very powerful medicine in this diſeaſe ; and proved | are a diminution of the inflammation, and at firſt a promotion of ſucceſsful in 1 4 out of 19 caſesin which it was tried, being ſometimes the diſcharge of properly formed matter; which diſchargegradually exhibited in the quantity of two fcruples, or a drachm, four times leffens according as the limits of the fore contract, till it is quite a-day. It has ſcarce any ſenſible effects; never quickens the cured. In theſe caſes the gentleſt electrization muſt be uſed, in pulſe or excites inflammatory ſymptoms : on the contrary, the order to avoid too great an irritation, which is generally hurtful. heat, thirſt, and other complaints abate; and ſometimes theſe To draw To draw or throw the fluid with a wooden or even with a metal ſymptoms are removed, though the diſeaſe is not cured; but when point, for three or four minutes per day, is abſolutely fufficient. it fucceeds the menfes appear from the 3d to the 12th day. For Cutaneous Eruptions, have been ſucceſsfully treated with electri- other methods of curing the amenorrhæa, fee CHLOROSIS. zation; but in theſe caſes it muſt be obſerved, that if the wooden MEDICAL ELECTRICITY. -13 point is kept too near the fkin, ſo as to cauſe any conſiderable ir- The application of this ſubtile fluid to medicinal purpoſes was ritation, the eruption will be cauſed to ſpread more; but if the thought of foon after the diſcovery of the electric ſhock; and after point be kept at about ſix inches diſtance, or farther, if the elec- various turns of reputation, its medical virtues ſeem now to be trical machine is very powerful, the eruptions will be gradually pretty well eſtabliſhed. After giving ſo particular a deſcription of diminiſhed, till they are quite cured. In this kind of diſeaſe, electrical apparatus under the proper Syſtem, it would here be the immediate and general effect of the wooden point is to oc- ſuperfluous to ſay any thing farther on that head. We ſhall cafion a warmth about the electrified part, which is always a only obſerve, that Mr. Cavallo, who has publiſhed the lateſt and ſign that the elerization is rightly adminiſtered. the beſt treatiſe on Medical Electricity, entirely diſapproves of Scrophulous Tumours, when they are juſt beginning, are gene- giving violent ſhocks, and finds it moſt efficacious to expoſe the rally cured by drawing the electric fluid with a wooden or metal patient to the electrical aura diſcharged from an iron or a wooden point from the part. This is one of thoſe kinds of diſeaſes in point; or if ſhocks are given, they ſhould be very ſlight, and which the action of electricity requires particularly the aid of other not exceed 12 or 14 at a time. In this way he recommends it as medicines in order to affect a cure more eaſily; for fcrophulous af- effectual in a great number of diſorders. The patient may be fections generally accompany a great laxity of the habit, and a electrified from three to ten minutes ; but if ſparks are drawn, general cachexy, which muſt be obviated by proper remedies. they ſhould not exceed the number of ſhocks abovementioned. In cancers, the pains only are moſtly alleviated by drawing the Rheumatic Diſorders, even of long ſtanding, are relieved, and electric fluid with a wooden or metal point. Mr. Cavallo, how- generally quire cured, by only drawing the electric fluid with a ever, mentions one cafe in which a moſt confirmed cancer of very wooden point from the part, or by drawing ſparks through flan- long ſtanding, on the breaſt of a woman, has been much reduced nel. The operation ſhould be continued for about four or five in fize. It is remarkable, that this patient was ſo far relieved by minutes, repeating it once or twice every day. drawing the fluid with a metal point from the part, that the ex- Deafneſs, except when it is occaſioned by obliteration, or other cruciating pains ſhe had ſuffered for many years almoſt diſap- improper configuration of the parts, is either entirely or partly peared, and alfo, that when the electric fluid was drawn by means cured by drawing the ſparks from the ear with the glaſs-tube di of a wooden point, the pains rather increaſed. This perſon was rector, or by drawing the fluid with a wooden point. Sometimes long under the application of electricity; and the cancers ſeemed it is not improper to ſend exceedingly ſmall ſhocks (for inſtance, not unlikely to be perfectly cured, although contrary to the ex- of one-thirtieth of an inch) from one ear to the other. It has pectations even of the judicious phyſician who electrified her, been conſtantly obſerved, that whenever the ear is electrified, who knew too well the nature of that dangerous diſeaſe. the diſcharge of the wax is conſiderably promoted. Abſceſſes, when they are in their beginning, and ingeneral when- The Tooth-ach, occaſioned by cold, rheumatiſm, or inflamma ever there is any tendency to form matter, electrization diſperſes tion, is generally relieved by drawing the electric Auid with a them. For inſtance, in a cafe in which matter was formed upon the point, immediately from the part, and alſo externally from the hip, called the lumbar abſceſs, the diſeaſe was perfectly cured by face. But when the body of the tooth is affected, electrization means of electricity. The ſciatica, has alſo been often cured by it. is of no uſe ; for it feldom or never relieves the diſorder, and In all ſuch caſes, the electric fluid muſt be fent through the part by ſometimes increaſes the pain to a prodigious degree. means of two directors applied to oppoſite parts, and in imme- Swellings in general, which do not contain any matter, are ge diate contact either with the ſkin or with the coverings, when nerally cured by drawing the electric fluid with a wooden point. theſe are very thin. It is very remarkable, that the mere pal- The operation ſhould be continued for three or four minutes every fage of the electric in the fluid manner, is generally felt by the day. It is very remarkable, that in ſome caſes of white ſwellings, patients afflicted with thoſe diſorders, nearly as much as a ſmall quite cured by means of electricity, the bones and cartilages were ſhock is felt by a perſon in good health. Sometimes a few ſhocks in ſome meaſure disfigured. have been alſo given, but it ſeems more proper to omit them; Inflammations of every ſort are generally relieved by a very gen- becaufe ſometimes, inſtead of diſperſing, they rather accelerate the tle electrization. formation of matter. In Inflammation of the Eyes, the throwing of the electric fluid by Nervous Head-ach, even of a long ſtanding, are generally means of a wooden point is conſtantly attended with great bene cured by electrization. For this diſeaſe, the electric fluid muſt fit; the pain being quickly abated, and the inflammation being be thrown with a wooden, and ſometimes even with a metal point, generally diffipated in a few days. In theſe caſes, the eye of the all round the head ſucceſſively. Sometimes exceedingly ſmall patient muſt be kept open; and care ſhould be taken not to bring ſhocks have been adminiſtered; but theſe can ſeldom be uſed, the wooden point very near it, for fear of cauſing any ſpark. becauſe the nerves of perſons ſubject to this diſeaſe are fo very ir- Sometimes it is ſufficient to throw the fluid with a metal point; ritable, that the ſhocks, the ſparks, and ſometimes even the throw- for in theſe caſes, too great an irritation ſhould be always avoided. | ing the electric Auid with a wooden point kept very near the head, It is not neceſſary to continue this operation for three or four throw them into convulſions. minutes without intermiffion; but after throwing the fluid for The Gout, extraordinary as it may appear, has certainly been about half a minute, a ſhort time may be allowed to the patient relieved by means of electricity, in various inſtances. The pain to reſt and to wipe his tears, which generally flow very copiouſly ; has been generally mitigated, and ſometimes the diſeaſe has been then the operation may be continued again for another half mi removed fo well as not to return for ſome time. In thoſe caſes, nute, and ſo on for four or five times every day. the electric fluid has been thrown by means of a wooden point, The Gutta Serena has been often cured by electrization ; but although fometimes, when the pain was too great, a metal point time it has proved ineffectual in only has been many ſuch caſes, was adminiſtered Agues are and with all poſſible attention. However, it hath never been one electrization, or two, have been ſufficient. The moſt effectual known that any body was made worfe by it. The beſt method of and ſure method has been that of drawing ſparks through flannel, adminiſtering electricity in ſuch caſes, is firſt to draw the electric or the cloaths, for about ten minutes or a quarter of an hour. fluid with a wooden point for a ſhort time, and then to ſend about The patients may be electrified either at the time of the fit, or a half a dozen ſhocks of one-twentieth of an inch from the back and ſhort while before the time in which it is expected. lower part of the head to the forehead, very little above the eye. The Suppreſſion A remarkable diſeaſe of the eye was ſome time ago perfectly ſex that often occaſions the moſt diſagreeable and alarming ſymp- cured by electrization ; it was an opacity of the vitreous humour toms, is ſucceſsfully and ſpeedily cured by means of electricity, This ſeems to be the only caſe of the kind to even when the diſeaſe is of a long ſtanding, and after that the moſt which electricity was applied. powerful medicines uſed for it have proved ineffectual. The caſes All the caſes of fiſtula lacrymalis which Mr. Cavallo hath of this fort in which electrization has proved uſeleſs are fo few, known to have been electrified by perſons of ability for a ſuffi and the ſucceſsful ones fo numerous, that the application of elec- cient time, have been entirely cured. The method generally The method generally tricity for this diſeaſe may be juſtly conſidered as an efficacious practiſed, has been that of drawing the fluid with a wooden point, and certain remedy. Great attention and knowledge is required, and to take very ſmall ſparks from the part. The operation may in order to diſtinguiſh the arreſt of the menſes from a ſtate of be continued for about three or four minutes every day. It is pregnancy. In the former, the application of électricity, as we obſerved of the eyes. MEDICI NE. be re- obſerved above, is very beneficial; whereas, in the latter, it may ſtrengthen the ſolids by moderate exerciſe, cold bathing, the be attended with very diſagreeable effects: it is, therefore, á mat cortex, and chalybeate water ; particular attention ſhould con- ter of great importance to aſcertain the real cauſe of the diſeaſe, | ftantly be had to the ſtate of the digeſtive organs, to prevent before the electricity be applied in thoſe caſes. Pregnant women them from being overloaded with any ſpecies of faburra which may be electrified for other diſeaſes, but always uſing very gentle might engender Natus, or irritate the ſenſible membranes of the fto- means, and directing the electric fluid through other parts of the mach and inteſtines, from whence the diſorder would ſoon be com- body diſtant from thoſe ſubſervient to generation. In the real municated to the whole nervous ſyſtem. Perſons of this conſtitu- ſuppreſſion of the menſes, ſmall ſhocks, i. e. of about one-twen tion ſhould never take any of the draſtic purges, nor ſtrong emetics; tieth of an inch, máy be ſent through the pelvis ; ſparks may be neither ſhould they loſe blood but in caſes of urgent neceſſity. But taken through the cloaths from the parts adjacent to the feat of a principal ſhare of management, in theſe extremely irritable conſti- the diſeaſe; and alſo the electric fluid may be tranſmitted by ap- tutions, conſiſts in avoiding all ſudden changes of every ſort, eſpe- plying the metallic or wooden extremities of two directors to the cially thoſe with reſpect to diet and clothing, and in keeping the ħips, in contact with the cloathes ; part of which may mind as much as poſſible in a ſtate of tranquility ; hence the great moved in caſe they are too thick. Thoſe various applications of advantages which people of this frame derive from the uſe of medi- electricity ſhould be regulated according to the conſtitution of the cinal waters drank on the ſpot, becauſe of that freedom from care patient. The number of ſhocks may be about 12 or 14. The and ſerious buſineſs of and ſerious buſineſs of every kind, which generally obtains in all other applications may be continued for two or three minutes ; the places laid out for the reception of valetudinarians. repeating the operation every day. But either ſtrong ſhocks, or a The third-mentioned temperament, where there is an exceſs of ſtronger application of electricity than the patient can conveniently ſtrength and but little ſenſibility, does not ſeem remarkably prone bear, ſhould be carefully avoided ; for by thoſe means, ſometimes to any diſtreſſing or dangerous ſpecies of diſeaſe; and therefore it more than a ſufficient diſcharge is occafioned, which is not eaſily can hardly be ſuppoſed that perſons fo circumſtanced will either cured. In caſes of uterine hæmorrhages, it is not known that of themſelves think of any particular ſcheme of management, or the application of electricity was ever beneficial, neither that it have recourſe to the faculty for their inſtructions; ſuch conſtitu- has been often tried. Perhaps a very gentle electrization, as to keep tions, however, we may obſerve, bear all kinds of evacuations well, the patient inſulated and connected with the prime conductor, and ſometimes require them to prevent an over-fullneſs, which whilſt the electrical machine is in action, may be of ſome benefit. might end in an oppreſſion of the brain or ſome other organ of In reſpect to unnatural diſcharges and fluxes in general, it importance. may be obſerved, that ſome diſcharges are quite unnatural or But the fourth temperament, where we have weakneſs joined to adventitious, as the fiſtula lachrymalis, and ſome fpecies of the want of ſenſibility, is exceedingly apt to fall into tedious and dan- venereal diſeaſe ; but others are only increaſed natural dif- gerous diſeaſes, ariſing from a defect of abſorbent power in the charges, ſuch as the menſes, perſpiration, &c. Now the power proper ſets of veſſels, and from remiffneſs of the circulation in ge- of electricity in general, has been found more bencficial for the neral: whence corpulency, dropſy, jaundice, and different degrees firſt, than for the ſecond fort of diſcharges, which are moſtly in- of ſcorbutic affection. In order to prevent theſe, or any other ſpe- creaſed by it. cies of accumulation and depravation of the animal-fluids, the peo- The application of electricity has been found alſo beneficial ple of this conſtitution ſhould uſe a generous courſe of diet. with in other diſeaſes beſides thoſe mentioned above; but as the facts briſk exerciſe, and be careful that none of the ſecretions be inter- are not ſufficiently numerous, ſo as to afford the deduction of any rupted, nor any of the natural diſcharges ſuppreſſed. Theſe co 3- general rules, we have not thought proper to take any particular fitutions bear purging well, and often require it; as alſo the uſe notice of them. how of emetics, which are frequently found neceſſary to ſupply the We may laſtly obſerve, that, in many caſes, the help of other place of exerciſe, by agitating the abdominal viſcera, and are of remedies to be preſcribed by the gentlemen of the faculty is re ſervice to prevent the ſtagnation of bile, or the accumulation of quired to aſſiſt the action of electricity, which by itſelf would per mucous humours, which hinder digeſtion, and clog the firſt paſ- haps be uſeleſs; and on the other hand, electrization may often ſages. The free uſe of muſtard, horſe-raddiſh, and the like fort be applied to afúrt the action of other remedies, as of ſudorifics, of ſtimulating dietetics, is ſerviceable in theſe turbid habits. ſtrengthening medicines, &c. ext When the general maſs of fluids is accumulated beyond what is Obfervations on the Means of Preſerving HEALTH, conducive to the perfection of health, there ariſes what the writers 1. Rules for the Management of VALETUDINARIANS. term a plethora, which may prove the ſource of different diſeaſes; That part of the medical ſyſtem which lays down rules for the and therefore, when this overfulneſs begins to produce langour and preſervation of health, and prevention of diſeaſes, termed Hygeine, oppreſſion, care ſhould be taken in time to reduce the body to a is not to be ſtrictly underſtood as if it reſpected only thoſe people proper ſtandard, by abridging the food and increaſing the natural who enjoy perfect health, and who are under no apprehenſions of diſchargés, uſing more exerciſe, and indulging leſs in ſleep. But diſeaſe, for ſuch ſeldom either defire or attend to medical advice; | in oppoſite circumſtances, where the fluids have been exhauſted, but ſhould rather be conſidered as relating to valetudinarians, or to we are to endeavour the prevention of further waſte by the uſe of ſuch as, though not actually ſick, may yet have ſufficient reaſons ſtrengthening ſtomachics, nouriſhing diet, and indulgence from fa- to fear that they will ſoon become ſo: hence it is that the rules tigue of body or mind. muſt be applied to correct morbific diſpoſitions, and to obviate the Vitiated fluids are to be conſidered as affected either with the various things that were ſhewn to be the remote or poſſible cauſes different kinds of general acrimony, or as betraying ſigns of fome of diſeafes. of the ſpecies of morbific matter which gives riſe to particular diſ- From the way in which the ſeveral temperaments are uſually eaſes, ſuch as gout, rheumatiſm, ſtone, ſcurvy, &c. mentioned by ſyſtematic writers, it ſhould ſeem as if they meant Where the fluids tend to the putrefactive ſtate, which ſhews it- that every particular conſtitution muſt be referred to one or other ſelf by rottenneſs of the teeth, fpongineſs and bleeding of the gums, of the four; but this is far from being reducible to practice, ſince a bloated look and livid caſt; the diet then ſhould be chiefly of by much the greater number of people have conſtitutions fo indif- freſh vegetables and ripe fruits, with wine in moderation, briſk tinctly marked, that it is hard to ſay to which of the temperaments exerciſe, and ſtrengthening bitters. they belong. When we actually meet with particular perſons who Where acrimony ſhews itſelf by itching eruptions, uncommon have evidently either, thirſt, and fluſhing heats, nothing will anſwer better than ſuch 1. Too much ſtrength and rigidity of fibre, and too much ſulphureous waters as the Harrowgate and Moffat in Britain, or ſenſibility. the Lucan and Swadlinbar in Ireland ; at the ſame time uſing a 2. Too little ſtrength, and yet too much ſenſibility; courſe of diet that ſhall be neither acrid nor heating. So far with 3. Too much ſtrength, and but little ſenſibility; or. reſpect to thoſe kinds of morbific matter which do not invariably 4. But little ſenſibility, joined to weakneſs ;--we ſhould look produce a particular ſpecies of diſeaſe: but there are others of a on ſuch perſons as more or leſs in the valetudinary ſtate, who re- ſpecific nature, ſome of which are generated in the body ſponta- quire that theſe morbific diſpoſitions be particularly watched, leſt neouſly, and ſeem to ariſe from errors in diet, or other circum- they fall into thoſe diſeaſes which are allied to the different tem ſtances of ill management with reſpect to the animal economy; peraments. and hence it is ſometimes poſſible, in fome degree, if not altoge- People of the firſt-mentioned temperament being liable to ſuffer ther, to prevent the ill conſequences. Thus, there are inſtances from continued fevers eſpecially of the inflammatory ſpecies, their where returns of the gout have been prevented by adhering ſtrictly ſcheme of preſerving health ſhould conſiſt in temperate living, with to a milk diet. reſpect both to diet and exerciſe ; they ſhould ftudiouſly avoid im Therheumatiſm has alſo been ſometimes warded off by wearing moderate drinking, and be remarkably cautious left any of the na a flannel fhirt, or by uſing the cold bath without interruption. tural diſcharges be checked People of this habit bear evacuations The ſtone may be retarded in its progreſs, and prevented from well, eſpecially bleeding ; they ought not, however, to loſe blood creating much diſtreſs, by the internal uſe of ſoap and lime-water, but when they really require to have the quantity loffened; becauſe or by ſoap-lees taken in milk or in veal-broth. too much of thisevacuation would be apt to reduce the conſtitution The putrid ſcurvy may be prevented by warm cloathing and to the ſecond-mentioned temperament, wherein ſtrength is perſeverance in briſk exerciſe, by drinking wine or cyder, and deficient, but fenfibility redundant, eating freely of ſuch vegetable ſubſtances as can be had in thoſe thew it. Perſons of the ſecond temperamentare remarkably prone to ſuffer ſituations where this diſeaſe is moſt from painfuland ſpaſmodic diſeaſes, andare eaſily ruffled; and thoſe In conſtitutions where there is an hereditary diſpoſition to the of the ſofter fex who have this delicacy of habit, are very much dif- fcrophula, if early precautions be taken to ſtrengthen the folids poſed to hyſterical complaints. The ſcheme here ſhould be to by cold bathing, a nouriſhing courſe of diet, and moderate uſe of wine, apt to M EDICINE. pure water. wine, the acrimony which gives riſe to the diſeaſe will probably | addicted to literary purſuits. Cuſtom, however, frequently renders be prevented from producing any very bad effects. ſleep in the day neceſſary; and in thoſe conſtitutions where it is The other kinds of morbific matter, which are of the ſpecific found to give real refreſhment, it ought to be indulged. nature, are received into the body by infection or contagion. With regard to the general regimen of diet, it has always been The infection of a putrid fever or dyſentery, is leſs prevented by held as a rule, that the ſofter and milder kinds of aliment are moft immediately taking an emetic on the firſt attack of the fickneſs or proper for children and younger ſubjects; that grown per- Thivering ; and if that does not completely a ſwer, let a large | fons ſhould eat what is more fubftantial, and old people leſſen bliſter be applied between the ſhoulders : by this method the their quantity of folid food, and increaſe that of their drink. nurſes and other attendants on the fick in the naval hoſpitals have often been preſerved. As to other infectious morbific matter, ſee INDEX TO THE SYSTEM OF MEDICINE. the HYDROPHOBIA, Genus 47, POISONS, &c. The ill effects that may ariſe from the different fpecies of ſa Genus 1. TERTIANA; the Tertian or third day Fever. burra are to be obviated, in general, by the prudent adminiſtration 2. QUARTANA; the Quartan or four Day Fever. of emetics, and abſtaining from ſuch kinds of foods as are known 3. QUOTIDIANA; the Quotidian, or Daily Fever. to cauſe the accumulation of noxious matters in the firſt paſſages. 4. SYNOCHA ; or Diary Fever. Crude vegetables, milk, butter, and other oily ſubſtances, are to 5. TYPHUS; or Slow Nervous Fever. ari be avoided by perſons troubled with a fournefs at the ſtomach ; 6. FEBRIS ; Peſtilens, Maligna, Putrid, Peſtilential briſk exerciſe, eſpecially riding, is to be uſed, and they are to re- or Malignant Fevers. frain from fermented liquors: the common drink ſhould be pure 7. SYNOCHUS; or Hectic Fever. water ; or water with a very little of ſome ardent ſpirit, ſuch as 8. PHLOGOSIS; Heat and painful Tenſion of some rum or brandy. Selters and Vahls waters are to be drunk medi- Part cinally; and aromatic bitters, infuſions, or tinctures, with the 9. OPTHALMIA ; or inflammation of the Eyes. acid elixir of vitriol, from ten to twenty drops, will be found ſer 10. PHRENITIS; Phrenzy, or Inflammation of the viceable, in order to ſtrengthen the fibres of the ſtomach, and pro- Eyes. mote the expulſion of its contents, thereby preventing the too 11. CYNANCŅE ; TONSILLARIS; the Inflammatory haſty fermentation of the alimentary mixture. In order to pro- Quinzy, cure immediate relief, the magneſia alba, or Creta Præparata, will 12. PNEUMONIA; Pneumonic Inflammation. ſeldom fail; and the magneſia, as well as the other, may be made 13. CARDITIS; or Inflammation of the Heart, into lozenges, with a little ſugar and mucilage ; and in that form 14. GASTRITIS; or Inflammation of the Stomach. may be carried about and taken occaſionally by people afflicted -15 15. Enteritis; or Inflammation of the Inteſtines. with the acid faburra. po 16. HEPATITIS ; or Inflammation of the Liver. In conſtitutions where there is an exuberance or ſtagnation of 17. SPLENITIS or Inflammation of the Spleen. bile, and a troubleſome bitterneſs in the mouth, it is neceſſary to 18. NEPHRITIS ; or Inflammation of the Kidneys. keep the bowels always free, by taking occaſionally ſmall doſes of 19. Cystitis; or Inflammation of the Bladder. pure aloes, oleum ricini, cream of tartar, ſome of the common purg 20. HYSTERITIS; or Inflammation of the Uterus. ing ſalts, or the natural purging waters. When there is a ten- 21. RHEUMATISMUS ; or the Rheumatiſm. dency to the empyreumatic and rancid laburra people ſhould care 22. CHRONIC RHEUMATISM. fully avoid all the various kinds of thoſe oily and high-ſeaſoned 23. ODONTALGIA; the Tooth-ach. things generally termed made-diſhes, and eat ſparingly of plain 24. PODAGRA; the Gout. meat, without rich ſauces or much gravy ; in theſe caſes the piatto 25. Pestis; the Plague, beſt drink is - 26. VARIOLA; the Small Pox. 2. Rules for thoſe who enjoy perfe&t HEALTH. 27. VARICELLA; or the Chicken Pox. Thoſe who are ſo happy as to enjoy perfect health, ſhould ob no 28. RubeOLA ; the Meaſles. ſerve temperance, in order to preſerve that ineſtimable bleffing. di 29. SCARLATINA; the Scarlet Fever. It is ſafer to proceed to exceſs in drink than in meat, and if the 30. HOEMOPTYSIS; or Spitting of Blood. debauch ſhould create any extraordinary or diſtreſſing degree of 31. HÆMORRHOIS; the Piles. pain or fickneſs, and a temporary fever fhould enſue, there 32. MENORRHAGIA ; or immoderate Flux of the Menſex are two ways of ſhaking it off, either to lie in bed and en 33. The CATARRH. courage perſpiration, or to get on horſe-back and by briſk 34. DYSENTERIA ; the Dyſentry. exerciſe reſtore the body to its natural ſtate. The choice of theſe 35. APOPLEXY. two methods muſt always be determined by the peculiar cireum 36. PARALYSIS; the Palfy. ſtances of the parties concerned, and from the experience which 37. SYNCOPE ; or Fainting. they may have had which agrees beſt with them. Robes 38. DYSPEPSIA, or Difficulty of Digeſtion. If a perſon ſhould commit excefs in eating, eſpecially of high 39. CONVULSION. beton 7 feafoned things, with rich fauces ; a draught of cold water, aci al 40. EPILPESY; or Falling Sickneſs. dulated with fpirit of vitriol, will take off the ſenſe of weight at 41. ASTHMA. poiler the ſtomach, andaſlift digeſtion, by moderati g and keepiºg with 42. COLICA; the Colic. Parteien in bounds the alimentary fermentation, and thus preventing the 43. LUMBRICI INTESTIRIORUM; Maw Maw or Belly generation of too much flatus. The luxury of ices may be here Wornis. of real ſervice at the tables of the great, as producing ſimilar effects 44. DIARRHOEA ; or Looſeneſs. with the cold water acidulated. Perſons in theſe circumſtances 45. DIABETES; or too great a Quantity of Urine. ought not to lay themſelves down to ſleep, but ſhould keep up 46. HYSTERIA; Hyſterics. and exerciſe until they are ſenſible that the ſtomach is unloaded, 47. HYDROPHOBIA ; the Dread of Water. and that they no longer feel any oppreſſive weight about the 46. MELANCHOLIA; Melancholy Madneſs. præcordia. 49. MANIA; Raving Madneſs. It is alſo the advice of Celſus to vary the ſcenes of life, and not 50. TABES; or Waſting of the Body. confine ourſelves to any ſettled rules : but as inaction renders the 51. ATROPHY ; or Nervous Conſumption. body weak and liſtleſs, and exerciſe gives vigour and ſtrength 52. POLYSARCA ; or Corpulency. people ſhould never long omit riding, walking, or going abroad 53. PNEUMATOSIS; or Windy Swelling. in a carriage ; fencing, playing at tennis, or dancing, as each 54. TYMPANITIS; the Tympany. ſhall be found moſt agreeable or convenient, are to be uſed in 55. PhysomeTrA; Windy Swelling. their turns, according to the circumſtances and tendency to any 56. ANASARCA; or Watery Swelling of the Whole Body particular ſpecies of diſeaſe. But when the weakneſs of old age 57. Ascites; or Dropſy of the Abdomen. Ihall have rendered the body incapable of all theſe, then dry fric 58. SCROPHULA , or King's Evil. tions with the Aeſh-bruſh will be extremely requiſite to preſerve 59. SYPHILIS; the Lues Venerea; or French Pox. health, by accelerating the flow of humours through the ſmalleſt 60. SCORBUTUS; the Scurvy. order of veffels, and preventing the fuids from ſtagnating too long 61. ICTERUS; the Jaundice. in the cellular interſtices of the fleſhy parts. 62. CALIGO; the Cataract. Sleep is the great reſtorer of ſtrength; for, during this time, 63. AMAUROSIS; the Gutta Serena. the nutritious particles appear to be chiefly applied to repair the 64. PARACUSIS; or Depravation of Hearing. waſte, and replace thoſe that have been abraded and waſhed off 65. ANOSMIA; or Defeet of Smelling. by the labour and exerciſe of the day : but too much indulgence 66. AGHEUSTIA; or Defect of Taſting. in ſleep has many inconveniences, both with regard to body and 67. PROFUSIO; or Flux of Blood. mind, as it blunts the ſenſes, and encourages the fluids to ſtag 68. EPIDROSIS; or Exceſſive Sweating. nate in the cellular fyftems ; whence corpulency, and its neceſſary 69. ENURESIS; or Involuntary Flux of Urine, conſequences langour and weakneſs. 70. GONORRHOEA ; or Clap. The proper time for ſleep is the night ſeaſon, when darkneſs 71. OBSTIPATIO; Coſtiveneſs. and ſilence naturally bring it on : therefore day-ſleep in general 72. ISCHURIA; or Suppreſſion of Urine. is not ſo refreſhing ; and to ſome people is really diſtreſsful, as 73. DISURIA; or Difficulty of making Water. creating an unuſual giddineſs and languor, eſpecially in perſons 74. AMENORRHOEA; Suppreſſion of the Menfes. M E L MEM may be MEDIUM, in logic, or Medium of a Syllogiſm, called alſo relaxes the caruncle on the forehead, and the naked parts of the the mean or middle term, is an argument, reafon, or conſidera face and neck become intenſely red. Latham makes the turkey tion, for which we affirm, or deny any thing : or, it is the cauſe of the 48th genus of the ſame order. For a repreſentation of why the greater extreme is attributed to or denied of the leſs, this, fee Plate III. 2. The criſtata, or Braſilican pheaſant, in the concluſion. See the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. IV. has an erect creſt of feathers on the head, and violet-coloured Medium, in philoſophy, is that ſpace or region through which temples; it has a caruncle on the throat, but none on the head. a body paſſes in its motion towards any point. Thus ether is Latham makes it the 51ſt genus. For a repreſentation, fee ſuppoſed to be the medium wherein the heavenly bodies move. Plate III. 3. The ſatyra, or horned pheaſant, has two blue Air the medium wherein bodies move near our earth. And horns behind its eyes, and a red body, ſpotted with black and white. water is the medium in which fiſhes live and move. And glaſs is It is a native of Bengal. alſo a medium of light, as it affords a free paſſage. That denſity MELODY, Mewdia, compounded of meds, honey, and wong or conſiſtence in the parts of the medium, whereby the motion ſinging, in muſic, is the agreeable effect of different muſical of bodies in it is retarded, is called the reſiſtance of the medium; ſounds, ranged or diſpoſed in a proper ſucceſſion. Melody is which, together with the force of gravity, is the cauſe of the the effe& only of one ſingle part, voice, or inſtrument; by ceſſation of the motion of projectiles. Medium, ſubtile or which it is diſtinguiſhed from harmony: though in common æthereal. Sir Iſaac Newton makes it probable, that, beſides the ſpeech, theſe two are frequently confounded. Harmony is pro- particular aerial medium, wherein we live and breathe, there is perly the agreeable reſult of the union of two or more concording another more univerſal one, which he calls an ætherium medium; muſical ſounds heard in conſonance, i. e. at one and the ſame vaſtly more rare, ſubtile, elaſtic, and active, than air ; and by time; ſo that harmony is the effect of two parts at leaſt: as that means freely permeating the pores and interſtices of all therefore a continued ſucceſſion of muſical ſoundsproduces melody, other mediums, and diffuſing itſelf through the whole creation ; ſo does a continued combination of theſe produce harmony. Tho' and by the intervention of which he thinks it is, that moſt of the the term melody be chiefly applicable to the treble, as the treble great phenomena of nature are effected. See ÆTHER, ELEC is chiefly diſtinguiſhed by its air; yet ſo far as the baſs TRICITY, FIRE, &c. robom made airy, and to ſing well, it may be alſo properly ſaid to be MEDULLA Olium, or Marrow of the Bones, is a ſoft fatty melodious. Of the twelve harmonical intervals of muſical ſubſtance, placed in the cavities or pores of divers bones. See found, diſtinguiſhed by the names of ſecond leſſer, ſecond MARROW in the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part I. Sect. I. a greater ; third lefſer, third greater; fourth; falſe fifth, fifth; Medulla Cerebri and Cerebelli, Medulla Oblongata, Me fixth lelſer, fixth greater ; feventh leſſer, ſeventh greater, and dulla Spinalis. For a copious deſcription of theſe three articles octave; all melody, as well as harmony, are compoſed : for the in Anatomy, ſee the System, Part VI. Sect. I. octaves of each of theſe are but replications of the ſame MEDUSA, in vermeology, a genus belonging to the order ſound: and whatever is ſaid of any or all of theſe ſounds, is to Molluſca. The body is gelatinous, roundiſh, and depreſſed; be underſtood alſo of their octaves. For the rules of melody, the mouth is in the centre of the under part of the body. over ſee the Syſtem of Music. The aurita, or aurited meduſa ; which appears, as floating MELON, melon, in botany. For copious directions for the on the water, to be merely a lifeleſs lump of jelly. It is of a culture and management of melons, ſee the Treatiſe on Gar- whitiſh colour, with a cait of bluiſh grey, and is of an orbicu DENING, Part II. Kitchen Garden, Month of January, Febru- lar figure, elevated into a convexity in the middle on the upper ary, &c. &c. fide, flat on the under, and furniſhed with a ridge of fine and MELPOMENE, the name of one of the nine Muſes; who ſomewhat ridged filaments, round the edge, reſembling white is repreſented with a maſk, to denote her preſiding over the ſtage; hairs. This ſpecies is frequent, floating on the ſurface of the and diſtinguiſhed from Thalia, the comic muſe, by greater dig- ſea, or adhering to rocks about our own coaſts; and when the nity in her look, ſtature and dreſs. Melpomene was ſuppoſed to fun thines on them, they have a very beautiful lucid appearance. preſide over all melancholy ſubjects, as well as tragedy. She is It is called by ſome the ſea nettle, it being one of thoſe ani commonly repreſented with a ſerious countenance, and in a mals that, when touched, occaſions a very diſagreeable tingling theatrical dreſs, holding crowns and ſceptres in one hand, and a in the hands. dagger in the other. See Horace, Book 1, Ode 24, verſe 4: The marſupialis, or purſe meduſa, is ſemi-oval, with four MEMBRANE, MEMBRANA, in anatomy, a ſimilar part tentacula on the edge. This ſpecies is to be met with in vaſt an animal body ; being a thin, white, flexible, expanded ſkin, abundance floating on the ſurface of the water about Sheppey formed of ſeveral ſorts of fibres, interwoven together, and ſerv- Illand in Kent, and elſewhere on that coaſt: great quantities | ing to cover, or wrap up, certain parts of the body. The mem- of it are deſtroyed by being thrown on ſhore with the waves, branes of the body are various, and variouſly denominated. whence it has no power of getting off again ; and in the open Such are the perioiteum, pleura, pericardium, peritonæum, &c. ſeas, many fiſh ſkim near the ſurface, and prey on them. This Thoſe membranes which ſerve as integuments or covers of veſſels, is the ſpecies called by inany authors pulmo marinus, or the ſea are called coats, or tunics: and thoſe which cover the brain, are, lungs. by a peculiar name, called meninges. Mr. Banks, in his paſſage from Madeira to Rio de Janeiro, MEMORY, uinuen, a power or faculty of the mind, which diſcovered a new ſpecies, which, when brought aboard by the receives, retains, and exhibits again, as occaſion requires, all caiting net, had the appearance of metal violently heated, and ideas preſented to the underſtanding. Of all the faculties, there emitted a white light. With theſe animals were taken ſmall is none harder to account for, or that has perplexed philoſophers crabs of three different ſpecies, altogether new, each of which more, than the memory. Some will have it a mere organ, as the gave as much light as the glow-worm, though the creature was eye, ear, &c. Dr. Hook, in an Eſſay towards a mechanical not ſo large by nine-tenths. Theſe luminous animals are one Account of Memory, makes it to conſiſt in a ſtock of ideas or of the cauſes of that appearance to the ſea which has been men images, formed occaſionally by the mind, out of the fine parts tioned by many navigators, and of which various reaſons have of the brain, and diſpoſed or laid by in order. been aſſigned. It appeared to emit flaſhes of light exactly reſem Deſcartes and his followers maintain, that the animal ſpirits, bling thoſe of lightning, only not ſo conſiderable, but ſo frequent, exciting a motion in the moſt delicate fibres of the brain, leave that ſometimes eight or ten were viſible at the ſame moment. a kind of traces or footſteps, which occaſion our remembrance. MEDUSÆ Caput, or MEDUSA's Head, in ancient Mytho- | Hence it happens, that by paſſing ſeveral times over the ſame logy, occurs frequently both on the breaſt-plates and ſhield of things, the ſpirits becoming accuſtomed to the ſame paſſages, Minerva; in ſome of which it is the moſt beautiful, and in leave them open, and ſo make their way without any effort or others the moſt ſhocking object. In ſome figures the face is labour; and in this conſiſts the eale wherewith we recollect ſuch repreſented as dead, but with the moſt perfect features that can ideas. Thus wine is found to ſharpen the memory, in regard be conceived ; in others, her face is full of paſſion, and her the ſpirits of the wine put the animal fpirits in motion, and eyes convulſed; and in many others, the look is altogether fright- agitate the fibres of the brain inore briſkly. ful, and formed on purpoſe to inſpire terror. The beauties and Memory, according to Mr. Locke, is, as it were, the ſtore- horrors of Meduſa's face are mentioned by the Roman poets. houſe of our ideas. For the narrow mind of man not being Ov. Met. iv. ver. 792. Lucan, lib. ix. ver. 680. Virg. Æn. capable of having many ideas under view and conſideration at viii. ver. 438. Spence's Polymetis, p. 91. once, it was neceſſary to have a repoſitory, in which to lay up MELANCHOLY, MELANCHOLIA, formed from Lenas, thoſe ideas which it may afterwards have uſe for. But our ideas black, and gone, bile, in medicine, a low kind of delirium, being nothing but actual perceptions in the mind, which ceaſe without a fever ; uſually attended with fear, heavineſs and for to be any thing when there is no perception of them; this lay- row, without an apparent occaſion. For a deſcription, cauſes, ing up of our ideas in the repoſitory of the memory, ſignifies no and methods of treatment, ſee the Syſtem, Genus XLVIII. more than this, that the mind has a power, in many caſes, to MELEAGRIS, in the Linnæan ſyſtem of ornithology, is the revive perceptions it has once had, with this additional perception 59th genus of birds, belonging to the order of Gallinæ. The annexed to them, that it has had them before. And it is by the head is covered with ſpongy caruncles; and there is likewiſe a aſſiſtance of this faculty, that we are ſaid to have all thoſe ideas membranaceous longitudinal caruncle on the throat. There are in our underſtandings, which we can bring in fight, and make three ſpecies, viz. I. The gallopavo, or turkey, has a caruncle the objects of our thoughts, without the help of thoſe ſenſible both on the head and throat; and the breaſt of the male is qualities which firſt imprinted them there. bearded. He lives upon grain and inſects: when the cock In memory, the mind is oftentimes more than barely paſſive ; for ſtruts, he blows up his breaſt, ſpreads and erects his feathers, it often fets itſelf to work to ſearch out ſome hidden ideas; ſome- No. 105. Vol. III, 71 times of M E M Μ Ε Ν parts of pecu- times they ſtart of their own accord; and ſometimes tempeſtuous diſpoſed in a certain order. Theſe you are frequently to re- patlions tumble them out of their cells. This faculty other volve in your thoughts, till you are able to run them over one animals ſeem to have to a great degree, as well as men, as ap after another without heſitation, beginning at any part. Theri pears by birds learning of tunes, and their endeavours to hit the you are to impreſs upon your mind as many images of living notes right. For it ſeems impoſſible that they ſhould endeavour creatures, or any other ſenlible objects which are moſt likely to to conform their voices (as it is plain they do) to notes whereof affect you, and be ſooneſt revived in your memory. Theſe, like they have no idea. Eſſay concerning Hum. Und. book ii. chap. 10. characters in ſhort hand, or hieroglyphics, muſt ſtand to denote Dr. Hartley, agreeably to his mechanical theory of the hu an equal number of other words, which cannot ſo eaſily be re- man mind, defnes memory to be that faculty by which traces of membered. When therefore you have a number of things to ſenſation and ideas recur, or are recalled, in the ſame order and commit to memory in a certain order, all that you have to do is, proportion, accurately or nearly, as they were once preſented : to place theſe images regularly in the ſeveral parts of your build. and he obſerves, that memory depends entirely or chiefly on the ing. And thus they tell you, that by going over ſeveral State of the brain, which is peculiarly conformable to his notion the building, the images placed in them will be revived in the of VIBRATIONS. The rudiments of memory, he ſays, are laid mind; which of courſe will give you the things or words them- in the perpetual recurrency of the ſame impreſſions, and cluſters ſelves in the order you deſire to remember them. The advan- of impreſſions: and thus he endeavours to account for the tages of the images feem to be this; that, as they are more like liar imperfections of the memory in children and aged perſons, as to affect the imagination than the words for which they ſtand, well as for other facts pertaining to the exerciſe of this faculty. they will for that reaſon be more eaſily remembered. Thus, for Obſ. on Man, vol. i. p. 374, &c. For the difference between inſtance, if the image of a lion be made to fignify ſtrength, and memory and imagination, fee IMAGINATION. this word ſtrength be one of thoſe I am to remember, and is A ready recollection of our knowledge, at the moment when placed in the porch, when, in going over the ſeveral parts of we have occaſion for it, is a talent of the greateſt importance. the building, I come to the porch, I ſhall ſooner be reminded of The man pofſeffed of it ſeldom fails to diſtinguiſh himſelf in what that image than of the word ſtrength. Some ancient as well as ever fort of buſineſs he may be engaged. It is indeed evident, that modern writers relate wonderful effects of this artifice. But when the power of retention is weak, all attempts at eminence they all agree it much more afliſts us to remember any number of knowledge muſt be vain; for « memory is the primary and of ſeparate and unconnected words, than a continued diſcourſe; fundamental power, without which there could be no other in unleſs ſo far as the remembrance of one word may enable us to tellectual operation. Judgment and ratiocination fuppofe fome recollect more. thing already known, and draw their deciſions only from expe But, doubtleſs, the moſt effectual way to gain a good memo. rience. Imagination ſelects ideas from the treaſures of remem ry, is by a conſtant and moderate exerciſe of it; for the memory, brance, and produces novelty only by varied combinations. We like other habits, is ftrengthened and improved by daily uſe. do not even form conjectures of diſtant, or anticipations of It is indeed hardly credible, to what a degree both active and future, events, but by concluding what is poſſible from what is paſſive remembrance may be improved by long practice. Sca- paſt." liger reports of himſelf, that in his youth he could repeat above No man will read with much advantage who is not able at 100 verſes, having once read them; and Berthious declares, that pleaſure to evacuate his mind, or who brings not to his author he wrote his Comment upon Claudian without conſulting the text. an intellect defecated and pure, neither turbid with care, nor To hope, however, for ſuch degrees of memory as theſe, would agitated with pleaſure. If the repoſitories of thought are already be equally vain as to hope for the ſtrength of Hercules, or the full, what can they receive ? If the mind is employed on the ſwiftneſs of Achilles. And pleaders, or other orators who ſpeak paſt or the future, the book will be held before the eyes in in public and extempore, often diſcover, in calling inſtantly to vain. 300 mind all the knowledge neceſſary on the preſent occafion, and Seneca ſays of himſelf, that, by the mere effort of his natural every thing of importance that may have been advanced in the memory, he was able to repeat two thouſand words upon once courſe of a long debate, ſuch powers of retention and recollec- hearing them, each in its order; though they had no dependence tion as, to the man who has never been obliged to exert himſelf or connexion on each other. He alſo mentions Cyneas, am in the ſame manner, are altogether aſtoniſhing. As habits, in baſſador to the Romans from king Pyrrhus, who, in one day, order to be ſtrong, muſt be formed in early life, the memories had ſo well learnt the names of his ſpectators, that the next of children ſhould therefore be conſtantly exerciſed; but to day he faluted the whole fenate, and all the populace aſſembled, oblige them to commit to memory what they do not underſtand, each by his name. di le premise perverts their faculties, and gives them a dillike to learning. The perfection of memory conſiſts in two things; readily to In a word, thoſe who have moſt occaſion for memory, as ora- admit the impreſſions or images of things; and to preſerve them tors and public ſpeakers, fhould not ſuffer it to lie idle, but con- from oblivion, that the underſtanding may have recouſe to them, ftantly employ it in treaſuring up and frequently reviving ſuch and employ them for ſuch purpoſes as reaſon ſhall direct. In things as may be of moſt importance to them ; for by theſe order to alliſt and improve this faculty, every kind of intempe means, it will be more at their command, and they may place rance and exceſs muſt be carefully avoided; and when we would greater confidence in it upon any emergency. commit any thing to memory, our firſt concern ſhould be to un Men complain of nothing more frequently than of defici- derſtand it thoroughly. ent memory: and indeed every one finds that, after all his efforts, But to write an abridgement of a good book may fometimes many of the ideas which he deſired to retain have flipped irre- be a very profitable exerciſe. In general, when we would pre- | trievably away; that acquiſitions of the mind are ſometimes ſerve the doctrines, ſentiments, or facts, that occur in reading, equally fugitive with the gifts of fortune. To alliſt this weak- it will be prudent to lay the book afide, and put them in writing of our nature, many methods beſides thoſe which we have mens in our own words. This practice will give accuracy to our tioned have been propoſed ; all of which may be juítly fufpect- knowledge, accuſtom us to recollection, improve us in the uſe ed of being ineffectual: for no art of memory, however its effects of language, and enable us ſo thoroughly to comprehend the may have been boaſted or admired, has been ever adopted into thoughts of other men, as to make them in ſome meaſure our general uſe; nor have thoſe who poſſeiled it appeared to excel others in readineſs of recollection or multiplicity of attainments. As the mind is not at all times equally diſpoſed for the exer The reader who is defirous to try the effect of thoſe helps, may cife of this faculty, ſuch ſeaſons ſhould be made choice of as have recourſe to a treatiſe entitled A new Method of Artificial are moſt proper for it. for it. The mind is ſeldom fit for attention Memory; but the true method of memory is attention and exer- prefently after meals; and to call off the ſpirits at ſuch times ciſe. from their proper employment in digeſtion, is apt to cloud the - MENDICANTS, or BEGGING FRIARS, ſeveral orders of re- brain, and prejudice the health. Both the mind and body ſhould ligious in Popiſh countries, who having no ſettled revenues; be eaſy and undiſturbed when we engage in this exerciſe, and are ſupported by the charitable contributions they receive from therefore retirement is moſt fit for it: and the evening, juſt be others. This ſort of friars began in the 13th century. The fore we go to reſt, is generally recommended as a very conveni Waldenſes, who made profeliion of renouncing their eſtates, ent ſeaſon, both for the ſtillneſs of the night, and becauſe the and leading a life of poverty, gave occalion to this infiitution. impreſſions will then have a longer time to ſettle before they Buchannan tells us, the Mendicants in Scotland, under an ap- come to be diſturbed by the acceſſion of others proceeding from pearance of beggary, lived a very luxurious life; whence one external objects; and to call over in the morning what has been wittily called them, not Mendicant, but Manducant friars. committed to the memory over-night, muſt, for the ſame rea MENINGES,, or MENYNGES, in anatomy, a name given to fon, be very ſerviceable. For, to review thoſe ideas while they the dura and pia mater of the brain. See the SYSTEM, Part IV. continue freih upon the mind, and unmixed with any others, Section I. muſt neceſſarily imprint them more deeply. MENSES, CATAMENIA, in medicine, the monthly evacıl- Some ancient writers ſpeak of an artificial memory, and lay | ations from the uterus of women not with child, or not giving dowri rules for attaining it. Simonides the poet is ſaid firſt to fuck. For the diſorders which follow a fuppreffon or too have diſcovered this, or at leaſt to have given the occaſion for it. I great a flow of the menſes, ſee the SYSTEM, Genus 32 .. This action therefore of Simonides was afterwards improved MENSTRUUM, in chymiſtry, any body which, in a fluid or into an art, and the nature of it is this: They bid you form in fubtilized ſtate, is capable of interpoſing its ſmall parts of your mind the idea of fome large place or building, which you other bodies, ſo as to divide them ſubrilly, and form a new uni- inay divide into a great number of diſtinct parts, ranged and form compound of the two. 3 Cocos own. and 74 cº TREATISE ON MENSURATION AND GAUGING. barenFor by Article 11, the 4 area; 4 circumference ENSURATION is the comparing of any propoſed quan fum ; wherefore the angles being known, the area of the triangle M. tity or magnitude with another of the ſame kind; thus a A B may be found by Art. VI. and that multiplied by the nuin- line is compared with a line, a ſurface with a ſurface, and a ſolid ber of fides will give the area. with a ſolid. The quantity with which the propoſed quantity is XI. To find the Area of a Circle, as ABCDEFGH (Fig. 8.) to be comparedis always eſteemed an unit; and the number which Rule. Multiply the radius, or half the diameter (AE) by half fhews how often the meaſuring unit is contained in the propo the circumference ABCDEFGH, or, which is the ſame thing, ſed quantity, is called the content of the quantity fo meaſured; multiply the circumference by the diameter, and take 1 of the thus a line is meaſured by another of an inch, a foot, a yard, product, and you will have the area. The reaſon of this rule is eaſily &c. in length; a ſurface by a ſurface of an inch ſquare, a foot inferred from the laſt article, for ſince in any circle a polygon ſquare, a yard ſquare, &c. and a ſolid by a cubic inch, a cubic may be inſcribed of as many ſides as we pleaſe, and by increaling foot, a cubic yard, &c. the number of fides the polygon will approach nearer and nearer to 32 SECT. I. MEASURING OF SURFACES. the circle, ſo as to come within any aſſigned difference, in as much, ARTICLE I. To find the Area of any Parallelogram, whether if it is poſſible to conceive the ſides infinitely ſmall and infinitely it be a Square, a Rectangle, a Rhombus, or Rhomboides. numerous, they would exactly coincide with the circle, it follows, Rule. Multiply the length by the perpendicular height, and that if the diſtance from the centre be multiplied by half the peri- the produ& will be the area. Thus ſuppoſe in the rectangle meter, you will have the area fought. But the circumference of ABCD (fig. 1, in Plate of Miſcellaneous Mathematics) if the any circle being in a certain ratio to the diameter, it is not neceſ- length AB or DC=6 inches, and the breadth AD or BC=4 fary to meaſure both the circumference and the diameter alſo; for inches, the area is 4 X6=24 ſquare inches, as is eaſily ſeen by the one inay be found from the other, by the following method. dividing the length into 6 equal parts, and the breadth AD into XII. The Diameter of a Circle being given to find the Circumference. 4, and from thence drawing lines parallel to the length and RULE. Multiply the diameter by 3.1416, and you will have breadth; for the rectangle will then be divided into 24 ſquares, the circumference. Hence, the circumference being given, the each of which repreſents the meaſuring unit, viz. an inch diameter will be had by dividing by 3.1416, or multiplying by ſquare. In like manner in the Rhomboides ABCD (fig. 2.) if its reciprocal .31831. tu perpendicular be let fall from D to AB, the area will be equal XIII. To find the Area of a Circle from the Diameter only. to ABX DE; for draw CF perpendicular to DC and AB, then RULE. Multiply the ſquare of the diameter by.7854, and you will ſince it has been ſhewn in the geometry that all parallelograms on have the area. diameter X by circumference the ſame baſe are equal, it follows that the Rhomboides ABCD is equal to the rectangle EDCF; but it has been ſhewn above and by Art. 12, thecircumference=diameter X3.1416, that the area of the rectangle is equal to DCX DE, therefore therefore the diameter x by diameter X 3.1416 the area of the Rhomboides which is equal to it is the ſame. =area=ſquare 4 Hence in a ſquare rectangle, whoſe fides are equal, multiply of diameter x .7854. Fortweshte 910 the ſide into itſelf, and you have the area. . XIV. To find the Area by having the Circumference given. II. To find the Area of a Triangle. La Rule. Divide the ſquare of the circumference by 12,5664, or Rule. Multiply half the baſe by the perpendicular ; or half multiply it by.079577, and you will have the area. För by Art. 11, the perpendicular by the baſe; or take į the product of the per- diameter x circumference pendicular and baſe, and you will have the area required. This = area; and by Article 12, the diameter= circumference X circumference the area - rule is evident, for every triangle is equal to half a parallelogram therefore of the ſame baſe and altitude. 3.1416 4 X3.1416 ſquare of circumference III. To find the Area of a Triangle without a Perpendicular, by =fquare of circumference X.079577. 12,5664 is having the Three Sides given, is sodas REMARK. It is proper to obſerve that the ratio to the circum- Rule. From half the ſum of the three ſides fubtract each ſide ference ofthe diameter cannot be exactly aſcertained in finiteterms, ſeverally; multiply the half ſum and three remainders in one but has been carried to a 100 places of decimals, by the late Mr. continual product, and the ſquare root thereof will be the area required. Thus in the triangle ABC (fig: 3.) if BC=24, John Machin, Profefforof Mathematics in Gretham College ; and before him, Van Ceulen, a Dutchman, determined it, by the con- CA=36, and AB=48 chains, by proceeding according to the tinual biſection of an arć, to 36 places, which at that time was rule, the area will be found 418.282. vbi thought ſuch an inſurmountable undertaking, that the figures IV. To meaſure a right-angled Triangle by having the Baſe were engraven upori his tomb ſtone, in St. Peter's church yard, and one of the acute Angles given Leyden. Indeed, it muſt have coſt him immenſe trouble; but Rule. As radius is to the fine of double the acute angle, ſo ſince the improvement in Geometry, by the diſcovery of fluxions, is the ſquare of half the hypothenuſe to the area. a great deal of that is obviated. The proportion of the diameter V. Having two Sides and the included Angle of any Triangle to the circumference to 100 places, is as I to 3.141592653, given to find the Area. 5897932384,6264338327,9502884197,1693993751,0582097494 RULE. As radius is to the line of the given angle, ſo is half 4592307816,4062862089,9862803482,5342117067,9-faid tobe the product of the including fides to the area of the triangle. true to the laſt figure. The following ſeries, from which Mr. VI. To find the Area of a Triangle by having a Side and two Machin made his computation,is given in Mr. Jones's Synopſis Angles given. Pal.Math.p.263.The diameter to the circumference is truly as ito Rule. As the product of radius, and the fine of the angle op- 4 16 poſite the given ſide, is to half the ſquare of the given ſide, ſo is the product of the fines of the other two angles to the area. - &c. ad infinitum. 5 239 53 2393 55 N. B. Theſe three laſt caſes are extremely uſeful in ſurveying: 2395 This ſeries of Mr. Machin converges much faſter than any VII. To meaſure a Trapeſium, or four-fided Figure, as BDEA, other that has yet been diſcovered. (fig. 4.) Archimedes, who flouriſhed about 2000 years ago, ſtated the Rule. Multiply the diagonal BE by half the ſum of the per- pro- This is portion of the diameter to the circumference, as 7 to 22, which pendicular AC and DF, and you will have the area. is near enough for many common purpoſes. obvious from what has been ſaid concerning triangles. VIII. To find the Area of a Trapezoid, or Quadrangle, Two of XV. To find the Area of a Sector, or that part of a Circle which is bounded by any two Radii, as AC and AB (fig. 9.) and their whoſe Sides AB and DE are parallel. included Arc CDB. Rule. Multiply half the ſum of the parallel ſides by the RULE. Multiply the radius by the { length of the arc CB, and perpendicular diſtance between them (DE or Bn,) and you will the product will be the area; or if the angle at A, or the degrees have the area. The reaſon of which follows from what has of the arc be known, ſay as 360° is to the area of the whole been ſaid of triangles and parallelograms. circle, ſo is ſuch degrees to the area of the ſector. IX. To find the Area of a regular Polygon, whether Pentagon, as XVI. To find the Length of an Arc CB of a Circle. ABCDE, (Fig. 6.) or Hexagon, as (ABCDEF, Fig. 7.) or RULE. Multiply the degrees of the arc by .01745329, &c. and other regular Polygon whatever. that product by the radius of the circle, and you will have the Rule. Let fall a perpendicular from the centre of the figure, length. Note, when the degrees of the arc are not known, the which will fall on the middle of one of the ſides, as op in either of the ſaid figures, then the length of that perpendicular being 8 times the chord of half the arc, ſubtract the chord of the whole following rule will ſerve very well for common purpoſes, viz. From known, multiply it by half one of the ſides, as AP, and that arc, and of the remainder will be the length of the are nearly. product by the number of fides, or multiply the perpendicular XVII. To find the Area of a Segment of a Circle ACB, or ADB, by half the whole perimeter, and you will have the area. The (Fig. 9.) reaſon of this is evident, for AP X OP=area of triangle AB, RULE. Find the area of the ſector having the ſame are with and the figure contains as many ſuch triangles as it has lides. the ſegment by the 15th Article, and find the area of the ſector, X. To find the Area of a regular Polygon, without knowing the viz. the triangle ABO, then, when the ſegment is leſs than a ſeini- Length of the Perpendicular. circle, as ACB, ſubtract that area of the triangle from the area of Rule. Divide 360° by the number denoting the number of the ſector, and it willgive the area of the ſegment; but if the ſeg- fides in the polygon, and it will give the angle A o B (Fig. 6.and ment is greater than a ſemicircle, add the area of the triangle to the 7.) at the centre, which ſubtracted from 180°, will leave the fum of the other two; and Ao being=B, therefore the angles rule will do for common caſes: add the ſquare of half the chord of area ſector, and you will have the area required: or the following 0 AB and oBA will be equal, and each equal to half the ſaid the ſegment to the ſquare of its height, and multiply the ſquare 16 4 IÓ 4 1 3) tz I 37 TOOD LO MENSURATION. ITALIT root of the ſum by 4: take the z of this product, and add to it and BC, and meaſure the perpendiculars Aa, Bb, Cc, then the ſum the whole chord of the ſegment; then multiply the ſum by šof of Aa and Cc, added to 4 times Bb, and that fum multiplied by: the height, and you will have the area very nearly. of the length AC, will be the area nearly. Or if more exactneſsis XVIII. To find the Area of a Circular Ring, or the Space included | required, divide the baſe into three equal parts (as in fig. 16.) and between the Circumference of two Concentric Circles; as for In meaſure the perpendiculars Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd; then to the ſum of ſtance, the Area of the Space included between the two Circles the two ends Aa and Dd, add thrice the ſum of the two interior AIBE and CHDF, Fig. 10. perpendiculars Bband Cc, and multiply that ſum by of the baſe Rule. Multiply the ſum of the diameters(CD+AB) by their AD, and you will have the area very near. But if the ſurface be difference (AB-CD) and that product by -7854, and it will very large, it may be proper to divide it into a ſtill greater number give the area required. of equal parts, as in fig. 17, and then it may be meaſured at twoor XIX. To find the Area of a Lune, or the Space ACBE (Fig. 11.) three times by the foregoing rules. Thus, where there are five per- included between the interfeeting of two Eccentric Circles. pendiculars, the figure will be meaſured at twice by the firſt of theſe RULE. Find the areas of the two ſegments ACBD, and AEBD, rules; where there are fix, ſo much of itas extends to the third per- and their difference will be the area required. pendicular, may be meaſured by the firſt rule, and then the remain- N. B. The following are the moſt uſeful caſes relating to the ing part may be meaſured by the ſecond rule; if there are ſeven per- circle and its equal and inſcribed ſquare. pendiculars, each part from the middle of the baſe will be mea- 1. Diameter X.8862—ſide of an equal ſquare. ſured the ſecond rule. Or the whole baſe need not in ſuch caſe 2. Circumference X.2821=ſide of an equal ſquare. be divided into equal parts, but into two or more either equal or 3. Diameter X.7071 =ſide of the inſcribed ſquare. unequal parts, as ſhall ſeem convenient; and then each of thoſe 4. Circumference X.2251 =lide of infcribed ſquare. parts muſt be divided into two or three .equal parts, and ſo mea- 5. Area X.6366=ſide of inſcribed ſquare. ſured ſeparately by one or other of the foregoing rules. By theſe 6. Side of a ſquare X1.4142=diameter of its circumſcribed means, when a ſufficient number of perpendiculars are taken, you circle. will have the area exact, let the nature of the curve be what it may. 7. Side of a ſquare x 4.443= circumference of circumſcri- SECT. II. MEASURING OF SOLIDS. bing circle. ARTICLE. I. To meaſure a Cube. 8. Side of a ſquare X 1.128=diameter of an equal ſquare. - DEFINITION. A cube is a ſolid contained under ſix equal 9. Side of a ſquare X3.545=circumference ofan equalſquare. ſquare ſides, fuch as a die that is played with, Fig. 18. XX. To find the Area of any irregular ſtraight lined Figure, as Rule. Multiply the ſide of the cube by itſelf, and that product ABCDEFG (Fig. 12.) again by the ſide, and it will give the ſolid required. For conceive Rule. Divide it into triangles and trapeziums, and find the the baſe of the cube to be divided into a number of little ſquares, area of each by itſelf; then the ſum of the whole will be the each equalto the ſuperficial meaſuring unit, ſuppoſe an inch, then area of the whole irregular polygon. will thoſe ſquares be the baſes of a like number of ſmall cubes, XXI. To find the Area of an Oval or Ellipfis. which are each equal to the ſolid meaſuring unit; alſo the number Rule. Multiply the tranſverſe diameter by the conjugate, and of little ſquares contained in the baſes ofthe cube, being equal to the product again by :7854, and it will give the area required. the ſquare of the ſide of that baſe, as has been ſhewn in Art. I. XXII. To find the Area of an Elliptical Segment cut Parallel to Sect. I. it is plain, if the baſe be cut off, as the height of a meaſur- either Axe. ing unit, which we have already ſuppoſed to be an inch, the part 1. When cut Parallel to the Conjugate, the tranſverſe and con ſo cut off will contain as many inch cubes, as the baſe contains jugate axes, and the diſtance CE (fig. 13.) from the centre be inch ſquares; and if again, another equal part be cut off from ing known, find the area e B f of the correſponding circular the propoſed cube, that part will contain the ſame number of ſegment in the circumſcribing circle; multiply the ſame by the inch cubes as the laſt; the like for another part; and ſo on: conjugate, and divide the product by the tranſverſe, and you hence the content is equal to the ſquare of the ſide of the baſe, will have the area of the elliptical ſegments FBH. multiplied by the height of that figure, viz. (becauſe the height 2. When it is cut Parallel to the Tranſverſe, (fig. 14.) find the area is equal to the ſide of the baſe) to the ſquare of the ſide of the ſeDf) of the correſponding circular ſegment in the inſcribed circle; baſe, multiplied by the ſide of the baſe. multiply this area by the tranſverſe, and divide the product by the N. B. The ſurface of the cube is equal to fix times the conjugate, and you will have the area of the elliptical ſegmentHDI. | ſquare of the ſide. N. B. In either caſe, when the degrees of the circular arc, Tì. To find the Content of a Right Prism, whether of a Trian- cut off by the baſe of the ſegment (2EF) are known, multiply gular Square, Circular, or other Baſe. the ſame by .0174533, and from the product take the natural Rule. Multiply the area of the baſe by the height or length fine of the ſaid degrees; then multiply the remainder by the of the priſm, and the product will be the folidity. For if the tranſverſe, and that product by the conjugate, and divide by 8, priſm be cut any where parallel to the baſe, the ſection made will and you will have the area of the elliptical ſeginent. be equal to the baſe: it follows, that if itbe cut at the diſtance of XXIII. To find the Circumference of an Ellipſis. an inch from the baſe, the part cut off will contain as many cubic Rule. Multiply the ſquare root of half the ſum of the ſquares inches as the baſe contains ſquare inches; and therefore the of the two diameters by 3.1416, and the product will be the whole of the cubic inches in the priſm, will be equal to the circumference nearly. Or multiply half the ſum of the two cubic inches, at i inch in height, depth, or length, multiplied diameters by 3.1416, and you will have the circumference exact by the number of inches in the height, depth, or length, viz. equal enough for molt practical purpoſes. Or find the circumference to the area of the baſe, multiplied by the height, depth, or length. both by the laſt and preceding methods, and į the ſum of the If the priſm has a ſquare baſe, as ( Fig. 18.) it is called a paral- reſults will give the anſwer extremely near. lelopipedon; ifa circular baſe, as ( Fig. 19. Jit is named a cylinder; N. B. The following may ſerve as a practical rule for find if a triangular baſe, as ( Fig. 20.) a triangular priſm, &c. and in ing the length of the arc DF. (Fig. 13.) Find the length of a all other caſes, it takes its name from the baſe where it has a re- circular arc intercepted by CD and CF, and whoſe radius is half gular one: if the baſe be an irregular polygon of any number of the ſum of CD and CF, and it will be the elliptical arc nearly. lides, the priſm is then called an irregular priſm. But if ſtrict accuracy in thoſe matters is required, recourſe muſt N. B. To find the ſquare inches, &c. on the regular ſurface be had to infinite ſeries, as founded upon the fluxional calculus. of any priſm, multiply the perimeter of the baſe by the height XXIV. To find the Area of a Parabola. or length, to which add twice the area of the baſe, and you Rule. Take of the product of the baſe and height, and you will have the whole ſurface. If it is an irregular priſm, the will have the area. area of each ſide muſt be found ſeparately. XXV. To find the Area of the Fruſtum of a Parabola, viz. when III. To find the Content of a Pyramid, whether the Baſe be Tri- the top Part is cut off Parallel to the Baſe. angular, Circular, Square, or any other Figure RULE. Divide the difference of the cubes of the two ends DEFINITION. A right pyramid is folid, formed by having of the fruſtum by the difference of their ſquares, and multiply the one end of a right line fixed to a given vertical point, and the quotient by of the attitude, will give the area required. other end moved quite round the bafe, ſo as to touch it in every XXVI. To find the Area of an Hyperbola. point; when the baſe is circular, as ( Fig. 21.) it is nameda cone; Rule. To the product of the tranſverſe and abſciſſa add şof when triangular, as (Fig. 22.) a triangular pyramid; if a ſquare, the ſquare of the abſciſſa, and multiply the ſquare root of the a ſquare pyramid, &c. ſum by 21. Add 4 times the ſquare root of the product of the Rule. Multiply the area of the baſe by of the height or tranſverſe and abſciſſa to the laſt found product, and divide the length, and you will have the folidity. At ſum by 75. Laſtly, divide 4 times the product of the conjugate The above ruleis thus demonſtrated. In the planes of the three and abſciſſa by the tranſverſe, and this quotient multiplied by | ſides of the triangular priſm, ABC DEFA, (Fig. 23.) let the dia- the former, will give the required area nearly. gonals BE, BF, FD, be drawn, then will the part FBCD, cut of N. B. For the better underſtanding of what has been ſaid on the | by a plane, extended by FB and FD, be a pyramid on the baſe Ellipſis, Parabola, Hyperbola, and all the other ſubjects here BCD, having the ſame altitude with the priſm itſelf. And if the treated of, we refer our readers to our Syſtem of Geometry, where remaining part of the priſm be cut by a plane extended by FB and the properties of each figure are fully explained and demonſtrated. | FE, it will be divided into two other pyramids, whoſe baſes and XVII. A general Method to meaſure any irregular Figure bounded height are equalto the former. The priſm therefore being thus di- by a Curve, as Fig. 15, 16, 17. vided intothree equalpyramids, it followsthata triangular pyramid Rule. Divide the baſe AC in fig. 15. into two equal parts, AB is equal to į of a priſm of the fame baſe and height. The like de- monftration I AT ( Wiscellaneous Mathematics. Mathematics, ethe reativas on Mensuration: Brojneriles and wrigonometry. Sie also the bride Motion on the Fra 1. Fig. 3. Fig. 59. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig.6.11 C D с D D n S.R. D 4 T.R. quunoot 06 В. с Meria .45 Tanga 40 3090 V. Sime E B 60,70,80 Sines B с A E B B A 19 A А B Jector og of Fig. 6. 1. 2. D Fig. 7. D Fig. 9. N° 2. C 80 50 Fig. 8. G Fig. 23 09 Fig. 10 I H D A B В 4 210 H E 35 70 F C E А B А. B 60 D olg 0900 B D A P H B A P K D 50 90 с E f 07 Fig. 28 Fig. 29 Fig. 57. H I K K Fig.30. Fig. 14 b B Fig. 27 A H Н K D L D с 00T D 40 А. B oc D 2 H I F JA 2070 f SA с 40 IG 20 B А C Trigonometry OTT В, B 40 K F B с B Fig. 52. Fig. 58 с Fig. 48. A 5 0 I 120 Fig. 42. Fig. 43 Fig. 49. А с Frio 77. C F A A BD H 17 20 B HA 09 A D B OCT Fig. 16 b 10 80 Fig. 44 10 с d 60 Fig.15. b a Fig. 45. a A B A B 8! Fig. 57. 7 14.0 30 А Fig.47. b B d A B Fig. 53. 6 d Fig. 2 10 8 l'ig. 47 Fig. 50, F В. 5 85 i Fig.55. A. Fig. 12 E D L 565 с Fig. 23 D B R B Fig. 54. с g 1 A B S O R D G C С. T K X B 7! Ꮐ L G H D OGT B A Projectiles F F A EI H K Fig. 32 D OTT A Fig.36 с C B E H Н Fig.18.1.1 3 Fig. 38 Fig. 33 D A Fig. 37 с 51 A с А B 1920 F G Cube B В с В! А B В Fig.29. B 8 o 130 A B Fig. 20 с Mo. 24. Fig. 31 D 160 D 31 Fig. 46. Fig.18.1.2. OVI F Fig.39. IK D B Fig. 40. D E с 1150 B B В C с D Parallelopipedon Α. B Fig. 34. D B D 2 D H B B Fig./25. 165 189 160 f Fig. 56 F19.35. D B 0 E H A Fig. 22. A B с 170 F d Fig 2 с Fig.17 b 180 a A B D A B с D А F B с B А B E Fig. 60 10 210 30 40 50 6lo 80 90 100 8 9 10 21 12 co zt98 86,42 Co 19 KO 110 19 o 1 2 8 9 11 20 48 40 32 24 3 3 6 5 40 1 6 7 10 8 6 11 2 포 ​14 4 3 30 o 9 7 4 6 10 12 13 14 25 10 8 9 6 7 6 4 17 18 19 20 C 15 26 17 11 22 8 9 10 7 81 6 10 20 18 19 25 11 9 3 0 210 C 16 12 20 50 60 70 80 glo то 20 40 50 60 70 80 90 17 18 19 210 22 23 15 10 11 23 9 31 20 22 16 20 1 3 Engraved for Halló Encyclopædia , & Printed for C.Cooke ,N°17, Paternoster Row Lodge sculp 1 2 Μ Ε Ν S U R Α Τ Ι Ο Ν. 5, add monſtration may be extended to any other priſm ; for if the baſe axe, and of that product by -7854, and you will have the ſolidity. of the priſm has four ſides, and there be a pyramid of the fame X. To find the Contents of the middle Fruftum of a Spheroid, baſe and height, then the priſm may be divided into two triangu when the Ends are circular or parallel to the revolving Axe; ſee lar priſms of the pyramid, into two triangular pyramids, and EDHGBF, Fig. 32 .. each of the triangular priſms may be divided into three pyramids, : Rule. To twice the ſquare of the middle diameter DB, add each of equal fize with the two pyramids; and thus it will ap the ſquares of the diameters EF and GH at the ends, then of pear, that the priſm contains 6 of ſuch ſmall pyramids as the two this ſum being multiplied by the length, and that product by into which the given pyramid was divided; and hence, the ſquare | -7854, will give the fólidity. priſın is treble the ſquare pyramid of the ſame baſe and height; XI. To find the Solidity of a Parabolic Conoid, as BDA, Fig. 33. when the priſm contains more ſides, the demonſtration may be Rule. Multiply the area of the baſe by half the altitude, and effected in like manner; if we imagine the ſides infinite in num the product will be the content. ber, it will coincide with the circle; and hence it is concluded XII. To find the Solidity of a Parabolic Spindle, Fig. 34. that a cone is the į of a cylinder of the ſame baſe and height. RULE. Multiply the ſquare of the middle diameter by the And hence the foregoing rule is manifeſt. length of the ſpindle; alſo multiply . of that product by :7854, The ſurface of a regular upright pyramid is found by multi and you will have the ſolidity. plying the flant height into half the perimeter of the baſe, and ad XIIÍ. To find the Solidity of the Middle Fruftum of a Parabolic ding thereto the area of the baſe. When the pyramid is not a Spindle, as EFGH, Fig. 35. cone, the llant height muſt be meaſured from the vertex to the Rule. Add 8 times the ſquare of the middle diameter, 3 middle of one of the ſides of the baſe. If it be an irregular py times the ſquare of the leſs, and 4. times the product of thoſe ramid, the ſurface of each ſide muſt be meaſured ſeparately, and diameters, into one ſum, multiply that ſum by ý of the length, the ſum of the whole will be the meaſure of the ſurface. and that product by :7854, and you will have the contents. XIV. To find the Solidity of a Hyperboloid, as ACB, Fig. 36. IV. To meaſure the Fruſtum of a Pyramid, of what Kind foever, the Fruftum being cut of Parallel to the Baſe; ſee Fig. 24 and 25. Rule. To the ſquare of the radius of the baſe add the ſquare of the middle diameter, between the baſe and the vertex; mul- RULE. To the areas of the two ends of the fruſtum add the {quare root of their product, and this ſum being multiplied by : tiply the ſum by ş of the altitude, and that product by -7854 the height, will give the folidity.pcoy will give the content. For the fruftum of a cone, this rule will be ſhorter, viz. To XV. To find the Solidities of the five regular Bodies. The firſt or tetraedron has four equal triangular faces, ſee fig. 37. thrice the rectangle of the top and bottom diameters, add the The ſecond, or hexaedron, or cube, has ſix equal ſquare faces, ſquare of their difference; multiply the ſum by of the height, of which we have before treated. and that product by .7854. The ſurface of a fruſtum of any The third, or octaedron, has eight equal triangular faces, fig. 38. regular pyramid, is obtained by multiplying half the ſum of the The fourth, or dodecaedron, has 12 equal pentagonal faces, fig. 39. perimeters of the two ends by the ſlant height, (taken between the The fifth, or icoſaedron, has 20 equal triangular faces, fig. 40. middle points of two ſides like the ends when it is not a fruſtum Beſides theſe no other regular ſolids (viz, ſuch as have their of a cone,) to which add the areas of the two ends, the ſum will reſpective ſides or baſes all equal and ſimilar) can be formed. be the whole ſurface. The rules for meaſuring their contents are as under. V. To meaſure a Sphere or Globe, as Fig. 26. Every Sphere is į of its circumſcribing Cylinder. For let AB, For the tetraedron, multiply tz of the cube of the linear ſide by Fig 27. be the axis, about which the ſphere and cylinder are ge- the ſquare root of 2, and the product will be the ſolidity. nerated, by the revolution of the ſemicircle AGB, and the rect- For the octaedron, multiply of the cube of the linear ſide by the ſquare root of 2, and the product will be the folidity. angle AGDB ; let HL be any right line perpendicular to AB, cut- For the dodecaedron, to 21 times the ſquare root of 47, ting the periphery in K, and let OK and OD be drawn. Now and divide the ſum by 40; then the ſquare root of the quotient AO=AD, and HI is parallel to AD, and HI=OH; alſo the circle deſcribed by HI, or the ſection of the cone generated by being multiplied by five times the cube of the linear ſide, will give the ſolidity. the rotation of the triangle AOD, about the axis AB, will be For the icofaedron, to three times the ſquare root of 5 add 7, equal to the difference of the two circles generated by HL and then the ſquare root of half that fum, being multiplied by of the HK, viz. equal to the Annulus deſcribed by KL, or the ſection cube of the linear ſide, will give the ſolidity. If figures 41, 42, of the ſolid which remains when the ſphere is taken out of the cylinder. Therefore theſe two ſections being every where equal 43, 44, and 45, are drawn upon paſteboard, cut half through, and | to each other, the folids themſelves will likewiſe be equal ; that The foregoing articles include all caſes that are likely to occur is, the cone (EOD) will be equal to the exceſs of the cylinder, in practice; which we flatter ourſelves is as much as our readers (GDEg) above the inſcribed hemiſphere (GAg), whence the will expect in a work of this nature. Thoſe who wiſh to ſee more cone or exceſs being ý part of the cylinder, the hemiſphere muſt neceſſarily be two-thirds thereof.— Hence the whole ſphere is ; fon, late librarian to the Royal Society, and to that valuable quarto of Menſuration, we refer to that excellent treatiſe of J. Robert- of its circumſcribing cylinder. Hence if the diameter be cubed, and ; thereof be multiplied demy at Woolwich. work of Dr. Hutton, profeilor of Mathematics at the Royal Aca- demy at Woolwich. We ſhall however add, as a ſupplement to by :7854, you will have the folidity of the ſphere. this ſection, the method of croſs multiplication, viz. the method The convex ſurface of a ſphere is found by multiplying its diameter by the circumference. of multiplying feet, inches, and parts, by feet, inches, and parts, VI. To meaſure the Segment of a Sphere, as ACD, Fig. 28. without reducing them to decimals, it being much practiſed by artificers in the meaſurement of their work, &c. Rule. To three times the ſquare of the radius of its baſe (Cn) add the ſquare of its height (An), and this product being cand; and having multiplied by it, begin with the next higheſt , Rule. Begin with the higheſt denominator of the multipli- multiplied by ſ of the height, and then by -7854, will give the folidity. The curve ſurface is found by multiplying its height multiplied by feet give feet, feet by inches give inches, feet by and ſo on, till you have multiplied by them all; obſerving that feet by the whole circumference of the ſpheres, parts give parts, inches by inches give parts, inches by parts VII. To find the Solidity of a Fruſtum or Zone of a Sphere, as give ſeconds, and parts by parts give thirds. ABČD (Fig. 29.) Ft. In. Pts. Hereafter having multiplied by 2 feet, I be- RULE. To half the ſum of the ſquares of the radii of the two 1 2 3 4 with 6 inches, which, multiplied by 4 parts, gin ends, D (viz. Dn2 + An) add į of the ſquare of their diſtance 2 6 3 gives 24 ſeconds, or 2 parts to be carried to the next row; then the next product produces 18 =inm) and multiply the ſum by twice the ſaid diſtance, and parts, which makes 8 to write down, and i to that product again by :7856, and you will have the ſolidity. 6 i 80 The convex ſurface is found as in the laſt article. "carry, which makes the next product 6 feet i 30 IO O inch to be ſet down. The laſt line is wrought VIII. To find the Solidity of a Circular Spindle, ACBD (Fig. 30.) 30 II 4 10 O in a ſimilar manner. Rule. To the ſquare of half the length of the ſpindle add the ſquare of half the middle diameter; divide the ſum by the middle SECT. III. STEREOMETRY, OR THE ART OF diameter, and you will obtain Ao, the Radius of the Circle: Take GAUGING. half the middle diameter from the radius of the circle, and it will give the central diſtance E.. Then find the area of the generat By gauging is chiefly underſtood the art of finding the content ing circular ſegment, by Art, XVIII, Sect. I. and from of of any hollow veſſel, utenſil, or calk, in ale or wine gallons, if the the cube of the length of the ſpindle, ſubtract the product of the veſſel be of any regular form mentioned in the preceding ſection. faid area by 8 times the central diſtance; multiply the remainder Find the content in inches from the internal dimenſions; and by :7834, and you will have the ſolidity. then divide by 282 for ale gallons, and by 231 for wine gallons ; In order to obtain the meaſure of the ſurface of the ſpindle, the reaſon of which is becauſe 282 cubic inches is an ale gal- you muſt find the length of the circular arc, by Art. XVI. Sect. I. lon, and 231 cubic inches is a wine gallon. But ſince divid- Then from the product of the longeſt diameter AB, and the ra- 231 dius of the revolving arc Ao, fubtract the product of the ſaid arc's ing by 282, or 231, is the ſame as multipying by length and central diſtance; and multiply 8 times the remainder therefore if theſe fractions be reduced to deciinals, you will have by 7854, and you will have the meaſure of the ſurface. multipliers (if you would prefer multiplication) which will anſwer IX. To find the Solidity of a Spheroid, as ABCD (Fig. 31.) the ſame purpoſe. Theſe multipliers are .003546 for ale, and kule. Multiply the ſquare of the revolving axe by the fixed.004329 for wine. Likewiſe, ſince in veiſels ofa circular orelliptical form VOL III. 24 6 8 8 11 1 Or 282 No. 105. 7 K M E N S U R A TI O N. I, by :7854 •7854 2150.42 content. lain form, you will have to multiply by :7854, in order to obtain the The ſide of a ſquare whoſe ale area is 1, is 16.79 inches, and content in inches, and then to multiply or divide by the former whoſe wine area is 1, is 15.19 inches. And theſe are named the multipliers or diviſors, it will be uſeful to thew how one operation ale and wine gauge points for ſquares. The diameter of a circle may be made to ſerve for both. Thus, to multiply by:7854, and whoſe ale area is 1, is 18.95 inches; and whoſe wine area is is afterwards divide by 282 or 231, is the ſame thing as to multiply 17.15 inches; and theſe are named the circular gauge points for -7854 or -7854. Theſe therefore reduced to decimals, will give ale and wine reſpectively. The ſide of a ſquare whoſe area is 282 231 I malt buſhel, is 46.37 inches; and the diameter of a circle whoſe the multipliers to be uſed in circular or elliptical veſſels, for finding content is i malt buihel, is 52.32 inches; which are therefore the the ale or wine gallons, without multiplying firſt by -7854. The ſquare and circular gauge points for malt. multipliers in theſe caſes are .0027851 for ale, and .00339999 for Theſe fides, diameters, or gauge points, are the ſquare roots of wine: or, if you would prefer diviſion, then it is the ſame thing to the proper diviſors, and conſequently by extracting the ſquare 5854 -7854 282 231 roots of the proper diviſors for ale, înalt, ſope, tallow, &c. you multiply by as to divide by ; theſe there- :7854.7854 will obtain the correſponding gauge points to each. and fore reduced to mixed numbers by actual diviſion, become 359.05 VIII. To gauge a Priſm by the Sliding Rule. for ale; and 294.12 for wine. Thus you have the ſeveral multipli- RULE. Find a mean proportion between the two ſides dia- ers and diviſors for ale or wine, with the methods of finding them. meters of the baſe, as has been already taught; then as the proper In like manner if you have to gauge malt, you muſt divide the gauge point on D is to the length on C, ſo is ſuch mean propor- content in inches by 2150.42, and you will have the buſhels, becauſe tion on D to the content on C. 2150.42 cubic inches make one buſhel. Alſo z750.12 =.000465, A pyramid is gauged in the ſame manner, only, inſtead of the the proper multiplier. In circular veſſels, the multiplier (in order length, uſe of the length. to ſave the trouble of multiplying by .7854 for the inches) will be IX. To gauge any Fruftum of a Right Cone or Square Pyramid =.000365; or the diviſor for that purpoſe da ne by the Sliding Rule. 2150.42 .7854 Rule. Set the proper gauge point on D to the height on C, 2738. In the ſame manner may multipliers and diviſors be found then againſt half the ſum of the top and bottom diameters or for gauging, or aſcertaining the quantities of bodies by weight, fide on D, take the correſponding number on C; and ſet the ſaid provided their ſpecific gravities are known. Thus 27.14 cubic gauge point to of the length on C, and against the difference inches of hard fope is equal to one pound; therefore if the content between the top and bottom diameters, or fides, take the oppoſite of any veſſel in inches be divided by 27.14, it will give the pounds number on C, the ſum of theſe two numbers thus found is the of hard ſope that ſuch veſſel will hold, and by proceeding as above, the multiplier, inſtead thereof, will be found .036845. But for X. To gauge any Globe or Sphere by the Sliding Rule. circular utenſils, it will be .028939, and their diviſor 34.56. Rule. Set the circular gauge point on D to şof the diameter N. B. A pound of green ſoft ſope contains 25.67 cubic inches; on C, and againſt the diameter on D is the content on C. a pound of white ſoft ſope, 25.56 cubic inches; a pound of green mua XI. To gauge any Spheroid by the Sliding Rule. ſtarch 34.8 cubic inches; a pound of dry ſtarch, 40.3 cubic inches; 1. Set the circular gauge point on D to y of the tranſverſe axis and a pound of net tallow, 31.4 cubic inches; for which the ſeveral on C, and againſt the conjugate axis on D is the meaſure of the multipliers and diviſors may be found as above, and the artiſt be ſpheroid on C. thereby equipped for gauging any of thoſe articles. XII. To gauge the Fruftum of any Spheroid by the Sliding Rule. OF THE SLIDING RULE. Rule. Set the circular gauge point on D to the height or For the eaſe of computations, there is an artificial inſtrument length of the fruſtum on C, then the greater and leſs diameters invented, called the Gauger's Sliding Rule, by which any calcu of the fruſtum's end being found D, take twice the number Opp0- lations are readily performed as it were by inſpection, and to a ſuf ſite to the firſt or greater diameter on C, and add it to the number ficient exactneſs for practice. This rule conſiſts of certain ſcales oppoſite to the leſs diameter on C, and you will have the content. of logarithms adapted to particular purpoſes; and ſince multiplica- CASK GAUGING. See Fig. 46. tion by logarithms is performed by addition, and diviſion by ſub- The only true method of caſk gauging, that has ever been pro- traction, it is eaſy to conceive that by moving the ſlide forward or backward, with reſpect to the numbers on the fixed part of the poſed, is by taking a middle diameter between the bungand head; ihat being done, the following Rule will give the content. rule, you will obtain the product or quotient of the two numbers you are concerned with. The lines of numbers on the ſliding Squares of the Head and Bung Diameters, Multiply the Sum by Rule. To the Square of twice the Middle Diameter, add the rule are marked A, B, C, D, MD, and N. Alſo there are other lines marked SS, LL, &c. The value of the firſt figure on the of the Length, and that Produci multiplied or divided by the Circu- rule inay be aſſigned at pleaſure either 1, 10, 100, 1000, &c. or iar Multipliers or Diviſors for Ale or Wine, as the Caſe ſhall be, will give the Content in Gallons. •1,:01, .001, &c. and whatever that firſt figure i is ſuppoſed to be, the firſt 2 is twice as much, the firſt 3 thrice as much, &c. and To ullage a Cafk, or find the Quantity of Liquor remaining in a the ſecond 1 is ten times the firſt, the ſecond 2, 3, 4, &c. are ten Caſk, when Part is drawn out. This by the revenue officers is times the value of the firſt 2, 3, 4, &c. thus performed. On their ſiding rules, made by Mr. Roberts, of the Old Jewry, there is one face made for ullaging ſtanding calks, THE METHOD OF USING THE RULE. and another for lying caſks; the former marked S. S. or ſegment ARTICLE I. To multiply by the Sliding Rule. ſtanding; the others. L. or ſegmentlying. The ſlider is marked N. RULE. Set I on B to either of the factors on A, then againſt S ? 7 S.S. 2 the other factor on B is the product on A. 2 lying $ 85 {bung diameters @ J S.L. S II. To divide by the Sliding Rule. and againſt the wet or dry inches on N, is the reſerved number on Rule. Set i on A to the diviſor on B, then oppoſite the divi SS. S. ? Again, ſet 100 on B, to the whole content on A, dend on B is the quotient on A. 2 S. L. S III. To perform a Proportion by the Sliding Rule. then again the reſerved number on B is the ullage on A, viz. RULE. Set the firt term on B to the ſecond on A, then oppo what remains in the caſk, if you uſed the wet inches; but what is fite to the third on B is the fourth on A. drawn out, if you uſed the dry. IV. To extract the Square Root. But the ſame in ſtanding caſks, by having a middle diameter Rule. Set the firſt 1 on C to the firſt I on D, then againſt the taken between the liquor's ſurface and the neareſt head, may be given number on C is its root on D. performed after the manner of gauging the whole caſk ; by which 1. Between two Numbers given, to find a Geometrical mean Proportion. means the content of that part intercepted between the liquor's Rule. Set one of the given numbers on C to the ſame number ſurface and neareſt head, will be determined by uſing in the calcu- on D; then againſt the other given number on C is the geometri lation of that diſtance inſtead of the length, and the diameter of cal mean on D. the liquor's ſurface inſtead of the bung; then if the caſk be not half VI. To meaſure any Malt Floor, Couch, &c. by the Sliding Rule. full, you have the quantity of liquor remaining therein; but if it Rule. Set , fullſubtract the height on A of the caſk, and VII. An Account of the Gauge Points on the Rule. tity of liquor in it. N.B. The diameter of the liquor's ſurface The operations on the rule for finding the contents of folids, and the intermediate diameter may be taken after the ſame man- are founded on this principle, that ſimilar ſurfaces are to one ano ner as has been deſcribed for taking the middle diameter of a full ther, as the ſquares of the diameters or homologus fides ; calk. Alſo in a ſimilar way, but it will be attended with a little ſimilar ſolids, as the cubes of their diameters or homologus ſides; more trouble, may the ullage of a lying caſk be found; for therefore if the ſide of a ſquare be found, whoſe area or content, by knowing the wet or dry inches taken at the bung, the wet at 1 inch deep, is one gallon, 1 buſhel, &c. then it will be as or dry inches at the middle and head will alſo be had. Then theſe the ſquare of that diameter or ſide (called a gauge point) is being known, the area of the circular ſegments anſwering there- to 1, ſo is the ſquare of any other diameter to the correſponding to, muſt be found in ale or wine gallons ; and 4 times the middle area in gallons, buſhels, &c. at i inch deep; and therefore if the area added to the ſum of the other two, and that fum multiplied folid to be gauged be a ſquare or circular priſm, that area multi- | by ž of the caſk's length, will give the true ullage. plied by the length will be the content; or, which is the ſame, as In caſk gauging we have purpoſely inſiſted on that method only the ſquare of the gauge point is to the length, ſo is the ſquare of which is performed by a middle diameter, it being the only true the diameter or ſide to the content. method; for without a middle diameter there are not ſufficient data. Thenfora ftanding? Ś {bung diameter and M E R M E R MENTHA, Mint, in botany, a genus of the gymnoſper- , ſometimes by their Miniſters, and ſometimes in perſon. There mia order, belonging to the didynamia claſs of plants; and in are companies of merchants in London for carrying on conſider- the natural method ranking under the 42d order Verticillata. able joint trade to foreign parts. See COMPANY. The corolla is nearly equal, and quadrifid, with one ſegment Beſides theſe companies, there are other merchants, who are broader than the reſt, and emarginated; the ſtamina are erect, diſtinguiſhed by the country to which they trade; as Dutch mer- ſtanding afunder. There are many ſpecies ; but not more than chants, who trade to the Weſt Indies; Canary and Portugal three are cultivated for uſe, namely, the viridis or common merchants; Italian merchants, who trade to Leghorn, Venice, ſpearmint, the piperita or peppermint, and the pulegium or &c. French and Spaniſh merchants. The law of England, as pennyroyal. All theſe are ſo well known as to need no defcrip a commercial country, pays a very particular regard to foreign tion; and all of them are very eaſily propagated by cuttings, merchants, in innumerable inſtances. Thus it is provided by parting the roots, or by offsets. Magna Charta, c. 30. that all merchants, unleſs before-hand Uſes. For culinary purpoſes, the ſpearmint is preferable to publicly prohibited, Thall have ſafe conduct to depart from, to the other two; but for medicine, the peppermint and pennyroyal come into, or tarry in, and to go through England, for the exer- have in ſome places almoſt entirely ſuperſeded it. A conſerve ciſe of merchandize, without any unreaſonable impoſts, except of the leaves is very grateful; and the diſtilled waters, both ſimple in time of war : and if a war breaks out between us and their and ſpirituous, are univerſally thought pleaſant. The leaves are country, they ſhall be attached, if in England, without harm of uſed in ſpring ſallads; and the juice of them boiled up with body or goods, till the king, or his chief juſticiary, be informed ſugar is formed into tablets. how our merchants are treated in the land with which we are at The virtues of mint are thoſe of a warm ſtomachic and car war; and if ours are ſecure in that land, they ſhall be ſecure in minative : in loſs of appetite, nauſea, and continual retching ours. Upon which Monteſquieu remarks, with admiration, to vomit, there are few ſimples of equal efficacy. In cholicy that the Engliſh have made the protection of foreign merchants pains, the gripes to which children are ſubject, lienteries, and on of the articles of their national liberty: and alſo, that the other immoderate fluxes, this plant frequently does good ſervice. Engliſh know better than any other people upon earth, how to It likewiſe proves beneficial in many hyſteric caſes, and affords value at the ſame time theſe three great advantages, religion, an uſeful cordial in langours and other weaknelles conſequent liberty, and commerce. In this reſpect their diſpoſition is very upon delivery. The beſt preparation in theſe caſes is a ſtrong different from the genius of the Roman people ; who, in their infuſion of the dried herb in water (which is much ſuperior to manners, their conſtitution, and even in their laws, treated coin- the green) or rather a tincture or extract prepared with rectified merce as a diſhonourable employment, and prohibited the ex- ſpirit. Theſe poſſeſs the whole virtues of the mint; the eſſen erciſe of it to perſons of birth, rank, or fortune; and equally tial oil and diſtilled water contain only the aromatic part; the different from the bigotry of the canoniſts, who looked on trade expreſſed juice only the aſtringency and bitteriſhneſs, together as inconſiſtent with Chriſtianity, and determined at the council with the mucilaginous ſubſtance common to all vegetables. The of Melfi, under pope Urban II. A. D. 1090, that it was im- Peppermint is much more pungent than the others. pollible with ſafe conſcience to exerciſe any traffic, or follow Pennyroyal has the ſame general characters with the mint, the profeſſion of the law. See COMMERCE. but is more acrid and leſs agreeable when taken into the ſtomach. Previous to a perſon's engaging in a general trade, and be- It has long been held in great citeem, and not undeſervedly, as coming an univerſal dealer, he ought to meaſure up ſuch a fund an aperient and deobítruent, particularly in hyſteric com of uſeful knowledge, as will enable him to carry it on with eaſe plaints and ſuppreſſions of the menſes. For theſe purpoſes the to himſelf, and without riſking ſuch loiſes as great ill-concerted dittilled water is generally made uſe of, or, what is of equal effi undertakings would naturally expoſe him to. À merchant ſhould cacy, an infuſion of the leaves. It is obſervable, that both therefore be acquainted with the following parts of commercial water and rectified ſpirit extract the virtues of this herb by infu- | learning. To be expert in the forms of invoices, accounts of fion, and likewiſe elevate the greatelt part of them by diſtilla ſales, policies of inſurance, charter-parties, bills of laden, and tion. The expreſſed juice, with a little fugar, is not a bad bills of exchange. He ſhould know the agreement between the medicine in the chincough. money, weights and meaſures of all parts. If he deals in ſilk, MENYANTHES, MARSH-TREFOIL, or Buckbean: a genus woollen, linen, or hair manufactures, he ought to know the pla- of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria claſs of ces where the different forts of merchandizes are manufactured, plants. The corolla is hairy; the ſtigma bifid; the capſule unilo in what manner they are made, what are ihe materials of which cular. This plant grows wild in moiſt marihy places in many they are compoſed, and from whence they come, the prepara- parts of Britain. According to Mr. Lightfoot, the flowers of tions of theſe materials before working up, and the places to this plant are ſo extremely beautiful, that nothing but their which they are ſent after their fabrication. If he confines his native foil could exclude it from a place in every garden. They trade to that of oils, wines, &c. he ought to inform himſelf grow in an elegant ſpike; are white, daihed with pink, and particularly of the appearances of the ſucceeding crops, in fringed internally with hairs. The Highlanders eſteem an in order to regulate his diſpoſing of what he has on hand; and to fuſion or tea of the leaves as good to ſtrengthen the ſtomach. learn as exactly as he can, what they have produced when got According to Dr. Withering, an infuſion of the leaves is pre- in, for his direction in making the neceſſary purchaſes and engage- fcribed in rheumatiſms and dropfies; a dram of them in pow- ments. Heought to be acquainted with the forts of merchandizes der purges and vomits, and is ſometimes given to deſtroy worms. found more in one country than another, thoſe which are ſcarce, In a ſcarcity of hops, the plant is uſed in the north of Europe their different ſpecies and qualities, and the propereſt method to bitter the ale. The powdered roots are ſometimes uſed in for bringing them to a good market either by land or ſea. To Lapland inſtead of bread, but they are unpalatable. Some know which are the merchandizes permitted or prohibited, as people ſay, that ſheep will eat it, and that it cures them of the well on entering as going out of the kingdoms or ſtates where rot; but from the Upſal Experiments it appears, that though they are made. To be acquainted with the price of exchange, goats eat it, theep ſometimes will not. Cows, horſes, and according to the courſe of different places, and what is the ſwine, refuſe it. Dr. Lewis informs us, that it is an efficaci cauſe of its riſe and fall. To know the cuſtoms due on impor- ous aperient and deobftruent ; promotes the fluid fecretions; tation or exportation of merchandizes, according to the uſage, and, if liberally taken, gently looſens the belly. It has of late the tariffs, and regulations, of the places to which he trades. gained great reputation in ſcorbutic and ſcrophulous diſorders; To know the beſt manner of folding up, embaling, or tunning, and its good effects in thoſe caſes have been warranted by ex merchandizes for their preſervation. To underitand the price perience. Inveterate cutaneous diſeaſes have been removed by and condition of freighting and inſuring ſhips and merchandize. an infuſion of the leaves, drank to the quantity of a pint a-day, To be acquainted with the goodneſs and value of all neceſſaries at proper intervals, and continued for ſome weeks. Boerhaaye for the conſtruction and repairs of ſhipping, the different man- relates, that he was relieved of the gout by drinking the juice ner of their building ; what the wood, the maits, cordage, can- mixed with whey. non, fails, and all requiſites, may coit. To know the wages MEPHITIC, a name expreſſing any kind of noxious vapour; commonly given to the captains, officers, and ſailors, and the man- but generally applied to that ſpecies of vapour called fixed air. ner of engaging with them. He ought to underitand the fo- See Air, FIXED Air, Gas, &c. reign languages, or at leaſt as many of them as he can attain to ; MERCATOR's Chart, or Projection, is a ſea-chart, or pro theſe may be reduced to four, viz. the Spaniſh, which is uſed jection of the ſurface of the earth in plano. For the conſtruc not only in Spain, but on the coaſt of Africa, from the Cana- tion, uſe, advantages, &c. of which, ſee the Syſtem of NAVI ries to the Cape of Good Hope: the Italian, which is under- GATION, Part II. Sect. VI. and the Article CHART. ſtood on all the coaſts of the Mediterranean, and in many parts MERCHANT, a perſon who buys and ſells commodities in of the Levant: the German, which is underſtood in almoit all groſs, or deals in exchanges; or that traffics in the way of com the northern countries; and the French, which is now become merce, either by importation or exportation. In republics, almoſt univerſally current. He ought to be acquainted with trading is ſtill more valued; but no where more than in Eng- the conſular juriſdiction, with the laws, cuſtoms, and uſages of land, where the younger ſons and brothers of the beſt families the different countries he does or may trade to ; and in general are frequently bred up to merchandize. Add to this, that many all the ordinances and regulations both at home and abroad that of the Italian princes are the principal merchants of their ſtates, have any relation to commerce. Though it is not neceſſary for and think it no diſcredit to make their palaces ſerve as ware a merchant to be very learned, it is proper that he ſhould know houſes; and that many of the kings of Aſia, and moſt of thoſe ſomething of hiſtory, particularly that of his own country; on the coaſt of Africa and Guinea, traffic with the Europeans, geography; hydrography; and be acquainted with the diſcove- ries I M E R M E R Vies of the countries in which trade is eſtabliſhed, in whai a view to their uſe both externally and internally, may be divided manner it is ſettled, of the companies formed to ſupport thoſe into two great claſſes, the mild and the acrid. Almoſt every eſtabliſhments, and of the colonies they have ſent out. purpoſe to be anſwered by the former, may be accompliſhed by All theſe branches of knowledge are of great ſervice to a mer the unguentum hydragyri and pilulæ ex hydrargyro of the Lon- chant who carries on an extenſive commerce; but if his trade and don and Edinburgh pharmacopæias; while moſt of the effects his views are more limited, his learning and knowledge may be to be obtained from the latter, may be derived from the proper ſo too: but a material requiſite for forming a merchant is, his uſe of thoſe preparations hitherto generally known under the having on all occaſions a Itrict regard to truth, and his avoiding title of calomel and corroſive ſublimate mercury. fraud and deceit, as corroding cankers that muſt inevitably de Quickſilver has ſometimes been uſed in its pure metallic ſtate, Atroy his reputation and fortune. with the view of removing obſtructions in the alimentary canal, Ť rade is a thing of ſo univerſal a nature, that it is impoſſible from an idea that it would operate by its weight. But it is for the laws of Britain, or of any other nation, to determine all ſeldom åttended with a good effect, and ſometimes it muſt do the affairs relating to it: therefore all nations, as well as Great harm. Britain, ſhew a particular regard to the law merchant, which is Whole volumes have been written reſpecting its operation and a law made by the merchants among themſelves: however, mer uſe in different diſeaſes, and particularly in venereåt affections. chants and other ſtrangers are ſubject to the laws of the country Some refer its operation to an evacuant power, others to its in which they reſide. Foreign merchants are to ſell their mer- operating as a peculiar flimulus, and a third ſet to its poſſeſſing chandize at the port where they land, in groſs, and not by retail; a power of deſtroying or neutralizing the venereal virus. Of and they are allowed to be paid in gold or filver bullion, in foreign theſe opinions, the latter is the moſt générally received, and coin or jewels, which may be exported. If a difference ariſes perhaps the beſt founded. But for a more full view of the between the king and any foreign ſtate, the merchants of that controverſy, we may refer our readers to late publications on ſtate are allowed ſix months time to ſell their effects and leave the venereal difeaſe, and on mercury, by Mr. John Hunter, the kingdom; during which time they are to remain free and Dr. Schwediauer, and Dr. Duncan. unmoleſted in their perſons and goods. In a virulent gonorrhoea, it is doubted whether mercury be MERCHANT Court, or Court MERCHANT, a kind of judica- neceſſary. This diſeaſe is commonly treated like any ſimilar tory power, inveſted in merchants, choſen for that purpoſe, in inflammation: and the chief things attended to are cleanlineſs ſeveral parts of Europe, in order to decide and determine in a of the parts, a regular belly, and an abſtinence from every thing ſummary way, all differences and litigations among themfelves ſtimulant in food, drink, &c. An injection of oil with calo- and their dependents. The affairs of merchants are accompanied mel , or white precipitate, is much uſed; and ſome prefer a wa. with ſuch variety of circumſtances, ſuch new and unuſual con tery ſolution of opium. The more active injections have fome-- tingencies, which change and differ in every age, with a multi times very diſagreeable confequences. See the Syſtem of tude of niceties and punctilios, and thoſe again altering, as the MEDICINE. cuſtoms and uſages of countries and ſtates alter, that it has been When the conſtitution is affected, which is known by ulcers found impracticable to make any laws that could extend to all on the glands, buboes, ulcers in the mouth or throat, copper- caſes; and our law itſelf does tacitly acknowledge its own im coloured ſpots and ulcers on the ſurface, nodes, &c. mercury is perfection in this caſe, by allowing the cuſtom of inerchants to thrown into the body either by friction or by the mouth. The paſs a kind of law in caſes of difficulty. general rule is, to keep up a ſlight foreneſs of the gums for ſome MERCURY, in natural hiſtory. The uſe of mercury in thort time after the ſymptoms diſappear; at the fame time it is medicine ſeems to have been little known before the 15th cen to be remembered, that mercury fometimes continues gleets, tury. The ancients looked upon it as a corroſive poiſon, though and induces ulcers, that are difficultly diſtinguiſhed from vene- of itſelf perfely void of acrimony, taſte, and ſmell: there are real ones: and that theſe laſt only yield to warm bathing, diapho- examples of its having been lodged for years in cavities both of retic diluents, opiates, country air, and milk diet. Corrolive bones and fleſhy parts, without its having injured or affected ſublimate is ſometimes uſed, as more ſpeedily arreſting dif- them. Taken into the body in its crude ſtate, and undivided, agreeable, ſpreading, or dangerous ulcers; but the completion it paſſes through the inteſtines unchanged, and has not been of the cure ſhould always be truſted to the mild preparations found to produce any conſiderable effect. It has indeed been alone. Mercury is alſo uſed in rabies canina, in worms, in recommended in aſthmas and diſorders of the lungs; but the vir- hydrocephalus internus, in tetanus, and is by fome conſidered as tues attributed to it in thefe have not been warranted by expe- an antidote to the variolus matter. For a further account fee rience. Notwithſtanding the mildneſs and inactivity of crude the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. II. Sect. V. quickſilver undivided, when reſolved by fire into the form of MERCURY, in the heathen mythology. Moſt of the actions fume, or otherwiſe divided into very minute particles, and pre and inventions of the Egyptian Mercury have likewiſe been vented from re-uniting by the interpoſition of proper ſubſtances, afcribed to the Grecian, who was ſaid to be the ſon of Jupiter or combined with mineral acids, it has very powerful effects; and Maia, the daughter of Atlas. No one of all the heathen affording the moſt violent poiſons, and the moſt excellent reme divinities had ſo many functions allotted to him as this god : dies, that we are acquainted with. he had conſtant employment both day and night, having been The mercurial preparations, either given internally, or intro the common miniſter and meſſenger of the whole Pantheon; duced into the habit by external application, feem to liquify all particularly of his father Jupiter, whom he ſerved with inde- the juices of the body, even thoſe in the minuteſt and moſt re fatigable labour, and ſometimes indeed in a capacity of no very mote vefſels; and may be ſo managed as to promote excretion honourable kind. Lucian is very pleaſant upon the multitude through all the emunctories. Hence their common uſe in in of his avocations; and, according to the confeſſion of the em- veterate chronic diſorders proceeding from a thickneſs and ſug- peror Julian, Mercury was no hero, but rather one who in- giſhneſs of the humeurs, and obſtinate obſtructions of the ex- ſpired mankind with wit, learning, and the ornamental arts of cretory glands; in fcrophulous and cutaneous diſeaſes; and in life, than with courage. The pious emperor, however, omits the venereal lues. If their power is not reſtrained by proper fome of his attributes; for this god was not only the patron of additions to certain enfunctories, they tend chiefly to affect the trade, but alſo of theft and fraud. mouth; and, after having fuſed the juices in the remoter parts, His moſt magnificent temple was on mount Cylene, in Ar- occafion a plentiful evacuation of them from the falival glands. cadia. He is deſcribed by the poets as a fair beardleſs youth, The ſalutary effects of mercurials do not depend on the quan with flaxen hair, lively blue eyes, and a ſimiling countenance. tity of ſenſible evacuation. This medicine may be gradually He has wings fixed to his cap and ſandals, and holds the caduceus introduced into the habit, ſo as, without occalioning any re (or ſtaff ſurrounded with ſerpents with two wings on the top, markable diſcharge, to be productive of very happy effects. ſee CADUCEUS) in his hand; and is frequently repreſented with To anſwer this purpoſe, it ſhould be given in very ſmall doſes, a purſe, to thew that he was the god of gain. The animals in conjunction with ſuch ſubſtances as determine its action to ſacred to him, were the dog, the goat, and the cock. In all the kidneys or the pores of the ſkin. By this method inveterate the ſacrifices offered to him, the tongues of the victims were Cutaneous and venereal diſtempers have been cured, without any burnt; and thoſe who eſcaped imminent danger, ſacrificed to other ſenſible excretion than a gentle increaſe of perſpiration or him a calf with milk and honey. urine. Where there are ulcers in any part, they diſcharge for Mercury, in heraldry, a term uſed in blazoning by planets, ſome time a very fetid matter, the quantity of which becomes for the purple colour uſed in the arms of ſovereign princes. See gradually leſs, and at length the ulcer kindly heals. If the the SYSTEM, Article III. mercury ſhould at any time, from cold or the like, affect the MERCURY, 8, in aſtronomy, the finalleſt of the inferior mouth, it may be reſtrained by omitting a doſe, and, by warmth planets, and the neareſt to the ſun. See the System, Sect. VIII. or ſuitable medicines, promoting the perſpiration. MERGUS, in the Linnæan ſyſtem of ornithology, the name of Cooling purgatives are alſo often employed with advantage; a diſtinct genus of birds, of the order of the anſeres. The diſtin- but perhaps the moſt effe&ual means of giving with ſafety a ſud-guiſhing characteriſtic of this genus is, that the beak is fome- den check to a mercurial ſalivation, is by the application of a what cylindric, and has a crooked point, and its denticula- large bliſter to the back. tions of a ſubulated form. There are fix fpecies; the largeſt Mercury, as uſed in medicine, has been employed in a vaſt of which is the merganſer, or gooſander, a native of Europe. variety of different forms. But there is reaſon to believe, that | Theſe birds frequent our rivers and other freſh waters, eſpe- every uſefu purpoſe to be anſwered by mercury may be obtained cially in hard winters; they are great divers, and live on fith. from a very few. The mercurial preparations in general, with They are never ſeen in the ſouthern parts of Great Britain dur- 3 ing M E T Μ Ε Τ part ing ſummer ; when they retire far north to breed; for in that perpetual happineſs. Jeſus Chriſt aſſerts himſelf the Meſſiah. feaſon they have been ſhot in the Hebrides. They are uncom In St. John iv. 25. the Samaritan woman ſays to Jeſus, I know monly rank, and ſcarce eatable. The male weighs four pounds: that when Meſſiah comes, who is called the Chriſt, he will tell us its length is two feet four inches; the breadth three feet two. all things. Jeſus anſwered her, I that ſpeak to thee am he. See The bill is three inches long, narrow, and finely toothed or fer- | Jesus Chriſt, and CHRISTIANITY, rated; the colour of that and of the irides is red. The dun METACARPUS, or METACARPIUM, from Leto, behind, diver, or the female, is leſs than the male: the head and upper and xaptios, hand, in anatomy, that part of the hand between of the neck is ferruginous; the throat white: the feathers the wriſt and the fingers. For a deſcription, ſee the Syſtem, on the hind part are long, and form a pendent creſt: the back, Part I. Sect. IV. For a repreſentation, ſee Plate I. fig. I. the coverts of the wings, and the tail, are of a deep aſh-colour: Letters i, k. the greater quill-feathers are black, the leſſer white: the breaſt METAL, in natural hiſtory, a ſimple, ponderous, ſhining, and middle of the belly are white, tinged with yellow. Latham fixed, opake body, that fuſes, and becomes fluid, by fire, and makes this bird of the gift genus. For a repreſentation, fee by cold coagulates and hardens into a ſolid maſs, capable of Plate V. being diſtended under the hammer. Metal is ſaid to be ſimple; MERIDIAN, in geography, a great circle ſuppoſed to be as it may be affirmed of every the minuteſt particle of a metal, drawn through any part on the ſurface of the earth, and the two e. g. a grain of gold, that it is gold, or has all the properties poles; and to which the ſun is always perpendicular at noon. of gold. Fuſible by fire; that is, when expoſed to a great fire, In aſtronomy, the circle is ſuppoſed to be in the heavens, and it dillolves into parts which are eaſily moveable among them- exactly perpendicular to the terreſtrial one. See Treatiſe on the ſelves, or are in actual motion. See Fusion. Fixt, i, e. GLOBES. bearing the fire without flying off in vapours; though it is only MEROPS, in the Linnæan ſyſtem of ornithology, is the 23d up to a certain degree that metals are fixed; for, by the large genus belonging to the order of´Picæ. The bill is crooked, flat , burning-glaffes of Meff . Tſchirnhauſen and Villette, all metals and carinated; the tongue is jagged at the point; and the feet are found to evaporate. Such is the proper idea of metals, are of the walking kind. There are fix ſpecies. The apiaſter, which is not applicable to any other body in nature ; for a dia- or bee-eater, has an iron coloured back; the belly and tail are mond, or other ſtone, though a ſimple body, is not fuſible in of a bluiſh green; and the throat is yellow. It inhabits the the fire, nor capable of being ſtretched under the hammer. ſouth of Europe. Latham makes the apiaſter, or- bee-eater, And ſalt, though diſſolvable by fire, is not malleable, but breaks belonging to the 26th genus. For the repreſentation, ſee under the hammer. See Syſtem of CHYMISTRY. Part II. Plate I. under the Article Metallic Subſtances. MESENTERY, MeseNTERIUM, formed of yes@, middle, Metal, in heraldry. There are two metals uſed in heral- and evtepov, inteſtine, or MESARÆUM, in anatomy, a fatty mem dry, by way of colours, viz. gold and ſilver, in blazon called branous body; thus called as being placed in the middle of the or and argent. In the common painting of arms theſe metals inteſtines, which it connects to one another. The meſentery is are repreſented by white and yellow, which are the natural almoſt of a circular figure, with a narrow production ; to which colours of thoſe metals. In engraving, gold is expreſſed by the end of the colon, and the beginning of the rectum, are tied. dotting the coat, &c. all over; and ſilver, by leaving it quite See the SYSTEM, Part III. Sect. VI. blank. It is a general rule in heraldry, never to place metal MESOCOLON, Hedonwacy, in anatomy, that part of the ME upon metal, nor colour upon colour: ſo that if the field be of SENTERY which, having reached the extremity of the ileum, one of the metals, the bearing muſt be of ſome colour; and contracts and changes its name. At this place the particular if the field be of any colour, the bearing muſt be of one of the lamina, which is turned to the right ſide, forms a ſmall tranf metals. See the Syſtem, Sect. III. Plate II. verſe fold, called ligamentum coli dextrum. Afterwards the METALLURGY, according to Boerhaave, comprehends the meſocolon aſcends towards the kidney, where it ſeems to be loſt whole art of working metals, from the glebe or ore, to the by the immediate adheſion of the colon to that kidney, and to utenſil; in which ſenſe, afſaying, ſmelting, refining, parting, the firſt incurvation of the duodenum. Then it appears again, ſmithery, gilding, &c. are only branches of metallurgy. But, and increaſing in breadth, continues its courſe almoit tranſverſely in the preſent work, Gilding, Parting, Purifying, Refining, under the liver, ſtomach and ſpleen, where it begins to turn &c. are treated under their proper names. With others, there- downward, under the left hypochondrium, towards the kidney fore, we have choſen to reitrain Metallurgy to thoſe operations on the ſame fide. See the SYSTEM, Part III. Sect. VI. required to ſeparate metals from their ores for the uſes of life. MESSIAH, a word ſignifying one anointed, or inſtalled into Theſe operations are of two kinds: the ſmaller, or aflaying; an office by unction. It was uſual among the Jews to anoint and the larger, or ſmelting. See the articles Aſaying, Smelting, kings, high-prieſts, and ſometimes prophets, at the deſignation Gilding, Refining, &c. or inſtallment of them, to fignify emblematically the mental METAMORPHOSIS, Melanopowois, formed of uile change, qualifications neceſſary for diſcharging theſe offices. Saul, or removal from one place or ſtate to another, and nogen, form, David, Solomon, and Joalh, kings of Judah, received the royal or figure transformation; the change of a perſon or thing into unction. The name Messiah, Anointed, or Chriſt, (Xpisos,) was another form. given to the kings and high-prieſts of the Jews. The patriarchs METAPHOR, METAPHORA, Metabog, tranſlation, or diſ- and prophets are alſo called by the name of Meſiahs, or the placing, of leta, trans, and Degw, I bear, or carry, in rhetoric, a Lord's anointed. See i Sam. xii. 3, 5. i Chron. xvi. 22. figure of ſpeech, or a ſpecies of trope, whereby a word is tranſ- Pſ. cv. 15. ferred from its proper ſignification to another, different from But this name Mifrah was principally and by way of emi- | it, by reaſon of ſome fimilitude between them; or whereby the nence given by the Jews to their expected great Deliverer, whoſe proper denomination of one thing is applied to another ; which coming they ſtill vainly wait; and is a name the Chriſtians ap other thing is more elegantly explained by this tralatitious or ply to Jeſus Chriſt, in whom the prophecies relating to the Meſ foreign name, than by that which naturally belongs to it. See fiah were accompliſhed. The ſum of theſe prophecies is, That Treatiſe on ORATORY, Part III. Sect. Ill. there ſhould be a glorious perſon named Meſſiah, deſcended from METAPHYSICS is that part of philoſophy which conſiders Abraham, Iſaac and Jacob, who ſhould be born at Bethlehem, the nature and properties of thinking beings. Ariſtotle, after of a virgin of the family of David, then in its decline, before treating on phylics, begins his next book (in which he pretends the Jews ceaſed to be a people, while the ſecond temple was to elevate the mind above corporeal objects, to fix it on the con- ſtanding, and about 500 years after Ezra's time; who, though templation of God, of angels, and of things fpiritual, and to appearing in mean circumſtances, ſhould be introduced by a enable it to judge of the principles of ſciences by abſtraction) remarkable forerunner, whoſe buſineſs it ſhould be to awaken with the Greek words LETA TA quoixa, poft phyſicam, i. e. after the attention and expectation of the people. That this illuſtri- phyſics. His diſciples, and ſucceeding philoſophers, have form- ous perſon called Mefjiah, ſhould himſelf be eminent for the ed, of theſe two, one word, METAPHYSICS, by which they piety, wiſdom, and benevolence of his character, and the mi mean that ſcience of which we have juſt now given the des raculous works he ſhould perform: yet that, notwithſtanding nition. as the all this, he ſhould be rejected and put to death by the Jews; Metaphyſics is divided, according to the objects that it con- but ſhould afterwards be raiſed from the dead, and exalted to a ſiders, into fix principal parts, which are called, 1. Ontology. glorious throne, on which he ſhould through all generations 2. Coſmology; 3. Anthrophology. 4. Pſychology. 5. Pneumaton continue to rule, at the ſame time making interceſiion for fin-logy. 6. Theodicy, or Metaphyſical Theology. That great calamities ſhould for the preſent be brought 1. The doctrine that is named ontology, is that part of meta- on the Jews for rejecting him; whereas the kingdom of God | phyſics which inveſtigates, and explains, the nature and gene- ſhould by his means be erected among the Gentiles, and diſperſe ral eſſence of all beings, as well as the qualities and attributes itſelf even unto the ends of the earth; wherever it came, def that eflentially appertain to them, and which we ought to alligni troying idolatry, and eſtabliſhing true religion and righteouſneſs. them by abſtraction, as conſidering thein à priori. Hence it In a word, that this glorious Perſon ſhould be regarded by all appears, that this doctrine ſhould proceed in its operations from who believed in him, as a divine teacher, an atoning facrifice, the moſt ſimple ideas; ſuch as do not admit of any other quali- and a royal governor: by means of whom, God would make a ties of which they may be compounded. Theſe ſimple ideas covenant with his people, very different from that made with are, for example, thoſe of being, of eiſence, of fub tance, of Iſrael of old; in conſequence of which they ſhould be reſtored mode, of exiitence, as well with regard to time as place; of a to, and eſtabliſhed in, the divine favour, and fixed in a ſtate of necellary cauſe, of unity, the idea of negation, the difference No. 105. Vol. III. 7 L between ners. ME T M IC between a being that is ſimple or compound, neceſſary or acci- | duties that refult from that connection. As pneumatology is dental, finite or infinite; the idea of eſſential and abſtract pro a ſcience highly inſidious and chimerical, fo is metaphylical perties, as of the greatneſs, perfection, and goodneſs of beings; theology ſuſceptible of found argument and demonſtration ; and ſo of the reſt. The buſinefs therefore of ontology, is to to the great comfort of mankind, the whole of whoſe happineſs make us acquainted with every kind of being in its eſſence and is founded on the certainty of this ſcience. If the effects and abſtract qualities, and ſuch as are diſtinct from all other beings. operations of ſpirits in the univerſe were as evident as the effects This knowledge being once eſtabliſhed on ſimple principles, juſt and operations of the Deity, and their neceſſary exiſtence as conſequences may from thence be drawn, and thoſe things pro- | capable of being proved à priori, pneumatology would be a doc- ved after which metaphyſics enquires, and which is its buſineſs to trine of equal certainty with theodicy: but as neither one nor prove. the other can be proved with regard to fpirits in general, whilft It is eaſy to conceive, that even a clear knowledge of beings, God manifeſts himſelf in every part of nature, we have only to and their effential properties, would be ſtill defective and uſeleſs deſcend from the moſt ſimple and abſtract ideas, to thoſe that to man, if he did not know how to determine and fix his ideas are the moſt compound; and from thence to reafcend, by a by proper denominations, and conſequently to communicate chain of reaſoning, from the creature up to the Author of the his perceptions to thoſe whom he would inſtruct, or againſt creature and of all nature: we ſhall find, that the refult of all whom he is obliged to diſpute, as they would not have the ſame theſe operations of the mind will conſtantly be, The neceſity perceptions that he has. It is, by the way, perhaps, one of the of the exiſtence of a God; and we may at all times determine, greateſt advantages that we have over other animals, to be able fo though very imperfectly, from the weakneſs of our diſcernment, to determine our ideas by ſigns or denominations, either of wri what that Supreme Being muſt be, by poſitively determining ting or ſpeech, as to refer each particular perception to its general what he cannot be. Every thing than can concur to furniſh idea, and each general perception to its particular idea. To new proofs on this ſubject, or to elucidate and eſtabliſh thoſe render therefore our ideas intelligible to others, we muſt have which are already known, is therefore of ineſtimable value to determinate words or denominations for each being, and the manķind: and though this were the only object of metaphyſics, qualities of each being; and ontology teaches us thoſe terms it would highly merit the attention of thoſe of the moſt refined which are ſo neceſſary to fix our ideas, and to give them the and moſt exalted genius. requiſite perſpicuity and preciſion, that we may not diſpute METEOR, (by the Greeks called uetempat, q. d. ſublima, or about words when we endeavour to extend the ſphere of our “ high raiſed;" by the Latins impreſiones, as making ſigns or knowledge, or when we debate concerning the elſence of an impreſſions in the air,) commonly denotes any bodies in the air object, or endeavour to make it more evident. that are of a flux or tranſitory nature. Hence it is extended to 2. Metaphyſics, after having, in as ſolid a manner as poſſible, the phenomena of hail, rain, ſnow, thunder, &c. but is moſt explained and eſtabliſhed the principles above mentioned, con commonly confined to thofe unuſual and fiery appearances named tinues its enquiries to the ſecond part, that is called Coſmology, falling ſtars, ignes fatui, aurora boreales, &c. whether they ap- and examines into the eſſence of the world, and all that it con pear at a great diſtance from the earth or not. Till the diſco- tains ; its eternal laws; of the nature of matter; of motion; of very of electricity theſe meteors could not be accounted for; but the nature of tangible bodies, of their attributes and eſſential they are now reſolved, by the univerſal conſent of philoſophers, qualities, and of all that can be known by abſtraction, and fome into the action of that fluid ; which, though unheeded, hath times alſo by adding the lights that man acquires concerning them ſhewed itfelf in all ages. See Light. by the experience of his ſenſes. It is alſo in coſmology that METHOD, METHODUS, from yelodos, in logic and rhetoric, we examine the Leibnitzian ſyſtem; that is, whether God, in the art or rule of diſpoſing things in ſuch a manner, as that creating the world, muſt neceſſarily have created the beſt world; they may be eaſily comprehended; either in order to diſcover and if this world be ſo in effect. And in this manner they pur the truth, which we ourſelves are ignorant of, or to fhew or ſue the argument from conſequence to conſequence to its laſt re demonſtrate it to others when known, or to fix it in the me- fort. All philoſophers, however, do not go equally deep. Each mory See the Treatiſe on Logic, Part IV. and the Treatiſe mind has its doſe of penetration. Due care ſhould likewiſe be on ORATORY, Part II. taken, that fubtilty, in this chain of reaſoning, carried beyond METHODISTS. The Methodiſts form a very conſiderable the general bounds of the human mind, do not prejudice either claſs principally of the lower people in this country. They the perſpicuity or the truth of ideas ; ſeeing that error here too ſprung up about fifty years ago, at Oxford, and were ſoon divi- nearly approaches the truth ; and that every idea, which cannot ded into two parties; the one under the direction of Mr. George be rendered intelligible, is in effect equal to a falſe idea. Whitefield, and the other under that of the two brothers, John 3. Anthrophology, or the knowledge of man, forms the third and Charles Weſley. The theological ſyſtem of Mr. White- branch of metaphyfics. It is ſubdivided into two parts. The field and his followers is calviniſtic; that of Mr. Weſley and his firſt, which conſiſts in the knowledge of the exterior parts of diſciples Arminian ; and the latter maintains the poſibility of the human frame, does not belong to this ſcience : anatomy and attaining ſinleſs perfection in the preſent ſtate. phyſiology teach that. The buſineſs here is only a metaphyſical METONYMY, Μετωνυμια, from μετα, trans, and ονομα, examination of man, his exiſtence, his eſſence, his eflential nomen, name; a rhetorical trope, conſiſting in a tranſmutation qualities and neceſſary attributes, all conſidered à priori; and or change of names; or a putting of the effect for the cauſe, this examen leads at the ſame time to or the ſubject for the adjunct; and vice verſa. See the Treatiſe 4. Pſychology, which conſiſts in the knowledge of the ſoul on ORATORY, Part Ilſ. Sect. III. in general, and of the ſoul of man in particular; concerning MEZZO-TINTO, in engraving, a particular manner of which the moſt profound, the moſt ſubtle and abſtract reſearches engraving figures on copper. It is very different from the have been made, that the human reaſon is capable of producing; common way of engraving. See ENGRAVING. To perform and concerning the ſubſtance of which, in ſpite of all theſe it, they rake, hatch, or punch the ſurface of the plate all over efforts, it is yet extremely difficult to affert any thing that is ra with a knife, or inſtrument made for the purpoſe, firſt one way, tional, and itill leſs any thing that is poſitive and well fup then the other, acroſs, &c. till the face of the plate be entirely ported. furrowed with lines or ſcratches, cloſe and as it were contiguous 5. The fifth part of metaphyſics is called pneumatology. It to each other; ſo that, if any impreſſion was thus taken from it, is not a very long time ſince this term has been invented, and it would be one uniform blot or finut. This done, the deſign that metaphyſicians have made of it a diſtinct doctrine. By is drawn, or marked, on the ſurface; after which, they proceed this they mean the knowledge of all ſpirits, angels, &c. It is with burniſhers, ſcrapers, &c. to expunge or take out the dents eaſy to conceive that infinite art is neceſſary to give an account or ſcratches in all the parts where the lights of the piece are to of what we do not abſolutely know any thing, and of which, be; and that more or leſs, as the lights are to be ſtronger or by the nature of the ſubject itſelf, we never can know any thing. fainter; leaving thoſe parts black, which are to repreſent the But the metaphyſician preſently offers to ſhow us, “what is ſhadows. As it is much eaſier to ſcrape or burniſh away parts the idea of a ſpirit; the effective exiſtence of a ſpirit; what of a dark ground correſponding with the outline of any deſign are its general qualities and properties; that there are rational ſketched upon it, than to form ſhades upon a light ground, by ſpirits, and that theſe rational ſpirits have qualities that are an infinite number of hatches, ſtrokes, and points, which mult founded in the moral qualities of God:” for this is, in ſo all terminate with exactneſs on the outline, as well as differ in many words, what is taught us by pneumatology. their force and manner, the method of ſcraping, as it is called, 6. Metaphyſicaltheology, which M. Leibnitz and ſome others in Mezzo-tinto, conſequently becomes much more eaſy and ex- call Theodicy, is the ſixth and laſt doctrine of metaphyſics. peditious than any other method of engraving. The inſtru- It teaches us the knowledge of the exiſtence of God, to make ments uſed in this kind of engraving are cradles, ſcrapers, and the moſt rational ſuppoſitions concerning his divine eſſence, | burniſhers. to form a juſt idea of his qualities and perfections, and to MICAH, or The Book of Micah, a canonical book of the demonſtrate them by abſtract reaſoning à priori . Theodicy dif Old Teſtament, written by the prophet Micah, who is the fers from natural theology, in as much as this laſt borrows, in ſeventh of the twelve leſſer prophets. fact, from theodicy, proofs and demonſtrations to confirm the MICROMETER, an aſtronomical inachine, which, by exiſtence of a ſupreme being ; but after having ſolidly eſtabliſhed means of a very fine ſcrew, ſerves to meaſure extremely ſmall that great truth, by extending its conſequences, natural theology | diſtances in the heavens, as the apparent diameters of the pla- teaches us what are the relations and connections that fubliſt nets, to a great degree of accuracy. The word comes from the between that Supreme Being and man, and what are the moral | Greek (expos, parvus, and letgowy menſura; in regard to a ſmall 4 length, O See the Article Microscopical o Apparatus 3 6 4 5 7 8 1 2 9 10 15 11 12 14 13 19 23 24 17 16 O ooo a 21 22 18 20 6 Copied by Permiſsion from M" Adams's Opsaus on the Microscope), Engroved tur Halls Eracyclopædia & Printed for C. Cooke N927 Paternoster Row. MIC MIC length, e. g. an inch, is hereby divided into vaſt numbers of or ſeparately. The three lenſes in themſelves afford three dif. parts, e. g. ſome 2800, and in others more. ferent magnifying powers; by combining two and two we make MICROSCOPE, and optical inſtrument conſiſting of lenſes, three more; the three together make a ſeventh magnifying or mirrors, by means of which ſmall objects appear larger than power with three lenſes. When the three lenſes are uſed toge- they do by the naked eye. Single microſcopes conſiſt of lenſes ther, it is beſt to turn them into the caſe, and look through the or mirrors; or if more lenſes or mirrors be made uſe of, they | hole ; as this combined magnifying power is ſo great, that it only ſerve to throw light upon the object, and not contribute requires to have a portion of the light which falls in the lenſes to enlarge the image of it. Double microſcopes are thoſe in excluded, in order to attain diſtinct viſion. Further, the eye which the image of an object is compoſed by means of more is alſo by this means made to coincide more eaſily with the axis lenſes or mirrors than one. For the principles on which the of the glaſſes. conſtruction of microſcopes depend, and the beſt methods of Thoſe who wiſh for further information reſpecting the Micro- making them, ſee the Syitem of Optics. Part IV. Section II. fcopical Apparatus, its uſes, &c. are referred to Mr. Adams's and Plate IV. Fig. 30, 31. 32. Eſſays on the Microſcope. MICROSCOPIC APPARATUS. See the Plate. MICROSCOPIC Objects. All things too minute to be Fig. 9. A cylindrical piece, intended for the ſolar opake mi viewed diſtinctly by the naked eye, are proper objects for the croſcope : by pulling back the ſpiral ſpring, ſmaller or larger | microſcope. Dr. Hooke has diſtinguiſhed them to be exceeding objects may be confined in it. ſmall bodies, exceeding finall pores, or exceeding ſmall mo- Fig. 10. A pair of forceps to take up any occaſional obje&t. tions. Under one or other of theſe three heads, almoſt every Fig. 11. A piece to hold the ſpeculum ; this piece is generally | thing about us affords us matter of obſervation, and may con- fitted to the microſcopes which will be deſcribed in the Plates in duce both to our amuſement and inſtruction. An examination the Syſtem of OPTICS. of theſe objects, however, ſo as to diſcover truth, requires a Fig. 12. A long ſteel wire, with a ſmall pair of pliers at one great deal of attention, care, and patience, with ſome ſkill and end, and a ſteel point at the other; the wires Nip backwards or dexterity, to be acquired chiefly by practice, in the preparing, forwards in a ſpring tube, which is affixed to a joint, at the managing, and applying them to the microſcope. bottom of which is a pin to fit one of the holes in the ſtage; Whatever object offers itſelf as the ſubject of our examina- this piece is uſed to confine ſmall objects. tion, the ſize, contexture, and nature of it, are firſt to be con- Fig. 13. A pair of triangular nippers for taking hold and con ſidered, in order to apply it to ſuch glaſſes, and in ſuch a man- fining a large object. ner, as may ſhew it belt. The firſt ſtep ſhould always be to view Fig. 14. A camel's hair pencil to bruſh the duſt off the the whole together, with ſuch a magnifier as can take it in all glaſſes; the upper part of the quill is ſcooped out, to take up at once ; and after this the ſeveral parts of it may the more fitly a drop of any fluid, and place it on either of the glaſſes for exa be examined, whether remaining on the object, or ſeparated mination. from it. The ſmaller the parts are which are to be examined, Fig. 15. A filh pan, whereon a ſmall fiſh may be faſtened, in the more powerful ſhould be the magnifiers employed; the tranſ- order to view the circulation of the blood: its tail is to be ſpread parency or cpacity of the object mult alſo be conſidered, and the acroſs the oblong hole at the ſmalleſt end, and tied faſt by means glaffes employed accordingly ſuited thereto; for a tranſparent of the ribbon affixed; by ſhoving the knob which is on the back object will bear a much greater magnifier than one which is of it through the ſlit made in the ſtage, the tail of the filh may opake, ſince the nearneſs that a glaſs muſt be placed at, una- be brought under the lens which is in uſe. voidably darkens an object if in its own native opake, and ren- Fig. 16. A glaſs tube to receive a ſmall fiſh, &. ders it very difficult to be ſeen, unleſs by the help of the Fig . 17. Repreſents one of the ivory Niders , wherein ob- tus contrived for that purpoſe, which has a filver fpeculum. jects are placed between two pieces of talc, and confined by a Moſt objects however become tranſparent by being divided into braſs ring extremely thin parts. Fig. 18. A braſs ſlider, into which is fitted a fiat piece of The nature of the object alſo, whether it be alive or dead, a glaſs, and a braſs ſlider, containing one or two ſmall concave folid or a fluid, an animal, a vegetable, or a mineral ſubſtance, glaſes, the others flat; it is deſigned to confine ſmall living ob muſt likewiſe be conſidered, and all the circumſtances of it at- jects, and when uſed is to be placed between the upper plates of tended to, that we may apply it in the moſt advantageous man- the ſlider-hold. If it be a living object, care muſt be taken not to ſqueeze Fig. 19. A convex lens, which fits the ſtage, by means of or injure it. If it be a fluid, and that too thick, it inuſt be the long pin adhering to it; it is deſigned to colle&t the light diluted with water; and if too thin, we ſhould let ſome of its from the ſun or a candle, and to throw them on any object watery parts evaporate. Some ſubſtances arc fitteſt for obſerya- placed on the ſtage: this piece is but little uſed at preſent, tion when dry, others when moiſtened; ſome when freſh, and Fig. 20. An ivory box, containing at one end ſpare talc for others after they have been kept ſome time. the ivory ſliders, and at the other ſpare rings for preſling the. Light is the next thing to be taken care of; for on this the talcs together and confining them to the ſlider. truth of all our obſervations depends; and a very little obſerva- Fig. 22. An inſtrument for cutting thin tranſverſe ſections of tion will ſhew how very different objects appear in one degree wood. It conſiſts of a wooden baſe, which ſupports four braſs of it to what they do in another; ſo that every new object ſhould pillars; on the top of the pillars is placed of the pillars is placed a flat piece of braſs, be viewed in all degrees of light, from the greateſt glare of near the middle of which there is a triangular hole. A ſharp brightneſs to perfect obſcurity, and that in all poſitions to each knife, which moves in a diagonal direction, is fixed on the up degree, till we hit upon the certain form and figure of it. In per ſide of the aforementioned plate, and in ſuch a manner, many objects it is very difficult to diſtinguiſh between a promi- that the edge always coincides with the ſurface. The knife is nency and a depreſſion, a black ſhadow and a black ſtain, and in moved backwards and forwards by means of the handle. The colour between a bright reflection and a whiteneſs. The eye of piece of wood is placed in the triangular trough which is under a fly in one kind of light appears like a lattice drillea full of the braſs plate, and is to be kept iteady therein by a milled holes, in the ſun-fhine like a ſolid ſubſtance covered with pyra- ſcrew, which is fitted to the trough; the wood is to be preſſed mids, in another with cones, and in others with ſtill different forward for cutting by the micrometer ſcrew. The pieces ſhould ſhapes. be applied to this inftrument immediately on being taken out of The degrees of light muſt always be ſuited to the object; if the ground, or elſe they ſhould be ſoaked for ſome time in water, that be dark, it muſt be ſeen in a full and ſtrong light; but if to ſoften them ſo that they may not hurt the edge of the knife. tranſparent, the light ſhould be proportionably weak; for which When the edge of the knife is brought in contact with the reaſon there is a contrivance both in the ſingle and double micro- piece of wood, a ſmall quantity of ſpirits of wine ſhould be ſcope to cut off abundance of the rays, when ſuch tranſparent poured on the ſurface of the wood to prevent its curling up; objects are to be examined by the largeſt magnifiers. The it will alſo make it adhere to the knife, from which it may light of a candle for many obječts; and eſpecially for ſuch as removed by preſſing a piece of blotting paper on it. are very bright and tranſparent, and very minute, is preferable Letter c. An appendage to the cutting engine, which is to to day light: for others a ſerene day-light is beſt: but fun-fhine be uſed inſtead of the micrometer ſcrew; being preferred by is the worſt light of all, for it is reflected from objects with ſo fome practitioners to it. It is placed over the triangular hole, much glare, and exhibits fuch gaudy colours, that nothing can and kept flat down upon the ſurface of the braſs plate, while be determined from it with any certainty. the piece of wood is preſſed againſt a circular piece of braſs, Moſt objects require alſo ſome management, in order to bring which is on the under ſide of it. This circular piece of braſs is them properly before the glaſs. If they are flat and tranſparent, fixed to a ſcrew, by which its diſtance from the flat plate on and ſuch as will not be injured by preflure, the beſt way is to in- which the knife moves may be regulated. cloſe them in ſliders between two Muſcovy talcs or ilinglaſſes, It is neceſſary that the curious microſcopic obſerver ſhould as in Fig. 17. Plate III. Microſcopic Apparatus. In this way be furniſhed with the following inſtruments, as the moſt conve the feathers of butterflies, the ſcales of fiſhes, and the farinæ nient for inveſtigating the object of his purſuits, as it riſes be of flowers, may be very conveniently preſerved ; as alſo the fore him. parts of inſects, the whole bodies of minute ones, and a great In the caſe, fig. 23. are three lenſes of different magnifying number of other things. Theſe are to be kept in ſliders, each powers, that all turn up and ſhut into the caſe. containing three, four, or more holes, and theſe muſt not be Fig. 24, contains alſo three lenſes of different foci which filled promiſcuouſly; but all the things preſerved in one ſlider are all made to turn into the caſe, and may be uſed combined ſhould be ſuch as require one and the ſame magnifying power to ner. be view M I C M I C view them, that there may not be a neceſſity of changing the the heart; while in the veins it ever kept the ſame equable and glaſſes for every object, and the ſliders ſhould be marked with uniform current, with a ſurpriſing rapidity; and when the ſcreen the number of the magnifier it is proper to be viewed with. In was removed farther back, and the obje&t by that means more placing the objects in the ſliders, it is always proper to have a enlarged, the alternate expanſion and contraction of the fides ſmall magnifier, of about an inch focus, in your hand, to exa of the arteries were very viſible. After this, the abdomen of mine and adjuſt them by, before they are fixed down with the rings. the frog being opened, and the muſcles of it being extended be- Small living objects, ſuch as lice, fleas, bugs, mites, minute fore the microſcope in the ſame manner as the ſkin was, the ſpiders, &c. may be placed between theſe talcs without injuring ſtructure of theſe muſcles is beautifully feen; being all made them, if care be taken to lay on the braſs rings without preſſing up of bundles of tranſparent ſtrings of fibres, all lying parallel them down, and they will remain alive many weeks in this man to one another, and joined by a common membrane. ner; but if they are too large to be treated thus, they ſhould be Theſe ſtrings or fibres appeared alſo through their whole either preſerved between two concave glaſſes, or elſe viewed length made up of roundiſh veſicles, and reſembled ruſhes di- immediately, by holding them in the pliers, or ſticking them on vided longitudinally; but there is no certainty of any circulation the point at the other end of that inſtrument. If fluids come being ſeen in theſe. under examination, to diſcover the animalcules in them, a ſmall When this has been ſufficiently examined, part of the crea- drop is to be taken with a hair pencil, as in fig. 14, or on the ture's guts being pulled out and extended with the meſentery, nib at the end of it, and placed on a plate of glaſs; and if they there is ſeen the fineit of all views of the circulation of the blood. are too numerous to be thus ſeen diſtinctly, ſome water warmed, Words are not able to deſcribe this wonderful ſcene. The blood by holding it in the mouth, muſt be added to the drop, and is ſeen paſſing through numberleſs veſſels at one and the ſame they will then ſeparate and be ſeen diſtinctly. This is particu- | inſtant, in fome one way, and in others dire&ly the contrary. larly neceſſary in viewing the animalcules in the ſemen maſculinum Several of the veſſels are thus magnified to more than an inch in of all creatures; which, though extremely minute, are always diameter, and the globules of the blood rolling through them, fo numerous, that without this caution their true form can ſel appear near as large as pepper-corns; while in many of the dom be ſeen. But if we are to ſee the falts in a fluid, the con minuteſt velſels only ſingle globules were able to find their pal- trary method muſt be obſerved, and the plate of glaſs muſt be ſage, and that too by changing their ſhape into an oblong ſphe- held gently over the fire, till part of the liquor is evaporated. roid. The pulſation and acceleration of the blood in the arte- The diſſection of minute animals, as lice, fleas, &c. requires ries are thus alſo very beautifully ſeen. As the animal under patience and care; but it may be done very accurately by means examination grows languid and near expiring, the blood in the of a needle and a fine lancet, placing the creature in a drop of arteries will often ſtop on a ſudden, and ſeein as if it were coa- water, for then the parts will readily unfold themſelves, and the gulating, and will then run back for ſome time; after which it ftomach, guts, &c. be very diſtindly ſeen. Theſe ſeem the will recover its natural courſe with a great deal of rapidity. A beſt ways of preſerving tranſparent objects; but the opake ones, due conſideration of theſe particulars may poſſibly account for ſuch as feeds, woods, &c. require a very different treatment, the interiniſlions, ſtarts, and irregularities, in the pulſe of per- and are beſt preſerved and viewed in the following manner : fons near death. Baker's Microſcope, p. 136. Cut cards into flips about half an inch long, and a tenth of | EXPLANATION of the PLATES ON MICROSCOPIC an inch broad; wet theſe half way of their length in ġum- OBJECTS. PLATÉ I. water, and with that faſten on ſeveral pieces of the object, and Fig. 1. The Hydra Griſea Polype is about three-fourths of as the ſpots of cards are of different colours, ſuch ſhould be cho an inch when ſtretched out; ſome are found an inch and a half ſen for every obje&tas are the moſt different from its own colours. | long. It can be made to contract itſelf either by touching, or Theſe are very convenient for viewing by the microſcope made agitating the water in which it is contained. It contracts itſelf for opake objects with the ſilvered ſpeculum; but they are pro- ſo much when taken out of the water, as to appear only as a per for any microſcope that can view opake bodies. lump of jelly. It can contract or extend its arms without ex- Great caution muſt be uſed in forming a judgment on what tending or contracting its body, or the body without making any is ſeen by the microſcope, if the objects are extended or con alterations in the arms: or it can contract or dilate only ſome of tracted by force or dryneſs. Nothing can be determined about the arms independent of the reſt; it can alſo bend the body and them, without making the proper allowances; and different arms in all pollible directions. lights and poſitions will often ſhew the ſame object very diffe Fig. 2. The Hydra Polype repreſented in this figure, is rent from itſelf. There is no advantage in any greater magnifier, with its arms hanging down, making different turns and returns, than ſuch is capable of fhewing the object in view diſtinct often directing ſome of them back again to the top of the water. ly; and the leſs the glaſs magnifies, the more pleaſantly the ob It can alſo dilate the body at different places, ſometimes at one ject is always ſeen. The colours of objects are very little to part, and then again at another; ſometimes they are thick ſet be depended on, as ſeen by the microſcope; for the ſeveral com with folds, which, if careleſsly viewed, might be taken for rings. ponent particles being by this means removed to great diſtances Fig. 3. A Polype fufpended in the water by a piece of pack- from one another, may give reflections very different from what thread, a millipedes ſeized by it, and drawn towards its mouth they would, if ſeen by the naked eye. by one of its arms, while another is employed in ſeizing a ſmall The motions of living creatures alſo, or of the fluids con- aquatic infect. tained in their bodies, are by no means to be haſtily judged of, Fig. 4. Repreſents a Polype engaged with a very large worm. from what we ſee by the microſcope, without due conlideration; Fig. 6. Repreſents a Polype that has ſwallowed a ſmall fiſh, for as the moving body, and the ſpace wherein it moves, are and taken the thape of it. magnified, the motion muſt be ſo too; and therefore that rapi Fig. 7. Is a Polype that has ſwallowed a worm, which from dity with which the blood ſeems to paſs through the veitels of its tranſparency may be diſtinctly ſeen in this figure. The worm ſmall animals muſt be judged of accordingly. Baker's Micro- is at firit macerated in the ſtomach of the Polype, and when the ſcope, p. 52. 62. nutritious juices are ſeparated from it, the remainder is diſcharged The frog affords the curious in microſcopic obſervations, aby the mouth. It is with theſe as with other voracious animals, as very beautiful view of the circulation of the blood; but the they eat a great deal at once, ſo alſo they canfaſt for a long time: method of examining it to advantage was never hit upon till the hiſtory of infects furniſhes us many examples of this kind. the contrivance of the late ingenious Dr. Stuart for that purpoſe. Fig. 8. Repreſents the Hydra viridis Polype adhering to the This he did by the ſolar microſcope in the following manner. common pond weed. The arms of this polype are feldom The looking glaſs, tube, and convex lens, are the ſame in this | longer than their bodies. as in the common ſolar microſcope; but inſtead of the litile Fig. 5. From this figure of the Hydra Polype the reader may pocket microſcope of Wilſon, he uſed the belly-part of the form an idea of the promptitude with which theſe creatures in- common large reflecting one, fixed horizontally on a pedeſtal, creaſe and multiply; the whole groupe formed by the parent juſt at an equal height with the tube. This ſtands on a little and its young was about an inch and an half long, and one inch ihelf made to ſupport it; and to its ſnout, which lies on a level broad, the arms of the mother and her nineteen little ones hang- with the tube, the magnifiers are ſcrewed: the object being ex ing down towards the bottom of the veſſel: the animal would tended and faſtened with ſtrings and pins on a frame contrived eat about twelve monoculi per day, and the little ones about for that purpoſe, is applied between the tube and the magnifier, twenty among them, or rather more than thirty for the groupe. whereby the ſun's rays, reflected from the looking-glaſs, through Of the Re-production of Polypes. the tube, upon the object, paſs on through the magnifier, and A Polype cut tranſverſely or longitudinally in two or three exhibit upon the ſcreen an image of the object molt prodigiouſly parts is not deſtroyed; each part becomes in a little time a per- enlarged. Baker's Microf. p. 132. fe&t Polype. This ſpecies of fecundity is ſo great in theſe ani- To view a frog with this apparatus, the ſkin of the belly is to mals, that even a ſmall portion of their ſkin will become a little be opened from near the anus to the throat, and then giving it a Polype; a new animal riſing as it were from the ruins of the little ſnip fide-ways both at the top and bottom, and ſticking a old, each ſmall fragment yielding a Polype. If the young ones fish-hook into each corner of the ſkin, it was eaſily extended be are mutilated while they grow upon the parent, the mutilated fore the microſcope, and ſhewed on the ſcreen the moſt beauti- parts are re-produced : the ſame changes ſucceed alſo in the pa- ful view imaginable of the veins and arteries of the ſkin, with rent: A truncated portion will put forth young before it is per- the blood circulating through them. In the arteries thus viewed, fectly formed itſelf, or has acquired its new head and tail : fome- the blood is ſeen to Itop and recede a little at every pulſation by times the head of the young one ſupplies the place of that the dilatation, and ruih forcibly on again by the contraction of which would which would grow out of the anterior part of the trunk. I If O Microscropical Objects in the Animal Kingdom Magnifico. O 7 3 2 Fig.1. DVC le P Your 10. 13 Hydra or Polypres 1/ 12 SA 17 Weiret, 24 20 21 22 23 20 27 20 31 10 孝​三 ​Wieel, bucetas 10 ( 9 culos 4 5 c 16 funt 13 olo MIC M I C appears in up If a Polype is flit, beginning at the head, and proceeding to the arms project, they bend rather outwards. The plume which the middle of the body, a Polype will be formed with two heads, they form gives them a reſemblance to ſome fowers. The and will eat at the ſame time with both. If the Polype is flit arms may be compared, from their firmneſs and tranſparency, to into fix or ſeven parts, it becomes an hydra, with ſix or ſeven very fine threads of glaſs. heads. If theſe are again divided, we all have one with four- The plumed Polype is very voracious, devouring a great teen; cut off theſe, and as many new ones will ſpring up in number of ſmall animals. The arms, when obſerved atten- their place, and the heads thus cut off will become new Polypes, tively with the microſcope, will be found to bend from moment of which ſo many new Hydras may again be formed: ſo that to moment within-ſide of the plume, and then riſe up again; in every reſpect it exceeds the fabulous relation of the Lernean then another performs the ſame: thus by the continued mo- Hydra. tion of its arms, it puts the water into violent agitation, and As if the wonders already related of the Polype were not ſuf- brings into its mouth the food whereby it is nouriſhed. ficient to engage our attention to theſe fingular animals, new Fig. 10. The Vorticella Umbellaria, with ciliated globous marked circumſtances, as ſurprizing as the foregoing, preſent them florets, and an umbellated ſtem ; we often find in divers places, felves to convince us of the imperfections of our ideas of ani upon water, plants, and other bodies in water, a whitiſh ſub- mality, and of the greatneſs of the power of the Creator, who ſtance, that looks like mould; plants, pieces of wood, ſnail is the fource and origin of every degree of life, in all its im ſhells, &c. are often entirely covered with theſe ſubſtances, and menſe gradations, as unity is the origin of number, in all its often ſo united as to form together a ſort of branches or cluſters, varied ſeries, multiplied proportions and combinations: now as from whence they have been termed cluſtering Polypes. numbers may be conſidered as being recipient of unity, in order The length of thoſe repreſented in this figure is about the to make manifeſt its wonderful powers; fo the univerſe and its 240th part of an inch; they are of a bell-ſhape. The anterior parts are adapted to receive life from the ſource of all life, and part, as in fig. 11, generally appears open; the poſterior part is thus become repreſentatives of his immenſity and eternity. fixed to a ſtem or pedicle; it is by the extremity of this pedicle The Polypes may be as it were grafted together. If the trun that the vorticella fixes itſelf to any ſubſtance. It cated portions of a Polype are placed end to end, and then the microſcope of a browniſh colour, except at the bottom, where puſhed together with a gentle force, they will unite and form a it is tranſparent, as well as the whole pedicle. When the broad ſingle one. The union is firſt made by a ſingle thread, and the part is open, a very lively motion may be perceived about its portions are diſtinguiſhed by a narrow neck, which gradually | edges; and when it preſents itſelf in a particular manner, fome- fills and diſappears, the food paſſing from one portion to ano thing very much reſembling the little wheels of a mill, moving ther. Portions not only of the fame, but pieces of different with great velocity, may be diſcovered on both ſides the edges Polypes, may be thus united together. You may fix the head of this broad part. of one Polype to the trunk of another; and that which is thus Fig. 12. repreſents two Vorticellæ joined by their poſterior produced, will grow, eat, and multiply like another, extremity to one pedicle; ſoon after the diviſion, each vorticella There is ſtill another method of uniting theſe animals toge- begins to ſhew a pedicle of its own. ther, more wonderful in its nature, and leſs analogous to any Fig. 10. repreſents a cluſter of eight Vorticellæ; by this known principles of animation, and more difficult to perform. figure we may form ſome idea in what manner the pedicles are It is effected by introducing one within another, forcing the body diſpoſed as their number increaſes. There were at firſt only of one in the mouth of the other, and puſhing it down ſo that two that proceeded from the centre of the figure, and then divi- their heads may be brought together. In this ſtate it muſt be ded into four; and as they branched upwards, they then divided kept for ſome time: the two individuals are at laſt united, and into eight. grafted into each other; and the Polype, which was at firſt Fig. 13. Vorticella Pyraria, is ſomewhat of a pear ſhape; double, is converted into one, with a large quantity of arms, the baſe is pellucid; the top truncated; the lateral arms, whichi and performs all its functions like another. are a pair on each ſide, cannot be diſtinguiſhed without ſome at- The Irydra fuſca furniſhes us with another prodigy, to which tention; they are ſometimes to be ſeen diſengaged from the we know nothing that is ſimilar, either in the animal or vegeta- pedicle, and rolling ſwiftly in a kind of circle. ble kingdom. They may be turned inſide out like a glove, and Fig. 14. Hydra Socialis. This ſpecies of Hydra has been de- notwithſtanding the improbability of the circumitance, they ſcribed by many writers. In this Figure, theſe animals are re- live and act as before. The lining or coating of the ſtomach, preſented as conſiderably magnified; they appear like a circle, and the former epidermis, now conſtitutes the coating of the furrounded with crowns, or ciliated heads, tied by ſmall thin ftomach. tails to a common centre, from whence they advance towards Fig. 9. Tubularia Campanulata, the bell-flowered, or plumed. the circumference, where they turn like a wheel, with a great animal. Theſe little creatures dwell in colonies together, from deal of vivacity and ſwiftneſs, till they occaſion a kind of whirl- ten to fifteen in number, living in a kind of ſlimy mucilaginous pool, which brings into its ſphere the proper food for the Polype. caſe, which, when expanded in the water, has ſome reſemblance When one of them has been in motion for a time, it ſtops, and to a bell with its mouth upwards. Theſe bells or colonies are to another begins. Sometimes two or three may be perceived in be found adhering to the large leaves of duck-weed, and other motion together. They are often to be found ſeparate, with aquatic plants. the tail ficking in the mud. The body contracts and dilates The bell or caſe, which theſe animals inhabit, being very very much, ſo as ſometimes to have the appearance of a cudgel, tranſparent, all the motions of its inhabitants may be diſcerned at others to aſſume almoſt a globular form. The young Polypes diſtinctly through it. There are ſeveral ramifications, or ſmaller of this ſpecies have been ſometimes taken for the Hydra Sten- bells, proceeding from the larger ones; in each of theſe there torea. Hist is an inhabitant. The opening at the top of theſe bells are juſt Fig. 15. Vorticella Anaſtatica. Theſe Polypes form a groupe large enough for the creature's head-and a ſmall part of its body reſembling a cluſter, or more properly an open flower. This to be thruit out from it, the reſt remaining in the caſe, into flower, or cluſter, is ſupported by a ſtem, which is fixed by its which it alſo draws the head on the leaſt alarm. lower extremity to ſome of the aquatic plants, or extraneous Beſides the particular and ſeparate motions which each of theſe bodies that are found in water; the upper extremity forms itſelf creatures is able to exert within its caſe, and independent of the into eight or nine lateral branches perfectly ſimilar to each other; reft, the whole colony has a power of altering the poſition of theſe have alſo ſubordinate branches, whoſe collective form much the bell, and removing it from one place to another. Theſe reſembles that of a leaf. Every one of theſe aſſemblages is animalcula ſeemn not to like to dwell in ſocieties whoſe number compoſed of one principal branch or nerve, which makes the exceeds fifteen; when the colony happens to encreaſe in num main ſtem of the cluſter an angle, ſomewhat greater than a right ber, the bell may be obſerved to ſplit gradually, beginning from one; from both ſides of this nerve the finaller lateral branches about the middle of the upper extremity, and proceeding down- proceed; theſe are ſhorter the nearer their origin is to the prin- wards towards the bottom, till they at laſt ſeparate, and become cipal branch. two colonies independent of each other. no At the extremity of the principal branch, and alſo of all the The arms are very near each other, ſixty may often be counted lateral ones, there is a Polype or Vorticella. There are others in one plume, having each the figure of an Italic S, one of on both ſides of the lateral twigs, but at different diſtances from whoſe hooked ends are faſtened to the head; and altogether, their extremity. Theſe Polypes are all exceeding ſmall, and of when expanded, compoſe a figure ſomewhat like a horſe-fhoe. a bell-like figure: near their mouth a quick motion may be diſ- When the arms are thus extended, the creature, by giving them cerned, though not without a fufficient diſtinctneſs to convey a vibratory motion, can produce a current in the water, which an adequate idea of its cauſe, and upon the branches of theſe brings the animalcula, and other minute bodies that are floating 1 cluſters are round bodies, which will be hereafter mentioned. near it, into its mouth, ſituated between the arms. The food, Each of theſe branches is bent a little inwards, ſo that all of if agreeable to the creature, is ſwallowed, if not, it is rejected them taken together form a kind of ſhallow cup. If the eye by a contrary motion. As the ſkin is tranſparent, the animal is placed right over the baſe of this appearance of the may be ſeen every way plain when it has retired within the tube. whole eight or nine branches is like unto that of a ſtar, with ſo The body is about one eighth of an inch long, without reckon many rays proceeding from the centre; if the cluſter is ſlightly ing the plume. It is cylindrical, and the ſkin is very tranſparent. touched, all the branches inſtantly fold up, and form a ſmalt The plume is only a continuation of this tranſparent ſkin; it round maſs. The ſtem which ſupports the cluſter contracts alſo is very broad in proportion to the body, and of a remarkable at the ſame time, folding up, like a workman's meaſuring rule, figure; the baſe is of the ſhape of an horſeſhoe ; from this baſe) that conſiſts of three of four joints. This extraordinary affem- No. 106. VOL. III. blage cup, the 7 M M I C MIC o to the fo a blage conſtitutes one organized whole, formed of a multitude nature; and to ſee that the little we diſcover is but an exceeding of ſimilar and particular ones. A new ſpecies of ſociety, in ſmall part of her contents. of her contents. We learn alſo to be more cautious which all the individuals are members of each other in the ſtrict in reaſoning from analogy, and laying down the known for a eſt ſenfe, and all participate of the ſame life. model to the unknown, becauſe we find that the operations in A few days after one of theſe cluſters is formed, ſmall round nature are varied ad infinitum. The growth of the Hydra Fuſca is bodies or bulbs may be perceived to protrude in ſeveral places very quick; but that of the Hydra Stentorea is much more ſo. from the body of the branch; theſe grow very faſt, and arrive The progreſs of the fætus is always more rapid than that of the at their greateſt growth in two or three days. The bulbs detach infant and adult animal; but in theſe organized atoms, the evo- themſelves from the branches out of which they ſpring, and go lution is ſo rapid, as to appear almoſt like an immediate creation. away, ſwimming, till they can ſettle upon ſome ſúbitance. Mr. Fig. 22. repreſents the Hydra Stentorea, or funnel Polype, Trembley obſerved from one round bulb, in about twenty-four fixed to the upper ſide of a piece of ſome vegetable ſubſtance; hours, by repeated diviſions, one hundred and ten vorticella to they are in this figure of their natural fize. be formed. Fig. 19. The ſame Polype magnified; the different forms Fig. 25. repreſents one of the globular bodies after it has they aſſume are alſo ſeen here, ſometimes ſhort and thick, as in parted from the cluſter, and has fixed itfelf to ſome other body, fig. 23. ſometimes nearly globular, as in fig. 24. extended and after the globule itſelf and its pedicle have begun to to the full ſize, as in the upper part of fig. 19. lengthen.d to the Vorticella Urceolaris. Fig. 16. Vorticella Digitalis. This ſpecies of the Vorticella Fig. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31. This animal has been ſeen is very ſcarce ; it ſeems only to have been ſeen by Roeſel, who and deſcribed by moſt microſcopical writers; but as Mr. Baker found it on the monoculus quadricornis, till 1784, when it was ſeems to us to be the moſt perfect, we ſhall principally follow diſcovered by Mr. Muller, who had fought for it ſeveral years his account of it. He diſcovered three ſpecies of them; two of before in vain. them, which are under the Vorticella Urceolaris, fig. 26, 27, Fig. 17. Vorticella Opercularia. Theſe vorticelle are of a 28, are of the firſt fpecies; fig. 29, 30, 31, are of the ſecond lemon ſhape, and are generally found in cluſters, branching ſpecies. The firſt fort, when extended, is about twice as long out from a ſtem, which moſtly adheres to ſome convenient ſub as it is broad. It is contained in a ſhell; the fore part of this is ſtance. That ſpecies of them deſcribed by Mr. Baker had a armed with four ſharp teeth or points; the oppoſite ſide has no very ſhort pedicle, and theſe animals were much longer than teeth, but is waved or bent in two places, like the form of thoſe repreſented in this figure. The mouths of theſe animalcula Turkiſh bow. At the bottom there is a hole, through which are not ciliated, but they are furnithed with a round operculum, paſſes the tail. It faſtens itſelf by this tail to another convenient or cover, connected by a long ligament, or muſcle, which ex ſubſtance, when it intends to uſe its rotatory organs; but when tends downwards through the body, and is affixed within fide of it is floating in the water, and at all times, when not adhering to it, near the tail. The ligament may be contracted or dilated, any body, it wags the tail backwards and forwards, ſomething fo that the cover may be removed to ſome diſtance from the like a dog mouth: in this ſituation ſeveral ſhort hairs may be found to The form and ſituation of the two branches is ſometimes radiate from it: theſe have a vibratory motion, by which they changed ; the ends thereof becoming more round, the vibratory excite a current of water, moſt probably to draw a proper motion is altered to a rotatory one ; this alteration is repreſented nouriſhment, after which they ſhut or pull down the cover, at fig. 27 ; the head alſo appears in this figure. The thorax is which they again extend at pleaſure; when the cover is pulled annexed to the lower part of the head ; it is muſcular ; within it cloſe down, the mouth contracts, and no hairs are to be ſeen. there is a moving inteſtine, which has been ſuppoſed to be either Fig. 18. Vorticella Cratægaria. The figure repreſents a parcel the lungs or the heart of the little creature. of theſe vorticellæ united together. Theſe animals are to be When the water in which this little animal is placed is nearly. found in the month of April, both in the head and upon the dried away, or when it has a deſire to compoſe itſelf to reft, it tail of the monoculus quadricornis; they are generally heaped contracts the head and fore part of the body, and brings them together in the manner they are repreſented in the figure ; they down into the ſhell, and pulls the tail upwards, ſo that the are of a ſpherical form, and united to one common ſtalk. They whole of this minute creature is contained within the ſhell. are alſo often to be found without any pedicle; the body is ra See fig. 28. The ſhell is ſo tranſparent that the terminations ther contracted; the aperture is circular and ſurrounded with a cannot be eaſily diftinguiſhed when the animal is extended; but marked margin; it has two ſmall arms; with a deep magnifier, whatever is tranſacted within the ſhell, is as plain as if there a vehement rotatory may be ſeen; they ſometimes ſeparate was no ſubſtance between the eye and the interior parts. from the community, and go forwards in a kind of ſpiral line, Fig. 29, 30, 31, exhibit the appearance of another ſpecies and then in a little time come back again to the reſt. of theſe animals, which differ from the foregoing kind. This Among the other authorities for this animal, M. Linnæus fpecies has alſo a head, a thorax, and abdomen. Like the refers to Mr. Baker's deſcription of the inulberry inſect. “Em other ſpecies, it draws the head and tail within the ſhell, which ployment for the Microſcope," page 348, which, as it differs a then appears to have ſix teeth or ſpikes on one ſide, and two on little from the preceding account, we ſhall infert here. That the other: it very ſeldom protrudes its head ſo far out as the from which his drawing was made, and which he has de other; ſometimes the fimbrillæ may be ſeen within the margin fcribed, was found in a ditch near Norwich; he called it the of the ſhell. mulberry infe&, from the reſemblance it bore to that fruit; Both ſpecies carry their young in an oval integument or bag, though the protuberances that ſtand out round it are more globu- faſtened externally to the lower part of the thell, ſomewhere lar than thoſe of a mulberry. It is to be ſeen rolling about about the tail; theſe bags are ſometimes opake at one end, and from one place to another, and is propably a congeries of ani- ſeemingly empty at the other : ſee fig. 27: ſometimes the mid- malcula. They are to be met with in different numbers of dle is opake, with a tranſparent margin; ſee fig. 29. knobs or protuberances, ſome having fifty or fixty, others more It is highly entertaining to ſee a young one burſt its integu- or leſs, down to four or five. The manner of moving is the ſame ment, and gradually force its way out: in performing this ope- in all . They are generally of a pale colour. ration, it is much aſliſted by the motion of the tail of the pa- Fig. 19. Hydra Stentorea. This ſpecies of hydra is very rent. The head comes out firit; it then ſets its rotatory organ common, and has been deſcribed by almoſt every writer on theſe in motion, by which it is completely diſengaged, leaving the ſubjects. They are named by Mr. Baker, and Mr. Trembley, integument behind, which the vorticella freed itſelf from, by the funnel-like Polype. There are three ſpecies of them, which repeated ſtrokes with its tail. A young one almoſt diſengaged are of different colours, green, blue, and white. The white is ſeen at the bottom of the right ſide of fig. 31; another ones are the moſt common. It is neceſſary to obſerve them embryo is ſeen at the bottom of the left ſide of the ſame figure. often, and in various attitudes, in order to obtain a tolerable idea of their ſtructure. They do not form cluſters, but adhere TRICHODA, OR WHEEL INSECTS. ſingly by their tail to whatever comes in their way; their ante A genus of animalcules, which have an apparatus of arms for rior end is wider than their poſterior, and being round, gives the taking their prey. This apparatus has been ſuppoſed, by animal ſomewhat of a funnel form. The edge of this opening microſcopical writers, to be a kind of wheels. is furniſhed with a great number of fimbrillæ, which by their The wheel-animal, deſcribed by Mr. Baker, has two ſeem- briſk and continual motion excite a current of water; the ſmall ing wheels, with a great many teeth or notches, coming from bodies that float or ſwim near the current, are forced by it into its head, and turning round as it were on an axis. On the leaſt the mouth of the little animal. Mr. Trembley ſays, that he touch, this animalcule draws its wheel into its body into the has often ſeen a number of very ſmall animalcula fall one after ſheath ; but when every thing is quiet, throws them out, and another into the mouth, ſome of which were afterwards let out works them again. again at another opening, which he was not able to deſcribe. In order to find theſe animalcules, chooſe fuch roots of duck- They can faſhion their mouths into ſeveral different forms. If weed as are long, and proceed from ſtrong old plants, for the any thing touches them they fhrink back, and contract them- young roots ſeldom afford any; they ſhould not be covered with ſelves. They live independent of each other, ſwimming freely that rough matter which is frequently found about them, nor through the water in ſearch of their eir prey, and fix to any thing any way tending to decay, as they will often be. they meet with. In the water found remaining in the leaden pipes or gutters From the various methods by which different ſpecies of Poly on the tops of houſes, there are alſo found great numbers of theſe pes are multiplied, we are led to form more exhalted ideas of wheel animals. Theſe are of a different ſpecies from the for- ز ier; MIC MIC mer; and when the water dries away, they contract their bodies Mr. Baker to call it the hair-like inſect. As no eyes can be diſ- into a globular or oval figure, and are then of a reddiſh colour, cerned, it is difficult to judge which is the head or tail. All its and remain mixed with the dirt, growing together in a lump as motions are extremely flow, and require much patience and at- hard as clay. This, whenever it is put in water, in half an tention in the obſerver. It has neither feet, nor fins, nor hairs; hour's time diſcovers the animals' living again, and as briſk as but appears perfectly ſmooth and tranſparent, with the head ever; and they have been found to be living in this manner, bending one way, and the tail another, ſo as to be like a long after the matter had been kept dry twenty months. Ho Italic ſ; nor is any internal motion, or particular opake part, It ſhould ſeem from this, that as the water dries up, their to be perceived, which may determine one to ſuppoſe it the pores become fhut in the manner of thoſe of ſuch animals as ſtomach, or other of the inteſtines. remain torpid for the winter ; and that when they find water Theſe creatures are ſo ſmall, that millions of millions might come on again from rain, they then unfold themſelves, and be contained in an inch ſquare. When viewed fingly, or ſepa- live and feed as long as it laſts. Baker's Microſcope, p. 91. rated from one another, they are exceedingly tranſparent, and of a There are ſeveral ſpecies of this genus. lovely green ; but, like all other tranſparent bodies, when numbers Fig. I and 5: Trichoda Charon. The body is oval. It re of them are brought together they become opake, and loſe their ſembles a boat both in ſhape and motion, the upper part hol green colour in proportion as the quantity increaſes, till at laſt lowed, the under part furrowed and convex, the itern round, they appear entirely black. Notwithſtanding the extreme mi- with ſeveral hairs projecting from it. Several hairs may alſo be nuteneſs of theſe animalcula, they ſeem to be fond of ſociety; ſeen in one ſide. It is found in ſalt water. Near the middle of for on viewing for ſome time a parcel of them taken up at ran- the left ſide of fig. 5 is a pellucid bubble, that is ſometimes to be dom, they will be ſeen to diſperſe themſelves in a kind of regu- feen. lar order. If a multitude of them are put in a jar of water, Fig. 2. Trichoda Cyllidium. Pellucid, replete with globules of they will form themſelves into a regular body, and aſcend different ſizes in the hind extremity, the fore-part narrower, lowly to the top ; where, after having remained ſome time ex- without any footſteps of an external organ. poſed to the air, their green colour changes to a beautiful ſky- Fig. 3. Trichoda Pulex. With an inciſion in the fore-part; With an inciſion in the fore-part; blue: when they are weary of this ſituation, they form them- the front and the baſe hairy. ſelves into a kind of rope: a ſmall quantity of the matter con- Fig. 4. Trichoda Vermicularis . Long cylindrical Trichoda, taining theſe creatures, having been put into a jar of water, it with a ſhort neck; the apex hairy. Gelatinous; the fore-part ſo happened, that one part went down immediately to the bot- pellucid, the hind part full of molecules. It was found in tom, whilit the other continued floating on the top: after ſome river water. It is repreſented in different appearances in the time, each of theſe ſwarms of animalcula began to grow.weary figure. of its ſituation, and had a mind to change its quarters. Both Fig. 6. Trichoda Melitea. Oblong ciliated Trichoda, with armies, therefore, ſet out at the ſame time, the one proceeding a dilatable neck, the apex globular, and ſurrounded with hairs; upwards, and the other downwards ; ſo that after ſome hours the edge is ciliated, and a kind of peristaltic motion may be journey they met in the middle. A defire of knowing how they perceived. It is very rarely found, and even then in ſalt would behave on this occaſion, engaged the obſerver to watch water. them carefully; and to his ſurpriſe, he ſaw the army that was Fig. 7. Kerona Cypris. This animaculum is compreſſed, marching upwards open to the right and left, to make room for and ſomewhat in a pear ſhape; the fore-part broad and blunt; thoſe that were deſcending. Thus, without confufion, or in- the front is furniſhed with ſhort hairs, or little vibrating points termixture, each held on its way; the army that was going up inſerted under the edge; the motion is retrograde. It is found marching in two columns to the top, and the other proceeding in water which is covered with lemna. in one column to the bottom; as if each had been under the Fig. 8. Kerona Patella. With one valve, or obicular, cry- direction of wife leaders. ftalline, the fore-part ſomewhat notched; the fleſhy body lies Fig. 6. Trichoda Sol. This ſplendid creature conſtitutes a in the middle of the ſhell ; above and below are hairs or horns peculiar genus. It is a little cryſtalline round corpuſcle, the of different lengths jutting out beyond the ſhell, and acting in- upper part convex: it is beſet with innumerable diverging rays, ſtead of feet and oars. which are longer than the body, proceeding from every part of Fig. 9. Kerona Vannus. Oval and rather flat Kerona; one its furface: in the inſide are ſimilar molecules. The body con- edge bent, the oppoſite edge ciliated. tracts and dilates itſelf, the animalculum remaining confined to Fig. 10. Trichoda Muſculus, a ſmooth animalculum, the the ſame ſpot. It was found in water which had been kept for fore-part narrow and furniſhed with thort hairs, that are conti three weeks. nually playing about; underneath the hind-part is a ſmall tail. Fig. 7. Anguillula Glutinis, or Paſte Eel. Theſe eels are in It is furniſhed with molecular entrails, and moves ſlowly. It general of a large ſize, and may be ſeen with a common mag- is found in infuſions of hay, which have been kept for ſome nifying glaſs, being about one thirtieth of an inch in length, months. and one hundred and fortieth broad. This figure repreſents ANIMALCULA. one of them magnified about one hundred and twenty times; Fig. 1. This is the fame animalculum which was dignified they are in general of a bright cheſnut colour, and the extremity by Mr. Baker with the name of Proteus, on account of its is whiter and more tranſparent than the reſt of the body. aſſuming a great number of different ſhapes, ſo as ſcarce to be The principal phanomena of blighted wheat is probably known for the the fame animal in its various transformations; owing to theſe animalcula, which prevent the regular circulation and indeed, unleſs it be carefully watched while paſſing from one of the fap. They increaſe in their ſize in a certain proportion ſhape to another, it will often become ſuddenly inviſible. to the plant, ſo that at laſt they may be obſerved with great eaſe When water, wherein any forts of vegetables have been in- by the naked eye, being two tenths of an inch long, and nearly fuſed, or animals preſerved, has ſtood quietly for ſome days, or one tenth in diameter. weeks, in any glaſs or other veffel, a ſlimy ſubſtance will be A moſt fatisfactory view of theſe eels is obtained by examin- collected about the ſides; ſome of which being taken up with ing them with the ſolar microſcope; it affords one of the moſt the point of a pen-knife, placed on a ſlip of glaſs, in a drop of ſurprizing and magnificent ſpectacles: two generations may be water, and viewed through a microſcope, will be found to ħar often ſeen; one which draws near the allotted period of its bour ſeveral kinds of little animals that are ſeldom ſeen ſwim exiſtence; and another which only begins to enjoy the bleſſings ming about at large. The inſect we are treating of is one of of life. Some arrive at their full growth, others are quite theſe, and was diſcovered in ſuch ſlime-like matter taken from ſmall, &c. In ſome we may perceive the young animalcula in the ſide of a glaſs jar, in which ſmall fiſhes, water ſnails, and other motion in the eggs, in others no ſuch motion can be obſerved; creatures had been kept. with a variety of other circumſtances too tedious to enumerate, Fig. 2. Enchelis Truncus. This is the largeſt of this kind though they afford great pleaſure to the ſpectator. of animalcula ; the body is cylindrical, mucoſe, grey, long, One of the moſt remarkable circumſtances in theſe animalcula and rather opake; the fore-part globular, the hind-part obtuſe. is the faculty they have of receiving again the powers of life, Something like three teeth may be ſometimes ſeen to proceed after having loſt them for a confiderable time; for inſtance, from one of the ſides; it can alter its ſhape conſiderably. Glo when ſome of theſe blighted grains, that have been preſerved bules of different ſizes may be ſeen within the body; it rolls for many years, have been foaked in water for ten or twelve about ſlowly from right to left. hours, you will find in it living eels of this fpecies; if the water FIGURES 3, 4, 5. Vibrio Paxilifer. This is a wonderful evaporates, or begins to fail, they ceaſe to move; but on a freſh animalculum, or rather a congeries of animalcula. It is in-application will be again revived. It may be proper to notice viſible to the naked eye, and conſiſts of a tranſparent mem- here, that according to the obſervations of M. Roffredi, thoſe brane, with yellow inteſtines, and two or three viſible points: eels which have done laying eggs are incapable of being reſuſci- they are generally found collected together in different par tated upon being moiſtened; the ſame ftems alſo to be the caſe cels, from ſeven to forty in number, and ranged in a variety of with thoſe that are very young; it is probable they muſt attain forms; fometimes in a ſtrait line, as in fig. 5. then forming the a certain age and degree of Itrength before they are endowed concave fig. 3. at others moving in a zig-zag direction, as in fig. 4. with this wonderful faculty. When at reſt they are generally in a quadrangular form, and Fig. 8. Trichoda Orbis, is orbicular, ſmooth and pellucid, a found in great plenty with the ulva latiffima. This little animal little notched in the fore-part; the hairs, which are longer than is extremely ſlender, and nat uncommonly one hundred and fif uſual, occupy this inciſion; the reſt of the margin has no hairs: ty times longer than broad. Its reſemblance to an hair induced the whole is compoſed of veficular molecules. 1 MIC MIC water. 13 tig. io. Gonium Pectorale. Theſe fixteen little oval bodies | yellow line, and furniſhed with a croſs one of the ſame colour, are nearly equal in ſize, of a greeniſh colour, pellucid, and ſet near the head. The ſcutellum is yellow; the abdomen black, with in a quadrangular membrane, like the jewels in the breaſt plate two yellow bands, and a ſpot of the ſame colour on each ſide be- of the high prieſt, reflecting light on both ſides. Its animality tween the bands. A deep poliſhed groove extends down the back is evinced by its fpontaneous motion, advancing alternately to from the thorax to the anus, into which the ſting turns and is de- wards the right and left: theſe little bodies feem oval when in poſited, leaving the anus very circular. A yellow line runs on motion, round when at reſt; the four interior ones are a little each ſide the ſting. The anus and the whole body, when viewed larger than the reſt. Found in pure with a ſhallow magnifier, appear punctuated: theſe points, Fig. 11. Vorticella Polypina. Compound Vorticella, trun when examined in the microſcope, appear hexagonal, and in cated with a bending, branching ſtalk. When viewed with a the center of each hexagon a ſmall hair is to be ſeen. The ſmall magnifier, they appear like ſo many little trees; the upper feet are yellow with black fpots. The inſect is found in Italy, part or heads are egg ſhaped, the top truncated, the lower part Switzerland, France and Germany. The principal Figure in hilled with inteſtines; the branches are thick fet with little the Plate ſhews this beautiful inſect very much magnified: above knobs. it is the object of its real ſize. Fig. 12. Kolpoda Cucullus. It is very pellucid, with a well Fig. 2. Chryſomela Aſparagi. This common, though elegant, defined margin, filled with little bright veſicles, differing in infect of the Coleoptera claſs, is repreſented as ſeen in the number and ſize. The figure of the moſt part is oval, the top lucernal microſcope, and in its naturaļ fize. It is called by bent into a kind of an obtuſe beak, ſeldom an acute one, but Linnæus, Chryſomela Aſparagi, from the larva feeding on the ſometimes oblong. Its inteſtines are formed of from eight to leaves of that plant. Its figure is oblong, the antenna black, twenty-four bright little veſicles, theſe are not conſpicuous in compoſed of many joints nearly oval. The head is a bright their young ones; fome have ſuppoſed that there were animal but deep blue, the thorax red and cylindrical, the elytra blue, cula that had been ſo allowed by the Kolpoda; but Mr. Muller with a yellow margin, with three ſpots of the ſame colour on thinks they are of the offspring of the Kolpoda. In fome, only each, one at the baſe of an oblong form, and two united with one cryſtalline veſicle occupies the middle of the body. When the margin. The legs are black; but the under ſide of the bel- the water is almoſt exhaled, and death nigh, it moves more ly is of the ſame colour with the elytra and head. This little flowly than uſual, and protrudes its offspring with violence. It animal, when viewed by the naked eye, ſcarcely appears to de- inoves in general with great vivacity and in all directions. It ſerve any notice; but when examined by the microſcope, is one is found in infuſions of vegetables and in fætid hay. of the moſt pleaſing opake objects we have. This inſect is Fig. 13, 14, 16. Vorticella Polymorpha. Many ſhaped vor found in June on the aſparagus, after it has run to ſeed. ticella, green, opake. To the naked eye it appears as a moſt Fig. 3. Pediculus, or Louſe. Various as are the antipathies agile green point: when viewed by the microſcope, it puts on of mankind, all ſeem to unite in their diſlike to this animal, and every moment fo many and ſuch various forms, that they can to regard it as their natural and moſt nauſeous enemy. “When- neither be exhibited to the eye by drawing, nor deſcribed by ever wretchedneſs, diſeaſe, and hunger, ſeize upon man, the words: it is truly one of the wonders of nature, aſtoniſhing the louſe feldom fails to add itfelf to the tribe, and to increaſe in mind, fatiguing the eye, and exciting the admiration of the proportion to the number of his calamities." ſpectator. The figures repreſent it in three different forms: When the human louſe is examined by the microſcope, its is the fore part; 14 the hind part; and 16 the fore part deformity fills us with diſguſt. In the head we may diſtinguiſh turned in or doubled. The body is granulous; a ſeries of pel two fine black eyes; near this are the two antennæ; the fore lucid points is ſometimes to be obſerved. part of the head is rather long; the hinder more obtuſe or round- Fig. 15. Vorticella Nafuta. This animalculum is invigible er; there is a ſmall part that projects from the noſe or ſnout; to the naked eye, but when it is armed with microſcopic lenſes, this ſerves as a ſheath or caſe to the proboſcis, which the crea- it appears curioully furniſhed with a rotatory organ, which en ture thruſts into the ſkin to draw out the blood and humours compaſſes the middle of the body. It is pellucid, cylindrical, which are its deſtined food; for it has no mouth that opens in of an unequal ſize, the fore part truncated, and ciliaied, and a the common way. triangular prominency in the middle of the aperture ; the hind This proboſcis has been eſtimated to be ſeven hundred times part obtuſe, a point on each ſide of the middle of the body. ſmaller than a hair, and is contained in another caſe within the This is the appearance of this little creature when in motion ; firſt, and can be drawn in or thruſt out at pleaſure; the ſkin is but when the water is nearly exhaled, ſome further parts of its hard and tranſparent. From the under fide proceed fix legs, ſtructure are rendered viſible : beſides the rotatory organ in the each of which has five joints, and terminates in two unequal anterior part, another is now diſcovered encompaſſing the mid hooked claws, as well as all over the legs; the body finiſhes in dle of the body; the hairs of this are in vehement motion. a cloven tail, which is generally covered and partly concealed There are other faſicles of moving hairs to be diſcovered at the by hairs. to faine time. The variegated and quick motion of this appa- From the extreme tranſparency of its ſkin, many of its inter- ratus, (more particularly if the animal is big with young, and nal parts may be ſeen, as the various ramifications of the veins moving at the ſame time within the mother,) fill the mind with and arteries, and the periſtaltic motions of the guts. When amazement. the louſe feeds, the blood is feen to ruſh like a torrent into the Fig. 17. Trichoda Cometa. Spherical, the fore part hairy, ſtomach; and its greedineſs is ſo great, that the excrement con- with an appendant globule. It is a pellucid globule, replete tained in the inteſtines is ejected at the ſame time, to make with bright inteſtines, the fore part furniſhed with hairs, the room for this new ſupply. There is ſcarce any animal that hind part with a pellucid appendant globule. multiplies ſo faſt as this unwelcome intruder; the moment it is Fig. 18. Trichoda Cimex. The body is oval, the back con excluded from the egg, it begins to breed. It would be end. vex; the belly flat; an inciſion in the edge of the fore part: leſs to deſcribe the various creatures which go under the name of the edges of this inciſion are ſeen to move. Its inteſtines are lice, and ſwarm upon every part of nature. The reader who pellucid. It both ſwims and walks. When it meets with wiſhes for a more particular account of thoſe which infeſt various obſtacles, four ſmall briſtles, which are fixed underneath, come animals, is referred to Rhedi's Treatiſe, De Generatione Infec- into view; theſe it uſes as feet. See LOUSE and PeDICULUS. Deſcription of PLATE II. which repreſents MICROSCOPIC OB Fig. 4. The Lobſter Infect. This extraordinary little crea- Jects in their natural Size, and as they appear when magnified. ture was found by a curious gentleman of Edmonton. He was PLATE II. Fig. I. Leucoſpis Dorfgera, mentioned in the at the New Inn, Waltham Abbey, where it was ſeen by ſome Plate as a nondeſcript Infect. This very beautiful and ſingular | labouring men who were drinking their ale. The man who inſect was firſt pointed out to Mr. Adams (from whom we are firſt perceived it thought it was of an unuſual form; this occa- favoured with the deſcription) by Mr. Marlham, who had ſeen fioned a nicer inſpection, and it was ſuppoſed to be a louſe with it in the cabinet of inſects belonging to the Queen, in the royal | unuſual long horns; others thought it was a mite. This oc- Obſervatory at Richmond. Her Majeſty was pleaſed to permit caſioned a debate, which drew the attention of the gentleman, Mr. Adams to have the drawing taken from it, from which who obtained the inſect from them for further obſervation. this Figure was engraved. When Mr. Marſham firſt ſaw Mr. Martin has given ſome account of it in the third Volume of it at Richmond, he conſidered it as an undefcribed inſect, and “ The Young Gentleman and Lady's Philofophy.” It appears an antique in this country. But he has ſince found that it is to be quite a diſtinct ſpecies from the phalangium cancroides of mentioded by Fabricius in his Syſtema Entomologiæ, as a new Linnæus, of which a good drawing has been given by Hook, genus, under the name of Leucolpis Dorſigera; and there is one Roeſel, Schafer, &c. not one however of the deſcriptions of theſe inſects in the cabinet of the celebrated Linnæus, now in agrees with the animal under conſideration. It is very proba- the poſſeſſion of T. E. Smith, M.D. F.R.S. ble that there are ſeveral ſpecies nearly fimilar. Mr. Marſham, It appears at firſt ſight like a waſp, to which genus the ſecretary to the Linnæan Society, who favoured us with a Sy- folded wings would have given it a place, had not the remark ſtem of Entomology, has two of theſe animals in his poffeffion, able ſting or tube on the back removed it from thence. It is one like the drawing of Reaumur; the other not to be diſtin- probably a ſpecies between and uniting the ſphex and waſp, in guiſhed from that repreſented in the Figure, except that it wants ſome degree partaking of the characters of both. The antennæ the beak or dent in the claws, which is ſo conſpicuous in this. are black and cylindrical, increaſing in thickneſs towards the Mr. Marſham found his fixed by its claws to the thighs of a extremity; the joint neareſt the head is yellow; the head is large fly, which he caught on a flower in Effex the firſt week in black; the thorax alſo is black, and encompasſed round with a Auguſt, and from which he could not diſengage it without great 4 difficulty, any torum. C'Microscoprir. Oljects of the Animal Kingdom in their natural wise ano's they appear when maquified . Fig.3. Fig. 4. Q0000 OOOOO роо ILLUM HRANEAMENTO LAWAT LUES TODO OOOO SD 0 0 0 OOOO The Pediculus or Lowe. The Lobster Insect. Fig.2. Chrysomela Asparagi. Fig:I. KO Fig:6. Fig.5. Valee Monocro, The Pulex or Flea Fig:7 Fig:8. TUS Edgar LE he HTM In Insect found on the Leaves of the Nutmeg Tree. Fig: 9. Black Trips with white wings, Fig:10. The Learts or Mile Anon descript Insect of the Hemiptera Clafs. Copied by permiſsion from JI" Idoms is Efsay on the Microscope, Published as the fet direcs brooke 13 Pater wortelew. Juny 14795 The Exulcerans or Itch M I C MIC difficulty, and tearing off the Ay's leg, which he did on a piece moving particles of duſt; but the microſcope diſcovers them to of writing paper, and was much ſurprized to ſee the little crea be perfect animals, having as regular a figure of performing ture ſpring forwards full a quarter of an inch, with great im all the functions of life, as perfectly as creatures that exceed petuolity, and again ſieze its prey, from which he had great dif them in bulk. Theſe little creatures may be kept alive many ficulty to diſengage it. months between two concave glaſſes, and applied to the micro- Fig. 5. Pulex, or Flea. The flea when examined by the ſcope at pleaſure. They are thus often ſeen in coitu, conjoined microſcope is not an unpleaſing object: it is difficult however tail to tail; and this is performed by an incredible ſwift motion. to obtain ſuch a view of it as will diſplay the mechaniſm and Their eggs are ſo ſmall, that a regular computation thews, that apparatus belonging to the head. The neck is long, and finely ninety millions of them are not ſo large as a common pigeon's arched, and much reſembles the tail of a lobſter. The body is egg. They are very voracious animals, and have often been covered all over with a ſuit of ſable armour, formed of a hard ſeen to eat one another. The mite is an animal very tenacious ſhelly ſubſtance, curiouſly joined and folded over one another, of life, and will live months without food. Mr. Lewenhoek and yet yielding to all the nimble motions of the little animal. had one which lived eleven weeks in a ſituation he had fixed it It has two ſharp eyes to look before it leaps; for which purpoſe for examining by his microſcope. For its repreſentation in a its legs are admirably adapted, for the joints are ſo conſtructed, magnified ſtate, ſee Plate II. that it can fold them up, and when it leaps ſpring them out all Fig. 1o. The Exulcerans, or Itch Animal. Dr. Bononio at once, whereby its whole ſtrength is exerted, and the body | diſcovered that the diſeaſe called the itch, owes its riſe to little often raiſed two hundred times its own diameter. The pro- | inſects under the cuticula, whoſe continual bitings cauſe an boſcis or fucker with which it penetrates the ſkin, is placed at ouſing of the ſerum from the cutis, and produce theſe puſtules the end of the ſnout, and is not eaſily ſeen, except the two fore whereby the diſeaſe is known. For, on obſerving people in this legs are removed. In it are included a couple of darts or lancets, diſtemper pull out of the ſcabs little bladders of water with the which, after the proboſcis has made an entrance, are thruſt fur point of a pin, and crack them like lice upon their nails from a ther into the fleſh, and make the blood flow from the adjacent place ſcabbed over, and where there was a grievous itching, he parts, and occaſion that round red ſpot with a hole in the centre picked out a little puſtule, and from thence ſqueezed a thin of it called a flea bite. Every one is acquainted with the agility matter, in which he could but juſt diſcern a ſmall white glo- and blood thirſty diſpoſition of the fiea; the caution with which bule; but on applying it to his microſcope, found it to be a it comes to the attack, and the readineſs with which it avoids a minute animal of a whitiſh colour, in ſhape reſembling a tor- purſuit. This creature is produced from eggs, which they de toiſe, but ſomewhat dark on its back. The animal has ſeveral poſit on the animals that afford them food, or aflix them to the long hairs, fix legs, a ſharp head, and two horns, and is very wool of blankets, rugs, &c. of theſe eggs are hatched white nimble. The doctor repeated this on perſons of all ages and worms, which adhere cloſely to the body of the animal or other complexions, and at all ſeaſons of the year, and found the ſubſtance on which they are produced. In a fortnight they fame forts of animals in moſt of the watery puftules. They come to a tolerable ſize, and are very lively and active ; but if begin to enter the furrows of the cuticula by knawing and work- they are touched at this time, they will roll themſelves up in a ing in their heads, till they are got quite under, where they ball. About eleven days from the time of their being hatched, cauſe a grievous itching, and force the infected perſon to ſcratch, they ſeek a place to hide in, and if viewed by a microſcope, which only heightens the malady. Hence follows the reaſon will be found weaving a covering or bag, in which they allume why this diſtemper is ſo very catching, ſince by ſimple contact the pupa ſtate, where they continue from nine days to a fort theſe animals can readily paſs from one perſon to another, not night, when having acquired fufficient ſtrength, they burit from only from their ſwift motion, but by their clinging to every their confinement perfectly formed, and armed with powers to thing they touch, and crawling as well upon the ſurface of the diſturb the peace of an emperor. of an emperor. For its repreſentation in a body as under the ſkin. A few being once lodged, they multiply magnified ſtate, ſee Plate II. apace by their eggs; nor is it any wonder if this infection is Fig. 6. Meloe Monoceros. Meloe Monoceros. The inſect which now comes propagated by the ſheets, towels, handkerchiefs, or gloves, uſed under our inſpection, is peculiarly adapted to ſhew the advan by itchy people. tages of the microſcope, which alone will diſcover the peculiari- THE ORGANIZATION OR CONSTRUCTION OF ties of its figure: this is ſo remarkable, that naturalists appear TIMBER, AS VIEWED BY THE MICROSCOPE. undetermined as to its genus: even Linnæus himſelf could not This ſubject opens an extenſive field of obſervation to the determine at firit where to place it, for in the Fauna Suecica he naturaliſt, in which the labour of a life may be employed. It makes it an Attelabus; but in the late edition of the Syitema is a branch where the obſerver will find the microſcope of con- Naturæ, he has fixed it as a meloe, calling it the Meloe Mono tinual uſe, and without which he will ſcarce be able to form any juſt idea of the organization of trees and plants, of the varia- Geoffroy and Schaffer have given figures of it; but as they tions in the diſpoſition, the number, nature, and offices of the had not that kind of microſcope which would aſlift them, their ſeveral parts. If we conſider the imperfection of the inſtru- figures are imperfect. Geoffroy ſays it is found on umbelliferous ments uſed by foine in thoſe anatomical reſearches, and the lit- plants; the one here repreſented was found in May. The tle attention paid by the reſt to the advantages their favourite natural fize is ſeen above that which is repreſented in the mag purſuits might have derived from the uſe of the microſcope and nified ſtate. the dillecting knife, we have rather more to wonder at what Fig. 7. This flying inſect has two horns, which conſiſt of di has been done, than at what remains to be performed. vers joints and hairs. Its eyes are furniſhed with a number of One reaſon that our knowledge of this ſubject is ſo circum- little lenſes. It has alſo fix feet arıned with talons. The ſcribed is the general inattention to the ſtructure of plants. To hinder part of the body is jointed as it were with hollow notches. this, among other cauſes, we may alſo aſcribe the inſtability If the wing be conſidered, it will be found to conſiſt of ſeveral and fluctuation of the different theories on the principles of ve- ſmall veſſels or nerves, that aſſiſt in the expanſion of it. The getation. We are, however, ſo little acquainted with the ſteps exquiſite neatneſs with which this minute wing is folded, is ſur which Providence takes to lead intellectual, but free, agenis, prizingly beautiful. With what wonderful nerves muſt theſe to the knowledge of truth, and the various difficulties, errors, minute wings be furnithed, that can enable this inſect ſo readily and prejudices that muſt be removed before it can ſhine in its to fold up the extremity of this filmy membrane in ſo neat a native colours, that it is our duty to encourage every humble manner, and to expand it again, as it were inſtantaneouſly, effort towards the advancement of ſcience, that thus we may whenever it is inclined to fly! The extremity Mews theſe neat co-operate with our beneficent Creator in promoting that plan to foldings, which together with the ſtrength of the nerves diſ which all things are now converging, the bringing all his crea- cover the wiſdom of the Almighty in their contrivance. Mr. tures to a ſtate of truth, goodneſs, and conſequent happineſs, Adams, to whom we are indebted for our microſcopic obſerva an end worthy the beſt and wiſeft of beings. tions, found theſe inſects in ſummer-time fiying about his work As Dr. Hill is the firſt writer who has treated this part of Na- ſhop, and he obſerved them to anſwer the above deſcription. tural Hiſtory in an orderly and ſcientific manner, we ſhall uſe They are ſo ſmall that Mr. Adams has applied them to the mi the names he has adopted for characterizing the different parts croſcope in the ivory ſliders; but they are better ſeen when ap of trees, &c. which are, the rind; the bark; the blea; the plied in the nippers. wood; the corona, or circle of propagation; and the pith. Fig. 8. Black Trips, with white wings. This inſect was Theſe are placed immediately within or under one another; originally named Phyſopus by Mr. de Geer, on account of the they are the eſſential parts upon which the ftrength of the tree bladders at the feet. Linnæus terms it Trips. The extremi-depends; in, among, and between theſe, the various veiſels are ties of the feet are furniſhed with a membranaceous and flexible placed which nouriſh the whole, and maintain and carry on the bladder, which it can throw out and draw in at pleaſure. It vegetation of the tree; and from which it obtains its peculiar places and preſſes this bladder againſt the ſubſtances on which it qualities and virtues. is walking, and ſeems to fix itſelf thereby to them. Theſe in The exterior covering of all trees is a thin, dry, parched ſub- fects are to be found in great plenty in the ſpring and ſummer, ſtance, which has been compared by many writers to the ſkin of in the flowers of the dandelion, &c. animals, and called by names analogous thereto Thus it is Fig. 9. The Acarus, or Mite. This inſect has eight legs, called the epidermis by Duhamel; the ſkin by Grew; the rind two eyes, one on each ſide of the head, and two jointed tenta- The rind is a general covering to the young trunks cula. The female is oviparous The firo, or cheeſe mite, is a of trees, to the branches, the roots, the leaves, the fruit, very minute fpecies. To the naked eye theſe mites appear like the flowers, &c. No. 106. VOL. III. Aided ceros. by Hill. 7 N MIC MIC Aided by the microſcope, a number of luminous points may be The pith is found in the center of every young ſhoot of a tree; diſcovered in the rind; theſe are fo many minute holes for other it is large in ſome, leſs in others, but preſent in all. It is purpoſes of tranſpiration. In the canes theſe holes are viſible to placed cloſe within the corona. It ſeems to be nothing more the naked eye. A few oval holes may alſo be perceived in it; than a congeries of the cellular tilue; it is generally found near theſe are however no more than a ſeparation of the parts, occa the center of the tree, incloſed as it were within a tube: in fioned by the extenſion of the interior veſſels. general the cells of the pith are larger than thoſe of the cellular The bulk lies next within the rind, and differs but little from tiſſue, with which according to ſome naturaliſts it communicates, it in conſtruction; though it holds a more important office in The bark and the wood grows thicker every year, while the the ſcale of vegetation, the growth and qualities of the tree be pith, on the contrary, grows more ſlender; lo that in a branch ing in a great meaſure connected with it. It is therefore found of one year it is of a larger lize than it is in the ſame branch to differ conſiderably in ſubſtance, quantity, and quality in va when two years old, and ſo on. on, In very young branches, while rious kinds. It is originally the outer membrane covering the in an herbaceous ſtate, the pith forms the greateſt part of the lobes of the feed. Even there, as in the branch of a tree, it ſubſtance; but when the fibres are ſtronger, the pith becomes appears in form of a kind of fpunge, or like a cruſt of bread leſs ſucculent, and ſurrounded with a tube of wood. When compoſed of flatted bladders. By the bark the tree is fed with the branch is arrived to a certain age, it is ſo compreſſed as to a continual fupply of moiſture, protected from external inju be almoſt annihilated. In examining different branches that ries, and defended from the excelles of heat and cold; for theſe proceed from others in their firſt ſtate, a ſmall communication purpoſes it is variouſly diſpoſed in different trees. between the pith of the one and the other will be found; but The blea is that part of the tree which is forming into wood, this communication is in general entirely cloſed up in the ſecond and therefore lies between it and the bark, and may be ſeparated or third year. The cells of which the pith is formed are at firſt from the bark by maceration. A longitudinal piece of the blea, entirely one connected body; but as the plant grows up, it is when examined by the microſcope, exhibits a number of veſſels often lo broke and ruptured as to remain no longer a fibrous fubítance. running parallel to each other, the interſtitial ſpaces being filled with a floccoſe, white, formleſs ſubſtance, of which Dr. Hill This, as well as other remarks on the nature of pith, corrobo- ſuſpects et even the veſſels themſelves to be formed. The blea is a rates the opinion of Dr. Hill, who thinks it is formed for the zone more or leſs perfect, which lies under the bark, and is purpoſe of moiſtening the cluſters of the corona, and regulating principally diſtinguished from it by being leſs denſe. In ſome its extenſion. It has been ſuppoſed coeval with, or primordial ſpecies the difference between the blea and the wood is very re to, all other parts; but he thinks it poſtrate, and comes after them markable, in others it is leſs fo. The ancient botanilts, ftruck in the order of time as well as in its uſes; and the thickneſs of with the difference between the wood and the blea, compared the juices cloathing the bubble gives it form and ſubſtance. this ſubſtance to the fat in animals. It is organized in a man The firſt ſeaſon is the time of its greateſt uſe, and immediately ner fimilar to the wood, and poſſelling the ſame veſſels diſpoſed after it begins to decay. nearly in the ſame manner. To what has been ſaid, we may add the following general When the bark and blea are taken away, we come to the ideas relative to the organization of trees. The molt obvious wood, which is a ſolid ſubſtance, on which the ſtrength of the and remarkable parts of a plant or tree, are the root, the ſtein, tree depends, and which has been conlidered by naturaliſts as the branches, the leaves, the flower, and the fruit. The com- being to the tree what bones are to the animal. It is more ponent parts of theſe diviſions are not complicated; they are difficult to inve:tigate the conſtruction of the wood than that of limple when compared to thoſe of an animal, and this becauſe the other parts, becauſe the texture is in general much harder, the offices of the vegetable are fewer than thoſe of the animal. and therefore not ſo eaſily ſeparated, requiring very long mace-The principal ſource of the phænomena of vegetation is the rations, and many ſubjects, before one may be found fit for fimplicity and uniformity of their organization. For a repre- maceration. A tranſverſe ſection of wood generally appears ſentation of an inſtrument for cutting tranſverſe ſections in formed of a number of rays proceeding from the corona to the wood, fee Plate of MICROSCOPICAL APPARATUS. bark, which are interſected at different diſtances by concentric The figures in Plate III. are portions of tranſverſe ſections circles interſperſed with veſſels of varying magnitude. The cut by Mr. Cuſtane, who firſt brought this art to perfection, and variations in this ſtructure afford much pleaſure to the curious remains unrivalled as yet in theſe performances. obſerver, and throw conſiderable light upon the nature and pro Fig. 1. repreſents a magnified view of a ſection of the ſugar perties of timber; for it is by means of a variety of ſtrainers that cane: fig. 2. a magnified view of a ſection of the common cane: different juices are prepared from the ſame maſs. Matter con- . fig. 3. a magnified view of a ſection of the hazel: fig. 4. a mag- fidered as matter has no ſhare in the qualities of bodies. It is nified view of a ſection of the althea frutex: fig. 5. a magnified from the arrangement of it, or the recipient forms given to it, view from a branch of the lime-tree: fig. 6. a magnified view of that we have ſo many different fubitances. According to the a ſection of the bamboo cane. modifications that theſe receive, we thall find the ſame light, air, The exterior form, and even the internal ſtructure, of the ge- water, and earth, manifeiting themſelves in one by a deadly | nerality of vegetable feeds, have been ſuppoſed by ſome ſo much poiſon, and in another by a moſt falubrious food. A lemon alike in the ſeveral kinds, and of ſo little curioſity and beauty ingrafted upon an orange ſtock, is capable of changing the ſap in the whole, that they have ſcarcely been regarded by the cu- of the orange into its own nature, by a different arrangement of rious; but when nearly examined by the help of microſcopes, the nutritive juices. One maſs of earth will give life and vigour they are found to be worthy of greater attention; thoſe which to the bitter aloe, to the ſweet cane, the cool houſe-leek, and appear moit like to one another when viewed by the naked eye, the fiery muſtard, the nourilhing grain, and the deadly night often proving as different when thus examined, in their foveral ſhade. In a word, the life of the vegetable ſeems to reſide in forms and characters, as the different genera of any other bodies the wood; from it all the other parts are produced. It ſhoots a of the creation. If their external forms carry all this variety pith inwards, and a blea and a bark outwards. and beauty about them, their internal ſtructure, when laid open Dr. Hill gives the name of Corona to that circle which ſur by different ſections, appears yet more admirable. A number rounds the pith and ſeparates it from the wood, although in his of beauties in this part of the creation are deſcribed at large by opinion it differs greatly from both, and in its compofition has Dr. Parſons, in his work entitled, “ A Microſcopic Theatre of no reſemblance to either. It is, according to him, the moſt Seeds.” Moit kinds of ſeeds ſhould be prepared for a miſcro- important part in the whole vegetable fabric, by which the pro- | fcopical examination by ſteeping them in warm water till their pagation and increaſe of the branches, buds, and thoots is car coats are ſeparated, and their ſeminal leaves may then be opened ried on. The corona is not ſo uniform as the other parts, without laceration. But feeds while dry, and without any pre- nor is it conſtituted exactly ſimilar in all trees. It is placed | paration, are of an almoſt infinite variety of ſhape, and afford a between the pith and wood in all vegetables forming a ring, | number of pleaſing objects for the microſcope. Indeed, it may whoſe outline is more or leſs regulated. The general circle is be truly ſaid, that the whole of the animal, vegetable, and mine- cellular, compoſed of blebs and veſſels, like the bark and the ral kingdoms, with all their numerous ſubdiviſions, furniſh ob- rind, and is perfectly ſimilar to them, only that at different dif- jects for the microſcope ; and there is not one of them, when tances oblong cluſters of different veſſels are placed amongſt it. properly examined, but will afford a pleaſing fund of inſtruction Theſe cluſters are uſually eight or ten in number, and give origin and entertainment to the rational inveſtigator of the works of to the angles of the corona. Each cluſter is compoſed of all creation. the effential parts of the ſucceeding branch, and the intermediate Thoſe who rightly conſider natural things will find them a parts of the circle are abſolutely bark and rind. On the corona ſhadow of heavenly things, a ſchool in which the parent of the and its cluſters depends that property of vegetables that can be univerſe is the teacher, and all the objects of ſenſe in heaven produced entire from every piece. Theſe cluſters follow the and earth, and under the earth, are as the letters of an univerſal courſe of the other portions of the tree, they are therefore every | language, in which all the nations that inhabit the globe have where; they are always capable of growing, and their growth, a common intereſt. The Creator himſelf has made this uſe even in a cutting of the ſmalleſt twig, cannot produce a leaf or of it, revealing his will by it, and referring man to it for in- any other part of a vegetable alone, but muſt arford the whole; ſtruction. for they are complete bodies, and the whole is there waiting MIDWIFERY. The art of aſſiſting women in the birth of only for the opportunity of extenſion. For the knowledge we children. It comprehends the management of women both be- have of this part, we are altogether indebted to Dr. Hill. It re fore and after the delivery, as well as the treatment of the child mains for future obſervers to confirm or diſprove his obſervations. in its molt early ſtate. 2.6 . a mi Plate 3 Microscopie Oljes of the Vegetable Kingdom as they appear when magnified chililing a bow ef the>Organization of Simberg Copied by permiſsion from M" Adams's Eſsays on the Microscope. Fig:1 & Fig: 2 Fig.1 A magnified view of a Section of the Sugar Cane , Fig 3 Fig. 2 Amagnified view of a Section of the common Cane . Fig: 4 2244 SAADA Fig.3 A magnified view of a Section of the Hazel. www Fig. 5 Fig. 4-Amagnified view of a Section of the Althea fruter. OX Fig:6 OR ch Fig.5. A magnified view from a branch of the Lime-tree . DIETA Fig.6 A magnified view of a Section of the bamboo Cane. Published as the Act direct by C. Cooke No 77 Paterno, ter Row, July 24795. SYSTEM OF MIDWIFERY. THI 9129 INTRODUCTION. which at the ſame inſtant is impregnated with the male feed that HE knowledge of midwifery ſeems not to have been im in the orgaſm of coition had been thrown into the Uterus, and proved ſo ſoon as that of phyſic. Hippocratesand other thence conveyed into the cavity of the tube by ſome abſorbing or phyſicians of eminence among the ancients, did not attain to a com convulſive power. When the two matured principles are thus petent degree of knowledge either in the theory or practice of mingled, one of the Animalcula inſinuates itſelf into the Ovum, this art. Mauriceau was the firſt who brought it to a ſtandard, and is joined with its belly to that ruptured part of it from which and formed it upon principles that have ever ſince been generally the navel-ftring is produced; or, entering one of the veſſels, is pro- adopted. The knowledge of midwifery has been ſo much en truded to the end of the Funis, by which a circulationis carried on creaſed within this century, that it ſeems to have nearly attained from the embryo to the placenta and membranes. The ovum its ultimate perfection, and its operations are reduced almoſt to being impregnated is ſqueezed from its nidus or huſk into the tube, a geometrical certainty. And this, ſays Aſtruc, is not ſurpri- by the contraction of the fimbria ; and thus diſengaged from its ſing; for, after all, the art of midwifery is reduced to the fol attachments to the ovarium, is endowed with a circulating force lowing mechanical problem: “ An extenſive cavity of a certain | by the animalculum, which has a vis vitæ in itſelf: the veſſels on capacity being given, to paſs a flexible body of a given length the ſurface of the ovum being opened in conſequence of its de- and thickneſs through an opening dilatable to a certain degree." tachments from the ovarium, abforb the ſurrounding fluid which This might be reſolved geometrically, if the different degrees is ſecerned by the glands in the cavity of the tube and uterus, or of elaſticity of the womb, and ſtrength and weakneſs of the forced into them by motion, heat, and rarefaction, and carried child, the greater or leſs diſpoſition of the blood to inflamma- along the umbilical vein for the nouriſhment and increaſe of the tion, and the greater or leſſer degree of irritability of the nerves, impregnated maſs. did not occaſion that uncertainty which phyſical facts conſtantly Of the femen that is injected or abſorbed into the uterus, part produce in all phyſico-mathematical queſtions. is mixed with the fluid ſecreted by the glands in the canal of the PART I. THEORY. neck, which is blocked up with a ſort of gluten formed by this H SECTION I. CONCEPTION. mixture ; ſo that the Ovum is thereby prevented from ſinking The minutiæ or firſt principles of bodies being without the too far down, and being diſcharged. ſphere of human comprehenfion, all that we know is by the ob This theory of conception, though very ingenious, and of all ſervation of their effects; ſo that the modus of conception is al others the beſt ſupported with corroborating confiderations, ſuch as, together uncertain, eſpecially in the human ſpecies, becauſe that Fætuſes and Embryos have been actually found in the cavity opportunities of opening pregnant women ſo feldom occur. of the tube and abdomen, without any marks of excluſion from Although the knowledge of this operation is not abſolutely ne the Uterus; beſides other preſumptions that will be mentioned ceſſary for the practice of midwifery, an inveſtigation of it may when we come to treat of the nutrition of the fætus; we ſay,not- not only gratify the curious, but alſo promote farther enquiries; withſtanding the plauſibility of the ſcheme, it is attended with cir- in the courſe of which, many material diſcoveries may be made, cumſtances which are hitherto inexplicable ; namely, the manner in the ſame manner as many valuable compoſitions in chymiſtry | in which the Animalculum gains admiſſion into the Ovum, either were found out in the laſt century by thoſe who exerciſed them while it remains in the ovarium, fojourns in the tube, or is depo- ſelves in ſearch of the philoſopher's ſtone.s ſited in the Fundus Uteri; and the method by which the veſſels From the time of Hippocrates to the ſixteenth century, it was of the navel-ftringare inofculated with thoſe of the Animalculum. generally believed that the Embryo and Secundines were formed Indeed, theſe points are ſo intricate, that every different theoriſt by the mixture of the male and female femen in the Uterus; but has ſtarted different opinions concerning them, ſome of which are during the laſt hundred years, anatomy received great improve are rather jocular than inſtructive. ments by the frequent diffection of human bodies; and in ſome SECT. II. External and internal Parts of Generation in Women." female ſubjects, the Fætus was found in one of the Fallopian. The Mons Veneris is ſituated at the upper part of the Pubes, tubes; in others, it was diſcovered in the abdomen, with the from which alſo begin the Labia Pudendi, ſtretching down as far Placenta adhering to the ſurface of the Viſcera. as the lower edge, where the Frænum Labiorum or Fourchette Malphigius, and others, between the years 1650 and 1690, is formed. wrote expreſsly upon the incubation of eggs, their formation, The Clitoris with its Præputium is found between the Labia, and the gradual increaſe of oviparous animals. The great Har on the middle and fore-part of the Pubes; and from the lower part vey obſerved the progreſs of the viviparous kind, in a great of the Clitoris, the Nymphae riſing, ſpread outwards and down- number of different animals which he had opportunities of open wards to the ſides of the Os Externum, forining a kind of ſulcus ing. De Graaf diſſected near one hundred rabbits, and is very or furrow, called the Foffa Magnaor Navicularis, for the direction particular and accurate in the obſervations he had made. Ruyſch, of the Penis in coition, or the finger in touching, into the Vagina. Aldes, Needham, Steno, Kerkringius, Swammerdam, Bartho The Meatus Urinarius is immediately below the under edge line the ſon, and Drelincourt, emyloyed themſelves in the ſame of the Symphyſis of the Olla Pubis, and at the upper part of the enquiries; and, in conſequence of their different remarks, a Os Externum, which is the orifice of the Vagina, ſituated imme- variety of theories have been erected: yet all of them have been diately below the ſaid bones of the Pubes; the lower edge of ſubject to many objedions. which bones is equal to the lower edge of the frænum or four- When the parts in women, ſubſervient to generation, attain chette, which bounds the inferior part of the Foſfa Magna and their acme, or full growth, one or more of the Ova being brought Os Externum, reſtraining it as if with a bridle. to maturity, that part of the Peritoneum which covers the Ova The Perinæum extends from this border to the Anus, being rium begins to ſtretch; the nervous fibres are accordingly af- | about one inch or one and an half in length: the wrinkled part fected, and contract themſelves ſo as to bring the Fimbria of the of the Anus is about three quarters of an inch in diameter; from Fallopian tube in cloſe contact with the ripe Ovum: by which thence to the Coccyx the diſtance is about two inches; ſo that mechaniſm, this laſt is ſqueezed out of its nidus or huik into the whole extent from the fourchette to this bone amounts to the cavity of the tube, through which it is conveyed into the about four inches, or four and a quarter. Utërus by a vermicular or periſtaltic motion; and if it is not What remains of the lower part of the Pelvis is covered and immediately impregnated with an Animalcule of the male ſe- with the integuments, adipoſe membrane, and the muf- men, muſt be diiſolved and loſt, becauſe it is now detached from cles called Levatores Ani; while within theſe are contained the the veſſels of the Ovarium, and has no Vis Vitæ in itſelf. The muſcles belonging to the Clitoris, mouth of the bladder, Os external coat of the Ovum is the membrane Chorion; one Externum, and Anus. See fig. 12. fourth part of which is the Placenta, ſuppoſed to be the root by In young children, there is a thin membrane called the Hymen, which it was formerly joined to the veſſels of the Ovarium ; and extended over the lower part of the Os Externum, repreſenting the navel-ſtring is no other than a continuation of the veſſels the figure of a creſcent ; the concave and open ſide being turned belonging to this cake.. The Chorion is on the inſide lined with towards the Meatus Urinarius. towards the Meatus Urinarius. In ſome, the middle of this another membrane called Amnion; and both are kept diſtended concave is attached to the lower part of the Meatus, forming in a globular form by a clear ſerous fluid, or thin lymph. two ſmall openings; nay, in ſome adults this membrane has As for the male ſemen, according to the obſervation of the cele- | entirely ſhut up the entrance of the Vagina, ſo that they have brated Leeuwenhoek, it abounds with Animalcula, that ſwim been altogether imperforated ; but, when broke, it recedes, and about in it like ſo many tadpoles; and theſe are larger and more forms the Carunculæ Myrtiformes. vigorous the longer the ſemen hath remained in the Veſiculæ Semi On each ſide of the Meatus Urinarius are two ſmall lacunæ or nales. The parts of both male and female being thus brought to openings, the tubes of which, ending in a kind of facculus, come maturity, the following circumſtances are ſuppoſed to happen in from the proſtate gland: from theſe a thin fluid is ejected intime coition, eſpecially in thoſe embraces which immediately follow the of copulation, and that from ſome women with conſiderable force; evacuation of the Menſes. In the woman the friction of the Pe- In the woman the friction of the Pe- and ſometimes, though ſeldom, to the quantity of ſeveral drachms. nis in the contracted Vagina, the repeated preſſure and ſhocks The Urethra, in women, is about oneinch and an halfin length. againſt the external parts, the alternate motion upwards and down- | The Vagina is formed of a ſtrong thick membrane, of a ſpongy wards of the Uterus, with its appendages, the Ovaria, Fallopian texture, more contracted in virgins than in married women. tubes, and round ligaments, produce a general titillation and tur When ſtretched to its full extent, it may be about five, fix, or ſe- gency; in conſequence of which, the nervous fibrils areconvulſed, ven inches long, and two in width, according to the difference of and a fluid ejected from the proſtate, or analogous glands, as well ftature in different women: but, when the Uterus hangs down in as from thoſe of the Uterus and Fallopian tubes. The Fimbria the Vagina, the length will not be more than two or three inches; belonging to one of which, now firmly graſps the ripened Ovum, and it may be ſtretched with the finger to the wideneſs of three or filled up four 4 MIDWIFERY. four. The inſide of it, in young women, is full of rugæ, folds or and external part of the pubes and groin. The Peritonæum is wrinkles, which are partly obliterated in thoſe who have borne alſo reflected from the fore-part of the Uterus over the upper children. The The upper end of the Vagina is joined to the circum part of the bladder: and upon the back part of the Uterus it ference of the lips of the Os Uteri, which reſemble the mouth of a deſcends even upon the Vagina, from which it is again reflected puppy or tench; and a thin expanſion of this membrane, being upwards over the Rectum. reflected inwards, covers the exterior part of theſe lips, which in In coition, the Uterus yields three or four inches to the preſſure virgins are ſmooth and of an oval form. It is alſo continued along of the Penis, having a free motion upwards and downwards; fo the inſide of the Uterus, conſtituting the internal membrane of that the reciprocal oſcillation, which is permitted by this contri- the neck and Fundus, which is likewiſe full of plicæ, eſpecially vance, increaſes the mutual titillation and pleaſure. See fig. 5. in young ſubjects. See fig. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. SECT. III. Of the OVARIA, Veſſels, Liganients, and As to the different names of thoſe parts, the book of Schuri- Fallopian Tubes. gius, publiſhed at Dreſden, may be conſulted. The entry of the The Ovaria are two ſmall oval bodies, one of which is placed Vagina is commonly called the Sphincter Vagina, and the mouth behind each Fallopian tube ; ſuppoſed to be little more than a of the womb is often diſtinguiſhed by the appellation of Os Tincæ : cluſter of Ova, whence they derive their preſent name: for, by but, as the mention of theſe parts will frequently occur in the ancient authors, they are mentioned by the appellation of the courſe of this Syſtem, we ſhall, in order to avoid confuſion or female tefticles. Each Ovarium is about one inch in length, half iniſtake, call the first Os Externum, and the other Os Internum, as broad, and one quarter of an inch in thickneſs; more convex through the whole of it. on the fore than on the back-part, of a ſmooth ſurface, covered The Uterus is about three inches long from the Os Internum to with the Peritonæum. See fig. 5. the upper part of the Fundus, and one inch in thickneſs from the The blood veſſels are, firſt, the Spermatic Arteries and Veins, fore to the back part It is divided into the Neck and Fundus; which have nearly the ſame origin as thoſe in men, are moſtly diſ- the length of the neck being an inch and three quarters, while tributed upon theovaria and tubes, and at the upper part ofthe uterus that of the fundus is one inch and one quarter. The width of communicate with the hypogaftrics; from the branches of which the Uterus at the neck is about one inch, but at the fundus twice the body of the womb is furniſhed. All theſe arteries anaſtomoſe, as much. The uterus is ſmaller in young women. and are ſuppoſed to detach ſmall ramifications that open into the The outſide-ſhape of the Uterus in ſome meaſure reſembles a cavity of the Uterus. The veins are large, communicate one with flattened cucurbit, or that kind of ſpear which hath a long neck. another with the Hæmorrhoidals and Vena Portarum, and have The canal or entrance from the Os Internum to the cavity of no valves. The Ligamenta Rotunda are two vaſcular ropes com- the Fundus Uteri will admit a common director; being a little poſed of veins and arteries incloſed in the duplicature of the Liga- wider in the middle, and more contracted at the upper end. menta Lata, ſeemingly ariſing from the crural artery and vein, The cavity of the Fundus is in point of figure ſomething be from whence they are extended to the ſides of the Fundus Uteri. tween an oval and triangle: one of the angles commencing at the The nerves come from the Intercoſtals, Lumbares, and Sacri, as upper end of the aforeſaid canal, and the other two expanding deſcribed in Boerhaave's Inſtitutes and Winſlow's Anatomy. the ſides of the Fundus, from which ariſe the Fallopian Tubes. SECT. IV. Of the Increaſe of the Uterus after Conception. Theſe tubes are about three inches long; and ſo narrow at their It is ſuppoſed that the Ovum ſwims in a fluid, which it ab. entrance from the uterus, as ſcarcely to admit an hog's brille ; ſorbs ſo as to increaſe gradually in magnitude till it comes in but the cavity of each turns gradually wider, and ends in an open contact with all the inner ſurface of the Fundus; and this being mouth or ſphincter, from the brim of which is expanded the diftended in proportion to the augmentation of its contents, the Fimbria or Morſus Diaboli, that generally bears the likeneſs of upper part of the neck begins alſo to be ſtretched. jagged leaves, and in ſome reſembles an hand with membranous About the third month of geſtation, the ovum in bigneſs equals fingers, which is ſuppoſed to graſp the Ovum when ripe and a gooſe-egg; and then nearly one fourth of the neck at its upper ready to drop from the Ovarium. part is diítended equal with the fundus. At the fifth month, the The Uterus is formed firſt of the inſide membrane that riſes fundus is increaſed to a much greater magnitude, and riſes up- from the Vagina, and lines all the interior part of the womb: im wards to the middle ſpace betwixt the upper part of the pubes and mediately above this coat isthe thick fubitance of the uterus, com the navel ; and at that period one half of the neck is extended poſed of a plexus of arteries, lympathics, veins and nerves; and the At the ſeventh month, the fundus reaches as high as the navel; vefſels on its ſurface, when injected, ſeem to run in contorted at the eighth month, it is advanced midway between the navel and lines. It appears to be of the ſame glandular texture (tho’not ſo ſcrobiculus cordis; and in the ninth month is raiſed quite up to compact)as that of the breaits, without any muſcular fibres, ex this laſt mentioned part, the neck of the womb being then alto- cept ſuch as compoſe the coats of the veifels . When this part is gether diſtended. See fig. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. minutely injected, it ſeems tò be almoſt nothing but a maſs of Now that the whole ſubſtance of the uterus is ſtretched, the veſlels; a circumítance common to it with other parts of the body: neck and os internum, which were at firſt the ſtrongeſt, become And anatomiſts are agreed, that the greater number of veliels the weakeſt part of the womb, and the ſtretching force being ſtill viſible in ſuch nice injections, are thoſe through which the ſerum continued by the increaſe of the foetus and fecundines, which are or lymph of the blood circulates in the living body ; whence the extended by the incloſed waters in a globular form, the os uteri error loci in an Ophthalmia is imitated by ſubtile injections of co begins gradually to give way. In the beginning of its dilatation, loured matter into the arteries of the dead ſubject. See fig. 4, 5, the nervous fibres in this place being more ſenſible than any other When the Uterus itretches in the time of gestation, the veſſels are part of the uterus, are irritated, and yield an uneafy ſenſation; proportionably dilated by an increaſe of the fluid they contain: ſo to alleviate which the woman ſqueezes her uterus by contracting that, at the time of delivery, ſome of them are capaciousenongh to the abdominal inuſcles, and at the ſame time filling the lungs admit the end of the little finger. Yet the ſubſtance of the womb, with air, by which the diaphragm is kept down; the pain being for the moſt part, inſtead of growingthinner as Mauriceau alledges, rather increaſed than abated by this ſtraining, is communicated or thicker, according to Daventer, continues of its natural thick to all the neighbouring parts to which the ligaments and veſſels neſs during the whole term of pregnancy; and this equality is are attached, ſuch as the back, loins, and inſide of the thighs; maintained by the gradual diſtention of the veſſels that enter into and by this compreſſion of the uterus the waters and membranes its compoſition. In time of labour, indeed, as the waters are are ſqueezed againſt the os uteri, which is of conſequence a lit- diſcharged the uterus contracts itſelf and grows thicker; and the tle more opened. See fig. 11, 14, 15, 16. reſiſtance ceaſing at the delivery of the child, and after-birth, it The woman being unable to continue this effort for any length becomes ſmaller and ſmaller, until it has nearly reſumed its na of time, from the violence of the pain it occaſions, and the tural dimenſions. See fig. 14 and 16. ſtrength of the muſcles being thereby a little exhauſted and im- The Vagina on its outſide is covered with a thick adipoſe mem paired, the contracting force abates, the tenſion of the os tincæ brane ; by means of which, it is on the fore-part attached to the being taken off, it becomes more foſt, and contracts a little; -fo lower part of the bladder, and on the back-part to the lower end of that the nervous fibres are relaxed. This remiſſion of pain the the Rectum and Anus; and by the ſame means all theſe parts are patient enjoys for ſome time, until the ſame increaſing force re- connected with the Peritonæum, or internal ſurface of the Pelvis. news the ſtretching pains, irritation, and ſomething like a te- The Uterus is contained in a duplicature of the Peritoneum, neſmus at the os uteri ; the compreſſion of the womb again takes which covers it every where above, and is connected with its ſub-place, and the internal mouth is a little more dilated, either by ſtance by a verythin cellular membrane: as for the Peritonæum in the preſſure of the waters and membranes, or, when the fluid is itſelf, it is a ſmooth membranous expanſion, that covers all the in in ſmall quantity, by the child's head forced down by the con- ſide of the Abdomen, and gives external coats to all the Viſcera traction of the uterus, which in that caſe is in contact with the contained in that cavity. On the fore-part it linesthe muſcles of body of the foetus. See fig. 16, 17, 18. the Abdomenand Diaphragna; backwards, it covers the abdominal In this manner the labour-pains begin, and continue to return Viſcera in general, the Aorta and Vena Cava Deſcendens, the kid- periodically, growing ſtronger and more frequent until the os uteri neys, ureters, and ſpermatic veſſels, the externaland internal Iliacs, is fully dilated, and the membranes are depreſſed and broke; fo the Pſoas and muſcles that cover the inſide of the Ilium, whence that the waters are diſcharged, the uterus contracts, and, with the it riſes double, and formsthe Ligamenta Lata, in which are con aſliſtance of the muſcles, the child is forced along and delivered. tained the Ovaria and Fallopian tubes. This duplicature, where SECT. V. Of the Magnitude, Weight, and different Appellations it meets in the middle, invelopes all the Uterus, as before obſerved, given to the Ovum and CHILD. and gives a covering to the round ligaments that riſe from each When the ovum deſcends into the uterus, it is ſuppoſed to be ſide of the Fundus Uteri, and are inſerted or loft about the upper about the ſize of a poppy-ſeed, and in the third month augmented 6. I M I DW I F E RY. may be felt to the bigneſs of a gooſe egg. Ten days after conception, the tion in quality as well as in quantity, being changed from a clear child (according to ſome authors) weighs half a grain; at thirty thin fluid into the moſt viſcous conſiſtence of milk. In ſome caſes, days, is increaſed to the weight of twenty-two grains ; at three this mucus hath been diſcharged from the Uterus in time of months, weighs betwixt two and three ounces; and at nine pregnancy, and both mother and child weakened by the evacua- months, from ten to twelve, and ſometimes ſixteen, pounds : by tion; which may be occaſioned by the chorion's adhering too which calculation it would appear that the progreſs of the Fætus looſely, or being in one part actually ſeparated from the womb. is quickeſt in the beginning of its growth; for from the tenth to Formerly it was taken for granted by many, that the Placenta thethirteenth day (according to this ſuppoſition)it increaſes tothree always adhered to the Fundus Uteri. But this notion is refuted by and forty times its weight. All theſe calculations are uncertain. certain obſervations: in conſequence of which we find it as often The conception is called an Embryo, until all the parts are ſticking to the ſides, back, and fore-parts, and ſometimes as far diſtinctly formed, generally in the third month; and from that down as the inſide of the os uteri. See fig. 4,5,6,7,8,9,11,14,15,17. period to delivery, is diſtinguiſhed by the appellation of Foetus. When the Placenta is delivered, and no other part of the mem- SECT. VI. Of the PLACENTA and Membranes. brane tore exceptthat through which the child pailed, the opening We have already oblerved that the Ovum is formed of the Fla-is generally near the edge or ſide of the Placenta, and ſeldom in centa with the Chorion and Amnion, which are globularly diſtend the middle of the membranes ; and a hog's bladder being intro- ed by the incloſed water that ſurround the child. The Placenta duced at this opening, and inflated, when lying in water, will is commonly of a round figure, ſomewhat reſembling an oat-cake, thew the ſhape and fize of the inner ſurface of the womb, and about fix inches in diameter, and one inch thick in the middle, plainly diſcover the part to which the Placenta adhered.net growing a little thinner towards the circumference; it is compoſed The Chorion is, on the inſide, lined with the Amnion, which is of veins and arteries, which are divided into an infinite number of a thin tranſparent membrane, without any veſſels ſo large as to ad- ſmall branches, the venous parts of which unite in one large tube, mit the red globules of blood: it adheres to the chorion by con- called the umbilical vein, which brings back the blood, and is ſup- tact, and ſeems to form the externalcoat of the Funis Umbilicalis. poſed to carry along the nutritive fluid from the veſſels of the Cho Thismembrane contains the ſerum in which the child ſwims; rion and Placenta, to the child, whoſe belly it perforates at the which Auid is ſuppoſed to be furniſhed by lympathic veſſels that open navel; from thence palling into the liver, where it communicates into the inner ſurface of the Amnion. If this liquid is neither ab- with the Vena Portarum and Cava. It is furniſhed with two ar ſorbed into the body of the foetus, nor taken into the ſtomach by teries, which ariſe from the internal iliacs of the child, and run fuction at the mouth, there muſt be abſorbing veſſels in this mem- ning upon each ſide of the bladder perforates the belly where the brane, in the ſame manner as in the abdomen and other cavities umbilical vein entered; then they proceed to the Placenta, in a of the body, where there is a conſtant renovation of humidity. ſpiral line, twining round the vein, in conjunction with which, they From the foregoing obſervations upon nutrition, it ſeems pro- form the Funiculus Umbilicalis, which is commonly four or five bable, that the fætus is rather nourished by the abſorption of the hand breadthsin length, ſometimes only two or three, and ſome nutritive fluid into the veſſels of the Placenta and Chorion, than times it extends to the length of eight cr ten. The two arteries, on from the red blood circulated in full ſtream from the arteries of the their arrival at the inner ſurface of the Placenta, are divided and Uterus to the veins of the Placenta, and returned by the arteries ſubdivided into minute branches, which at laſt end in ſmall capil- of the laſt to the veins of the firſt, in order to be renewed, re- laries that inoſculate with the veins of the ſame order. Theſe arte-fined, and made arterial blood in the lungs of the mother. i: ries, together with the umbilical vein, are ſuppoſed to do the ſame. SECT. VII. Of the Child's Situation in the Uterus. office in the Placenta which is afterwards performed in the lungs The embryo or foetus, as it lies in the Uterus, is nearly of a by the pulmonary artery and vein, until the child is delivered and circular or rather oval figure, which is calculated to take up as begins to breathe: and this opinion ſeems to be confirmed by the little ſpace as poſlible. The chin reſts upon the breaſt; the thighs following experiments. If the child and Placenta are both deli are preſſed along the belly; the heels applied to the breech; the vered ſuddenly, or the laſt immediately after the firſt ; and if the face being placed between the knees; while the arms croſs each child, though alive, does not yet breathe, the blood other round the legs. The head for the moſt part is down to circulating ſometimes ſlowly, and at othertimes with great force, the lower part of the Uterus; and, the child being contracted through the arteries of the Funis to the Placenta, and from thence into an oval form, the greateſt length is from head to breech: back again to the child, along the umbilical vein. When the but the diſtance from one ſide to the other is very much leſs than veſſels are ſlightly preifed, the arteries (well between the preliure that from the fore to the back part; becauſe the thighs and legs and the child, while the vein grows turgid between that and the are doubled along the belly and ſtomach, and the head bended Placenta, from the ſurface of which no blood is obſerved to flow, forwards on the breaſt. altho' it be lying in a baſon among warm water. As the child In the firſt month, according to ſome writers, the embryo exhi- begins to breath, the circulation, though it was weak before, im bits the figure of a tadpole, with a large head and ſmall body or mediately grows ſtronger and ſtronger; and then in a few mi tail, which gradually encreaſes in magnitude, till the arms and nutes the pulſation in the navel-liring becomes more languid, thighs begin to bud' or ſtrut out, like ſmall nipples, from the and at laſt entirely ſtops. If, after the child is delivered, and the ſhoulders and breech; two black ſpecks appear on each fide of navel-Itring cut, provided the Placenta adheres firmly to the the head, with a little hole or opening between them, which, in Uterus, which is thereby kept extended, or if the womb is ſtill the ſecond month, are eaſily diſtinguiſhed to be the eyes and diftended by another child, no more blood flows from the umbi mouih. (See fig. 6.) The legs and arms are gradually form- lical veifels than what ſeemed to be contained in them at the in ed, while the body turns larger; but the fingers are not ſepa- flant of cutting; and this, in common caſes, does not exceed rated or diſtinct, till the latter end of the ſecond or beginning of the quantity of two or three ounces: and finally, when, in con the third month. (See fig. 7.) This is commonly the caſe; ſequence of violent floodings, the mother expires either in time but ſometimes the bulk and appearance differ conſiderably in of delivery or ſoon after it, the child is ſometimes found alive different embryos of the ſame age. The younger the embryo, and vigorous, eſpecially if the Placenta is found; but if tore, the larger and heavier is the head in proportion to the reſt of then the child will loſe blood as well as the mother. the body; and this is the caſe in all the different gradations of the The external ſurface of the Placenta is divided into ſeveral foetus; ſo that, when dropt or ſuſpended by the navel-ſtring in lobes, that it may yield and conform itſelf more commodiouſly to water, the head muſt ſink lowermoſt of courſe. Beſides, when the inner ſurface of Uterus, to which it adheres, ſo as to pre women miſcarry, in the fourth, fifth, fixth, and ſeventh months, vent its being ſeparated by any ſhock or blows upon the abdomen, the head, for the moſt part, preſents itſelf, and is firſt delivered. unleſs when violent. Thoſe groups of veins and arteries which (See fig. 7, 8, and 9.) By the touch in the vagina, the head is fre- enter into the compoſition of the Placenta, receive external coats quently felt in the ſeventh, ſometimes in the ſixth, but more fre- from the Chorion, which is the outward membrane of the Ovum, quently in the eighth month; and if the ſame women are thus thick and ſtrong, and forms three-fourths of the external globe that examined from time to time till the labour begins, the head will contains the waters and the child; the remaining part being co always be felt of a round firm ſubſtance at the fore-part of the brim vered by the Placenta ; ſo that theſe two in conjunction conititute of the pelvis, betwixt the os internum and pubes, through the the whole external ſurface of the Ovum. Some indeed alledge, that ſubſtance of the Vagina and Uterus. (See fig. 9.) But all theſe theſe are inveloped with a cribriform or cellular ſubſtance, by which opinions are liable to objections; yet as it lies as eaſy in one pof- they ſeem to adhere by contact only to the Uterus; and that the ture as in another till the birth, this diſpute is of leſs confequence inner membrane of the womb is full of little glands, whoſe excre in the practice of Midwifery. It may be uſeful to ſuggeſt, that tory ducts, openinginto the fundus and neck, ſecrete a ſoft thin mu the wrong poſture of the child in the Uterus may proceed from cir- cus (as formerly obſerved) to lubricate the whole cavity of the cumvolutions of the Funis Umbilicalis. (See fig. 32.) Or when Uterus, which beginning to ſtretch in time of geſtation, the vef there is little or no water ſurrounding the child, it may move ſels that compoſe theſe glands are alſo diſtended ; conſequently a into a wrong poſition, and be confined there by the ſtricture of greater quantity of this mucus is ſeparated and retained in this ſup the Uterus. (See fig. 33, 34, 35, 36.) Or laſtly, it may be the ef- poſed cribriform and cellular ſubſtance, the abſorbing veſſels of fect of a pendulous belly or narrow pelvis, when the head lies which take it in and convey it along the veins for the nouriſhment forward over the pubis. See fig. 16, 30, and 37. of the child. The womb being therefore diſtended in proportion brano SECT. VII. The Pelvis. to the increaſe of the child, thoſeglands are alſo proportionably en It is neceſſary that all Practitioners in Midwifery ſhould be ac- larged; by which means a larger quantity of the fluid is ſeparated, quainted with the ſtructure and form of the Pelvis; of which we becauſe the nutrimentof the child muſt be augmented in proportion have treated in the Syſtem of Anatomy, Part II. Section 11. to the progreſs of its growth; and this liquor undergoes an altera And in order to afford a more perfect knowledge of the bones No. 106. Vol. III. which M I DW I F E R Y. gene- which compoſe the Pelvis, we have given three views of it, that By the preſſure of the uterus upon the upper part of the rectum will be deſcribed at the end of the Syſtem. The firſt Figure re and lower part of the colon, where it makes ſemicircular turns to preſents the bones of a well formed Pelvis. The ſecond Figure the right and left, the fæces are hindered to paſs, and by remain- exhibits a front view of a diſtorted Pelvis. The third repreſents | ing too long in the guts are indurated, the fluid parts being ab- a lateral and internal view of the Pelvis, the ſame being divided ſorbed. Hence ariſe violent ſtraining at ſtool, and a compreſſion longitudinally, in order more clearly to ſhew and deſcribe the re of the womb, which threatens abortion. When the patient, there- fpective parts. As a diſtorted Pelvis ſometimes occurs in the fore, has laboured under this fymptom for ſeveral days, let emol- courſe of practice, it will be proper to attend to fig. 2. in the de lient, laxative, and gently ſtimulating glyſters be injected. But fcription of the Plates at the end of the Syſtem. if the rectum be ſo obſtructed as that the injeftion cannot paſs, ſuppoſitories are firſt to be introduced: for frequently, when the PART II. colon and rectum are compreſſed by the uterus, the periſtaltic mo- Of the Diſeaſes incident to pregnant Women; being either ſuch as im- tion is weakened and impeded, fo that the guts cannot expel their mediately proceed from Pregnancy, or ſuch as may happen at any other Time; and, if not carefully prevented or removed, may be of this faculty, and in diffolving lubricates the parts , thereby facilitat- contents; in which cafe, the ſuppoſitory, by irritation, quickens dangerous Conſequence both to Mother and Child. en una ing the diſcharge of the hardened fæces. This previous meaſure SECT. I. Of Nausea and VOMITING. being taken, a glyfter ought to be injected, in order to diffolve the The firſt complaint attending pregnancy is the nauſea and vo collected and indurate contents of the colon, as well as to lubri- miting, which in ſome women begins ſoon after conception, and cate and ſtimulate the inſide of that inteſtine, foas to effect a frequently continues till the end of the fourth month. Moſt wo ral evacuation ; and for this purpoſe, a fyringe ſhould be uſed in- men are troubled with this fymptom more or leſs, particularly ſtead of a bladder, that the injection may be thrown up with vomiting in the morning : ſome who have no ſuch complaint in greater efficacy and force. one pregnancy, ſhall be violently attacked with it in another; and Theſe glyfters ought to be repeated until the hardened fæcesare in a few it prevails during the whole time of uterine geftation. altogether brought away, and the laſt diſcharge appear to be of a The vomiting, if not very violent, is ſeldom of dangerous con ſoft conſiſtence: neither ought the preſcriber to truſt to the re- ſequence: but, on the contrary, is ſuppoſed to be ſerviceable to ports of the patients or nurſe, but to his own ſenſes, in examin- the patient, by unloading the ſtomach of ſuperfluous nouriſhment, ing the effects of theſe injections; for, if the complaint hath con- thereby carrying off or preventing too great a turgency in the veſ tinued ſeveral days, a large quantity of indurated fæces ought to be fels of the viſcera and uterus; and by creating a kind of ſtraining diſcharged. To avoid ſuch inconvenience for the future, an emol- or nifus in the parts, which will aſliſt the fundus and neck of the lient glyfter muſt be injected every ſecond night; or, if the patient womb in ſtretching. Nevertheleſs, if the ſtraining is too great, will not ſubmit to this method, which is certainly the eaſieſt and it may endanger a miſcarriage. beſt, recourſe muſt be had to thoſe lenients mentioned at the latter Perhaps this complaint is chiefly occaſioned by a fulneſs of the end of this ſection: for when the fæces are long retained, the air veſſels of the uterus owing to obſtructed catamenia, the whole rarifies, expands, and ſtretches the colon, producing ſevere cholic quantity of which cannot as yet be employed in the nutrition of pains; this being the method followed by nature, with a view to the embryo: over and above this cauſe, it has been ſuppoſed that diſburthen herſelf when ſhe is thus encumbered. See fig: 7. the uterus being ſtretched by the increaſe of the ovum, a tenſion of The preſſure of the uterus upon the hæmorrhoidal and internal that part enſues, affecting the nerves of that viſcus, eſpecially thoſe iliac veins, produces a turgency and tumefaction of all the parts that ariſe from the ſympathetici maximi, and communicate with below, ſuch as the pudenda, vagina, anus, and even the os inter- the plexus at the mouth of the ſtomach. Whatever be the cauſe, num, and neck of the womb. This tumefaction of the hæmorr- the complaint is beſt relieved by bleeding, more or leſs, according hoidal veins, appears in thoſe ſwellings at the inſide and outſide of to the plethora and ſtrength of the patient; and if ſhe is coftive, the anus, which are known by external and internal hæmorrhoids, by emollient glyſters and opening medicines, that will evacuate or piles. This is a complaint to which women are naturally more the hardened contents of the colon and rectum; ſo that the viſcera ſubject than the other fex: but it is always more violent in time will be rendered light and eaſy, and the ſtretching fulneſs of the of pregnancy, when the ſame method of cure may be adıniniſtered veſſels taken off. A light, nutritive, and ſpare diet, with mode as recommended in the Syſtem of Medicine, Genus 31, though rate exerciſe, and a free open air, will conduce to the removal greater caution muſt be uſed in applying leeches to the parts; be- of this complaint. cauſe, in this caſe, a great quantity of blood may be loft before the diſcharge can be reſtrained. SECT. II. Of the Difficulty in making Water; Cotiveneſs; About the latter end of the 5th or in the beginning of the ſixth Swelling of the Hæmorrhoids, Legs, and Labia Pudendi; and month, the uterus being ſtretched above the brim, and the fundus the Dyſpnæa and Vomiting at the latter End of Pregnancy. raiſed to the middle ſpace betwixt the os pubis and navel, is conſi- 1 Towards the end of the fourth month, or beginning of the fifth, derably increaſed in weight; and even then (though much more the uterus is ſo much diftended as to fill all the upper part of the ſo near the full time) lies heavy upon the upper part of the pelvis, and then begins to riſe upwards into the abdomen; about brim, preffes upon the vertebræ of the loins and olla ilia, and, the ſame time the os internum is likewiſe raiſed and turned back- riſing ſtill higher with an augmented force, gradually ſtretches the ward towards the facrum, becauſe the fundus is inclined forwards parietes of the abdomen, puſhing the inteſtines upwards and to in its riſe. The uterus, according to the different directions in each ſide. which it extends, produces various complaints by its weight and The weight and preſſure on the external iliac veins are attended preſure upon the adjacent parts, whether in the pelvis, or higher with a ſurcharge or fulneſs in the returning veſſels that come from in the abdomen. In the fourth or fifth month, it preſſes againſt the feet, legs, and thighs; and this tumefaction produces cedema- the ſphincter of the bladder in the pelvis, and produces a difficulty tous and inflammatory ſwellings in theſe parts, together with vari- in making water, and ſometimes (though ſeldom) a total ſup ous tumours in the veins, that ſometimes come to ſupperation. preſſion. This complaint will happen if the womb is ſunk too The ſame weight and preſſure occaſion pains in the back, belly, low in the vagina; or if the ovum, inſtead of adhering to the fun and loins, eſpecially towards the end of the eighth or in the ninth dus, deſcends into the wide part in the middle of the neck, which month: if the uterus riſes too high, a dyſpnoa, or difficulty of accordingly firſt undergoes diſtention. This diſpoſition of the breathing, and frequent vomitings enſue: the firſt proceeds from ovum is frequently the cauſe of abortion, becauſe the mouth and the confinement of the lungs and diaphragm in reſpiration, the neck being in this caſe, from the ſtretching, the weakeſt parts of liver and viſcera of the abdomen being forced up into the thorax; the uterus, the os internum begins to be opened too ſoon: yet and the laſt is occaſioned by the extraordinary preſſure upon the ſometimes this will continue ſtrong and rigid; and after the neck ftomach. Home is enlarged, the fundus will be, laſt of all, ſtretched till the end Allthe complaints above deſcribed, namely, ſwelling of the legs, of geitation, and the woman be happily delivered. This is one thighs, and labia pudendi, pains in the back, loins, and belly, with probable reaſon to account for the Placenta's ſometimes adher- dyſpnæa and vomiting, are removed or palliated by the following ing over the inſide of the mouth of the womb, and helps to ſup- method. The patient, if ſhe can bear ſuch evacuations, is port the theory of the neck's turning ſhorter and ſhorter, as the rally relieved by bleeding at the arm or ankle, to the amount of full time approaches. eight or ten ounces; but the quantity muſt be proportioned to the But, as the ſtretching begins lower down in this than in a com emergency of the caſe: the belly muſt be kept open and eaſy with mon caſe, the uterus inult conſquently preſs againſt all parts of emollient glyſters and laxative medicines, ſuch as a ſpoonful or the pelvis before it can riſe above the brim; and this preſſure ſome two of a mixture compoſed of equal parts of 01. Amygd. d. and Syr. times produces an obſtruction of urine, and difficulty in going to Violar, taken every night; or from two drachms to half an ounce ſtool: the general compreſſion of all theſe parts will be attended of manna, or the ſame quantity of lenitive electuary; a ſmall doſe with a degree of inflammation in the ſubſtance of the uterus, the of rhubarb, or five grains of any opening pill; unleſs the patient vagina, mouth of the bladder, and rectum; from whence violent be troubled with the hæmorrhoids, in which cafe all aloetic medi- pains and a fever will enſue. In order to remove or alleviate theſe cines ought to be avoided: the patient muſt not walk much, or un- ſymptoms, recourſe muſt be had to bleeding and glyſters, the dergo hard exerciſe; but frequently reſt upon the bed, and lie urine muſt be drawn off by the catheter, fomentations and warm longer than uſual in the morning. When the ſwelling of the baths be uſed, and this method occaſionally repeated until the legs is moderate, and only returns at night, rollers or the laced complaints abate; and they commonly vaniſh in conſequence of ſtocking may be ſerviceable; but when it extends in a great degree the womb's riſing higher, ſo as to be ſupported on the brim of to the thighs, labia pudendi, and lower part of the belly, in a wo- the pelvis. See fig. 7. man of a full habit of body, venæſection is neceſſary, becauſe this 4 cedematous gene- MI D W I F E RY. m qedematous ſwelling proceeds from a compreſſion of the returning | happen to the mother; from violent paſlions of joy, fear, of veins, and not from laxity, as in the anaſarca and leucophlegma- anger, ſuddenly raiſed to ſuch tranſports as occaſion tremors, tic conftitutions: here moderate exerciſe, and (as we have already fainting, or convulſions: and from a plethora, and all acute diſ- obſerved) frequent reſting on a bed or couch, is beneficial ; or if the tempers, in which the circulating force of the fluids is too violent. ſkin of the leg and pudenda is excellively ſtretched, ſo as to be vio- The child being dead, and the circulation in the ſecundines lently pained, the patient will be greatly relieved by puncturing conſequently deſtroyed, the Uterus is no longer ſtretched; the the parts occaſionally: but theſe complaints cannot be totally re Fætus, if large, is no longer felt to move or ſtir; all the con- moved till delivery, after which they commonly vaniſh of them tained parts run gradually into a ſtate of putrefaction ; the re- ſelves. ſiſtence of the membranes becomes weaker than the contracting The bellies of thoſe that are indolent, and uſe no exerciſe, ought force of the Uterus, joined with the preſſure of the contents and to be moderately compreſſed, ſo that the uterus may not riſe too parietes of the Abdomen ; the contained waters of conſequence high, and occaſion difficulty in breathing, and vomiting, in the burſt through their mortified incloſure; and the Uterus is con- laſt months; but they must not be too ſtraitly ſwathed left the tracted cloſe to its contents, which are therefore preſſed down womb fhould be determined, in ſtretching over the pubes, and lower and lower; the neck and mouth of the womb being gra- produce a pendulous belly, which is often the cauſe of difficult dually ſtretched, labour comes on, and a miſcarriage enſues. Tabours. A medium ought, therefore, to be preſerved in this ar At other times, gripings, looſeneſs, and labour-pains, even ticle of compreſſing, and no woman lace her jumps or ſtays ſo as before the membranes break, are occaſioned by obſtruction or to make herſelf uneaſy; while the diet, air, and exerciſe, ought reſiſtence of the veſſels of the Uterus. In theſe caſes, if no to be regulated according to the conſtitution, cuſtom, and com flooding happens, the woman is ſeldom in danger; and, though plaints of the patient. the child is known to be dead, the progreſs of nature is to be SECT. III. Of Incontinence of Urine and Difficulty in making waited for with patience. If the woman is weak, exhauſted, Water, at the latter End of Pregnancy, and in Time of Labour. or timorous, ſhe muſt be encouraged and fortified with nouriſh- The Veſica Urinaria, in women near their full time, is often ing diet; if plethoric, ſhe muſt undergo evacuation by bleed- ſo much preſſed by the Uterus, that it will contain but a very ſmall ing and laxative medicines; and when labour begins, be aſlifted quantity of water; a circumſtance, tho' not dangerous, extremely according to the directions ſpecified in the ſequel. troubleſome, eſpecially when attended with a vomiting or cough; SECT. II. Ofthe Separation of the Placenta from the UTERUS. in which caſe, the ſtraining forces out the water involuntarily, with This feparation may proceed from all the foregoing diſeaſes great violence. The cough may be alleviated by proper remedies, and accidents that happen to the mother; from violent ihocks, but the vomiting can feldom be removed. Sometimes a bandage | ſtrains, over-reachings, falls, and bruiſes on the Abdomen; as applied round the lower part of the belly, and ſupported with the alſo from vehement coughs, vomitings, or ſtrainings at ſtool fcapular, is of ſingular ſervice, particularly when the Uterus lies when the body is coſtive. The ſeparation of the Placenta is al- pendulousoverthe OsPubis,therebycompreſſingtheurinarybladder, ways accompanied with a diſcharge of blood from the veſſels of But this complaint is not of ſuch dangerous conſequence, as a the Uterus, more or leſs, according to the term of pregnancy, or difficulty in making water, or a total ſuppreſſion, which happens, as the Placenta is more or leſs detached. though very ſeldom, in the fourth or in the beginning of the fifth This diſcharge is diſtinguiſhed from the menfes by the irregu- month of pregnancy; but moſt frequently occurs in the time of la larity of its period, by its flowing in a larger quantity, and, after bour, and after delivery. In the beginning of labour, before the a ſmall intermillion, its return upon the leaſt motion of the patient. membranes are broke, and the head of the child ſunk into the paſ The younger the woman is with child, the danger is the leſs; ſage, the woman commonly labours underan incontinence of urine becauſe, tho' a conſiderable quantity of blood be loſt, it does not from the preſſure upon the bladder: but the membranes being flow with ſuch violence as to exhauſt her immediately; and there- broken, and the waters diſcharged, the uterus contracts, and the fore ſhe may be ſupported and her ſpirits kept up with proper cor- child's head is forced down into the Pelvis, where, if it continues for dials and nutritive diet. But when ſuch an hamorrhage happens any length of time, the Urethra and Sphincter Velicæ are focom- of the three or four laſt months of pregnancy, the danger prefied that the urine cannot paſs: while the preſſure on the other is much more imminent, eſpecially towards the full time; becauſe parts of the bladder being removed in conſequence of the dimi the veſſels of the Uterus being then largely diftended, a much nihed ſize of the Uterus and the laxity of the parietes of the abdo greater quantity of blood is loſt in a ſhorter time: yet, in both men, the Veſica Urinaria is the more eaſily ſtretched by the increaſ caſes, the floodings will be more or leſs, as there is more or leſs of ing quantity of urine, which diſtends it to ſuch a degree, that the the Placenta ſeparated from the womb; and when this happens in fibres are over ſirained: and after delivery, when the preſſureis re- a very ſmall degree, the diſcharge may, by right management, be moved from the Sphincter and Meatus Urinarius, it cannot cantract ſometimes ſtopped, and everything will happily proceed to the full foastodiſcharge its contents, eſpecially if any ſwelling or inflam time. But if this purpoſe cannot be effected in a woman young mation remains from the preliure upon the neck and urethra; with child, the principal intention ought to be a mitigation of the in which caſe, the patient is afflicted with violent ſtretching pains hæmorrhage, leaving the reſt to time and patience, as a miſcarriage in the loins, back, groin, and particularly above the Os Pubis. in the firſt five months is ſeldom attended with hazard. On the This complaint is immediately removed by drawing off the contrary, nothing can be more dangerous than ſuch an effuſion urine with a catheter: and indeed this expedient ought to be tried in any of the four laſt months, provided it cannot be immediately before delivery, as it muſt infallibly promote labour, becauſe one reſtrained. In this caſe we are often deceived by a ſhort inter- pain interferes with the other. If the inflammation continues or miſſion, occaſioned by coagulated blood that locks up the mouth increaſes, and the obſtruction of urine recurs after delivery, the ex of the womb, which being puſhed off, the flooding returns : and ternal parts ought to be fomented with warm ftupes; bladders hence we account for its returning ſo commonly upon motion, half filled with warm water or emollient decoctions may be ap a fit of coughing, ſtraining at ſtool, or any effort whatever. plied, as hot as the patient can bear them, to all the lower part It is happy for the woman in this caſe when ſhe is ſo near the of the belly; and the catheter be uſed twice a day, or as often full time that ſhe may be ſuſtained till labour is brought on; and as neceſſity requires, until the bladder ſhall have recovered its this may be promoted, if the head preſents, by gently ſtretching the tone, ſo as to perform its office without afiliſtance. mouth of the womb, which being ſufficiently opened, the mem- PART III. MISCARRIAGES. branes muſt be broke: ſo that the waters being evacuated, the Uterus Moſt of the complaints above deſcribed, if violent and neg contracts, the floodingis reſtrained, and the patient ſafely deliver- lected, may occaſion a miſcarriage; and it would be almoſt an ed: at any rate, if the hæmorrhage returns again with great violence, endleſs taſk to enumerate every accident from which this misfor there is no other remedy than that of delivering with all expedition. tune may proceed. We ſhall therefore content ourſelves with Although the great danger is from floodings when near the full time, yet, if labour can be brought on, the Os Uteri is eaſily dila- of the child; fecondly, in the ſeparation of the placenta; and ted with the labour or the hand; but in the ſixth or ſeventh month, laſtly, in whatever may occaſion too great extenſion of the neck it takes longer time, and is ſtretched with greater difficulty, and of the Os Internum. which is ſometimes the occaſion of the danger at that period. SECT. I. Of the CHILD S Death. In all caſes, and at all times, of pregnancy, ifthe woman receives This may proceed from diſeaſes peculiar to itſelf not to be ac any extraordinary ſhock either in mind or body; if ſhe is attacked counted for, as well as from divers accidents that befal it in the by a violent fever, or any complaints attending a plethora; bleed- womb. If, for example, the navel-ſtring be long, and the quantity ing ought always to be preſcribed by way of prevention or precau- of ſurrounding waters great, the fætus, while young, mayin ſwim tion, unleſs a low, weak, lax habit of body renders ſuch evacua- ming form a nooſe of the funis; through which if the head only tion unadviſable; but theſe are not ſo ſubject to fevers from fulneſs. paſſes, a circumvolution will happen round the neck or body; On the firſt appearance of flooding the ought to be confined but ſhould the whole foetus paſs or thread this nooſe, a knot will to her bed, and be rather cool than warm. If coltive, an emollient be formed on the navel-ſtring, which, if tight drawn, will abſo- glyſter muſt be injected in order to diffolve the hardened fæces, that lutely obſtruct the circulation. This may likewiſe be the caſe when they may be expelled eaſily withoutſtraining: internally, mulſion the waters are in very ſmall quantity, and the Funis Umbilicalis with nitre muſt be uſed, and mixtures of the Tinet. Rofar. Rub. falls down before the head, by which it is violently compreſſed. acidulated with ſpirits of vitriol, as the coolingor reſtringent ine- In ſhort, the death of the foetus will be effected by all cir thod Mall ſeem to be indicated; but above all things, opiates muſt cumvolutions, knots, or preſſure upon the navel-ſtring, which be adminiſtered to procure relt, and quiet the uneaſy apprehen- deſtroy the circulation betwixt the placenta and the child. ſions of the mind: for diet, let her uſe panada, weak broth, and The fætus may fuffer death from diſeaſes and accidents that rice-gruel; ſhe may drink water in which a red-hot iron has been ſeveral in any M I DW I F E R Y. , ſeveral times quenched, mixed with a ſmall proportion of red burnt ſtretched than thoſe above, and hang over the Os Pubis: the wine; ſhe muſt abſtain from all the high-ſeaſoned foods, and even Fundus will then be only equal to, or a little higher than, the felh-meator ſtrong broths, that will enrich the blood too faſt, and navel; at other times, the Uterus will riſe in the latter end of quicken the circulation. But if, notwithſtanding this regimen, the ſeventh or eighth month to the Scrobiculus Cordis. The neck the flooding ſhall continue and increaſe, ſo that the patient be of the womb will, in fome, be felt as long in the eighth, as in comes faint and low with loſs of blood, we muſt without further others in the fixth or ſeventh month. This variation ſometimes delay attempt to deliver her, though this is ſeldom practicable, | makes the examination of the Abdomen more certain than the except in the laſt months of pregnancy, and then will be the ea touch of the Vagina; and fo vice verſa. At other times we fier performed the nearer ſhe is to her full time; unleſs labour-pains muft judge by both. See fig. 16. ſhall have aſſiſted or begun a dilatation of the Os Internum. SECT. IÍ. Of the Signs of CONCEPTION, and the equivocal PART IV. Signs of pregnant und obſtructed Women. RULES TO BE OBSERVED PREVIOUS TO LABOUR. The ſigns of pregnancy are to be diſtinguiſhed from thoſe that 30990 SECT. I. TOUCHING. belong to obſtructions by the touch in the Vagina, and motion Touching is performed by introducing the fore-finger lubri of the child, in the fifth or fixth month : ſometimes, by the cated with pomatum into the Vagina, in order to feel the Os In touch in the Rectum, before and after the fifth month, when ternum and neck of the Uterus; and ſometimes into the Rectum, the tumour of the Abdomen is plainly perceived. to diſcover the ſtretching of the Fundus. By ſome we are advi The Fundus Uteri, in the obſtructed patient, is not ſtretched, ſed to touch with the middle finger, as being the longeſt; and by nor is the diſorder in her ftomach ſo violent as in a pregnant wo- others, to employ both that and the firſt; but the middle is too man, and feldom accompanied with retchings; while the wo- much encumbered by that on each ſide, to anſwer the purpoſe man with child is afflicted with a retching every morning, and fully; and when two are introduced together, the patient never ſubject to longings beſides. The firſt labours under a fullneſs fails to complain. The deſign of touching is to be informed of the veſſels; the laſt, over and above this complaint, fuffers whether the woman is or is not with child; to know how far an additional one from the diftention of the Uterus by the im- ſhe is advanced in her pregnancy; if ſhe is in danger of a miſ pregnated Ovum. Obſtructions and pregnancy are both accom- carriage; if the Os Uteri be dilated; and, in time of labour, panied by a ſtretching fullneſs of the breaſts: but in the laſt only to form a right judgment of the caſe from the opening of the Os may be perceived the areola, or brown ring, round the nipples, Internum, and the preſſing down of the membranes with their from which, in the laſt months, a thin ſerum diſtils; but this waters ; and laſtly, to diſtinguiſh what part of the childis preſented. circle is not always ſo diſcernible as in the firſt pregnancy, and It is generally impracticable to diſcover by a touch in the Vagi even then is uncertain as well as the others. na, whether or not the Uterus is impregnated, till after the fourth About the fifth or fixth month, the circumſcribed tumour, or month: when the beſt time for examination is the morning, when ſtretching of the Uterus, is felt above the Os Pubis; and by this the woman is faſting, after the contents of the bladder and Rec- circumſcription and conſiſtence eaſily diſtinguithed from the tum have been diſcharged: and the ought, if neceſſary, to ſubinit aſcites or dropſy of the Abdomcn: it is alſo rounder and firmer to the enquiry in a ſtanding poſture; becauſe, in that caſe, the than thoſe ſwellings that accompany obſtructions which proceed Uterus hangs lower down in the Vagina, and the weight is more from a general fullneſs of the veſſels belonging to the ligaments ſenſible to the touch than when ſhe lies reclined. One principal and neighbouring Viſcera. On the whole, the difficulty of dif- reaſon of our uncertainty is, when we try to feel the neck, the tinguiſhing between obſtruction and pregnancy, in the firſt months, womb riſes up on our preſſing againſt the Vagina, at the ſide of is ſo great, that we ought to be cautious in giving our opinion; the Os Internum, (fee fig: 7.) and in fome, the Vagina feels very and never preſcribe ſuch remedies as may endanger the fruit of tenfe: but when the Fundus Uteri is advanced near the navel, the womb, but rather endeavour to palliate the complaints until the preſſure from above keeps down the Os Internum ſo much, time ſhall diſcover the nature of the caſe; and always judge on that you can generally feel both the neck, and, above that, the the charitable fide when life or reputation is at ſtake. ſtretching of the under part of the Uterus. See fig. 6, 7, 8, 9. In the fifth or fixth month of uterine geſtation, by the touch There is no conſiderable variation to be felt in the figure of the in the Vigina, we perceive the neck of the womb conſiderably Os Internum, except in the latter end of pregnancy, when it ſome fhortened, and the itretching of the lower part of the Uterus is times grows larger and ſofter, (ſee fig. 14;) nor do the lips ſeem then ſenſibly felt between the mouth of the womb and the Pubes, to be more cloſed in a woman with child than in another, eſpe and on each lide of the neck, See fig. 7, 8, 9. MO cially in the beginning of pregnancy; but, in both caſes, the Os In the ſeventh month, the head of the child is frequently felt Uteri is felt like the mouth of a young puppyor tench. In ſome, reſting againit the lower part of the Uterus, between the Pubes the lips are very ſmall; in others, large; and ſometimes, though and Os Internum; and, being puſhed upward towards the Fun- feldom, ſmoothed over or pointed. In many women, who have dus, finks down again by its own gravity. All theſe diagnoſtics formerly had children and difficult labours, the lips are large, are more plain and certain, the nearer the patient approaches and ſo much ſeparated, as to admit the tip of an ordinary finger; to the time of delivery. Sometimes, the head is not felt till the but, a little higher up, the neck ſeems to be quite cloſed. eighth or ninth month; and in ſome few caſes not till after the In the firſt four months, the neck of the womb may be felt hang- membranes are broke; when it is forced down by the contraction ing down in the Vagina, by puſhing up the finger by the ſide of the of the Uterus and ſtrong labour-pains. This circumſtance may Os Internum: but the ſtretching of the Uterus and upper part of be owing to the head's reſting above the baſin, eſpecially in a the neck cannot be perceived till the fifth, and ſometimes the fixth narrow Pelvis; or to the diftention of its belly with air after month; and even then the Uterus muſt be kept down by a ſtrong death, by which the Fætus being rendered ſpecifically lighter preſſure upon the belly. The ſtretching of the Fundus is ſome than the ſurrounding waters, the body floats up to the Fundus, times felt by the finger introduced into the Rectum, before it can if there is a large quantity of fluid in the membranes: nor is be perceived in the Vagina ; becauſe, in this laſt method, the the body always felt when the child lies acroſs the Uterus. SECT. III. How to diſtinguiſh the FALSE LABOUR from the rately diſtinguiſhed; whereas the finger, being introduced into TRUE, and the Means to be uſed on that Occaſion. the Rectum, paiſes along the back of the womb almoſt to the If the Os Uteri remains cloſe fhut, it may be taken for granted upper part of the Fundus, which, in an unimpregnated ſtate, is that the woman is not yet in labour, notwithſtanding the pains felt flat on the back-part, and jetting out at the ſides; but the ſhe may ſuffer. With regard to theſe, an accurate enquiry is to impregnated Uterus is perceived like a large round tumour. be made; and if her complaints proceed from an overſtretching About the fifth or ſixth month, the upper part of the Uterusis ſo fullneſs of the Uterus, or veſſels belonging to the neighbouring much ſtretched, as to riſe three or four inches above the Os Pubis, parts, bleeding in the arm or ankle, to the quantity of fix or or to the middle ſpace between that and the navel; ſo that, by pref- eight ounces, ought to be preſcribed, and repeated occaſionally. ſing the hand on the belly, eſpecially of lean women, it is frequently If the pains are occaſioned by a looſeneſs or diarrhoea, it muſt perceived: (ſee fig. 10.) and if, at the ſame time, the index of the be immediately reſtrained with opiates. Cholic pains are dif- other hand be introduced in the Vagina, the neck will ſeem thort-tinguished from thoſe of labour, by being chiefly confined to ened, particularly at the fore-part and ſides; and, as we have al the belly, without going off and returning by diftin&t intervals: ready obſerved, the weight will be ſenſibly felt: but if the Parietes they are for the moſt part produced by fæces too long retained in of the Abdomen are ſtretched after eating, we may be deceived the colon, or by ſuch ingelta as occation a rarefaction or expan- by the preſſure of the ſtomach, becauſe weight and preſſure are the fion of air in the inteſtines, by which they are violently ſtretched fame. But all theſe ſigns are more perceptible towards the lat. and vellicated. This complaint muſt be removed by opening ter end of pregnancy: and, in ſome women, the Os Internum glyfters, to empty the guts of their noxious contents: and this is felt a little open ſome weeks befor the full time, though ge evacuation being performed, opiates may be adminiſtered to aſ- nerally it is not open till a few days before the labour begins. ſuage the pains; either to be injeced by the Anus, taken by the From the fifth to the ninth month, the neck of the Uterus becomes mouth, or applied externally in the form of epithem or embrocation. ſhorter and ſhorter, and the ſtretching of the womb grows more Sometimes the Os Internum may be a littledilated, and yet it may and more perceptible. In the ſeventh month, the Fundus riſes as be difficult to judge whether or not the patient bein labour. The high as the navel ; in the eighth month, to the middle ſpace be caſe, however, may be aſcertained after ſome attendance by theſe twixt the navel and Scrobiculus Cordis; and in the ninth, evento conliderations: if the woman is not arrived at her full time: if no the Scrobiculus, except in pendulous bellies: (ſee fig. 9, 10, 14.) ſoft or glary mucus hath been diſcharged from the Vagina: if the But all theſe marks may vary in different women ; for when the pains are limited to the region of the belly, without extending to belly is pendulous, the parts below the navel are much more the back and inſide of the thighs: if they are flight, and continue without I MIDWIFERY. without intermiſſion or increaſe, nay, if they have long intervals, | contracting force of the abdominal muſcles and uterus is more and recur without force fufficient to puſh down the waters and free, ſtrong, and equal, in this than in any other attitude: membranes, or child's head, to open the os internum: if this part Wherefore, in all natural caſes, when the labour is lingering or be felt thick and rigid, inſtead of being ſoft, thin and yielding, tedious, this or any other poſition, ſuch as ſtanding or kneeling, we may ſafely pronounce, that labour is not yet begun; and thoſe ought to be tried, which, by an additional force, may help to puſh alarms are to be removed as we have directed in the caſe of falfe along the head and alter its direction when it does not advance or colic pains. Beſides, if the pulſe be quick and ſtrong, and the in the right way. Nevertheleſs, the patient muſt by no means patient attacked by ſtitches in the fides, back, or head, bleeding be too much fatigued. is will be likewiſe neceſſary. See fig. 9, 14, 15. When the woman lies on the left ſide, the right-hand muſt be PART V. NATURAL LABOURS. uſed in touching, and vice verſa, unleſs ſhe is laid acroſs on the In order to render this Syſtem as diſtinct as poſſible, for the bed; in which caſe, either hand will equally anſwer the ſame pur- fake of the reader's memory, as well as the dependence and con- poſe: but if ſhe lies athwart with the breech towards the bed's nexion of the different labours, they are divided in the following foot, it will be moſt convenient to touch with the left-hand when manner: Thatis accounted natural, in which the head preſents, and ſhe is upon the left ſide, and with the right when in the oppoſite the woman is delivered without extraordinary help; thoſe births poſition. And here it will not be amiſs to obſerve, that in the de- are called laborious or nonnatural, when the head comes along with ſcription of all the laborious and preternatural deliveries treated of difficulty, and muſt be aſſiſted either with the hand in opening the in this Syſtem, the reader muſt ſuppoſe the woman lying on her parts, or with a fillet or forceps, or even when there is a neceſſity back, as directed, except when another poſture is preſcribed ; and for opening and extracting it with the crotchet; and thoſe in which that in natural and laborious labours, whether ſhe be upon her fide the child is brought by the breech or feet, are denominated preter or back, the head and ſhoulders are a little raiſed into a reclining natural, becauſe the delivery is performed in a preternatural way. poſture, ſo that ſhe may breathe eaſily, and aſſiſt the pains. But SECT. I. The different Poſitions of Women in Labour. in preternatural labours, when there is a neceſſity for uſing great In almoſt all countries, the woman is allowed either to ſit, walk | force in turning the child, the head and ſhoulders muſt lie lower about, or reſt upon a bed, until the os uteri is pretty much dilated than the treech, which, being cloſe to the ſide or foot of the bed; by the gravitation of the waters, or (when they are in ſmall quan- ought to be raiſed higher than either; becauſe, when the pelvis is tity) by the head of the foetus, fo that delivery is foon expected; in this ſituation, the hand and arm are eaſily puſhed up in a right when ſhe is put in ſuch poſition as is judged more ſafe, eaſy, and line along the back-part of the uterus, even to its fundus. Some- convenient for that purpoſe: but the patient may be put upon la- times, however, when the feet of the child are towards the belly bour too prematurely, and bad conſequences will attend ſuch mif of the mother, they are more eaſily felt and managed when ſhe takes. Among the Egyptians, Grecians, and Romans, the woman lies on her ſide. At other times, placing the woman on her knees was placed upon a high ſtool; in Germany and Holland, they uſe and elbows on a low couch, according to Daventer's method, will the chair which is deſcribed by Daventer and Heiſter: and for hot ſucceed better by diminiſhing in part the ſtrong reſiſtance from climates the ſtool is perfectly well adapted; but in northern coun the preſſure and weight of the uterus and child, by which the feet tries, and cold weather, ſuch a poſition muſt endanger the patients will ſometimes be eaſier found and delivered: but then it is fafer health. In the Weſt Indies, and ſome parts of Britain, the wo to the child, and eaſier for the operator and mother, to turn her man is ſeated on a ſtool made in form of a ſemicircle; in other back before you deliver the body and head. . places, ſhe is placed on a woman's lap, and fome, kneeling on a SECT.II. Of the Management of Women in a Natural Labour: large cuſhion, are delivered backwards. In France, the poſition In a woman come to full time, labour commonly begins and is chiefly half-fitting, half-lying, on the ſide or end of a bed; or proceeds in the following manner. The os uteri is felt ſoft and a the woman being naked in bed, is raiſed up with pillows or a bed little opened, the circumference being ſometimes thick, but chiefly chair. The London method is very convenient in natural and thin; from this aperture is diſcharged a thick mucus which lubri- eaſy labours; the patient lies in bed upon one ſide, the knees being cates the parts, and prepares them for ſtretching. This diſcharge contracted to the belly, and a pillow put between them to keep uſually begins ſome days before ; and is accounted the forerunner them afunder. But the moſt commodious method is to prepare a of real labour: at the ſame time the woman is ſeized at intervals bed and a couch in the fame room: a piece of oiled cloth or dreſſed with ſlight pains that gradually ſtretch the os uteri, fitting it for a Theep-ſkin is laid acroſs the middle of each, over the under-ſheet; | larger dilatation : and when labour actually begins, the pains and above this are ſpread ſeveral folds of linen pinned or tied with become more frequent, ſtrorg, and laſting. At every pain the tape to each ſide of the bed and couch. Theſe are deſigned to uterus is ſtrongly compreſſed by the ſame effort which expells the ſponge up the moiſture in time of labour and after delivery; while contents of the rectum at ſtool ; namely, the inflation of the lungs the oiled cloths or ſheep-ſkins below preſerve the feather-bed and the contraction of the abdominal muſcles. from being wetted or ſpoiled: for this purpoſe, ſome people lay If the child be ſurrounded with a large quantity of waters, (ſec beſides lipon the bed ſeveral under-ſheets over one another, fo fig. 11, 14, 15.) the uterus cannot come in contact with the body that by ſliding out the uppermoſt every day, they can keep the of it; but at every pain the membranes are puſhed down by the bed dry and comfortable.ch fluids they contain, and the mouth of the womb being fufficiently The couch muſt be no more than three feet wide, and provided opened by this gradual and repeated diſtention, they are forced into · with caſters; and the woman, without any other dreſs than that of the middle of the vagina; then the uterus contracts and comes in ſhort or haif thift, a linen ſkirt or petticoat open before, and a contact with the body of the child, and, if it be ſmall, the head is bed-gown, ought to lie down upon it, and be covered with cloaths propelled with the waters. Here the membranes uſually break; according to the ſeaſon of the year. She is commonly laid on the but if that is not the caſe, they are puſhed along towards the os left ſide, but in this particular ſhe is to conſult her own eaſe; and externum, which they alſo gradually open, and appear on the out- a large ſheet being doubled four times or more, one end muſt be ſide in the form of a large round bag: mean while, the head ad- flipt in below her breach, while the other hangs over the ſide of vances, and the os externum being by this time fully dilated, is the couch, to be ſpread on the knee of the accoucheur or midwife, alſo protruded; when, if the membranes, inſtead of burſting in who ſits behind her on a low ſeat. As ſoon as ſhe is delivered, the middle of the protuberance, are tore all round at the os exter- this ſheet muſt be removed, a foft warm cloth applied to the os num, the child's head is covered with ſome part of them, which externum, and the pillow taken from betwixt her knees; ſhe then goes under the name of the caul, or king's hood. If the placenta muſt be ſhifted with a clean warm half-ſhift, linen ſkirt, and bed is at the ſame time ſeparated from the uterus, ard the membranes gown, and the belly kept firm with the broad head-band of the remain unbroken, the fecundines, waters, and child, are delivered fkirt, the ends of which are to be pinned acroſs each other. Theſe together; but if the placenta adheres, they muſt of courſe give meaſures being taken, the couch muſt be run cloſe to the bed-lide, way; and ſhould they be tore all around from the placenta, the and the patient gently moved from one to another; but if there greateſt part of the body, as well as the head of the child, will be is no couch, the bed muſt be furniſhed with ſome apparatus. Some, enveloped by them, from which it muſt be immediately diſen- again, are laid acroſs the foot of the bed, to the head of which gaged, that the air may have a free paſſage into the lungs. the cloaths are previouſly turned up till after delivery, when the When the head is large, ſo that it does not defcend immediately woman's poſture is adapted, and then they are rolled down again into the pelvis, the membranes are forced down by themſelves, and to cover and keep her warm. By this expedient the place of a being ſtretched thinner and thinner give way; when all the waters couch is ſupplied, and the upper part of the bed preſerved foft which are further advanced than the head run out: then, the ute- and clean: whereas, thoſe who are laid above the cloaths, muſt be rus coming in contact with the body of the child, the head is taken and thifted while the bed is put to rights, in which caſe ſqueezed down into the mouth of the womb, which it plugs up they are ſubject to fainting ; and to ſuch as are very much en ſo as to detain the reſt of the waters. (See fig. 16, 17.) feebled, this fatigue is often fatal. Sometimes when the quantity of waters is very ſmall, and the Women are moſt eaſily touched, leaſt fatigued, and kept warmeſt uterus embraces the body of the child, the head covered with the when they lie on one ſide. But if the labour ſhould prove tedious, membranes, is forced downwards, and gradually opens in- the Perſian method feems moſt eligible ; becauſe, when the pa ternum; but at its arrival in the middle of the pelvis and vagina, tient half fits, half lies, the brim of the pelvis is horizontal, a per part of the waters will be puſhed down before it, ſometimes in a pendicular line falling from the middle ſpace between the ſcrobi- large and ſometimes in a ſmall proportion, towards the back-part culus cordis and navel, would paſs exactly through the middle of of the pelvis. At other times, when the waters are in ſmall the baſın. In this poſition, therefore, the weight of the waters, tity, no part of them are to be diſtinguiſhed farther than the head, and, after the membranes are broke, that of the child's head, will which deſcending lower and lower, the attenuated membranes are gravitate downwards, and aſſiſt in opening the parts, while the ſplit upon it; while at the ſame time it fills up the mouth of the woms up the os quan- No, 107 7 P MIDWIFER Y. womb and upper part of the vagina in ſuch a manner as hinders SECT. IV. When little or no waters are protruded. the few remaining waters from being diſcharged at once ; though If the vertex, inſtead of reſting at the ſide of the brim of the in every pain a ſmall quantity diſtils on each ſide of the head, for pelvis, or at the os pubis, is forced farther down to the os inter- lubricating the parts, ſo as that the child may ſlip along the more num, and the waters happen to be in ſmall quantity, the head is eaſily. See fig. 17. puſhed forwards, and gradually opens the mouth of the womb The uterus contracts; the pains become quicker and ſtronger; without any ſenſible interpoſition of the waters : then it advances the crown of the head is pushed down to the lower part of the by degrees into the vagina, and the membranes being ſplit or tore, pelvis, againſt one of the iſchia, at its lower extremity; the fore- | little or nothing is diſcharged until the body of the child be de- head, being at the upper part of the oppoſite iſchium, is forced livered : and in this caſe, the hair of the head being plainly felt, into the hollow of the under part of the ſacrum, while the vertex will be a ſufficient indication that the membranes are broke. If and hind-head is preffed below the os pubis (fig. 18.) from whence no hair is to be felt, but a ſmooth body preſents itſelf to the touch, it riſes in a quarter-turn, gradually opening the os externum; the and the woman has undergone many ſtrong pains even after the frænum labiorum, or fourchette, perinæum, fundament, and the mouth of the womb hath been largely dilated, and the head forced parts that intervene betwixt that and the extremity of the ſacrum, into the middle of the pelvis, you may conclude that delivery is are all ſtretched outwards in form of a large tumour. The peri- retarded by the rigidity of the membranes, that there is but a næum, which is commonly but one inch, from the os externum ſmall quantity of waters, and that if the containing facs were to the anus, is now ſtretched to three, the anus to two, and the broke, the head would come along without farther heſitation, parts between that and the coccyx are ſtretched from two inches Sometimes no waters can be felt while the head is no farther to about three or more. The broad facro-ſciatic ligaments, reach- advanced than the upper part of the pelvis, becauſe it plugs up the ing from each ſide of the lower part of the ſacrum, to the under paſſage and keeps them from deſcending; but asitadvances down- part of each iſchium, are alſo outwardly extended and the coccyx | wards, the uterus contracts, and they are forced down in a ſmall is forced backward; while the crown of the head, where the lamb- | quantity towards the back part; from thence, as the head defcends, doidal croſſes the end of the fagittal ſuture, continues to be puſhed or even though it ſhould ſtick in that ſituation, they are puſhed along, and dilates the os externum more and more. See fig. 13, 20. and more. See fig. 13, 20. farther down, and the membranes may be eaſily broke ; but the When the head is ſo far advanced that the back part of the neck taſk is more difficult when no waters come down, and the mem- is come below the under part of the os pubis, the forehead forces branes are contiguous to the head. In this caſe, they muſt be the coccyx, fundament, and perinæum, backwards and down- | feratched a little, during every pain, with the nail of a finger, wards; then the hind part of the head riſes about two or three which, though, ſhort and ſmooth, will by degrees wear them thin- inches from under the pubes, making an half-round turn in its af ner and thinner, until they ſplit upon the head by the force of la- cent, by which the forehead is equally raiſed from the parts upon bour. Yet this expedient ought never to be uſed until you are which it preſſed, and the perineum eſcapes without being ſplit or certain that delivery is retarded by their rigidity ; for, if that be torn; (ſee fig. 22.) at the ſame time, the ſhoulders advance into not the hindrance, the difficulty muſt proceed from the weakneſs the ſides of the pelvis at its brim where it is wideſt, and, with the of the woman, a large head, or narrow pelvis: in which caſe, the body, are forced along and delivered : meanwhile, by the contrac- delivery is a work of time, and will be obſtructed by the prema- tion of the uterus, the placenta and chorion are looſened from the ture diſcharge of the waters, which, by gradually paſſing by the inner ſurface to which they adhered, and forced through the vagi- head, ought to keep the parts moiſt and ſlippery, in order to faci- na, out of the os externum. When the head reſts as firſt above litate the birth: for when the membranes are not broke, until the brim of the pelvis, and is not far advanced, the fontanel may the head is forced into the middle of the pelvis, the largeſt part of be plainly felt with the finger, commonly towards the fide of the it being then paſt the upper part of the facrum, is commonly pelvis: this is the place where the coronal croſſes the ſaggital ſu- ſqueezed along, opens the os externum, and is delivered before all ture, and the bones are a little ſeparated from each other, yielding the waters are diſcharged from the uterus ; fo that what remains, a ſoftneſs to the touch, by which may be diſtinguiſhed four ſu by moiſtening and lubricating the parts, helps the ſhoulders and tures, or rather one croſſing another. Theſe may be plainly body to paſs with more eaſe. When the membranes are too ſoon perceived, even before the membranes are broke : yet the exa- broke, the under part of the uterus contracts fometimes ſo ſtrongly inination muſt not be made during a pain, when the membranes before the ſhoulders, that it makes the reſiſtance ftill greater. are ſtretched down and filled with waters: but only when the SECT. V. How to manage when the Head comes down into the pain begins to remit, and the membranes to be relaxed; other- PELVIS. Saids avo wiſe they may be broke too ſoon, before the os internum be In moſt natural labours, the ſpace betwixt the fore and back fufficiently dilated, and the head properly advanced. fontanels, viz. the vertex, preſents to the os internum, and the When the vertex is come lower down, the ſagittal ſuture only forehead is turned to the ſide of the pelvis ; becauſe the baſin at is to be felt; becauſe, as the hind-head defcends in the pelvis, the the brim is wideſt from ſide to ſide ; and frequently, before the fontanel is turned more backwards to the fide, or towards the con head is puſhed in and faſt wedged among the bones, the child (after cavity of the facrum: but, after it has arrived below the under part a pain) is felt to move and turn it to that ſide or ſituation in which of the offa pubis, the lambdoidal may be felt croſſing the end of the it is leaſt preſſed and hurt, if it was not preſenting in that poſition fagittal future, the occiput making a more obtuſe angle than that before. But this poſition of the head may alter, viz. in thoſe of the parietal bones, at the place where the three are joined toge where it is as wide, or wider, from the back-part to the fore-part ther. But all theſe circumſtances are more eaſily diſtinguiſhed af. of the brim, than from ſide to fide, the forehead may be turned ter the membranes are broke, or when the head is fo compreſſed backwards or forwards. But this form of the pelvis ſeldom happens. that the bones ride over one another, provided the hairy ſcalp be This poſture is always obſerved in a narrow pelvis ; when the not exceſſively ſwelled. See Fig. 13, 17, 18, 20, 21. upper part of the facrum jets forward to the pubes; but as the SECT. III. How and when to break the Membranes. child is forced lower down, the forehead turns into the hollow at Wehave already obſerved, thatif the child be ſurrounded with a the interior part of the facrum, becauſe the vertex and occiput find large quantity of waters, the uterus cannot come in contact with leſs reſiſtance at the lower part of the offa pubis than at the if- the body, ſo as to preſs down the head, until the membranes are chium, to which it was before turned, the pelvis being at the pubes, puſhed a conſiderable way before it into the vagina: nor even then no more than two inches in depth, whereas at the iſchium it a- until they are broke, and the fluid diminiſhed in ſuch a manner mounts to four. If, therefore, the forehead ſticks in its former ſitua- as will allow the womb to contract, and, with the affıſtance of tion, without turning into the hollow, it may be afliſted by introduc- the pains, force along the child. When the membranes, therefore ing ſome fingers, or the whole hand, into the vagina, during a pain, are ſtrong or unadvanced, and continue ſo long unbroke that the and moving in the right poſition. See Part VI. Sect. IV. Cafe V. delivery is retarded, provided the os internum be ſufficiently di When the head of the foetus preſents, and is forced along in lated, they ought to be broke without further delay, eſpecially if any of thoſe poſitions, the labour is accounted natural, and little the woman hath been much fatigued or exhauſted with labour, or elſe is to be done, but to encourage the women to bear down with is ſeized with a violent ficoding: in which caſe, the rupture of all her ſtrength in every pain, and to reít quietly during each in- the mimbranes haſten delivery, and the hæmorrhage is diminiſhed terval: if the parts are rigid, dry, or inflamed, they ought to be by the contraction of the uterus, which lefiens the mouth of the lubricated with pomatum, hog's lard, butter, or ung. altheæ ; the veſels that are alſo compreffed by the body of the child. two firſt are moſt proper for the external parts, and the two laſt The common method of breaking the membranes, is by thruſt- | (as being harder and not ſo eaſily melted) ought to be put up into ing the fingers againſt them when they are protruded with the the vagina to lubricate that and the os internum. waters during the pain, or by pinching them with the finger and SECT. VI. How to aſiſt in LINGERING LABOURS when the thumb ; but if they are detained too high to be managed in either Parts are rigid. of theſe methods, the hand may be introduced into the vagina, if The mouth of the womb and os externum, for the moſt part, the os externum is fo lax as to admit it eaſily; and if this cannot open with greater difficulty in the firſt than in the ſucceeding la- be done without giving much pain, the fore and middle fingers bours, more eſpecially in women turned of thirty. In theſe caſes, being puſhed into the vagina with the other hand, let a probe or the os internum muſt be gradually dilated in every pain, by intro- pair of pointed feiffars be directed along and between them, and ducing the fingers in form of a cone, and turning them round, ſo thruſt through the membranes when they are puſhed with the as to ſtretch the parts by gentlc degrees; and the whole hand being waters below the head. This operation muſt be cautiouſly per admitted into the vagina, it will be fometimes found neceffary to formed, left the head ſhould be wounded in the attempt; and as infinuate the fingers with the fat of the hand between the head for the membranes, let the opening be ever ſo ſmall, the waters and os internum : for when this precaution is not taken in time, are diſcharged with force ſufficient to tear them afunder, the os uteri is frequently puſhed before the head (eſpecially that part MIDWIFER Y. part of it next the pubes), even through the os externum; or if | ftructure of the funis, becauſe it feldom or never breathes before the head paſſes the mouth of the womb, it will protrude the parts the breaſt is delivered. of the os externum, and will endanger a laceration in the peri The better method is, immediately to ſlide along one or two næum. This dilatation, however, ought to be cautiouſly perform-fingers, eitherabove or below, to one of the arm-pits, by which you ed, and never attempted except when it is abſolutely neceſſary; try to bring along the body, while with the other hand you pull the even then it muſt be effected ſlowly, and in time of a pain, when neck at the fame time: if it ſtill continues unmoved, ſhift hands, the woman is leaſt ſenſible of the dilating force. and let the other arm-pit ſuſtain the force; but if this fail, cut the When the labour happens to be lingering, though every thing be navel-ftring, and tie it afterwards. If the ſhoulder lie fo high in a right pofture, if the aſſiſtants are clamorous, and the woman that the fingers cannot reach far enough to cut or take fufficie, it herſelf too anxious and impatient to wait the requiſite time with-hold, let the flat of the hand be run along the back of the child: out complaining, the labour will be actually retarded by her unea or ſhould the os externum be ſtrongly contracted round the neck, fineſs, which we muſt endeavour to ſurmount by arguments and puſh up your hand along the breaſt, and pull as before ; and ſhould gentle perſuaſion: but if ſhe is not to be fatisfied, and ſtrongly im this method fail, you muſt have recourſe to the blunt hook intro- prefled with an opinion that certain medicines might be adminif- duced and fixed in the arm-pit: but this expedient muſt be uſed tered to haſten delivery, it will be convenient to preſcribe fome in with caution, left the child ſhould be injured or the parts lacerated. nocent medicine that ſhe may take between whiles, to beguile the The child being born, the funis umbilicalis muſt be divided, and time and pleaſe her imagination ; but if ſhe is actually weak and the placenta delivered, according to the direction that will occur exhauſted, it will be neceſſary to order fomething that will quickn | in the ſequel. the circulating fluids, ſuch as preparations of amber, caſtor, myrrh, PART VI. volatile ſpirits, the pulv. myrrh.compoſit. of the London, or pulv. LABORIOUS LABOURS. ad partum of the Edinburgh Pharmacopæia, with every thing in SECT. I. How LABORIOUS LABOURS are occafioned. point of diet and drink that nouriſhes and ſtrengthens the body. A general outcry hath been raiſed againſt gentlemen of the pro- If the patient is of a plethoric habit, with a quick, ſtrong pulfe, | feffion, as if they delighted in uſing inſtruments and violent me- the contrary method is to be uſed, ſuch as venæſection, antiphlo-thods in the courſe of their practice; and this clamour hath pro- giſtic medicines, and plentiful draughts of weak, diluting fluids. ceeded from the ignorance of ſuch as do not know that inſtruments SECT. VII. How to manage when the Birth is obſtructed by fome low, obfeure, and illiterate practioners, both male and fe- are fometimes abſolutely neceſſary, or from the intereſted views of the Navel-ſtring of the Child, or a narrow PELVIS. male, who think they find their account in decrying the practice Although the head is puſhed down into the pelvis, and the ver of their neighbours. It is not to be denied, that miſchief has been tex employed in opening the os externum, the forehead being lodged done by inſtruments in the hands of the unſkilful and unwary; but in the concavity formed by the coccyx and lower part of the ſa we are perſuaded that every judicious practitioner will do crum; yet frequently, after the labour-pain is abated, the head is thing for the ſafety of patients before he has recourſe to any vio? again withdrawn, by the naval-ſtring happening to be twiſted round lent method either with the hand or inſtrument, though caſes will the neck; or when the ſhoulders, inſtead of advancing, are re occur in with gentle methods will abfolutely fail. It is therefore tarded at the brim of the pelvis, one reſting over the offa pubis, neceſſary to explain thoſe reinforcements which muſt be ufed in while the other is fixed at the facrum; or when (the waters having dangerous labours ; though they ought by no means to be called been long evacuated) the under-part of the uterus contracts round in, except when the life of the motherorchild, or both, is evidently the neck and before the ſhoulders, keeping up the body of the child. at ſtake; and even then managed with the utmoſt caution, When the head is therefore drawn back by any of theſe obſta- All thoſe caſes in which the head of the child prefents, and can- cles, and the delivery hath been retarded during ſeveral pains, one not be delivered in the natural way, are accounted more or leſs la- or two fingers being introduced into the rectum before the pai: borious, according to the different circumſtances from which the goes off, ought to preſs upon the forehead of the child at the root difficulty ariſes: and theſe commonly are, firſt, great weakneſs, of the noſe, great care being taken to avoid the eyes ; this preſſure proceeding from the loſs of appetite and bad digeſtion ; frequent detains the head till the return of another pain, which will ſqueeze vomitings, diarrheas or dyſenteries, floodings, or any other dileaſe it further down, while the fingers puſhing ſlowly and gradually that may exhauſt the patient ; as alſo the fatigue ihe may have turn the forehead half round outwards and half round upwards. undergone by unſkilful treatment in the beginning of labour. Se- By this aſſiſtance, and the help of ſtrong pains, the child will be condly. From exceſſive grief and anxiety of mind, occafioned by forced along, although the neck be entangled in the navel-ftring: the unſcaſonable news of ſudden misfortune in time of labour'; for as the child advances the uterus contracts, and conſequently which often affect her fo as to carry off the pains, and endanger her the placenta is moved lower; the funis umbilicalis will alſo ſtretch | finking under the ſhock. Thirdly, From the rigidity of the os a little, without obſtructing the circulation. The head being thus uteri, vagina, and external parts, which commonly happens to wo- kept down, the ſhoulders too are preſſed in every ſucceeding pain men in the firſt birth, eſpecially to thoſe who are about the of until they are forced into the pelvis, when the whole comes along, forty: though it may be alſo owing to large calloſities, produced without further difficulty. And this expedient will, moreover, from laceration or ulceration of the parts; or to glands and fcirr- anſwer the purpoſe, when the under-part of the uterus or the hous tumours that block up the vagina. Fourthly, When the un- der os internum is contracted round the neck of the child, and before part of the uterus is contracted before the ſhoulders, or the the ſhoulders : alſo, when the head is very low, preſſing a finger body entangled in the naval-ſtring. Fifthly, From the wrong pre- on each ſide of the coccyx externally, will frequently aſlift in the fentation of the child's head: that is, when the forehead is towards fame manner ; alſo, in lingering caſes, when the woman is weak, the groin or middle of the os pubis; when the face preferits with the head large, or the pelvis narrow, you may afliſt the delivery by the chin to the os pubis, iſchium, or facrum; when the crown of gently ſtretching both the os externum and internum with your the head refts above the os pubis, and the forehead or face is preſſed fingers, in time of the pains, which will increaſe the ſame, as well into the hollow of the facrum; and laſtly, when one of the ears as dilate ; but this is only to be done when abſolutely neceſſary, preſents. Sixthly, From the extraordinary oflification of the and with caution and at intervals, for fear of inflaming or lace- child's head, by which the bones of the ſkull are hindered from rating the parts. Over and above theſe obſtacles, the head may yielding, as they are forced into the pelvis; and from a hydroce- be actually delivered, and the body retained by the contraction of phalus or dropſy, diſtending the head to ſuch a degree, that it can- the os externum round the neck, even after the face appears exter not paſs along until the water is diſcharged. Seventhiy, From a nally. In this caſe it was generally alledged that the neck was too ſmall or diſtorted pelvis, which often occurs in very little wo- clofé embraced by the os internum: but this ſeldom happens men, or ſuch as have been ricketty in their childhood. See fig. 31. when the head is delivered, becauſe then the os internum is kept In all theſe caſes, except when the pelvis is too narrow and the dilated on the back part and ſides by the breaſt and arms of the head too large, provided the head lies at the upper part of the brim, fætus, unleſs it be forced low down with or before the head. or (though presſed into the pelvis) can be eaſily be puſhed back into When the head is delivered, and the reſt of the body retained, the uterus, the beſt method is to turn the child and deliver by the from the largeneſs or wrong preſenting of the ſhoulders, or by the feet, according to the directions which thall be given in the ſeque!: navel-ftring's being twiſted round the body or neck of the child, butiftheheadis preſſed into the middle or lower part of the pelvis, the head muſt be graſped on each ſide, the thumbs being applied to and the uterus ſtrongly contracted round the child, delivery ought the occiput, the fore and middle fingers extended along each ſide to be performed with the forceps; and in all theſe ſeven caſes, if of the neck, while the third and fourth of each hand ſupport each the woman is in danger, and if you can neither turn nor deliver fide of the upper jaw: thus embraced, the head muſt be pulled with the forceps, the head muſt be open and delivered with the ſtraight forwards; and if it will not move eafily along, the force crotchets. Laborious caſes, from ſome of the above recited muſt be increaſed, and the direction varied from ſide to ſide, or cauſes, happen much oftener than thoſe we call preternatural ; rather from ſhoulder to ſhoulder, not by ſudden jerks, but with but thoſe which proceed from a narrow pelvis or a large head, arc a flow, firm, and equal motion. If the body cannot be moved in of the worſt conſequence. Theſe caſes demand greater judgment this manner, though you have exerted as much force as poſſible in the operator than thoſe in which the child's head does not pre- without running the riſk of over-itraining the neck, you muſt en- fent ; becauſe in theſe laſt we know that the beſt and fafeſt method deavour to flip the turns of the navel ſtring over the head. But is to deliver by the feet; whereas, in labourious births, we muſt fhould this be found impracticable, you ought not to trifle in tying maturely conſider the cauſe that retards the head from coming the ſtring at two places, and cutting betwixt the ligatures, as fome along, together with the neceſſary aſſiſtance required; we muſt de- people have adviſ d: ſuch an operation would engrofs too much termine when we ought to wait patiently for the efforts of nature, time; beſides, the child is in no danger of fuffocation from the and when it is abſolutely neceſſary to come to her aid. If we at: atempt age MIDWIFERY. terript toſuceour her too ſoon, and uſe much force in the operation, or uſe ; but the moſt uſeful of all theſe contrivances is a fillet, made fo that the child and mother, or one of the two, are loſt, we ſhall in form of a ſheath, mounted upen a piece of flender whalebone be apt to reproachourſelves for having acted prematurely, upon the about two feet in length, which is eaſier applied than any other ex- ſuppoſition that if we had waited a little longer the pains might pedient of the ſame kind. See the Plate of inſtruments, fig. 4. have by degrees delivered the child, or at leaſt forced the head fo When the head is high up in the pelvis, if the woman has been low as that we might have extracted it with more ſafety by the long in labour, and the waters diſcharged for a conſiderable time, ailiſtance of the forceps. On the other hand, when we leave it to the uterus being ſtrongly contracted fo as that the head and nature, perhaps, by the ſtrong preſſure upon the head and brain, the ſhoulders cannot be raiſed, or the child turned to be delivered by child is dead when delivered, and the woman fo exhauſted with the feet, while the mother is enfeebled and the pains fo weak, that, tedicus labour, that her life is in imminent danger: in this caſe we unleſs aſſiſted, ſhe is in danger of her life; alſo when the os inter- blame ourſelves for delaying our help ſo long, reflecting, that had num, vagina, and labia pudendi, are inflamed and tumefied; or we delivered the patient ſooner, without paying ſuch fcrupulous re when there is a violent diſcharge of blood from the uterus, pro- gard to the life of the child, the woman might have recovered vided the pelvis is not too narrow, nor the head too large, this Gillet without having run ſuch a dangerous riſk. Doubtleſs it is our may be ſucceſsfully uſed; in which caſe, if the os externum and duty to ſave both mother and child if poſſible; but, if that is im internum are not already ſufficiently open, they muſt be gradually practicable, to pay our chief regard to the patient; and, in all dubi dilated as much as poſſible by the hand, which at the ſame time ous caſes, to act cautiouſly and circumfpectly, to the beſt of our muſt be introduced, and paſſed along the ſide of the head, in order judgment and ſkill. lenie to afeertain the poſition thereof. This being known, let the other Ifthe head is advanced into the pelvis, and the uterus ſtronglycon- | hand introduce the double of the whalebene, and fillet overthe face tracted round the child, great force is required to puſh it back into and chin, where you can have the beſt purchaſe, and where it will the womb, becauſe the effort muſt be ſufficient to ſtretch the ute be leaſt apt to flip and looſe its hold. This application being ef- rus, ſo as to re-admit the head, together with your hand and arm; fected, let the hand be brought down, and the whalebone drawn and even then the child will be turned with great difficulty. Should from the ſheath of the fillet, which (after the ends of it are tied to- you turn when the head'is too large, you may bring down the body gether) muſt be pulled during every pain, preffing at the ſame time of the child, but the head will ſtick faſt above, and cannot be ex with the other hand upon the oppoſite part of the head, and uſing tracted without the help of the forceps or crochets, ſee fig. 38. 39. more or leſs force according to the reſiſtance. yet the caſe is ſtill worſe in a narrow pelvis, even though the head The diſadvantage attending all fillets, is the difficulty in intro- be of an ordinary ſize. When things are fo fituated, you ſhould ducing and fixing them: and though this laſt is eaſier applied than not attempt to turn, becauſe in ſo doing you may give the woman the others, yet when the vertex preſents, the child's chinis ſo preſſed a great deal of pain, and yourſelf much unneceſſary fatigue: you to the breaſt, that it is often impracticable to infinuate the fillet ought, therefore, to try the forceps; and if they do not ſucceed, di between them, and if is fixed upon the face or hind-head it fre- miniſh the fize of the head, and extract it as ſhall be afterwards quently flips off in pulling. But, granting it commodiouſly fixed, ſhown. when the head is large or the pelvis narrow, ſo that we are obliged SECT. II. Of the FILLETS and FORCEPS. to pull with great force; the fillet will gall and even cut the ſoft We have already obſerved, that the greateſt number of difficult parts of the very bone; and if the child comes out of a ſudden in and lingering labours proceed from the head's ſticking faſt in the conſequence of violent pulling, the external parts of the women pelvis, which ſituation is occaſioned by one of the ſeven cauſes re are in great danger of ſudden laceration : but if the head is ſmall, cited before. When formerly this was the caſe, the child was gene and comes along with a moderate force, the child may be delivered rally loft, unleſs it could be turned and delivered by the feet; or if by this contrivance, without any bad conſequence; though in this it could be extracted alive, either died ſoon after delivery, or reco- caſe, we find by experience, that unleſs the women has ſome very vered with great difficulty from the long and ſevere compreffion of dangerous ſymptom, the head will in time ſlide gradually down into the head, while the life of the mother was endangered from the the pelvis, even when it is too large to be extracted with the fillet ſame caufe as above deſcribed: for the preſſure being reciprocal, or forceps, and the child be ſafely delivered by the labour-pains, the fibres and veſſels of the ſoft part contained in the pelvis are although flow and lingering, and the mother ſeems weak and bruiſed by the child's head, and the circulation of the fluids ob exhauſted provided ſhe be ſupported with nouriſhing and ſtrengthen- ſtructed; fo that a violent inflammation, and ſometimes a ſudden ing cordials. mortification, enſues. If the child could not be turned, the me From what we have ſaid, the reader ought not to imagine that thod practiſed in theſe caſes was to open the head and extract with we are more bigotted to any one contrivance than to another. As the crotchet; and this expedient produced a general clamour among our chief ſtudy hath been to improve the art of Midwifery, we the women, who obſerved, that when recourſe was had to the af have conſidereda great many different methods, with a view of fix- fiſtance of a man-midwife, either the mother or child, or both, | ing upon that which ſhould beſt fucceed in practice: we have tried were loſt. This cenſure, which could not fail of being a great ſeveral kinds of lacks, which have been from time to time recom- diſcouragement to male practitioners, ſtimulated the ingenuity of mended to us ; and in particular the laſt mentioned fillet, which ſeveral gentlemen of the profeſſion, in order to contrive fome gent was communicated by an eminent profeſſor. As this fillet could, ler method of bringing along the head, ſo as to ſave the child, in all appearance, be more eaſily introduced than any without any prejudice to the mother. nerally found the fixing of this, as well as all other lacks, ſo uncer- Their endeavours have not been without ſucceſs: a more ſafe tain, that we have had recourſe to the forceps, which being intro and certain expedient for this purpoſe hath been invented, and of duced with greater eaſe, and fixed with more certainty, feldom late brought to greater perfection in this than in any other king- fail to anſwer the purpoſe better than dom ; ſo that if we are called in before the child is dead, or the found out. Dr. Smellie reprobates the uſe of this fillet ; but let parts of the woman in danger of mortification, both the fætus and not this affertion prevent people of ingenuity from employing mother may frequently be happily ſaved. This fortunate contri- their talents in improving theſe or any other methods that may vance is no other than the forceps, which was, as is alledged, firſt be fafe and uſeful ; for daily experience proves that we are ſtill uſed here by the Chamberlains, by which it was kept asa noſtrum, imperfect, and very far from the ne plus ultra of diſcovery in and after their deceaſe ſo imperfectly known as to be feldom ap arts and ſciences; though we hope every gentleman will defpiſo plied with ſucceſs: ſo that different practitioners had recourſe to and avoid the character of a ſelfiſh ſecret-monger. different kinds of fillets or lacks. Blunt hooks alſo of various As the head in the 6th and 7th caſes, recited in Sect. I. is forced make were invented in England, France, and other parts. The along the pelvis, commonly in theſe laborious caſes the bones of forceps, ſince the time of Dr. Chamberlain, have undergone feve the cranium are ſo compreſſed, that they ride over one another, ſo ral alterations, particularly in the joining, handles, form, and that the bulk of the whole is diminiſhed, and the head, as it is compofition. puſhed forward, is, from a round, altered into an oblong figure : The common way of uſing them formerly was by introducing when therefore it is advanced into the pelvis, where it ſticks faſt each blade at random, taking hold of the head any how, pulling for a conſiderabletime, and car not be delivered by the labour-pains, it ſtraight along, and delivering with downright force and violence: the foreceps may be introduced with great eaſe and ſafety, like a by which means both the os internumandexternum were often tore, pair of artificial hands, by which the head is very little (if at all) and the child's head much bruiſed. On account of theſe bad con marked, and the woman very feldom tore. But if the head is de- fequences, they had been altogether diſuſed by many practitioners, tained above the brim of the pelvis, or a ſmall portion of it only fome of whom endeavoured in lieu of them to introduce divers | farther advanced, and it appears that the one being too narrow, or kinds of fillets over the child's head; but none of them can be fo the other too large, the woman cannot be delivered by the ſtrongeſt caſily uſed, or have near ſo many advantages, as the forceps, when | labour-pains: in that caſe, the child cannot be ſaved, either by turn- rightly applied and conducted, according to the directions that ſhall ing and bringing it by the feet, or delivered by the application of be laid down in the next ſection. fillet or forceps; but the operator muſt unavoidably uſe the diſa' The lacks or fillets are of different kinds, of which the moſt ſim- grecable method of extracting with the crotchet. Nevertheleſs, in ple is a nooſe made on the end of a fillet or limber garter; but this all theſe caſes, the foreceps ought firſt to be tried ; and ſometimes can only be applied before the head is faſt jammed in the pelvis, or they will ſucceed beyond expectation, provided the birth is retarded when it can be puſhed up and raiſed above the brim. The os ex by the weakneſs of the woman, and the ſecond, third, fourth, or ternum and internum having been gradually dilated, this noofe fifth obſtructions, mentioned in Sect. I. But they cannot be de- muſt be conveyed on the ends of the fingers, and flipped over the pended upon, even when the vertex preſents, with the forehead to fore and hind-head. There are alſo other kinds differently intro the ſide or back part of the pelvis, and though the woman has had duced upon various blunt inſtruments, too tedious eitherto deſcribe ſtrong pains for many hours after the membranes are broke the other, wege- head MIDWIFERY. fig. 19 and 22. too See fig. 19. head is not forced down into the pelvis, or at leaſt but an inconſi on her back, with her breech a little over the bed, her legs and derable part of it, reſembling the ſmall end of a ſugar loaf, as in thighs being ſupported as directed. If one ear is to the ſacrum, For, from theſe circumſtances, you may con and the other to the pubes, ſhe muſt be laid on one ſide, with her clude, that the largeſt part of it is ſtill above the brim, and that breech over the bed, as before, her knees being pulled up to her either the head is too large, or the pelvis too narrow. Even in belly, and a pillow placed between them; except when the up- theſe caſes, indeed, the laſt fillet, or a long pair of forceps, may per part of the facrum jets too much forward, in which caſe the take ſuch firm hold, that with great force and the ſtrong purchaſe muſt lie upon her back, as before deſcribed. the head will be delivered: but ſuch violence is commonly fatal The blades of the forceps ought always, if poſſible, to be in- to the woman, by cauſing ſuch an inflammation, and perhaps la- troduced along the ears ; by which means they approach nearer ceration of the parts, as is attended with mortification. In order to each other, gain a firmer hold, and hurt the head leſs than in to diſable young practitioners from running ſuch riſks and uſing any other direction : frequently, indeed, not the leaſt mark of great a force, Dr. Smellie recommends the forceps ſo ſhort in their application is to be perceived ; whereas, if the blades are the handle, that they cannot be uſed with ſuch violence as will applied along the forehead and occiput, they are at a great diſtance endanger the woman's life; though the purchaſe of them is ſuffi- from each other, require more room, frequently at their points cient to extract the head when one half or two-thirds of it are preſs in the bones of the ſkull, and endanger a laceration in the equal to, or paſt the upper or narrow part of the pelvis. os externum of the woman. When the head is high, the forceps may be locked in the mid The woman being laid in a right poſition for the application of dle of the pelvis; but in that caſe great care muſt be taken in the forceps, the blades ought to be privately conveyed between the feeling with the fingers all round, that no part of the vagina be feather-bed and the cloaths, at a ſmall diſtance from one another, included in locking. Sometimes, when the head reſts, or is preſſed or on each ſide of the patient; that this conveyance may be the too much on the fore-part or ſide of the pelvis, either at the brim more eaſily effected, the legs of the inſtrument ought to be kept or lower down, by introducing one blade it may be removed far- | in the operator's ſide-pockets. Thus provided, when he ſits down ther down, provided the labour-pains are ſtrong, and the opera to deliver, let him ſpread the ſheet that hangs over the bed, upon tion aſſiſted by the fingers of the other hand applied to the oppo- his lap, and, under that cover, take out and diſpoſe the blades on ſite ſide of the head; but if the fingers cannot reach high enough, each ſide of the patient; by which means he will often be able the beſt method is to turn or move the blade towards the ear of to deliver with the forceps, without their being perceived by the the child, and introduce the other along the oppoſite ſide. woman herſelf or any other of the aſſiſtants. Some people pin a In a narrow pelvis we have fometimes found the head of the ſheet to each ſhoulder, and throw the other end over the bed, that child thrown ſo much forward over the os pubis, by the jetting in they may be the more effectually concealed from the view of of the facrum and lower vertebra of the loins, that we could not thoſe who are preſent : but this method is apt to confine and em- puſh the handles of the forceps far enough back to include within barrafs the operator. At any rate, as women are commonly the blades the bulky part of the head which lay over the pubes. frightened at the very name of an inſtrument, it is adviſable to To remedy this inconvenience, Dr. Smellie contrived a longer conceal them as much as poſſible, until the character of the ope- pair, curved on one ſide, and convex on the other ; but theſe rator is fully eſtabliſhed. ought never to be uſed except when the head is ſmall; for, as The ſum of all that has been ſaid on this head, may be com- we have already obſerved, when the head is large, and the greateſt prehended in the following general maxims. Young practitioners part of it remains above the brim, the parts of the woman may are often at a loſs to know and judge by the touch in the vagina, be inflamed and contuſed by the exertion of too much force. Ne- when the head is far enough down in the baſin for uſing the for- vertheleſs, this kind of forceps may be advantageouſly uſed when ceps. If we are to take our obſervations from what we feel of the face preſents and is low down, and the chin turned to the fa- the head at the os pubis, we ſhould be frequently deceived, be- crum ; becauſe, in that caſe, the occiput is towards the pubes, cauſe in that place the pelvis is only two inches in depth, and the ſo that the ends of the blades can take firmer hold of the head head will ſeem lower down than it really is : but if, in examining but then the chin cannot be turned below the pubes fo eaſily with backwards, we find little or ne part of it towards the facrum, we theſe as with the other kind, nor the hind-head be brought below may be certain that all the head is above the brim : if we find it theſe laſt bones. See fig. 29. down as far as the middle of the facrum, one third of it is ad- SECT. III. General Rules for Uſing the FORCEPS. vanced; if as far down as the lower part, one half; and in this caſe, the largeſt part is equal with the brim. When it is in this The farther the head is advanced in the pelvis, the eaſieritis de ſituation, we may be almoſt certain of ſucceeding with the for- livered with the forceps; becauſe then, as in the 6th or 7th caſe, ceps; and when the head is ſo low as to protrude the external in Sect. I. it is changed from a round to an oblong figure, by be- parts, they never fail. But theſe things will differ according to dif- ing forced along by the labour-pains; on the contrary, when the ferent circumſtances, that may occaſion a tedious delivery. head remains high up, reſting upon the brim of the pelvis, the Let the operator acquire an accurate knowledge of the figure, forceps are uſed with greater difficulty and uncertainty. ſhape, and dimenfions of the pelvis, together with the ſhape, ſize, The os externum muſt be gradually opened by introducing the and poſition of the child's head. Let the breech of the woman be fingers one after another in form of a cone, after they have been always brought forwards a little over the bed, and her thighs pul- lubricated with pomatum, moving and turning them in a ſemi led up to her belly, whether ſhe lies on her ſide or back, to give circular motion, as they are puſhed up. If the head is ſo low room to apply and to move the forceps up or down or from lide down that the hand cannot be introduced high up in this form, to ſide. Let the parts be opened and the fingers paſs the os inter- let the parts be dilated by the fingers turned in the direction of the num; in order to which, if it cannot be otherwiſe accompliſhed, coccyx, the back of the hand being upwards, next to the child's let the head be raiſed two or three inches, that the fingers may have head; the external parts being ſufficiently opened to admit all the more room: if the head can be raiſed above the brim, your hand is fingers, let the back of the hand be turned to the perinæum, while not confined by the bones; for, as we have already obſerved, the the fingers and thumb, being flattened, will fide along betwixt the pelvis is wider from ſide to ſide at the brim than at the lower part: head and the os facrum. If the right-hand be uſed, let it be if the fingers are not paſt the os uteri, it is in danger of being in- turned a little to the left ſide of the pelvis, becauſe the broad liga-cluded betwixt the forceps and the child's head. ment and membrane that fill up the ſpace between the facrum and The forceps, if poſſible, ſhould paſs along the cars, becauſe in iſchia, will yield and allow more room for the fingers to advance; that caſe they feldom or never hurt or mark the head. They for the ſame reaſon, when the left hand is introduced, it muſt be ought to be puſhed up in any imaginary line, towards the middle turned a little to the right ſide. Having gained your point ſo far, ſpace between the navel and ſcrobiculus cordis, otherwiſe the ends continue to puſh up, until your fingers paſs the os internum; at will run againſt the ſacrum. The forehead ought always to be the ſame time, with the palm of your hand, raiſe or ſcoop up the turned into the hollow of the facrum, when it is not already in that head, by which means you will be more at liberty to reach higher; ſituation. When the face preſents, the chin muſt be turned to dilate the internal parts, and diſtinguiſh the ſituation and ſize of below the os pubis, and the hind-head into the hollow of the fa- the head, together with the dimenſions of the pelvis: from which crum. When the ſhoulders reſt at the pubes, where they are de- inveſtigation you will be able to judge whether the child ought tained, the head muſt be turned a large quarter to the oppoſite to be turned and brought by the feet, or delivered with the for- fide, ſo as that they may lie towards the ſides of the pelvis. The ceps; or, if the labour-pains are ſtrong, and the head preſents head muſt be always brought out with an half round turn, over tolerably fair, without being jammed in the pelvis, you will re the outſide of the os pubis, for the preſervation of the perinæum, folve to wait ſome time, in hope of ſeeing the child delivered by which muſt at the ſame time be ſupported with the flat of the the labour-pains, eſpecially when the woman is in no immediate other hand, and ſlide gently backwards over the head. danger, and the chief obſtacle is the rigidity of the parts. When the head is ſo low as to protrude the parts in form of a The poſition of the head is diſtinguiſhed by feeling for one of large tumour, and the vertex hath begun to dilate the os externum, the ears, the fore or ſmooth part of which is towards the face of but, inſtead of advancing, is long detained in that ſituation, from the child if it cannot be aſcertained by this mark, the hands and any of the forementioned cauſes of laborious caſes, and the ope- fingers muſt be puſhed farther up, to feel for the face or back part rator cannot exactly diſtinguiſh the poſition of the head, let him of the neck; but if the head cannot be traced, the obſervation muſt introduce a finger between the os pubis and the head, and he will be taken from the fontanel or that part of the cranium where the frequently find the back-part of the neck, or one ear, at the fore- lambdoidal croſſes the end of the fagittal ſuiure. When the ears part or towards the fide of the pelvis. When the fituation is of the child are towards the fides of the pelvis, or diagonal, the known, he needs not ſtretch the os externum, and raiſe the head, forehead being either to the facrum or pubes, the patient muſt lie as formerly directed; but he may introduce the forceps, and, they * 7 Q being No. 107 MIDWIFERY. ope. being properly joined and their handles tied, pull gently during SECT. IV. The ſigns of a dead Child. every pain, or, if the pains are gone, at the interval of four or five When the head preſents, and cannot be dJivered by the labour- minutes, that the parts may be ſlowly dilated, as they are in the pains ; when all the common methods have been uſed without natural labour: but when the ſituation cannot be known, the head | ſucceſs, the woman being exhauſted, and all her efforts vain; and ought to be raiſed. The ſame method may alſo be taken when the when the child cannot be delivered without ſuch force as willen- face preſents, and is low in the pelvis, except when the chin is to danger the life of the mother, becauſe the head is too large or the ward the back-part : in this caſe the head ought to be raiſed like-pelvis too narrow; it then becomes abſolutely neceſſary to open wiſe. Almoſt all theſe directions are to be followed, except when the head and extract with the hand, forceps or crotchet. In- the head is ſmall; in which caſe it may be brought along by the deed, this laſt method formerly was the common practice when force of pulling: but this only happens when the woman is re the child could not be eaſily turned, and is ſtill in uſe with thoſe duced, and the labour-pains are not fufficient to deliver the child; who do not know how to ſave the child by delivering with the for the lower part of the uterus may be ſo ſtrongly contracted be- forceps : for this reaſon their chief care and ſtudy was to diſtin- fore the ſhoulders, and ſo cloſe to the neck of the child, as to pre- guiſh whether the fætus was dead or alive; and as the ſigns were vent its advancing, even when the head is fo looſe in the pelvis, uncertain, the operation was often delayed until the woman was that we can ſometimes puſh our fingers all round it: and this is in imminent danger; or, when it was performed ſooner, the ofteneſt the occaſion of preventing the head’s being delivered when rator was frequently accuſed of raſhneſs, on the ſuppoſition that low in the pelvis. This difficuity, when high up, is from the re the child might in time have been delivered alive by the labour- ſtraint at the brim; and when it paffes that, the head is feldom pains. Perhaps he was ſometimes conſcious to himſelf of the retained in the lower part, unleſs the patient is weak. In this caſe juſtice of this imputation, although what he had done was with we need not wait, becauſe we are commonly certain of relieving an upright intention: the woman immediately with the forceps, by which you prevent The figns of a dead fætus are, firſt, The child's ceaſing to the danger that may happen, both to the mother and child, by the move and ſtir in the uterus. Secondly, The evacuation of meco- head's continuing to lodge there too long. This caſe ſhould be a nium, though the breech is not preſſed into the pelvis. Thirdly, caution againſt breaking the membranes too ſoon, becauſe the ute No perceivable pulſation at the fontanel and temporal arteries. rus may contract too forcibly and too long before the ſhoulders : Fourthly, A large ſwelling or tumour of the hairy ſcalp. Fifthly, when the head in this caſe is advanced one-third or half way on An uncommon laxity of the bones of the cranium. Sixthly, The the os externum, if the pains are ſtrong, this laſt inconvenience diſcharge of a fætid ichor from the vagina, the effluvia of which is frequently remedied by introducing your two fingers into the furrounding the woman, gave riſe to the opinion that her breath rectum, as formerly directed. By theſe rules, delivery may (for conveyed a mortified ſmell. Seventhly, Want of motion in the the moſt part) be performed with eaſe and ſafety. Neverthelefs tongue when the face preſents. Eighthly, No perceivable pulfa- the head is ſometimes ſo ſqueezed and locked in the pelvis, and tion in the arteries of the funis umbilicalis, when it falls down the hairy ſcalp ſo much ſwelled, that it is impracticable to below the head ; nor at the wrifi, when the arm prefents; and raiſe up the head ſo as to come at the ears or os internum, or to no motion of the fingers. Ninthly, The pale and livid counte- diſtinguiſh the futures of the ſkull fo as to know how the head nance of the woman. Tenthly, A collapſing and flaccidity of the preſents. In this caſe the forceps muft be introduced at random, breaſts. Eleventhly, A coldneſs felt in the abdomen, and weight, and the uncertainty of the poſition generally removed by remem from the child's falling, like a heavy ball, to the ſide on which hering, that in thofe caſes where the head is ſqueezed down with the lies. Twelfthly, a ſeparation of the hairy ſcalp on the flighteſt great difficulty, the ears are for the moſt part towards the os pubis touch, and a diſtinct perception of the bare bones. All or moſt and facrum; and that the forehead feldom turns into the hollow of theſe ſigns are dubious and uncertain, except the laſt, which of the ſacrum, before the occiput is come down to the lower part can only be obſerved after the foetus hath been dead ſeveral days. of the iſchium ; and then riſes gradually towards the under part One may alfo certainly pronounce the child's death, if no pulſa- of the os pubis, and the perinæum and anus are forced down be tion hath been felt in the navel-ſtring for the ſpace of twenty or fore it in form of a large tumour. thirty minutes ; but the fame certainty is not to be acquired from On ſuch occafions, the woman being laid on her ſide, if one car the arm, unleſs the ſkin can be ſtripped off with eaſe. is to the ſacrum and the other to the os pubis, the blades of the SECT. V. When the CROTCHET is to be uſed. forceps are to be introduced; and if they meet with any reſiſtance at MIDWIFERY is now much improved, that the neceſſity of the points, they muſt not be forcibly thruſt up, left they paſs on deſtroying the child does not occur ſo often as formerly. Indeed the outſide of the os uteri and tear the vagina, which together with it never ſhould be done, except when it is impoſſible to turn or the womb would be included in the inſtrument and pulled along to deliver with the forceps ; and this is feldom the cafe but when with the head : for this reaſon, if the blade does not eafily paſs, let the pelvis is too narrow, or the head too large to paſs, and there- it be withdrawn a little downwards, as before directed, and puſhed fore reſts above the brim. fore reſts above the brim. For this reaſon, it is not ſo neceſſary up again, moving the point cloſe to the head; if the car obſtructs for the operator to puzzle himſelf about dubious ſigns ; becauſe, its paſſage, let the point be brought a little outwards: and by theſe in theſe two caſes, there is no room for heſitation : for if the wo- cautious efſays it will at length paſs without further reſiſtance, man cannot poſibly be delivered in ony other way, and is in im- and ought to be advanced a conſiderable way, in order to certify minent danger of her life, the beſt practice is undoubtedly to have the operator that he is not on the outſide of the os internuni. recourſe to that method which alone can be uſed for the preſerva- When the forceps are fixed, and the operator uncertain tion, namely to diminiſh the bulk of the head. In this caſe, in- the forehead lies, let him pull ſlowly, and move the ſtead of deſtroying, you are really faving a life; for, if the opera- head with a quarter-turn, firſt to one fide and then to the other, tion be delayed, both mother and child are loſt. until he ſhall have found the direction in which it comes moſt SECT. VI. Method of extracting the Head. eaſily along. If at any time we find the forceps begin to flip, we Various have been the contrivances intended for this purpoſe. mult reft and puſh them up again gently: but if they are like to Some practitioners, when the head did not advance in the pelvis, Nide off at a fide, untie the handles, and move them ſo as to take introduced the Speculum matricis, in order to ſtretch the bones a firmer hold, fix as before, and deliver. If we are obliged to afunder, and thereby increaſe the capacity of the baſin: if, after hold with both hands, the parts may be fupported by the firm ap this operation, the woman could not be delivered with her pains, plication of an aſſiſtant's hand: for without ſuch cautious ma- they fixed a large ſcrew in the head, by which they pulled with nagement they will run a great riſk of being lacerated ; a mif- great force. Others opened the head with a large biſtory, or a fortune which rarely happens when the perinæum is properly ſhort broad-bladed knife in form of a myrtle leaf, or with a crooked preſſed back, and the head leiſurely delivered. Sometimes, when biſtory with a long handle: then a ſmall pair of forceps with teeth the head is brought low down, you may take off the forceps, and were introduced : and one blade being inſinuated into the opening help along with your fingers on each ſide of the coccyx, or in the they laid hold on the ſkull, and pulled the head along: they like- rectum, as directed in the natural labour. wife made uſe of different kinds of crotchets both ſharp and blunt: If the head is low down, the ears are commonly diagonal, or to and when the head was lower down, they practiſed the ſame expe- the ſides; and when the head is brought down one-third or one dient, Albucaſis has alſo given the draught of an inſtrument, half through the os externum, the operator can then certify him which is both for opening and extracting the head; the point and ſelf whether the forehead is turned to the coccyx or os pubis, by wings are forced through the cranium, and when turned the con- feeling with his finger for the back-part of the neck or ear, be trary way, the two wings are forced to take hold of the inſide. twixt the os pubis and the head ; and then move the head as above There are other later contrivances uſed and recommended by directed. I et him try to alter with his hand every bad poſition of different gentlemen of the profeſſion, ſuch as Mauriceau's tire-tête, the head; and if it be detained high up in the pelvis, in conſe- Simpſon's ſcalp-ring, and Old's terebra occulta with the improve- quence of the woman's weakneſs, the rigidity of the parts, the cir ment made in it by Dr. Burton of York: and all theſe inítru- cumvolutions or ſhortneſs of the funis, or the contraction of the ments may be uſed with ſucceſs, if cautiouſly managed, fo as not uterus over the ſhoulders of the child, the forceps will frequently to injure the woman ; except the ſpeculum matricis, which is far fucceed when the fætus cannot be turned; but if the head is large from anſwering the ſuppoſed intention of it, namely, to extend or the pelvis narrow, the child is feldom ſaved either by turning the bones of the pelvis, can ſerve no other purpoſe than that of or uſing the forceps, until the head ſhall be farther advanced. bruiſing or inflaming the parts of the woman. And here it will not be amiſs to obſerve, that the blades of the The following method, if exactly followed according to the forceps ought to be new-covered with ſtripes of waſhed leather circumſtances of the caſe, feems, of all others hitherto invented, after they ſhall have been uſed, eſpecially in delivering a woman the eaſieſt, fafeſt, and moſt certain, eſpecially when it requires fufpected of having an infectious diſtemper. great force to extract the head. SECT which way MIDWIFERY: try SECT. VII. The Method of uſing the Scissors; Blunt Hook, pelvis during the operation, which ought to be performed ſlowly; and CROTCHET. with great judgment and caution : and from hence it appears abfo- When the head preſents, and ſuch is the caſe that the child can | lutely neceffary to know how the head preſents, in order to judge neither be delivered by turning nor extracted with the forceps, how the crotchet muſt be fixed, and the head brought along to the and it is abſolutely neceſſary to deliver the woman to ſave her beſt advantage. Sometimes, in theſe caſes, when we find that we life; this operation muſt then be performed in the following man cannot fucceed by pulling at the opening with the fingers, and if ner. The operator muſt be provided with a pair of curved crot the woman has not had ſtro g pains, we introduce the ſmall end chets, made according to the improvements upon thoſe propoſed of the blunt hook into the opening, and placing the fingers againſt by Meſnard, together with a pair of ſciſſars about nine inches long, the point on the outſide of the ſkull, pull with greater and greater with reſts near the middle of the blades, and the blunt hook. force: but, as we can ſeldom take a firm hold in this manner, if Of the Woman's Poſture. it does not ſoon anſwer the purpoſe, we introduce the fingers, as The patient ought to be laid on her back or ſide, in the ſame above, farther, and ſlide the point up along the outſide above the poſition directed in the uſe of the forceps ; the operator muſt be under jaw; and have ſucceeded ſeveral times with this inſtrument, feated on a low chair, and the inſtruments concealed and diſpoſed except when the pelvis was ſo narrow as to require a greater force; in the fame manner and for the ſame reaſon mentioned in treating when we muſt uſe the others, No doubt; it is better firſt to the of the forceps. The parts of the woman have already, in all like- of the woman have already, in all like- blunt hook ; becauſe the managing the point gives leſs trouble, and lihood, been ſufficiently dilated by his endeavours to turn or deli it can be eaſier introduced with the point to one fide. When ver with the forceps: or if no efforts of that kind have been uſed, the inſtrument is far enough advanced, this point may be turned to becauſe by the touch he had learned that no ſuch endeavours the head ; and a very narrow pelvis feldom occurs, the blunt would ſucceed, as in the caſe of a large hydrocephalus, when the hook will commonly ſucceed. bones of the cranium are often ſeparated at a great diſtance from Dr. Smellie mentions in his laſt treatiſe a ſheath to cover the each other, or upon perceiving that the pelvis was extremely nar- | Tharp point of the curved crotchets, which may be introduced and row; if, upon theſe conſiderations, he hath made no trials in uſed in the ſame manner as the blunt hook; the ſheath may be which the parts were opened, let him gradually dilate the os ex taken off or kept on as there is occaſion. ternum and internum, as formerly directed. If, when the head is delivered in this manner, the body cannot The head is commonly kept down pretty firm, by the ſtrong be extracted, on account of its being much ſwelled, of a monſtrous contraction of the uterus round the child; but ſhould it yield to one ſize, or (which is moſt commonly the caſe) the narrowneſs of the ſide, let it be kept ſteady by the hand of an aſſiſtant, preſſing upon pelvis ; let the operator defiſt from pulling, leſt the head ſhould be the belly of the woman: let him introduce his hand, and preſs two ſeparated from the body, and, introducing one hand ſo as to reach fingers againſt one of the futures of the cranium; then take out his with his fingers to the shoulder-blades or breaſt, conduct along it fciffars from the place in which they were depoſited, and guiding one of the crotchets, with the point towards the fætus, and fix it them by the hand and fingers till they reach the hairy ſcalp, puih with a firm application ; then withdrawing his hand, employ it them gradually into it, until their progreſs is itopped by the reſts. in pulling the crotchet, while the other is exerted in the ſame man- If the head Nips aſide, in ſuch a manner as that they cannot be ner upon the head and neck of the child; if the inſtrument begins puſhed into the ſkull at the future, they will make their way to loſe its hold, he mult puíh it further up, and fixing it again, re- through the ſolid bones, if they are moved in a ſemicircular turn, peat his efforts, applying it ſtill higher and higher, until the body like the motion of boring, and this method continued till you is extracted. find the point firmly fixed; for if this is not obſerved, the points Some writers direct us to introduce the crotchet within theſkull, ſlide along the bones. and preſſing one hand againſt the point in the outſide, pull along. The ſciſſars ought to be ſo ſharp at the points, as to penetrate But this is a trifling expedient; and if a good deal of force is uſed, the integuments and bones when puſhed with a moderate force; the inſtrument tears through the thin bones, and hurts the opera- but not ſo keen as to cut the operator's fingers, or the vagina, in tor's hand or the woman's vagina, if not both. Whereas, in the introducing them. other method there is much more certainty, and a better purchaſe The ſciſſars being thus forced into the brain, as far as the reſts to force along the head, which collapſes and is diminiſhed as the at the middle of the blades, let them be kept firm in that fituation; brain is diſcharged, and never comes down in a broad flattened and the hand that was in the vagina being withdrawn, the operator form, according to the allegations of ſome people, whoſe ideas of muſt take hold of the handles with each hand, and pull them aſun theſe things are imperfect and confuſed: for if this were the caſe, der, that the blades may dilate and make a large opening in the the ſame would happen when the head is forced down from be- then they muſt be ſhut, turned, and again pulled aſunder, fo hind with labour-pains into a narrow pelvis, becauſe the preſſure as to make the inciſion crucial; by which means the opening will in both caſes, acts in the ſame direction; whereas we always find, be enlarged, and fufficient room made for the introduction of the both in the one and the other, that the vertex is protruded in a fingers; let them afterwards be cloſed, and introduced even beyond narrow point, and the whole head ſqueezed into a longiſh form. the reſts, when they muſt again be opened, and turned half round Dr. Smellie obſerves in his treatiſe that though many people have from ſide to ſide, until the ſtructure of the brain is ſo effectually exclaimed againſt the crotchets as dangerousinſtruments, from ig- deſtroyed, that it can be evacuated with eaſe. This operation norance, want of experience, or a worſe principle, as formerly ob- heing performed, let the ſciſſars be ſhut and withdrawn; but if | ſerved; yet Dr. Smellieagain obſerves, that they either tore or hurt this inſtrument will not anſwer the laſt purpoſe, the buſineſs may the parts of a woman with that inſtrument. He has indeed fe- be done by introducing the crotchet within the opening of the ſkull. veral times hurt the inſide of his hand by their giving way; till he The brain being thus deſtroyed, and the inſtrument withdrawn, had recourſe to the curve kind, which in many reſpects have the let him introduce his right hand into the vagina, and two fingers advantage of the ſtraight; and he is perſuaded if managed as above into the opening which hath been made, that if any ſharp ſplinters directed, will never injure the patient. of the bones remain, they may be broken off and taken out, leſt Indeed, young practitioners, till they are better informed by cuf- they ſhould injurethe woman's vagina, or the operator’sown fingers. tom and practice, may, after the head is opened, try to extract it If the caſe be an hydrocephalus, let him fix his fingers on the with the ſmall or large forceps; and if it is not very large, or the inſide and his thumb on the outſide of the openirg, and endeavour pelvis very narrow, they may deliver by ſqueezing and leſſening to pull along the ſkull in time of a pain: but if the labour is weak, the head; the head; but, in his courſe of pactice, he has been concerned he muſt deſire the woman to aſſiſt his endeavours by forcing down: in many caſes, where the pelvis was ſo diſtorted and narrow, and thus the child is frequently delivered : becauſe, the water be- that, even ofter opening the head largely, he has pulled at the bones ing evacuated, the head collapſes of courſe. in time of ſtrong pains, but all to no purpoſe, although ſome of But when the pelvis is narrow, the head requires much greater them actually came away. Nay, after fixing a crotchet firmly force to be brought along ; unleſs the labour-pains are ſtrong above or near the chin or baſis of the ſkull, and uſing a good deal enough to preſs it down and diminiſh it by ſqueezing out the cere of force, he had not been able to move the head lower, till at laſt brum : in this caſe, let the operator withdraw his fingers from the he was obliged to introduce the other, and by intervals increaſe the opening, and ſliding them along the head, paſs the os uteri ; then, force of pulling to the utmoſt of his ſtrength and before we had with his left-hand, taking one of the crotchets from the place of the curve crotchet, he had been fo fatigued from the ſtraight kind its concealment, introduce it along his right hand, with the point ftipping their ſmall hold fo often, that he had ſcarcely been able to towards the child's head, and fix it above the chin in the mouth, move his fingers or arms for many hours after; and if this force back part of the neck, or above the ears, or in any place where it had not been uſed, the mother muſt have been loſt as well as the will take firm hold; having fixed the inſtrument, let him withdraw child. See fig. 31, 32. his right-hand, and with it take hold on the end or handle of the PART, VII. crotchet, then introduce his left to ſeize the bones at the opening PRETERNATURAL LABOURS. of the ſkull (as above directed), that the head may be kept ſteady, Preternatural labour happens when, inſtead of the head, fome and pull along with both hands. other part of the body preſents to the os uteri. It has been thought If the head is ſtill retained by the uncommon narrowneſs of the by ſome, that all labours in which the forceps and crotchets are uſed pelvis, let him introduce his left-hand along the oppoſite ſide, in ought to be ranked in this claſs, becauſe the head is certainly de- order to guide the other crotchet ; which being alſo applied, and livered by preternatural means; and that, when the feet or breech locked or joined with its fellow in the manner of the forceps, he preſent, and the women is delivered without any other aſſiſtance muſt pull with ſufficient force, moving from ſide to ſide, and as it than that of labour-pains, the caſe ought to be accounted natural. advances: turn the forehead into the hollow of the ſacrum,and ex- | However, this divifion would embarraſs and confuſe the young be- tract it with the forceps, humouring the ſhape of the head and ginners more than the other which we have choſen to follow, namely, ſkull; 8 MIDWIFER Y. may be namely, that of reckoning by the manner in which the child is de- , remembering to raiſe the forehead dowly from the perinzum, livered, and calling all thoſe births preternatural in which the body which may be preſſed back with the fingers of his other hand. is delivered before the head. Preternatural labours are more or In the caſe of a narrow pelvis or large head, which cannot be leſs difficult according to the preſentation of the child, and the con- brought aleng without the riſk of overſtraining the neck, let him traction of the uterus round its body. The nearer the head and ſlide up his fingers and hand into the vagina, and bring down one ſhoulders are to the os internum or lower part of the uterus, the of the child's arms, at the ſame time pulling the body to the con. more difficult is the caſe; whereas when the head is towards the trary ſide, by which means the ſhoulders will be brought lower fundus, and the feet or breech near the os internum, it is more down: let him run his fingers along the arm, until they reach the eaſy to turn and deliver. elbow, which muſt be pulled downwards with an half-round turn To begin with the eafieſt of theſe it proper to divide to the other ſide, below the breaſt. This muſt not be done with a them into three diviſions. Firſt, how to manage when the feet, jerk, but fowly and cautiouſly, in order jerk, but flowly and cautiouſly, in order to prevent the diſlocation, breech, or lower parts preſent. Secondly, how to behave in vio behind, or breaking, of the child's arm. lent floodings; and, when the child preſents wrong before the mem Let him again guide his fingers into the child's mouth, and try trancs are broke, how to ſave the watersin the uterus, that the fætus if the head will come along; if this will not fucceed, let the body may be the more eaſily turned ; and what method to follow even be pulled to the other ſide, ſo as to bring down the other ſhoulder; after the membranes are broke, when all the waters are not eva then flide up his left-hand, and, extracting the otherarm, endeavour cualed. Thirdly, how to deliver when the uterus is ſtrongly con to deliver the head. If one finger of his right hand be fixed in tracted, and the child preſenting either with the fore or back parts, the child's mouth, let the body reſt on that arm; let him place the and lying in a circular form ; or with the ſhoulders, breaft, neck, left-hand above the fhoulders, and put a finger on cach ſide of the face, ear, or vertex, and lying in a longiſh form, with the feet and neck : if the forehead is towards one ſide at the upper part of the breech towards the fundus of the womb, which is contracted like a pelvis, let him pull it lower down, and gradually turn it into the long ſheath, cloſe to the body of the fætus; and when the fore hollow of the facrum ; then ſtand up, and in pulling raiſe the parts of the child lie towards the fide, fundus, fore or back-part body fo as to bring out the head in an half-round turn, as above of the uterus. directed. We fometimes meet with pendulous bellies, in which the os Daventer and others, from a miſtaken notion that the chief re- uteri is farther back than uſual; but even in theſe caſes, when the ſiſtance is at the coccyx or lower part of the pelvis, have directed head is not very large, nor the pelvis narrow, and the patient is vi us to preſs the ſhoulders of the child downwards, ſo as to bring the gorous and the labour-pains ſtrong, the woman, with a little pati- hindhead firſt from below the os pubis: not conſidering that the ence, is for the moſt part ſafely delivered without any other than reſiſtance is occaſioned by the thickeſt part of the head being de- common aſſiſtance: or ſhould the caſe prove tedious, ſhe may be tained at the upper part of the pelvis, where the loweſt vertebra of affifted in time of a pain by introducing one or two fingers into the the loins and the upper part of the facrum jet inwards; and that, os uteri, and gradually bringing it more forwards. When the belly until the forehead hath paſſed into the hollow of the facrum, this is very pendulous, change of poſition from time to time is of method cannot fucceed. The buſineſs, therefore, is to pull up- ſervice, eſpecially lying upon her back, with the ſhoulders low and wards at the back part of the neck, which reſts againſt the under- the breech raiſed. In women that are diſtorted, when one ilium is part of the os pubis ; and by this exertion, the forehead, which is much lower than the other, the fundus uteri will be turned to the high up, will be brought down with a circular turn; after which low ſide; but there the chief difficulty will proceed from the nar the head ſeldom ſtops, and the ſame circular motion is ſtill the moſt rowneſs of the pelvis. proper, though now we can bring out the head the other way, but SECT. I. Firſt Diviſion of PRETERNATURAL LABOURS. not before. Sometimes, indeed, we have found Daventer's method When the Feet,Breech, or lower parts of the Fætus preſent, and the ſucceed better than the other, when the head is low down, and the Head, Shoulders, and upper Parts are towards the Fundus Uteri. chief reſiſtance is in the lower parts ; but this is very ſeldom the Thefe, for the moſt part, are accounted the eaſieſt, even al cafe: however, when the forehead is hindered from coming down though the uterus ſhould be ſtrongly contracted round the body of into the lower part of the ſacrum by an uncommon ſhape of the the child, and all the waters diſcharged. If the knees or feet of head or pelvis, and we cannot extract it by bringing it out with the child preſent to the os internum, which is not yet ſufficiently an half-round turn at the os pubis, we muſt try to make this turn dilated to allow them and the body to come farther down; or, if in the contrary direction; and inſtead of introducing our fingers the woman is weak, wore out with long labour, or endangered by into the child's mouth, let the breaſt of it reft on the palm of your a flooding; let the operator introduce his hand into the vagina, left-hand, the woman being on her back)and placing the right on puſh up and ſtretch the os uteri, and bring along the feet; which its fhoulders, with the fingers on each ſide of the neck, preſs it being extracted, let him wrap a linen cloth round them, and pull downwards to the perineum. In conſequence of this preffure, the until the breech appears on the outſide of the os internum. If face and chin being within the perinæum, will move more up- the face or fore part is already towards the back of the uterus, let wards, and the head come out with an half-round turn from below him perlift in pulling in the ſame direction: but if they are to the os pubis : for the centre of motion is now where the fore-part wards the os pubis or one ſide, they muſt be turned to the back of the neck preſſes at the perinæum ; whereas, in the other me- part of the uterus; and as the head does not move round equal thod, the back-part of the neck is againſt the lower part of the os with the body he muſt make allowance for the difference in turn pubis, on which the head turns. ing by bringing the laſt quarter farther than the place at which If the forehead is not turned to one ſide, but ſticks at the upper the head is to be placed; ſo that the face or forehead which was part of the ſacrum, eſpecially when the pelvis is narrow; let him towards one of the groins, will be formed to the ſide of the ſacrum, endeavour, with his finger in the mouth, to turn it one ſide of the where it joins with the iſchium. This quarter-turn of the body jetting-in of the facrum, becauſe the pelvis is wider at the ſides of muſt be again undone, without affecting the poſition of the head; the brim, and bring it along as before. a cloth may be wrapped round the breech, for the convenience of If one of the child's arms, inſtead of being placed along the ſide holding it more firmly; then placing a thumb along each ſide of of the head, is turned in between the face and facrum, or between the ſpine, and with his fingers graſping the belly, let him pull the hindhead and os pubis, the ſame difficulty of extracting occurs along the body from ſide to ſide, with more or leſs force accord as in a large head or narrow pelvis; and this poſition frequently en- ing to the reſiſtance. When the child is delivered as far as the fues when the fore-parts of the child's body are turned from the os ſhoulders, let him ſlide his hand, flattened (ſuppoſe the right if pubis down to the facrum. If they are turned to the left lide of the the lies on her back) between its breaſt and the perinæum, coccyx, woman, the left hand and arm are commonly brought in before the and ſacrum, of the woman, and introduce the fore and middle fin face, and vice verſa; but in theſe cafes the elbow is for the moſt ger (or both, if necefiary) into the mouth of the fætus ; by which part eaſily come at, becauſe it is low down in the vagina, and then means the chin will be pulled to the breaſt, and the forehead into there is a neceſſity for bringing down one or both arms before the the hollow of the facrum. And this expedient will alſo raiſe up- head can be delivered: from whence we may conclude, that thoſe wards the hindhead, which reſts at the os pubis. authors are ſometimes in the wrong who expreſsly forbid us to pull When the forehead is come ſo low as to protrude the perineum, down the arms. Indeed, if the pelvis is not narrow, nor the head if the woman lies on her back, let the operator ſtand up and pull very large,and the arms lie along the ſides of the head, there is fel- the body and head of the child upwards, bringing the forehead with dom occaſion to pull them down; becauſe the pelvis is wideft at the a half-round turn from the under part of the os externum, which fides, and the membranes and ligaments that fill up the ſpace be- will thus be defended from laceration. The application of the twixt the ſacrum and ifchia yield to the preſſure, and make room fingers in the child's mouth will contribute to bring the head out for the paſſage of the head : but when they are ſqueezed between in this manner, prevent the os externum from hitching on the chin, the head and the ſacrum, iſchia, or ofſa pubis, and the head ſticks help along the head, and guard the neck from being overſtrained; in the pelvis, they certainly ought to be brought down; or even a misfortune which would infallibly happen if the forehead ſhould when the head comes along with difficulty. Neither is the alleged be detained at the upper part of the facrum. Nor is there any great contraction of the os internum round the neck of the child ſo fre- force required to obviate this inconvenience, or the leaſt danger of quent as hath been imagined ; becauſe for the moſt part the con- hurting the mouth, if the head is not large : for if the head cannot traction embraces the head and not the neck : but ſhould the neck be brought along with moderate force, and the operator is afraid of alone fuffer, that inconvenience may be removed by introducing injuring or overſtraining the lower jaw, let him puſh his fingers the hand into the vagina, and a finger or two into the child's mouth farther up, and preſs on each ſide of the noſe, or on the inferior or on each ſide of the noſe ; by which means alſo a ſufficient di- edges of the fockets, of the eyes. If the legs are come out, and the latation will be preſerved in the os externum, which frequently breech pulled into the vagina, there is no occaſion for puſhing up contracts on the neck as foon as the arms are brought out. to open, but only to pull along and manage as before directed: ſtill The diameter from the face or forehead to the vertex, being greater MIDWIFERY. up for as greater than that from the forehead to the back-part of the hind- | from a violent flooding ; in any of theſe caſes, let him (during head or neck, when the hindhead reſts at the os pubis, and the fore- every pain) gradually open firſt the os externum, and then the og head at the upper part of the ſacrum, the head can ſeldom be internum, with his fingers and hand. Having thus gained admif- brought down until the operator, by introducing a finger into the fion, let him puſh up the breech to the fore or back part, or to one mouth, moves the ſame to the ſide, brings the chin to the breaſt, fide of the uterus, that his hand and arm may have room to ſlide and the forehead into the hollow of the facrum: by which means along the fore-parts or belly of the child, ſo as to feel the thighs, the hindhead is raiſed and allowed to come along with greater eaſe; that will direct him to the legs, which muſt be brought down with and in pulling, half the force only is applied to the neck, the other his fingers, while at the ſame time he puſhes up the hams with half being exerted upon the head, by the finger which is fixed in his thumb, that in caſe the legs lie ſtraight up they may be ex- the mouth; ſo that the forehead is more eaſily brought out, by tracted with more eaſe by the flection of the knee, and run the pulling upwards with the half round turn from the perinæum. lefs riſk of being bent, broken, or overſtrained; for if they are When the operator with his fingers in the child's mouth cannot folded downward, they are more eaſily brought out. pull down the forehead into the hollow of the facrum, let him puſh If the breech be ſtrongly preſſed into the upper part of the pelvis, the fore-finger of his left hand betwixt the neck and the os pubis, let him alſo puſh it upwards and to one ſide, that his hand and in order to raiſe the hindhead upwards; which being done, the arm may have free paſſage ; for the higher the breech is raiſed forehead will come down with leſs difficulty, eſpecially if he puſhes out of his way, he will be at more freedom to extract the legs. If and pulls down at the ſame time, or alternately. both legs cannot be eaſily brought down, he may ſafely deliver If it be diſcovered by the touch, that the breech preſents, that with one, of which taking hold with a linen cloth wrapped round the membranes are not yet broke, the woman is in no danger, it, let him ſlide up his other hand into the vagina, and a finger the os internum not yet fufficiently dilated, and the labour-pains or two into the outſide of the groin which is bent: by theſe means ſtrong; the midwife ought to wait until the membranes, with the the hip will come down the eaſier, and the leg which is already waters, are puſhed farther down, as in the natural labour ; extracted, will not be overſtrained by ſuſtaining the whole force they come down through the os uteri into the vagina, they ſtretch of pulling the body along. open the parts contained in the pelvis; and the bulk within the If the legs lie towards the left ſide of the woman, who is laid uterus being diminiſhed, it contracts and comes in contact with on her back, the right-hand muſt be introduced into the uterus the body of the child; ſo that the breech is puſhed along;by the me if they lie to her right ſide, the left-hand will better anſwer the chanical force of the abdominal muſcles operating upon the womb. | purpoſe ; and if they are towards her back or belly, either hand The ſame conſequences will follow even although the membranes may be indifferently uſed. In all caſes where the breech preſents are broke ; for the waters lubricate the parts as they flow off, and the ſafeſt practice is always to puſh up and bring down the legs, the breech, if not too large, or the pelvis narrow, is puſhed down: provided the os uteri is fufficiently dilated, and the waters not in this caſe, when the nates preſent equal and fair to the os uteri, wholly diſcharged. If the waters are evacuated, the uterus ſtrongly and one ſide of the fætus was towards the fore-part, the other to contracted around the child, the breech fo low as that it cannot be the back-part of the uterus; and when the breech preſents, it lies returned, or ſo ſmall as to come eaſily along, we ought then to de- in the fame manner, only that the fore-parts of the child are ra liver it accordingly: but if fo large as neither to be puſhed up nor ther turned backwards to one ſide of the vertebræ of the loins; in brought along with the aſſiſtance of the fingers, let the operator this poſition, one hip will preſent, and the other reſt on the os pu introduce the curved handle of the blunt crotchet into one of the bis; but when forced along with pains, the laſt will be gradually groins, his fingers into the other, and pull very cautiouſly in moved more and more to the groin of that ſide, and from thence order to prevent a fracture or diſlocation of the thigh-bone, which flip down at the ſide of the baſin : the lower at the ſame time will might otherwiſe happen from the uſe of this inſtrument, the blunt be forced to the other, and the hollow betwixt the thighs will reſt point of which muſt be ſufficiently paſt the groin. A fillet may upon the jetting in of the os facrum, and come down in that man alſo be uſed for the ſame purpoſe. ner; the thighs on each ſide, and the back and round part of the We have, in the foregoing caſes of this ſection, fuppofed the breech, paſſing in below the arch of the os pubis, which is the woman laidon her back, her legs fupported, and breech to the bed- beſt poſition: but if the back of the child is tilted backwards, then fide ; this being generally the beſt poſition for delivering the body it will be forced down in the contrary direction, and come along and head. Indeed, when the child is ſmall, ſhe may lie on her with more difficulty, viz. the thighs to the os pubis, and back to ſide, and the ſame methods be uſed in delivering, provided the the facrum. When it is come down to the middle or lower part operator ſtill remembers, that in this poſition the ilium and if- of the pelvis, let the operator introduce the fore-fingerof each hand, chium of one ſide are down, and the others up. Beſides, when along the outſide, to the groins; and taking hold, pull gently along the breech is puſhed up, in order to bring down the legs, if they during a ſtrong pain. lie forwards towards the fore-part of the uterus, and the belly is If the os externum is ſo contracted that he cannot take fufficient pendulous, he can reach them with the greateſt eaſe when ſhe lies hold , let it be opened flowly, fo as to allow his hands to be puſhed on one ſide; or if the reſiſtance is very great, turn her to her knees up with eaſe: when he has inſinuated a finger or two in each and elbows, according to Daventer's method: but, when the legs groin, let him place his thumbs on the thighs, if they are towards are delivered, if the child is large or the pelvis narrow, ſhe ought the offa pubis, ſo as to obtain a full hold ; then pull along from to be turned upon her back, becauſe the body and head can be ſide to ſide, and, if the back of the child is to the os pubis, con better and more ſafely delivered by pulling up and down ; and in tinue to aſlift in this manner until the body and head are delivered. that poſture ſhe is alſo kept more firm, aud her thighs leſs in the The legs being commonly ſtretched up along the belly and breaſt, operator's way, than when the lies upon her fide. See fig. 32, 33, when the child is extracted as far as the ſhoulders, they come 35, and 37:upo out of themſelves, or are eaſily brought down; but if the belly of SECT. III. The ſecond Diviſion of PRETERNATURAL LA- the child is turned to one fide, or to the os pubis, in that cafe, when the breech is delivered, he ought to turn the belly down to Firſt caſe. When the membranes are broke, but the face, the facrum and the back to the os pubis ; and that the face may be ſhoulder, or ſome other part of the child, being puſhed into the alſo turned to the back of the mother, let him remember the pelvis, locks up the os internum, ſo as that a ſmall quantity of the quarter extraordinary, which muſt be again reverſed, and then waters hath been diſcharged, the uterus is kept from contracting he may pull along and deliver. ſtrongly round the child, which is therefore more eafily turned If the body cannot be turned until the thighs and legs are than it poſſibly can be when they are all gone. brought down, either on account of the bulk, or becauſe the hold Second caſe. When, before the membranes are broke, the child on the breech is not ſufficient, let him continue to pull along, un is felt through them, preſenting wrong; and at the ſame time the til the hams appear on the outſide of the os externum; then ſeize pains puſh them down ſo as to dilate the os internum, more or leſs. one of the knees with his finger and thumb, and extract that leg ; Third caſe. When the woman at any time in the four laſt and let the other be brought down in the ſame manner. If he months is ſeized with a violent fooding that cannot be reſtrained, attempts to pull out the legs before the hams arrive at this place, and unleſs ſpeedily delivered muſt looſe her life: if labour-pains the thighs are always in danger of being bent or broken. When cannot be brought on by ſtretching the parts, delivery muſt be the legs are delivered, let him wrap a cloth round the breech of forced : but if ſhe is in labour, and the membranes have been the child: and as the body was pulled down, almoſt as far as the puſhed down with the waters, they may be broke; by which breaſt, before the legs could be brought out, it muſt be puſhed up means the fooding is frequently diminiſhed, and the child deli- again to the navel, or above it; becauſe, without this precaution, vered by the labour-pains. In theſe three different caſes, if we the ſhoulders would be ſo much engaged in the pelvis, that it would can prevent the ſtrong contraction of the uterus, by keeping up be impracticable to make the motions formerly directed, ſo as to the waters, we can alſo, for the moſt part, turn the child with turn the face to the back of the mother: whereas, when the bo great eaſe, even in the very worſt poſitions. dy is puſhed up, thoſe turns can be effected with greater eaſe, be- CAS E I. cauſe the belly being in the pelvis, it yields eaſier to the form of In the firſt caſe, let the operator ſlowly introduce his hand into the baſin. When the face is turned properly down, let him pro the vagina, and his fingers between that part of the child which cced to deliver as above directed. is puſhed down and the os internum ; if in ſo doing, he perceives If the breech is detained above the pelvis, either by its uncom fome of the waters coming along, he muſt run up his hand as quick mon magnitude or the narrowneſs of the baſin ; or if one of the as poſſible into the uterus, betwixt the inſide of the membranes nates is puſhed in, while the other reſts above the os pubis, ſacrum, and the child's body; the lower part of his arm will then fill up the or to either ſide ; if the woman is low and weak, the pains linger- os externum like a plug, ſo that no more of the waters can paſs : ing and inſufficient to force the child along; or if ſhe is in danger let him turn the child with its head and ſhoulders up to the fundus, 7 R the BOURS. No. 107 MID WIFE RY. the breech down to the lower part of the uterus, and the fore-parts | come off, and kept his hand in the uterus for a few minutes, he towards the mother's back : let the hand be puſhed no farther did not extract the legs until he felt tbe womb cloſe contracted to up than the middle of the child's body ; becauſe if it is advanced the child; nay, if the flcoding was ſtopped, or diminiſhed, he let as high as the fundus, it muſt be withdrawn lower, before the the child remain in the uterus perhaps ten or fifteen minutes child can be turned; and by theſe means the waters will be dif- longer, then delivered ; and, if the hæmorrhage was ſtayed, he In all theſe ſtages, charged, and the uterus of conſequence contract ſo as to render left the placenta to be expelled by nature. the turning more difficult. however, when the flooding is violent, we muſt deliver without CASE II. loſs of time, remembering ſtill the preſſure upon the abdomen; for In the ſecond caſe, when the membranes are not broke, and we the woman is frequently ſo very weak, that although labour could are certain that the child does not preſent fair, if the os internum be brought on, ſhe would not have ſtrength ſufficient to undergo is not ſufficiently dilated, and the woman is in no danger, we may it. The younger the woman is with child, the greater is the dif- let the labour go on until the parts are more ſtretched ; lubricating ficulty in opening the os internum: and more ſo in the firſt child, and extending the os internum, by degrees, during every pain. eſpecially if ſhe is paſt the age of thirty-five. artners Then introducing one hand into the vagina, we infinuate it in a We ſhould never refuſe to deliver in theſe dangerous caſes, even flattened form, within the os internum, and puſh up between the although the patient ſeemsexpiring; for immediately after delivery membranes and the uterus, as far as the middle of the womb. the uterus contracts, the mouths of the veſſels are ſhut up, ſo that Having thus obtained admiſſion, we break the membranes, by the flooding ceaſes, and if the lives five or ſix hours after the opera- graſping and ſqueezing them with our fingers ; ſlide our hand tion, and can be ſupported by frequent draughts of broth, jelly, within them, without moving the arm lower down; then turn and caudle, weak cordial, and anodyne medicines, which maintain the deliver as before directed: but if in any of theſe caſes you find the circulation and gradually fill the empty vefſels, the may recover. head is large, or the pelvis narrow, bring down the head into the If, in time of flooding, ſhe is ſeized with labour-pains, or if, natural poſition, and aſſiſt as directed in lingeringorlaborious caſes. by every now and then ſtretching with your fingers the os inter- CAS E III. num, you bring on labour, by which either the membranes or In the third caſe, if the woman is attacked with a violent flood head of the child is puſhed down and opens the os internum, the ing, oceaſioned by a ſeparation of all or any part of the placenta membranes ought to be broken ; ſo that, ſome of the waters be- from the uterus during the laſt four months of pregnancy, and every ing diſcharged, the uterus may contract and ſqueeze down the method has in vain been tried to leſſen and reſtrain the diſcharge, fætus. This may be done fooner in thoſe women who have had the operator ought to pronounce the caſe dangerous, and prudently children formerly, than in ſuch as have not been in labour before. declare to the relations of the patient, that unleſs ſhe is ſpeedily de- If, notwithſtanding this expedient, the flooding ſtill continues, and livered both ſhe and the child muſt periſh ; obſerving at the ſame the child is not like to be foon delivered, it muſt be turned im- time, that by immediate delivery they may both be ſaved: let himmediately; or, if the head is in the pelvis, delivered with the for- alſo defire the aſſiſtance and advice of ſome perſon eminent in the ceps: but, if neither of theſe two methods will ſucceed, on ac- profeſſion, for the ſatisfaction of her friends and the ſupport of his count of the narrowneſs of the pelvis or the bigneſs of the head, own reputation. When there are no labour-pains, and the mouth this laſt muſt be opened and delivered with the crotchet. In all of the womb is not dilated, it is ſometimes very difficult to deliver, theſe caſes let the parts be dilated ſlowly and by intervals, in or- more eſpecially if the os internum is not a little lax, but feels rigid. der to prevent laceration. See fig. 11, 14, 15, 16, 17. If the os uteri is ſo much contracted that the finger cannot be SECT. IV. Third Diviſion of PreTERNATURAL LABOURS. introduced, fome authors have recommended a dilator, by which We have already obſerved, that the principal difficultiesin turn- it may be gradually opened ſo as to admit a finger or two. Doubt- ing children and bringing them by the feet, proceeded from the leſs, ſome caſes may happen in which this may be neceſſary; contraction of the uterus and bad poſition of the foetus. If the though in all thoſe we know of in which there was a neceſſity for child lies in a round form, whether the fore-parts are towards the forcing delivery, the mouth of the womb was open enough to re os internum, or up to the fundus uteri, we can for the moſt part ceive the tip of a finger, ſo that by gradual efforts we could effect move it with the hand, ſo as to turn the head and ſhoulders to the a ſufficient dilatation; and it is certainly a ſafer method to dilate upper part, and the breech and legs downwards; but if the child with the fingers and hand, than with an inſtrument. If in ſtretch- lies lengthwiſe, the womb being contracted around it like a long ing the os internum labour-pains are brought on, let the operator ſheath, the taſk is more difficult; eſpecially if the head and ſhoul- ſlowly proceed and encourage them: when the mouth of the womb ders of the child are down at the loweſt part of the uterus, with the is opened, if the head preſents and the pains are ſtrong, by break- breech and feet turned up to the fundus. ing the membranes the flooding will be diminiſhed: but if ſhe Before we proceed to the method of delivery in the following floods to ſuch a degree as to be in danger of her life, and the di- caſes, it will not be improper to premiſe, that the woman ought to latation does not bring on labour, at leaſt not enough for the oc be laid on her back, her breech upon the ſide or foot of the bed, caſion, ſhe muſt be immediately delivered in the following man a bolſter or pillows being laid below the feather-bed or matraſs, in ner. But in the firſt place let her friends be appriſed of the dan order to raiſe it fo as that the breech may be higher than the ger, and the operator beware of promiſing to ſave either mother ſhoulders: while an aſſiſtant fits on each ſide, to ſupport her legs or child: for we have known the woman die in a few minutes and thighs, and one or two more aſiſtants ought to fit behind, or after delivery, although to all appearance ſhe ſeemed able to un on each ſide of her ſhoulders, to keep her firm in that poſition. dergo the operation, and the child loſt from the head ſticking in The operator ought to avoid all formality in point of dreſs, and the pelvis: others, again, who were apparently much more weak never walk about the room with ſleeves and apron ; for although and exhauſted, have recovered, and the child hath been ſaved. ſuch apparatus may be neceſſary in hoſpitals, in private practice it The operator having performed his duty in making the friends conveys a frightful idea to the patient and female ſpectators: the acquaic ted with the ſituation of the cafe, muft gently cpen the os more genteel and commodious dreſs is a looſe waſhing night-gown, externum, byintroducing his fingers gradually, turning them half- which he may always have in readineſs to put on when he is going round and puſhing upward ; then forming them with the thumb to deliver; his waiſtcoat ought to be without Neeves, and his arms into the figure of a wedge or cone, continue to dilate ſlowly and may have more freedom to ſlide up and down under cover of the by intervals, until his hand is admitted into the vagina : having wrapper; and the ſleeves of his ſhirt may be rolled up and pinned thus far gained his point, let him inſinuate, in the ſame ſlow cau to the breaſt of his waiſtcoat. In natural labours, the ſheet that tious manner, firſt one, then two fingers into the os internum, hangs over the bed-fide is fufficient to keep him clean and dry, by which may be dilated ſo as to admit the other two and the thumb, being laid in his lap; but in thoſe caſes where he is obliged to alter in the fame conical form, which will gradually make way for his poſition, a ſheet ought to be tucked round him, or an apron fiiding the hand along between the outſide of the membranes and put on, but not before he is about to begin his work. If the pati- inſide of the uterus, then he muſt manage as directed in the ſe ent is laid on a low bed, and he intends to introduce his right- cond caſe. If If upon ſliding up his hand upon the outſide of the hand, his beſt and firmeſt poſition is to kneel with his left knee on membranes, he feels the placenta adhering to that ſide of the a cuſhion, keeping up the right to ſupport his arm; if the left- womb, he muſt either withdraw that hand and introduce the other hand is introduced, the reverſe of this diſpoſition muit take place: on the oppoſite ſide, or break through the membranes at the lower if the bed or cough is high, he ought to ſtand, but ſtill remember edge of the placenta. The greateſt danger in this caſe frequently to ſupport the elbow on the knee. Theſe directions, howſoever proceeds from the ſudden emptying of the uterus and belly: for trivial they may ſeen to old practitioners, may be ſerviceable to when labour comes on of itſelf, or is brought on in a regular man- young beginners, and give our readers a betteridea of the operation. ner, and the membranes are broke, the flooding is gradually di The hand of the accoucheur or operator being introduced into miniſhed; and firſt the child, then the placenta, is delivered by the uterus, if he finds the breech below the head and ſhoulders, let the pains ; fo that the preſſure or reſiſtance is not all at once re him ſearch for the legs and bring them down: but if the breech moved from the belly and uterus of the woman, which have time be higher than the upper parts of the child, or equal with them, he to contract by degrees; conſequently thoſe faint-fits and convul muſt try to turn the head and ſhoulders to the fundus, and the fions are prevented which often proceed from a ſudden removal | breech downwards, by puſhing up the firſt and pulling down at of that compreſſion under which the circulation was performed. laſt; then proceed with delivery as before directed. This is com- In order to anticipate theſe fatal ſymptoms, Dr. Smellie (ſome-monly executed with eaſe, provided ſome part of the waters ſtill re- times ſucceſsfully) ordered an aſſiſtant to preſs upon the woman's main in the uterus ; but, if the woman has been long in labour, belly while the uterus was emptying; or, after having broken the and the waters diſcharged, the contraction of the womb is ſo ſtrong, membranes, turned up the head to the fundus, and brought down' that the child cannot be turned without the exertion of great the legs and breech, he withdrew his arm a little to let the waters frequently repeated. In this caſe, the eaſieſt method, both for the patient force MIDWIFER Y. at the upper or lower patient and operator, is to puſh up the hand gradually on that ſide the other is employed in puſhing it up, as before. By this double to which the legs and thighs are turned ; and even after he has purchaſe the child may be turned even in the moſt difficult cafes ; reached them, if they are not very high up, let him advance his but the operator, in pulling, muſt beware of overſtraining the liga- hand as far as the fundus uteri; he will thus remove the greateſt ments of the joints.se obſtacle, by enlarging the cavity of the womb, ſo as more eaſily If the legs can be extracted through thë os externum, let a ſingle to feel and bring down the legs; then he may puſh up and pull cloth, warmed, be wrapped round them, in order to yield a firmer down, as we have preſcribed before. But if the head and ſhoulders hold to the accoucheur ; but when they can be brought no lower ſtill continue to hinder the breech and body from coming along, than the neck of the uterus and vagina, he may uſe one of theſe and the feet cannot be brought ſo low as the outſide of the os ex following noofes. Let him take a ſtrong limber fillet or ſoft ternum, while they are yet in the vagina he may apply a nooſe up- garter, half worn, about one yard and an half in length, and mo- on one or both: for unleſs the child is ſo ſmall that he can turn it derately broad and thick; if thick, an eye may be made at one round by graſping the body when the head and ſhoulders are puſh end of it, by doubling about two inches and ſewing it, ſtrongly, ed up, and he endeavours to bring down the other parts, they will and the other end paſſing through this doubling in order to make again return to the ſame place, and retard delivery; whereas, if he the nooſe, which being mounted upon the thumb and fingers of gains a firm hold of the feet, either without the os externum or in his hand muſt be introduced and gently ſlipped over the toes and the vagina, by means of the nooſe fixed upon the ankles, he can feet of the child ſo as to embrace the ankles, and thus applied, it with the other hand puſh up the head and ſhoulders, and be able muſt be drawn tight with his other hand. in that manner to bring down the breech. He muſt continue this If the foot or feet ſhould be ſo ſlippery that his fingers cannot method of puſhing up and pulling down, until the head and ſhoulders hold them and work over the nooſe at the ſame time, it muſt be are raiſed to the fundus uteri : for, ſhould he leave off too ſoon, withdrawn and mounted round his hand or wriſt; with which and withdraw his hand, although the child is extracted as far as hand when introduced he may take firm hold on both feet, if they the breech, the head is ſometimes fo preſſed down and engaged are as far down as the vagina ; then with the fingers of his other with the body in the paſſage, that it cannot be brought farther hand he may ſlide the nooſe along the hand and fingers that hold down without being tore along with the crotchet ; for the breech the feet, and fix it round the ankle. But if one foot remains within and part of the body may block up the paſſage in ſuch a man the uterus, the fingers of his other hand cannot puſh up the nooſe ner, as that the hand cannot be introduced to raiſe the head. far enough to ſlide it over the ankle; ſo that he muſt have recourſe In all caſes, where the accoucheur foreſees that great force will to a director like that for polypuſes, mounted with the nooſe, b requiſite, he ought to ſave his ſtrength as much as poſſible, be which will puſh it along the hand and fingers that hold the foot. ginning ſlowly, and reſting his hands between whiles during the The nooſe being thus flipped over the fingers upon the ankle, he operation of puſhing and turning the child in the uterus: for if he muſt pull the extremity of the fillet, which hath paſſed the eye at- begins to work in a hurry, and exerts his utmoſt ſtrength at firſt, the upper end of the director; and after it is cloſe drawn, bring his hands will be ſo cramped and enervated, that he will be down the inſtrument. Some uſe a ſmall ſlender pair of forceps to obliged to deſiſt, and give them ſome reſpite ; ſo that it may be graſp the ankles and ſlide the nooſe along them; others make uſe a long time before he recovers the uſe of them, and even then of a fillet with a noofe upon one end of it, fixed on a hollow tube they will be ſo much weakened as to be ſcarce able to effect deli that carries it up to be ſlipt over the ankles; and this being done, very, which is thus impeded and delayed. it is drawn cloſe by pulling the other end of the fillet down through Thoſe caſes are commonly the eaſieſt in which the fore-parts the cavity of the tube: but there is ſeldom occafion for any of theſe preſent, and the child lies in a round oval form, acroſs the uterus, inſtruments, becauſe we can for the moſt part bring the feet down or diagonally, when the head or breech is above and over the os into the vagina. pubis, with the legs, arms, and navel-Itring, or one or all of them, CASE II. part of the vagina, or on the out ſide of the When the belly preſents and the head, ſhoulders, breech, thighs, os externum. Thoſe are moſt difficult in which, though the child and legs, are turned up over the back to the fundus uteri ; when lies in the ſame round or contracted form, the back, ſhoulders, the back preſents, and all theſe parts are upwards; when the ſide belly, or breaſt, are over the os internum ; becauſe, if we cannot preſents, with the head, ſhoulders, breech, thighs, and legs turned move the child round, ſo as to place the head to the fundus, the to the ſide, back, or fore part of the uterus: in all theſe caſes, legs are brought down with much more difficulty than in the other when the child is preſſed into a round or (more properly) an oval cafe: but if the ſhoulder, breaſt, neck, car, face, or crown of the figure, it may be for the moſt part moved round, with one hand head preſents, and the legs and breech are up to the fundus uteri, introduced into the uterus, the head and ſhoulders puſhed to the the cafe is ſtill more difficult; becauſe, in the other two, the fundus, and the legs and breech to the os internum; which being uterus is contracted in a round form, ſo that the wrong poſition effected, the legs are eaſily brought down. See fig. 35, 36. But of the child is more eaſily altered than this, when the womb is theſe caſes are more or leſs difficult as the feet are farther up or contracted in a long ſhape, and ſometimes requires vaſt force to lower down, becauſe the buſineſs is to bring them downwards. ſtretch it ſo as that the head may be raiſed to the fundus, and the When the breaſt, ſhoulders, neck, ear, or face preſents to the legs and breech brought down. os internum, the breech, thighs, and legs being towards the fundus CAS E I. de with the fore-parts of the fætus turned either to the ſide, back, or When the fore-parts of the child preſent, if the feet, hands, and fore part of the woman's belly, and the whole lying in a longiſh navel-ſtring are not detained above the os uteri, ſome or all of form, the uterus being cloſely contracted around its body like a them deſcend into the vagina, or appear on the outſide of the os ſheath (See fig. 37.) let the accoucheur introduce his hand into the externum. If one or more of them come down. and the child at vagina, and open the os internum, by puſhing up the fingers and the ſame time lies in a round form acroſs the uterus, let the ac hand flattened between the parts that preſent, and the inſide of the coucheur introduce his hand betwecn them and the os facrum, as membranes ; and reſt his hand in that ſituation, until he can diſ- directed in Part 7. $ 3. When it is paſt the os internum, let it reſt tinguiſh how the child lies, and from a right judgment how to turn a little, while he feels with his fingers the poſition of the fætus : and deliver; for if theſe circumſtances are not maturely conſidered, if the head and ſhoulders lie higher than the breech, he muſt he will begin to work in a confuſed manner, fatigue himſelf and take hold of the legs and bring them down withoutſide the os in- the patient, and find great difficulty in turning and extracting the ternum: if the breech is detained above the brim of the pelvis, child. let him ſlide up the flat of his hand along the buttocks, and pull If the feet and legs of the fætus lie towards the back, ſides, or down the legs with the other hand; by which method the breech fundus uteri, the woman ought to be laid on her back, with her is diſengaged and forced into the middle of the pelvis. See fig: 34. breech raiſed and brought a little over the bed, as formerly ob- In moſt of thoſe caſes where the child is preſſed in an oval form, ſerved ; becauſe in that poſition he can more eaſily reach the feet if neither the head nor breech preſent, the head is to one ſide of than in any other. the uterus, and the breech to the other ; becauſe, as was for If they lie towards the fore-part of the uterus, eſpecially when merly obſerved, it is wider from ſide to ſide, than from the back the belly is pendulous, ſhe ought to lie upon her ſide, becauſe in to the fore-part; and if either the head or breech is over the os the other poſture it is often difficult to turn the hand up to the fore- pubis, the other is turned off to the ſide: in moving the head or part of the womb: whereas, if ſhe is laid on the left ſide, the right ſhoulders to the fundus, they are raiſed with greater eaſe along hand may be introduced at the upper part and left ſide of the brim the ſides than at the back or fore parts, for the ſame reaſons. of the pelvis, where it is wideſt, and then along the fore part of If the head and ſhoulders lie lower down, ſo as to hinder the the uterus; by which means the feet are more eaſily come at. breech from coming along, and the legs from being extracted, let If it is more convenient for the accoucheur to uſe his left hand, him puſh up the head and ſhoulders to the fundus,and pull out the the patient may be turned on her right ſide. The only inconve- legs; then try, as above directed, to bring in the breech ; and nience attending theſe poſitions, is, that the woman cannot be if it ſtill ſticks above, becauſe the head and ſhoulders are again kept fo firm and ſteady, but will be apt to toſs about and ſhrink forced down by the contraction of the uterus, he muſt with one from the operator; and, beſides, there may be a neceſſity for turn- hand take hold of the legs that are now without the os externum, ing her upon her back, after the body is delivered, before he can and, ſliding the other into the uterus, puſh the head had ſhoulders extract the head, eſpecially if it be large or the pelvis narrow. again up to the fundus, while at the ſame time he pulls the legs The ſituation of the child being known, and the poſition of the and breech along with the feet. If the legs cannot be brought mother adjuſted, let the proper hand be introduced, and the firſt farther down than the vagina, becauſe the breech is high up, let effort always made in puſhing the preſenting part up towards the him ſlip a nooſe over the feet round the ancles, as before obſerved; fundus, either along the ſides, back, or fore part of the uterus, as by which he may pull down the lower parts with one hand, while | is moſt convenient. If this endeavour ſucceeds, and the breech, thighs, MIDWIFER Y. a thighs, or legs come down, the body may be delivered with eaſe: and when the os internum is ſufficiently dilated by the deſcent of the but if the head, ſhoulder, breaſt, or neck, preſent, the other parts waters and membranes, let him introduce his hand into the uterus, of the body being ſtretched up lengthwiſe, and the uterus, ſo ſtrongly as directed in Part 2. $ 3. betwixt the womb and the membranes, contracted around the child that the preſenting part cannot be which muſt be broke: and if he finds the head fo large, or the raiſed up, or, though puſhed upwards, immediately returns before pelvis fo narrow, that it will be difficult to ſave the child, provided the legs can be properly ſeized or brought down; the operator | the woman is vigorous and has ſtrong pains, he may with little ought, in that caſe, to force up his hand ſlowly and gradually be difficulty bring in the crown of the head, then withdraw his hand; tween the uterus and the child. If the reſiſtance is great, let him and, if the pains return and continue, the child has a good chance reſt a little between whiles, in order to ſave the ſtrength of his hand to be delivered alive. See Part 2. § 3. Even after the membranes and arm, as formerly directed ; and then proceed with his efforts are broke, if the preſenting part has ſo locked up the os internum until he ſhall advance his hand as far as the feet: for the higher as to detain ſome portion in the waters, (a circumſtance eaſily his hand is puſhed, the more will the uterus be ſtretched, and known in puſhing up the part that preſents), he may eaſily run up the more room granted for bringing the legs along; and if, in puſh- his hand ſpeedily to keep them from being diſcharged, and act ing up his hand, the fingers ſhould be entangled in the navel-ſtring in the ſame manner: but if the child is not large, nor the pelvis or one of the arms, let him bring it a little lower, and paſs it up narrow, it were pity, while his hand is in the uterus, to deſiſt from again on the outſide of ſuch incumbrance. turning the child and bringing it by the feet; becauſe in that caſe, If one leg can be brought down, the child being turned, and we may be pretty certain of it. Beſides, after the head is brought that member extracted through the os externum, let the accou into the right poſition, ſhould the pains go off intirely (and this fre- chcur ſlide his hand up to fetch the other ; but if this cannot be quently happens, or a flooding comes on, in conſequence of the done, he muſt fix a finger on the outſide of the groin of that thigh force which hath been exerted, he will find great difficulty in turn- which is folded up along the belly, and bring along that buttock, ing after the waters have been diſcharged; for it is harder to turn as in the breech caſe, while he pulls with his other hand at the when the vertex preſents, than in any other poſition; whereas, in other leg; and, the body being thus advanced, deliver as before the caſe of a large head or narrow pelvis, when the head is forced directed. down by the labour-pains, and will not farther advance, the child When the ſhoulder preſents, and the arm lies double in the va may be ſaved by the forceps; nay, though the pains do not act ſo gina, let him puſh them both up: but, if this cannot be done, and as to force it down to be delivered either by the forceps or in the the hand is prevented from paſſing along, he muſt bring down the natural way, the head may be opened and extracted with the arm, and hold it with one hand, while the other is introduced ; crotchet, which is the laſt reſource. then let go and puſh up the ſhoulder, and as the child is turned, But this neceſſity feldom occurs, becauſe the caſes in which we and the feet brought down, the arm will for the moſt part return are moſt commonly called, are after the membranes have been long into the uterus ; but, if the arm that is come down be ſo much broken, the waters diſcharged, and the uterus ſtrongly contracted ſwelled, that it is impracticable to introduce the hand ſo as to around the body of the child, which it confines, as it were, in a turn and deliver the child, he muſt ſeparate it at the joint of the mould: ſo that we have frequently tried in vain to bring the head ſhoulder, if it be ſo low down; or at the elbow, if he cannot reach into the natural poſition; for this cannot be effected without firſt the ſhoulder. If the limb be much mortified, it may be twiſted puſhing up the part that preſents, for which purpoſe great force is off; otherwiſe it may be ſnipt and ſeparated with the ſciſfars. required: and as one hand only can be introduced, when the bpe- If the ſhoulder, by the imprudence and ignorance of the unſkil rator endeavours to bring in the head, the puſhing force is abated, ful, who pull in expectation of delivering in that way, is forced to allow the pulling force to act; and the parts that hindered the into the vagina, and part of it appears on the outſide of the os ex head from preſenting are again forced down; beſides the head is ſo ternum, a vaſt force is required to return it into the uterus; be- large and ſlippery, that he can obtain no firm hold. He might, in- cauſe in this caſe, the ſhoulder, part of the ribs, breaſt, and ſide, deed, by introducing a finger into the mouth, lay hold of the under are already pulled out of the uterus, which muſt be extended fo jaw, and bring in the face, provided the ſhoulder prefents; but in- as not only to receive them again, but alſo the hand and arm of ſtead of amending, this would make the caſe worſe, unleſs the the accoucheur. If this diſtention cannot poſſibly be effected, he child be very ſmall: yet, granting the head could be brought into muſt fix a crotchet above the ſternum, and turn the child by puſh- the natural poſition, the force neceſſarily exerted for this purpoſe the ſhoulder and pulling down with the crotchet; or ſlide would produce a flooding, which commonly weakens the patient his fingers to the neck of the child, and with the ſciſfars divide the and carries off the pains; and after all, he muſt turn with leſs ad- head from the body; then deliver firſt the ſeparated head, or bring vantage; and if that cannot be performed when the head is brought along the body by pulling at the arm, or, if need be, with the af- in, he muſt have recourſe to the laſt and moſt diſagreeable method; fiſtance of the crotchet : after the body is delivered, the head muſt whereas, when any other part preſents, we can always turn the beextracted according to the rules that will be laid down in Caſe 6. child, and deliver it by the feet. This we cannot promiſe, after the When the forehead, face, or ear preſents, and cannot be al head is brought in; and when once the operator's hand is in the tered with the hand into the natural poſition; or is not advanced uterus, he ought not to run ſuch riſks. to the os externum, ſo that we can aſſiſt with the forceps ; the When Dr. Smellie firſt began to practiſe, he frequently endea. head muſt be returned, and the child delivered by the feet : but if voured to adjuſt the poſition of the head in this manner; but meet- this cannot be done, and the woman is in imminent danger, re ing with thoſe inſeparable difficulties above-mentioned, he adhered courſe muſt be had to the crotchet, to that method which he always found certain and ſafe. He like- CASE IV. wiſe uſed the impellens of Albucaſis, in order to keep up the ſhoulders or body until he could bring in the head: but the contraction was If the naval-ſtring comes down by the child's head, and the always ſo great, that the inſtrument ſlipt, and was in danger of pulſation is felt in the arteries, there is a neceſſity for turning hurting the uterus. Indeed, when the ear, forehead, or the fon- without loſs of time : for, unleſs the head advances faſt and tanel, preſented, he has, by puſhing up, found the head come into the delivery is quick, the circulation in the veſſels will be entirely the right poſition: he has likewiſe, when the forehead was towards obſtructed, and the child conſequently periſh. If the head is low the groin or ſide of the pelvis, moved it more backwards, by which in the pelvis, the forceps, may be ſucceſsfully uſed. means the forceps were fixed with more eaſe; but he has much No doubt, if the pelvis is very narrow, or the head too large, it oftener failed, by the head's returning to its former ſituation. would be wrong to turn: in that caſe, we ought to try if we can The child is often in danger, and ſometimes loſt, when the poſſibly raiſe the head, ſo as to reduce the funis above it, and af- breech preſents and is low down in the pelvis, provided the thighs ter that let the labour go on. But if the waters are all gone, and are ſo ſtrongly preſſed againſt the funis and belly as to ſtop the cir- a large portion of the funis falls down, it is impoſſible to raiſe it, culation in the rope; as alſo when the child is detained by the head ſo as to keep it up, even although we could eafily raiſe the head:after the body is delivered : in both caſes the danger muſt be obvi ! becauſe as one part of the funis is puſhed up with the fingers, ano ated by an expeditious delivery ; and if the body is entangled in ther part falls down, and evades the reduction; and to raiſe it up the naval-ſtring, it muſt be diſengaged as well as poſſible, eſpeci- to the ſide, and not above the head, will be to no purpoſe: when ally when the funis happens to be between the thighs. As we a little jets down at the fide of the head, our endeavours will for have before obſerved, many of theſe minute directions in laborious the moſt part be ſucceſsful. and preternatural caſes, may be thought idle and trifling by thoſe CASE V. practitioners who, without minding any ſtated rules, introduce the Theantients, as well as ſome of the moderns, adviſe, in all caſes forceps, and taking hold on the head at random, deliver with force when the upper parts, ſuch as the ſhoulders, breaſt, neck, face, or and violence; and who, in preternatural deliveries, thruſt up their ear of the child, preſent, to puſh them upwards, and bring in the hands into the uterus, and, without conſidering the poſition, ſearch head as in its natural way; obſerving, that the fætus ought never for the feet, pull them down and deliver in a hurry. Such practice to be delivered by the feet, except in the preſentation of the lower may ſometimes ſucceed; but will often deſtroy the child, and parts, ſuch as the ſmall of the back, belly, fide, breech, or legs. bruiſe and injure the parts of the mother, even to the hazard of Were it practicable at all times to bring the head into the right her life, poſition a great deal of fatigue would be ſaved to the operator, CASE VI. much pain to the woman, and imminent danger to the child: he The legs and breech of the child being brought down, and the therefore ought to attemept this method, and may fucceed when body properly turned with the fore-parts to the mother's back, let he is called before the membranes are broken, and feels, by the the accoucheur endeavour to bring it along: but if it is detained touch, that the face, car, or any of the upper parts, preſents. In by the fize of the belly, diſtended with air or water, (a caſe that that caſe, let him open the os externum flowly during every pain; frequently happens when the child has been dead for ſeveral days), let ing up M I DWIFERY: let the belly be opened, by forcing into it the points of his fciſfars, the ſide of the head, until it ſhall have paſſed the os internum; or he may tear it open with the ſharp crotchet, with the other hand let hirn introduce one of the curved crotchets, The body of the child being delivered, the arms brought down, and fix it upon the upper part of the head ; then withdrawing the and every method hitherto directed unſucceſsfully uſed for the ex hand which was introduced, take hold on the inſtrument, and traction of the head, which is detained by being naturally too fliding the fingers of the other hand into the mouth, he muſt pull large, over-oflified, or dropſical, or from narrownels and diſtortion down with both as above directed. If the head is not over-offi- of the pelvis; if the belly was not opened, and the child is found fied, the crotchet will tear open the ſkull; and the bulk being of to be alive by the motion of the heart, or pulſation of the arteries conſequence diminithed, the whole may be brought along, even in the funis, the forceps ought to be tried, (ſee fig. 38.) but if he in a narrow pelvis : but if it cannot be moved even by this expe- finds it impracticable to deliver the head ſo as to ſave the life of dient, he muſt introduce the other crotchet along the other lide the chill, he muſt, according to ſome, force the points of the of the head, and fixing it upon the ſkull, lock them together ;. fciffars through the lower part of the occipital bone, or through then, in pulling, turn the forehead down into the hollow of the the foramen magnum ; then dilate the blades ſo as to enlarge the ſacrum, and extract with an half-round turn upwards, as when opening, and introduce a blunt or ſharp hook. This operation delivering with the forceps. rarely ſucceeds when the head is over-ofſified: but may anſwer If the forehead is towards the os pubis, and cannot be brought the purpoſe when the bones are ſoft and yielding, or in the caſe into the right poſition, let him, with his hand puſh up the head of an hydrocephalus; becauſe in the firſt the aperture may ſome- into the uterus, turn the forehead from the anterior to the ſide or times be enlarged, and in the other the water will be evacuated back-part of it, and try to extract as before. If the child hath ſo as to diminilh the bulk of the head, which will of conſequence been dead ſome time, and is much mortified, he muſt pull cauti- come along with more eaſe. Some recommend an inſtrument to ouſly at the under jaw, becauſe, ſhould that give way, he will perforate the ſkull, with double points curved and joined toge- I have no other hold for pulling or keeping the head ſteady, when ther; which, when puſhed into the foramen, are ſeparated, and he attempts to extract with one crotchet. take hold on the inſide ; but as the opening with the ſciflars and As great difficulties may occur from inflammations of the pu- introducing the blunt hook as above, will anſwer the ſame end, denda; contraction of the uterus, flipperineſs or largeneſs of the it is needleſs to multiply inſtruments, eſpecially as this method is head, and the narrowneſs of the pelvis, it will not be improper to not ſo certain as the following. inform the reader of other methods that appear to us uſeful, par- If, notwithſtanding theſe endeavours, the head cannot be ex- ticularly when the parts are much contracted and ſwelled. I.et tracted, let the operator introduce his hand along the head, and the hand be introduced into the vagina ; and if it cannot be ad- his fingers through the os uteri ; then ſlide up one of the curved mitted within the uterus, the fingers being inſinuated, may move crotcl.ets along the ear, betwixt his hand and the child's head, the head ſo as to raiſe the face and chin to the fundus, the vertex upon the upper part of which it muſt be fixed: this being done, being turned to the os internum, and the forehead towards the let him withdraw his hand, take hold of the inſtrument with one ſide of the ſacrum. This being effected, let the operator flide up hand, turning the curve of it over the forehead, and with the along one ear a blade of the long forceps, which are curved to the other graſp the neck and ſhoulders, then pull along. The fide, (ſee fig. 20, 38.) then change hands, and ſend up the other crotchet being thus fixed on the upper part, where the bones are blade along the oppoſite ear: when they are locked and the thin and yielding, makes a large opening, through which the con handles ſecured by a fillet, he muſt pull the lead as low as it will tents of the ſkull are emptied; the head collapſing, is with more come; then putting them into the hands of an affiftant, who will certainty extracted, and the inſtrument hath a firm hold to the keep them in that poſition, let him make a large opening with laſt, at the forehead, os petroſum, and baſis of the ſkull. the fciffars, ſqueeze the head with great force, and extract ſlowly In introducing the crotchet, let the operator obſerve the greateſt and by degrees. degree of caution poſſible. He muſt not begin to pull until he is There is an old inſtrument with two ſides which turn on a pi- certain that the point of the inſtrument is properly fixed near the vot, formerly recommended in this caſe, and ſince improved, with vertex; and he muſt keep the handle back to the perinæum. The the addition of another ſide, by Mr. Leveret, who gives it the de- excellency of Meſnard's contrivance is more conſpicuous here nomination of tire tête: but as Dr. Smellie thought the contrivance than when the head preſents: becauſe the curvature of the crot was too complex, and the blades too much confined to a circular chet allows the point to be fixed on the upper part of the ſkull, motion, he altered the form of it in a manner that renders it more which is to be tore open; and in pulling, the contents are evacuated, fimple, convenient and leſs expenſive. Having turned down the and the head is lefſened. By theſe means the principal obſtruc vertex as above directed, let this inftruinent, with the three ſides tion is removed; whereas the ſtraight crotchets take ſo flight a joined together, be introduced along the accoucheur's liand to the hold, and flip ſo often, that ſeveral times we have been very much upper part of the head; then let the fides or blades be fatigued before we could effect the delivery; but have always the other hand, ſo as to incloſe the head, moving them circularly fucceeded to our ſatisfaction ſince we adopted the other kind. and length wife in a light and eaſy manner, that they may paſs See the plate of inſtruments, fig. 10, 11, 12, 13. over the inequalities of the ſcalp, and avoid the reſiſtance of the If one crotchet te found inſufficient, let him introduce the other | head and uterus: when they are exactly placed at equal diſtances in the ſame manner along the oppoſite ſide, lock and join them from one another, let him join the handles, withdraw his hand, together, and pull along, moving and turning the head ſo as to and, tying them together with a fillet, pull down, open, and ex- humour the ſhape of the pelvis. This method ſeldom fails to ac tract, as above directed; and let it be remembered, that the far- compliſh his aim, though ſometimes very great force is required; ther the hand can be introduced into the uterus, the more eaſily in which caſe he muſt pull with leiſure and caution. will both inſtruments be managed. CASE VII. When the pelvis is large, or the head fmall, (in which caſes this But if all the expedients ſhould fail, by reaſon of the extraor misfortune ſeldom happens), without doubt we might fucceed dinary offification or ſize of the head, or the narrowneſs and diſtor- with Mauriceau's broad fillet or ſling, provided it could be pro- tion of the pelvis, after having uſed the crotchet without ſucceſs, perly applied: but, upon trial, Dr. Smellie found his hand ſo much he muſt ſeparate the body from the head with a biſtory or pair of cramped by the contraction of the uterus, and was ſo much in- fcillars; then puſhing up the head into the uterus, turn the face to commoded by the ſlipperineſs of the head, that he could not fix it the fundus, and the vertex down to the os internum and brim of ſo as to have ſufficient hold, and that after many fruitleſs efforts the pelvis, let him direct an aſſiſtant to preſs upon the woman's he was obliged to have recourſe to the fciffars and crotchets. belly with both hands, in order to keep the uterus and head firm in Amand's net is attended with the ſame difficulties; and rather that poſition ; then open the ſkull with the ſciſſars, deſtroy the more troubleſome, as it is more compounded: for, when it is ſtructure of the brain, and extract with the crotchets, as directed mounted on the operator's hand, it will be found ſcarce practica- above. ble to bring over the head the narrow fillet by which it is pulled The head is ſometimes left in the uterus by thoſe practitioners | along, becauſe it commonly flides off from one ſide or the other. who, not knowing how to turn the fore parts and face of the child If the placenta adheres to the uterus, let him firſt extract the head; towards the back-part of the uterus, or how to bring it along al if the cake is ſeparated and in his way, let him deliver it before he though it preſented in that poſition, pull at random with all their begins to deliver the head. When the head is ſmall, or the pelvis ſtrength, ſo that the neck is ſtretched and ſeparated, and the head large, dilating the foramen magnum with the ſciſſars, and intro- left behind. This may alſo happen to an expert accoucheur, when ducing the blunt hook, may be of uſe either to pull the head the child hath been dead for many days, and the body is much along or keep it down, until we can fix the forceps, curve-crotchet, mortified, even though he hath uſed all the neceſſary precautions. or Leveret's tire tête. In ſuch a caſe, provided the head is not very large, nor the pelvis SECT. V. The CÆSARIAN OPERATION. narrow, and the forehead is towards the ſacrum, let him ſlide up When a woman cannot be delivered by any of the methods hi- his hand along the back-part of the pelvis, and, introducing two therto deſcribed and recommended in laborious and preternatural fingers into the mouth with the thumb below the chin, try to pull labours, on account of the narrowneſs or diſtortion of the pelvis, the forehead into the hollow of the ſacrum : if it ſticks at the jet- | into which it is ſometimes impoſſible to introduce the band; or ting-in of that bone, he muſt endeavour to move it firſt to one from large excreſcences and glandular ſwellings, that fill up the ſide and then to the other. If the head is ſmall, it will come vagina, and cannot be removed; or from large cicatrices and ad- along; if any fragment of the neck remains, or any part of the heſions in that part and at the os uteri, which cannot be ſeparated ; looſe ſkin, he may lay hold on it, and affiſt delivery by pulling at in ſuch emergencies, if the woman is ſtrong and of a good habit of it with his other hand; if the head is low down, it may be ex- body the Cæfarian operation is certainly adviſeable, and ought to tracted with the forceps. be performed; becauſe the mother and child have no other chance Should all theſe methods fail, let him puſh up his hand along to be ſaved, and it is better to have recourſe to an operation which No. 108. 7S hat opened with MIDWIFER Y. it a hath ſometimes fucceeded, than 'leave them both to inevitable twins. One child will alſo, by moving its legs, arms, and other death. Nevertheleſs, if the woman is weak, exhauſted with fruit- parts of its body againſt different parts of the uterus, at the ſame leſs labour, violent floodings, or any other evacuation which ren inſtant or by intervals, yield the ſame ſenſation to the mother as ders her recovery doubtful, even if ſhe were delivered in the natu may be obſerved in two or more children ; for part of the motion ral way; in theſe circumſtances it would be raſhneſs and pre in twins is employed on each other, as well as upon the uterus. ſumption to attempt an operation of this kind, which ought to be There is therefore no certain method of diſtinguiſhing in theſe delayed until the woman expires, and then immediately performed caſes, until the firſt child is delivered, and the accoucheur las ex- with a view to ſave the child. amined if the placenta is coming along. If this comes of itſelf, The operation hath been performed both in this and the laſt and after its extraction the mouth of the womb be felt contracted, century, and ſometimes with ſuch ſucceſs, that the mother has and the operator is unwilling to give unneceſſary pain by intro- recovered, and the child furvived. The previous ſteps to be taken ducing his hand into the uterus ; let him lay his hand upon the are, to ſtrengthen the patient, if weak, with nouriſhing broths woman's abdomen, and if nothing is left in the womb, he will and cordials; to evacuate the indurated fæces with repeated glyf- | generally feel it, juſt above the os pubis, contracted into a firm ters; and if the bladder is diſtended with urine, to draw it off with round ball of the fize of a child's head or leſs: whereas, if there a catheter. Theſe precautions being taken, ſhe muſt be laid on is another child left, the ſize will be found much larger. If the her back, on a couch or bed, her ſide on which the inciſion is to placenta does not come down before the ſecond child, which is be made being raiſed up by pillows placed below the oppoſite ſide: frequently the caſe; upon examining, he will commonly feel the the operation may be performed on either ſide; though the left is membranes with the waters puſhed down through the os uteri; commonly preferred to the right, becauſe in this laſt the liver ex or, if they are broken, the head or ſome part of the body will be tends lower. The apparatus conſiſts of a biſtory, probe-ſciſſars, | felt. If, therefore, the woman has ſtrong pains, and is in no dam- Jarge needles threaded, ſponges, warm water, pledgets, a large ger from floodings or weakneſs, provided the head preſents fair, tent or doſſil, compreſſes, and a bandage for the belly. and ſeems to come along, ſhe will be delivered of this alſo in the If the weather is cold, the patient muſt be kept warm, and no natural way. If the membranes are not broken, if the head does part of the belly uncovered except that on which the inciſion is to not immediately follow, or if the child preſents wrong, he ought be made; if the operator be a young practitioner, the place may to turn and bring it immediately by the feet, in order to ſave the be marked by drawing a line along the middle ſpace between the patient the fatigue of a ſecond labour, that may prove tedious and ravel and the os ilium, about fix or ſeven inches in length, flanting even dangerous by enfeebling her too much. Beſides, as the parts forwards towards the left groin, and beginning as high as the are fully opened by the firſt delivery, he can introduce his hand navel. According to this direction, let him hold the ſkin of the with eaſe; and as the membranes are for the moſt part whole, abdomen tenſe between the finger and thumb of one hand, and the waters may be kept up, and the fætus eaſily turned, as in with the biſtory in the other make a longitudinal inciſion through Part VI. Sect. II. but if the pelvis is narrow, the woman ſtrong, the cutis to the membrana adipoſa, which, with the muſcles, and the head preſents, he ought to leave it to the efforts of nature. muſt be flowly diffected and ſeparated, until he reaches the peri If the firſt child preſents wrong, and in turning that he feels tonæum, which muſt be divided very cautiouſly, for fear of another, he muſt beware of breaking the membranes of one while wounding the inteſtines that frequently ſtart up at the ſides, he is at work upon the other: but ſhould they chance to be broke, eſpecially if the membranes are broken, the waters diſcharged, and the legs of both entangled together, (though this is ſeldom and the uterus contracted. the caſe, becauſe they are commonly divided by two ſets of mem- The peritonæum being laid bare, it may be either pinched up branes), let the operatör, when he has got hold on two legs, run by the fingers, or ſlowly diffected with the biſtory, until an open- up his fingers to the breech, and feel if they belong to the ſame ing is made fufficient to admit the fore-finger, which muſt be body; and one child being delivered, let the other be turned and introduced as a director for the biſtory or fciffars in making an an brought out in the ſame manner. If there are more than two, effectual dilatation. If the inteſtines puſh out, let them be preſſed the ſame method muſt take place, in extracting one after another. downwards ſo as that the uterus may come in contact with the In caſe of twins, the placenta of the firſt feldom comes along opening. If the womb is ſtill diſtended with the waters, and at until the ſecond child is delivered: but as this does not always hap- fome diſtance from the child, the operator may make upon pen, he ought, as formerly directed, to certify himſelf that there is longitudinal inciſion at once; but if it is contracted cloſe round nothing left in the uterus, when the cake comes of itſelf. Both the body of the foetus, he muſt pinch it up, and dilate in the ſame children being delivered, let him extract both placentas, if they cautious manner practiſed upon the peritoneum, taking care to come not of themſelves; and if they form diſtinct cakes, feparate avoid wounding the Fallopian tubes, ligaments, and bladder: firſt one, then the other ; but if they are joined together, form- then introducing his hand he may take out the child and fecun- ing but one maſs, they may be delivered at once, as in Part V. dines. If the woman is ſtrong, the uterus immediately contracts, Sect VII. Twins for the moſt part lie diagonally in the uterus, ſo as that the opening, which at firſt extended to about ſix or leven one below the other; ſo that they ſeldom obſtruct one another at inches, is reduced to two, or leſs; and in conſequence of this con the os internum. See fig. 15. traction, the veſſels being ſhrunk up, a great effuſion of blood is SECT. II. MONSTERS. prevented. The coagulated blood being removed, and what is Two children joined together by their bellies (which is the ſtill fluid ſponged up, the inciſion in the abdomen muſt be ſtitched moſt common caſe of monſtrous births) or by the fides, or when with the interrupted future, and fufficient room left between the the belly of the one adheres to the back of the other, having com- laſt ſtitch and the lower end of the opening, for the diſcharge of monly but one funis, are comprehended in this claſs, and ſuppoſed the moiſture and extravaſated fluid. The wound may be dreſſed to be the effect of two animalcula impregnating the ſame ovum, with dry pledgets or doffils dipped in ſome liquid balſam, covered in which they grow together, and are nouriſhed by one navel- with compreſſes moiſtened with wine, and a bandage to keep on ſtring, originally belonging to the fecundines; becauſe the veſ- the dreſſings and ſuſtain the belly. Some authors obſerve, that fels pertaining to the coats of the veins and arteries do not anaſto- the cutis and muſcles only ſhould be taken up in the future, leſt moſe with the veſſels belonging to the fætus. bad ſymptoms ſhould ariſe from ſtitching the peritoneum. In ſuch a caſe, where the children were ſmall, the adheſion The woman muſt be kept in bed, as quiet as poſſible, and every hath been known to ſtretch in pulling at the feet of one, ſo as to thing adminiſtered to promote the lochia, perſpiration, and ſleep; be delivered ; and the other hath been afterwards brought along which will prevent a fever and other dangerous ſymptoms. If ſhe in the ſame manner, without the neceſſity of a ſeparation. When hath loft a great quantity of blood from the wounds in the uterus the accoucheur is called to a caſe of this kind, if the children are and abdomen ſo as to be in danger from inanition ; broths, caudles, large, and the womau come to her full time, let him firſt attempt and wine, ought to be given in ſmall quantities, and frequently to deliver them by that method: but if, after the legs and part of repeated ; and the Cort. Peruvian. adminiſtered in powder, de the body of the firſt are brought down, the reſt will not follow, let coction, or extract, may be of great ſervice in this caſe. For far- him ilide up his hand, and with his fingers examine the adheſion; ther information on this ſubject, the reader may conſult Ruſſetus, then introducing the ſciffars between his hand and the body of the Memoirs of the Academy of Surgeons at Paris, and Heiſter's the fætus, endeavour to ſeparate them by ſnipping through the Surgery. juncture. Should this attempt fail, he muſt diminiſh the bulk PART VIII. TWINS, MONSTERS, AND METHOD OF in the beſt manner he can think of, and bring the body of the DELIVERING THE PLACENTA. firſt, in different pieces, by pulling or cutting them aſunder, as SECT. I. TWINS. he extracts with the help of the crotchet, Twins are ſuppoſed to be the effect of a double conception in No certain rules can be laid down in theſe caſes, which ſeldom one coition, when two or more ova are impregnated with as many happen ; and therefore a great deal muſt be left to the judgment animalcula; which deſcending from the ovarium, through the and ſagacity of the operator, who muſt regulate his conduct ac- Fallopian tube, into the fundus uteri, as they increaſe, come in cording to the circumſtances of the caſe, and according to the di- contact with that part, and with one another, and are ſo preſſed rections given for delivering when the pelvis is narrow and the chil- as to form one globular figure, and ſtretch the womb into the ſame dren extraordinary large. Formerly, practitioners uſed ſtraight form which it aſſumes when diſtended by one ovum only; and and crooked knives with long handles, which were introduced into that, during the whole term of uterine geſtation, it is impoſſible to the uterus along the hand, in order to cut and divide the bodies of diſtinguiſh twins, either by the figure or magnitude of the uterus, children, that they might be extracted piecemeal: and this cruel or by the motion of the different fætuſes; for one child, when it practice obtained even in ſome caſes which we can now manage is large and ſurrounded with a great quantity of waters, will fome- with eaſe and ſafety by turning and delivering the foetus by the times produce as large a prominence (or even larger) in the wo feet. But, no doubt, ſome will happen in which it is impoſſible man's belly, than is commonly obſerved when ſhe is big with to preſerve or deliver the children without the help of inſtruments; and MID WIFER Y. your Tv and in ſuch an emergency the ſciſſars are much ſafer than knives, 1 like an hour glaſs, a circumſtance that ſometimes, though rarely with which the operator runs the riſk of cutting the uterus or him- happens, the fame method muſt be practiſed. In every caſe, and felf; whereas he is expoſed to no ſuch hazard from the other, eſpecially when the placenta hath been delivered with difficulty, which cut only betwixt the points. introduce your hand after its extraction, in order to examine if SECT. III. Delivering the PLACENTA. any part of the uterus be pulled down and inverted ; and if that The funis being ſeparated, and the child committed to the nurſe, be the cafe, puſh it up and reduce it without loſs of time; then the next care is to deliver the placenta and membranes, if they clear it of the coagulated blood, which otherwiſe may occaſion are not forced down by the labour pains. We have already ob- violent after-pains. ſerved, that if there is no danger from a flooding, the woman may For the moſt part, in ten, fifteen, or twenty minutes, more or be allowed to reſt a little, in order to recover from the fatigue, the leſs, the placenta will come away of itſelf; and though ſome por- has undergone ; and that the uterus may in contracting have time tion of it, or of the membranes, be left in the uterus, provided no to ſqueeze and ſeparate the placenta from its inner ſurface : during great flooding enſues, it is commonly diſcharged in a day or two, which pauſe alſo, about one, two, or three cups full of blood are without any detriment to the woman ; but at any rate if poſſible, diſcharged through the funis from the veſſels of the placenta, which all the ſecundines ought to be extracted at once, and before you is thus diminiſhed in bulk, ſo that the womb may be more con leave your patient, in order to avoid reflections. tracted; and this is the reaſon for applying one ligature only upon We find that both amongſt the ancients and moderns, there the cord. In order to deliver the placenta, take hold of the navel. have been different opinions and directions about delivering the ſtring with the left hand, turning it round the fore and middle placenta ; ſome alledging, that it ſhould be delivered lowly, or left fingers, or wrapping it in a cloth, that it may not flip from to come of itſelf: others, that the hand ſhould be immediately in- gralp; then pull gently from ſide to ſide, and deſire the woman to troduced into the uterus, to ſeparate and bring it away. Before affift your endeavour by ſtraining as if the were at ſtool, blowing we run into extremes of either ſide, it ſhould be conſidered how forcibly into her hand, or provoking herſelf to reach by thruſting nature of herſelf acts in theſe caſes. We find, in the common her finger into her throat. If by theſe methods the placenta cannot courſe of labours, that not once in fifty or an hundred times there be brought away, introduce your hand ſlowly into the vagina, and is any thing more to be done than to receive the child. Some of feel for the edge of the cake, which when you have found pull it the ancients have alleged, that no danger happens, on this account, gradually along; as it comes out at the os externum, take hold of oftener than once in one thouſand labours : and as nature is, for it with both hands and deliver it, bringing away at the ſame the moſt part, ſufficient of itſelf in ſuch caſes, it is very rare, per- tine all the membranes, which, if they adhere, muſt be pulled haps not once in twenty or thirty times, that we have occafion to along with leiſure and caution. ſeparate, as it generally comes down by the common aſſiſtance of When the funis takes its origin towards the edge of the pla- pulling gently at the funis, and the efforts of the woman. We centa, which is frequently the caſe, the cake comes eaſier off by alſo find, that the mouth of the womb is as eaſily dilated ſome pulling than when the navel-ſtring is inſerted in the middle, | hours after delivery, as at any other time : ſo in our opinion, we unleſs it be uncommonly retained by its adherfion to the womb, ought to go in the middle way, never to affiſt but when we find it or by the ſtrong contraction of the os internum. If the funis neceſſary; on the one hand, not to torture nature, when it is ſelf- is attached to the middle of the placenta, and that part preſents to ſufficient; nor delay it too long, becauſe it is poſſible, that the the os internum or externum, the whole maſs will be too bulky placenta may ſometimes, though ſeldom, be retained ſeveral days; to come along in that poſition : in this caſe you muſt introduce for if the uterus ſhould be inflamed from any accident, and the two fingers within the os externum, and bring it down with its woman be loft, the operator will be blamed for leaving the after- edge foremoſt. birth behind. If inſtead of finding the edge or middle of the placenta preſent- PART IX. ing to the os externum or internúm, you feel the mouth of the MANAGEMENT OF NEW BORN CHILDREN, WITH womb cloſely contracted, you muſt take hold of the navel- THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT. ſtring as before-directed, and ſlide your other hand along the SECT. I. How to tie the FUNIS UMBILICALIS, or NAVEL funis into the vagina; then ſlowly puth your fingers and thumb, STRING. bo joined in form of a cone, through the os uteri, along the ſame If the air does not immediately ruſh into the lungs, and the cord, to the place of its inſertion in the placenta : here let your circulation continues between it and the piacenta, the operation hand reſt, and feel with your fingers to what part of the uterus of tying and cutting muſt be delayed, and every thing tried to ſti- the cake adheres ; if it be looſe at the lower edge, try to bring mulate, and ſometimes to give pain. If the circulation is languid, it along ; but if it adheres, begin and ſeparate it flowly, the back reſpiration begins with difficulty, and proceeds with long intervals; of your hand being turned to the uterus, and the fore-part of your and if it be entirely ſtopped in the funis, the child if alive, is not fingers towards the placenta ; and for this operation the nails eaſily recovered: fometimes many minutes are elapſed before it ought to be cut ſhort and ſmooth. In ſeparating, preſs the ends begins to breathe. Whatever augments the circulating force, pro- of your fingers more againſt the placenta than the uterus ; and if motes reſpiration ; and as this increaſes, the circulation grows you cannot diſtinguiſh which is which, becauſe both feel ſoft ſtronger, ſo that they mutually affiſt each other. In order to pro- (though the uterus is firmer than the placenta, and this laſt more mote the one and the other, the child is kept warm, moved, ſhaken, lolid than coagulated blood; in this caſe flide down your fingers whipt; the head, temples, and breaſt rubbed with ſpirits , garlic, to its edge, and conduct them by the ſeparated part, preffing it onion, or muſtard, applied to the mouth and noſe ; and the child gently from the uterus, until the whole is diſengaged. Some has been ſometimes recovered by blowing into the mouth with a times, when part of it is ſeparated, the reſt will looſen and come ſilver canula, ſo as to expand the lungs. along if you pull gently at the detached portion ; but if this is When the placenta is itſelf delivered, immediately or foon after not effected with eaſe, let the whole of it be ſeparated in the moſt the child, by the continuance of the labour-pains, or hath been cautious manner: ſometimes alſo, by graſping the inſide of the extracted by the operator, that the uturus may contract ſo as to placenta with your hand, the whole will be looſened without reſtrain too great a flooding ; in this caſe, if the child has not yet further trouble. As the placenta comes along, ſlide down your breathed, and a pulſation is felt in the veſſels, ſome people (with hand and take hold of the lower edge, by which it muſt be ex- good reaſon) order the placenta, and as much as poſſible of the tracted, becauſe it is too bulky to be brought away altogether in a navel-ſtring, to be thrown into a baſon of warm wine or water, in heap; and let it be delivered as whole as poffible, keeping your order to promote the circulation between them and the child; others thumb or fingers fixed upon the naval-ftring, by which means adviſe us to lay the placenta on the child's belly, covered with a laceration is often prevented. warm cloth; and a third ſet order it to be thrown upon hot aſhes: When the woman lies on her back, and the placenta adheres to but of theſe the warm water ſeems the moſt innocent and effectual the left ſide of the uterus, it will be moſt commodious to ſeparate expedient. Nevertheleſs, if the placenta is ſtill retained in the the cake with the right hand ; whereas the left-hand is moſt con uterus, and no dangerous flooding enſues, it cannot be in a place of veniently uſed when the placenta adheres to the right ſide of the more equal warmth while the operator endeavours, by the methods yo en womb; but when it is attached to the fore-part, back, or fundus, before deſcribed, to bring the child to life.on var either hand will anſwer the purpoſe. Different practitioners have uſed different methods of perform- When therefore the placenta adheres to the fundus, and all the ing this operatien: fome propoſing to tie and ſeparate the funis be- lower part of the womb is ſtrongly contracted, the hand muſt be fore the placenta is delivered ; to apply one ligature cloſe to the forced up in form of a cone into the vagina, and then gradually belly of the child, with a view to prevent a rupture of the navel; dilate the os internum and inferior part of the uterus. If great and making another two inches above the former, to divide the force is required, exert it ſlowly, refting between whiles that the rope between the two tyings : by the ſecond ligature they mean to hand may not be cramped, nor the vagina in danger of being tore prevent a dangerous hæmorrhage from the woman, provided the from the womb; for in this caſe the vagina will lengthen conſider- placenta adheres to the uterus. But all theſe precautions are ably upwards. founded upon miſtaken notions ; and the following is that which While you are thus employed, let an aſſiſtant preſs with both is eaſieſt and beſt. If the placenta is not immediately delivered hands on the woman's belly, or while you puſh with one hand, by the pains, and no flooding obliges you to haſten the extraction, prefs with the other in order to keep down the uterus, elſe it will riſe the woman may be allowed to reſt a little and the child to recover. and roll about like a large ball, below the lax parietes of the If the child does not breathe, or the reſpiration is weak, let the me- abdomen, ſo as hinder you from effecting the neceſſary dilatation. thods before preſcribed be put in practice, with a view to ſtimu- have overcome this contraction, and introduced your late the circulation ; but if the child is lively, and cries with vi- hand into the fundus, ſeparate and bring the placenta along, as gour, the funis may be immediately tied in this manner: having above directed; and ſhould the uterus be contracted in the middle provided a ligature or two compoſed of ſundry threads waxed to gethes high up, When you MIDWIFERY. an gether, ſo as to equal the diameter of a packthread, being ſeven and, inſtead of two or more blankets, may be covered with a flan. inches in length and knotted at each end, tie the navel-ftting about nel or fuſtian gown ; while the head is accomodated with ano- two fingers breadth from the belly of the child, by making at firſt ther сар, adorned with as much finery as the tire-woman ſhall one turn if the funis be ſmall, ſecuring it with two knots; but if | think proper to beſtow. the cord be thick, make two more turns, and another double knot: In ſhort, the princ:pal aim of this point is, to keep the child's then cut the funis with a pair of ſharp fciffars one finger's breadth head and body neither too tight nor too ſlovenly, too hot nor too from the ligature towards the placenta ; and in cutting run the cold ; that it may be warm, though not over heated; and eaſy, ſcillars as near as poſſible to the root of the blades, elſe the funis though not too looſe; that reſpiration may be full and large; that will be apt to flip from the edge, and you will be obliged to make the brain may ſuffer nocompreſſion ; and that, while the child is ſeveral ſnips before you can effect a ſeparation : at the ſame time, awake, the legs may be at liberty; to reject all unneceſſary rollers, guard the point of the ſciſfars with your other hand. The child croſs-cloths, neck-cloths, and blankets; and to uſe as few pins as being waſhed, a linen rag is wrapped round the tied funis; which poſſible, and thoſe that are abſolutely neceſſary with the utmoſt being doubled up along the belly a up along the belly a ſquare compreſs is laid over it, caution: and kept firm or moderately tight with what the nurſes call a SECT. III. How to manage when any of the common Paſages are belly band or roller round the body. locked up, or the Tongue tied. This portion of the funis foon ſhrinks, turns firſt lived, then When the child cannot make water, becauſe the paſſage is filled black and about the fifth day falls off cloſe to the belly: it will al up with mucus; after having unſucceſsfully practiſed the common ways drop off at the ſame place : ſo that ruptures in the navel methods of holding the belly near the fire, and rubbing the parts ſeldom or never depend upon the tying of the funis, but may hap with Ol Rutæ, &c. we muſt introduce a probe, or very finall ca- pen when the compreſs, and belly-band are not kept fufficiently theter, along the urethra into the bladder ; an operation inuch firm and continued ſome time after the ſeparation of the withered more eaſily performed in female than in male children. portion, eſpecially in thoſe children that cry much : the bandage In boys, the prepuce alone is ſometimes imperforated ; in which ought always to be applied fo flight as not to affect reſpiration. caſe, an opening is eaſily made. But if there is no paſſage in the The ligature upon the funis muſt always be drawn ſo tight as to urethra, or even through the whole length of the glans, all that can ſhut up the mouths of the veſſels; therefore, if they continue to be done is to make an opening with a lancet or biſtory, near the pour out their contents, another ligature muſt be applied below mouth or ſphincter of the bladder, in the lower part of the ure- the former ; for if this precaution be neglected, the child will thra, where the urine being obſtructed, puſhes out the parts in form ſoon bleed to death : yet if the navel-ftring is cut or tore aſunder at of a tumour ; or, if no ſuch tumefaction appears, to perforate the two or three handbreadths from the belly, and expoſed to the cold bladder above the pubes with a trocar : this however, is a without any ligature, the arteries will contract themſelves, ſo that wretched and ineffectual expedient, and the other cau but at beſt little or no blood ſhall be loſt; nay, ſometimes, if the funis hath | lengthen out a miſerable life. If the anus is imperforated, and been tied and cut at the diſtance of three finger-breadths from the fæces protrude the parts ; or if it be covered with a thin the child's belly, ſo that it hath been kept from bleeding for membrane, and a bluiſh or livid ſpot appears ; the puncture and hour or two, although the ligature be then untied, and the navel inciſion commonly ſucceed. But when the recium is altogether ſtring and belly chafed, and ſoaked in warm water, no more blood wanting, or impervious for a conſiderable way, the ſucceſs of the will be diſcharged. operation is very uncertain : nevertheleſs it ought to be tried, SECT. II. Woſhing and Dreſſing the Child. by making an artificial anus with a biſtory, remembering the The child being delivered, the navel-ftring tied and cut, a warm courſe of the rectum, and the entry in both ſexes. For further cloth or flannel cap put on its head, and its body wrapped in a information on this ſubject, Mauriceau's and Saviard's Ob- warm receiver, it may be given to the nurſe or an affıſtant, in or ſervations, and the Memoirs of the Academy of ſurgeons may be der to be waſhed clean from that ſcurf which ſometimes covers the conſulted. whole ſcarf-ſkin, and is particularly found upon the hairy ſcalp In female children there is a thin membrane, in form of a cref- under the arm-pits, and in the groins. This ablution is com cent, called the hymen, that covers the lower part of the orifice of monly performed with warm water, mixed with a ſmall quantity the vagina, and is rent in the firſt coition. The middle of it is of Hungary water, wine, or ale, in which a little pomatum or ſometimes attached to the lower part of the meatus urinarius, and freſh butter hath been diffolved. This compoſition cleans all the on each fide of the bridge is a ſmall opening that will only admit ſurface, and the oily part, by mixing with and attenuating the the end of a probe, though it is ſufficient for the diſcharge of the mucus, prepares it for the linen cloth, which dries and wipes off | menſes. This obſtruction is commonly unknown till marriage, and the whole : nevertheleſs milk and water, or ſoap and water, is hath often proved fatal to the unfortunate woman, who had con- preferable to this mixture. In laborious or preternatural caſes, cealed it through exceſs of modeſty, and afterwards ſunk into a deep when conſiderable force hath been uſed in delivering the child, melancholy which coſt her her life, rather than ſubmit to inſpec- the whole body ought to be examined ; and if there is any marktion, and the eaſy cure of having the attachment fript with a pair or contuſion on the head, it will diſappear, if anointed with of ſciſfars. On this conſideration, Saviard adviſes all accoucheurs pomatum, and gently rubbed or chafed with the accoucheur's to inſpect this part in every female child they deliver; and if there hand : if any limb is diſlocated or broken, it ought to be re ſhould be fuch a defect, to remedy it during her childhood: or, if duced immediately : luxations, though they ſeldom happen, the entry is wholly covered with the membrane, let a fufficient per- are more incident to the ſhoulder than to any other part, the foration be made, which will prevent great pain and tenſion in their humerus being eaſily diſlocated, and as eaſily reduced. The riper years, when the menſes, being denied paffage, would accu- bones of the arm and thigh are more ſubject to fracture, than any mulate every month, and at laſt puſh out this and the neighbour- other of the extremities : the firſt is eaſily cured, becauſe the ing parts, in form of a large tumour, the cauſe of which is generally arm can be kept from being moved ; but a fracture in the thigh- unknown until it be opened. bone is a much more troubleſome caſe, becauſe, over and above Sometimes a thin membrane, riſing from the under part of the the difficulty of keeping the bones in a proper fituation, the part mouth, ſtretches almoſt to the tip of the tongue,bracing it down, ſo is often neceſſarily moved in cleaning the child. In this caſe, as to hinder the child from taking hold of the nipple and fucking. the beſt method is to keep the child lying on one fide, after the This diſorder, which is called tongue-tying, is eaſily remedied by in- thigh hath been ſecured by proper bandage, ſo that the nurſe troducing the fore-finger into the child's mouth, raiſing up the may change the cloth without moving the part ; and to lay it tongue, and ſnipping the bridle with a pair of ſciſſars. If, inſtead of upon bolſters or pillows raiſed above the wet-nurſe, that it may a thin membrane, the tongue is confined by a thick fleſhy ſubſtance, fuck with greater freedom: if any of the bones are bent, they the ſafeſt method is to direct the nurſe to ſtretch it frequently and may be brought into their proper form by a ſlow, gentle, and pro- gently with her finger; or, if it appears like a ſoft fungus, to touch vel it frequently and cautiouſly with lunar cauſtic or Roman vitriol : During the time of waſhing and dreſſing the child, it ought to but we ought to take care that we are not deceived by an inflam- be kept moderately warm, eſpecially in the head and breaſt, that mation that ſometimes happens in the birth, from the accoucheur's the cold air may not obſtruct perſpiration ; the head and body | helping the head along with his finger in the child's mouth. ought to be kept moderately tight with the cloaths, for the con SECT. IV. Mould-Jhot Heads, Contuſions and Excoriations, venience of handling, and to prevent its catching cold, eſpecially In laborious and lingering labours, the child's head is often long if the child be weakly; but if it be vigorous and full grown, it can confined, and ſo compreſſed in the pelvis, that the bones of the not be too looſely cloathed, becauſe the brain, thorax, and abdo- upper part of the cranium are ſqueezed together, and ride overone men, ſuffer by too great compreſſion. The cloathing of new another in different manners, according as the head preſented. born children ought alſo to be ſuitable to the ſeaſon of the year | If the offa parietalia riſe over the os frontis, the caſe is called the and the nature of the weather; the extremes of cold and heat | mould-Shot; if over the occiput, it goes by the name of the horfe-Shoe being avoided, as equally hurtful and dangerous. Inſtead of the mould. When the fontanel preſents, (though this is ſeldom the many fuperfluousinventions of nurſes, and thoſe who make cloaths caſe) and is puſhed down, the form of the head is raiſed up in the for children, with a view to make an expenſive and pompous ap- ſhape of a hog's back; whereas, in the former cafe, the vertex or pearance, the dreſs ought to be contrived with all imaginary fim- crown of the head preſented, and the whole was turned from a plicity: the child being waſhed, the navel-ftring ſecured, and round to a very long figure. If the head is kept long in the pelvis, the head covered with a linen or woollen cap, as already directed, and the child not deſtroyed by the compreſlion of the brain, either a fhirt and waiſtcoat may be put on the body, and over it a fian before or ſoon after delivery, it commonly retains more or leſs of nel ſkirtor petticoat, open before, with a broad head-band, as com the ſhape acquired in that ſituation, according to the ſtrength or only uſed, or rather a waiſtcoat joined to it, ſo as that they can weakneſs of the child. When the bones begin to ride over one be put on at once: this ought to be rather tied than pinned before; 1 another in this manner, the hairy ſcalp is felt lax and wrinkled ; but, per extenſion. MIDWIFERY. but, by the long preſſure and obſtructions of the circulating fluids, | ulcerated in conſequence of the child's weakneſs , and acrimonious it gradually ſwells and forms a large tumour. vomitings, belchings, and ſtools, and little foul ulcers are formed. In theſe caſes, when the child is delivered, we ought to allow | Theſe firſt appear in ſmall white ſpecks on the lips, mouth, tongue, the navel-ſtring, at cutting, to bleed from one to two or three and at the fundament: they ſpoonfuls , eſpecially if the infant be vigorous and full grown; and extent ; acopt a yellow colour, which in the progreſs of the diſtem- to provoke it by whipping and ſtimulating; for the more it cries, per becomes duſkiſh, and the watery ſtools (called the waterygripes) the fooner and better are the bones of the cranium forced outwards become more frequent. The whole inner ſurface of the inteſtines into their natural ſituation: or, if the head hath not been long com- being thus ulcerated and obſtructed, no nouriſhment enters the preſſed, and is not much inflamed, we can ſometimes with our lacteal veſſels; ſo that the weakneſs and diſeaſe are increaſed, the hands reduce it into its priſtine ſhape. The meconium ought alſo milk and pap which are taken in at the mouth, palles off curdled to be purged off as ſoon as poſſible, to give freer ſcope to the circu- and green, the child is more and more enfeebled, and the brown lating fluids in the abdomen, and make a revulſion from the fur- colour of the aptha declares a mortification and death at hand. charged and compreſſed brain. This may be effected with ſup- | Sometimes, however, the aptha are unattended by the watery ſtools; pofitaries, glyſters, repeated doſes of Ol. Amygdal . d. mixed with and ſometimes theſe laſt are unaccompanied with the aptha. Pulv. Rhabarb. or De Althæa, or Syr. de Cichoero, cum Rheo. In order to prevent this fatal cataſtrophe, at the firſt appear- If the child is ſeized with convulſions ſoon after delivery, in ance of the diſorder we ought to preſcribe repeated doſes of teſta- conſequence of this compreſſion, and the veſſels of the navel-ftring ceous powders to abſorb and ſweeten the predominant acid in the have not been allowed to bleed, the jugular vein ought immediately ſtomach, giving them from ten to twenty grains in the pap, twice to be opened, and from one to two ounces of blood taken away; or three times a day; and on every third night, from three to five an operation eaſily performed in young children: the urine and grains of the Pulv. Rhei , Julep. e Creta; oily and anodyne glyſters, meconium muſt be diſcharged, and a ſmall bliſter applied between with epithems to the ſtomach, may alſo be adminiſtered. When the ſcapulæ. When the ſcalp is bruiſed, inflamed, or ſwelled, let theſe and every other preſcription fail, the child, if not much it be anointed or embrocated with a mixture of Ol. Chamomel. Acet. | weakened, is ſometimes cured by a gentle vomit, conſiſting of Pulv. and Spt. Vin. camphorat. and cerates and poultices applied to the Ipecacuan. gr. 1. given in a ſpoonful of barley-water, and repeated parts. two or three times at the interval of half an hour between each. If the tumefaction is large, and we feel a conſiderable fluctua- When the child is much enfeebied, the Oleo-Saccharum. Cinnamomi tion of extravaſated fluids, which cannot be taken up by the ab or Aniſi, mixed with the pap, is ſometimes ſerviceable. If the forbent veſſels, aſſiſted with thoſe applications, the tumour muſt be milk is either too purgative or binding, the nurſe ſhould be changed, opened; though generally there is no occafion for a large inciſion, or take proper medicines to alter its quality; or, if the child has becauſe, after the fluid is once diſcharged, the hollow ſcalp, by been brought up by hand, woman's milk may be given on this oc- gentle preffure, is more eaſily joined in children than in older ſub- caſion, together with weak broths; but if the child cannot ſuck, jects. When the head is miſhapen, it ſhould not be bound or preſ-the milk of cows, mares, or aſſes, may be ſubſtituted in its room, fed, but left lax and eaſy; leít, the brain being compreſſed, con diluted with barley water. vulſions ſhould enſue. SECT. VI. TEETHING. The body of the child is ſometimes covered all over with little Children commonly begin to breed their fore-teeth about the Ted ſpots, called the red gum, and commonly proceeding from the ſeventh, and ſometimes not before the ninth month; nay, in ſome coſtiveneſs of the child, when the mencoium hath not been ſuffici- the period is ſtill later. Thoſe who are healthy and lax in their ently purged off at firſt . And here it will not be improper to ob- bellies, undergo dentition eaſier than ſuch as are of a contrary ſerve, that as the whole tract of the colon is filled with this viſcid conſtitution. When the teeth ſhoot from their ſockets, and their excrement, which hath been gradually accumulated for a conſider- ſharp points begin to work their way through the perioſteum and able time; and as the ſmall inteſtines, ſtomach, and gullet, are gums, they frequently produce great pain and inflammation, which, lined with a glary fluid or inucus; the child ought to take no other if they continue violent, bring on feveriſh fymptoms and convul- nouriſhment than pap as thin as whey, to dilute this fluid, for the fions, that often prove fatal. In order to prevent theſe misfortunes, firſt two days; or indeed, till it fucks the mother's milk, which be- the ſwelled gum inay at firſt be cut down to the tooth, with a biſ- gins to be ſecreted about the third day, and is at firſt ſufficiently tory or fleam; by which means the patient is often relieved im- purgative to diſcharge theſe humours, and better adapted for the mediately: but if the child is ſtrong, the pulſe quick, the ſkin purpoſe than any artificial purge. hot and dry, bleeding at the jugular will be alſo neceffary, and the If the mother's milk cannot be had, a nurſe lately delivered is belly muſt be kept open with repeated glyſters. On the other to be found; and if the purgative quality of her milk is decreaſed, hand, if the child is low, ſunk, and emaciated, repeated doſes of ſhe muſt be ordered to take repeated ſmall doſes of manna or leni- | Spt. C. C. Tinct. Fuligin. and the like, may be preſcribed; and tive electuary, by which it will recover its former virtue, and the bliſters applied to the back, or behind the ears. child be ſufficiently purged. If the child is brought up by hand, PART X. the food ought to imitate as near as poſſible the mother's milk: let of the MANAGEMENT of Women from the Time of their Delivery it conſiſt of loaf-bread and water boiled up together, in form of to the End of the Month, with the ſeveral DISEASES to which they panada, and mixed with the ſame quantity of new cow's milk; and are ſubject during that Period. ſometimes with the broth of fowl or mutton. When the child is SECT. I. The EXTERNAL APPLICATION. coſtive, two drachms of manna, or from two to four grains of The woman being delivered of the child and placenta, let a ſoft rhubarb, may be given : and when the ſtools are green and curdled, linen cloth, warmed, be applied to the external parts: and if ſhe it will be proper to abſorb the prevailing acid with the teſtaceous complains much of a ſmarting ſoreneſs, fome pomatum may be powders, ſuch as the Chel. Cancror, fimp. or Teft. Oftrear. given from ſpread upon it. The linen that was laid below her, to ſpunge up the quantity of ten grains to a ſcruple: and for this purpoſethe the diſcharges; muſt be removed, and replaced with others that are Magneſia alba is recommended, from one to two drachms a-day, clean, dry, and warm. Let her lie on her back, with her legs ex- as being both opening and abſorbent. The red gum may like-tended cloſe to each other ; or upon her ſide, if ſhe thinks ſhe can wiſe proceed from the officiouſneſs of the nurſe, by which the lie eaſier in that poſition, until ſhe recovers from the fatigue: if ſcarf ſkin hath been abraded or rubbed off; in which caſe the child | ſhe is ſpent and exhauſted, let her take a little warm wine or candle, muſt be bathed in warm milk, and the parts foftened with poma- or, according to the common cuſtom, fome nutmeg and ſugar tum: the ſame bath may be alſo uſed daily in the other kind, and grated together in a ſpoon: the principal deſign of adminiſtering the belly kept open with the aforementioned medicines; with which this powder, which among the good women is feldom neglected, ſome ſyrup, tincture, or powder of rhubarb, may be mixed, or is to ſupply the want of ſome cordial draught, when the patient is given by itſelf, if the ſtools are of a greeniſh hue. too weak to be raiſed, or ſuppoſed to be in danger of retchings from Excoriations behind the ears, in the neck and groin of the child, her ſtomach's being overloaded. When ſhe hath in fome meaſure are ſometimes indeed unavoidable in fat and groſs habits; but moſt recovered her ſtrength and ſpirits, let the cloths be removed from commonly proceed from the careleſſneſs of the nurſe, who neglects the parts, and others applied in their room; and if there is a large to waſh and keep the parts clean; they are, however, eaſily dried diſcharge from the uterus, let the wet linen below her be alſo up and healed, with Unguent. Alb. Pulv. e Ceruſſa, or fullers earth. ſhifted, that ſhe may not run the riſk of catching cold. Yet we ought to be cautious in apply drying medicines behind the When the patient is either weak or faintiſh, ſhe ought not to ears, becauſe a diſcharge in that part frequently prevents worſe be taken out of bed, or even raiſed up to have her head and body diſeaſes. ſhifted, until ſhe is a little recruited; otherwiſe ſhe will be in SECT. V. The APTHA, or THRUSH. danger of repeated faintings, attended with convulſions, which The aptha, or thruſh, is a diſeaſe to which new born children fometimes end in death. To prevent theſe bad conſequences, her are frequently ſubject, and is often dangerous when neglected at ſkirt and petticoats ought to be looſened and pulled down over the the beginning. This diſeaſe proceeds from weakneſs and laxity legs, and replaced by another, well warmed, with a broad head band of the contracting force of the ſtomach and inteſtines, by which to be ſlipt in below, and brought up over her thighs and hips: a the aceſcent food is not digeſted; and from a defect in the neceſ warm double cloth muſt be laid on the belly, which is to be ſur- ſary fecretion of bile, with which it ought to be mixed. This rounded by the head-band of the ſkirt pinned moderately tight over prevailing acid in the primæ viæ produces griping and loofe green the cloth, in order to compreſs the viſcera and the relaxed parietes itools, that weaken the child more and more, deprives it of proper of the abdomen, more or leſs, as the woman can eaſily bear it; nouriſhment and reſt, and occaſions a fever from inanition and ir- | hy which means the uterus is kept firm in the lower part of the ab- ritation. The ſmalleſt veſſels at the mouths of the excretory duets | domen and prevented from rolling from ſide to ſide when the pati- in the mouth, gullet, ſtomach, and inteſtines, are obſtructed and ent is turned; but the principal end of this compreſſion is to hinder No. 108. * 7T too MIDWIFERY. too great a quantity of blood from ruſhing into the relaxed veſſels theſe callous edges muſt be pared off with ſcillars; or, if that of the abdominal contents; eſpecially when the uterus is emptied ſhould be found impracticable, ſcarified with the point of a lancet all of a ſudden by a quick delivery. The preſſure being thus ſud or biſtory, and then ſtitched as before directed, and the ſtitches denly removed, the head is all at once robbed of its proportion of muſt be made very deep, otherwiſe they will not hold; becauſe blood, and the immediate revulſion precipitates the patient into there is but little muſcular fieſh in the vagina and rectum: but the dangerous lypothemia. colon ought firſt to be emptied with glyſters, and the patient take For this reaſon the belly ought to be firmly compreſſed by the little or no ſolid food, that the ſtitches may not be overſtrained hands of an aſſiſtant, until the bandage is applied; or, in lieu of it, when ſhe goes to ſtool. goes to ſtool. When the laceration reaches ſo high as a long towel, ſheet, or roller, to make a ſuitable compreſſion: but to endanger the woman's retentive faculty, this method, doubtleſs, for this purpoſe different methods are uſed in different countries, ought to be tried; but not otherwiſe, becauſe the operation very or according to the different circunſtances of the patients. The rarely ſucceeds. head-cloaths and ſhift ought alſo to be changed, becauſe, with SECT. II. Air, Diet, Sleeping and Watching, Motion and Reſi, ſweating in time of labour, they are rendered wet and diſagreeable. Retention and Excretion, and the Paſſions of the Mind. Several other applications are neceſſary when the external and in Although we cannot remove the patient immediately after deli- ternal parts are rent or inflamed, misfortunes that ſometimes hap- very into another climate, we can qualify the air, ſo as to keep it pen in laborious and preternatural caſes. in a moderate and falutary temper, by rendering it warm or cold, The directions for ordering the bed in time of labour, and of moiſt or dry, according to the circumſtances of the occaſion. the applications after delivery, are abſolutely neceſſary to be known With regard to diet, women in time of labour, and even till the by young practitioners; becauſe all theſe precautions are for the ninth day after delivery, ought to eat little ſolid food, and none at eaſe and ſafety of the patient when attended by unexperienced all during the firſt ſeven days: let them drink plentifully of warm nurſes. diluting fluids, ſuch as barley-water, gruel, chicken-water, and CASE I. teas; caudles are alſo commonly uſed, compoſed of water-gruel Inflammations of the labia pudendi, rectum, urethra, vagina, boiled up with mace and cinnamon, to which, when ſtrained, is and uterus, chiefly happen when the head, ſhoulder, breech, or added a third or fourth part of white wine or leſs, if the patient any other part of the foetus, hath been forced into the pelvis, and drinks plentifully, ſweetened with ſugar to their taſte: this com- long detained in that ſituation; ſo that, by many ſtrong pains, the poſition is termed white caudle; whereas, if ale is uſed inſtead of delivery was effected, or great force and violence were required to wine, it goes under the name of brown caudle. In ſome countries, turn or extract the child. . Theſe inflammations, if flight, are eggs are added to both kinds; but in that caſe, the woman is not commonly relieved, or altogether reſolved, by a plentiful diſcharge permitted to eat meat or broths till after the fifth or ſeventh day: of the lochia, reſt, and profuſe ſweating; but if violent, blooding, in this country, however, as eggs are no part of the ingredients, the warm fomentations, cataplaſms, and emollient glyſters, may be patient is indulged with weak broth ſooner, and ſometimes allowed neceſſary; though the firſt and laſt muſt be uſed with caution. If to eat a little boiled chicken. But all theſe different preparations the preſſure hath been ſo great as totally to obſtruct the circulating are to be preſcribed weaker or ſtronger, with regard to the ſpices, fluids in thoſe parts, a mortification enſues; either total, by which wine, or ale, according to the different conſtitutions and ſituations the woman is ſoon deſtroyed; or partial, when the mortified parts of different patients: for example, if ſhe is low and weak, in con- ſeparate and caſt off in thick ſloughs, then digeſt, and are healed ſequence of an extraordinary diſcharge of any kind either before or as a common ſore. after delivery, or if the weather is cold, the caudles and broths CASE II. may be made the ſtronger; but if ſhe is of a full habit of body, If, in conſequence of the long preſſure of the child's head at that and has the leaſt tendency to a fever, or if the ſeaſon is exceflive part of the vagina where its outward ſurface is attached to the hot, theſe drinks ought to be of a very weak confiftence, or the pa- back and under part of the bladder, the mortification affects the tient reſtricted to gruel, tea, barley, and chicken-water, and theſe coats of the vefica urinaria, as well as thoſe of the vagina, when varied according to the emergency of the caſe. the floughs fall off, the urine will paſs that way, and hinder the Her food muſt be light and eaſy of digeſtion, ſuch as panada, opening (if large) from being cloſed; this is an inexpreſſible in- biſcuit, and fago: about the ſixth or feventh day, ſhe may eat a convenience and misfortune to the poor woman, both from the little boiled chicken, or the lighteſt kind of young meat; but theſe ſmell and continual wetting her cloaths. The vagina and bladder laſt may be given ſooner or later, according to the circumſtances may alſo be lacerated by the forceps, crotchet, or any other inſtru- of the caſe and the appetite of the patient. In the regimen as to ment imprudently forced up: but, in that caſe, the urine is imme- eating and drinking, we ſhould rather err on the abſtemious fide, diately diſcharged through the wound; whereas, in a mortification, than indulge the woman with meat and ſtrong fermented liquors, it comes off in a natural way, until the flough begins to ſeparate even if theſe laſt ſhould be moſt agreeable to her palate; for we and fall off. As ſoon as this misfortune is known, the cure ought find by experience that they are apt to increaſe or bring on fevers, to be attempted; this (according to ſome) conſiſts in keeping a and that the moſt nouriſhing and falutary diet is that which we flexible catheter always in the bladder, that the urine may be con have above preſcribed. Every thing that is difficult of digeſtion, tinually ſolicited to come through the urethra rather than through or quickens the circulating fluids, muft of neceſſity promote a fe- the vagina: but if this precaution hath been neglected, and the ver; by which the neceſſary diſcharges are obſtructed, and the pa- lips of the ulcer are turned callous, we are directed to pare them tient's life endangered. off with a curved knife, buttoned at the point, or conſume them As to the article of fleeping and watching, the patient muſt be with lunar cauſtic; and, if the opening is large, to cloſe it with kept as free from noiſe as poſlible, by covering the floors and ſtairs a double ſtitch, keeping the flexible catheter in the bladder until it with carpets and cloths, oiling the hinges of the doors, ſilencing is entirely filled up: but we wiſh this operation may not be found the bells, tying up the knockers, and, in noiſy ſtreets, ſtrowing impracticable. the pavement with ſtraw: if, notwithſtanding theſe precautions, CASE III. ſhe is diſturbed, her ears muſt be ſtuffed with cotton, and opiates The os externum is frequently tore, particularly at the perinæ- adminiſtered to procure ſleep; becauſe watching makes her reſt- um; and ſometimes the laceration reaches to the anus. Āt other leſs, prevents perſpiration, and promotes a fever. Motion and times, (but more feldom) both vagina and rectum are tore for the reſt are another part of the non-naturals to which we ought to pay ſpace of two or three inches upwards, and the two form but one particular regard. By toſling about, getting out of bed, or ſitting cavity at the lower part. The laceration is frequently occaſioned up too long, the perfpiration is diſcouraged and interrupted; and from the exceſſive largeneſs of the child's head; from the rigidity in this laſt attitude the uterus, not yet fully contracted, hangs down, of the fibres in women who are near the borders of forty when ſtretching the ligaments, occafioning pain, cold ſhiverings, and a their firſt children are born: from the accoucheur's neglecting to fever: for the prevention of theſe bad ſymptoms, the patient muſt ſlide the perinæum over the head when it is forcibly propelled by be kept quiet in bed till after the fourth or fifth day, and then be the pains, or from his omitting to keep up the head with the flat gently lifted up in the bed-cloaths, in a lying poſture, until the of his hand that it may not come too ſuddenly along; from too bed can be adjuſted, into which ſhe muſt be immediately recon- great violence uſed in laborious or preternatural labours; and from veyed, there to continue, for the moſt part, till the ninth day; af- the operator's incautious manner of thruſting in his hand. If the ter which period women are not ſo ſubject to fevers as immedi- laceration be ſmall, the part foon heals up, and the only inconve-ately after delivery. Some there are who, from the nature of nience attending the wound is a ſmarting after making water; and their conſtitutions or other accidents, recover more ſlowly; and when the laceration is large, extending to the edge of the ſphincter ſuch are to be treated with the ſame caution after as before the ani, or even farther, this pain is ſtill more troubleſome, and in- | ninth day, as, the caſe ſeems to indicate. Others get up, walk creaſed upon the leaſt motion, by the friction of the lips againſt | about, and recover, in a inuch ſhorter time; but theſe may, fome each other. time or other, pay dearly for their fool-hardineſs, by encouraging In the third caſe, it is ſuppoſed that there is an abſolute neceſſity dangerous fevers: ſo that we ought rather to err on the ſafe fide, to make, as ſoon as poſſible, two, three, or ſometimes four, deep than run any riſk whatſoever. ſtitches through the tore vagina and rectum, the knots being tied What next comes under conſideration, is the circumſtance of in the vagina, and two more ſtitches in the perinæum, to aſliſt the retention and excretion. We have formerly obſerved, that in re-union of the parts; for if the ſphincter ani is entirely ſeparated, time of labour, before the head of the child is locked into the pel- and continues in that condition, the patient can ſeldom retain her vis, if the woman has not had eaſy paſſage in her belly that ſame excrements for any length of time. If this misfortune ſhould re- day, the rectum and colon ought to be emptied by a glyſter, which inain unknown, or the operation unperfomed, on account of the will affiſt the labour, prevent the diſagreeable excretion of the woman's veakneſs, until the lips of the wound are grown callous, fæces before the child's head, and enable the patient to remain two GI MIDWIFERY. may Or or three days after without the neceſſity of going to ſtool. How- draughts of barley-water, acidulated with elixir of vitriol: but if ſhould this precaution be neglected, and the patient very the circulation be weak and languid, extract of the bark, diffolved coltive after delivery, we muſt beware of throwing up ſtimulating in Aq. Cinnamoni tenuis, and given in ſmall draughts or exhibited glyſters, or adminiſtering ſtrong cathartics, left they ſhould bring in any other form, will be ſerviceable; at the ſame time, lulling on too many looſe ftools, which, if they cannot be ſtopt, fome- the patient to reſt with opiates. Theſe, indeed, when the firſt times produce fatal conſequences, by obſtructing the perſpiration violence of the flooding is abated, if properly and cautiouſly uſed, and lochia, and exhauſting the woman, ſo as that ſhe will die all are generally more effectual than any other medicine. of a ſudden; a cataſtrophe which hath frequently happened from SECT. IV. The AFTER-PAINS. this practice. Wherefore, if it be neceſſary to empty the inteſ After-pains commonly happen when the fibrous part of the tines, we ought to preſcribe nothing but emollient glyſters, or ſome blood is retained in the uterus or vagina, and formed into large very gentle opener, ſuch as manna, or EleEt. Lenitivum. clots, which are detained by the ſudden contraction of the os inter- But no excretion is of more conſequence to the patient's reco num and externum, after the placenta is delivered: or, if theſe very than a free perſpiration; which is ſo abſolutely neceſſary, that ſhould be extracted, others will ſometimes be formed, though not unleſs ſhe has a moiſture continually on the ſurface of her body | ſo large as the firſt, becauſe the cavity of the womb is continually for ſome days after the birth, ſhe feldom recuvers to advantage: diminiſhing after the birth. The uterus, in contracting, preſſes her health, therefore, in a great meaſure depends upon her enjoy down theſe coagulums to the os internum; which being again ing undiſturbed repoſe, and a conſtant breathing ſweat, which pre- gradually ſtretched, produces a degree of labour-pains, owing to vents a fever, by carrying off the tenſion, and aſſiſts the equal dif the irritation of its nerves: in conſequence of this uneaſineſs, the charge of the lochia ; and when theſe are obſtructed, and a fever the woman ſqueezes the womb as in real labour; the force being enſues with pain and reſtleſſneſs, nothing relieves the patient ſo increaſed, the clots are puſhed along, and when they are delivered eifectually as reſt and profuſe ſweating, procured by opiates and ſhe grows eaſy. The larger the quantity is of the coagulated ſudorifics at the beginning of the complaints; yet theſe laſt muſt blood, the ſeverer are the pains, and the longer they continue. be more cautiouſly preſcribed in exceſſive hot, than in cool weather. Women in the firſt child, ſeldom have after-pains; becauſe, The laſt of the non-naturals to be conſidered, are the paſſions after delivery, the womb is ſuppoſed to contract, and puſh off the of the mind, which alſo require particular attention. The pa clots with greater force in the firſt than in the following labours : tient's imagination muſt not be diſturbed by the news of any ex-after-pains may alſo proceed from obſtructions in the veſſels, and traordinary accident which may have happened to her family or irritations at the os internum. In order to prevent or remove friends; for fuch information hath been known to carry off the theſe pains, as ſoon as the placenta is ſeparated and delivered, the labour-pains entirely, after they were begun, and the woman has hand being introduced into the uterus, may clear off all the coagula. funk under dejection of ſpirits: and, even after delivery, theſe un When the womb is felt, through the parietes of the abdomen, ſeaſonable communications have produced ſuch an anxiety as ob- larger than uſual, it may be taken for granted that there is either ſtructed all the neceſſary excretions, and brought on a violent fever another child, or a large quantity of this clotted blood; and which and convulſions, that ended in death. ſoever it may be, there is a neceſſity for its being extracted. If SECT. III. Violent FLOODINGS. the placenta comes away of itſelf, and the after-pains are violent, All women, when the placenta ſeparates, and after it is deliver- they may be alleviated and carried off by an opiate: for, by ſleeping ed, loſe more or leſs red blood, from the quantity of half a pound and ſweating plentifully, the irritation is removed, the evacuations to that of one pound or even two; but ſhould it exceed this pro are increaſed, the os uteri is inſenſibly relaxed, and the coagula portion, and continue to flow without diminution, the patient is in ſide eaſily along. When the diſcharge of the lochia is ſmall, the great danger of her life. This hazardous hæmorrhage is known after-pains, if moderate, ought not to be reſtrained; becauſe the by the violence of the diſcharge, wetting freſh cloths as faſt as they ſqueezing which they occaſion, promotes the other evacuation, can be applied; from the pulſe becoming low and weak, and the which is neceffary for the recovery of the patient. After-pains countenance turning pale: then the extremities grow cold; ſhe alſo proceed from an obſtruction in ſome of the veſſels, occa- finks into faintings; and, if the diſcharge is not ſpeedily ſtopped fioning a ſmall inflammation of the os internum and ligaments ; diminiſhed, is ſeized with convulſions, which often terminate and the ſqueezing thereby occaſioned may not only help to propel in death. the obſtructing fluid, but alſo (if not tuo violent) contribute to the This dangerous efflux is occaſioned by every thing that hinders natural diſcharges. the emptied uterus from contracting; ſuch as, great weakneſs and SECT. V. Of the LOCHIA. laſlitude, in conſequence of repeated floodings before delivery; the When the large veſſels of the uterus are emptied immediately ſudden evacuation of the uterus; ſometimes, though ſeldom, it after delivery, the diſcharge frequently ceaſes for ſeveral hours, proceeds from part of the placenta's being left in the womb: it until the fluids in the ſmaller veſſels are propelled into the larger, may happen when there is another child or more ſtill undelivered; and then begins to flow again of a paler colour. when the womb is kept diſtended with a large quantity of coagu The red colour of the lochia commonly continues till the fifth lated blood; or when it is inverted by pulling too forcibly at the day, though it is always turning more and more ferous from the placenta. beginning ; but, about the fifth day, it flows off a clear, or ſome- In this caſe, as there is no time to be loſt, and internal medi times (though ſeldom) of a greeniſh tint: for the mouths of the cines cannot act ſo ſuddenly as to anſwer the purpoſe, we muſt veſſels, growing gradually narrower by the contraction of the have immediate recourſe to external application. If the diſorder uterus, at laſt allow the ferous part only to paſs. As for the be owing to weakneſs, by which the uterus is diſabled from con- greeniſh hue, it is ſuppoſed to proceed from a diſſolution of the tracting itſelf, ſo that the mouths of the veſſels are left open; or cellular or cribriform membrane or mucus that ſurrounded the ſur- though contracted a little, yet not enough to reſtrain the hæmorr face of the placenta and chorion; part of which, being left in the hage of the thin blood; or if, in ſeparating the placenta, the ac uterus, becomes livid, decays, and diſſolving, mixes with and tinc- coucheur has ſcratched or tore the inner ſurface or membrane of the tures the diſcharge as it paſſes along. womb; in theſe caſes, ſuch things muſt be uſed as will aſſiſt the Though the lochia commonly continue to the eighteenth or contractile power of the uterus, and hinder the blood from flowing twentieth day, they are every day diminiſhing in quantity, and fo faſt into it and the neighbouring veſſels: for this purpoſe, cloths fooneſt ceaſe in thoſe women who fuckle their children, or have dipped in cold aſtringent fluid, ſuch as oxycrate, or red tart had an extraordinary diſcharge at firſt; but the colour, quantity, wine, may be applied to the back and belly. Some preſcribe ve and duration, differ in different women: in ſome patients, the red nafaction in the arm, to the amount of five or fix ounces, with a colour diſappears on the firſt or ſecond day; and in others, though view of making revulſion: if the pulſe is ſtrong, this may be pro- rarely, it continues more or leſs to the end of the month: the eva- per; otherwiſe, it will do more harm than good. Others order cuation in ſome is very ſmall, in others exceſſive: in one womnan ligatures, for compreſſing the returning veins at the hams, arms, it ceaſes very ſoon; in another, flows during the whole month: and neck, to retain as much blood as poſſible in the extremities yet all theſe patients ſhall do well. and head. Beſides theſe applications, the vagina may be filled The ſpace that is occupied before delivery, from being fix inches with tow or linen rags dipped in the abovementioned liquids, in in diameter, or eighteen inches in circumference, will, foon after which a little alum or faccharum ſaturni hath been diſſolved: nay, the birth, be contracted to one third or fourth of theſe dimenſions. fome practitioners inject proof-ſpirits warmed, or, foaking them The diſcharge of the lochia being ſo different in women of dif- Up in a rag or ſponge, introduce and ſqueeze them into the uterus, ferent conſtitutions, and beſides in ſome meaſure depending upon in order to conſtringe the veſſels. the method of management and the way of life peculiar to the pa- If the floodings proceed from another child, the retention of the tient, we are not to judge of her ſituation from the colour, quantity, placenta, or coagulated blood, theſe ought immediately to be ex and duration of them, but from cther ſymptoms that attend the tracted; and if there is an inverſion of the uterus, it muſt be ſpeedily diſcharge: and if the woman ſeems hearty, and in a fair reduced. Should the hæmorrhage, by theſe methods, abate a little, covery, nothing ought to be done with a view to augment or dimi- but ſtill continue to flow, though not in ſuch a quantity as to bring nith the evacution. If the diſcharge be greater than ſhe can bear, on ſudden death, ſome red wine and jelly ought to be preſcribed it will be attended with all the ſymptoms of inanition, but as the for the patient, who ſhould take it frequently, and a little at a lochia ſeldom flow ſo violently, as to deſtroy the patient of a ſudden, time; but above all things, chicken or mutton broths, adminiſtered ſhe be ſupported by a proper, nouriſhing diet, aſſiſted with in the fame manner, for fear of overloading the weakened ſtomach, cordial and reſtorative medicines. Let her, for example, uſe broths, and occaſioning retchings: theſe, repeated in finall quantities, will jellies, and aſſes milk; if the pulſe is languid and funk, ſhe may gradually fill the exhauſted veſſels and keep up the circulation. take repeated doſes of the Confec. Cardiac. with mixtures compoſed If the pulſe continues ſtrong, it will be proper to order repeated of the cordial waters and volatile ſpirits. Subaſtringents and opiates any way of re- may MIDWIFERY. may opiates frequently adminiſtered, with the Cort. Peruv. in different What we have ſaid on this ſubject, regards that fever which forms, and auſtere wines, are of great ſervice. On the other proceeds from the obſtructed lochia, and in which the breaſts hand, when the diſcharge is too fmall, or hath ceafed altogether, likewiſe be affected: but the milk-fever is that in which the breaſts the fymptoms are more dangerous, and require the contrary method are originally concerned, and which may happen though the lochia of cure; for now the buſineſs is to remove a too great plenitude of continue to flow in ſufficient quantity: nevertheleſs they mutually the veſſels in and about the uterus, occaſioning tenſioni, pain, and promote each other, and both are to be treated in the manner al- labour, in the circulating fluids; from whence proceed great heat ready explained in the former ſection; namely, by opiates, diluents, in the part, reſtleſſnefs, fever, a full hard quick pulſe, pains in the and diaphoretics, in the beginning; and theſe preſcriptions failing, head and back, nauſea; and difficulty in breathing. Theſe com the obſtructions muſt be reſolved by the antiphlogiſtic method de- plaints, if not at firſt prevented, or removed by reſt and plentiful ſcribed before. The milk-fever alone, when the uterus is not con- fweating, muſt be treated with venæfe&tion and the antiphlogiſtic cerned, is not ſo dangerous, and much more eaſily relieved. Wo- method. men of an healthy conſtitution, who ſuckle their own children, When the obſtruction is recent; let the patient lie quiet and en have good nipples, and whoſe milk comes freely, are ſeldom or courage a plentiful diaphoreſis, by drinking frequently of warm, never ſubject to this diſorder, which is more incident to thoſe who weak, diluting fluids; ſuch as water-gruel, barley-water, tea, or do not give ſuck, and neglect to prevent the ſecretion in time, or, chicken-broth: ſhe may likewiſe take opiates and ſudorifics, in dif when the milk is ſecreted, take no meaſures for emptying their ferent forms as may be agreeable to her ſtomach. Theriaca Androm. breaſts. This fever likewiſe happens to women who try too ſoon from gfs to zi. Laud. liquid. from gut. x. to gut. xx. Pilul.Saponac. to ſuckle, and continue their efforts too long at one time; by from gr. v. to gr. x. or Syr. de Meconio. from zf. to zi. Theſe which means the nipples, and conſequently the breaſts, are often may be repeated occaſionally, with other forms of opiates; and if inflamed, ſwelled, and obſtructed. they fail to procure reſt and ſweating, the following diaphoretics, In order to prevent too great a turgency in the veſſels of the velfels without opium, ought to be adminiſtered. breaſts, and the ſecretion of milk, in thoſe wonen who do not R Pulv. Contruyerv. Cam. 3ſs. Pulv. Caſtor. Ruf. Sal. Succin. chooſe to ſuckle, it will be proper to make external application aa. gr. v. Syr. Croci. q. f. f. Bolus ftatim ſumendus cùm hauft. of thoſe things which, by their preſſure and repercuſſive force, will ſequent. et repetat. quarta vel fexta quaque hora ad tres vices vel ut hinder the blood from flowing in too great quantity to this part, opus fuerit. which is now more yielding than at any other timne: for this pur- R Aq. Cinnamon. ten. Ziß. cum Spiritu. Syr. Croci. äā. Zij. Adde poſe, let the breaſts be covered with Emp. de minio, Diapalma, or Sal. Vol. C. C. gr. iv. m. Emp. fimp. ſpread upon linen, or cloths dipped in camphorated Should theſe methods be uſed without fucceſs, and the patient, ſpirits, be frequently applied to theſe parts and the arm-pits; far from being relieved by reſt, plentiful ſweating, or a ſufficient while the patient's diet and drink are of the lighteſt kind, and gi- diſcharge of the obſtructed lochia, labour under an hot dry ſkin, ven in ſmall quantities. Nothwithſtanding theſe precautions, a anxiety, and a quick hard and full pulſe, the warm diaphoretics turgeſcency commonly begins about the third day; but by reſt, muſt be laid aſide; becauſe if they fail of having the deſired effect, | moderate ſweating, and the uſe of theſe applications, the tenſion they muſt neceſſarily increaſe the fever and obſtruction, and re and pain will ſubſide about the fifth or ſixth day, eſpecially if the courſe be had to bleeding at the arın or ankle, to more or leſs quan milk runs out at the nipples: but if the woman catches cold, or is tity, according to the degree of fever and obſtruction; and this eva of a full habit of body, and not very abſtemious, the tenſion and cuation muſt be repeated as there is occaſion. When the obſtruc pain increaſing, will bring on a cold ſhivering, ſucceeded by a tion is not total, it is ſuppoſed more proper to bleed at the ankle fever; which may obſtruct the other excretions, as well as thoſe than at the arm; and at this laſt, when the diſcharge is altogether of the breaſt. ſtopped. Her ordinary drink ought to be impregnated with nitre, In this caſe, the ſudorifics recommended in the former ſection and the following draughts or others of the ſame kind preſcribed. muſt be preſcribed; and if a plentiful ſweat enſues, the patient R Sal. Abſynth. zi. Succ. Limon. Zſ. Aq. Cinnamon. fimp. Ziſ. will be relieved; at the the ſame time the milk muſt be extracted Pul. Contrayerv. Comp. Bi. Sacch. Alb. q.f. f. Hauftus ftatim ſumen from her breaſts by ſucking with the mouth or glaſſes. Should dus, et quarta vel ſexta quaque hora repetendus. theſe methods fail, and the fever increaſe, ſhe ought to be blooded SÉCT. VI. The MILK-FEVER. in the arm; and, inſtead of the external applications hitherto uſed, About the fourth day, the breaſts generally begin to grow turgid emollient liniments and cataplafms muſt be ſubſtituted, in order to and painful. We have forinerly obſerved, that during the time of ſoften and relax. If in ſpite of theſe endeavours the fever proceeds uterine geſtation the breaſts in moſt women gradually increaſe till for ſome days, the patient is frequently relieved by critical ſweats, the delivery, growing ſofter as they are enlarged by the veſſels being a large diſcharge from the uterus, miliary eruptions, or looſe ftools more and more filled with fluids; and by this gradual diſtention mixed with milk, which is curdled in the inteſtines. But ſhould they are prepared for ſecreting the milk from the blood after deli none of theſe evacutions happen, and the inflammation continue very. During the two or three firſt days after parturition, eſpeci- with increaſing violence, there is danger of an impoſthume, which ally when the woman has undergone a large diſcharge, the breaſts is to be brought to maturity, and managed like other inflammatory have been ſometimes obſerved to ſubſide and grow flaccid; and tumours; and no aſtringents ought to be applied, left they ſhould about the third or fourth day, when the lochia begin to decreaſe, produce ſcirrhous ſwellings in the glands. the breaſts (well again to their former ſize, and ſtretch more and As the criſis of this fever, as well as of that laſt deſcribed, often more, until the milk, being ſecreted, is either ſucked by the child, conſiſts in miliary eruptions over the whole ſurface of the body, or frequently of itſelf runs out at the nipples. but particularly on the neck and breaſts, by which the fever is car- Moſt of the complaints incident to women after delivery, pro ried off, nothing ought to be given which will either greatly in- ceed either froin the obſtruction of the lochia in the uterus, or of uterus, or of creaſe or diminiſh the circulating force, but ſuch only as will keep the milk in the breaſts, occaſioned by any thing that will produce a out the eruptions. But if, notwithſtanding the eruptions, the fever, fever; ſuch as catching cold, long and ſevere labour, eating food inſtead of abating, is augmented, it will be neceſſary to diminiſh its that is hard of digeſtion, and drinking fluids that quicken the circu force, and prevent its increaſe by thoſe evacuations before men- lation of the blood in the large veſſels; by which means the ſmaller, tioned. On the contrary, ſhould the pulſe ſink, the eruptions be- with all the ſecretory and excretory ducts, are obſtructed. gin to retreat inwardly, and the morbific matter be in danger of If ſhe is coſtive, emollient and gently opening glyſters may be falling upon the viſcera, we muſt endeavour to keep them out, by occaſionally injected; and her breaſts muſt be fomented, and fucked ſuch opiates and ſudorific medicines as we have already preſcribed either by the mouth or pipe-glaſſes. If by theſe means the fever in obſtructions of the lochia; and here bliſters may be applied is abated, and the neceſſary diſcharges return, the patient commonly with ſucceſs. On this ſubject Sir David Hamilton and Hofman recovers; but if the complaints continue, the antiphlogiſtic me- may be conſulted. thod muſt ſtill be purſued. If notwithſtanding theſe efforts the SECT. VII. The PROLAPSUS VAGINA, RECTUM and UTERUS. fever is not diminiſhed or removed by a plentiful diſcharge of the When the head of the child is long retained about the middle lochia from the uterus, the milk from the breaſts, or by a critical of the vagina, the lower part of that ſheath ſometimes ſwells ; evacuation by ſweat, urine, or ſtool, and the woman is every now and, as the head comes farther down, is puſhed out at the os ex- and then attacked with cold ſhiverings, an abſceſs or abſceſſes will ternum, occafioning great difficulty in delivering the woman: probably be forined in the uterus or neighbouring parts, or in the fometimes alſo the lower part of the rectum is protruded through breaſts; and ſometimes the matter will be tranſlated to other ſitua- the ſphincter ani, eſpecially if the patient is troubled with the in- tions, and the ſeat of it foretold froin the parts being affected with ward piles. The cure of both theſe complaints conſiſts in reduc- violent pains: thefe abſceſſes are more or leſs dangerous, according ing the prolapſus: if this cannot be done immediately in the laſt to the place in which they happen, the largeneſs of the fuppura on account of the ſwelling of the protuded part, emollient fo- tion, and the good or bad conſtitution of the patient. mentations and poultices muſt be uſed in order to remove the in- If, when the pains in the epigaſtric region are violent, and the flammation. flammation. When it is reduced, the woman muſt be confined fever increaſed to a very high degree, the patient ſhould all of a more than uſual to her bed; and if that part falls down again in ſudden enjoy a ceffation from pain without any previous diſcharge conſequence of her ſtraining at ſtool or in making water, it muſt or critical eruption, the phyſician may pronounce that a mortifica be reduced occaſionally, as ſhe recovers ftrength the complaint tion is begun; eſpecially if at the ſame time the pulſe becomes will in all probability vaniſh; otherwiſe aſtringent fumigations or low, quick, wavering, and intermitting: if the woman's counte fomentations muſt be uſed. If the diſorder be of long duration, nance, from being florid, turns duiky and pale, while ſhe herſelf peſſaries, adapted to the part, whether vagina or recuin, muſt be and all the attendants conceive her much mended; in that caſe, applied. ſhe will grow delirious, and die in a very ſhort time. A prolapſus uterus may happen from the ſame cauſes, or from any brawomiend - Jubilos , illuscasion of the Theingaum Practice Pla ( Mihaifero. Ver the spesem Fig.12. Fig. 13 B B B D E G H G Ꮐ H Н Fig 10. Fig. 11 A M ІІ. K . B B More D G Fig:14. Fig: 15. K TE B B B B D Ꮐ G 6 F E E Reduced from Smellies Tables, or Frederick Birnie, Inatomical Draughtsman, to the late D? Tilliam Hunter, l Engravedt br Milliam Ta’lor. Engraved for Halls Encyclopædia , & Printed for C.Cooke, Nº17, Paternoster Row. MIDWIFERY. diſtinguiſhed. upon any thing that will too much relax the ligament and peritoneum, ceps and crotchets with more dexterity, be accuſtomed to the turn- by which the womb is fulpended; fuch as an inveterate fluoring of children, and confequently be more capable of acquitting aíbus, that, by its long continuance and great diſcharge, weakens himſelf in troubleſome caſes, that may happen to him when he the womb and all the parts. This misfortune when it proceeds comes to practiſe among women : he ſhould alſo embrace every from labour, does not appear till after delivery, when the uterus occaſion of being preſent at real labours : and indeed of acquiring is contracted to its ſmalleſt ſize ; nay, not for ſeveral weeks or every qualification that may be neceſſary or convenient for himnin months after that period, until by its weight the os externum is the future exerciſe of his profeffion. But over and above the ad- gradually ſtretched wider and wider, for as to allow the womb vantages of education, he ought to be endowed with a natural faga- to flip through it ; and in this caſe it deſcends covered with the city, reſolution, and prudence ; together with that humanity vagina, that comes down along with it, and hangs between the which adorns the owner, and never fails of being agreeable to the thighs: though the os tincæ only can be perceived on account of diſtreſſed patient : in conſequence of this virtue, he will affift the this covering, the Shape and ſubſtance of the uterus may be eaſily poor as well as the rich, behaving, always with charity and com- paffion. He ought to act and ſpeak with the utmoſt delicacy of As this prolapſus comes on gradually the woman of herſelf can decorum, and never violate the truth repoſed to him, ſo as to har- (for the moſt part) reduce and keep it up while in hed; but when bour the leaſt immoral or indecent deſign; but demean himſelf in the riſes and walks, it will fall down again. When the complaint all reſpects ſuitable to the dignity of his profeſſion. is not of long ſtanding, and the womb does not come altogether SECT. II. Of the MIDWIFE. through the os externum, the patient may be cured by attringent A Midwife, though ſhe can hardly be ſuppoſed miſtreſs of all injections: and in the next pregnancy, when the upper part of theſe qualifications, ought to be a decent ſenſible woman, of a the uterus is diſtended ſo as to fill the pelvis and riſe above its brim, middle age, able to bear fatigue :. She ought to be perfectly well the os internum will be raiſed higher in the vagina ; and after de inſtructed with regard to the bones of the pelvis, with all the con- livery, if the woman is confined to her bed for twenty or thirty tained parts, comprehending thoſe that are fubfervient to genera- days, the ligaments generally contract ſo as to keep up the womb tion: ſhe ought to be well ikilled in the method of touching preg- and prevent any future prolapſus. But when the complaint is of nant women, and know in what mavner the womb ſtretches, to- long continuance ; when the uterus and vagina deſcend quite gether with the ſituation of all the abdominal viſcera : fhe ought through the os externum, and by the friction in walking, occa to be perfectly miſtreſs of the art of examination in time of la- fioned by the vagina's rubbing againſt the thighs, and the os uteri bour, together with all the different kinds of labour, wbe. upon the cloths that are uſed for fupporting it , an inflammation, ther natural or preternatural, and the methods of delivering the excoriation, and ulceration, are produced, inviting a greater flux placenta : ſhe ought to live in friendihip with other women of of Auids to the part: theſe ſymptoms, joined with a fluor albus the ſame profeſſion, contending with them in nothing but know- froin the inſide of the uterus, deftroy the hope of a ſecond impreg- ) ledge, fobriety, diligence, and patience ; ihe oughť to avoid all nation, or cure by injections; and we can only promiſe to palliate reflections upon men-practitioners; and when ſhe finds herſelf at a the diſeaſe, by reducing the uterus and keeping it up with a pef- loſs, candidly have recourſe to their aſſiſtance : on the other hand ſary; by which means, uſed for a length of time, the parts will re this confidence ought to be encouraged by the man, who, when cover their tone, and the diſeaſe be radically cured. called, inſtead of openly condemning her method of practice, If the uterus be ſo much inflamed, that it cannot be reduced, (even though it ſhould be erroneous), ought to make allowance generally evacuations muſt be preſcribed, and fomentations and for the weakneſs of her ſex, and rectify what is amiſs, without poultices applied in order to diminiſh its bulk, ſo as that it may be expoſing her miſtakes. expoſing her miſtakes. This conduct will as effe&tually conduce replaced. For this complaint, different kinds of peſſaries have to the welfare of the patient, and operate as a ſilent rebuke been uſed ; ſome of a globular form ; others that open with a the conviction of the midwife ; who finding herſelf treated fo ſpring, as deſcribed in the Medical Effays of Edinburgh. But tenderly , will be more apt to call for neceſſary afiliſtance on future thoſe moſt in uſe are of a flat form, with a little hole in the middle, occaſions, and to conſider the accoucheur as a man of honour and and made of cork waxed over, ivory, box, ebony, lignum vitæ, of a real friend. Theſe gentle methods will prevent that mutual a triangular, quadrangular, oval, or circular ſhape. Thoſe that calumny and abuſe which too often prevail among the male and fe- are circular ſeem beſt to anſwer the intention, becauſe we can inore male practitioners; and redound to the advantage of both: for no eaſily introduce a large one of that than of any other figure; itlies accoucheur is ſo perfect, but that he may err fometinies; and on more commodiouſly in the vagina ; and, as it always tilts a little ſuch occafions he muſt expect to meet with retaliation from thoſe upwards and downwards, never hinders the paſſage of the urine or midwives whom he may have roughly uſed. fæces: theſe inſtruments, however, ought to be larger or ſmaller, according to the laxity or rigidity of the os externum. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. There is a peſſary lately invented at Paris, which hath an ad-With an Abridgment of the Practice of Midwifery, intended to vantage over all others; becaufe the woman can introduce it in the illuſtrate the Syſtem and Cafes before recited. morning, and take it out at night: it is ſupported and kept in the vagina by a ſmall ſtalk, the lower end of which forms a little ball FIGURE I. repreſents; in a front view, the bones of a well that moves in a ſocket; this ſocket is furniſhed with ſtraps, which formed Pelvis, A, the five vertebre of the loins. B, the os ſacrum. are tied to a belt that ſurrounds the patient's body. The peſſary C, the os coccygis. D, D, the offa ilium. E, E, the offa'ifchium is extremely well calculated for thoſe who are in an eaſy way of F, the olja pubis. G, the foramina magna. H, H, the acetabula. life ; but the other kind is beſt adapted to hard-working women, I, I, I, I, I, I, the brim of the pelvis, or that circumference of its who have not time or conveniency to fix or mend the bandage cavity which is deſcribed at the ſides by the inferior parts of the when it wants repair. oſa ilium, and at the back and fore parts by the ſuperior parts of SECT. VIII. The Evacuations neceſſary at the End of the the ofja pubis and ſacrum, Month after Delivery. In this Plate, beſides the general ſtructure and figure of the fe- Thoſe who have had a ſufficient diſcharge of the lochia, plenty veral bones, the dimenſions of the brim of the pelvis, and the of milk, and fuckle their own children, commonly recover with diſtance between the under parts of the offa iſchium, are particu- eaſe ; and, as the ſuperfluous fluids of the body are drained off at larly to be attended to; from which it will appear, that the cavity the nipples, ſeldom require evacuations at the end of the month : of the brim is commonly wider from ſide to ſide, than from the but, if there are any complaints from fulneſs, ſuch as pains and back to the fore part, but that the ſides below are in the contrary ftitches, after the twentieth day, ſome blood ought to be taken proportion. The reader however, ought not from this to con- from the arm, and the belly gently opened by frequent glyfters, clude, that every pelvis is ſimilar in figure and dimenſions, ſince or repeated doſes of laxative medicines. even well-formed ones differ in ſome degree from each other, If the patient has tolerably recovered, the milk having been at In general, the brim of the pelvis meaſures about five inches and a firſt fucked or diſcharged from the nipples, and afterwards dif- quarter from ſide to ſide, four inches and a quarter from the back cuſſed, no evacuations are neceſſary before the third or fourth to the fore part; there being likewiſe the ſame diſtance between week; and ſometimes not till after the firſt flowing of the menſes, the inferior parts of the oſſa iſchium. All theſe meaſures, how- which commonly happens about the fifth week; if they do not ever, muſt be underſtood as taken from the ſkeleton ; for in the appear within that time, gentle evacuations muſt be preſcribed, to ſubject, the cavity of the pelvis is conſiderably diminiſhed by its off the plethora and bring down the catamenia. teguments and contents. Correſpondent alſo to this diminution, carry PART XI. the uſual dimenſions of the head of the full-grown foetus are but The requiſite QUALIFICATIONS of Accoucheurs, and Midwives, thee inches and a half from ear to ear, and four inches and a quarter SECT. I. Of the ACCOUCHEUR. from the fore to the hind head. Vide FIG. 19, 20, 21. Thoſe who intend to practiſe Midwifery ought firſt of all to FIGURE II. exhibits a front view of a diſtorted Pelvis. A, the make themſelves maſters of anatomy, and acquire a competent five vertebre of the loins. B, the os ſacrum. C, the os coccygis. knowledge in ſurgery and phyſic ; becauſe of their connection D, D, the olja ilium. E, E, the ofja iſchium. F, the olſa pubis. with the obſtetric art, if not always, at leaſt in many caſes. He G, G, the foramina magna. H, H, the acetabula. ought to take the beſt opportunities he can find of being well in From this Plate may appear the great danger incident to botlı ſtructed ; and of practiſing under a maſter, before he attempts to mother and child when the pelvis is diſtorted in this manner; it deliver by himſelf. being only two inches and an half at the brim from the poſterior to In order to acquire a more perfect idea of the art, he ought to the anterior part, and the fame diſtance between the inferior parts perform with his own hands upon proper machines, contrived to of each os iſchium. Vide Fig. 30, where the pelvis is one quarter convey a juſt notion of all the difficulties to be met with in every of an inch narrower at the brim than this, but fufficiently wide be- kind of labour: by which means he will learn how to uſe the for-'low. Various are the forms of diſtorted baſins, but the laſt men- No 108. 7 U tioned MIDWIFER Y. parts diſtinctly. upper rior part tioned is the moſt common. It is a great happineſs, however, in month of pregnancy, in the ſame view and ſection of the practice, that they are ſeldom ſo narrow, though there are inſtances with the former sgure, excepting that in this the anterior part of where they have been much more ſo. The danger in all ſuch the collum uteri is not removed. caſes muſt incieaſe or diminiſh according to the degree of diſtor In the natural ſituation, the mouth and lips of the womb are tion of the pelvis and ſize of the child's head. covered with the wagina, and theſe parts are contiguous to each FIGURE III. gives a lateral and internal view of the Pelvis, other; but here the vagina G, is a little ſtretched from the neck the ſame being divided longitudinally. A, the three lower ver and lips of the former, in order to ſhow the parts more tebræ of the loins. B, the os facrum C, the os coccygis. D, the I, the neck of the womb, which appears in this figure thicker, left os ilium. E, the left os iſchium. F, the os pubis of the fame Shorter, and ſofter, than in the former. K, the inferior part of fide. G, the acute proceſs of the os iſchium. * H, the foramen the fundus uteri; the ſtretching of which can ſometimes be felt magnum. I, I, I, the brim of the pelvis. througla the vagina, by puſhing up a finger on the anterior of This Plate ſhows the diſtance from the ſuperior part of the os lateral part of the ſame. facrum to the offa pubis, as well as from the laſt mentioned bones The uterus now is ſo largely ſtretched as to fill all the to the coccyx, which in each amounts to about four inches and a part of the pelvis, and begins alſo to increaſe ſo much as to rent on quarter . The depth likewiſe is ſhown of the poſterior, lateral the brim, and to be fupported by the ſame, the fundus at the ſame and anterior parts of the pelvis, not in the line of the body, but in time being raiſed conſiderably above the pubes. The fize or bulk that of the pelvis from its brim downward, which is three times of the fætus is finally here to be obſerved, with the placenta ad- deeper on the poſterior than anterior part, and twice the depth of hering to the poſterior part of the uterus. the laſt at the ſides. FIGURE IX. in the ſame view and ſection of the parts as in From this view appears alſo the angle which is formed by the Fig. 8. in order to dhew its contents, and the internal parts as they laſt vertebra of the loins and the ſuperior part of the os facrum, appear in the fixth or ſeventh month of pregnancy. A, the uterus as likewiſe the concavity or hollow ſpace in the poſterior internal ſtretched up to the umbilical region. B, B, the fuperior part of the part of the pelvis, ariſing from the poſterior curvature of the laft-offa ilium. C, C, the acetabula. D, D, the remaining poſterior mentioned bone and coccyx ; finally, the diſtance from which to parts of the offa ifchium. E, the anus. F, the vagina, G, the the poſterior parts of the oſſa iſchium is here expreſſed. Vide bladder of urine. H, the neck of the womb thorter than in Fig. 8. Fig 19, 20, 21, 22. and raiſed higher by the ſtretching of the uterus above the brim of FIGURE IV. gives a front view of the Uterus in ſitu ſuſpend the pelvis. I, the veſſels of the uterus larger than in the unim. ed in the vagina ; the anterior parts of the offa iſchium, with the pregnated ſtate. K, K, the placenta adhering to the inferior and ofja pubis, pudenda, perineum, and anus, being removed, in order poſterior part of the uterus. poſterior part of the utcrus. L, L, the membranes that ſurround to ſhow the internal parts. A, the laſt vertebra of the loins. B, B, the fætus, the head of which is here repreſented (as well as of the oa ilium. C, C, the acetabula. D, D, the inferior and pof- thoſe in Fig. 8.) ſituated downwards at the inferior part of the terior parts of the ofa iſchium. Vide FIG. 32, where the offa pubis uterus, which is the uſual ſituation of the fætus when at reft, and and the anterior parts of the offa iſchium are repreſented by dotted furrounded with a great quantity of waters , as the head is heavier lines. E, the part covering the extremity of the coccyx. F, the than any other part. With reſpect to the ſituation of the body inferior part of the re&tum. G, G, the vagina cut open longitu. of the fætus, though the fore parts are often turned towards the dinally, and ſtretched on each ſide of the collum uteri , to ſhow in fides and poſterior parts of the uterus, they are here repreſented at what manner the uterus is ſuſpended in the ſame. H,H, part of the anterior part or forwards, in order to thew them in a more the veſica urinaria ſtretched on each ſide of the vagina and infe- diſtinct and pictureſque manner. of the fundus uteri. 1, the collum uteri. K, the fundus s From this Figure may appear the difficulty of ftretching the os uteri. L, L, the tubee Fallopiane and fimbrie. M, Ñ, the uteri in flooding caſes, even at this period, from the length and ovaria. N, N, the ligamenta lata and rotunda. 0, 0, the ſupe- thickneſs of the neck of the womb, eſpecially in a firſt pregnancy: rior part of the recium. much the ſame method, however, is to be followed here as was FIGURE V. gives a view of the internal parts, as ſeen from directed in Fig. 8. till labour comes on to dilate the os uteri. If the right groin, the pelvis being divided longitudinally. A, the A, the the flooding is then conſiderable, the membranes ſhould be broken, loweſt vertebra of the loins. BC, the os facrum and coccyx, with that the uterus may contract, and thereby leſſen the diſcharge, the integuments._D, the left os ilium. É, the inferior part of the The labour likewiſe, if it is neceſſary, may be aſſiſted by dilating left os iſchium. F, the os pubis of the ſame ſide. G, the foramen the os uteri in time of the pains; which alſo, if wanting, may magnum. H, the acetabulum. 1,1, 1, the inferior part of the reétum be provoked by the ſame inethod, when the patient is in danger. and anus. K, the os externum and vagina; the os uteri lying looſely If this danger is imminent, and the woman ſeems ready to expire, in the ſame. L, the veſica urinaria. M, N, the collum and fundu's the uterus, as appears from this Figure, is at this time ſufficiently utcri, with a view of the cavity of both. The attachment of the ſtretched to receive the operator's hand to extract the fætus, if vagina round the outſide of the lips of the mouth of the womb is the os internum can be ſafely dilated. here likewiſe ſhown, as alſo the ſituation of the uterus, as it is Laſtly, It may be obſerved that women are in greater danger preſſed downwards and backwards by the inteſtines and urinary in this period and afterwards, than in the former months. bladder into the concave and inferior part of the os ſacrum. O, the FIGURE X. repreſents the abdomen of a woman opened in ligamenta lata and rolunda of the left ſide. P, P, the Fallopian the ſixth or ſeventh month of pregnancy. A,A,A,A, the pari- tute, with the fimbriæ. Q. the ovarium of the ſame fide. R, R, etes of the abdomen opened, and turned back to ſhow. B, the the ſuperior part of the recluin and inferior part of the colon. uterus. C, C, C, the inteſtines raiſed upwards. D, the labia pua FIGURE VI. gives a front view of the Uterus in the beginning dendi, which are ſometimes affected in pregnancy with oedematous of the firſt month of pregnancy; the anterior part being removed, ſwellings, occaſioned by the preſſure of the uterus upon the re- that the Embryo might appear through the amnios, the chorion turning veins and fymphatics. If the labia are ſo tumefied as to being diſſected off. A, the fundus uteri. B, the collum uteri, with obſtruct the patient's walking, the complaint is removed by a view of the rugous canal that leads to the cavity of the fundus. puncturing the parts affected. By which means the ſerous fluid C, the os uteri. is diſcharged for the preſent, but commonly recurs; and the ſame FIGURE VII. is the ſame view and fe&tion of the parts as in operation muſt be repeated ſeveral times, perhaps, before delivery; Fig. 6; it ſhows the Uterus as it appears in the ſecond or third after which, however, the tumefaction entirely ſubſides. From month of pregnancy, its anterior part being here likewiſe removed. this figure it appears, that the ſtretching of the uterus can eaſily F, the anus. G, the vagina, with its plicæ. H, H, the poſterior be felt at this period in lean ſubjects, through the parietes of the and inferior part of the urinary bladder extended on each ſide, the abdomen, eſpecially if the inteſtines do not lie before it. In gene- anterior and ſuperior part being removed. 1, 1, the mouth and ral indeed, as the uterus ſtretches, it riſes higher; by which neck of the womb, as raiſed up when examining the ſame by the means the inteſtines are likewiſe raiſed higher, and are alſo preſſed touch, with one of the fingers in the vagina. K, K, the uterus as to each ſide. Hence the nearer the woman is to her full time, ſtretched in the ſecond or third month, containing the embryo, the ſtretching is the more eaſily felt. with the placenta adhering to the fundus. FIGURE X I. exhibits a front internal view of the Gravid It appears from this and the former Figure, that at this time Uterus in the beginning of labour; the anterior parts being re- nothing can be known, with reſpect to pregnancy, from the touch | moved, as in Fig. 15, but in this the membranes not being broken, in the vagina, as the reſiſtance of the uterus is ſo inconfiderable form a large bag containing the Waters and Fætus. A, the ſub- that it cannot prevent its being raiſed up before the finger. Wo ſtance of the uterus. B, B, C, C, D, D, the bones of the pelvis. men at this period miſcarry oftener than at any other. It is a It is a | E, the coccyx. F, the inferior part of the rectum. G, G,G,G, great happineſs, however, in practice, that although they are fre the vagina. H, H, the mouth of the womb largely ſtretched in quently much weakened by large diſcharges, yet they rarely ſink time of a pain ; with I, the membranes and waters. This circum- under the fame, but are ſooner or later relieved by labour coming ſtance makes it uſually certain that labour is begun; whereas, from on, which gradually ſtretches the neck and mouth of the womb, | the degree of dilatation repreſented in Fig. 15, there is little to be by the membranes being forced down with the waters. aſcertained unleſs the pains are regular and ſtrong, the os uteri be- From the ſtructure, of the parts, as repreſented in this and the ing often found more open ſeveral days, and even weeks, before former Figure, it may appear, that it is much ſafer to reſtrain the labour commences. K, the chorion. L, the ſame diffected off at flooding, and ſupport the patient, waiting with patience the efforts the inferior part of the uterus, in order to ſhew the head of the of nature, than to endeavour to ſtretch the os uteri, and deliver foetus through the amnios. N. B. This hint is taken from one of either with the hand or inſtruments, which might endanger a la Dr. Albinus's Tables of the gravid uterus. M, the placenta ; the ceration and inflammation of the parts. external convex ſurface of which, divided into a number of lobes, FIGURE VIII. repreſents the Uterus in the fourth or fith is here repreſented, its concave internal parts being covered by the chorion. Views of the Human Bilis from Male kemali Adilian the Surgery MALE PELVIS. Fig.] The subject in the attitude of being out for the Stone with a view of the posterior Muscles of the Penis Ams and Rectum. Fig.2 Side view of the contents of the Pelvis with the introduction of the Catheter into the Bladder: Fig.1 Fig. 2 B A A D N W E H W M Р 1 I B T Fig. 3 Side view of the Schirrous prostate, and false paſsage with the Bladder preternaturally enlarged. Fig:3 M Fig.4 Side view of y Blood veſsels of iPelvis exhibiting both Arteries and Teins from the recent Subject), Fig.4 F D Z W V B R R F L P B H Н A S K L Fig. 5 Side view of the three fired bony points and Cavity of the Pehis, with the Nerves of the Sacrum. FEMALE PELVIS. Fig.6 Side view of the contents of the Pelvis with the Muscles of the Tula &Am m Situ. Fig.5 Fig:6 D B В L I P H Н E F K B В N H K Q Fig. 7 Side view of the Blood veſsels of the Pelvis, with the Muscles of those parts taken from y Icoms of Baron Haller. Fig: 7 Fig.8 Front view of the contents of the Pelvis, as it appears ton the Operator, when Iris back is towards the head of the subject Fig:8 B G 4 A K E Ε B M T R G M S K H H Н 10 delar J. Taylor Engraved for Haus Encyclopædia & Printed for Ccooke-17, Paternoster Row. Aug 21795. Platea ( Inatomical Sublés, illustrative ofile Thornej auno I Praction ( Widwifery. Ver the Playstem: B А B B H Η G Hig: 16. Hig: 17 wa w WWW cocam D B D H Η F Fig. 23. Fig. 18 Reduced vom smellies Tables, by Frederick Birnie. Inatomical Drawyhtsman to the late Dhilliam Juntur, &: Ingrared by William Talor. Engraved for Hall. Tincyclopædia, & Printed for C. Cookee NP 27, Paternoster Row. MID WIFE R Y. chorion. The placenta has been found adhering to all the different the former, and repreſents the Uterus in the eighth or ninth month parts of the internal ſurface of the uterus, and fometimes even over of pregnancy. A, the uterus as ſtretched to near its full extent, inſide of the os uteri; this laſt manner of adheſion, however, al with the waters, and containing the fætus entangled in the funis, ways occaſions floodings as ſoon as the ſame begins to dilate. the head preſenting at the upper part of the pelvis. B, B, the Fig. 8,(,, 14, 15, thew the internal ſurface of the placenta towards ſuperior part of the offa ilium. C, C, the acetabula. D, D, the the fætus, with the veſſels composing its ſubſtance proceeding remaining poſterior parts of the olja iſchium. E, the coccyx. F, the from the funis, which is inſerted in different placentas, into all inferior part of the recium. G, G, G, the vagina ſtretched on the different parts of the ſame, as well as in the middle. The each ſide. H, the os uteri, the lips of which appear larger and thirty-third and thirty-fixth Figures fhew the inſertion of the ſofter than in the foregoing Figure, the neck of the womb being funis into the abdomen of the fetus. lıkewife ſtretched to its full extent, or entirely obliterated. With reſpect to the expulſion of the placenta when the mem- 1, 1, part of the viſica urinaria. K, K, the placenta at the ſuperior branes break, the uterus contracts as the waters are evacuated till and poſterior part of the uterus. L, L, the membranes. M, the it comes in contact with the body of the foetus: the ſame being funis umbilicalis. delivered, the uterus grows much thicker, and contracts cloſely to This and the foregoing Figure ſhew in what manner the uterus the placenta and meinbranes, by which means they are gradually ſtretches, and how its neck grows thorter, in the different periods ſeparated, and forced into the vagina. This ihews that we ought of pregnancy; as alſo the magnitude of the fætus. Notwithſtand- to follow the method which nature teaches, waiting with patience, ing it has been handed down as an invariable truth, from the ear- and allowing to ſeparate in a ſlow manner; which is much ſafer lieſt accounts of the art to the preſent times, when the head of practice, eſpecially when the patient is weak; as the diſcharge is the fætus preſented, the face was turned to the poſterior part of neither fo great or ſudden as when the placenta is hurried down the pelvis; yet from Mr. Oald's obſervation, as well as from ſome in the too common method. But then we muſt not run into the late diffections of the gravid uterus, and what we have obſerved other extreme, but affiſt when nature is not ſufficient to expel the in practice, we are led to believe that the head preſents for the faine, moſt part as is here delineated, with one ear to the pubes, and the FIGURE XII. thews the External Feinale Parts of Genera- | other to the os facrum; though fometimes this may vary, ac- tion. A, the lower part of the abdomen. B, B, the labia pudendi cording to the form of the head, as well as that of the pelvis. feparated. C, the clitoris and præputium. D, D, the nymphæ. Conſult Dr. Hunter's elegant plates of the gravid uterus, E, the fola magna, or os externum. F, the meatus urinarius. FIGURE XV. gives a front view of twins in utero in the be- G, the frænum labiorum. H, the perinæum. I, the anus. K, the ginning of labour; the anterior parts being removed, as in the pre- part that covers the extremity of the coccyx. L, L, the parts that ceeding Figures. A, the uterus as ſtretched with the membranes cover the tuberolities of the fa iſchiun. and waters. B, B, the ſuperior parts of the offa ilium. C, C, the · As it is of great conſequence to every practitioner in midwifery acetabula. D, D, the offa iſchium. E, the coccyx. F, the lower to know exactly the ſituation of the parts concerned in parturi- part of the rectum. G, G, the pagina. H, the os internum ftretched tion, and which have not been accurately deſcribed by former open about a figer's breadth, with the membranes and waters in anatomiſts with a view to this particular branch, we have given time of labour-pains. I, I, the inferior part of the uterus ſtretched this draught from a ſubject in order to demonſtrate theſe parts in with the waters which are below the head of the child that pre- the ordinary courſe of the ſyſtem. From a view, then, of the ſents. K, K, the two placentas adhering to the poſterior part of ſituation of the parts, il appears, that the os externum is not the uterus, the two fætuſes lying before them ; one with its head placed in the middle of the inferior part of the pelvis, but at the in a proper poſition, at the inferior part of the uterus; and the anterior and inferior part of the pubes; and that the labia cover other ſituated preternaturally, with the head to the fundus. the likewiſe the anterior part of theſe bones. bodies of each are here entangled in their proper funis, which fre- Sccondly. It may be obſerved, that as the frænum labiorum, quently happens in the natural as well as preternatural poſitions. which is nearly adjoining to the inferior part of the offa pubis, is L, L, L, the membranes belonging to each placenta. only about an inch from the anus, between which and the coccyx This repreſentation of twins, according to the order obſerved in there is about three inches diſtance ; it follows, that the anus is the ſyſtem, ought to have been placed among the laſt Figures, but nearer to the firſt-mentioned bones than to the latter. we have placed it here in order to ſhew the os uteri grown much Thirdly, The view of this and of Fig. 4, and 5, will furniſh thinner than in the former figure, a little open and ſtretched by the proper hints with reſpect to the method of touching or examining waters and membranes which are puſhed down before the head of The os uteri, without hurting or inflaming the parts; as it appears one of the foetuſes in time of a labour pain. With reſpect to the that the os externuin is placed forwards towards the pubes, and poſition of twins, it is often different in different caſes, but was the os uteri backwards towards the rectum and coccyx. By this thus in a late diſſection of a gravid uterus by Dr. Mackenzie. wiſe mechaniſm of nature many inconveniences are often pre FIGURE XVI. ſhews (in a lateral view and longitudinal di- vented, which muſt happen if theſe parts were oppoſite to each viſion of the parts) the Gravid Uterus, when labour is ſomewhat other, and ſituated in the middle of the inferior part of the pelvis; advanced. A, the loweſt vertebra of the back. B, the ſcrobiculus particularly a prolapſus of the vagina and uterus, either in the un- cordis; the diſtance from which to the laſt-mentioned vertebra is impregnated ſtate or in any of the firſt four months of pregnancy; here ſhown by dotted lines ; as alſo part of the region below the as alſo too ſudden deliveries in any of the laſt months. diaphragm. C, C, the uſual thickneſs and figure of the uterus Fourthly, From a view of the ſituation of the parts, it will ap- when extended with the waters at the latter end of pregnancy. that in labour, when the os uteri is fufficiently opened to D, the ſame contracted and grown thicker after the waters are allow a paſſage for the head of the fætus, the fame is protruded to evacuated. E. E, the figure of the uterus when pendulous. In the lower part of the vagina, by which the external parts are this caſe, if the membranes break when the patient is in an erect, puſhed out in form of a large tumour, as in Fig. 13. poſition, the head of the foetus runs a riſk of ſliding over and above Laftly. It may be obſerved, that when it is neceſſary to dilate the offa pubis, whence the ſhoulders will be puſhed into the pelvis. the os externum, the principal force ought to be applied down- F, F, the figure of the uterus when ſtretched higher than uſual, wards and towards the rectum, to prevent the urethra and neck which generally occaſions vomitings and difficulty of breathing. of ihe bladder from being hurt or inflamed. Conſult on this ſubject Mr. Leveret ſur le Mechaniſme de differentes FIGURE XIII. is intended principally to fhew in what man- Grofcles. G, the os pubis of the left ſide. H, H, the os internum. ner the perineum and external parts are ſtretched by the head of I, the vagina. K, the left nympha. L, the labium pudendi of the the fætus in a firſt pregnancy, towards the end of labour. A, the ſame fide. M, the remaining portion of the bladder. N, the abdomen. B, the labia pudendi. C, the clitoris and its præputium. anus. O, P, the left hip and thigh. D, the hairy fcalp of the fætus ſwelled at the vertex, in a labo In this period of labour the os uteri being more and more rious caſe, and protruded to the os externum. E, F, the perinæum ftretched by the membranes puſhing down and beginning to ex- and anus puſhed out by the head of the fætus in form of a large tend the vagina, a great quantity of water is forced down at the tumour. G, G, the parts that cover the tuberoſities of the olja ſame time, and (if the membranes break) is diſcharged; whence iſchium. H, the part that covers the os coccygis. the uterus contracts itſelf nearer the body of the foetus, which is The perineum in this Figure is ſtretched two inches, or double here repreſented in a natural poſition, with the vertex reſting at its length in the natural ſtate; but when the os externum is ſo the ſuperior part of the offa pubis, and the forehead towards the much dilated by the head of the feetus as to allow the delivery of right os ilium. As ſoon as the uterus is in contact with the body the fame, the perinæum is generally ſtretched to the length of of the fætus, the head of the ſame is forced backward toward the three, and ſometimes four, inches. The anus is likewiſe length-os facrum from the line of the abdomen B, G, into that of the ened an inch, the parts alſo between it and the coccyx being much pelvis, viz. from the uppermoſt F, to near the end of the coccyx, diftended. All this ought to caution the young practitioner never and is gradually puſhed lower, as in the following Figure. If to precipitate the delivery at this time, but to wait and allow the the membranes do not break immediately upon their being puſhed parts to dilate in a ſlow manner; as, from the violence of the la- into the vagina, they ſhould be allowed to protrude ſtill further bour-pains, the ſudden delivery of the head of the fætus might in order to dilate the os externum. endanger the laceration of the parts. The palm of the operator's FIGURE XVII. in the ſame view and ſection of the parts as hand ought therefore to be preſſed againſt the perinæum, that the in Fig. 8. Thews the natural poſition of the head of the foetus when be prevented from paffing till the os externum is ſuffi- funk down into the middle of the pelvis after the os internum is ciently dilated, to allow its delivery, without tearing the frænum fully opened, a large quantity of the waters being protruded with and parts betwixt that and the anus, which are at this time the membranes through the os externum, but prevented from being very thin. ail diſcharged, from the head's filling up the vagina. A, the uterus a FIGURE XIV. is the ſame view and ſection of the parts with little contracted, and thicker, from ſome of the waters being funk down pear, that in head inay MIDWIFER Y. down before the child, or diſcharged. B, B the ſuperior parts of B, B the fuperior parts of I to one another, have a better hold, and mark leſs than when over the olja ilium. C, the inferior part of the rectum. D, D, the va the occipital and frontal bones. gina largely ſtretched with the head of the fætus. E,E, the os in FIGURE XX. in the ſame view with the former, repreſents ternum fully opened. F, a portion of the placenta. G,G, the ment the head of the Fætus brought lower with the forceps, and turned branes. H, H, the ligamento lata. I, 1, the ligamenta rotunda. from the poſition in the former Figure, in imitation of the natural Both theſe laſt ſtretched upwards with the uterus, progreffion by the labour pains, which may. likewiſe be ſuppoſed The vertex of the fætus being now down at the inferior part of to have made this turn before it was neceſſary to affiſt with the the right os ifchium, and the wide part of the head at the narrow Forceps. If the head is fqueezed into a longifh form, as in Fig. and inferior part of the pelvis, the forehead by the force of the 24. and has been detained many hours in this poſition, the pains pains is gradually moved backwards; and as it advances lower, the not being ſufficient to complete the delivery, the affiftance of the vertex and occiput turn out below the pubes, as in the next Figure. forceps muſt be taken to ſave the child, though the woman may Hence may be learned of what conſequence it is to know, that it is be in no danger. But if the head is high up in the pelvis as in the wider from ſide to ſide at the brim of the pelvis, than from the former Figure, the forceps ought not to be uſed except in the inofc back to the fore-part; and that it is wider from the fore to the urgent neceſſity. hind head of the child, than from ear to ear. This Figure alſo ſhows that the handles of the forceps are ſtill FIGURE XVIII. in a ſimilar view and ſection of the parts to be kept back to the perineum, and when in this poſition they with Fig. 16. ſhows the forehead of the fotus turned (in its pro- are in a line with the upper part of the facrum, and if held more greffion downwards, from its poſition in the former Figure) back- backwards, when the head is a little higher, they would be in a wards to the os facrum, and the occiput below the pubes; by which line with the ſcrobiculus cordis. If the forceps are applied whien means the narrow part of the head is to the narrow part of the the head is in this poſition, they are more eaſily introduced when pelvis, that is, between the inferior parts of the offa iſchium. the patient is in a ſupine pofition, as in Fig. 27. Neither is it Hence it may be obſervcd, that though the diſtance between the neceſſary to tie the handles, which is only done to prevent their inferior parts of the laſt mentioned bones is much the ſame as be alteration when turning the woman from her ſide to her back. tween the coccyx and pubes ; yet as the cavity of the pelvis is in ſeveral caſes a long fort of forceps that are curved upwards are much ſhallower at the anterior than lateral part, the occiput of the of great uſe to help along the head when the body is delivered firſt, fetus, when come down to the inferior part of either os iſchium, as in Fig. 38. the fame are repreſented here by dotted lines. They turns out below the pubes: this anſwers the ſame end as if the pelvis may be uſed in laborious cafes as well as the others, but are not itſelf had been wider from the poſterior part than from ſide to managed with the fame eaſe. fide; the head likewiſe enlarging the cavity by forcing back the coc Moſt of the parts of this Figure being marked with the fame cyx, and puſhingout the external parts in form of a large tumour, as letters as the former, the deſcriptions there given will anſwer in is already deſcribed in Fig. 13. A, the uterus contracted cloſely this, except the following. L, M, the anus. M, N, the perina- to the fætus after the waters are evacuated. B,C,D, the vertebra um. O, the common integuments of the abdomen. R, the thore of the loins, os facrum, and coccyx. E, the anus. F, the left hip. forceps. S, the long curved forceps. The firſt of theſe is eleven G, the perineum. H, the os externum beginning to dilate. I, the inches long, and the laſt twelve inches and a half, we have after os pubis of the left ſide. K, the remaining portion of the bladder. leveral alterations found it ſufficient ; but this need not confine L, the poſterior part of the os uteri. others who may chooſe to alter them from this ſtandard. Vide FIGURE XIX. and the three following, ſhow in what man FIG. 1. Plate of Inſtruments ner the head of the fætus is helped along with the forceps as arti FIGURE XXI. in the fame view and ſection of the parts, ficial hands, when it is neceſſary to aſſiſt with the ſame for the ſafety ſhows the head of the fætus in the ſame poſition, but brought lower of either mother or child. In this Figure the hand is repreſented down with the forceps than in the former Figure ; for in this the as forced down into the pelvis by the labour-pains, from its former os externum is more open, the occiput comes lower down from be- poſition in Fig. 16. A,A,B,C, the vertebre of the loins, os ſacrum low the pubes, and the forehead paſt the coccyx, by which both and coccyx. D, the os pubis of the left ſide. E, the remaining part theanus and perinæum are ſtretched out in forın of a large tumour, of the bladder. F,F, the inteſtinum reclum. G,G,G, the uterus. as in Fig. 13 H, the mons veneris. I, the clitoris, with the left nympha. X, When the head is ſo far advanced, the operator ought to extract the corpus avernoſum clitoridis. V, the meatus urinarius. K, the with great caution, left the parts ſhould be torn. If the labour- left lalium pudendi. L, the anus. N, the perineum, Q, P, the pains are ſufficient, the forehead may be kept down and helped left hip and thigh. R, the ſkin and mufcular part of the loins. along in a flow manner by preſſing againſt it with the fingers on The patient in this caſe may be, as in this Figure, on her fide, the external parts below the coccyx: at the ſame time the forceps with her breech a little over the ſide or foot of the bed, her knees being taken off, the head may be allowed to ſtretch the os exter- being likewiſe pulled up to her belly, and a pillow placed between num more and more in a gradual manner, from the force of the them, care being taken at the ſame time that the parts are by a labour pains as well as aſliſtance of the fingers. But if the former proper covering defended from the external air. When the po are weak and inſufficient, the aſſiſtance of the forceps muſt be fition of the head is known, the operator muft withdraw his hand continued. (Vide the deſcription of the parts in Fig. 19.) S, T, and wait to ſee if the ſtretching of the parts will renew or increaſe in this repreſentation, the left ſide of the os uteri. The dotted the labour-pains, and allow more ſpace for the advance of the lines demonſtrate the ſituation of the bones of the pelvis on the head in the pelvis. If this, however, proves of no effect, the right ſide, and may ſerve as an example for all the views of the fingers are again to be introduced, and one of the blades of the fame. a,b,c,h, the outlines of the os ilium. D,e,f, the fame of forceps (lubricated with lard) is then to be applied along the inſide the pubis and iſchium. i,i,k, the acetabulum. And m,n, the fo- of the hand or fingers and left ear of the child, as repreſented in ramen magnum. the Figure. But if the pelvis is diſtorted, and projects forward at FIGURE XXII. in the ſame view and ſection of the pelvis, the ſuperior part of the os facrum, and the forehead therefore can is intended by outlines to ſhow, that as the external parts are not be moved a little backwards, in order to turn the ear from ſtretched, and the os externum is dilated, the occiput of the foetus that part of the pelvis which prevents the end of the forceps to rifes up with a feinicircular turn from out below the pubes, the paſs the ſame : in that caſe the bláde muſt be introduced along under part of which bones are as an axis or fulcrum, on which the the poſterior part of the ear at the fide of the diſtorted bone. The back part of the neck turns, whilſt at the ſame time the forehead hand that was introduced is then to be withdrawn, and the handle and face, in their turn upwarls, diſtend largely the parts between of the introduced blade held with it as far back as the perineum the coccyx and os externum. This is the method obſerved by will allow, whilſt the fingers of the other hand are introduced to nature in ſtretching theſe parts in labour; and as nature is always the os uteri, at the pubes or right groin, and the other blade placed to be imitated, he fame method ought to be followed when it is exactly oppoſite to the former. This done, the handles being taken neceſſary chelp along the head with the forceps. Vide the three hold of and joined together, the head is to be pulled lower and former Figures for the deſcriptions and references. lower every pain, till the vextex, as in this Figure, is brought FIGURE XXIII. in the fame ſection of the parts, but with down to the inferior part of the left ifchium or below the ſame. a view of the right ſide, ſhows the head of the fætus in the con- The wide part of the head being now advanced to the narrow trary poſition to the three laſt Figures, the vertex being here in part of the pelvis betwixt the tuberoſities of the offa iſchium, is to the concavity of the ſacrum, and the forehead turned to the pubes, be turned from the left iſchium out below the pubes and the fore- A,B, the vertebre of the loins, os ſacrum, and coccyx, C, the os head backwards to the concave part of the os ſacrum and coccyx, pubis of the right ſide. D, the anus. E, the os externum not yet as in Fig. 20. and afterwards the head brought along and deli-begun to ſtretch. F, the nympha. G, the labium pudendi of the vered as in Fig. 21, and 22. But if it is found that the delivery right ſide. H, the hip and thigh. 1,1, the uterus contracted, the will require a conſiderable degree of force from the head's being waters being all diſcharged. large or the pelvis narrow, the handles of the forceps are to be tied When the head is ſmall, and the pelvis large, the parietal bones together with a fillet, as repreſented in the Figure, to prevent and the forehead will in this caſe, as they are forced downwards by their poſition being changed, whilſt the woman is turned on her the labour pains, gradually dilate the os externum, and ſtretch the back, as in Fig. 27, which is then more convenient for delivering parts between that and the coccyx in form of a large tumour, as the head than when lying on her fide. in Fig. 13, till the face comes down below the pubes, when the This Figure ſhows that the handles of the forceps ought to be head will be ſafely delivered. But if the fame be large, and the held as far back as the os externum will allow, that the blades pelvis narrow, the difficulty will be greater, and the child in may be in an imaginary line between that and the middle ſpace danger ; as in the following Figure. between the umbilicus and ſcrobiculus cordis. When the forceps FIGURE XXIV. ſhews the head of the Fætus in the fame are applied along the ears and ſides of the head, they are nearer poſition as in the former Figures; but being much larger, it is by ſtrong nawemical Bublés, illistrative of the Thorny and Practice ( (c/ Wilwifery. the Mystem 2 Hig: 25. Fig. 26, cin B Fig: 33 Fig: 28 Reiduced irom Smellies Tables bari Frederick: Birnie, Inatomical Dramuluman to the late D? Tilliam Hunter and Enarnet in Hilliam Talor. Engraved for Hall's Encyclopædia & Printed for C.Cooke 1927. Patumoster Row. Anatomical Tables, illustrative of the Theory and Practie! TUR CM Midwifery. See the lig: 30. Hig: 31. TAN D B 1 с B l'ig: 32 Tig: 36. ==3 lig31 lig: 35. 9 Reduced from Smellie's Tables br Frederick Birnie, hatomical Draughtsman to the late D'Tilliam Ilunter, and Engraved by Tilliam Tavlor. Engraved for Halls Encyclopædia, & Printed for C.Cooke N.17, Paternoster Row. Platec Anatomival Sables illustrative of the · Theory and Practice) (of Midwifery. Vee the VSystem OG CR F P Р H S B VT B. D N M M M Fig. 22 Fig: 37. Aسر A R R T E B LCD HT B D H F H I in K L అశుంగులు O P K Р N M Fig. 19. N R Fig. 21 Fig 20 M M 55759 Fig 29 Fig. 27 Fig. 24. h D E h A D B В Fig. 39 Fig 38. Engravet for the Royal Ingyelopardia, & Published as the let direct br Clooke, 197, Paternoster Row: June 10.1791. Inatomical Jubiles illustrative of the Shoczy áno Practic. www.with a totalit ( Midwifery. Vee the Jepstem). Figl. Fig: 2 D D D D B B II 1 G Fig. 6. B lig:5. D Fig 3 F 1 B B B B Fig: -1. Fig. 7. M M R D u Н E Fig. 9 А B Fig. 8. B k Engraved ror the Royal Encyclopedia. Published in the lives or Crooke', 1.7, Purmoler Roma MIDWIFERY. ſtrong labour-pains ſqueezed into a longiſh form with a tumour FIGURE XXVIII. ſhows, in a lateral view of the right ſide, on the vertex, from the long compreſlion of the head in the the face of the fetus preſenting, as in Fig. 26, but in the con- pelvis. If the child cannot be delivered with the labour trary poſition; that is, with the chin to the os facrum, and the pains, or turned and brought footling, the forceps are to be bregma to the pubes, the waters evacuated, and the uterus applied on the head, as deſcribed in this figure, and brought contracted. A, the os externum not yet begun to ſtretch. B, along as it preſents : but if that cannot be done without running the anus. Vide Fig. 23. for the further deſcription of the parts. the riſk of tearing the perinæum, and even the vagina and In ſuch caſes, as well as in thoſe of the laſt-mentioned Figure, rectum of the woman, the forehead muſt be turned backwards if the child is ſmall, the head will be puſhed lower with the la- to the ſacrum. To do this more effectually, the operator muſt bour pains, and gradually ſtretch the lower part of the vagina and graſp firmly with both hands the handles of the forceps, and at the external parts; by which means the os externum will be more the ſame time puſhing upwards raiſe the head as high as poſſi and more dilated, till the vertex comes out below the pubes, and ble, in order to turn the forehead to one ſide, by which it is riſes up on the outſide; in which caſe the delivery is then the brought into the natural poſition; this done, the head may be ſame as in natural labours. But if the head is large, it will paſs brought down and delivered as in Fig. 19. along with great difficulty; whence the brain and veſſels of the Vide the former Figure for the deſcription of the parts, except neck will be ſo much compreſſed and obſtructed as to deſtroy K, the tumour on the vertex. The ſame compreſſion and elon the child. To prevent which, if called in time, before the head gation of the head as well as the tumour on the vertex, may be is far advanced in the pelvis, the child ought to be turned and ſuppoſed to happen in a greater or leſs degree in the Figures 19, brought footling. If the head, however, is low down, and can- 20, 21, 22, as well as in this, where the difficulty proceeds from not be turned, the delivery is then to be performed with the for- the head being large or the pelvis narrow. Vide Fig. 30, 31. ceps, either by bringing along the head as it preſents, or as in the L, the forceps. Sometimes the forehead may be moved to following Figure. See the references in the preceding Figure. the natural poſition by the aſſiſtance of the fingers or only one FIGURE XXIX. repreſents a lateral view of the left ſide of blade of the forceps. The forceps may either be the ſtraight the ſubject, the fætus in the ſame ſituation as in the former kind, or ſuch as are curved to one ſide, when it is neceſſary to Figure. The head here is ſqueezed into a very oblong form: uſe one or both blades. M, the vepça urinaria much diſtended and though forced down ſo as fully to dilate the os externum, with a large quantity of urine from the long preſſure of the head yet the vertex and occiput cannot be brought ſo far down as againſt the urethra; which ſhows that the urine ought to be drawn to turn out from below the pubes (as in the foregoing Figure), off with a catheter, in ſuch extraordinary caſes, before you apply without tearing the perinæum and anus, as well as the vagina the forceps, or in preternatural caſes where the child is brought and rectum. footling. N, the underpart of the uterus. 0, 0, the os uteri. The beſt method in this caſe, after either the ſhort or long FIGURE XXV. ſhows, in a front view of the parts, the curved forceps have been applied along the ears (as is repre- forehead of the fætus preſenting at the brim of the pelvis, the ſented in the Figure), is to puſh the head as high up in the face being turned to one ſide, the fontanel to the other, and pelvis as is poſſible; after which the chin is to be turned from the feet and breech ſtretched towards the fundus uteri. A, A, the os ſacrum to either os iſchium, and afterwards brought the ſuperior part of the offà ilium. B, the anus. C, the peri down to the inferior part of the laſt-mentioned bone. This næum. D, the os externum; the thickneſs of the poſterior part done, the operator muſt pull the forceps with one hand, whilſt before it is ſtretched with the head of the child. E, E, E, the two fingers of the other are fixed on the lower part of the chin vagina. F, the os uteri not yet fully dilated. G, G, G, the or under-jaw, to keep the face in the middle, and prevent the uterus. H, the membrana adipoſa. chin from being detained at the os iſchium as it comes along; If the face is not forced down, the head will ſometimes come and in this manner move the chin round with the forceps and along in this manner; in which caſe the vertex will be flattened, the above fingers till brought under the pubes; which done, and the forehead raiſed in a conical form; and when the head the head will be eaſily extracted, as in Fig: 27. comes down to the lower part of the pelvis, the face or occiput In general, with reſpect to the poſture of the woman in the will be turned from the ſide, and come out below the pubes. application of the forceps, when the ears are to the ſides of the But if the head is large, and cannot be delivered by the pains, pelvis, the forceps, as was obſerved in Fig. 27, are moſt eaſily or if the wrong pofition cannot be altered, the child muſt, if introduced when the patient lies upon her back, and her breech poſſible, be brought footling, or delivered with the forceps. over the ſide of the bed ; but when the ear is to the pubes or FIGURE XXVI. ſhows, in a lateral view, the face of the groin, they are better applied when the patient lies on her ſide, child preſenting, and forced down into the lower part of the as was obſerved in the caſes where the vertex preſented. pelvis, the chin being below the pubes, and the vertex in the Vide Fig. 27. for the deſcription of the parts, and the refer- concavity of the os ſacrum: the waters likewiſe being all dif ences. Alſo Fig. 10. Plate of Inſtruments, for the manner of charged, the uterus appears cloſely joined to the body of the uſing the crotchet. child, round the neck of which is one circumvolution of the FIGURE XXX. gives a lateral view of a diſtorted pelvis, funis. A, B, the vertebræ of the loins, os facrum, and coccyx. C, divided longitudinally, with the head of a fætus of the ſeventh the os pubis of the left ſide. D, the inferior part of the re&tum. E, month pafling the ſame. Vide the Explanation of Fig. 3. the perinæum. F, the left labium pudendi. G, G, G, the uterus. A, B, C, the os facrum and coccyx. D, the os pubis of the When the pelvis is large, the head, if ſmall, will come along in left ſide. E, the tuberoſity of the os iſchium of the ſame fide. this poſition, and the child be ſaved: for as the head advances The head of the fætus here, though ſmall, is with difficulty lower, the face and forehead will ſtretch the parts between the ſqueezed down into the pelvis, and changed from a round to an frænum labiorum and coccyx in form of a large tumour. oblong form before it can paſs, there being only the ſpace of If the pelvis, however, is narrow, and the waters not all gone, two inches and one quarter between the projection of the fupe- the vertex ſhould, if poſſible, be brought to preſent; but if the rior part of the ſacrum and offa pubis. If the head is ſoon de uterus is ſo cloſely contracted that this cannot be effected, on livered, the child may be born alive; but if it continues in this account of the ſtrong preſſure of the ſame and ſlipperineſs of manner many hours, it is in danger of being loft, on account the child's head, in this caſe the method directed in the follow of the long preſſure upon the brain. To prevent which, if the ing Figure is to be taken. labour-pains are not ſufficiently ſtrong, the head muſt be helped FIGURE XXVII. repreſents, in the lateral view, the head along with the forceps, as directed in Fig. 19. of the fætus in the fame poſition as in the former Figure; but This figure may ſerve as an example of the extreme degree the delivery is ſuppoſed to be retarded from the largeneſs of of diſtortion of the pelvis, between which and the well-formed the head, or a narrow pelvis. one are many intermediate degrees, according to which the In this caſe, if the head cannot be raiſed, and puſhed up into difficulty of delivery muſt encreaſe or diminiſh, as well as from the uterus, it ought to be delivered with the forceps in order to the diſproportion of the pelvis and head of the fætus; all which fave the child. This poſition of the chin to the pubes is one of the caſes require the greateſt caution, both as to the management ſafeſt caſes where the face preſents, and is moſt eaſily delivered and ſafety of the mother and child. with the forceps, the manner of introducing of which over the FIGURE XXXI. gives a ſide-view of a diſtorted pelvis, as in ears is ſhown in this Figure. The patient muſt lie on her back, the former Figure, with the head of a full-grown fætus ſqueezed with her breech a little over the bed, her legs and thighs being into the brim, the parietal bones decuſſating each other, and ſupported by an aſſiſtant fitting on each ſide. The chin is then to compreſſed into a conical form. A, B, C, the os facrum and be raiſed up over the pubes, whilſt the forehead, fontanel, and coccyx. D, the os pubis of the left ſide. E, the tuberoſity of the occiput, are brought out ſlowly from the perinæum and funda os iſchium. F, the proceſſus acutus. G, the foramen magnum. ment, to prevent the ſame from being hurt or lacerated. But This Figure ſhows the impoſſibility in ſuch a caſe to ſave the if the fætus can neither be turned nor extracted with the for child, unleſs by the Cæſarian operation; which, however, ought ceps, the delivery muſt be left to the labour pains, as long as never to be performed, except when it is impracticable to deliver the patient is in no danger; but if danger is apparent, the head at all by any other method. Even in this caſe, after the upper muſt be delivered with the curved crotchets. Vide Fig. 10, part of the head is diminiſhed in bulk, and the bones are extracted, Plate of Inſtruments. the greateſt force muſt be applied in order to extract the bones of When the face preſents, and the chin is to the ſide of the the face and baſis of the ſkull, as well as the body of the fætus. pelvis, the patient muſt lie on her fide; and after the forceps FIGURE XXXII. repreſents, in a front view of the pelvis, are fixed along the ears, the chin is to be brought down to the as in Fig. 25. the breech of the fætus preſenting, and dilating os iſchium, and then turned out below the pubes, and delivered the os internum, the membranes being too ſoon broke. The fore in a flow manner as before. Vide Fig. 19, 20, 21, 22, for the parts of the child are to the poſterior part of the uterus ; and deſcription of the parts. the funis with a knot upon it ſurrounds the neck, arm, and body. N: VOL. II. 7 X We ** 109. MIDWIFERY. ope- Wehave ſometimes felt in theſe caſes, (when labour was begun, delivered by the feet, if known before the membranes are broke and before the breech was advanced into the pelvis), one hip at the and the waters diſcharged; or if the pelvis is narrow, and the pa: facrum, the other reſting above the os pubis, and the private tient is ſtrong, the head, if large, may be brought down ſo as to parts to one ſide: but before they could advance lower, the nates preſent in the natural way: but if all the waters are diſcharged, were turned to the ſides and wide part of the brim of the pelvis, and the uterus is ſtrongly contracted to the body of the fætus , with the private parts to the facrum, as in this Figure; though this laſt method can ſeldom take place, on account of the ſtrong ſometimes to the pubes as in the following figures. As ſoon as preſſure of the uterus and ſlipperineſs of the child's head. t be breech advances to the lower part of the baſin, the hips again In the preſent caſe, the woman may either be laid on her return to their former poſition, viz. one hip turned out below back or ſide, as deſcribed in Fig. 19 and 27, and the operator, the os pubis, and the other at the back parts of the os externum. having ſlowly dilated the os externum with his fingers, muft in N. B. In this caſe the child, if not very large, or the pelvis troduce the ſame into the vagina, and puſh up into the uterus narrow, may be often delivered alive by the labour pains; but the parts of the fætus that preſent; or if there is ſpace for it , if long detained at the inferior part of the pelvis, the long preſ his hand may paſs in order to dilate the os internum, if not fuf- fure of the funis may obſtruct the circulation. In moſt caſes ficiently ſtretched previouſly by the membranes and waters. where the breech preſents, the effect of the labour-pains ought This done, he muſt advance his hand into the uterus, to know to be waited for, till at leaſt they have fully dilated the os inter the poſition of the fætus; and, as the breech is rather lower num and vagina, if the ſame have not been ſtretched before with than the head, ſearch for the other leg, and bring down both the waters and membranes. In the mean time, whilſt the breech feet without the os externum. If the membranes are broken advances, the os externum my be dilated gently during every before the os uteri is largely opened, and the hand of the pain, to allow room for introducing a finger or two of each hand rator cannot be introduced, which ſometimes happen in a firſt to the outſide of each groin of the fætus, in order to aſſiſt the pregnancy, the parts of the fætus ſhould be allowed to protrude delivery when the nates are advanced to the lower part of the ſtill further, by which means the rigidity of the os internum vagina. But if the fætus is larger than uſual,or the pelvis narrow, will in time be leſſened. and after a long time and many repeated pains the breech is not FIGURE XXXV. repreſents, in the ſame view with the forced down into the pelvis, the patient's ſtrength at the ſame former, the fætus in the contrary poſition; the breech and time failing, the operator muſt in a gradual manner open the foreparts being towards the fundus uteri, the left arm in the parts, and, having introduced a hand into the vagina, raiſe or vagina, and the fore arm without the os externum, the ſhoulder puſh up the breech of the fætus, and bring down the legs and being likewiſe forced into the os uteri. thighs. If the uterus is ſo ſtrongly contracted that the legs can The operator in this caſe muft introduce his fingers between not be got down, the largeſt end of the blunt hook is to be in the back part of the vagina and the arm of the fetus, in order to troduced as directed in Fig. 3, in the Plate of Inſtruments. As raiſe the Ihoulder and make room for preſſing his hand into the ſoon as the breech or legs are brought down, the body and head uterus to diſtinguiſh the poſition. This being known, he ought are to be delivered, as deſcribed in the next Figure, only there to puſh up the thoulder to that part of the uterus where the is no neceſſity here to alter the poſition of the child's body. head is lodged, in order to raiſe the ſame to the fundus. The deſcription of the parts in this and the following Figure If the feet cannot be brought down lower than into the va- is the ſame as in Fig. 25, only the dotted lines in this deſcribe gina, a nooſe may be introduced over both ankles, by which the place of the olla pubis, and the anterior parts of the oſſa the legs are brought lower by pulling the nooſe with one hand, iſchium, which are removed, and may ſerve in this reſpect as an whilſt the other, previouſly introduced into the uterus, puſhes example for all the other front views, where, without disfiguring up the ſhoulders and head. By this double force the poſition the Figure, they could not be ſo well put in. of the fætus is to be altered, and the delivery effected. In theſe FIGURE XXXIII. ſhows, in the ſame view and with the caſes, as the ſhoulder is raiſed to the fundus, the arm commonly ſame references as the former, the breech of the fætus preſenting; returns into the uterus; but if the arm is ſo ſwelled as to prevent with this difference, however, that the fore-parts of the child are the introduction of the operator's hand, and cannot be folded up to the fore-part of the uterus. Inthis caſe, when the breech com or returned into the uterus, it muſt be taken off at the ſhoulder ing double as it preſents is brought down to the hams, the legs or elbow, in order to deliver and ſave the woman. If both the muſt be extracted, a cloth wrapped round them, and the fore arms come down when the breaſt preſents, the methods above parts of the child turned to the back-parts of the woman. If a deſcribed are to be uſed. Vide the explanations and references pain ſhould in the mean time force down the body of the child, of the foregoing Figure. it ought to be puſhed up again in turning, as it turns eaſier when FIGURE XXXVI. exhibits, in the ſame view likewiſe of the belly is in the pelvis, than when the breaſt and ſhoulders the pelvis with the former, a third poſition of the fætus, when are engaged; and as ſometimes the face and forehead are rather compreſſed into the round form; the belly, viz. or umbilical towards one of the groins, a quarter-turn more brings theſe parts region, preſenting at the os internum, and the funis fallen down to the ſide of the pelvis, and a little backwards, after which the into the vagina, and appearing at the os externum. body is to be brought down. If the child is not large, the arms The delivery in this caſe is to be effected as in the former Fi. need not be brought down, and the head may be delivered by | gure, by puſhing up the breaſt and bringing down the legs. When preſling back the ſhoulders and body of the child to the perinæum, the belly preſents, it is eaſier coming at the legs than when the and, whilſt tlie chin and face are within the vagina, to bring the breaſt preſents, becauſe in the former caſe the head is nearer to occiput out from below the pubes. If the woman has ſtrong the fundus uteri, and the legs and thighs lower. If the belly or pains, and when by the felt pulſation of the veſſels of the funis breaſt is forced down into the lower part of the pelvis, the child umbilicalis, or the ſtruggling motion of the fætus, it is certain will be in danger from the bending of the vertebræ and the preſ- that the child is ſtill alive, wait with patience for the aſſiſtance ſure of the ſpinal marrow. Such great force is alſo required to of the labour: but if that and the hand are ſufficient, and the raiſe theſe parts up into the uterus, in order to come at the feet, pulſation of the funis turns weaker, and if the chiid cannot be that it will ſometimes be neceſſary to turn the woman to her brought double, the breech muſt be puſhed up; and if the re knees and elbows to diminiſh the reſiſtance of the abdominal ſiſtance of the uterus is ſo great as to prevent the extraction of muſcles. When the funis comes down without the os exter- the legs, the patient ought to be turned on her knees and elbows. num, if there is a pulſation felt, it muſt immediately be replaced When the legs are thus brought down, the woman, if needful, and kept warm in the vagina, to preſerve the circulation, and is to be again turned on her back, to allow more freedom to de prevent a ſtagnation from its being expoſed to the cold air. If liver the body and head, as before deſcribed. If the head after the funis comes down when the head preſents, the child is in ſeveral trials cannot be delivered, without endangering the danger, if not ſpeedily delivered with the pains, or brought child from overſtraining the neck, the long curved forceps footling. See explanations See explanations in the two former Figures. ought to be applied, as in Fig. 38. If theſe fail , and the patient FIGURE XXXVII. ſhows, in a lateral view of the pelvis, is not in danger, ſome time may be allowed for the effect of the one of the moſt difficult preternatural caſes. The left ſhoulder, labour-pains; which likewiſe proving inſufficient, the crotchet breaſt, and neck of the fætus preſenting, the head reflected over muſt be uſed as in Fig. 10, in the plate of inſtruments, and the pubes to the right ſhoulder and back, and the feet and breech when it is certain that the child is dead, or that there is no pof ſtretched up to the fundus, the uterus contracted at the ſame time ſibility of ſaving it. in form of a long theath round the body of the fætus. FIGURE XXXIV. repreſents, in a front view of the pelvis, A, B, C, the os facrum and coccyx. D, the os pubis of the left thefætus compreſſed by the contraction of the uterus into a round ſide. E, part of the urinary bladder. F, the re&tum. H, I, K, the form, the fore-parts of the former being towards the inferior part private parts. M, the anus. M, N, the perinæum. V, the mea- of the latter, and one foot and a hand fallen down into the vagina. tus urinarius. O, the os uteri, not yet opened,and ſituated back- In this figure the anterior part of the pelvis is removed by a wards towards the rečtum and coccyx. R, S, the ſame repreſented longitudinal ſection through the middle of the foramen magnum. in dotted lines, as opened when the labour is begun. T, U, the A, A, the ſuperior parts of the offa ilium. "B, B, the uterus. ſame more fully dilated, but nearer to the poſterior than anterior C, the mouth of the womb ftretched, and appearing in 0, 0. part of the pelvis. W, P, the ſame not fully ſtretched at the O, O, the vagina. D, the inferior and poſterior part of the os forepart, though entirely obliterated at the back-part, the externum. E, E, E, E, the remaining part of the offa pubis and uterus and vagina being there only ſometimes one continued ifchium. F, F, F, F, the membrana adipoſa. ſurface. This and the three following Figures, repreſenting four dif Hence it appears why the anterior part of the os uteri is fre- ferent preternatural poſitions of the fætus in utero, may ſerve quently protruded before the head of the fætus at the pubes, as examples for the manner of delivery in theſe as well as in all which, if it retards delivery, is removed by ſliding it up with a other preternatural caſes. finger or two between the head and laſt mentioned part. Vide In all preternatural caſes, the fætus may be eaſily turned and Fig. 11, 14, 15, 16, 17. FIGURE C Ripresentasion of itu manner in we hivi stui Satusi into hich itu batues si nourismo in Wiere, alow a Vico de Moenbruna lirisea drama korea baguhin lain . Memoble , liguem ayi Hitacije, o Fig. 42 D F T D C I B В F Fig. 40 պապայամաաաաա G L M и B M M C In Figure 11, an opening is made into the l'hers to shen the placenta and Membranae, rh the lowels coming tim thi How to th: Fam. Figure 10, is a portion of the spona poster of the l'accruallisucted with the home timpieren. Engraci hr Halli Hotel loputtit i del tir Cloube 107 Dreyer kew MIDWIFERY. a anus prefled backwards with the forceps. D, the inteſtines. E,E,the veſſels of the arteries of the fætus. F. veins branching off from FIGURE XXXVIII. ſhows, in a lateral view of the pelvis, / of placenta was choſen, in order to demonſtrate the ſubject witti the method of affifting the delivery of the head of the fætus with greater fimplicity and perſpicuity. the long curved forceps, in preternatural caſes, when it cannot FIGURE XLI. A, the fætus out of the uterus to ſhew the be done with the hands as deſcribed in Figures 32, 33. ſituation of the after birth with greater preciſion. B, the navel A, the three loweſt vertebre of the loins, with the os ſacrumand | ſtring; C, membranes of the placenta. D, arteries of the fætus COCCYX. . B, the os pubis of the left ſide. C, C, the perinæum and C, the perinæum and branching from the navel ftring to the placenta. E, inhaling parietes of the abdomen. F, F, F, the uterus. G, the poſterior G, the poſterior the naval ſtring of the fætus. G, exhaling veſſels of the veins part of the os uteri. H, the rectum. I, the vagina. of the fætus. , the ſpongy part of the placenta. I, the arteries After the body and arms of the child are delivered, and the dif- of the uterus. K, the veins of the uterus. L, the cavity of the ferent methods uſed to bring down the head with the hands, as di. uterus; the uterus is ſuppoſed to be cut in halves. M, the rected in Fig. 37. the following method is to be tried in order to cut edges of the uterus. N, the os uteri or os externum. fave the child, who muſt otherwiſe be loft by overſtraining the In this Figure we have given a view of the uterus and fætus at neck and ſpinal inarrow. The woman being in the fupine pofi- | the ninth month, in which is ſhewn the placenta or after-birth tion, as in Fig. 27. one of the aſſiſtants ought to hold the body and adhering to the uterus, by the veſſels of the mother: the veſſels arms of the child up towards the abdomen of the woman, to give are ſuppoſed to be half extracted, in order to ſhew their con- more room to the operator, who having introduced one hand up to nection with the placenta. the child's face, and moved it from the ſide a little backwards for This exertion of nature may be diſcovered by examining the the eafier application of the forceps along the ſides of the head, cotylidones or placentulæ of the cow; in which the veſſels are muſt then turn his hand to one of the ears, and introduce one of the diſtinctly ſeen as you pull the cotylidone from the uterus. blades with the other hand between the ſame and the head, with There being a full and diſtinct circulation in the veſſels of the the curved fide towards the pubes, as in this figure. This done, fætus and placenta without any anaſtomoſes with the veſſels of the the hand is to be brought down to hold the handle of the blade mother, the explanation of the nouriſhment of the fætus was of the forceps till the other hand is introduced to the other ſide thereby rendered difficult, till the time of Mr. John Hunter's ex- of the head, by which means the ſame is preſſed againſt the blade periment, in which he injected the arteries of the uterus, from a that is up, and which is thus prevented from ſlipping whilſt the recent ſubject about the eighth month of pregnancy, with wax, other hand introduces the ſecond blade on the oppoſite ſide. when he found that he filled the whole of the ſpongy part of the The blades being thus introduced, care muſt be taken that, in placenta; and after that the wax returned by the veins of the joining them, no part of the vagina is locked in. uterus, ſo that there was a complete circulation without any of The handles of the forceps ſhould be raiſed upwards, and the the wax entering the veſſels of the fætus. Mr. John Hunter ſame caution uſed in bringing the head through the os externum, alſo injected the veſſels of the navel-ftring, by putting his pipe as deſcribed in Fig. 22, 23. By this method the head will be into the artery of it, and by this means filled the whole of the delivered, the child frequently ſaved, and the uſe of the crotchet veſſels, which belonged to the fætus in the placenta; but none of a prevented, except in thoſe bafins that are ſo narrow that it is the veſſels which belonged to the mother; for the wax returned impoſſible to deliver without diminiſhing the bulk of the head. back again by the veins of the navel-ſtring. So that here again FIGURE XXXIX. repreſents, in a lateral view of the pelvis, the circulation was full and complete; no branches anaſtomoſing the method of extracting, with the aſſiſtance of a curved crotchet , between the veſſels of the fætus and thoſe of the mother. By the head of the fætus, when left in the uterus, after the body is theſe means therefore he demonſtrated that the nouriſhment of delivered and ſeparated from it, either by its being too large, or the child in the uterus is by abſorption, or in other words, that the pelvis too narrow. Pa the blood from the mother is conveyed by the arteries of the A, B, C, the os ſacrum and coccyx. D, the os pubis of the uterus into the ſpongy part of the placenta, and there taken up left ſide. E, E, the uterus. F, the locking part of the crotchet. | by the inhaling veſſels of the arteries of the fætus, and thence g, h, i, the point of the crotchet on the inſide of the cranium. paſſing by the arteries into the fætus, the nutritious parts of the If this caſe happens from the forehead's being towards the blood are ſeparated by the animal economy of the fætus, and pubes, or the child long dead, and ſo mortified that both the body the refufe blood returned by the veins back again to the placenta, and under jaw are ſeparated unexpectedly, the long forceps that where, as the laſt courſe, it is taken up by the veins of the mother. are curved upwards will be ſufficient to extract the head; but if That the fætus muſt be nouriſhed by abſorption is evident from the ſame is large, and the pelvis narrow, and the delivery cannot the ſtructure of animals which are born without either mouth or be effected by the above method, then the head muſt be opened, noſe, or any paſſage through theſe parts into the ſtomach; and yet that its bulk may diminiſh as it is extraeted. The patient being the fætuſes are plump and well nouriſhed, without imbibing placed either on her back or ſide, as in the explanation of Fig.19 the ſmalleſt degree of the liquor amnii, as ſome writers have and 27, the left hand of the operator is to be introduced into the advanced. more uterus, and the forehead of the fætus turned to the right ſide of FIGURE XLII. A, decidua reflexa. B, decidua vera. C, the the brim of the pelvis, and a little backwards, the chin being true chorion. D, the amnion. E, the navel ftring. F, cut edges downwards ; after which the palm of the hand and fingers are of the uterus. G, the cervix uteri. H, the os externum. I, the to be advanced as high as the fontanel, and the head graſped with fallopian tubes. K, one of the ovaries cut through to ſhew the the thumb and little finger on each fide, as firm as is poſſible, corpus luteum, or that appearance which always takes place whilſt an aſliſtant preſſes on each ſide of the abdomen with both in early pregnancy in the ova of the ovarium. hands, to keep the uterus firm in the middle and lower part of the This figure exhibits a view of the pregnant uterus about the ſame. This done, the operator having with his right-hand in- fourth month, to ſhow the texture and ſituation of the membrana troduced and applied the crotchet to the head, (the point being decidua. This membrane with its peculiarities was firſt diſcovered turned towards the forehead, and the convex fide towards the by Dr. William Hunter. It is diſtinguiſhed from the other, by facrum), he muſt go up along the inſide of the left-hand as high the very near reſemblance it bears to Bruſſels lace ; the term by as the fontanel, and there, or near it, fix the point of the crotchet, which the Doctor always expreſſed it. keeping ſtill the left-hand in the former poſition, till with the is the inner lamella of the uterus, and connects the ſecundines other he pierces the cranium with the point of the inſtrument, with the uterus. It is the firſt membrane that is formed, and ra- and tears a large opening in it from K to 1; after this, keeping ther belongs to the uterus than to the ſecundines : for when the the crotchet ſteady, he may ſlide down with his left-hand in a uterus is injected, this membrane is alſo injected, but none of the cautious manner, left the former poſition ſhould be altered, and others. So peculiarly does this membrane belong to the uterus the head will fink lower down by the aſſiſtants preſſing on the that when conception in the ovarium takes place, the fætus will abdomen. The two fore-fingers of the left-hand are then to be have a placenta there; but the decidua will be found in the uterus. introduced into the mouth, and the thumb below the under-jaw, The membrana decidua forms as ſoon as conception takes place; the hand being above the blade of the crotchet. When this it covers the inſide of the uterus. That part of it which covers firm hold is taken, the operator may begin and pull ſlowly with the ovum Dr. Hunter called decidua part both hands; and as the brain diſcharges through the perforation, ſpread the uterus, he called decidua reflexa. the head will diminiſh and come along. The Figure may alſo ſerve for an example to ſhow the method of fixing the crotchet on the head, when although the body is DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATE OF INSTRUMENTS, not ſeparated from it, yet it cannot be delivered with the uſed in the Practice of MIDWIFERY in laborious and difficult ope- CASES. rator's hands or the long forceps, as in Fig. 32, and 38. FIGURE XL. A, a portion of placenta magnified to ſhew the FIGURE 1. the ſtraight ſhort forceps, in the exact proportion veſſels more diſtinctly. B, one of the arteries of the fætus, fent as to the width between the blades, and length from the points to off by the navel ftring. C, the inhaling, or abſorbing veſſel of the locking part : the firſt being two and the ſecond fix inches, the artery. D, one of the veins belonging to the navel ſtring which with five inches and a half (the length of the handles), The letter D is placed upon the curvature, where the artery of makes in all eleven inches and a half. The length of the han- the fætus anaſtomoſes with the vein. E, the exhaling veſſel dles may be altered at pleaſure. We find, however, in practice, from the vein of the fætus. F, an artery of the uterus opening that this ſtandard is the moſt convenient, and with leſs difficulty into the ſpongy part of the placenta. G, the vein of the uterus. introduced than when longer, having alſo fufficient force to From this Figure it appears that both the vein and artery of the deliver in moſt caſes where their afliſtance is neceſſary. uterus are indučied into the placenta with their mouths extended, FIGURE 2. repreſents the poſterior part of a ſingle blade, in and do not anaſtomoſe, like the veſſels of the fætus. This portion order to ſhow the open part of the fame, and the form and pro- portion vera, that which over- MIDWIFERY. portion of the whole. The handles, however, as here repre ſheath that is contrived to guard the point till it is introduced fented, are rather too large. high enough; the ligature at the handles marked with the two For the figure and proportions of the long forceps, that are dotted lines is then to be untied, the ſheath withdrawn, and the curved upwards, and covered in the ſame manner as the former, point, being uncovered, is fixed as directed in Fig. 39. of the fee Fig. 24. in the former Plate. former Plate. The point, guarded with this ſheath, inay alſo FIGUKE 3. the blunt hook; uſed for three purpoſes. Firſt, be uſed inſtead of the blunt hook. To aſſiſt the extraction of the head after the cranium is opened FIGURE 11. gives a view of the back part of one of the with the ſciſſars, by introducing the ſmall end along the ear on crotchets, which is twelve inches long. the outſide of the head to above the under jaw, where the point FIGURE 12. gives a front-view of the point, to ſhow its length is to be fixed; the other extremity of the hook being held with and breadth, which ought to be rather longer and narrower than one hand, whilſt two fingers of the other are to be introduced here repreſented. into the foreſaid opening, by which holds, the head is to be FIGURE 13. repreſents the ſciſſars proper for perforating the gradually extracted. cranium in very narrow and diſtorted pelviſes. They ought to Secondly, The ſmall end is uſeful in abortions, in any of the firſt be made very ſtrong, and nine inches at leaſt in length, with four or five months, to hook down the ſecundines when lying ſtops or reſts in the middle of the blades, by which a large dila- looſe in the uterus, when the patient is much weakened by flood tation is more eaſily made. The above inſtruments ought only ings from the too long retention of the ſame, the pains being alſo to be uſed in the moſt extraordinary caſes, where it is not pol- unable to expel them, and when they cannot be extracted with ſible to ſave the woman without their aſſiſtance. the fingers. But if the placenta ſtill adheres, it is dangerous to Among the few improvements which have been made in the uſe this or any other inſtrument to contraĉt the ſame, as it ought obſtetrical apparatus, the moſt important are the alterations in to be left till it ſeparates naturally. If a ſmall part of the ſecun the forceps, by which the inconveniences formerly attending dines is protruded through the os uteri, and pulled away from the uſe of that inſtrument are obviated, and the operation is what ſtill adheres in the uterus, the mouth of the womb contracts, rendered more ſafe and eaſy. 30 and that irritation is thereby removed which would have con In contriving theſe alterations, the intentions were, 1. That tinued the pains, and have ſeparated and diſcharged the whole. the large curves ſhould correſpond as nearly as poſſible with that Thirdly, The large hook at the other end is uſeful to aſſiſt the of the pelvis. 2. That their points ſhould be thrown forwards, extraction of the body, when the breech preſents; but ſhould be and made round, to prevent their hitching, or even preſſing un- uſed with great caution, to avoid the diſlocation or fracture of eaſily againſt any part of the pelvis; and likewiſe to maintain the thighs. their hold of the head whilft it is to be brought forwards in that FIGURE 4. repreſents the whalebone-fillet, which may be curved line of direction which nature obſerves. 3. That an ſometimes uſeful in laborious caſes, when the operator is not inverted curve ſhould be made towards the joints, whereby the provided with the forceps in ſudden and unexpected exigencies. | perinæum may be ſaved from injury, the extracting force rightly When the vertex of the fætus preſents, and the head is forced conducted, and the handles at the ſame time kept from preſling down into the lower part of the pelvis, the woman weak, and the uneaſily on the inferior and anterior parts of the pubes. 4. That pains not fufficient to deliver it, the double of the fillet is to be their ſubſtance ſhould be reduced as much as poſſible, ſo that introduced along the fore-part of the parietal bones to the face, they are not made flexible, or ſo thin at the edges as to hurt the and, if poffible, above the under jaw; which done, the whale part. 5. That their clams may be made to preſs equally on bone may be either left in or pulled down out of the ſheath, the child's head, and ſpread gradually from the joint, ſo as not and every weak pain aſſiſted by pulling gently at the fillet. If to dilate the os vaginæ too ſuddenly. 6. That the clams be of the head can be raiſed to the upper part of the pelvis, the fillet a due breadth with the outer ſurface, a little convex, and ex- will be more eaſily got over the chin, which is a ſafer and better tremely ſmooth, that they may not preſs uneaſily to hurt the hold than on the face. If the face or forehead preſents, the woman. 7 That their length be ſuch as can be applied ſafely fillet is to be introduced over the occiput. and commodiouſly within the pelvis, and at the ſame time fuit In ſuch caſes likewiſe the whalebone may be ſupplied by a the different ſizes of the heads as much as poſſible. any tough wood, mounted with a limber garter or fillet The inſtrument executed according to theſe intentions, is called fewed in form of a long ſheath. the ſhort curved forceps. It conſiſts of two blades, or parts; each and 6. give two views of a new kind of peſſary of which is diſtinguiſhed into the handle A, the joint B, C, and the for the prolapfus uteri, being taken from the French and Dutch clams D, E. See Fig. 14. which repreſents one of the blades be- kind. After the uterus is reduced, the large end of the peſſary fore it is bent into its perfect ſtate: a, a, a, are three holes for ad- is to be introduced into the vagina, and the os uteri retained in mitting ſcrews to fix the wooden handle. Fig. 15. fhows the the concave part, where there are three holes to prevent the inſtrument finiſhed and locked, in which ſtate it meaſures about ſtagnation of any moiſture. The ſmall end without the os exter 11 inches; and, when properly made, weighs about 11 ounces num has two tapes drawn through the two holes, which are tied troy. The clams muſt be covered with the beſt Morocco leather, to four other tapes, that hang down from a belt that ſurrounds the ſhaved thin, moiſtened with water, and ſewed on with waxed filk. woman's body, and by this means keep up the peſſary. This FIGURE 16. repreſents a catheter lately preferred by practi- fort may be taken out by the patient when ſhe goes to bed, and tioners. It is ſtraight, perforated with 16 holes in four rows introduced again in the morning; but as this ſometimes rubs near the point, and terminated by a ſlight knob. The length is the os externum, ſo as to make its uſe uneaſy, the round kind, about 5 inches. Fig. 7. are of more general uſe. They are made of wood, ivory, or cork, (the laſt covered with cloth and dipt in wax); The foregoing Syſtem was preſented to us as an abridgement from the peſſary is to be lubricated with pomatum, the edge forced Dr. Smellie, by a ſubſcriber and contributor to this work. We through the paſſage into the vagina, and a finger introduced have given the whole of the Plates contained in the Doétor's valu- into the hole in the middle, lays it acroſs within the os externum. able Treatiſe. Doctor Smellie profeſſes to have induſtriouſly They ought to be larger or ſmaller, according to the wideneſs avoided all'Theory, except ſo much as may ſerve to aid the genius or narrowneſs of the paſſage, to prevent their being forced out of young practitioners, and be as hints to introduce more valuable by any extraordinary ſtraining. diſcoveries in the art. He adds, that as he has endeavoured to FIGURES 8. and 9. give two views of a female catheter, treat every particular in the moſt diſtinct though conciſe manner, to ſhow its degree of curvature and different parts. Thoſe many directions might occur that may be thought too minute and for common uſe may be made much ſhorter, for conveniency of trivial by thoſe who have already had the advantage of an extenfive carrying in the pocket: but ſometimes, when the head or body practice; but the work being principally intended for the infiruc- of the child preſſes on the bladder above the pubes, it requires tion of young practitioners in general, he thought it neceſary to one of this length; and in ſome extraordinary caſes we have mention every thing that he had found uſeful in the courſe of been obliged to uſe a male catheter. practice. The obſervations contained in his Treatiſe are not only FIGURE 10. repreſents a pair of curved crotchets locked to the fruits of intenſe ſtudy and application in the early part of life, gether in the ſame manner as the forceps. It is very rare that but more immediately of his practice in London during ten years, the uſe of both is neceſſary, excepting when the face preſents in which he had given upwards of two hundred and eighty courſes with the chin turned to the ſacrum, and when it is impoſſible to of Lectures on Midwifery, for the inſtruction of more than nine move the head to bring the child footling, or deliver with the hundred pupils, excluſive of female ſtudents. forceps. In that caſe, if one crotchet is not ſufficient, the other The Editor of this syſtem, to render it as complete as poſſible, is to be introduced, and, when joined together, will act both as has introduced, in addition to Dr. Smellie's Plates, a View of the crotchets, in opening the cranium, and, as the head advances, Membrana Decidua, firſt diſcovered by Doctor William Hunter, will likewiſe act as forceps in moving and turning the head more to ſhew the texture and ſituation of this Membrane, and which was conveniently for the delivery of the fame. They may alſo be conſidered as highly uſeful to the Doctor's Pupils, and all who uſeful to aſſiſt when the head is left in the uterus, and one blade are in poſſeſſion of his excellent Le&tures. is not ſufficient. There is ſeldom occafion however, for the Though the manner in which the Fætus is nouriſhed in the womb, ſharp crotchet, when the head preſents; the blunt hook in Fig. has been well explained in ſeveral anatomical publications, it has 30, of the former Plate, being commonly ſufficient; or even the never been repreſented in any Treatiſe by Engravings; young forceps to extract the ſame, after it is opened with the ſciſſars. | ſtudents and practitioners have therefore been perplexed, for want Great care ought to be taken, when the ſharp crotchet is in- of views to demonſtrate and illuſtrate it ; in conſequence of which troduced, to keep the point towards the fætus, eſpecially in the Editor has introduced in this syſtem two diſtinct views, in order caſes where the fingers cannot be got up to guide the ſame. The to ſupply this defect, and to render the part more clear to our dotted lines along the inſide of one of the blades repreſent a Readers. twig of FIGURES 5. d'arrow, Wristruments used in the Practice of Midwifery. Ve the System Fig: 5. Fig. 7. Fig.3. Fig. 2. Fig.1. Fig:8. Fig. 4. Fig. 9. Fig:11. Fig: 10 Fig 12. Fig:14. Fig: 15. Fig.16. Fig:17 Fig. 13. 198591 T TREATISE ON MILITARY AFFAIRS. SECT. I. array, and ſend into every county officers in whom they could RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE MILITARY STATE IN confide, to muſter and array or (ſet in military order) the inha. BRITAIN. bitants of every diftri&t; and the form of the commiſiion of array HIS ſtate includes the whole of the ſoldiery; or ſuch per was ſettled in parliament in the 5th Hen. IV. But at the ſame ſons as are peculiarly appointed among the reſt of the peo time it was provided, that no man ihould be compelled to go out ple, for the ſafe guard and defence of the realm. In a land of of the kingdom at any rate, nor out of his ſhire, but in caſes of liberty, it is extremely dangerous to make a diftinct order of the urgent neceflity; nor ſhould provide ſoldiers unleſs by conſent profeſlion of arms. In abſolute monarchies, this is neceſſary for of parliament. About the reign of king Henry VIII. lord-lieute- the ſafety of the prince, and ariſes from the main principle of nants began to be introduced, as ſtanding repreſentatives of the their conſtitution, which is that of governing by fear: but, in free crown, to keep the counties in military order; for we find them ftates, the profeſſion of a ſoldier, taken ſingly and merely as a mentioned as known officers in the ſtatute 4 and 5 Ph. and M. profeſſion, is juftly an object of jealouſy. In theſe no man ſhould €. 3. though they had not been then long in uſe; for Cambden take up arms but with a view to defend his country and its laws: ſpeaks of them in the time of queen Elizabeth as extraordinary he puts not off the citizen when he enters the camp; but it is be magiſtrates, conftituted only in times of difficulty and danger. cauſe he is a citizen, and would wiſh to continue ſo, that he makes In this ſtate things continued till therepeal of the ſtatutes of ar- himſelf for a while a ſoldier. The laws, therefore, and conſtitu mour in the reign of king James I; after which, when king tion of theſe kingdoms, know no ſuch ſtate as that of a perpetual Charles I. had, during his northern expeditions, iſſued commiſ- ſtanding ſoldier, bred up to no other profeſſion than that of war: fions of lieutenancy, and exerted ſome military powers which, and it was not till the reign of Henry VII. that the kings of having been long exerciſed, were thought to belong to the crown, England had ſo much as a guard about their perſons. it became a queſtion in the long-parliament, how far the power In the time of the Anglo-Saxons, as appears from Edward the of the militia did inherently reſide in the king; being now un- confeſſor's laws, the military force of England was in the hands ſupported by any itatute, and founded only upon immemorial of the dukes or heretochs, who were conſtituted through every uſage. This queſtion, long agitated with great heat and reſent- province and county in the kingdom, being taken out of the ment on both fides, became at length the immediate cauſe of the principal nobility, and ſuch as were moſt remarkable for being | fatal rupture between the king and his parliament: the two Japientes fidelis, et animofi . Their duty was to lead and regulate houſes not only denying this prerogative of the crown, the le- the Engliſh armies, with a very unlimited power; prout eis vi- gality of which claim perhaps might be ſomewhat doubtful; but ſum fuerit ad honorem coronæ et utilitatem regni. And becauſe of alſo ſeizing into their hands the entire power of the militia, the this great power they were elected by the people in their full illegality of which ſtep could never be any doubt at all. aſſembly, or folkmore, in the ſame manner as ſheriffs were elec Soon after the reſtoration of king Charles II. when the military ted: following fill that old fundamental maxim of the Saxon tenures were aboliſhed, it was thought proper to aſcertain the conftitution, that where any officer was entruſted with ſuch power, power of the militia, to recognize the ſole right of the crown to as if abuſed, might tend to the oppreſſion of the people, that pow govern and command them, and to put the whole into a more er was delegated to him by the vote of the people themſelves. regular method of military ſubordination: and the order in Among the ancient Germans, the anceſtors of our Saxon fore which the militia now ſtands by law, is principaily built upon fathers, they had their dukes, as well as kings, with an inde the ſtatutes which were then enacted. It is true, the two laſt of pendant power over the military, as the kings had over the civil them are apparently repealed; but many of their proviſions are ftate. The dukes were elective, the kings hereditary: for ſo only re-enacted, with the addition of ſome new regulations, by the can be conſiſtently underſtood that paſſage of Tacitus, Reges ex preſent militia laws: the general ſcheme of which is to diſcipline nobilitate, duces ex virtute fumunt. In conflituting their kings, a certain number of the inhabitants of every county, choſen by the family, or blood-royal was regarded; in chooſing their dukes lot for three years, and officered by the lord-lieutenant, the de- or leaders, warlike merit: juſt as Cæſar relates of their ancef puty-lieutenants, and other principal landholders, under a com- tors in his time, that whenever they went to war, by way either miſſion from the crown. They are not compellable to march of attack or defence, they elected leaders to command them. out of their counties, unleſs in caſe of invaſion or actual rebel- This large ſhare of power, thus conferred by the people, though lion, nor in any caſe compellable to march out of the kingdom. intended to preſerve the liberty of the ſubject, was perhaps un They are to be exerciſed at fated times: and their diſcipline in reaſonably detrimental to the prerogative of the crown: and ac general is liberal and eaſy; but, when drawn out into actual ſer- cordingly we find a very ill uſe made of it by Edric duke of vice, they are ſubject to the rigours of martial law, as neceſ- Mercia, in the reign of king Edmund Ironſide, who, by his office | ſary to keep them in order. This is the conſtitutional ſecurity of duke or heretoch, was entitled to a large command in the which our laws have provided for the public peace, and for pro- king's army, and by his repeated treacheries at laſt transferred tecting the realm againſt foreign or domeftic violence; and the crown to Canute the Dane. which the ſtatutes declare is eſſentially neceſſary to the ſafety It ſeems univerſally agreed by all hiſtorians, that king Alfred and profperity of the kingdom. firſt ſettled a national militia in this kingdom, and by his pru- When the nation was engaged in a war, more veteran troops dent diſcipline made all the ſubjects of his dominion ſoldiers : and more regular diſcipline were eſteemed to be neceffary, than but we are unfortunately left in the dark as to the particulars of could be expected from a mere militia; and therefore at ſuch this his ſo celebrated regulation; though, from what was laſt times more rigorous methods were put in uſe for the raiſing of obſerved, the dukes ſeem to have been left in poſſeſſion of too armies and the due regulation and diſcipline of the foldiery; large and independent a power; which enabled duke Harold, on which are to be looked upon only as temporary excreſcences bred the death of Edward the confeſſor, though a ſtranger to the out of the diſtemper of theítate, and not as any part of the perman- royal-blood, to mount for a ſhort ſpace the throne of this king ent and perpetual laws of the kingdom. For martial law, which dom, in prejudice of Edgar Atheling the rightful heir. is built upon no ſettled principles, but is entirely arbitrary in Upon the Norman conqueft, the feodal law was introduced its deciſions, is, as Sir Matthew Hale obſerves, in truth and here in all its rigour, the whole of which is built on a military reality no law, but ſomething indulged rather than allowed as plan. In conſequence thereof, all the lands in the kingdom a law. The neceſſity of order and diſcipline in an army is the were divided into what were called knights fees, in number only thing which can give it countenance; and therefore it above 60,000 ; and for every knights fee a knight or foldier, ought not to be permitted in time of peace, when the king's courts miles, was bound to attend the king in his wars, for 40 days in a are open for all perſons to receive juſtice according to the laws year: in which ſpace of time, before war was reduced to a ſci of the land. Wherefore, Thomas Earl of Lancailer being con- ence, the campaign was generally finiſhed, and a kingdom either ducted at Pontefract, 15. Edw. II. by martial law, his attainder conquered or victoricus. By this means, the king had, without was reverſed 1 Edw. III. becauſe it was done in time of peace. any expence, an army of 60,000 inen always ready at his com And it is laid down, that if a lieutenant, or other, that hath mand. And accordingly we find one, anong the laws of William comiſſion of martial authority, doch in time of peace, hang or the conqueror, which in the king's name commands and firmly othe wife execute any man by colour of martial law, chis is mur- enjoins the perſonal attendance of all knights and others. This der: for it is againſt magna charta. And the petition of right perſonal ſervice in proceſs of time degenerated into pecuniary enacts, that no foldier ſhall be quartered on the ſubiect with- commutations or aids; and at laſt the military part of the feodal out his own conſent; and that 110 commiſſion thallifluie to proceed fyftem was aboliſhed at the Reſtoration, by ſtatute 12 Car. II.c.24. within this land according to martial law. And whereas, after In the mean time we are not to imagine that the kingdom was the Restoration, king Ch. 11. kept up about 5coo regular:rcops, left wholly without defence in caſe of domeſtic inſurrections, or by his own authority, for guards and garriſons; which king the proſpect of foreign invaſions. Beſides thoſe who by their mi James II. by degrees increaſed to no leſs ihan 30,coo, all paid litary tenures were bound to perform 40 days ſervice in the field, from his own civillit; it was made one of the articles of the firft the aſtfe of arms, enaced 27 Hen. iſ, and afterwards the bill of rights, that the raiſing er keeping a ſtanding army within ſtatute of Wincheſter, under Edward I. obliged every man, ac the kingdom in time of peace, unleſs it be with conſent of par- cording to his eſtate and degree, to provide a determinate quantity liaineni, is againſt law. of ſuch arms as were ihen in uſe, in order to keep the peace; and But as the falhion of keeping itanding armies (which was firft contables were appointed in all hundreds by the latter itatute, introduced by Charles VII. in France, 1445,) has of late to ſee that ſuch arios were provided. Theſe weapons were changed, verſally prevailed over Europe, (though lome of its potentates, by the flatute 4 and 5 Ph.and M. c.2. into others of more modern being unable themſelves to maintain them, are obliged to have re- ſervice; but both this and the former proviſions were repealed courſe to richer powers, and receive ſubſidiary penſions for that in the reign of James I. While theſe continued in force, it was purpoſe), it has alſo for many years paſ been annually judged ne- jafual from time to time for our princes to iſſue commiſſions of celiary by our legiſlature, for the ſafety of the kingdom, the defence N: 109. Vol. II. * 7Y of years uni- MILITARY AFFAIRS. This re- of the poſſeſſions of the crown of Great Britain, and the preſerva- | (like eunuchs in the eaſtern ſeraglios) to live in a flate of per- tion of the balance of power in Europe, to maintain even in time petual envy and hatred towards the reſt of the community, and of peace a ſtanding body of troops, under the command of the indulge a malignant pleaſure in contributing to deſtroy thoſe crown; who are however ipſo facto diſbanded at the expiration privileges to which they never can be admitted. Hence have of every year, unleſs continued by parliament. And it was many free ſtates, by departing from this rule, been endangered enacted by ſtatute 10 W. III. c. 1. that not more than 12,000 re by the revolt of their ſlaves: while, in abſolute and deſpotic gular forces ſhould be kept on foot in Ireland, though paid at governments, where no real liberty exifts, and conſequently no the charge of that kingdom: which permiflion is extended by invidious compariſons can be formed, ſuch incidents are ex- 8. ſtat. Geo. III. c. 13. to 16,235 men in time of peace. tremely rare. Two precautions are therefore adviſed to be ob- To prevent the executive power from being able to oppreſs, ſerved in all prudent and free governments : 1. To prevent the ſays baron Monteſquieu, it is requiſite that the armies with which introduction of ſlavery at all: or, 2. If it be already introduced, it is entruſted ſhould conſiſt of the people, and have the ſame not to entruſt thoſe ſlaves with arms; who will then find them. ſpirit with the people; as was the caſe at Rome, till Marius new ſelves an overmatch for the freemen. Much leſs ought the modelled the legions by enlifting the rabble of Italy, and laid the ſoldiery to be an exception to the people in general, and the foundation of all the military tyranny that enſued. Nothing only ſtate of ſervitude in the nation. then, according to theſe principles, ought to be more guarded But as ſoldiers, by this annual act, are thus put in a worſe againſt in a free ſtate, than making the military power, when ſuch condition than any other ſubjects; ſo, by the humanity of our a one is neceſſary to be kept on foot, a body too diſtin&t from ſtanding laws, they are in ſome caſes put in a much better. By the people. Like ours, therefore, it ſhould wholly be compoſed ſtatute 43 Eliz. c. 3. a weekly allowance is to be raiſed in every of natural ſubjects; it ought only to be enlifted for a ſhort and county for the relief of ſoldiers that are fick, hurt, and maimed; limited time; the ſoldiers alſo ſhould live intermixed with the not forgetting the royal hoſpital at Chelſea for ſuch as are worn people; no ſeparate camp, no barracks, no inland fortreſſes out in their duty. Officers and ſoldiers, that have been in the ſhould be allowed. And perhaps it might be ſtill better, if, by king's ſervice, are by ſeveral ſtatutes, enacted at the cloſe of diſmiſſing a ſtated number, and enlifting others at every renewal ſeveral wars, at liberty to uſe any trade or occupation they are of their term, a circulation could be kept up between the army fit for, in any town in the kingdom (except the two univerſities), and the people, and the citizen and the foldier be more intimately notwithſtanding any ſtatute, cuſtom, or charter to the contrary. connected together. And ſoldiers in actual military ſervice may make nuncupative To keep this body of troops in order, an annual act of parlia wills, and diſpoſe of their goods, wages, and other perſonal ment likewiſe palles, " to puniſh mutiny and deſertion, and for chattels, without thoſe forms, folemnities, and expences, which the better payment of the army and their quarters.' the law requires in other caſes. Our law does not indeed ex. gulates the manner in which they are to be diſperſed among the tend this privilege ſo far as the civil law, which carried it to an ſeveral inn-keepers and victuallers throughout the kingdom; and extreme that borders upon the ridiculous: for if a ſoldier, in the eſtabliſhes a law-martial for their government. By this, among article of death, wrote any thing in bloody letters on his ſhield, other things, it is enacted, that if any officer or ſoldier ſhall ex or in the duſt of the field with his ſword, it was a very good cite, or join any mutiny, or, knowing of it, ſhall not give notice military teſtament. to the commanding officer, or ſhall deſert, or lift in any other SECT. II. regiment, or ſleep upon his poft, or leave it before he is relieved, MILITARY DISCIPLINE, GENERAL AND PARTICULAR. or hold correſpondence with a rebel or enemy, or ſtrike or uſe Military diſcipline, generally conſidered, is the training of violence to his ſuperior officer, or ſhall diſobey his lawful com ſoldiers, and the due enforcement of the laws and regulations in- mands; ſuch offender ſhall ſuffer fuch puniſhment as a court ftituted by authority for their conduct. Next to the forming of martial ſhall inflict, though it extend to death itſelf. troops, military diſcipline is the firſt object that preſents itſelf However expedient the moſt ftrict regulations may be in time to our notice: it is the ſoul of all armies; and unleſs it be eſta- of actual war, yet, in times of profound peace, a little relaxation bliſhed amongſt them with great prudence, and ſupported with of military rigour would not, one ſhould hope, be productive of unſhaken reſolution, they are no better than ſo many contempt- much inconvenience. And, upon this principle, though by our ible heaps of rabble, which are more dangerous to the very ftate ſtanding laws (ſtill remaining in force, though not attended to) that maintains them, than even its declared enemies. deſertion in time of war is made felony without benefit of clergy, Though the general principles of the art of war be the ſame in and the offence is triable by a jury and before the judges of the all ages and countries, yet in the particular modes various changes common law; yet, by our milita laws before-mentioned, a much are effected by the flux of time, and by the improvements that lighter puniſhment is inflicted for deſertion in time of peace. So, are made, and the arts that are invented, in the courſe of it. Con- by the Roman law alſo, deſertion in time of war was puniſhed queſt is no longer eſtabliſhed on the ſame baſis, and the ſuperio- with death, but more mildly in time of tranquility. But our rity of troops is no longer founded on the ſame principles as they mutiny-act makes no ſuch diſtinction; forany of the faults above have been. The event of a battle depends much leſs at preſent mentioned are, equally at all times, punishable with death itſelf, on the perſonal ſtrength and proweſs of individuals, than it did if a court-martial ſhall think proper. This diſcretionary power in the days of our forefathers; and the ſuperiority of one nation of the court-martial is indeed to be guided by the directions of over another in thoſe particulars is no longer of the ſame im- the crown; which, with regard to military offences, has almoſt portance. No great degree of perſonal ſtrength is required for an abſolute legiſlative power. “His Majeſty (ſays the act) may the preſent method of fighting; and, as for courage, it has been form articles of war, and conſtitute courts-martial, with power found to conſiſt more in diſcipline, than in any particular con- to try any crime by ſuch articles, and inflict ſuch penalties as ſtitution either of mind or body. Diſcipline improves the the articles direct. A vaſt and moſt important truſt! an un courage men have derived from nature, and by inſpiring them limited power to create crimes, and annex to them any puniſh with a confidence in themſelves, and in each other, excites an ments not extending to life or limb! Theſe are indeed forbid- artificial courage where the natural one is deficient. It is diſ- den to be infli&ted, except for crimes declared to be ſo puniſh cipline that creates and preſerves that principle of union, which able by this act; which crimes we have juſt enumerated, and a guides and directs to an uniform end thouſands of perſons en- mong which, we may obſerve, that any diſobedience to lawful dowed with different and even oppoſite talents, and urged on by commands is one. Perhaps in ſome future reviſion of this act, various intereſts, wiſhes and inclinations. which is in many reſpects haſtily penned, it may be thought wor By the force of diſcipline men are kept in order and obedience thy the wiſdom of parliament to aſcertain the limits of military to command, in oppoſition to the ſtrongeſt immediate impulſe of fubjection, and to enact expreſs articles of war for the government their paſſions. When troops are ſaid to be routed, nothing more of the army, as is done for the government of the navy: eſpeci is meant, than that they are put into confuſion, or that order, ſu- ally as, by our preſent conſtitution, the nobility and gentry of the bordination and obedience to command are fled; in which caſe kingdom, who ſerve their country as militia officers, are annually every man conſults his own perſonal ſafety, at the inſtigation of ſubjected to the fame arbitrary rule during their time of exerciſe. the predominant paſſion, fear, or the deſire of ſelf-preſervation. One of the greateſt advantages of our law is, that not only the Now thoſe troops that are the beſt diſciplined will retain the crimes themſelves which it puniſhes, but alſo the penalties which longeſt due order and obedience: therefore, the beſt diſciplined it infli&ts, are aſcertained and notorious; nothing is left. to arbi troops are with the moſt difficulty put into confuſion; or, in trary diſcretion: the king by his judges diſpenſes what the law other words, are the leaſt liable to be conquered. has previouſly ordained; but is not himſelf the legiſlator. How But to illuſtrate the advantages of diſcipline is required neither much therefore is it to be regretted, that a ſet of men, whoſe logical proof, nor mathematical demonftration; its neceſſity hav- bravery has ſo often preſerved the liberties of their country, | ing been eſtabliſhed by the moſt convincing, if not the ſureft, ſhould be reduced to a ſtate of fervitude in the midſt of a nation of all teſts, that of experience: and this ſubject has been ſo co- of freemen! for Sir Edward Coke will inform us, that it is one piouſly treated by numbers of military authors, that it is needleſs of the genuine marks of ſervitude, to have the law, which is our to expatiate any further on it here; and indeed it would be dif- rule of action, either concealed or precarious; Miſera eft fervitus ficult to produce any new matter on ſo threadbare a topic. ubi jus eft vagum aut incognitum. Nor is this ſtate of ſervitude It ſhall not then be our buſineſs to hold forth the uſe and necef- quite conſiſtent with the maxims of found policy obſerved by | fity of diſcipline, but to explain what that diſcipline conſiſts in, other free nations. For the greater the general liberty is which | through its ſeveral branches. any ftare enjoys, the more cautious has it uſually been in intro Before we proceed any further, it will be neceſſary to premiſe, ducing ſlavery in any particular order or profeſſion. Theſe men, that though ſome parts of our ſubject may appear trifling, yet, per- as baron Monteſquieu obſerves, ſeeing the liberty which others haps they are ſo only in appearance, and may poſlibly be of more poffefs, and which they themſelves are excluded from, are apt importance than our readers may imagine; that even the minutia of MILITARY AFFAIRS. of diſcip’ine are not beneath the notice of any military man; for | weight of offenſive arms, and difference of training. Formerly it has been a general remark, that as thoſe regiments, which have the heavy cavalry were completely provided with defenſive arms; made the beſt figure on the parade, have, when taken upon fer at preſent none are uſed but the helmet, and that not muſket- vice, diſtinguiſhed themſelves the moſt againſt the enemy; fo proof, worn by tlie dragoons. In time of war, indeed, the that thoſe officers, who have in their riper years turned out to heavy-mounted have of late been furniſhed with ſkull caps and be the ableft generals, have, when young in the ſervice, been breaſt plates: and their uſe in battle may be readily conceived the moſt remarkable for their attention to every point of diſ from a computation made by the King of Pruſſia, that in one cipline, to the minute and trifling, as well as to the greater and action laſt war above 6oo horſemen's lives were ſaved by the more important parts of their duty. cuiraſs, or breaft-plate. Thoſe worn by the French cavalry are By military diſcipline, in a particular ſenſe, we are to under proof only againit a piſtol bullet. ſtand the mechanical part of the buſineſs of war; which is the The bulk of our modern armies is compoſed, as was the caſe only one that can be reduced to fixed and preciſe rules. Some among the ancients, of infantry. In that dreary and barbarous times the word, diſcipline, bears the confined fignification of interval between the decay of the military ſcience, which took regimen; or the principles, laws, and method of government; place with the ſubverſion of the Roman empire, and its modern thus, when we ſay, ſuch troops are kept under ſtrict diſcipline, revival, which happened about the ſame time with that of arts we mean, that the laws, by which they are governed, are ſevere: and letters, an army was judged to be ſtrong and formidable, in but here it is to be taken in its utmoſt latitude. proportion as it abounded with cavalry; and this branch, from In this ſenſe, we conſider military diſcipline as divided into the ſuperiority of its inſtitution, the repute in which it was held, three diſtinct branches, which alſo admit of their ſeveral ſub and the rank of the perſons who compoſed it, challenged a pre- diviſions. The firſt is, the formation, training and exerciſing cedency beyond the other, which it is now by no means entitled of troops, or teaching them how to array themſelves, the manage. to. The Engliſh, indeed, who during theſe ages were ſuperior ment of their arms, their movements or evolutions, and the to moſt, if not to all the other European nations in their mili- practice of every thing that may be executed in the field: the tary inftitution, always had in their armies a conſiderable body fecond we take to be the ordinary duties and routine of the ſer of infantry; (for moſt of the archers ſerved on foot, though a vice, as the manner of mounting guards in camp and garriſon, great part of them were mounted) and this perhaps was a prin- going rounds, paying honours, performing ceremonies, &c. cipal cauſe of thoſe fplendid victories, which our Edwards and which is intimately connected with the firſt part, and founded Henrys obtained with ſmall bodies over much greater numbers principally upon it: the third part of diſcipline conſiſts in the of the enemy. Among the French not a ſingle foot ſoldier was laws and inſtitutions of war, which are, firſt, the act of parlia to be ſeen; and their armies confifted entirely of horſe, for the ment for the government of the army; then the articles of war ſpace of ſeveral centuries, excepting fome mercenary foot, framed by his Majeſty, as well as other regulations eſtabliſhed bired of foreigners, and particularly of their neighbours, the by him; and laſtly, the unwritten law, or cuſtom of war, and Swiſs cantons. Infantry was no leſs neglected among the comprehends every thing that relates to rights of perſons, ad Spaniards, as we are informed from a circumſtance which at miniſtration of juſtice, &c. The ſame connexion ſubfifts be the ſame time gives us the derivation of the name. The army tween this and the ſecond part of diſcipline, as between the ſe of a Spaniſh monarch, which confifted entirely of cavalry, hava cond and the firſt. Of theſe parts, the firſt is defined by the ing been routed by the Moors, and being cloſely purſued by the expreſſion of Military Arrangement, the two others by that of enemy, the Infanta ſuddenly raiſed a body of men, whom ſhe Diſcipline of War. armed, as well as ſhe could, and marched with all expedition SECT. III. to the ſuccour of her father. The Mooriſh cavalry purſuing the MILITARY ARRANGEMENT AND INSTITUTIONS. Spaniards, in ſome diſorder, the Infanta with her levies met them in a cloſe country, engaged, and gave them a complete An army is to be conſidered as it is formed of different arms, overthrow. Footmen were then ſo unuſual among the Spani- or kinds of troops, or as it is reſolved into its component parts. ards, that they had no name for them: Hence, on that occaſion, As to the different kinds or ſpecies of troops, they are either they called them Infanteria, in honour of the Infanta; which cavalry, dragoons or infantry; beſides the corps appointed to name was perpetuated, and adopted by the other European the ſervice of the artillery. Infantry conſiſted formerly of pike armies. men and muſketeers; but ſince the invention of the bayonet, SECT. IV. pikes have been exploded throughout Europe. Of late years SUBORDINATION OF RANK. the inftitution of light-armed infantry has been revived, and a The firſt ſtep towards the eſtabliſhment of diſcipline, and the company in each regiment allotted to that ſervice. Again, when formation of the troops, is the appointment of officers to com- we conſider an army as reſolved into its conſtituent parts, it is mand them. And in this appointment of officers, the firſt prin- firft divided into wings; thoſe wings into brigades; and thoſe ciple is, that there be always one ſupreme and fole in command. brigades into regiments, or into ſquadrons and battalions. Therefore a regular gradation or chain of authority muſt be ob- It is worthy of obſervation, that in the moſt remote parts of ferved, from the commander in chief of an army down to the the world, and among nations, who have not had the ſmalleſt loweſt non-commiſſion officer of a company; the ſmalleſt intercourſe with each other, the ſame diviſions, or nearly the diſtinct body of which an army is compoſed. But excluſive of ſame, have been adopted in their reſpective armies; at leaſt this ſubordinate chain, there are branches which take different among ſuch as have arrived to any degree of proficiency in the directions, and which terminate in themſelves; though they de- art of war. Experience, which is productive of the ſame effects rive their origin from the ſame general head. Such are the of- in all countries, and which dietates the ſame precepts in all ficers who are called of the ſtaff; they have peculiar depart- quarters of the globe, has pointed out to different people the ments, and are ſubject only to the authority of the commander neceſlity of forming their troops into ſmall diſtinct bodies; the of that body to which they are appendages; or to his ſuperiors. cavalry into ſquadrons, conſiſting of from 100 to 200 men, and Thus the adjutant-general is immediately fubfervient to the the infantry into battalions, of from 500 to 1000. The preſent commander in chief; a major of brigade to his brigadier, and an eſtabliſhment of battalions, which prevails among the European adjutant to the commanding officer of his battalion. powers, is generally of about 600 or 700 men; which have been It muſt be obſerved, that, by the ſyſtem of ſubordinate repre- found as many as can be maneuvered together with eaſe and ſentation, the power and prerogative of the higheſt officer de- ſafety before an enemy. ſcends in his abſence to the next in degree; thus, while an The ſervice of the dragoons, on its firſt inſtitution, was a kind officer remains, no corps can be without its commander. For of medium between that of the cavalry and the infantry. They inſtance, if the colonel and lieutenant colonel of a regiment are were then muſketeers mounted on horſeback, more for the ſake not preſent, the major ſucceeds to the authority of command- of expedition, than for fighting or charging an enemy: when ant; and, in that caſe, the ſame obedience is due to him as to they had occaſion to fight, they generally diſmounted. But now the colonel. This points out the method by which we ſhall con. in moſt ſervices in Europe, and particularly in the Britiſh, the ſider the rank and duties of the different officers. dragoons are nothing inferior to the cavalry, but being fill The officers, by which an army, conſidered as an aggregate trained to the exerciſe of the foot, they are capable of ſerving body, is commanded, are the CAPTAIN GENERAL, or com- alike on foot as on horſeback. mander in chief, and the other GENERAL and STAFF OF- The inſtitution of dragoons we derived from the French, among whom it was deviſed by Marſhal Briſac. Whence they Ageneral appointed to command an army, has, for the moſt part, took their name does not appear fo clearly, various accounts be a commiſlion of commander in chief: and the extent of his autho- ing given. rity mult depend on the powers with which he is inveſted by that Since dragoons have been put on the footing of cavalry, a very commillion. Some years back there were field-marſhals, but at ſmall number of the latter have been kept up in our ſervice; preſent there are none of that denomination among the Britiſh there being at preſent only five regiments of cavalry, properly troops. The rank of commander in chief, or captain-general is ſo called, on the Britiſh and Iriſh eſtabliſhments; beſides the commonly ſuppoſed to correſpond to the degree of field-marſhal four troops of horſe, and horſe-grenadier guards. We have in the French ſervice; yet there is this difference: the rank of a three regiments called Dragoon-guards; but this diſtinction is field-marſhal of France is permanent and general; whereas tha“ merely nominal; thoſe three regiments being exactly on the of an Engliſh commander in chief or captain-general is tempo- fame footing with the other regiments of dragoons: notwith rary and local: for a lieutenant or even a major general, has often ſtanding they claim precedence of them. in our ſervice the appointment of commander in chief. The Of the dragoons or cavalry, ſome regiments are light and power of filling up vacant commiſſions, and of iſſuing warrants others heavy; but this regards only the lize of men and horſes, for the aſſembling and holding of general courts martial, &c. is uſually FICERS. MILITARY AFFAIRS. arfually delegated by the king to the commanders in chief, whom which reaſon he muſt have a perfect knowledge of the exerciſe, he appoints, within their reſpective commands or diſtricts. On and of all the manoeuvres. {ervice abroad, the commanders in chief generally have the The ſtaff commiſion officers in a regiment are, the adjutant, privilege of ſigning the commiſſion; but in Great Britain and the quarter. maſter, the ſurgeon, and the chaplain. The non. Ireland, though they may nominate to vacancies, yet every thing commiſſion officers, who act upon the ſtaff, are the ſerjeant- is done in the king's name, and all commiſſions are ſigned by major, the quarter-maſter-ſerjeant, and the drum-major. Theſe his Majeſty. two lait, indeed, are not in general reckoned as part of the ſtaff: A proper number of GENERAL OFFICERS are appointed ac- yet, having peculiar duties of their own, they come under our cording to the ſtrength of the army. For this proportion no deſcription of ſtaff-officers. certain rules are eſtabliſhed. When the army is conſiderable, The ADJUTANT is to the commanding officer of a regiment the following may be conſidered as an adequate ſtaff, excluſive what an aid-de-camp is to a general, and a major of a brigade to of the commander in chief: a general for the horſe, and one for a brigadier. He likewiſe bears the ſame relation to a regiment the foot; or a general for each wing of the army: a major gene as an adjutant-general does to an army. ral for every two brigades; and about half that number of lieu- The QUARTER-MASTER is the next ſtaff officer to the adju- tenant generals. Notwithitanding the diſtinct appellations of tant. His employment is rather of a civil than a military nature, general, lieutenant, and major general, their duties are much the he having nothing to do with the diſcipline of the regiment. fame. Thoſe terms ferve to little other purpoſe, but to denote The name itſelf of quarter-maſter is expreſſive of his principal the ſucceſſive gradations of rank. duty, viz. the care of providing and inſpecting the quarters of At a fiege, a general officer is appointed to the command of the regiment. each attack. On the day of march, each column of the army The SURGEON is another commiſſion officer on the ftaff of a has its own general officer to lead and command it. Theſe du- regiment, and ſhould not only be well ſkilled in the branch of ties are done by ſeniority. furgery, but ſhould alſo be a good phyſician and apothecary, be- Beſides the general officers and their aid-de-camps, there are ing obliged to act in thoſe three capacities towards the fick and other officers upon the ſtaff; who are properly called STAFF wounded. He is allowed a mate to aſſiſt him, who has no com- OFFICERS of the army. Of theſe the principal are, the AD miſſion, but acts by virtue of a warrant from the colonel. Before JUTANT, and QUARTER-MASTER GENERAL. I any perſon can be appointed ſurgeon or mate to a regiment, he The adjutant-general is the officer who manages, in conjunc muſt paſs an examination for each degree before the board of tion with the majors of brigade, the whole detail of the army. ſurgeons. He is always an attendant upon the general's perſon, and muſt The next and laſt commiſſion officer on the ſtaff is the CHAP- reſide at or near the head-quarters. This poft of adjutant-gene LAIN; the nature of whoſe office is too well known to require ral confers no rank on the perſon who holds it; but as it re any explanation. He is generally allowed, when he thinks pro- quires experience, no leſs than activity, it is in a large army per, to act by deputy. uſually occupied by a general officer. Having taken a ſummary view of the rank and duties of the The office of QUARTER-MASTER-GENERAL relates, as the officers properly belonging to an army, a brigade, and a regi- name itſelf implies, to the diſtribution of quarters for the army. ment or battalion, we come to the conſideration of thoſe be- When the army is to encamp, he goes, on the day before, with the longing to a company; the ſmallest independent body of which major-general of the day, to chuſe the ground for the encampment. an army is compoſed." The adjutant-general is provided with a deputy, who is alſo an The CAPTAIN is to his own company what the colonel is to officer of the army, to aſſiſt him in the execution of his duty. the whole regiment. He has the entire charge and command of The quarter-maſter-general likewiſe has a deputy, beſides a cer it in every particular that regards its diſcipline and æconomy. tain number of aſſiſtants. Theſe are the principal ſtaff-officers. A captain's uſual command on guard, picquet, or detachment, A BRIGADIER, or as he is commonly ſtyled BRIGADIER is from 50 to 100 men; and he has always at leaſt two ſubalterns GENERAL, is the commanding officer of a brigade ; and his along with him: with 100 men he has three fubalterns. rank, like that of a captain-general, is temporary and local. The commiſſion-officers in a company, fubordinate to the cap- Each brigadier has an officer, called MAJOR OF BRIGADE, tain, are, the LIEUTENANTS and ENSIGNS; who are com- who ſerves him both in quality of adjutant and aid-de-camp: monly called the SUBALTERN OFFICERS. Theſe, though but as a brigadier is a general officer only in his own brigade, he their rank is not the fame, yet, for the moſt part, roll in duiy to- cannot iſſue his orders, or extend his authority, any farther. gether without diſtinction. Their ordinary duties are, in garri- The general officers always appoint their own aid-de-camps; Ion, guards, detachments, courts-martial, viſiting the hoſpital but the majors of brigade are not always appointed by their own and barracks: in camp, guards, detachments, out-poſts, picquets, brigadiers. Sometimes they are nominated by his Majeſty, or courts-martial, fatigues or working parties, and orderly duties. the perſon who repreſents him; in which caſe they have com No officer can change his duty with another, unleſs by permiſ- miſlions. When appointed by the brigadiers, they are generally fion of the commanding officer, chofen among the captains or ſubalterns of the brigade. As the The non commiilion officers of a company are the ser- adjutants of regiments are often fubaltern officers, the poſt of JEANTS and CORPORALS; and upon a proper choice of theſe brigade-major ſhould always be given to ſome officer of a officers, the diſcipline of tlie company, and conſequently that higher rank: it has frequently been the maxim to confer this of the corps, principaliy depends. For it is more immediately office on the oldeſt captain in the brigade. their buſineſs, than that of the commiſſion officers, to inftruét The officers of a regiment or battalion are the field and ſtaff and form the ſoldiers; and from their continual intercourſe officers; they correſpond to the general and ſtaff officers of an ar with them they have it in their power to attend to matters my. And firſt of the FIELD OFFICERS, who are in general three, which cannot lo well come under the notice of the others. viz. a COLONEL, A LIEUTENANT-COLONEL, and a MAJOR. The ferjeants being the nerves and finews of the corps, a The power of the colonel was formerly much more extenſive commanding officer muft, in promoting private ſoldiers to the than it is at preſent. As they generally raiſed their own regi- kno-, have principally in view the training up and forming of ments, they had the abſolute diſpoſal of the commiſſions; and if proper characters for the halbert. Any active young ſoldier, they had not authority to break their officers without trial, they who has already perfečted himſelf in the exerciſe, and has ſome had at leaſt that to ſuſpend them at diſcretion. They have ſtill general knowledge of his duty as a private ſoldier, with an emu- the power, when preſent with their regiments, of appointing the lous ambition of improvement, may be fit to do the duty of non-commiſſion officers, and of reducing them without a court corporal : but to make a good ſerjeant, requires various quali- martial: but all that remains of their former authority to fill up fications, and good natural and acquired abilities. A ſerjeant the vacant commiſſions, is that of examining, and either approving ſhould not only be perfe&tly expert himſelf in the exerciſe of or rejećing ſuch gentlemen as wiſh to purchaſe into the corps. the firelock and halbert, and in all the parade and field duties; The cloathing and accoutrements of the regiment are provided but ihould likewiſe be able to inflru&t others : and he will be by the colone! from the ſtoppages made for that purpoſe; and not only required to inform his inferiors alone, but ſometimes he has the ſole power of fixing and altering the uniform, in his ſuperiors likewiſe. He muſt underſtand writing and ac- conformity to the King's regulations. A colonel's command counts, and muſt be well informed of the whole routine of the is from 600 to :000 men or upwards. But it is to be remarked, ſervice and the cuſtoms of the army: that a colonel, as well as all other officers of whatſoever rank, Since it requires ſuch length of time and experience to qua- cannot refuſe to march with any number of men, however ſmall, | lify a ſoldier to do the duty of ſerjeant, it follows that none but when the ſervice requires it. young men ſhould be made corporals. Should the oldeſt ſol- The LIEUTENANT-COLONEL is ſimply the locum tenens of diers in each company be promoted to the knot, they might be the colonel, commanding the regiment in the abſence of the lat fuperannuated, or at leaſt unfit for active ſervice, by the time ter. There are nevertheleſs ſome branches of the colonel's pre they became candidates for the halbert. rogative, which are peculiar to himſelf, whether abſent or pre- fent with his corps, and which the lieutenant-colonel does not NEW MANUAL AND PLATOON EXERCISE. partake of. A lieutenants-colonel's command may conſiſt of SECT. V. from 300 to 600 men, or upwards. In order to render this Treatiſe as complete as poſſible, we The third and laſt field-officer of a regiment is the MAJOR. have preſented our readers with a deſcription of the manual When the colonel and lieutenant-colonel are both abſent, he exerciſe as practiſed in the year 1794, and now continued, and becomes the commanding officer; and, in that caſe, the oldeſt have introduced two new Plates in order to illuſtrate each mo- captain uſually does his duty. The duties of the major are of tion; and as figures have never before been delineated to re- great number and variety; but the firſt and principal one is to preſent the motions, it is preſumed they will be conſidered as exerciſe the regiment under the inſpection of the colonel; for a valuable appendage to the new edition of this work, MILITARY AFFAIRS. 2. A prodigious alteration has of late years been introduced in a low diagonal recover, as in the figure; the lock turned to the the manual exerciſe, correſponding to the preſent mode of draw front as high as the breaſt, the muzzle flanting upwards, the ing up the battalion. The motions of the old exerciſe were ſo butt proportionably depreſſed. The right hand to graſp the wide, that it required double the interval now allowed between ſmall of the butt, the left hand holding the piece at the ſwell, each file to perform them in; whence it was neceſſary to open the thumbs of both hands pointing to the muzzle. 2. Make a the files, as well as the ranks, for the performance of the ma- half face to the right. Bring down the firelock to nearly an nual , and to cloſe them again when it was over, for the firings: horizontal poſition, the muzzle a little raiſed, the right hand ſo that the opening and cloſing of the files made half the bufi- | reſting on the thigh juſt below the hip. neſs of a field day: whereas, now, the ſame order ſerves for every (VII.) SHOULDER ARMS. Two Motions. different operation. Beſides the avoiding of this inconvenience 1. Face to the front and throw up the piece to the ſhoulder and delay, the new exerciſe has this further advantage over the by an active turn of the wriſt, inſtantly graſping the butt with old, that its motions are leſs complicated, and more eaſily com the left hand. 2. Quit the firelock briſkly with the right hand, paſſed by a recruit. For theſe improvements in the manual we bringing it to its proper poſition by the fide, are indebted to the Pruſſians, from whom they have been either N. B. The firſt motion of the charge is that which a batta- copied, or imitated, by the troops of almoſt every power in Europe. | lion will come to after firing; and when an attack is to be At the ſame time that the motions have been contracted, a con made with bayonets, at the word charge, the front rank is to fiderable change has likewiſe been effected in the time. The come to the ſecond poſition within a few yards of the enemy. Britiſh foot have lately adopted a ſlow time, as they now count Sentries will alſo come to the firſt motion of charge, when one, two, three, between each motion, which alteration is con- challenging any perſon who approaches their poſt. ſidered as a material improvement. A quick motion certainly SUPPORT ARMs. Three Motions. diminiſhes much the grace and beauty of the exerciſe, without the 1. Seize the ſmall of the butt with the right hand. 2. Bring compenſation of any ſolid advantage: for it does not appear the left arm acroſs the body under the lock. 3. Bring the that a battalion can fire oftener in the ſame ſpace of time, ſince right hand quickly down by the ſide. the quick method has taken place, than before. Beſides, it may N. B. The firſt and ſecond motions are to be thrown into be doubted, whether ſteadineſs be not of greater advantage in one in carrying arms, and the motions are reverſed. action than quick firing. At any rate it muſt be allowed, that TIME. the German troops in general fire as well and as quick as any In the manual three ſeconds of time is given between each troops in Europe; and yet they ſtill adhere to the flow method | motion, except in fixing bayonets, in which a longer time is of performing the manual. given. POSITION OF THE SOLDIER UNDER ARMS. Corporals marching with reliefs, or commanding detacha Nothing is more eſſential than an equal ſquareneſs of body; ments, will carry their arms advanced. PLATOON EXERCISE. the heels in a line and cloſe; the knees in a line, without ftiffneſs, the toes turned out, the arms hanging ſtrait by the OF THE DIFFERENT MOTIONS TAUGHT AT DRILL. body, the thumbs as far back as the ſeams of the breeches, and (I.) PRIME AND LOAD. the little fingers touching the thighs. The elbows and ſhoulders 1. Bring the firelock in one briſk motion to the priming po. are to be kept back, the belly rather drawn in, and the breaſt ſition, the thumb of the right hand againſt the hammer or ſteel, advanced, but without conſtraint. The body ſhould be the fingers clinched, the elbows a little turned out, ſo that the up- wriſt may be clear of the cock. Throw right, but inclining a little forward, ſo that the weight of it the open pan by a bear chiefly on the forepart of the feet. The head to be may ſtrong motion of the thumb, the piece kept ſteady in the left hand. erect, and neither turned to the right or left. The eyes alone (II.) HANDLE CARTRIDGE. to be glanced to the right. The body of the ſoldier being in this poſition, the firelock 1. Bring the hand round to the pouch and draw out the is to be placed in his left hand, againſt the ſhoulder, his wriſt cartridge. 2. Bring it to the mouth, holding it between the to be a little turned out, the thumb alone to appear in front, fore finger and the thumb and bite off the top of it. the fore-finger to be under the butt, the left elbow cloſe to the (III.) PRIME. body, in exact uniformity with the right elbow. The firelock 1. Shake ſome powder in the pan. 2. Shut the with pan muſt reft full on the hand, (not on the tops of the fingers as was the three laſt fingers. 3. Seize the ſmall of the butt with the the cuſtom formerly), the ſhoulder ſquare. The butt a little laſt three fingers. forward, and as low as the arm will admit without conſtraint, (IV.) Load. with the wriſt preſſed againſt the thigh. The piece muſt be 1. Face to the left on both heels, the right toe pointing kept ſteady and firm before the hollow of the ſhoulder; the directly to the front, the body half faced to the left. Bring body firm, erect, and ſquare. the firelock to the left ſide, ſloping under the arm, within two inches of the ground, the butt nearly oppoſite the left heel, the WORDS OF COMMAND. right hand at the ſame time catching the piece to ſteady it. (I.) ORDER ARMS. Three Motions. 2. Shake the powder into the barrel, putting in after it the 1. Bring the firelock to the trail in two motions, ſeizing it powder and ball. 3. Seize the top of the ramrod with the firſt at the ſwell. 2. Bring it down to the right ſide, two fore finger and thumb. inches from the ground. 3. Drop the butt to the ground, and (V.) DRAW RAM ROD. bring the hand ſmart and flat on the fling. The muzzle againſt 1. Force the ramrod half way out and ſeize it backhanded, the hollow of the right ſhoulder, exactly in the middle. 2. Draw it out and turn it with the (II.) Fix BAYONET. fingers, the arm extended, and put it one inch into the At the word fix, change the thumb quick behind the barrel, barrel. ſeize the piece as ſoon as the word of command is fully ex- (VI.) RAM DOWN CARTRIDGE. preſſed; puſh the muzzle a little forward, keeping the back of 1. Puſh the ramrod down, holding it full handed in the mid- the hand to the front as repreſented in the figure, and draw dle till the hand touches the muzzle. 2. Slip the fore finger out the bayonet with the left hand and fix it with the ut and thumb to the upper end, without letting the ramrod fall to moſt celerity, ſtanding ſteady at the order as above. the bottom of the barrel. 3. Puſh the cartridge well down the (III.) SHOULDER. bottom. 4. Strike two quick ſtrokes with the ramrod. At the word ſhoulder change the thumb as in fixing bayonets, (VII.) RETURN RAMRODS. and at the laſt word arms, throw the piece ſmart to the ſhoulder 1. Draw the ram-rod half out, catching it back handed. at one motion, ſteadying it with the right hand. The right 2. Draw it out, turning it briſkly from you, the arm extended. hand not to be raiſed above the belly, but inſtantly quitted Return it to the loops. Come ſquare to the front with the and brought down by the fide. mm butt two inches off the ground. (IV.) PRESENT ARMS. Three Motions. (VIII.) SHOULDER ARMS. 1. Seize the piece with the right hand under the guard, Strike the top of the muzzle ſmartly with the right hand in turning the lock to the front, but without moving the piece order to fix the ram-rod and bayonet more firmly, at the ſame from the ſhoulder. 2. Bring it to the poiſe, meeting the piece time throw it nimbly up to the ſhoulder at one motion. ſmart with the left hand, the fingers extended along the ſling, N. B. In quick firing in platoons the motions are to be done the wriſt upon the guard, and the point of the left thumb the regular but quick, without waiting for time, except at the height of the eyes. 3. Bring down the firelock with a quick caſting about and coming to the ſhoulder. motion as low as the right hand will admit without conſtraint, PLATO ON FIRING. flipping back the right foot at the ſame inſtant one inch. The ( (I.) PLATOON, READY. firelock to be totally ſupported with the left hand, and the Spring the firelock to the recover, and inſtantly cock. fingers of the right hand ſtrait under the guard. The body to (II.) PRESENT. reſt entirely on the left foot, and both the knees to be ſtrait. Slip the left hand along the ſling as far as the ſwell, and bring (V.) SHOULDER ARMs. Two Motions.. the piece to the preſent, ſtepping back fix inches to the rear 1. By an active turn of the right wriſt bring the fire with the right foot. lock to its proper poſition on the ſhoulder, the left hand graſp- (III.) FIRE. ing the butt. -2. Quit the right hand and bring it briſkly down Pull ſtrong with the middle finger of the right hand. After by the ſide. firing drop the piece to the priming poſition, and proceed (VI.) CHARGE BAYONET. Two Motions. quick through the different motions, as directed above in 1. Bring the firelock at one motion ſmart acroſs the body to priming and loading. N: 109. VOL. II. *7 Z EXPLA- MILITARY AFFAIRS, be held EXPLANATION OF THE POSITION OF EACH RANK | keeping his own proper front, and gives the time for caſting about and ſhouldering, after which he falls back again into his IN THE FIRING. (I.) FRONT RANK KNEELING, MAKE READY. proper place in the front rank. Spring the firelock briſkly up to the recover, catching it in The fugle-man of a battalion is alſo to keep his front in giving the time of exerciſe. the left hand, and without ſtooping, ſink down with a quick motion on the right knee, keeping the left foot faſt, the butt In firing by grand diviſions, the center officer falls back on end of the firelock at the ſame time falling upon the ground; the preparative into the fourth rank, and is replaced by the then cock with the fore finger and thumb of the right hand, covering ſerjeant. MAURICE HASTIE, holding the piece firm in the left hand, about the middle of Firſt Regiment of Life Guards. that part which is between the lock and ſwell of the ſtock. The point of the left thumb to be cloſe to the ſwell, and SECT. VI. FUSE E SALUTE. pointing upwards. Illuſtrated with Figures drawn from Life. Vide Plate IV. As the body is ſinking, the right knee to be thrown ſo far FUSEE ADVANCED. back that the left leg may be perpendicular, the right foot The firſt motion in the fuſee falute of the officers in the grana- thrown out a little to the right. The body to be kept ftraight, diers and light infantry, is to flip the right hand down the fuſee and the head as much up as if ſhouldered. The firelock muſt as far as can be done with eaſe, at the ſame inſtant placing the be upright, and the butt about four.inches to the right of the right foot behind the left heel. inſide of the left foot. The ſecond motion is to raiſe with the right hand the fuſee PRESENT. from the ground, and bringing it with a ſmart motion to the left Bring the firelock down firmly to the preſent, by ſliding the ſide of the body, ſeize it with the left at the cock, facing to the left hand along the fling to the ſwell of the piece, without let- ting the motion tell as formerly; the right hand at the ſame time right about on both heels at the ſame time. The third motion is to place the right foot in a line with the ſpringing up the butt ſo high as the ſhoulder, that the head left, and throw back the right hand to the right ſide, letting the may not be too much lowered in taking aim, the right cheek fuſee fall againſt the left ſhoulder in the left hand, at the ſame to be cloſe to the butt, the left eye ſhut, and look along the time graſping the cock. barrel with the right eye from the breech-pin to the muzzle, FUSEE RECOVERED. and remain ſteady. With the left hand bring up the fuſee to a perpendicular line; FIRE. at the ſame time quit it with the right hand, and ſeize it Pull the trigger ſtrong with the middle finger, and as ſoon again with the ſame hand at the ſmall part of the ſtock below the as fired, ſpring up nimbly on the left leg, keeping the body guard, and keep it in an erect poſition. and the left foot faſt, and bring the right heel to the FUSEE PLANTED. hollow of the left. At the ſame time drop the firelock to Firſt motion : Remove the left hand, bringing it down to the the priming poſition, the height of the waiſtband of the left fide, turn at the ſame inſtant to the front on both heels, with breeches. Half cock, handle cartridge, and go on with the an extended arm, and plant the butt of the fuſee on the ground loading motions as before deſcribed. and in a line parallel with the right ſide. (II.) CENTER RANK, MAKE READY. Second motion: Raiſe the left hand, and, with the palm open, Spring the firelock briſkly to the recover. As ſoon as the place it againſt the cap, as repreſented in the Plate. left hand ſeizes the piece above the lock, raiſe the right elbow When the general has paſſed, the left hand is to be brought a little, placing the right thumb upon the cock, with the fingers down, with an eaſy, graceful motion, from the cap to the left upon the plate of the lock, and then as quick as poſſible cock ſide, where it was placed at the laſt motion of the falute. the piece, by dropping the elbow, and forcing down the cock FUSE E TRAILED. with the thumb. Step at the ſame time a moderate pace with Firſt motion: Seize the fuſee near the ſwivel of the ſtock with the right foot to the right, and keep the left faft. Seize the the right hand. Second motion : Quit the fuſee with the left hand, and with the in this poſition, perpendicular, and oppoſite the left ſide of right hand bring it over to the right ſide, to the poſition of the face, the butt cloſe to the breaſt, but not preſled, the body trailing, as repreſented in the Plate. erect and full to the front. FUSE E SALUTE. PRESENT Firſt motion: In ſtepping with the right foot, dart with the As in the foregoing explanation for the front rank. right hand the muzzle of the fuſee forwards in a direct line, fo FIRE. as to bring it nearly on a level. Pull the trigger ſtrong with the middle finger, and as ſoon Second motion: At the next ſtep with the left foot, turn the as fired, bring the firelock to the priming polition, about the fuſee round about in ſuch a manner as to bring the muzzle flop- height of the ſtomach, go on as in the priming and loading ing upwards towards the rear, with the lock downwards ; at the directions, with this difference only, that the left foot is to be fame inſtant placing the left hand upon the ſmall part of the brought up to the right, at the ſame time that the firelock is ſtock behind the guard. brought to the priming poſition, and immediately after com Third motion: Salute with the fufee, at the next ſtep with ing to the ſhoulder, the men will ſpring to the left again and the right foot, by turning it round towards the front, ſo as to cover their file-leaders. incline the point of the bayonet towards the ground, with the (III.) REAR RANK, MAKE READY. lock of the fuſee upwards, and throwing back the left hand to Recover and cock (as before directed for the center rank,) the left ſide, as before directed. and as the firelock comes to the recover, ſtep briſkly to the Fourth motion: At the next, ſtep with the left foot, raiſe the right a full pace, at the ſame time placing the left about ſix left hand, and, with the palm open place it againſt the cap, as inches before the point of the right foot; the body kept erect directed in the fuſee planted. and ſquare to the front. When the general has paſſed about ten paces, bring the fuſee PRESENT. back again to the trailing poſition in two motions. The ſame as in explanation for the center rank. SECT. SECT. VII. SWORD SALUTE. FIRE. As in the explanation for the center rank, only in the prim- Illuſtrated with Figures drawn from Life. Vide Plate IV. SWORD SUPPORTED. ing poſition the piece is to be brought as high as the right Hold the belt of the ſword near the right hip in the right hand, breaſt. After firing and ſhouldering, the men will ſtep back as low down the right ſide as can be done with eaſe; bring the and cover their file-leaders as the center rank. flat of the blade acroſs the body upwards, the upper part graſped N. B. In firing with the front rank ſtanding, that rank will with the left hand, and held oppoſite to the left ſhoulder, with make ready, &c. as ſpecified in the article relative to Platoon the thumb running along the blade towards the point, as repre- Exerciſe. Where there are only two ranks, the front rank will ſented in the Plate. make ready the ſame as front rank ſtanding, and the rear rank SWORD ADVANCED. the ſame as in the directions for center rank. Raiſe the right foot, and plant it in a line with the left, at OFFICERS. the ſame time throwing back the left hand to the left ſide, In giving words of command, as well in as out of ranks, holding the hilt of the ſword firm in the right hand againſt the officers are to ſtand ſteady, and in their proper pofition, their outſide of the right thigh, the blade running up the right ſide, fwords held firmly in the full of the right hand, with the upper and reſting againſt the hollow of the right ſhoulder, as repre- part of the blade reſting againſt the ſhoulder, the right wriſt ſented in the Plate. againſt the hip, and the elbow drawn back. SWORD RECOVERED. FIRING BY PLATOONS. Let go the left hand, bringing it down to the left fide, raiſing The officers inſtead of giving the words Platoon, Make Ready, up at the fame time the right hand nearly as high as the right Preſent, Fire, are to pronounce the words ſhort, as for inſtance, ſhoulder, holding the ſword in a perpendicular poſition oppo- Toon, Ready, Pſent, Fire. ſite to the right breaſt. In firing by Platoons or Diviſions, the officers commanding SWORD SALUTE. them are to ſtep out one pace, (on the cloſe of the ſignal or Bring the point of the fword in an eafy graceful manner, with preparative) and face to the left towards their men; they there the right hand, as low down towards the ground as can be done Itand perfe&tly ſteady till the laft part of the next ſignal or by that hand with eaſe. general, when they ſtep back again into their proper intervals The hat to remain untouched. The officers ſhould bring up all at the ſame time. After a diviſion has fired, the right hand their ſwords when the general has påſked them to the former po- man of it ſteps out one pace in front of the officer, but ſtill ſition. . Anexores representation of the three Ranketirings.wih (1 pórno-huset ESword Solution according to the last See the Treatise on Military - Aperia MICU Front Rank Ineeling Rear Rank Firing Center Frank firing Front Rank, Firing lineeling NON Tuncekhaned Fusee Recoreret Standing Salute, fusee Planted Fusce Trailer Marching Salute Sword Supported wan ordIhanced Shord Rewreel Jordate Oran tion Luc lar Il Gaimer. Tellimine Ale content uponemention of the Annual barise, aventing to medepsi Military Discipline. She Treation for on Military offairs. 2 2nd Cock Firelock. 7:6 Poise Frreloc Dreſs to the Right 3. Present 4th Fire 5th Half Cock Furelock 6th Handle Cartridge 7th Prime 8th Shut Pans 9th Load Cartridge 10th Draw Ramrods. If th Ram Down Cartridge Etranger Published as the Act directo by C. Cooke VO27 Paternoster Row May 28 2790 Eronched TE Grosir Plate 2 Manual Correase acrossing to the Principliwe pradio in the year woj. Sa Treatin on Military offfairs Section S. 3 2 1 2 1 MITA 12 th Return Ramrods. 13th Shoulder Fürelock. 14th Rest Firelock. 4 3 1 3 TETEN 1 3 ar 2 S83528 2 2 16th Ground Füelock. 17th Take up Furelock. 25th Order Firelock. 3 3 2 das 7 2 2 1 urreary 20 th Seare Firelock. 18th Rest Fire lock. 79 th Shoulder Firelock. 3 3 3 1 1 1 TETIC 2.92 22nd Fir Bayonets. 23d Shoulder Firelock. 21 t Shoulder Firelock. Drawn from Life,by W. Grainger. Engraved for Halls Encyclopedia & Printed for cooke,N°27 Paternoster Row Jug 2,2795. Engraved by W. Grainger MILITARY AFFAIRS. upon the cock. SECT. VIII. (X.) DRAW YOUR RAMMER. Two Motions. DIRECTIONS FOR PERFORMING THE MANUAL 1. Draw the rammer with a quick motion half way, ſeizing. EXERCISE, PREVIOUS TO THE REGULATION BY it at the muzzle back-handed. THE DUKE OF YORK, ILLUSTRATED BY FIGURES 2. Draw it quite out, turn it and enter it into the muzzle, TAKEN FROM LIFE, DESCRIPTIVE OF ALL THE MO. with your right arm extended. TIONS. (XI.) RAM DOWN YOUR CARTRIDGE. One Motion. Though we have introduced the new, we have retained the old Manual, as there are many perſons partial to the method Spring the ram-rod in the barrel, which will recoil half way of exerciſe previous to the introduction of the new, and wiſh out, (there being no cartridge uſed in the manual exerciſe) ſeize to fee it deſcribed with Plates to illuſtrate the motions; for it back handed at the muzzle; enter it into the loops, and re- however apparently uſeleſs a number of motions may be, it turn it quite home; bring 'the firelock into the hollow of the certainly contributes to teach the learner to handle his arms left arm, with the fingers of the right hand, the left ftill ex- with eaſe and dexterity.—For the ultimate intention of all tended, with thumb behind the ſling. exerciſe can be nothing more than to render a battalion (XII.) RETURN YOU'R RAMMER. One Motion. expert in what it may have to perform before an enemy. It ſhould follow, therefore, that whatever cannot be ſo practiſed Bring up the firelock with the left hand, ſeize it with the in the face of an enemy is fuperfluous,and that all ſuper right under the cock, ſo as you may feel the lower fide nail of fluous and unneceſſary matter ſhould be exploded, as only the lock with your right thumb, bring the left elbow down upon tiring the patience of the ſoldier to no good purpoſe. How the lock, and fingers extended, N. B. You muſt turn to the ever ſpecious this concluſion may appear, yet it is certain there left upon both heels, at the ſame time you bring the firelock are many things in the exerciſe performed by a regiment, which up, to bring your body ſquare to the front, it being neceſſary in it is never ſuppoſed are to be done before an enemy, the prac the priming and loading poſitions, to be a quarter face to the tice of which is attended by ſome collateral benefit. right, having the right toe to the right, and left to the front. (I.) POIZE YOUR FIRELOCK. Two Motions. 1. Seize the firelock by the ſmall of the ſtock, with the right (XIII.) SHOULDER YOUR FIRELOCK. Two Motions. hand; at the ſame time turn the lock in the front, ſo as the cock 1. Quit the left hand and place it ſtrong upon the butt, then may touch the left breaſt, keeping the barrel perpendicular. let the right hand lay flat upon the breaſt, the fingers pointing 2. Bring up the firelock with a quick motion, and ſtrike the to the ſtock. fling with the left hand; the fingers pointing upwards, and the 2. Bring the right hand ſmart down by the right ſide, fingers wriſt upon the guard; both elbows cloſe down. N.B. The point extended. of the fingers ſhould be no higher than the mouth, and the fire- lock cloſe in to the left ſide, and barrel perpendicular. (XIV.) REST YOUR FIRELOCK. Three Motions. (II.) COCK YOUR FIRELOCK. Two Motions. The firſt and ſecond motions the ſame as directed for the poife. 3 Bring the firelock quick down to reſt with the right hand, 1. Turn the barrel inwards, ſupport the firelock in the left and ſeize it ſmart acroſs the ſling with the left, the little finger hand, ſquare the right elbow, with the thumb of the right hand ſo low as the hammer ſpring, the thumb between the ſtock and barrel, the fingers of the right hand to be under the guard, and 2. Bring the thumb over the cock, and ſeize the firelock by thumb behind the cock; the firelock muſt be no lower; then the ſmall under the lock. N.B. As you do not cock in ma the butt to be oppoſite the centre of the left thigh, ſo as you nual exerciſe, the motion only is to be made. may ſtand at this pofition in a graceful manner, and without (III.) PRESENT. One Motion. reſtraint. N. B. At the time the firelock is brought down to the reſt, ſtep back 4 inches, with the right foot in a direct line; The right hand throws the firelock down to the preſent, and and on no account to croſs your left heel. is ſtopped with the left at the ſwell, the butt to be raiſed to the ſhoulder, and the forefinger of the right hand before the trig- (XV.) ORDER YOUR FIRELOCK. Three Motions. ger. N. B. At the time you bring the firelock down, draw the 1. Bring the firelock ſmartly into the right ſide, that the butt right foot back fix inches, and turn the left toe to the front. may be oppoſite the centre of the right thigh ; ſeize it at the (IV.) FIRE. FIRE. One Motion. ſame time with the left hand above the ſwell, the fingers of the After you are ſuppoſed to have pulled the trigger, count one, right hand being ftill under the guard. 2 Quit the firelock with the right hand, ſinking it with the two, then bring up the right heel with inſide of the left, and at the ſame time bring the firelock to the priming poſition, by ſup- left till the butt is within 2 inches of the ground; at the ſame time ſeize it at the muzzle with the right hand, the back of the porting the firelock in the left hand betwixt the ſwell and the hand to the front, and the right elbow cloſe down upon the ſtop lock, having hold of the cock between the 2d joint of the fore- ſwivel. finger and thumb, and your elbow ſquare. N. B. That you may have a full comınand of the firelock, the lock muſt be oppoſite bring your left hand down by your left fide, your fingers ex- 3. Bring up your right foot to the left, at the ſame time the center of your body, and the muzzle the height of your tended; and with the right hand bring the butt to the ground, hat. and in a line with your right toe, the muzzle cloſe into the hol- (V.) HALF COCK YOUR FIRELOCK. One Motion. low of your right arm. N.B. The body to be ſquare to the front in all the motions of the order. Bring the right elbow down upon the butt, ſtill keeping your finger and thumb at the cock. E (XVI.) GROUND YOUR FIRELOCK. Four Motions. (VI.) HANDLE YOUR CARTRIDGE. One Motion. 1. Half face to the right upon your heels, at the ſame time Bring your right hand ſmartly down to your pouch, clapping turn the firelock, ſo that the lock may point to the rear. The it hard, then bring your hand up with the three laſt fingers ſhut, flat of the butt muft lie againſt the inſide of the foot, at the and your fore-finger and thumb pointing to your mouth, your ſame time flipping the right foot behind the butt of the firelock, elbow down upon the ſtock. the right toe pointing to the right, and the left toe to the front. 2. Step directly forward with your left foot as far as the ſwell (VII.) PRIME, One Motion. of the firelock, then let your right hand ſlip down the piece, and Give a ſingle ſhake over the pan, then bring your right hand upon the ground, your left hand in the mean time hang- behind the hammer, with your little finger laying acroſs the ing down by the calf of your left leg. barrel, your elbow ſquare. 3. Raiſe yourſelf up again nimbly, bringing back your left foot to its former poſition, and keeping your body faced to the right. (VIII.) SHUT YOUR PANS. Two Motions. 4. Face again to the left upon your heels, and come to your proper front, letting your hands hang down your ſides without 1. Bring your elbow down upon the ſtock, ſtill holding the motion. hammerin your hand forthe ſpace of time that you count one, two. 2. Turn the piece nimbly round to the loading poſition, with (XVII.) TAKE UP YOUR FIRELOCK. Four Motions. the butt to the ground in a line with your left toe, barrel to the front; and leaning acroſs, that the muzzle be oppoſite the may 1. Face to the right upon both heels. center of your body, the three laſt fingers of your right hand 2. Briſkly ſtoop down and come to the fame poſition as in ſhut, and laying againſt the barrel, your fore finger and thumb as the ſecond motion of grounding. high as the elbow down, your left arm extended, holding the fire- 3. Raiſe yourſelf and firelock briſkly, bringing it cloſe to the lock with the thumb behind the fling, and fingers upon the barrel. 4. Come to your proper front, feizing the firelock at the (IX.) CHARGE WITH CARTRIDGE. Two Motions. muzzle as in explanation XV. 1. Raiſe your right elbow, turn the back of your hand in- (XVIII.) REST YOUR FIRELOCK. Three Motions. wards, with your fore finger upon the muzzle, count one, two, between this and the following motion. 1. Bring down briſkly your right hand as low as you can, 2. Seize the ram-rod between the ſecond joint of the fore without reſtraint; feize the firelock with the thumb behind the finger and thumb, juſt below the top, your elbow down. fling, and fingers upon the barrel, lay it right ſide. 2. Raiſe MILITARY AFFAIRS. upon the 2. Raiſe up the firelock with your right hand, in a direct line (XXVIII.) TO THE LEFT FACE. Three Motions, from where it ſtood at the order; then ſeize it with the left, the 1. Bring the firelock to the poize, and bring the right heel little finger to be as low as the hammer ſpring, and the thumb to the hollow of the left foot. between the ſtock and barrel, the left hand ſupporting the fire- 2. Face to the left, by turning upon both heels. lock, and the right elbow down upon the ſtock. 3. Come briſkly down to the preſent. 3. Bring the firelock ſmart to the reſt with the left-hand, bring the fingers of the right under the guard. N.B. At the (XXIX.) TO THE LEFT FACE. Three Motions. ſame time the firelock is brought acroſs the body to the reſt, you are to ſtep back with the right foot 4 inches, as directed Repeat the three laſt motions deſcribed. in the 22d motion. (XXX.) TO THE LEFT ABOUT FACE. Three Motions. (XIX.) SHOULDER YOUR FIRELOCK. Two Motions. Repeat the motions laſt referred to in every particular, except 1. Bring up your right foot ſquare with the left, and at the in coming to the left about, by bringing the right heel up to the ſame time with the right hand turn the firelock into the ſhoul- ball of the left toe. der, and with the left ſeize the butt ſmartly, keeping the fire- lock ſteady to the ſhoulder with the right hand. N. B. As ſoon (XXXI.) SHOULDER YOUR FIRELOCK. Two Motions, as the left hand ſupports the firelock under the butt, the right to lay flat upon the breaſt, with the fingers pointing to the The motions the ſame as in the explanation of the 19th breech, as directed in the 18th motion. command. 2. Bring the right hand ſmartly down to the right ſide, fin- (XXXII.) CHARGE YOUR BAYONET. Two Motions. gers extended. 1. Turn up the lock as in the firſt explanation. (XX.) SECURE YOUR FIRELOCK. Three Motions. 2. Bring the firelock ſmart down to the charge, meeting it 1. Bring the right hand briſkly up,with the fingers under the in the palm of the left hand at the ſwell, at the ſame time you cock, and the thumb to touch the lower ſide nail of the lock, bring the firelock acroſs the body, turn upon both heels a quar- in order to keep the firelock ſteady to the ſhoulder. ter face to the right; the right toe being to the right, and the 2. With the left hand ſeize the firelock about the ſwell, the left to the front. N. B. The right hand graſping the ſmall of thumb behind the ſling, fingers upon the barrel, and elbow down the ſtock, the point of the fingers muſt feel the top of the hip upon the lock; the firelock to be kept ſteady in this motion, bone, the barrel horizontal, and pointing direct to the man. 3. Quit the right hand, bringing it down by the right ſide; at the ſame time, with the left hand, bring the firelock down (XXXIII.) SHOULDER YOUR FIRELOCK. Two Motions. to the ſecure, the guard under the arm, and muzzle pointing 1. Bring up the firelock quick to the ſhoulder, place the downwards, keeping the thumb of the left hand ſtill left hand upon the butt, and bring the feet ſquare to the front. fling, and fingers upon the barrel. 2. Quit the right hand, and throw it ſmartly down by the (XXI.) SHOULDER YOUR FIRELOCK. Three Motions. right ſide. 1. Bring the firelock up to the ſhoulder with the left hand, (XXXIV.) ADVANCE YOUR ARMs. Four Motions. the right hand to be brought under the cock, as directed in the The firſt and ſecond as in the explanation of the firſt command. firſt motion of the ſecure. 3. Bring the firelock ſmartly down the right ſide with the 2. Quit the left hand, ſtrike it ſtrong upon the butt, the fire- lock kept ſteady to the ſhoulder, and barrel perpendicular, the right hand, as low as can be admitted, without conſtraint; keep the body ſteady; ſlip the left hand to the ſwell; keep the guard right hand to be in the poſition in the 18th motion. between the thumb and fore-finger of the right hand, and the 3. Quit the right hand, and bring it ſmart acroſs the body to three laſt fingers under the cock, with the barrel to the rear. the right ſide, fingers pointing down. 4. Quit the left hand and bring it ſmartly down the left ſide. (XXII.) Fix YOUR BAYONET. Three Motions. (XXXV.) SHOULDER YOUR FIRELOCK. Four Motions. The firſt and ſecond are the ſame as in the two firſt of the fecure. 1. Bring the firelock up in a direct line from where it is at 3. Bring the firelock down with the left hand, till the butt the advance, juſt ſo high as to get hold of the ſmall of the ſtock with the right hand; and at the ſame time ſeize the piece at the touch the ground, in a line with your left toe, the barrel to the ſwell with the left. front, and the muzzle let fall into the weild of your right arm; at the ſame time ſeize the fcabbard with the left hand, and the 2. Bring the firelock ſmart up to the poize with the right ſocket of the bayonet with the right; as ſoon as the bayonet is hand; the left to be as directed in the firſt explanation. out of the ſcabbard, ſeize the firelock with the left hand as low 3. Bring the firelock quick into the ſhoulder, and ſtrike the butt ſmart with the left hand. as you can, without reſtraint, and bring the muzzle oppoſite the center of the body, and with the right hand ſcrew the 4. Quit the right hand down by the right ſide; fingers bayonet on; bring the muzzle of the firelock into the hollow pointing downwards. of the left arm, the right hand laying acroſs the breaſt, fingers touch the noſe braſs. (XXXVI.) PIRME AND LOAD. Fifteen Motions. (XXIII.) SHOULDER YOUR FIRELOCK. Three Motions. 1. Come ſmartly to the recover, the firelock is ſprung up with the left hand and ſeized with the right by the ſmall, and 1. Bring the firelock up with the left hand, ſeize it under the left above the hammer ſpring, the barrel is to the rear, the the cock with the right, as directed in the 17th motion, with cock to touch the left breaſt, and both elbows cloſe down upon the left elbow down upon the lock. the ſtock, the body to remain ſquare to the front and the piece Quit the left hand, and place it ſtrong upon the butt; at perpendicular. the ſame time the right hand laying flat upon the breaſt, as be- 2. Bring the firelock down with a briſk motion to the pri- fore directed. ming poſition (turning the right toe to the right and the left to 3. Bring the right hand ſmart acroſs to the right ſide, fingers the front) the left hand holding the firelock as in priming, the extended. N. B. When the right hand is to be brought down thumb of the right hand placed againſt the face of the hammer, by the right ſide, it muſt be done cloſe and ſmart, and the body the fingers clenched, and the elbow a little turned out, that and firelock kept perfectly ſteady. the wriſt may be clear of the cock. (XXIV.) PRESENT YOUR ARMS. Three Motions. 3. Open the pan by throwing up the ſteel with a ſtrong mo- tion of the right arm, turning the elbow in, and keeping the Theſe three motions are deſcribed in the explanation of the firelock ſteady in the left hand. 14th command. 4. Handle your cartridge. 5. Prime. (XXV.) TO THE RIGHT Face. Three Motions. 6. Shut your pan. 1. Bring up the firelock with a quick motion to the poize, 7. Caft about. as directed in the ſecond motion; at the ſame time place the 8 and 9. Load. hollow of the right foot againſt the left heel. 10 and 11. Draw your rammer. 2. Face to the right, by turning upon both heels, the fire- 12. Ram down your cartridge. lock to be perpendicular and kept ſteady. 13. Return your rammer. 3. Step the right foot back, and come ſmartly down to the 14 and 15. Shoulder. preſent. N. B. Obſerve that the motions of recover, coming down to (XXVI.) TO THE Right FACE. Three Motions. the priming poſition, and opening the pan, are to be done in the Repeat the above deſcribed motions. uſual time. The motions from handling the cartridge to ſhut- pans, to be done as quick as poſſible. When the pans (XXVII.) To The Right About Face. Three Motions. are ſhut, make a pauſe, and caſt about. The loading motions The motions are the ſame as before, only you muſt bring the are likewiſe to be executed with all imaginable briſkneſs. Be- right toe as far back as the left heel, to come to the right about, fore the rammer is returned, another ſmall pauſe muſt be made, in place of the right only. counting one, two, between each motion, till the firelock is ſhouldered, but the motions themſelves to be done with activity. ting the Plate 5 Manual Exercise acording to the late regulation by the Duke of York. Sec Treatise on Military Military Affairs 3 3 7 2 1 2 til Shoulder Arms 1 Order Ditto 2 Fix Bayonets 3 2 2 1 2 STOL Melle 3 Shoulder Arms TOUS 2 4 Present Ditto 5 Shoulder Ditto 2 Z PVC Sodelay 6 Charge Bayonets 7 Shoulder Arms Support Ditto La Handle Arms Trail 1: Motion Ditto 2nd Drawn from Lúe by W. Grainger. Printed for C. Coolce, N.°17, Paternoster Row. April 18.1795. Engraved by W. Grainger" . Hale o Manual Ewrw according to the late regulation by the Duke of fork? Sec Treatise on Military pairs 2 7 1 7 2 3 THOUSAN I Prime & Load 2 Handle Cartridge 3 Prime 2 3 3 Z 1 PILAT 2 2 1 。 MIT SE 4 Load 5 Draw Ramroð 6 Ram down Cartridge 2 7 7 Return Ramrod 8 Shoulder Arms 9 Present -Fire min 3 Ranks make ready Drawn from Lule by 1V. Grainger'. 3 Rankos Present -Fire Printed for C.Cookee N° 17, Paternoster Row. Ap?11.1705. Engraved by W. Grainger. Plate 3 Manual scicis awwading to the Disipline produce in the lar; 079 (See Treative on a Military Xperis Sotons 3 3 3 1 2 2 1 1 24th Present Arms 25th To the Right Face . 26th To the Right Face. 3 3 3 1 1 2 1 27th to the Right about Face 28th to the Left Face 29th To the Left Face. 3 2 2 2 1 1 30th To the Lelt about Face 31.4 Shoulder Firelock. 32nd Charge Bayonets. 2 4 3 1 2 1 1 2 3 home 33d Shoulder Fürelock 34th Advance Arms. 35th Shoulder Firelock. Drawn from Life, by, W.Grainger. Enmue for Hall's Encyclopedia & Printeà forc. Cooke,N°7 Patanoster Row Aug 1,1795. Engraved by W. Cranger MIL MIL MILK, a well-known Auid, prepared by nature in the breaſts | occaſion as milk, which is already ſo nearly allied to the nature of of women, and the udders of other animals, for the nouriſhment the fluid that ſhould have been there ſeparated from meat, that it of their young. Milk is a connecting and intermediate fubfiance will really ſupply all its offices? between animals and vegetables. It ſeems įmmediately to be ſe Milk is almoſt ſuited to all temperaments; and it is even ſo to creted from the chyle, both being a white liquor of the ſame con ftomachs diſpoſed to aceſcency, more than thoſe ſubſtances which fiftence: it is moſt copiouſly ſecreted after meals, and of an aceſ have undergone the vinous fermentation; nay, it even cures the cent nature. In moſt animals who live on vegetables, the milk heart-burn, checks vinous fermentation, and precipitates the lees, is aceſcent; and it is uncertain, though at the ſame time no obfer- | when, by renewal of fermentation, the wine happens to be fouled. vation proves the contrary, whether it is not ſo likewiſe in carni It therefore very properly accompanies a great deal of vegetable vorous animals. But, whatever be in this, it is certain, that the aliment; although ſometimes its aceſcency is troubleſome, either milk of all animals who live on vegetables is aceſcent. Milk be from a large proportion taken in, or from the degree of it; for, ing derived from the chyle, we thence conclude its vegetable na according to certain unaccountable circumſtances, different acids ture; for in thoſe who live on both promiſcuouſly, more milk is are formed in the ſtomach in different ſtates of the body; in a got, and more quickly, from the vegetable than the animal food. healthy body, e.g. a mild one ; in the hypochondriac diſeaſe, one Milk, however, is not purely vegetable; though we have a vege ſometimes as corroſive as the foffil acid. When the acidity of table liquor that reſembles its taſte, conſiſtence, colour, aceſcency, milk is carried to a great degree, it may prove remarkably refri- and the ſeparability of the oily part, viz. an emulſion of the nuces gerant, and occaſion cold crudities, and the recurrence of inter- oleofæ and farinaceous ſubſtances. But theſe want the coagulable | mitting fevers. mitting fevers. To take the common notion of its paſſing un- part of milk, which ſeems to be of animal-nature, approaching changed into the blood, it can ſuffer no ſolution. But if we ad- to that of the coagulable lymph of the blood. Milk, then, ſeems mit its coagulum in the ſtomach, then it may be reckoned among to be of an intermediate nature, between chyle taken up from the ſoluble or inſoluble foods, according as that coagulum is more or inteſtines and the fully elaborated animal fluid. leſs tenacious. Formerly rennet, which is employed to coagulate Its contents are of three kinds ; firſt, an oily part, which, what- | milk, was thought an acid; but, from late obſervations, it appears, ever may be ſaid concerning the origin of other oils in the body, is that, if it be an acid, it is very different from other acids, and that certainly immediately derived from the oil of the vegetables taken its coagulum is ſtronger than that produced by acids. It has been in, as with theſe it agrees very exactly in its nature, and would | imagined, that a rennet is to be found in the ſtomachs of all ani- entirely if we could ſeparate it fully from the coagulable part. | mals, which cauſes coagulation of milk; but the coagulation of Another mark of their agreement is the ſeparability, which proves milk ſeems to be owing to a weak acid in the ſtomach, the relicts that the mixture has been lately attempted, but not fully performed. of our vegetable food, inducing in healthy perſons, a weak and fo- 2dly. Beſides this oily, there is a proper coagulable part: and, luble coagulum ; but in different ftomachs this may be very differ- 3dly, Much water accompanies both, in which there is diſſolved a ent, in theſe becoming heavy and leſs ſoluble food, and ſometimes faline ſaccharine ſubſtance. Theſe three can be got ſeparate in even evacuated in a coagulated undiffolved ſtate both by ſtomach cheeſe, butter, and whey; but never perfectly fo, a part of each and ſtool As milk is aceſcent, it may be rendered ſometimes pur- being always biended with every other part. gative by mixing with the bile; and fome examples of this have Nothing is more common, from what has been ſaid of its im been remarked. More commonly, however, it is reckoned among mediate nature, than to ſuppoſe that it requires no aſſimilation; thoſe foods which occaſion coſtiveneſs, and hence has been deduced the reaſon of its exhibition in the moſt Hoffman, in his experiments on milk, found that all kinds of weakly ſtate of the human body. But wherever we can examine it contained much water: and when this was diffipated, found milk, we always find that it coagulates; fuffers a decompoſition, the reſiduum very different in their folubility. But we muſt not and becomes aceſcent. Again, infants, who feed entirely on milk, thence conclude, that the ſame inſolubility takes place in the fto- are always troubled with eructations, which every body obſerves mach; for extracts made from vegetables with water are often are not of the fame quality with the food taken; and therefore it very inſoluble ſubſtances, and hardly diffuſible through water it- appears, that, like all other food, milk turns naturally aceſcent in ſelf: therefore, in Hoffman's extracts, if we may ſo call them, of the ſtomach, and only enters the chyle and blood in conſequence milk, fomewhat of the ſame kind might have appeared ; and theſe of a new recompoſition. It approaches then to the nature of ve ſubſtances, which in their natural ſtate were not ſo, might appear getable aliment, but is not capable of its noxious vinous fermenta- However, we may allow that milk is gene- tion, and therefore has an advantage over it; neither from this rally inſoluble in the inteſtines, as it is of a drying nature, and, quality, like animal-food, is it heating in the ſtomach, and produc as cheeſe, &c. is very coftive. And this effect ihews that milk is tive of fever; though at the ſame time, from its quantity of coa always coagulated in the ſtomach; for if it remained fluid, no gulated matter, it is more nouriſhing than vegetables. fæces would be produced, whereas fometimes very hard ones are Milk is evidently one of the beſt nouriſhments of the body; and obſerved. In the blood veſſels, from its animal-nature, it may be it is not wonderful that it ſhould prove ſo, when we conſider that conſidered as nutritious; but when we conſider its vegetable con- in all caſes of nouriſhment the proximate matter taken to nouriſh tents, and aceſcency in the primæ viæ, we find, that, like animal ought to be as like as may be to the body to be nouriſhed by it. food, it does not excite that degree of fever in time of digeſtion, We ſubſiſt by the ſame things by which we are generated, and and that from its aceſcency it will reſiſt putrefaction. Hence its even while in the ſtate of a fætus in the womb, we are nouriſhed uſe in hectic fevers, which, whatever be their cauſe, appear only not by blood, as ſome ſuppoſe, but by a lacteous juice, which is to be exacerbations of natural feveriſh paroxyſms, which occur ſeparated from the blood in the uterus by means of the placenta, as twice every day, commonly after meals, and at night. To obviate it is in the breaſts of women who give ſuck, by glandules and tu theſe, therefore, we give ſuch an aliment as produces the leaſt exa- buli deſtined for that purpoſe. Meats which we daily feed upon cerbation of theſe fevers; and of this nature is milk, on account paſs down into the ſtomach indeed in their own form, but they do of its aceſcent vegetable nature. not nouriſh us till they are changed into chyle, or a milky liquor. There appears alſo ſomewhat peculiar to milk, which requires Milk being analyſed is found to be compoſed of fatty, ferous, and only a ſmall exertion of the animal powers in order to its affimi- terreſtrial parts; and theſe its conſtituent principles being eaſily lation ; and beſides, in hectic complaints there is wanted an oily, mixed and ſeparated again, are made of it matter for the nouriſh bland food, approaching to the animal-nature; ſo that on all theſe ment of the different parts of the body. The ſerous part, which is accounts, milk is a diet peculiarly adapted to them, and, in general alſo nitrous, being a proper vehicle to convey through the veſſels to moſt convaleſcents, and to thoſe of inflammatory temperaments. the fatty parts, which are as well adapted to all the offices of nutri So far of milk in general. We ſhall now ſpeak of the particular ſubſtance can be. kinds which are in common uſe. It is ealy to infer from this account of milk that it is not only The milk of women, mares, and aſſes, agree very much in their a proper food for children, but for grown people alſo; but proper qualities, being very dilute, having little folid contents, and, when regulations are to be obſerved as to its uſe in particular caſes; no evaporated to dryneſs, having theſe very ſoluble, containing much aliment any more than this being capable of ſuiting all conftitu ſaccharine matter, of a very ready aceſcency, and, when coagu- tions and circumſtances. Meat in the ſtomach is converted into lated, their coagulum being tender and eaſily broke down. From chyle, or a ſubſtance like milk: this chyle paſſes into the heart this view they have leſs oil, and ſeem to have leſs coagulable matter, through the blood veſſels, and its fineſt and moſt ſpirituous parts are than the reſt. there tranſmuted into the red part of the blood; and after this the The milk of cows, ſheep, and goats agree, in oppoſite qualities other groffer parts of it are by different elaborations transformed to the three juſt mentioned; but here there is ſomewhat more of into bile, and the ſeveral other humours of the body. It is evi- | gradation. Cows milk comes nearer to the former milk; goats dent that theſe humours, as well as the blood itſelf, muſt all have milk is leſs Auid, leſs ſweet, leſs flatulent, has the largeſt pro or- a fupply; and that meat cannot give this fupply, till it is con tion of inſoluble part after coagulation, and indeed the largeſt pro- verted into chyle or milk; how much labour then is faved the ani- portion of coagulable part; its oily and coagulable parts are not ſpon- mal functions by giving at once into the ſtomach chyle ready taneouſly ſeparable, never throwing out a cream, or allowing butter formed, that is milk; and in caſes where the action or juices of to be readily extracted from it. Hence the virtues of theſe milks that organ are ſo debilitated as not to be of power to convert the are obvious, being more nouriſhing, though, at the fame time, meat into chyle, what remains but that the perſon muſt die ſlowly, | leſs eaſily ſoluble in weak ſtomachs, than the three firſt, leſs acef- by want of the ſupplies of the ſeveral fluids of the body, if ſome cent than theſe, and ſo more rarely laxative, and peculiarly fitted for thing be not given that is capable of paſſing into the blood with the diet of convaleſcents without fever. The three firſt, again, are leſs preparation than meats are ; and what is ſo proper on ſuch an leſs nouriſhing, more ſoluble, more laxative, as more aceſcent, and N° 110. VOL. II. adapted to the convaleſcents with fever. ** 8 A Theſe very inſoluble. tion as any MIL MIL Theſe qualities, in particular milks, are conſiderably diverſified On the SUGAR of Milk. By Mr. Jahrig, of Peterſburgh, as ap- by different circuinſtances. Firſt, different animals, living on the peared in the Bath Regiſter, June 30th, 1792. Tranſlated from ſame diet, give a conſiderably different milk; for there ſeems to be the French. ſomething in the conſtitution, abſtracting from the aliment, which During the travels which I undertook, by order of the academy conſtitutes a conſiderable diverſity of milk, not only in the ſame of Peterſburgh, among the Mogul tribes who inhabit the frontiers fpecies of animals, but alſo in the ſame animal, at different ages, of the government of Irkutz, beyond the lake Baikal, on the banks and at different diſtances after delivery; this applies to the choice of the river Selenga, I was particularly ſtruck with the ingenious of nurſes. Secondly, milk follows the nature of the aliment more manner in which theſe people preſerve, during their long winters, than any other juice in the human body, being more or leſs fluid a very great quantity of milk, which they ſuffer to freeze in iron and dilute, more or leſs ſolid and nouriſhing, in proportion as theſe kettles, which ſerve them likewiſe for other purpoſes. When the qualities are more or leſs in the aliment. The nature of the ali inilk contained in theſe kettles is perfectly congealed, they . ment differs according to its time of growth, e. g. old graſs being place them over a gentle fire, and take out the milk reduced to a always found more nouriſhing than young. Aliment, too, is al cake of ice, by means of a wooden ſpatula. This operation is be- ways varied according to the ſeaſon, as that is warm or dry, moiſt gun on the commencement of the firſt cold; for the milk is then or cloudy. found in greateſt abundance, and the cakes of ice obtained by theſe The milk of each particular kind of animal is fitter for particular means afiume, as may be readily ſuppoſed, the form of the kettle purpoſes, when fed on proper food. Thus the cow delights in the in which they freeze, and may be preſerved all the winter. ſucculent herbage of the vale: if the ſheep be fed there he certainly What, however, excited my curioſity moſt was, to ſee all theſe rots, but on the higher and more dry fide of the mountain he feeds cakes of frozen milk covered, to a conſiderable depth, with a white pleaſantly and healthy; while the goat never ſtops near the bottom, and apparently farinacious powder. I obſerved the ſame thing in but aſcends to the craggy ſummit: and certainly the milks of theſe my ſmall dairy, which I was obliged to eſtabliſh upon the fame animals are always beſt on their proper foil, and that of goats is plan as theſe wandering people; and the children of my ihepherds beſt on a mountainous country. From a differtation of Linnæus, often brought me platefuls of that powder which they ate; and we have many obfervations concerning the diverſity of plants on which they uſed, alſo, to ſweeten various articles of their food. which each animal chooſes to feed. All the Swediſh plants which After this diſcovery, I cauſed a number of cakes of frozen milk could be collected together, were preſented alternately to domeſtic to be conveyed from a lower apartment to the top of the wooden animals, and then it appeared that the goat lived on the greateſt va houſe which 'I occupied, and which was a part of a temple conſe- riety, and even on many which were poiſonous to the reſt; that the crated to the idols of theſe Pagan people. Theſe cakes in that place cow may chooſe the firſt fucculent ſhoots of the plant, and neg were expoſed to the immediate contact of the dry cold air, which lected the fructification ; which laft was preferred by the goat. prevails in that country almoſt the whole year. Theſe cakes were Hence may be deduced rules concerning the paſturage of different placed perpendicularly, and by theſe means were more expoſed to animals; e. g. Farmers find, that, in a paſture which was only fit the effects of the air. I viſited them very often, and I perceived to feed a certain number of ſheep, an equal number of goats may that this expoſure contributed daily to increaſe the farinacious ſub- be introduced, while the ſheep are no leſs nouriſhed than before. ſtance with which their ſurface was covered. Every week I took It is not eaſy to aſſign the difference between milk freſh drawn it away, by ſcraping the cake to the depth of two inches, and after- and that detained in the open air for ſome time; but certainly there wards ſpread it out upon a broad diſh, in order that the cold might is fome material one, otherwiſe nature would not univerſally have deſtroy any remains of moiſture, which would have prevented it from directed infants to ſucking; and indeed it ſeems, better than the keeping for a length of time. This flour, when thus expoſed to a great other, fitted for digeſtion and nouriſhment. Phyſicians have ſup- | degree of cold, and, conſequently, freed from all moiſture, had a poſed that this depended on the evaporation of ſome ſpt. rector. but remarkably ſweet and ſugary taſte. If diſſolved in warm water, we cannot conceive any ſuch, except common water here: and be and ſtrongly ſtirred by means of a chocolate ſtick, one may pro- ſides, theſe volatile parts can hardly be nutritious. A more plau cure from it, at all times, and in all places excellent, and well taft- ſible account ſeems deducible from mixture: milk, new drawn ed milk. This diſcovery I conſider as of great utility, ſince it may has been but lately mixed, and is expoſed to ſpontaneous feparation, enable navigators to ſupply themſelves with milk during long ſea- a circumſtance hurtful to digeſtion ; none of the parts being, by voyages. Nothing will be requiſite, but to make the neceſſary pre- themſelves, ſo eafily aſſimilated, as when they are all taken together. parations with care. Hence, then, milk new-drawn is more intimately blended, and As I here ſpeak of an experiment which I repeated ſeveral times, therefore then is moſt proper to the weakly and infants. can ſafely aſſure thoſe who may be diſpoſed to try it, that it will Another difference in the uſe of milk expoſed for ſome time to always ſucceed; but, at the ſame time, I am inclined to think, that the air, is taking it boiled or unboiled. Phyſicians have generally all countries will not be equally favourable to the formation of this recommended the former; but the reaſon is not eaſily aſſigned. fingular ſubſtance. The country in which I then reſided, is one Perhaps it is this: Milk kept for ſome time expoſed to the air has of the moſt elevated in the Northern part of Aſia: an Alpine gone ſo far to a ſpontaneous ſeparation; whereas the heat thoroughly country, where the rivers are covered with ice almoſt fix months blends the whole, and hence its reſolution is not ſo eaſy in the Ito in the year, though it lies under the 50th degree of latitude. mach; and thus boiled milk is more coſtive than raw, and gives Another peculiarity of this country, is the dry cold air which more fæces. Again, when milk is boiled, a conſiderable quantity prevails in it for a great part of the year. of air is detached, as appears from the froth on the ſurface; and Dry winds, as well as rain or ſnow, ſeldom come from the air is the chief inſtrument of fermentation in bodies; fo that, after Weſt'; they come almoſt always from the North, and are, generally this proceſs, it is not liable to aſcency; for theſe reaſons it is pro preceded by a very mild South wind which blows for ſome time. per for the robuſt and vigorous. The dry rarified air which continues here all winter, encreaſes Milk by evaporation yields a ſweet ſaline matter, of which Dr. the evaporation of all moiſture contained in theſe ice cakes, and Lewis gives the following proportions : leaves nothing but the milk, the eſſential conſtituent part, under Twelve Left of dry | From which water extracted a ſweet the form of a white powder. ounces of ſaline ſubſtance amounting to To obtain, in a little time, a large quantity of this powder, it Cows milk I drams. will be neceſſary to employ raw, in preference to boiled milk. By Goats milk 12 IĮ making uſe of the latter, or that from which the cream has been Human milk 8 6 taken, little or none will be obtained. Care alſo muſt be taken Affes milk 8 6 not to expoſe new milk, while it retains its natural heat, to the The faline ſubſtance extracted from alles milk was white, and cold; for the ſudden contact of the cold carries all its fat and caſe- ſweet as ſugar; thoſe of the others brown, or yellow, and confide ous parts towards the middle of the maſs; ſo that the parts purely rably leſs ſweet; that from cows milk had the leaſt ſweetneſs of any. aqueous alone occupy the external ſurface. The interior part, Milk, ſet in a warm place, throws up to the ſurface an unctuous which then appears rough, is often changed into a buttery ſubſtance, cream, from which, by agitation, the butter is eaſily ſeparated. and produces no ſugary powder. That all the fat and ſugary parts The addition of alkaline ſalts prevents this ſeparation, not (as ſome might be more equally diſtributed throughout the whole maſs of have ſuppoſed) by abſorbing an acid from the milk, but by virtue milk, I ſuffered that newly taken from the cows to cool, and then of their property of intimately uniting oily bodies with watery li- | poured it into broad ſhallow kettles. quors. Sugar, another grand intermedium betwixt oils and water, ARTIFICIAL Asses Milk. The receipt for making which, has this effect in a greater degree, though that concrete is by no is as follows: take eighteen bruiſed ſnails, ſhavings of hart's-horn, means alkaline, or an abſorbent of acids. pearl barley and eryngo root, of each one ounce, and fix pints of New cows milk, ſuffered to ſtand for ſome days on the leaves of water, boil them in a glazed earthen veſſel to three pints; then butterwort or fun-dew, becomes uniformly thick, flippery, and co ſtrain the mixture, and add an ounce and a half of balſamic ſyrup. herent, and of an agreeable ſweet taſte, without any ſeparation of its Let the patient take four ounces of this liquor, mixed with an parts. Freſh milk, added to this, is thickened in the ſame maner, equal quantity of milk from the cow, morning and evening. and this ſucceſſively. In ſome parts of Sweden, as we are informed Med. Tranfact. vol. ii. p. 341. in the Swediíh Memoirs, milk is thus prepared for food. New Milk of Vegetables. For the ſame reaſon that milk of animals milk has a degree of glutinous quality, ſo as to be uſed for joining may be conſidered as a true animal-emulſion, the emulſive liquors broken ſtone-ware. There is a far greater tenacity in cheeſe pro- periy prepared. Milk, when examined by a microſcope, ap- of vegetables may be called vegetable milks . Accordingly emulſions made with almonds are commonly called milk of almonds. But pears compoſed of numerous globules ſwimming in a tranſparent beſides this vegetable milk, which is in ſome meaſure artificial, many plants and trees contain naturally a large quantity of emul- matter 13 drams. I five MIL MIL five or milky juices. Such are lettuce, ſpurge, fig-tree, and the various denominations ; as gold-mines, ſilver-mines, copper-mines; iron tree which furniſhes the elaſtic American refin. The milky juices mines, diamond-mines, ſalt-mines, mines of antimony, of alum, &c. obtained from all theſe vegetables derive their whiteneſs from an For gold, and ſilver-mines, the richeſt and moſt celebrated are thoſe oily matter, mixed and diffolved in a watery or mucilaginous li of Peru and Chili in America. Iron-mines are more abundant in quor. Moſt refinous gums were originally ſuch milky juices, Europe than elſewhere. Copper-mines are chiefly found in Sweden, which afterwards become ſolid by the evaporation of their moſt Denmark, and England. Lead and tin-mines abound moſt in fluid and volatile parts. England and Wales. Quickſilver-mines in Hungary and Spain. Theſe natural milky juices have not been examined by any chy Diamond-mines in the Eaſt Indies, and in the Brafils. Salt-mines miſt. Such an examination would, however, procure much ef in Poland, &c. Metallic-mines are chiefly found in mountains; fential knowledge concerning vegetable economy. We ſhould though the reaſon thereof does not appear. It is probable, plains probably find examples of all kinds of oils reduced into milky may abound as much therewith, would people dig deep enough. juices; and this knowledge cannot fail of throwing much light on But plains are commonly cultivated; and beſide, the water will the nature of reſins and gum refins. ſcarce allow them to be dug. Add, that the metallic veins always Milk Fever. For copious directions for the management of wo run either horizontal or oblique; and for that reaſon are eaſieſt men in this dangerous diſorder, ſee the Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, found on the ſides of eminences. Part X. Sect. VI. According to Dr. Nicols's obſervations upon mines, they feem MILL, denotes a machine for grinding corn, &c. but, in a to be, or to have been, the channels through which the waters paſs more general fignification, is applied to all machines whoſe ac within the earth, and, like rivers, have their ſmall branches open- tion depends on a circular motion. Of theſe there are ſeveral ing into them, in all directions. Moſt mines have ſtreams of wa- kinds, according to the various methods of applying the moving ter running through them: and when they are found dry, it ſeems power; as water-mills, wind-mills, mills worked by horſes, &c. See to be owing to the waters having changed their courſe, as being the Syſtem of Mechanics, Sect. III. Article Mills , &c. Plate III. obliged to it, either becauſe the load has ſtopped up the ancient MILLEPEDES, or WOOD-LOUSE, in entomology; a ſpecies paſſages, or that ſome new and more eaſy ones are made. Mines, of Oniſcus. Theſe inſects are found in cellars, under ſtones, and ſays Dr. Shaw, are liable to many contingencies; being ſome- in cold moiſt places; in the warmer countries they are rarely met times poor, ſometimes ſoon exhauſtible, ſometimes ſubject to be with. Millepedes have a faint diſagreeable finell, and a ſomewhat drowned, eſpecially when deep, and ſometimes hard to trace. Yet pungent, ſweetiſh, nauſeous taſte. They have been highly cele there are many inſtances of mines proving highly advantageous for brated in ſuppreſſions of urine, in all kinds of obſtructions of the hundreds of years: the mines of Potoſi are to this day worked with bowels, in the jaundice, weakneſs of fight, and a variety of other nearly the ſame ſucceſs as at firſt; the gold mines of Cremnitz diſorders. Whether they have any juſt titles to theſe virtues is have been worked almoſt theſe 1000 years; and our Corniſh tin greatly to be doubted: thus much is certain, that their real effects mines are extremely ancient. The neat profit of the filver alone, come far ſhort of the character uſually given them. For Claffifi- dug in the Miſnian ſilver-mines in Saxony, is ſtill in the ſpace of cation, ſee the Syſtem, Order VII. Genus 84. eight years, computed at a thouſand fix hundred and forty-four MILLET is reckoned by Pliny the moſt fertile of all grain: million, beſides ſeventy-three tons of gold. Many mines have one grain of it produced three Roman ſextaries. Millet is cooling, been diſcovered by accident; a torrent firſt laid open a rich vein drying, and binding, ſomewhat windy, and not eaſily digeſted; a of the ſilver mine at Friburgh in Germany; ſoinetimes a violent ſtrong decoction of it with figs and raiſins, mixed with wine, and wind, by blowing up trees, or overturning the parts of rocks, has drank warm in bed, is a very good ſudorific, though it is feldom diſcovered a mine; the ſame has happened by violent ſhowers, uſed. Millet, by conſent of authors both antient and modern, is earthquakes, thunder, the firing of woods, or even the ſtroke of a refrigerating and drying; it is of bad juice, “difficult of digeſtion, ploughſhare or a horſe's hoof. binds the belly, and generates flatulencies; it is however well But the art of mining does not wait for theſe favourable acci- known to be a very grateful food to many nations at preſent. In dents, but directly goes upon the ſearch and diſcovery of ſuch mi- former times it ſerved to make bread, under a dearth of better neral veins, ores, or fands, as may be worth the working for metal. corn, as we are aſſured by Diofcorides, Pliny, Galen, and others The principal inveſtigation and diſcovery of mines depend upon a of the ancients. Among the Italians, ſays C. Bauhine, loaves are particular fagacity, or acquired habit of judging from particular made of millet, which are yellow, and eaten hot by many, not out figns, that metallic matters are contained in certain parts of the of neceſſity, but for their ſweetneſs; but, when this bread is grown earth, not far below its ſurface. earth, not far below its ſurface. The principal ſigns of a latent hard, it is quite black. Of the flour of millet and milk the Itali metallic vein ſeem reducible to general heads; ſuch as, 1. The ans make fine cakes, which muſt be eaten as ſoon as dreſſed, or diſcovery of certain mineral waters. 2. The diſcolouration of the elſe they become glutinous and ungrateful to the taſte. A pudding trees or graſs of a place. 3. The finding of pieces of ore on the prepared of millet, boiled in milk with an addition of butter, and ſurface of the ground. 4. The riſe of warm exhalations. 5. The ſugar ſprinkled over it, is much in requeſt among the Germans at finding of metallic ſands, and the like. All which are ſo many preſent; and theſe puddings have been long ago introduced into encouragements for making a ſtricter ſearch near the places where England, and are ſtill in faſhion. any thing of this kind appears; whence rules of practice might be MILLING, in the manufactories, an operation called alſo formed for reducing this art to a greater certainty. But when no Fulling. See FULLING. . evident marks of a mine appear, the ſkilful mineraliſt uſually bores MILT, or MELT, in natural hiſtory, the ſoft roe in fiſhes; thus into the earth, in ſuch places as, from ſome analogy of knowledge, called becauſe it yields, by expreſſion, a whitiſh juice reſembling gained by experience, or by obſerving the ſituation, courſe, or na- milk. The milt is properly the ſeed, or ſpermatic part of the ture of other mines, he judges may contain metal. male fiſh. The milt of a carp is reckoned a choice bit. It con Mine, in the military art, denotes a ſubterraneous canal or paf- ſiſts of two long whitiſh irregular bodies, each included in a very fage, dug under the wall or rampart of a fortification, intended to thin fine membrane. M. Petit conſiders theſe as the teſticles of be blown up by gun-powder. For a copious deſcription of which, the fiſh wherein the feed is preſerved: the lower part, next the ſee the Article WAR. anus, he takes for the veficulæ ſeminales. Vide Mem. Acad. R. MINERAL, in natural hiſtory, is uſed in general for all follile Scien. anno 1733. p. 221. In the milt of a living cod-fiſh there bodies, whether ſimple or compound, dug out of a mine; from are ſuch incredible numbers of thoſe ſmall animalcules found, that whence it takes its denomination. in a drop of the juice of it, no more in quantity than a ſmall MINERAL Waters. All waters naturally impregnated with any grain of ſand, there are contained more than ten thouſand of them; heterogeneous matter which they have diſſolved within the earth and conſidering how many ſuch quantities there are in the whole may be called mineral waters, in the moſt general and extenſive milt of one ſuch fiſh, it is not exceeding the bounds of truth to meaning of that name; in which therefore are comprehended al- affirm, that there are more animals in one milt of it, than there moſt all thoſe that flow within or upon the ſurface of the earth, for are living men at one time upon the whole face of the earth. How- almoſt all theſe contain ſome earth or ſelenites. But waters con- ever ſtrange and romantic ſuch a conjecture may appear at firſt taining only earth or ſelenites are not generally called mineral, but fight, a ſerious confideration, and calculation, will make it ap- hard or crude-waters. pear very plain. A hundred ſuch grains of fand as here men Hard waters, which are ſimply ſelenitic, when tried by the chy- tioned will make about an inch in length; therefore in a cubic mical proofs, ſhew no marks of an acid or of an alkali, nor of any inch there will be a million of ſuch fands. volatile, fulphureous, or metallic matters. Waters which contain The milt of one of theſe fiſhes is frequently about the quantity diſengaged calcareous earth, change the colour of fyrup of violets of fifteen cubic inches, it muſt therefore contain fifteen millions to a green; and thoſe that contain ſelenites, being mixed with a of quantities as big as one of theſe ſands: and if there be ten thou ſolution of mercury in nitrous acid, form a turbith mineral; and fand animals in each of thoſe quantities, there muſt be, in the when a fixed alkali' is added, they are rendered turbid, and a white whole, a hundred and fifty thouſand millions : which is a number ſediment is precipitated. Theſe waters alſo do not diffolve ſoap vaſtly exceeding the number of mankind, even though we were to well. From theſe we may know, that any water which produces fuppoſe the whole earth as populous as Holland. See Philoſophi theſe effects is a hard, earthy, or ſelenitic water. earthy, or ſelenitic water. The waters im- cal Collections, p. 4. See alſo the Syſtem of ICHTHYOLOGY, pregnated with gas are alſo hard. Sect. III. and the Syſtem of COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. Chap. Although the waters of the ſea and faline ſprings be not gene- III. Sect. II. rally enumerated amongſt mineral waters, they might nevertheleſs MINE, in natural hiſtory, a place under ground, where metals, be juſtly conſidered as ſuch: for beſides earthy and ſelenitic mat- minerals, or even precious ſtones, are dug up. As therefore, the ters, they alſo contain a large quantity of mineral falts. We ſhall matter dug out of mines is various; the mines themſelves acquire therefore conſider them as ſuch in this article. Mineral waters, properly M IN M IN merce. or metallic ſubſtances, are diſſolved by chymnical trials. As many take up much of the time of others that might be better employed. of theſe waters are employed ſucceſsfully in medicine, they are alſo An eaſier way may therefore be adopted, which even for the moſt called medicinal waters. part is ſufficient, and which, though made in miniature, is as ſci- Mineral waters receive their peculiar principles by paſſing though entifical as the common manner of proceeding in the laboratories, earths containing falts, or pyritous ſubſtances that are in a ſtate of ſince it imitates that, and is founded upon the ſame princi- decompoſition. Some of theſe waters are valuable from the quan ples. This conſiſts in making the experiments upon a piece of tity of uſeful falts which they contain, particularly of common ſalt, charcoal with the concentrated flame of a candle directed through great quantities of which are obtained from theſe waters; and a blow-pipe. The heat occafioned by this is very intenſe; and the others are chiefly valued for their medicinal qualities. The former mineral bodies may here be burnt, calcined, melted, and ſcorified, , kind of mineral waters is an object of manufacture, and from them &c. as well as in any great works. is chiefly extracted that falt only which is moſt valuable in com For a deſcription of the blow-pipe, the method of uſing it, the See SALT. proper Auxes to be employed, and the different ſubjects of exami- Many of theſe waters have been accurately analyſed by able chy nation to which that inſtrument is adapted, ſee the ſyſtem of Chy- miſts and phyſicians. But notwithſtanding theſe attempts, we are MISTRY, Part III. Introduction, where all thoſe particulars are con- far from having all the certainty and knowledge that might be de- ciſely detailed. The near relation between mineralogy and chy- ſired on this important ſubject: for this kind of analyſis is perhaps | miſtry, renders it unneceſſary to dwell long on the ſubject, eſpe- the moſt difficult of any in chymiſtry. Almost all mineral waters cially as the eſſential principles are explained in the Syſtein of contain ſeveral different ſubſtances, which being united with wa chymiſtry, as well as under the reſpective articles in the alphabet, to ter may form with each other numberleſs compounds. Frequently each of which the reader is referred, as they occur in the following ſome of the principles of mineral waters are in ſo ſmall a quantity, arrangement. that they can ſcarcely be perceived; although they may have ſome influence on the virtues of the waters and alſo on the other princi- | ARRANGEMENT of MINERAL BODIES. ples contained in the water. The chymical operations uſed in the analyſis of mineral waters, may ſometimes occaſion effential changes The bodies belonging to the mineral kingdom are divided into in the ſubſtances that are to be diſcovered. And alſo, theſe waters four different claſſes : are capable of ſuffering very confiderable changes by motion, by Claſs I. Earths, or thoſe ſubſtances which are not ductile, are reſt, and by expoſure to air. moſtly indiffoluble in water or oil, and preſerve their con- Probably alſo the variations of the atmoſphere, ſubterranean ftitution in a ſtrong heat. changes, ſome ſecret junction of a new ſpring of mineral or of Claſs II. Salts: Theſe diſſolve in water, and give it a taſte; pure water, laſtly the exhauſtion of the minerals whence waters and when the quantity of water required to keep them in receive their peculiar principles, are cauſes which may occaſionally diſſolution is evaporated, they 'concrete again into folid and change the quality of mineral waters. We need not therefore angular bodies. wonder that the reſults of analyſes of the fame mineral waters made Claſs III. Inflammables, which can be diſſolved in oils, but not by different chymiſts, whoſe ſkill and accuracy are not queſtioned, in water, and are inflammable. ſhould be very different. The conſequences of what we have Claſs IV. Metals, the heavieſt of all bodies; ſome of which are faid on this ſubject are, That the examination of mineral waters malleable, and ſome can be decompounded. is a very difficult taſk; that it ought not to be attempted but by Here, however, it muſt be obſerved, that theſe claſſes are un- profound and experienced chymiſts; that it requires frequent re- petitions , and at different times; and laſtly , that no fixed general avoidably blended one with another; and therefore ſome exceptions muſt be allowed in every one of them: for inſtance, in the firſt rules can be given concerning theſe analyſes. As this matter can claſs, the calcareous earth is in ſome meaſure diſſoluble in water, not be thoroughly explained without entering into details connected and pipe clay with ſome others diminiſh ſomewhat in their bulk, with all the parts of chymiſtry, we ſhall here mention only the when kept for a long time in a calcining heat. In the third claſs, principal reſults, and the moſt eſſential rules, that have been in- the calx of arſenic has nearly the ſame properties as falts; and there dicated by the attempts hitherto made on this ſubject. is no poſſible definition of ſalt that can exclude the arſenic, though In ſome mineral waters certain volatile, ſpirituous, and elaſtic at the fame time it is impoſſible to arrangeit elſewhere than among principles may be perceived, by a very ſenſible piquant taſte: this the ſemimetals. In the fourth claſs it is to be obſerved, that the principle is called the gas or ſpirit of waters. The waters which metals and ſemimetals, perfect or imperfe&t, have not the ſame contain this principle are generally lighter than pure water. They qualities common to them all; becauſe ſome of them may be cal- ſparkle and emit bubbles, at their ſpring, but eſpecially when they cined, or deprived of their phlogiſton, in the ſame degree of fire are ſhook, and poured from one veſſel into another. They ſome in which others are not in the leaſt changed, unleſs particular ar- times break the bottles containing them, when they are well corked, tifices or procefles are made uſe of: ſome of them alſo may be as fermenting wines fometimes do. When mixed with ordinary made malleable, while others are by no means to be rendered fo. wine, they give to it the piquancy and ſparkling quality of Cham That the convex ſurface metals take after being melted, is a qua- paigne wine. This volatile principle, and all the properties of the lity not particularly belonging to them, becauſe every thing that is waters dependent upon it, are loft merely by expoſure to air, or by perfectly fluid in the fire, and has no attraction to the veſſel in agitation. The waters containing this principle are diſtinguiſhed which it is kept, or to any added matter, takes the ſame figure; by the name of ſpirituous mineral waters, or acidulous waters For as we find borax, ſal fuſibile microcoſmicum, and others do, when an account of the ſeveral mineral waters, their nature, qualities, melted upon a piece of charcoal: therefore, with regard to all that &c. with the method of taking them, and the proper ſeaſons, &c. has been ſaid, it is hardly worth while to invent ſuch definitions fee the article WATER. as ſhall include ſeveral ſpecies at once; we ought rather to be content with perfectly knowing them ſeparately. MINERALOGY. CLASS I. EARTHS. EARTHS are thoſe mineral bodies, not ductile, for the moſt part MINERALOGY is a Science which comprehends the third not diffoluble in water or oils, and which preſerve their conſtitu- kingdom of nature, the other two being the animal and the vegetable tion in a ſtrong heat. kingdoms. This ſcience teaches us the properties of mineral bo- The bodies which conſtitute the firſt claſs are here arranged dies, and by it we learn how to characteriſe, diſtinguiſh, and claſs according to their conſtituent parts, ſo far as hitherto diſcovered; them into a proper order. and are divided into five orders. See the article EARTH. MINERALOGY ſeems to have been in a manner coeval with the ORDER I. CALCAREOUS EARTHS. world. Precious ſtones of various kinds appear to have been well The properties of theſe are as follow: known among the Jews and Egyptians in the time of Moſes; and 1. Friability and falling into a fine white powder after calcina- even the moſt rude and barbarous nations appear to have had ſome tion. 2. Partial ſolution in water, with which they contract great knowledge of the ores of different metals. As the ſcience is nearly | heat, and by ſprinkling with water they fall more readily into pow- allied to chymiſtry, it is probable that the improvements both in der. 3. Infuſibility without addition. 4. They attract the fixed chymiſtry and mineralogy have nearly kept pace with each other ; air from the vegetable and mineral alkalies, and thus rendering and indeed it is but of late, fince the principles of chymiſtry were them much more cauſtic, becoming at the ſame time mild them- well underſtood, that mineralogy has been advanced to any degree ſelves. 5. Solubility in all acids, except the vitriolic, tartarouis, of perfection. The beſt way of ſtudying mineralogy, therefore, and ſome anomalous vegetable acids. 6. Fuſibility with borax is by applying chyiniſtry to it; and not contenting ourſelves merely and microcoſmic falts. The fuſion is attended with efferveſcence, with inſpecting the outſides of bodies, but decompounding them and the reſult is a tranſparent and colourleſs glaſs. 7. With me- according to the rules of chymiſtry. This method has been brought talline calces they melt into a corroſive ſlag. 8. They imperfectly to the greateſt perfection by Mr. Pott of Berlin, and after him by reduce the calces of lead and biſinuth, and have even ſome effect Mr. Cronſtedt of Sweden. To obtain this end, chymical expe upon thoſe of copper and iron. riments in the large way are without doubt neceffary: but as a great Calcareous earth is moſt commonly found in the form of lime- deal of the mineral kingdom has already been examined in this man ſtone; hard, compact, and of various colours; under which gene- ner, we do not need to repeat all thoſe experiments in their whole ral naine may be comprehended all the different kinds of marbles. extent, unleſs ſome new and particular phenomena ſhould diſcover Near Bath, in England, is found a kind of grey ſtone, rather ſoft themſelves in thoſe things we are examining; elſe the tediouſneſſes than hard. This contains calcareous earth in a mild ſtate, and of thoſe proceſſes might diſcourage fome from going farther, and likewiſe fome in a ſtate of cauſticity: hence, when newly dug out of M IN MIN any faw. man. of the earth, it will diſſolve fulphur, or make lime-water without the acetous acids it does not cryſtallize: and the maſs being dried, calcination. By attraction of fixed air from the atmoſphere, attracts humidity from the air. 14. It has a ſtronger attraction to it foon hardens after it has been dug up. the fuor acid than to any other (Berg.): and cryſtallizes with it The Scotch marbles are of great variety and beauty; and the into hexangular priſms whoſe ends are formed of two low pyra- parts of the kingdom moſt unfit for cultivation are found to abound | mids, of three rhombs (Romé de l'Iſe); 15. It is not precipitated moſt in them. Aflint in Sutherland has a kind of white ſtatuary | from other acids by the vitriolic, as calcareous earth is. 16. Ac- marble, which Mr. Williams ſays is the pureſt and beſt he ever cording to Lavoiſier and Macquer, when magneſia is calcined, it “ I am perſuaded (ſays he) there is none better, if any ſo becomes phoſphoreſcent. For a further account of its uſes, pro- good, in all Europe, and there is enough of it to ſerve all Britain; perties, combinations, &c. ſee the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part perfe&tly ſolid and pure, free from any blemiſhes, Alaws or ſtains, and II. Chap. III. throughout. blocks or ſlabs of any ſize may be cut out: but there is bad acceſs ORDER IV. SILICEOUS EARTHS. to it; nor would it be eaſily quarried, there being a little cover SILICEOUS earth is, of all others, the moſt difficult to deſcribe above it, of a ſoft, looſe, whitiſh lime-ſtone." and to diſtinguiſh perfectly; however, it may be known by the Near Blairgourie in Perthſhire, not far from the fide of the following characters, which are common to all bodies belonging to high road, is an excellent, granulated, broad-bedded limeſtone, of this order. a ſugar-loaf texture, and as white as the fineſt ftatuary marble, 1. In its indurated ſtate it is hard, if not in regard to the whole, which Mr. Williams ſuppoſes to be a good ſpecies of the true yet at leaſt in regard to each particle of it, in a degree ſufficient to Parian marble, and that it requires only to be known and brought ftrike fire with ſteel, and to ſcratch it, when rubbed againſt it, into uſe to become of great value. In the duke of Gordon's lands, though the ſteel be ever ſo well tempered. 2. When pure, and in the foreſt of Glenavon, there is alſo a kind of marble compoſed free from heterogeneous particles, it does not melt by itſelf , neither of broad glittering grains like ſpangles, as large as the ſcales of in a reverberatory, nor in a blaſt furnace. 3. After being burnt, it fiſhes; but the ſituation is remote, and difficult of acceſs. The does not fall to a powder, neither in the open air nor in water, as In Lochaber, near the farm-houſes on the north fide of the ferry the calcarous earth does, but becomes only a little looſer and more of Ballachyliſh, is a lime-ſtone or marble rock, of a beautiful cracked by the fire, unleſs it has been very flowly, and by degrees, afhen-grey colour, and a fine regular uniform grain or texture; heated. 4. It excites no efferveſcence with acids. 5. In the fire it capable of being raiſed in blocks or ſlabs of any fize, and of re melts eaſieſt of all to a glaſs with the fixed alkaline falt; and hence ceiving a fine poliſh. It is beautifully ſprinkled with fine bright it has got the name of vitreſcent, though this name is, properly ſpeak- grains of mundick or pyrites, and likewiſe with grains or ſpecks | ing, leſs applicable to this order than to a great many other earths. of beautiful lead ore of a fine texture. To the above we may add the following properties, from Berg- About three miles ſouth of Fort William, in the bed of a river, 6. It is not ſoluble in any of the known acids, the fluor acid is a curious kind of marble with a black ground, flowered with only excepted. But, 7, It may be diſſolved by the fixed alkali, both white, like fine needle-work, or rather reſembling the froſt flow in the dry and wet way. 8. If the fixed alkali is only half the weight ering upon glaſs windows in winter; and this flowering is not of the filiceous earth, it produces a diaphonous and hard glaſs : only on the outſide, but quite through all parts of the body of the but when it is in a double or triple proportion, then the glaſs deli- ftone. queſces of itſelf by attracting the humidity of the atmoſphere. ORDER II. PONDEROUS EARTH. 9. It melts eaſily with borax; but 10. With microcoſmic ſalt it is Ponderous earth, (Terra Ponderofa): Cauk or calk. This is more difficult, and requires a longer time to melt. II. This earth a particular kind of earth (like chalk in appearance, but with fome has a great analogy to acids, as it is perfectly diſſolved in that won- very different properties) diſcovered in Sweden about 1774, derful natural hot-water-ſpout above ninety feet high at Geyſer, in which by its reſults with other bodies has ſome ſimilarity to the Iceland, where by cooling it forms a filiceous maſs. For a further known alkalis . It has not yet been found pure, but mixed with account of its properties, &c. ſee the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, other ſubſtances: however, its great ſpecific weight eaſily diſtin Part II. Chap. V. guiſhes it from the others, it being the heavieſt of all earths. Genus I. Gems, or precious ſtones. 1. Its ſpecific gravity when conſiderably purified by art is I. The Diamond. 3,773. 2. This earth combines with aerial acid; and in this Of all ſtones, it is the hardeſt. 1. Is commonly clear; or caſe efferveſces with ſtronger acids. 3. With vitriolic acid it tranſparent; which quality, however, may, perhaps, only belong forms the ponderous fpar, which is inſoluble in water. 4. to its cryſtals, but not to the rock itſelf from which they have their cryftallization, after being combined with the nitrous, or with origin. 2. Its ſpecific gravity is neareſt 3,500. When brought the muriatic acids, is hardly ſoluble; 5. But with acetous acid, it to Europe in its rough ſtate, it is in the form either of round becomes deliqueſcent. 6. When pure, viz. without any mixture pebbles with ſhining ſurfaces, or of cryſtals of an octoedral form. of acid or alkali, it does not vitrify in the fire. 7. If deprived 3. Colourleſs, or diaphonous, or the diamond properly ſo called. of the ærial acid (fixed air) by calcination, is then ſoluble in 900 But it alſo retains this name when it is tinged ſomewhat red or times its weight of boiling water. This ſolution expoſed to air, 1 yellow. Being rubbed, it diſcovers fome electrical qualities, and forms a cremor, like that of lime-water in the ſame circumſtances, attracts the maſtic. and like it changes alſo the vegetable colours. 8. Whilſt combined Red; Ruby. Adamas ruber; Rubinus.---Which by lapi- with aerial acid, it is only ſoluble in about 1550 times its weight of | daries and jewellers; is, in regard to the colour, divided into, water, chiefly if the water has been impregnated alſo with the ſame 1. The ruby of a deep red colour inclining a little to purple. aerial acid. 9. It expels the cauſtic volatile alkali from ammonia 2. Spinell, of a dark colour. 3. The balaſs, pale red, inclining cal falt. 10. Mixed with brimſtone it produces a hepar ſulphuris, to violet. This is ſuppoſed to be the mother of the rubies. whoſe ſolution in water is but incompletely decompoſed either by 4. The rubicell, reddiſh yellow. However, all authors do not the nitrous or the muriatic acid, on account of the great attraction agree in the characters of theſe ſtones. See the Syſtem as referred between this earth and the acid of ſulphur, which is ſo ſtrong that it, to above. And, for a copious account of this valuable ſtone, ſee II. Separates this acid (the vitriolic) from the vegetable alkali. the article DIAMOND. For a more particular deſcription, ſee the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, II. Sapphire is tranſparent, of a blue colour; and is, in hard- Part II. Chap. II. throughout. neſs, next to the ruby, or diamond. ORDER III. MAGNESIAN, MICACEOUS, AND AsbestINE III. Topaz. I. The pale yellow topaz; which is nearly un- EARTHS. coloured. 2. The yellow topaz. 3. Deep yellow, or gold- Magneſian Earths. coloured topaz, or oriental topaz. 4. Orange-coloured topaz. 4 MAGNESIA is a white, looſe, and light earth, only known ſince 5. The yellowiſh green topaz, or chryſolite. 6. The yellowiſh the beginning of this century. It is generally found combined or green, and cloudy topaz, the chryſopraſe. 7. Bluiſh green topaz, mixed with other heterogeneous ſubſtances, as other ſimple earths or the beryl. This varies in its colours; and is called, when a. of a ſea-green colour, the aqua-marine. b. When more green, 1. When pure its ſpecific gravity is 2,330, and then, 2. It nei the beryl. See the article SAPPHIRE. ther hardens, contracts, nor melts by the application of heat, even IV. Emerald. Its chief colour is green and tranſparent. It by the ſolar rays. 3. But it melts eaſily with borax, or microcof is the ſofteſt of precious ſtones, and when heated it is phoſphoreſ- mic ſalt; though it is ſcarcely affected by fixed alkalis or calces cent, like the fluors. See the article EMERALD. of lead. 4. Mixed with other earths, it produces by fire different V. The amethyſt is a gem of a violet colour, with great bril- hard maſſes. 5. It gives no cauſticity except to the volatile al- liancy, and as hard as the beſt kind of rubies or fapphires, from kali: and, 6. Does not efferveſce with any acid. 7. When mixed which it only differs by its colour. This is called the oriental with water it ſhows a very ſmall degree of heat, but without any amethyft; and is very rare: when it inclines to the purple, or efferveſcence. And when the water exceeds the weight of inag- roſy colour, it is more eſteemed than when it is nearer to the nefia about 7,692 times, it is totally diffolved. 8 and 9. Being put | blue. Theſe amethyſts have the ſame figure, hardneſs, ſpecific in water and afterwards dried, it contains & parts of its weight; gravity, and other qualities, as the beſt fapphires or rubies; and though when faturated with aerial acid, it will abſorb and retain come from the ſame places, particularly from Perſia, Arabia, after being dried 66 6c parts of water. 10. This earth combined Armenia, and the Weſt Indies. with aerial acid is more ſoluble in cold than in hot water. The amethyſts called occidental, are of the ſame nature as rock Combined with vitriolic acid it cryſtallizes into a bitter ſalt, known cryſtals, and have the ſame gradations, viz. of a violet inclining by the name of Epſom and Seydlitz or Seidſchulitz falt, which is to the purple or roſy colour, or inclining to the blue; very often ſoluble in little more than its own weight of water. 12. With they are ſemi-tranſparent, without any colour in one end, and nitrous acid it forms a deliqueſcent falt. 13. With the muriatic or violet towards the other. See the article AMETHYST, * 8 B VI. The 4. Its are. II. NO IIO. M IN M IN or 4. It VI. The garnet. This ſtone, when tranſparent and of a fine with theſe than at preſent, without danger of bad conſequences, government. colour, is reckoned among the gems: but it varies more than any, but it varies more than any, eſpecially under the direction of a careful and prudent ORDER V. THE ARGILLACEOUS EARTHS. both in the form of its cryſtals and in its colour. See the article GARNET. The principal character whereby thoſe may be diſtinguiſhed The garnet melts in the focus of a good burning glaſs into a from other earths is, that they harden in the fire, and are com- brown maſs, which is attracted by the loadſtone ; and this ſhows pounded of very minute particles, by which they acquire a dead dull that iron enters conſiderably into its compoſition. appearance when broken. VII. Tourmalin; Lapis ele&tricus. This is a kind of hard The genus moſt worthy of notice in this order is the porcelain ſtone, lately brought into notice by its electrical properties. 1. Its clay: the Kaolin of the Chineſe. It is (1.) Pure. a. Diffuſible form is a priſm of nine fides of different breadths, moſtly truncated, in water. b. Coherent, dry and white. c. Friable and lean. and ſeldom terminating in a pyramid at each end, which is either (2.) Mixed with phlogiſton. a. Diffuſible in water. b. White compoſed of three pentagons, or of nine triangles. 2. When and fat pipe clay. c. Of a pearl colour. d. Bluiſh grey. e. Grey. heated in the fire, it gives figns of contrary electricity on the two f. Black. g. Violet. oppoſite ends of their priſmatic form. But many of theſe ſtones Theſe earths are appropriated to a variety of uſes; ſuch as the are not in the leaſt electric. However, on being rubbed, they | making of pottery, bricks, and other articles too numerous to be become electric in their fides, like other diaphanous gems. 3. It mentioned. is as hard almoſt as the topaz, and ſtrikes fire with ſteel. For a more particular account of their property, uſes, &c. fee melts by itſelf in a ſtrong fire, though with difficulty. 5. With the Syſtem of Chemiſtry, Part II. Chap. IV. throughout. CLASS II. SALTS. the microcoſmic ſalt it melts perfectly; but only in part with borax. VIII. The opal, Opalus; the giraſole of the Italians.--This is By this name thofe mineral bodies are called which can be dif- the moſt beautiful of all the flint kind, owing to the changeable ſolved in water, and give it a taſte; and which have the power, appearance of its colours by reflection and refraction ; and muſt at leaſt when they are mixed with one another, to form new bodies therefore be deſcribed under both theſe circumſtances. of a ſolid and angular ſhape, when the water in which they are Genus 2. Quartz. diſſolved is diminiſhed to a leſs quantity than is required to keep This ſtone is very common in Europe, and eaſier to be known them in folution; which quality is called cryſtalliſation. See than deſcribed. It is diſtinguiſhed from the other kinds of the CRYSTALLISATION. filiceous order by the following qualities. In regard to the principal known circumſtances or qualities of 1. That it is moſt generally cracked throughout, even in the the mineral ſalts, they are divided into rock itſelf; whereby, 2. As well as by its nature, it breaks I. Acid falts, or mineral acids. irregularly, and into ſharp fragments. 3. That it cannot eaſily 2. Alkaline ſalts, or mineral alkalies. be made red-hot without cracking ſtill more. 4. It never decays ORDER I. ACID Salts. in the air. 5. Melted with pot-aſhes, it gives a more ſolid and For the characters, properties, and phenomena of theſe, ſee the fixed glaſs than any other of the filiceous order. 6. It occurs in Syſtem of CYMISTRY, Part I. Chap. V. throughout. clefts, fiſſures, and ſmall veins in rocks. It very ſeldom forms Till of late no more mineral acids were known than the vitriolic large veins, and ſtill feldomer whole mountains, without being and marine; the boracic or ſedative falt being reckoned as pro- mixed with heterogeneous ſubſtances. duced artificially: but later diſcoveries have proved that we may Genus 3. Flints. reckon at leaſt eleven mineral acids ; out of which only two or The flint forms a kind of intermediate ſubſtance between quartz three have been found in an uncombined ſtate. Thoſe hitherto and jaſper; both which, however, it ſo nearly reſembles, that it is known are the following, viz. the vitriolic, the nitrous, the marine, not eaſy to point out ſuch characters as ſhall readily diſtinguiſh it the ſparry, the arſenical, the molybdenic, the tungstenic, the phoſphoric, from them. We can only, therefore, ſpeak of its properties com the boracic, the ſuccinous, and the aerial. paratively. I. The vitriolic acid. See the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. V. Sect. II. 1. It is more uniformly ſolid, and not ſo much cracked in the II. Nitrous acid. This acid is by ſome excluded from the maſs as the quartz; and, 2. It is more pellucid than the jaſper. mineral kingdom, becauſe they ſuppoſe it to be produced from 3. It bears being expoſed to the air without decaying better than putrefaction of organic bodies. But theſe bodies, when deprived the jaſper, but not ſo well as the quartz. 4. It is better for of life, are again received amongſt foſſils, from whence their more making of glaſs than the jaſper, but is not quite ſo good as quartz fixed parts were originally derived. For the nature of this acid, for that purpoſe. ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. V. Sect. III. 5. Whenever there has been an opportunity in this matter of III. Acid of common or ſea-ſalt. See the Syſtem, Part I. its ſhooting into cryſtals, quartz cryſtals are always found in it; Chap. V. Sect. IV. juſt as if the quartz made one of its conſtituent parts, and had in For the properties, &c. of the other ſpecies of acids, ſee them certain circumſtances been ſqueezed out of it: this is to be ſeen as they occur in order in the fame Syſtem and Chapter as referred in every hollow flint, and its clefts, which are always filled up to for thoſe above ſpecified—For an account of acids, as apper- taining to the doctrine or ſcience of air, ſee the Syſtem of Aerology, 6. It often ſhows moſt evident marks of having been originally Section II. throughout. in a ſoft and ſlimy tough ſtate like glue or jelly. See the Syſtem Order II. ALKALINE MINERAL SALTS. of Chymiſtry, Part II. Chap. V. the article FLINT. For the characters, properties, and phenomena of theſe, ſee the Genus 4. Jaſpers. article ALKALI; and the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part I. Jaſper is a name given to all the opaque flints whoſe texture Chap. IV. throughout. reſembles dry clay, and which have no other known quality New acids are daily detected; but no additions have been made whereby they may be diſtinguiſhed from other Aints, except that to the three ſpecies of alkali long ſince known. they may be more eaſily melted in the fire; and this quality Theſe alkaline ſalts are, perhaps may proceed from the heterogeneous mixture, probably I. Vegetable fixed alkali. of iron. Vegetable fixed alkali, deprived of every acid, is not found any Genus 5. Felt-ſpars. where by itſelf; but it is ſometimes met with in combination with Rhombic quartz has its name from its figure, but ſeems to be the vitriolic acid or the muriatic, generally with the nitrous, rarely of the ſame ſubſtance as the jaſper. We have not, however, with the aerial. The fixed vegetable alkali (or potaſe of Mor- ranked them together, for want of true marks to diſtinguiſh the veau), is of a powdery appearance, and of a dead white colour. different ſorts of the flinty tribe from one another. When pure, it is much more cauſtic than the neutral falt; it Genus 6. Garnet kinds. . forms with the aerial acid, and even corrodes the ſkin. See the The ſubſtances of this genus (which is conſidered by Cronſtedt Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part I. Chap. V. Sect. I. as an order) are analagous to gems; ſince all theſe are compoſed II. Foflile fixed alkalis. of the ſiliceous, calcareous, and argillaceous earths, with a greater Alkali of the ſea, or of common falt, has nearly the ſame qua- or leſs proportion of iron. The opaque and black garnets contain lities with the lixivious ſalt, which is prepared from the aſhes of about 20 hundredths of iron : but the diaphanous ones only two burnt vegetables. It is the ſame with the ſal ſodæ, or kelp: for hundredths of their weight, according to Bergman. The garnets, the kelp is nothing elſe than the aſhes remaining, after the burn- properly ſo called, contain a greater quantity of filiceous earthing of certain herbs that abound in common falt; but which than the ſhirls, and both are now juſtly ranked with the filiceous common ſalt, during the burning of thoſe vegetables, has loſt its earths. acid. For the properties of the fofiile alkali, ſee the Syſtem of If the petty princes in thoſe parts of the Indies, where precious CHYMISTRY, Part I. Chap. IV. Sect. I. ftones are found, have no other power nor riches proportionable to III. Volatile mineral alkali perfectly reſembles that falt which the value of theſe gems, the reaſon of it is as obvious as of the is extracted from animals and vegetables, under the name of alkali general weakneſs of thoſe countries where gold and ſilver abound, volatile or ſal urinoſum, and is commonly conſidered as not be- viz. becauſe the inhabitants, placing a falfe confidence in the high | longing to the mineral kingdom ; but ſince it is diſcovered, not value of their poſſeſſions, neglect uſeful manufactures and trade, only in moſt part of the clays, but likewiſe in the fublimations which by degrees produces a general idleneſs and ignorance through at Solfatara, near Naples, it cannot poſſibly be quite excluded the whole country. On the other hand, perhaps, ſome countries from the mineral kingdom. See the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. V. might ſafely improve their revenues by ſuch traffic. In Saxony, Sect. II. for example, there might probably be other gems found beſides ORDER III. NEUTRAL Salts. aqua marines and topazes; or even a greater trade carried on Acids united to alkalies form neutral falts. Theſe diffolved in with quartz. water M IN MIN water are no ways diſturbed by the addition of an alkali ; and ORDER IV. EARTHY NEUTRAL SALTS. generally, by evaporation, concrete into cryſtals. If, by proper The compounds of earths and acids which poffefs folubility are tefts, they ſhow neither acid nor alkaline properties, they are ſaid decompoſed and precipitated by mild, but not by phlogiſticated to be perfect neutrals; but imperfect, when, from defect in quan alkalis. The moſt remarkable and uſeful article appertaining to tity or ſtrength of one ingredient, the peculiar properties of the this order is the gypſum, or plaſter, which is not only found dif- other more or leſs prevail. folved in various waters, but alſo in many places it forms immenſe I. Vitriolated tartar, vitriolated vegetable alkali, or (as Morveau ſtrata. It is placed by all mineralogiſts among the earths, which calls it) the vitriol of pot-am, is a perfectly neutral falt, which it greatly reſembles ; but it rather belongs to the faline ſubftances reſults from the combination of the vitriolic acid with the vege of the neutral kind, as appears by its conſtituent parts. When table fixed alkali. According to Bergman, it ſeldom occurs ſpon- burnt, it generates heat with water, but in leſs degree than lime taneouſly in nature, unleſs where tracks of wood have been burnt does. This falt has a particular taſte, neither bitter nor aſtringent, down. See the Syſtem of Chymiſtry, Part I. Chap. V. Sect. II. but earthy, when applied to the tongue; and it is owing to it that Article I. ſome waters, chiefly from pumps and wells, are called hard waters, It is eaſily obtained, by pouring the vitriolic acid on a ſolution becauſe they lie heavy on the ſtomach. It is unalterable whilſt of fixed vegetable alkali till it is ſaturated. Cryſtals of this neutral kept in a dry place; but on being expoſed to a moiſt air, it is falt are then formed. This cryſtalliſation ſucceeds better by eva much altered, and ſuffers a kind of decompoſition. When expoſed poration than by cooling, according to Mongez. See the Syſtem, to fire ſo as to loſe the water off its cryſtalliſation, it aſſumes a Part 1. Chap. V. Sect. III. Art. 1. dead white colour; and it is then what we call plaſter of Paris ; The taſte of this falt is diſagreeable, though ſomewhat reſembling but if the fire is too ſtrong, it melts and vitrifies, after loſing the common falt. vitriolic acid with which it is ſaturated. See Gypsum and the II. Common nitre is known in commerce by the name of ſalt- Syſtem of Chymiſtry, Part I. Chap. I. petre, and is alſo called priſmatic nitre, to diſtinguiſh it from the The moſt famous quarries of gypſum in Europe, are thoſe of cubic nitre after-mentioned.—It is perfect neutral falt; reſulting Montmartre, near Paris. It is found alſo in the vegetable king- from the combination of the nitrous acid with the pure vegetable dom.—Mr. Model found that the white ſpots in the root of rhu . alkali. According to Bergman, it is formed upon the ſurface of barb are a ſelenitical or gypſeous earth. Journal de Phyſ. vol. vi. the earth, where vegetables, eſpecially when mixed with animal p. 14.) For the various combinations, &c. which form the other ſubſtances, putrify. articles under the head of Earthy Neutral Salts, ſee the Syſtem of III. Digeſtive ſalt, falt of Sylvius, is ſometimes, though rarely, | CHYMISTRY, Part II. throughout. met with on the earth, generated perhaps, as profeſſor Bergman ORDER V. METALLIC SALTS. obſerves, by the deſtruction of animal and vegetable ſubſtances. The native ſalts belonging to this divifion may be diſtinguiſhed This falt is produced by a perfect combination of the vegetable by the phlogiſticated alkali , which precipitates them all. alkali with marine acid. It has been wrongly confounded with I. Vitriol of copper ; blue vitriol is a combination of the vi- common falt. triolic acid with copper, and is found in all ziment waters, as they IV. Mild vegetable alkali was formerly conſidered as a pure are called. Its colour is a deep blue; and being long expoſed to alkali, known by the name of potaſh and ſalt of tartar : but ſince the air, it degenerates into a ruſty yellow blue. Urged by the the diſcovery of the aerial acid, it is very properly clafled among flame of the blow-pipe on a piece of charcoal, it froths at firſt the neutral falts, and ought to be called aerated potaſe. It reſults with noiſe, giving a green flame, and the metallic particles are from a combination of the vegetable alkali with the aerial acid, etable alkali with the aerial acid, often reduced to a ſhining globule of copper, leaving an irregularly and is hardly ever found native, unleſs in the neighbourhood of figured ſcoria. But with borax the ſcoria is diſſolved, and forms woods deſtroyed by fire. On being expoſed on a piece of char a green glaſs. coal, urged by the blow-pipe, it melts, and is abſorbed by the II. Muriatic copper, or marine ſalt of copper, has been found coal; but, in the metallic ſpoon, it forms a glaſly bead, which in Saxony, in the mine of Johngeorgenſtadt. 1. It is of a green- becomes opaque when cold. iſh colour, and foliated texture. 2. It is moderately hard. 3. Some- V. Vitriolated acid ſaturated with mineral alkali; Glauber's times it is tranſparent and cryftalliſed. falt is a neutral ſalt prepared by nature (as well as by art), con III. Aerated iron is a combination of the aerial acid with iron; taining more or leſs of iron, or of a calcareous earth; from which and is found in the light chalybeate waters, where it is diffolved ariſes alſo ſome difference in its effects when internally uſed. It | by an exceſs of this acid. íhoots eaſily into priſmatical cryſtals, which become larger in pro IV. Vitriol of zinc, vitriolated zinc, or white vitriol. This portion to the quantity of water evaporated before the chryſtalliſa- | neutral metallic falt reſults from the combination of vitriolic acid tion. See the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Chap. V. Sect. I. Art. 3. with zinc. It is ſometimes found native, mixed with vitriol of VI. Cubic or quadrangular nitre rarely occurs but where marine iron, and in the form of white hairy cryſtals; or in a ſtalactical plants putrify. According to Bowles, quoted by Kirwan, it is form in the mines of Hungary, or as an effloreſcence on ores of found native in Spain. zinc. It is alſo found diſſolved in mineral waters, and generally VII. Common falt, or ſea ſalt, ſhoots into cubical cryſtals with ſome proportion of vitriols of iron and copper. Bergman during the very evaporation ; crackles in the fire, and attracts the fays, it is ſometimes produced by the decompoſition of pſeudoga- humidity of the air. It is a perfectly neutral falt, compoſed of læna, or black-jack; but this rarely happens, becauſe this ſub- marine acid, ſaturated with mineral alkali. It has a faline but agree ſtance does not readily decompoſe ſpontaneouſly. But that in able flavour. See the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. V. Sect. IV. Art. I. common uſe is moſt prepared at Goſlaar, from an ore which con- VIII. Borax is a peculiar alkaline ſalt, which is ſuppoſed to tains zinc, copper, and lead, mineraliſed by ſulphur and a little belong to the mineral kingdom, and cannot be otherwiſe deſcribed, iron. The copper is firſt ſeparated as much as poſlible: the re- than that it is diffoluble in water, and vitreſcible; that it is fixed mainder after torrefaction and diſtillation is thrown red hot into in the fire; and melts to a glaſs ; which glaſs is afterwards diſ water and lixiviated. It is never free from iron. See the Syſtem foluble in water. See the article BORAX and the Syſtem of Chy- | of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. I. Sect. V. miſtry, Part I. Chap. V. Sect. VI. ORDER VI. TRIPLE SALTS. IX. Mild mineral alkali is an imperfect neutral falt, and was The neutral falts hitherto enumerated are ſuch as are compoſed formerly conſidered as a pure alkali; but the diſcovery of the of two ingredients only; but ſometimes three or more are ſo united aerial acid has ſhown the miſtake. as not to be ſeparated by cryſtallization. The vitriols that we are X. Vitriolic ammoniac was called ſecret ſalt of Glauber, and acquainted with are hardly ever pure; and two or three of them is a combination of the volatile alkali with vitriolic acid. Ac ſometimes are joined together. cording to Bergman, it is ſcarcely found any where but in places Sometimes likewiſe it happens that neutral ſalts join earthy ſalts, where the phlogiſticated fumes of vitriolic acid ariſe from burning and earthy ſalts metallic ones. Bergman generally diſtinguiſhes ſulphur, and are abſorbed in putrid places by the volatile alkali. compound falts according to the number of their principles, whe- XI. Nitrous ammoniac reſults from the combination of the ther the ſame acid be joined to ſeveral baſes, or the fame baſe to nitrous acid with the volatile alkali. It is frequently found in different acids; or, laſtly, whether ſeveral menſtrua and ſeveral the mother-liquor of nitre. When mixed with a fixed alkali, the baſes are joined together. Hence ariſe ſalts triple, quadruple, &c. volatile betrays itſelf by its ſmell. which the diligence of after-times muſt illuſtrate. XII. Native fal ammoniac. The muriatic (or marine) acid CLASS III. MINERAL INFLAMMABLE SUB- ſaturated with a volatile alkali. This is of a yellowiſh colour, and STANCES. is ſublimed from the flaming crevices, or fire-ſprings, at Solfatara, To this claſs belong all thoſe fubterraneous bodies that are near Naples. See the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part I. Chap. V. diffoluble in oils, but not in water, which they repel; that catch Sect. IV. Aame in the fire; and that are electrical. XIII. Aerated or mild volatile alkali. This neutral falt reſults 1. Inflammable air, fire damp, is an aeriform ſubſtance eaſily from the combination of volatile alkali united to the aerial acid. known by its property of inflaming when mixed with twice or It was formerly conſidered as a pure alkali :-But the diſcovery of thrice its bulk of common atmoſpheric air ; and it is aſſerted to the aerial acid (or fixed air) has ſhown it to be a true neutral ſalt, be the real phlogiſton almoſt pure. though imperfect; as it retains ſtill all the properties of an alkali, It admits conſiderable varieties, according to the nature of the though in a weaker degree, on account of its combination with ſubſtances from which it is produced, and often gives different the aerial acid, which is itſelf the moſt weak of all acids, and of reſiduums upon combuſtion, fome of which are of the acid kind. courſe other ſtronger acids eaſily diſlodge it from its baſe, and If it is produced from charcoal, it yields aerial acid or fixed air : from various ammonial falts. from folutions of metallic ſubſtances, in the vitriolic nitrous, or a sada marine M IN MIN marine acids, it yields theſe reſpective acids, as M. Lavoiſier ii. Mineral phlogiſton mixed with metallic earths. This is afferts. See the Syſtem of AEROLOGY, Sect. VI. throughout. not found in any great quantity: in regard to its external appear- Mr. Scheele is of opinion, that every inflammable air is com ance, it reſembles pit-coal; and the fat ſubſtance contained in it, at poſed of a very ſubtile oil. This coincides with the idea enter times, partly burns to coal, and partly volatiliſes in a calcining tained by Chymiſts of their phlogiſton; and is confirmed by the heat. fact, of its being naturally found in thoſe ſprings from whence CLASS IV. METALLIC SUBSTANCES. iſſues petrol, whoſe exhalations are very inflammable. The reſi METALS are thoſe minerals which, with reſpect to their vo- duum, which remains in the atmoſphere after the combuſtion of lume, are the heavieſt of all known bodies. Some of them are inflammable air, is extremely noxious to animals. Doctor Prieſt malleable; and ſome may be decompounded; and, in a melting ley takes it to be a combination of phlogiſton with pure air, and heat, be brought back again to their former ftate by the addition on this account calls it phlogiſticated air. But M. Lavoiſier, of the phlogiſton they had loſt in their decompoſition. m on the contrary, conſiders it to be a primitive ſubſtance of All the metallic ſubſtances contain phlogiſton; and when, to a an unchangeable nature, and gives it the fingular name of at certain degree, deprived of it, fall into a powder like an earth; moſpheric mephitis. See the Syſtem of AEROLOGY, Sect. IV. but their attractions for phlogiſton are different. Moſt of them, and XIII. when melted in a common way, and expoſed to the air, have an 2. Hepatic air ſeems to conſiſt of ſulphur, held in folution in earthy cruft forned upon the ſurface, which cannot again be re- vitriolic or marine air. It is inflammable when mixed with three duced to metal without the addition of ſome inflammable matter, quarters of its bulk of common air. Nitre will take up about For a more particular account of the nature, properties, &c. of half the bulk of this air; and when ſaturated with it, will turn Metallic Subſtances in general, fee the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, ſilver black: but if ſtrong dephlogiſticated nitrous acid be dropped Part III. Introduction. into this water, the fulphur will be precipitated. See the Syſtem ORDER I. GOLD. of AEROLOGY, Sect. XII. This is eſteemed the principal and firſt among metals; and that 3. Phlogiſton combined with aerial acid; black lead, or wadd. partly for its ſcarcity, but chiefly for its qualities; for which fee Plumbago. See the article BLACK-LEAD and the Syſtem of the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. VII. Sect. I. For CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. 2. Sect. III. and the article an account of the places where it is found in greateſt quantities, PHLOGISTON. with the methods of extracting it from the ore, &c. fee the Article It is found, a. Of a ſteel-grained and dull texture. It is na- GOLD. turally black, but when rubbed it gives a dark lead colour. b. Of ORDER II. SILVER. a fine ſcaly and coarſe-grained texture; coarſe black-lead. This is the moſt precious of all metals, except gold. For its 4. Mineral tallow was found in the ſea on the coaſts of Finland | peculiar qualities, uſes, &c. ſee the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part in the year 1736. Its ſpecific gravity is 0.770; whereas that of III. Chap. II. Sect. VII. For the places where it is found, the tallow is 0969. It burns with a blue flame, and a ſmell of greaſe, manner of aſſaying it, &c. ſee the Article Silver. leaving a black viſcid matter, which is with more difficulty con- ORDER III. PLATINA. furned. This metal, which is a recent diſcovery, poſſeſſes many of the 5. Ambergris is commonly ſuppoſed to belong to the inineral properties of gold. The name ſeems to be a diminution of kingdom, although it is ſaid to have doubtful marks of its origin. plated Silver, expreſſing its moſt obvious appearance which is a. It has an agreeable ſmell, chiefly when burnt: b. Is con that of a ſilver coloured metal. For its properties, uſes, &c. fee ſumed in an open fire: c. Softens in a flight degree of warmth, the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. II. Sect. VIII. For ſo as to ſtick to the teeth like pitch. d. It is of a black or grey a copious general account, ſee the Article PLATINA. colour; and of a dull or fine grained texture. The grey is reck- ORDER VI. MERCURY or QUICKSILVER, oned the beſt, and is ſold very dear. This drug is brought to Is diſtinguiſhed from all other metals by its liquidity. For its Europe from the Indies. It is employed in medicine; and alſo as properties, combinations, uſes, &c. fee the Syſtem of Chy- a perfume. For a copious account ſee the article AMBERGRIS. MISTRY, Part III. Chap II. Sect. II. For its uſes, ſee alſo the 6. Amber is dug out of the earth, and found on the ſea-coaſts. Article MERCURY. According to the experiments of M. Bourdelin, it conſiſts of an Order V. TIN, inflammable ſubſtance, united with the acid of common ſalt, which Is an intermediate metal, between lead and ſilver; it is very ſeems to have given it íts hardneſs. ſoft and light: for its other properties, ſee the Syſtem of CHYMIS- It is ſuppoſed to be of vegetable origin, ſince it is ſaid to be TRY, Part III. Chap. II. Sect. V. For the places where it is found together with wood in the earth. By diſtillation it yields found, ſee the Article Tin. water, oil, and a volatile acid ſalt, which the above mentioned ORDER VI. LEAD, author has thought to be the acid of common falt united with a Is the heavieſt of metals, except gold, platina, and mercury. ſmall portion of phlogiſton. Inſects, fiſh, and vegetables, are For its other properties as well as uſes in the arts, manufactures, often found included in it, which teſtify its having once been &c. ſee the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. II. Sect. I. liquid. It is more tranſparent than moſt of the other bitumens; To ORDER VII. COPPER, and is doubtleſs the ſubſtance which firſt gave riſe to electrical ex Is the lighteſt of all metals, except iron and tin; and the hardeſt periments (on account of the power it poſſeſſes of attracting little except iron. For its peculiar properties, uſes, &c. ſee the Syſtem bits of ſtraw, or of other light ſubſtances, when rubbed.) of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. II. Sect. IV. For the methods The greateſt quantity of European amber is found in Pruflia ; of procuring it from the ore and affaying it, ſee the Article but it is, beſides, collected on the ſea-coaſt of the province of COPPER. Skone, and at Biorko; in the lake Malaren in the province of ORDER VIII. IRON, Upland; as alſo in France and in Siberia. It is chiefly employed Is the lighteſt of all metals, except tin; and the hardeſt and in medicine and for inaking varniſhes. See the article AMBER. moſt elaſtic except platina. For an account of its various ſtates, 7. Rock-oil is an inflammable mineral ſubſtance, or a thin effects, ores, attraction by the magnet, uſes, &c. ſee the Syſtem bitumen, of a light brown colour, which cannot be decompoſed; of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. II. Sect. III. For the method but is often rendered impure by heterogeneous admixtures. By of its combination ſo as to form ſteel, ſee the Article IRON. length of time it hardens in the open air, and then reſembles a ORDER IX. BISMUTH, vegetable reſin; in this ſtate it is of a black colour, whether pure Is uſually found in tin mines, and ſometimes in ſilver mines. Its or mixed with other bodies. weight and colour diſcover it to be of a mercurial or metallic na- 8. Jet is a very compact bitumen, harder than aſphaltum, For its properties, ores, alloys, &c. fee the Syſtem of always black, and ſuſceptible of a good poliſh. It becomes elec CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. I. Sect. III. See alſo the Article trical when rubbed ; attracts light bodies like the yellow amber; BISMUTH. drigano huo and it ſwims on water. It ſeems to be nothing elſe than a black ORDER X. ZINC, Old is dan amber, or ſuccinum ; but ſpecifically lighter, on account of the Is of a brilliant white colour, approaching to blue. It is alſo greater portion of bitumen that enters into its compoſition. When called Spelter and tutenag. For its ores, analyſis, properties, uſes, burned it emits a bituminous ſmell. &c. ſee the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. I. Sect. 9. Mineral phlogiſton united with pure calcareous earth forms V. For its medicinal Properties, ſee the Article ZINC. the fetid or ſwine fpar. United with calcareous, argillaceous, ORDER XI. ANTIMONY, ponderous, and filiceous earth and vitriolic acid, forms liver-ſtone: Is a mineral ſubſtance, which has much engaged the attention With an argillaceous earth, forms pit or ſtone coal, of a black of alchymiſts. For an account of its ores, proceſſes, preparations, colour, and of a ſhining texture: it burns with a flame, and is ufes, &c. ſee the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. 1. moſtly conſumed in the fire; but leaves, however, a ſmall quan Sect. IV. For a further deſcription, ſee the Article ANTIMONY. tity of aſhes. ORDER XII. ARSENIC, Thoſe foffil ſubſtances, which furniſh fuel for the various pur In its metallic ſtate, is nearly of the ſame colour as lead; and poſes of human life, are diſtinguiſhed by the name of coals, on is poiſonous, eſpecially in the form of a pure calx or glaſs. For account of their being a fuccedaneum for wood and other vege its properties and uſes, and the ſymptoms which characterize its table productions, which when dry or of an oleaginous kind ſerve poiſon. See the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. I. Sect. I. for the ſame uſes. See alſo the Article ARSENIC. 10. The mineral phlogiſton or bitumen, united with the vitriolic ORDER XIII. COBALT, acid, forms ſulphur or brimſtone. See the article SULPHUR and Is confined in the bowels of the earth, with ſulphur, arſenic, the Syſtem of CYMISTRY, Part I. Chap. I. Sect. II. and other metallic ſubſtances. For its properties, uſes, &c. fee the ture. MIR Μ Ο Η the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. II. Sect. II. See and from a paſſage in the Mofaic writings we learn that the mir- alſo the Article COBALT. rors uſed by the Jewiſh women were made of braſs. The Jews ORDER XIV. MANGANESE certainly had been taught to uſe that kind of mirrors by the Egyp- Is a mineral of a greyish or blackiſh colour, and placed by moſt tians; from whence its probable, that brazen mirrors were the naturaliſts among the iron ores. For its ores, reduction, pro firſt kind uſed in the world. Any kind of metal indeed, when perties and uſes, ſee the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. well poliſhed, will reflect very powerfully; but of all others filver Chap. I. Sect. VI. reflects the moſt, though it hath been in all countries too expenſive MINERVA, or PALLAS, in Pagan worſhip, the goddeſs of a material for common uſe. Gold alſo is very powerful; and me- ſciences and of wiſdom, ſprung completely armed from Jupiter's tals, or even wood, gilded and poliſhed, will act very powerfully brain. Minerva is uſually repreſented by the poets, painters, and as burning mirrors. Even poliſhed ivory, or ſtraw nicely plaited ſculptors, completely armed, with a compoſed but agreeable coun together, will form mirrors capable of burning, if on a large ſcale. tenance, bearing a golden breaſt plate, a ſpear in her right hand, Since the invention of glaſs, and the application of quickſilver to and her ægis or ſhield in the left, on which is repreſented Meduſa’s | it, became generally known, it hath been univerſally employed head encircled with ſnakes, and her helmet was uſually entwined for thoſe plain mirrors uſed as ornaments to houſes; but in making with olives. reflecting teleſcopes, they have been found much inferior to me- MIRACLE, is defined by Dr. Samuel Clarke, to be a work tallic ones. It doth not appear that the ſame ſuperiority belongs effected in a manner different from the common and regular me to the metalline burning mirrors, confidered merely as burning thod of providence, by the interpoſition either of God himſelf, or glaſſes; ſince the mirror with which Mr. Macquer melted platina, fome intelligent agent ſuperior to man. It has been much contro though only 22 inches diameter, and which was made of quickfil- verted, whether true iniracles can be worked by any leſs power vered glaſs, produced much greater effects than M. Villette's me- than the immediate power of God; and whether to complete the talline fpeculum, which conſiderably exceeded it in fize. It is evidence of a miracle, the nature of the doctrine pretended to be very probable, however, that this mirror of M. Villette's was by proved by it is neceſſary to be taken into the conſideration. The no means ſo well poliſhed as it ought to have been: as the art of above learned author undertakes to ſet this matter in a clear light, preparing the metal for taking the fineſt poliſh hath but lately been as follows. . In reſpect to the power of God, and the nature of diſcovered and publiſhed in the Philoſophical Tranſactions by Mr. the things themſelves, all things that are poflible at all, are equally Mudge. eaſy to be done: it is at leaſt as great an act of power to cauſe the MISANTHROPY, Miravepwald, formed of uloos hatred, and ſun to move at all, as to cauſe it at any time to ſtand ſtill; yet this av@gwrtos, a man, a general diſlike or averſion to inan, and mankind. latter we call a miracle, the former not. In which ſenſe it ſtands oppoſed to philanthropy, or the love of What degrees of power God may reaſonably be ſuppoſed to have mankind. communicated to created beings or ſubordinate intelligences, is MISCARRIAGE. For the cauſes and methods of prevention impoſible for us to determine: therefore a miracle is not rightly ſee the Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, Part II. Sect. I. II. and III. defined to be ſuch an effect as could not have been produced by MISSIONARIES, ſuch ecclefiaftics as are ſent by any Chrif- any leſs power than the divine omnipotence. There is no in tian church into Pagan or infidel countries, to convert the natives, fance of any miracle in ſcripture, which to an ordinary ſpectator and eſtabliſh the Chriſtian religion among them. There were in would neceffarily imply the immediate operation of original, abſo France, and are in other Popiſh countries, ſeveral congregations of All things that are done in the world, miſſionaries, whoſe principal end was to be employed on miſſions, are done either immediately by God himſelf, or by created intelli and to inſpire into the young clerks that ſpirit of piety and devotion gent beings, matter not being at all capable of any laws or powers which is neceſſary for the worthy diſcharge of their miniſtry. whatſoever; ſo that all thoſe things which we ſay are the effects of Such were the congregations of the prieſts of the miſſion, the the natural powers of matter and laws of motion, are properly the Eudiſts, the miſſionaries of Lyons, and ſome others. The moſt effects of God acting upon matter continually and every moment, remarkable of theſe congregations was that of the prieſts of the either immediately by himſelf , or mediately by ſome created intel miſſion, which conſiſted of ſecular clergy; who make four ſimple ligent beings. Conſequently it is no more againſt the courſe of vows, of poverty, chaſtity, obedience, and perſeverance. Their nature for an angel to keep a man from ſinking in the water, than habit was diſtinguiſhed from that of other eccleſiaſtics only by for a man to hold a ſtone from falling in the air, by overpowering a linen-collar four fingers broad, and by their wearing a little tuft the law of gravitation; and yet the one is a miracle, the other not of beard. fo. The only poſſible ways by which a ſpectator may certainly MITTIMUS, in law, a writ by which records are ordered to and infallibly diſtinguiſh whether miracles be the works either im be transferred from one court to another ; ſometimes immediately, mediately of God himſelf, or of ſome good angel employed by as out of the king's bench into the exchequer; and ſometimes by him; or whether, on the contrary, they are the works of evil ſpi a certiorari into the chancery; and from thence, by a mittimus, rits, are theſe: if the doctrine atteſted by miracles, be in itſelf into another court. MITTIMUS is alſo uſed for a precept in impious, or manifeſtly tending to promote vice; then, without all writing, directed by a juſtice of peace to a gaoler, for the re- queſtion, the miracles, how great ſoever they may appear to us, ceiving and ſafe keeping a felon, or other offender, by him com- are neither worked by God himſelf, nor by his commiſſion. If mitted to the gaol. This is a warrant under the hand and ſeal the doctrine itſelf be indifferent, and at the ſame time there be of the juſtice, containing the cauſe of the commitment of the worked other miracles more or greater than the former, then that offender. doctrine which is atteſted by the ſuperior power muſt neceſſarily MIXT, or Mixt Body, in chymiſtry, that which is com- be believed to be divine: this was the caſe of Moſes and the Egyp- | pounded of different elements or principles. tian magicians. If, in the laſt place, the doctrine atteſted by mi MIXTURE, a compound, or aſſemblage of ſeveral different racles tends to promote the honor of God, and the practice of bodies in the fame maſs. Simple mixture conſiſts only in the righteouſneſs among men; and yet nevertheleſs be not in itſelf de- ſimple appoſition of parts of different bodies to each other. Thus, monſtrable, nor could without a revelation be diſcovered to be ac when powders of different kinds are rubbed together, the mixture tually true, and there is no pretence of more and greater miracles is only ſimple, and each of the powders retains its particular cha- to contradict it, which is the caſe of the doctrine and miracles of racters. In like manner, when oil and water are mixed together, Chriſt; then the miracles are unqueſtionably divine, and the doc- though the parts of both are confounded, ſo that the liquor may trine muſt, without all controverſy, be acknowledged as an imme appear to be homogeneous, we cannot ſay that there is any more diate and infallible revelation from God. than a ſimple appoſition of the parts, as the oil and water may very The Lord Bacon obſerves, that a miracle was never wrought by eaſily be again ſeparated from each other. But the caſe is very God to convert an atheiſt, becauſe the light of nature might have different when bodies are chymically mixed; for then one or both led him to confeſs a God: but miracles, ſays he, are deſigned to bodies affume new properties, and can by no means be diſcovered convert idolaters and the ſuperſtitious, who have acknowledged a in their proper form without a particular chymical proceſs adapted deity, but erred in the manner of adoring him; becauſe no light to this purpoſe. Hence chymical mixture is attended with many of nature extends fo far as fully to declare the will and true worſhip phenomena which are never obſerved in ſimple mixtures; ſuch as of God. heat, efferveſcence, &c. To chymical mixture belongs the union MIRROR, a name for a looking-glaſs, or any poliſhed body, of acids and alkalies, the amalgamation of metals, ſolution of whoſe uſe is to form the images of diſtant objects by reflexion of the gums, &c.' and upon it depend many of the principal operations rays of light. See Syſtem of Optics, Part II. throughout, and of chymiſtry. plate I. MODULE, in architecture, a certain meaſure taken at plea- Mirrors are either plain, convex, or concave. The firſt reflect ſure, for regulating the proportions of columns and the ſymmetry the rays of light in a direction exactly fimilar to that in which they or diſtribution of the whole building. Architects uſually chooſe fall upon them, and therefore repreſent bodies of their natural the diameter or ſemidiameter of the bottom of the column for their magnitude. The convex ones make the rays diverge much more module; and this they ſubdivide into parts or minutes. See the than before reflexion, and therefore greatly diminish the images of Syſtem, Part II. Sect. V. with the plates annexed. thoſe objects which they ſhew: while the concave ones, by collect- MOHAIR, in commerce, the hair of a kind of goat, frequent ing the rays into a focus, not only magnify the objects they ſhow, about Angora in Turkey; the inhabitants of which city are all but will burn very fiercely when expoſed to the rays of the ſun; and employed in the manufacture of camblets made of this hair. Some hence they are commonly known by the name of burning mirrors. give the name mohair to the camblets or ſtuffs made of this hair: See BURNING Glaſs. of theſe there are two kinds; the one ſmooth and plain; the other In ancient times the mirrors were made of ſome kind of metal; watered like tabbies: the difference between the two only conſiſts * 8 C in Nº IIO. Μ Ο Ν MON among the in this, that the latter is calendered, the other not. There are ſulted the leaves. Linnæus uſes the cup of the flower on this alſo mohairs both plain and watered, whoſe woof is of wool, | occafion, which is a very eſſential part, in this clafs of plants, cotton, or thread. and ſufficiently different in the different genera. It is obſerved, MOISTURE. See HUMIDITY. The moiſture of the air that all the plants of this claſs are mucilaginous and emollient, has conſiderable effects on the human body. For the quantity and have great virtues as diuretics, &c. The common marſh- and quality of the food, and the proportion of the meat to the mallow defervedly ſtands at the head of theſe, and is common drink, being given, the weight of a human body is lefs, and in the preſcriptions of the phyſicians on theſe occaſions, as conſequently its diſcharges greater in dry weather than in wet well as in many of the thop compoſitions, as the ſyrup of marſhmallows and the like. See the Syſtem, Sect. V. weather; which may be thus accounted for; the moiſture of the air inoiſtens the fibres of the ſkin, and leſſens perfpiration, Claſs XVI. and Plate V. with the explanation. by leſſening their vibratory motion. When perſpiration is MONANDRIA, in botany, the firſt claſs of plants which thus leſſened by the moiſture of the air, urine, indeed, is by have hermaphrodite flowers, with only one ftamen each. The degrees increaſed, but not equally. See Dr. Bryan Robinſon's word is formed of the Greek povos, ſingle, and amg, male. See Diff. on the Food and Difcharges of the Human Bodies, the Syſtem, Sect. V. Claſs I. Plate IV. with the explanation. p. 68. feq. MONARCHY, Movapxias, a large ſtate governed by one : or MOLARES, in anatomy, the grinders; an epithet given to a ſtate where the fupreme power is lodged in the hands of a the large teeth ; as ferving, like mill-ftones, to grind the food. | ſingle perfon. The word comes from the Greek povaçxns, one See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. II. Art. 3. who governs alone ; formed of uovos, folus, and apxa, imperium, MOLE. The Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the Genus government. Of the three forms of government, viz. democracy, Talpa in Mammalia. For deſcription, fee TalPA. For repre- ariſtocracy, and monarchy, the laſt is the moſt powerful, all the fentation, fee Plate VI. Genus XVII. Species I. finews of government being knit together, and united in the MOLLUSCA, in the Linnæan fyſtem of vermeology, is hand of the prince; but then there is imminent danger of his the denomination of the fecond genus of vermes or worms. employing that ſtrength to improvident or oppreſſive purpoſes. Theſe are fimple naked animals, not included in a ſhell, but A democracy is the beſt calculated to direct the end of a law, furniſhed with limbs, and comprehending eighteen ſubordinate and an ariſtocracy to invent the means by which that end ſhall genera, and one hundred and ten ſpecies. See VERMEOLOGY. be obtained, and a monarchy is moſt fit for carrying thoſe MOLOCH, a falfe god of the Ammonites, who dedicated means into execution. The moſt ancient monarchy was that their children to him, by making them “ paſs through the of the Aſſyrians, which was founded ſoon after the deluge. fire,'' as the fcriptures exprefs it. There are various opinions Of monarchies, fome are abfolute and defpotic, where the concerning this method of confecration. Some think, the will of the monarch is uncontrolable; as Denmark, &c. others children leaped over a fire facred to Moloch; others, that they are limited, where the prince's authority is reſtrained by laws, paffed between two fires; and others, that they were really and part of the ſupreme power lodged in other hands; as in burnt in the fire, by way of facrifice to this god. There is England. See GOVERNMENT and PARLIAMENT. Some foundation for each of thefe opinions. For, firſt, it was uſual monarchies, again, are hereditary, where the ſucceſſion de- pagans to luſtrate or purify with fire; and, in the volves immediately from father to fon; and others are elective, next place, it is expreſsly faid, that the inhabitants of Sephar- | where on the death of the monarch, his ſucceſſor is appointed vaim burnt their children in the fire to Anamalech and Adram- | by election ; as in Poland. melech ; much fuch deities as Moloch of the Aminonites. MONASTERY, a convent, or houſe, built for the recep- Mofes, in ſeveral places, forbids the Ifraelites to dedicate tion and entertainment of monks, mendicant friars, or nuns, their children to this god, as the Ammonites did, and threatens whether it be an abbey, priory, &c. Monaſteries are governed death and utter extirpation to fuch perfons as were guilty of by different rules, according to the different regulations pre- this abominable idolatry. And there is great probability that ſcribed by their founders . The firſt regular and perfect mo- the Hebrews were much addicted to the worſhip of this deity; naſteries were founded by St. Pachomius in Egypt: but St. Bafil fince Amos, and after him St. Stephen, reproaches them with is generally conſidered as the great father and patriarch of the having carried along with them into the wildernefs the taber eaſtern monks; ſince, in the fourth century, he preſcribed nacle of their god Moloch. rules for the government of the monaſteries, to which the Solomon built a temple to Moloch upon the mount of Olives; Anchorets and Cænobites, and the other ancient fathers of and Manaſſeh, a long time after, imitated his impiety, by the defarts, ſubmitted. In like manner St. Benedict was ſtyled making his ſon pafs through the fire in honour of Moloch. It | the patriarch of the weſtern monks. He appeared in Italy to- was chiefly in the valley of Tophet and Hinnom, to the eaſt wards the latter end of the fifth century, and publiſhed his of Jeruſalem, that the Ifraelites paid their idolatrous worſhip rule, which was univerſally received throughout the weſt. to this falſe god of the Ammonites. St. Auguſtine being fent into England by St. Gregory the MOLOSSES, MOLASSES, or MELASSES, that grofs, yet pope, in the year 596, to convert the Engliſh, he at the fame fluid matter remaining of fugar, after refining, and which no time introduced the monaſtic ſtate into that kingdom ; which boiling will bring to a conſiſtence more folid than that of made fuch progreſs there, that, within the ſpace of 200 years, fyrup; hence alſo called ſyrup of ſugar. Properly, molaſſes are there were thirty kings and queens who preferred the religious only the ſediment of one kind of fugar called chypre, or brown habit to their crowns, and founded ſtately monaſteries, where fugar, which is the refuſe of other fugars not to be whitened, they ended their days in retirement. or reduced into loaves. Molaffes are much uſed in Holland The houfes belonging to the ſeveral religious orders, which among poor people, for the preparation of tobacco, and alſo obtained in England and Wales, were cathedrals, colleges, inſtead of fugar. There is a kind of brandy or ſpirit made of abbies, priories, preceptories, commandries, hofpitals, friaries, moloſſes; but by fome held exceedingly unwholeſome. hermitages, chantries, and free chapels. Theſe were under MOLOSSES Spirit, a very clean and pure fpirit, much uſed the direction and management of various officers. The diffo- in England, and made from moloſſes, or common treacle dif lution of houſes of this kind began fo early as the year 1312, folyed in water, and fermented in the fame manner as malt or when the templars were fuppreſſed; and in 1323, their lands, the common malt ſpirit. If ſome particular art is not uſed in churches, advowſons, and liberties, here in England, were the making this it will not prove fo vinous as the malt ſpirit, given, by 17 Ed. II. ſtat. 3. to the prior and brethren of the but more flat and leſs pungent and acid, though otherwiſe hoſpital of St. John at Jeruſalem. In the years 1390, 14.37, much cleaner taſted, as its eſſential oil is of a lefs nauſeous 1441, 1459, 1497, 1505, 1508, and 1515, ſeveral other houſes flavour. Whence if good freſh wine leys, abounding in tar were diffolved, and their revenues fettled on different colleges tar, be duly fermented in the ſolution made thin for that pur in Oxford and Cambridge. Soon after the laſt period, cardinal poſe, the ſpirit will by that means become much more vinous Wolfey, by licence of the king and pope, obtained a diffolu- and briſk, and approach more to the nature of the foreign tion of above thirty religious houſes, for the founding and {pirits. endowing his colleges at Oxford and Ipſwich. About the MOMENTUM, in mechanics, fignifies the ſame with im- fame time a bull was granted by the ſame pope to cardinal petus, or the quantity of motion in a moving body; which is Wolſey, to fuppreſs monaſteries, where there were not above always equal to the quantity of matter multiplied into the ve fix monks, to the value of eight thouſand ducats a year, for locity. For the general laws of motion, ſee Syſtem, Sect. II. endowing Windfor, and King's College in Cambridge; and and the article MOTION. two other bulls were granted to cardinals Wolfey and Campeius, MOMUS, in fabulous hiſtory, the god of raillery; or the where there were leſs than twelve monks, and to annex them jeſter of the celeſtial aſſembly, and who ridiculed both gods to the greater monaſteries; and another bull to the fame cardi- and men. nals to enquire about abbies, to be fuppreſſed, in order to be MONADELPHIA, in botany, the ſixteenth claſs of plants, made cathedrals. Although nothing appears to have been whoſe ſtamina, or male parts, on account of their filaments done in conſequence of theſe bulls, the motive which induced running in among one another, are all formed into one body. | Wolſey, and many others, to ſuppreſs theſe houſes, was the Though authors in general have kept this claſs of plants to deſire of promoting learning; and archbiſhop Cranmer en- gether, they have been much divided in their opinions, as to gaged in it with a view of carrying on the Reformation. the characters or parts of them, by which they ſhould divide There were other cauſes that concurred to bring on their ruin: them into genera. Some have had recourſe, on this occaſion, many of the religious were looſe and vicious ; the monks to the feed-veſſel; others, finding that inſufficient, have con were generally thought to be, in their hearts, attached to the pope's Μ Ο Ν Μ Ο Ν pope's fupremacy; their revenues were not employed accord from America within leſs than three centuries, and the quan. ing to the intent of the donors; many cheats in images, feigned tity is daily increaſing, the conſequence is, that more money miracles, and counterfeit relics, had been diſcovered, which muſt be given now for the ſame commodity than was given a brought the monks into diſgrace; the Obſervant friars had hundred years ago. any accident was to diminish the oppoſed the king's divorce from queen Catharine; and theſe quantity of gold and ſilver, their value would proportionably circumſtances operated, in concurrence with the king's want rife. ing a ſupply, and the people's deſire to ſave their money, to The æra of the invention of money is not eaſy to be ſettled. forward a motion in parliament, that in order to ſupport the There is no room to doubt, but that, in the earlieſt ages, the king's ſtate, and ſupply his wants, all the religious houſes ordinary way of traffic among men was, by trucking, or ex- might be conferred upon the crown, which were not able to changing commodity for commodity. Thus, in Homer, Glau- ſpend above 200l. a year; and an act was paſſed for that pur cus's golden armour was valued at one hundred oxen; and poſe, 27 Henry VIII. c. 28. By this act about three hundred Diomedes's armour at ten. and eighty houſes were diſſolved, and a revenue of 30 or But in courſe of time it was found neceſſary, in the way 32,000l. a year came to the crown; beſides about 100,000l. of commutative juſtice, to have ſome common meaſure, or in plate and jewels. The ſuppreſſion of theſe houſes occa ſtandard, according to which all other things ſhould be eſti- fioned diſcontent, and at length an open rebellion : when this mated. See the article ExCHANGE. This, as ſome gather was appeaſed, the king reſolved to ſuppreſs the reſt of the from Joſephus, was firſt invented by Cain ; though the firſt monaſteries, and appointed a new viſitation, which cauſed the tidings we hear of it are, in the time of Abraham, who paid greater abbies to be ſurrendered apace; and it was enacted by four hundred ſhekels for a burying place. 31 Hen. VIII. c. 13. that all monaſteries, &c. which have On the value money now ſtands, it may be divided into real, been ſurrendered ſince the fourth of February, in the twenty or imaginary. ſeventh year of his majeſty's reign, and which hereafter ſhall Real MONEY, includes all coins, or ſpecies, of gold, ſilver, be ſurrendered, ſhall be veſted in the king. The knights of copper, and the like; which have courſe in commerce, and do St. John of Jeruſalem were alſo ſuppreſſed by the 32 Hen. VIII. really exiſt . Hen. VIII. | really exiſt. Such are guineas, crowns, piſtoles, pieces of eight, C. 24. The fuppreffion of theſe greater houſes by theſe two ducats, &c. acts, produced a revenue to the king of above 100,000l. a year, The degrees of goodneſs are expreſſed in gold for carats, and beſides a large ſum in plate and jewels . The laſt act of diffo- in filver by penny-weights , &c. for there are ſeveral reaſons lution in this king's reign was the act of 37 Hen. VIII. C. 4. for not coining them pure, and without alloy. See the arti- for diffolving colleges, free chapels, chantries, &c. which act cles GOLD and SILVER. was farther enforced by i Ed. VI. C. 14. By this act were Among the ancient Britons, iron rings, or, as ſome ſay, fuppreſſed ninety colleges, a hundred and ten hoſpitals, two iron plates, or tin plates and rings, were uſed for money; among thouſand three hundred and ſeventy-four chanteries and free the Lacedæmonians, iron bars. Seneca obferves, that there chapels. The number of houſes and places ſuppreſſed from was anciently ſtamped money of leather, corium forma publica firſt to laſt, ſo far as any calculations appear to have been made, impreſſum; and the ſame thing was put in practice by Fre- ſeems to be no leſs than 47,721. deric II. at the ſiege of Milan; to ſay nothing of an old tra- But as there were probably more than one perſon to officiate dition among ourſelves, that, in the confuſed time of the barons in ſeveral of the free chapels, and there were other houſes wars, the like was done in England. In 1360, king John of which are not included within this account, perhaps they may France, who agreed to pay our Edward III. for the ranſom be computed in one general eſtimate at about 50,000. As of his perſon three millions of gold crowns, was reduced to there were penſions paid to almoſt all thoſe of the greater the neceſſity of paying for the neceſſaries of his houſhold in monaſteries, the king did not immediately come into the full leather money, in the middle whereof there was a little nail of enjoyment of the whole revenues : however, by means of ſilver. The Hollanders, we know, coined great quantities of what he did receive, he founded fix new biſhoprics, viz. thoſe paſteboard in the year 1574. Numa Pompilius made money of Weſtminſter (which was changed by Queen Elizabeth into of wood and leather; nor does it appear, that the Romans a deanry, with twelve prebends and a ſchool), Peterborough, were much acquainted with the art of ſtriking money in metal, Cheſter, Glouceſter, Briſtol, and Oxford. And in eight other during the time of their kings. There is reafon to believe, fees he founded deanries and chapters, by converting the priors that both gold and ſilver money were very early in uſe in Egypt and monks into deans and prebendaries, viz. Canterbury, and Aſia, and thence ſoon afterwards, introduced into Carthage Wincheſter, Durham, Worceſter, Rocheſter, Norwich, Ely, and Greece. From Greece it was brought to Rome, and and Carliſle. He founded alſo the colleges of Chriſt-church thence gradually weſtward into all the Roman provinces. in Oxford, and Trinity in Cambridge, and finiſhed King's The firſt filver money coined by the Romans was in the year college there. He likewiſe founded profeſſorſhips of divinity, of Rome 484, and their firſt gold money in 546. law, phyfic, and of the Hebrew and Greek tongues, in both With regard to the materials of Engliſh money, Sir Edward the ſaid univerſities. He gave the houſe of Grey Friars, and Coke lays it down, that the money of England muſt either be of St. Bartholomew's hoſpital, to the city of London; and a per- gold or filver: and none other was ever iſſued by the royal petual penſion to the poor knights of Windſor, and laid out authority till 1672, when copper farthings and halfpence were great ſums in building and fortifying many ports in the chan coined by king Charles the ſecond, and ordered by proclama- nel. It is obſervable, upon the whole, that the diſſolution of tion to be current in all tion to be current in all payments, under the value of fix-pence, their houſes was an act, not of the church, but of the ſtate : and not otherwiſe. But this copper coin is not upon the ſame in the period preceding the Reformation, by a king and par- footing with the other in many reſpects, particularly with liament of the Roman catholic communion, in all points ex- regard to the offence of counterfeiting it. cept the king's ſupremacy; to which the pope himſelf, by his After the arrival of the Romans in this iſland, the Britons bulls and licenſes, had led the way. See Tanner's Notitia imitated them, coining both gold and ſilver with the images of Monaſtica. their kings ſtamped on them; when the Romans had ſubdued MONASTIC, ſomething belonging to monks, or the monk the kings of the Britons, they alſo ſuppreſſed their coins, and iſh life. The monaſtic profeſſion is a kind of civil death, which brought in their own, which were current here from the time in all worldly matters has the ſame effect with the natural of Claudius to that of Valentinian the younger, this being death. about the ſpace of five hundred years. MONEY, a piece of metal marked for coin, with the arms Mr. Camden obſerves that the moſt ancient Engliſh coin he of a prince or ſtate, who make it circulate or paſs, at a fixed had known, was that of Ethelbert, king of Kent, the firſt rate, for things of different value ; to facilitate the buſineſs of Chriſtian king in the iſland; in whoſe time all money accounts commerce. It may be defined an univerſal medium, or com began to paſs by the names of pounds, ſhillings, pence, and man- mon ſtandard, by compariſon with which the value of all mer- cuſes . The penny ſeems borrowed from the Latin pecunia, or chandize may be aſcertained; or, it is a ſign, which repreſents rather from pendo, on account of its juſt weight, which till the reſpective value of all commodities . Metals are well cal- king Edward the Third's reign contained as much filver as culated for this fign, becauſe they are durable, and are capable about three pence of our money : theſe were coarſely ſtamped of many ſubdiviſions; and a precious metal is ſtill better cal with the king's image on the one ſide, and either the mint culated for this purpoſe, becauſe it is the moſt portable. A maſter's name, or the city's where it was coined, on the other : metal is alſo the inoſt proper for a common meafure, becauſe five of theſe pence made their ſcilling, probably ſo called from it can eaſily be reduced to the ſame ſtandard in all nations ; | fcilingus, which the Romans uſed for the fourth part of an and every particular nation fixes on it its own impreſſion, that ounce ; forty of theſe ſcillings made their pound, and four the weight and ſtandard, wherein conſiſts the intrinſic value, hundred of theſe pounds were a legacy, or a portion for a inay both be known by inſpection only. And as money is the king's daughter; as appears by the laſt will of king Alfred. medium of commerce, it is the king's prerogative, as the arbi Though the coining of money be a ſpecial prerogative of the ter of domeſtic commerce, to give it authority, or make it king, yet the ancient Saxon princes communicated it to their It is evident, that, as the quantity of precious metals ſubjects; infomuch, that in every good town there was, at increaſes, i. e. the more of them there is extracted from the leaſt, one mint, but at London eight; at Canterbury four for mine, this univerfal medium, or common ſign, will fink in the king, two for the archbiſhop, one for the abbot at Win- value, and become leſs precious. Above a thouſand millions cheſter; fix at Rocheſter; at Haſtings two, &c. of bullion are calculated to have been imported into Europe The Norinan kings continued the ſame cuſtom of coining only current. M ON MOO only pence, with the prince's image on one ſide, and on the other MONSOON, a regular or periodical wind, in the Eaſt Indies. the name of the city where it was coined, with a croſs ſo deeply blowing conſtantly the fame way, during fix months of the year, impreſſed that it might be eaſily parted, and broken into two and the contrary way the remaining ſix. In the Indian ocean, the halves, which, ſo broken, they call half-pence; or into four parts, winds are partly general, and blow all the year round the fame which they called furthings, or FARTHINGS: way, as in the Ethiopic ocean; and partly periodical, i. e. half the About the year 1320, the ſtates of Europe firſt began to coin year blow one way, and the other half near on the oppoſite points : gold; and, among the reſt, our king Edward III. The firſt and thoſe points and times of ſhifting, differ in different parts of this ocean. pieces he coined were called Florences, as being coined by Floren- Theſe latter are what we call monſoons. The thifting tines; afterwards he coined nobles; then roſe-nobles, current at of theſe monſoons is not all at once: and in ſome places the time fix ſhillings and eight pence; half-nobles, called halfpennies, at of the change is attended with calms, in others with variable winds, three ſhillings and four pence of gold; and quarters at twenty and particularly thoſe of China, at ceaſing to be weſterly, are very pence, called farthings of gold. The ſucceeding kings coined ſubject to be tempeſtuous; and ſuch is their violence, that they roſe-nobles, and double roſe-nobles, great ſovereigns, and half ſeem to be of the nature of the Weſt Indian HURRICANES, and Henry' nobles, angels, and ſhillings. render the navigation of thoſe ſeas very unſafe at that time of the King James I. coined units, double crowns, Britain crowns; year. See the article HURRICANE. Theſe tempeſts the ſeamen then crowns, half-crowns, &c. called the breaking up of the monſoons. Monſoons, then, are a ſpecies Imaginary MONEY, or Money of Account, is that which has of what we otherwiſe call Trade-winds. They take the deno- never exiſted, or, at leaſt, which does not exiſt in real ſpecies, but mination monſoon from an ancient pilot, who firſt croſſed the Indian is a denomination invented, or retained to facilitate the ſtating of ſea by means hereof. Though others derive the name from a accounts, by keeping them ſtill on a fixed footing, not to be Portugueſe word, ſignifying motion, or change of wind, and fea. changed, like current coins, which the authority of the ſovereign See the article WIND. ſometimes raiſes, or lowers, according to the exigencies of ſtate. MONSTER, MONSTRUM, a birth or production of a living Of which kinds are, pounds, livres; marks, maravedies, &c. I thing, degenerating from the proper and uſual diſpoſition of parts, MONEY-Bills, in parliamentary language, comprehend all bills, in the ſpecies it belongs to. As, when there are too many mem- by which money is directed to be raiſed upon the ſubject, for any bers, or too few; or ſome of them are extravagantly out of pro- purpoſe or in any ſhape whatſoever; either for the exigencies of portion, either on the ſide of defect or exceſs. See the Syſtem of government, and collected from the kingdom in general, as the MIDWIFERY, Part VIII. Sect. II. LAND-Tax; or for private benefit, and collected in any particular The French Academicians have of late diſputed whether monſters, diſtrict, as by turnpikes, pariſh-rates, and the like. With reſpect to that is creatures born with their organs preternaturally formed or theſe bills the commons are ſo reaſonably jealous of their privilege ſituated, fupernumerary or defective, were originally ſó formed in of framing new taxes for the ſubject, that they will not ſuffer the their firſt ſtamina; or whether this deformity has been owing to other houſe to exert any other power but that of rejecting; they ſome accidental change upon them. will not permit the leaſt alteration or amendment to be made by opinions, are remarks upon particular hiſtories of ſuch monſtersy the lords to the mode of taxing the people by bills of this nature. which we cannot abridge, and therefore muſt refer to the Memoirs MONGOOSE, or Mongooz, a ſpecies of the Genus LE de l'Acad. des Sciences, 1733, 1734, 1738, 1739. Mur, in MAMMALIA. For the deſcription of the Genus and MONTH, in the computation of time, the twelfth part of the ſeveral ſpecies, ſee LEMUR. For repreſentation, ſee Plate II. year. There are divers kinds of years, and months, according to Genus III. Species II. the particular luminary by whoſe revolutions they are determined, MONK, a perſon who wholly dedicates himſelf to the ſervice and the particular purpoſes they are deſtined for; as ſolar months, of religion, in ſome monaſtery, under the direction of particular lunar months, aſtronomical months, &c. ſtatutes and rules. The moſt probable account of the original of Solar Month, is the ſpace of time wherein the ſun moves the monks is, that in the Decian perſecution, in the middle of the through one entire ſign of the ecliptic. Hence, if regard be had third century, many perſons in Egypt, to avoid the fury of the to the ſun's true motion, the ſolar months will be unequal; ſince ftorm, fled to the neighbouring deſarts and mountains, where they the ſun is longer in paſſing through the ſummer ſigns, than through not only found a ſafe retreat, but alſo more time and liberty to ex thoſe of the winter. But as he conſtantly travels through all the erciſe themſelves in acts of piety and divine contemplations; which twelve in 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, the quantity of a fort of life became ſo agreeable, that, when the perſecution was mean month will be had by dividing that number by 12. On over, they refuſed to return to their habitations again, chooſing this principle the quantity of a ſolar month will be found 30 days, rather to continue in thoſe cottages and cells which they had made 10 hours, 29 minutes, 5 ſeconds. See the Syſtem of ASTRONOMY, for themſelves in the wilderneſs. From that time to the reign of Sect. III. and IV. and Plate III. Fig. 2 and 3. Conſtantine, monachiſm was confined to the hermits or anacho Lunar Months, are either ſynodical, periodical, or illuminative. rets, who lived in private cells in the wilderneſs: but when Pa Lunar ſynodical MONTH, called alſo, abſolutely, lunar month, and chomius had erected MonASTERIES, other countries preſently lunation, is the ſpace of time between two conjunctions of the followed the exarnple. See ABBOT. For a particular account moon with the ſun; or between two new moons. The quantity of the preſent monaſtic orders, ſee BENEDICTINES, CARME of the ſynodical month is 29 days, 12 hours, 44', 3", 11". LITES, DOMINICANS, FRANCISCANS, &c. . Lunar periodical MONTH, is the ſpace of time wherein the MONKEY, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the Genus Simia moon makes her round through the zodiac; or wherein ſhe re- in MAMMALIA. For deſcription, ſee SIMIA, for repreſentation turns to the ſame point. The quantity of this month is 27 days, of the ſeveral families and ſpecies, ſee Plate I. 7 hours, 43', 8". The ancient Romans made uſe of lunar months, MONODON, a genus, the 7th order of Mammalia, called and made them alternately 29 and 30 days : and they marked the Cete. This genus has but one ſpecies called monoceros, or the ſea days of each month by three terms, viz. calends, nones, and ides. unicorn; it has a long wreathed tooth in the upper jaw, which Lunar illuminative Month, is the ſpace from the firſt time of perforates the upper lip, and has the appearance of a horn; from the moon's appearance after new moons, to her firſt appearance this circumſtance it has got the name of the unicorn-fiſh. It is of after the new moon following. Hence, as the moon appears the whale kind. Sometimes it grows to 25 feet in length; but ſometimes ſooner after the new moon, and ſometimes later, the the uſual fize is from 16 to 20. quantity of the illuminative month is not always the ſame. By this MONODY, in ancient poetry, a mournful kind of ſong, ſung month the Turks and Arabs reckon. by a perſon all alone, to give vent to his grief. The word is de Aſtronomical or natural Month, is that meaſured by ſome ex- rived from Mov@ " alone,” and aidw “I ſing.” act interval correſponding to the motion of the ſun, or moon. MONOECIA, from Novo " alone,” and omnia “ a houſe;" the Such are the lunar and ſolar months before mentioned. Where name of the 21ſt claſs in Linnæus's ſexual method. See Syſtem required that the months begin and end on ſome certain day. For note, that theſe months can be of no uſe in civil life, where it is of BOTANY, Sect. IV. and Plate IV. MONOGYNIA, from Movo- « alone,” and yuin " a woman;" this reaſon, recourſe is had to another form of months. the name of the firſt order or ſubdiviſion in the firſt 13 claſſes of MONUMENT, monumentum, of monere, to adviſe, advertiſe, Linnæus's ſexual method; conſiſting of plants which, beſides their in architecture, a building deſtined to preſerve the memory of the agreement in their claſſic character, generally derived from the perſon who raiſed it, or of him for whom it was raiſed : ſuch are, number of their ſtamina, have only one ftile, or female organ. a triumphal arch, a mauſoleum, a pyramid, &c. See Syſtem of BOTANY, Sect. IV. and Plate IV. The MONUMENT, abſolutely ſo called among us, denotes a mag- MONOSYLLABLE, MONOSYLLABUM, a word of a ſingle nificent pillar, deſigned by Sir Chriſtopher Wren, erected by order fyllable; or, that conſiſts of one or more letters which are pro of parliament, in memory of the burning of the city of London, nounced together. The French language abounds in monofyllables anno 1666, in the very place where the fire began. This pillar more than any other. other. This renders it the more perplexing to was begun in 1671, and finiſhed in 1677. It is of the Doric foreigners, and yet the beauty of the language ſeems to conſiſt in order, Auted, 202 feet high from the ground, and fifteen feet in dia- it. One of the beſt and ſmootheſt lines in Malherbe conſiſts of ieter, of ſolid Portland ſtone, with a ſtair-caſe in the middle, of twelve monoſyllables : fpeaking of Caliſta, he ſays, - Et moi je ne black marble, containing 345 ſteps. The loweſt part of the pe- voi rien quand je ne la voi pas. In this the genius of the Engliſh deſtal is 28 feet ſquare, and its altitude 40 feet; the front being tongue differs very much from the French, an uninterrupted ſeries enriched with curious baflo relievos. It has a balcony within of monoſyllables in the former having always an ill effect. This 32 feet of the top, where is a curious and ſpacious blazing urn of Mr. Pope both intimates and exemplifies in the ſame verſe : gilt braſs. And ten low words oft creep in ane dull line. MOOD, or MODE, in logic, called alſo Syllogiſtic Mood, is a proper M OR M OR j proper diſpoſition of the ſeveral propoſitions of a fyllogiſm, in moſt ſimple, intelligible , and popular manner; diveſted of reſpect of quantity and quality. See the Syſtem, Part III. Sea. IV. every partiality of feèt or nation, and adapted to the general Mood, or Mode, in grammar, is uſed to ſignify the differ ſtate of mankind! With what bright and alluring examples ent manners of conjugating verbs agreeably to the different does it illuſtrate and recommend the practice of thoſe duties; actions or affections to be expreſſed ; as fhewing, commanding, and with what mighty ſanctions does it enforce that practice! wiſhing, &c. Hence ariſe five moods; viz. the indicative, im How ſtrongly does it deſcribe the corruptions of our nature ; perative, optative, ſubjunctive, and infinitive. See the Syſtem, the deviations of our life from the rule of duty, and the cauſes Part II. Claſs III. ART. V. of both! How marvellous and benevolent a plan of redemption MOON, luna, (, in aſtronomy, one of the heavenly bodies, does it unfold, by which thoſe corruptions may be remedied, uſually ranked among the planets; but with more propriety ac and our nature reſtored from its deviations to tranſcendent counted a ſatellite, or ſecondary planet. The moon is an at heights of virtue and piety! Finally, what a fair and compre- tendant of our earth, which ſhe reſpects as a centre, and in henſive proſpect does it give us of the adminiſtration of God, whoſe neighbourhood ſhe is conſtantly found; inſomuch as, if of which it repreſents the preſent ſtate only as a ſmall period, viewed from the ſun, ſhe would never appear to depart from us and a period of warfare and trial! How ſolemn and unbounded by angle greater than ten minutes. For an explanation of the are the ſcenes which it opens beyond it! the reſurrection of the phenomena, phaſes, motions, and every other particular rela- dead, the general judgment, the equal diſtribution of rewards tive to this ſubject, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. III. and IX. and puniſhments to the good and bad; and the full completion MOOSE-Deer, one of the Engliſh names of a ſpecies of the of divine wiſdom and goodneſs in the final eſtabliſhment of genus Cervus, in Mammalia. For a deſcription of the genus order, perfection, and happineſs! How glorious then is that and ſeveral ſpecies, ſee Cervus. For a repreſentation of this Scheme of Religion, and how worthy of affection as well as of ſpecies, ſee Plate VIII. Genus XXIX. Species II. admiration, which, by making ſuch diſcoveries, and affording MORAI, is the name given at Otaheite, in the South Sea, ſuch aſſiſtances, has diſcloſed the unfading fruits and triumphs to their burying grounds, which are alſo places of worſhip. of Virtue, and ſecured its intereſts beyond the power of Time “ The foundation was of rock ſtones, which were alſo ſquared. and Chance! In the middle of the top ſtood an image of a bird, carved in MORASS, a marſh, fen, or low moiſt ground, which re wood near it lay the broken one of a fiſh, carved in ſtone. ceives the waters from above, without having any deſcent to The whole of this pyramid made part of one ſide of a ſpacious carry them off again. See Bog; and for the method of drain- area or ſquare, 360 feet by 354, which was walled in with ing, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. VIII. ſtone, and paved with flat ſtones in its whole extent. About an MORBID, among phyſicians, ſignifies « diſeaſed or cor- hundred yards to the weſt of this building was another paved area rupt;" a term applied either to an unfound conſtitution, or to or court, in which were ſeveral ſmall ſtages raiſed on wooden thoſe parts or humours that are affected by a diſeaſe. pillars, about ſeven feet high, which are called by the Indians MORSE, or ſea-horſe, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the ewattas, and ſeem to be a kind of altars, as upon theſe are pla- | genus Trichecus, in Mammalia. For a deſcription, ſee Tri- ced proviſions of all kinds, as offerings to their gods. On ſome CHECUS. For a repreſentation, fee Plate II. Genus VI. of them were ſeen whole hogs, and on others the ſkulls of above Species I. fifty, beſides the ſkulls of many dogs. The principal object of MORTALITY, a term frequently uſed to ſignify a contagi- ambition among the natives is to have a magnificent morai. The ous diſeaſe, which deſtroys great numbers of either men or beaſts. male deities (for they have them of both ſexes) are worſhipped Bills of MORTALITY, are accounts or regiſters ſpecifying by the men ; and the female by the women; and each have the numbers born, married, and buried, in any pariſh, town, morais to which the other ſex is not admitted, tho' they have alſo or diſtrict. In general, they contain only theſe numbers ; and, morais common to both.” See Bankes's Geography, Page 55 to 58. even when thus liinited, are of great uſe, by ſhewing the de- MORALS, or MORAL PHILOSOPHY, is the ſcience of grees of healthineſs and prolifickneſs, and the progreſs of po- manners or duty; which it traces from man's nature and con pulation in the places where they are kept. It is therefore much dition, and ſhews to terminate in his happineſs. In other words, to be wiſhed, that ſuch accounts had been always correctly kept it is, The knowledge of our duty and felicity ; or, The art of in every kingdom, and regularly publiſhed at the end of every being virtuous and happy. It is denominated an art, as it contains year. We ihould then have had under our inſpection the com- a ſyſtem of rules for becoming virtuous and happy. Whoever parative ſtrength of every kingdom, as far as it depends on the practiſes theſe rules, attains an habitual power or facility of number of inhabitants, and its increaſe or decreaſe at different becoming virtuous and happy. It is likewiſe called a ſcience, periods. But ſuch accounts are rendered more uſeful, when as it deduces thoſe rules from the principles and connections of they include the ages of the dead, and the diſtempers of which our nature, and proves that the obſervance of them is productive they have died. In this caſe they convey ſome of the moſt im- of our happineſs . It is an art, and a ſcience, of the higheſt portant inſtructions, by furniſhing us with the means of aſcer- dignity, importance and uſe. Its object is man's duty, or his taining the law which governs the waſte of human life, the values conduct in the ſeveral moral capacities and connections which of annuities dependent on the continuance of any lives, or any he ſuſtains. Its office is to direct that conduct; to ſhew whence ſurvivorſhip between them, and the favourableneſs or unfavour- our obligations ariſe, and where they terminate. Its uſe, or ableneſs of different ſituations to the duration of human life. end, is the attainment of happineſs; and the means it employs See the Syltem of ANNUITIES. are rules for the right conduct of our moral powers. MORTAR, a compoſition of lime, fand, &c. mixed up Moral Philoſophy has this in common with Natural Philofo- with water; ſerving as a cement to bind the ſtones, &c. of a phy, that it appears to nature or fact; depends on obſervation; | building. The ancients had a kind of mortar ſo very hard and and builds its reaſonings on plain uncontroverted experiments, binding, that, after ſo long a duration as to this time, it is next or upon the fulleſt induction of particulars of which the ſubject to impoflible to ſeparate the parts of ſome of their buildings; will admit. We muſt obſerve, in both theſe ſciences, how na though there are ſome who aſcribe that exceſſive ſtrength to ture is affected, and what her conduct is in ſuch and ſuch circum- time, and the influence of certain properties in the air, which ſtances. Or, in other words, we muſt collect the appearances is, indeed, found to harden fome bodies very ſurpriſingly. See of nature in any given inſtance ; trace theſe to ſome general the Article CEMENT. tas principles, or laws of operation; and then apply theſe princi MORTGAGE, in law, an obligation, whereby lands or ples or laws to the explaining of other phænomena. Therefore tenements of a debtor are pawned or bound over to the creditor Moral Philoſophy enquires, not how man might have been, but for money, or other effects, borrowed ; peremptorily to be the how he is, conſtituted: not into what principles or diſpoſitions creditor's for ever, if the money be not repaid at the day agreed his actions may be artfully reſolved, but from what principles The creditor holding ſuch land on ſuch agreement, is in and diſpoſitions they actually flow: not what he may, by edu the mean time called tenant in mortgage. He who lays the cation, habit, or foreign influence, come to be, or do; but pawn or gage, is called the mortgager; and he that takes it, what, by his nature, or original conſtituent principles, he is the mortgagee. If a mortgage includes exceſſive uſury, it is formed to be and do. We diſcover the office, uſe, or deſtina- prohibited by a ſtatute 37 Henry VIII. tion of any work, whether natural or artificial, by obſerving If a man borrows of another a ſpeciác ſum (e. g. 2001.) and its ſtructure, the parts of which it conſiſts, their connection or grants him an eſtate in fee, on condition that if he, the mortga- joint action. It is thus we underſtand the office and uſe of a ger, ſhall repay the mortgagee the ſaid ſum of 200l, on a cer- watch, a plant, an eye, or hand. It is the ſame with a living tain day, mentioned in the deed, that then the mortgager may creature, of the rational or brute kind. Therefore, to deter re-enter on the eſtate ſo granted in pledge; or, as is now the mine the office, duty, or deſtination of man; or, in other words, more uſual way, that the mortgagee thall re-convey the eſtate to what his buſineſs is, or what conduct he is obliged to purſue ; the mortgager; in this caſe the land, which is fo put in pledge, we muſt inſpect his conſtitution, take every part to pieces, exa is by law, in caſe of non-payment at the time limited, for ever mine their mutual relations one to the other, and the common dead, and gone from the mortgager ; and the mortgagee's eſtate effort or tendency of the whole in the lands is then no longer conditional, but abſolute. But The beſt leſſons of morals is contained in the Chriſtian Scheme, as it was formerly a doubt whether, by taking ſuch eitate in which clearly and fully lays open the connections of our nature, fee, it did not become liable to the wife's dower, and other in- both material and immaterial, and future as well as preſent ! cumbrances of the mortgage (though that doubt has been long What an ample and beautiful detail does it preſent of the duties ago over-ruled by our courts of equity) it therefore became we owe to God, to fociety, and ourſelves, promulgated in the uſual to grant only a long term of years, by way of mortgage ; VOL. III. 8 D with on. No. III. MOR M OR TION. with condition to be void on repayment on the mortgage-money; tions near the ſound parts: and afterwards the inciſed parts are which courſe has been ſince continued, principally becauſe, on to be well anointed with the common digeſtive ointment, and the death of the mortgagee, ſuch term becomes veſted in his after that treated with the balſamic cataplaſms and fomenta- perſonal repreſentatives, who alone are entitled in equity to re tions in common uſe on the like occaſions. ceive the money lent, of whatever nature the mortgage may A fomentation, alſo very ſerviceable in theſe caſes, is made happen to be. As ſoon as the eſtate is created, the mortgagee by mixing, in a quart of a decoction of ſcordium, or of bar- may immediately enter on the lands; but is liable to be dif- ley-water, vinegar of rue fix ounces, ſpirit of wine with Ve- poſſeſſed, upon performance of the condition by payment of nice treacle four ounces, and an ounce or two ounces of com- the mortgage-money at the day limited. And, therefore, the mon ſalt: this is to be applied hot with compreſſes to the part, uſual way is to agree that the mortgager ſhall hold the land till and frequently repeated, till it is ſeen that the diſorder ſpreads the day afligned for payment; when, in caſe of failure, where no farther; which is known to be the caſe, when we ſee the tu- by the eſtate becomes abſolute, the mortgagee may enter upon mor of the vitiated parts ſubſide, and the edges of the ſound it, and take poſſeſſion, without any poſſibility, at law, of being parts become tumid all round; and on the ſecond or third day afterwards ejected by the mortgager, to whom the land is now after this a fuppuration is uſually formed, and the found parts for ever dead. But here But here again the courts of equity interpoſe ; gradually become ſeparated from the vitiated. After this, to and, though a mortgage be thus forfeited, and the eſtate abfo ſoften and promote a ſpeedy feparation of the eſchar, the fol- lutely veſted in the mortgagee, at the common law, yet they lowing cataplaſm is always found highly ſerviceable. Take of will conſider the real value of the tenements compared with ſcordium two handfuls; mallows, marihmallows, and henbane, the ſum borrowed; and, if the eſtate be of greater value than of each one handful; lavender-flowers, half a handful; let the fum lent thereon, they will allow the mortgager at any theſe be boiled to the conſiſtence of a cataplaſm in vinegar, or reaſonable time to recall and redeem his eſtate; paying to the oxycrate; and when in that ſtate, add to them three ounces of mortgagee his principal, intereſt, and expences; for, otherwiſe, four of linſeed, one ounce of linſeed oil, and two ounces of in ſtrictneſs of law, an eſtate worth 1oool. might be forfeited ſal ammoniac. This is to be applied warın over the whole, for non-payment of iool. or a leſs fum. This reaſonable ad and retained in a proper degree of heat as long as ſhall be found vantage, allowed to mortgagers, is called the equity of REDEMP neceifary, by means of a brick boiled in water, and applied wrap- And this enables a mortgager to call on the mortgagee, ped in a linen cloth, or ſome other like means. After theſe who has poſeſſion of his eſtate, to deliver it back, and account methods have been uſed, and the whole furrounding ſkin is ge- for the rents and profits received, on payment of his whole debt nerally tumified with redneſs, a cruſt, or eſchar, is then formed and intereſt; thereby turning the mortuum into a kind of vivum by degrees, and the found fleſh begins to ſeparate from the reſt : vadium. But, on the other hand, the mortgagee may either by this we know that the diſorder is done ſpreading, and that compel the ſale of the eſtate, in order to get the whole of his an entire ſeparation of the vitiated parts will very inortly fol- money immediately, or elſe call upon the mortgager to redeem low. his eſtate preſently; or, in default thereof, to be for ever forecloſed When this ſeparation ſhews itſelf beginning, it muſt be pro- from redeeming the ſame; i. e. to loſe his equity of redemption moted as much as poſſible, by dreſſing the part with the com- without poſſibility of recall. mon digeſtive, either alone, or mixed with Venice treacle, MORTIFICATION, necroſis, in medicine, a total extinc which muſt be retained on between the ſound and dead paris. tion of the natural heat of the body, or a part thereof. Some To make way for this, it is ſometimes neceíſary to divide them define mortification a diſeaſe, wherein the natural juices of any by the lancet; and when that is done, and the dreſſing has been part quite loſe their proper motion; and by that means fall into applied, the before deſcribed cataplaſm ſhould be again laid on a fermentative one, and corrupt and deſtroy the texture of the warm; and in all the ſucceeding dreſſings, whatever is found part. looſe of the dead part muſt be carefully removed. And if it The indications of cure are, to confirm the ſtrength or to be neceſſary, from the adheſion of the vitiated parts to the ſound, raiſe and maintain the vital heat a little above the natural healthy to uſe the ſciſlars, or ſcalpel, to divide them, this is always to degree, to prevent the ingreſs of the putrid matter into the be done with very little, either of pain or of danger; it will veins, and to check and remove the putrefaction that is then be proper to dreſs the part with the digeſtive, and a plaſter ' formed. The bark is the only known ſpecific; however, the of diachylon, or the like, over it, till the corrupted parts are uſe of it is not to be indiſcriminately admitted in every caſe; entirely caſt off, and the ulcer appears perfectly well cleanſed, in habits that are lax and feeble, no objections can occur to pro and then the cure is eaſily perfected in the common way. hibit it; but in inflammatory habits, nitre, or mineral acids, This is the gentler and more common method : ſome ſur- ſhould accompany it if given, and great caution is neceſſay be geons, however, from the tediouſneſs of it, have recourſe di- fore it is preſcribed. If the inflammation is conſiderable, the rectly, in theſe caſes, to the cauſtic. They anoint either the mineral acids are more proper than the bark. If the pulſe is If the pulſe is edges only, or elſe the whole of the corrupted part, every day, ſtrong, large, and hard, and the extremities of the body are with butter of antimony, or the cauſtic ſtone liquified, till the warm, the urine red and high coloured, the circulation is ſuffi- living parts are ſurrounded by a ſort of eſchar, applying after- ciently frong, and need not be increaſed : but if the pulſe is wards the cataplafms before deſcribed, or others of the fame weak, and the ſymptoms indicate a defective vital heat, cor kind, to prevent the diſorder from ſpreading; and to make dials will be neceſſary. Mr. Potts obſerves, that a mortifica the corrupted parts ſeparate from the found, the corroſive lixi- tion proceeds from a circulation that is too rapid or too languid: vium of Boerhaave is greatly in repute, and much uſed on theſe in the firſt caſe, bleeding and diluters, and in the ſecond, cor occaſions. It is made of three ounces of very ſtrong quick- dials and invigorating medicines, muſt be preſcribed. If a pu- | lime, mixed with nine ounces of pot-alhes, firſt ground ſepa- trid ſcurvy affects the patient, adminiſter ſuch medicines as will rately to powder, and afterwards mixed, adding a little water ; oppoſe it: or if any other diſorder attends, the proper means they are then to be put into a glaſs veſſel, and ſet in a cellar to muſt be made uſe of by which it may ſpeedily be removed. run per deliquium. Bu There are two ſpecies, or rather degrees, of mortification : As ſoon as they are found to become fluid, the matter muſt be the one called a gangrene, which is a mortification in its firſt or put into a filtre of coarſe paper, and the clear liquor that runs beginning ſtate; the other, a ſphacelus, which is a perfect or through muſt be kept for uſe. It is to be uſed by dipping a finiſhed mortification.it bruſh or feather into it, and rubbing it over the part affected In caſes of a perfect ſphacelus, or mortification, where the once or twice a day; or fine linen rags may be wetted with it, parts are become abſolutely dead, and wholly without ſenſe, and applied all over the part ; not forgetting, however, at the and ſoft, ſo as to retain the impreſſions of one's fingers ends, and ſame time, the uſe of the before ordered cataplaſm : this appli- are plainly fetid and corrupted, all the medicines in the world | cation is to be continued till the corrupted part begins to caſt will be ineffectual to reſtore the part to its life and ſenſe again; off in cruſts or ſcales; and when this is the caſe, it muſt be and all that remains to be done, is the one miſerable remedy of dreſſed with the common digeſtive, and when perfectly cleanſed, preſerving the reſt of the body, by cutting off that part, to pre healed with a vulnerary balſam. vent the mortification from ſpreading further. A different me Finally, when the ſphacelus is ſo deeply affixed in any part of thod is to be taken, however, in this operation, according to the upper or lower extremity, that it has penetrated through the the degree of the ſymptoms, and the nature of the part af muſcles as far as the bone, and as either reſiſted the force of all fected. medicines, or the proper time for applying them has been neg- If only ſome extremity of the foot, tarſus, metatarſus, or lected ; in this caſe, to preferve the relt of the body, the inju- inſtep, or only the bare ikin and fat, are Sphacelated, which is red part muſt be amputated. ſometimes the caſe, the whole foot is not to be amputated in MORTMAIN, or ALIENATION in Mortmain, (in mortu that cafe, but preſerving the limb entire, the ſurgeon is only manu,) is an alienation of lands or tenements to any corpora- to remove that part which is vitiated; and that is frequently beit tion, fole or aggregate, eccleſiaſtical or temporal ; but theſe of all done by ſuppuration ; or if not to be effected by that purchaſes having been chiefly made by religious houſes, in con- means, may be attempted by the cauſtic. When it is to be done fequence whereof the lands became perpetually inherent in one by ſuppuration, that is to be brought on as faſt as poſſible ; and dead hand, this hath occafioned the general appellation of mort- when it is done, the cruſt or eſchar of the ulcer is to be ſeparated main to be applied to ſuch alienations, and the religious houſes from the ſound part with proper caution. themſelves to be principally conſidered in forming the ſtatutes of To halten effectually a ſuppuration in theſe caſes, nothing is mortmain: in deducing the hiſtory of which ſtatutes, it will be fo ſerviceable as the making numerous long and deep ſcarifica matter of curioſity to obſerve the great addreſs and fubtile con- trivance MOS MOV any kind. 3. The trivance of the eccleſiaſtics in eluding from time to time the at other times the quantity of this humour is ſmaller, and its laws in being, and the zeal with which ſucceſſive parliaments odour weaker. See Musk; and for a repreſentation, ſee Plate have purſued them through all their fineſſes; how new re VIII. Genus XXVIII. Species I. 2. The grimmia, or grim- medies were ſtill the parents of new evaſions ; till the legi me, or Guinea antelope, is a moſt beautiful animal, with ſtraight flature at laſt, though with difficulty, hath obtained a deciſive black horns, ſlender and ſharp pointed, not thrée inches long, victory. and ſlightly annulated at the baſe. Its height is about 18 inches : Yet ſtill it was found difficult to ſet bounds to eccleſiaſtical the ears are large, and the eyes duſky; below the eyes is a large ingenuity: for when they were driven out of all their former cavity, into which exudes a ſtrong ſcented oily liquid; between holds, they deviſed a new method of conveyance, by which the the horns is a tuft of black hairs. The colour of the neck and lands were granted, not to themſelves directly, but to nomi- body is brown, mixed with an afh-colour, and a tinge of yellow; nal feoffees to the uſe of the religious houſes; thus diſtinguilh the belly is white; the tail ſhort, white beneath, and black ing between the poſſeſion and the uſe, and receiving the actual above. Dr. Herman Grimm tells us, that the fat, viſcid, profits, while the feiſin of the land remained in the nominal | yellow humour, which is ſecreted in the cavities above the eyes feoffee, who was held by the courts of equity (then under the of this animal, has an odour that participates of muſk and direction of the clergy) to be bound in conſcience to account caſtoreum; but M. Voſmaer remarks, that in his live ſubject to his ceſtuy que uſe for the rents and emoluments of the eſtate. this viſcid matter has no odour of pygmæus And it is to theſe inventions that our practiſers are indebted for has feet narrower than a man's finger, and is found in Africa the inſtruction of uſes and truſts, the foundation of modern and Aſia. conveyancing. But, unfortunately for the inventors themſelves, MOSQUE, a temple or place of religious worſhip among they did not long enjoy the advantage of their new device; for the Mahometans. All moſques are ſquare buildings, generally the ſtatute 15 Richard II. C. 5. enacts, that the lands which conſtructed of ſtone. Before the chief gate there is a ſquare had been ſo purchaſed to uſes ſhould be amortiſed by licence court paved with white marble; and low galleries round it, from the crown, or elſe be ſold to private perſons; and that for whoſe roof is ſupported by marble pillars. In theſe galleries the future uſes ſhall be ſubject to the ſtatutes of mortmain, and the Turks waſh themſelves before they go into the moſque. In forfeitable like the lands themſelves. And whereas the ſtatutes each moſque there is a great number of lamps; and between had been eluded by purchaſing large tracts of land adjoining to theſe hang many cryſtal rings, oſtriches eggs, and other curioſities, churches, and conſecrating them by the name of church-yards, which, when the lamps are lighted, make a fine ſhew. As it ſuch fubtile imagination is alſo declared to be within the com is not lawful to enter the moſque with ſtockings or ſhoes on, paſs of the ſtatutes of mortmain. And civil or lay corporations, the pavements are covered with pieces of ſtuff ſewed together, as well as eccleſiaſtical, are alſo declared to be within the miſ each wide enough to hold a row of men kneeling, ſitting, or chief, and of courſe within the remedy provided by thoſe falu proſtrate. The women are not allowed to enter the moſque, tary laws. And, laſtly, as, during the times of popery, lands but ſtay in the porches without. were frequently given to ſuperſtitious uſes, though not to any Molt of the moſques have a kind of hoſpital belonging to corporate bodies; or were made liable in the hands of heir's them, in which travellers, of what religion ſoever, are enter- and devices to the charge of obits, chauntries, and the like, tained three days. Each mofque has alſo a place called a tarbe, which were equally pernicious in a well-governed ſtate as which is the burying-place of its founders; within which is a actual alienations in mortmain; therefore at the dawn of the tomb fix or ſeven feet long, covered with green velvet or ſattin; Reformation, the ſtatute 23 Henry VIII. C. 10. declares, that at the ends of which are two tapers, and round it ſeveral ſeats all future grants of lands for any purpoſes aforeſaid, if granted for thoſe who read the koran, and pray for the ſouls of the de- for any longer term than twenty years, ſhall be void. ceaſed. As it was apprehended from recent experience, that perſons MOTACILLA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the on their death-beds might make large and improvident diſpoſi order of Paſſeres. The moſt remarkable ſpecies are: The alba, tions even for theſe good purpoſes, and defeat the political ends or white wagtail, which frequents the ſides of ponds and of the ſtatutes of mortmain; it is therefore enacted by the ſta ſmall ſtreams, and feeds on inſects and worms. The head, tute of 9 Geo. II. c. 36. that no lands or tenements, or money back, and upper and lower ſide of the neck, as far as the breaſt, to be laid out thereon, ſhall be given for, or charged with, any are black ; in ſome the chin is white, and the throat marked charitable uſes whatſoever, unleſs by deed indented, executed with a black creſcent: the breaſt and belly are white; the quill- in the preſence of two witneſſes twelve kalendar months be- feathers are duſky; the coverts black, tipt and edged with white. fore the death of the donor, and enrolled in the court of chan The tail is very long, and always in motion. Mr. Willoughby cery within fix months after its execution, (except ſtocks in the obſerves, that this ſpecies ſhifts its quarters in the winter; funds, which may be transferred within ſix months previous to moving from the north to the ſouth of England during that ſea- the donor's death,) and unleſs ſuch gift be made to take effect fon. In ſpring and autumn it is a conſtant attendant on the immediately, and be without power or revocation : and that all plough, for the ſake of the worms thrown up by that inſtru- other gifts ihall be void. The two univerſities, their colleges, For a repreſentation, ſee Plate III. Genus XL. and the ſcholars upon the foundation of the colleges of Eton, The ſutoria, or taylor-bird, is a native of the Eaſt Indies. It Wincheſter, and Weſtminſter, are excepted out of this act : but is remarkable for the art with which it makes its neſt, ſeemingly ſuch exemption was granted with this proviſo, that no college in order to ſecure itſelf and its young in the moſt perfect man- ſhall be at liberty to purchaſe more advowſons than are equal in ner poſſible againſt all danger from voracious animals. It picks number to one moiety of the fellows or ſtudents upon the re up a dead leaf, and ſews it to the ſide of a living one; its llen- fpective foundations. der bill is the needle, and its thread is formed of ſome fine fibres; MOSCHUS, in MAMMALIA, a genus of quadrupeds of the the lining is compoſed of feathers, goſſamer, and down; its order of Pecora, having no horns; the canine teeth of the up eggs are white, the colour of the bird light-yellow; its length per jaw are ſolitary and exſerted. There are three ſpecies. I. three inches; and its weight only three ſixteenths of an ounce; The moſchiferus, or muſk animal, hath been conſidered by fo that the materials of the neſt and its own fize are not likely ſome authors as a ſtag, a roebuck, a goat ; and by others as a to draw down a habitation depending on ſo light a tenure. large chevrotain, a ſpecies of antelope ; but M. Buffon hath MOTION, primarily ſo called, or local Motion, is a con- determined it to be an ambiguous animal, participating of the tinued and ſucceſſive change of place; or that ſtate of a body nature of all theſe, but differing effectually from every one of whereby it correſponds ſucceſſively to ſeveral different places; or them, and from all other animals. It is of the ſize of a ſmall is preſent ſucceſſively in different parts of ſpace. In this ſenſe roebuck, but has no horns; it has long coarſe hair, a ſharp the doctrine and laws of motion make the ſubject of mechanics, muzzle, and tuſks like thoſe of a hog. The hair of the muſk or ſtatics. is ſofter than in moſt animals, and exceeding light and rare; General Laws of Motion, are thoſe laws of nature which for, being ſplit, they appear to be made up of little bladders, bodies in motion obſerve, or which regulate and determine the like thoſe in the plume or ftalk of a quill; fo that it is ſome- operations of moving bodies. On theſe, as a ſuperſtructure, thing betwixt a common hair and a quill. On each ſide of his reſts the whole fabric of Mechanics, and Mathematical Philoſophy. lower chop, almoſt under the corner of his mouth, there is a In the Syſtem of Mechanics, Sect. II. we have given the peculiar tuft, about three-fourths of an inch long, of ſhort, neceſſary definitions, poſtulata, and axioms. thick, and hard hairs, or rather briſtles, of equal length, as in Animal Motion, is that whereby the ſituation, figure, mag- a ſcrubbing-bruſh. The muſk-bladder, or bag which holds the nitude, &c. of the parts, members, &c. of animals are changed. perfume, is on the belly near the navel. It is about three inches Under theſe motions come all the animal functions; as reſpiration, long, and two over; ſtanding out from the belly one inch and a circulation of the blood, excretion, walking, &c. Animal motions half, and before the groin as much. The creature hath 26 teeth; are uſually divided into two ſpecies; viz. Spontaneous and na- 16 in the lower chop; of which there are eight little cutters be tural. Spontaneous, or Muſcular Motion, is that performed by fore; behind four grinders on each ſide, rugged and continuous, means of the muſcles, at the command of the will; hence alſo with as many grinders in the upper jaw. From the teſtimony called voluntary motion. Natural, or Involuntary Motion, is of a number of travellers, it appears that the perfume is produ that effected without ſuch command of the will ; by the mere ced only in the body of the male. The female of this animal mechaniſm of the parts. Such the motion of the heart and hath indeed a pouch of the ſame kind near the navel, but the pulſe; the periſtaltic motion of the inteſtines, &c. humour fecreted in it has not the ſame odour; and this tumour MOVEMENT, in mechanics, a machine that is moved by of the male is not filled with muſk except in the rutting ſeaſon ; clock-work. Perpetual Movement. Many have attempted to ment. find M O U MOU cury. find a perpetual movement, but without ſucceſs; and there is They ſerve as ſcreens to keep off the cold and nipping blaſts reaſon to think, from the principles of mechanics, that ſuch a of the northern and eaſtern winds; they alſo ſerve for the pro- movement is impoſſible ; for, though, in many caſes of bodies duction of a great number of vegetables and minerals, which acting upon one another, there is a gain of abſolute motion, yet are not found in any other foil; they enable us to keep thoſe the gain is always equal in oppoſite directions; ſo that the mines dry, which furniſh the moſt uſeful metals; beſides the quantity of direct motion is never increaſed. To make a per- long ridges and chains of lofty and topping mountains, being petual movement, it appears neceſſary that a certain ſyſtem of generally found to run from eaſt to weſt, ſerve to ſtop the bodies, of a determined number and quantity, ſhould move in evagation of the vapours towards the poles, without which they a certain ſpace for ever, and in a certain way and manner; and would run from the hot countries, and leave them deſtitute of for this there muſt be a ſeries of actions returning in a circle, rain. otherwiſe the movement will not be perpetual; fo that any Mr. Ray adds, that they condenſe thoſe vapours, like alem- action by which the abſolute quantity of force is increaſed, of bic heads, into clouds; and ſo by a kind of external diſtillation, which there are ſeveral forts, muſt have its correſponding give origin to ſprings and rivers; and, by amaſſing, cooling, counter-action, by which the gain is deſtroyed, and the quan- and condenſing them, turn them into rain; and, by that means, tity of force reſtored to its firſt ſtate. Thus by theſe actions render the fervid regions of the torrid zone habitable. Thus there will never be any gain of direct force to overcome the the more we confider nature, the more we muſt admire her friction and reſiſtance of the medium; ſo that every motion works; and what ſeems to be a defect or blemiſh in them, on a being diminiſhed by theſe reſiſtances, they muſt at length lan- | flight view, often proves, on more juſt obſervation, a great guilh and ceaſe. benefit and beauty. In hiſtory we have inſtances of mountains MOULD, or Mold, in agriculture, that kind of earth travelling conſiderable diſtances. To meaſure the height of a every where obvious to the ſurface of the ground; called alſo mountain, ſee ALTITUDE, &c. Though there is another natural or mother earth. For an account of the nature and way uſed by Dr. Halley in the meaſure of Snowdon hill in properties of this earth, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Wales, by means of a Barometer, the different height of Sect. I. whoſe mercury at the top and bottom of the mountain gives its MOULDINESS, a term applied to bodies which corrupt in perpendicular altitude ; accounting eighty-two feet perpen- the air, from ſome hidden principle of humidity there in ; and dicular aſcent for every inch varied in the height of the mer- whoſe corruption ſhews itſelf by a certain white down, or lanugo, on their ſurface. The mouldineſs, when viewed with a The difficulty of breathing at the tops of high mountains is a microſcope, affords a curious ſpectacle, being a kind of mea- | thing ſo plainly felt, that there are none who have ever been dow, out of which ariſe herbs and flowers: fome only in the in the way of making the experiment, who are not well con- bud, others full blown, and others decayed ; each having its vinced of the certainty of the fact. Acofta deſcribes what he little root, ſtalk, and other parts; the figure whereof may be felt on the tops of the high mountains of Pariacaca very judi- feen in Hook's Micrographia. The ſame may be obſerved of be obſerved of ciouſly. The mountains of Armenia, and that particularly the mouldineſs which gathers on the ſurface of liquid bodies. on which Noah's ark is ſuppoſed to have reſted, have been Mr. Bradley obſerved this mouldineſs in a melon accurately, and alſo made famous on the like accounts; though the ſnows found the vegetation of theſe little plants to be exceedingly that lie on the tops of theſe mountains make it impracticable quick. Each plant had its ſeeds in great abundance, which did to aſcend their tops; the people who climb as high as they can, not ſeem to be three hours before they began to ſhoot up; and always find that they breathe with more difficulty, and are in fix hours more the new plant was complete and mature, and compelled to fetch their breath oftener than when on the plains; the feed ready to fall. When the fruit had been covered with a and on travellers complaining of this, their guides always tell mould for fix days, its vegetative quality began to abate, and it them, that is a known thing, and is what every body ſuffers there. was entirely gone in two days more; then came on a putrefac The mountains in Languedoc and the Pyreneans have the ſame tion, and the fleſhy parts of the melon yielding nothing but a effect. People of curioſity have ſometimes remained hours ſtinking water, which began to have a gentle inotion on its ſur on the ſummit of theſe mountains, and always found the ſame face: and in two days time maggots appeared, which in ſix ſort of difficulty in breathing; but it is poſſible that this may more laid themſelves up in their bags, where they continued be owing to the exhalations of certain ſteams from the earth in four days, and then came out flies. Theſe maggots were owing theſe places, leſs loaded with a weight of air than below; and to the eggs of flies depoſited in the putrefaction. this appears the more probable, as in going up the mountain MOUNTAIN, Mons, a part of the earth riſing to a con Teneriffe, if many people are in company, and aſcend differ- fiderable height above the level of the ſurrounding ſurface. The ent ways, ſome uſually bear it better than others; and the very origin of mountains is variouſly aſſigned by philoſophers; fome complexions of ſome are turned yellow by the exhalations, will have them coeval with the world, and created along with which are very plainly perceived by their ſmell and tharpneſs; it. Others, among whom is Dr. Burnet, will have them to while others, who aſcend to the ſame height by different tracts, take their riſe from the deluge; urging, that the extreme irre- | eſcape. gularity and diſorder viſible in them, plainly ſhew, they do not The moſt remarkable mountain in the world, in ſhape, is come immediately out of the hand of God, but are the wrecks that called the needle mountain, or the inacceſſible mountain, in of the old world broken into the abyſs. See the Article De- | Dauphiny. This is a vaſt hill, placed as it were bottom up- LUGE ; and for the opinion of divers philoſophers, ancient wards, or ſet on its ſummit on the earth with its broad baſe and modern, on the ſubject at large, ſee the Article EARTH. elevated in the air; it is about a thouſand paces in circumfe- Others, again, alledge from hiſtory, that the foundations of rence at the bottom, and is above two thouſand at the top. On many hills being gradually deſtroyed, the hills themſelves have the centre of the plain at the top, there ſtands another ſmall and ſubſided, and ſunk into plains: whence they conclude, that very narrow, but very high hill. where the corruption is natural, the generation is ſo too. It obtained the name of the needle, as it got the other, by It appears to many, that ſome mountains muſt have been ge its being ſuppoſed impracticable to the aſcent of any one, by nerated gradually, and have grown up in proceſs of time, from reaſon of its projecting ſo greatly outwards. Some hardy . of them; which they fup- perſons, however, once ventured to climb it, and found at poſe may be accounted for from a violent wind blowing the the top a number of the chamois, animals by no means quali- ſand, &c. into huge heaps, which are afterwards made into fied for climbing, and which doubtleſs had never either aſcended a maſs by the rain, &c. Some among the divines tell us, that or deſcended the mountain, and which muſt be ſuppoſed to have the earth was created perfectly even ; and that when God ſepa bred there for many ages, though it is very difficult to account rated the water from the land, he dug channels in the earth; and for their firſt getting to the place. Hiſt, Acad. Par. 1700. the earth ſcooped out he threw up in mountains: but whether Attraction of MOUNTAINS. This is a late diſcovery, and a all the mountains be ſufficient to fill all the channels of the ocean, very conſiderable confirmation of Sir Iſacc Newton's theory of they muſt decide. univerſal gravity. According to the Newtonian fyſtem, an The origin of mountains, according to Mr. Ray, ſeems to attractive power is not only exerted between thoſe large maſſes have been exploſions by means of ſubterraneous fires; and it is of matter which conſtitute the ſun and planets, but likewiſe very probable that they have all vaſt hollows beneath them: between all comparatively ſmaller bodies, and even between that this might have been the means uſed at the creation, to the ſmalleſt particles of which they are compoſed. Agreeably make the dry land appear, is no way diſſonant to reaſon, ſince to this hypotheſis, a heavy body, which ought to gravitate, or hiſtory proves, that fires have raged in ſubterraneous caverns tend towards the centre of the earth, in a dire&tion perpendicu- under the ſeas, and there is no natural impoſſibility in fire's ſub lar to its ſurface, ſuppoſing the ſaid ſurface to be perfectly even fiſting in ſuch caverns, even when the earth was all over covered and ſpherical, ought likewiſe, though in a leſs degree, to be with water, as at the firſt creation. attracted, and tend towards a mountain placed on the earth's Mountains appear, to many, defects and blemiſhes in the ſurface: ſo that a plumb line, for inſtance, ofa quadrant, hang- earth; but they are truly of the utmoſt uſe, and neceſſary to the ing in the neighbourhood of ſuch a mountain, ought to be drawn well-being both of man and other animals. Many creatures from a perpendicular ſituation, in conſequence of the attractive live but in particular ſituations; and even the tops of the higheſt power of the quantity of matter of which it is compoſed, acting and the coldeſt mountains are the only places wherein ſome crea in a direction different from that exerted by the whole maſs of tures, as well birds as quadrupeds, will live : of this kind are matter in the earth, and with a proportionably inferior degree of the ibex and chamois among beaſts, and the lagopus among birds. force. Though M OU M UC yet it does not peat it. Though Sir Iſaac Newton had long ago hinted at an experi- , face; or will be about four or five times as great as if it were ment of this kind, and had remarked, that “a mountain of an all compoſed of water. This concluſion, Mr. Maſkelyne adds, hemiſpherical figure, three miles high and fix broad, would not, is totally contrary to the hypotheſis of ſome naturaliſts, who by its attraction, draw the plumb-line two minutes out of the ſuppoſe the earth to be only a great hollow ſhell of matter; perpendicular :" yet no attempt to aſcertain this matter, by ſupporting itſelf from the property of an arch, with an immenſe actual experiment, was made till about the year 1738 ; when vacuity in the midſt of it. But, were that the caſe, the at- the French academicians, particularly Meſirs. Bouguer and traction of mountains, and even ſmaller inequalities in the Condamine, who were ſent to Peru to meaſure a degree under earth's ſurface, would be very great, contrary to experiment, the equator, attempted to diſcover the attractive power of Chim and would affect the meaſures of the degrees of the meridian boraço, a mountain in the province of Quito. According to much more than we find they do; and the variation of gravity, their obſervations, which were, however, made under circum in different latitudes, in going from the equator to the poles, as ſtances by no means favourable to an accurate ſolution of ſo found by pendulums, would not be near ſo regular as it has been nice and difficult a problem, the mountain Chimboraço ex found by experiment to be. erted an attraction equal to eight ſeconds. Though this expe 4. As mountains are, by theſe experiments, found capable of riment was not perhaps ſufficient to prove ſatisfactorily even producing ſenſible deflections of the plumb-lines of aſtronomi- the reality of an attraction, much leſs the preciſe quantity of it, cal inſtruments, it becomes a matter of great importance, in appear that any ſteps had been ſince taken to re the menſuration of degrees in the meridian, either to chooſe places where the irregular attractions of the elevated parts may Through the munificence of his Britannic majeſty, the royal be ſmall, or where, by their ſituation, they may compenſate or ſociety was enabled to undertake the execution of this delicate counteret the effects of each other. and important experiment; and the aſtronomer royal was choſen MOURNING, a particular dreſs or habit, worn to ſignify to conduct it. After various enquiries, the mountain Schehallien, grief, on ſome melancholy occafion. grief, on ſome melancholy occaſion. The modes of mourning fituated nearly in the centre of Scotland, was pitched upon as are various in various countries; as alſo are the colours that ob- the moſt proper for the purpoſe that could be found in this tain for that end. In Europe, the ordinary colour for mourn- iſland. The obſervations were made by taking the meridian, ing is black; in China it is white; in Turkey, blue or violet; in zenith, diſtances of different fixed ſtars, near the zenith, by Egypt, yellow; in Ethiopia, brown. The ancient Spartan and means of a zenith ſector of ten feet radius ; firſt on the fouth, Roman ladies mourned in white: and the ſame colour obtained and afterwards on the north, ſide of the hill, the greateſt length formerly in Caſtile, on the death of their princes. Herrera ob- of which extended in an eaſt and weſt direction. ſerves, that the laſt time it was uſed was in 1498, at the death It is evident, that if the maſs of matter in the hill exerted of prince John. Kings and cardinals always mourn in purple. any ſenſible attraction, it would cauſe the plumb-line of the Each people pretend to have their reaſons for the particular ſector, through which an obſerver viewed a ſtar in the meridian, colour of their mourning: white is ſuppoſed to denote purity: to deviate from its perpendicular ſituation, and would attract it yellow, that death is the end of human hopes, in regard to leaves contrary ways at the two ſtations, thereby doubling the effect. when they fall, and flowers when they fade, become yellow: On the ſouth ſide the plummet would be drawn to the north brown denotes the earth, whither the dead return; black, the ward, by the attractive power of the hill placed to the north privation of life, as being the privation of light: blue expreſſes ward of it; and on the north ſide, a contrary and equal de the happineſs which it is hoped the deceaſed does enjoy; and flection of the plumb-line would take place, in conſequence of purple or violet, ſorrow on the one ſide, and hope on the other, the attraction of the hili, now to the ſouthward of it. The as being a mixture of black and blue. Mourning, among the apparent zenith diſtances of the ſtars would be affected contrary- ancients, was expreſſed various ways, as by tearing their cloaths, wife ; thoſe being increaſed at the one flation which were di- | by wearing ſackcloth, laying alide crowns, and every other miniſhed at the other; and the correſpondent quantities of the mark of joy. Plutarch, in his life of Cato, relates, that from deflection of the plumb-line would give the obſerver the ſum of the time of his leaving the city with Pompey, he neither ſha- the contrary attractions of the hill, acting on the plummet at ved his head, nor, as uſual, wore the crown or garland. Some- the two ſtations; the half of which will of courſe indicate the times public grief was teſtified by a general faſt. attractive power of the hill. MOUSE, the Engliſh name of the genus Mus. For a de . The various operations requiſite for this experiment laſted ſcription of the genus, and the ſeveral ſpecies belonging to it, about four months; and from them it appears, that the ſum of ſee the Article Mus. the two contrary attractions of the mountain Schehallien, in MOUTH, in anatomy, a part of the face, conſiſting of the the two temporary obſervations which were ſucceſſively fixed | lips, the gums, the inſides of the cheeks, the palate, the ſalival half-way up the hill (where the effect of its attraction would be glands, the os hyoides, the evula, and the tonſils. For a deſcrip- greateſt) was equal to 11". 6. From a rough computation, tion of theſe ſeveral parts, ſee the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XIII, founded on the known law of gravitation, and on an aſſump MUCILAGE, in pharmacy, is in general any viſcid or glu tion that the denſity of the hill is equal to the mean denſity of tinous liquor. Mucilage alſo imports the liquor which prin- the earth, it appears that the attraction of the hill ſhould cipally ſerves to moiſten the ligaments and cartilages of the ar- amount to about the double of this quantity. From thence ticulations; and is ſupplied by the mucilaginous glands. it was inferred, that the denſity of the hill is only about half the MUCOUS Glands, are three glands which empty themſelves mean denſity of the earth. It does not appear, however, that into the urethra, ſo called from the tenacity of the liquor which the mountain Schehallien has ever been a volcano, or is hollow; they ſeparate. See the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part III. Sect. as it is extremely ſolid and denſe, and ſeemingly compoſed of XV. Art. 1. an entire rock. MUCUS, a mucilaginous liquor ſecreted by certain glands, The inference drawn from theſe experiments may be redu and ſerving to lubricate many of the internal cavities of the ced to the following: 990 by body. In its natural ſtate it is generally limpid and colourleſs; “ 1. It appears, that the mountain Schehallien exerts a ſen but, from certain cauſes, will often aſſume a thick conſiſtence ſible attraction ; therefore, from the rules of philoſophiſing, we and whitiſh colour, like pus. As it is ſometimes of very great are to conclude, that every mountain, and indeed every particle importance in medicine to diſtinguiſh theſe two fluids from each of the earth, is endued with the ſame property, in proportion other, this was lately propoſed as the ſubject of a prize-diſpu- to its quantity of matter. tation by the Æſculapian Society of Edinburgh. The prize was 2. The law of the variation of this force, in the inverſe ra gained by Mr. Charles Darwin, ſtudent of medicine from tio of the ſquares of the diſtances, as laid down by Sir Iſaac Litchfield. The concluſions drawn from theſe experimentswere, Newton, is alſo confirmed by this experiment. For if the force 1. Pus and mucus are both foluble in the vitriolic acid, though of attraction of the hill had been only to that of the earth as in very different proportions, pus being by far leaſt ſoluble. 2. the matter in the hill to that of the earth, and had not been The addition of water to either of theſe compounds decompo. greatly increaſed by the near approach to its centre, the attrac ſes it. The mucus thus ſeparated, either ſwims in the mix- tion thereof muſt have been wholly inſenſible. But now, by ture, or forms large flocculi in it; whereas the pus falls to the only obſerving the mean denſity of the earth to be double to that bottom, and forms, on agitation, an uniform turbid mixture. of the hill, which ſeems very probable from other conſidera 3. Pus is diffuſible through a diluted vitriolic acid, though mu- tions, the attraction of the hill will be reconciled to the general cus is not. The ſame alſo occurs with water, or with a folu- law of the variation of attraction in the inverſe duplicate ratio of tion of ſea-ſalt. 4. Nitrous acid diſſolves both pus and mucus. the diſtances, as deduced by Sir Iſaac Newton from the com Water added to the ſolution of pus produces a precipitate, and pariſon of the motion of the heavenly bodies with the force of the fluid above becomes clear and green ; while water and the gravity at the ſurface of the earth ; and the analogy of nature ſolution of mucus form a turbid dirty-coloured fluid. 5. Alka- will be preſerved. dhe hanno line lixivium diffolyes, though ſometimes with difficulty, mu- 3. We may now, therefore, be allowed to admit this law, cus, and generally pus. 6. Water precipitates pus from ſuch and to acknowledge, that the mean denſity of the earth is at a mixture, but does not mucus. 7. Where alkaline lixivium leaſt double of that at the ſurface; and conſequently that the does not diffolve pus, it ſtill diſtinguilhes it from mucus, as it denſity of the internal parts of the earth is much greater than then prevents its diffuſion through water. Coagulable lymph is near the ſurface. Hence alſo, the whole quantity of the mat- neither ſoluble in concentrated nor diluted vitriolic acid. 9. ter in the earth will be at leaſt as great again as if it had been Water produces no change, on a ſolution of ſerum in alkaline all compoſed of matter of the ſame denſity with that at the fur- lixivium, until after long ſtanding, and then only a very flight No, IHI. VOL. III. 8 E ſediment M U G M U L fediment appears. 10. Corroſive fublimate coagulates mucus, MULATTO, a name given in the Indies to thoſe who are but does not pus. begotten by a Negro man on an Indian woman; or an Indian From the above experiments it appears, that ſtrong vitriolic man on a Negro woman. The word is originally Spaniſh, mu- acid and water, diluted vitriolic acid, and cauſtic alkaline lata, formed of mula, or mule, as being begotten by two differ- lixivium and water, will ſerve to diſtinguiſh pus from mucus; ent fpecies. Thoſe begotten of a Spaniſh woman and Indian that the vitriolic acid can ſeparate it from coagulable lymph, man, are called metis; and thoſe begotten of a favage by a metis and alkaline lixivium from ferum. are called jambos. Theſe are all very different in colour, and in Hence, when a perſon has any expectorated matter, the com their hair. poſition of which he wiſhes to aſcertain, let him diſſolve it in MULE, in the Syſtem of Mammalia, a mongrel quadruped, vitriolic acid, and in cauſtic alkaline lixivium. And let him generated between an aſs and a mare, and ſometimes between add pure water to both folutions. If there be a fair precipita a horſe and a ſhe-aſs; but the ſignification of the word is com- tion in each, he may be affured that ſome pus is preſent. But monly extended to every kind of animal produced by a mixture if there be a precipitation in neither, it is a certain teſt that the of two different ſpecies. There are two kinds of theſe animals; mixture is entirely mucus. If the matter cannot be made to one froin the he-aſs and mare, the other from the horſe and the diſſolve in alkaline lixivium by time and trituration, we have alſo ſhe-afs. We call them indifferently mules, but the Romans reaſon to believe it to be pus. diſtinguiſhed them by proper appellations. The firſt kind are MUFFLE, in metallurgy, is an arched cover, reſiſting the the belt and moſt eſteemed; as being larger, ſtronger, and hav- ſtrongeſt fire, and made to be placed over copels and telts in ing the leaſt of the aſs in their diſpolition. The largeſt and the operation of aſſaying, to preſerve them from the falling of ſtouteſt aſſes, and the faireſt and fineſt mares, are choſen in coals or aſhes into them; though at the fame time of ſuch a thoſe countries where theſe creatures are moſt in uſe; as in form, as not to hinder the action of the air and fire on the Spain, Italy, and Flanders. In the laſt eſpecially, they ſuc- metal, nor prevent the inſpection of the aſſayer. ceeded in having very ſtately mules from the ſize of their mares, MUFTI, the chief of the eccleſiaſtical order, or primate of ſome of them 16, and ſome 17 hands high, which are very the muſſulman religion. The authority of the mufti is very ſerviceable as fumpter mules in the army. But ſince the Low great in the Ottoman empire; for even the ſultan himſelf, if he Countries are no longer under the dominion of Spain, they would preſerve any appearance of religion, cannot, without breed fewer mules. Theſe creatures are very much com- hearing his opinion, put any perſon to death, or ſo much as mended for their being ſtronger, furer-footed, going eaſier, inflict any corporal puniſhment. In all actions, eſpecially being more cheaply maintained, and laſting longer than horſes. criminal ones, his opinion is required, by giving him a writing, They are commonly of a black-brown, or quite black, with in which the caſe is ſtated under feigned names; which he ſub that thining liſt along the back and acroſs the ſhoulders which fcribes with the words, He ſhall, or, Shall not be puniſhed. Such diſtinguiſhes aſſes. In former times they were much more outward honour is paid to the mufti, that the grand fignior common in this country than at preſent. But they are commonly himſelf riſes up to him, and advances ſeven ſteps to meet him found to be vicious, ſtubborn, and obſtinate to a proverb. Ac- when he comes into his preſence. He alone has the honour of cording to Linnæus, the mule is a variety of the ſecond ſpe- kiſling the ſultan's left thoulder, whilſt the prime vizier killes cies Allinus, belonging to the Genus Equus. See the Article only the hem of his garment. When the grand ſignior addreſ Equus. ſes any writing to the mufti, he gives him the following titles: Mules, among gardeners, denote a ſort of vegetable mon- To the eſad, the wiſeſt of the wiſe, inſtructed in all knowledge, ſters, produced by putting the farina fæcundans of one ſpecies the most excellent of excellents, abſtaining from things unlawful, of plant into the piſtil or utricle of another. The carnation the ſpring of virtue and of true ſcience, heir of the prophetic and ſweet william being ſomewhat alike in their parts, par- doctrines, reſolver of the problems of faith, revealer of the or ticularly their flowers, the farina of the one will impregnate thodox articles, key of the treaſures of truth, the light to the the other : and the feed fo enlivened will produce a plant dif- doubtful allegories, ſtrengthened with the grace of the Supreme ferent from either. An inſtance of this we firſt had in Mr. Legiſlator of mankind, may the moſt high God perpetuate thy Fairchild's garden at Hoxton; where a plant is ſeen neither virtues! The election of the mufti is ſolely in the grand ſig- | fweet-william nor carnation, but reſembling both equally: nior, who prefents him with a veſt of rich ſables, &c. If he is this was raiſed from the feed of a carnation that had been im- convicted of treaſon, or any great crime, he is put into a mor pregnated by the farina of the ſweet-william. Theſe coup- tar kept for that purpoſe in the Seven Towers at Conſtantino- lings being not unlike thoſe of the mare with the aſs, which ple, and pounded to death. produce the mule, the ſame name is given them: and they are, MUGİL, the Mullet, in ichthyology, a genus of fiſhes like the others, incapable of multiplying their ſpecies. belonging to the order of abdominales. The lips are mem This gives us a hint for altering the property and taſte of any branaceous, the inferior one being carinated inwards; they fruit, by impregnating one tree with the farina of another of have no teeth; the branchioſtege membrane has ſeven crooked the ſame claſs; e. gr. a codlin with a pear-main, which will rays; the opercula are ſmooth and round; and the body is of a occaſion the codlin ſo impregnated to laſt a longer time than whitiſh colour. There are two ſpecies, diſtinguiſhed by the uſual, and to be of a ſharper taſte. Or if the winter fruits be number of rays in the back-fin. in the back-fin. The mullet is juſtly ranked fecundated with the duſt of the ſummer kinds, they will ripen by Ariſtotle among the piſces littorales, or thoſe who prefer the before their uſual time. And from this accidental couplings of thores to the full ſea. The barbatus, or red furmullet, was the farina of one with another, it may poſibly be, that in an highly eſteemed by the Romans, and bore an exceeding high orchard where there is a variety of apples, even the fruit ga- price. The capricious epicures of Horace's days valued it in thered from the ſame tree differ in their favour, and in the ſea- proportion to its fize; not that the larger were more delicious, ſon of maturity. It is alſo from the ſame accidental coupling but that they were more difficult to be got. The price that that the numberleſs varieties of fruits and flowers raiſed every was given for one in the time of Juvenal and Pliny, is a ſtriking day from ſeed proceed. Wollot evidence of the luxury and extravagance of the age : MULLET, or Mollet, in heraldry, a bearing in form of Mullum fex millibus emit a flat, or rather of the rowel of a ſpur, which it originally re- Æquantem ſane paribus ſeſtertia libris. Juy, Sat. IV. preſented. The mullet has but five points ; when there are fix, The laviſh ſlave it is called a far. Though others make this difference, that the Six thouſand pieces for a mullet gave, mullet is, or ought to be, always pierced, which a ſtar is not. A feſterce for each pound. DRYDEN. The mullet is uſually the difference, or diſtinguiſhing mark for But Afinius Celer, a man of conſular dignity, gave a ſtill the fourth ſon, or third brother, or houſe. See the Syſtem, more unconſcionable ſum; for he did not fcruple beſtowing Sect. V. Plate II. 8000 nummi, or 641. IIs. 8d. for a fiſh of ſo ſmall a fize as MULTIPLICATION, in general, the act of increaſing the mullet: for, according to Horace, a mullus trilibris, or one the number of any thing. Multiplication, in arithmetic, is a of 3lb. was a great rarity: fo that the Juvenal's ſpark muſt rule by which any given number may be ſpeedily increaſed, have had a great bargain in compariſon of what Celer had. according to any propoſed number of times. - Multiplication, Mullets are found in great plenty on ſeveral of the fandy coaſts in algebra. For a full explanation and definitions of the terms of our iſland, and haunt in particular thoſe ſmall bays that have and rules appertaining to the four foregoing articles, ſee the influxes of freſh water. They come in great ſhoals, and keep Syſtem of AriTHMETIC, Chap. II. Sect. III. and the Syf- rooting like hogs in the ſand or mud, leaving their traces in tem of ALGEBRA, Sect. I. and Sect. II. Art. III. - a whil form of large round holes. Theſe fiſh ſometimes ſwarm on MULTIPLYING, in the ancient æconomy, the producing the coaſts of the Mediterranean. Near Martegues, in the of one's like. Mankind multiplied at a prodigious rate before South of France, abundance of mullets are taken in weres the flood. Rabbits, fiſh, and moſt infects multiply incredibly; made of reeds placed in the ſhallows. Of the milts of the the ſingle milt of a cod, examined with M. Leewenhoeck's males, which are called alletants, and of the roes of females, microſcope, was found to contain more ova than there are ani- which are called botar, is made botargo. The materials are mals on the face of the earth. See the Syſtem of ICHTHYOLOGY, taken out entire, covered wi:h ſalt for four of five hours, then Sect. III. M. Dodart has ſeveral diſcourſes on the multipli- preſſed a little between two boards or ſtones, waſhed, and at cation of plants, in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of iaft dried in the fun for 13 or 14 days. The mullet is an ex Sciences. He has examined the beech-tree, particularly, with cellent fiſh for the table, but at preſent not a faſhionable this view, and found its increafe to ſurpaſs all imagination. MULTIVALES, one, M U R MUR MULTIVALVES, in conchology, the name of the ift or the generation is performed. Some allow the eels to be like der of ſhell-fiſh, diſtinguiſhed from the univalves, which conſiſt the generality of other animals, of different ſexes in the differ- of ónly one ſhell , and the bivalves, which conſiſt of two, by ent individuals; and others affirming that they are all hermaphro- their conſiſting of three or more ſhells. For a deſcription of the dites; each having the parts of generation of both ſexes. Ron- ſeveral genera of this order, together with the ſpecies belonging delitius affirms that they are of both ſexes; and Mr. Allan, to each genus, ſee the Syſtem of CONCHOLOGY, Order 1. for who has given a very curious paper concerning them in the Phi- claſlification, ſee the Synoptical Tables. loſophical Tranſactions, is of the ſame opinion; and both ſay, MUMMY, a carcaſe, or body, embalmed or dried in the that the parts of the ſexes may be diſcovered on a careful inſpec- manner of the ancient Egyptians. Properly ſpeaking, mummy tion; and ſome are found to be males, and others females; but is not the fleſh of the deceaſed, but the compolition wherewith theſe parts are, in both ſexes, they ſay, buried in a large quan- it is embalmed; but, in common acceptation, mummy is alſo tity of fat; and they are of opinion, that hence proceeded the uſed for the body. The preparation of mummy is of ſo old a ſtand miſtake of Ariſtotle and his followers, who, not being able to ing, that it was in uſe in Egypt before the time of Moſes. The find thoſe parts, concluded that they did not exiſt at all. Among coifin in which the mummy is contained was to be of ſycamore is contained was to be of fycamore thoſe who allow the eel to be produced, like other animals, wood, which is found to keep ſound for the ſpace of three thou from animal-parents which have the ſexes, ſome are of opinion ſand years; but the tree, properly thus called, was very different that they are vivaparous, and others that they are oviparous : from our fycamore. Mummy is ſaid to have been firſt brought but Mr. Chartwynd ſeems to have determined this controverſy into uſe in medicine by a Jewiſh phyſician, who wrote, that by obferving, that if the aperture under the belly of the eel, feſh thus embalmed was good for the cure of divers diſeaſes, and which looks red in the month of May, be cut open at that time, particularly for bruiſes, to prevent the blood's gathering and coa the young eels will be ſeen to come forth alive after the opera- gulating. The Turks prevent the exportation of mummy into tion. M. Leewenhoeck ſays, that he found an uterus in every Europe as much as poſſible. There are two kinds of bodies eel he examined ; and therefore concludes, that they are herma- denominated mummies. The firſt are only carcaſes, dried by the phrodites: and he ſuppoſes that they have no male parts of gene- heat of the ſun, and by that means kept from putrefaction; ration like thoſe of other animals; but that the office of theſe is theſe are frequently found in the dry fands of Lybia. Some performed by a liquor analogous to the male ſeed of animals, ſay, they are the bodies of diſeaſed people buried there on pur which is contained in certain glands, ſituated on the inſide of the poſe to keep them entire without embalming; others, that they uterus itſelf. are the carcaſes of travellers, &c. who have been overwhelmed Eels have ſometimes been met with in recent ponds, made at with clouds of ſand raiſed by the hurricanes frequent in thoſe ſuch a diſtance from any other water that we cannot reaſonably defarts. Be that as it will, theſe mummies are of no uſe in me ſuppoſe them to have migrated thither over land. But in theſe dicine, and are only preſerved as curioſities. caſes there is reaſon to believe, that the ponds have been ſup- The ſecond kind of mummies are bodies taken out of the pits plied with them by the aquatic fowl of prey, in the ſame man or catacombs near Cairo, wherein the Egyptians depoſited their ner as vegetation is ſpread by many of the land-birds, either dead after EMBALMING. See the Articles CATACOMB and by being dropped, as they carry them to feed their young, or EMBALMING. Theſe conſtitute the mummy once ſo much valued, by paſſing quick through their bodies, as is the caſe with herons. and to which ſuch extraordinary virtues are aſcribed. It is ſaid, Theſe filh are extremely voracious, and deſtructive to the fry of that all the mummy fold in the ſhops, whether brought from others. No fiſh live ſo long out of water as the eel: and it is Venice or Lyons, or even directly from the Levant by Alexan extremely tenacious of life, inſomuch that its parts will move a dria, is factitious, and the work of certain Jews, who, knowing conſiderable time after they are flayed and cut in pieces. They the value the Europeans ſet on the Egyptian mummy, counterfeit vary much in their colours, from a ſutty hue to a light olive it by drying carcaſes in ovens, after having prepared them with green; and thoſe which are called ſilver eels have their bellies powder of myrrh, caballin, aloes, Jews pitch, black pitch, and white, and a remarkable clearneſs throughout. other coarſe or unwholeſome drugs. The French charletans, , Beſides theſe, there is a variety of this fiſh known in the river it ſeems, have likewiſe got the art of preparing muinmies. Thames by the name of grigs, and about Oxford by that of Their method is ſimple enough; out of the carcaſe of a perſon grigs or gluts. Theſe are ſcarce ever ſeen near Oxford in the hanged, they take the brain and entrails, and dry the reſt in an winter; but appear in ſpring, and bite readily at the hook, oven, ſteeping it in pitch, and other drugs; and this they fell for which common eels in that neighbourhood will not. They have right Egyptian mummy. There are found at this time in Poland a larger head, a blunter noſe, thicker ſkin, and leſs fat, than the a kind of natural mummies, or human bodies, preſerved without common ſort; neither are they ſo much eſteemed, nor do they the affiſtance of art. Theſe lie in conſiderable numbers in ſome often exceed three or four pounds in weight. Common eels of the vaſt caverns in that country. They are dried, with the grow to a large ſize, ſometimes weighing 15 pounds: but that is fleſh and ſkin ſhrunk up almoſt cloſe to the bones, and are of a extremely rare. Mr. Dale, indeed, in the Philoſophical Tranſ- blackiſh colour. In the wars which ſeveral ages ago laid waſte actions, and ſome others, bring inſtances of eels much exceed- that country, it was common for parties of the weaker ſide to ing that ſize; but Mr. Pennant ſuſpects them to have been con- retire into theſe caves, where their enemies, if they found it out, gers, ſince the enormous fiſh they deſcribe have all been taken at fuffocated them by burning ſtraw, &c. at the mouth of the the mouth of the Thames or Medway. The Romans held eels cavern, and then left the bodies; which, being out of the way very cheap, probably on account of their likeneſs to ſnakes. of injuries from common accidents, have lain there ever ſince. On the contrary, the luxurious Sybarites were ſo fond of theſe Parzus has a very curious treatiſe of mummies, wherein he fiſh, as to exempt from tribute of every kind thoſe perſons who fhews the abuſes thereof; and makes it appear, that they can fold them. never be of any real medicinal uſe. Matthiolus is of the ſame The conger, or conger-eel, grows to a vaſt ſize. Dr. Borlaſe opinion, after Serapion. Both theſe authors take even the informs us, that they are ſometimes taken near Mount’s-bay of Egyptian mummies to be no more than bodies embalmed with Ioolb. weight; and Mr. Pennant aſſures us, that he has heard pillaſphaltum. of ſome taken near Scarborough that were 10 feet and a half MURÆNA, or Eel, in ichthyology; a genus of fiſhes, be- long, and 18 inches in circumference in the thickeſt part. longing to the order of apodes. The head is ſmooth; there They differ from the common eel in the following particulars: 1. Their colour in general is more dark. in the membranes of the gills; the eyes are covered rays 2 Their eyes much with a common ſkin; and the body is cylindrical and ſlimy. | larger in proportion. 3. The irides of a bright ſilvery colour. There are ſeven ſpecies, diſtinguiſhed by their fins, tail, &c. 4. The lower jaw is rather ſhorter than the upper. The moſt remarkable are: ſide-line is broad, whitiſh, and marked with a row of ſmall 1. The anguilla, or common eel, is very frequent in all our ſpots. 6. The edges of the dorſal and anal fins are black. 7. freih water ponds, ditches, and rivers: according to Mr. Pen- They have more bones than the common eel, eſpecially along nant, it is the moſt univerſal of fiſh, yet is ſcarce ever found the back quite to the head. 8. They grow to a much larger in the Danube, though very common in the lakes and rivers of fize. Upper Auſtria. There is ſcarce any animal the generation of As to the diſtinction that Mr. Ray and other writers make of which has puzzled the learned more than this. Ariſtotle firſt the ſmall beards at the end of the noſe, Mr. Pennant thinks it broached an opinion that eels were of no ſex, nor did pro- not to be depended on, being ſometimes found in both kinds, pagate their ſpecies like other animals, but were equivocally and ſometimes entirely wanting. Probably they generate like gendered of the mud; and as wild and abſurd a ſyſtem as this is, the freſh-water ſpecies. Innumerable quantities of what are there have not been wanting many, even in theſe latter and ſuppoſed to be their fry, come up the Severn about the month of more enlightened times, who have given into it. But there is April, preceding the shads, which it is conjectured migrate into now no room to doubt that all animals are produced by the co that river to feed on them: they are called elvers. They ſwarm pulation of parents like themſelves; and the finding of eels in during their ſeaſon, and are taken in a kind of fieve made of new ponds is eaſily accounted for from the above-mentioned hair-cloth, fixed to a long pole; the fiſherman ſtanding on the circumſtance of their migration. Dr. Plot, and many others, edge of the water during the tide, puts in his net as far as he can have given accounts of whole droves of them leaving one ditch reach, and drawing it out again, takes multitudes at every ſweep, or pond to go to another. and will take as many during one tideas will fill a buſhel. They Though the learned world at this time generally allows that are dreſſed, and reckoned very delicate. . eels are produced like other animals, by parents of their own Congers are extremely voracious, preying on other fiſh, and kind, yet there remain many doubts about the manner in which on crabs at the time they have loſt their ſhell, and are in a ſoft ſtate, are ten 5. The 4 M U R M U R ſtate. They and eels in general are alſo particularly fond of flatter licentiates and doctors in phyſic; though it may be of uſe carcaſes of any kind, being frequently found lodged in ſuch as to make people cautious and wary how they meddle too much in are accidentally taken up. Theſe fiſh are an article of com ſo dangerous an employment. In order alſo to make the killing merce in Cornwall; numbers are taken on that coaſt, and ex murder, it is requiſite that the party die within a year and a day Some ported to Spain and Portugal, particularly to Barcelona. after the ſtroke received, or cauſe of death adminiſtered; in the are taken by a ſingle hook and line, but becauſe that way is te computation of which the whole day upon which the hurt was dious, and does not anſwer the expence of time and labour) done ſhall be reckoned the firſt. they are chiefly caught by bulters, which are ſtrong lines 300 3. Farther: The perſon killed muſt be “ a reaſonable creature feet long, with 60 hooks, each eight feet aſunder, baited with in being, and under the king's peace," at the time of the killing. pilchards or mackarel: the bulters are ſunk to the ground by a Therefore to kill an alien, a Jew, or an outlaw, who are all un- itone faſtened to them; ſometimes ſuch a number of theſe are der the king's peace or protection, is as much murder as to kill tied together as to reach a mile. The fiſhermen are very fearful the moſt regular-born Engliſhman; except he be an alien-ene- of a large conger, left it ſhould endanger their legs by clinging my, in time of war. To kill a child in its mother's womb, is round them; they therefore kill them as ſoon as poilible, by ſtrik now no murder, but a great miſpriſion: but if the child be born ing them on the navel. They are afterwards cured in this man alive, and dieth by reaſon of the potion or bruiſes it received in ner. They are ſlit, and hung on a frame till they dry, having a the womb, it ſeems, by the better opinion, to be murder in ſuch conſiderable quantity of fat, which it is neceſſary thould exude as adminiſtered or gave them. before they are fit for uſe. It is remarkable that a conger of 4. Laſtly, the killing muſt be committed “ with malice aforem 100 weight will waſte by drying to 241b. the people therefore thought,” to make it the crime of murder. This is the grand prefer the ſmalleſt, pofſibly becauſe they are ſooneſt cured. criterion which now diſtinguiſhes murder from other killing: During the proceſs there is a conſiderable ſtench; and it is ſaid, and the malice propenſe, malitia præcogitata, is not ſo properly that in the fiſhing villages the poultry are fed with the maggots ſpite or malevolence to the deceaſed in particular, as any evil de- that drop from the fiſh. The Portugueſe and Spaniards uſe thoſe lign in general; the dictate of a wicked, depraved, and malig- dried congers after they have been ground into a powder, to nant heart; un diſpoſition à faire un male choſe: and it may be thicken and give a reliſh to their ſoups. They are ſold for either expreſs or implied in law. Expreſs malice is when one, about 40 ſhillings the quintal, which weighs 1261b. A fiſhery with a ſedate, deliberate mind, and formed deſign, doth kill ano- of congers, ſays Mr. Pennant, would be of great advantage to ther: which formed deſign is evidenced by external circum- the inhabitants of the Hebrides. Perhaps they would at firſt ſtances diſcovering that inward intention; as lying in wait, an- undertake it with repugnancy, from their abſurd averſion to the tecedent menaces, former grudges, and concerted ſchemes to do eel kind. him ſome bodily harm. This takes in the caſe of deliberate duel- MURDER, or Murther, in law, is thus defined, or rather | ling, where both parties meet avowedly with an intent to mur- deſcribed, by Sir Edward Coke: “when a perſon, of found me der; thinking it their duty, as gentlemen, and claiming it as mory, and diſcretion, unlawfully killeth any reaſonable creature their right, to wanton with their own lives and thoſe of their in being, and under the king's peace, with malice aforethought, fellow-creatures; without any warrant or authority from any either expreſs or implied." The beſt way of examining the na power either divine or human, but in direct contradiction to the ture of this crime will be by conſidering the ſeveral branches of laws both of God and man: and therefore the law has juſtly fixed this definition. the crime and puniſhment of murder on them, and on their ſe- 1. It muſt be committed by a perſon of found memory and dif- conds alſo. Yet it requires ſuch a degree of paſſive valour to cretion: for lunatics or infants are incapable of committing any combat the dread of even undeſerved contempt, ariſing from the crime, unleſs in ſuch caſes where they fhew a conſciouſneſs of falſe notions of honour too generally received in Europe, that doing wrong, and of courſe a diſcretion or diſcernment between the firongeſt prohibitions and penalties of the law will never be good and evil. entirely effectual to eradicate this unhappy cuſtom, till a method 2. Next, it happens when a perſon of ſuch ſound diſcretion be found out of compelling the original aggreſſor to make ſome unlawfully killeth. The unlawfulneſs ariſes from the killing other ſatisfaction to the affronted party, which the world ſhall without warrant or excuſe: and there inuſt alſo be an actual kil eſteem equally reputable as that which is now given at the hazard ling to conſtitute murder; for a bare aſſault, with intent to kill, of the life and fortune, as well of the perſon inſulted, as of him is only a great miſdemeanor, though formerly it was held to be who hath given the inſult. Alſo, if even upon a ſudden provo- murder. The killing may be by poiſoning, ſtriking, ſtarving, cation, one beats another in a cruel and unuſual manner, fo that drowning, and a thouſand other forms of death, by which hu he dies, though he did not intend his death, yet he is guilty of man nature may be overcome, Of theſe the moſt deteſtable of murder by expreſs malice: i. e. by an expreſs evil deſign, the all is poiſon; becauſe it can of all others be the leaſt prevented, | genuine ſenſe of malitia. As when a park-keeper tied a boy either by manhood or forethought. And therefore, by the ſtat. (that was ſtealing wood) to a horſe's tail, and dragged him along 22 Hen. VIII. c. 9. it was made treaſon, and a more grievous | the park; when a maſter corrected his ſervant with an iron bar, and lingering kind of death was inflicted on it than the common and a ſchoolmaſter ſtamped on his ſcholar's belly, ſo that each of law allowed; namely, boiling to death: but this act did not live the ſufferers died: theſe were juſtly held to be murders, becauſe long, being repealed by i Edw. VI. c. 12. There was alſo, the correction being exceflive, and ſuch as could not proceed by the ancient common law, one ſpecies of killing held to be but from a bad heart, it was equivalent to a deliberate act of murder, which may be dubious at this day, as there hath not llaughter. Neither ſhall he be guilty of a leſs crime who kills been an inſtance wherein it has been held to be murder for many | another in conſequence of ſuch a wilful act as ſhews him to be ages paſt, viz. bearing falſe witneſs againſt another, with an an enemy to all mankind in general; as going deliberately, and expreſs premeditated deſign to take away his life, ſo as the inno with an intent to do miſchief, upon a horſe uſed to ſtrike, or cent perſon be condemned and executed. The Gothic laws coolly diſcharging a gun among a multitude of people. So if a puniſhed in this caſe both the judge, the witneſſes, and the pro man reſolves to kill the next man he meets, and does kill him, fecutor: and, among the Romans, the lex Cornelia de ficariis pu it is murder, although he knew him not; for this is univerſal niſhed the falſe witneſs with death, as being guilty of a ſpecies malice. And if two or more come together to do an unlawful of affaſſination. And there is no doubt but this is equally mur act againſt the king's peace, of which the probable conſequence der in foro conſcientia as killing with a ſword; though the modern might be bloodſhed; as to beat a man, to commit a riot, or to law (to avoid the danger of deterring witneſſes from giving evi rob a park, and one of them kills a man; it is murder in them dence upon capital proſecutions, if it muſt be at the peril of all, becauſe of the unlawful act, the malitia præcogitata, or evil their own lives) has not yet puniſhed it as ſuch. If a man, how- intended beforehand. ever, does ſuch an act, of which the probable conſequence may Alſo in many caſes where no malice is expreſſed, the law be, and eventually is, death, ſuch killing may be murder, al will imply it; as, where a man wilfully poiſons another ; in though no ſtroke be ſtruck by himſelf, and no killing may be ſuch a deliberate act the law preſumes malice, though no parti- primarily intended. If a man hath a beaſt that is uſed to do miſ cular enmity can be proved. And if a man kills another fud- chief, and, he knowing it, ſuffers it to go abroad, and it kills denly, without any, or without a conſiderable provocation, the a man; even this is manſlaughter in the owner: but if he had law implies malice; for no perſon, unleſs of an abandoned purpoſely turned it looſe, though barely to frighten people, and heart, would be guilty of ſuch an act upon a ſlight or no appa- make what is called ſport, it is with us (as in the Jewiſh law) as rent cauſe. No affront, by words or geſtures only, is a fuffi- much murder as if he had incited a bear or a dog to worry them. cient provocation, ſo as to excuſe or extenuate ſuch acts of vio- If a phyſician or ſurgeon gives his patient a portion or plaſter to lence as manifeſtly endanger the life of another. But if the cure him, which, contrary to expectation, kills him, this is perſon ſo provoked had unfortunately killed the other, by beat- neither murder nor manſlaughter, but miſadventure; and he ſhall ing him in ſuch a manner as ſhewed only an intent to chaſtiſe not be puniſhed criminally, however liable he might formerly and not to kill him, the law ſo far conſiders the provocation of have been to a civil action for neglect or ignorance; but it hath contumelious behaviour, as to adjudge it only man-flaughter, been holden, that if it be not a regular phyſician or ſurgeon who and not murder. In like manner, if one kills an officer of adminiſters the medicine, or performs the operation, it is man juſtice, either civil or criminal, in the execution of his duty, flaughter at the leaſt. Yet Sir Matthew Hale very juſtly queſtions or any of his aſliſtants endeavouring to conſerve the peace, or the law of this determination; ſince phyſic and ſalves were in any private perſon endeavouring to ſuppreſs an affray or appre- uſe before licenſed phyſicians and ſurgeons: wherefore he hend a felon, knowing his authority or the intention with which treats this doctrine as apocriphal, and fitted only to gratify and he interpoſes, the law will imply malice, and the killer thall I be M U S MUS be guilty of murder. It were endleſs to go through all the | agreeable to their taſte. Thoſe kept in houſes have nearly the caſes of homicide, which have been adjudged, either expreſsly ſame bad taſte with warren-rabbits; and thoſe kept in gardens or impliedly, malicious: theſe therefore may ſuffice as a ſpeci during the ſummer, have an inſipid, but leſs diſagreeable fla- men; and we may take it for a general rule, that all homicide vour. For a repreſentation, ſee Plate VII. Genus XXIV. is malicious, and of courſe amounts to murder, unleſs where Species I. juſtified by the command or permiſſion of the law; excuſed on 2. The aguti is about the ſize of a hare, has a ſhort tail ; principle of accident or ſelf-preſervation; or alleviated into four toes on the fore-feet, three on the hind ones; and a yel- man-llaughter, by being either the involuntary conſequence of | lowiſh belly. According to M. Buffon, it is an animal peculiar ſome act not ſtrictly lawful, or (if voluntary) occaſioned by to the ſouthern parts of America, being never found in the old ſome ſudden and fufficiently violent provocation. And all theſe world. It is common in Brazil, Guiana, St. Domingo, and circumſtances of juſtification, excuſe, or alleviation, it is in all the iſlands; and ſeems to require a warm climate in order cumbent upon the priſoner to make out to the ſatisfaction of to ſubliſt and multiply. However, they can live in France, the court and jury: the latter of whom are to decide whether if kept in a dry place, and ſheltered from winter-froſts. The the circumſtances alledged are proved to have actually exiſted: aguti is a very miſchievous animal, and bites cruelly: he grunts the former, how far they extend to take away or mitigate the like a pig; is very voracious; fits on his hind-legs, and holds guilt. For all homicide is preſumed to be malicious, until the his food with the fore-feet when he eats: hides what he cannot contrary appeareth upon evidence. conſume: hops like a hare, and runs very faſt both on plain and The puniſhment of murder, and that of manſlaughter, were riſing grounds: but as his fore-legs are much ſhorter than the formerly one and the ſame; both having the benefit of clergy: hind-ones, he would tumble headlong if he did not ſlacken his ſo that none but unlearned perſons, who leaſt knew the guilt of courſe in deſcending. Both his eye and his ear are fine. The it, were put to death for this enormous crime. But now, by ſe fleth of thoſe which are fat and well fed is not very bad, though veral ſtatutes, the benefit of the clergy is taken away from mur it be hard, and not very agreeable to the taſte. They ſcald the derers through malice propenſe, their abettors, procurers, and aguti, and make him ready in the ſame manner as a pig. He counſellors. In atrocious caſes it was frequently uſual for the is hunted with dogs. If taken young, he is eaſily tamed, and court to direct the murderer, after execution, to be hung upon goes out and returns of his own accord. Theſe animals com- a gibbet in chains near the place where the fact was committed; monly reſide in the woods and hedges; where the females chooſe but this was no part of the legal judgment; and the like is ſtill a place well covered and buſhy, and there prepare a bed of fometimes practiſed in the caſe of notorious thieves. But now, leaves and hay for their young. They annually produce two in England, it is enacted by ſtatute 25 Geo. II. c. 37. that the or three, but generally two. Like the cats, they tranſport judge, before whom any perſon is found guilty of wilful mur their young, two or three days after birth, into the hollow of der, ſhall pronounce ſentence immediately after conviction, trees, where they ſuckle them for a ſhort time; the young are unleſs he ſees cauſe to poſtpone it; and ſhall, in palling ſentence, foon in a condition to follow their mother, and to ſearch for direct him to be executed on the next day but one (unleſs the food. See Plate VII. Genus XXIV. Species II. ſame ſhall be Sunday, and then on the Monday following,) and 5. The lemmus, or Lapland marmot, hath a ſhort tail, five that his body be delivered to the ſurgeons to be diſſected and toes on both fore and hind feet, and the body is variegated with anatomized; and that the judge may direct his body to be af green and yellow. This creature, which is one of the moſt terwards hung in chains, but in nowiſe to be buried without | lingular that we know of, is ſaid to be a native of the mountains diſſection. And, during the ſhort but awful interval between of Kolin in Lapland. They appear not every year; but at fentence and execution, the priſoner ſhall be kept alone, and certain unforeſeen periods they come in ſuch numbers, that ſuſtained with only bread and water. But a power is allowed | they ſpread every where, and cover the whole furface of the to the judge, upon good and ſufficient cauſe, to reſpite the exe earth. The arrival of the lemmings is conſidered as a terrible cution, and relax the other reſtraints of this act. See PARRI- See PARRI- | fcourge, the effects of which it is impoſſible to avoid. They CIDE and TREASON. make dreadful devaitations in the fields; lay waſte the gardens; MURRAIN, or Gargle, a contagious diſeaſe among cattle. ruin the crops; and leave nothing, except what is ſhut up in The ſymptoms are, a hanging down and ſwelling of the head, houſes, where they never enter. They bark nearly like ſmall abundance of gum in the eyes, rattling in the throat, a ſhort dogs. When attacked, they neither fear clubs nor halberds, breath, palpitation at the heart, ſtaggering, a hot breath, and but dart againſt thoſe who ſtrike them, outrageouſly biting, a ſhining tongue. In order to prevent this diſeaſe, the cattle and fixing upon the weapons employed to kill them. When ſhould ſtand cool in ſummer, and have plenty of good water: ſtruck at with a ſtick, they ſeize it ſo forcibly with their teeth, all carrion ſhould be ſpeedily buried : and as the feeding of cat that they allow themſelves to be carried to a conſiderable diſ- tle in wet places, on rotten graſs and hay, often occaſions this tance without quitting their hold. They dig holes in the earth, diſeaſe, dry and ſweet fodder ſhould be given them. The an and make roads like the moles in queſt of roots. They ſome- tidote for this diſeaſe were equal parts of foot, gunpowder, times make war, and divide themſelves into two armies along brimſtone, and ſalt, with as much water as would wash it down; the lakes and meadows. Their enemies are foxes and ermines, a ſpoonful was the dofe. who devour great numbers of them. The lemmings, like the MUS, in the Linnæan Syſtem of Mammalia, the 24th genus rats, inutually deſtroy and eat each other, when paſture fails and belonging to the 4th order glires. There are twenty-one them; and this is the reaſon why their deſtruction is as ſudden ſpecies; but we ſhall only enumerate the following, which are as their multiplication. At particular times they aſſemble to- moſt remarkable. The Porcellus, or Guinea-Pig, ſo called | gether, and the whole die in company. They are very cou- from its being ſuppoſed to come only from Guinea, is a native rageous, and defend themſelves againſt all other animals. It is of Brazil as well as Guinea. Its form and proportion are too not certainly known whence they come. Upon the renewal of well known to need deſcription. Theſe animals are of ſuch the graſs they moſt of them die. In fine weather they take a hot conſtitution, that they copulate five or fix weeks after to the water in vaſt multitudes; but when a breeze of wind birth. They acquire not, however, their full growth before ariſes, they are all drowned. The number of theſe aniinals the eighth or ninth month. But this increaſe of ſize conſiſts is ſo prodigious, that when they die the air is infected, and only of fat; for the folid parts are fully unfolded before the produces many diſeaſes. They even ſeem to infect the plants age of fix months. The females go with young only three which they gnaw; for the paſture then kills the cattle. The weeks: the firſt litter conſiſts of four or five; the ſecond of fleſh of the lemmings is not good to eat; and their ſkin, though five or fix; and the ſucceeding ones of ſeven or eight, and the hair be fine, does not anſwer for making furs, becauſe it is ſometimes of 10 or 12. The mother ſuckles her young 12 or too thick. See Plate VII. Genus XXIV. Species V. 15 days: ſhe baniſhes them as ſoon as the receives the male, 6. The Paca, or ſpotted cavy, is an animal peculiar to the which happens at fartheſt three weeks after her delivery; and new world, particularly Brazil. It has a ſhort tail, five toes on if any of them perſiſt in following her, they are maltreated each foot, and three yellowiſh lines on each ſide. It reſembles and killed by the male. As they breed ſo faſt, their multitudes a pig of two months old; and its fieſh is fat, and makes excel- would be innumerable, if there were not ſo many enemies | lent food. Even the ſkin iseat, like that of a pig. For theſe reaſons which deſtroy them. They cannot reſiſt either cold or moiſture; this animal is in perpetual requelt. It is difficult for the hunters when cold, they aſſemble and crowd cloſe together, in which to take him alive. When ſurpriſed in his hole, which they lay caſe they often all periſh together. They are alſo devoured in open both before and behind, he defends himſelf, and even great numbers by cats, and many are killed by the males. bites fiercely. His ſkin, though covered with coarſe ſhort hair, Though perpetually throwing out urine, they never drink. makes a very good fur, becauſe it is regularly ſpotted on both They feed on all kinds of herbs; but eſpecially on pariley, fides. Theſe animals produce often, and in great numbers; many which they prefer to grain or bread; and they are likewiſe fond of them are deſtroyed by men and beaſts of prey, and yet the of apples and other fruits. They eat precipitately like the rab- ſpecies is always numerous. bit, little at a time, but very often; make a grunting noiſe like When kept in a wooden cage or box, this animal remains a little pig, and are very reitleſs. No mention is made by na- perfectly tranquil during the day, eſpecially when plentifully tural hiſtorians of the manners of this animal in a wild ſtate. fupplied with food. ſupplied with food. He ſeems even to have an affection for his Their ſkin is hardly of any value; and their fleſh, though eat retreat as long as the day laſts; for, after feeding, he retires able, is not ſo good as to be much demanded: but it inight be ſpontaneouſly into it. ſpontaneouſly into it. But when night approaches, by perpetual improved by keeping them in warrens, where they would have reſtleſſneſs and agitation, and by tearing the bars of his priſon the benefit of the freſh air, and the liberty of chooſing herbs | with his teeth, he diſcovers a violent deſire of getting out. No, IΙI. VOL. III. 8F Nothing M U S M U S Nothing of this kind happens during the day, unleſs he has oc by opening the cheſt. The blood continues to be fluid, but the caſion for fome natural evacuation; for he cannot endure the inteltines are not irritable; even an electrical ſhock does not ſmalleſt degree of dirtineſs in his little apartment; and when awake him: in the open air he never becomes torpid. When about to void his excrements, always retires to the moſt diſtant | dug up in his ſtate of torpidity, this animal is found with his head corner he can find. When his ſtraw begins to fmell, he often bent under his belly between the two fore-legs, and thoſe behind throws it out, as if he meant to demand freſh litter. This old reít upon his muzzle. The eyes are ſhut; and when the eye-lids firaw he puſhes out with his muzzle, and goes in queſt of rags are forced open, they inſtantly cloſe again. The members are ſtiff, or paper to replace it. In a female cavy, the following extraor like thoſe of a dead animal, and the whole body feelsas cold asice, dinary inſtance of cleanlineſs was obſerved. A large male rab When diſſected during this ſtate, he ſeems to feel very little: fome- bit being ſhut up with her when ihe was in ſeaſon, the took an times indeed he opens his mouth, as if he wanted to reſpire; averſion to him the moment he voided his excrement in their but his lethargy is too ſtrong to admit of his awakening entirely. common apartment. Before this ſhe was very fond of him ; This lethargy hath been aſcribed ſolely to a certain degree of licked his nofe, ears, and body; and allowed him to take almoſt cold; which indeed may be true with regard to dormice, bats, the whole food that was given her. But as foon as the rabbit &c. But experience thews, that, in order to render the hamſter had infected the cage with his ordure, ſhe retired into the bottom torpid, he muſt alſo be excluded from all communication with of an old preſs, where ſhe made a bed with paper and rags, and the external air; for when he is fhut up in a cage filled with returned not to her old lodging, till ſhe ſaw it neat, and freed earth and ſtraw, and expoſed in winter to a degree of cold ſuf- from the unclean gueſt which had been preſented to her. ficient to freeze the water, he never becomes torpid : but when The ſpotted cavy is eaſily accuſtomed to a domeſtic life. Un the cage is funk four or five feet under ground, and well ſecured leſs induſtriouſly irritated, he is gentle and tractable. He is againit the acceſs of the air, at the end of eight or ten days he fond of adulation, and licks the hand of the perſon who careſſes is equally torpid as if he had been in his own burrow. If the him. He knows thofe who take care of him, and readily dif cage is brought up to the ſurface, he will awake in a few hours, tinguiſhes their voices. When gently ſtroaked on the back, he and reſume his torpid ſtate when put below the earth. The ex- ſtretches himſelf out, lies down on his belly, by a fmall cryperiment may be repeated with the ſame ſucceſs as long as the expreſſes his acknowledgement, and ſeems to aſk a continuance froſt continues. We have a farther proof that the abſence of the of the favour. When feized in a rough manner, however, air is one of the cauſes of torpidity in the hamſter; for when he makes violent efforts to efcape. See Plate VII. Genus XXIV. brought up from his hole in the coldeſt weather, and expoſed to Species VI. the air, he infallibly awakes in a few hours. This experiment 7. The marmota, or marmot, has a ſhort hairy tail, round fucceeds as well in the night as in the day; which thews that ears, and gibbous cheeks. It is found only on the tops of the light has no ſhare in producing the effect. It is curious to obſerve higheſt mountains, and is more ſubject to be rendered torpid by the hamſter paſſing from a torpid to an active ſtate. He firſt cold than any other. In the end of September, or beginning loſes the rigidity of his members, and then makes a profound of O&ober, he retires into his hole, from which he comes not reſpiration, but at long intervals. His legs begin to move, he out till the beginning of April. The place of their abode is opens his mouth, and utters diſagreeable and rattling ſounds. well lined with moſs and hay, of which they make ample provi After continuing theſe operations for ſome time, he opens his fion during the ſummer. They dwell together, and work in eyes, and endeavours to raiſe himſelf on his legs. But all theſe common at their habitations, where they paſs three-fourths of movements are ſtill reeling and unſteady, like thoſe of a man their lives. Thither they retire during rain, or upon the ap- intoxicated with liquor. He, however, reiterates his efforts till proach of danger. They make no proviſion for winter; nor he is enabled to ftand on his legs. In this attitude he remains have they in that ſeaſon any occaſion for them, as lying aſleep fixed, as if he meant to reconnoitre and repoſe himſelf after his all that time. A foon as they perceive the firſt approaches of the fatigue ; but he gradually begins to walk, eat, and act in his ſleeping ſeaſon, they ſet to work in ihutting up the two entrances uſual manner. It is probable that, when the hamſter is in his of their habitation; and this they perform with ſuch labour and with ſuch labour and hole, this change is performed imperceptibly, and that he feels folidity, that it is eaſier to dig the earth any where elſe than in more of the inconveniencies which ariſe fiom a ſudden and the parts they have fortified. They are at this time very fat, | forced reviviſcence. weighing fometimes 20 pounds; and they continue to be plump The hamſter is a very miſchievous animal ; and ſo exceedingly for three months; but afterwards they gradually decay, and are fierce, that he ſeems to have no other pallion but rage. In conſe- extremely emaciated at the end of winter. When diſcovered in quence of this, he attacks every other animal that comes in his their retreats, they are found rolled up in the form of a ball, way, without regarding the ſuperior ſize or ſtrength of his anta- covered with hay; and they are carried off in fo torpid a ſtate, goniſt; nay, as if he was ignorant of the method of ſaving him- that they may be killed without ſeeming to feel pain. The fat felf by flight, he allows himſelf to be beat to pieces with a ſtick, teſt are choſen for eating, and the young ones for taming. When rather than yield. If he ſeizes a man's hand, he muſt be killed taken young, they may be rendered nearly as tame as our other before he quits his hold. When the hamſter perceives a dog at a domeſtic animals. They learn to ſeize a ſtick, to dance, to diſtance, he begins with emptying his cheek-pouches if they perform various geſticulations, and to obey the voice of their happened to be nlled with grain, and which are ſo capacious as maſter. Like the cat, the marmot has an antipathy againſt dogs. to hold a quarter of a pint Engliſh. He then blows them up fo When he begins to be familiar in the houſe, and perceives that he prodigioully, that the size of the head and neck greatly exceeds is protected by his maſter, he attacks and bites dogs of the moſt that of the body. Laſtly, he raiſes himſelf on his hind-legs, formidable kind. Though not folarge as a hare, he is ſtouter. and and in thisattitude darts on hisenemy. If hecatches hold, he never his ſtrength is aided by a peculiar ſuppleneſs and dexterity. With quits it but with the loſs of life. But the dog generally ſeizes his fore-teeth, which are pretty long, he bites moſt cruelly: heat him behind, and ſtrangles him. This ferocious temper prevents tacks not, however, either dogsor men, unleſs previouſly irritated. the hamſter from being at peace with any other animal. He If not prevented, he gnaws furniture and ſtuffs; and when con even makes war againit his own ſpecies, not excepting the fined, pierces even through wood. His voice reſembles the females. murmuring of a young dog when careſſed or in a ſporting hu The hamſters copulate about the end of April; when the mour; but, when irritated or frighted, he makes a whittling males enter the apartment of the females, where they remain noiſe, ſo loud and piercing, that it hurts the ear. The marmots only a few days. If two males happen to meet in the ſame hole, eat every thing preſented to them; as fleſh, bread, fruit, roots, a furious combat enſues, which generally terminates in the death may-bugs, graſshoppers, &c. but milk and butter of the weakeſt. The conqueror takes poſſeſſion of the female; they prefer to every other aliment. Milk is alſo the only liquor and both, though at every other period they perſecute and kill that is agreeable to them; for they rarely drink water. They each other, lay aſide their natural ferocity during the few days produce but once a-year, and the litter generally conſiſts of three their amours continue. They even mutually defend each other or four. The growth of their young is very quick; they live againſt aggreſſors; and if a hole is opened about this time, the only nine or ten years; and the ſpecies is neither numerous nor female defends her huſband with the utmoſt fury. The fe- much diffuſed. The marmot would make very good eating, if males bring forth twice or thrice every year. Their litter is it had not always a diſagreeable flavour, which cannot be con never fewer than ſix, and more frequently from 16 to 18. cealed but by ſtrong ſeaſonings. See Plate VII. Genus XXIV. | Their growth is very rapid. At the age of 15 days they begin Species VII. to dig the earth; and ſoon after, the mother baniſhes them from 8. The monax, or marmot of Canada, has a hairy tail, an her habitation; ſo that at the age of about three weeks they are alh-coloured body, roundilh ears, and four toes on the fore abandoned to their own management. PO feet, and five on the hind-ones. It is a native of America, 10. The terreſtris, or ſhort-tailed field-mouſe. In winter moſt and differs very little from the former. Its fleſh is good and of theſe animals retire into the woods, where they feed upon well taſted. See Plate VII. Genus VII. Species VIII. filberts, acorns, and the feeds of trees. In particular years they 9. The cricetus, hamſter, or German marmot, is the moſt appear in numbers fo immenfe, that they would deſtroy every famous as well as the moſt deſtructive of all the rats. It has a thing if they continued long: but they always kill and eat one tail of a moderate length, round ears, a black belly, and reddiſh another during a ſcarcity of proviſions. They beſides are de- fides, with three white ſpots. This creature ſleeps during the voured by the long-tailed field-mice, foxes, wild-cats, and weaſels. winter like the marmots; when in a torpid ſtate, neither reſpi 11. The amphibious, or water-rat, has a long hairy tail, but ration nor any kind of feeling can be perceived. The heart, not palmated feet, as is ſaid by Linnæus. It is about the fize however, beats 15 times in a minute, which has been diſcovered of a rat, but in its manners reſembles the otter inuch more than pot-herbs, M U S M U S than the rat. Like the otter, it frequents the freſh water, and are not to be had, they will eat almonds, filberts, nuts, and is found on the banks of rivers, brooks, and pools. Gudgeons, even leguminous plants. They copulate in ſpring, and bring minnows, blays, and the fry of carps, pikes, and barbels, are forth in ſummer. The litter conſiſts of five or ſix young, who its ordinary food. It likewiſe eats frogs, water-inſects, and grow very quickly, but are not fertile till the next year. Their ſometimes the roots of plants. He ſwims with great eaſe, fleſh is not eatable, but has the ſame diſagreeable odour with the keeps long under water, and carries off his prey to be devoured domeſtic rat. on the graſs or in his hole. He is ſometimes ſurpriſed by the 16. The ſylvaticus, or long-tailed field-mouſe, meaſures, fiſhermen when ſearching for craw-fiſh; and he endeavours to from the end of the noſe to the fitting on of the tail, four inches eſcape by biting their fingers, or leaping into the water. See and an half; the tail is four inches long. Theſe animals are Plate VII. Genus XXIV. Species XI. found only in fields and gardens; in ſome places they are called 12. The rattus, or common rat, is the moſt pernicious of bean-mice, from the havock they make among beans when firſt any of our ſmaller quadrupeds. Meat, corn, paper, cloaths, ſown. They feed alſo on nuts, acorns, and grain, of which furniture, in ſhort every conveniency of life, is a prey to this they amaſs quantities, not proportioned to their wants, but to deſtructive creature. Nor are its devaſtations confined to theſe; the capacity of the place where it is depoſited, infomuch that for it will make equal havock among poultry, rabbits, or young a ſingle animal will collect more than a buſhel. The holes of game; nay, it hath been known to gnaw the extremities of the field-mice are generally a foot under ground, and often di- infants when alleep. It is a domeſtic animal, reſiding very vided into two apartments; the one for living in with their frequently in houſes, barns, or granaries. In old country- | young, and the other for a magazine. M. Buffon once kept a houſes, where grain is kept, and where the vicinity of barns and dozen of theſe mice in a cage, and furniſhed them with food magazines facilitates their retreats, they often increaſe fo pro every morning at eight o'clock. One day they were neglected digiouſly, that the poſſeſſors are obliged to remove, and defert for about a quarter of an hour, when one of their number was their habitations, unleſs the rats happen to deſtroy each other. eaten up by the reſt; next day another ſuffered the ſame fate; This, however, frequently happens; for theſe creatures, when and in a few days only one remained: all the others had been pinched for food, deſtroy each other. The rat was firſt intro killed, and partly devoured; and even the furvivor himſelf had duced into America by the Europeans in 1544, and is now the his feet and tail mutilated. Theſe animals are very prolific, peſt of all that continent. producing more than once a-year, and bringing nine or ten at The brown or Norway rat is much larger than the black á birth. They generally make the neſt for their young very kind; being nine inches from the end of the noſe to the begin near the ſurface, and often in a thick tuft of graſs. See Plate ning of the tail; the length of the tail itſelf is the fame; the VII. Genus XXIV. Species XVII. uſual weight 11 ounces. Notwithſtanding its name, however, 17. The jaculus, or jerboa, inhabits Barbary, Paleſtine, it is not known in Norway, nor in any part of Scandinavia. | Egypt, and the deſarts between Balſora and Aleppo. The head It was never known in Britain till about 45 years ago; and hath a great reſemblance to that of the rabbit; but its eyes are made its appearance in the neighbourhood of Paris only about | larger, and its ears ſhorter, higher, and broader, in proportion 22 years ago. Mr. Pennant ſuſpects that this rat came ori to its fize. The noſe is fleih-coloured and naked, and the ginally in ihips from the Eaft Indies; a large brown ſpecies muzzle is thick and thort. The opening of the mouth is very being found there, called bandicotes by the natives, which bur ſmall, the upper jaw broad, and the under jaw narrow and Jow under ground. Barbot alſo mentions a ſpecies intiabiting thort. The teeth are like thoſe of the rabbit; and the whiſkers the fields in Guinea, and probably the ſame with this. Where round the mouth are compoſed of long black and white hairs. ever this creature has taken up its reſidence, it haih totally ex The fore-feet are extremely ſhort, and never touch the ground; tirpated the black kind: however, it is to be feared we ſhall being uſed only as hands to convey victuals to the mouth. Theſe reap little benefit by the exchange; for the Norway rat hath hands have four fingers armed with claws, and the rudiments the ſame diſpoſition, with greater abilities for doing miſchief of a fifth without any claw. In tranſporting themſelves from than the common kind. It burrows, like the water-rat, in the place to place, they do not walk, or advance one foot before banks of rivers, ponds, and ditches; it takes the water very the other, but leap nimbly to the diſtance of five or ſix feet readily; and ſwims and dives with great celerity: like the black from the ground. When repofing themſelves, they fit on their fpecies, it preys on rabbits, poultry, and all kinds of game. knees, and ſleep only during the day. They eat grain and her- It increafes moſt amazingly fait, producing from 14 10 18 young bage like the hare. This animal is eaten by the Arabs, who at a time. Its bite is not only fevere but dangerous; the wound call it the lamb of the children of Iſrael. Bochart thinks it is being immediately attended with great ſwelling, and is a long the Saphon of holy writ, and diſplays a vaſt deal of learning on time in healing. Theſe creatures are ſo bold as to turn upon the ſubject. See Plate VII. Genus XXIV. Species XX. thoſe who purſue them, and faſten on the ſtick or hand of ſuch MUSCÆ Volitantes, in optics, dark irregular veins and ſpots, as offer to ſtrike them. See Plate VII. Genus XXIV. Spe- ſeeming to fly before the eyes of many people, eſpecially on cies XII. looking at bright cbjects, ſuch as white paper, the ſky-light, 13. The muſcutus, or common mouſe, has the ſame inſtinct, the candle, &c. Theſe have only the appearance of cobwebs, and the ſame conſtitution and natural diſpoſitions with the rat, ſometimes that of ſmoke, duft, &c. The reſemblance of many differing only in the mere circumſtances of ſize and ſtrength of theſe ſpots to fies has given them the name of muſcæ voli- He hath many enemies, from whom he can eſcape only by his tantes, q. d. flies flying about. agility and minuteneſs. Owls, birds of prey, cats, weaſels, MÚSCI, MOSSES, one of the ſeven families into which all and even rats, make war upon the mice, ſo that they are de- vegetables are divided by Linnæus in the Philofophia Botanica; ſtroyed by millions; yet the ſpecies ſtill ſubliſts by its amazing viz. Fungi, Algæ, Muſci, Filices, Gramina, Palma, Planta. fecundity. They bring forth at all ſeaſons, and ſeveral times The characteriſtics of theſe plants, according to the ſexual in the year : the litter generally conſiſts of five or fix; and in ſyſtem, are, leſs than 15 days the young diſperſe, and are able to provide 1. Tops, without filaments or threads. 2. The male flower, for themſelves. "Ariſtotle tells us, that having ſhut up a preg conſtituted by the preſence of the anthere or tops, placed apart nant mouſe in a veſſel, along with plenty of grain, he found from the female, either on the ſame or diſtinct roots. in a ſhort time after 120 mice, all ſprung from the ſame mother. female flowers deprived of the piſtillum, or pointal. 4. The See Plate VII. Genus XXIV. Species XIII. feeds devoid of both lobes (cotyledones ) and proper coverings; 14. The avellanarius, or dormouſe, is equal in ſize to the ſo that they exhibit the naked embryo. See the SYSTEM, Sect. former, but of a plumper appearance; the noſe is more blunt. IV. Art. IV. and Plate VI. with the explanation under the Dormice inhabit woods, or very thick hedges; forming their Article. neſts in the hollow of ſome low tree, or near the bottom of a MUSCICAPA, or FLY-CATCHER, in ORNITHOLOGY, a cloſe fhrub: they form little magazines of nuts, and eat in an genus belonging to the order of paſſeres. The moſt remarkable upright poſture like the ſquirrel. The conſumption of their ſpecies is the griſola, or ſpotted Hy-catcher. It is a bird of paf- hoard, however, during the rigour of the ſeaſon, is but ſmall; fage, appears in the ſpring, breeds with us, and retires in for they ſleep moſt of the time, retiring into their holes: at Auguſt. It builds its neſt on the ſides of trees, towards the the approach of winter they roll themſelves up, and become middle: Morton ſays, in the corners of walls where fpiders torpid. Sometimes they experience a ſhort revival in a warm weave their webs. Mr. Pennant has ſeen them followed by funny day; when they take a little food, and relapſe into their four or five young, but never ſaw their eggs. When the young former ſtate. Theſe animals ſeldom appear far from their re can fly, the old ones withdraw with them into thick woods, treats, or in any open place; for which reaſon they ſeem leſs where they frolic among the top branches; dropping from the common in Britain than they really are. They make their boughs frequently quite perpendicular on the flies that ſport be- neſts of moſs, graſs, and dead leaves; and bring uſually three neath, and riſe again in the fame direction. For a repreſenta- or four young at a time. See Plate VII. Genus XXIV. Spe-| tion, ſee Plate III. Genus XXXVIII. cies XIV. MUSCLE, in anatomy. For a general account of the 15. The quercinus, or garden-ſquirrel, has a long hairy tail, Muſcles, ſee the SYSTEM, Part II. Sect. II. under the gene- with a black ring under the eyes. It is a native of the ſouth of ral title. For a particular account, containing an enumeration Europe, where it lives chiefly in woods, though it ſometimes of the ſeveral muſcles , with the name, origin, infertion, and is found in gardens. They are very deſtructive to fruit, par- principle of each muſcle, fee the Table of Muſcles throughout. ticularly peaches, which they ſeem to prefer to every other kind. For their repreſentation, ſee Plate II, III, and IV. with the They alſo eat peaſe, apricots, and plums; and when ſoft fruits explanations at the end of Part II. of the SYSTEM. 4 MUSCLES 3. The MUS M U S TILUS. Muscles of Vegetables. The muſcles in animal bodies have alfo appointed officers to ſuperintend the muſeum; and having been the ſubject of numerous diſſertations; but thoſe in vege ordained certain ſtatutes with reſpect to viewing the collection tables have been leſs regarded. Mr. Tournefort, however, has contained in it, the public were admitted to view it in 1757 plainly proved, that many of the veſſels of plants become in the Fifteen perſons are allowed to view it in one company ; the drying fibres capable of tenſion; that in many plants there are time allotted is two hours; and when any number, not exceed- great numbers of theſe fibres which have all the ſame direction, ing 15, are inclined to fee it, they muſt ſend a liſt of their and always act all together, and can only ſhorten or contract Chriſtian names and furnames, profeſſions, and places of abode, themſelves in one particular direction; wherefore the parts to the porter's lodge, in order to their being entered in the book; compoſed of theſe fibres are very properly compared to the in a few days the reſpective tickets are made out, ſpecifying the muſcles of animals. By the word muſcle we underſtand a part day and hour when they are to come; which, on being ſent compoſed of fibres fo determinately arranged, that, by their con for, are delivered. If by any accident ſome of the parties are traction, they can only move the part in ſome certain and deter prevented from coming, it is proper they ſend their ticket back minate manner; and in this, which ſeems the received ſenſe of to the lodge, as nobody can be admitted with it but themſelves. the word, there are many inſtances in which it may be applied | It is to be remarked, that the fewer names there are in a liſt, to parts of plants, with the ſtricteſt juſtice. the fooner they are likely to be admitted to fee it. Muscle, the Engliſh name of the mytulus, or mytilus, a MUSES, certain fabulous deities among the Pagans, ſuppoſed genus of ſhell-fi íh, in vermeology. For a deſcription fee My to preſide over the arts and ſciences : for this reaſon it is uſual for For the ſhell, as forming a diſtinct branch of Natural the poets, at the beginning of a poem, to invoke theſe goddeſſesto Hiſtory, ſee the Syſtem of CONCHOLOGY, Genus XVI. their aid. The muſes were originally only ſingers and muſicians Thoſe who have eat muſcles have ſometimes, but very rarely, in the ſervice of Ofiris, or the great Egyptian Bacchus, under been affected with eryſipelatous inflammations, cutaneous erup- the inſtruction and guidance of his ſon Orus; but in ſucceeding tions, inſupportable itching all over the body, great reſtleſſneſs times they were called daughters of Jupiter and Mnemoſyne or and agitation; and though theſe complaints are eaſily removed, Memory. Thefe are the only pagan divinities whoſe worihip by oil, milk, and emetics, and have ſeldom or never proved mor has been continued through all ſucceeding changes in the reli- tal, yet they have an alarming aſpect, and make the patient ſuffer gion and ſentiments of mankind. Profeſſors of every liberal grievouſly. Some authors have pretended, that theſe noxious art in all the countries of Europe ſtill revere them; particularly effects never have place but between the vernal and autumnal the poets, who ſeldom undertake the ſlighteſt work without in- equinox: and M. Bennie, phyſician at Antwerp, in a memoir voking their aid. Sir Iſaac Newton tells us, that the ſinging on this ſubject, ſeems inclined to adopt this opinion ; for he women of Oſiris were celebrated in Thrace by the name of the recommends abſtinence from muſcles during the months of May, muſes; and that the daughters of Pierus, a Thracian, imitating June, July, and Auguſt. The cauſe of theſe noxious effects in them, was celebrated by the ſame name. Diodorus Siculus in- the muſcles is, according to that author, altogether accidental. forms us, that Alcman of Meſſene, a lyric poet, who flouriſhed They are occaſioned, he ſays, by a kind of ſtella marina, a little in the 27th Olympiad, 670 years before Chriit, makes them the fea-infect, pretty common about the mouth of the Scheld, which daughters of Úranus and Terra. It has been aſſerted by ſome fometimes lodges itſelf in the muſcle, in queſt of food, and whoſe ancient writers, that at firſt they were only three in number; but ſpawn is ſo cauſtic and inflammatory, that even when applied Homer, Heſiod, and other profound mythologiſts, admit of nine. outwardly to the ſkin, it produces itchings and ſwellings that In his hymn to Apollo, Homer ſays, are painful and diſagreeable in a high degree. By turns the nine delight to fing. The itching occaſioned by touching the ſpawn of the ftella And Hefiod, in his theogony, names them all. They are ſaid marina is removed by vinegar; and this known fact induced Dr. feverally to preſide over fome art or ſcience, as muſic, poetry, Bennie to preſcribe the internal uſe of vinegar, after bleeding, aſtronomy, &c. By ſome they are called virgins, becauſe the evacuations and emetics. His method conſiſts in recommending virtues of education appear unalterable: they are called muſes a large quantity of refreſhing beverage, and, every hour, three from a Greek word, which fignifies to explain myſteries; be- ounces of vinegar diluted in water. This remedy, however, cauſe they have taught things the moſt curious and important ſeems rather to confirm the opinion of thoſe who impute the to know, and which are above the comprehenſion of vulgar diſorder in queſtion to an unperceived commencement of minds. Each of their names is ſaid to include ſome particular trefaction in the muſcle ; as vinegar is known to be a powerful allegory: Clio, for inſtance, has been thus called, becauſe thoſe antiſeptic, and there is no ſort of putrefaction more noxious and who are praiſed in verſe acquire immortal fame; Euterpe, on offenſive than that of fiſh. account of the pleaſure accruing to thoſe who hear learned MUSEUM, a name which originally ſignified a part of the poetry'; Thalia implies for ever flouriſhing; Melpomene, that palace of Alexandria, which took up at leaſt one fourth of the her melody inſinuates itſelf into the inmoſt receffes of the ſoul; city. This quarter was called the muſeum, on account of its Terpſichore marks the pleaſure which thoſe receive who are ver- being ſet apart for the muſes and the ſtudy of the ſciences. Here fed in the liberal arts; Erato ſeems to indicate, that the learned were lodged and entertained the men of learning; who were di- command the eſteem an friendſhip of all mankind; Polyhymnia, that vided into many companies or colleges, according to the ſcien many poets are become immortal by the number of hymns ces of which they were the profeſſors; and to each of theſe which they have addreſſed to the gods; Urania, that thoſe whom houſes or colleges was allotted a handſome revenue. The foun- ſhe inſtructs elevate their contemplations and celebrity to the dation of this eſtabliſhment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadel- heavens and the ſtars; and laſtly, the exquiſite voice of Calliope phus, who here placed his library. Hence the word muſeum is has acquired her that appellation, as the inventreſs and guardian is now applied to any place ſet apart as a repoſitory for things of eloquence and rhetoric. that have an immediate relation to the arts. An epigram of Callimacus gives the attributes of the muſes The muſeum at Oxford, called the Aſhmolean muſeum, is a in as many lines. noble pile of building, erected at the expence of the univerſity, at the weſt end of the theatre, at which ſide it has a magnifi- Calliope the deeds of heroes ſings ; Great Clio fweeps to hiſtory the ſtrings ; cent portal, ſuſtained by pillars of the Corinthian order. The Euterpe teaches mimes their filent ſhow; front, which is to the ſtreet, extends about 60 feet, where Melpomene prefides o'er ſcenes of wce; there is this inſcription over the entrance in gilt characters, Mu- Terpſichore the flute's ſoft pow'r diſplays; ſeum Aſhmoleanum ſchola naturalis hiſtoria, officina chymica. It And Erato gives hymns the gods to praiſe ; was begun in 1679, and finiſhed in 1683, when a valuable col- Polymnia's ſkill inſpires melodious ſtrains; Urania wiſe, the ſtarry courſe explains; 7 lection of curiofities was preſented to the univerſity by Elias And gay Thalia's glaſs points out where folly reigns. Aſhmole, Eſq. which were the ſame day repoſited there; feve- ral acceſſions have been ſince made to the muſeum; among This epigram does not, however, exactly correſpond with which are hieroglyphics, and other Egyptian antiquities, an en the ideas of other poets, or of the ancient painters, in charac- tire mummy, Roman antiquities, altars, medals, lamps, &c. teriſing the attributes of the muſes. and a variety of natural curioſities. MUSHROOM, in botany. See AGARICUS, and the Syſtem The Britiſh Muſeum in London is a large, beautiful, and of BOTANY, Sect. IV. Claſs XXIV. and Genus I. magnificent building, the nobleſt cabinet of curioſities in the Phyſicians have diſputed much about the qualities of muſh- world. This edifice was erected in 1677; and was called Mon rooms; ſome conſidering them as a rich nouriſhment, and per- tague-houſe, from having been the town-reſidence of the dukes fe&tly innocent, when properly choſen; and others aſſerting of Montague. In the year 1753, the Britiſh parliament paſſed them to be extremely deleterious. Moſt of the fungi are indeed an act for purchaſing the muſeum of the late Sir Hans Sloane, of a hurtful quality; and, with reſpect to the whole tribe, the and the collection of manuſcripts of the late Lord Oxford, | eſculent are very few. Efculent muſhrooms are very called the Harleian library, for the uſe of the public, by which nutritive, very readily alkaleſcent, and more ſo without intermediate be rendered of no leſs general benefit to trade, than to aceſcency than any other vegetable : they are therefore a rich the advancement of natural knowledge and experimental philo- nouriſhment, and much akin to animal food; on which account fophy. Twenty-fix truſtees were appointed and incorporated, they may be indulged in conſiderable quantity to ſtrong perſons, to provide a repoſitory for thoſe and ſome other collections, It requires, however, ſkill to diſtinguiſh this eſculent kind; and which repoſitory was to be called the Britiſh Muſeum. Theſe very few, eſpecially of thoſe who are commonly employed to truſtees elected 15 other truſtees; and, having bought Montague- gather them, viz. the ſervants, have ſtudied Cluſius, or other houſe, fitted it up for the reception of theſe collections: they | authors who have been at the pains to diſtinguiſh them. pu- } it may I SYSTEM OF MUSIC. MUST or, upon the INTRODUCTION. morals, and inſpiring the love of virtue. Perhaps, however, this SIC is the art of combining founds in a manner agreeable was not the reſult of a premeditated plan; but, inſpired by ſublime to the ear. This combination may be either co-exiſting or fentiments and elevation of thought, which, in accents that were fucceſſive: in the firſt caſe, it conſtitutes harmony; in the laſt melo ſuited and proportioned to their celeſtial nature, endeavoured to dy. But though the ſame ſounds, or intervals of ſound, which find a language worthy of themſelves, and expreſſive of their gran- give pleaſure when heard in fucceffion, will not always produce the deur. It merits attention, that the ancients were fo fenfible of fame effect in harmony; yet the principles which conſtitute the the value and importance of this divine art, not only as a ſymbol fimpler and more perfect kinds of harmony, are almoft, if not en of that univerſal order and ſymmetry which prevails through the tirely, the ſame with thoſe of melody. By perfeet harmony, we do whole frame of material and intelligent nature, but as productive not here mean thoſe complex modifications of harmonic ſound of the moſt momentous effects, both in moral and political life, which are admired in practice; but that harmony which reſults Plato and Ariſtotle, who diſagreed almoſt in every other maxim of from the coaleſcence of co-exiſting ſounds, produced by vibrations, politics, are unanimous in their approbation of muſic, as an effica- in the proportions of thirds, fifths, and octaves, or their duplicates. cious instrument in the formation of the public character; and it The principles on which Muſic is founded, and the rules by which was the general opinion, that whilſt the gymnaſtic exerciſes ren- it is conducted, conſtitute a' ſcience. The ſame maxims, when dered the conſtitution robuſt and hardy, mulic humanized the cha- applied to practice, form an art: hence its firſt and moſt capital racter, and ſoftened thoſe habits of roughneſs and ferocity by which diviſion is into Theoretical and Practical muſic. Theoretical mu men might otherwiſe have degenerated into ſavages. fic is, if we may be permitted to uſe the expreſſion, the know The muſic now moſt generally celebrated and practiſed is that ledge of the nature and uſe of thoſe materials which compoſe it; of the Italians, or their ſucceſsful imitations. The Engliſh, from in other words, of all the different relations between the high the invaſion of the Saxons, to that more late, though lucid æra, in and low, between the harſh and the ſweet, between the quick and which they irnbibed the art, and copied the manner of the Italians, the flow, between the ſtrong and the weak, of which founds are had a muſic which neither pleaſed the ſoul, nor charmed the ear. ſuſceptible: relations which, comprehending all the poſlible com The primitive muſic of the French deſerves no higher panegyric. binations of muſic and ſounds, ſeem likewiſe to comprehend all the Of all the rude nations, the Scotch and Iriſh ſeem to have poſſeſſed cauſes of the impreſſions which their ſucceſſion can make the moſt affecting original mufic. The firſt conſiſts of a melody ear, and upon the ſoul. characteriſed by tenderneſs: it melts the ſoul to a pleaſing pentive Practical muſic is the art of applying and reducing to practice languor. The other is the native expreſſion of grief and melan- thoſe principles which reſult from the theory of agreeable ſounds, choly. The primitive muſic of the Scots may be divided into the whether co-exiſting or ſucceſſive; or, in other words, to conduct or martial , the paſtoral , and the feſtive. The firſt conſiſts either in arrange ſounds according to the proportions reſulting from confo marches, which were played before the chieftains, in imitation of nance, from duration and ſucceſſion, in ſuch a manner as to pro the battles which they fought, or in lamentations for the cataſtro- duce upon the ear the effect which the compoſer intends. This is phes of war, and the extinction of families. Theſe wild effufions the art which we call compoſition. With reſpect to the actual pro of natural melody preſerve ſeveral of the rules preſcribed for com- duction of ſounds by voices of inſtruments, which is called execu poſition: tion, this department is merely mechanical and operative; which, Thus far we have purſued the general idea of muſic. We ſhall, only preſuppoſing the powers of ſounding the intervals true, of ex after the hiſtory, give a more particular detail of the ſcience, from actly proportioning their degrees of duration, of elevating or de Monſieur D'Alembert. preſling ſounds according to theſe gradations which are preſcribed HISTORY OF MUSIC. by the tone, and to the value required by the aime, demands no The ancient hiſtory of muſic, even among the moſt cultivated other knowledge but a familiar acquaintance with the characters nations, is now either ſo entirely loft, or fo unhappily obſcured, uſed in muſic, and a habit of expreſſing them with promptitude and that we can make but few certain, and perhaps no ſatisfactory facility. diſcoveries in it; and, as no annals could be tranſmitted to poſte- Theoretical muſic is likewiſe divided into two departments viz. rity of that muſic which prevailed among ſuch people as are called the knowledge of the proportions of ſounds or their intervals, and barbarous, our accounts of it muſt be ſtill leſs authentic and that of their relative durations ; that is to ſay, of meaſure and time. ſatisfactory than thoſe of the former. Even at periods which The firſt is what among the ancients ſeems to have been called are more recent, and may for that reaſon be thought more within harmonical mufic. It ſhews in what the nature of air or melody the ſphere of our inveſtigation, we are equally at a loſs, both for conſiſts ; and diſcovers what is conſonant or diſcordant, agreeable the æras and the authors of ſome eſſential improvements in muſic. or diſagreeable, in the modulation. It diſcovers, in a word, the Yet thoſe parts of its hiſtory, which are either already known, or effects which ſounds produce in the ear by their nature and by their may be diſcovered, if related at full length, with proper illuſtra- force, and by their intervals; which is equally applicable to their tions, would produce a work, little inferior in fize to the whole confonance and their fucceffion. extent of that Encyclopædia, of which it only conſtitutes a part. All The ſecond has been called rhythmical, becauſe it treats of ſounds, therefore which can be expected from this preliminary account is, with regard to their time and quantity. It contains the explica to give a ſhort and curſory detail of its primary ſtate, and its moſt tion of their continuance, of their proportions of their meaſures, | important revolutions, ſo far as hiſtory will enable us, by enlight- whether long or ſhort, quick or ſlow, of the different modes of ening our reſearches, to accompliſh this deſign; but, if our ac- time and the parts into which they are divided, that to theſe the counts are thought conciſe and imperfect, we ſhall all along direct ſucceſſion of ſounds may be conformed. the views of our readers to fources which may prove more copious Pratiical muſic is likewiſe divided into two departments, which and more adequate to their curioſity. correſpond to the two preceding. That which anſwers to har It has been pretended by Father Kircher, and others, that muſic monical muſic, and which the ancients called melopée, teaches the prevailed in Egypt before it was known in Greece. The origin rules for combining and varying the intervals, whether •conſo of inſtrumental mufic appears to have been at a period much prior nant or diffonant, in an agreeable and harmonious manner. The to the date of authentic hiſtory; and when we look for its epoch or fecond, which anſwers to the rhythmicalmuſic, and which they called its diſcoverer, we are carried at once into the wild regions of fable rhythmopée, contains the rules for applying the different modes of and mythology. The god Mercury, or Hermes, is ſaid to be the time, for underſtanding the feet by which verſes were ſcanned, and inventor of the lyre, by diftended ſtrings of different tenſions and the diverſities of meaſure; in a word, for the practice of the rhyth- | diameters, upon the ſhell of a tortoiſe, which he found upon the mus. Mufic is at preſent divided more ſimply into melody and har Thore. The firſt exhibition of the fiftula, or ſhepherd's pipe, is mony; or, ſince the introduction of harmony, the proportion be aſcribed to Pan; but of theſe beings, and their actions, little or no- tween the length and ſhortneſs of ſounds, or even that between the thing can be aſcertained with proper evidence. We muſt there- diſtance of returning cadences, are of leſs conſequence among us. fore content ourſelves with ſuch later accounts as merit any degree For it often happens in modern languages, that the verſes aſſume of confidence. their meaſures from the muſical air, and almoſt entirely loſe the The Grecian lyre, Fig. 12, in the plate of Miſcellaneous Subjects, finall ſhare of proportion and quantity which in themſelves they in its original ſtate, ſeems to have been an inſtrument of the utmoſt poſſeſs. By melody the ſucceſſions of ſounds are regulated in ſuch fimplicity: according to ſome, the Mercurian lyre conſiſted of three, a manner as to produce pleaſing airs. Harmony conſiſts in uniting and according to others, only of four ſtrings. Theſe being touched to each of the ſounds in a regular ſucceſſion, two or more differ open, could only produce the ſame number of founds, from whence ent ſounds, which fimultaneouſly ſtriking the ear, footh it by their we may eaſily conclude, that the powers of this inſtrument could See HARMONY. not be very extenſive. This tetrachord, as ſome ſay, was conjoined; Muſic was originally formed to be the vehicle of poetry; and, others maintain that it was disjoined, and that its intervals were not of conſequence, though the voice might be ſupported and accom even diatonic. It is however, allowed, that its two extremes pro- panied by inſtruments, yet muſic was never intended for inſtru duced an octave; and that the two intermediate ſtrings divided it ments alone. We are told by ancient authors, that all the laws, by a fourth on each ſide, with a tone in the midſt, in the following whether human or divine, exhortations to virtue, the knowledge manner: C. G. F. C. This is what Boëtius calls the tetrachord of the characters and actions of gods and heroes, the lives and at of Mercury. This Syſtem did not remain long confined to ſo chievements of illuſtrious men, were written in verſe, and ſung ſmall a number of founds. Chorebus, the ſon of Athis, king of publicly by a choir to the found of inſtruments ; and 'it appears Lydia, added to it a fifth ſtring; Hyagnis , a fixth; Terpander, a from the Scriptures, that ſuch, from the earlieſt times, was the cuſ ſeventh, to equal the number of the planets; and, at laſt, Lychaon tom among the Iſraelites. Nor was it poſſible to find means more of Samos, the eighth. Nicomachus, the Geraſenian, attributes this efficacious for impreſling on the mind of man the principles of eighth chord to Pythagoras, the ninth to Theophrastus of Piereus, * % G afterwards, concurrence. N° 112. MUSIC. afterwards the tenth to Hyſteus of Colophon. The ſyſtem of the ber of ſtrings, each of which produced but a ſingle note, the next Greeks was inſenſibly extended, as well above as below, till it material improvement was to render each ſtring ſuſceptible of ſe- reached, and even ſurpaſſed, the compaſs of a diſdiapafon, or double veral notes, which was effected by adding a neck, by which each octave; a ſeries which they call a perfeet Syſtem, and which was ſtring, by taking different portions of it, might be made to produce likewiſe termed the greateſt and the moſt unchangeable; becauſe, different notes, more or leſs acute, as the vibrating part was more or between its two extremes, which betwixt themſelves formed a per leſs abridged. Vide fg. 3. fect conſonance, were contained all the ſimple, the double, the di After the decline of the Roman empire, about the year 600, in a řect, or the inverted chords, every particular fyſtem, and according manuſcript in the monaſtery of St. Blalius, there are repreſentations to them the greateſt intervals which can take place in melody. of ſeveral muſical inſtruments then in uſe, and the Cithara, of a tri- This whole ſyſtem conſiſts of four tetrachords, three conjoined angular form, like the Greek delta, Fig. 4. the Cithara Teutonica, and one disjoined; and cf a ſingle note redundant, which was or German, fig.5, the monochord, with a bow, fig. 6, and the Citha- added below the whole, to complete the double octave. ra Anglica, or Harp, fig. 8. In Rouſſeau's Muſical Dictionary, Plate H. fig. 12. will be About the æra of the cruſades, the Cithara of the ancients began found a table of the general ſyſtem amongſt the Greeks. The to aſſume the appearance of the Guitar of more modern times, curious may alſo conſult thoſe of Meibomius, placed at the front which is nothing more than an improvement of the former, by the of the works of Ariſtoxenus. Such, in its perfection, was the ge addition of a finger-board, graduated by tones and ſemi-tones, which neral ſyſtem of the Greeks; which remained almoſt in the fame rendered the inſtrument more perfect in point of compaſs, though ftate till the eleventh century, the time when Guy d'Arezzo made perhaps inferior in point of tone to more ancient inſtruments. conſiderable changes in it. He added below a new ſtring, which Vide fig. 7, 8, and 9, the laſt of which was the figure of the Spa- he called hypoproſilambanomene, or, “ ſubadded,” and above a fifth niſh guitar, about two centuries ago, and has continued with little tetrachord. Beſides this, he invented, as they ſay, a flat to diſ or no alteration to this time. tinguiſh the ſecond found of a conjunctive tetrachord from the firſt The next great improvement in ſtringed inſtruments was the ef- of the ſame tetrachord when disjunctive. For aſcertaining with fecting a continuation of tone, by the invention of the bow. This accuracy the diverſity of intervals, Pythagoras, the philofopher of inſtrument was wholly unknown to the ancients, at leaſt as applied Samos, invented the monochord, or the different diviſions of cne to practical muſic; it ſeems probable that it was by them applied ſingle ſtring, by which the conſonances were produced, and found to the monochord, which, though uſed in making muſical experi- the ſame ratios which are given in the ſubſequent elements of mu ments, can never be ſu:ppoſed capable of general uſe as a muſical fic, in Malcolm's account of the ſcale, and in ſeveral other authors, inſtrument, being totally incapable of harmony. unneceſſary to be enumerated. The introduction of the bow into general practice was with the Had ſucceeding writers upon the ſcience been more attentive to Rebec, about the sith century, and continued with progreſſive im- the real conſtitution of the ſcale, and the principles derived from a provements to the laſt century. The Rebec, in its more ſimple monochord, properly divided, we might have expected their account ſtate, was formed with 2 or 3 ſtrings. Vide fig. 10 and 11. which of the other phænomena in muſic to have been more preciſe and deſerves our attention, as being the parent of our modern violin, more perſpicuous; but for a conſiderable time after that philoſopher, tenor and violincello. the accounts of ancient muſic tranſmitted to us are either ſuperficial The firſt improvement of the principle of the Rebec was, in the and curſory, or unintelligible. . The province to which our efforts formation of viols, which took place about the beginning of the are neceſſarily confined, directs our attention not ſo much to the 12th century, and continued to the middle of the 16th century. hiſtory of thoſe who cultivated the art, as to the art itſelf, and its Theſe continued in general uſe to the middle of the 16th cen-- various revolutions. tury. The diſcovery of the monochord and its diviſions, was not the About the year 1520 we find the firſt mention of violins, which only ſpeculation in muſic peculiar to Pythagoras. He likewife however were not carried to any conſiderable degree of perfection thought the earth and ſeven planets, or ſolar ſyſtem, reſembled a until after the year 1601; ſhortly after which time its ſuperior muſical diapaſon; and from thence formed the romantic idea of the powers were diſcovered, and the inſtrument was carried to a degree muſic of the ſpheres. For a more ſatisfactory account of this ce of perfection which has not ſince been ſurpaſſed. leſtial concert, the curious reader may peruſe the Somnium Scipionis, The tenor and violincello are exactly ſimilar in principle to the a fragment of Cicero, and the Obſervations upon Numbers, by his violin, but upon a larger ſcale ; the tenor being a medium between commentator, Macrobius. Pythagoras, who taught in Italy, was the violincello and violin. the firſt who inveſtigated the relations of found by meaſuring a Almoſt in every period ſince the reſtitution of literature, an im- muſical ſtring, and obſerving the tones produced by the vibrations portant controverſy has been agitated by virtuofi of different opini- of its different parts, whilſt the others were at reſt. Theſe heex ons in the theory of muſic. Some have maintained that harmony preſſed by numbers, and thus aſcertained the ratio which one was, and others that it was not, known to the ancients. By ſome found bears to another. This inveſtigation was afterwards car of theſe it was contended, that the knowledge of harmony natu-- ried farther, and delineated more diſtinctly, by Euclid; Nicoma rally reſults from the knowledge of confonances; that by tuning chus the Geraſenian lived A. C. 60, and wrote a book called In their inftruments the ancients muſt have been familiar to the vari- troduction to Harmony, which ſeems to be one of the cleareſt and ous coaleſcences of ſounds, and that of conſequence they could not moſt intelligible of the Greeks. be ignorant of the pleaſure which they produce. Several paffages After exploring what can be known concerning the ancient likewiſe from ſuch diſſertations or fragments as have eſcaped the muſic, from the theories and writings of thoſe whoſe works have rage of time, are collected, to prove that the ancients niuſt have been tranſmitted to us, the forms and powers of their inſtruments been acquainted with harmony or ſymphonical muſic. occur next to be examined. Theſe can only be collected from The opponents of this hypotheſis have alledged, that from the verbal deſcriptions, or from deſigns either expreſſed in colours or fenſations or ideas of ſimple chords no conception could be formed by ſculpture. From theſe, modern muſicians have not ſcrupled of the effects produced by their conjunction or ſucceſſion. It is to form a moſt contemptible idea of practical muſic among the an on all hands agreed, that ſeveral voices and inſtruments were uſed cients. But are we ſure, that the deſcriptions are perfectly com by the Greeks and Romans in performing the ſame piece of muſic; plete and thoroughly underſtood? If they were, does there not ſtill but the antiharraoniſts, as we may term them, will not admit that remain a poſſibility, that they might be tuned and handled in a the intervals of theſe voices or inſtruments were varied: nay, it is manner productive of effects to which we are ſtrangers ? Of our affirmed that they performed always in octave or uniſon one to the inſtruments now in uſe, the difference between one manner of per other : and from thence it is pretended, that all the paſſages which forming and another is ſo aſtoniſhing, that one ſhould imagine it ſeem to import the acquaintance of the ancients with practical har- might render us cautious in forming any concluſions concerning mony may be rationally and conſiſtently explained. . This, how- inſtruments, which are perhaps neither perfetly deſcribed nor ex ever, notwithſtanding the labours of French critics, will ſtill re- actly delineated, deſcribed by authors of a period ſufficiently dif main extremely doubtful to any perſon who has either peruſed the tant to render the idioms of the language in which they wrote ob dialogue aſcribed to Plutarch, or other paſſages to the fame pur- ſcure. And though the forms exhibited in colours, or by ſculpture, poſe. Nor can it be reaſonably thought, that, at a period fo bar- may be thought more intelligible; the exactneſs of their repreſenta barous as the 12th century, harmony, though rude and ſimple, tions are much doubted. ſhould have been the creature of naked invention, in places where From the following account of the conſtruction and effects of every other branch of literature and degree of culture were un- ſeveral muſical inſtruments invented by the ancients, and their pro known. Yet it is clear, from the monkiſh hiſtorians of that æra, greſſive improvements, it will appear that they gave riſe to ſome that harmony was even then in practice, where it could hardly be inſtruments in general uſe with the moderns. ſuppoſed to be immediately tranſmitted by a progreſs ſo rapid from The lyre of the Greeks may be conſidered as the parent of the other parts of the world, where the finer organization of the na- fidicinal or ſtringed inſtruments, and the ſucceſſive improvements tives, the more propitious aſpect of nature, and the more obvious of theſe inſtruments merit peculiarly our attention, on account of veftiges of ancient improvement, might be thought favourable to their more immediate connection with the progreſſive ſtate of the invention, culture, and propagation of the fine arts. Nor is muſic, which in a great meaſure depended on their modification, it a weak preſumption in favour of the knowledge of antiquity in and alſo from theſe inſtruments having by the different degrees of harmony, that the adherence of a contrary opinion can neither af- tenſion and modes of tuning the ſtrings ſuggeſted the firſt ideas of a certain the epach nor the parent of ſymphonic muſic. Yet had fyſtem of muſic, as founded in the laws of nature, and connected it been, as they pretend, a modern invention, barbarous and ig- with mathematical principles. norant as the general character of human nature was during that After increaſing the power of the lyre, by increaſing the num gloomy interval from the decline of the Roman empire to the revi, val MUSICC. . val of letters, the author of an improvement ſo new and extraor enterprize, however, was nobly begun and ſucceſsfully proſecuted dinary could not have eſcaped the public notice. We cannot there- by one Jacopo Peri. A poet, whoſe name was Ottavio Rinuccino fore ceaſe to think with the author of The principles and power of in the city of Florence, having compoſed a dramatic paſtoral upon harmony, p. 133. that the ancients were acquainted with this fpe the ſtory of Apollo and Daphne, engaged this excellent muſician cies of muſic; though perhaps it may be admitted, that its powers to ſet it. Both being warmed with the ſame ideas, and animated were neither ſo thoroughly known, nor fo generally and ſucceſs by the ſame deſign, ſo happily ſucceeded, that other, poets and mu- fully practiſed, as afterwards. ficians were generally approved and admired in proportion as they After the long and cruel devaſtation of the Goths and Vandals, purſued the veſtiges of theſe great maſters. A ſecond performance muſic ſeems firſt to have been revived for the ſervice of the church. of the ſame kind, called Eurydice, compoſed by the authors of the It was this religious obſervation of determined and regular quanti former paſtoral, was repreſented in Florence, in the year 1600, ties in ancient poetry, which preſerved and regulated the due pro- upon occaſion of the marriage of Mary de Medicis with Henry IV. portion of ſounds, and which, when abandoned, left the value of of France. But a detail of the gradations by which theatrical notes, with reſpect to their duration, impoſſible to be determined, muſic roſe to its preſent perfection, would be a taſk too extenſive till other characters and figns were ſuperadded, which diſcovered for the limits by which we are circumſcribed. Nor is it in our the real eſtimate of every note, and ſhewed to what degree it ſhould power, for the ſame reaſon, to enter more minutely and critically be protracted, or by what quantity of duration limited. This into the nature of thoſe compoſitions cailed operas. Let it fuffice feems to have been the next advance in muſical improvement, to add, that in common with tragedy and comedy, they are repre- but it had one pernicious effect, which was, to render muſic inde fentations of action. In conſequence of this, they require the pendent of poetry. Yet theſe fiſter-arts ſeem to be twin-born fame unity of deſign, the fame diverſity of characters and paſſions, from heaven ; and perhaps, in no caſe could the laws of nature with the former. Hence it follows, that ſome parts of them will have ſuffered a more cruel and impious violation, than in ſeparat-be ſimply narrative, fome pathetic, and others more emphatically ing the one from the other. Modulated found is a more genuine, deſcriptive. Muſic ſuited to the firſt of theſe is called recitative. powerful, and univerſal vehicle of ſentiment, than any articulate or Its diſtinguiſhing characteriſtics are, to expreſs the nature and de- arbitrary ſigns can poſſibly be. But articulate figns may be ſo hap gree of ſentiment exhibited by the ſpeaker, to be ſcrupulouſly pily adjuſted by convention, as to expreſs the degrees, varieties, adapted to the peculiar genius of that language which it is deſigned and modes of ſentiment or emotion, which in modulated founds to accompany; and to be exactly modelled according to the ac- are leſs definitely ſignified, if ſignified at all. Thus ſounds give cents of that nation, for which it was formed. Such parts of the energy and ſweetneſs to words, words variety and definiteneſs to muſic as are intended for more pathetic declamations may be call- founds. Guy d'Arezzio, otherwiſe named Guido Aretinus, was ed airs. In theſe the words, both with reſpect to their quantity the inventor of that diſpoſition of the muſical ſcale which is now and order, may be treated with greater freedom. The melody is in uſe. He could not therefore, be the author of harmony, which leſs in the tone of converſation, and the harmony more complex. we know to have been practiſed ſome centuries before his time, In this, however, there is no ſmall hazard leſt ſentiment ſhould but only of a new ſet of characters by which it was expreſſed. be loſt in found; and it requires no ſmall degree of judgment, de- This muſician, by changing the tetrachords into hexachords, highly licacy, and taſte in the compoſer, at once to fill the harmony and improved the ſcale, diſcovered more accurately the poſition of fe- preſerve the ſentiment. The chorus is intended to expreſs fome mitones, and rendered its intonation much more practicable. emphatic event, to celebrate ſome diſtinguiſhed hero, or to praiſe He likewiſe adapted the ſyllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to the va ſome beneficent god. It is properly the voice of triumph and ex- rious ſounds which compoſe it, from the following Sapphic verſes ultation. The harmony ſhould therefore be as full and expreſſive in a hymn to St. John. as poſſible. But for the rules of ſuch compoſitions, one muſt re- UT queant lazis R Efonare fibris fer the reader to ſuch theoretical and practical muſicians as have Mira geftorum F Amuli tuorum been moſt ſucceſsful in deſcribing and cultivating dramatic muſic. SOLve polluti L Abii reatum. SANCTE JOANNEs. What remains for us is to ſubjoin a liſt of thoſe who have been The rhythmus in muſic, or the regular diviſion and meaſures of moſt remarkable for their accuracy in the theory, or for their ex- ſound, had formerly been determined by the quantities of the feet cellence in the practice, of muſic in general. in poetry; and, independent of theſe, ſeems to have been entirely Of John de Muris we have already ſpoken, who lived in the indefinite. The invention of a rythmus capable of ſubſiſting by year 1330, and to whom, by miſtake, has been attributed the in- itſelf, is aſcribed to one Fohannes des Muris. Yet there is confi vention of thoſe characters by which, in modern times, the value derable reaſon to believe that it had been invented by one Franco, of notes, and their relative proportions one to another, have been who lived a number of years before him. In theſe times there was aſcertained. But this expedient for making viſible the different du- a ſecular as well as facred mufic. The Troubadours, or Proven rations of notes. as conſtituent of one rhythmus or particular move- cal poets, compoſed ſongs of different kinds, which they ſung to ment, we have found to be firſt introduced by one Franco, who their harps or violins for public entertainment. Hence it hap- | lived prior to John de Muris. Lalus was the firſt who wrote on pened, that harmony, melody, and rhythmus, admitted of im muſic; but his work is loft, as well as ſeveral other books of the menſely greater varieties than they had hitherto done. We have Greeks and Romans upon the ſame ſubject. Ariſtoxenus, the dif- formerly ſaid, that in ancient muſic, the quantities or values of ciple of Ariſtotle, and leader of a ſect in muſic, is the moſt ancient every note were determined by thoſe of the ſyllables to which they author who remains to us upon this ſcience. After him came Eu- anſwered. It is, however, by no means improbable, that at a very clid of Alexandria. Ariſtides Quintilianus wrote after Cicero. early period, in their private rehearſals, or practice for improve Alyphus afterwards ſucceeded; then Guadentius, Nicomachus, and ment, whether in taſte or execution, the muſicians frequently played Bacchius. Marchus Meibomius has favoured us with a beautiful the inſtrumental parts without being accompanied either by the edition of theſe feven Greek authors, with a Latin tranſlation and voice or the words to which they had been ſet. The impreſſions Plutarch wrote a dialogue upon muſic. Ptolemy, a cele- of thoſe poetical meaſures to which the parts correſponded, were brated mathematician, wrote in Greek a treatiſe entitled The Prin- abundantly ſufficient to preſerve in the memory of the performer | ciples of Harmony, about the time of the emperor Antoninus. the idea of the rhythmus, and of courſe to determine the value of This author endeavoured to preſerve a medium between the Pytha- each particular note. But when airs were either ſet to pieces in goreans and the Ariſtoxenians. A long time afterwards, Manuel proſe, or compoſed without any regard to ſyllabical duration, the Pryennius wrote likewiſe upon the ſame ſubject. Among the La-- quantity of each note was abſolutely indefinite. When therefore tins, Boetius wrote in the times of Theodoric; and not diſtant muſic began to be ſet in parts, it was indiſpenſibly neteſſary that from the ſame period Martianus, Caffiodorus, and St. Auguftine. the points which mark the notes intended to correſpond one with The number of the moderns is almoſt indefinite. The moſt dif- another, ſhould be ſet in direct oppoſition. Hence the denomi- tinguiſhed are, Zarlino, Salinas, Valgulio, Galileo, Doni, Kir- nation of counterpoint. But when characters, or different forms of cher, Merſenne, Parran, Perault, Wallis, Deſcartes, Holden, characters, were invented, for expreſſing the different durations of Mengoli, Malcolm, Baretti, Vallotti , Marcus Meibomius, Chriſ- ſounds, or their relative proportions one to another, the ſame pre- topher Simpſon: Tartini, whoſe book is full of deep reſearches ciſion in oppoſing note to note became leſs neceſſary, and was on and of genius, but tedious from its prodigious length, and perplexed that account leſs ſcrupulouſly obſerved. with obſcurity; and M. Rameau, whoſe writings have had this The airs into which ſecular muſic was originally diſtinguiſhed fingular good luck, to have produced a great fortune without being ſeems to have been the madrigal, the ſong, the cantata, the canon. read almoſt by any one. Beſides, the world may now be ſpared the Theſe were vocal, or at leaſt common to voices and inſtruments; pains of peruſing them, fince M. d'Alembert has taken the trouble but the ſolo, the phantaſia, the concerto, were progreſſive changes of explaining to the public the ſyſtem of the fundamental baſs, the in inſtrumental muſic. only uſeful and intelligible diſcovery which we find in Rameau's It is generally agreed, that the Greeks and Romans ſung their writings. To theſe we may add Dr. Smith, author of a learned tragedies and comedies from beginning to end; but no monument and mathematical treatiſe,intitled, Harmonies ; or, The Philoſopher of theſe compoſitions remains to us : ſo that the muſic of the dra- of Muſical Sounds; Mr. Stillingileet author of the Principles and ma is as really a modern invention as if no ſuch thing had ſubſiſted the Power of Harmony; or, An Explanation of Tartini's Syltem; Dr. among the ancients, ſince the mere knowledge of a fact could by no Pepuſch, and his noble pupil Lord Abercorn; Mr. Aviſon, formerly means throw any light upon the manner in which it was pro- organiſt at Newcaſtle, who wrote a treatiſe on Muſical Expreſſion duced. All that has been tranſmitted to us concerning the ancient with the politeneſs and elegance of a gentleman, the depth and pre- theatrical muſic, can only inform us, that it was pathetic and imi ciſion of a ſcholar, the ſpirit and energy of a genius. The names tative to a high degree. But upon theſe hints few compoſers will of Rouſſeau and d’Alenabert have been ſo often repeated during the think themſelves fufficiently inſtructed to proceed. This arduous courſe of theſe muſical lucubrations, that it would be fuperfluous notes. 4 to M U S I C. ap- to reſume their characters in this place. Among the authors al other unknown principle, more general than that which reſulta ready mentioned, it would be unpardonable to omit the names of from the protracted and compounded tone of fonorous bodies, and Sir John Hawkins and Dr. Burney, each of whom has favoured of which this is only a branch; or laſtly, that we ought not per- the world with a hiſtory of muſic: The firſt protracted to five vo haps to attempt the reduction of the whole ſcience of muſic to one lumes in quarto, replete with muſical erudition, but feldom origi and the ſame principle; which, however, is the natural effect of nal ; frequently careleſs, and ſometimes too circumſtantial and in an impatience fo frequent even among philoſophers themſelves, elegant to be entertaining. The muſical productions of the ingeni which induces them to take a part for the whole, and to judge of ous Dr. Burney in two volumes abound with deſcriptions, events, and objects in their full extent by the greateſt number of their diſquiſitions, highly worthy of attention ; but, on account of the pearances. limits which the author has preſcribed to himſelf, many things We would the more willingly perſuade thoſe who are ſkilled in have been omitted which would have been equally acceptable to theory, and eminent in practice, to extend and improve the views of literary curioſity, and explicative of muſical ſcience. Dr. Young | him, who before them purſued and pointed out the career, becauſe alſo, in a very learned work, entitled, Doktrina Sonorum, throws many amongſt them have already made laudable attempts, and have conſiderable light on the theory of Muſic. even been in ſome meaſure ſucceſsful in diffuſing new light through ELEMENTS OF MUSIC. the theory of this enchanting art. It was with this view that the THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. celebrated Tartini has preſented us, in 1754, with a treatiſe ofhari Preliminary Diſcourſe. mony, founded on a principle different from that of M. Rameau, Muſic may be conſidered, either as an art, which has for its ob This principle is the reſult of a moſt beautiful experiment. If at jeet one of the greateſt pleaſures of which our ſenſes are ſuſcepti once two different ſounds are produced from two inftruments of the ble; or as a ſcience, by which that art is reduced to principles. ſame kind, theſe two founds generate a third, different from both This is the double view in which we mean to treat of inufic in the others. They have inſerted in the Encyclopædie under the article this Syſtem. There are two departments in muſic, melody and Fundamental, a detail of this experiment according to M. Tartini; harmony. Melody is the combination of ſucceſſive: Harmony the and we owe to the public an information of which in compoſing union of co-exiſting ſounds. Melody has been known and felt this article we were ignorant: M. Rameau, a member of the Royal through all ages: perhaps the ſame cannot be affirmed of har Society at Montpellier, had preſented to that fociety, in the year mony, we know not whether the ancients made uſe of it or not, 1.753, before the work of M. Tartini had appeared, a memorial nor at what period it began to be practiſed. printed the fame year, and where may be found the ſame experi- The firſt compoſitions upon the laws of harmony which we ment diſplayed at full length. In relating this fact, which know, are of no higher antiquity than two ages prior to our own; it was neceſſary for us to do, it is by no means our intention to de- and they were followed by many others. But none of theſe ef tract in any degree from the reputation of M. Tartini ; we are fays were capable of ſatisfying the mind concerning the principles perſuaded that he owes this diſcovery to his own reſearches alone: of harmony; they confined themſelves almoſt entirely to the ſingle but we think ourſelves obliged in honour to give a public teſtimony occupation of collecting rules, without endeavouring to account in favour of him who was the firſt in exhibiting this diſcovery. for them ; neither had their analogies one with another, nor their But whatever be the caſe, it is in this experiment that M. Tar- common ſource, been perceived ; a blind and unenlightened ex tini attempts to find the origin of harmony: his book, however, perience was the only compaſs by which the artiſt could direct and is written in a manner ſo obſcure, that it is impoffible for us to regulate his courſe. M. Rameau was the firſt who began to tranf form any judgment of it; and we are told that others, diſtinguiſhed fuſe light and order through this chaos. In the different tones pro for their knowledge of the ſcience, are of the ſame opinion. It duced by the ſame fonorous body, he found the moſt probable ori were to be wiſhed that the author would engage ſome man of let- gin of harmony, and the cauſe of that pleaſure which we receive ters, equally practiſed in muſic, and ſkilled in the art of writing, from it. His principle he unfolded, and ſhowed how the different to unfold theſe ideas which he has not diſcovered with fufficient phænomena of muſic were produced by it: he reduced all the perſpicuity, and from whence the art might perhaps derive conſi- conſonances to a ſmall number of ſimple and fundamental chords, derable advantage if they were placed in a proper light. of which the others are only combinations or various arrangements. The famous diſcovery made by Sig. Tartini, is as follows: If He has, in ihort, been able to diſcover, and render fenfible to two ſounds be produced at the ſame time, properly tuned, and with others, the mutual dependence between melody and harmony. due force, from their conjunction a third found is generated, ſo Every ſonorous body, beſides its principal ſound, likewiſe exhibits much more diſtinctly to be perceived by delicate ears as the relation to the ear the 12th and 17th major of that found. This multipli- between the generating ſounds is more fimple; yet from this rule city of different, yet concordant ſounds, known for a conſiderable we muſt except the uniſon and octave. From the fifth is produced time, conſtitute the baſis of the whole theory of M. Rameau, and a ſound uniſon with its loweſt generator; from the fourth, one the foundation upon which he builds the whole ſuperſtructure of which is an octave lower than the higheſt of its generators; from a muſical ſyſtem. the third major, one which is an octave lower than its loweſt ; and Though theſe different topics may be contained in the writings from the ſixth minor (whoſe higheſt note forms an octave with the of this celebrated artiſt, and in theſe writings may be underſtood loweſt in the third formerly mentioned) will be produced a ſound, by philoſophers, who are likewiſe adepts in the art of muſic; ſtill, lower by a double octave than the higheſt of the leſſer fixth; from however, ſuch muſicians as were not philoſophers, and ſuch philo the third minor, one which is double the diſtance of a greater third ſophers as were not muſicians, have long deſired to ſee theſe objects from its loweft; but from the fixth major (whoſe higheſt note makes brought more within the reach of their capacity; ſuch is the inten an octave to the loweſt in the third minor), will be produced a tion of the ſyſtem now preſented to the public. found only lower by double the quantity of a greater third, than But though this ſyſtem is intended to explain the theory of muſic, the higheſt ; from the ſecond major, a found lower by a double and to reduce it to a ſyſtem more complete and more luminous than octave than the loweſt; from a ſecond minor, a found lower by has hitherto been done, we ought to caution thoſe who ſhall read triple the quantity of a third major than the higheſt; from the in- this ſyſtem, that they may be careful not to deceive themſelves, terval of a diatonic or greater femitone, a found lower by a triple either by miſapprehending the nature of our object, or the end octave than the higheſt; from that of a minor or chromatic ſemi- which our endeavours purſue. tone, a ſound lower by the quantity of a fifth four times multiplied We muſt not here look for that ſtriking evidence which is pe than the loweſt, &c. &c. But that theſe muſical phænomena may culiar to geometrical diſcoveries alone, and which can be ſo rarely be tried by experiments proper to aſcertain them, two hautboys obtained in theſe mixed diſquiſitions, where natural philofophy is tuned with ſcrupulous exactneſs, muſt be prccured, whilſt the mu- likewiſe concerned: into the theory of muſical phænomena there ficians are placed at the diſtance of ſome paces one from the other, muſt always enter a particular kind of metaphyſics, which theſe and the hearers in the middle. The violin will likewiſe give the phænomena implicitly take for granted, and which brings along with it, its natural obſcurity. In this ſubject, therefore, it would fame chords, but they will be leſs diſtinctly perceived, and the ex- periment more fallacious, becauſe the vibrations of other ftrings be abfurd to expect what is called demonſtration: it is an atchieve may be ſuppoſed to enter into it. If our readers ſhould be curi- ment of no ſmall importance, to have reduced the principal facts to ous to examine theſe experiments and the deductions made from a ſyſtem conſiſtent with itſelf, and firmly connected in its parts ; to have deduced them from one ſimple experiment; and to have eſta- them, in the theory of inuſic, he will find them clearly explained bliſhed upon this foundation the moſt common and effential rules printed at London, in the year 1771. and illuſtrated in a treatiſe, called Principles and Power of Harmony, of the muſical art. But in another view, if here it be improper to Philoſophical muſicians ought not to loſe their time in ſearching require that intimate and unalterable conviction, which can only be for mechanical explications for the phænomena in muſic, expli- produced by the ſtrongeſt evidence, we remain in the mean time doubtful whetheritis poſſible to elucidate this ſubject more ſtrongly. cations will always be found vague and unſatisfactory; nor is it their province to exhauſt their powers in vain attempts to riſe above Thus, though the greateſt number of the phænomena in the art of muſic appear to be deducible in a ſimple and eaſy manner from their ſphere, into a region ſtill more remote from the proſpect of the protracted tone of ſonorous bodies, one ought not perhaps with their faculties, and to loſe themſelves in a labyrinth of metaphyſi- cal ſpeculations upon the cauſes of that pleaſure which we feel from too much temerity to affirm as yet, that this mixed and protracted harmony. In vain would they accumulate hypotheſis on hypothe- tone is demonſtratively the only original principle of harmony. But fis, to find a reaſon why ſome chords ſhould pleaſe us more than in the mean time it would not be leſs unjuſt to reject this principle, becauſe certain phænomena appear to be deduced from it with leſs others. Some aſcribe the different degrees of pleaſure which we fucceſs than others. Itis only neceſſary to conclude from this, either feel from chords, to the more or leſs frequent coincidence of vi- brations; others to the relations which theſe vibrations have among that by future ſcrutinies means may be found for reducing theſe phænomena to this principle; or that harmony has perhaps ſome themſelves as they are more or leſs fimple. But why ſhould this coincidence of vibrations, that is to ſay, their fimultaneous im- pullo MUSIC: ear. pulſe on the ſame organs of ſenſation, and the accident of begin beginners the fundamental principles, not the practical detail of ning frequently at the ſame time, prove ſo great a ſource of plea- compoſition. Thoſe who wiſh to enter inore deeply into this fure. We may conceive without difficulty how the eye judges of detail, will either find it in M. Rameau's Treatiſe of Harmony, or relations; but how does the ear form ſimilar judgments? Let us in the code of muſic which he publiſhed more lately (from our ge- in fincerity confeſs our ignorance concerning the genuine cauſes of neral recommendation of this code, we except the reflections on the theſe effects. The metaphyſical conjectures concerning the auditory principles of found which are at the end, and which we ihould not are probably in the ſame predicament with thoſe which are organs, adviſe any one to read) or, laſtly, in the explication of the Theory formed concerning the organs of viſion, if one may ſpeak ſó; in which and Practice of Muſic, by Mr. Bethini, printed at Paris, by Lambert, philoſophers have, even till now, made ſuch inconſiderable pro in the year 1754: this laſt book appears to us clear and methodical. greſs, and in all likelihood will not be ſurpaſſed by their ſucceſſors. Is it neceſſary to add that, in order to compoſe mulic in a pro- The rules which we have attempted to eſtabliſh, concerning the per taſte, it is by no means enough to have familiarized with much track which every one ought to purſue in the theory of the muſi application the principles explained in this Syſtem. Here can only cal art, may ſuffice to ſhew our readers the end which we have en be learned the mechaniſm of the art; it is the province of nature deavoured to attain in this Syſtem. We have nothing to do here alone to accompliſh the reſt. Without her aſſiſtance it is no more (for it is proper that we 'repeat it) we have nothing to do with the poſſible to compoſe agreeable muſic, by having read theſe elements, mechanical principles of protracted and harmonic tones, produced than to write verſes in a proper manner by a poetical dictionary. by fonorous bodies; principles which, till now, have been explored In one word, it is the elements of muſic alone, and not the prin- in vain, and which perhaps may be long explored with the ſame ciples of genius, that the reader may expect to find in this Syitem. fuccefs: we have ſtill leſs to do with the metaphyſical cauſes of thoſe Such was the aim purſued in its compoſition, and ſuch ihould pleaſing ſenſations which are impreſſed on the mind by harmony; be the ideas of the reader in its peruſal. Once more let us add, cauſes which are ſtill leſs diſcovered, and which, according to all that to the diſcovery of its fundamental principles we have not the appearances, will remain latent in perpetual obſcurity. We are remoteſt claim. The ſole end which we propoſed was to be uſe- alone concerned to ſhow how the chief and moſt effential laws of ful; to reach that end we have omitted nothing which appeared harmony may be deduced from one ſingle experiment; and for neceſſary, and we ſhould be ſorry to find our endeavours unſuc- which, if we may ſpeak fo, preceding artiſts have been under a ne ceſsful ceſſity of groping in the dark. PART I. DEFINITIONS OF SEVERAL TECHNICAL With an intention of rendering this ſyſtem as generally uſeful TERMS. as poflible, we have endeavoured to adapt it to the capacity even of SECT. I. What is meant by Melody, by Chord, by Harmony, by thoſe who are abſolutely uninſtructed in muſic. To accompliſh Interval. this defign, it appeared neceſſary to purſue the following plan. To 1. Melody is nothing elſe but a ſeries of ſounds which ſucceed begin with ſuch definitions as are neceſſary to explain the techni one to another in a manner agreeable to the ear. cal terms moſt frequently uſed in this art; ſuch as, chord, harmony, 2. That is called a chord which ariſes from the mixture of ſe- tone, third, fifth, oftave, &c. yeral ſounds heard at the ſame time; and harmony is properly a ſe- Next, to enter into the theory of harmony, which is explained ries of chords, which, in their ſucceſſion one to another, delights the according to M. Rameau, with all poſible perſpicuity. This part, A ſingle chord is likewiſe ſometimes called harmony, to ſig- as well as that which includes definitions of technical terms, pre nify the coaleſcence of ſounds which that chord creates, and the ſuppoſes no other knowledge of muſic than that of the names and ſenſation produced in the ear by that coaleſcence. We ſhall occa- powers of the notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B, which all the world knows. ſionally uſe the word harmony in this laſt ſenſe, but in ſuch a man- We ſhall not imitate thoſe muſicians, who, believing themſelves ner as never to leave our meaning ambiguous. geometers, or thoſe geometers, who, believing themſelves muſicians, 3. In melody and harmony, the diſtance between one found and fill their writings with figures upon figures; imagining, perhaps, another is called an interval; and this is increaſed or diminiſhed as, that this apparatus is neceſſary to the art. The propenſity of adorn- the ſounds between which it intervenes are higher or lower one than ing their works with a falſe air of ſcience, can only impoſe upon the other. credulity and ignorance, and ſerve no other purpoſe but to render 4. That we may learn to diſtinguiſh the intervals, and the man- their treatiſes more obſcure, and leſs inſtructive. ner of perceiving them, let us take the ordinary ſcale This we may do with ſo much more reaſon, that in this ſubject ut, re, mi, fa, ſol, la, ſi, UT, the foundations of thoſe calculations are in fome meaſure hypothe- C, D, E, F, G, A, B C, tical, and can never ariſe to a degree of certainty above hypotheſis. which every perſon, whoſe ear or voice is not extremely falſe, na- The relation of the octave as I to 2, that of the fifth as 2 to 3, that turally modulates. Theſe are the obſervations which will occur to of the third major as 4 to 5, &c. are not perhaps the genuine rela us in ſinging this gamut. The ſound D is higher or ſharper than tion eſtabliſhed in natura; but only relations which approach them, the found C, the found E higher than the found D, the found F and ſuch as experience can diſcover. For are the reſults of expe higher than the ſound E, &c. and ſo through the whole octave; ſó rience any thing more but mere approaches to truth? that the interval or the diſtance from the ſound C to the ſound D, But happily theſe approximated relations are ſufficient, though is leſs than the interval or diſtance between the ſonnd C and the they ſhould not be exactly agreeable to truth, for giving a ſatis ſound E, the interval from C to E is leſs than that between C and factory account of thoſe phænomena which depend on the relation F, &c. and in ſhort that the interval from the firſt to the ſecond C of ſound; as in the difference between the notes in the gammut, is the greateſt of all. of the alterations neceffary in the fifth and third, of the different 5. In general, the interval between two ſounds is proportionably manner in which inſtruments are tuned, and other facts of the fame greater, as one of theſe founds is higher or lower with relation to kind. If the relations of the octave, of the fifth, and of the the other : but it is neceſſary to obſerve, that two ſounds may be third, are not exactly ſuch as we have ſuppoſed them, at leaſt no equally high or low, though unequal in their force. The ſtring experiments can prove that they are not ſo; and, ſince theſe rela of a violin, touched with a bow, produces always a ſound equally tions are ſignified by a fimple expreſſion, ſince they are, beſides, high, whether faintly or ſtrongly ſtruck ; the found will only have ſufficient for all the purpoſes of theory; it would not only be uſe a greater or leſſer degree of ſtrength. It is the ſame with vocal leſs, but even contrary to ſound philoſophy, ſhould any one incline modulation; let any one form a ſound, by gradually impelling or to invent other relations, to form the baſis of any ſyſtem of muſic, ſwelling the voice, the found may be perceived to increaſe in its leſs eaſy and ſimple than that which we have delineated in this energy, whilſt it continues always equally low or equally high. Syſtem. 6. We muſt likewiſe obſerve, concerning the ſcales, that the in- The Third Part of this Syſtem contains the moſt eſſential rules tervals between C and D, between D and E, between F and G, of compoſition; or, in other words, the practice of harmony. Theſe between G and A, between A and B are equal, or at leaſt nearly rules are founded on the principles laid down in the firſt part; yet equal; and that the intervals between E and F, and between B thoſe who wiſh to underſtand no more than is neceſſary for prac and C, are likewiſe equal among themſelves, but conſiſt almoſt tice, without exploring the reaſons why ſuch practical rules are ne only of half the former. This fact is known and recogniſed by ceſſary, may limit the objects of their ſtudy to the Introduction, and every one: the reaſon for it ſhall be given in the ſequel; in the the Second Part. This Second Part, ſtrictly fpeaking, preſuppoſes mean time every one may aſcertain its reality, by the aſſiſtance of no more than the firit, any habit of ſinging, nor even any know an experiment. ledge of muſic; it only requires that one Thould know, not even This experiment may be eaſily tried. Let any one ſing the the rules and manner of intonation, but merely the poſition of the ſcale of C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, it will be immediately obſerved, notes in the cleff, F or fa, on the fourth line, and of that of Gor without difficulty, that the laſt four'notes of the octave G, A,B,C, fol, upon the ſecond: and even this knowledge may be acquired from are quite ſimilar to the firſt C, D, E, F; inſomuch, that if, after the ſyſtem itſelf; for in the beginning of the ſecond part we explain having fung this ſcale, one would chooſe to repeat it, beginning the poſition of the cleffs and of the notes. Nothing elſe is neceſſary with C in the ſame tone which was occupied by G in the former but to render it a little familiar to our memory, and we ſhall have ſcale, the note D of the laſt ſcale would have the ſame found no more difficulty in it. with the note A in the firſt, the E with the B, and the F with It would be wrong to expect here all the rules of compofition, the C. and eſpecially thoſe which direct the compoſition of muſic in ſeveral From whence it follows, that the interval between C and D is parts, and which, being leſs ſevere and indiſpenſible, may be chiefly the ſame as between G and A; between D and E, as between A acquired by practice, by ſtudying the moſt approved models, by the and B; and E and F, as between B and C. It will likewiſe be aſſiſtance of a proper maſter, but, above all, by the cultivation of the found, that from D to E, from F to G, there is the ſame interval ear and of the taſte. This Syſtem is intended for explaining to as from C to D. To be convinced of this, we need only fing the * 8 H ſcale N° 112 M U S I C. found is a a From fcale once more; then fing it again, beginning with C, in this laſt ſcale; thus D, the ſecond note of the ſcale, will be an octave in ac ſcale, in the ſame tone which was given to D in the firſt; and it cent to the D of the firſt ſcale; in the ſame manner E ſhall be the will be perceived, that the D in the ſecond ſcale will have the ſame octave to E, &c. and ſo of the reſt. found, at leaſt as far as the car can diſcover, with the E, in the 14. As there are nine notes from the C firſt to the ſecond D, the former ſcale; froin whence it follows, that the interval between D intervals between theſe two ſounds is called a ninth, and this ninth and E is, at leaſt as far as the ear can perceive, equal to that be is compoſed of ſix full tones and two ſemitones. For the ſame tween C and D. It will alſo be found, that the interval between reaſon the interval from C to F is called an eleventh, and the inter- F and G is, ſo far as our ſenſe can determine, the ſame with that val between C and G, a twelfth, &c. It is plain that the ninth is between C and D. the octave of the ſecond, the eleventh of the fourth, and the twelfth This experiment may perhaps be tried with ſome difficulty by of the fifth, &c. The octave above the octave of any thoſe who are not inured to form the notes and change the key; called a double ohave ; the octave of the double octave is called but ſuch may very eaſily perform it by the aſſiſtance of an harpſi- triple oktave; and fo of the reft. The double octave is likewife chord, by means of which the performer will be ſaved the trouble called a fifteenth; and for the ſame reaſon the double octave of the of retaining the ſounds in one intonation whilſt he performs ano third is called a ſeventeenth, the double octave of the fifth a nine- ther. In touching upon this harpſichord the keys G, A, B, C, teenth, &c. and in performing with the voice at the ſame time C, D, E, F, in Let us ſuppoſe two vocal ſtrings, formed of the ſame matter, of ſuch a manner that the ſame found may be given to C in the voice the ſame thickneſs, and equal in their tenſion, but unequal in their with that of the key G in the harpfichord, it will be found that D length, it will be found by experience; 1. That if the ſhorteſt is in the vocal intonation ſhall be the ſame with A upon the harpſi- | equal to half the longeſt, the found which it will produce muſt be chord, &c. an octave above the ſound produced by the longeſt. 2. That if It will be found likewiſe by the ſame harpſichord, that if one the ſhorteſt conſtitutes a third part of the longeſt, the ſound which ſhould fing the ſcale beginning with C in the ſame tone with E it produces muſt be a twelfth above the found produced by the on the inſtrument, the D which ought to have followed C, will be longeſt. 3. That if it conſtitutės the fifth part, its found will be higher by an extremely perceptible degree than the F which follows feventeenth above. E; thus it may be concluded, that the interval between E and F. Beſides, it is a truth demonſtrated and generally admitted, that is leſs than that between C and D; and if one would riſe from F. in proportion as one muſical ſtring is leſs than another, the vibra- to another found, which is at the fame diſtance from F as F from tion of the leaſt will be more frequent (that is to ſay, its departures E, he would find in the ſame manner, that the interval from E to and returns through the fame ſpace) in the ſame time; for in- this new found is almoſt the ſame as that between C and D. The ſtance, in an hour, a minute, a ſecond, &c. in ſuch a manner that interval then from E to F is nearly half of that between C and D. one ſtring which conſtitutes a third part of another, forms three vibrations, whilſt the largeſt has only accompliſhed one. In the Since then, in the ſcale thus divided, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C ſame manner a ſtring which is one half leſs than another, performs the firſt diviſion is perfectly like the laſt; and ſince the intervals two vibrations whilſt the other only completes one; and a ſtring between C and D, between D and E, and between F and G, are which is only the fifth part of another, will perform five vibrations equal, it follows, that the intervals between G and A, and between in the ſame time which is occupied by the other in one. A and B are likewiſe equal to every one of the three intervals be thence it follows, that the ſound of a ſtring is proportionally higher tween C and D, between D and E, and between F and G; and or lower, as the number of its vibrations are greater or ſmaller in a that intervals between E and F and between B and C are alſo equal, given time; for inſtance, in a fecond. It is for that reaſon that if but that they only conſtitute one half of the others. we repreſent any found whatever by I, one may repreſent the oc- 7. It is for this reaſon that they have called the interval from tave above by 2, that is to ſay, by the number of vibrations formed E to F, and from B to C, a ſemitone; whereas thoſe between by the ſtring which produces the octave, whilſt the longeſt ſtring C and D, D and E, F and G, G and A, A and B are tones. only vibrates once; in the ſame manner we may repreſent the The tone is likewiſe called a ſecond major, and the ſemitone a ſecond twelfth above the found 1 by 3, the ſeventeenth major above by 5, minor. &c. But it is very neceſſary to remark, that by theſe numerical ex- 8. To defcend or riſe diatonically, is to deſcend or riſe from one preſſions we do not pretend to compare founds as ſuch; for ſounds ſound to another by the interval of a tone or of a ſemitone, or in ir themſelves are nothing but mere ſenſations, and it cannot be general by ſeconds, whether major or minor; as from D to C, or faid of any ſenſation that it is double or triple to another : thus the from C to D; from F to E, or from E to F. expreſſions 1, 2, 3, &c. employed to denominate a ſound, its oc- SECT. II. The Terms by which the different Intervals of the Ga tave above, its twelfth above, &c. fignify only, that if a ſtring per- mut are denominated. forms a certain nuinber of vibrations, for inſtance, in a ſecond, the 9. An interval compoſed of a tone and a ſemitone, as from ſtring which is in the octave above ſhall double the number in the E to G, from A to C, or from D to F, is called a third minor. ſame time, the ſtring which is in the twelfth above ſhall triple it,&c. An interval compoſed of two full tones, as from C to E, from F Thus to compare ſounds among is nothing elſe than to to A, or from G to B is called a third major. An interval con compare among themſelves the numbers of vibrations which are fiſting of two tones and a femitone, as from C to F, or from G to formed in a given time by the ſtrings that produce theſe ſounds. C, is called a fourth. An interval, conſiſting of three full tones, SECT. IV. What is meant by Sharps and Flats. as from F to B, is called triton, or fourth redundant. An interval 15. It is plain that one may imagine the five tones which enter conſiſting of three tones and a ſemitone, as froin C to G, from into the ſcale, as divided each into two ſemitones; thus one may F to C, from D to A, or from E to B, &c. is called a fifth. An advance from C to D, forming in its progreſs an intermediate interval compoſed of three tones and two ſemitones, as from E to found, which ſhall be higher by a femitone than C, and lower in the C, is called a ſixth minor. An interval compoſed of four tones fame degree than D. A ſound in the ſcale is called ſharp, when it a femitone, as from C to A, is called a ſixth major. An interval is raiſed by a femitone; and it is marked with this character *: confifting of four tones and two ſemitones, as from D to Cis called thus C* fignifies C Marp; that is to ſay, C raiſed by a ſemitone a ſeventh minor. An interval compoſed of five tones and two femi above its pitch in the natural ſcale. A found in the ſcale depreſſed tones, as from C to B, is called a ſeventh major. And, in ſhort, | by a femitone is called flat, and is marked thus, b: thus A b fig- an interval conſiſting of five tones and two ſemitones, as from C to nifies A flat, or A depreſſed by a ſemitone. C, is called an octave. Many of the intervals which have now SECT. V. What is meant by Confonances and Diſonances. been mentioned, are ſtill fignified by other names, as may be ſeen 16. A chord compoſed of founds, whoſe union or coaleſcence in the beginning of the ſecond part : but thoſe which we have now pleaſes the ear, is called a conſonance; and the ſounds which form given are the moſt common, and the only terms which our preſent this chord are ſaid to be confonant one with relation to the other. purpoſe demands. The reaſon of this denomination is, that a chord is found more per- 10. Two ſounds equally high, or equally low, however unequal | fect, as the ſounds which form it coaleſce more cloſely among in their force, are ſaid to be in unifon one with the other. themſelves. 11. If two ſounds form between them any interval, whatever it 17. The octave of a found is the moſt perfect of confonances of be, we ſay, that the higheſt when aſcending is in that interval with which that found is fufceptible; then the fifth, afterwards the third, relation to the loweſt, and when deſcending we pronounce the &c. This is a fact founded on experiment. loweſt in the ſame interval with relation to the higheſt. Thus, in 18. A number of founds at the ſame time produced, whoſe union the third minor E, G, where E is the loweſt and G the higheſt is diſpleaſing to the ear, is called a diffonance, and the founds which found, G is a third minor from E aſcending; and E is third minor form it are ſaid to be diſſonant, one with relation to the other. The from G in deſcending. fecond, the triton, and the ſeventh of a found, are diſſonants with 12. In the ſame manner, if ſpeaking of two ſonorous bodies, we relation to it. Thus the found CD, CB, or FB, &c. heard at the ſhould ſay, that the one is a fifth above the other in aſcending, this fame time, form a diſſonance. The reaſon which renders diffo- infers that the found given by one is at the diſtance of a fifth af nances diſagreeable is, that the ſounds which compoſe it feem by no cending from the found given by the other. means coalefcent to the ear, and are heard, each of them by itſelf, SECT. III. Of Intervals greater than the Oktave. as diſtinct ſounds, though produced at the ſame time, 13. If after having fung the ſcale C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, one PART II. THEORY OF HARMONY. would carry this ſcale ftill farther in afcent, it would be diſcovered SECT. I. Preliminary and Fundamental Experiments. without difficulty, that a new ſcale would be formed, C, D, E, F, - EXPERIMENT I. &c. entirely ſimilar to the former, and of which the founds will be 19. When a ſonorous body is ſtruck till it gives a found, the ear, an octave afcending, each to its correſpondent note in the former befides the principal ſound and its octave, perceives two other founds I M U S I C. 1 "} 1 2 4 8 um ml ſounds very high, of which one is the twelfth above the principal, its fourth, its third, its major and minor in aſcending, are }, , ſound, that is to ſay, the octave to the fifth of that found, and the To find its fifth, its fourth, its third major and minor in deſcending, other is the ſeventeenth major above the ſame ſound, that is to ſay, nothing more is neceſſary than to reverſe theſe fractions, which will the double octave of its third major. give , $ % 158 20. This experiment is peculiarly ſenſible upon the thick ſtrings 21. The principal ſound is called the generator; and the two of the violincello, of which the found being extremely low, gives other ſounds which it produces; and with which it is accompanied, to an ear, though not very much practiſed, an opportunity of dif are, incluſive of its octave, called its harmonics. tinguiſhing with ſufficient eaſe and clearneſs the twelfth and ſeven- EXPERIMENT II. teenth now in queſtion. Since the octave above the found 1 is 2, 22. There is no perſon inſenſible of the reſemblance which ſub- the octave below that ſame ſound ſhall be į ; that is to ſay, that ſiſts between any found and its octave; whether above or below. the ſtring which produces this octave ſhall have performed half its Theſe two ſounds, when heard together, almoſt entirely coaleſce vibration whilſt the ſtring which produces the found 1 ſhall have in the organ of ſenſation. We may beſides be convinted (by two completed one. To obtain therefore the octave above any found, facts which are extremely ſimple) of the facility with which one the operator muſt multiply the quantity which expreſſes the found of theſe founds may be taken for the other. by 2; and to obtain the octave below, he muſt on the contrary di Let it be ſuppoſed that any perſon has an inclination to ſing a vide the ſame quantity by 2. tune, and having at firſt begun this air upon a pitch too high or too It is for that reaſon that if any ſound whatever, low for his voice, ſo that he is obliged, leſt he ſhould ſtrain himſelf for inſtance C, is denominated too much, to ſing the tune in queſtion on a key higher or lower Its octave above will be than the firſt; without being initiated in the art of muſic, he will Its double octave above naturally take this new key in the octave below or the octave above Its triple octave above the firſt'; and in order to take this key in any other interval except In the ſame manner its octave will be the octave, he will find it neceſſary to exert a ſenſible degree of at- Its double octave below tention. This is a fact of which we may eaſily be perſuaded by Its triple octave below experience. Another inſtance; Let any perſon ſing a tune in our And ſo of the reſt. preſence; and let it be ſung in a tone too high or too low for our Its twelfth above 3 voice ; if we wiſh to join in ſinging this air, we naturally take the Its twelfth below octave below or above, and frequently, in taking this octave, we Its ſeventeenth major above 5 imagine it to be the uniſon. It is not then imagined that we Its ſeventeenth major below change the value of a found in multiplying or dividing it by 2, by The fifth then above the found 1 being the octave beneath the 4, or by 8, &c. the number which expreſſes theſe ſounds, ſince by twelfth, ſhall be, as we have immediately obſerved, i ; which ſig theſe operations we do nothing but take the ſimple, double, or nifies that this ſtring performs vibrations, that is to ſay, one vibra triple octave; &c of the ſound in queſtion, and that a ſound coa- tion and a half, during a ſingle vibration of the ſtring which gives lefces with its octave. the found 1. To obtain the fourth above the found 1, we muſt SECT. II. The Origin of the Modes Major and Minor ; of the take the twelfth below that found, and the double octave above that moſt natural Modulation, and the moſt perfect Harmony. twelfth. In effect, the twelfth below C, for inſtance, is F, of which 23. To render our ideas ſtill more preciſe and permanent, we the double octave F is the fourth above C. Since then the twelfth ſhall call the tone produced by the ſonorous body C: it is evident, below I is ž, it follows that the double octave above this twelfth, by the firſt experiment, that this ſound is always attended by its that is to ſay, the fourth from the ſound i in aſcending, will 12th and 17th major ; that is to ſay, with the octave of G, and be f multiplied by 4, or . In ſhort, the third major being nothing the double octave of E. elſe but the double octave beneath the ſeventeeth, it follows, that 24. This octave of G then, and this double octave of E, pro- the third major above the ſound I will be 5 divided by 4, or in duce the moſt perfect chord which can be joined with C, ſince that other words. The third major of a ſound, for inſtance the third chord is the work and choice of nature. major E, from the found C, and its fifth G, form between them a 25. For the ſame reaſon, the modulation formed by C with the third minor E, G; now E is , and G , by what has been im octave of G and the double octave of E, ſung one after the other, mediately demonſtrated: from whence it follows, that the third would likewiſe be the moſt ſimple and natural of all modulations minor, or the interval between E and G, ſhall be expreſſed by the which do not deſcend or aſcend directly in the diatonic order, if relation of the fraction to the fraction our voices had ſufficient compaſs to form intervals ſo great with- To determine this relation, it is neceſſary to remark, that are out diíficulty ; but the eaſe and freedom with which we can ſub- the ſame thing with , and that are the ſame thing with : fo ſtitute its octave to any found, when it is more convenient for the that ſhall be to in the ſame relation as to "; that is to ſay, voice, afford us the means of repreſenting this modulation. in the ſame relation as 10 to 12, or as 5 to 6. If, then, two ſounds 25. It is on this account that, after having ſung the tone C, we form between themſelves a third minor, and that the firſt is repre naturally modulate the third E, and the fifth G, inſtead of the ſented by 5, the ſecond ſhall be expreſſed by 6: or what is the ſame double octave of E, and the oct: ve of G; from whence we form, thing, if the firſt is repreſented by I, the ſecond ſhall be expreſſed by joining the octave of the found C, this modulation, C, E, G,C, by : Thus the third minor, an harmonic ſound which is even which, in effect is the ſimpleſt and eaſieſt of them all; and which found in the protracted and coaleſcent tones of a fonorous body likewiſe has its origin even in the protracted and compounded tones between the ſound E and G, an harmonic of the principal found, produced by a ſonorous body. may be expreſſed by the fraction 27. The modulation C, E, G, C, in which the chord C, E, is One may ſee by this example, that in order to compare two a third major, conſtitutes that kind of harmony or melody which founds one with another, which are expreſſed by fractions, it is ne we call the mode major; from whence it follows, that this mode ceſſary firſt to multiply the numerator of the fraction which ex reſults from the immediate operation of nature. preſſes the firſt by the denominator of the fraction which expreſſes 28. In the modulation C, E, G, of which we have now been the ſecond, which will give a primary number ; as here the nu treating, the ſounds E and G are ſo proportioned one to the other, merator 5 of the fraction 6 multiplied by 2 of the fraction has that the principal ſound C (art. 19.) cauſes both of them to re- given 10. Afterwards may be multiplied the numerator of the fe found; but the ſecond tone E does not cauſe G to reſound, which cond fraction by the denominator of the firſt which will give a only forms the interval of a third minor. ſecondary number, as here 12 is the product of 4 multiplied by 3; 29. Let us then imagine, that, inſtead of this ſound E, one and the relation between theſe two numbers (which in the preced ſhould ſubſtitute between the ſounds CG, another note which (as - ing example are 10 and 12) will expreſs the relation between theſe well as the ſound C) has the power of caufing G to reſound, and two ſounds, or, what is the ſame thing, the interval which there which is, however, different from the ſound C; the ſound which is between the one and the other; in ſuch a manner, that the far we explore ought to be ſuch, by art. 19. that it may have for its ther the relation between theſe ſounds departs from unity, the 17th major G, or one of the octaves of G; of conſequence the greater the interval will be. Such is the manner in which we may ſound which we ſeek ought to be a 17th major below G, or what compare two ſounds one with another whoſe numerical value is is the ſame thing, a third major below the ſame G. Now the found known. We ſhall now ſhew the manner how the numerical ex E being a third minor beneath G, and the third major being (art.9.) preſſion of a found may be obtained, when the relation which it greater by a ſemitone than the third minor, it follows, that the ought to have with another ſound is known whoſe numerical ex found of which we are in ſearch ſhall be a femitone beneath the na- preſſion is given. Let us ſuppoſe, for example, that the third major tural E, and conſequently Eb. of the fifth is ſought. That third major ought to be, by what 30. This new arrangement, C, Eb, G, in which the founds C, has been ſhewn above, the of the fifth; for the third major of and Eb have both the power of cauſing G to reſound, though C any found whatever is the of that ſound. We muſt then look for does not cauſe Eb to reſound, is not indeed equally perfect with a fraction which expreſſes the of? ; which is done by multiply the firſt arrangement C, E, G; becauſe in this the two ſounds E ing the numerators and denominators of both fractions one by the and G are both the one and the other generated by the principal other, from whence reſults the new fractions. It will likewiſe found C; whereas in the other, the found Eb is not generated by be found that the fifth of the fifth is , becauſe the fifth of the fifth the ſound C; but this arrangement C, Eb, G, is likewiſe dictated is the of. Thus far we have only treated of fifths, fourths, by nature (art. 19.) though leſs immediately than the former ; and third major and minor, in aſcending ; now it is extremely eaſy to accordingly experience evinces that the ear accommodates itſelf al- find by the ſame rules the fifths, fourths, thirds major and minor in moſt as well to the latter as to the former. deſcending. For fuppofe C equal to 1, we have ſeen that its fifth, 31. In this modulation or chord C, EbG,C it is evident that the M U S I C. fifth; the third from Cb to E is minor; and ſuch is the origin of that make a tranſition is removed from the principal mode, the lem time mode which we call minor. we ought to dwell it. upon 32. The moſt perfect chords then are. I. All chords related SECT. V. Of Temperament. any one to another, as C, E, G, C, conſiſting of ſound of its third major, of its fifth, and of its octave. 2. All chords related to one 44. The alterations which we have obſerved in the intervals between another, as C, E, G, C, conſiſting of any found, of its third particular ſounds of the diatonic ſcale, naturally lead us to ſpeak minor, of its fifth, and of its octave. In effect, theſe two kinds of of temperament. To give a clear idea of this, and to render the chords are exhibited by nature; but the firſt more immediately than neceſſity of it palpable, let us ſuppoſe that we have before us an the ſecond. The firſt are called perfect chords major, the ſecond inſtrument with keys, a harpſichord, for inſtance, conſiſting of fe- perfect chords minor. veral octaves or ſcales, of which each includes its twelve ſemitones. Let us chooſe in that harpſichord one of the ſtrings which will SECT. III. Of the Series which the Fifth requires, and of the Laws which it obſerves. found the note C, and let us tune the ſtring G to a perfect fifth with C in aſcending ; let us afterwards tune to a perfect fifth with 33. Since the found C, cauſes the found G to be heard, and is this G the D which is above it; we ſhall evidently perceive that itſelf heard in the ſame found F, which ſounds G and F are its two this D will be in the ſcale above that from which we ſet out; but twelfths, we may imagine a modulation compoſed of that found C it is alſo evident that this D muſt have in the ſcale a D which cor- and its two twelfths, or, which is the ſame thing (art. 22), of its reſponds with it, and which muſt be tuned a true octave below D ; two-fifths, F and G, the one below, the other above; which gives and between this and G there ſhould be the interval of a fo the modulation or ſeries of fifths F, C, G, which we call the fun- that the D in the firſt ſcale will be a true fourth below the G of the damental baſs of C by fifths. fame ſcale. We may afterwards tune the note A of the firſt ſcale We ſhall find in the ſequel, that there may be ſome fundamental to a juſt fifth with this laſt D ; then the note E in the higheſt bafes by thirds, deduced from the two ſeventeenths, of which the ſcale to a true fifth with this new A, and of conſequence the E in one is an attendant of the principal found, and of which the other the firſt ſcale to a true fourth beneath this fame A: having finiſhed includes that found. But we muſt advance ſtep by ſtep, and fa this operation, it will be found that the laſt E, thus tuned, will tisfy ourſelves at preſent to conſider immediately the fundamental by no means form a juſt third major from the found C; it is im- baſs by fifths. poffible for E to conſtitute at the ſame time the third major of C, 34. Thus, from the ſound C, one may make a tranſition indiffe and the true fifth of A; or, what is the ſame thing, the true fourth rently to the found G, or to the ſound É. of A in deſcending. 35. One may, for the ſame reaſon, continue this kind of fifths The A confidered as the fifth of D is 5 and the fourth be- in afcending, and in deſcending, from C, in this manner: neath this A will conſtitute of 36, that is to ſay, 34; 84 then Eb, Bb, F, C, G,D, A, &c. ſhall be the value of E, conſidered as a true fourth from A in de- And from this ſeries of fifths, one may paſs to any ſound which fcending: now E, conſidered as the third major of the ſound C, immediately precedes or follows it. is , or 4: theſe two E's then are between themſelves in the pro- 36. But it is not allowed in the fame manner to paſs from one portion of 81 to 80; thus it is impoſſible that E fhould be at the ſound to another which is not immediately contiguous to it; for ſame time a perfect third major from C, and a true fourth be- inſtance, from C to D, or from D to C; for this very ſimple rea- neath A. fon, that the found D is not contained in the found C, nor the 45. What is ſtill more, if, after having ſucceſſively and alter- found C in that of D; and thus theſe founds have not any alliance nately tuned the ſtrings C, G, D, A, E, in perfect fifths and fourths the one with the other, which may authoriſe the tranſition from one from the other, we continue to tune ſucceſſively by true fifths one to the other. and fourths the ſtrings E, B, FX, CX, GX, DX, EX, BX; we 37. And as theſe ſounds C and D, by the firſt experiment, na ſhall find, that, though BX, being a ſemitone higher than the turally bring along with them the perfect chords conſiſting of natural note, ſhould be equivalent to C natural, it will by no greater intervals C, E, G, C, D, F,X A,D; hence may be de means form a just octave to the firſt in the ſcale, but be confi- duced this rule, That two perfect chords, eſpecially if they are derably higher; yet this BX upon the harpſichord ought not to be major, cannot fucceed one another diatonically in a fundamental different from the octave above C; for every BX and every C is baſs; we mean that in a fundamental baſs two ſounds cannot be the ſame found, ſince the octave or the ſcale only conſiſts of twelve diatonically placed in ſucceſſion, each of which, with its harmo ſemitones. nies, forms a perfect chord, eſpecially if this perfect chord be ma 46. From thence it neceſſarily follows, 1. That it is impoſible jor in both. that all the octaves and all the fifths ſhould be juſt at the ſame time, SECT. IV. Of Modes in general. particnlarly in inſtruments which have keys, where no intervals 38. A mode, in muſic, is nothing elſe but the order of founds leſs than a femitone are admitted. 2. That, of conſequence, if preſcribed, as well in harmony as melody, by the ſeries of fifths. the fifths are juſtly tuned, ſome alteration muſt be made in the oc- Thus the three founds F, C, G, and the harmonies of each of theſe taves ; now the ſympathy of ſound which ſubſiſts between any three ſounds, that is to fay, their thirds major and their fifths, com note and its octave, does not permit us to make ſuch an alteration: poſe all the major modes which are proper to C. this perfect coaleſcence of found is the cauſe why the octave ſhould 39. The ſeries of fifths then, or the fundamental baſs F, C, G, ſerve as limits to the other intervals, and that all the notes which of which C holds the middle ſpace, may be regarded as repreſent riſe above or fall below the ordinary ſcale, are no more than repli- ing the mode of C. One may likewiſe take the ſeries of fifths, or cations, i. e. repetitions, of all that have gone before them. For fundamental baſe, C, G, D, as repreſenting the mode of G; in the this reaſon, if the actave were altered, there could be no longer any fame manner Bb, F, C, will repreſent the mode of F. By this fixed point either in harmony or melody. It is then abſolutely ne- we may fee, that the mode of G, or rather the fundamental baſs of ceſſary to tune the C, or BXX in a juſt octave with the firſt ; from that mode, has two ſounds in common with the fundamental baſs whence it follows, that in the progreſſion of fifths, or, what is the of the mode of C. It is the ſame with the fundamental baſs of the ſame thing in the alternate ſeries of fifths and fourths, C, G,D, mode F. A, E, BX, F, CX, GX, DX, AX, EX, BX, it is neceſſary that 40. The mode of C, (F, C, G,) is called the principal mode with all the fifths ſhould be altered, or at leaſt ſome of them. Now, reſpect to the modes of theſe two fifths, which are called its two ſince there is no reaſon why one ſhould rather be altered than ano- adjunéts. ther, it follows, that we ought to alter them all equally. By theſe 41. It is then, in ſome meaſure, indifferent to the ear whether a means, as the alteration is made to influence all the fifths, it will be tranſition be made to the one or to the other of theſe adjuncts, ſince in each of them almoſt imperceptible; and thus the fifth, which, each of them has equally two ſounds in common with the princi after the octave, is the moſt perfect of all conſonances, and which pal mode. Yet the mode of G ſeems a little more eligible; for we are under a neceſſity of altering, muft only be altered in the G is heard amongſt the harmonics of C, and of conſequence is im leaſt degree poſſible. plied and fignified by C; whereas C does not caufe F to be heard, 47. It is true, that the thirds will be a little harſh: but as the though C is included in the ſame found F. It is hence that the interval of ſounds which conſtitutes the third, produces a leſs per- ear, affected by the mode of C, is a little more prepoſſeſſed for the fect coaleſcence than that of the fifth, it is neceſſary, ſays M. Ra- mode of G, than for that of F. Nothing likewiſe is more frequent; meau, to facrifice the juſtice of that chord to the perfection of the nor more natural, than to paſs from the mode of C to that of G. fifth; for the more perfect a chord is in its own nature, the more 42. It is for this reaſon, as well as to diſtinguiſh the two fifths diſpleaſing to the ear is any alteration which can be made in it. In one from the other, that we call G, the fifth above the the octave the leaſt alteration is inſupportable. generator the dominant found, and the fifth F beneath the generator the 48. This change in the intervals of inſtruments, which have, or fubdominant. even which have not, keys, is that which we call temperament. 43. It remains to add, as we have ſeen in the preceding ſection, 49. It reſults then from all that we have now ſaid, that the theory that, in the ſeries of fifths, we may indifferently paſs from one found to that which is contiguous: in the fame manner, and for of temperament may be reduced to this queſtion. The alternate ſucceſſion of fifths and fourths having been given, G,D, A, E, the ſame reaſon, one may paſs from the mode of G, to the mode B, FX, CX, G*, Dx, A*, EX, BX, in which B* or C of D, after having made a tranſition from the mode of C to the is not the true octave of the firſt C, it is propoſed to alter all the mode of G, as from the mode of F to the mode of Bb. But it is fifths equally, in ſuch a inanner that the two C's may be in a per- neceſſary, however, to obſerve, that the ear in which has been im fect octave the one to the other. mediately affected with the principal mode feels always a ſtrong 50. For a ſolution of this queſtion, we muſt begin with tuning propenſity to return to it. Thus the further the made to which we the two C's in a perfect octave the one to the other; in conſequence of Plate 7. Principles of Miuio. Sa the System See the System Part 1 Section 1: The Seven Characters or was of Ilriting the Notes according to their value or length of Time with the Marks of their several Rests or Pauses. Semu-breve Vinim Breve Crotchet Quaver Semi-qumer Demi-semi-quarter Ut dib UE ab du The Characters for denoting Rests or Pauses Minim Crotchet Quaver Equal to a Breve Semi-breve Semi-quaver Demi-semi-quarer When more Bars than one are to be rested it is commonly marked thus 5 6 3 4 7 8 16 d Dot added to any. Note increases üs value one half Equal to 1128 There are tiree Clif: The lowest Jiis called Bari or Fair The narr alts the Termr or c.pillant is placed upon the first, The last cuir 6 ir the Treble or GClift being live Notes higher than His placed either upon the fourth or third Line. N'hen it is upon seind, third • fourth Line It is callot Tivior upon tlu fourih dane comiter: the C till and is placed upon the second and first line and called the fourth Line it is malled Bats, and upon the thint Bordio-tenor. tomor upon the tried.Third-trebleupon the sind al-Frehle upon the firstLine. T'iolin or Treble (til upon the second line &Trench Chill upon the furist. OM ΟΥ f f Example of the unison or the same Note repeated in every-Cliff Treble or Soprino Third-treble or Mezzo Soprano Counter-tenor or Contratto Tenor Bals Tiolin or Treble 6 Chromatic Scale. be 50 12 #o 10 #e Enharmonick Scale be the His be the te Tiolin Scale. ilhenever you go higher than the Votes muurked in the following Seale you must change the position cutjonë. Handishich is called Shiiting on all Instruments played with a Bow 34 String -2!!! Suing Suring Tur tunet . String o dl lo albdagb 1.String Tenor Viola or Alto Scale. 2.dstring Thur 3. Suing 7:"String e al 01 Viola da Gamba. ./h Sering 3. suring "String 17и, 6! Suring 5! String String dondo 0 b 10 Violoncello. Thus ./!"String 3?lstring 274 String 7String ΦΙΦΙΦΙΦ 10 o Double Baſs. Thur 3!! String 2!! String String Jyo Guitar. 3:4 String Thus oth String 6th String 4String z!d String 1: String ze 0 Harp. There w a String for every Note and when half a one is wanted it must be made with the Pedal 1 oth CH Bars Treble Cup D Principles of Music. Se the systemPart 1: Section t. Scale for the Organ or Grand Piano Forte. Treble 1 D D 1 G \ В C D E 1 1 1 Bars 1 FF G A B C D F G 1 B C t + + + E t ? 1 GN BD CC DO LETO t 2 t 1 FF OCTAVBE CC DD ELLFGWBCD|ET|GA|B|C| D||ET EF|G A|B|C| D|E|F|G|A|B|C| D|E|F || Scale for the German Flute C D E T G B B D Ę F G 1 E Left Tland 2 3 ::::::::::: O O o C Right lland 20 10 .000 • OOO OOOO OOOO оооо OOO O key Flats and Sharps. ber bete bez Teft 9: : : : : : : : ::: Ha nel Right Nanet 2. 3 lo ооо OOO C Kev O с Scale for the Hautboy 311 ABCDET ABIC E AIBIDΓΕΙΑΣ F G D GIC RI U--- --- 1 2 HA 3 6 T d) 7 8 Scale for the Baſsoon Bb C# D#D#ELE F# F Gb G# 15. BbBa C CH DA DHEDEH F F# F# G#G# A 16. BbP4 Ch C# DED#1bb 15 F4 F# G belaka E 1 1 1 . $ ! 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 ! 1 1 i e A o o e Aug a 6 MUSIC. of which, we will render all the ſemitones which compoſe the oc which it produces in harmony will be but very ſmall, or not per- tave as equal as poſſible. By this means the alteration made in ceptible to the ear, whoſe attention is entirely engrofled in attuning each fifth will be very inconſiderable, but equal in all of them. itſelf with the fundamental baſs, and which fuffers without uneafi- 51. In this, then, the theory of temperament conſiſts : but as it neſs, theſe alterations, or rather takes no notice of them, becauſe would be difficult in practice to tune a harpſichord or organ by it ſupplies from itſelf what may be wanting to the truth and per- thus rendering all the ſemitones equal, M. Rameau, in his Genera fection of the intervals. tion Harmonique, has furniſhed us with the following method to Simple and daily experiments confirm what we now advance. alter all the fifths as equally as poſſible. Liſten to a voice which is accompanied in ſinging by different in- 52. Take any key of the harpſichord which you pleaſe, but let it ſtruments; though the temperament of the voice, and the tempera- be towards the middle of the inſtrument; for inſtance, C: then ments of each of the inſtruments, are all different one from ano- tune the note G a fifth above it, at firſt with as much accuracy as ther, yet you will not be in the leaſt affected with the kind of ca- poſſible; this you may imperceptibly diminiſh : tune afterwards cophony which ought to reſult from theſe diverſities, becauſe the the fifth to this with equal accuracy, and diminiſh it in the fame ear fuppoſes theſe intervals true of which it does not appreciate the manner; and thus proceed from one fifth to another in aſcent : differences. We may give another experiment. Strike upon an or- and as the ear does not appretiate fo exactly founds that are ex gan the three keys E, G, B, you will hear nothing but the minor tremely ſharp, it is neceſſary, when by fifths you have riſen to perfect chord; though E, by the conſtruction of that inſtrument, notes extremnely high, that you ſhould tune in the moſt perfect muſt caufe G*, likewiſe to be heard; though G ſhould have the manner the octave below the laſt fifth which you had immediately fame effect upon D, and B upon F*; infomuch, that the ear is at formed; then you may continue always in the fame manner ; till once affected with all theſe founds, D, E, F*,G,GX,B: how many in this proceſs you arrive at the laſt fifth from E * to Bx, which diffonances perceived at the fame time, and what a jarring multitude ſhould of themſelves be in tune; that is to ſay, they ought to be in of diſcordant ſenſations, would reſult from thence to the ear, if the ſuch a ſtate that B*; the higheſt note of the two which compoſe | perfect chord with which it is pre-occupied had not power entirely the fifth, may be identical with the found C, with which you be to abſtract its attention from ſuch founds as might offend ! gan, or at leaſt the octave of that found perfectly juſt: it will be SECT. VI. Of Repoſes or Cadences. necefiary then to try if this C, or its octave, forms a juſt fifth with [That the reader may have a clear idea of the term before he en- the laſt found E * or F which has been already tuned. If this ters upon the ſubject of this ſection, it may be neceſſary to caution be the caſe, we may be certain that the harplichord is properly him againſt a miſtake into which he may be too eaſily led, by the tuned. But if this laſt fifth be not true, in this caſe it will be too ordinary ſignification of the word repoſe. In muſic, therefore, it is far ſharp, and it is an indication that the other fifths have been too from being ſynonimous with the word reſt. It is, on the contrary, much diminiſhed, or at leaſt ſome of them; or it will be too flat, the termination of a muſical phraſe which ends in a cadence more and conſequently diſcover that they have not been ſufficiently di or leſs emphatic, as the ſentiment implied in the phraſe is more or miniſhed. We muſt then begin and proceed as formerly, till we leſs complete. Thus a repoſe in muſic anſwers the fame purpoſe find the laſt fifth in tune of itſelf, and without our immediate inter as punctuation in language. See Repos in Rouſſeau's Muſical poſition. Dictionary.] All that remains, is to acknowledge, with M. Rameau, that this 53. In a fundamental bafs, whofe procedure is by fifths, there temperament is far remote from that which is now in practice : always is, or always may be, a repoſe, or criſis, in which the you may here ſee in what this laſt temperament conſiſts, as applied mind acquieſces in its tranſition from one found to another : but to the organ or harpſichord. They begin with C in the middle of a repoſe may be more or leſs diſtinctly ſignified, and of confequence the keys, and they flatten the four firſt fifths G,D, A, E, till they more or leſs perfect. If one ſhould riſe by fifths; if for inſtance, form a true third major from E to C: afterwards, ſetting out from we paſs from C to G; it is the generator which paſſes to one of this E, they tune the fifths B, F*, CX, G*, but fattening them theſe fifths, and this fifth was already pre-exiſtent in its generator: ſtill leſs than the former, fo that G* may almoſt form a true third but the generator exiſts no longer in this fifth ; and the ear, as this major with E. When they have arrived at Gx, they ſtop; they generator is the principle of all harmony, and of all melody, feels a reſume the firſt C, and tune to it the fifth F in deſcending, then the deſire to return to it. Thus the tranſition from a found to its fifth Bb, &c. and they heighten a little all the fifths till they have fifth in aſcent, is termed an imperfect repoſe, or imperfe&t cadence, but arrived at Ab, which ought to be the ſame with the G* already the tranſition from any found to its fifth in deſcent is denominated a tuned. If, in the temperament commonly practiſed, ſome thirds perfect cadence, or an abſolute repoſe: it is the offspring, which re- are found to be leſs altered than in that preſcribed by M. Rameau, turns to its generator, and, as it were, recovers its exiſtence once in return, the fifths in the firſt temperament are much more falſe, more in that generator itſelf, with which when ſounding it reſounds and many thirds are likewiſe fo; inſomuch, that upon a harpſichord (fect. 1.) tuned according to the temperament in common uſe, there are five 54. Amongſt abſolute repofes, there are ſome, if we may be or fix modes which the ear cannot endure, and in which it is im allowed the expreſſion, more abſolute; that is to fay, more perfect poffible to execute any thing. On the contrary, in the tempera than others. Thus, in the fundamental baſs ment ſuggeſted by M. Rameau, all the modes are equally perfect: C, G, C, F, C, G, D, G, C, which is a new argument in its favour, ſince the temperament is which formas, as we have ſeen, the diatonic ſcale of the moderns, peculiarly neceſſary in paſſing from one mode to another, without there is an abſolute repoſe from D to G, as from G to C: yet thocking the ear; for inſtance, from the mode of C to that of G, this laſt abſolute repoſe is more perfect than the preceding, becauſe from the mode of G to that of D,&c. It is true, that this uniformity the ear, prepoſſeſſed with the mode of C by the multiplied impreſ- of modulation will, to the greateſt number of muſicians, appear a fion of the found C which it has already heard thrice before, feels defect; for they imagine, that by tuning the ſemitones of the ſcale a deſire to return to the generator C; and it accordingly does fo, unequal, they give each of the modes a peculiar character; fo that, | by the abſolute repoſe G C. according to them, the ſcale of C, 55. We may ſtill add, that what is commonly called cadence, in C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, melody, ought not to be confounded with what we name cadence is not perfectly ſimilar to the gammut of the mode of E, in harmony. In the firſt cafe, this word only ſignifies an agreeable E, F*, G*, AX, B, CⓇ, D*, E, and rapid alternation between two contiguous ſounds, called which, in their judgment, renders the mode of C and E proper likewiſe a trill or ſhake ; in the fecond, it fignifies a repoſe or different manners of expreſſion. But after all that we have ſaid in cloſe. It is however true, that this ſhake implies, or at leaſt fre- this Syſtem, on the formation of diatonic intervals, every one ſhould quently enough preſages, a repoſe, either preſent or impending, in be convinced, that, according to the intention of nature, the diato the fundamental baſs. M. Rouſſeau, in his letter on French mu- nic ſcale ought to be perfectly the ſame in all its modes: the con fic, has called this alternate undulation of different ſounds, a trill, trary opinion, ſays M. Rameau, is a mere prejudice of muſicians. from the Italian word trillo, which fignifies the fame thing ; end The character of an air ariſes chiefly from the intermixture of the ſome French muſicians already appear to have adopted this expref- modes; from the greater or leſſer degrees of vivacity in the move fion. ment; from the tones, more or leſs grave, or more or leſs acute, 56. Since there is a repoſe in paſſing from one found to another which are aſſigned to the generator of the mode; and from the in the fundamental baſs, there is alſo a repoſe in pafling from one chords more or leſs beautiful, as they are more or leſs deep, more or note to the other in the diatonic ſcale, which is formed from it, and leſs flat, more or leſs ſharp, which are found in it. In ſhort, the which this baſs repreſents: and as the abſolute repoſe G C, is of all laſt advantage of this temperament is, that it will be found con others the moſt perfect in the fundamental baſs, the repoſe from B formed, or at leaſt very little different from that which they prac to C, which anſwers to it in the ſcale, and which is likewiſe ter- tiſe upon inſtruments without keys; as the baſs-viol, the violin, in minated by the generator, is for that reaſon the moſt perfect of all which true fifths and fourths are preferred to thirds and fixths tuned others in the diatonic ſcale aſcending. with equal accurary; a temperament which appears incompa 57. It is then a law dictated by nature itſelf, that if you would tible with that commonly uſed in tuning the harpſichord. aſcend diatonically to the generator of a mode, you can only do By this method all the twelve ſounds which compoſe one of the this by means of the third major from the fifth of that very gene- ſcales ſhall be tuned: nothing is neceſſary but to tune with the This third major, which with the generator forms a ſe- greateſt poſſible exactneſs their octaves in the other ſcales, and the mitone, haš for that reaſon been called the ſenſible note, as introdu- harpſichord ſhall be well tuned. We have given this rule for tem ducing the generator, and preparing us for the moſt perfect repofe. peiament, from M. Rameau ; and it belongs only to diſinherited We have already proved, that the fundamental baſs is the principle artiſts to judge of it. However this queſtion be determined, and of rnelody. We ſhall beſides make it appear in the ſequel, that the whatever kind of temperament may be received, the alterations effect of a repoſe in melody ariſes folely from the fundamental baſs. * 81 SECT. for rator. No. 112. M U S I C. SECT. VII. The Minor Mode and its Diatonic Series. where F is natural. It is becauſe, in the firſt ſcale, F is a third $8. In the ſecond ſection, we have explained (art. 29. 30. 31. minor from D in the baſs; and in the ſecond, F* is the fifth from and 32) by what means, and upon what principle the minor chord B in the baſs. C, Eb, D, C, may be formed; which is the characteriſtical chord 69. Thus the two ſcales of the minor mode are ſtill in this re- of the minor mode. Now what we have there ſaid, taking C for ſpect more different one from the other than the two ſcales of the the principal and fundamental ſound, we might likewiſe have ſaid of major mode ; for we do not remark this difference of a ſemitone any other note in the ſcale, aſſumed in the ſame manner as the princi between the two ſcales of the major mode. We have only ob- pal and fundamental found; but as in the minor chord C, Eb, G, C, ferved ſome difference in the value of A as it ſtands in each of theſe there occurs an Eb which is not found in the ordinary diatonic ſcales, but this amounts to much leſs than a ſemitone. ſcale, we ſhall immediately ſubſtitute, for greater eaſe and conve 68. From thence it may be ſeen why F and G are ſharp, when niency, another chord, which is likewiſe minor, and exactly ſimilar aſcending in the minor mode; nay, beſides, the F is only natural to the former, of which all the notes are found in the ſcale. in the firſt ſcale, GX, A, C, D, E, F, becauſe this F cannot riſe to 59. The ſcale affords us three chords of this kind, viz. D, F, Gx. A, D, A, C, E, A, and E, G, B, E. Amongſt theſe three we 69. It is not the ſame caſe in deſcending. For E, the fifth of the ſhall chooſe A, C, E, A; becauſe this chord, without including generator, ought not to imply the third major G*, but in the caſe any ſharp or flat, has two founds in common with the major when that E deſcends to the generator A to form a perfect repoſe, chord C, E, G, C. and beſides, one of theſe two ſounds is the (art. 57, and 63.); and in this caſe the third major G* riſes to the very fame Cs ſo that this chord appears to have the moſt immedi generator A: but the fundamental baſs A E may, in deſcending, ate, and at the ſame time the moſt ſimple, relation with the chord give the ſcale A G natural, provided G does not riſe towards A. C, E, G, C. Concerning this we need only add, that the prefer 70. It is much more difficult to explain how the F,which ought ence of the chord A, C, E, A, to every other minor chord, is by to follow this G in deſcending, is natural and not ſharp; for the no means in itſelf neceſſary for what we have to ſay in this ſection, fundamental baſs upon the diatonic ſcale of the minor mode. We right in the A, E, B, E, A, D, A, E, A, (ame manner have choſen any other minor chord; and it is only, produces in deſcending, as we have ſaid, for greater eaſe and conveniency, that we fix upon A, G, F*, E, E, D, C, B, A, this. And it is plain that the F cannot be otherwiſe than ſharp, ſince 60. Let us now remark, that in every mode, whether major or F* is the fifth of the note B of the fundamental baſs. In the mean minor, the principal found which implies the perfect chord, whe time, experience evinces that the F is natural in deſcending in the ther major or minor, may be called the tonic note or key; thus C is diatonic ſcale of the major mode of A, eſpecially when the pre- the key in its proper mode, A in the mode of A, &c. Having laid ceding G is natural; and it muſt be acknowledged, that here the down this principle, fundamental baſs appears in ſome meaſure defective. M. Rameau 61. We have thewn how the three founds, F, C, G, which con has invented the following means for obtaining a ſolution of this ſtitutes (art. 38) the mode of C, of which the firſt F and the laſt difficulty. According to him, in the diatonic ſcale of the minor G are the two fifths of C, one deſcending the other riſing, pro mode in deſcending, A, G, F, E, D, C, B, A, G, may be re- duce the ſcale B, C, D, E, F, G, A, of the major mode, by means garded ſimply as a note of paſſage, merely added to give ſweetneſs of the fundamental baſs G, C, G, C, F, C, F: let us in the ſame to the modulation, and as a diatonic gradation by which we may manner take the three ſounds D, A, E, which conſtitute the mode deſcend to F natural. It is eaſily perceived, according to M. Ra- of A, for the ſame reaſon that the ſounds F, C, G, conſtitute the meau,-by this fundamental baſs, mode of C; and of them let us form this fundamental baſs, per- A, D, A, D, A, E, A. fectly like the preceding, E, A, E, A, D, A, D: let us afterwards which produces place below each of theſe ſounds one of their harmonics, as we A, F, E, D, C, B, A; have done for the firſt ſcale of the major mode; with this differ which may be regarded, as he ſays, as the real ſcale of the minor ence, that we muſt ſuppoſe D and A as implying their thirds mi mode in deſcending; to which is added G natural between A and nor in the fundamental baſs to characteriſe their minor mode; and F, to preſerve the diatonic order. This anſwer appears the only ſhall have the djatonic ſcale of that mode. one which can be given to the difficulty above propoſed: but we G*, A, B, C, D, E, F. know not whether it will fully ſatisfy the reader; whether he will 62. The G* which correſponds with E in the fundamental baſs, not ſee with regret, that the fundamental baſs does not produce, to forms a third major with that E, though the mode be minor; for ſpeak properly, the diatonic ſcale of the minor mode in deſcent, the ſame reaſon that a third from the fifth of the fundamental when at the ſame time this ſame baſs ſo happily produces the dia- found ought to be major (art. 57.) when that third riſes to the tonic ſcale of that identical mode in aſcending, and the diatonic fundamental found A. ſcale of the major mode whether in riſing or deſcending. 63. It is true, that, in cauſing E to imply its third major G, one From what remains when G is ſaid to be natural in deſcending the might alſo riſe to A by a diatonic progreſs. But that manner of diatonic ſcale of the minor mode of A, this only ſignifies, that this riſing to A would be leſs perfect than the preceding; for this rea G is not neceſſarily ſharp in deſcending as it is in riſing; for this ſon (art . 56.) that the abſolute repoſe, or perfect cadence E, A, G, beſides, may be ſharp in deſcending to the minor mode of A, which is found in the fundamental baſs, ought to be repreſented in as may be proved by numberleſs examples, of which all muſical the moſt perfect manner in the two notes of the diatonic ſcale compoſers are full. It is true, that when the ſound G is found which anfwer to it, eſpecially when one of theſe two notes is A, the ſharp in deſcending to the minor mode of A, ſtill we are not fure key itſelf upon which the repoſe is made. From whence it fol that the mode is minor till the F or C naturally is found; both lows, that the preceding note G ought rather to be ſharp than of which impreſs a peculiar character on the minor mode, viz. C natural; becauſe G*, being included in E (art. 19.) much more natural, in riſing and in deſcending, and the F natural in deſcend- perfectly repreſents the note E in the baſs, than the natural note G ing. could do, which is not included in E. SECT. VIII. Relative Modes. 64. We may remark this firſt difference between the ſcale 171. Two modes, which are of ſuch a nature that we can paſs G*, A, B, C, D, E, F, from the one to the other, are called relative modes. Thus we have and the ſcale which correſponds with it in the major mode already ſeen that the major mode of C is relative to the major mode B, C, D, E, F, G, A, of F and to that of G. It may likewiſe appear from what goes that from E to F, which are the two laſt notes of the former ſcale, before, how many intimate connections there are between the there is only a ſemitone; whereas from G to A, which are the ſpecies or major mode of C, and the ſpecies, or minor mode of A. two laſt ſounds of the latter ſeries, there is the interval of a com For, 1. The perfect chords, one major C EG C, the other minor plete tone: but this is not the only diſcrimination which may be ACEA, which characteriſe each of thoſe two kinds of modula- found between the ſcales of the two modes. tion or harmony, have two ſounds in common, C or E. 2. The 65. To inveſtigate theſe differences, and to diſcover the reaſon for diatonic ſcale of the minor mode of A-in deſcent, abſolutely con- which they happen, we ſhall begin by forming a new diatonic ſcale tains the ſame ſounds with the gammut or diatonic ſcale of the ma- of the minor mode, ſimilar to the ſecond ſcale of the major mode, jor mode of C. It is for this reaſon that the tranſition is ſo natu- C, D, E, F, G, G, A, B, C. ral and eaſy from the major mode of C to the minor mode of A, or That laſt ſeries, as we have ſeen, was formed by means of the from the minor mode of A to the major mode of C, as experience fundamental baſs F, C, G, D, diſpoſed in this manner, proves. C, G, C, F, C, G, D, G, C. 72. In the minor mode of E, the minor perfect chord E GBE, Let us take in the ſame manner the fundamental baſs D, A, E, B, which characteriſes it, has likewiſe two ſounds, E, G in common and arrange it in the following order, with the perfect chord major C EGC, which characteriſes the A, E, A, D, A, E, B, E, A, major mode of C. But the minor mode of E is not ſo cloſely re- and it will produce the ſcale immediately ſubjoined, lated, nor allied to the major mode of C as to the minor mode of A; A, B, C, D, E, E, F, G*, A, becauſe the diatonic ſcale of the minor mode of E in deſcent has in which C forms a third minor with A, which in the fundamental not, like the ſeries of the minor mode of A, all theſe founds in com- baſs correſponds with it, which denominates the minor mode: and mon with the ſcale of C. In reality, this ſcale is E D C BAG on the contrary G* forms a third major with E in the fundamen F*E, where there occurs an F ſharp which is not in the ſcale of tal baſs, becauſe Gx riſes towards A, (art. 62 and 63.) 66. We fee beſides an Fx which does not occur in the former, C. We may add, that though the minor mode of E is leſs rela- tive to the major mode of C than that of A; yet the artiſt does not G*, A, B, C, D, E, F, heſitate fometimes to paſs immediately from the one to the other. we ?? I We M U S I C. any one there- We may ſee beſides, that when we paſs from one mode to another us ſuppoſe, for inſtance that they intend to riſe from G to G*; by the interval of a third, whether in deſcending or riſing, as from they riſe at firſt from G to A, then deſcend from A to G* by the C to A, or from A to C, from C to E, or from E to C, the major | interval of a ſemitone major; for this G ſharp, which is a feinitone mode becomes minor, or the minor mode becomes major. major below A, proves a ſemitone minor above G. 73. There is ſtill another minor mode, into which an imme 84. Every procedure of the fundamental bafs by thirds, whether diate tranſition may be made in iſſuing from the major mode of major or minor, rifing or deſcending, gives the minor ſemitone. C. It is the minor mode of C itſelf in which the perfect minor This we have already ſeen from the ſucceſſion of thirds in aſcend- chord C Eb G C has two ſounds, C and G, in common with the ing. The ſeries of thirds minor in deſcending, C, A, gives C, Cx; perfect major chord C EG C. Nor is there any thing more and the ſeries of thirds major in deſcending, C, Ab, gives C, common than à tranſition from the major mode of C to the mi- Cb. nor mode, or from the minor to the major. 85. The minor ſemitone conſtitutes the ſpecies called chromatic; SECT. IX. Of Dijonance. and with the ſpecies which moves by diatonic intervals, reſulting 74. We have already obſerved that the mode of C (F, C, G,) from the ſucceſſion of fifths, it comprehends the whole of melody. has two ſounds in common with the mode of G, (C, G, D); and SECT. XI. The Enharmonic Species. two ſounds in common with the mode of F (B1, F, C); of conſe 86. The two extremes, or higheſt and loweſt notes, C GX, of quence this procedure of the baſs CG, may belong to the mode of the fundamental baſs by thirds major, CEG*, give this modulation Cor to the mode of G, as the procedure of the baís FC, or CF, may CB*; and theſe two founds C, Bx, differ between themſelves by belong to the mode of C or the mode of F. When a ſmall interval, which is called the diefis, or enharmonic fourth of fore paſſes from C to F or to G in a fundamental baſs, he is ſtill a tone, which is the difference between a femitone major and a fe- ignorant even to that criſis what mode he is in. It would be how mitone minor. This quarter tone is inappreciable by the ear, and ever advantageous to know it, and to be able by ſome means to impracticable upon ſeveral of our inſtruments. Yet have means diſtinguiſh the generator from its fifths. been found to put it in practice in the following manner, or rather 95. This advantage may be obtained by uniting at the ſame to perform what will have the ſame effect upon the ear. time the ſounds G and F in the ſame harmony, that is to ſay, by 87. We have explained in what manner the chord GXBDF, joining to the harmony G B D of the fifth G, the other fifth F in may be introduced into the minor mode, entirely conſiſting of this manner, G, B, D, F; this F which is added, forms a diſſonance thirds minor perfectly true, or at leaſt ſuppoſed ſuch. This chord with G (art. 18.) It is for that reaſon that the chord G B D F, ſupplying the place of the chord of the dominant (art. 88.) from is called a diſſonant chord, or a chord of the ſeventh. It ferves to thence we may paſs to that of the tonic or generator A. But we diſtinguiſh the fifth G from the generator C, which always im- muſt remark. plies, without mixture or alteration, the perfect chord C, E, G, C, 1. That this chord G XBD F, entirely conſiſting of thitds mi- reſulting frorn nature itſelf. (art. 32.) By this we may ſee, that nor, may be inverted or modified according to three following ar- when we paſs from C to G, one paſſes at the ſame time from C to rangements, B DF G*, DFG* B, FG*BD; and that in F, becauſe F is found to be comprehended in the chord of G; and all theſe three different ſtates, it will ſtill remain compoſed of thirds the mode of C by theſe means plainly appears to be determined, minor; or at leaſt there will only be wanting the enharmonic fourth becauſe there is none but that mode to which the founds F and G of a tone to render the third minor between F and G* entirely at once belong. - juſt; for a true third minor, as that from E to G in the diatonic 76. Let us now ſee what may be added to the harmony F, A, ſcale, is compoſed of a ſemitone and a tone both major. Now from C, of the fifth F below the generator, to diſtinguiſh this harmony F to G there is a tone major, and from G to GX there is only a from that of the generator. It ſeems probable at firſt, that we minor ſemitone. There is then a wanting (art. 86.) the enhar- ſhould add to it the other fifth G, ſo that the generator C, in pal- monic fourth of a tone, to render the third FG* exactly true. 2. fing to F, may at the ſame time paſs to G, and that by this the But as this divifion of a tone cannot be found in the gradations of mode ſhould be determined; but this introduction of G, in the any ſcale practicable upon moſt of our inſtruments, nor be appre- chord F, A, C, would produce two ſeconds in ſucceſſion F, G, ciated by the ear, the ear takes the different chords. G, A, that is to ſay, two diffonances whoſe union would prove ex- B D F G* tremely harſh to the ear; an inconvenience which ought carefully DF G* B, to be avoided. For if, to diſtinguiſh the mode, we ſhould alter F GX B D the harmony of the fifth F in the fundamental baſs, it muſt only which are abſolutely the ſame, for chords compoſed every one of be altered in the leaſt degree poſſible. thirds minor exactly juſt. Now the chord GX B D F, belong- 77. For this reaſon, inſtead of G, we ſhall take its fifth D, ing to the minor mode of A, where G* is the ſenſible note; the which is the found that approaches it the neareſt; and we ſhall chord B D F G* or BDF A b, will, for the ſame reaſon, be- have, inſtead of the fifth F, the chord F, A, C, D, which is called long to the minor mode of C, where B is the ſenſible note; In like a chord of the great fixth. We may here remark the analogy there manner the chord D F G* B or B D F Ab Cb, will belong to is obſerved between the harmony of the fifth G, and that of the the minor mode of Eb and the chord FGXBD, or F Ab Cb fifth F. Ebb, to the minor mode of Gb. After having paſſed then by 78. The fifth G, in riſing above the generator, gives a chord the mode of A to the chord G* B D F one may, by means of this entirely conſiſting of thirds aſcending from G, G, B, D, F; now laſt chord, and by merely ſatisfying ourſelves to invert it, afterwards the fifth F being below the generator-C in deſcending, we ſhall paſs all at once to the modes of C minor, of Eb minor, or of Gb find, as we go lower by thirds from C towards F, the fame ſounds minor; that is to ſay, into the modes which have nothing, or almoſt C, A, F, D, which from the chord F, A, C, D, given to the fifth F. nothing, in common with the minor mode of A, and which are en- 79. It appear beſides, that the alteration of the harmony in the tirely foreign to it. two fifths conſiſts only in the third minor D, F, which was reci 89. It muſt, however, be acknowledged, that a tranſition fo ab- procally added to the harmony of theſe two fifths. rupt, and ſo little expected, cannot deceive nor elude the it SECT. X. The Cromatic Species. is ſtruck with a ſenſation ſo unlooked for, without being able to 80. The ſeries or fundamental baſs by fifths produces the dia account for the paſſage to itſelf. And this account has its foun- tonic ſpecies in common uſe; now the third major being one of dation in the harmonic fourth of a tone, which is overlooked as no- the harmonics of a fundamental ſound as well as the fifth, it fol thing, becauſe it is inappreciable by the ear; but of which, though lows, that we may form fundamental baſſes by thirds major, as we its value is not aſcertained, the whole harſhneſs is ſenſibly perceived. have already formed fundamental baſſes by fifths. The initant of ſurpriſe, however, immediately vaniſhes; and that 81. If then we ſhould form this baſs C, E, G*, the two firſt aſtoniſhment is turned into admiration, when one feels himſelf ſounds carrying each along with it their thirds major and fifths, it tranſported as it were all at once, and almoſt imperceptibly, from is evident that C will give G, and that E will give G*; now the one mode to another, which is by no means relative to it, and to ſemitone which is between this G and this G* is an interval much which he never could have immediately paſſed by the ordinary ſe- leſs than the ſemitone which is found in the diatonic ſcale between ries of fundamental notes. E and F, or between B and C. This may be aſcertained by cal- SECT. XII. The Diatonic Enharmonic Species. culation; it is for this reaſon that the ſemitone from E to F, is 90. If we form a fundamental baſs, which riſes alternately by called major, and the other minor. fifths and thirds, as F, C, E, B, this baſs will give the following 82. If the fundamental baſs ſhould proceed by thirds minor in modulation, F, E, E, D*; in which the ſemitones from F to E, this manner, C, Eb, a ſucceſſion which is allowed when we have and from E to Dx, are equal and major. This ſpecies of modu- inveſtigated the origin of the minor mode (fect. 7), we ſhall find lation or harmony, in which all the ſemitones are major, is called this modulation G, Gb, which would likewiſe give a minor the enharmonic diatonical ſpecies. The major ſemitones peculiar to ſemitone. this ſpecies give it the name of diatonic, becauſe major ſemitones 83. The minor ſemitone is hit by young practitioners in intona belong to the diatonic ſpecies; and the tones which are greater than tion with more difficulty than the ſemitone major. For which this major by the exceſs of a fourth, reſulting from a ſucceſſion of ma- reaſon may be aſſigned: the femitone major which is found in the jor ſemitones, give it the name of enharmonic. diatonic ſcale, as from E to F, reſults from a fundamental baſs SECT. XIII. The Chromatic Enharmonic Species. by fifths C F, that is to ſay, by a ſucceſſion which is moſt natu 91. If we paſs alternately from a third minor in deſcending to ral, and for this reaſon the eaſieſt to the ear. On the contrary, a third major in riſing, as C, C, A C* C*, we ſhall form this the minor ſemitone ariſes from a ſucceſſion by thirds, which is modulation, Eb, E, E, E, Ex, in which all the ſemitones are mi- Aill leſs natural than the former. Hence, that ſcholars may truly This ſpecies is called the chromatical enharmonical ſpecies ; kit the minor ſemitone, the following artifice is employed. Let the minor femitones peculiar to this kind give it the name of chro- matic ear; nor. MUSIC. matic, becauſe minor femitones belong to the chromatic ſpecies; and vals which have obtained different names, according to particular the ſemitones which are leffer by the diminution of a fourth reſult circumſtances; which it is proper to explain. ing from a ſucceſſion of minor ſemitones, give it the name of enhar 103. An interval compoſed of a tone and a femitone, which is monic. commonly called a third minor, is likewiſe ſometimes called a a ſe- cond redundant; ſuch is the interval from C to D* in aſcending, 92. Theſe new ſpecies confirm what we have all along ſaid, that the whole effects of harmony and melody reſide in the fundamental or that of A to Gb deſcending. This interval is ſo termed, be- baſs. cauſe one of the ſounds which form it, is always either ſharp or flat, 93 The diatonic ſpecies is the moſt agreeable, becauſe the fun and that, if you deduct that ſharp or that flat, the interval will be damental baſs which produces it is formed from a ſucceſſion of that of a ſecond. fifths alone, which is the moſt natural of all others. 104. An interval compoſed of two tones and two ſemitones, as 94. The chromatic being formed from a ſucceſſion of thirds, is that from B to F, is called a falſe fifth. This interval is the ſame the moſt natural after the preceding. with the triton (art. 9.) ſince two tones and two ſemitones are 95. Finally, the enharmonic is the leaſt agreeable of all, becauſe equivalent to three tones. There are, however, ſome reaſons for the fundamental baſs which gives it is not immediately indicated by diſtinguiſhing them, as will appear below. nature. The fourth of a tone which conſtitutes this ſpecies, and 105. As the interval from C to Dx in aſcending has been called which is itſelf inappreciable to the ear, neither produces nor can a ſecond redundant, they likewiſe call the interval from C to DX produce its effect, but in proportion as imagination ſuggeſt the fun in aſcending a fifth redundant, or from B to E4 in deſcending each damental baſs from whence it reſults ; a bafs whoſe procedure is not of which intervals are compoſed of four tones. This interval is, agreeable to nature, ſince it is formed of two ſounds which are not in the main, the ſame with that of the ſixth minor (art. 9.): but in contiguous one to the other in the ſeries of thirds (art. 86.) the fifth redundant there is always a ſharp or a fat; inſomuch, that SECT. XIV. Shewing that Melody is the Offspring of Harmony. if this ſharp or flat were deducted, the interval would become a true 96. All that we have hitherto faid, as it ſeems to us, is more fifth. than ſufficient to convince us, that melody has its original princi- 106. For the ſame reaſon, an interval compoſed of three tones ple in harmony, and that it is in harmony, expreffed or underſtood, and three ſemitones, as from GX to F in aſcending, is called a fe- that we ought to look for the effects of melody. venth diminiſhed; becauſe, if you deduct the ſharp from G, the in- 97. If this ſhould ſtill appear doubtful, nothing more is neceſ- terval from G to F will become that of an ordinary ſeventh. The ſary than to pay due attention to the firſt experiment (art. 19.) interval of a ſeventh diminiſhed is in other reſpects the ſame with where it may be ſeen that the principal ſound is always the loweſt, that of the ſixth major (art. 9). and that the ſharper ſounds which it generates, are, with relation to 107: The major ſeventh is likewiſe ſometimes called a ſeventh it, what the treble of an air is to its baſs. redundant. 98. Yet more, the diverſification of baſſes produces effects to SECT. II. Compariſon of the Different Intervals. tally different in a modulation which, in other reſpects, remains the 108. If we fing C B in deſcending by a ſecond, and afterwards fame. C B in aſcending by a ſeventh, theſe two R's ſhall be octaves one to 99. Can it be ſtill neceffary to adduce more convincing proofs ? the other; or, as we commonly expreſs it, they will be replications We have nothing to do but examine the different baſſes which may one of the other. be given to this very ſimple modulation G C; of which it will be 109. On account then of the reſemblance between every found found ſuſceptible of a great many, and each of theſe baſſes will give and its octave (art. 22) it follows, that to riſe by a ſeventh, or deſcend a different character to the modulation G C; though in itſelf it by a ſecond, amount to one and the ſame thing. always remains the ſame, in ſuch a manner that we may change the 110. In like manner it is evident that the ſixth is nothing but whole nature and effects of a modulation, without any other alte a replication of the third, nor the fourth buta replication of the fifth. ration except that of changing its fundamental baſs. II. The following expreſſions either are, or ought to be, re- M. Rameau has ſhewn, in his Syſtem of Muſic, printed at Paris, | garded as ſynonimous. 1726, p. 44. that this modulation G C is fuſceptible of 20 differ To riſe To deſcend ent fundamental baſſes. Now the ſame fundamental baſs, as may by a ſecond. by a ſeventh be ſeen in our Second Part, will afford ſeveral continued or tho- To deſcend To riſe rough baſſes. How many means, of conſequence, may be To riſe To deſcend tiſed to vary the expreſſion of the fame modulation? 100. From theſe different obſervations it may be concluded, To defcend To riſe 1. That an agreeable melody, naturally implies a baſs extremely To riſe To deſcend ſweet, and adapted for ſinging; and that reciprocally, as muſicians expreſs it, a baſs of this kind generally prognoſticates an agreeable by a fourth To defcend To riſe melody. 2. That the character of a juſt harmony is only to form in ſome 112. Thus, therefore, we ſhall employ them indifferently the one meaſure one ſyſtem with the modulation, ſo that from the whole for the other; fo that when we ſay, for inſtance, to riſe by a third, it taken together the ear may only receive, if we may ſpeak fo, one may be ſaid with equal propriety to deſcend by a ſixth, &c. fimple and indiviſible impreſſion. SECT. III. Of the different Cleffs : of the Value or Quantity; of 3. That the character of the ſame modulation may be diverſified, of the Rithmus; and of Syncopation. according to the character of the baſs which is joined with it. But 113. There are three cleffs in muſic: for the repreſentation of notwithſtanding the dependency of melody upon harmony, and the which, ſee the Plate on the Principles of the Science. ſenſible influence which the latter may exert upon the former; we The cleff of F is placed on the fourth line, or on the third ; and muſt not conclude, with ſome celebrated muſicians, that the ef the line upon which this cleff is placed gives the name of F, to all fects of harmony are preferable to thoſe of melody. Experience the notes which are upon that line. The cleff of C is placed upon proves the contrary. [See, on this account, what is written on the the fourth, the third, the ſecond, or the firſt line; and in theſe dif- licence of muſic, printed in tom iv. of D'Alembert's Melanges de ferent poſitions all the notes upon that line where the cleff is placed Literature, p. 448.] take the name of C. Laſtly the cleff of G is placed upon the ſe- GENERAL REMARK. cond or firſt line; and all the notes upon that line where the cleff is The diatonic ſcale or gammut being compoſed of twelve ſemi placed take the name of G. tones, it is clear that each of theſe ſemitones, taken by itſelf , may 114. As the notes are placed on the lines, and in the ſpaces be- be the generator of a mode; and that thus there muſt be twenty tween the lines, any one, when he ſees the cleff, may eaſily find the four modes in all, twelve major and twelve minor. We have al name of any note whatever. note whatever. Thus he may fee, that in the firſt ſumed the major mode of C, to repreſent all the major modes in ge cleff of F, the note which is placed on the loweſt line ought to be neral, and the minor mode of A to repreſent the modes minor, to G; that the note which occupies the ſpace between the two firſt avoid the difficulties ariſing from ſharps and flats, of which we muſt lines ſhould be A; and that the note which is on the ſecond line have encountered either a greater or leſſer number in the other is a B, &c. modes. But the rules we have given for each mode are general, 115. A note before which there is a ſharp (marked thusX) ought whatever note of the gammut be taken for the generator of a mode. to be raiſed by a femitore: and if, on the contrary, there is a b be- PART III. fore it, it ought to be depreſſed by a ſemitone, (b being the mark PRINCIPLES AND RULES OF COMPOSITION. of a flat.) The natural (marked thus 11 ) reſtores to its natural va- 101. Compoſition, which is likewiſe called counterpoint, is not Iue a note which had been raiſed or depreſſed by a ſemitone. only the art of compoſing an agreeable air, but alſo that of com 116. When you place at the cleff a ſharp or a flat, all the notes poſing a great many airs, in ſuch a manner, that when heard at the upon the line on which this ſharp or flat is marked are ſharp or flat. fame time, they may unite in producing an effect agreeable and de Thus let us take, for inſtance, the cleff of C upon the firſt line, and lightful to the ear; this is what we call compoſing muſic in ſeveral | let us place a ſharp in the ſpace between the ſecond and third line, parts. The higheſt of theſe parts is called the treble, the loweſt is which is the place of F; all the notes which ſhall be marked in termed the baſs; the other parts, when there are any, are termed that ſpace will be FXV; and if you would reſtore them to their ori- middle parts; and each in particular is fignified by a different name. ginal value of F natural, you muſt place a bor a b before them. SECT. I. Of the Different Names given to the ſame Interval. In the ſame manner, if a fiat be marked at the cleff, and if you 102. In the Introduction (art. 9.) which is at the front of this would reſtore the note to its natural ſtate, you muit place a h or a Syſtem, we have ſeen a detail of the moſt common naines which X before it. are given to the different intervals. But there are particular inter 117. Every piece of muſic is divided into different equal times, 3 prac- by a third by a fixth by a fifth which M U S I C. not. which they call meaſures or bars; and each bar is likewiſe divided being compoſed according to the rules which ſhall be immediately into different times. There are properly two kinds of meaſures or given, will be the fundamental baſs of the modulation propoſed. modes, of time, the meaſure of two times, or of common time, See Part I. where the nature and principles of the fundamental baſs which is marked by the figure 2 placed at the beginning of the are explained. tune; and the meaſure of three times, or of triple time, which is SECT. VI. Rules for the Fundamental Baſs. marked by the figure 3 placed in the ſame manner. The different bars are diſtinguiſhed by perpendicular lines. 133. All the notes of the fundamental baſs being only capable 118. The longeſt of all notes is a ſemibreve. A minim is half of carrying a perfect chord, or the chord of the ſeventh, or that of the its value ; that is to ſay, in ſinging, we only employ the ſame du great fixth, are either tonics, or dominants; or ſub-dominants : ration in performing two minims which was occupied in one ſe- and the dominants may be either ſimple or tonic: The funda- mibreve. A minim in the ſame manner is equivalent to two mental bafs ought always to begin with a tonic, as much as it is crotchets, the crotchet to two quayers, &c. practicable. And now follow the rules for all the ſucceeding 119. A note which is divided into two parts by a time, that is chords ; rules which are evidently derived from the principles eſta- to ſay, which begins at the end of a time, and terminates in the bliſhed in the Firſt Part of this ſyſtem, RULE I. time following, is called a ſyncopaied note. (where the notes C, B, and A, are each of them fyncopated.) 134. In every chord of the tonic, or of the tonic dominant, it is I20. A note followed by a point or dot is increaſed half its value: neceſſary that at leaſt one of the notes which form that chord, ſhould SECT. IV. Containing a Definition of the principal Chords. be found in the chord that precedes it. RULE II. 121. The chord compoſed of a third, a fifth, and an octave, as CEGC, is called a perfeet chord. If the third be major, as in 135. In every chord of the ſimple dominant; it is neceſſary, that the note which conſtitutes the ſeventh, or diſſonance, ſhould like- CEG C, the perfect chord is denominated major: if the third be minor, as in ACEA, the perfect chord is minor. The perfect wiſe be found in the preceeding chord. RULE III. chord major conſtitutes what we call the major mode; and the perfect chord minor, what we term the minor mode (art. 31.) 136. In every chord of the ſub-dominant, at leaſt one of its con- 122. A chord compoſed of a third, a fifth, and a ſeventh, as G ſonances muſt be found in the preceding chord. Thus, in the BDF, or D F AC, &c. is called a chord of the ſeventh. It is chord of the ſub-dominant FACD, it is neceſſary that F, A, or obvious that ſuch a chord is wholly compoſed of thirds in aſcend- C, which are the conſonances of the chord, ſhould be found in the ing. All chords of the ſeventh are practiſed in harmony, fave chord preceding. The diſſonance D may either be found in it or that which might carry the third minor and the ſeventh major, as CE6 GB; and that which might carry a falſe fifth and a ſeventh RULE IV. major, as BD FAX. 137. Every ſimple or tonic dominant ought to deſcend by a 123. As thirds are either major or minor, and as they may be fifth. In the firſt caſe, that is to ſay, when the dominant is ſimple, differently arranged, it is clear that there are different kinds of the note which follows can only be a dominant ; in the ſecond it chords of the ſeventh; there is even one, BDFA, which is com- may be any one you chooſe ; or, in other words, it may either be poſed of a third, a falſe fifth, and a ſeventh. a tonic, a tonic dominant, a ſimple dominant, or a ſub-dominant, 124. A chord compoſed of a third, a fifth, and a ſixth, as F A It is neceſſary, however, that the conditions preſcribed in the ſe- CD, DF A B, is called a cord of the greater ſixth. cond rule ſhould be obſerved, if it be a ſimple dominant. RULE V. 125. Every note which carries a perfect chord is called a to- nic, and the perfect chord is marked by an 8, by a 3, or by a 5,538. Every ſub-dominant ought to riſe by a fifth ; and the note which is written above the note; but frequently theſe numbers are which follows it may, at your pleaſure, be either a tonic, a tonic ſuppreſſed. Thus in the example I. the two C's equally carry a dominant, or a ſub-dominant. REMARK. perfect chord. 126. Every note which carries a chord of the ſeventh is called a 139. The tranſition from à tonic dominant to a tonic is called dominant; and this chord is marked by a 7 written above the note. an abſolute repoſe, or a perfe&t cadence (53), and the tranſition from Thus in the example II. D carries the chord D F A C, and G the a ſub-dominant to a tonic is called an imperfe&t or irregular ca- chord GBD F. It is neceſſary to remark, that among the chords of the ſeventh, we do not reckon the chord of the ſeventh dimi- SECT. VII. Of the Rules which ought to be obſerved in the niſhed, which is only improperly called a chord of the ſeventh : and Treble with relation to the Fundamental Baſs. of which we ſhall ſay more below. 127. Every note which carries the chord of the great fixth, is 141. The treble is nothing elſe but a modulation above the fun- called a ſub-dominant, (art. 77, and 42.) and is marked with a 6. damental baſs, and whoſe notes are found in the chords of that baſs Thus in the example III. F carries the chord of F A CD. You which correſponds with it. ought to remark that the fixth ſhould always be major. 142. Weare juſt about to give the rules for the treble : but firſt 128. In every chord, whether perfect, or a chord of the ſeventh, we think it neceſſary to make the two following remarks. or of the great fixth, the note which carries this chord, and which 1. It is obvious, that many notes of the treble may anſwer to one is the fatteſt or loweſt, is called the fundamental note, and the ſame note in the fundamental baſs, when theſe notes belong 129. In every chord of the ſeventh, and of the great fixth, the to the chord of the ſame note in the fundamental baſs. For ex- note which forms the ſeventh or fixth above the fundamental, that | ample, this modulation CEGE C, may have for its fundamental is to ſay, the higheſt note of the chord, is called a diſonance. Thus baſs the note C alone, becauſe the chord of that note comprehends in the chords of the ſeventh GBDF, DFA C, F and C are the ſounds C, E, G, which are found in the treble, the diffonances, viz. F with relation to G in the firſt chord, and C 2. In like manner, a ſingle note in the treble niay, for the ſame with relation to D in the ſecond, In the chord of the great fixth reaſon, anſwer to ſeveral notes in the baſs. FACD, D is the diſſonance; but that D is only, properly ſpeak- RULE 1. For the TREBLE. ing, a diffonance with relation to C from which it is a ſecond, and 143. If the note which forms the ſeventh in a chord of the fim- not with reſpect to F from which it is a ſixth major (art. 17 and 18.) | ple dominant is found in the treble, the note which precedes it muſt 130. When a chord of the ſeventh is compoſed of a third major be the very fame. This is what we call a diſcord prepared. For followed by two thirds minor, the fundamental note of this chord inſtance, let us ſuppoſe that the note of the fundamental baſs ſhall is called the tonic dominant. In every other chord of the ſeventh, be D, bearing the chord of the ſimple dominant DFAC; and the fundamental is called the ſimple dominant. Thus in the chord that this C, which is the diſſonance, ihould be found in the treble; GBDF, the fundamental Ğ is the tonic dominant; but in the it is neceſſary that the note which goes before it in the treble ſhould other chords of the ſeventh, as CE GB, DFA C, &c. the fun likewiſe be a C. damental C and D are ſimple dominants. And it is requiſite to obſerve, that, according to the rules which 131. In every chord, whether perfect, or of the ſeventh, or of we have given for the fundamental baſs, C will always be found in the fixth, if you have a mind that the third above the fundamental the chord of that note in the fundamental baſs which precedes the note ſhould be major, though it is naturally minor, you muſt place ſimple dominant D. a ſharp above the fundamental note. For example, if I would Rule II. mark the perfect major chord D F* AD, as the third F above 145. If a note of the fundamental baſs be a tonic dominant, or D is naturally minor, I place above D a ſharp, as you may ſee in a ſimple dominant, and if the diffonance be found in the treble, Example IV. In the ſame manner the chord of the ſeventh D F* this diſſonance in the ſame treble ought to deſcend diatónically. A C, and the chord of the great fixth D F* A B, is marked with But if the note of the baſs be a ſub-dominant, it ought to riſe dia- a* above D, and above the * a 7 or a 6. On the contrary, when tonically. This diſſonance which riſes or deſcends diatonically, is the third is naturally major, and if you ſhould incline to render it what we have called a diſonance ſaved or refolved. minor, you muſt place above the fundamental note a b. 146. One may likewiſe obſerve here, that according to the rules SECT.V. Of the Fundamental Baſs . for the fundamental baſs which we have given, the note upon which 132. Invent a modulation at your pleaſure ; and under this mo the diffonance ought to deſcend or rife will always be found in the dulation let there be ſeta baſs compoſed of different notes, of which ſubſequent chord. fome may carry a perfect chord, others that of the ſeventh, and others that of the great fixth, in ſuch a manner that each note of SECT. VIII. Of the Continued Baſs, and its Rules. the modulation which anſwers to each of the baſs, may be one of 147. A continued or thorough baſs, is nothing elſe but a fanda- thoſe which enters into the chord of that note in the baſs ; this baſs mental baſs whoſe chords are inverted. We invert a chord when 8 K dence (73) No. 113 we M U S I C. may be a 6. KISS we change the order of the note which compoſe it. For example, take away fome notes from the chord. For example, let us ſupa if, inſtead of the chord G BDF, I ſhould ſay B DFG, or poſe that there is in the fundamental baſs this fimple dominant E DFG B, &c. the chord is inverted. Let us ſee then, in the firſt carrying the chord EG BD: if there ihould be added the third C place, all the poſlible ways in which a chord may be inverted. beneath, we ſhall have this chord of the continued bafs CE GBD. The Ways in which a PERFECT CHORD way be INVERTED. In this ſtate the chord is ſimply compoſed of a third, fifth, and 148. The perfect chord C EGC may be inverted in two dif ninth, and is marked with a 9. ferent ways. 1. EGCE, which we call a chord of the fixth, 161. What is more, in the chord of the fimple dominant, as D compoſed of a third, a ſixth, and an octave, and in this caſe the note FAC, when the fifth G is added, they frequently obliterate the E is marked with a 6. 2. GCEG, which we call a chord of ſounds F and A, that too great a number of diffonances the ſixth and fourth, compoſed of a fourth, a ſixth, and an octave ; avoided, which reduces the chord to GCD. This laſt is com- and it is marked with a The perfect minor chord is inverted poſed only of the fourth and the fifth. It is called a chord of the in the ſame manner. fourth, and it is figured with a 4. The Ways in which the CHORD of the Seventh may be INVERTED. 162. Sometimes they only remove the note A, and then the chord 149. In the chord of the tonic dominant, as GBDF, the third ought to be figured with 2 or 4. major B above the fundamental note G is called a ſenſible note (57); 163. Finally, in the minor mode, for example, in that of A, and the inverted chord BDFG, compoſed of a third, a falſe fifth, where the chord of the tonic dominant (109) is E G* BD, if we and a ſixth, is called the chord of the falſe fifth, and is marked with add to this chord the third C below, we ſhall have CEGXBD, an 8 or a b 5. called the chord of the fifth redundant, and compoſed of a third, a The chord D F GB, compoſed of a third, a fourth, and a ſixth, fifth redundant, a feventh, and a ninth. It is figured with a * 5, is called the chord of the ſenſible fixth, and marked with a 6 or a *6. or a +5. In this chord, thus figured, the third is minor, and the fixth major, 3. Of the CHORD of the DIMINISHED SEVENTH. as it is eaſy to be perceived. 164. In the minor mode, for inſtance, in that of A, E a fifth The chord F ĜBD, compoſed of a ſecond, a tritone, and a from A is the tonic dominant, and carries the chord E G* BD, in which G is the ſenſible note. fixth, is called the chord of the tritone, and is marked thus 4. ", thus For this chord they ſometimes X 4, or thus *4. ſubſtitute that other G *BD F, all compoſed of minor thirds; 150. In the chord of the ſimple dominant DF AC, we find, and which has for its fundamental ſound the ſenſible note G *. I. FACD, a chord of the great fixth, which is compoſed of a This chord is called a chord of the flat or diminiſhed ſeventh, and is third, a fifth, and a ſixth, and which is figured with a . figured with a t in the fundamental baſs, but it is always conſidered 2. ACDF, a chord of the leſſer ſixth, which is figured with as repreſenting the chord of the tonic dominant. 165. This chord in the fundamental baſs produces in the conti- 3. CDFA, a chord of the ſecond, compoſed of a ſecond, a nued baſs the following chords: fourth, and a ſixth, and which is marked with a 2. 1. The chord B DF G *, compoſed of a third, falſe fifth, and TheWays in which theCHORD of the ſub-DOMINANT may be inverted. fixth major. They call it the chord of the ſixth ſenſible and falſe 151. The chord of the ſub-dominant, as FACD, may be in- fifth, and it is figured thus * , or + . verted in three different manners; but the method of inverting it, 2. The chord D F G * B, compoſed of a third, a triton, and a which is moſt in practice is the chord of the leſſer fixth ACDF, fixth, they call it the chord of the triton and third minor; and they which is inarked with a 6, and the chord of the ſeventh D FAC. mark it thus *b*. Rules for the CONTINUED Bass. 3. The chord F G*BD, compoſed of a ſecond redundant, a 152. The continued baſs is a fundamental baſs, whoſe chords tritone, and a fixth. They call it the chord of the ſecond redundant, are only inverted in order to render it more in the taſte of ſinging, and they figure it thus X2, or + 2. and ſuitable to the voice. The continued baſs then is properly no- 166. Beſides, fince the chord G*BDF, repreſents the chord thing elſe but a treble with reſpect to the fundamental baſs. Its E GXBD, it follows, that if we operate by ſuppoſition upon the rules immediately follow; which are properly no other than thoſe firſt of theſe chords, it muſt be performed, as one would perform it already given for the treble. upon EG *BD; that is to ſay, that it will be neceſſary to add to RULE I. the chord G*BDF, the notes C or A, which are the third fifth 153. Every note which carries the chord of the falſe fifth, and below E, and which will produce, which of conſequence muſt be what we have called a ſenſible note, 1. By adding C, the chord CG*BDF, compoſed of a fifth ought, (57) to riſe diatonically upon the note which follows it. redundant, a ſeventh, a ninth, and eleventh, which is the octave of Rule II. the fourth. It is called a chord of the fifth redundant and fourth, 154. Every note carrying the chord of the tritone ſhould deſcend and thus marked 45 or *. diatonically upon the ſubſequent note. 2. By adding A, we ſhall have the chord AG*BDF, compoſed Rule III. of a ſeventh redundant, a ninth, an eleventh, and a thirteenth mi- 155. The chord of the ſecond is commonly put in practice up nor, which is the octave of the ſixth minor. It is called the chord on notes which are fyncopated in deſcending, becauſe the notes are of the ſeventh redundant and fixth minor, and marked 69 or *b. diffonances which ought to be prepared and reſolved, 143, 145. It is of all chords the moſt harſh, and the moſt rarely practiſed. SECT. IX. Of ſome Licences aſumed in the Fundamental Baſs. In the Treatiſe of Harmony, by M. Rameau, and elſewhere, may be ſeen a much longer detail of the chords by ſuppoſition : But here 1. Of BROKEN and INTERRUPTED CADENCES. we delineate the elements alone. 156. The broken cadence is executed by means of a dominant which riſes diatonically upon another, or upon a tonic by a licence. SECT. X. Of ſome Licences uſed in the Treble and Continued Baſs. 157. The interrupted cadence is formed by a dominant which end 167. Sometimes in a treble, the diſſonance which ought to have deſcends by a third upon another. Theſe cadences ought not to be been reſolved by deſcending diatonically upon the ſucceeding note, permitted but rarely, and with precaution. inſtead of deſcending, on the contrary, riſes diatonically: but in 2. SUPPOSITION. that caſe, the note upon which it ought to have deſcended, muſt be 158. When a dominant is preceded by a tonic in the fundamen- found in ſome of the other parts. This licence ought to be rarely tal baſs, we add ſometimes in the continued baſs to the chord of practiſed. In like manner, in a continued baſs, the diffonance in that dominant, a new note, which is a third or fifth below; and a chord of the ſub-dominant inverted, as A in the chord ACEG, the chord which reſults from it in this continued bafs, is called a inverted from CEGA, may ſometimes deſcend diatonically in- cherd by ſuppoſition. For example, let us ſuppoſe that in the fun- ſtead of riſing as it ought to do; but in that caſe the note ought damental baſs we have a dominant G carrying the chord of the fe- to be repeated in another part, that the diſſonance may be there re- venth GBDF; let us add to this chord the note C, which is a folved in aſcending. fifth below this dominant, and we ſhall have the total chord CGB 168. Sometimes likewiſe, to render a continued baſs more agree- DF, or CDFGB, which is called a chord by ſuppoſition. Son Of the different Kinds of Chords by Suppoſition. able, by cauſing it to proceed diatonically, they place between two founds of that baſs a note which belongs to the chord of neither. 159. It is eaſy to perceive, that chords by ſuppoſition are of dif- ferent kinds. For inſtance, the chord of the tonic GBDF gives, 1. By adding the fifth C, the chord CGBDF, called a chord of SECT. XI. Containing the Method of finding the Fundamental Baſs the ſeventh redundant, and compoſed of a fifth, feventh, ninth, and when the Continued Baſs is figured. eleventh. It is figured with a ** 7. This chord is not practiſed 169. To exerciſe yourſelf with greater eaſe in finding the fun- but upon the tonic. They ſometimes leave out the fenfible note ; damental baſs, and to render it more familiar to you, it is neceſ- it is then reduced to C F G D, and marked with or to fary to obſerve how eminent maſters, and above all how M. Ra- 2. By adding the third E, we ſhall have the chord E GBDF, meau, has put the rules in practice. Now, as they never place any called a chord of the ninth, and compoſed of a third, fifth, ſeventh, thing but the continued baſs in their works, it becomes then neceí- and ninth. It is figured with a 9. This third may be added to fary to know how to find this fundamental baſs when the continu- every third of the dominant. ed baſs is figured. This problem may be eaſily ſolved by the fol- 3. If to a chord of the fimple dominant, as D F A C, we ſhould lowing rules. adă the fifth G, we would have the chord G DFAC, called a 170. 1. Every note which has no figure in the continued baſs, chord of the eleventh, and which is figured with a or. ought to be the ſame, and without a figure in the fundamental baſs; OBSERVE. it either is a tonic, or reckoned ſuch. 160. When the dominant is not a tonic dominant, they often 2. Every note which in the continued baſs carries a 6, ought or 3 112 M U S I C caſes below. with a 7. with a 7. with a 7. 5 in the fundamental baſs to give its third below not figured, or its ſay, if it is C, in this caſe, and in this alone, he may place fifth below marked with a 7. We ſhall diſtinguiſh theſe two F in the fundamental baſs. It is a conſequence of this rule, that in the fundamental baſs every ſub-dominant ought to riſe by a 3. Every note carrying å gives in the fundamental baſs its fifth fifth (138). below not figured. 4. Every note figured with a 7 or a 7, is the ſame in both baſſes, SECT. XII. What is meant by being in a Mode of Tone. and with the ſame figure. Sometimes a note which carries a 7 in the continued baſs, gives 174. In the ſcale CDEF GABC may be found; the dif- in the fundamental baſs its third above, figured with a 6. For ex ferent ſounds which form this ſcale compoſe what we call the ample, this continued baſs ^ BC gives this fundamental baſs ĠĠ major mode of C, becauſe the third E above C is major. If there fore we would have a modulation in the major inode of C, no C; but in this caſe it is neceſſary that the note figured with a 6 other ſounds muſt enter into it than thoſe which compoſe this ſhould riſe by a fifth, as we ſee here C riſe to G. ſcale; in ſuch a manner that if, for inſtance, I ſhould find FX in A note figured with a 2, gives likewiſe ſometimes in the funda- this modulation, this FX diſcovers to me that I am not in the mental baſs its fourth above, figured with a 6; but it is neceſſary mode of C, or at leaſt that, if I have been in it, I am no longer ſo. in that caſe that the note figured with a 6, may even here riſe to a 175. In the ſame manner, if I form this ſcale in aſcending A fifth. BCX DEFX GX A, which is exactly ſimilar to the ſcale C 5. Every no te figured with a 2, gives in the fundamental baſs DEFGABC of the major mode of C, this ſcale, in which the diatonic note above figured with a 7. the third from A to CX is major, ſhall be in the major mode of 6. Every note marked with a 4 gives in the fundamental baſs A; and if I incline to be in the minor mode of A, I have nothing the diatonic note above, figured with a 7. to do but to ſubſtitute for C ſharp C natural ; ſo that the major 7. Every note figured with an 8 gives its third below figured third A CX inay become minor A C ; I ſhall have then. A B C D E FX GX A, 8. Every note marked with 6, gives the fifth below marked with which is the ſcale of the minor mode of A in aſcending ; and the a 7; and in the chord of the ſeventh, of which we treat in theſe ſcale of the minor mode of A in deſcending ſhall be (65.) three laſt articles, the third ought to be major, and the ſeventh mi- AGF ECDB A, nor, this chord of the ſeventh being the chord of the tonic dominant. in which the G and F are no longer iharp. For it is a ſingularity 9. Every note marked with a 9 gives its third above figured peculiar to the minor mode, that its ſcale is not the ſame in riſing as in deſcending. 10. Every note marked with a gives the fifth above figured 176. This is the reaſon why, when we wiſh to begin a piece in the major mode of A, we place three ſharps at the cleff upon 11. Every note marked with a X5, or with a +5, gives the F, C, and G; and on the contrary, in the minor mode of A, we third above figured with a XV. place none, becauſe the minor mode of A, in deſcending, has 12. Every note marked with a X7 gives a fifth above figured neither ſharps nor flats. 177. As the ſcale contains twelve ſounds, each diſtant from the a 7, or with a X. It is the ſame caſe with the notes marked , other by the interval of a ſemitone, it is obvious that each of theſe 4 or: which ſhews a retrenchment, either in the complete chord ſounds can produce both a major and a minor mode, which con- ſtitute 24 modes upon the whole. Of theſe we ſhall immediately of the eleventh, or in that of the ſeventh redundant. give a table, which may be very uſeful to diſcover the mode in 13. Every note marked with a 4 gives a fifth above figured with which we are, a 7, or a X 14. Every note marked with Xô gives the third minor below, A TABLE of the DIFFERENT MODES, figured with a t. 15. Every note marked with XWb gives the tritone above figured Major Modes. with a 4. Maj. Mode. CDEFGABC 16. Every note marked with a + 2 gives the fecond redundant of G GABCDEFG above, figured with a of D DEF* GAB CD 17. Every note marked with X. gives the fifth redundant of A ABCX DEF* G* A above, figured with a of E EF* G* ABC* D* E 18. Every note marked with a Xi gives the ſeventh redundant of B BCXD*EF* G* AXB of Fx F* G* B C* D* E* F* (*): above, figured with a 4. of C*) Db Eb F Gb Ab Bb C Db. REMARK. or Db of GX 171. We have omitted two baſes, which may cauſe ſome un- Ab Bb C Db Eb F G Ab Г certainty. of D*) Eb F G Ab Bb C D Eb. The firſt is that where the note of the continued baſs is figured ad or Eb with a 6. We now preſent the reaſon of the difficulty. of A* Bb CD Eb FGAB. Suppoſe we ſhould have the dominant Ď in the fundamental of Ex baſs, the note which anſwers to it in the continued baſs, may be A . carrying the figure 6, that is to ſay, the chord ACDF; now if of BX CDEFGABC. we ſhould have the ſub-dominant F in the fundamental baſs, this or Cb ſub-dominant might produce in the continued baſs the ſame note A Minor Modes. figured with a 6. When therefore one finds in the continued baſs Of A. a note marked with a 6, it appears at firſt uncertain whether we In deſcending. AGFEDCBA. ſhould place in the fundamental baſs the fifth below marked with In riſing. ABCDEF* G* A. a 7, or third below marked with a 6. Of E. 172. The fecond caſe is that in which the continued baſs is In deſcending. EDCBAG F* E. EFX GABCX DX E. figured with a s. For inſtance, if there ſhould be found F in the continued baſs, one may be ignorant whether he ought to inſert in the fundamental baſs F marked with a 6, or D figured with a 7. In deſcending. BAGF* EDC* B. In riſing 173. You may eaſily extricate yourſelf from this little difficulty, BCX DEF* G* A* B. in leaving for an inſtant this uncertain note in ſuſpence, and in ex- Of F* amining what is the fucceeding note of the fundamental baſs ; In deſcending. F* EDC* B AG* F. for if that note be in the prefent caſe a fifth above F, that is to In riſing. F* G* A B CX DX Ex Fx. of C а. or Ab or Bb 6 5 5 In riſing. Of B. (*) The major mode of Fx, of Cb or Dx, and G* or Ab are not much practiſed. When a piece begins upon Cx, there ought to be ſeven ſharps placed at the cleff: but it is more convenient only to place five Aats, and to ſuppoſe the key Db, which is almoſt the ſame thing with C*. It is for this reaſon that we ſubſtitute here the mode of Db for that of Cx. It is ſtill much more neceſſary to ſubſtitute the mode of Ab for that of G*; for the ſcale of the major mode of C is G*, AX, BX, CX, DX, EX, GGx, in which you may ſee that there are at the ſame time both a G natural and a G*: it would then be neceſſary, even at the fame time, that upon G there ſhould and ſhould not be a ſharp at the cleff: which is ſhocking and inconſiſtent. It is true that this inconvenience may be avoided by placing a ſharp upon G at the cleff, and by marking the note G with a natural through the courſe of the muſic wherever it ought to be natural ; but this would become troubleſome, above all if there ſhould be occaſion to tranſpoſe. In the article 179 we ſhall give an account of tranſpoſition. One might likewiſe in this ſeries, inſtead of G natural, which is the note immediately before the laſt, ſubſtitute F**, that is to ſay, F twice ſharp ; which, however, is not ab- ſolutely the ſame found with G natural, eſpecially upon inſtruments whoſe ſcales are fixed, or whoſe intervals are invariable. But in that caſe two ſharps may be placed at the cleff upon F, which would produce another inconvenience. But by ſubſtituting Ab for G*, the trouble is eluded. M U S I C. Of C%. has the fame melody as if it were in the major mode of C, or in In deſcending.CX B A G* F* E DⓇ Cx. the minor mode of A. The major mode then of G, and the mi- In riſing CX DX E F* G*A* B* C*. nor of E are, by tranſpoſition, reduced to thoſe of C major, and of Of GX or Ab. A minor. It is the fame caſe with all the other modes, as any one In deſcending. G* F* EC* BA* G*. may eaſily be convinced. In riſing. Ab Bb Cb Db Eb F G Ab. Two ſharps Fx and Cx indicate the major mode D, or the mi- Of Dyk or Eb. nor of B; and then, by tranſpoſition, the Cx is changed into B In deſcending. Eb Ab Cb Bb Ab Gb F Eb. and, of conſequence, D into C, and B into A. In riſing. Eb F Gb Ab Bb CD Eb. Three ſharps, F* C* G* indicate the major mode of A, or the Of AX or Bb. minor of Fx; and it is then Gx, which muſt be changed into B, In deſcending. Bb Ab Gb F Eb Db C Bb. and, of conſequence, A into C, and F* into A. In riſing. Bb C Db Eb F G A Bb. Four ſharps, F* C* G* Dx indicate the major mode of E, or Of Ex or Fb. the minor of C*; then the D* is changed into B, and of conſe- In defcending. F Eb Db C Bb Ab GF. quence E into C, and Cx into A. In riſing. F G Ab Bb C D E F. Five ſharps, F* C* G* D* A*, indicate the major mode of B, Of C. or the minor GX; A then is changed into B, and of conſequence In deſcending. C Bb AbGFE6 DC. B into C, and GX into A. In riſing CD Eb F G A B C. Six ſharps, F* C* G* D* A* Ex indicate the major mode of OfG. F*; Ex then is changed into B, and of conſequence F* into C, In deſcending. G F E D C Bb A G. Six flats, Bb Eb Ab Db Gb Cb, indicate the minor mode of In riſing. GA Bb C D E F G. Eb; C is changed into B, and of conſequence Eb into A. Of D. Five flats, Bb Eb Ab Db Gb, indicate the major mode of Db, In deſcending. DC Bb A G F E D. or the minor mode of Bb; then the Bb is changed into F, and of In riſing. DEFGABC XD. conſequence Db into C, and the Bb into A. 178. Theſe then are all the modes, as well major as minor. Four flats, Bb Eb Ab Db, indicate the major mode of Ab, Thoſe which are crowded with ſharps and flats are little practiſed, or the minor mode of F; Db then is changed into F, and of con- as being extremely difficult in execution. ſequence Ab into C, and F into A. 179. From thence it follows, Three flats, Bb Eb Ab, indicate the major mode of Eb, or the 1. That when there are neither ſharps nor flats at the cleff, it minor of C: the Ab then is changed into F, and of conſequence is a token that the piece begins in the major mode of C, or in the Eb into C, and the G into A. minor mode of A. Two flats, Bb Eb indicate the major mode of Bb, or the minor 2. That when there is one fingle ſharp, it will always be placed of G; Eb then is changed into F, and, of conſequence Bb into upon F, and that the piece begins in the major mode of G, or the C, and the F into A. minor of E, in ſuch a manner that it may be ſung as if there were One flat, Bb indicates the major mode of F, or the minor mode no ſharp, by ſinging B inſtead of Fx, and in ſinging the tune as of D, and Bb is changed into F; of conſequence the F is changed if it had been in another cleff. For inſtance, let there be a ſharp into C, and the D into A. upon F in the cleff of G upon the firſt line; one may then fing the All the major modes then may be reduced to that of C, and the tune as if there were no ſharp: and inſtead of the cleff, of G upon modes minor to that of A minor. the firſt line, let there be the cleff of C;. for the F*, when changed It only remains to remark, that many muſicians, and amongſt into B, will require that the cleff of G ſhould be changed to the others the ancient muſicians of France, as Lulli, Campra, &c. cleff of C, as may be eaſily ſeen. This is what we call tranſpoſition. | place one flat leſs in the minor mode : ſo that in the minor mode Though this delicate operation in muſic will be found extremely of D, they place neither ſharp nor Aat at the cleff; in the juſt and compendious; and proceeds upon ſimple principles, and minor mode of G, one flat only; in the minor mode of C, two comprehends every poſſible contingency, yet as the manner of flats, &c. thinking upon which it depends may be leſs familiar to thoſe rea This practice in itſelf is ſufficiently indifferent, and ſcarcely me- ders who are not profoundly ſkilled in muſic, it has been thought rits the trouble of a diſpute. Yet the method which we have here proper to give a more familiar, though leſs comprehenſive expla deſcribed, according to M. Rameau, has the advantage of reducing nation of the manner in which tranſpoſition may be executed. all the modes to two; and beſides it is founded upon this fimple It will occur to every muſical reader, that if each of the intervals and very general rule. That in the major mode we muſt place as through the whole diatonic ſeries were equal in a mathematical many ſharps or Alats at the cleff, as are contained in the diatonic ſenſe, it would be abſolutely indifferent upon what note any air ſcale of that mcde in aſcending; and in the minor mode, as many as was begun, if within the compaſs- of the gammut; becauſe the are contained in that ſame ſcale in deſcending. me equal intervals muſt always have the ſame effects. But ſince, However this be, we here preſent a rule for tranſpoſition, which beſides the natural ſemi-tones, there is another diſtinction of diato appears to us more fimple than the rule in common uſe. nic intervals, into greater and leſſer tones; and ſince theſe vary For the Sharps. their poſitions in the ſeries of an octave, according as the note from whence you begin is placed, that note is conſequently the beſt key Suppoſe G, D, A, E, B, F, and change G into C, if there is for any tone whoſe natural ſeries is moſt exactly correſpondent one ſharp at the cleff, D into C if there are two ſharps, A into C with the intervals which that melody or harmony requires. But if there are three, &c. in inftruments whoſe ſcales are fixed, notwithſtanding the tempe- For the Flats. rament, and other expedients of the ſame kind, ſuch a ſeries is far frora being eaſily found, and is, indeed, in common practice, al Suppoſe F, B, E, A, D, G, and change F into C if there is only moſt totally neglected. All that can frequently be done is, to one flat at the cleff, B into C if there are two flats, E into C if there take care that the ear may not be ſenſibly ſhocked. This, how are three, &c. ever, would be the caſe, if, in tranſpoſing any tune, the ſituation of the ſemi-tones, whether natural or artiņcial, were not exactly SECT. XIII. To find the Fundamental Baſs of a given Modulation. correſpondent in the ſeries to which your air muſt be tranſpoſed, 181. As we have reduced to a very ſmall number the rules of with their poſitions in the ſcale from which you tranſpoſe it. Sup the fundamental baſs, and thoſe which in the treble ought to be ob- poſe, for inſtance, your air ſhould begin upon C, requiring the ferved with relation to this baſs, it ſhould no longer be difficult to natural diatonic ſeries through the whole gammut, in which the find the fundamental baſs of a given modulation, nay, frequently, diſtance between E and F, as alſo that between B and C, is only a to find ſeveral; for every fundamental baſs will be legitimate when ſemitone. Again, ſuppoſe it neceſſary for your voice, or the in it is formed according to the rules which we have given (fect. VI.) ſtrument on which you play, that the ſame air ſhould be tranſpoſed and that, beſides this, the diſſonances which the modulation may to G, a fifth above its former keys; then, becauſe in the firſt ſe form with this baſs will both be prepared, if it is neceſſary that ries, the intervals between the third and the fourth, ſeventh and they ſhould be ſo, and always reſolved. eighth notes, are no more than ſemi-tones, the ſame intervals muſt take the ſame places in the octave to which you tranſpoſe. Now, We often ſay, that we are upon a particular key, inſtead of ſaying that we are in a particular mode. The following expreſions there- from fol or G, the note with which you propoſe to begin the three fore are fynonimous; ſuch a piece is in C major, or in the made of C tones immediately ſucceeding are full; but the fourth, utor C, is major, or in the key of C major. only a femitone; it may therefore be kept in its place. But from We muſt recite a few technical phraſes upon the ſame ſubjects fa, or F, the ſeventh note above, to fol or G the eighth, the inter- val is a full tone, which muſt conſequently be redreſſed by raiſing and which, if we are not miſtaken, will be found equally conciſe, at the ſame time that they are more natural and intelligible. When your F a ſemitone higher. Thus the ſituations of the femitonic we mean to expreſs the fundamental note of that ſeries within the intervals, in both octaves, will be correſpondent; and thus by con- forming the poſitions of the femitones in the octave to which you diatonic octave which any piece of muſic demands, we call that note the key. When we intend to fignify its mode, whether major tranſpoſe, with thoſe in the octave in which the original key of the or minor, we denominate the harmony ſharp or flat. When in a tune is contained, you will perform your operation with as much concert we mean to try how inſtruments are in tune, by that note ſucceſs as the nature of fixed ſcales can admite 180. It is evident, that when Fx is changed into B, G muſt be upon which, according to the genius of each particular inſtrument, beſt changed into C, and E into A. Thus, by tranſpoſition, the air agree in uniſon, we defire the muſicians who join us to found A. they may I 182. It MUSIC 2. 182 It is of the greateſt utility in ſearching for the fundamen now the note of the fundamental baſs which is moſt ſuitable to tal baſs, to know what is the tone or mode of the melody to which theſe cloſes, is always eaſy to be found. For the ſounds which oc- that baſs ſhould correſpond. But it is difficult in this manner to af cur in the treble may be conſulted M. Rameau, p. 54, of his Nou- fign general rules, and ſuch as are abſolutely without exception, in veau Syſteme de Muſique Theorique et Pratique. which nothing may be left that appears indifferent or diſcretionary; All theſe different manners of diſtinguiſhing the modes ought, if becauſe ſometimes we ſeem to have the free choice of referring a we may ſpeak fo, to give mutual light and aſſiſtance one to the particular melody either to one mode or another. For example, other. But it often happens, that one of theſe ſigns alone is not this melody G C may belong to all the modes, as well as major as fufficient to determine the mode, and may even lead to error. For minor, in which G and C are found together ; and each of theſe example, if a piece of muſic begins with theſe three notes, E CG, two ſounds may even be conſidered as belonging to a different we muſt not with too much precipitation conclude from thence, mode. that we are in the major mode of C, although theſe three ſounds, 183. For what remains, one may ſometimes, as it ſhould ſeem, ECG, be the principal and characteriſtical ſounds in the major operate without the knowledge of the mode, for two reaſons : I. mode of C; we may be in the minor mode of E, eſpecially if the Becauſe, fince the ſame ſounds belong to ſeveral different modes, note E ſhould be long, the mode is ſometimes conſiderably undetermined ; above all, in When a perſon is once able to aſcertain the mode, and can ren- the middle of a piece, and during the time of one or two bars. der himſelf ſure of it by the different means which we have pointed Without giving ourſelves much trouble about the mode, it is often out, the fundamental baſs will coft little pains. For in each rnode fufficient to preſerve us from deviating in compoſition, if we ob there are three fundamental ſounds. ſerve in the ſimpleſt manner the rules above preſcribed (fect. VI.) 1. The tonic of the mode, or its principal ſound, which carries for the procedure of the fundamental baſs. always the perfect chord major or minor, according as the mode it- 184. In the mean time, it is above all things neceſſary to know ſelf is major or minor. in what mode we operate at the beginning of the piece, becauſe Major mode of C. CE G C it is indiſpenſible that the fundamental baſs ſhould begin in the Minor mode of A. ACE A. fame mode, and that the treble and baſs ſhould likewiſe end in it; 2. The tonic dominant, which is a fifth above the tonic, and nay, that they ſhould even terminate in its fundamental note, which which, whether in the major or minor mode, always carries a in the mode of C is C, and A in that of A. &c. Beſides, in thoſe chord of the ſeventh, compoſed of a third major followed by two paſſages of the modulation where there is a cadence, it is generally thirds minor. neceſſary that the mode of the fundamental baſs ſhould be the ſame Tonic dominant. with that of the part to which it correſponds. Major mode of C. GBDF 185. To know upon what mode or in what key a piece com- Tonic dominant. mences, our enquiry may be entirely reduced to diſtinguiſh the Minor mode of A. EG XBD. major mode of C from the minor of A. For we have already 3. The ſub-dominant, which is a fifth below the tonic, and feen (art. 179, and 180), that all the modes may be reduced to which carries a chord compoſed of a third, fifth, and fixth major, theſe two, at leaſt in the beginning of a piece. We ſhall now the third being either greater or lefſer, according as the mode is therefore give a detail of the different means by which theſe two major or minor. modes may be diſtinguiſhed. Sub dominant. 1. From the principal and characteriſtical ſounds of the mode Major mode of C. F A CD. which are CE G in the one, and ACE in the other; ſo that if Minor mode of A. DF A B. a piece ſhould, for inſtance, begin thus, A CE A, it may be al Theſe three ſounds, the tonic, the tonic dominant, and the ſub- moſt conſtantly concluded, that the tone or mode is in A minor, dominant, contain in their chords all the notes which enter into although the notes AC E belong to the mode of C. the ſcale of the mode; ſo that when a melody is given, it may 2. From the ſenſible note, which is B in the one, and GX in almoſt always be found which of theſe three ſounds ſhould be the other; ſo that if GX appears in the firſt bars of a piece, one placed in the fundamental baſs, under any particular note of the may be certain that he is in the mode of A. upper part. Yet it ſometimes happens that not one of theſe notes 3. From the adjuncts of the mode, that is to ſay, the modes of can be uſed. For example, let it be ſuppoſed that we are in the its two fifths, which for C are F and G, and D and E for A. For mode of C, and that we find in the melody theſe two notes A B example, if after having begun a melody by ſome of the notes, in ſucceſſion ; if we confine ourſelves to place in the fundamental which are common to the modes of C, and of A, (as E DEFE baſs one of the three ſounds, CGF, we ſhall find nothing for the DCBC); I ſhould afterwards find the mode of G, which I af- ſounds A and B but this fundamental baſs Ñ Ġ ; now certain by the FX, or that of F, which I aſcertain by the Bb or . ; now ſuch a fuc- Ch, I may conclude that I have begun in the mode of C: but if I ceſfion as † to G is prohibited by the fifth rule for the funda- find the mode of D, or that of E, which I aſcertain by Bb), CX, mental baſs, according to which every ſub-dominant, as P, ſhould or DX, &c. I conclude from thence that I have begun in the mode of A. riſe by a fifth; ſo that F can only be followed by C in the funda- fo 4. A mode is not in ordinary deſerted, eſpecially in the begin mental baſs, and not by Ġ. ning of a piece; but that we may paſs into one or other of theſe To remedy this, the chord of the ſub-dominant F ACD muſt modes which are moſt relative to it, which are the mode of its be inverted into a fundamental chord of the fëventh in this man- fifth above, and that of its third below, if the original mode be ner D FAC; which has been called the double employment, becauſe major, or of its third above if it be minor. Thus, for inſtance, it is a ſecondary manner of employing the chord of the ſub-domi- the modes which are moſt intimately relative to the major mode nant. By theſe means we give to the modulation A B, this funda- of C, are the major mode of G, and that of A minor. From the mental baſs ; which procedure is agreeable to rules! mode of C we commonly paſs either into the one or the other of theſe modes; ſo that we may ſometimes judge of the principal Here then are four chords, CEGC, GBDF, FBCD, mode in which we are, by the relative mode which follows it, or DF AC, which may be employed in the major mode of C. We which goes before it, when theſe relative modes are deciſively ſhall find in like manner, for the minor mode of A, four chords, marked. For what remains, beſides theſe two relative modes, ACEA, FGXBD, there are likewiſe two others into which the principal mode may DFAB, BDFA. paſs, but leſs frequently, viz. the mode of its fifth below, and that And in this mode we ſometimes change the laſt of theſe chords of its third above, as, F and E for the mode of C. into BD FXA, ſubſtituting the FX for Fh. For inſtance, if we It is certain that the minor mode of E has an extremely natural have this melody in the minor mode of A, E FXGXA, we would connection with the mode of C, as has been proved (art. 72.) cauſe the firſt note E to carry the perfect chord A CE A, the fe- both by arguments and by examples. It has likewiſe appeared in cond note FX to carry the chord of the ſeventh B D FX A, the the note upon the art. 73. that the minor mode of D may be joined third note GX the chord of the tonic dominant E GX BD, and to the major mode of C; and thus in a particular ſenſe, this in ſhort, the laſt the perfect chord ACEA. mode may be conſidered as relative to the mode of C: but it is On the contrary, if this melody is given always in the minor still leſs ſo than the major modes of G and F, or than thoſe of A mode A AGXA, the ſecond A being fyncopated, it might have and E minor; becauſe we cannot immediately, and without li the ſame baſs as the modulation E FXGX A, with this differ- cence, paſs in a fundamental baſs from the perfect minor chord of ence alone, that Fh might be ſubſtituted for FX in the chord BD C to the perfect chord of D; and if you paſs immediately from FX A, the better to mark out the minor mode. the major mode of C, to the minor mode of D in a fundamental Beſides theſe chords which we have juſt mentioned, and which bars, it is by paſſing, for inſtance, from the tonic C, or from C may be regarded as the principal chords of the mode, there are EGC, to the tonic dominant of D, carrying the chord ACX ſtill a great many others; for example, the ſeries of dominants, EG, in which there are two founds, EG, which are found in the с A D Ả ủ ở c = 3 : A ở ở C, preceding chord; or otherwiſe from CEGC to G Bb DE, a chord of the ſub-dominant in the minor modećf D; which chord which is terminated equally in the tonic C, either entirely belong, has likewiſe two ſounds, G and E, in common with that which or at leaſt may be reckoned as belonging to the mode of C; be- went immediately before it. cauſe none of theſe dominants are tonic dominants except G,which 5. The modes may ſtill be likewiſe diſtinguiſhed by the cadences is the tonic dominant of the mode of C; and beſides, becauſe the chord of each of theſe dominants forms no other ſounds than fuch of the melody. Theſe cadences ought to occur at the end of every two, or at moſt every four bars, as in the fundamental baſs : as belong to the ſcale of C. * 8 L They 6 N° 113 MUSIC pre- 7 7 6 C. A B & They inay be reckoned as belonging to this mode, for two rea- SECT. XV. Deſign, Imitation, and Fugue. fons: 1. Becauſe, properly ſpeaking, there are oniy three chords 193. In muſic, the name of deſign or ſubject, is generally given to which eſſentially and primitively belong to the mode of C. viz. a particular air or melody, which the compoſer intends frould C carrying the perfect chord, F carrying that of the ſub-dominant, vail through the piece; whether it is intended to expreſs the mean. and G that of the tonic dominant, to which we may join the chord ing of words to which it may be fet, or merely inſpired by the im- of the ſeventh, DFAC; but we here regard as extended the ſe pulſe of taſte and fancy, in this laſt caſe, deſign is diſtinguiſhed in- ries of dominants in queſtion, as belonging to the mode of C, be to imitation and fugue. cauſe it preſerves in ihe ear the impreſlion of that mode. I. In a 194. Imitation conſiſts in cauſing to be repeated the melody of ſeries of dominants, there are a great many of them which likewiſe one, or of ſeveral bars in one ſingle part, or in the whole harmony, belong to other modes; for inſtance, the fimpledominant A be and in any of the various modes that may be choſen. When all longs naturally to the mode of G, the ſimple dominant B to that the parts abſolutely repeat the ſame air or melody, and beginning of A, &c. Thus it is only improperly, and by way of extenſion, that one after the other, this is called a canon. Fugue conſiſts in alter- we regard theſe dominants, as belonging to the mode of C. nately repeating that air in the treble, and in the baſs, or even in But if we were to form this fundamental baſis, all the parts, if there are more than two. 195. Imitation and fugue are ſometimes conducted by rules 1 B a b С A D G merely deducible from taſte, which may be ſeen in the 332d and conGdering the laſt C as a tonic dominant in this manner, CEG following pages of M. Rameau's Treatiſe on Harmony ; where will Bb; the mode would then be changed at the ſecond C, and we likewiſe be found a detail of the rules for compoſition in ſeveral ſhould enter into the mode of F; becauſe the chord C E G Bb parts. The chief rules for compoſition in ſeveral parts are, that indicates the tonic dominant of the mode of F; beſides, it is evident ibe diſcords ſhould be found, as much as poffible, prepared and re- that the mode is changed, becauſe Bb does not belong to the ſcale of C ſolved in the ſame part ; that a diſcord ſhould not be heard at the In the ſame manner were we to form this fundamental baſs ſame time in ſeveral parts, becauſe its harſhneſs would diſguſt the 7 ear: and that, in no particular part there ſhould be found two oc- C. A D G C taves, or two fifths in ſucceſſion, with reſpect to the baſs. Muficis conſidering the laſt C as a tonic dominant, in this manner, C E ans, however, do not heſitate ſometimes to violate this precept, GA; this laſt C would indicate the mode of G, of which C is when taſte or occaſion require. In muſic, as in all the other fine the ſub dominant. arts, it is the buſineſs of the artiſt to aſſign and to obſerve rules ; In like manner, ſtill, if in the firſt ſeries of dominants, we cauſed the province of men who are adorned with taſte and genius, is to the firit D to carry the third major, in this manner, DF XAC; find the exceptions. this D, having become a tonic dominant, would fignify the SECT. XVI. Definitions of the Different Airs. 196. We ſhall finiſh this ſyſtem, by giving, in a few words, the major mode of G; and the G which ſhould follow it carrying characteriſtic diſtinctions of the different airs to which names have the chord B D F would relapfe into the mode of C, from whence been given, as chacoon, minuet, rigadoon, &c. The chacoon is a long we had departed. piece of muſic, containing three times in each bar, of which the Finally, in the ſame manner, if in this ſeries of dominants one movement is regular, and the bars ſenſibly diſtinguiſhed. It con- ſhould cauſe B to carry. F X in this manner, B D F X A; this F fifts of ſeveral couplets, which are varied as much as poſſible. would thew that we had departed from the mode C, to enter into Formerly, the baſs of the chacoon was a conſtrained baſs, or regu- that of G. lated by a rythmus, terminating in four bars, and proceeding again by From hence it is eaſy to form this rule for diſcovering the the ſame number; at preſent, compoſers of this ſpecies no longer changes of ' mode in the fundamental bals. confine themſelves to that practice. The chacoon begins, for the 1. When we find a tonic in the fundamental baſs, we are in the moſt part, not with the perfect time, which is ſtruck by the hand mode of that tonic ; and the mode is major or minor, according as or foot, but with the imperfect, which paſſes while the hand or the perfect chord is major or minor. foot is elevated. The villanelle is a chacoon, a little more lively, 2. When we find a ſub-dominant, we are in the mode of the with its movement fomewhat more briſk than the ordinary chacoon. fifth above that ſub-dominant; and the mode is major or minor, The paſſacaille only differs from a chacoon as it is more ſlow, more according as the third in the chord of the ſub-dominant is major or tender, and beginning in ordinary with a perfect time. The minuet minor. is an air in triple time, whoſe movement is regular, and neither 3. When we find a tonic dominant, we are in the mode of the extremely briſk nor flow, conſiſting of two parts or ſtrains, which fifth below that tonic dominant. As the tonic dominant carries are each of them repeated ; and for which reaſon they are called by always the third major, one cannot be ſecure by the aſſiſtance of the French repriſes: each ſtrain of the minuets begins with a time this dominant alone, whether the mode be major or minor : but it which is ſtruck, and ought to conſiſt of 4, of 8, or of 12 bars; ſo is only neceſſary for the compoſer to caſt his eye upon (art. 187) that the cadences may be eaſily diſtinguiſhed, and recur at the end which muſt be the tonic of the mode in which he is ; by the third of each 4 bars. of this tonic he will diſcover whether the mode be major or minor. The ſarabando is properly a ſlow minuet; and the courant a very 186. Every change of the mode ſuppoſes a cadence; and when flow ſarabando: this laſt is no longer in uſe. The palepied is pro- the mode changes in the fundamental baſs, it is almoſt always ei perly a very briſk minuet, which does not begin, like the common ther after the tonic of the mode in which we have been, or after minuet, with a ſtroke of the foot or hand; but in which each ſtrain the tonic dominant of that mode, conſidered then as a tonic by fa begins in the laſt of the three times of which the bar conſiſts. vour of a cloſe, which ought neceſſarily to be found in that place : The loure is an air whoſe movement is low, whoſe time is Whence it happens that cadences in a melody, for the moſt part marked with, and where two of the times in which the bar con- preſage a change of mode which ought to follow them. ſiſts are beaten ; it generally begins with that in which the foot 187. All theſe rules, joined with the table of modes which we is raiſed. For ordinary the note in the middle of each time is ſhort- have given (art. 177), will ſerve to diſcover in what mode we are ened, and the firſt not of the ſame time pointed. in the middle of a piece, eſpecially in the moſt eſſential paſſages, as The jig is properly nothing elſe but a loure very briſk, and whoſe cadences. movement is extremely quick. 188. Two modes are ſo much more intimately relative as they The forlana is a moderate movement, and, in a mediocrity be- contain a greater number of ſounds common to both ; for example, tween the loure and jig. the minor mode of C and the major of G, or the major mode of The rigadoon has two times in a bar, is compoſed of ſtrains, C and the minor of A: on the contrary, two modes are leſs inti each to be repeated, and each conſiſting of 4, of 8, or of 12 bars: mately relative, as the number of ſounds which they contain as its movement is lively ; each ſtrain begins not with a ſtroke of the common to both is ſmaller ; for instance, the major mode of C and foot, but at the laſt note of the ſecond time. the minor mode of B, &c. The bourée is almoſt the ſame thing with the rigadoon. 189. When you find yourſelf led away by the current of the modu The gavotte has two times in each bar, is compoſed of two lation, that is to ſay, by the manner in which the fundamental baſs ſtrains, each to be repeated, and each conſiſting of 4, of 8, or of 12 is conſtituted, into a mode remote from that in which the piece bars: the movement is ſometimes flow, ſometimes briſk; but ne- was begun, you muſt continue in it but for a ſhort time, becauſe ver extremely quick, nor very ſlow. the ear is always impatient to return to the former mode. The tambourin has two ſtrains, each to be repeated, and each SECT. XIV. Of the Cromatic and Enharmonic. conſiſting of 4, of 8, or of 12 bars, &c. Two of the times that 190. We call that melody chromatic which is compoſed of ſeve make up each bar are beaten, and are very lively; and each ftrain ral notes in fuccellion, whether ariſing or deſcending by ſemi-notes. generally begins in the ſecond time. 191. When an air is cromatic in deſcending, the moſt natural The muſette conſiſts of two or three times in each bar; its and ordinary fundamental baſs is a concatenated ſeries of tonic do movement is neither very quick nor very flow; and for its baſs it minants; all of which follow one another in deſcending by a fifth, has often no more than a ſingle note, which may be continued or, which is the ſame thing, in riſing by a fourth. through the whole piece. 192. When the air is cromatic in aſcending, one may form a This Syſtem is principally an Abridgment from the works of Meffi*sa fundamental baſs by a ſeries of tonics and of tonic dominants,which Rameau, Roſſeau, and d'Alembert, which are conſidered by the ama- fucceed one another alternately by the interval of a third in de teurs of the ſcience as the beſt treatiſes on the ſubjeët. We have intro- ſcending, and of a fourth in aſcending. There are many other duced Plates, to illuſtrate the relative Value of the Notes and Reſts; ways of forming a cromatic air, whether in riſing or deſcending; the different Cleffs and Scales; and the Scales of the ſeveral firinged but theſe details in an elementary eſſay are by no means neceſſary. Inſtruments now in ufe ; which addition, it is preſumed, will facilitate With reſpect to the harmonic, it is very rarely put in practice. the progreſs of the practitioner. M U S M U S 111. art. 21. 31. MUSK, formed the common Greek pornos, muſks, á kind of l orders, petechial, malignant, putrid fevers, the gaol diſtemper; perfume of a very ſtrong ſcent; only agreeable when moderated hiccoughs, ſubſultus tendinum, &c. For the particular caſes, we by the mixture of ſome other perfume. Muſk is found in a kind of refer to the Philoſophical Tranſactions, Nº 474. § 18. and vol. bag, or tumor, growing about the bigneſs of a hen's egg under the xliv. p. 75, &c. Inſtances occur in which it has been of very great belly, towards the genital parts of a wild beaſt of the fame name; benefit in convulſive diſorders, in the London Med. Obf. &c. vol. and appears to be nothing elſe but a kind of bilious blood there It has alſo been found uſeful in ſpaſmodic diſor- congealed, and almoſt corrupted. ders given by way of clyfter, as Dr. Wall obſerves, in that tranſ- The animal which produces it is pretty common in the king action. The operation of muſk, in ſome reſpects, reſembles that dom of Bantar, Tonquin, and ſome others as Cochin China, &c. of opium; but is in this much preferable that it does not leave But the moſt eſteemed are thoſe in the kingdom of Thibet. See behind it any ftupor or languidneſs, which the latter often does. MOSCHUS. They inhabit the woods and foreſts where the natives Muſk therefore ſeems likely to anſwer in thoſe low caſes where hunt them down : when the beaſt is killed, they cut out the bladder ſleep is much wanted, and opiates are improper. It is ſaid to be under the belly, ſeparate the coagulated blood, and dry it in the beft given in a bolus, and that thoſe who are moſt averſe to per- fun, where it is reduced into a light friable ſubſtance almoſt of the fumes may take it in that form without inconvenience. For, as nature of a powder, and of a duſky reddiſh colour, and acquires a Etmuller and others, have long ago obſerved, the fiell of the per- very ſtrong and diſagreeable ſmell. It is then tied up again in fume is often found to be of differvice, where the ſubſtance inwardly bladders, and exported to other countries; and this is the muſk taken produces good effects. Dr. Wall confirms the obſervation which we uſe. The muſk itſelf is dry, with a kind of unctuo by remarking; that two perſons, labouring under a ſubfultus ten- fity; of a dark reddiſh brown, or ruſty blackiſh colour; in ſmall dinum, extreme anxiety, and want of ſleep, from the bite of a round grains, with a very few hard black clots; perfectly free mad dog, by taking two doſes of muſk, each of which was 16 from any ſandy or other viſible foreign matter. Chewed, and rub grains, were perfectly relieved from their complaints. He like- hed on paper, it looks bright, yellowiſh, ſmooth, and free from wiſe obſerves, that convulſive hiccups, attended with the worſt grittineſs. ſymptoms, were removed by a doſe or two of 10 grains; and that When they want to adulterate it, they put a math of the ani in ſome caſes, where this medicine could not, on account of ſtrong mal's blood and liver into the place of the blood and muſk they had convulſions, be adminiſtered to the patient by the mouth, it proved extracted. In two or three years this mixture produces certain of ſervice when injected as a glyfter. He likewiſe adds, that un- ſmall animals, which eat the good muſk; ſo that, when opened, a der the quantity of fix grains, he never found much effect from great conſumption is perceived. Others, after extracting a por it; but that, taken to 10 grains and upwards, it never fails to pro- tion of the muſk, put it in ſmall pieces of lead to augment the duce a mild diaphoreſis, without at all eating or giving any un- weight. The merchants who tranſport the muſk to foreign coun eaſineſs, that, on the contrary, it eaſes pain, raiſes the ſpirits; and tries are leſs averſe to this trick than the former; becauſe in this that, after the ſweat breaks out, the patient uſually falls into a re- caſe none of the animals abovementioned are produced. But the freſhing ſleep; that he never met with any hyſterical perſon, how deceit is ftill worſe to diſcover, when, of the ſkin taken from the averſe ſoever to perfumes, but could take it, in the form of a bo- belly of a young animal, they make little bags, which they ſew ſo lus, without inconvenience. To this paper is annexed an account dexterouſly with threads of the fame ſkin, that they reſemble genuine of fome farther extraordinary effects of muſk, obſerved by ano- bags. Thoſe they fill with what they take out of the genuine ther gentleman. Repeated experience has ſince confirmed its ef- bags, and ſome fraudulent mixture, which it is extremely difficult ficacy in theſe diſorders. The doſe has ſometimes been increaſed, for the merchants to detect. When the bags are ſewed immedi particularly in convulſive diſorders, to the quantity of a ſcruple or ately on their being cut, without allowing any part of the odour half a dram, every three or four hours, with two or three ſpoonfuls to diffipate in the air, after they have abſtracted as much of the of the muſk julep between. The julep is the only officinal pre- muſk as they think proper, if a perſon applies one of theſe bags to paration of it. It is combined with opium in tetanus, and with his noſe, blood will be drawn by the mere force of the odour, which mercury in rabies canina. muſt neceſſarily be weakened or diluted in order to render it agree- In a paper read before the Royal Society, March, 17, 1747-8, able without injuring the brain. Mr. Tavernier who brought ſeveral cures performed by mulk, on diſtempered cows, were men- one of the animals with him to Paris, ſays the odour of which was tioned. ſo ſtrong, that it was impoſſible for him to keep it in his cham When muſk begins to decay, it is a practice uſed in the Eaſt ber. It made It made every head in the houſe giddy; and he was obliged Indies to put it into a bladder or bag, wherein bag, wherein many ſmall holes to put it in a barn, where the ſervants at laſt cut away are made with a needle, and hang it in a neceſſary houſe, but not the ſkin, notwithſtanding, always retained a portion of the odour. low enough to touch the filth. Others keep it wrapped up in Musk affords the ſtrongeſt of all known odours. A ſmall bit linen, weil moiſtened with rank urine. Mr. Boyle ſays, of his of it perfumes a large quantity of matter. The odour of a ſmall own knowledge, that muſk has greatly contributed to the preſer- particle extends through a conſiderable ſpace. It is likewiſe ſo vation of fleſh. Works abr. vol. i. p. 30. fixed and permanent, that at the end of ſeveral years it ſeems to Musk Rat. The Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the Genus Cal- have loſt no part of its activity. tor in Mammalia. For deſcription of the Genus and ſeveral ſpe- From thirty grains of muſk, water extracts twelve grains, and cies, ſee Castor. For repreſentation of this ſpecies, ſee Plate 7. ſpirit of wine ten grains. Spirit of nitre and oil of vitriol totally Genus 23. Species 2. diffolve it: the former deſtroys the whole of its ſmell and the lat MUSSULMAN, or MUSULMAN, written in Arabic moſlem ter the greateſt part of it. In the diſtillation of odoriferous waters moſleman, or moſolman, a title by which the Mahometans diſtinguiſh and ſpirit, a ſmall portion of mulk, included in a linen cloth, is themſelves ; ſignifying, in the Turkiſh language, true believer, or generally hung in a ſtill-head, the vapour of both liquors extract orthodox. ing its ſcent. Spirit, diſtilled with muſk immerſed in it, acquires The appellation was firſt given to the Saracens; as is obſerved litele of its ſmell; but water by this method acquires both the ſmell by Leunclavius. There are two kinds of muſſulmans, very averſe and taſte. A minute portion of muſk greatly improves the fra to each other; the one called Sonnites, and the other Shiites. grance of the diſtilled odoriferous waters, as thoſe of lavender and The Sonnites follow the interpretation of the Koran given by roſemary, and heightens the ſmell of other odoriferous ingredients, Omar; the Shiites are the followers of Ali. The ſubjects of the without communicating any of its own peculiar ſmell. The quan King of Perſia are Shiites, and thoſe of the Grand Signior, Son- tity of liquor, which may be flavoured by macerating a certain nites. See ALCORAN, known proportion of muſk for a few days in rectified fpirit of Some authors will have it, that the word muffulman fignifies wine, appears to be the beſt criterion of the genuineneſs and good ſaved, that is, predeſtinated; and that the Mahometans give them- neſs of this commodity; a commodity, which is not only ſaid to felves the appellation, as believing they are all predeſtinated to ſalva- vary according to the ſeaſon of its being taken from the animal, tion. Martinius is more particular as to the origin of the name ; but which is ſometimes ſo artfully ſophiſticated, that the abuſes which he derives from the Arabic word muſalam, faved, ſnatched cannot be diſcovered by any external characters, or by any other out of danger : the Mahometans, he obſerves, eſtabliſhing their means than the degree of its ſpecific ſmell and taſte, which the religion by fire and ſword, maſſacred all thoſe who would not em- above experiment affords the beſt method of eſtimating. brace it, and granted life to all that did, calling them muffulmans; Musk is in conſiderable uſe among the perfumers and confec q: d. erepti e periculo ; whence the word, in courſe of time, be- tioners, though much leſs now than it was formerly. It is ſup came the diſtinguiſhing title of all thoſe of that feet, who have poſed to fortify the heart and brain, and is good againſt deafneſs, affixed to it the ſignification of true believer. and is now received in general practice in different convulſive dif Must, Mustum, ſweet wine newly preſſed from the grape; orders; and its doſe has been increaſed with advantage to a ſcruple or the new liquor preſſed from the fruit before it has worked or and half a dram, every four or fix hours. fermented. See WINE. Musk, and other perfumes of the ſame tribe, have been long Must of Rheniſh wine. This is a liquor that, though drank celebrated as antiſpaſmodics, but were formerly ordered in ſuch by fome, is found extremely to affect the brain; for not having ſmall quantities as to have little effect. Practitioners thought paſſed the natural efferveſcence which it would have been ſubject four or five grains a large doſe. But the Chineſe have taught us to, in the making of wine, its ſalts are locked up till the heat of to be more bold; the tenth part of an ounce is a uſual doſe among the ſtomach ſetting them to work, they raiſe their efferveſcence them. The remedy in the Eaſt, for the bite of the mad dog there, and ſend up abundance of ſubtile vapours to the brain. The contains fixteen grains of muſk, and this they repeat frequently. Rheniſh muſt is of two kinds, being made either with or without The effects of muſk are, caſe from pain, quiet ſleep, and a copious | boiling. That made without boiling is only put up ſo cloſe in the diaphoreſis. Hence it has been found of great uſe in ſpaſmodic dir veſſel that it cannot work; this is called ftum wine. They have the bag: 4 alle M U S M U S a allo another kind of Rheniſh muſt which is thus prepared: they handſome than the old. The otter is capable of being tamed; he boil the liquor to half the quantity, and put into it the medicinal will follow his maſter like a dog, and even fifa for him, and return ingredients they are moſt fond of, ſuch as orange-peel, elecam with his prey. pane-root, and juniper-berries, or the like; being thus medicated, Though the otter doth not caſt his hair, his ſkin is browner, and the whole works much more ſlowly than it otherwiſe would. ſells dearer in winter than in ſummer; and makes very fine fur.- MUSTARD, MUSTARD-Seed, is one of the ſtrongeſt of the His fleſh has a diſagreeable filhy taſte. His retreat exhales a noxious pungent, ſtimulating, diuretic medicines, that operate without odour, from the remains of putrid fiſhes ; and his own body has exciting much heat. It is ſometimes taken unbruiſed, to the bad ſmell. The dogs chace the otter ſpontaneouſly, and eaſily ap- quantity of a ſpoonful at a time, in paralytic, cachectic, and ſerous prehend him, when at a diſtance from water or from his hole; but, diſorders. It is applied alſo as an external ſtimulant, to benumbed when ſeized, he defends himſelf; bites the dogs moſt cruelly, and and paralytic limbs; to parts affected with fixed rheumatic pains; ſometimes with ſuch force as to break their leg-bones, and never and to the foles of the feet, in the low ſtage of acute diſeaſes, for quit his hold but with life. The beaver, however, who is not a raiſing the pulſe; in this intention, a mixture of equal parts of the very ſtrong animal, purſues the otters, and will not allow them to powdered feeds and crumbs of bread, with the addition ſometimes live on the ſame banks with themſelves. For repreſentation, ſee of a little bruiſed garlic, are made into a catapfalm with a fuffi Plate V. Genus XV. Species II. cient quantity of vinegar. Muſtard-ſeed yields upon expreffion, a The otters, of which there are ſeveral more ſpecies deſcribed conſiderable quantity of oil, which is by ſome recommended ex by authors, are diſtinguiſhed from the following tribe, the weaſels, ternally againſt rheumatiſms and palſies, though it has nothing of by having their feet palmated or webbed; whereas the latter have that quality by which the feeds themſelves prove uſeful in thoſe their toes ſeparate, or unconnected by any web or membrane. diſorders; the oil being mild and infipid as that of olives, and the The Galera, or Goinea-weaſel : the toes are not connected pungency of the ſeed remaining entire in the cake left after expreſs with a membrane; he is of a black colour, with coarſe hair, of the fion; nor is any conſiderable part of the pungent matter extracted ſize of a martin; digs an habitation in the earth with his fore-feet, by rectified ſpirit. The bruiſed ſeeds give out readily to water in which he has great ſtrength, and which are much ſhorter than nearly the whole of their active matter : added to boiling milk than thoſe behind. It inhabits Guinea, Braſil and Guiana : when they curdle it, and communicate their pungency to the whey. it rubs itſelf againſt trees, it leaves behind an unctuous matter that The powder of muſtard-feed may be made into the conſiſtence of ſmells of mulk. It is very fierce, and if driven to neceſſity, will a loch with warm water, into which a little ſea-falt has been diſ fly at man or beaſt; and it is very deſtructive to poultry, folved. Of this a common ſpoonful, ſometimes two, diluted with The gulo, or glutton, is of a duſky red colour, and blackiſh on tepid water, are given on an empty ſtomach; it operates as well as the middle of the back : it is a moſt voracious animal, but very an emetic, and proves an excellent remedy in moſt nervous diſ flow of foot, ſo is obliged to take its prey by ſurprize. In America orders, according to Dr. Monro. in Med. Eff. Edinb. vol. ii. art. it is called the beaver-eater; becauſe it watches thoſe animals as 19. P. 303. note. they come out of their houſes, and ſometimes breaks into their ha- MUSTELA, in Mammalia, a genus belonging to the order of bitations and devours them. It often lurks on trees, and falls on Feræ. There are fix erect, ſharp, diſtinct teeth, in the upper the quadrupeds that paſs under : will faſten on an elk, or ftag, and jaw, and an equal number in the under jaw, but blunter, continue eating a hole into its body, till the animal falls down with and cloſer together, and two of them are fituated a little further pain, or elſe will tear out its eyes; no force can diſengage it; yet within the mouth; and the tongue is ſmooth. The moſt remark ſometimes the deer, in tkeir agony, have been known to deſtroy able ſpecies are the following: the glutton, by running its head violently againſt a tree. This ani- The lutris, or ſea-otter, hath palmated feet, and the tail about mal alſo devours the iſatis, or white fox ; ſearches for the traps laid one fourth the length of the body; the hair thick, long, and ex for the ſables, and other animals, and is often beforehand with the ceſlive black and gloffy: beneath that is a ſoft down; the colour huntſmen, who ſuſtain great loſs by the glutton. He avoids wa- ſometimes varies to ſilvery. The largeſt of theſe animals weigh ter, and dreads horſes, and men dreſſed in black. He walks by a 70 or 80 pounds. They inhabit, in vaſt abundance, the coaſts of kind of leap, and eats pretty voracioully. After taking a full meal, Kamtſchatka, and the parts of America oppoſite to it, diſcovered he covers himſelf in his cage with ſtraw. When drinking, he by the Ruſſians ; it is alſo met with in a moſt remote part of the laps like a dog. He utters no cry. After drinking, with his paws continent of America, along the rivers of Braſil and Paraguay, he throws the remainder of the water on his belly. He is almoſt and in the Oroonoko. It is a harmleſs animal; very affedionate perpetually in motion. If allowed, he would devour more than four to its young, inſomuch that it will pine to death at the loſs of pounds of fleſh every day. He eats no bread; and devours his them, and die on the very ſpot where they have been taken from food ſo voraciouſly, and almoſt without chewing, that he is apt to it. Before the young can ſwim they carry them in their paws, choak himſelf. lying in the water on their back: they run very ſwiftly; ſwim The glutton is common in moſt of the northern regions of Eu- often on their back, their ſides, and even in a perpendicular por rope, and even of Aſia; but in Norway, according to Pontopidan, ture; are very ſportive; embrace and kiſs each other : they in he is chiefly confined to the dioceſe of Drontheim. The famo habit the fhallows, or ſuch places as abound with ſea-weeds; feed author remarks, that the ſkin of the glutton is very valuable. on lobſters, and other ſhell-fiſh, as well as ſepiæ, and common In its wild ſtate, Mr. Pennant informs us, that the glutton is fiſhes: they breed but once a year, and have but one young at valtly fierce; a terror both to wolf and bear, which will not prey a time, fuckle it for a year, and bring it on ſhore. They are dull upon it when they find it dead; perhaps on account of its being ſo fighted, but quick ſcented; are hunted for their ſkins; which are very fætid that it ſmells like a pole.cat : it makes a ſtrong refift- of great value, being ſold to the Chineſe for 70 or 80 rubles ance when attacked; notwithſtanding which it is capable of being a-piece ; each ſkin weighs 31 lb. The young are reckoned very tamed, and of learning ſeveral tricks. Mr. Buffon remarks that, delicate meat, ſcarce to be diſtinguiſhed from a fucking lamb. though the glutton employs conſiderable art and addreſs in ſeizing For repreſentation, ſee Plate V. Genus XV. Species I. other animals, he ſeems to poſſeſs no-other talents but thoſe The lutra, or common otter, has palmated feet, the tail one half which relate to appetite. “It would, (ſays he) appear, that the the length of the body; the whole colour is a deep brown except glutton even wants the common inſtinct of ſelf-preſervation. He two ſmall ſpots on each ſide of the noſe, and another below the allows himſelf to be approached by men, or comes up to them with- chin; the legs are ſhort and thick, and looſely joined to the body: out betraying the ſmalleſt apprehenſions.” This indifference, the length, from the noſe to the tail, is 23 inches. The otter inha which ſeems to be the effect of imbecility, proceeds, perhaps from bits all parts of Europe, the north and the north-eaſt of Aſia, even a different cauſe. as far as Kamtſchatka ; it abounds in North America, particularly It is certain the glutton is not ſtupid, ſince he finds means to fa- in Canada, from whence the moſt valuable furs of this kind are tisfy his appetite, which is always vehement and preſling. Neither brought. He is a voracious animal, but fonder of fiſh than of is he deficient in courage, fince he attacks moſt enemies he meets fleſh: he doth not willingly quit the margins of rivers or lakes, with, and he ſhews no fear at the fight of men. Hence, if he and often depopulates fifh-ponds; but if fiſh happen to fail, he wants attention to himſelf, it proceeds not from indifference to makes excurſions on land, and preys on lambs and poultry. It is his own preſervation, but from the habit of ſecurity. As he obſervable, that the otter always ſwims againſt the ſtream to meet lives in a country which is almoſt deſert, he feldom ſees men, who its prey ; and two of them it is ſaid will hunt a falmon in concert. are his only enemies. Every time he tries his ſtrength with moſt One ſtations itſelf above, and the other below the place where the animals, he finds himſelf their fuperior. He goes about with per- fifi lies, and continue chaſing it inceſſantly, till the creature, quite fect confidence, and never diſcovers the ſmalleſt mark of fear, wearied out, becomes their prey. Sometimes the otter preys in the which always ſuppoſes fome experience of weakneſs. · Of this we fea, but not far from ſhore. It hath been obſerved however, in the have an example in the lion, who never turns away from man, un- Orknies, to bring in cod, congers, &c. Properly ſpeaking, he is leſs he has experienced the force of his arms: and the glutton trail- not an amphibious animal; for, like other terreſtrial creatures, he ing along the ſnows of his deſart climate, remains always in perfect requires the aid of reſpiration. When in purſuit of a fiſh, if he ſafety, and reigns, like the lion, not ſo much by his own ſtrength, chances to be entangled in a net, he drowns; and we perceive that as by the weakneſs of the animals around him. he has not had time to cut a ſufficient quantity of the meſhes to ef- fectuate his eſcape. For want of fiſhes, crabs, frogs, or other ani- The martes, or martin, is of a blackiſh yellow colour, with a pale throat, and the toes are not webbed. Theſe animals are mal food, he knaws the young twigs, and eats the bark of aquatic trees; he likewiſe eats the young herbage in the ſpring. The fe- found in great numbers in all temperate countries, and even in male frequently comes in ſeaſon in winter, brings forth in March, warm regions, as in Madagaſcar and the Maldivia iſlands, and are and the litter conſiſts of three or four. The young otters are leſs never ſeen in high latitudes. The martin has a fine countenance, a lively eye, ſupple limbs, and a Alexible body. His movements I are M U S M U S cies VI. tree. are all exceedingly nimble: he rather bounds and leaps than walks: always diſagreeable ; but when he is irritated it becomes much He climbs rough walls with eaſe and alacrity; enters the pigeon more offenſive. His eyes are lively, and his aſpect is infiamma- or hen-houſes, eats the eggs, pigeons, fowls, &c. and the female tory; all his movements are nimble; and he is at the ſame time fo often kills great numbers, and tranſports them to her young. He vigorous that he can eaſily maſter a rabbit, though at leaſt four likewiſe ſeizes mice, rats, moles, and birds in their neſts. M. times larger than himſelf. For repreſentation, ſee Plate V. Genus Buffon kept one of theſe animals for a conſiderable time. He tamed XV. Species VIII. to a certain degree, but never formed any attachment, and conti The zibellina, or fable, has divided toes; the body is of a nued always ſo wild, that it was neceffary to chain him. He was duſky yellow colour ; with a white forehead, and an aſh-coloured then about a year and a half old, ſeemingly the age at which nature throat. It is found in Tartary, and the northern part of Aſia. The aſſumes her full afcendency. He eat every thing preſented to him, fables inhabic the banks of rivers, and the thickeſt parts of the except ſallad and herbs; was fond of honey, and preferred hemp woods. They leap with great agility from tree to tree; and avoid ſeed to every other grain. It was remarked that he drank very the rays of the ſun. They live in holes of the earth, or beneath often ; that he ſometimes ſlept two days ſucceſſively, and at other the roots of trees : fometimes they will form neſts in the trees, times would not ſleep for two or three days; that, before ſleeping and ſkip with great agility from one to the other : they are very he folded himſelf in a round form, and covered his head with his lively, and much in motion, during the night. Mr. Gmelin tells tail; and that, while awake, his motions were violent and perpé us, that after eating they generally ſleep half an hour or an hour, tual. The ſame author inforins-us, that he has had in his poffef when they may be puſhed, ſhaken, or even pricked, without awak- fion ſeveral martins of an advanced age, which had been taken in ing. During the night they are extremely active and reſtleſs. A nets; but they continued to be totally ſavage, bit all who attempted tame one, kept by Mr. Gmelin, was accuſtomed to riſë upon its to touch them, and would eat nothing but raw fleſh. hind legs, on ſight of a cat, in order to prepare for the combat. Martins, it is ſaid, go with young as long as cats. We meet During ſummer the fables prey on ermines; weaſels; and ſquir- therefore with young ones from ſpring to autumn ; and therefore, rels; but eſpecially on hares; in winter on birds; in autumn on it is probable they bring forth more than once a-year. The hurtleberries, cranberries, and the berries of the ſervice-tree: but younger females bring only three or four at a time, but the more during that ſeaſon their ſkins are at the worſt; that diet cauſing aged produce ſix or ſeven. The martin has an agreeable muſky their ſkins to itch, and to rub off their fur againſt the trees: they odour, which proceeds from a matter contained in two veſicles, bring forth at the end of March or beginning of April, and have one on each ſide of the extremity of the rectum. The ſkin is a from three to five at a time, which they ſuckle for four or five valuable fur, and much uſed for the linings to the gowns of ma weeks. For repreſentation, fee Plate V. Genus XV. Spe- giſtrates. For repreſentation fee Plate V. Genus XV. Spe cies IX. At preſent the hunters of fables form themſelves into troops, The putorius, pole-cat, or fitchet, has unconnected toes, is of a from 5 to 40 each: the laſt fubdivide into leſſer parties, and each dirty yellow colour, with a white mouth and ears. He is a native chooſes a leader; but there is one that directs the whole: a finali of moſt parts of Europe; and has a great reſemblance to the mar covered boat is provided for each party, loaded with proviſions, a tin in temperament, manners, diſpoſition, and figure. Like dog and net for every two men, and a veffel to bake their bread the former he approaches our habitations, mounts on the roofs, in. Each party alſo has an interpreter for the country they pene- takes up his abode in hay-lofts, barns, and unfrequented places, trate into: every party then ſets out according to the courſe their from which he iſſues during the night only in queſt of prey. He chief points out: they go againſt the ſtream of the rivers, drawing burrows under ground, forming a ſhallow retreat, about two yards their boats up, till they arrive in the hunting country; there they in length, generally terminating under the roots of ſome large ſtop, build huts, and wait till the waters are frozen, and the ſeaſon He makes greater havock among the poultry than the mar commences; before they begin the chaſe, their leader aſſembles tin, cutting off the heads of all the fowls, and then carrying them them, they unite in a prayer to the Almighty for ſucceſs, and then off one by one to his magazine. If, as frequently happens, he can ſeparate ; the firſt ſable they take is called God's fable, and is dedi- not carry them off entire, on account of the ſmallneſs of the entry cated to the church. to his hole, he eats the brains, and take only the heads along with They then 'penetrate into the woods; rnark the trees as they ad- him. He is likewiſe very fond of honey, attacks the hives in win vance, that they may know their way back; and in their hunting ter and forces the bees to abandon them. The females come in quarters form huts of trees, and bank up the ſnow round thein ; ſeaſon in the ſpring, and bring forth three, four, or five at a time, near theſe they lay their traps, then advance farther, and lay more but does not caſt them off till the end of ſummer. The pole-cat traps, ſtill building more huts in every quarter, and return fuccef- is exceſſively foetid; yet the ſkin is dreſſed with the fur on, and ſively to every old one to viſit the traps and take out the uſed as the other furs for tippets, &c. and is alſo ſent abroad to ſkin it, which none but the chief of the party muſt do: during this line cloaths. For repreſentation, ſee Plate V. Genus XV. Spe time they are fupplied with proviſions by perſons who are em- cies VII. ployed to bring it on fledges, from the places on the road where The furo, or ferret, has red eyes, and unconnected toes; the they are obliged to form magazines, by reaſon of the impracticabi- colour of the whole body is of a very pale yellow; the length lity of bringing quantities through the rough countries they muſt from nofe to tail, is about 14 inches, the tail five. In its wild paſs. The traps are a ſort of pitt-fall, with a looſe board over ſtate it inhabits Africa; from whence it was originally brought it, baited with fiſh or fleſh. When fables grow ſcarce, the into Spain, in order to free that country from multitudes of rabbits hunters trace them in the fallen fnow to their holes ; place their with which it was over-run; and from thence the reſt of Europe ferrets at the entrance; and ſometimes wait, watching two or was ſupplied with it. This creature is incapable of bearing the three days for the coming out of the animal. It has happened cold, and cannot fubfiſt even in France unleſs in a domeſtic ſtate. that theſe poor people have, by the failure of their proviſions, The ferret is not in our climates endowed with the fame capacity been ſo pinched with hunger, that, to prevent the cravings of of finding his ſubſiſtence as other wild animals, but muſt be care appetite, they have been reduced to take two thin boards, one of fully nouriſhed within doors, and cannot exiſt in the fields ; for, which they apply to the pit of the ſtomach, the other to the back, thoſe who are loſt in the burrows of rabbits never multiply, but drawing them tight together by cords placed at the ends: ſuch are probably periſh during the winter. Like other domeſtic animals, the hardſhips our fellow-creatures undergo to ſupply the wantonneſs he varies in colour. The female ferret is leſs than the male; and of luxury. when in ſeaſon, we are aſſured ſhe is ſo extremely ardent, that ſhe The ſeaſon of chace being finiſhed, the hunters re-aſſemble, dies if her deſires are not gratified. Ferrets are brought up in make a report to the leader of the number of fables each has taken, caſks or buxes, where they are furniſhed with beds of hemp or fax. make complaints of offenders againſt their regulations, puniſh de- They fleep almoſt continually. Whenever they awake, they linquents, ſhare the booty, then continue at the head-quarters till ſearch eagerly for food; and brawn, bread, milk, &c. are com- the rivers are clear of ice, return home, and give to every church monly given them. They produce twice every year; and the fe- the dedicated furs. male goes fix weeks with young. Some of them devour their The erminea, or white ermine, is ten inches long, from the noſe young as ſoon as they are brought forth, inſtantly come again in to the origin of the tail, the tail itſelf is five inches and a half long. ſeaſon, and have three litters, which generally conſiſt of five or fix, The colours bear a near reſemblance to thoſe of the weaſel. In and ſometimes of ſeven, eight, or nine. This animal is by na the moſt northern parts of Europe theſe animals regularly change ture a mortal enemy to the rabbit. Whenever a dead rabbit their colour in winter; and become totally white, except the end is for the firſt tiine preſented to a young ferret, he flies upon it, of the tail, which continues invariably black; and in that ſtate are and bites it with fury; but if it be alive, he feizes it by the throat called ermines; we are informed that the fame is obſerved in or the noſe, and ſucks its blood. When let into the burrows of rab the Highlands of Scotland. The ſkins and tails are a very valu- bits he is muzzled, that he may not kill them in their holes, but able article of commerce in Norway, Lapland, Ruſſia, and other only oblige them to come out, in order to be caught in the nets. If cold countries, where they are found in prodigious numbers. They the ferret is let in without a muzzle, he is in danger of being loft: are alſo very common in Kamtſchatka and Siberia. In Siberia they for, after ſucking the blood of the rabbit, he falls aſleep; and even burrow in the fields, and are taken in traps baited with fleſh. In ſinoaking the hole is not a certain method of recalling him; be- Norway they are either ſhot with blunt arrows, or taken in traps, cauſe the holes have often ſeveral entries, which communicate made of two flat ſtones, one being propped up with a ſtick, to which with each other, and the ferret retires into one of thoſe when in is faſtened a baited ſtring, which, when the animals nibble, the ſtone commoded with the ſmoke. Boys likewiſe uſe the ferret for catch falls down and cruſhes them to death. The Laplanders take them ing birds, in the holes of walls, or old trees. The ferret, though The ferret, though in the ſame manner, only inſtead of ſtones, they uſe logs of wood. eaſily tamed, and rendered docile, is extremely iraſcible : his odour For repreſentation, fee Plate V. Genus XV. Species X. Variety I. 8 M The game to N° 113. M U T M Y C The vulgaris, foumart or common ermine is a variety of the univerſally, or without exceptions; (ſee the article EUNUCH.. erminea, and the leaſt of the weaſel kind; the length of the head The reaſon is, that their blood has not received all the neceſſary and body not exceeding fix, or at moſt ſeven inches. The tail is preparation in paſſing through the ſpermatic veſſels. Thus being only two inches and a half long, and ends in a point; the ears are deprived of the properties of males, they participate of the diſpo- The whole large; and the lower parts of them are doubled in. fitions of females, and their very ſoul is of an intermediate ſex. upper part of the body, the head, tail, legs, and feet, are of a very | They are not, however, without advantages: They become larger pale táwny brown. The whole under ſide of the body from the and fatter than other men; but they ſometimes grow to a diſguſt- chin to the tail is white; but beneath the corners of the mouth, ing fize. Though oily ſubſtances are more abundant in eunuchs, on each jaw, is a ſpot of brown. It is a remarkably active animal; they are likewiſe leſs ſubject to gout and to madneſs than men who and will run up the ſides of walls with ſuch eaſe, that ſcarce any have a greater quantity of blood and of fplenetic humours. The place is ſecure from it; and the body is ſo ſmall, that there is abundant circulation of oily liquor prevents roughneſs or inequa- ſcarce hole but what is pervious to it. This ſpecies is much lities in the trachea and palate. This, joined to the flexibility of any more domeſtic than any of the reſt, and frequents out-houſes, barns, the epiglottis and of the other organs of the voice, makes it ſo fo- and granaries. It clears its haunts in a ſhort time from mice and norous and extenſive, and at the fame time fo ſweet, that it is al- rats, being a much greater enemy to them than the cat itſelf. It moſt impoſſible for eunuchs to pronounce diſtinctly the letter R. may be perfectly tamed, and rendered careſſing and frolicſome as Is this factitious advantage a fufficient conſolation to theſe unhappy a dog or a ſquirrel. The method of taming is to ſtroke them men for the barbarity of thoſe who have dared to ſacrifice nature often and gently over the back; and to threaten, and even to beat at the ſhrine of avarice? It is impoſſible to reflect on all the mo- them when they bite. In the domeſtic ſtate their ordure is never tives for making eunuchs without a ſigh of pity and regret; and offenſive but when irritated. They are fed with milk, boiled Aeſh, yet it muſt not be fuppoſed that this abominable cruelty is always and water. In moſt other reſpects this animal reſembles the weaſel infallibly attended with that advantage which is ſometimes expected kind in general. The natural hiſtory of this creature is much the from it. Of 2000 victims to the luxury and extravagant caprices fame with that of the weaſel; its food being birds, rabbits, mice, of the art, hardly three are found who unite good talents with &c. its agility the fame, and its ſcent equally foetid. For repre good organs. The other languiſhing and inactive wretches, are fentation, ſee Plate V.Genus XV. Species X. Variety II. outcaſts from both ſexes, paralytic members in the community, The navalis, or ſtoat according to Linnæus, is a diſtinct ſpecies an uſeleſs burden upon the earth, by which they are ſupported and of the Genus Muſtela; we have therefore, in conformity to our nouriſhed. But let us pay the tribute which is due to that virtu- plan, adopted his mode of claſſification: though more modern na ous pontiff Pope Clement VIII, who, liſtening to the voice of mo- turaliſts differ from him, and conſider it only as a variety of the deſty and humanity, proſcribed and aboliſhed this deteſtable and erminea: 'nay, Linnæus himſelf deſcribes it as entirely fimilar to infamous practice. Mutilation he declared was the moſt abomina- the ermine, excepting in ſize, being ſmaller by the half. For ble and diſgraceful of crimes. repreſentation, ſee Plate V. Genus XV. Species XI. MYA, in Conchology, a genus, &c. belonging to the ſecond MUTE, in a general ſenſe, fignifies a perſon that cannot ſpeak order, bivalves. For the generic and fpecific characters, ſee the or has not the uſe of ſpeech. See the Article DUMBNESS. Syſtem, Order II. Genus IV. MUTILATION, the retrenching or cutting away any mem- This ſhell is noted for producing quantities of pearl. There ber of the body. This word is alſo extended to ſtatues and build have been regular fiſheries for the ſake of this precious article in ings, where any part is wanting, or the projecture of any member, ſeveral of our rivers.. Sixteen have been found within one ſhell. as a cornice or an impoſt, is broken off. It is ſometimes alſo uſed They are the diſeaſe of the fiſh, analogous to the ſtone in the human in a more immediate manner for caſtration: (See CASTRATION body. On being ſqueezed they will eject the pearl, and often caſt and EUNUCH.) The practice of this ſort of mutilation is of vari it ſpontaneouſly in the ſand of the ſtream. The Conway was noted ous kinds: The Hottentots are ſaid to cut away one teſticle from for them in the days of Cambden. A notion alſo prevails, that: their children, upon ſuppoſition that they are thereby made lighter Sir Richard Wynne of Gwydir, chamberlain to Catherine queen and more active for running. In other countries, poor people to Charles II. preſented her majeſty with a pearl (taken in this completely mutilate their boys, to prevent the miſery and want river) which is to this day honoured with a place in the regal which would attend their offspring. Thoſe who have nothing in crown. They are called by the Welſh cregin diluw, or “deluge view but the improvements of a vain talent, or the formation of ſhells," as if left there by the food. The Irt in Cumberland a voice which disfigures nature, as was the caſe formerly in Italy, was alſo productive of them. The famous circumnavigator, Sir are contented with cutting away the teſticles. But in ſome coun John Hawkins, had a patent for fiſhing in that river. He had ob- tries of Afia, eſpecially among the Turks and in a part of Africa, ſerved pearls plentiful in the Straits of Magellan, and flattered thoſe whom jealouſy inſpires with diſtruſt, would not think their himſelf with being enriched by procuring them within his own wives ſafe in the cuſtody of ſuch eunuchs: They employ no llaves iſland. In the laſt century, ſeveral of great ſize were got in the in their ſeraglios who have not been deprived of all the external rivers of the counties of Tyrone and Donegal in Ireland. One parts of generation. that weighed 36 carats was valued at 40l. but being foul, loft Amputation is not the only means of accompliſhing this end. much of its worth. Other ſingle pearls were fold for 41. 1os. and Formerly, the growth of the teſticles was prevented, and their or even for lol. The laſt was ſold a ſecond time to lady Glenlealy ganization deſtroyed, by ſimple rubbing, while the child was put who put it into a necklace, and refuſed 801. for it from the ducheſs into a warm bath made of a decoction of plants. Some pretend of Ormond. Linnæus made a remarkable diſcovery relating to that by this ſpecies of caftration the life is in no danger. Ampu the generation of pearls in this fiſh.-It is a fiſh that will bear re- tation of the teſticles is not attended with much danger; but com moval remarkably well; and it is ſaid, that in ſome places they plete amputation of the external parts of generation is often fatal. form reſervoirs for the purpoſe of keeping it, and taking out the This operation can only be performed on children from ſeven to pearl, which, in a certain period of time, will be again renewed. ten years of age. Eunuchs of this kind;. owing to the danger at From obſervations on the growth of their ſhells, and the number tending the operation, coſt in Turkey five or fix times more than of their annular laminæ or ſcales, it is ſuppoſed the fiſh will attain others. Chardin relates, that this operation is ſo painful and dan a very great age; 50 or 60 years are imagined to be a moderate gerous after 15 years of age, that hardly a fourth part of thoſe by coinputation. The diſcovery turned on a method which Linnæus whom it is undergone eſcape with life. found, of putting theſe ſhell-fiſh into a ſtate of producing pearls There are eunuchs at Conſtantinople, throughout all Turkey, at his pleaſure; though the final effect did not take place for ſeve- and in Perfia, of a grey complexion : they come for the moſt part ral years: He fays, that in five or fix years after the operation, the from the kingdom of Golconda, the peninſula on this fide the pearl would have acquired the fize of a vetch. We are unac- Ganges, the kingdoms of Aſſau, Aracan, Pegu, and Malabar. quainted with the means by which he accompliſhed this extraordi- Thoſe from the gulph of Bengal are of an olive colour. There nary operation; but it was probably publiſhed at the time, and are ſome white eunuchs who come from Georgia and Circaſſia, confidered as important, ſince it is certain that the author was re- but their number is ſmall. The black eunuchs come from Africa, warded with a munificent premium from the ſtates of the kingdom and eſpecially from Ethiopia. Theſe, in proportion to their hor on this account. We regret that we cannot ſpeak more fully on rible appearance, are the more eſteemed and coſt dearer. It ap this head; but may obſerve, that it is probable, from a paper pub- pears that a very conſiderable trade is carried on in this ſpecies of liſhed many years afterwards in the Berlin Acts, that the method men; for Tavernier informs us, that when he was in the kingdom conſiſted in injuring the ſhell externally, perhaps, by a perfora- of Golconda in the year 1657, 22,000 eunuchs were made in it. tion; as it has been obſerved, that theſe concretions in ſhell-fiſh In that country they are ſold at the fairs. are found on the infide, exactly oppoſite to perforations and inju-, Eunuchs who have been deprived only of their teſticles, con ries made from without by ferpulæ and other animals. tinue to feel a titillation in what remains, and to have the external MYCTERIA, the Jábiru, in Ornithology; a genus of birds fign even more frequently than other men. But the part which belonging to the order of grallæ. The bill is long, bending up- remains is very ſmall, and continues almoſt in the fame ſtate in wards, and acute; the noſtrils are fmall and linear; there is no which it was when the operation was performed during childhood. tongue; and the feet have four toes. The Americana, or Ameri- If the different kinds of eunuchs are examined with attention, it will ean Jabiru, is about the ſize of a turky. The bill is long, ſtout, be found almoſt univerſally, that caſtration and its conſequences and of a black colour; the whole plumage is white, except the have produced greater or leſs changes on their ſhape and appear- head, and about two-thirds of the neck, which are bare of feathers ance, independent of its phyſical effects. and of a blackiſh colour; the remainder is alſo bare, and of a fine Eunuchs, ſays Mr. Withof, are timid, irreſolute, fearful, ſuſpi- red; on the hind-head are a few greyiſh feathers; the legs are cious, and unſteady: And this ſeems to hold generally, though not ftrong, of a great length, and covered with black ſcales; wings and M YR M Y R LXII. to three, viz. and tail even at the end. This bird is found in all the låvannas of he was ſeized with a drowſineſs, which gradually increaſed to a Cayenne, Guiana, and other parts of South America. It is mi= complete ſtupor and inſenſibility; and not long after he was found gratory and gregarious. They are very wild and voracious, and fallen from his chair lying on the floor of his chamber in the ſtate their food is fiſh, which they devour in great quantities. The mentioned. Being laid a-bed he fell aſleep; but waking a little fleſh of the young birds is ſaid to be good eating, but that of the from time to time; he was quite delirious; and he thus continued old is hard and oily. For repreſentation, ſee Plate IV. Genus alternately ſleeping and delirious for ſeveral hours. By degrees, however, both theſe ſymptoms diminiſhed; ſo that in about fix MYOPS, myopis, a perſon who is ſhort-ſighted; or, as we po hours from the time of taking the nutmeg he was pretty well re- pularly call it, purblind. The word is Greek, uuwt, compounded covered from both. Although he ſtill complained of head-ach, and of plus, mouſe, and wt, eye; becauſe, we ſuppoſe, the fame confor: ſome drowſineſs, he Nept naturally and quietly the following night, mation of the eye is obſerved in mice. Myopes are properly ſuch and next day was quite in his ordinary health. as fee remote objects confuſedly, and near ones diſtinctly. Thoſe The officinal preparations of nutmeg are a ſpirit and eſſential who labour under the oppoſite defect are called preſbytæ. The de oil, and the nutmeg in ſubſtance roaſted, to render it more aſtrin- fect of myopes is not in the optic nerve, the pupil, or the like; but gent. Both the ſpice itſelf and its eſſential oil enter ſeveral com- in the form of the cornea or cryſtalline, or the diſtance of the re poſitions, as the confe&tio aromatica, ſpiritus amoniæ com. &c. Mace tina from the ſame. The cryſtalline or cornea being rounder oř poſſeſſes qualities ſimilar to thoſe of the nutmeg, but is leſs aſtrin- more convex than ordinary, the rays will be rendered more con gent, and its oil is ſuppoſed to be more volatile and acrid. vergent than ordinary; in paſſing through the ſame. By this Remarks on the Trade of Nutmegs. Nutmeg-trees grow in ſe- means they will be brought to meet or concur at a leſs diſtance veral iſlands in the eaſtern ocean. The wood-pigeon of the Mo- from the cryſtalline; ſo that if the retina be at its uſual diſtance, luccas is unintentionally a greater planter of theſe trees, and diſ- they will concur before they reach it. It is the too It is the too great nearneſs, ſeminates them in places where a nation, powerful by its com- then, of the retina to the cryſtalline, that conſtitutes the inyopes. merce, thinks' it for its intereſt that they ſhould be rooted out and MYRISTICA, the NUTMEG-TREė; in Botany: A genus of deſtroyed. The Dutch; whoſe unwearied patience can ſurmount plants belonging to the claſs diccia, and order fyngeneſia. the greateſt obſtacles, have appropriated to themſelves the crop of Species. There are five ſpecies of this genus according to ſome nutmeg, as well as that of cloves and cinnamon, growing in the authors; but ſeveral of theſe being only varieties; may be reduced iſlands of Ternate, Ceylon, &c. either by right of conqueſt or by paying ſubſidies to the iſlanders, who find theſe much more pro- 1. Myriſtica fatua, or wild nutmeg: this grows in Tobago, ảnd fitable than the former produce of their trees. It is nevertheleſs riſes to the height of an apple-tree; has oblong, lanceolated, downy true; that they have prevailed upon or compelled the inhabitants of leaves, and hairy fruit:—the nutmeg of which is aromatic, but the Moluccas to cut down and root out all the clove-trees; which when given inwardly is narcotic; and occaſions drunkenneſs, de they have preſerved only in the iſlands of Amboina and Ternate, lirium, and madneſs, for a time. See a figure in Gaernor de Sem. which are in a great meaſure ſubject to them. We know for cer- and Fruct. T. 41. f. 3. 4. tain, that the Dutch pay 18,000 rixdollars yearly to the king of 2. The myriſtica ſebifera, (Virola Sibifera Aublet, páge 904. Ternate, by way of tribute or gift, in order to recompence him. Tab. 345.) A tree frequent in Guiana, riſing to 40 or even to for the loſs of his clove-trees in the other Molucca iſlands; and that 60 feet high; on wounding the trunk of which, a thick, acrid, red they are moreover bound by treaty to take at 3 d. a pound, all the juice runs out. Aublet ſays nothing of the nutmegs being aro cloves brought by the natives of Amboyna to their magazines. matic; he only obſerves, that a yellow fat is obtained from them, They have likewiſe ſucceeded to deſtroy the cinnamon every where which ſerves many economical and medical purpoſes, and that except in the iſland of Ceylon, which is in their poſſeſſion. The the natives make candles of it: ſame is the caſe with white pepper, &c. ſo that the trade of the whole 3. The myriſtica moſchata, or nutmeg, attains the height of 30 of Europe, and of great part of Aſia in this ſpecies of commodity, feet; producing numerous branches which riſe together in ſtories, paſſes through their hands. and covered with bark, which of the trunk is a reddiſh brown, but The Dutch have immenſe and very rich magazines of theſe that of the young branches is of a bright green colour: the leaves precious aromatics; both in India and Europe. They have actu- are nearly elliptical, pointed, undulated, obliquely nerved, on the ally by thenä the produce of 16 years, and never ſupply their neigh- upper ſide of a bright green, on the under whitiſh, and ſtand al bours with the laſt; but always with the oldeſt crop: in 1760, they ternately upon footitalks: the flowers are ſmall, and hang upon ſold what was laid up in 1744. It is commonly faid, that when flender peduncles, proceeding from the axillæ of the leaves: they the Dutch have too great a quantity of cloves, nutmegs, &c. in are both male and female upon ſeparate trees. their magazines, they throw them into the ſea ; but the fact is, M. Schwartz, who has carefully examined this as well as the that they get rid of their ſuperfluous aromatics by burning them. two firſt ſpecies, preſerved in ſpirits, places them amongſt the mo On the roth of June 1760, M. Beaumare ſaw at Amſterdam, near nodelphia. the Admiralty, a fire, the fuel of which was valued at 1,000,000 of Nutmegs, when heated, yield to the preſs à conſiderable quan livres ; and as much was to be burned on the day following, tity of limpid yellow oil, which on cooling concretes into a ſeba The feet of the ſpectators were bathed in the eſſential oil of theſe ceous conſiſtence. In the ſhops we meet with three forts of unc ſubſtances ; but no perſon was allowed to gather any of it, much tuous ſubſtances, called oil of macè, though really expreſſed from leſs to take any of the ſpices which were in the fire. Some years the nutmeg. The beſt is brought from the Eaſt Indies in ſtone jars; before, upon a ſimilar occaſion, and at the ſame place, a poor man this is of a thick conſiſtence, of the colour of mace, and has an who had taken up ſome nutmegs which had rolled out of the fire, agreeable fragrant ſmell; the ſecond ſort, which is paler coloured, was, as M. Beaumare was informed, ſeized and condemned to im- and much inferior in quality, comes from Holland in folid maſſes, mediate execution. We will only add, that, notwithſtanding the generally flat, and of a ſquare figure: the third, which is the worſt jealouſy of the Dutch, and the pains they take to preſerve the ſale of all, and uſually called common oil of mace, is an artificial compo of cloves wholly to themſelves, they have never been able to pre- ſition of fevum, palm oil, and the like, Aavoured with a little genuine vent their own officers in ſeveral parts of India from embezzling oil of nutmeg. A pound of them commonly gives three ounces and ſelling conſiderable quantities of them. M. de Jaucourt in- of oil, which has the conſiſtence of tallow, and has entirely the forms us, that in order to defraud the company, they ſell them to taſte of nutmeg. Both the nut and mace, when diſtilled, afford the veſſels of other nations which they meet at ſea, and moiſten the an eflential, tranſparent, and volatile oil, of an excellent flavour. remainder with water, that they may ſtill have the number of quin- Theſe nuts are likewiſe pickled with brine or with vinegar; and tale of which their cargo conſiſted. The quantity fold may amount when they intend to eat them, they firſt ſteep them in freſh water, to io quintals in 100 before it can be perceived by the clerks of and afterwards boil them in ſyrup of ſugar, &c. the magazines at Batavia, where they are received. Uſes. Nutmegs preſerved entire are preſented as deſerts, and the We are informed by M. Romê de Liſle, who came from India, inhabitants of India ſometimes eat them when they drink tea. Some that the Engliſh draw a great deal of cinnamon, pepper, and of them uſe nothing but the pulp; others likewiſe chew the mace; cloves; from the iſland of Sumatra. The ſtaple for this commo- but they generally throw away the kernel, which is really the nut dity, which gives great offence to the Dutch, is at the factory of meg. Many who perform ſea-voyages to the north chew this Bencoolen. We have likewiſe ſeen a ſpecimen of pretty good fruit every morning. cinnamon raiſed at Martinico:-The French, to prevent the ex- The medicinal qualities of nutmeg are ſuppoſed to be aromatic, portation of ſpecie for theſe aromatic and exotic productions, have anodyne, ſtomachic, and reſtringent; and with a view to the laſt attempted to introduce the culture of thern into ſome of their colo- mentioned effects, it has been much uſed in diarrhceas and dyſen nies. A great many plants of the clove and nutmeg-tree have teries. To many people the aromatic flavour of nutmeg is very been procured, and planted in the Iſle of France, the iſland of agreeable; they however ſhould be cautious not to uſe it in large Bourbon, and alſo at Cayenne, where they have a very promiſing quantities, as it is apt to affect the head, and even to manifeft an appearance. hypnotic power in ſuch a degree as to prove extremely dangerous. MYRMECOPHAGA, or Ant Bear, in Mammalia, the 8th Bontius ſpeaks of this as a frequent occurrence in India; and Dr. Genus, belonging to the order Bruta; the characters are theſe : Cullen relates a remarkable inſtance of this ſoporific effect of the There are two teeth in the mouth; the tongue is long and cylin- nutmeg, which fell under his own obſervation, and hence con drical : the head terminates in a long fnout or muzzle ; and cludes, that in apoplectic and paralytic caſes this ſpice may be very the body is covered with pretty long hair. There are four ſpe- improper. He obſerves, that a perſon by miſtake took two drams cies, viz. or a little more of powdered nutmeg: he felt it warm in his ſtomach, 1. The didactyla, or little ant-eater, hath a conic noſe, bending without any uneaſineſs; but in about an hour after he had taken it a little down ; ears ſmall, and hid in the fur; two hooked claws on the M Y R M Y R 2. up- the fore-feet; the exterior being much the largeſt ; four on the Dr. Simmons, in his treatiſe on Conſumptions, has beſtowed hind-feet; the head, body, limbs, and upper part and ſides of the very high encomiums on it, even in caſes of tuberculous phthiſis; tail, covered with long ſoft filky hair , or rather wool, of a yellow- and although it can by no means be repreſented as a remedy much iſh brown colour : from the noſe to the tail it meaſures ſeyen to be depended on, yet there is reaſon to believe that it has been inches and an half ; the laſt four inches of which on the under fide ſerviceable in ſome caſes, are naked. It is thick at the baſe, and tapers at the point. It in Tinctures of myrrh, made by digeſting three ounces of the habits Guinea, climbs trees in queſt of a ſpecies of ants which concrete, in a quart of rectified or proof ſpirit, are kept in the build their neſts among the branches: has a prehenſible power with ſhops, and given ſometimes internally, from ſiftcen drops to a tea- its tail. ſpoonful ; but oftener uſed among us, externally, for cleanſing The jubata, or great ant-eater, hath a long ſlender noſe, ulcers, and promoting the exfoliation of the carious bones. The finall black eyes ; ſhort round ears ; a ſlender tongue two feet and extract, obtained by inſpiſſating the tincture, is a fragrant;. bitter, an half long, which lies double in the mouth; the legs ſlender ; four very tenacious reſin, amounting to one third or more of the weight foes on the fore-feet; five on the hind-feet; the two middle claws of the myrrh. on the fore-feet very large, ſtrong and hooked ; the hair on the This bitter, aromatic, gummy reſin, enters a great number of upper part of the body is half a foot long, black mixed with grey; medicinal compoſitions ; it is a warm corroborant, deobſtruent, the fore-legs are whitiſh, marked above the feet with a black ſpot; and antiſeptic: it is given from a few grains to a ſcruple and the tail is cloathed with a very coaiſe black hairy, a foot long; the wards, in uterine obſtructions, cachexies, &c. and often employed length from the noſe to the tail about four feet; the tail two feet alſo as an external antiſeptic and vulnerary. and an half. For a repreſentation, ſee Plate II. Genus VIII. Its bitterneſs renders it good for the ſtomach, and againſt worms; Species II. and it is chewed to prevent infection from contagious diſeafes.. Theſe animals have many properties in common with each Dr. Quincy ſays, it is excellent to cleanſe and ſtrengthen the other, both in their ſtructure and manners. They all feed upon womb, and againſt tickling rheums; a good detergent; and, as ants, and plunge their tongues into honey and other liquid or viſcid ſuch, much uſed externally, in unguents, for the healing of ſubſtances. They readily pick up crumbs of bread, or ſmall mor wounds : it makes the principal ingredient in embalming. ſels of Aeſh. They are eaſily tamed, and can ſubſiſt for a long It is an apophthegm.of chymiſts, derived from Van Helmont, time without food. They never ſwallow all the liquor which they that whoever can make myrrh ſoluble by the human body, has take for drink ; for it falls back through their noſtrils. They run the ſecret of prolonging his days. And Boerhaave owns there ſo flowly that a man may eaſily overtake them in an open field. ſeems to be truth in this, from its reſiſting putrefaction. He, Their fleſh; though its taſte be very diſagreeable, is eaten by the himſelf, and other chymiſts before him, have given methods for ſavages. At a diſtance the great ant-eater has the appearance of a making ſolutions of myrrh, but only by means of alchohol. It fox; and for this reaſon ſome travellers have given him the name ſeems not a little ſurpriſing that ſuch great chymiſts ſhould never of the American fox. He has ſtrength ſufficient to defend himſelf find out that myrrh is ſoluble in common water. from a large dog, or even from the jaquar or braſilian cat. When MYRTIFORMES Caruncula, in Anatomy. See the Syſtem, attacked, he at firſt fights on end, and, like the bear, annoys his Part III. Section XV. Art. II. and Plate X. enemy with the claws of his fore-feet, which are very terrible wea MYRTUS, in Botany, the Myrtle. A genus of the mono- pons. He then lies down on his back, and uſes all his four feet ; gynia order, belonging to the icoſandria claſs of plants. The in which ſituation he is almoſt invincible; and continues the com calyx is quinquefid, ſuperior; there are five petals; the berry is bat to the laſt extremity. Even when he kills his enemy, he quits diſpermous or triſpermous. There are 14 ſpecies, of which the him not for a long time after. He is enabled to reſiſt better than moſt remarkable are, moſt other animals ; becauſe he is covered with long buſhy hair; 1. The Communis, or common.myrtle-tree, riſes with a ſhrubby his ſkin is remarkably thick ; his fleſh has little ſenſation ; and his upright, firm ftem, branching numerouſly all around, in a cloſe, principle of life is very tenacious. full head, rifing eight or ten feet high; very cloſely garniſhed MYRRH, a gummy-reſinous concrete juice, obtained from an with oval lanceolate, entire, moſtly oppoſite leaves, from half an oriental tree of which we have as yet no certain account. It inch, to an inch and a half long, and one broad, on ſhort foot- comes over to us in globes or drops, of various colours and mag ſtalks; and numerous ſmall pale flowers, from the axillas, ſingly nitudes. The beſt fort is ſomewhat tranſparent, friable, in ſome on each foot-ſtalk, having diphyllous involucrums ; each flower degree unctuous to the touch, of an uniform browniſh or reddiſh fucceeded by a ſmall, oval, dark, purple berry. The moſt mate- yellow colour, often ſtreaked internally with whitiſh femicircular rial varieties are, broad-leaved Roman myrtley, with oval, ſhining, or irregular veins; of a moderately ſtrong, not diſagreeable finell; green leaves, an inch and an half long, and one broad; and which and a lightly pungent, very bitter taſte, accompanied with aroma is remarkably foriſerous. Gold-ſtriped broad-leaved Roman tic flavour, but not ſufficient to prevent its being nauſeous to the myrtle. Broad leaved Dutch myrtle, with ſpear-ſhaped, ſharp palate. pointed, dark green leaves, an inch long, and about three quarters We have, as already obſerved, no certain information concerning of one broad. Doubled-flowered Dutch myrtle. Broad-leaved the tree from which this ſubſtance Aows; we are only told that Jews myrtle, having the leaves placed by threes at each joint; by the myrrh-tree, or plant, is a native of Abexim in Ethiopia, and is which particular circumſtance this ſpecies is in univerſal eſtima- named bedoins by the Arabs. It is affirmed by ſome, that the tion among the Jews in their religious ceremonies, particularly in myrrh we have at preſent is not equal in quality to that of the an decorating their tabernacles; and for which purpoſe many gar- cients, and has not that exquiſite ſmell which all authors aſctibe deners about London cultivate this variety with particular care, to to the latter. They aromatized their moſt delicious wines with ſell to the above people, who are often obliged to purchaſe it at the it; and it was preſented as a very valuable perfume to our Lord rate of ſixpence or ſhilling for a ſmall branch: for the true fort, while he lay in the manger. But to this it may be eaſily anſwer having the leaves exactly by threes, is very ſcarce, and is a curi- ed, that there is no diſputing about perfumes any more than about ofity; but by care in its propagation, taking only the perfectly taſtes and colours. Men are equally changeable with regard to ternate-leaved ſhoots for cuttings, it may be increaſed faſt enough; ſmells, of which we have ſtriking examples in muſk and and is worth the attention of the curious, and particularly thoſe civet. who raiſe myrtles for the London markets. The medical effects of this aromatic bitter are to warm and 2. The pimenta, pimento, Jamaica pepper, or all-fpice tree, ſtrengthen the viſcera: it frequently occaſions a mild diaphoreſis, grows about 30 feet in height and two in circumference; the and promotes the Auid fecretions in general. branches near the top are much divided and thickly beſet with ſerviceable in languid cafes, diſeaſes ariſing from a ſimple inacti leaves, which by their continual verdure always gives the tree a vity, thoſe female diſorders which proceed from a cold, mucous, beautiful appearance. This tree is a native of New Spain and the fluggiſh indiſpoſition of the humours, ſuppreſſions of the uterine Weſt India iſlands. In Jamaica it grows very plentifully ; and diſcharges, cachectic diſorders, and where the lungs and thorax are in June, July, and Auguſt, puts forth its flowers, which, with oppreſſed by viſcid phlegm. Myrrh is likewiſe ſuppoſed in a pe every part of the tree, breaths an aromatic fragrance. The berries culiar manner to reſiſt putrefaction in all parts of the body'; and in when ripe are of a dark purple colour, and full of a ſweet pulp, this light ſtands recommended in malignant, putrid, and peſtilen which the birds devour greedily, and muting the ſeeds, afterwards tial fevers, and in the ſmall pox : in which laſtitis ſaid to accele propagate theſe trees in all parts of the woods. It is thought that rate the eruption. the feeds paſſing through them, in this manner, undergo fome fer- Rectified ſpirit extracts the fine aromatic flavour and bitterneſs mentation, which fits them better for vegetating than thoſe gathered of this drug, and does not elevate any thing of either in evapora immediately from the tree. tion : the gummy ſubſtance left by this menftruum has a difa- Properties , &c. The leaves and flowers of common upright greeable taſte, with ſcarcely any of the peculiar flavour of the myrtle have an aſtringent quality, and are uſed for cleanſing the myrrh ; this part diffolves in water, except ſome impurities which ſkin, fixing the teeth when looſened by the fcurvy, and itrengthen- remain. In diſtillation with water, a conſiderable quantity of a ing the fibres. From the flowers and young tops is drawn. a. ponderous eſſential oil arifes, reſembling in flavour the original diſtilled water that is deterſive, aſtringent, coſmetic, and uſed in drug. Myrrh is the baſis of an officinal tincture. It enters the gargles. A decoction of the flowers and leaves is applied in fo- pilulæ ex aloe et myrrha, the pilule e gummi, and pilulæ ftomachicæ, mentations. The berries have a binding deterſive quality; and and ſome other formulæ. But for obtaining its full effects, it muſt the chemical oil obtained from them is excellent for the hair, and be given in doſes of half a dram or upwards : and it is thought to uſed in pomatums and moſt other external beautifiers of the face be advantageouſly united with a proportion of nitre, cream of tar and ſkin. As an internal medicine, theſe berries have little or no tar, or ſome other refrigerant falt.. merit. Hence it proves I M Y S Y MY S With eager To give 33 cretion.” In the Dictionnaire portatif d'Hiſtoire Naturelle, a fact is of the Pagan religion were the invention of legiſlators and other related, which, if true, tends to ſhow the ſtrong aſtringent qua great perſonages, whom fortune, or their own merit, had placed lity of myrtle. Myrtle (ſays he) is likewiſe the baſe of a at the head of thoſe civil ſocieties which were formed in the ear- pommade called pommade de la Comteſe, and well known on lieſt ages in different parts of the world. It is with reluctance, account of an extraordinary hiſtorical fact. One of thoſe gay and indeed with diffidence, that we preſume to differ in our fen- youths who flutter about the toilets of the fair, happened one day timents from ſuch reſpectable authority. Whatever hypotheſis to be left alone in the ſtorehouſe of the graces. this prelate had once adopted, ſo extenſive was his reading, and curioſity he examined the perfumes, the ſmelling bottles, the ſo exuberant his intellectual reſources, that he found little diffi- perfumed powder, the eſſences and the coſmetics. culty in defending it by an appearance of plauſibility, if not of more of the vermillion and greater pliancy to his lips, and to rational argumentation. The large quotations he has adduced remove fome diſagreeable eruptions, he lightly ſpreads with his from Plato and Cicero, do indeed prove that the fages and legiſ- indifcreet finger the fatal pommade, looks at himſelf in the lators of antiquity fometimes availed themſelves of the influence glafs, and contemplates his beauty with admiration. The lady derived from the doctrines of the myſteries, and from the autho- enters: he wiſhes to ſpeak, but his lips contracted, and he could rity they acquired by the opinion of their having been initiated only ſtammer. The lady looked at him with aſtoniſhment ; at in them ; but that thoſe men were the inventors and fabricators length caſting her eyes on the toilet, ſhe diſcovered by the open of them, is a poſition for which his quotations do not furniſh the pot the cauſe of the miſtake, and enjoyed a hearty laugh at the moſt ſender preſumption. At the ſame time, we think it not expence of her admirer, whoſe confuſion announced his indif- altogether certain, that the doctrine of a divine Providence, and a future ſtate of rewards and puniſhments, were revealed in the Pimento berries are chiefly imported into Britain from Jamaica; myſteries with all the clearneſs and cogency which is pretended whence the name Jamaica pepper. It is alſo called all-Spice, by his Lordſhip. from its taſte and flavour being ſuppoſed to reſemble thoſe of many But granting that the fabric was raiſed by the hands of ſages different ſpices mixed together. It is one of the ſtaple articles and legiſlators, we imagine it would be rather difficult to diſcover of Jamaica ; where the pimento walks are upon a large ſcale, what emolument that deſcription of men could propoſe to derive ſome of them covering ſeveral acres of ground. This ſpice, from the enterprize.—The inſtitution was evidently, and indeed which was at firſt brought over for dietetic uſes, has been long confeſſedly, deviſed to conceal from the million thoſe very doc- employed in the ſhops as a ſuccedaneum to the more coſtly ori trines and maxims, which, had they known and embraced them, ental aromatics: it is moderately warm, of an agreeable flavour, would have contributed moſt effectually to diſpoſe them to ſub- ſomewhat reſembling that of a mixture of cloves, cinnamon, mit to thoſe wiſe regulations which their governors and legiſlators and nutmegs. Diſtilled with water it yields an elegant eſſential wiſhed moſt ardently to eſtabliſh. Experience has taught, that oil, ſo ponderous as to fink in the water, in taſte moderately nothing has a more commanding influence on the minds of the pungent, in ſmell and flavour approaching to oil of cloves, or vulgar, than thoſe very dogmas, which, according to the Biſhop, rather a mixture of cloves and nutmegs. To rectified ſpirit it were communicated to the initiated. A conviction of the unity imparts, by maceration or digeſtion, the whole of its virtue: in of the Deity, of his wiſdom, power, goodneſs, omnipreſence, diſtillation it gives over very little to this menftruum, nearly all &c. the ſteady belief of the immortality of the human ſoul, and its active matter remaining concentrated in the infpiffated extract. of a future ſtate of rewards and puniſhments, have, in all ages, Pimento can ſcarcely be conſidered as a medicine: it is, however, and in all countries, proved the firmeſt ſupports of legal authority. an agreeable aromatic, and on this account is not un frequently The very ſame doctrines, in the dawn of chriſtianity, contri- employed with different drugs, requiring ſuch a grateful adjunct. buted, of all other methods, the moſt effectually, to tame and Both the pharmacopolas direct an aqueous and ſpirituous diſtil civilize the favage inhabitints of the northern regions of Europe. lation to be made from theſe berries, and the Edinburgh college Suppoſing thoſe principles to have been inculcated by the myſte- order alſo the oleum eſſentiale piperis Jamaicenſis. ries, the moſt prudent plan legiſlators could have adopted, would MYSTERY. The Engliſh word myſtery is derived from the have been to publiſh them to all mankind. They ought to have Greek uusnglov; and in its modern acceptation imports ſomething ſent forth apoſtles to preach them to the ſavages whom they had above human intelligence, ſomething obſcure and enigmatical; undertaken to civilize. According to the learned prelate, they any thing artfully made difficult; the ſecret of any buſineſs or purſued the oppoſite courſe, and deprived themſelves of thoſe profeſſion. The word is often uſed by the founder of the Chriſ very arms by which they might have encountered and overthrown tian Religion, and more frequently by his apoſtles, eſpecially St. all the armies of ſavagiſm. Paul. In theſe caſes, it generally ſignifies thoſe doctrines of The divine Author of the chriſtian economy, viewed in the Chriſtianity which the Jews, prior to the advent of the Meſſiah, light of an human legiſlator, ſaw the propriety of this procedure. either did not, or could not underſtand. The Trinity in Unity, Nothing was concealed in his inſtitutions ; nothing was veiled and the Unity in Trinity ; The incarnation of the Son of God; with myſtery, or buried in darkneſs. The ſucceſs was anſwer. the union of two natures in one and the ſame perſon, &c. we ge able to the wiſdom of the plan. The million flocked to the evan- nerally call myſteries, becauſe they are infinitely above human gelical ſtandard : the goſpel was preached to the poor, to the comprehenſion. Myſteries, according to the general acceptation illiterate, and the vulgar; and the meaneſt of mankind eagerly of the word by the learned, from the moſt authentic accounts embraced its maxims. Wherever it prevailed, it produced ci- that can be obtained, imply thoſe arroggnila, or ſecret rites, of the vilization, morality, ſobriety, loyalty, and every other private pagan ſuperſtition, which were carefully concealed from the know and ſocial virtue.-Upon the ſuppoſition that the myſteries had ledge of the vulgar, and which are univerſally known under the contained and inculcated the principles and practices which the denomination of myſteries. prelate ſuppoſes they did, the civilizers of mankind, legiſlators, The word Musniglov is evidently deduced from Musne ; but the magiſtrates, and princes, ought to have combined to make them origin of this laſt term is not altogether ſo obvious. The ety- The ety- public, for the ſake of their own tranquillity, and the more ef- mologies of it exhibited are various ; ſome of them abſurd and fectual ſupport of their authority and influence. inconſiſtent, others fooliſh and futile. Inſtead of fatiguing our Myſteries the offspring of Egyptian prieſtcraft; but adopted by readers with a detail of thefe, which would be equally unenter- Legiſlators, &c. taining, and unintereſting, we ſhall only produce one, which to Upon the whole, we are inclined to believe that the myſteries us appears to come neareſt the truth. The myſteries under con were the offspring of Egyptian prieſtcraft. They were inſtituted fideration at preſent were certainly imported into Greece from the with a view to aggrandize that order of men, to extend their in- Eaſt. In thoſe regions, then, we ought of courſe to look for the fluence, and enlarge their revenues. To accompliſh thoſe ſelfiſhy etymology of the word. Miſtor, or miſtur, in Hebrew, ſigni- projects, they applied every engine towards beſotting the minds fies any place or thing hidden or concealed.” As this word of the multitude with ſuperſtition and enthuſiaſm: they taught implies a kind of definition of the nature of the thing intended, them to believe that themſelves were the diſtinguiſhed favourites and as it is one of the excellencies of original languages to apply of heaven; and that celeſtial doctrines had been revealed to them, , vocables with this propriety, we find ourſelves ſtrongly inclined too holy to be communicated to the profane rabble, and too ſub- to aſſign the word miſtur as the root of the term Musne, myſter. lime to be comprehended by vulgar capacities. It is, we confeſs, We have already obſerved, that the avarice and ambition of exceedingly probable, that after the myſteries were inſtituted, and the pagan prieſthood probably gave birth to the inſtitution of the had acquired an exalted reputation in the world, legiſlators, ma- myſteries. To this obſervation we may now add, that the mi- giſtrates, judges, and potentates, joined in the impoſture, with niſters of that ſuperſtition might poſſibly imagine, that ſome arti the ſame views, and from the ſame principles. Princes and le- cles of their ritual were too profound to be comprehended by the giſlators, who found their advantage in overawing and humbling vulgar; others too facred to be communicated to a deſcription of the multitude, readily adopted a plan which they found fo artfully men whom the inſtitutions of civil ſociety had placed in a ſitu fabricated to anſwer theſe very purpoſes. They had intereſt ation not only ſubordinate, but even contemptible. It was ima- enough with the facerdotal myſtagogues, to induce them to allow gined, that things ſacred and venerable would have contracted a them to participate in thoſe venerable rites which had already taint and pollution by an intercourſe with ſordid and untutored eſtabliſted the authority of that deſcription of men in whoſe hands fouls. Theſe appear to us the moſt probable motives for making they were depoſited. The views of both parties were exactly that odious and pernicious diſtinction between the popular religion congenial. The reſpect, the admiration, and dependence of the and that contained in the ſacred and myſterious ritual. million, were the ultimate objects of their ambition reſpectively. The Hypotheſis of Warburton ill founded. Prieſts and princes were actuated by the very fame ſpirit. The The learned Biſhop Warburton is poſitive, that the myſteries combination was advantageous, and of conſequence harmonious. * 8 N For No. 114 M VS MYS For theſe reaſons we have taken the liberty of differing from his celebration of thoſe feſtivals, the prieſts formed allegorical repre. Lordſhip of Glouceſter with reſpect to the perſons who firſt inſti ſentations of the ſun and the earth. They perſonified the one tuted the ſecret myſteries of the Pagan religion. and the other, and allegorized their motions, aſpects, relations, Hypotheſis of Moſheim. ſympathies, acceſſes, recefles, &c. into real adventures, perigrina- Another writer of conſiderable reputation in the republic of tions, ſufferings, conteſts, battles, victories, defeats, and ſo letters, is of opinion, that the myſteries were entirely comme forth. Theſe, in proceſs of time, were held up to the vulgar morative; that they were inſtituted with a view to preſerve the as real occurrences; and theſe in a few ages became the mor remembrance of heroes and great men, who had been deified eſſential articles of the popular creed. From this ſource were in conſideration of their martial exploits, uſeful inventions, pub derived the conqueſts of Dionyſus, or Bacchus, ſo beautifully lic virtues, and eſpecially in conſequence of the benefits by them exhibited by Nonnus, in his Dionyſiacs; the wanderings of Io, conferred on their contemporaries. According to him, the wonderfully adorned by Æſchylus; and the labours of Hercules, myſteries of Mithras were eſtabliſhed for this very purpoſe. It afterwards uſurped by the Greeks. would be no difficult matter to prove that the Perſian deity of that The Egyptians deified departed Heroes. name was the ſun, and that his name and inſignia jointly aſcer Whether the Egyptians deified mortal men in the earlieſt ages tain the truth of this aſſertion. The ſame writer extends this has been much controverted. Jablonſki has taken much pains obſervation to the myſteries of the Egyptians, Phoenicians, to prove the negative. Diodorus aſſures us that they paid their Greeks, Hetrufcans ; and, in a word, to all the inſtitutions of monarchs a kind of divine adoration, even in their life-time.-- that ſpecies throughout the world. In oppoſition to this ſingular Plutarch tells us plainly that ſome were of opinion that Iſis, Oli- opinion, it may be argued, we think with ſome ſhew of reaſon, ris, Horus, Anubis, Typhon, were once mortal perſons, who that the method of preſerving the memory of great and illuſtrious were exalted into dæmons after their death. The Siciliani, in me generally adopted, was the eſtabliſhing feſtivals, celebrating his hiſtory of Iſis and Oſiris, Pan, Hermes, &c. plainly repre- games, offering ſacrifices, ſinging hymns, dances, &c. We can ſents them as human perſonages ; and informs us, that the Egyp- recollect no ſecret myſteries inſtituted for that purpoſe, at leaſt in tians imagined, that after their deceaſe they tranſmigrated into their original intention. If any uſage of the commemorative particular ſtars. From theſe authorities, we are inclined to be- kind was admitted, it was fuperinduced at ſome period poſterior lieve that the Egyptians, as well as the other pagans, did actually to the primary inſtitution. At the ſame time, upon the ſuppoſi-deify perſons who had diſtinguiſhed themſelves in their days of tion that the orgia of Bacchus were the ſame with thoſe of the nature by proweſs, wiſdom, uſeful arts, and inventions. This Egyptian Oſiris, and that the myſteries of Ceres, exhibited at was a conſtant practice among the Greeks, who probably learned Eleuſis, were copied from thoſe of the Egyptian Iſis, and allow it from the people in queſtion. ing that the former was the ſun, and the latter the moon; it will The exploits of thoſe heroes had been diſguiſed by allegorical be difficult to find out the human perſons whoſe exploits, adven traditions and hieroglyphical repreſentations. They had been tures, inventions, &c. were intended to be immortalized by thoſe magnified beyond all dimenſions, in order to aſtoniſh and intimi- inſtitutions. Upon the whole, the myſteries were performed in date the vulgar. They had been interlarded with the moſt extra- ſecret ; they were intended to be communicated only to a few : vagant fables, in order to gratify their propenſity towards the of courſe, had they been inſtituted with a view to immortalize marvellous. All theſe ſecrets were developed in the myſteries. the memory of heroes and great men, the authors would have Secrets reſpecting the Objects of Worſhip, revealed in the My- acted the moſt fooliſh and inconſiſtent part imaginable. Inſtead feries. of tranſmitting the fame of their heroes with eclat to poſterity, The catechumens, or pupils learning the elements of any ſcience, they would by this procedure have conſigned it to eternal obli were informed of every particular relating to the birth, the life, vion. the exploits, the adventures, the misfortunes, and deceaſe of Our first poſition ſupported by the character of the prieſts of Egypt. thoſe heroic perſonages, and when, and by what means, they We muſt then recur to our firſt poſition. The myſteries were had attained to the high rank of divinities. At the ſame time, the offspring of bigotry and prieſtcraft; they originated in Egypt, we think it highly probable, that thoſe demi-gods were repre. the native land of idolatry. In that country the prieſthood ſented in their ſtate of exaltation and heavenly ſplendour. The reigned predominant. The kings were ingrafted into their body magicians of Egypt were abundantly qualified for exhibiting an- before they could aſcend the throne. They were poſſeſſed of a gels in machines. The ſouls of virtuous men, who had not been third part of all the land of Egypt. The facerdotal function was eminent enough to merit the honour of deification, were ſhewn confiried to one tribe, and was tranſmitted unalienably from fa in all the perfection of Elyſian felicity; and perhaps the ſouls of ther to fon. All the orientals, but more eſpecially the Egyptians, tyrants, and of the children of Typhon, were ſhown in Tartarus, delighted in myſterious and allegorical doctrines. Every maxim ſuffering all the extremes of infernal puniſhment. From theſe of morality, every tenet of theology, every dogma of philoſophy, exhibitions the myſtagogues might naturally enough take occaſion was wrapt in a veil of allegory and miſticiſm. This propenſity, to read their pupils ſuitable lectures on the happy tendency of a no doubt, conſpired with avarice and ambition to diſpoſe them virtuous conduct, and the diſhonour and miſery conſequent upon to a dark and myſterious ſyſtem of religion. Beſides, the Egyp a contrary courſe. They might ſet before them immortal re- tians were a gloomy race of men ; they delighted in darkneſs and nown, deification, and Elyſium, on the one hand, and eternal folitude. Their ſacred rites were generally celebrated with me infamy and miſery on the other. This will probably be deemed lancholy airs, weeping and lamentation. This gloomy and un the chief advantage accruing from this inſtitution. focial bias of mind muſt have ſtimulated them to a congenial Beſides the communications above-mentioned the catechumens mode of worſhip. In Egypt then we are to ſearch for the origin were taught many ſecrets of phyſiology, or the nature of the of the myſteries. Both the nature of the inſtitution, and the ge- phenomena of the world. This Pharnutus every where affirms, nius of the people confirm this poſition; and hiſtorians, both eſpecially in his laſt book towards the end. Plutarch informs us, ancient and modern, are agreed in admitting the certainty of that many of the Greek philoſophers were of opinion, that moſt the fact. of the Egyptian fables were allegorical details of phyſical opera- The Oſiris and Iles of Egypt, the Bacchus and Ceres of Greece. tions. Eufebius acquaints us, that the phyſiology, not only of The Ofiris of Egypt, was the original Bacchus ; as the Ilis of the Greeks, but likewiſe of the barbarians, was nothing elſe the ſame country was the Ceres of the Greeks. The rites of but a kind of ſcience of nature, a concealed and dark theology, Ofiris were performed with loud ſhrieks and lamentations when involved in fable and fiction, whoſe hidden myſteries were he was put into the coffin ; and with the moſt extravagant mirth, ſo veiled over with enigmas and allegories, that the ignorant when he was in a manner raiſed from the dead, or ſuppoſed to million were as little capable of comprehending what was ſaid as be found again. Their hymns were upon the whole always com what was ſuppreſſed in filence. This, ſays he, is apparent from poſed in melancholy affecting ſtrains, and conſiſting of lamen the poems of Orpheus, and the fables of the Phrygians and Egyp- tations for the loſs of Oſiris, the myſtic flight of Bacchus, the tians. Dionyſius of Halicarnaſſus likewiſe obſerves, that the wandering of Iſis, and the ſufferings of the gods. The Canaan fables of the Greeks detail the operations of nature by allegories. ites, who were a kindred tribe of the Mizraim or Egyptians, Proclus makes the ſame obſervation concerning the people in imitated them in their facred rites. At Byblus, Berytus, Sidon, At Byblus, Berytus, Sidon, | queſtion. The Egyptians, ſays he, taught the latent operations and afterwards at Tyre, they uſed particularly mournful dirges of nature by fables. for the death of Adonis, or Tammuz, who was the fame with Phyſiological ſecrets expounded in the Myſteries of Egypt. the Egyptian Oſiris, i. e. the ſun. Theſe phyſiological ſecrets were no doubt expounded to the The Egyptians, then, naturally inclined to gloom and ſecreſy, initiated; that the Egyptian prieſts were deeply ſkilled in phyfio- inſtituted a mode of worſhip congenial with their natural diſpo- logical ſcience, can ſcarce be queſtioned, if we believe that Jannes tition of mind. The receſs of the fun towards the ſouthern he- and Jambres rivalled Moſes in their enchantments. The miſphere, was the death of Ofiris: the wanderings of Iſis in preceding detail comprehends all that was revealed to the Epop- fearch of her huſband and brother, allegorically imported the tæ in the original Egyptian myſteries. What articles might have longings of the earth for the return of the fructifying influences been introduced afterwards we cannot pretend to determine. of the ſolar heat. When that luminary returned towards the ſummer ſolſtice, choice ſecrets, which were carefully reſerved for the nobility and It is certain that the vulgar were excluded from all thoſe and grain, trees, fruit, herbs, and Aowers adorned the face of facerdotal tribes. To them it was given to know the myſteries of nature, another feſtival was celebrated, of a very different com- plexion from that of the former. In this ſeaſon, all Egypt was the kingdom of darkneſs; but to thoſe who were without all was diffolved in the moſt extravagant mirth and jollity. During the myſtery and parable. While the laity fed on huſks, the clergy and the quality fed on royal dainties. The prieſts who had deviſed M Y S M Y S the age deviſed theſe allegories underſtood their original import, and be- Zorduſt, by whom they were conſecrated to Mithras. Orpheus bequeathed it as an ineſtimable legacy to their children. Here imported them into Thrace; Cadmus brought them into Boco- then we have the primary object of the myſteries, namely, to tia, where they were facred to Bacchus. Inachus eſtabliſhed develope to the initiated the original and rational import of thoſe them at Argos, in honour of Juno, the ſame with Iſis: Cyniras allegorical and myſtical doctrines which were tendered to the in Cyprus, where they were dedicated to Venus. In Phrygia uninitiated, wrapt up in impenetrable allegory and obſcurity. To they were ſacred to Cybele, the mother of the gods. the former, theſe were communicated and explained: the latter Our learned readers, who will probably reflect that the Egyp- were obliged to ſtand at an awful diſtance, and retire as the tians were in ancient times inhoſpitable to ſtrangers, will perhaps Procul, O procul efle profani, thundered in their ears. be ſurpriſed that this faſtidious and jealous people were ſo ready Theſe allegorical traditions originated in Egypt, (ſee My to communicate the arcana of their religion to foreigners. But THOLOGY.). It was the general bias of the oriental genius.— | they will pleaſe to recollect, they will pleaſe to recollect, that a great part of Greece was The Egyptians, however, according to the moſt authentic ac- planted with colonies from Egypt, Phænicia, Paleſtine, &c. counts, were the greateſt proficients in that ſcience. As early as This we could eaſily prove, did the bounds preferibed us admit of Jofeph, the Egyptians were ſkilled in the interpreta- ſuch a digreſſion. Orpheus, if not an Egyptian, was at leaſt of tion of dreams, divinations, &c. and in the age of Moſes they oriental extraction. Inachus, Cadmus, and Melampus, are were become wiſe men, magicians, &c. The original ſubject univerſally allowed to have been Egyptians. Erechtheus, in of theſe inſtitutions were the articles we have already ſpecified ; | whoſe reign the Eleuſinian myſteries were éſtabliſhed, was an but in proceſs of time, according to the natural courſe of things, | Egyptian by birth, or at leaſt ſprung from Egyptian anceſtors.- numerous improvements were made, and many new rites, cere The Egyptians then, in thoſe early ages, did not view the Greeks monies, uſages, and even doctrines, were ſuperinduced, which in the light of aliens, but as a people nearly related either to were utterly unknown to the original hierophants . Simplicity themſelves or the Phænecians, who were their brethren. Upon is, for the moſt part, one of the diſtinguiſhing characters of a this connexion we imagine it was, that in later times moſt of new inſtitution ; but ſucceeding architects generally imagine that the ſages of Greece, eſpecially of Athens, found ſo hoſpitable a fomething is ſtill wanting to complete the beauty, the regularity, reception among that people. They probably viewed them in the uniformity, the magnificence, and perhaps the conveniency the light of propagandi; apoſtles able and willing to diſſeminate of the ſtructure. Hence, at length, it comes to be ſo over their idolatrous rites. This obfervation, which might be fup- loaded with adventitious drapery, that its primary elegance and ported by numberleſs authorities, did the nature of the preſent ſymmetry are altogether defaced. This was the caſe with the inquiry permit, will, we think, go a great way towards obvi- earlieſt Egyptian myſteries. Their ſubject was at firſt ſimple and ating the objection. eaſy to be comprehended; in time it became complex, intricate, Myſteries of Mithras, Bacchus, and Ceres, the moſt auguft. and unintelligible. Although, every particular deity had his own peculiar myſte- In order to celebrate thoſe myſteries with the greater ſecrefy, rious facred rites, yet of all others thoſe of Mithras, Bacchus, their temples were ſo conſtructed as to favour the artifice of the and Ceres, were deemed the moſt auguſt, and were moſt uni- prieſts. The fanes, in which they uſed to execute their ſacred verſally and moſt religiouſly celebrated. To theſe, therefore, functions, and to perform the rites and ceremonies of their re we ſhall confine ourſelves upon this occaſion. If our readers ligion, were ſubterraneous apartments, conſtructed with ſuch ſhall become intimately acquainted with theſe, they may readily wonderful ſkill and dexterity, that every thing that appeared in difpenfe with the knowledge of the reſt, which are, i deed, no them breathed an air of folemn ſecrefy. Their walls were co more than ſtreams and emanations from theſe fources. We vered with hieroglyphic paintings and ſculpture, and the altar ſhall then, in the firſt place, preſent to our readers a brief ſketch was fituated in the centre of the apartment. Modern travellers of the myſteries of Mithras. have of late years, diſcovered fome veſtiges of them, and bear MITHRAS, or, according to the Perſian, Mihr, was one of witnefs to the above defcription of thoſe dark abodes. In thoſe the great gods of the Aſiatics. His worſhip was for many ages fubterraneous manſions, which the prieſts of that ingenious nation confined to Perſia. Afterwards, however, it was propagated ſo had planned with the moſt conſummate ſkill, the kings, princes, | far and wide, that ſome have imagined they had diſcovered and great men of the ſtate, encountered the dangers and hard- veſtiges of it even in Gaul. Mihr, according to Dr. Hyde, ſhips contrived to prove their prudence, fortitude, patience, ab- | ſignifies love, and likewiſe the Sun. , If we might preſume to ftinence, &c. Theſe were appointed to try their merit ; and differ from fo reſpectable an authority, we ſhould conjecture that by theſe the hierophants were enabled to decide whether or not it is a cognate of the Hebrew word Muthir, “excellentia, pre- they were duly qualified for receiving that benefit. Upon thoſe ftantia.” That there was an analogy between the Hebrew and occaſions, we may believe, abundance of thoſe magical tricks old Perſian, is generally admitted by the learned. Be that as it were exhibited, for which the magicians of Egypt were ſo much may, Mithras was the ſun among the Perſians; and in honour celebrated among the ancients. The ſtrange and aſtoniſhing of that luminary this inſtitution was eſtabliſhed. fights, the alternate ſucceſſion of light and darkneſs, the hideous The grand feſtival of Mithras was celebrated ſix days, in the ſpectres expoſed to view, the frightful howlings re-echoed by | middle of the month Mihr. Upon theſe days, it was lawful for theſe infernal domes, the ſcenes of Tartarus and Elyſium, exhi- the kings of Perſia to get drunk and dance. On this feſtival, we bited alternately and in quick ſucceſſion, muſt have made a deep imagine, the candidates for initiation, having duly proved their and laſting impreſſion on the mind of the affrighted votary. vocation, were folemnly admitted to the participation of the myſ- The Grecian infernal Regions copied from the Egyptian teries. Myſteries." Zoroaſtres worſhipped Mithras, or the Sun, in a certain From the ſcenes exhibited in celebrating the Egyptian myſte- natural cave, which he formed into a temple, and filled in ries, eſpecially thoſe of Iſis and Oſiris, the Greeks ſeem to have a manner exactly mathematical. There Mithras was repre- copied their ideas of the infernal regions, and the ſubterraneous fented as preſiaing over the lower world with all the pomp of manſions of departed ſouls. Many colonies of Egyptians ſettled royal magnificence. In it too were ſeen the ſymbols of Mithras in Greece. From theſe the godo, or moſt early bards of Greece, and of the world, philoſophically and mathematically exhibited, learned them imperfectly. Of courſe, we find Homer's account to be contemplated and worſhipped. This deity was ſometimes of the infernal regions, and of the ſtate of departed ſouls, lame repreſented as mounted on a bull, which he is breaking, and and incoherent. Succeeding bards obtained more full and more which he kills with a ſword. On ſome bas reliefs ſtill exiſting, diſtinct information. Euripides and Ariſtophanes ſeem to have he appears as a young man with his tiara turned upward, after paved the way for the prince of Roman poets. Plato and ſome of the manner of the Perſian kings. He is cloathed with a ſhort the other philofophers have ſhewn, by their deſcriptions or allu- | tunic and breeches, after the Perſian faſhion. Sometimes he fions, that the whole apparatus of Tartarus and Elyſium had be wears a ſmall cloke. By his ſides are ſeen other human figures, come a hackneyed topic fome centuries before Virgil was born. with tiaras of the ſame faſhion on their heads, but without clokes. This incomparable poet borrowed his ideas from Homer, Arif-One of theſe figures commonly holds in his one hand a torch tophanes, Euripides, Plato, &c. Theſe, under his plaſtic hand, lifted up; in the other one turned downward. Sometimes over in the ſixth Æneid, grew into a ſyſtem beautiful, regular, uni- | the cave is ſeen the chariots of the ſun and moon, and divers form, and conſiſtent. The materials he has employed were conſtellations, ſuch as cancer, ſcorpion, &c. created to his hand; he had only to collect, poliſh, arrange, and Probationary Exerciſes previous to Initiation. connect them. The ſentiments collected from the Platonic In one of thoſe caves the ceremonies of initiation were per- philoſophy, and the inimitable epiſode copied from the annals of formed; but before the candidate could be admitted, he was Rome, by the maſterly ſkill which he has diſplayed in the ap foreed to undergo a courſe of probationary exerciſes, fo nume- plication of them, form the chief excellencies of the piece. For rous and ſo rigorous, that very few had courage and fortitude the reſt, he could well diſpenſe with going to Eleuſis: every old enough to go through them. He was obliged to live a life of woman of Athens and of Rome could repeat them. virtue and abſtinence for a ſpace of ſeven years previous to the Myſteries brought from Egypt into Perſia and Greece. period of his initiation. Hence it appears that Egypt was the native land of myſteries, Upon the eve of the initiation, the aſpirant was obliged to as well as of idolatry. Every god and goddeſs reſpectively had brace on his armour, in order to encounter giants and ſavage their myſteries ; but as thoſe of Iſis and Oſiris were the moſt ce monſters. In thoſe ſpacious ſubterraneous manſions a mock lebrated, they of courſe became principal objects of purſuit, as hunting was exhibited. The prieſts and all the ſubordinate offi- well as of imitation, to the neighbouring nations. Theſe, as is cers of the temple, transformed into lions, tigers, leopards, boars, generally believed, were carried into Perſia by Zoroaſtres, or wolves, and other favage creatures, aſſailed him with loud howl- ир ings, MYS M YS mony upon earth, watches over the law, &c.” As the hiſtory ings, roaring, and yelling, and every inſtance of ferine fury. In , , c” thoſe mock combats, the hero was often in danger of being really of Mithras, and the nature of his myſteries, are' not generally worried, and always came off with bruiſes and wounds. Lam- | known, we imagined it would be agreeable to many of our read pridius informs us, that when the emperor Commodus was ini ers to have the moſt important articles relating to that ſubject tiated, he actually carried the joke too far, and butchered one laid before them as it were in detail. of the prieſts who attacked him in the figure of a wild beaſt. Myſteries of Bacchus. The Perſians worſhipped Mithras or the Sun by a perpetual fire: We now proceed to the orgia, or myſteries of Bacchus, which hence the votary was obliged to undergo a fiery trial; that is, to we ſhall introduce with a brief hiſtory of that deity. The ori- paſs ſeven times through the ſacred fire, and each time to plunge ginal Dionyſus or Bacchus was the Oſiris of the Egyptians, which himſelf into cold water. The candidate having undergone all laſt was the Sun. Whether there was an Egyptian monarch theſe torturing trials with becoming patience and fortitude, was of that name, as Diodorus Siculus affirms, has no manner of declared a proper ſubject for initiation. But before his admiſſion, connection with the preſent diſquiſition. The Greek name of he was obliged to bind himſelf by the moſt ſolemn oath, with that deity is plainly oriental, being compounded of di,“ bright;" horrid imprecations annexed, never to divulge any ſingle article and nafia or naſa, in the Æolic dialect nuſa, “ a prince.” This of all that ſhould be communicated to him in the courſe of initia name was imported from the eaſt by Orpheus, Cadmus, or by tion. whoever elſe communicated the worſhip of Oſiris to the Greeks. Revelations in the Myſteries of Mithras. That the Dionyſus of the Greeks was the ſame with the Oſiris What ataqçila or ineffable ſecrets were imparted to the initia of the Egyptians, is univerſally allowed. Herodotus tells us ex- ted, it is impoſſible at this diſtance of time to diſcover with any preſsly, that Ofiris is Dionyſus in the Greek language: Martia- tolerable degree of certainty. We may, however, reſt aſſured nus Capellus, quoted above, expreſſes the very ſame idea. The that the moſt authentic tradition concerning the origin of the original Ofiris was then the ſun; but the Dionyſus or Bacchus univerſe; the nature, attributes, perfections, and operations, of of the Greeks was the " ſame with the Oſiris of the Egyptians ; Oromafd; the baleful influences of Ariman; and the benign ef- therefore the Bacchus or Dionyſus of the Greeks was likewiſe fects of the government of Mithras, were unfolded and inculcat- the ſame luminary. ed. The ſecret phenomena of nature, as far as they had been The name Ofiris has much embarraſſed critics and etymologiſts. diſcovered by the magi, were likewiſe exhibited ; and the appli- | The learned Jablonſki, inſtead of delineating the character, at- cation of their effects, to aſtoniſh and delude the vulgar, were tributes, operations, adventures, exploits, and peculiar depart- taught both in theory and practice. The exerciſe of public ment aſſigned this deity by his votaries, has ſpent much of his and private virtues was warmly recommended ; and vice repre- pains in trying to inveſtigate the etymology of his name. Ifit ſented in the moſt odious and frightful colours. Both theſe in- is granted, which is highly probable, that the Hebrew and Egyp- junctions were, we may ſuppoſe, enforced by a diſplay of the tian tongues are cognate dialects, we ſhould imagine that it is pleaſures of Elyſium and the pains of Tartarus, as has been ob- actually the Chofher or Ofhir of the former language, which im- ſerved above in deſcribing the myſteries of the Egyptians. ports, “ to make rich, to become rich.”. Indeed the words Ofi- After that the Teletæ or rites which confer perfection were ris and Iſis were not the vulgar names of the ſun and moon finiſhed, the pupil was brought out of the cave or temple, and among the Egyptians, but only epithets importing their quali- with great folemnity proclaimed a lion of Mithras ; a title ties. The name of the ſun among that people was Phri or Phry, which imported frength and intripid courage in the ſervice of and that of the moon loh, whence the Greek Io. The term oji- the deity. They were now conſecrated to the god, and were ſuppo- ris was applied both to the ſun and to the river Nile; both which ſed to be under his immediate protection ; an idea which of by their influence contributed reſpectively to enrich and fertilize courſe animated them to the moſt daring and dangerous en the land of Egypt. terpriſes. It was a general cuſtom among the orientals to denominate The prieſts of Mithras were called the lions of Mithras, and their princes and great men from their gods, demigods, heroes, his prieſteffes, lioneſſes; ſome ſay hyænas. The other inferior &c. When the former were advanced to divine honours, they miniſters were called eagles, hawks, ravens, &c. and on their were in proceſs of time confounded with their archetypes. The feſtivals they wore maſks correſponding to their titles, after the original divinities were forgotten, and theſe upſtart deities uſurped Egyptian manner, where the prieſts appeared at the ceremonies their place and prerogatives. In the earlieſt periods of the Egyp- with maſks reſembling the heads of lions, apes, dogs, &c. a cir- tian monarchy, there appeared two illuſtrious perſonages, Oſiris cumſtance which furniſhes a preſumption that the myſteries of and Iſis. Theſe were the children of Cronus; and being brother Mithras were of Egyptian original. and fiſter they were joined in matrimony, according to the cuf- The worſhip of Mithras was introduced into the Roman em tom of the Egyptians. As the brother and huſband had aſſumed pire towards the end of the republic, where it made very rapid the name of the Sun, fo the ſiſter and confort took that of Iſis, progreſs. When Chriſtianity began to make a figure in the em that is, « the woman,” a name which the Egyptians applied pire, the champions for paganiſm thought of propoſing to men both to the moon and to the earth, in conſequence of the fimi- the worſhip of this power of benevolence, in order to counterba- | larity of their nature, their mutual fympathy, and congenial lance or annihilate that worſhip which the Chriſtians paid to fecundity Oſiris having left his confort Iſis regent of the king- Jeſus Chriſt the true Sun of righteouſneſs. But this mode was dom, with Hermes as her prime miniſter, and Hercules as ge- foon aboliſhed, together with the other rites of paganiſm. neral of her armies, quitted Egypt with a numerous body of The votaries of Mithras pretended that he was ſprung from a troops, attended by companies of fauns, fatyrs, ſinging women, rock, and that therefore the place where the myſterious ceremo muſicians, &c. traverſed all Aſia to the eaſtern ocean. He then nies were communicated to the initiated was always a cave. returned homeward through the Upper Aſia, Thrace, Pontus, Many different reaſons have been aſſigned for the origin of this Aſia Minor, Syria, and Paleſtine. Wherever he marched, he rock-born deity, moſt of which appear to us unſatisfactory. If conferred numberleſs benefits on the favage inhabitants. He cur readers will be obliging enough to accept of a ſimple and ob- | taught the art of cultivating the ground, preſerving the fruits of vious conjecture, they may take the following: A rock is the the earth, and diſtinguiſhing the wholeſome and nutritive from fymbol of ſtrength and ſtability: the dominion of Mithras, in the the unwholeſome and poiſonous. He inſtructed them in the opinion of his votaries, was firm as a rock, and ſtable as the culture of the vine; and where the vines could not be produced, he everlaſting hills. If our readers íhould not admit the probability communicated to them the method of producing a fermented li- of this conjecturc, we would beg leave to remit them to the learn quor from barley, very little inferior to wine itſelf. He built ed Mr. Bryant's Analyſis of Mythology, where they will find this nany cities in different ports of the globe, planted numerous co- point diſcuſſed with deep reſearch and wonderful ingenuity. lonies, and wherever he directed his courſe, inſtituted juſt and Whatever may have been the origin of this opinion with relation wholeſome laws, and eſtabliſhed the rites and ceremonies of re- to the birth of Mithras, it is certain that ſome reverence to rocks | ligion, and left prieſts and cathechiſts of his train to teach and and caves was kept up a long time even after the eſtabliſhment inculcate the obſervations of them. In ſhort, he left every of Chriſtanity. Hence the prohibition given to ſome of the pro- where laſting monuments of his progreſs, and at the ſame time felytes to that religion, that they ſhould no more preſume to offer of his generoſity and beneficence. Where he found the people up their prayers ud petras at the rocks. docile and fubmiſſive, he treated them with kindneſs and huma- We ſhall conclude our account of the myſteries of Mithras nity: if any ſhewed themſelves obſtinate, he compelled them to with a patřage from Mr. Anquetil, to whom we are ſo much in- ſubmit to his inſtitutions by force of arms. debted for what knowledge, we have of the Perſian theology, and At the end of three years, he returned to Egypt, where his in which the functions of that deity are briefly and comprehen- | brother Typhon, a wicked unnatural monſter, had been forming fively delineated. “ The peculiar fun&ions of Mithras are to a conſpiracy againſt his life. This traiterous deſign he ſoon af- fight continually againſt Abriman and the impure army of evil ter accompliſhed in the following manner: He invited Oſiris, genii, whoſe conſtant employment is to ſcatter terror and defo with ſome other perſons whom he had gained over, to an enter- lation over the univerſe; to protect the frame of nature from the tainment. When the repaſt was finiſhed, he produced a beau- demons and their productions. For this purpoſe he is furniſhed tiful coffer, highly finiſhed, and adorned with ſtuds of gold; with a thouſand cars and a thouſand cyes, and traverſes the ſpace promiſing to beſtow it on the perſon whom it ſhould fit beſt. between heaven and carth, his hands armed with a club or Ofiris was tempted to make the experiment. The conſpirators Mithras gives to the earth light and fun: he traces a nailed down the cover upon him, and threw the coffer into the courſe for the waters: he gives to men corn, paſtures, and chil- river. This coffer, which was now become the coffin of Oſiris, dren: to the world virtuous kings and warriors; maintains har- | was, they tell us, wafted by the winds and waves to the neigh- bourhood mace. M Y S M Y S bourhood of Byblus, a city of Phænicia, where it was caſt on was not the whole of the misfortune. The adventures of Oli- fhore, and left by the waves at the foot of a tamarind tree. ris were deſcribed by the Egyptian Hierophants, veiled with al- Ifis, in the mean time, diſconſolate and forlorn, attended by legorical and hieroglyphical myſteries. Theſe the perſons who Anubis, was ranſacking every quarter in ſearch of her beloved imported them into Greece did not thoroughly comprehend, or Ofiris. At length being informed by her faithful attendant and if they did, they were not inclined to communicate them ſound guardian, that his body was lodged ſomewhere in the neighbour and unfophiſticated. Beſides, many oriental terms were retain- hood of Byblus, ſhe repaired to that city. There, they ſay, ſhe ed, the import of which was in proceſs of time loſt or diſtorted. was introduced to the queen, and after a variety of adventures Hence the religious ceremonies of the Greeks became a medley ſhe recovered the corpſe of her huſband, which of courſe ſhe car of inconſiſtencies. The myſteries of Bacchus, in particular, ried back with her to Egypt: but the miſchievous Typhon, ever were deeply tinctured with this meretricious colouring; the ad- on the watch, found her on the banks of the Nile ; and having ventures of the Theban pretender were grafted upon thoſe of the robbed her of her charge, cut the body into 14 parts, and ſcat- Egyptian archetype, and out of this combination was formed a tered them up and down. Now, once more, according to the tiſſue of adventures diſgraceful to human nature, abſurd and in- fable, Iſis ſet out in queſt of thoſe parts, all of which, only one confiftent. Indeed the younger or Theban Bacchus ſeems to excepted, ſhe found, and interred in the place where ſhe found have been a monſter of debauchery ; whereas the Egyptian is them; and hence the many tombs of Oſiris in that country, repreſented as a perſon of an oppoſite character. Of courſe the Theſe tombs were denominated tapofins by the natives. Many myſteries of the former were attended with the moſt ſhocking other fabulous adventures were aſcribed to thoſe two perſonages, abominations. which it is not our province to enumerate at preſent. If our Theſe myſteries, as has been obſerved above, were firſt cele- readers ſhould wiſh to be more minutely informed on this ſubject, brated at Thebes, the capital of Boeotia, under the auſpices of they may have recourſe to the authors mentioned in the laſt-quo- the family of Cadmus. From this country they gradually found ted author, or to the learned Mr. Bryant's Analyſis of Ancient their way into Greece, and all the neighbouring parts of Europe. Mythology, and M. Cour de Gebelin, where they will find They were celebrated once every three years, becauſe at the end matter enough to gratifv their curioſity. of three years Oſiris returned from his Indian expedition. As The myſteries of Iſis and Ofiris inſtituted in Commemoration of the Greeks had impudently transferred the actions of the Egyp- theje Adventures. tian hero to their upſtart divinity, the ſame period of time was To commemorate thoſe adventures, the myſteries of Iſis obſerved from the celebration of thoſe rites in Greece that had and Oſiris were inſtituted ; and from them both thoſe of Bacchus been ordained for the ſame purpoſe in Egypt. and Ceres, among the Greeks, were derived. Of the Egyptian Proceſs of their Celebration. folemnity, we have an exact epitome in one of the fathers of the When the day appointed for the celebration of the orgia ap- church purpoſe: “ Here follows (ſays he) an proached, the prieſt iſſued a proclamation, enjoining all the ini- epitome of the myſteries of Iſis and Ofiris. They deplore annu tiated to equip themſelves according to the ritual, and attend the ally, with deep lamentations and ſhaved heads, the cataſtrophe proceſſion on the day appointed. The votaries were to dreſs of Oſiris over the buried ftatue of that monarch. They beat themſelves in coats of deer-ſkins, to looſe the fillets of their their breaſts, mangle their arms, tear open the ſcars of their for hair, to cover their legs with the ſame ſtuff with their coats, and mer wounds; that by annual lamentations the cataſtrophe of his to arm themfeves with thyrſi, which were a kind of ſpear wholly miſerable and fatal death may be revived in their minds. When of wood entwined with leaves, and twigs of vine or ivy. It is they have practiſed theſe things a certain number of days, then ſaid that the Bacchanalians, eſpeciallythe Thracians, uſed often to they pretend that they have found the remains of his mangled quarrel and commit murder in their drunken revels; and that body; and having found them, their ſorrows are lulled aſleep, in order to prevent thoſe unlucky accidents, a law was en- and they break out into immoderate joy." What maxims of mo acted, that the votaries, inſtead of real ſpears, ſhould arm them- rality, fecrets of phyſiology, or phenomena of aſtronomy, were ſelves with thoſe ſham weapons which were comparatively inof- couched under this allegorical proceſs, is not our buſineſs to in fenſive. The ſtatue of the deity which was always covered with veſtigate in this place. We ſhall only obſerve, that, in all pro vine or ivy leaves, was now taken down from its pedeſtal, and bability, Ofiris and Iſis were fovereigns of Egypt at a very elevated on the ſhoulders of the prieſts. The cavalcade then carly period ; that they had conferred many ſignal benefits on proceeded nearly in the following manner: their fubjects, who, influenced by a ſenſe of gratitude, paid them Firſt of all, hymns were chanted in honour of Bacchus, who divine honours after their deceaſe; that in proceſs of time they was called the Power of dances, ſmiles, and jefts; while at the were confounded with the ſun and moon; and that their adven ſame time he was deemed equally qualified for the exploits of tures were at length magnified beyond all credibility, interlarded war and heroiſm. Horace, in ſome of his dithyrambic odes has with fables, and allegories, and employed in the myſteries as conciſely pointed out the ſubjects of thoſe Bacchanalian ſongs. In channels to convey a variety of inſtructions to the initiated. the collection of hymns fabulouſly attributed to Orpheus, we Be that as it may, it is certain that the very fame mode of find ſeveral addreſſed to this deity, each under a different title, worſhip was eſtabliſhed at Byblus, and in after ages transferred derived from the different appellations of the god. All theſe to Tyre. The Mizraim and Chanaanim were nearly connected names are of oriental original, and might eaſily be explained, by blood, and their religious ceremonies were derived from the did the bounds preſcribed us admit of etymological diſquiſitions. very fame fource. By what medium the worſhip of Oſiris at The hymn being finiſhed, the firſt diviſion of the votaries Abydus and Tyre was connected, we ſhall leave to others to ex proceeded, carrying a pitcher of wine, with a bunch of the vine. plain ; we ſhall only obſerve that among the Phoenicians this Then followed the he-goat; an animal odious to Bacchus, becauſe deity obtained the names Adonis and Bacchus. The former is he ravages the vines. The chanting the hymns, the facrificing rather an epithet than a name: the latter is evidently an alluſion the he-goat, and the revels, games, and diverſions, with which to the weeping and lamentation with which the rites were per the celebration of thoſe rites was attended, gave birth to the formed. We find another name of that divinity mentioned in dramatic poetry of the Greeks; as the perſons habited in the Scripture: but that term is plainly of Egyptian original: we dreſs of Fauns, Sylvans, and Satyrs, furniſhed the name of ſhall now proceed to the myſteries of Oſiris as they were cele another ſpecies of poetry of a more coarſe and forbidding aſpect. brated among the Greeks and Thracians, under the name of The myſterious Coffer, with its Contents the Orgia of Dionyſus or Bacchus. Then appeared the myſterious coffer or baſket, containing the Orpheus the celebrated Thracian philoſopher, had travelled ſecret ſymbols of the deity. Theſe were the phallus, ſome grains into Egypt in queſt of knowledge ; and from that country, accord of ſeſama, heads of poppies, pomegranates, dry ſtems, cakes ing to the moſt authentic accounts, he imported the Bacchanalian baked of the meal of different kinds of corn, ſalt, carded wool, rites and inſtitutions. Some have affirmed that this fame Or rolls of honey, and cheeſe ; a child, a fan, and a ſerpent, which was pheus being immediately acquainted with the family of Cadmus, in high veneration among the Egyptians. See Euſeb. Præp. communicated theſe rites to them, and endeavoured to transfer Evang. 1. i. pag. 26. Steph. where we have a minute detail of them to the grandſon of that hero, which grandſon became af the ſymbolical properties of that creature, according to Taautos terwards the Grecian Bacchus. the great legiſlature of that people. The fan was an emblem of The vain-glorious Greeks attributed all the actions of the that purifying influence of the myſteries by which the initiated Egyptian hero to their new Bacchus: and according to their lau were cleanſed from all their former pollutions, and qualified for dable practice, engaged him in numberleſs adventures in which commencing a holy courſe of life. this prototype had no ſhare. Moſt of thoſe are futile and unen Such was the furniture of the ſacred coffer carried in tertaining. The Grecks commonly adopted ſome oriental per- the ſolemn Bacchanalian proceſſion. The inventory given ſonage as the hero of their mythological rhapſodies. Him they by ſome of the fathers of the church is ſomewhat different. naturalized and adopted into ſome Grecian family, and ſo he be- They mention the dye, the ball, the top, the wheel, he ap- came their own. To him they aſcribed all the adventures and ples, the looking-glaſs, and the fleece. The articles firſt men- exploits of the oriental archetype from whom he was copied. tioned ſeem to have been of Egyptian original; the laſt were Conſequently, in the orgia, every thing was collected that had certainly ſuperinduced by the Greeks, in alluſion to his being been imported from the eaſt relating to Ofiris; and to that farrago murdered and torn in pieces when he was a child by the machi- was joined all that the Grecian rhapſodiſts had thought fit to in nations of Juno, who prevailed with the Titans to commit the vent in order to amuſe the credulous multitude. This, however, horrid deed. Theſe laſt ſecm to have been memorials of his A boyish The Binder is deared to obſerve that the THIRD VOLUME is not to commence at this Signature, as in the former Edition, but at the TITLE- SHEET which precedes 6 N, in No. 98. No 114 M Y S M Y S boyiſh play things ; for, ſays Maternus, " the Cretans, in cele of awe and veneration. Theſe were inſtituted in honour of Ce- brating the rites of the child Bacchus, acted every thing that the res, the goddeſs of corn ; who, according to the moſt authentic dying boy either ſaid, or did, or ſuffered. They likewiſe (ſays accounts, was the Iſis of the Egyptians. The myſteries of Ofi- he) tore a live bull in pieces with their teeth, in order to com ris and Ifis have been hinted at in the preceding part of this ar- memorate the diſmembering of the boy.” For our part, we ticle. They were originally inſtituted in honour of the ſun and think, that if ſuch a beaſtly-rite was practiſed, it was done in moon, and afterwards conſecrated to an Egyptian prince and commemoration of the ſavage manner of life which had prevailed princeſs; who, in conſequence of their merits, had been deified among men prior to the more human diet invented and introduc- | by that people. We know of no more exact and brilliant de- ed by Ifis and Ofiris. Be that as it may, we learn from Por- feription of the ceremonies of that goddeſs, in the moſt poliſhed phyry, that in the iſland of Chios they uſed to ſacrifice a man to ages of the Egyptian ſuperſtition, than what we meet with in the Bacchus, and that they uſed to mangle and tear him limb from witty and forid Apuleius, to which we muſt take the liberty to limb. This was no doubt practiſed in commemoration of the refer our more curious readers. Our buſineſs at preſent ſhall be cataſtrophe mentioned above. to try to inveſtigate by what means, and upon what occaſion, The orgia of this Pagan god Bacchus were originally ſimple thoſe myſteries were introduced into Attica, and eſtabliſhed at enough; but this unfophiſticated mode was of no long continu Eleuſis. A paſſage from Diodorus Siculus, which we ſhall here ance, for riches ſoon introduced luxury, which quickly infected tranſlate, will, we think, throw no inconſiderable light on that even the ceremonies of religion. On the day ſet apart for this abſtruſe part of the ſubject. folemnity, men and women crowned with ivy, their hair di « In like manner with him (Cecrops,) ſays that judicious hif- Thevelled and their bodies almoſt naked, ran about the ſtreets, torian, they tell us, that Erectheus, a prince of Egyptian ex- roaring aloud Evohe, Bacche. In this rout were to be ſeen peo- traction, once reigned at Athens. Of this fact they produce ple intoxicated at once with wine and enthuſiaſm, dreſſed like the following evidence: A ſcorching drought, during the reign Satyrs, Fauns, and Silenuſes, in ſuch fcandalous poſtures and of this prince, prevailed over almoſt all the habitable world, ex- attitudes, with ſo little regard to modeſty and even common de cept Egypt; which, in conſequence of the humidity of its foil, cency, that we are perſuaded our readers will readily enough was not affected by that calamity. The fruits of the earth were forgive our omitting to deſcribe them. Next followed a com burnt up; and at the ſame time multitudes of people periſhed by pany mounted upon affes, attended by Fauns, Bacchanals, famine. Erectheus, upon this occaſion, as he was connected Thyades, Mimallonides, Naiads, Tityri, &c. who made the with Egypt, imported a vaſt quantity of grain from that country adjacent places echo to their frantic ſhrieks and howlings. After to Athens. The people who had been relieved by his munifi- this tumultuous herd were carried the ſtatues of victory and al- cence, unanimouſly elected him king. Being inveſted with the tārs in form of vineſets crowned with ivy, ſmoking with incenſe government, he taught his ſubjects the myſteries of Ceres atEleu- and other aromatics. Then appeared ſeveral chariots loaded fis, and the mode of celebrating the ſacred ceremonies, having with thyrſi, arms, garlands, caſks, pitchers, and other vaſes, tri transferred from Egypt the ritual for that purpoſe. In thoſe pods, and vans. The chariots were followed by young virgins times the goddeſs is ſaid to have made her appearance at Athens of quality, who carried the baſkets and little boxes, which in three ſeveral times; becauſe, according to tradition, the fruits general contained the myſterious articles above enumerated. of the earth which bear her name were then imported into Attica. Theſe, from their office, were called ciſtophore. The phallo- On this account the feeds and fruits of the earth were ſaid to be phori followed them, with a chorus of Itophallophori habited the invention of that deity. Now the Athenians themſelves ac- like Fauns, counterfeiting drunken perſons, ſinging in honour of knowledge, that, in the reign of Erectheus, the fruits of the Bacchus ſongs and catches fuited to the occaſion. The proceſſion earth having periſhed for want of rain, the arrival of Ceres in was cloſed by a troop of Bacchanalians, crowned with ivy, in their country did actually happen, and that along with her the terwoven with branches of yew and with ſerpents. Upon ſome bleſſing of corn was reſtored to the earth. They tell us at the occaſions, at thoſe ſcandalous feſtivals, naked women whipped | fame time, that the teletä and the myſteries of that goddeſs were themſelves, and tore their ſkin in a moſt barbarous manner. then received and inſtituted at Eleuſis.” The proceſſion terminated on mount Citheron, when it ſet out Here then we have the whole myſtery of the arrival of Ceres from Thebes ; and in other places, in fome diſtant unfrequent- in Attica, and the inſtitution of her myſteries at Eleuſis unveiled. ed defert, where the votaries practiſed every ſpecies of debauch- | The whole is evidently an oriental allegory. The fruits of the ery with ſecrecy and impunity. Orpheus ſaw the degeneracy of earth had been deſtroyed by a long courſe of drought: Egypt, by thoſe ceremonies ; and in endeavouring to reform them he pro its peculiar ſituation, had been preſerved from that dreadful ca- bably loſt his life. Pentheus ſuffered in the like attempt, being lamity. Erectheus, in conſequence of his relation to the Egyp- torn in pieces by the Bacchanalians on mount Citheron, among tians, imported from their country a quantity of grain, not only whom were his own mother and aunts. The Greeks, who were fufficient for the conſumption of his own ſubjects, but alſo a great an airy jovial people, ſeem to have paid little regard to the plain- overplus to export to other parts of Greece, Sicily, Italy, Spain, tive part of the origa; or rather, we believe, they acted with &c. Triptolemus, another Egyptian, was appointed by Erect- howling and frantic exclamations, often enhanced by a combina- heus to export this fuperfluous ſtore. heus to export this fuperfluous ſtore. That hero, according to tion of drunkenneſs, exſtafy, and enthuſiaſtic fury. Pherecydes, was the ſon of Oceanus and Tellus, that is, of the What ſecrets, religious, moral, political, or phyſical, were fea and the earth ; becauſe his parents were not known, and be- communieated to the votaries, it is impoſſible to determine with | cauſe he came to Eleuſis by ſea. The ſhip in which he failed, any degree of certainty.—One thing we may admit, namely, when he diſtributed his corn to the weſtern parts of the world, that the doctrines diſcovered and inculcated in the orgia, were was decorated with the figure of a winged dragon: therefore, originally the very ſame which the apoſtles of the fect had imbibed in the allegorical ſtyle of his country, he was ſaid to be wafted in Egypt and Phænicia; and of which we have given a brief ac- though the air in a chariot drawn by dragons. Thoſe creatures, count near the beginning of this article. It is, however, pro every body knows, were held ſacred by the Egyptians. bable, that the fpurious or Theban Bacchus had fuperadded a Wherever Triptolemus diſpoſed of his corn, thither were ex- great deal of his own invention, which, we may believe, was tended the wanderings of Ceres. In order to elucidate this not altogether ſo found and falubrious as the original doctrine. point, we muſt obſerve, that along with the grain imported from However that may be, the initiated were made to believe that Egypt, Erectheus, or Triptolemus, or both, tranſported into they were to derive wonderful advantages from the participation Attica a cargo of prieſts and prieſteſſes from the temples of Buſi- of thoſe rites, both in this life and that which is to come. This, ris, a city which lay in the centre of the Delta, where the god- however, we ſhall advert to in our account of the Eleuſinian myf- deſs Iſis had a number of chapels erected for her worſhip. teries, The preſidents of theſe ceremonies, like all other bigots, gladly To detail the etymology of the names of this Pagan deity, the laid hold on this opportunity of propagating their religious rites, fables relating to his birth, his education, his transformations, and diffeminating the worſhip of the deities of their county. his wars, peregrinations, adventures, the various and multiform That the Egyptian prieſts were zealous in propagating the dog- rites with which he was worſhipped, would ſwell this article mas of their ſuperſtition, is abundantly evident from the extenſive to a moſt immoderate ſize. If any of our readers ſhould wiſh ſpreading of their rites and ceremonies over almoſt all Aſia and to be more minutely and more accurately acquainted with this a conſiderable part of Europe. The Greek and Roman idolatry ſubject, we muſt beg leave to remit them to Diod. Sic. Apollod. | is known to have originated from them; and numberleſs monu- Bibl. Euripid. Bacchæ. Ariſtophane Ranæ, Nonn Dionyf. and ments of their impious worſhip are ſtill extent in Perſia, India, among the moderns, to Ban. Mythol. Voff . de origi. Idol. | Japan, Tartary, &c. Our inference then is, that the worſhip Monſ. Fourmont, Reflexions ſur l'origine anciens peuples, Mr. of Iſis was introduced into every country were Triptolemus fold Bryant's Analyſ. and eſpecially to Mons Cour de Ĝebelin, Ca or diſpoſed of his commodities.--Hence the wanderings of Ce- lendries ou Almanach. That prince of Etymologiſts, in his ac res in ſearch of her daughter Proſerpine, who is generally called count of the feſtival of Bacchus, has given a moſt acute and in Core. The famine occaſioned by the drought deſtroying the genious explication of the names and epithets of that deity. fruits of the ground, imports the loſs of Proferpine. The reſto- For our part, we have endeavoured to collect and exhibit ſuch ration of the corn in various parts of the earth, by freſh ſupplies as we judge moſt important, moſt entertaining, and moſt in- from Egypt from time to time, imports the wanderings of Ceres fiructive, to the leſs enlightened claſſes of our readers. in queft of Proferpine. The whole proceſs is an oriental allegory. Eleuſinian myſteries inſtituted in honour of Ceres The diſappearing of the fruits of the earth, of which Proſerpine, We now proceed to the Eleuſinian myſteries, which among the ancient Greeks and Romans, were treated with a ſuperior degree or Perſephone, or Perefephone, is the emblem, is the allegori- cal rape of that goddeſs. She was ſeized and carried off by Pluto, ſovereign M Y S M Y S fovereign of the infernal regions. The ſeed committed to the Triptolemus was an ox- herd, Eumolpus a ſhepherd, and Eubulus earth in that dry ſeaſon appeared no more, and was, conſequently, a ſwine-herd. Theſe were the firſt apoſtles of the Eleuſinian my- faid to dwell under ground with Pluto. It was then that Ceres, ſteries. They were inſtructed by the Egyptian miſſionaries ; that is, corn imported from Egypt, ſet out in queft of her daugh and they, in their turn, inſtructed their ſucceſſors. Erechtheus, ter. Again, when the earth recovered her priſtine fertility; the or, as ſome ſay, Pandion, countenanced the ſeminary, and built Core, or maid, was found by her mother Ceres, that is the earth; a ſmall temple for its accommodation in Eleuſis, a city of Attica, for Iſis, among the Egyptians, frequently fignified the earth. The a few miles weſt from Athens, and originally one of the twelve wanderings of Ifis in ſearch of Oſiris furniſhed the model for the diſtricts into which that territory was divided. Here then we peregrinations of Ceres. have arrived at the ſcene of thoſe renowned myſteries, which for Ceres, the Roman name of the goddeſs of corn, was un the fpace of near 2000 years were the pride of Athens, and the known to the modern Greeks. They always denominated her wonder of the world. Damater, which is rather an epithet than a proper name. The The myſteries were divided into the greater and lefſer. The Greeks, who always affected to paſs for originals, we think ſup latter were celebrated at Agræ, a ſmall town on the river Ilyfſus ; preſſed the Egyptian name on purpoſe, to conceal the country of the former were celebrated in the month which the Athenians that deity. As a proof of the probability of this conjecture it called Boedromion ; the latter in the month Anthefterion. The may be obſeved that they metamorphoſed the wanderings of Iſis leſſer myſteries, according to the fabulous legends of the Greeks, in ſearch of Oſiris into the peregrinations of Ceres in queſt of were inſtituted in favour of the celebrated Hercules. That hero Proſerpine. The Romans, who were leſs ambitious of the cha- being commanded by Euriſtheus to bring up Cerberus from the racter of originality, retained one of her oriental names. Ceres, infernal regions, was deſirous of being initiated in the Eleuſinian fays Diodorus, appeared thrice in Attica during the reign of myſteries, before he engaged in that perilous undertaking. He Erectheus ; which ſeems to import, that fleets loaded with corn addreſſed himſelf to Eumolpus the hierophant for that purpoſe. had thrice arrived in that country from Egypt during that There was a law among the Eleuſinians prohibiting the initiation period. of foreigners. The prieſt not daring to refuſe the benefit of Cecrops the firſt king of Attica had eſtabliſhed the worſhip of Hercules, who was both a friend and benefactor to the Atheni- the Saitic Athena or Minerva in that region, and conſecrated his ans, adviſed the hero to get himſelf adopted by a native of the capital to that deity. Erectheus, in his turn, introduced the place, and ſo to elude the force of the law. He was accordingly worſhip of Iſis or Damater, who in all appearance was the tu adopted by one Pyolius, and ſo was initiated in the leſſer myf- telar deity of Buſiris his native city. The ſubjects of Cecrops teries, which were inſtituted for the firſt time upon that occa- were a colony of Saites, and readily embraced the worſhip of fion. This account has all the air of a fable. The lefſer myſ- Minerva ; but the aborigines of that diſtrict being accuſtomed teries were inſtituted by way of preparation for the greater. to a maritime, perhaps to a piratical, courſe of life, were more Moſt foreigners were debarred from theſe ſacred rites. They inclined to confecrate their city to Neptune, the god of the ſea, tell us, however, that not only Hercules, but Bacchus, Caſtor and to conſtitute him their guardian and protector. Cecrops by and Pollux, Æfculapius and Hippocrates, were initiated in an a ſtratagem ſecured the preference to Minerva his favourite di extraordinary manner, from a regard to their high character and vinity. Erectheus, in order to give equal importance to his pa heroie exploits. All barbarians, too, were excluded; yet Ana- troneſs, had the addreſs to inſtitute the Eleuſinian myſteries ; and charſis the Scythian was indulged that privilege, in conſequence to accompliſh his deſign laid hold on the opportunity above of his reputation for ſcience and philoſophy. mentioned. The celebration of the myſteries began on the 15th day of the This appears to us the moſt probable account of the origin and month Boedromion; and, according to moſt ancient authors, inſtitution of the Eleuſinian myſteries ; for which the Sicilian laſted nine days. hiſtorian has indeed furniſhed the clue. We ſhall now proceed We ſhall now proceed On the evening of this day the initiation commenced. Our to detail fome other circumſtances which attended the original readers will obſerve, that all the moſt facred and ſolemn rites inſtitution of theſe far-famed ceremonies. of the pagan ſuperſtition were performed during the night : they The arch prieſteſs who perfonated the newlyimported deity was were indeed generally works of darkneſs. On this day there was entertained by one Celeus, who was either viceroy of that petty a folemn cavalcade of Athenian matrons from Athens to Eleuſis, diſtrict of which Eleuſis was the capital, or ſome conſiderable in carriages drawn by oxen. In this proceſſion the ladies uſed perſonage in that city or its neighbourhood. Upon her imme to rally one another in pretty looſe terms, in imitation, we ſup- diate arrival, according to the fabulous relations of the Greeks, poſe, of the Ifiac proceſſion deſcribed by Herodotus, which has a farce was acted not altogether ſuitable to the character of a god been mentioned above. The moſt remarkable object in this deſs whoſe myſteries were one day to be deemed fo ſacred and proceſſion was the Mundus Cereris, contained in a ſmall coffer auſtere. Theſe coarſe receptions, and other indecencies attending or baſket. This was carried by a ſelect company of Athenian the firſt appearance of the goddeſs, that is, the Egyptian dame matrons, who, from their office, were ſtyled Camphora. In who aſſumed her character, were copied from the like unhal this coffer were lodged the comb of Ceres, her mirror, a ſerpen- lowed modes of behaviour practiſed on occaſion of the folemn tine figure, ſome wheat and barley, the pudenda of the two proceſſions of her native country. Theſe ſcommata, or coarſe ſexes, and perhaps ſome other articles which we have not been jokes, had an allegorical ſignification in Egypt; and among the able to diſcover. The proceſſion ended at the temple, where this moſt ancient Greeks the very fame ſpirit was univerſally dif ſacred charge wảs depoſited with the greateſt folemnity. fuſed by the oriental coloniſts, who from time to time arrived and The doctrines delivered in the greater myſteries, ſays Clem. ſettled among them. In proceſs of time they abandoned the Alex. relate to the nature of the univerſe. Here all inſtruction figurative and allegorical ſtyle, in conſequence of their acquain ends. Things are ſeen as they are ; and nature, and the things tance with 'philoſophy and abſtract reaſoning. In the ceremo of nature, are given to be comprehended. To the ſame purpoſe nies of religion, however, the fame allegorical and typical re Cicero: “ Which points being explained, and reduced to the preſentations which had been imported from the eaſt were re ſtandard of reaſon, the nature of things, rather than that of the tained; but the Grecian hierophants in a ſhort time loſt every gods, is diſcovered.” The Father of the univerſe, or the fu- idea of their latent import, and religious, moral, or phyſical in preme demiurgus, was repreſented as forming the chaotic maſs terpretation. Accordingly, this ſhameful rencounter between into the four elements, and producing animals, vegetables, and Ceres and Banbo, or Jambee, was retained in the myſteries, all kinds of organized beings, out of thoſe materials. They ſay though we think it was copied from Egypt, as was ſaid above, that they were informed of the ſecrets of the anomalies of the where even that obſcene action was probably an allegorical re moon, and the eclipſes of the fun and moon; and, according to preſentation of fomething very different from what appeared to Virgil, the Greeks. Unde hominum genus, et pecudes, unde imber et ignes. At the ſame time that Ceres arrived in Attica, Bacchus like What ſyſtem of coſmogony thoſe hierophants adopted, is evi- wiſe made his appearance in that country. He was entertained dent from the paſſage above quoted from Eufebius; and, from by one Icarus; whom, as a reward for his hoſpitality, he in the account immediately preceding, it was that of the moſt an- ſtructed in the art of cultivating the vine, and the method or ma cient Egyptians, and of the orientals in general. This coſmo- unfacturing wine. Thus it appears that both agriculture and gony is beautifully and energetically exhibited in Plato's Ti- the art of managing the vintage were introduced into Athens mæus, and in the genuine ſpirit of poetry by Ovid in the be- much about the ſame time. Ceres was no other than a prieſteſs ginning of his Metamorphoſes. of Iſis; Bacchus was no doubt a prieſt of Oſiris. The arrival The next ſcene exhibited upon the ſtage, on this folemn oc- of thoſe two perſonages from Egypt, with a number of inferior caſion, conſiſted of the exploits and adventures of the gods, de- prieſts in their train, produced a memorable revolution in Athens, migods, and heroes, who had, from time to time, been advanced both with reſpect to life, manners, and religion. The ſacred to divine honours. Theſe were diſplayed as paſſing before the rites of Iſis, afterwards fó famous under the name of the Eleufi- myftæ in pageants fabricated for that important purpoſe. This nian myſteries, date their inſtitution from this period. was the original mode among the Egyptians, and was, no doubt, When this company of propaganda arrived at Eleuſis, they followed by their Eleufinian pupils. Thoſe adventures were most were entertained by ſome of the moſt reſpectable perſons who probably demonſtrated to have been allegorical, fymbolical, then inhabited that diſtrict. Their names, according to Clem. hieroglyphical, &c. at leaſt they were exhibited in ſuch a favour- Alexand. were Banbo, Dyſaulis, Triptolemus, Eumolpus, and able point of view as to diſpel thoſe abſurdities and inconſiſten- Eubulus. From Eumolpus were deſcended a race of prieſts cies with which they were ſophiſticated by the poets and the called Eumolpidæ, who figured at Athens many ages after. | vulgar, With M Y S MYS " that own. With reſpect to the origin of thoſe factitious deities, it was the practice of virtae while they lived, and inſpired with a hope diſcovered that they had been originally men who had been ex of a bleſſed immortality when they died. At the ſame time, their awe and veneration for the gods of their country was won- alted to the rank of divinity, in conſequence of their heroic ex- ploits, their uſeful inventions, their beneficent actions, &c.- derfully enhanced, by reficēting derfully enhanced, by reficcting on the appearances above de- This is ſo clear, from the two paſſages quoted from Cicero, by feribed. Accordingly, Strabo very judiciouſly obſerves, “ that biſhop Warburton, that the fact cannot be contradicted. But the myſtical fecrefy of the ſacred rites preſerves the majeſty of that prelate has not informed us fo preciſely, whether the myf- the Deity, imitating its nature, which eſcapes our apprehenfion. tagogues repreſented them as nothing more than dead men, in For thefe reaſons, in celebrating the teletæ, the demons were their preſent ſtate, or as beings who were actually exiſting in a introduced in their deified or glorified ſtate, deified ſtate, and executing the functions aſſigned them in the Private Virtues inculcated in the Myſteries, by the Doctrine of rubric of paganiſm. Another query naturally occurs, that is, a future Stute. But as all the candidates for initiation might not aſpire to the to what purpoſe did the myſtagogues apply this communication? That the hierophants did actually repreſent thoſe deified mortals rank of heroes and demigods, a more eaſy and a more attainable in the latter predicament, is obvious from another paffage quoted mode of conduct, in order to arrive at the palace of happineſs, from Cicero, by the ſame prelate, which we ſhall tranfcribe as behoved to be opened. Private virtues were inculcated, and thefe tranſlated by him: “ What think you of thoſe who affert that too were to meet a condign reward. But, alas! this life is too valiant, or famous, or powerful men, have obtained divine ho often a chequered ſcene, where virtue is depreſſed and trodden nours after death; and that theſe are the very gods now become under foot, and vice lifts up its head, and rides triumphant. It the objects of our worſhip, our prayers, and adoration ? Euhe is a dictate of common ſenſe, that virtue ſhould ſooner or later merus tells us when theſe gods died, and where they lie buried. emerge, and vice ſink into contempt and miſery. Here then the I forbear to ſpeak of the ſacred and auguſt rites of Eleuſis. I conductors of the myſteries, properly and naturally adopted the paſs by Samothrace, and the myſteries of Lemnos, whoſe hidden doctrine of a future ſtate of rewards and puniſhments. The rites are celebrated in darkneſs, and amidſt the thick ſhades of dogma of the immortality of the human ſoul was elucidated, and groves and foreſts.” If, then, thoſe deified mortals were be carefully and pathetically inculcated. carefully and pathetically inculcated. This doctrine was like- come the objects of worship and prayers, there can be no doubt wiſe imported from Egypt; for Herodotus informs us, of the belief of their deified exiſtence. The alluſion to the Eleu the Egyptians were the firſt people who maintained the immor- finian and other pagan myſteries, towards the cloſe of the quota- tality of the human ſoul.” The Egyptian immortality, how- tion, places the queſtion beyond the reach of controverſy. But ever, according to him, was only the metem pſychoſis or tranſ- though, according to this account, “ there were gods many and migration of ſouls. This was not the ſyſtem of the ancient lords many," yet it is evident, from the paſſage quoted from Egyptians, nor indeed of the teletä. In theſe, a metempfy- Euſebius, in the preceding part of this article, that the unity of chofis was admitted ; but that was carried forward to a very the Supreme Being was maintained, exhibited, and inculcated. diſtant period ; viz. to the grand Egyptian period of 36,000 This was the original doctrine of the Hierophants of Egypt: It years. was maintained by Thales and all the retainers of the Ionian As the myſtagogues well knew that the human mind is more ſchool. It was the doctrine of Pythagoras, who probably gleaned powerfully affected by objects preſented to the eyes, than by the it up in the country juſt mentioned, in connexion with many moſt engaging inſtructions conveyed by the ear, they made the other dogmas which he had the aſſurance to claim as his emblems of Elyſium and Tartarus paſs in review before the eyes of their novices. There the Elyſian ſcenes, ſo nobly deſcribed But however the unity, and perhaps ſome of the moſt obvious by the Roman poet, appeared in mimic fplendour ; and, on the attributes of the Supreme Author of nature, might be illuſtrated other hand, the gloom of Tartarus, Charon's boat, the dog of and inculcated, the tribute of homage and veneration due to the hell, the furies with treffes of ſnakes, the tribunal of Minos and fubordinate divinities was by no means neglected. The initi- Rhadamanthus, &c. were diſplayed in all their terrific ſtate. ated were taught to look to the dii majorum gentium with a fu- | Tantalus, Ixion, Siſyphus, the daughters of Danaus, &c. were perior degree of awe and veneration, as beings endowed with an repreſented in pageants before their eyes. Theſe exhibitions ineffable meaſure of power, wiſdom, purity, goodneſs, &c. were accompanied with moſt horrible cries and howlings, thun- Theſe were, if we may uſe the expreſſion, the prime favourites ders, lightning, and other objects of terror, which we ſhall men- of the Monarch of the univerſe, who were admitted into his tion in their proper place. immediate preſence, and who received his beheſts from his own No contrivance could be better accommodated to animate the mouth; and communicated them to his ſubordinate officers, pre- pupils to the practice of virtue on the one hand, or to deter them fects, lieutenants, &c. Theſe they were exhorted to adore ; to from indulging vicious paſſions on the other. them they were to offer ſacrifices, prayers, and every other act | ing heaven and hell to a hardened ſinner. The practices incul- of devotion, both on account of the excellency of their nature, cated in celebrating the myſteries are too numerous to be detailed and the high rank they bore at the court of heaven. They in this imperfect ſketch. The worſhip of the gods was ſtrictly were inſtructed to look up to hero-gods and demi-gods, as beings enjoined as has been ſhewn above. exalted to the high rank of governors of different parts of na aſcribed to Triptolemus were inculcated, 1. To honour their ture, as the immediate guardians and protectors of the human parents; 2. To honour the gods with the firſt fruits of the earth; race ; in ſhort, as gods near at hand, as prompters to a virtuous 3. Not to treat brute animals with cruelty. Theſe laws were courſe, and aſſiſtants in it; as ready upon all occaſions to con- imported from Egypt, and were communicated to the Eleuſinians fer bleſſings upon the virtuous and deſerving. Such were the by the original miſſionaries. Such were the by the original miſſionaries. Cicero makes the civilization of doctrines taught in the teletæ with reſpect to the nature of the mankind one of the moſt beneficial effects of the Eleuſinian in- Pagan divinities, and the worſhip and devotion enjoined to be ftitutions: “ Nullum mihi cum multa eximia divinaque videntur offered them by the myſteries. Athenæ tuæ peperiffe ; tum nihil melius illis myfteriis, quibus Excellent Plan for accompliſhing the Ends propoſed in the ex agreſti immanique vita, exculti ad humanitatem, et mitigati Myſteries. ſumus ; initiaque, ut appellantur, ita revera principia vitæ coga As the two principal ends propoſed by theſe initiations were novimus ; neque folum cum lectitia vivendi rationem accepimus, the exerciſe of heroic virtues in men, and the practice of fincere fed etiam cum ſpe meliore moriendi.” Hence it is evident that and uniform piety by the candidates for immortal happineſs, the the precepts of humanity and morality were warmly recom- hierophants had adopted a plan of operations excellently accom- mended in theſe inſtitutions. The virtue of humanity was ex- modated to both theſe purpoſes. The virtuous conduct and he- tended, one may ſay, even to the brute creation, as appears from roic exploits of the great men and demi-gods of early antiquity, the laſt of Triptolemus's laws above quoted. were magnified by the moſt pompous eulogiums, enforced with The initiated then bound themſelves by dreadful oaths to ob- ſuitable exhortations to animate the votaries to imitate ſo noble ſerve moſt confcientiouſly and to practiſe every precept tendered and alluring an example. But this was not all : the heroes and to them in the courſe of the teletze ; and at the fame time never demi.gods were themſelves diſplayed in pageants, or vehicles of to divulge one article of all that had been heard or ſeen by them celeſtial light. Their honours, offices, habitations, attendants, upon that occaſion. In this they were ſo exceedingly jealous, and other appendages, in the capacity of demons, were exhi that Æſchylus the tragedian was in danger of capital puniſhment bited with all the pomp and ſplendour that the facerdotal college for having only alluded to one of the Eleuſinian arcana in a tra- were able to deviſe. The ſudden glare of mimic light, the melt-gedy of his; and one of the articles of indictment againit Dia- ing muſic ſtealing upon the car, the artificial thunders reverbe- goras the Melian was, his having ſpoken diſreſpectfully of the rated from the roof and walls of the temple, the appearance of myſteries, and diſſuaded people from partaking of them. It fire and ætherial radiance, the vehicles of Alame, the effigies of muſt then be allowed, that the inſtitution of the myſteries was of heroes and demons, adorned with crowns of laurel, emitting rays infinite advantage to the pagan world. They were indeed a kind from every ſprig, the fragrant odours and aromatic gales which of facraments, by which the initiated bound themſelves by a fo- breathed from every quarter, all dexterouſly counterfeited by fa lemn vow to practiſe piety towards the gods, juſtice and huma- cerdotal mechaniſm, muſt have filled the imagination of the aſ-nity towards their fellow-men, and gentleneſs and tenderneſs toniſhed votaries with pictures at once tremendous and tranſ towards the inoffenſive part of the brute creation. The pagans porting. Add to this, that every thing was tranſacted in the themſelves were ſo thoroughly convinced of this fact, that, in dead of night, amidſt a diſmal gloom ; whence the moſt bright their diſputes with the apologiſts for chriſtianity, they often ap- effulgence inſtantaneouſly burſt upon the fight. By this arrange- pealed to the teletæ, and contraſted their maxims with the moſt ment, the aſpirants to initiation were wonderfully animated to ſublime doctrines of that heavenly inftitution, It reſembled open- In M Y S MY S bore a In order to impreſs thefe maxims the more deeply upon the Euripides, in his Bacchæ, introduces the chorus extolling the minds of the novices, and to fix their attention more ſtedfaſtly | happineſs of thoſe who had been acquained with God, by parti- upon the lectures which were delivered them by the myſtagogue cipating in the holy myſteries, and whoſe minds had been en- of the facred herald, a mechanical operation was played off at lightened by the myſtical rites. They boaſt , “ that they had proper intervals during the courſe of the celebration. led a holy and unblemiſhed life, from the time they had been Horrible ſpeEtres and pleaſing ſcenes alternately exhibited. initiated in the ſacred rites of Jupiter Idæus, and from the time « Towards the end of the celebration, ſays Stobæus, the whole that they had relinquiſhed celebrating the nocturnal rites of Bac- fcene is terrible; all is trembling, ſhuddering, and aſtoniſh- chus, and the banquets of raw fleſh torn off living animals.” To ment. Many horrible fpectres are ſeen, and ſtrange cries and this ſanctity of life they had no doubt engaged themſelves, when howlings uttered. Light fucceeds darkneſs; and again the they were initiated in the myſteries of that god. The Eleuſini- blackeſt darkneſs the moſt glaring light. Now appear open an Epoptæ derived the ſame advantages from their facramental plains, flowery meads, and waving groves ; where are feen dan- engagements . Fourthly, The initiated were imagined to be ces and choruſes; and various holy phantaſies enchant the fight. the particular wards of the Eleuſinian goddeſſes. Theſe deities Melodious notes are heard from far, with all the ſublime fym- were ſuppoſed to watch over them, and often to avert impend- phony of the ſacred hymns. The pupil now is completely per- ing danger, and to reſcue them when beſet with troubles.-Out feet, is initiated, becomes free, releaſed, and walks about with readers will not imagine that the initiated reaped much benefit a crown on his head, and is admitted to bear a part in the ſacred from the protection of his Eleuſinian tutelary deities; but it was rites.” Ariſtides de Myft. Eleaf. calls Eleuſis“ a kind of temple of ſufficient that they believed the fact, and actually depended upon the whole earth, andof all that man beholds done in the moſt dread their interpoſition. Fifthly, The happy influences of the teletæ, ful and the moſt exhilarating manner. In what other place have were ſuppoſed to adminiſter eonfolation to the Epoptæ in the the records of fable fung of things more marvellous ? or in what re hour of difolution ; for, ſays Iſocrates, “ Ceres beſtowed upon gion upon earth have the objects preſented to the eye the Athenians two gifts of the greateſt importance; the fruits of more exact reſemblance to the founds which ſtrike the ear: the earth, which were the cauſe of our no longer leading a ſavage What object of ſight have the numberleſs generations of men courſe of life; and the teletæ, for they who partake of theſe, and women beheld comparable to theſe exhibited in the ineffa entertain more pleaſant hopes both at the end of life, and eter- ble myſteries ?” To the ſame purpoſe, Pletho, in the oracles nity afterwards. Another author tells us, " that the initiated of Zoroaſtres, informs us, “ that frightful and ſhocking appa were not only often reſcued from many hardſhips in their life- ritions, in a variety of forms, uſed to be diſplayed to the myſtæ time; but at death entertained hopes that they ſhould be raiſed in the courſe of their initiation.” And a little after, he adds, to a more happy condition.” Sixthly, After death, in the Ely- “ that thunder and lightning and fire, and every thing terrible fian fields, they were to enjoy ſuperior degrees of felicity, and which might be held fymbolical of the divine preſence, was in were to baſk in eternal ſunſhine, to quaff nectar, and feaſt upon troduced.” Claudian, in his poem De Rapta Proſerpina, gives ambroſia, &c. an elegant, though brief, deſcription of this phenomenon, which The prieſts were not altogether diſintereſted in this falutary throws fome light on the paſſage above quoted. proceſs. They made their diſciples believe, that the ſouls of « Jum mihi cernuntur trepidis delubra moveri the uninitiated, when they arrived in the infernal regions, ſhould « Sedibus et clarum dis pergere culmina lucem, roll in mire and dirt, and with great difficulty arrive at their def- “ Adventum teſtata Dea, jam magnus ab imis tined manſion. Hence Plato introduces Socrates, obferving, « Auditur fremitus terris, templumque remugit «that the fages who inſtituted the teletæ had poſitively affirmed, « Cecropidum." that whatever foul ſhould arrive in the infernal manſions unhou- The ſight of thoſe appearances was call the Antopfia, or « the ſell’d and unanneald, ſhould lie there immerſed in mire and real preſence :" hence thoſe rites were ſometimes called Epoptica. | filth.” And as to a future ſtate (ſays Ariſtides,) “ the initiated The Epoptæ were actually initiated, and were admitted into the ſhall not roll in mire and grope in darkneſs; a fate which awaits San£lum Sanétorum, and bore a part in the ceremonial; whereas the unholly and uninitiated.” It is not hard to conceive with the myfte, who had only been initiated in the lefſer myſteries at what a commanding influence ſuch doctrines as theſe muſt have Agræ, were obliged to take their ſtation in the porch of the operated on the generality of mankind. temple. The candidates for initiation bathed themſelves in When the Athenians adviſed Diogenes to get himſelf initiated, holy water, and put on new clothes, all of linen, which they and enforced their arguments with the above conſiderations. continued to wear till they were quite torn, and then they were “ It will be pretty enough (replied the philoſopher) to ſee Age- confecrated to Ceres and Proferpine. From the ceremony of | filaus and Epaminondas wallowing in the mire, while the moſt bathing they were denominated Hydrani ; and this again was contemptible raſcals who have been initiated are ſtrutting in the a kind of baptiſmal ablution. Whether the phraſes of waſhing a iſlands of blifs.” way ſin, putting on the Lord Jeſus Chrift, putting off the old When Antiſthenes was to be initiated in the Orphic myſteries, man with his deeds, putting on a robe of righteouſneſs, being and the prieſt was boaſting of the many aſtoniſhing benefits which buried in baptiſm, the words myſtery, perfeet, perfection, which the initiated ſhould enjoy in a future ſtate, “ Why, forſooth, occur fo frequently in the New Teſtaments, eſpecially in the (ſays Antiſthenes,) 'tis wonder your reverence don't e'en hang writings of the apoſtle St. Paul, are borrowed from the pagan yourſelf in order to come at them the ſooner.” myſteries, or from uſages current among the Jews, we leave to When ſuch benefits were expected to be deprived from the our more learned readers to determine myſteries, no wonder if all the world crowded to the Eleuſinian Numerous and important were the advantages ſuppoſed to re ſtandard. After the Macedonian conqueſts, the Hierophants dound to the initiated, from their being admitted to partake of abated much of their original ſtrictneſs. . By the age of Cicero, the myſteries, both in this life and that which is to come. Firſt, Eleuſis was a temple whither all nations reſorted to partake of they were highly honoured, and even revered, by their contem the benefits of that inftitution. We find that almoſt all the poraries. Indeed they were looked up to as a kind of ſacred great men of Rome were initiated. The Hierophants, howe- perſons: they were, in reality, confecrated to Ceres and Proſer ver, would not admit Nero on account of the profligacy of his pine. Secondly, they were obliged by their oath to practiſe eve character. Few others were refuſed that honour; even the ry virtue, religious, moral, political, public, and private. Thirdly, children of the Athenians were admitted. But this, we think was they imagined, that found advice and happy meaſures of con rather a luſtration or conſecration, that an initiation. Perhaps it duct were ſuggeſted to the initiated by the Eleuſinian goddeſſes. paved the way for the more auguſt ceremony, as the Chriſtian Accordingly, ſays Pericles the celebrated Athenian ſtateſman, baptiſm does among us for the other facrament. * I am convinced, that the deities of Eleuſis inſpired me with That this inſtitution gradually degenerated, can hardly be this fentiment, and that this ſtratagem was ſuggeſted by the queſtioned; but how much, and in what points, we have not principal of the myſtic rites." There is a beautiful paſſage in been able to inveſtigate. The fathers of the church, from whom Ariſtophanes's comedy of the Ranæ to the very fame purpoſe, of that charge is chiefly to be collected, are not always to be truſted, which we ſhall ſubjoin the following periphrafis. It is ſung by eſpecially when they ſet themſelves to arraign the inſtitutions of the chorus of the initiated. Paganiſm. They were indeed ſeveral ancient authors, ſuch as Let us to flow’ry meads repair, Melanthius, Menander, Sotades, &c. who wrote purpoſely on With deathleſs roſes blooming, the ſubject in queſtion ; but their works are long ſince irrecover- Whofe balmy ſweets impregn the airy ably loſt . For this reaſon, modern writers, who have profeſſed- Both hills and dales perfuming. ly handled it, have not always been ſucceſsful in their reſearches. Since fate benign our choir has join'd, The two who have laboured moſt indefatigably, and perhaps moſt We'll trip in myſtic meaſure ; ſucceſsfully, in this field, are Meurſius and Warburton. The for- In ſweeteſt harmony combin'd mer, in his Liber Singularis, has collected every thing that can be We'll quaff full draughts of pleaſure. gleaned from antiquityrelating to the ceremonial of theſeinſtitutions; For us alone the pow'r of day without, however, pointing out their original, 'or elucidating the A milder light diſpenſes; end and import of their eſtabliſhment. The latter has drawn And ſheds benign a mellow'd ray To cheer our raviſh'd fenfes : them into the vortex of the ſyſtem which has in many inſtances led him to aſcribe to them a higher degreee of merit than we For we beheld the myſtic ſhow, think they deſerve. Theſe inſtances we would willingly have And brav'd Eleuſis' dangers. We do and know the deeds we owe noticed in our progreſs, had the limits preſcribed us admited ſuch To neighbours, friends, and ſtrangers. a diſcuſlion, B This No. 114 * M YS M Y S This inftitution continued in high reputation to the age of St. Sometimes the ſame word in ſcripture is to be taken in all the four Jerome, as appears from the following paſſage: “ Hierophantæ ſenſes. Thus the word Jeruſalem literally ſignifies the capital quoque Athenienſium legant uſque hodie cicutæ forbitione caſ of Judea ; allegorically, the church militant ; tropologically and trari.” The Emperor Valentinianus intended to have ſuppreſ- morally, a believer; and anagogically, heaven. So, that paffage ſed them ; but Zozimus, informs us, that he was diverted from in Geneſis, Let there be light, and there was light, ſignifies, ac- his deſign by the proconful of Greece. At length Thcodofius the cording to the letter, corporeal light; by the allegory, the Meſ- elder, by an imperial edict prohibited the celebration of theſe as fiah ; in the tropological ſenſe, grace; and anagogically, beati- well as of all the other facra of Paganiſm. Theſe myſteries, in tude, or the light of glory. ſtituted in the reign of Erectheus, maintained their ground to MYSTICS, myſtici, a kind of religious fect , diſtinguiſhed the period juſt mentioned, that is, near 2000 years ; during by their profeſſing pure, ſublime, and perfect devotion, with which ſpace, the celebration had been interrupted but once. an entire diſintereſted love of God, free from all ſelfiſh con- When Alexander the Great maſſacred the Thebans and fiderations. razed their city, the Athenians were ſo much affected with The myſtics, to excuſe their fanatic ecſtaſies and amorous ex- this event, that they neglected the celebration of that feſtival travagancies, alledge that paffage of St. Paul, The Spirit prays There were almoſt numberleſs myſterious inſtitutions among in us by ſighs and groans that are unutierable. Now if the Spirit, the ancient Pagans. The Samothracian myſteries, inſtituted in ſay they, pray in us, we muſt reſign ourſelves to its motions, and honour of the Cabiri, were likewiſe of conſiderable celebrity, and be ſwayed and guided by its impulfe, by remaining in a ſtate of were ſuppoſed to confer much the ſame bleſſings with the Eleu mere inaction. Paſſive contemplation is that ſtate of perfection finian, but were not of equal celebrity. The Cabiri were Phoe to which the myſtics all aſpire. The authors of this myſtic nician and likewiſe Egyptian deities. The learned Bochart has ſcience, which ſprung up towards the cloſe of the third century, explained their origin, number, names, and ſome part of their are not known; but the principles from which it was formed are worſhip. The Orphic myſteries were likewiſe famous among manifeſt. Its firſt promoters proceeded from the known doc- the Thracians. Orpheus learned them in Egypt, and they were trine of the Platonic ſchool, which was alſo adopted by Origen nearly the ſame with the facra Bacchanalia of the Greeks. There and his diſciples, that the divine nature was diffuſed through all were likewiſe the myſteries of Jupiter Idæus in great requeſt | human ſouls, or that the faculty of reaſon, from which proceed among the Cretans, thoſe of the Magna Mater or Cybele, ce the health and vigour of the mind, was an emanation from God lebrated in Phrygia. To enumerate and detail all theſe would into the human ſoul, and comprehended in it the principles and require a complete volume. We hope our readers will be fully elements of all truth, human and divine. They denied that men ſatisfied with the ſpecimen above, for the purpoſe of which we have could by labour or ſtudy excite this celeſtial flame in their breaſts.; under this head extended the work. We are convinced many and, therefore, they diſapproved highly of the attempts of thoſe, things have been omitted which might have been inſerted, but who, by definitions, abſtract theorems, and profound ſpeculations, we have collected the moſt curious and the moſt important. endeavoured to form diſtinct notions of truth, and to diſcover its Every one of the poſitions, might have been authenticated by hidden nature. On the contrary, they maintained that ſilence, quotations from authors of the moſt undoubted credibility, but tranquillity, repoſe, and ſolitude, accompanied with ſuch acts as that proceſs would have ſwelled the article beyond all proportion. | might tend to extenuate and exhauſt the body, were the means by Religion, in its original form, was ſimple and intelligible. It which the hidden and internal word was excited to produce its was intended for the inſtruction and edification of all ranks of latent virtues, and to inſtruct men in the knowledge of divine men; and of conſequence its doctrines were on a level with vul- things. For thus they reaſoned, thoſe who behold with a noble gar capacities. The Jewiſh diſpenſation was openly practiſed: contempt all human affairs, who turn away their eyes from ter- nothing was performed in ſecret ; every article was plain, open, reſtrial vanities, and ſhut all the avenues of the outward ſenſes and acceſſible. The divine Author of the Chriſtian economy againſt the contagious influences of a material world, muft ne- commanded his difciples to preach his doctrine in the moſt pub- ceſſarily turn to God, when the ſpirit is thus diſengaged from the lic manner: “What ye have heard in ſecret (ſays he) preach impediments that prevented that happy union. And in this openly; and what I have taught you in private teach ye publicly, bleſſed frame they not only enjoy inexpreſſible raptures from their and proclaim it on the houſe-tops.” Such are the charms of communion with the Supreme Being, but alſo are inveſted with truth, and ſuch the character of that religion which came the ineſtimable privilege of contemplating truth undiſguiſed and down from heaven, that they, as it were, delight in the light, uncorrupted in its native purity, while others behold it in a vi- and lift up their voice in the ſtreets, and cry in the chief pla tiated and deluſive form. ces of concourſe." The number of the myſtics increaſed in the fourth century, un- But ſuch is the depravity of the nature of man, that the nobleſt der the influence of the Grecian fanatic, who gave himſelf out for inſtitutions degenerate in his hands. Religion itſelf, originally Dionyſius the Areopagite, diſciple of St. Paul, and probably lived pure, ſimple, and amiable, under his management has often about this period ; and by pretending to higher degrees of per- been transformed into pollution, perplexity, and deformity. The fection than other chriſtians, and practiſing greater auſterity, their miniſters of religion, whoſe province it was to guard the ſacred cauſe gained ground, eſpecially in the eaſtern provinces, in the depoſit, and to ſecure it from foreign and ſpurious intermixtures, fifth century. A copy of the pretended works of Dionyſius was have generally been the firſt innovators, and the firſt and moſt in ſent by Balbus to Lewis the Meek in the year 824, which kindled duſtrious agents in corrupting its integrity and tarniſhing its the holy flame of myſticiſm in the weſtern provinces, and filled beauty. Avarice and ambition prompted that claſs of men to the Latins with the moſt enthuſiaſtic admiration of this new deviate from the original plainneſs and ſimplicity of religious in- religion. ftitutions, and to introduce articles, rites, and uſages, which In the twelfth century, theſe myſtics took the lead in their might furniſh them with opportunities of gratifying theſe unhal- method of expounding ſcripture ; and by ſearching for myſteries lowed and inſatiable paſſions. Hence diſtinctions unknown to and hidden meaning in the plaineſt expreſſions, forced the word pure and undefiled religion were fabricated, and that heavenly in of God into a conformity with their viſionary doctrines, their en- ftitution, heretofore one, ſimple, indiviſible, was divided into thuſiaſtic feelings, and the ſyſtem of diſcipline which they had two partitions: the one popular and public; the other dark, ſe- drawn from the excurſions of their irregular fancies. In the thir- cret, and myſterious. teenth century, they were the moſt formidable antagoniſts of the MYSTICAL, UUSIXOS, MYSTIC, ſomething myſterious, or al-ſchoolmen ; and towards the cloſe of the fourteenth, many of legorical. See MYSTERY, ALLEGORY, &c. The commen them reſided and propagated their tenets almoſt in every part of tators on the ſcripture, beſides a literal, find alſo a myſtical, and Europe. They had, in the fifteenth century, many perſons of a moral meaning. The Bible, they contend, is a book written diſtinguiſhed merit in their number : and in the ſixteenth cen- both within-ſide, and without-ſide: within-ſide, in reſpect to the tury, previous to the reformation, if any ſparks of real piety ſub- myſtical, internal, ſublime, and hidden ſenſe; and without-ſide, in fifted under the deſpotic empire of ſuperſtition, they were only to reſpect to the literal and grammatical ſenſe immediately expreſſed be found among the myſtics. The principles of this fect were by the words. The ſenſe of ſcripture, ſay they, is either that im- adopted by thoſe called Quietiſts in the ſeventeenth century, and, mediately ſignified by the words and expreſſions in the common under different modifications, by the Quakers and Methodiſts. uſe of language : or it is mediate, ſublime, typical, and myſtical ; MYTHOLOGY is a term compounded of two Greek wherein the things themſelves ſignified are made to ſignify ſtill words, and in its original import it ſignifies any kind of fabulous other and farther things, according to the particular deſign and in doctrine : In its more appropriated ſenſe, it means thoſe fabulous tention of God, and of the prophets and apoſtles inſpired by him. details concerning the objects of worſhip which were invented and The literal ſenſe they again divide into proper literal, which is propagated by men who lived in the early ages of the world, and contained in the words taken ſimply and properly : and metaphori- by them tranſmitted to ſucceeding generations, either by written cal literal, where the words are to be underſtood in a figurative records or by oral tradition. As the theology and mythology of and metaphorical ſenſe; as, where the right eye is commanded to the ancients are almoſt inſeparably connected, it will be impoſſi- be plucked out: Writers allow of three kinds of myſtical ſenſes ble for us to develope the latter, without often introducing ſome in the word of God: the firſt correſponding to faith, and called obſervations relating to the former. We muſt, therefore, intreat allegorical; the ſecond to hope, called anagogical; and the third the indulgence of our readers, if upon many occaſions we thould to charity, called the tropological ſenſe. The four ſenſes, and hazard a few ſtrictures on the names, characters, adventures, and their applications are included in the Latin diſtich : functions of ſuch pagan divinities as may have furniſhed mate- Litera geſta docet, quid credas allegoria, rials for thoſe fabulous narrations which the nature of the ſub- Moralis quid agas, que tendas anagogia, . ject may lead us to diſcuſs, . With M Y S M Y S 66 With reſpect to fable, it may be obſerved, in general, that it is tences. They ſeemed to have diſdained every ſentiment obvious a creature of the human imagination, and derives its birth from to vulgar apprehenſion. The words of the wiſe, and their dark that love of the marvellous which is in a manner congenial to the ſayings, often occur in the moſt ancient records both ſacred and ſoul of man.—The appearances of nature which every day occur, profane. The ſages of antiquity uſed to vie with each other for objects, actions, and events, which ſucceed each other, by a kind the prize of ſuperior wiſdom, by propounding riddles, and dark of rotine, are too familiar, too obvious, and unintereſting, either and myſterious queſtions, as ſubjects of inveſtigation. The con- to gratify curioſity, or to excite admiration. On the other hand, teſt between Solomon and Hiram, and that between Amaſis king when the moſt common phenomena in nature or life are new of Egypt and Polycrates tyrant of Samos, are univerſally known. modelled by the plaſtic power of a warm imagination ; when they As the import of thoſe enigmatical propoſitions was often abſo- are diverſified, compounded, embelliſhed, or even arranged and | lutely loſt, in ages when the art of writing was little known, and moulded into forms which ſeldom or perhaps never occur in the ſtill leſs practiſed, nothing remained but fancy and conjecture, ordinary courſe of things ;-novelty generates admiration, a paf- which always verged towards the regions of fable. This then fion always attended with delightful fenſations. Here then we ſeems to be a principal fource of mythology. imagine we have diſcovered the very ſource of fiction and fable. The Pagan prieſts, eſpecially in Egypt, were probably the firſt They originated from that powerful propenſity in our nature to- who reduced mythology to a kind of ſyſtem. The facerdotal wards the new and ſurpriſing, animated by the delight with tribe, among that people, were the grand depoſitories of learning which the contemplation of them is generally attended. Many as well as of religion. That order of men monopolized all the circumſtances contributed to extend and eſtabliſh the empire of arts and ſciences. They ſeem to have formed a conſpiracy among fable. The legiſlator laid hold on this bias of human nature, themſelves, to preclude the laity from all the avenues of intel- and of courſe employed fable and fiction as the moſt effectual lectual improvement. This plan was adopted with a view to means to civilize a rude, unpoliſhed world. The philoſopher, keep the laity in ſubjection, and to enhance their own importance. the theologiſt, the poet, the muſician, each in his turn, made uſe To accompliſh this end, they contrived to perform all the miniſ- of this vehicle to convey his maxims and inſtructions to the ſa trations of their religion in an unknown tongue, and to cover vage tribes. They knew that truth, ſimple and unadorned, is them with a thick veil of fable and allegory. The language of not poſſeſſed of charms powerful enough to captivate the heart | Æthiopia became their ſacred dialed, and hieroglyphics their fa- of man in his preſent corrupt and degenerate ſtate. This conſi cred character.—Egypt, of courſe, became a kind of fairyland, deration, which did, indeed, reſult from the character of their au- where all was jugglery, magic, and enchantment. The initiated dience, naturally led them to employ fiction and allegory. From alone were admitted to the knowledge of the occult myſtical ex- this was derived the allegorical taſte of the ancients, and eſpecially hibitions, which, in their hands, conſtituted the eſſence of their of the primary ſages of the eaſt. religion. From theſe the vulgar and profane were prohibited by Though almoſt every nation on the face of the globe, however the moſt rigorous penalties (fee MYSTERIES). The Egyptians, remote from the centre of population, however ſavage and averſe and, ineeed, all the ancients without exception, deemed the myf- from cultivation, has fabricated and adopted its own ſyſtem of my- teries of religion too ſacred and ſolemn to be communicated to the thology; the Orientals, however, have diſtinguiſhed themſelves herd of mankind, naked and unreſerved ; a mode by which they in a peculiar manner, by the boldneſs, the inconſiſtency, and the imagined thoſe ſacred and ſublime oracles would have been de- extravagance of their mythology. The genial warmth of thoſe filed and degraded. Procul, O procul eſte profani-Odi pro- happy climes, the fertility of the ſoil, which afforded every ne fanum vulgus et arceo.” Egypt was the land of graven images; ceffary, every conveniency, and often every luxury of life, with allegory and mythology were the veil which concealed religion out depreſſing their ſpirits by laborious exertions; the face of na from the eyes of the vulgar, fable was the groundwork of that ture perpetually blooming around them, the ſkies ſmiling with impenetrable covering. uninterrupted ſerenity; all contributed to inſpire the Orientals In the earlieſt and moſt unpoliſhed ſtage of ſociety, we cannot with a glow of fancy and a vigour of imagination rarely to be met | ſuppoſe fable to have exiſted among men. Fables are always with in leſs happy regions. Hence every object was ſwelled be tales of other times, but at this period other times did not reach yond its natural dimenſions. Nothing was great or little in mo far enough backward to afford thoſe_fruits of the imagination deration, but every ſentiment was heightened with incredible fufficient time to arrive at maturity. Fable requires a conſidera- hyperbole. The magnificent, the ſublime, the vaſt, the enor ble ſpace of time to acquire credibility, and to riſe into reputation. mous, the marvellous, firſt ſprung up, and were brougbt to ma Accordingly, we find that both the Chineſe and Egyptians, the turity, in thoſe native regions of fable and fairy land. As nature, two moſt ancient nations whoſe annals have reached our times, in the ordinary courſe of her operations, exhibited neither objects were altogether unacquainted with fabulous details in the moſt nor effects adequate to the extent of their romantic imaginations, early and leaſt improved periods of their reſpective monarchies. they naturally deviated into the fields of fiction and fable. Of It has been ſhewn almoſt to a demonſtration, by a variety of conſequence, the cuſtom of detailing fabulous adventures origi- | learned men, that both the one and the other people, during ſome nated in the eaſt, and was from thence tranſplanted into the weſtern centuries after the general deluge, retained and practiſed the pri- countries. mitive Noachic religion, in which fable and fancy could find no As the allegorical taſte of the eaſtern nations had ſprung from place; all was genuine unſophiſticated truth. their propenſity to fable, and as that propenſity had in its turn As ſoon as the authentic tradition concerning the origin of the originated from the love of the marvellous; ſo did allegory in univerſe was either in a good meaſure loſt, or at leaſt adulterated proceſs of time contribute its influence towards multiplying fables | by the inventions of men, fable and fiction began to prevail. and fiction almoſt in infinitum. The latent import of the allego- | The Egyptian Thoth or Thyoth, or Mercury Triſmegiſtus, and rical doctrines being in a few ages loſt and obliterated, what was Mochus the Phenician, undertook to account for the formation originally a moral or theological tenet, aſſumed the air and habit and arrangement of the univerſe, upon principles purely mecha- of a perſonal adventure. nical. Here fable began to uſurp the place of genuine hiſtorical The propenſity towards perſonification, almoſt univerſal among truth. Accordingly, we find that all the hiſtorians of antiquity, the orientals, was another fruitful ſource of fable and allegory. who have undertaken to give a general detail of the affairs of the That the people of the eaſt were ſtrongly inclined to perſonify world, have uſhered in their narration with a fabulous coſmogony. inanimate objects and abſtract ideas, we imagine will be readily Here imagination ranged unconfined over the boundleſs extent of granted, when it is conſidered, that in the formation of language the primary chaos. To be convinced of the truth of this aſſertion, they have generally annexed the affection of fex to thoſe objects. we need only look into Sanchoniathon's Coſmogony, Eufeb. Hence the diſtinction of grammatical genders, which is known to Præp. Evang. 1. 1. fub init. and Diodorus Sic. 1. 1. From this have originated in the eaſtern parts of the world. The practice we ſuppoſe it will follow, that the firſt race of fables owed their of perſonifying virtues, vices, religious and moral affections, was birth to the erroneous opinions of the formation of the univerſe. neceſſary to ſupport that allegorical ſtyle which univerſally pre Mythology teaches the hiſtory of the gods, demi-gods, and vailed in thoſe countries. This mode of writing was in high re fabulous heroes of antiquity; the theology of the pagans, the puration even in Europe ſome centuries ago; and to it we are in- | principles of their religion, their myſteries, metamorphofes, ora- debted for ſome of the moſt noble poetical compoſitions now cles, &c. By this definition it appears ſufficiently what are the extant in our own language. Thoſe productions, however, are objects of which we are to treat in this article. but faint imitations of the original mode of writing ſtill current If we well conſider the matter, we ſhall find, that there were, among the eaſtern nations. The Europeans derived this ſpecies in pagan antiquity, three different religions. Firſt, That of the of compoſition from the Mooriſh inhabitants of Spain, who im- philoſophers, who treated metaphyſically of the nature, the attri- ported it from Arabia, their original country: butes, and of the works of the Supreme Being. They endea- The general uſe of hieroglyphics in the eaſt, muſt have con voured to diſcover the true God, and the manner in which he tributed largely towards extending the empire of mythology. As ought to be worſhipped. It is not wonderful, that theſe men of ex- the import of the figures employed in this method of delineating alted genius ſhould, in ſome degree, ridicule, in their works, the the ſigns of ideas was in a great meaſure arbitrary, miſtakes muſt two other pofitive religions, and thoſe gods on whom they were have been frequently committed in aſcertaining the notions which founded: at the ſame time that they outwardly profeſſed the eſta- they were at the firſt intended to repreſent. When the develope-bliſhed religion, in order to preſerve the peace of ſociety, and to ment of theſe arbitrary ſigns happened to be attended with un avoid the perſecutions of the legiſlature, and the inſults of the common difficulty, the expounders were obliged to have recourſe populace. For, in fact, was it poſſible for them to believe the pa- to conjecture. gan fables? Muſt they not foreſee, that their religion would one The wife men of the eaft delighted in obſcure enigmatical ſen- day give place to an other, while their own works would paſs with their MY S MYS their names to the lateſt poſterity? And could they ſuffer the had of the intercourſe of gods with men. It is certain, that all thought, that their reputation would be tarniſhed in the eyes of of theſe matters 'taken together are ſufficient to produce many that poſterity, by having it imagined they believed ſuch idle tales thouſands of fables; are more than ſufficient to enable us to de as were broached by the prieſts of their times? Could Plato, So ceive ourſelves and others, and to give riſe to infinite reveries. But crates, Seneca, and Cicero, be unconcerned for their fame among we ſhould take care how we draw from theſe ſources demonſtra- future generations and future philoſophers? And what ſhould tions that might be uſed, by infidels, as arguments to overthrow we at this day have ſaid of thoſe great men, had they been ſo po the hiſtory of the Jews; a people the moſt ſtupid, moſt credulous, litical, or hypocritical, as to have entirely concealed their ſenti and oftentatious of all others. In the mean time, the pagan phi- ments with regard to theſe matters? loſophers themſelves afferted that it was a god who invented the The ſecond religion was that of paganiſm, which was the eſta- fable; ſo much were they convinced of its ingenuity, and of its bliſhed religion of all the ancient nations except the Jews. This ſtrong tendency to inſtruct mankind in their duty. was the doctrine that was taught by the prieſts, and protected by Mythology therefore, when properly treated, begins with the ſovereigns. Its dogmas were demonſtratively falſe, but not al- making learned reſearches into the real origin of fable, of pa- ways fo abſurd as may at firſt appear ; eſpecially if we annex to ganiſm, and that idolatry which was its conſequence. It recurs the divinities and to the religious ceremonies of the pagans, a for this purpoſe even to the beginning of the world : and after ſenſe that is frequently myſtic, and always allegoric ; if we re- finding that Laban, the father-in-law of the patriarch Jacob, was member that the firſt heathens deified thoſe great men to whom a maker of idols, and that he had his little images, or houſehold the reſt of mankind were indebted for any ſignal benefits, as Ju- gods, which he formed of baked earth, and which ſhews that piter, Apollo, Ceres, Bacchus, Hercules, Æculapius, &c. in order | idolatry exiſted in the greateſt antiquity ; it then explains coſmo- to induce others, as well of the preſent as of future ages, to reve gony, and theogony, or the belief that the firſt inhabitants of the rence and to imitate them. Would not an Would not an ancient pagan, if he earth entertained of the creation of the univerſe, and what the were to return upon the earth, have ſpecious arguments, at leaſt, pagan theology taught of the genealogy of their falſe gods. It to ſupport his religion, when he ſaw weak mortals beatify or ca- | begins with the tradition of the Chaldeans, a people ſo ancient, nonize, merely by their own authority, other weak mortals (fre- that Nimrod was their firſt king ; but at the ſame time fo cre- quently mere pedants), and place them in heaven, without the dulous and ſuperſtitious, that we may regard them as the authors permiſſion or approbation of the Supreme Being ? Happy is it for of all thoſe fables, and the propagators of all thoſe viſions, that mankind, when at different times ſagacious pontiffs purge the have ſince blinded human reaſon. According to this tradition, a kalendar, and the brains of the people, from a herd of pretended monſter named Oannes or Oes, half fiſh and half man, ſprang ſaints, and prevent them, at leaſt after their death, from doing in- from the ſea, before the chaos was completely diſperſed, and gave jury to fociety, by interrupting the induſtry of the laborious inha- | laws to the Chaldeans. A woman called Omorka, reigned over bitants with keeping their feſtivals. all the earth. Bel cut her in two, and made of one moiety the The third religion was idolatry, or the religion of the populace. heavens, and of the other the earth. They likewiſe invented For the common people, born to be deceived in every thing, con the two primitive beings ; of which the good one, who was named founding in their imaginations the ſtatues of the gods, the idols Ora/maſdes, had the direction of heaven ; and the other, called of their divinities, the emblems of their virtues, and of religious Arimanius, that of hell. worſhip, with the gods, divinities, virtues, and worſhip them The ſcience of mythology then teaches the theogony of the ſelves, adored theſe images, and proceeded to extravagancies moſt Phænicians; concerning whom it draws great lights from San- ridiculous, and frequently moſt criminal, in their ceremonies, choniathon, a prieſt of Beryte, who lived before the Trojan wars, feaſts, libations, ſacrifices, &c. It is to be feared, that as long as more than 400 years before Heſiod and Homer, and of whom there are upon the earth men of our limited capacities, this triple Eufebius has preſerved conſiderable fragments. From thence it religion will conſtantly ſubſiſt under different forms; and we are paſſes to the theogony of the Egyptians; of whom Thot or Thaut, much deceived if it may not be found under the empire of chriſti the founder of that nation, was likewiſe, they ſay, their firſt hiſ- anity itſelf, notwithſtanding the purity of its doctrine. It will be torian ; that Sanchoniathon even copied from him ; and of whom eaſily conceived, that it is not of the religion of philoſophers, nor we find many relations in the Greek hiſtorians, eſpecially in He- that of the populace, of which we are to treat in this article of rodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and in Euſebius of Cæfarea. It then Mythology ; but of that which ſubſiſted under the authority of examines the theogony of the Atlantides, who dwelt on the weſt- the magiſtracy and the prieſthood, and conſequently of paganiſm ern part of Africa, and of whom Diodorus alone has preſerved in general. any account. From thence it proceeds to the theogony of the As far as we are able to judge by all the ancient authors we Greeks, which is far better known to us, as we find accounts of have read, the pagans adored the ſovereign Lord of the univerſe it more or leſs particular, in numberleſs Greek and Latin writers. under the name of Fate or Deſtiny, which we muſt not confound This theogony had the ſame foundation as that of the Romans; with Fortune, who was regarded as a ſubaltern divinity. Jupiter the latter having only extended it, by adding to the Greek divi- himſelf, all the gods, every animated being, the heavens, the nities certain gods or demi-gods, formed of their heroes, and earth, the whole frame of nature, was ſubſervient to Deſtiny, certain ſymbolic and allegoric divinities, which mythology ex- and nothing could reverſe its decrees. This divinity was ſo This divinity was ſo plains at the ſame time; and it is on this occaſion that it enters highly adorable, as to be above all rank ; and was regarded as into a particular explication of the coſmogony and thcogony of too ſupreme to be repreſented under any ſenſible image or ſtatue, Ovid ; whoſe book of metamorphoſes contains as copious deſcrip- or to have any temple erected for its worſhip. We do not re tions as we could deſire of the fables of the ancients: what was member to have read, that ever any ſacrifice was offered to this their belief concerning the habitations of the bleſſed after their Deſtiny, or that any temple or city was ever dedicated to its name. death, or of the Elyſian fields; as well as of their hell or Tar- We are almoſt inclined to think, that the pagans were ſenſible, tarus ; of the dog Cerberus ; of the ferryman Charon ; of the that the temple and the worſhip of the God of gods ought to be Furies ; of the four rivers, Cocytus, Lethe, Phlegethon, and in the heart of man. Mention is made, indeed, of a temple that Styx, which water the Tartarian regions, &c. was dedicated to the Unknown God; but we are ignorant whe Mythologiſts then continue their reſearches into the time, the ther or not Deſtiny were thereby meant. We muſt not confound epoch, and place, of the real origin of paganiſm and idolatry; this Deſtiny, moreover, with the goddeſs of chance, of which and they prove that the pagans began by adoring the heavenly bo- there are ſome antique ſtatues that repreſent her in a recumbent dies, the ſtars and planets. They next examine into the progreſs poſture, and playing with little bones; for this was nothing more of idolatry: what were the temples of the pagans, their altars, than an invention of ſome ftatuary. their incloſures, their ſacred groves, their aſylums, the idols, and After this general and philoſophical idea of the Supreme Be- ſtatues of their deities; in what manner they were repreſented; ing, comes the poſitive religion of the pagans. This was entirely what were their ſacrifices, the victims that were offered; what the founded on fable, which took its riſe either from ancient tradi- days of penitence and ſupplication, the feaſts or the gods of elec- tions, or hiſtorical events, altered or augmented by the imagina- tiſternia, their invocations or incantations and exorciſms, the tions of the poets, by ſuperſtition, or by the credulity of the peo- religious ceremonies obſerved at laying the foundations of ci- ple; or elſe it conſiſted of allegoric or moral fictions. A. crowd ties, &c. of writers, and among the reſt Noel le Compte, (Natalis Comes) Divination, or the prediction of future events, a weakneſs that the abbots Bannier and Pluche, &c. have made many reſearches has at all times poſſeſſed the human mind, forms alſo an im- into the origin of fable; and they think they have diſcovered its portant article of pagan theology. It is, therefore, in this place ſource, 1. In the vanity of mankind; 2. In the want of letters that mythology conſiders the nature of oracles, and in what man- and characters; 3. In the deluſive eloquence of orators; 4. In ner theſe oracles gave their anſwers ; the ceremonies that were the relations of travellers ; 5. In fictions of poets, painters, fta- obſerved in conſulting them ; the frantic emotions of the prieſteſs tuaries, and dramatic writers ; 6. In the diverſity and uniformity Pythia on her tripod, and thoſe of other prieſts. See DIVINA- of names; 7. In the ignorance of true philofophy; 8. In the It then endeavours to inveſtigate the hiſtory of the Si- foundation of colonies, and the invention of arts; 9. In the de- byls, and of their prophecies. It next paſſes to the examen of the fire of having gods for our anceſtors; 10. In the imperfect or falſe nature of auguries, auſpices, haruſpices, prodigies, &c. of expia- interpretation of the holy ſcriptures ; 11. In the ignorance of the tions and ablutions; of the magic and aſtrology of the an- ancient hiſtory ; 12. In a like ignorance of chronology; 13. In cients, &c. See AstrOLOGY, &c. It then proceeds to the ex- that of foreign languages ; 14. In the tranſlation of the religion amination of the nature of the pagan divinities themſelves. of the Egyptians and Phænicians of Greece; 15. In the igno The celebrated treaties of Cicero De natura Deorum, will here rance of geography; and 16. In the belief which the firſt people I furniſh great lights : but modern authors, who have treated on theſe TION. MY S MYS mones, chefe matters, have not been conterited with this alone : they have, the Aſſyrians, Ifis and Oſiris by the Egyptians, Quirinus ať fo to fay, extracted the eſſence of all antiquity, of which they Rome, &c. The title Semones, which was given to a certain have formed fyſtems; but unluckily theſe ſcarce ever agree with claſs of divinities, was doubtleſs derived from Semi-homines, that each other. As philoſophers, it is of very little importance for us is, demi-men; and ſignified the ſame as ſemi-dii, or demi-gods. to know what was the nature of theſe gods, ſeeing we know that Theſe were monarchs and illuſtrious herores, or thoſe great men they were merely fabulous; but as hiſtorians and antiquaries, it who were the founders of cities and nations, that were deified by concerns us to know what was the nature thąt was attributed to way of apotheoſis. Pythargoras had taught the Chaldeans the them in general ; and, in particular, what were the origin, ge- doctrine of tranſmigratior.; and that, after their death, thoſe nealogy, rank, functions, authority, and operations, that were at who were virtuous would be elevated to the rank of divinities. cributed to each divinity ; and it is on thoſe matters that we have This doctrine was adopted by all the Pagan world. The apo- fill fome remarks to make. theoſis, after they had erected temples and altars to the new gods, The gods of the ancient Greeks and Romans were all either was celebrated with much ſolemnity. In the laſt ceremony, an Dii majorum gentium, or Dii minorum gentium ; that is, of the eagle was fixed on the catafalk, or funeral pile, on which was firſt or ſecond order. The former were alſo called conſentes, placed the image of the hero: and when the pile began to burn, magni conſultores, &c. According to Ennius, they were 12 in the eagle was let looſe, who mounting into the air with the flames number, and are included in theſe verſes: ſeemed to carry the foul of the departed hero up to heaven. Juno, Velta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars, Mythology informs us alſo, who thoſe perſons were that anti- Mercurius, Jovis, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo. quity regarded as the children of the gods, ſuch as Theſeus, To theſe were added eight others, under the title of Selecti, Hippolytus, Paris, &c. what the pagans believed with regard to which were Sol, Luna, Tellus, Genius, Janus, Saturnus, Liber, the nature of their genii and demons, of their dryades, hama- and Pluto. The ſecond order, or minorum gentium, were called dryades, nymphs, tritons, ſirens, fauns, fylvans, centaurs, and Adſcriptitii, Medioximi, Minuſcularii, Putatitii, Indigetes, Se other ſubaltern divinites; and in this manner it explains all &c. the principal of which were Æſculapius, Bacchus, the fyſtems of the poſitive religion of the Greeks and Romans. Caſtor, Fauna, Hercules, the Lares or Penates, Pollux, Quirinus. They who are deſirous of extending their knowledge of paga- We might add more, but theſe ſhall ſuffice. niſm ſtill further, of knowing the dogmas of each particular According to the ſecond diviſion, all their divinities were people, what were their gods, and the various manners in which claſſed into 1. Celeſtial gods ; 2. Terreſtrial gods ; 3. Sea gods; they were worſhipped, ſuch as Apis, Iſis, Ofiris, &c. the ado- and, 4. The infernal deities, or inferi. The celeſtial gods were ration of crocodiles and onions, &c. among the Egyptians, mult Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Aurora, Cupid, Cybele, the Graces, ſtudy the different theogonies of theſe people ; and notwithſtand- Hebe, Iris, Luna, Mars, Mercury, Minerva, Nemeſis, Saturn, ing all the informations which ancient and modern authors af- Themis, Venus, &c. The terreſtrial gods were Æolus, Aſtræa, ford, this ſtudy is yet boundleſs, and attended with many diffi- Ceres, Diana, the Fauni, Feronia, Flora, Janus, Momus, culties and uncertainties: though it appears demonſtrative, that the Muſes, Pales, Pan, Pomona, Priapus, the Satyrs, Silenus, the origin of paganiſm, and of idolatry in general, was derived the god Terminus, Veſta or Rhea, Vulcan, &c. The ſea-gods from the Chaldeans, from whom the Égyptians drew that doc- were Neptune, Amphitrite, Thetis, Canopus, Glaucus, Ino, trine which they after tranſmitted to all other nations ; and con- the Nereids, Nereus, Oceanus, Palæmon, Triton, &c. The in- fequently that the primordial divinities were the ſame, under dif- fernal gods were Pluto, Proſerpine, Charon, Minos, Æacus, erent denominations, among all the idolatrous nations of the Rhadamanthus, the Furies, Death, Night, the Fates, Plutus, &c. earth. The third diviſion ranged the divinities according as they pre The nature of this work will not permit us to defcend to ſided, 1. Over the pregnancy of women, (Pregnantium) 2. At further particulars. But to give our readers an idea of the partutitions (Parturientium); 3. At births, (Naſcentium); manner in which mythology treats its ſubjects, and of the me- 4. At Adulteries ; 5. At marriages ; to which they added, 6. Dii thod that ſhould be obſerved in ſtudying fable, or the hiſtory of morales, or moral gods; and 7. Funeral gods. The gods of the gods of antiquity, we ſhall here give, by way of example, pregnancy were Pilumnus, Intercidonia, and Deverra : the gods a curſory deſcription of Parnaſſus and its inhabitants. of parturition, Juno, Lucina, Diana, Egerio, Proſa, Poftverta, Parnaſſus was a mountain of Phocis, that had two ſummits, Menagenatta, Latona, the gods that were called Nixi, or of la one of which was called Tithoreus, and the other Hyampeus, bour, &c. The gods of birth were Janus, Opis, Naſcion, Cu- Others ſay, that one of theſe hills was named Helicon, and the nin, Carmenta, Vaginianus, Levana, Rumia, Potina, Educa, other Cytheron; and that it is an error to imagine, that Helicon Offilago, Carnea, Nundina, Statilinus, Fabulinus, Paventia, was a mountain of Beotia. However that be, this double hill &c. The gods of adultery were Juventus, Agenoria, Strenua, was conſecrated to Apollo and the muſes, who there held their Stimula,, Horta, Quies, Murcia, Adeona, Abeona, Voluptas, uſual reſidence. According to fable, there had been a very re- Orbona, Pellonia, Numeria, Camoena, Sentia, Angerona, Heres, markable combat on this hill, between Helicon and Cytheron. Martea, Laverna, the god Averruncus, Conſus, Catius, Volum- | Whoever ſlept on Parnaſſus, when he waked, became a poet. nus and Volumna, Honorius, Aius Locutius, &c. &c. The Apollo had there a temple. There alſo was the fountain Caſtalia, nuptial gods were Diana, Domiduca, Domitius, Hymanæus, or into which Apollo had metamorphoſed a nymph that he loved, Himen, Jugatinus, Jupiter perfectus, Juno perfecta, Juno cinxia, and had given to its waters the power of making all wlu drank Juno unxia, Lucina, Manturna, Mutinus, Dea Mater prima, of them poets. At the foot of Parnaſſus flowed the river Hip- Suada, Thalaffius, Venus, &c. The moral gods were called pocrene, that had the ſame virtue; and the ſcource of which Virtus, Honor, Fides, Spes, 7 uſitia, Pietas, Miſerecordia, Cle was opened by a ſtroke of the foot of the horſe Pegaſus. This mentina, Padicitia, Veritas, Mens, Concordia, Pux, Salus, Fe river nouriſhed a great number of ſwans, that were regarded as licitas, Libertas, Pecunia, Riſus, Invidna, Contumelia, Impu- facred. Pegaſus was a winged horſe, that belonged to Apollo, dentia, Calumnia, Fraus, Diſcordia, Furor, Fama, Fortuna, and grazed on the ſummit of Parnaſſus. He ſprang from the with all their epithets good or bad, Febris, Pavor, and Palor, blood of Meduſa, when Perſeus cut off her head, which was Paupertas, Neceffitas, Tempeſtas, Silentium, &c. The funeral placed among the ſtars. Such was the delicious abode of Apollo, gods were Pluto, Libitina, Nænia, Death, the Fates, &c. the ſon of Jupiter and Latona, who was born, with his twin Hefiod, indeed, pretends, that all theſe gods derived their origin fiſter Diana, in the iſland of Delos. He killed the Cyclops, from chaos ; but we have already pointed out more juſt ſources. who forged the thunderbolts with which Jupiter had overthrown It is almoſt incredible to what a prodigious number the ſuperſtition his ſon Æſculapius ; but for that preſumption he was forced to and weakneſs of the Greeks and Romans multiplied theſe divini- leave heaven, and became an inhabitant of the earth. He guard- ties: there have been 30,000 of them enumerated. It will not be ed the oxen of Admetus; he aided Neptune to build the walls expected that we ſhould here attempt to deſcribe them, nor will it of Troy, and Alcotheus in forming the Labyrinth. He killed be remarkable if we have forgotten to mention even fome of the the dragon or ſerpent Pythor. He invented muſic and phyſic; firſt rank: although, vaſt as this company of gods is, mythology and was honoured as the god of poets and phyſicians. He was does not omit to trace the hiſtory of the greateſt part of them, as is repreſented as a young man without a beard, his head ſurround- taught by paganiſm ; and they who are deſirous of particular in ed with rays, and bearing in his hand a bow, or a lyre. As the formation in theſe matters may conſult with advantage the theo ancients denoted the fun by the name of Apollo, they ſometimes gony of Hefiod, the catalogue of Apollodorus, the metamorphoſis repreſented him alſo as ſeated in a chariot, drawn by two white of Ovid, the fables of Hygina, Lylii Gregorii Gyraldi, Syn- horſes, preceded by Aurora and the ſtar Venus: Phaeton his tagma de diis Gentilium, the mythology of Natalis Comes, the ſon, being deſirous of conducting theſe horſes, was thrown into books of Gerard Voffius de idolatria Gentilium, Johannis Boc the ſea. Apollo was alſo called Phæbus, Titan and Sol. He eatii Genealogiadeorum, the Pantheon of Pompey, the hiſtory of is known to have had amours with Arſinoe, Corycia, Melæne, heaven by Abbé Pluche, the hiſtoric explanation of fables by Cyrene, Mantho, Sinope, Calliope, and others; by whom he Abbé Banier, and Bryant's Mythology, had Delphe, Naxe, Niletus, Arabe, Garamas, Sirus, Linus, There were ſtill many other diſtinctions, of which the pagans Orpheus, and other children. He had peculiar honours paid made ufe to mark the rank, the functions, and nature of their him in the Pythian games at Delphos, and in the ſecular games ſeveral divinities. For example, the goddeſs Veſta, or the mo at Rome. ther of all the gods, was adorned by all people in general. Mars, The muſes were the companions of Apollo in his rural abode. Bellona, Victoria, Fortunata, &c. affifted all parties. The to They were likewiſe called the learned ſiſters; as alſo the Camce- pical gods, on the contrary, were ordained in particular coun- | nion, Heliconian, Parnaſſian, Aonian, Pierian, Pegaſian, Aga- fries only; as. Aftarte in Syria, Derceto and Semiramis among | nippian, Theſpian, Libethrian, and Caftalian fifters. They с No. 114. were MYS M Y X were the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemofyne, and were re- ; or browniſh body reſembling a tongue. This in large muſcles garded as the goddeſſes of ſciences and arts in general. There is near half an inch long, and a little more than the fixth of an were nine of thoſe muſes; to whom they attributed; 1. To Clio, | inch in breadth, and is narrower at the origin than at the extre- hiſtory; 2. To Melpomene, tragedy ; 3: To Thalia, comedy ; mity: from the root of this tongue, or that part which is faſten- 4. To Euterpe, flutes and other pneumatic inſtruments of muſic ; ed to the body of the fish, there are produced a great number 5. To Terpſichore, the harp and the dance ; 6. To Erato, the of threads, which, when fixed to any folid ſubſtance, hold the lyre and the lute; 7. To Calliope, heroic verſe; 8. To Urania, muſcle firmly in its place : theſe threads are uſually from an aſtronomy; and 9. To Polyhymnia, rhetoric and eloquence. inch to two inches in length, and in thicknefs from that of The Graces alſo ſometimes quitted Venus to pay their court hair to that of a hog's briſtle. They iſſue out of the ihell in to Apollo. that part where it naturally opens, and fix themſelves to any Such was the idea they entertained of Parnaſſus and its inha- | thing that lies in their way, to ſtones, to fragments of thells, or, bitants. There is no doubt but that, under theſe fabulous re which is the moſt common caſe, to the ſhells of other muſcles preſentations, theſe ſenſible images, were concealed allegoric and whence it happens that there are uſually ſuch large parcels of moral meanings ; nor can it be denied but that their method of muſcles found together. Theſe threads are expanded on every cultivating the arts and ſciences, by this manner of expreſſing fide; and are uſually very numerous, 150 having been found iffu- their ideas, was as ingenious and pleaſing as it is poſſible to ing from one ſhell : they ſerve the office of ſo many cables; and, imagine. Every other ſubject that paganiſm embraced, it treat each pulling in its proper direction, they keep the muſcle fixed ed with the fame genius, and in a manner equally pleaſing ; againſt any force that can be offered from whatever part it comes . and though that religion was altogether fallacious, yet we muſt The filaments are well known to all who eat muſcles, whoever allow that it was extremely well calculated to promote the polite carefully ſeparates them under the name of the beard ; and Mr. arts, by thoſe refined, noble, graceful, brilliant images, by Reaumur has found, that while the animal is living in the ſea, thoſe charming fubjects, which it conſtantly preſented, and which if they are all torn away; the creature has a power of ſubſtitut it ſtill offers to the poet, painter, ſculptor, and every other artiſt. ing others in their room: he found, that if a quantity of muf- But this was not a power ſufficiently ſtrong to ſecure paganiſm cles were detached from one another, and put into a veſſel of any againſt that viciſſitude, that decline and diffolution, which finally kind, and in that plunged into the ſea, they, in a little time, faf- attends all the productions of this world. This religion, which tened themfelves both to the ſides of the veſſel, and to one ano- had fubfiſted near 5000 years, and almoſt from the origin of the ther's ſhells; the extremity of each thread ſeemed in this caſe to human race, gradually declined in proportion as the lights of ferve in the manner of a hand to feize upon any thing that it chriſtianity and philoſophy illuminated the minds of mankind. would fix to, and the other part, which was flenderer and ſmaller, For though the pagan religion, and the fables on which it was to do the office of an arm in conducting it. founded, were pleaſing and favourable to the polite arts, they The muſcle, like many other fea-fiſhes, abounds in a liquor ; were not however calculated to ſatisfy the minds of philoſophers, and if the baſe of their ſpinning organ, be touched with the finger it nor to promote the real good of mankind, by ſecuring their tem draws away with it a viſcous liquor in form of ſeveral threads, poral and eternal happineſs. It is even furpriſing that ſo great like thoſe of a caterpillar, ſpider, and the other ſpinning land a genius as the emperor Julian ſhould attempt to revive the em animals. The threads fix themſelves with equal eaſe to the bers of paganiſm, which inſenſibly declined, and had received moſt ſmooth and gloſſy, as to rougher bodies; if the muſcles a mortal blow at the beginning of the fourth century by the em are kept in glaſs-jars of fea-water, the as firmly faſten them- peror Conſtantine the great . Julian employed all the reſources felves to the glaſs as any other body. of his imagination, of his eloquence, of his power, and even Muſcles, be they ever ſo young, have this property of ſpin- of his own fatal example to revive it; but in vain. The pe- ning, and by this means they faſten themſelves in vaſt numbers to riod of paganiſm was arrived, and nothing could ſave it from any thing which they find in the ſea. Mr. Reaumur has ſeen deſtruction. The furious Theodoſius, to whom bigotted prieſts them when as ſmalí as millet feeds, ſpin plentifully; though and hiſtorians have aſſigned the name of great, totally overthrew their threads, proportioned to their own weight, are much finer it towards the cloſe of the ſame century, deſtroyed thoſe tem and ſmaller than thoſe of larger muſcles. It is a queſtion yet un- ples and altars which yet ſubſiſted, diſperſed its colleges, and determined, whether the muſcle has a power of breaking or exterminated its prieſts. From that dire epoch, nothing of otherwiſe getting rid of its threads, in order to its removing paganiſm has remained, except fome ruins diſperſed in the re from the place where it is once fixed; but it appears probable that mote parts of the earth, and among people wretched and almoſt they have not, and that they muſt remain where they have once unknown; where this religion, once fo flouriſhing and univerſal, faſtened themſelves, though their deſtruction be the conſequence is now degenerated into groſs and diſguſtful idolatry. of it. Mr. Reaumur tried this experiment in his jars: when MYTILUS, the Muscle in Vermeology, a genus belong- they had well fixed themſelves to the ſides of them, he poured ing to the order Teſtacea, which comprehends thoſe animals off part of the ſalt-water, ſo that it became the intereſts of the which have ſhells, and are therefore called Teſtaceous ; for a fiſh to leave their hold and go lower down, but they ſeemed to deſcription of the Genus Mytilus, ſee the Syſtem of CONCHO have no power to effect this. LOGY, Genus 16. The common muſcle affords the curious obſerver a very pleaf- The common ſea or edible muſcle, has, from its being always ing object of examination by the microſcope. The tranſparent found faſtened to the rocks, been ſuppoſed by many wholly in- membrane, which immediately appears on opening the hell, capable of progreſſive motion; but this is an erroneous opinion. Thews the circulation of blood for a long time together through It is a common practice in France, at ſuch ſeaſons of the year an amazing number of veſſels. And Mr. Lewenhoeck, in ſeve- as do not afford fun enough to make ſalt, to throw the common ral which he diſſected, diſcovered numbers of eggs or embryo ſea-muſcles, which the fiſhermen catch about the coaſts, into the muſcles in the ovarium, appearing as plainly as if he had ſeen brine pits. They have an opinion that this renders their fleſh them by the naked eye, and all lying with their ſharp ends faft- the more tender and delicate, as the rain which falls at theſe ſea ened to the ſtring of vefſels by which they receive nouriſh- fons makes the water of the pits much leſs ſalt than the common ment. The minute eggs, or embryos, are by the parent placed ſea-water. The muſcles are on this occaſion thrown careleſsly in due order, and in a very cloſe arrangement on the outſide of in, in ſeveral different parts of the pits; yet, at whatever diſtances the ſhell, where, by means of a gluey matter, they adhere very they have been thrown in, the fiſhermen, when they go to take faſt, and continually increaſe in ſize and ſtrength, till, becoming them out, always find them in a cluſter together; and as there perfect muſcles, they fall off and ſhift for themſelves, leaving is no current of water in theſe places, nor any other power of the holes where they were placed, behind them. motion which can have brought the muſcles together, it ſeems This abundance of muſcle ſhells, plainly ſhew when exami- very evident that they muſt voluntarily have marched from the ned by the microſcope, and ſometimes they are in a number of places where they were at firſt, to have met thus together. This 2000 or 3000 on one ſhell ; but it is not certain that theſe have progreſſive motion is wholly performed by means of what we call been all fixed there by the muſcle within ; for theſe fish uſually the tongue of the muſcle, from its ſhape ; but from its uſe in lying in great numbers near one another, the embryos of one this caſe, appears rather to merit the name of a leg, or an arm, are often affixed to the ſhell of another. The fringed edge of as, by laying hold of any diſtant fubſtance, and then forcibly con the muſcle, which Lewenhoeck, calls the beard, has in every tracting itſelf again, it draws along the whole body of the fiſh; the minuteſt part of it ſuch variety of motions as is inconceiva- the ſame part, when it has moved the animal to a proper place, ble ; for being compoſed of longifh fibres, each fibre has on ſerves alſo to fix it there, being the organ by which it ſpins the both ſides a vaſt many moving particles. threads which we call its beard, by which it is held to a rock, or MYXINE, the HAG ; a genus of inſects belonging to the to another muſcle. The motion of the muſcle, by means of order of Vermes Inteſtini. It hath a ſlender body, carinated be- this part, is juſt the ſame with that of a man laid flat on his neath ; mouth at the extremity, cirrated; the two jaws pinnat- belly, who would draw himſelf along by laying hold of any ed ; an adipoſe or rayles fin round the tail and under the belly. thing with one hand, and then drawing himſelf to it. Muſcles The only remarkable ſpecies is the glutinoſa, about eight inches are well known to have a power of faſtening themſelves either long. It inhabits the ocean ; enters the mouths of fiſh when on to ſtones, or to one another's ſhells, in a very ſtrong and firm the hooks of lines that remain a tide under water, and totally de- manner; but the method of doing this was not well underſtood vours the whole, except ſkin and bones. The Scarborough till the obſervations of Mr. Reaumur explained it.ro fiſhermen often take it in the robbed fiſh, on drawiug up their Every one who opens and examines a common muſcle, will lines. Linnæus attributes to it the propety of turning water into find that in the middle of the fiſh there is placed a little blackish glue. N A P NAR N. N, A liquid conſonant, or femi-vowel, and the thirteenth | tillation of amber ; where the firſt liquor that riſes is a true letter of the Greek, Latin, Engliſh, &c. alphabets. The N naphtha; then a petroleum of a more or leſs brown colour ; and is a nafal conſonant ; its found is that of a d, paſſed through the laſtly, a black ſubſtance like jet, which being farther urged by nofe ; fo that when the noſe is ſtopped by a cold, or the like, it the fire, leaves a dry friable matter, &c. It is further obſerved, is nſual to pronounce d for n. M. l'Abbé de Dangeau obſerves, that nature frequently produces all the different kinds of petrolea that in the French the n is frequently a mere naſal vowel, without near the fame ſpot; of which we have an inſtance at Mount any thing of the found of a conſonant in it. He calls it the Teſtin in the duchy of Modena in Italy. Some, however, are Sclavonic vowel. of opinion, that theſe mineral oils or bitumens are formed from N before p, b, and m, the Latine change into m, and frequent- | the vitriolic acid, and various oily and fat ſubſtances found in Jy into l and r, as in ludo, illudo ; in rigo, irrigo, &c. in which the bowels of the earth. they agree with the Hebrews, who in lieu of nun, frequently NARCOTICS, from the Greek va xwTIXOS, of vaguwols; drow- double the following conſonant ; and the Geeks do the ſame, as fineſs, in Medicine, opiates, or medicines that excite drowſineſs when for Manlius, they write M 2015, &c. and ſleep. See OPIUM. Narcotics, called alſo hypnotics, and In Engliſh, N has an invariable found: as no name, &c. Af- Soporifics, act by calming and diminiſhing the motion of the ter m it is ſometimes almoſt loft, as condemn, &c. blood and ſpirits. NADIR, in aſtronomy, a point in the heavens diametrically Authors are of various opinions as to the manner wherein oppoſite to the Zenith. The word is pure Arabic, where it narcotics operate : the ancients tell us, it is by their being cold ſignifies the ſame. The nadir is that point directly under in nature, whereby they ſtupify and deaden the ſenſe. Etmuller, our feet; or a point in the right line drawn from our feet after Wallis, takes the animal ſpirits to be compoſed of a fluid, through the centre of the earth, and terminating in the under volatile falt; and thinks they are diſſolved by the mixtures of hemiſphere. The zenith and nadir are the two poles of the ho ſulphurs and oils, wherewith narcotics abound. Mr. Andry's rizon, each being so deg. diſtance from it, conſequently each in | opinion is, that the falt of narcotics diſſolves in any liquor what- the meridian. ever; and that their ramous branches, becoming thus diſengaged NAHUM, or the Prophecy of NA HUM, a canonical book from the ſalts, are embarraſſed among one another, and thus of the Old Teſtament. Nahum, the ſeventh of the twelve lef- ſtop the courſe of the blood and ſpirits. Others think, that nar- fer prophets, was a native of Elkoſhai, a little village of Gali cotics cloſe the orifices of the nerves, and thus block up the lee. The ſubject of this prophecy is the deſtruction of Nineveh, paſſage of the ſpirits. Laſtly, Linden, in his treatiſe de Ves which he deſcribes in the moſt lively and pathetic manner: his nenis, thinks, that the operation of narcotics is not the ſame in ſtyle is bold'and figurative, and can hardly be exceeded by the all ; drowſineſs being producible from a great variety of differ- moſt perfect maſters of oratory. This prophecy was verified at ent cauſes. See SLEEP. the fiege of that city, Aſtyages, in the year of the world 4378, In diſorders of the ſtomach and inteſtines, all things which in- fix hur dered and twenty-two years before Chriſt. The time of The time of duce a ſtupor are very cautiouſly, or never at all, to be exhibi- Nahum's death is unknown; the Greek menologies, and the ted; becauſe no kind of medicines is ſo pernicious and injuri- Latin martyrologies place his feſtival on the firſt dayof December. ous to the tone and motion of the nervous parts. To preſerve NAME, denotes a word whereby men have agreed to ex health, and prevent diſeaſes, nothing is ſo effectual as to main- preſs fome idea ; or which ſerves to denote or fi_nify a thing or tain the tone, ſtrength, and motion of what they call the prime ſubject ſpoken of. This the grammarians uſually call a NOUN, viæ, or firſt paſſages, becauſe that moſt falutary excretion which nomen. See the Syſtem of GRAMMAR, Part I. Sect. I. There is performed by ſtool and diſcharges the fordes, which are the are a great number of things which have no name; and which, recrements remaining after digeſtion, or are collected from all therefore, we are forced to call by other borrowed names: which parts of the body, parts of the body, depends chiefly thereon. Where this eva- may ſhew why, in the courſe of this Dictionary, we frequently cuation is ſuppreſſed, or elſe performed after a flow and remifs give divers fenfes to the ſame word. It was Adam that firſt manner, a deluge of vicious humours is foon collected, and be- gave things their names, Geneſis, ii. 19. Names ars diſtnguiſhed comes the cauſe, as well as fomenter, of diſeaſes. Now there into proper and appellative. is nothing which ſo effectually diminiſhes the periſtaltic motion Proper NAMES, are thoſe which repreſent ſome individual of the inteſtines, and ſuppreſſes inteſtinal excretion, as ſedatives thing or perfon, ſo as to diſtinguiſh it from all other things of and anodynes, the truth of which is atteſted by experience; for the fame ſpecies. As Socrates, which repreſents a certain phi- all remedies, ſo eſpecially thoſe which are of a draſtic quality, lofopher. exert their efficacy firſt and principally upon the ſtomach and in- Appellative or General Names, are thoſe which ſignify com teſtines mon ideas ; or which are common to ſeveral individuals of the NARCISSUS, in botany : A genus of the Monogyna order, , fame ſpecies ; as, horſe, animal, man, oak, &c. belonging to the Hexandria claſs of plants. NANTES, or ſwimming, is the name of an order of ani 1. The baſtard narciſſus, or common yellow Engliſh daffodil, mals under the claſs AMPHIBIA ; the characters of which are, grows wild in great plenty in many of our woods and coppices, and that they are pinnated, and breathe by lateral branchiæ or gills. under hedges in ſeveral parts of England. In the counties round This order comprehends fourteen genera, and ſeventy-ſix ſpecies. London the herb-gatherers bring prodigious quantities in To this order belong the Petromizon, Reja, Squalus, &c. See the ſpring of the year, when in bloom, root and all, and ſell AMPHIBIOLOGY. them about the ſtreets. Its commonnefs renders it of but NAPHTHA,aninflammable ſubſtance of the bituminous kind, little eſteem with many; confidered, however, as an early and of a light brown colour, and incapable of decompoſition, though elegant flower, of exceeding hardineſs and eaſy culture, it me- frequently adulterated with heterogeneous mixtures. By long rits a place in every garden. keeping it hardens in the air into a ſubſtance reſembling a vege 2. The poeticus, poetic daffadil, or common white narcif- table reſin; and in this ſtate it is always of a black colour, whe ſus, is well known. Of this there are varieties with purple- ther pure or mixed with other bodies. According to Mongez, cupped flowers-yellow-cupped flowers—double flowered : all of there are three kinds of naphtha, the white, reddiſh, and green or them with entire white petals. It is the ancient celebrated nar- deep-coloured ; and it is in fact a true petrol or rock oil, of which ciffus of the Greek and Roman poets, which they fo greatly ex- the lighteſt and moſt inflammable is called naphtha. It is ſaid to be tol for its extreme beauty and fragrance. of an extremely fragrant and agreeable ſmell, though very different 3. The tazetta, or multiflorous daffodil, commonly called in this reſpect from vegetable oils. It is alſo tranſparent, extreme- polyanthus narciſſus. The varieties of this are very numerous, ly inflammable, diffolves reſins and balſams, but not gum-re-conſiſting of about eight or nine principal forts, each of which fins nor elaſtic-gum. It diffolves in the eſſential oils of thyme having many intermediate varieties ; amounting in the whole to and lavender, but is infoluble in ſpirit of wine and ether. It greatly above an hundred in the Dutch floriſts catalogues, each burns with a bluiſh flame, and is as inflammable as ether: like variety diſtinguiſhed by a name according to the fancy of the which it alſo attracts gold from aqua-regia. firſt raiſer of it. They are all very pretty flowers, and make a Naphtha, according to Cronſtedt, is collected from the ſurface charming appearance in the flower borders, &c. they are alſo fine- of ſome wells in Perfia ; but Mr. Kirwan informs us, that it ly adapted for blowing in glaſſes of water, or in pots, to orna- iffues out of white, yellow, or black clays, in Perſia and Media. ment rooms in winter. The fineſt is brought from a peninſula in the Caſpian Sea, called 4, The jonquilla, or jonquil, ſometimes called ruſh-leaved by Kempfer oxefra. It iſſues out through the earth into cif- daffodil, hath an oblong, bulbous brown root. The varieties terns and wells, purpoſely excavated for collecting it at Baku are, jonquil minor with ſingle flowers--jonquil major with ſingle in Perfia. Different kinds of this ſubſtance are alſo found in 1 Powers--ſtarry flowered—yellow and white flowered--white Italy, in the duchy of Modena, and in Mount Ciaro, 12 leagues flowered--ſemi-double-flowered--double-flowered--and large dou- from Plaiſance. ble inodorous jonquil: all of them multiflorous, the fingle in The formation of naphtha and petroleum is by moſt naturaliſts particular; but ſometimes the doubles produce only two or and chymiſts afcribed to the decompoſition of ſolid bitun: ns by three flowers from a ſpatha, and the ſingles commonly fix or the action of ſubterraneous fires; naphtha being the lighteſt oil, eight. All the forts have fo fine a ſhape, fo foft a colour, and which the fire diſengages firſt; which follows gradually acquir- fo ſweet a ſcent, that they are ſome of the moſt agreeable ſpring, ing the colour and conſiſtence of petrol. Laſtly, the petrolea, flowers. united with ſome earthy fubſtances, or altered by acids, aſſume All theſe ſpecies of narciſſus are of the bulbous-rooted tribe, the appearance of mineral pitch, piſſaſphaltum, &c. This opi- and univerſally. perennial in root, but annual in leaf and flower nion ſeems to be ſupported by the phenomena attending the dif- ) Atalk; all of them riſing annually in ſpring, immediately from the NAR N A R Milton, b. 1. 93 the crown of the bulb, firſt the leaves, and in the midſt of them He ſpake; and, to confirm his words, out flow Millions of flaming ſwords, drawn from the thighs the flower ſtalk, one only from each root, entirely naked, or Of mighty cherubim; the ſudden blaze leafleſs, each terminated by a ſpatha or ſheath, which opens on Far round illumin'd hell: highly they rag'd one ſide to protrude the flowers, and then withers; the flowers, Againſt the Higheſt, and fierce with graſped arms, as before obſerved, are all hexapetalous, each furniſhed with a Clath'd on their ſounding fhields the din of war, Hurling defiance towards the vault of heaven. nectarium in the centre; and are univerſally hermaphrodite : they are large and conſpicuous, appearing moſtly in the ſpring The following paſſage from Shakeſpeare, falls not much ſhort ſeaſon, generally from March or April until June, fucceeded by of that now mentioned, in particularity of deſcription. ripe feed in July z then the leaves and flower ſtalks decay, and O you hard hearts ! you cruel men of Rome! the roots defiſt from growing for ſome time ; at which period of Knew you not Pompey ? Many a time and oft reſt is the only proper time to take up or tranſplant the roots Have you clim'd up to walls and battlements, To tow'rs and windows, yea to chimney tops, from one place to another, or to ſeparate the offsets ; for they Your infants in your arms; and there have fat all multiply abundantly by offset young bulbs from the main The live-long day with patient expectation root, inſomuch that a ſingle bulb will , in cne or two years, be To ſee great Pompey paſs the ſtreets of Rome; increaſed into a large cluſter of ſeveral bulbs, cloſely placed to- And when you ſaw his chariot but appear, gether, and which every ſecond or third year ſhould be taken up Have you not made an univerſal Thout, at the above period in order to be ſeparated ; and cach offset fo That Tyber trembled underneath his banks, To hear the replication of your ſounds, ſeparated commences a diſtinct plant; which being planted again Made in his concave ſhores? Julius Cæfar, afl. 1.fc, 1. in autumn, produces flowers the following ſummer, alike in every reſpect to thoſe of their reſpective parent bulbs. All the The following paſſage is ſcarcely inferior to either of thofe mentioned. ſpecies are ſo hardy, that they proſper in any common foil of a garden ; obſerving, however, to allow the finer forts of polyan- " Far before the reſt, the ſon of Ofian comes ; bright in thus narciſſus, in particular, principally a warm dry ſituation ; the ſmiles of youth, fair as the firſt beams of the fun. His all the others may be planted any where in the open dry borders long hair waves on his back: his dark brow is half beneath his and flower beds. helmet. The ſword hangs loofe on the hero's fide; and his NARRATION, in oratory, poetry, and hiſtory, a recital ſpear glitters as he moves. I fled from his terrible eye, king of or rehearſal of a fact as it happened, or when it is ſupoſed to high Temora. Fingal. have happened. See the Syſtem of ORATORY, Part II. Sect. Some ſingle circumſtance, happily ſelected, has more power 11. Concerning narration and deſcription we preſent the fol- than the moſt laboured deſcription. Macbeth, mentioning to lowing rules and obſervations. his lady ſome voices he heard while he was murdering the king, 1. The firſt rule is, That in hiſtory the reflections ought to ſays, be chaſte and folid; for while the mind is intent upon truth, There's one did laugh in ſleep, and one cry'd murder! They wak'd each other, and I ſtood and heard them; it is little diſpoſed to the operations of the imagination. Stra- But they did ſay their prayers, and addreſs them da's Belgic hiſtory is full of poetical images, which, being diſ- Again to ſleep." cordant with the ſubject, are unpleaſant; and they have a ſtill Lady. There are two lodg'd together. worſe effect, by giving an air of fiction to a genuine hiſtory.- Macbeth. One cry'd God bleſs us! and Amen, the other ; Such flowers ought to be ſcattered with a ſparing hand, even in As they had ſeen me with theſe hangman's hands. Liffening their fears, I could not fay, Amen, epic poetry; and at no rate are they proper, tiil the reader be When they did ſay, God bleſs us. warmed, and by an enlivened imagination prepared to reliſh them: Lady. Conſider it not ſo deeply. in that ſtate of mind, they are agreeable; but while we are fe- Macbeth. But wherefore could not I pronounce, Amen? date and attentive to an hiſtorical chain of facts, we reject with I had moſt need of bleſling, and Amen Stuck in my throat. diſdain every fiction. Lady. Theſe deeds muſt not be thought 2. Vida, following Horace, recommends a modeſt com- After theſe ways; fo, it will make us mad. mencement of an epic poem ; giving for a reaſon, That the Macbeth. Methought, I heard a voice cry, writer ought to huſband his fire Beſides, bold thoughts and Sleep no more! Mackbeth doth murder Sleep, &c. figures are never reliſhed till the mind be heated and thoroughly engaged, which is not the reader's caſe at the commencement. Deſcribing Prince Henry: Homer introduces not a ſingle ſimile in the firſt book of the I ſaw young Harry, with his beaver on, Iliad, nor in the firſt book of the Odyſſey. On the other hand, His cuiſſes on his thighs, gallantly arm’d, Shakeſpeare begins one of his plays with a ſentiment too bold Riſe from the ground like feather'd Mercury; for the moſt heated imagination. And vaulted with ſuch eaſe into his ſeat, As if an angel dropt down from the clouds, Bedford. Hung be the heavens with black, yield day to night! To turn and wind a fiery Pegaſus, Comets, importing change of times and ſtates, And witch the world with noble horſemanſhip. Brandiſh your cryſtal treſſes in the ſky, Firſt Part of Henry IV. afl. 4. fc. 2. And with them fcourge the bad revolting ſtars, "That have conſented unto Henry's dea h! To draw a character is the maſter-ſtroke of deſcription. In Henry the Fifth, too f mous to live long ! this Tacitus excels: his portraits are natural and lively, not England ne'er loſt a king of ſo much worth. a feature wanting or miſplaced Shakeſpeare, however, ex- Firſt Part of Henry VI. ceeds Tacitus in livelineſs; ſome characteriſtical circumſtance The paſſage with which Strada begins his hiſtory, is too being generally invented or laid hold of, which paints more to poe- tical for a ſubject of that ki d; and at any rate too high for the the life than many words. The following inſtances will ex- beginning of a grave performance. plain our meaning, and at the ſame time prove our obſervation 3. In narration, as well as in deſcription, objects ought to be to be juſt. painted fo accurately as to form in the mind of the reader, dif- Why ſhould a man, whoſe blood is warm within, tinct and lively images. Every uſeleſs circumſtance ought, in- Sit like his grandſire cut in alabaſter ? Sleep when he wakes, and creep into the jaundice, deed, to be fuppreſſed, becauſe every ſuch circumſtance loads the By being peeviſh? I tell thee what, Anthonio, narration ; but if a circumſtance be neceſſary, however ſlight, it (I love thee, and it is my love that ſpeaks) cannot be deſcribed too minutely. The force of language con- There are a ſort of men, whoſe viſages fiſts in raiſing complete images; which have the effect to tranf- Do cream and mantle like a ſtanding pond; And do a wilful ſtillneſs entertain, port the reader, as by magic, into the very place of the impor- With purpoſe to be dreſs'd in an opinion tant action, and to convert him as it were into a ſpectator, be- Of wiſdom, gravity, profound conceit; holding everything that paſſes. The narrative in an epic As who ſhould ſay, I am Sir Oracle, poem ought to rival a picture in the livelineſs and accuracy of And when I ope my lips, let no dog bark ! its repreſentations: no circumſtance muſt be omitted that tends O my Anthonio ! I do know of thoſe, That therefore only are reputed wiſe, to make a complete image ; becauſe an imperfect image, as well For ſaying nothing. Merchant of Venice, ači 1. ſc. 2. as any other imperfect conception, is cold and unintereſting.- We ſhall illuſtrate this rule by ſeveral examples, giving the firft In the following paſſage, a character is completed by a ſingle ſtroke: place to a beautiful paſſage from Virgil : Shallow. O the mad days that I have ſpent ; and to ſee how Qualis poleå mærens Philomela ſub umbra Amiflos queritur fætus, quos durus anator many of mine old acquaintance are dead. Obſervans nido implumes detraxit. Georg. lib. 4. l. 511. Silence. We ſhall all follow couſin. Shallow. Certain, 'tis certain, very fure, very ſure: Death The poplar, plowman, and unfledged young, though not cf (as the Pſalmiſt ſaith) is certain to all: all ſhall die. How good ſential in the deſcription, tend to make a complete image, and, a yoke of Bullocks at Stampford fair. upon that account, are an embelliſhment. Slender. Truly, couſin, I was not there, In the following paffage, the action, with all its material cir Shallow. Death is certain. Death is certain. Is old Double of Is old Double of your town cumſtances, is repreſented ſo much to the life, that it would living yet? ſcarce appear more diſtinct to a real ſpectator: and it is the man Silence. Dead, Sir. rier of defeription that contributes greatly to the ſublimity of the Shallow, Dead ! ſee, ſee: he drew a good bow: and dead. paffage. He ſhot a fine ſhoot. How a ſcore of ewes now? Silence AEF. 2. f. 3. aca N A R N A R my Silence. Thereafter as they be. A ſcore of good ewes may be And know what 'tis to pity, and be pity'd ; Let gentleneſs my ſtrong inforcement be, worth ten pounds. In the which hope I bluſh, and hide fword. Shallow. And is old Double dead? Duke ſen. True is it that we have ſeen better days; Second Part Henry IV. act. 3. ſc. 3. And have with holy bell been knolld to church; Falſtaff ſpeaking of Ancient Piſtol : And ſat at good men's feaſts; and wip'd our eyes He's no ſwaggerer, hoſteſs : a tame cheater i' faith; you Of drops that ſacred pity had engender'd : And therefore fit you down in gentleneſs, may ſtroak him as gently as a puppy-greyhound; he will not And take upon command what help we have, ſwagger with a Barbary hen, if her feathers turn back in any ſhew That to your wanting may be miniſter'd. As you like it. of reſiſtance. Second Part Henry IV. act 2. fo.9. With thee converſing I forget all time; Having diſcuſſed what obſervations occurred upon the thoughts All ſeaſons and their change, all pleaſe alike. or things expreſſed, we proceed to what more peculiarly concerns the Sweet is the breath of morn, her rifing ſweet, language or verbal dreſs. As words are intimately connected with With charm of earlieſt birds; pleaſant the ſun When firſt on this delightful land he ſpreads the ideas they repreſent, the emotions raiſed by the ſound and by the His orient beams, on herbs, tree, fruit, and flow'r ſenſe ought to be concordant. An elevated ſubject requires an ele- Gliſtering with dew; fragrant the fertile earth vated ſtyle; what is familiar, ought to be familiarly expreſſed : a After ſoft ſhow'rs; and ſweet the coming on ſubject that is ſerious and important, ought to be clothed in plain Of grateful ev'ning mild, the filent night With this her ſolemn bird, and this fair moon, nervous language: a deſcription, on the other hand, addreſſed to the And theſe the gems of heav'n, her ſtarry train: imagination, is ſuſceptible of the higheſt ornaments that ſounding But neither breath of morn, when ſhe afcends words and figurative expreſſion can beſtow upon it. With charm of earlieſt birds, nor riſing ſun The language of Homer is ſuited to his ſubject, not leſs accurately On this delightful land, nor herb, fruit, flow'r, than the actions and ſentiments of his heroes are to their characters. Gliſtering with dew, nor fragrance after ſhow'rs, Nor grateful ev’ning mild, nor filent night, Virgil, in that particular, falls ſhort of perfection; his language is With this her folemn bird, nor walk by moon, ſtately throughout: and though he deſcends at times to the ſimpleſt Or glittering ſtar-light, without thee is ſweet. branches of cookery, roaſting and boiling for example, yet he never Paradiſe Loſt, book 4. 1. 634. relaxes a moment from the high tone. În adjuſting his language to A conciſe comprehenſive ſtyle is a great ornament in narration; his ſubject, no writer equals Swift. We can recollect but one ex- and a ſuperfluity of unneceſſary words, not leſs than of circum- ception, which at the ſame time is far from being grofs: The Journal of a modern Lady is compoſed in a ſtyle blending ſprightli-ſtances, a great nuiſance. A judicious felection of the ſtriking cir- cumſtances, clothed in a nervous ſtyle, is delightful. In this ſtyle, neſs with familiarity, perfectly ſuited to the fubject: in one paſſage, Tacitus excels all writers, ancient and modern. Inſtances are however, the poet deviating from that ſtyle, takes a tone above his numberleſs: take the following ſpecimen. ſubject. The paſſage we have in view begins l. 116. But let me “ Crebra hinc prælia, et fæpius in modum latrocinii: per faltus, now a while ſurvey, &c. and ends at l. 125. per paludes; et cuique fors aut virtus: temerè, proviſo, ob iram, It is proper to be obſerved upon this head, that writers of inferior rank are continually upon the ſtretch to enliven and enforce their ſub- ob prædam, juſſu, et aliquando ignaris ducibus.” Annal. lib. 12. $39. If a conciſe or nervous ſtyle be a beauty, tautology muſt be a ject by exaggeration and ſuperlatives. This unluckily has an effect contrary to what is intended : the reader, diſguſted with language blemiſh; and yet writers, fettered by verſe, are not ſufficiently care- that ſwells above the ſubject, is led by contraſt to think more meanly ful to avoid this ſlovenly practice: they may be pitied, but they cannot be juſtified. Take for a ſpecimen the following inſtance, of the ſubject than it may poſſibly deſerve. A man of prudence be- fides, will be no leſs careful to huſband his ſtrength in writing than from the beſt poet, for verſification at leaſt, that England has to boaſt of: in walking : a writer too liberal of ſuperlatives, exhauſts his whole ſtock upon ordinary incidents, and reſerves no ſhare to expreſs, with High on his helm celeſtial lightnings play, greater energy, matters of importance. His beamy ſhield emits a living ray ; Many writers of that kind abonnd ſo in epithets, as if poetry con- The unweary'd blaze inceffant Itreams ſupplies, Like the red ſtar that fires th' autumnal ſkies. Iliad, v. s. fiſted entirely in high-ſounding words. Take the following inſtance: We cloſe this article with a curious inquiry. An object, how- When black-brow'd night trer duſky mantle ſpread, And wrapt in folemn gloom the fable ſky; ever ugly to the fight, is far from being ſo when repreſented by co- When ſoothing ſleep her opiate dews had ſhed, lours or by words. What is the cauſe of this difference? With And feal'd in filken ſlumbers ev'ry eye: reſpect to painting the cauſe is obvious : a good picture, whatever My wakeful thoughts admit no balmy reſt, the ſubject be, is agreeable by the pleaſure we take in imitation ; and Nor the fweet bliſs of foft oblivion ſhare : But watchful woe diſtracts my aching breaſt, this pleaſure overbalancing the diſagreeableneſs of the ſubject, makes My heart the ſubject of corroding care : the picture upon the whole agreeable. With reſpect to the de- From haunts of men with wand'ring ſteps and flow ſcription of an ugly object, the cauſe follows. To connect indivi- I folitary ſteal, and ſoothe my penfive woe. duals in the ſocial ſtate, no particular contributes more than lan- Here every ſubſtantive is faithfully attended by ſome tumid epithet.guage, by the power it poſſeſſes of an expeditious communication of We proceed to a ſecond remark, not leſs important than the thought, and a lively repreſentation of tranſactions. But nature former. No perſon of reflection but muſt be ſenſible, that an inci- hath not been ſatisfied to recommend language by its utility merely; dent makes a ſtronger impreſſion on an eye-witneſs, than when independent of utility, it is made ſuſceptible of many beauties, which are directly felt, without any intervening reflection. And heard at ſecond-hand. Writers of genius, ſenſible that the eye the beſt avenue to the heart, repreſent every thing as paſſing in our this unfolds the myſtery; for the pleaſure of language is ſo great, ſight; and, from readers or hearers, transform us as it were into as in a lively deſcription to overbalance the diſagreeableneſs of the ſpectators: a ſkilful writer conceals himſelf, and preſents his perlon- image raiſed by it. This, however, is no encouragement to chooſe ages : in a word, every thing becomes dramatic as much as poſſible. a diſagreeable ſubject; for the pleaſure is incomparably greater Plutarch, de gloria Athenienſium, obſerves, that Thucydides makes where the ſubject and the deſcription are both of them agreeable. his reader a ſpectator, and inſpires him with the ſame paſſions as if The following deſcription is upon the whole agreeable, though he he were an eye-witneſs. the ſubject deſcribed is in itſelf diſmal : In the fine arts it is a rule, to put the capital objects in the Nine times the ſpace that meaſures day and night ſtrongeſt point of view; and even to preſent them oftener than To mortal men, he with his horrid crew once, where it can be done. In hiſtory-painting, the principal fi- Lay vanquiſh’d, rolling in the fiery gulf, Confounded though immortal! but his doom gure is placed in the front, and in the beſt light: an equeſtrian ſtatue Reſerv'd him to more wrath; for now the thought is placed in a centre of ſtreets, that it may be ſeen from many places Both of loft happineſs and laſting pain In no compoſition is there greater opportunity for this Torments him ; round he throws his baleful eyes rule than in writing : That witneſs'd huge affliction and diſmay, Mix'd with obdurate pride and ſtedfaſt hate : -----Sequitur pulcherrimus Aſtur, At once as far as angels ken he views The diſmal ſituation waſte and wild : Aftur equo fidens et verſicoloribus armis. Æneid. x. 180. ---Full many a lady A dungeon horrible, on all ſides round As one great furnace flamed; yet from thoſe flames I've ey'd with beſt regard, and many a time No light, but rather darkneſs viſible Th’ harmony of their tongues hath into bondage Serv'd only to diſcover fights of woe, Brought my too diligent ear : for ſeveral virtues Have I lik'd ſeveral women; never any Regions of forrow, doleful ſhades, where peace And reſt can never dwell, hope never comes With ſo full ſoul, but fome defect in her That comes to all; but torture without end Did quarrel with the nobleſt grace ſhe ow'd, Still urges, and a fiery deluge, fed And put it to the foil. But you, With ever-burning fulphur unconſum'd! So perfect, and ſo peerleſs, are created Such place eternal juſtice had prepar'd creature's beſt. Tempeſt, act 3. fcri. For thoſe rebellious. Paradiſe Loſt, book 1. I. 50. Orlando. ----------- Whate'er you are That, in the defart inacceſſible, An unmanly depreſſion of ſpirits in time of danger is not an Under the ſhade of melancholy boughs, agreeable ſight; and yet a fine deſcription or repreſentation of it Loſe and neglect the creeping hours of time; will be agreeable : If ever you have look'd on better days; If ever been where bells have knoll'd to church; K. Richard. What muſt the King do now! muſt he ſubmit? If ever fat at any good man's feaſt; The king ſhall do it: muſt he be depos’d? If ever from your eye-lids wip'd a tear, The king ſhall be contented: muſt he loſe N° 115. VOL. III. D The is at once. O you, Of every * N A T N A T The name of king? o' God's name, let it go; which compoſe the ſplendid but inſignificant pageantry of a court, I'll give my jewels for a ſet of beads; His ordinary expence becomes equal to his ordinary revenue, and My gorgeous palace, for a hermitage; it is well if it does not frequently exceed it . The amaſſing of My gay apparel, for an almſman's gown; treaſure can no longer be expected; and when extraordinary exi. My figur'd goblets, for a diſh of wood; My ſceptre, for a palmer's walking-ſtaff; gencies require extraordinary expences, he muſt neceſſarily call My ſubjects, for a pair of carved ſaints; upon his ſubjects for an extraordinary aid. The late king of And my large kingdom, for a little grave ; Pruſſia and his father are the only great princes of Europe who, A little, little grave ;------an obfcure grave. ſince the death of Henry IV. of France in 1610, are ſuppoſed to Or I'll be bury'd in the king's highway; have amaſſed any conſiderable treaſure. The parſimony which Some way of common trade, where ſubjects feet May hourly trample on their ſovereign's head; leads to accumulation has become almoſt as rare in republican as For on my heart they tread now, whilſt I live; in monarchical governments. The Italian republics, the United And, bury'd once, why not upon my head? Provinces of the Netherlands, are all in debt. The canton of Richard II. act 3. fc. 6. Berne is the ſingle republic in Europe which has amaſſed any con- Objects that ſtrike terror in a ſpectator, have in poetry and paint- ſiderable treaſure. The other Swiſs republics have not. The talle ing a fine effect. The picture, by raiſing a ſlight emotion of terror, for foine ſort of pageantry, for ſplendid buildings at leaſt and other agitates the mind; and in that condition every beauty makes a deep public ornaments , frequently prevails as much in the apparently impreſſion. May not contraſt heighten the pleaſure, by oppoſing ſober ſenate-houſe of a little republic as in the diſſipated court of our preſent ſecurity to the danger of encountering the object re- the greateſt king. preſented The want of parſimony in time of peace impoſes the neceſſity of contracting debt in time of war. When war comes, there is Ghost. ------ But that I am forbid no money in the treaſury but what is neceſſary for carrying on the To tell the ſecrets of my priſon-houſe, ordinary expence of the peace eſtabliſhment. In war an eſtabliſh . I could a tale unfold, whoſe lighteſt word ment of three or four times that expence becomes neceſſary for the Would harrow up thy ſoul, freeze thy young blood, Make thy two eyes, like ſtars, ſtart from their ſpheres, defence of the ſtate, and conſequently a revenue three or four times Thy knotty and combined locks to part, greater than the peace revenue. Suppoſing that the ſovereign And each particular hair to ſtand on end, ſhould have, what he ſcarce ever has, the immediate means of aug- Like quills upon the fretful porcupine : menting his revenue in proportion to the augmentation of his But this eternal blazon mult not be To ears of fleſh and blood. Hamlet, az 1. ſc. 8. expence; yet ſtill the produce of the taxes, from which this increaſe of revenue muſt be drawn, will not begin to come into the treaſury NATES, in anatomy, a term expreſſing thoſe two fleſhy pofte till perhaps ten or twelve months after they are impoſed. But the rior parts of the body, popularly called the buttocks ; by the Latins moment in which war begins, or rather the moment in which it , clunes, or nates. appears likely to begin, the army muſt be augmented, the fleets NATION, a collective term, uſed for a conſiderable people, muſt be fitted out, the garriſoned towns muſt be put into a poſture inhabiting a certain extent of ground, incloſed within fixed limits, of defence; that army, that fleet , thoſe garriſoned towns, muſt be and under the ſame government. Each nation has its peculiar furniſhed with arms, ammunition, and proviſions. An immediate character; and it is proverbially ſaid, Light as a Frenchman, Waggiſh and great expence muſt be incurred in that moment of immediate as an Italian, Grave as a Spaniard, Serious as an Engliſhman, Fierce danger, which will not wait for the gradual and ſlow returns of as a Scotchman, Drunken as a German, Idle as an Iriſhman, Deceitful the new taxes. In this exigency government can have no other as a Greek, &c. reſources but in borrowing. NATIONAL debt, the money owing by government. The ſame commercial ſtate of ſociety which, by the operation Our limits permit us to give but a very general ſketch of this of moral cauſes, brings government in this manner into the ne- ſubject: However, as it is of conſiderable importance to every ceſſity of borrowing, produces in the ſubjects both an ability and inhabitant of theſe kingdoms, we ſhall endeavour to give as clear an inclination to lend. If it commonly brings along with it the and comprehenſive a view of it as the bounds neceſſarily preſcribed neceſſity of borrowing, it alſo brings with it the facility of doing ſo. us will admit. In order to this, it may not be improper to refer A country abounding with merchants and manufacturers, ne- back to the times that have gone before us, that we may the better the better ceſſarily abounds with a ſet of people thro' whoſe hands not only diſcover the nature of public revenues, the manner of their expen- their own capitals, but the capitals of all thoſe who either lend diture, and the cauſes of public debt. them money or truſt them with goods, paſs as frequently or more In that rude ſtate of ſociety which precedes the extenſion of com frequently, than the revenue of a private man, who without trade merce and the improvements of manufactures, when thoſe expen or buſineſs lives upon his income, paſſes through his hands. The five luxuries which commerce and manufactures can alone intro revenue of ſuch a man can regularly paſs through his hands only duce, are altogether unknown; the perſon who poſſeſſes a large once in a year. But the whole amount of the capital and credit revenue can ſpend or enjoy that revenue in no other way than by of a merchant who deals in a trade of which the returns are very maintaining nearly as many people as it can maintain. Among quick, may ſometimes paſs through his hands two, three, or four our feudal anceſtors, the long time during which eſtates uſed to times in a year. A country abounding with merchants and manu- continue in the ſame family, ſufficiently demonſtrates the general facturers, therefore, neceſſarily abounds with a ſet of people who diſpoſition of people to live within their income. Though the have it at all times in their power to advance, if they chooſe to do ruſtic hoſpitality conſtantly exerciſed by the great landholders may fo, a very large ſum of money to government. Hence the ability not to us in the preſent times ſeem conſiſtent with that order which in the ſubjects of a commercial ftate to lend. we are apt to conſider as inſeparably connected with good æconomy, The progreſs of the enormous debts which at preſent oppreſs, yet we muſt certainly allow them to have been at leaſt ſo far frugal and will in the long run probably ruin, all the great nations of as not commonly to have ſpent their whole income. Some part Europe, has been pretty uniform. In England, after the Revolu- of this money, perhaps, they ſpent in purchaſing the few objects tion, when new connections with Europe introduced a new ſyſtem of vanity and luxury with which the circumſtances of the times of foreign politics, the expences of the nation, not only in ſettling could furniſh them; but ſome part of it they ſeem commonly to the new eſtabliſhment, but in maintaining long wars, as principals, have hoarded. They could not well indeed do any thing elſe but on the continent, for the ſecurity of the Dutch barrier, reducing hoard whatever money they ſaved. To trade was diſgraceful to the French monarchy, ſettling the Spaniſh ſucceſſion, ſupporting a gentleman; and to lend money at intereſt, which at that time the houſe of Auſtria, maintaining the liberties of the Germanic was conſidered as uſury and prohibited by law, would have been body, and other purpoſes, increaſed to an unuſual degree: inſo- ſtill more ſo. much, that it was not thought adviſeable to raiſe all the expences The ſame diſpoſition to ſave and to hoard prevailed in the ſo of any one year by taxes to be levied within that year, left the vereign as well as in the ſubjects. Among nations to whom com unaccuſtomed weight of them ſhould create murmurs among the merce and manufactures are little known, the ſovereign is in a people. It was therefore the policy of the times to anticipate the ſituation which naturally diſpoſes him to the parſimony requiſite revenues of their poſterity, by borrowing immenſe ſums for the for accumulation. In that ſituation the expence even of a fove current ſervice of the ſtate, and to lay no more taxes upon the reign cannot be directed by that vanity which delights in the gaudy ſubject than would ſuffice to pay the annual intereſt of the ſums finery of a court. The ignorance of the times affords but few of ſo borrowed ; by this means converting the principal debt into a the trinkets in which that finery conſiſts. Standing armies are not new ſpecies of property, transferable from one man to another at then neceſſary; ſo that the expence even of a ſovereign, like that any time and in any quantity. This ſyſtem indeed ſeems to have of any other great lord, can be employed in ſcarce any thing but had its original in the ſtate of Florence, A. D. 1344; which go- bounty to his tenants and hoſpitality to his retainers. But bounty vernment then owed about 60,000l. ſterling; and being unable and hoſpitality very feldom lead to extravagance : though vanity to pay it, formed the principal into an aggregate ſum, called meta- almoſt always does. All the ancient ſovereigns of Europe accord phorically a mount or bank, the ſhares whereof were transferable ingly had treaſures. Every Tartar chief in the preſent times is like our ſtocks, with intereſt at 5 per cent. the prices varying ac- ſaid to have one. cording to the exigencies of the ſtate. This laid the foundation In a commercial country abounding with every ſort of expenſive of what is called the national debt: for a few long annuities created luxury, the ſovereign, in the ſame manner as almoſt all the great in the reign of Charles II, will hardly deſerve that name. proprietors in his dominions, naturally ſpends a great part of his Nations, like private men, have generally begun to borrow upon revenue in purchaſing thoſe luxuries. His own and the neigh- what may be called perſonal credit, without aſſigning or mortgaging bouring countries ſupply him abundantly with all the coſtly trinkets any particular fund for the payment of the debt; and when this reſource N A T N A T reſource has failed them, they have gone on to borrow upon aſſign- | transferred to B the creditor. The creditor's property exiſts in the ments or mortgages of particular funds. demand which he has upon the debtor; and no where elſe; and What is called the unfunded debt of Great Britain, is contracted the debtor is only a truſtee to his cředitor for one half of the value in the former of thoſe two ways. It conſiſts partly in a debt of his income. In ſhort, the property of a creditor of the public which bears, or is ſuppoſed to bear, no intereſt, and which reſem conſiſts in a certain portion of the national taxes; by how much bles the debts which a private man contracts upon account; and therefore he is the richer, by ſo much the nation, which pays theſe partly in a debt which bears intereſt, and which reſembles what a taxes, is the poorer. private man contracts upon his bill or promiſſory note. The debts The only advantage that can reſult to a nation from public which are due either for extraordinary ſervices, or for ſervices debts, is the increaſe of circulation, by multiplying the caſh of either not provided for or not paid at the time when they are per the kingdom, and creating a new ſpecies of currency, affignable formed; part of the extraordinaries of the army, navy, and ord at any time and in any quantity ; always therefore ready to be nance, the arrears of ſubſidies to foreign princes, thoſe of ſeamens employed in any beneficial undertaking, by means of this its tranſ- wages, &c. uſually conſtitute a debt of the firſt kind. Navy and ferable quality; and yet producing ſome profit even when it lies exchequer bills, which are iſſued ſometimes in payment of a part idle and unemployed. A certain proportion of debt ſeems to be of ſuch debts, and ſometimes for other purpoſes, conſtitute a debt highly uſeful to a trading people; but what that proportion is, of the ſecond kind; exchequer bills bearing intereſt from the day it is not for us to determine. This much is indiſputably certain, on which they are iſſued, and navy bills fix months after they are that the preſent magnitude of our national incumbrances very far iſſued. The bank of England, either by voluntarily diſcounting exceeds all calculations of commercial benefit, and is productive thoſe bills at their current value, or by agreeing with government of the greateſt inconveniences. For, firſt, the enormous taxes that for certain conſiderations to circulate exchequer bills, that is, to are raiſed upon the neceſſaries of life for the payment of the in- receive them at par, paying the intereſt which happens to be due tereſt of this debt, are a hurt both to trade and manufactures, by upon them, keeps up their value, and facilitates their circulation, raiſing the price as well of the artificer's fubſiſtence as of the raw and thereby frequently enables government to contract a very large material, and of courſe, in a much greater proportion, the price of debt of this kind. During the great recoinage in King William's the commodity itſelf. Nay, the very increaſe of paper-circulation time, when the bank of England thought proper to put a ſtop to itſelf, when extended beyond what is requiſite for commerce or its uſual tranſactions, exchequer bills and tallies are ſaid to have foreign exchange, has a natural tendency to increaſe the price of fold from 25 to 60 per cent. diſcount ; owing partly, no doubt, proviſions as well as of all other merchandiſe. For as its effect is to the ſuppoſed inſtability of the new government eſtabliſhed by to multiply the caſh of the kingdom, and this to ſuch an extent the Revolution, but partly too to the want of the ſupport of the that much muſt remain unemployed, that caſh (which is the uni- bank of England. verſal meaſure of the reſpective values of all other commodities) When this reſource is exhauſted, and it becomes neceſſary, in muſt neceſſarily fink in its own value, and every thing grow com- order to raiſe money, to aſſign or mortgage to aſſign or mortgage ſome particular branch | paratively dearer. Secondly, if part of this debt be owing to of the public revenue for the payment of the debt, government foreigners, either they draw out of the kingdom annually a confi- has upon different occaſions done this in two different ways. derable quantity of ſpecie for the intereſt ; or elſe it is made an Sometimes it has made this aſſignment or mortgage for a ſhort argument to grant them unreaſonable privileges in order to induce period of time only, a year or a few years, for example; and them to reſide here. Thirdly, if the whole be owing to ſubjects ſometimes for perpetuity. In the one caſe, the fund was ſuppoſed only, it is then charging the active and induſtrious ſubject, who fufficient to pay within the limited time both principal and in pays his ſhare of taxes to maintain the indolent and idle creditor tereſt of the money borrowed; in the other, it was ſuppoſed who receives them. Laſtly, and principally, it weakens the inter- ſufficient to pay the intereſt only, or a perpetual annuity equivalent nal ſtrength of a ſtate, by anticipating thoſe reſources which ſhould to the intereſt ; government being at liberty to redeem at any time be reſerved to defend it in caſe of necellity. The intereſt we now this annuity upon paying back the principal ſumn borrowed. When pay for our debts would undoubtedly be ſufficient to maintain the money was raiſed in the one way, it was ſaid to be raiſed by moſt vigorous war that any national motives could poſſibly require. anticipation ; when in the other, by perpetual funding, or, more If indeed our anceſtors in King William's time had annually paid, fhortly, by funding. ſo long as their exigencies laſted, a far leſs ſum than we now In the reign of King William, when the debt began to be annually raiſe upon their accounts, they would not in time of war amaſſed, and during a great part of that of Queen Anne, before bave borne ſo great burdens as they have bequeathed to and ſettled we had become ſo familiar as we are now with the practice of upon their pofterity in time of peace; and might have been eaſed perpetual funding, the greater part of the new taxes were impoſed the inſtant the exigence was over. See FUNDS. but for a ſhort period of time (for four, five, fix, or ſeven years On the whole, then, the national debt is undoubtedly a ſubject only), and a great part of the grants of every year conſiſted in of vaſt importance, and as ſuch it has been always conſidered ; loans upon anticipation of the produce of thoſe taxes. The for much has been ſaid and written upon it, and many ſchemes duce being frequently inſufficient for paying within the limited have been propoſed at various times and by various perſons for term the principal and intereſt of the money borrowed, deficiencies gradually removing it, it being conſidered by the moſt judicious aroſe; to make good which it became neceſſary to prolong the term. as a molt pernicious incumbrance to a commercial country. Some, On the 31ſt of December 1697, the funded and unfunded debts we are aware, think it of vaſt utility; but this opinion is too amounted to 21,515,7421. 135. 8 d. at the ſame time, in 1714, eccentric, and in our eſtimation too feebly ſupported, to be con- they were 53,681,0761. 55. 6zd. In 1755, before the breaking vincing. The public debt is indiſputably a great grievance; and out of the war, they amounted to 72,289,6731. and on the 5th of every lover of his country muſt ſurely wiſh to ſee it removed: the January, 1763, at the concluſion of the peace, they had accumu period, however, when this bleſſing ſhall take place, if indeed it lated to 122,603,3361. 85. 2 d. of funded debt, and of unfunded ever arrive, muſt at leaſt be very diſtant. 13,027,5891. 25. 2d. more. In 1775, they were very nearly 130 It is neither our buſineſs nor intention (even if the limits pre- millions; and the laſt American war added upwards of 120 mil ſcribed to the article did not prevent it) to be minute on the ſub- lions more to that enormous fum. The funded debt at the peace ject, or to propoſe any ſchemes for the alleviating the burdens of of 1783 amounted to 211,363,2541. and January ift, 1794, to the nation. That indeed has been already done by far abler hands 249,238,8481. 55. 2įd. to pay the intereſt of which, and the than we profeſs to be: we muſt therefore refer ſuch as with for charges of management, amounting annually to nearly eight mil farther information on this intereſting topic to thoſe (and they are lions and an half, the extraordinary revenues elſewhere enume not a few) who have treated of it at full length. Smith's Wealth rated (excepting only the land-tax and annual malt-tax) are in the of Nations, and Sir John Sinclair's Hiſtory of the Revenue, go to firſt place mortgaged and made perpetual by parliament. Perpe- the bottom of the matter. The writings of Dr. Price likewiſe tual we ſay ; but ſtill redeemable by the ſame authority that im deſerve conſiderable attention, eſpecially as one of his plans for poſed them : which, if it at any time can pay off the capital, will the reduction of the debt has in fact been adopted, and in conſe- aboliſh thoſe taxes which are raiſed to diſcharge the intereſt. quence eſtabliſhed by the legiſlature: His three plans may be By this means, then, the quantity of property in the kingdom is found in a late pamphlet by William Morgan, intitled, A Review greatly increaſed in idea compared with former times; yet, of Dr. Price's Writings on the Subject of the Finances of this coolly conſider it, not at all increaſed in reality. We may boaſt Kingdom. of large fortunes, and quantities of money in the funds. But NATURAL Beauty, or the beauty of natural objects, is that where does this money exiſt ? It exiſts only in name, in paper, in quality or thoſe qualities in the works of nature, or more properly public faith, in parliamentary ſecurity: and that is undoubtedly of God, which are calculated to excite pleaſing ſenſations in the ſufficient for the creditors of the public to rely on. But then minds of all ſuch perſons of true taſte as attentively obſerve them. what is the pledge which the public faith has pawned for the It will not, we truſt, be deemed improper or impertinent, there- ſecurity of theſe debts ? The land, the trade, and the perſonal in- fore, to introduce a few obſervations on this ſubject, previous to duſtry of the ſubject ; from which the money muſt ariſe that ſup our treating of natural hiſtory.—To many, it is hoped, it will plies the ſeveral taxes. In theſe therefore, and theſe only, the appear to be a very proper introduction to that important article. property of the public creditors does really and intrinſically exiſt; " That ſenſibility to beauty, which, when cultivated and im- and of courſe the land, the trade, and the perſonal induſtry of in- proved, we term taſte, is univerſally diffuſed through the human dividuals, are diminiſhed in their true value juſt ſo much as they ſpecies; and it is moſt uniform with reſpect to thoſe objects, are pledged to anſwer. If A's income amounts to 1ool. per which being out of our power are not liable to variation froin ac- annum ; and he is ſo far indebted to B, that he pays him gol. per cident, caprice, or faſhion. The verdant lawn, the ſhady grove, annum for his intereſt; one half of the value of 'A's property is the variegated landſcape, the boundleſs ocean, and the ſtarry fir- mament, pro- if we N A T N A T he fighs his plan; it is a wiſe and benevolent inſtitution of nature, to make deſtruction mament, are contemplated with pleaſure by every attentive be- holder. But the emotions of different ſpectators, though ſimilar itſelf, within certain limitations, the cauſe of an increaſe of life and in kind, differ widely in degree; and to reliſh with full delight enjoyment; yet a generous perſon will extend his compaſſionate the enchanting ſcenes of nature, the mind muſt be uncorrupted regard to every individual that ſuffers for his ſake: and, whild by avarice, ſenſuality, or ambition ; quick in her ſenſibilities; Even for the kid or lamb that parts its life elevated in her ſentiments; and devout in her affections. He Beneath the bloody knife, who poſſeſſes ſuch exalted powers of perception and enjoyment, may almoſt ſay, with the poet, , he will mutually be ſolicitous to mitigate pain, both in duration and degree, by the gentleſt modes of inflicting it. I care not, Fortune! what you me deny; “ But the taſte for natural beauty is ſubſervient to higher pur- You cannot rob me of free Nature's grace ; You cannot ſhut the windows of the ſky, poſes than thoſe which have been enumerated : and the cultiva- Through which Aurora ſhows her brightning face; tion of it not only refines and humaniſes, but dignifies and exalts You cannot bar my conſtant feet to trace the affections. It elevates them to the admiration and love of that The woods and lawns, by living ſtream, at eve: Let health my nerves and finer fibres brace, Being who is the author of all that is fair, ſublime, and good in And I their toys to the great children leave : the creation. Scepticiſm and irreligion are hardly compatible Of fancy, reaſon, virtue, nought can me bereave. with the ſenſibility of heart which ariſes from a juft and lively « Perhaps ſuch ardent enthuſiaſm may not be compatible with reliſh of the wiſdom, harmony, and order ſubſiſting in the world around us : and emotions of piety muſt ſpring up ſpontaneouſly the neceſſary toils and active offices which Providence has aſſigned in the bofom that is in uniſon with all animated nature. Actuated to the generality of men. But there are none to whom ſome por- tion of it may not prove advantageous; and if it were cheriſhed and if it were cherithed by this divine inſpiration, man finds a fane in every grove; and, by each individual, in that degree which is conſiſtent with the glowing with devout fervor, he joins his ſong to the univerſal chorus, or muſes the praiſe of the Almighty, in more expreſſive indiſpenſable duties of his ſtation, the felicity of human life would ſilence. Thus they be conſiderably augmented. From this ſource, the refined and vivid pleaſures of the imagination are almoſt entirely derived: and Whom Nature's works can charm, with God himſelf the elegant arts owe their choiceſt beauties to a taſte for the con- Hold converſe ; grow familiar, day by day, templation of nature. Painting and ſculpture are expreſs imita- With his conceptions; act upon tions of viſible objects; and where would be the charms of poetry, And form to his, the reliſh of their ſouls." the reliſh of if diveſted of the imagery and embelliſhments which ſhe borrows On the whole then, it certainly appears, that the advantages re- from rural ſcenes ? Painters, ftatuaries, and poets, therefore, are ſulting from a taſte for natural beauties are great and important: always ambitious to acknowledge themſelves the pupils of nature; it is equally certain, that as it is uſeful, ſo it is a continual ſource and as their ſkill increaſes, they grow more and more delighted of real enjoyment; for a more rational pleaſure cannot poſſibly with every view of the animal and vegetable world. But the occupy the attention or captivate the affections of mankind, than pleaſure reſulting from admiration is tranſient ; and to cultivate that which ariſes from a due conſideration of the works of na. taſte, without regard to its influence on the paſſions and affection, ture. Pleaſure, we know, is a neceſſary ingredient in human ' is to rear a tree for its bloſſoms, which is capable of yielding the life, in order in ſome meaſure to counterbalance the pains, the richeſt and moſt valuable fruit.' Phyſical and moral beauty bear evils, and liſtleſſneſſes, which are at times perhaps unavoidable, fo intimate a relation to each other, that they may be conſidered as and in order to render life tolerable. It is the part then of the different gradations in the ſcale of excellence: and the knowledge moraliſt, and it has been frequently his buſineſs, to point out and and reliſh of the former ſhould be deemed only a ſtep to the nobler recommend ſuch pleaſures as are highly gratifying, and are yet and more permanent enjoyments of the latter. perfectly innocent. The Spectator, whoſe works will be admired “ Whoever has viſited the Leafowes, in Warwickſhire, muſt as long as the language in which they are written is underſtood, have felt the force and propriety of an inſcription which meets the recommends ſtrongly and elegantly the pleaſure of a garden ; and eye at the entrance into thoſe delightful grounds. a later writer, of no common degree of merit, and of very conſi- Would then taſte the tranquil ſcene? derable fame, has an eſſay on the ſame ſubject, from which Be ſure your boſoms be ſerene : we ſhall ſelect a few obſervations, and ſo conclude the article. Devoid of hate, devoid of ſtrife, “ Not he alone (ſays this elegant writer) is to be eſteemed a Devoid of all that poiſons life : 15 And much it 'vails you, in their place, benefactor to mankind, who makes an uſeful diſcovery; but he To graft the love of human race. alſo who can point out and recommend an innocent pleaſure. Of this kind are the pleaſures ariſing from the obſervation of « Now ſuch ſcenes contribute powerfully to inſpire that ſerenity nature ; and they are highly agreeable to every taſte uncorrupted which is neceſſary to enjoy and to heighten their beauties. By a by vicious indulgence. Rural ſcenes of almoſt every ſecret contagion, the ſoul catches the harmony which ſhe contem- delightful to the mind of man. But the misfortune is, that the plates; and the frame within aſſimilates itſelf to that which is greater part are hurried on in the career of life with too great without. For , rapidity to be able to give attention to that which folicits no para Who can forbear to ſmile with Nature? Can fion. The darkeſt habitation in the dirtieſt ſtreet of the metro- The ſtormy paſſions in the bofom roll, polis, where money can be earned, has greater charms with many While every gale is peace, and every grove than the groves of Hagley Is melody? o The patron of refined pleaſure, the elegant Epicurus, fixed * In this ſtate of ſweet compoſure, we become ſuſceptible of the ſeat of his enjoyment in a garden. He was of opinion, that virtuous impreſſions, from almoſt every ſurrounding object. The a tranquil ſpot, furniſhed with the united ſweets of art and nature, patient ox is viewed with generous complacency; the guileleſs was the beſt adapted to delicate repoſe. And even the ſeverer Theep with pity; and the playful lamb raiſes emotions of tender- | philoſophers of antiquity were wont to diſcourſe in the ſhade of a neſs and love. We rejoice with the horſe, in his liberty and ſpreading tree, in ſome cultivated plantation. It is obvious, on exemption from toil, while he ranges at large through enamelled intuition, that nature often intended folely to pleaſe the eye in her paſtures; and the frolics of the colt would afford unmixed delight, vegetable productions. She decorates the flow ret that ſprings did we not recollect the bondage which he is ſoon to undergo. beneath our feet in all the perfections of external beauty. She We are charmed with the ſong of birds, ſoothed with the buzz of has clothed the garden with a conſtant ſucceſſion of various hues, inſects, and pleaſed with the ſportive motions of fiſhes, becauſe Even the leaves of the tree undergo a pleaſing viciſſitude. The theſe are expreſſions of enjoyment; and we exult in the felicity freſh verdure which they exhibit in the ſpring, the various fhades of the whole animated creation. Thus an equal and extenſive which they aſſume in ſummer, the yellow and rufſet tinge of benevolence is called forth into exertion ; and having felt a com autumn, and the nakedneſs of winter, afford a conſtant pleaſure mon intereſt in the gratifications of inferior beings, we ſhall be to a lively imagination. From the ſnow-drop to the moſs-roſe, no longer indifferent to their ſufferings, or become wantonly in the flower garden diſplays an infinite variety of ſhape and colour. ftrumental in producing them. The taſte of the floriſt has been ridiculed as trifling; yet ſurely “ It ſeems to be the intention of Providence, that the lower without reaſon. Did nature bring forth the tulip and the lily, order of animals ſhould be ſubſervient to the comfort, convenience, the roſe and the honeyſuckle, to be neglected by the haughty pre- and ſuſtenance of man. But his right of dominion extends no tender to ſuperior reaſon? To omit a ſingle ſocial duty for the farther; and if this right be exerciſed with mildneſs, humanity, cultivation of a polyanthus were ridiculous as well as criminal ; and juſtice, the ſubjects of his power will be no leſs benefited than but to paſs by the beauties laviſhed before us, without obſerving himſelf. For various ſpecies of living creatures are annually mul them, is no leſs ingratitude than ſtupidity. A bad heart finds tiplied by human art, improved in their perceptive powers by human little amuſement but in a communication with the active world, culture, and plentifully fed by human induſtry. The relation, where ſcope is given for the indulgence of malignant paſſions ; therefore is reciprocal between ſuch animals and man; and he but an amiable diſpoſition is commonly known by a taſte for the may ſupply his own wants by the uſe of their labour, the produce beauties of the animal and the vegetable creation,” In ſhort, of their bodies, and even the ſacrifice of their lives, whilli he co ſince the world was made for our uſe, ſince the beauties of nature operates with all-gracious heaven in promoting happineſs, the great are alike diſplayed before all men, and ſince they are unqueſtion- end of exiſtence. ably an inexhauſtible fund of innocent amuſement; that ſubject “ But though it be true, that partial evil, with reſpect to dif muſt be of vaſt importance which enables us to reliſh them pro- ferent orders of ſenſitive beings, may be univerſal good; and that perly. you kind are NAT TREATISE ON NATURAL HISTORY. ATURAL History, is that ſcience which not only gives | reign matter, and ſuch earthy ſubſtances as they tore off in their complete deſcriptions of natural productions in general, but way. Thus the water returns in a circle whence it firſt drew its allo teaches the method of arranging them into claſſes, orders, ge- origin, that it may act over the ſame ſcene again. nera, and ſpecies. It includes three kingdoms, 1. Zoology, 2. Marſhes ariſing from water retained in low grounds are filled Botany, 3. Mineralogy, &c. But as theſe kingdoms are ſo com with moſfy tumps, which are brought down by the water from the prehenſive, they could neither with propriety nor advantage be higher parts, or are produced by putrified plants . completely diſcuſſed under the general title of Natural Hiſtory, We often ſee new meadows ariſe from marſhes dried up. This we ſhall refer our readers to the different parts which compoſe the happens fooner when the ſphagnum (a kind of moſs) has laid a feveral kingdoms under the following diviſions. foundation; for this in proceſs of time changes into a very porous The firšt kingdom, which is called ZOOLOGY or the Ani- mould, till almoſt the whole marſh is filled with it. . After that the MAL KINGDOM, compriſes every living creature, and is divided ruſh ſtrikes root, and along with the cotton graſſes conſtitutes a into fix claſſes, viz. 1. Mammalia or animals that give fuck; 2. turf raiſed in ſuch a manner, that the roots get continually higher, Aves, Birds, or Ornithology; 3. Amphibia, Amphibious Ani and thus lay a more firm foundation for other plants, till the mals, or Amphibiology; 4. Piſces, Fiſh or Ichthyology; 5. In whole marih is changed into a fine and delightful meadow; eſpeci- fecta, Inſects or Entomology; 6. Vermes, Worms, or Vermeology. | ally if the water happens to work itſelf a new paſſage. The ſecond kingdom, called BOTANY, or the VEGETABLE Hillocks that abound in low grounds, occafion the earth to in- KINGDOM, is divided into 24 claſſes, viz. 1. Monandria; 2. Di creaſe yearly, more than the countryman would wiſh, and ſeem to andria; 3. Triandria; 4. Tetrandria; 5. Pentandria ; 6. Hexan do hurt: but in this the great induſtry of nature deſerves to be dria; 7. Heptandria; 8. Octandria; 9. Enneandria; 10. Decan taken notice of. For by this means the barren ſpots become ſooner dria; 11. Dodecandria ; 12. Icofandria; 13. Polyandria; 14. Di rich meadow and paſture land. Theſe hillocks are formed by the dynamia; 15. Tetraydynamia; 16. Monadelphia; 17. Diadelphia; ant, by ſtones and roots, and the trampling of cattle, but the prin- 18. Polyadelphia; 19. Syngenefia; 20. Gynandria; 21. Monoecia; cipal cauſe is the force of the winter-cold, which in the ſpring 22. Dioecia; 23. Polygamia; 24. Crytogamia. raiſes the roots of plants ſo high above the ground, that being ex- The third kingdom is called MINERALOGY or the MINERAL poſed to the air, they grow, and periſh; after which the golden KINGDOM, and is divided into three claffes. 1. Petrea, Stony or maidenhairs fill the vacant places. Rocky Subſtances; 2. Minerea, or Minerals ; 3. Foffilia, or Foſſils. Mountains, hills, valleys, and all the inequalities of the earth, The ſeveral claſſes above enumerated, are divided into orders. though ſome think they take away much from its beauty, are ſo Thoſe orders are divided into genera: and thoſe genera are again far from producing ſuch an effect, that on the contrary they give a fubdivided into ſpecies. We muſt refer thoſe who wiſh to purſue more pleaſing aſpect, as well as great advantages. For thus the the ſtudy of this delightful and entertaining ſcience to the reſpective terreſtial ſuperficies is larger; different kinds of plants thrive bet- Syſtems for the enumeration of the ſeveral orders and genera; for ter, and are more eaſily watered; and the rain-waters run in con- the deſcription of the genera and ſpecies to the alphabet at large; tinual ſtreams into the ſea; nor to mention many other uſes in re- and for their repreſentation to the reſpective Plates. lation to winds, heat, and cold. Alps are the higheſt mountains, In the preſent article it is propoſed to give a general and philo that reach to the ſecond region of the air, where trees cannot grow ſophical view of the ſubject: To ſet forth, in a ſummary way, erect. The higher theſe Alps are, the colder they are cæteris pa- whatever curious, worthy to be known, or not obvious to every ribus. Hence the Alps in Sweden, Siberia, Swifferland, Peru, obſerver, occurs in the three kingdoms of nature; with their con Braſil, Armenia, Aſia, Africa, are perpetually covered with ſnow, ſtitution, laws, and economy; or, in other words, that all-wiſe which becomes almoſt as hard as ice. But if by chance the ſum- diſpoſition of the Creator in relation to natural things, by which mer-heats be greater than ordinary, ſome part of theſe ſtores melts, they are fitted to produce general ends and reciprocal uſes. and runs through rivers into the lower regions, which by this means are much refreſhed. SECT. I. It is ſcarcely to be doubted, but that the rocks and ſtones diſ- OF THE TERRAQUEOUS GLOBE IN GENERAL; perſed over the globe were formed originally in, and from, the AND ITS CHANGES. earth; but when torrents of rain have ſoftened, as they eaſily do, The world, or the terraqueous globe which we inhabit, is every the ſoluble earth, and caried it down into the lower parts, we ima- where ſurrounded with elements, and contains in its ſuperficies the gine it happens, that theſe ſolid and heavy bodies, being laid bare, three KINGDOMS of Nature, as they are called: the mineral, which ſtick out above the ſurface; we might alſo take notice of the won- conſtitutes the cruſt of the earth: the vegetable, which adorns the derful effect of the tide, ſuch as we fee happen from time to time face of it, and draws the greateſt part of its nouriſhment from the on the ſea-ſhore, which being daily and nightly aſſaulted with mineral kingdom; and the animal, which is ſuſtained by the ve repeated blows, at length gives way, and breaks off. Hence we getable kingdom. Thus theſe three kingdoms cover, adorn, and ſee in moſt places the rubbiſh of the ſea, and ſhores. vary the ſuperficies of our earth. The winter by its froſt prepares the earth and mould, which As to the STRATA of the EARTH and MOUNTAINS, as far as thence are broken into very minute particles, and thus, being put we have hitherto been able to diſcover, the upper parts conſiſt of into a mouldering ſtate, become more fit for the nouriſhment of rag-ſtone; the next of flate; the third of marble filled with petri plants; nay, by its ſnow it covers the feeds, and roots of plants, fačtions; the fourth again, of ilate; and laſtly, the loweſt of free and thus by cold defends them from the force of cold. We muſt ſtone. The habitable part of the earth, though it is ſcooped into add alſo, that the piercing froſt of the winter purifies the atmoſphere various inequalities, yet is every where high in compariſon with and putrid waters, and makes them more wholeſome for animals. the water; and the farther it is from the ſea, it is generally higher. The perpetual ſucceſſion of heat and cold with us renders the Thus the waters in the lower places are not at reſt, unleſs ſome ob ſummers more pleaſing; and though the winter deprives us of many ſtacle confines them, and by that means form lakes and marſhes. plants and animals, yet the perpetual ſummer within the tropics is The sea ſurrounds the continent, and takes up the greateſt part not much more agreeable, as it often deſtroys men and other ani- of the earth's ſuperficies, as GEOGRAPHY informs us. Nay, that mals by its immoderate heat; though it muſt be confeſſed, that thoſe it once ſpread over much the greateſt part, we may be convinced regions abound with exquiſite fruits. Our winters, though very by its yearly decreaſe, by the rubbiſh left by the tides, by ſhells; troubleſome to a great part of the globe on account of their vehe- ſtrata, and other circumſtances, ment and intenſe cold, yet are leſs hurtful to the inhabitants of the The ſea-ſhores are uſually full of dead teſtaceous animals, wrack, northern parts, as experience teſtifies. Hence it happens, that we and ſuch like bodies, which are yearly thrown out of the ſea. They may live very conveniently on every part of the earth, as every dif- are alſo covered with ſands of various kinds, ſtones, and heaps of ferent country has different advantages from nature. other things not very common. It happens, moreover, that while The ſeaſons, like every thing elſe, have their viciffitudes; their the more rapid rivers ruſh through narrow valleys, they wear away beginnings, their progreſs, and their end. The age of man begins the ſides; and thus the friable and ſoft earth falls in, and its ruins from the cradle; pleaſing childhood fucceeds; then active youth; are carried to diſtant and winding ſhores; whence it is certain, afterwards manhood, firm, ſevere, and intent upon felf-preſerva- that the continent gains no ſmall increaſe, as the ſea fubfides. tion; laſtly, old age creeps on, debilitates, and at length totally The CLOUDS collected from exhalations, chiefly from the ſea, deſtroys our tottering bodies. but likewiſe from other waters, and moiſt grounds, and condenſed The ſeaſons of the year proceed in the ſame way. Spring, the in the lower regions of the ATMOSPHERE, fupply the earth with jovial, playful infancy of all living creatures, repreſents childhood RAIN; but ſince they are attracted by the mountainous parts of the and youth; for then plants ſpread forth their luxuriant flowers, earth, it neceſſarily follows, that thoſe parts muſt have, as is fit; a fiſhes exults birds fing, every part of nature is intent upon gene- larger ſhare of water than the reſt. SPRINGS, which generally ruſh ration. The ſummer, like middle age, exhibits plants, and trees out at the foot of mountains, take their riſe from this very rain every where cloathed with green; it gives vigour to animals, and water and vapours condenſed, that trickle through the holes and in plumps them up; fruits then ripen, meadows look chearful, every terſtices of looſe bodies, and are received into caverns. Theſe af thing is full of life. On the contrary, autumn is gloomy; for ford a pure water purged by ſtraining; and rarely dry up in ſum then the leaves of trees begin to fall, plants to wither, inſects mer, or freeze in winter, ſo that aniinals never want a wholeſome to grow torpid, and many animals to retire to their winter-quar- and refreſhing liquor. The chief fources of RIVERs are fountains and rills growing by gradual ſupplies into ftill larger and larger The day proceeds with juſt ſuch ſteps, as the year. ſtreams; till at laſt, after the conflux of a vaſt number of them, ing makes every thing alert, and fit for buſineſs: the fun pours they find no ſtop, but falling into the ſea with much rapidity, they forth his ruddy rays; the flowers, which had as it were ſlept all there depoſit the united ſtores they have gathered, along with fo night, awake and expand themſelves again; the birds with their NO 115. VOL. III. * E fonorous ters. The morn- NATURAL HISTORY. long rays; It is water. fonorous voices and various notes make the woods ring, meet toge- | It is manifeſt that ſtories are not only generated, augmented, and ther in flocks, and ſacrifice to Venus. Noon tempts animals into changed perpetually from incruſtations brought upon moſs, but are the fields and paſtures; the heat puts them upon indulging their alſo increaſed by cryſtal and ſpar. Not to mention that the ad eaſe, and even neceſſity obliges them to it. Evening follows, and jacent earth, eſpecially if it be impregnated with iron particles, is makes every thing more fluggiſh; flowers ſhut up, and animals commonly changed into a ſolid ftone. It is ſaid, that the marble retire to their lurking places. Thus the ſpring, the morning, and quarries in Italy, from whence fragments are cut, grow up again. youth, are proper for generation; the ſummer, noon, and manhood, Ores grow by little and little, whenever the mineral particles, con- are proper for preſervation; and autumn, evening, and old age, veyed by the means of water through the clefts of mountains, are are not unfitly likened to deſtruction. retained there; fo that, adhering to the homogeneous matter a In order to perpetuate the eſtabliſhed courſe of nature, in a con while, at laſt they take its nature, and are changed into a ſimilar tinued feries, the Divine Wiſdom has thought fit that all living ſubſtance. III. DESTRUCTION. creatures ſhould conſtantly be employed in producing individuals ; that all natural things ſhould contribute and lend a helping hand Foſſils, although they are the hardeſt of bodies, yet are found towards preſerving every ſpecies; and laitly, that the death and ſubject to the laws of deſtruction, as well as all other created ſub deſtruction of one thing ſhould always be ſubſervient to the pro- ſtances. For they are diſſolved in various ways by the elements ex- duction of another. Hence the objects of our preſent inquiry fall to be conſidered in a threefold view, that of propagation, preſervation, erting their force upon thein; as by water, air , and the ſolar and death or deſtruction. as alſo by the rapidity of rivers, violence of cataracts, and eddies, which continually beat upon, and at laſt reduce to powder the hardeſt SECT. II. rocks. The agitations of the ſea, and lakes, and the vehemency of the waves, excited by turbulent winds, pulveriſe ſtones, as evidently THE FOSSIL KINGDOM. appears by their roundneſs along the ſhore. Nay, as the poet ſays, , I. PROPAGATION. The hardeſt itone inſenſibly gives way agreed on all hands, that ſtones are not organical bodies, like To the ſoft drops that frequent on it play. plants and animals; and therefore it is as clear that they are not pro- So that we ought not to wonder that theſe very hard bodies moulder duced from an egg, like the tribes of the other kingdoms. Hence away into powder, and are obnoxious like others to the conſuming the variety of foſſils is proportionate to the different combinations of tooth of time. Sand is formed of free-ſtone, which is deſtroyed coaleſcent particles, and hence the ſpecies in the foffil kingdom are partly by froſt, making it friable; partly by the agitation of water not fo diftinct as in the other two. Hence alſo the laws of gener- and waves, which eaſily wear away, diſolve, and reduce into mi- ation in relation to foſſils have been in all ages extremely difficult nute particles, what the froſt had made friable. Chalk is formed to explain; and laſtly, hence have ariſen ſo many many different opinions of rough marble, which the air, the ſun, and the winds, have dif- about them, that it would be endleſs to enumerate them all. We ſolved. The flate earth, or humus ſchilti, (Syf. Nat. 512.) owes therefore for the preſent will content ourſelves with giving a very its origin to flate, ſhowers, air, and ſnow melted. Ocre is formed few obſervations on this ſubject. That clay is the ſediment of the of metals diſſolved, whoſe foeces preſent the very fame colours which ſea is fufficiently proved by obſervation, for which reaſon it is ge- we always find the ore tinged with when expoſed to the air. Vi- nerally found in great plenty along the coaſts. The journals of ſea- triol in the ſame manner mixes with water from ore deſtroyed. men clearly evince, that a very minute ſand covers the bottom of the The muria ſaxatilis, (Syſ. Nat. 14, 6.) a kind of talky ſtone, ſea; nor can it be doubted, but that it is daily cryſtalliſed out of the yielding falt in the parts that are turned to the ſun, is diffolved into It is now acknowledged by all, that teſtaceous bodies and land, which falls by little and little upon the earth, till the whole is petrifactions reſembling plants were once real animals or vegetables; conſumed; not to mention other kinds of foſſils. Laſtly, from and it ſeems likely that ſhells, being of a calcareous nature, have theſe there ariſe new foſſils, as we mentioned before; ſo that the changed the adjacent clay, ſand, or mould, into the ſame kind of deſtruction of one thing ſerves for the generation of another. ſubſtance. Hence we may be certain that marble may be generated Teſtaceous worms ought not to be paſſed over on this occafi011 , from petrifactions; and therefore it is frequently ſeen full of them. for they eat away the hardeſt rocks. That ſpecies of ſhell-fiſh Rag-ſtone, the common matter of our rocks, appears to be formed called the razor-ſhell bores through ſtones in Italy, and hides itſelf from a ſandy kind of clay; but this happens more frequently where within them; ſo that the people who eat them are obliged to break the earth is impregnated with iron. Free-ſtone is a product of fand; the ſtones before they can come at them. The cochlea, (Faun. and the deeper the bed where it is found, the more compact it be Suec. 1299.) a kind of ſnail that lives on craggy rocks, eats and bores comes; and the more denſe the ſand, the more eaſily it concretes. through the chalky hills, as worms do through wood. This is But if an alkaline clay chances to be mixed with the ſand, the free made evident by the obſervations of the celebrated De Geer. ſtone is generated more readily, as in the free-ſtone called cos friati- lis, particulis argillo-glarenſis. The flint is almoſt the only kind of SECT. III. ftone, certainly the moſt common ſtone, in chalky mountains. It THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. feems therefore to be produced from chalk. Whether it can be reduced again to chalk, is left to others to enquire. Stalactites, or I. PROPAGATION. drop-ſtone, is compoſed of calcareous particles, adhering to a dry, Anatomy abundantly proves, that all plants are organic and living and generally a vegetable body. Incruſtations (Syft. Nat. 32. 5, 6, bodies: and that all organic bodies are propagated from an egg, has 7, 8.) are often generated, where a vitriolic water connects clayey | been ſufficiently demonſtrated by the induſtry of the moderns. We and earthy particles together. Slate, by the vegetables that are therefore the rather, according to the opinion of the ſkilful, reject often inclofed in it, ſeems to take its origin from a marſhy mould. the equivocal generation of plants; and the more ſo, as it is certain Metals vary according to the nature of the matrix in which they that every living thing is produced from an egg. Now the ſeeds adhere; e. g. the pyrites cupri Fahlunenfis contains frequently ſul of vegetables are called eggs; theſe are different in every different phur, arſenic, iron, copper, a little gold, vitriol, alum, fometimes plant, that the means being the ſame, each may multiply its ſpecies, lead-ore, filver, and zinc. Thus gold, copper, iron, zinc, arſenic, and produce an offspring like its parent. We do not deny, that pyrites, vitriol, come out of the ſame vein. That very rich iron very many plants puſh forth from their roots freſh offsets for two ore at Normark in Vermilandia, where it was cut tranſverſly by a or more years. Nay, not a few plants may be propagated by vein of clay, was changed into pure ſilver. The number therefore filver. The number therefore branches, buds, ſuckers, and leaves, fixed in the ground, as likewiſe of ſpecies and varieties of foſſils, each ſerving for different purpoſes many trees. Hence their ſtems being divided into branches, may according to their different natures, will be in proportion as the dif be looked on as roots above ground; for in the ſame way the roots ferent kinds of earths and ſtones are variouſly combined. creep under ground, and divide into branches. And there is the II. PRESERVATION. more reaſon for thinking ſo, becauſe we know that a tree will in an inverted ſituation, viz. the roots being placed upwards, and the As foſſils are deſtitute of life and organiſation; are hard and not ob head downwards, and buried in the ground; for then the branches noxious to putrefaction; ſo they laſt longer than any other kind of will become roots, and then the roots will produce leaves and bodies. How far the air contributes to this duration, it is eaſy to flowers. The lime-tree will ſerve for an example, on which gar- perceive; fince air hardens many ſtones upon the ſuperficies of the deners have chiefly made the experiment. Yet this by no means earth, and makes them more ſolid, compact, and able to reſiſt the overturns the doctrine, that all vegetables are propagated by feeds ; injuries of time. Thus it is known from vulgar obſervation, that ſince it is clear that in each of the foregoing inſtances nothing vege- Jime, that has been long expoſed to the air, becomes hardened. tates but what was the part of a plant, formerly produced from ſeed; The chalky marl which they uſe in Flanders for building houſes, as ſo that, accurately ſpeaking, without ſeed no new plant is produced, long as it continues in the quarry is friable, but when dug up and Thus again plants produce ſeeds; but they are entirely unfit for expoſed to the air it grows gradually harder. propagation, unleſs fecundation precedes, which is performed by an However ignorant we may be of the cauſe why large rocks are intercourſe between different ſexes, as experience teſtifies. Plants every-where to be ſeen ſplit, whence vaſt fragments are frequently therefore muſt be provided with organs of generation; in which re- torn off; yet this we may obſerve, that fiffures are cloſed up by wa ſpect they hold an analogy with animals. Since in every plant the ter, which gets between them, and is detained there, and are conſo flower always precedes the fruit, and the fecundated ſeeds viſibly lidated by cryſtal and ſpar. Hence we ſcarcely ever find any cryſtal, ariſe from the fruit; it is evident that the organs of generation are but in thoſe ſtones which have retained for fome time in its chinks contained in the flower, which organs are called anthere and ſtigmata, water loaded with ſtony particles. In the ſame manner cryſtals fill and that the impregnation is accompliſhed within the Aower. the cavities in mines, and concrete into quartz or a debaſed cryſtal. This impregnation is performed by means of the duſt of the antheræ falling grow NATURAL HISTORY. falling upon the moiſt ftigmata, where the duſt adheres, is burſt, with horſe-dung, in which the feeds of oats, coming entire from the and ſends forth a very fubtle matter, which is abſorbed by the ſtyle, horſe, lie hid and produce that grain. The miſletoe always grows and is conveyed down to the rudiments of the ſeed, and thus renders upon other trees, becauſe the thruſh that eats the feeds of it, cafts it fertile. This fact is experimentally demonſtrated in our treatiſe them forth with its dung; and as bird-catchers make their bird- on gardening. See KITCHEN GARDEN, Month of April . lime of this ſame plant, and daub the branches of trees with it, in When this operation is over, the organs of generation wither and order to catch the thruſh, the proverb hence took its riſe; fall, nay a change in the whole flower enſues. We muſt however The thruſh, when he befouls the bough, obſerve, that in the vegetable kingdom one and the ſame flower Sows for himſelf the ſeeds of woe. does not always contain the organs of generation of both ſexes, but oftentimes the male organs are on one plant, and the female on It is not to be doubted, but that the greateſt part of the junipers another. But that the buſineſs of impregnation may go on ſucceſs- that fill our woods, are fown by thruſhes, and other birds, in the fully, and that no plant may be deprived of the neceſſary duſt, the fame manner; as the berries, being heavy, cannot be diſperſed far whole moſt elegant apparatus of the antheræ and ſtigmata in every by the winds. The croſs-bill that lives on the fir-cones, and the flower is contrived with wonderful wiſdom. For in moft Aowers hawfinch that feeds on the pine-cones, at the fame time fow many the ſtamina ſurround the piſtils, and are of about the ſame height: of their ſeeds; eſpecially when they carry the cone to a ſtone, or but there are many plants in which the piſtil is longer than the ſta trunk of a tree, that they may more eaſily ſtrip it of its ſcales. mina; and in theſe it is wonderful to obſerve, that the Creator has Swine likewiſe, by turning up the earth, and moles by throwing up made the flowers recline, in order that the duſt may more eaſily hillocks, prepare the ground for ſeeds in the ſame manner as the fall into the ftigma; e. g. in the campanula, cowſlip, &c. This ploughman does. curious phenomenon did not eſcape the poetical-eye of Milton, who We paſs over many other things which might be mentioned con- deſcribes it in the following enlivened imagery: cerning the ſea, lakes, and rivers, by the help of which oftentimes ſeeds are conveyed unhurt to diſtant countries. A variety of other With cowllips wan, that hang the penſive head. ways in which nature provides for the diſſemination of plants, has But when the fecundation is completed, the flowers riſe again, that been pointed out by Linnæus in an Oration concerning the augmen- the ripe ſeeds may not fall out before they are diſperſed by the winds. tation of the habitable earth. As there is ſomething very ingenious In other flowers, on the contrary, the piſtil is ſhorter, and there the and quite new in the treatiſe here referred to, we ſhall, for the fake flowers preſerve an erect fituation; nay, when the flowering comes of thoſe who cannot read the original, add a ſhort abſtract of it. on, they become erect, though before they were drooping, or im- His deſign is to ſhew that there was only one pair of all living merſed under water. Laſtly, whenever the male flowers are placed things, created at the beginning. According to the account of below the female ones, the leaves are exceedingly ſmall and narrow, Moſes, ſays the author, we are ſure that this was the caſe in the hu- that they may not hinder the duſt from flying upwards like ſmoke; man ſpecies; and by the ſame account we are informed that this as we ſee in the pine, fir, yew, fea-grape, juniper, cypreſs, &c. And firſt pair was placed in Eden, and that Adam gave naines to all the when in one and the fame ſpecies one plant is male and the other fe- animals. In order therefore that Adam might be enabled to do male, and conſequently may be far from one another, there the duſt, this, it was neceſſary that all the ſpecies of animals ſhould be in Pa- without which there is no impregnation, is carried in abundance, radiſe; which could not happen unleſs alſo all the ſpecies of vege- by the help of the wind, from the male to the female; as in the whole tables had been there likewiſe. This he proves from the nature of dioeceous claſs. Again, a more difficult impregnation is compen- their food ; particularly in relation to inſects, moſt of which live fated by the longevity of the individuals, and the continuation of upon one plant only. Now had the world been formed in its preſent life by buds, ſuckers, and roots; ſo that we may obſerve every thing ſtate, it could not have happened that all the ſpecies of animals moſt wiſely diſpoſed in this affair. Moreover, we cannot without ſhould have been there. They muſt have been diſperfed over all the admiration obſerve that moſt flowers expand themſelves when the globe, as we find they are at preſent; which he thinks improbable fun ſhines forth; whereas when clouds, rain, or the evening comes for other reaſons which we ſhall paſs over for ſake of brevity. on, they cloſe up, left the genital duſt ſhould be coagulated, or ren- To ſolve all the phenomena, then, he lays down, as a principle, dered uſeleſs, ſo that it cannot be conveyed to the ſtigmata. that at the beginning all the earth was covered with the ſea, unleſs But what is ſtill more remarkable and wonderful, when the fecunda one iſland large enough to contain all animals and vegetables. tion is over, the flowers, neither upon ſhowers, nor evening coming This principle he endeavours to eſtabliſh by ſeveral phenomena, on, cloſe themſelves up. Hence when rain falls in the flowering which make it probable, that the earth has been and is ſtill gaining time, the huſbandman and gardener foretel a ſcarcity of fruits. To upon the ſea, and does not forget to mention foſſile ſhells and plants mention only one particular more: The The organs of generation, every where found, which he ſays cannot be accounted for by the which in the animal kingdom are by nature generally removed from deluge. He then undertakes to ſhew how all vegetables and ani- fight, in the vegetable are expoſed to the eyes of all, and that when mals might in this iſland have a foil and climate proper for each, their nuptials are celebrated, it is wonderful what delight they afford only by ſuppoſing it to be placed under the equator, and crowned to the ſpectator, by their moſt beautiful colours and delicious odours. with a very high mountain. For it is well known that the ſame At this time bees, flies, and other inſects fuck honey out of their plants are found on the Swiſs, the Pyrenean, the Scots Alps, on nectaries, not to mention the humming-bird; and that from their Olympus, Lebanon, Ida, as on the Lapland and Greenland Alps. effête duſt the bees gather wax. And Tournefort found at the bottom of mount Ararat the common As to the diffemination of ſeeds after they come to maturity, it plants of Armenia, a little way up thoſe of Italy, higher thoſe which, being abſolutely neceſſary, ſince without it no crop could follow; grow about Paris, afterwards the Swediſh plants, and laſtly on the the Author of nature has wiſely provided for this affair in number top the Lapland Alpine-plants; and I myſelf, adds the author, from leſs ways. The ſtalks and ſtems favour this purpoſe; for theſe the plants growing on the Dalecarlian Alps could collect how much raife the fruit above the ground, that the winds, ſhaking them to lower they were than the Alps of Lapland. He then proceeds to and fro, may diſperſe far off the ripe ſeeds. Moſt of the pericarpies Thew how from one plant of each ſpecies the immenſe number of are ſhut at top, that the feeds may not fall before they are ſhook out individuals now exiſting might ariſe. He gives ſome inſtances of by ſtormy winds. Wings are given to many feeds, by the help of the furpriſing fertility of certain plants ; v. g. the elecampane, one which they Ay far from the mother-plant, and oftentimes ſpread plant of which produced 3000 feeds: of ſpelt , 2000; of the fun- over a whole country. Theſe wings conſiſt either of a down, as in flower, 4000; of the poppy, 3200; of tobacco, 40,320. But moſt of the compoſite-flowered plants; or of a membrane, as in the ſuppoſing any annual plant producing yearly only two ſeeds, even birch, alder, aſh, &c. Hence woods, which happen to be conſumed of this, after 20 years, there would be 1,048,576 individuals. For by fire or any other accident, will ſoon be reſtored again by new they would increaſe yearly in a duple proportion, viz. 2, 4, 8, 16, plants diſſeminated by this means. Many kinds of fruits are en 32, &c. He then gives ſome inſtances of plants brought from riped with a remarkable elaſticity, by the force of which the ripe America, that are now become common over many parts of Eu- pericarpies throw the ſeeds to a great diſtance; as the wood-forrel, rope. Laſtly, he enters upon a detail of the ſeveral methods which the ſpurge, the phyllanthus, the dittany. Other ſeeds or pericarpies nature has taken to propagate vegetables, which is extremely curi- are rough, or provided with hooks; ſo that they are apt to ſtick to ous, but too long to inſert in this place. animals that paſs by them, and by this means are carried to their II. PRESERVATION. holes, where they are both ſown and manured by nature's wonder- ful care: and therefore the plants of theſe feeds grow where others The great Author and Parent of all things decreed, that the will not; as hounds-tongue, agrimony, &c. whole earth ſhould be covered with plants, and that no place ſhould Berries and other pericarpies are by nature allotted for aliment be void, none barren. But ſince all countries have not the ſame to animals; but with this condition, that while they eat the pulp changes of ſeaſons, and every ſoil is not equally fit for every plant; they ſhall fow the ſeeds; for when they feed upon it, they either he therefore, that no place ſhould be without ſome, gave to every diſperſe them at the ſame time; or, if they ſwallow them, they are one of them ſuch a nature, as might be chiefly adapted to the cli- returned with intereſt, for they always come out unhurt. It is not mate: ſo that ſome of them can bear an intenſe cold, others an therefore ſurpriſing, that, if a field be manured with recent mud or equal degree of heat; forne delight in dry ground, others in moiſt, dung not quite rotten, various other plants, injurious to the farmer, &c. Hence the ſame plants grow only where there are the ſame ſhould come up along with the grain that is ſowed. ſeaſons of the year, and the ſame ſoil. . Many have believed that barley or rye has been changed into oats, The Alpine plants live only in high and cold ſituations; and although all ſuch kinds of metamorphoſes are repugnant to the therefore often on the Alps of Armenia, Switzerland, the Pyre- laws of generation; not conſidering that there is another cauſe of neans, &c. whoſe tops are equally covered with eternal ſnows as this phenomenon, viz. that the ground perhaps has been manured thoſe of the Lapland Alps, plants of the ſame kind are found, and it NATURAL HISTORY. pure it would be in vain to ſeek for them any where elſe. It is re The moffes which adorn the moſt barren places, at the ſame markable, in relation to the Alpine plants, that they blow, and ri time preſerve the lefſer plants when they begin to ſhoot, from cold pen their feeds very early, left the winter ſhould ſteal upon them and drought: as we find by experience in our gardens, that plants on a ſudden, and deſtroy them. Our northern plants, although they are preſerved in the ſame way. They alſo hinder the fermenting are extremely rare every where elſe, yet are found in Siberia, and earth from forcing the roots of plants upwards in the ſpring; as about Hudſon's bay; as the arbutus, bramble, winter green, &c. we fee happen annually to trunks of trees, and other things put Plants impatient of cold live within the torrid zones; hence into the ground. Hence very few molles grow in the warmer both the Indies, though at ſuch a diſtance from one another, have climates, as not being ſo neceſſary to that end in thoſe places. plants in common. The Cape of Good Hope, we know not from The Engliſh ſea mat-weed, or marran, will bear no foil but what cauſe, produces plants peculiar to itſelf; as all the meſembry ſand, which nature has allotted to it. Sand, the produce of the anthema, and almoſt all the ſpecies of aloes. Graſſes, the moſt fea, is blown by winds oftentimes to very remote parts, and de- common of all plants, can bear almoſt any temperature of air; luges, as it were, woods and fields. But where this graſs grows, in which the good providence of the Creator particularly appears ; it frequently fixes the ſand, gathers it into hillocks, and thrives fa for all over the globe they, above all plants, are neceſſary for the much, that, by means of this alone, at laſt an entire hill of ſand nouriſhment of cattle; and the ſame thing is ſeen in relation to our is raiſed. Thus the ſand is kept in bounds, other plants are pre- moſt common grains. Thus neither the ſcorching fun, nor the ſerved free from it, the ground is increaſed, and the ſea is repelled, pinching cold hinders any country from having its vegetables. Nor by this wonderful diſpoſition of nature. is there any ſoil which does not bring forth many kinds of plants. How ſolicitous nature is about the preſervation of graffes is The pond-weeds, the water lily, lobelia, inhabit the waters. The abundantly evident from hence, that the more the leaves of the fluviales fuci, conſervæ, cover the bottoms of rivers, and fea. perennial graſſes are eat, the more they creep by the roots, and The ſphagna fill the marſhes. The brya clothe the plains. The ſend forth offsets. For the Author of nature intended that vegeta- drieſt woods, and places ſcarce ever illuminated by the rays of the bles of this kind, which have very ſlender and erect leaves, ſhould ſun, are adorned with the hypna. Nay ſtones and trunks of trees be copious, and very thick-fet, covering the ground like a carpet ; are not excepted, for theſe are covered with various kinds of li and thus afford food ſufficient for ſo vaſt a quantity of grazing ani- ver wort. The deſart and moſt fandy places, have their peculiar mals. But what chiefly increaſes our wonder is, that although the trees and plants; and as rivers or brooks are very feldom found graſſes are the principal food of ſuch animals, yet they are forbid there, we cannot without wonder obſerve that many of them diſtil as it were to touch the flower and ſeed-bearing item, that ſo the water, and by that means afford the greateſt comfort both to man ſeeds may ripen and be fown. The caterpillar or grub of the and beaſts that travel there. Thus the tillandſia, which is a pa moth, although it feeds upon graſſes, to the great deſtruction of raſitical plant, and grows on the tops of trees in the defarts of them in meadows, yet it ſeems to be formed in order to keep a due America, has its leaves turned at the baſe into the ſhape of a pit- proportion between theſe and other plants; for graffes, when left cher, with the extremity expanded; in theſe the rain is collecīed, to grow freely, increaſe to that degree, that they exclude all other and preſerved for thirſty men, birds, and beaſts. plants; which would conſequently be extirpated, unleſs this infect The water-tree in Ceylon produces cylindrical bladders, co ſometimes prepared a place for them. Hence always more ſpecies vered with a lid; into theſe is ſecreted a moft pure and refreſhing 1 of plants appear in thoſe places where this caterpillar has laid waſte water, that taſtes like nectar to men and other animals. There is the paſtures the preceding year, than at any other time. a kind of cuckow pint in New France, that, if you break a branch III. DESTRUCTION. of it, will afford you a pint of excellent water. How wiſe, how beautiful, is the agreement between the plants of every country, Daily experience teaches us, that all plants, as well as all other and its inhabitants and other circumſtances. living things, muſt ſubmit to death. They ſpring up, they grow, Plants oftentimes by their very ſtructure contribute remarkably they flouriſh, they ripen their fruit, they wither, and at laft, having both to their own preſervation and that of others. But the wiſdom finiihed their courſe, they die, and return to the duſt again, from of the Creator appears no where more, than in the manner of whence they firſt took their riſe. Thus all black mould, which growth of trees. For as their roots deſcend deeper than thoſe of every where covers the earth, for the greateſt part is owing to dead other plants, proviſion is thereby made, that they ſhall not rob them vegetables. For all roots deſcend into the ſand by their branches, too much of nouriſhment; and what is ſtill more a ftem not above and after a plant has loſt its ſtem the root remains; but this too a ſpan in diameter often ſhoots up its branches very high; theſe rots at laſt, and changes into mould. By this means this kind of bear perhaps many thouſand buds, each of which is a plant, with earth is mixed with ſand, by the contrivance of nature, nearly in its leaves, flowers, and ſtipulæ. Now if all theſe grew upon the the ſame way as dung thrown upon fields is wrought into the earth plain, they would take up a thouſand times as much ſpace as the by the induſtry of the huſbandman. The earth thus prepared of- tree does; and in this caſe there would ſcarcely be room in all the fers again to plants from its bofoni, what it has received from earth for ſo many plants, as at preſent the trees alone afford. Be- them. For when ſeeds are committed to the earth, they draw to fides, plants that ihoot up in this way are inore eaſily preſerved | themſelves, accommodate to their nature, and turn into plants, the from cattle by a natural defence; and farther, their leaves falling more fubtile parts of this mould, by the co-operation of the ſun, air, in autunın cover the plants growing about againſt the rigour of clouds, rain, and winds; ſo that the talleſt tree is, properly ſpeak- the winter, and in the ſummer they afford a pleaſing ſhade, not ing, nothing but mould wonderfully compounded with air and wa- only to animals, but to plants, againſt the intenſe heat of the ſun. ter, and modified by a virtue communicated to a ſmall ſeed by the We may add, that trees, like all other vegetables, imbibe the wa Creator. From theſe plants, when they die, juſt the ſame kind of ter from the earth, which water does not circulate again to the mould is formed as gave birth to them originally; but in ſuch a root, as the ancients imagined; but being diſperſed like finall rain, manner, that it is in greater quantity than before. Vegetables there- by the tranſpiration of the leaves, moiſtens the plants that grow fore increaſe the black mould, whence fertility remains continually around. Again, many trees bear fleſhy fruits of the berry or uninterrupted. Whereas the earth could not make good its annual apple kind, which being ſecure from the attack of cattle, grow conſumption, unleſs it were conſtantly recruited by new ſupplies. ripe for the uſe of man and other animals, while their feeds were The cruſtaceous liverworts are the firſt foundation of vegeta - diſperſed up and down after digeſtion. Laſtly, the particular ſtruc tion: and therefore are plants of the utmoſt conſequence in the ture of trees contribute very much to the propagation of inſects; ceconomy of nature, though ſo deſpiſed by us. When rocks firſt for theſe chiefly lay their eggs upon the leaves, where they are ſe emerge out of the ſea, they are ſo poliſhed by the force of the cure from the reach of cattle. Ever-green trees and ſhrubs in the waves, that ſcarce any herb can find a fixed habitation upon them; northern parts are chiefly found in the moſt barren woods, that as we may obſerve every where near the ſea. But the very minute they may be a ſhelter to animals in the winter. They loſe their cruſtaceous liverworts begin ſoon to cover theſe dry rocks, al- leaves only every third year, as their ſeeds are fufciently guarded though they have no other nouriſhment but that finall quantity of by the moſſes, and do not want any other covering. The palms mould and imperceptible particles which the rain and air bring thi- in the hot countries perpetually keep their leaves, for there the feed ther. Theſe liverworts dying at laſt turn into a very fine earth; ftand in no need of any ſhelter whatever. on this earth the imbricated liverworts find a bed to ſtrike their Many plants and ſhrubs are armed with thorns, e. g. the buck- roots in. Theſe alſo die after a time, and turn to mould; and thorn, floe, carduus, cotton thiſtle, &c. that they may keep off the then the various kinds of moſles, e. g. the hypna, the brya, poly- animals, which otherwiſe would deſtroy their fruit. Theſe at the Theſe at the trica, find a proper place and nouriſhment. Laſtly, theſe dying fame time cover many other plants, eſpecially of the annual kind, eſpecially of the annual kind, in their turn, and rotting, afford ſuch plenty of new formed mould, under their branches. Nay, it has frequently been obſerved upon that herbs and ſhrubs eaſily root and live upon it. commons where furze grows, that wherever there was a buih left That trees, when they are dry or are cut down, may not remain untouched for years by the commoners, ſome tree has ſprung up, uſeleſs to the world, and lie as it were melancholy ſpectacles, na- being ſecured by the prickles of that ſhrub from the bite of cattle. ture haſtens on their deſtruction in a ſingular way: firſt the liver- So that while the adjacent grounds are robbed of all plants by the worts begin to ſtrike root in them; afterwards the moiſture is drawn voracity of animals, ſome may be preſerved to ripen Aowers and out of them; whence putrefaction follows. Then the muſhroom fruit, and ſtock the parts about with ſeeds, which otherwiſe would kinds find a fit place for nouriſhment on them, and corrupt them be extirpated. ſtill more. The beetle ralled the dermeſtes, next makes himſelf a All herbs cover the ground with their leaves, and by their ſhade way between the bark and the wood. The muſk-beetle, the copper hinder it from being totally deprived of that moiſture which is ne talc-beetle, and the caterpillar or coſſus 812 (S.N.) bores an inf- ceſſary to their nouriſhment. They are moreover an ornament to nite number of holes through the trunk. Laſtly, the woodpeckers the earth, eſpecially as leaves have a more agreeable verdure on come, and while they are ſeeking for infects, wear away the tree the upper than the under fide. already NATURAL HISTORY. eg. already corrupted ; till the whole paſſes into earth. Such induſtry | naged about the propagation of theſe minute creatures. The fe does nature uſe to deſtroy the trunk of a tree! Nay, trees im males by natural inſtinct meet and copulate with the males; and merſed in water, would ſcarcely ever be deſtroyed, were it not for afterwards lay their eggs; but not indiſcriminately in every place. the worm that eats fhips, which performs this work; as the ſailor For they all know how to chooſe ſuch places as may ſupply their knows by fad experience. offspring in its tender age with nouriſhment, and other things ne- Thiſtles, as the moſt uſeful of plants, are armed, and guarded ceſſary to ſatisfy their natural wants : for the mother, ſoon after ſhe by nature herſelf. Suppoſe there were a heap of clay, on which has laid her eggs, dies; and were ſhe to live, ſhe would not have for many years no plant has ſprung up; let the ſeeds of the thiſtle it in her power to take care of her young. blow there and grow, the thiſtles by their leaves attract the moiſture Butterflies, moths, ſome beetles, weevils, bugs, cuckow-ſpit in- out of the air, ſend it into the clay by means of their roots, will thrive ſects, gall infects, tree-bugs, &c. lay their eggs on the leaves of themſelves, and afford a ſhade. "Let no other plants come hither, plants, and every different tribe chooſes its own fpecies of plant. and they will ſoon cover the ground. All ſucculent plants make the Nay, there is ſcarce any plant which does not afford nouriſhment ground' fine, of a good quality, and in great plenty ; as ſedum, to ſome inſect; and ſtill more, there is ſcarcely any part of a plant craſſula, aloe, algæ. But dry plants make it more barren, as which is not preferred by ſome of them. Thus one inſect feeds heath, pines, moſs; and therefore nature has placed the ſucculent upon the flower; another upon the trunk; another upon the root; plants on rocks, and the drieſt hills. and another upon the leaves. But we cannot help wondering par- ticularly, when we ſee how the leaves of ſome trees and plants, af- SECT. IV. ter eggs have been let into them, grow into galls; and form dwel- THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. lings, as it were for the young ones, where they may conveniently live. Thus when the gall inſect has fixed her eggs in the leaves of I. PROPAGATION. an oak, the wound of the leaf ſwells, and a knob like an apple ariſes, The generation of animals holds the firſt place among all things which includes and nouriſhes the embryo. that raiſe our admiration, when we conſider the works of the Cre When the tree-bug has depoſited its eggs in the boughs of the fir- ator ; and chiefly that appointment, by which he has regulated the tree, excreſcences ariſe ſhaped like pearls. When another ſpecies conception of the foetus, and its excluſion, that it ſhould be adapted of the tree-bug has depoſited its eggs in the mouſe-ear chickweed to the diſpoſition and way of living of each animal, is moſt worthy or the ſpeedwell, the leaves contract in a wonderful manner into the of our attention. We find no ſpecies of animals exempt from the ſhape of an head. The water-ſpider excludes eggs either on the ex- ſting of love, which is put into them to the end that the Creator's tremities of the juniper, which from thence forms a lodging, that mandate may be executed, increaſe and multiply; and that thus the looks like the arrow-headed grafs : or on the leaves of the poplar, in which is contained the rudiment of the fætus, may egg, be fe- from whence a red globe is produced. The tree-louſe lays its eggs cundated; for without fecundation, all eggs are unfit to produce on the leaves of the black poplar, which upon that turn into a an offspring kind of inflated bag; and ſo in other inſtances. Nor is it upon Foxes and wolves, ftruck with theſe ſtings, every where howl in plants only that inſects live and lay their eggs. The gnats commit the woods; crowds of dogs follow the female; bulls ſhew a theirs to ſtagnating waters. The water-infect called monoculus often terrible countenance, and very different from that of oxen. Stags increaſes ſo immenſely on pools, that the red legions of them have the every year have new horns, which they loſe after rutting time. appearance of blood. Others lay their Others lay their eggs in other places : Birds look more beautiful than ordinary, and warble all day long, the beetle, in dunghills; the dermeſtes, in ſkins;, the fleſhy-fly, through laſciviouſneſs. Thus ſmall birds labour to out-fing one in putrified fleſh; the cheeſe-maggot, in the cracks of cheeſe, from another, and cocks to out-crow. Peacocks ſpread forth again their whence the caterpillars iſſuing forth, oftentimes conſume the whole gay and glorious trains. Fiſhes gather together, and exult in the cheeſe, and deceive many people, who fancy the worms are pro- water; and graſhoppers chirp, and pipe, as it were, amongſt the duced from the particles of the cheeſe itſelf, by a generation called herbs. The ants gather again into colonies, and repair to their cita- equivocal, which is extremely abſurd. Others exclude their eggs dels. We paſs over many other particulars, which this ſubject af upon certain animals. The mill-beetle lays its fords, to avoid prolixity. ſcales of fiſhes; the ſpecies of gad-fly, on the back of cattle; the 2. The fecundated egg requires a certain proportionate degree of ſpecies 1025 (S. N.) on the back of the rein-deer ; the ſpecies 1026, heat for the expanſion of the ſtamina of the embryo. That this in the noſes of ſheep. The ſpecies 1028, lodges during the winter in may be obtained, nature operates in different manners ; and there- the inteſtinal tubes, or the throat of horſes, nor can it be driven out fore we find in different claſſes of animals a different way of ex- till the ſummer comes on. Nay, inſects themſelves are often ſur- cluding the foetus. The females of quadrupeds have an uterus, rounded with the eggs of other inſects, inſomuch that there is contrived for eaſy geſtation, temperate and cheriſhing warmth, and ſcarcely an animal to be found which does not feed its proper inſect, proper nouriſhment of the fætus, as moſt of them live upon the not to ſay any more of all the other places where they depoſit their earth, and are there fed. eggs. Almoſt all the eggs of inſects, when laid, are ordered to un-- Birds, in order to get ſubſiſtence, and for other reaſons, are under dergo, by a wonderful law of nature, various metamorphoſes, e. g. a neceſſity of ſhifting place; and that not upon their feet, but wings. the egg of the butterfly, being laid in the cabbage, firſt of all be- Geſtation therefore would be burthenſome to them. For this rea comes a caterpillar, that feeds upon graſs, crawls, and has 16 feet. ſon they lay eggs, covered with a hard fhell. Theſe they ſit upon This afterwards changes into a nymph, that has no feet, is ſmooth, by a natural inſtinct, and cheriſh till the young ones come forth. and eats not; and laſtly, this burſts into a butterfly that flies, has va- The oſtrich and caſſowary are almoſt the only birds that do not riety of colours, is rough, and lives upon honey. What can be obſerve this law; theſe commit their eggs to the fand, where the more worthy of admiration than that one and the ſame animal intenſe heat of the fun excludes the foetus. ſhould appear on the ſtage of life under ſo many characters, as if it Fiſhes inhabit cold waters, and moſt of them have cold blood; were three diſtinct animals. Linnæus, (Ameen. Academ. tom. ii.) whence it happens that they have not heat ſufficient to produce the foe- in a treatiſe on the wonders relating to inſects, ſays, “ As ſurpriſing tus. The all-wiſe Creator therefore has ordained, that moſt of them as theſe transformations may ſeem, yet much the ſame happens ſhould lay their eggs upon the fore; where by means of the ſolar when a chicken is hatched; the only difference is, that this chicken rays the water is warmer, and alſo fitter for that purpoſe; becauſe breaks all three coats at once, the butterfly one after another." it is there leſs impregnated with ſalt, and conſequently milder; and The laws of generation of worms are ſtill very obſcure; as we alſo becauſe water-inſects abound more there, which afford the find they are ſometimes produced by eggs, ſometimes by offsets juſt young fry nouriſhment. in the ſame manner as happens to trees. It has been obſerved with Salmons in the like manner, when they are about to lay their the greateſt admiration, that the polypus or hydra (S. N. 221.) lets eggs, are led by inſtinct to go up the ſtream, where the water is down ſhoots and live branches, by which it is multiplied. Nay, freſh and more pure. The butter-fly-fiſh is an exception, for that more, if it be cut into many parts, each ſegment, put into the water, brings forth its foetus alive. The fiſhes of the ocean, which cannot grows into a perfect animal; ſo that the parts which were torn off reach the ſhores by reaſon of the diſtance, are alſo exempt from are reſtored from one ſcrap. this law. The Author of nature has given to this kind, eggs 3. The multiplication of animals is not tied down to the ſame that ſwim; ſo that they are hatched amidſt the ſwimming fucus, rules in all; for ſome have a remarkable power of propagating, called fargazo. The cetaceous fiſh have warm blood; and there- others are confined within narrower limits in this reſpect. Yet in fore they bring forth their young alive, and ſuckle them with their general we find, that nature obſerves this order, that the leaſt ani- Many amphibious animals bring forth live fætuſes, as the mals, and thoſe which are uſeful and ſerve for nouriſhment to the Viper and the toad, &c. But the ſpecies that lay their eggs, lay them greateſt number of other animals, are endued with a greater power in places where the heat of the fun ſupplies the warmth of the pa of propagating than others. Mites, and many other inſects, will rent. Thus the reſt of the frog kind, and the lizard kind, lay their multiply to a thouſand within the compaſs of a very few days; eggs in warm waters; the common ſnake in dunghills, and ſuch while the elephant ſcarcely produces one young in two years. The like warm places; and give them up to nature, as a provident nurſe, hawk kind generally lay not above two eggs, at moſt four; while to take care of them. The crocodile and ſea-tortoiſes aſhore to the poultery kind riſes to 50. The diver, or loon, which is eaten go lay their eggs under the fand, where the heat of the ſun hatches them. by few animals, lays alſo two eggs; but the duck kind, the moor- Moſt of the infect kind neither bear young nor hatch eggs: yet game, partridges, &c. and ſmall birds, lay a very large number. If their tribes are the moſt numerous of all living creatures; info you ſuppoſe two pigeons to hatch nine times a year, they may pro- much, that if the bulk of their bodies were proportionate to their duce in four years 14760 young. They are endued with this rea quantity, they would fcarce leave room for any other kinds of ani markable fertility, that they may ſerve for food, not only to man, mals. Let us ſee therefore with what wiſdom the Creator has ma but to hawks and other birds of prey. Nature has made harmleſs and Nº 115. VOL. III. * teats. NATURAL HISTORY. will appear the young and efculent animals fruitful. She has forbid the bird kind to fall It will not be here amiſs to produce ſome inſtances by which it ſhort of the number of eggs allotted to each fpecies; and therefore, how providentially the Creator has furniſhed every ani. if the eggs which they intend to fit upon be taken away a certain mal with ſuch cloathing as is proper for the country where they number of times, they preſently lay others in their room; as may live, and alſo how excellently the ſtructure of their bodies is adapta be ſeen in the ſwallow, duck, and ſmall birds. ed to their particular way of life; ſo that they ſeem to be deſtined II. PRESERVATION. ſolely to the places where they are found. Preſervation follows generation; this appears chiefly in the ten Monkeys, elephants, and rhinoceroſes, feed upon vegetables that der age, while the young are unable to provide for their own fup- grow in hot countries, and therefore therein they have their allotted port. For then the parents, though otherwiſe ever ſo fierce in their places. When the ſun darts forth its moſt fervid rays, theſe animals diſpoſition, are affected with a wonderful tenderneſs or ſenſe of are of ſuch a nature and diſpoſition, that it does them no manner of love towards their progeny, and fpare no pains to provide for, guard, hurt; nay, with the reſt of the inhabitants of thoſe parts, they go and preſerve them; and that not by an imaginary law, but one naked; whereas, were they covered with hairy ſkins, they muſt given by the Lord of nature himſelf. periſh with heat. Quadrupeds give fuck to their tender young, and ſupport them by On the contrary, the place of rein-deer is fixed in the coldeſt a liquor perfectly eaſy of digeſtion, till their ſtomachs are able to di. part of Lapland, becauſe their chief food is the liverwort, which geſt, and their teeth are fit to chew, more ſolid food. Nay, their grows no where ſo abundantly as there; and where, as the cold is love toward them is ſo great, that they endeavour to repel with the moſt intenſe, the rein-deer are cloathed, like the other northern ani- utmoſt force every thing which threatens danger or deſtruction to mals, with ſkins filled with the denſeſt hair, by the help of which they them. The ewe, which brings forth two lambs at a time, will not eaſily defy the keenneſs of the winter. In like manner the rough- admit one to her teats unleſs the other be preſent and fuck alſo; left legged partridge paſſes its life in the very Lapland Alps, feeding one ſhould famiſh, while the other grows fat. upon the ſeeds of the dwarf birch; and, that they may run up and Birds build their neſts in the moſt artificial manner, and line them down ſafely amidſt the ſnow, their feet are feathered. as ſoft as poſſible, for fear the eggs ſhould get any damage. Nor do The camel frequents the ſandy and burning deſarts, in order to they build promiſcuouſly in any place, but there only where they get the barren camel's-hay. How wiſely has the Creator contrived may quietly lie concealed and be ſafe from the attacks of their for him! he is obliged to go through the deſarts, where oftentimes enemies. no water is found for many miles about. All other animals would The hanging-bird makes its neſt of the fibres of withered plants, periſh with thirſt in ſuch a journey; but the camel can undergo it and the down of the poplar ſeeds, and fixes it upon the bough of without ſuffering; for his belly is full of cells, where he reſerves ſome tree hanging over the water, that it may be out of reach. water for many days. It is reported by travellers, that the Arabians, The diver places its ſwimming neſt upon the water itſelf, when in travelling they want water, are forced to kill their camels, amongſt the rulhes. We deſignedly paſs over many inſtances of and take water out of their bellies that is perfe&tly good to drink, the like kind. and not at all corrupted. Again, birds ſit on their eggs with ſo much patience, that many The pelican likewiſe lives in defart and dry places; and is obliged of them chooſe to periſh with hunger, rather than expoſe the eggs to build her neft far from the ſea, in order to procure a greater ſhare to danger by going to ſeek for food. of heat to her eggs. She is forced therefore to bring water from The male rooks and crows, at the time of incubation, bring food afar for herſelf and her young; for which reaſon Providence has to the females. furniſhed her with an inſtrument moſt adapted to this purpoſe: She Pigeons, ſmall birds, and other birds which pair, fit by turns ; has a very large bag under her throat, which ſhe fills with a quantity but where polygamy prevails, the males ſcarcely take any care of of water ſufficient for ſo many days; and this ſhe pours into the neſt, to refreſh her young, and teach them to ſwim. Moſt of the duck kind pluck off their feathers in great quantity, The wild beaſts, lions, and tygers, come to this neſt to quench and cover their eggs with them, left they ſhould be damaged by the their thirſt, but do no hurt to the young. cold when they quit their neſts for the ſake of food; and when the Oxen delight in low grounds, becauſe there the food moſt pala- young are hatched, who knows not how ſolicitous they are in pro- table to them grows. viding for them till they are able to fly and ſhift for themſelves ? Sheep prefer naked hills, where they find a particular kind of Young pigeons would not be able to make uſe of hard ſeeds for graſs called the feſtuca, which they love above all things. Goats nouriſhment, unleſs the parents were to prepare them in their crops, climb up the precipices of mountains, that they may browſe on the and thence feed them. tender ſhrubs; and in order to fit them for it, they have feet made The owl called the eagle-owl makes its neſt on the higheſt preci for jumping. Horſes chiefly reſort to woods, and feed upon leafy pices of mountains, and in the warmeſt ſpot, facing the fun; that plants. "Nay, ſo various is the appetite of animals, that there is the dead bodies brought there may by the heat melt into a ſoft pulp, Icarcely any plant which is not choſen by fome, and left untouched and become fit nouriſhment for the young by others. The horſe gives up the water-hemlock to the goat. As an exception indeed to this foſtering care of animals, may be The cow gives up the long-leaved water-hemlock to the ſheep. The mentioned the cuckow, which lays its eggs in the neſt of other goat gives up the monks-hood to the horſe, &c. for that which cer- ſmall birds, generally the wag-tail, yellow-hammer, or white-throat, tain animals upon, others abhor as poiſon. Hence no plant and leaves the incubation or preſervation of the young to them. is abſolutely poiſonous, but only reſpectively. Thus the ſpurge, This cuſtom of the cuckow is ſo extraordinary, and out of the that is noxious to man, is a moſt wholeſome nouriſhment to the common courſe of nature, that it would not be credible were it not caterpillar. That animals may not deſtroy themſelves for want of for the teſtimony of the moſt knowing and curious natural-hiſtori- knowing this law, each of them is guarded by ſuch a delicacy of ans, ſuch as Ray, Willoughby, Geſner, Aldrovandus, Ariſtotle, taſte and ſmell, that they can eaſily diſtinguiſh what is pernicious &c. But this ſeeming want of inſtinct is accounted for from the from what is wholeſome; and when it happens that different animals ſtructure and ſituation of its ftomach which diſqualifies it for live upon the ſame plants, ſtill one kind always leaves ſomething for incubation; and its inſtinctive care is ſtill conſpicuous in pro the other, as the mouths of all are not equally adapted to lay hold of viding a proper, though a foreign, nidus for its eggs. the graſs; by which means there is ſufficient food for all. To this Amphibious animals, fiſhes, and inſects, which cannot come may be referred an æconomical experiment well known to the under the care of their parents, yet owe this to them, that they are Dutch, that when eight cows have been in a paſture, and can no put in places where they eaſily find nouriſhment. longer get nouriſhment, two horſes will do very well there for ſome As ſoon as animals come to maturity, and want no longer the care days; and when nothing is left for the horſes, four ſheep will live of their parents, they attend with the utmoſt labour and induſtry, ac- cording to the law and economy appointed for every ſpecies, to the Swine get proviſion by turning up the earth; for there they find preſervation of their lives. But that ſo great a number of them, the fucculent roots, which to them are very delicious. The leaves which occur every where, may be ſupported, and a certain and and fruits of trees are intended as food for ſome animals, as the floth, fixed order may be kept up amongſt them, behold the wonderful the ſquirrel; and theſe laſt have feet given them fit for climbing. diſpoſition of the Creator, in aſſigning to each ſpecies certain kinds Beſides myriads of fiſhes, the caſtor, the ſea-calf, and others, in- of food, and in putting limits to their appetites. So that ſome live habit the water, that they may there be fed; and their hinder-feet on particular fpecies of plants, which particular regions and ſoils are fit for ſwimming, and perfectly adapted to their manner of life. only produce: fome on particular animalcula; others on carcafes; The whole order of the gooſe-kind, as ducks, merganſer, &c. pafs and ſome even on mud and dung. For this reaſon, Providence has their lives in water, as feeding upon water-inſects, fiſhes, and their ordained that ſome ſhould ſwim in certain regions of the watery eggs. Who does not ſee, that attends ever ſo little, how exactly the element; others ſhould fly: ſome ſhould inhabit the torrid, the wonderful formation of their beaks, their necks, their feet, and their frigid, or the temperate zones ; and others ſhould frequent deſarts, feathers, ſuits their kind of life; which obſervation ought to be ex- mountains, woods, pools, or meadows, according as the food proper tended to all other birds, to their nature is found in ſufficient quantity. By this means there The way of living of the ſea-ſwallow deſerves to be particularly is no terreſtial tract, no ſea, no river, no country, but what con taken notice of; for as he cannot ſo commodiouſly plunge into the tains and nouriſhes various kinds of animals. Hence alſo an ani water, and catch fiſh, as other aquatic birds, the Creator has ap- mal of one kind cannot rob thoſe of another kind of its aliment; | pointed the ſea-gull to be his caterer, in the following manner. which, if it happened, would endanger their lives or health: and When this laſt is purſued by the former, he is forced to throw up thus the world at all times affords nouriſhment to ſo many and ſo prey, which the other catches; but in the autumn, when large inhabitants, at the ſame time that nothing which it produces the fiſhes hide themſelves in deep places, the merganſer ſupplies is uſeleſs or ſuperfluous. the gull with food, as being able to plunge deeper into the ſea. The grow fat upon it. part of his chief NATURAL HISTORY. any means chief granary of ſmall birds is the knot-graſs, that bears heavy ſeeds, III. DestruCTION. like thoſe of the black bind-weed. It is a very common plant, not We have obſerved before, that all animals do not live upon eafily deſtroyed, either by the road fide by trampling upon it, or any vegetables, but that there are ſome which feed upon certain ani- where elſe; and is extremely plentiful after harveſt in fields, to malcula. Nay, there are ſome which ſubſiſt only by rapine, and which it gives a reddiſh hue by its numerous ſeeds. Theſe fall daily deſtroy numbers of the peaceable kind. upon the ground, and are gathered all the year round by the ſmall Theſe animals are deſtroyed, but in ſuch a manner that the birds. To which we may add, that many ſmall birds feed upon weaker generally are infeſted by the ſtronger in a continued ſeries. the ſeeds of plantain, particularly linnets. It is generally known Thus the tree-louſe lives upon plants. The fly called muſca aphidi- that the gold-finch lives upon the ſeed of thiſtles, from which he has vora lives upon the tree-louſe; the hornet and waſp-fly, upon the its name in Latin and French. Thus bountiful nature feeds the muſca aphidivora ; the dragon-fly, upon the hornet and waſp-fly; fowls of the air. the ſpider, on the dragon-fly; the ſmall birds on the ſpider; and The Creator has taken no leſs care of ſome amphibious animals, laſtly, the hawk kind on the ſmall birds. as the ſnake and frog kind; which, as they have neither wings to In like manner, the monoculus delights in putrid waters, the Ay, nor feet to run ſwiftly and commodiouſly, would ſcarcely have gnat eats the monoculus, the frog eats the gnat, the pike eats the of taking their prey, were it not that ſome animals run, frog, the ſea-calf eats the pike. as it were of their own accord, into their mouths. When the The bat and goat-ſucker make their excurſions only at night, Tattle-ſnake, a native of America, with open jaws fixes his eyes on that they may catch the moths, which at that time fly about in vaſt a bird, fly, or ſquirrel, ſitting on a tree, they fly down his throat, quantities. being rendered ſtupid, and giving themſelves up as deſtitute of all The woodpecker pulls out the inſects which lie hid in the trunks refuge. How dreadful this ſerpent is to other animals will appear of trees. by an account we have in a treatiſe entitled Radix Senega. Where The ſwallow purſues thoſe which fly about in the open air. the author (Amen. Academ. tom. 2.) ſays one of theſe terrible ſer The mole purſues worms. The large fiſhes devour the ſmall. pents got clandeſtinely into the houſe of governor Blake at Carolina; Nay, we ſcarcely know an animal which has not ſome enemy to where it would have long lain concealed, had it not been that all contend with. the domeſtic animals, as dogs, hogs, turkeys and fowls, admoniſhed Amongſt quadrupeds wild beaſts are moſt remarkably pernicious the family by their unuſual cries, equally ſhewing their horror and and dangerous to others, as the hawk kind among birds. But that conſternation, their hair, briſtles, and creſts, ſtanding up an end. they may not, by too atrocious a butchery, deſtroy whole ſpecies, On the other hand, we cannot but adore the Creator's great goodneſs even theſe are circumſcribed within certain bounds. Firſt, as to towards man, when we conſider the rattle which terminates this the moſt fierce of all, it deſerves to be noted how few they are in ferpent's tail: for by means of that we have an opportunity of guard proportion to other animals. Secondly, the number of them is not ing againſt this dreadful enemy; the ſound warning us to fly; which equal in all countries. Thus France and England breed no wolves, if we were not to do, and we ſhould be wounded by him, the whole and the northern countries no tigers or lions. Thirdly, theſe fierce body would be turned into a putrid corruption in fix hours, nay animals ſometimes fall upon and deſtroy one another. Thus the ſometimes in half an hour. wolf devours the fox. The dog infeſts both the wolf and fox; nay, The limits of this article will not permit us to produce more ex wolves in a body will ſometimes venture to furround a bear. The amples of this kind. But whoever will be at the pains to take ever tiger often kills its own male whelps. Dogs are ſometimes ſeized {o flight a view of the wonderful works of the Author of nature, with madneſs, and deſtroy their fellows, or with the mange deſtroy will readily ſee how wiſely the plan, order, and fitneſs of things themſelves. . with divine ends, are diſpoſed. Laſtly, wild beaſts ſeldom arive at fo great an age as animals We cannot without the utmoſt admiration behold how provi which live on vegetables. For they are ſubject, from their alkaline dently the Creator has acted as to the preſervation of thoſe animals diet, to various diſeaſes, which bring them ſooner to an end. which, at a certain time of the year, are by the rigour of the ſeaſon But although all animals are infeſted by their peculiar enemies, excluded from the neceſſaries of life. Thus the bear in the autumn yet they are often able to elude their violence by ſtratagems and force. creeps into the moſs which he has gathered and there lies all winter; Thus the hare often confounds the dog by her windings. fubfiſting upon no other nouriſhment but his fat, collected during When the bear attacks ſheep and cattle, theſe draw up together the ſummer in the cellulous membrane, and which without doubt, for mutual defence. Horſes join heads together, and fight with during his faft, circulates through his veſſels, and ſupplies the place their heels. Oxen join tails, and fight with their horns. of food; to which perhaps is added that fat juice which he ſucks Swine get together in herds, and boldly oppoſe themſelves to any out of the bottom of his feet. attack, ſo that they are not eaſily overcome, and it is worth while The hedge-hog, badger, and mole, in the ſame manner fill their to obſerve, that all of them place their young, as leſs able to defend winter-quarters with vegetables, and ſleep during the froſts. The themſelves, in the middle, that they may remain ſafe during the bat ſeems cold and quite dead all the winter. Moſt of the battle. amphibious animals get into dens, or to the bottom of lakes and Birds, by their different ways of flying, oftentimes eſcape the pools. hawk. If the pigeon had the ſame way of flying as the hawk, In the autumn, as the cold approaches, and inſects diſappear, ſhe would hardly ever eſcape his claws. . ſwallows migrate into other climes in ſearch of food and a tempera It deſerves alſo to be remarked, how much fome animals conſult ture of air more friendly to their conſtitution : though the latter their ſafety by night. When horſes ſleep in woods, one by turn hatches, or thoſe young birds which are incapable of diſtant flights, remains awake, and, as it were, keeps watch. When monkeys in feek for an aſylum againſt the violence of the cold in the bottom of Braſil fleep upon trees, one of them keeps awake, in order to give lakes amongſt the reeds and ruſhes; from whence, by the wonderful the ſign when the tiger creeps towards them; and in caſe the guard appointment of nature, they come forth again. The periſtaltic ſhould be caught alleep, the reſt tear him to pieces. Hence the motion of the bowels ceaſes in all theſe animals, while they are hunting of rapacious animals is not always ſucceſsful, and they are obliged to faſt; whence the appetite is diminiſhed, and ſo they often obliged to labour for a whole day to no purpoſe. For this ſuffer the leſs from hunger. To this head may be referred the ob reaſon the Creator has given them ſuch a nature, that they can bear ſervation of the celebrated Liſter concerning thoſe animals; that faſting a long time. Thus the lion lurks in his den many days their blood, when let into a baſon does not coagulate, as that of all without famifhing; and the wolf, when he has once well ſatisfied other animals; and ſo is no leſs fit for circulation than before. his hunger, can faſt many weeks without any difficulty. The moor-fowls work themſelves out-walks under the very ſnow. If we conſider the end for which it pleaſed the Supreme Being to They moult in the ſummer; ſo that about the month of Auguſt conſtitute ſuch an order of nature, that ſome animals ſhould be, as they cannot fly, and are therefore obliged to run into the woods ; it were, created only to be miſerably butchered by others, it ſeems but then the moor-berries and bilberries are ripe, from whence they that his Providence not only aimed at ſuſtaining, but alſo keeping are abundantly ſupplied with food. Whereas the young do not a juſt proportion amongſt all the ſpecies; and ſo prevent any one moult the firſt ſummer; and therefore, though they cannot run ſo of them from increaſing too much, to the detriment of men and well, are able to eſcape danger by flight. other animals. For if it be true, as it was moſt afſuredly, that the The reſt of the birds who feed upon inſects migrate every year ſurface of the earth can ſupport only a certain number of inhabi- to foreign regions, in order to ſeek for food in a milder climate; while tants, they muſt all periſh, if the ſame number were doubled or all the northern parts, where they live well in the ſummer, are tripled. There are ſome viviparous flies which bring forth 2000 covered with ſnow. young. Theſe in a little time would fill the air, and like clouds By theſe migrations, birds alſo become uſeful to many different intercept the rays of the ſun, unleſs they were devoured by birds, countries, and are diſtributed over almoſt all the globe. And it muſt ſpiders, and many other animals. excite our admiration that all of them exactly obſerve the times of Storks and falcons free Egypt from frogs, which, after the in- coming and going, and that they do not miſtake their way. undation of the Nile, cover all the country. The ſame birds alſo Inſects in the winter generally lie hid within their caſes, and are free Paleſtine of mice. Bellonius on this ſubject ſays as follows: nouriſhed by the ſurrounding liquor like the foetus of other animals; “ The ſtorks come to Egypt in ſuch abundance, that the fields from whence, at the approach of ſpring, they awake, and fly forth, and meadows are white with them. Yet the Egyptians are not to the aſtoniſhment of every one. . diſpleaſed with this fight; as frogs are generated in ſuch numbers However, allanimals which lie hid in winter do not obſerve theſe there, that did not the ſtorks, devour them, they would over-run laws of faſting. Some provide ſtore houſes in ſummer and autumn, every thing. Beſides, they alſo catch and eat ſerpents. Between from which they take what is neceſſary; as mice, jays, ſquirrels, Belba and Gaza, the fields of Paleſtine are often deſart on account and bees. of the abundance of mice and rats; and were they not deſtroyed by the NATURAL HISTORY way, that he find any the falcons; that come here by inſtinct, the inhabitants could have would find wherewithal to employ almoſt all the powers of the no harveſt.' mind. Nay, time itſelf would fail before even the moſt acute hu- The white fox is of equal advantage in the Lapland Alps; as man fagacity would be able to diſcover the amazing economy, laws, he deſtroys the Norway rats, which are generated there in great and exquiſite ſtructure, of the leaſt infect; fince, as Pliny obſerves, abundance, and thus hinders them from increaſing too much in nature no where appears more herſelf than in her moſt minute proportion, which would be the deſtruction of vegetables. works, The whole earth would be overwhelmed with carcaſes and Summary as it is, however, the preceding view, as it were in a ſtinking bodies, if ſome animals did not delight to feed upon them. map, of the ſeveral parts of nature, their connections and de- Therefore when an animal dies, bears, wolves, foxes, ravens, &c. pendencies, may, among other uſes, convey an uſeful leſſon, and do not loſe a moment till they have taken all away. But if a horſe, ſuch an one as the beſt of us often need to have inculcated. dies near the public road, you will find him, after a few days, From a partial conſideration of things, we are very apt to criticiſe ſwoln, burſt, and at laſt filled with innumerable grubs of carnivorous what we ought to admire; to look upon as uſeleſs what perhaps we flies, by which he is entirely conſumed, and removed out of the ſhould own to be of infinite advantage to us, did we ſee a little far- may not become a nuiſance to paſſengers by his poi- ther; to be peeviſh where we ought to give thanks; and at the ſame ſonous ſtench. time to ridicule thoſe who employ their time and thoughts in exa- When the carcaſes of fiſhes are driven upon the ſhore, the voraci-mining what we were (i.e. ſome of us moſt affuredly were) created ous kinds, ſuch as the thornback, the hound-fiſh, the conger-eel, &c. and appointed to ſtudy. In ſhort, we are apt to treat the Al- gather about and eat them. But becauſe the Aux and reflux ſoon mighty worſe than a rational man would treat a good mechanic, change the ſtate of the ſea, they themſelves are often detained whoſe works he would either thoroughly examine, or be aſhamed to in pits, and become a prey to the wild beaſts that frequent the fault with them. This is the effect of a partial conſidera- fhores. tion of nature, but he who has the candour of mind and had not Thus the earth is not only kept clean from the putrefaction of car to look farther, will be inclined to wonder and adore. caſes, but at the ſame time, by the economy of nature, the ne The late Rev. Mr. Hervey, author of ſeveral pious and ingenious ceſſaries of life are provided for many animals. In the like man productions, has beautifully depicted the works of the creation, as ner many inſects at once promote their own good, and that of other adapted to the uſes of the human race, in the following elegant ſtile animals. and manner. Thus gnats lay their eggs in ſtagnant, putrid, and ſtinking wa- | The earth is aſſigned us for a dwelling. The ſkies are ſtretched ters, and the grubs that ariſe from theſe eggs clear away all the over us like a magnificent canopy, dyed in the pureſt azure, and putrefaction: and this will eaſily appear, if any one will make the beautified, now, with pictures of Aoating ſilver; now with colourings experiment by filling two veſſels with putrid water, leaving the of reflected crimſon. The graſs is ſpread under us, as a ſpacious grubs in one, and taking them all out of the other; for then he carpet, wove with filken threads of green, and damaſked with flow- will ſoon find the water that is full of grubs pure and without any ers of every hue. The ſun, like a golden lamp, is hung out in the ſtench, while the water that has no grubs will continue ſtinking. ethereal vault; and pours his effulgence all the day to lighten our Lice increaſe in a wonderful manner in the heads of children paths. When night approaches, the moon takes up the friendly that are fcabby; nor are they without their uſe, for they conſume Office, and the ſtars are kindled in twinkling myriads, to cheer the the redundant humours. ? darkneſs with their milder luftre, nor diſturb our repoſe by too in- The beetle kind in ſummer extract all moiſt and glutinous mat tenſe a glare. The clouds, beſides the rich paintings they hang ter out of the dung of cattle, ſo that it becomes like duſt, and is around the heavens, act the part of a ſhifting ſcreen, and defend ſpread by the wind over the ground. Were it not for this, the ve us, by their ſeaſonable interpoſition, from the ſcorching beams of getables that lie under the dung would be ſo far from thriving, that ſummer. all that ſpot would be rendered barren. May we not alſo regard them, as the great watering-pots As the excrements of dogs is of ſo filthy and ſceptic a nature that of the globe, which, wafted on the wings of the wind, diſpenſe no inſect will touch them, and therefore they cannot be diſperſed their moiſture evenly through the univerſal garden; and fructify, by that means, care is taken that theſe animals ſhould exonerate with their ſhowers, whatever our hands plant? The fields are our upon ſtones, trunks of trees, or ſome high place, that vegetables exhauſtleſs granary. The ocean is our vaſt reſervoir. The ani- may not be hurt by them. 0.1 mals ſpend their ſtrength to diſpatch our buſineſs, reſign their Cats bury their dung. In a word, nothing is ſo mean, nothing clothing to repleniſh our wardrobe, and ſurrender their very lives ſo little, in which the wonderful order and wiſe diſpoſition of na to provide for our tables. In ſhort, every element is a ſtore-houſe ture do not ſhine forth. of conveniencies; every ſeaſon brings us the choiceſt productions; Laſtly, all theſe treaſures of nature, ſo artfully contrived, ſo won- all nature is our caterer. And which is a moſt endearing re- derfully propagated, ſo providentially ſupported throughout her commendation of theſe favours, they are all as lovely as they are three kingdoms, ſeem intended by the Creator for the ſake of man. uſeful. You obſerve nothing mean or inelegant. All is clad in Every thing may be made ſubſervient to his uſe, if not immediately, beauty's faireſt robe, and regulated by proportion's niceſt rule. yet mediately; not ſo to that of other animals. By the help of rea The whole ſcene exhibits a fund of pleaſures to the imagination, fon man tames the fierceſt animals; purſues and catches the ſwift at the ſame time, that it more than ſupplies all our wants. eſt; nay, he is able to reach even thoſe which lie hid in the bottom The Science of Natural Hiſtory is ſo unboundedly extenſive, of the ſea. By the help of reaſon, he increaſes the number of ve that thoſe who purſue the ſtudy of it with affiduous and unremitted getables immenſely; and does that by art, which nature, left to application, and trace its minutiæ, as far as human wiſdom can herſelf, could ſcarcely effect. By ingenuity he obtains from vege penetrate, find the ſubject ſo comprehenſive, that to attain a perfect tables whatever is convenient or neceſſary for food, drink, clothing, knowledge of any one of the three Kingdoms, would occupy the medicine, navigation, and a thouſand other purpoſes. general career of human life. He has found the means of going down into the abyſs of the In conſequence of this admitted fact, we have given the various earth, and almoſt ſearching its very bowels. With what artifice Claſſes of Natural Hiſtory in different parts of the work; con- has he learned to get fragments from the moſt rocky mountains, ceiving that it would render the knowledge of each reſpective to make the hardeſt ſtones fluid like water, to ſeparate the uſeful branch leſs intricate and more attainable; nor could the reſpective metal from the uſeleſs droſs, and to turn the fineſt fand to ſome Claffes with propriety or advantage be diſcuſſed under this general uſe! In ſhort, when we follow the ſeries of created things, and head. conſider how providentially one is made for the ſake of another, the Another circumſtance which we have ſtrictly attended to, and matter comes to this, that all things are made for the ſake of man; which much facilitates the knowledge of this faſhionable and and for this end more eſpecially, that he, by admiring the works of entertaining ſcience, is a judicious ſelection, arrangement, and the Creator, ſhould extol his glory, and at once enjoy all thoſe claſſification of the repreſentations. things of which he ſtands in need, in order to paſs his life con- The iminortal Linnæus, in his Syſtema Naturæ, purſued the plan veniently and pleaſantly. of claſlification, but he omitted to illuſtrate his deſcriptions with re- It is ſufficient for us, that nothing is made by Providence in vain; preſentations, in conſequence of which it rendered his work infinitely and that whatever is made, is made with ſupreme wiſdom. For it leſs complete; therefore to ſupply the want of ſo important a point does not become us to pry too boldly into all the deſigns of God. towards the ſtudy of Natural Hiſtory, we have given repreſentations Let us not imagine, when theſe rapacious animals ſometimes do us of each genus, according to the Linnæan mode of claſſification; miſchief, that the Creator planned the order of nature according and as this plan was never before adopted in any Syſtem of Natural to our private principles of economy: for the Laplanders have one Hiſtory, we conceive our plates will elucidate many parts of way of living; the European huſbandman another; the Hottentots Linnæus, and conſiderably illuſtrate this Work, as well as Natural and ſavages a third; whereas the ſtupendous economy of the Deity Hiſtory in general; as they exhibit that chain of connection which is one throughout the globe; and if Providence does not always cal runs throughout the three kingdoms, render the knowledge of the culate exactly according to our way of reckoning, we ought to con ſubject infinitely more inſtructive and entertaining, and induce us ſider this affair in the fame light, as when different ſeamen wait for to purſue it with greater ardour, and to wonder and adore the a fair wind, every one with reſpect to the part he is bound to, who works of the divine and omnipotent Creator. we plainly ſee cannot all be ſatisfied. Some few writers on Natural Hiſtory have totally neglected This ſubject concerning the works of nature, a very Claſſification, an omiflion that may be juſtly compared to collecting of which we have been able to touch upon, is of ſuch importance and a number of valuable materials for erecting a building, without dignity, that if it were to be properly treated in all its parts, men laying a foundation for the ſuperſtructure. ſmall part NA VAL AFFAIRS THI MARITIME STATE OF GREAT BRITAIN. laſtingly ingrafted into the Britiſh conſtitution ; with this fingu. SECT. I. LAWS, DISCIPLINE, AND PRIVILEGES. larly fortunate circumſtance, that any branch of the legiſlature HE maritime ſtate of Britain is nearly connected with the may annually put an end to its legal exiſtence, by refuſing to military; though much more agreeable to the principles of our concur in its continuance. free conſtitution. The royal navy of England hath ever been its ho. SECT. II. NAVAL TACTICS. greateſt defence and ornament; it is its ancient and natural ſtrength, Naval tactics is a ſcience which teaches that arrangement or or- the wooden walls; the floating bulwark of the iſland; an army, der, in which a fleet of ſhips of war are diſpoſed to engageanenemy. from which, however ſtrong and powerful, no danger can ever be The diſpoſition, which is the beſt calculated for the operations of apprehended to liberty: and accordingly it has been aſſiduouſly cul naval war, is formed by drawing up the ſhips in a long file or right tivated from the earlieſt ages. To ſo much perfection was our na line, prolonged from the keel of the hindmoſt to that of the foremoſt, val reputation arrived in the 12th century, that the code of mari and paſſing longitudinally through the keels of all the others from time laws, which are called the laws of Oleron, and are received by the van to the rear, ſo that they are, according to the ſea, phraſe, all nations in Europe as the ground and ſuperſtructure of all their in the wake of each other. In this line or order of battle, all the marine conſtitutions, was confeſſedly compiled by our king Richard | ſhips of which it is compoſed are cloſe hauled upon the ſtarboard 1. at the Iſle of Oleron on the coaſt of France, then part of the pof or larboard tack, about 50 fathoms diſtant from each other. feffions of the crown of England. And yet, ſo vaſtly inferior were A fleet is more particularly drawn up in the line, when in pre- our anceſtors in this point to the preſent age, that even in the ma ſence of an enemy. It ought to be formed in fuch a manner as that ritime reign of queen Elizabeth, Sir Edward Coke thinks it mat the ſhips ſhould mutually ſuſtain and reinforce each other, and yet ter of boaſt, that the royal navy of England then conſiſted of three preſerve a ſufficient ſpace in their ſtations to work or direct their and thirty ſhips. The preſent condition of our marine is in great movements with facility, during the action. Thus they will be meaſure owing to the falutary proviſions of the ſtatutes called the enabled effectually to cannonade the enemy without incommodo navigation afts; whereby the conſtant increaſe of Engliſh ſhipping ing the thips of their own ſquadron. and ſeamen was not only encouraged, but rendered unavoidably ne The line clofe hauled is peculiarly choſen as the order of battle, ceffary. By the ſtatute 5 Ric. II. c. 3. in order to augment the becauſe if the fleet, which is to windward, were arranged in any navy of England, then greatly diminiſhed, it was ordained, that other line, the enemy might ſoon gain the weather-gage of it; and none of the king's liege people ſhould ſhip any merchandize out of even if he thinks it expedient to decline that advantage, it will yet or into the realm, but only in ſhips of the king's liegance, on pain be in his power to determine the diſtance between the adverſe fleet of forfeiture. In the next year, by ſtatute 6 Ric. II. c. 8. this in an engagement, and to compel the other to action. The fleet to wiſe proviſion was enervated, by only obliging the merchants to leeward being in a line cloſe hauled, parallel to the enemy, can give Engliſh ſhips (if able and fufficient) the preference. But the more readily avail itſelf of the change of the wind, or of the neg- moſt beneficial ſtatute for the trade and commerce of theſe king-lect of its adverſary, by which it may, by a dextrous management, doms is that navigation act, the rudiments of which were firſt get to windward of him; or ſhould he fail in his attempt, he will framed in 1650, with a narrow partial view; being intended to nevertheleſs be enabled, by the favourable ſtate of the wind, to mortify our own ſugar-iſlands, which were diſaffected to the par- avoid coming to action if the enemy is greatly ſuperior, or to pre- liament, and ſtill held out for Charles II. by ſtopping the gainful vent him from eſcaping if he ſhould attempt it. trade which they then carried on with the Dutch, and at the ſame Beſides theſe advantages, this order of battle is fingularly conve- time to clip the wings of thoſe our opulent and aſpiring neighbours. nient and proper in other reſpects. Theſails of each ſhip are diſpoſed This prohibited all ſhips of foreign nations from trading with any in ſuch a manner as to counteract each other, ſo that the ſhips in Engliſh plantations, without licence from the council of ſtate. In general neither advance nor retreat during the action. By this cir- 1651, the prohibition was extendedalſo to the mother-country: and cumſtance they are enabled to retain their ſtations with greater ſta- no goods were ſuffered to be imported into England, or any of its bility, and to proſecute the battle with vigour and reſolution, yet dependencies, in any other than Engliſh bottoms; or in the ſhips of without perplexity and diſorder. The uniformity of the line will that European nation, of which the merchandize imported was the be preferved, ſo that the Admiral's orders may be readily commu- genuine growth or manufacture. At the reſtoration, the former nicated by ſignals from the van to the rear. The diſtreſs of any par- proviſions were continued, by ſtat. 12. Car. II. c. I. with this ticular ſhip that is diſabled, and rendered incapable to continue the very material improvement, that the maſter and three fourths action, will be preſently diſcovered, and her place accordingly ſup- of the mariners ſhall alſo be Engliſh ſubjects. plied by one of the ſhips in reſerve. The circumſtances and ſitua- Many laws have been made for the ſupply of the royal navy tion of the enemy's line will be ever open to the view of the com- with ſeamen; for their regulation when on board; and to confer mander in chief, ſo that he may be enabled to convert any dilata privileges and rewards on them during and after their ſervice. ter that mayihappen therein to his own advantage. 1. For their ſupply. The principal, but the moſt odious, though It may be alledged, indeed, that the ſame reaſons hold good with often neceſſary, method for this purpoſe, is by impreſſing; ſee Im- regard to the enemy to whom this arrangement will be equally bene- PRESSING. But there are other ways that tend to the increaſe of ficial. It may alſo be obſerved, that particular occaſions have ren- ſeamen, and manning the royal navy. Pariſhes may bind out poor dered it neceſſary to break theorder of the line, and that ſometimes boys apprentices to the maſters of merchantmen, who ſhall be pro this expedient has been practiſed with equal judgment and ſucceſs. tected from impreſſing for the firſt three years; and if they are im To the firſt of theſe allegations it may be anſwered, that in war, as preffed afterwards, the maſters ſhall be allowed their wages: great well as in politics, there are certain general rules abſolutely necef- advantages in point of wages are given to volunteer ſeamen, in ſary to be obſerved by the hoſtile powers; rules which are founded order to induce them to enter into his majeſty's ſervice: and every on mutual convenience, and authorized by the invariable example foreign ſeaman, who, during a war, ſhall ſerve two years in any of all ages. Whatever tends to facilitate the deſigns of the adverſe man of war, merchantman, or privateer, is naturalized ipſo parties on each other, or whatever operates to ſhorten the period of facto. About the midddle of king William's reign, aſcheme was war, and render it leſs deſtructive and fatal, are objects which fet on foot for a regiſter of ſeamen to the number of 30,000, for ought never to be diſregarded. Diſorder has not only a tendency to a conſtant and regular ſupply of the king's fleet; with great pri- | protract the war, but to make it more bloody and ruinous, and to vileges to the regiſtered men, and, on the other hand, heavy pe aggravate all the calamities with which it is inſeparably attended. nalties in caſe of their non-appearance when called for : but this The inceffant fire of ſo large an aſſembly of ſhips, in a very regiſtry, being judged to be rather a badge of ſlavery, was abo ſhort time covers the ſcene of action with a cloud of ſmoke, which liſhed by ſtat. 9 Ann. c. 21. is conſtantly accumulating. The winds that enable the two fleets 2. The method ofordering ſeamen in the royal fleet, and keeping to approach each other are foon become extremely feeble, or per- up a regular diſcipline there, is directed by certain expreſs rules, ar haps perfectly lulled, by the exploſions of a vigorous cannonade. ticles, and orders, firſtenacted by the authority of parliament foon They are of courſe incapable any longer to diſſipate the ſmoke, after the Reſtoration ; but ſince new-modeiled and altered after the which then darkens the air, and is almoſt impenetrable to the eye. peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, to remedy fome defects which were of If in this ſituation the hoſtile ſhips are promiſcuouſly ſcattered, fatal conſequence in conducting the preceding war. In theſe ar the whole will be inevitably expoſed to diſtraction. Not only is ticles of the navy almoſt every poſſible offence is ſet down, and the the moſt comprehenſive ſkill of the commander in chief rendered puniſhment thereof annexed: in which reſpect the ſeamen have uſeleſs; the ſmaller ſhips, abandoned to their ill fortune, may be much the advantage over their brethren in the land ſervice ; whoſe torn to pieces by ſuperior force without relief or ſuccour. And articles of war are not enacted by parliament, but framed from time what is infinitely worſe than all, the ſhips of the ſame fleet may to time at the pleaſure of the crown. Yet from whence this dif cannonade each other, with all the reſolution and ſpirit which they tinction aroſe, and why the executive power, which is limited ſo exert againſt their enemies. If the deſign of war is conqueſt and properly with regard to the navy, ſhould be ſo extenſive with re not maſſacre, it is thus totally perverted. The battle, inſtead of gard to the army, it is hard to aſſign a reaſon ; unleſs it proceeded being brought to a ſpeedy iſſue, and decided by a victory and de- from the perpetual eſtabliſhment of the navy, which rendered a per feat, is unhappily protracted into a ſcene of ſlaughter and ruin, manent law for their regulation expedient, and the temporary du equally fatal to both parties. ration of the army, which ſubſiſted only from year to year, and If then diſorder and confuſion are fraught with ſuch dangerous might therefore with leſs danger be ſubjected to diſcretionary go- conſequences in a naval armament, it is no leſs certain, that the vernment. But whatever was apprehended at the firſt formation principal ſinews of its ſtrength are diſcipline, regularity, vigilance, of the mutiny-act, the regular renewal of our ſtanding force at the and activity. If the ſhips are farther apart than thoſe of the ene- entrance of every year has made this diſtinction idle. For, if from my's line, many ſingle Thips will ſuffer the fire of two at once. experience paſt, we may judge of future events, the army is now Hence the flect is rendered inferior to that of the enemy at the No. 116 G onſet NA VAL AFFAIRS. önſet of battle ; a circumſtance which evinces the fuperiority of SECT. III. MANNER OF A NAVAL ENGAGEMENT, larger ſhip's accompanied with weightier metal. The enemy is Having ſhewn how to form the line, the next thing neceſſary to defeated by the efforts of a more numerous and more powerful be known is the manner of an engagement at ſea, which conſiſts artillery. in the preparation, the action, and the repair or refitting for the Beſides theſe advantages, the larger ſhips are in other reſpects purpoſe of purpoſe of navigation. highly preferable in a line of battle; they overlook thoſe of an in- The preparation is begun by iſſuing the order to clear the hip ferior rate, which are accordingly laid open to the fire of their for action, which is repeated by the boatſwain and his mates at all muſquetry. In a high ſea they can more ſafely employ the ar- the hatchways , or ſtaircaſes, leading to the different batteries. tillery of their lower deck than a ſmaller thip, and if both are As the management of the artillery in a veſſel of war requires a obliged to ſhut their lower deck ports, the advantage of the three conſiderable number of men, it is evident that the officers and decked ſhips, with regard to their cannon, will yet be conſidera ſailors muſt be reſtrained to a narrow ſpace in their uſual habitati- ble. They have three tiers againſt two, and two againſt one ; ons, in order to preſerve the internal regularity of the ſhip. Hence the ſame ſuperiority ſubſiſts in caſe they are diſmaſted, or when the hammocks,or hanging beds, to the latter, are crowded together the upper deck is incumbered with the ruins. as cloſe as poſlible between the decks, each of them being limited The large ſhips, being higher between decks, are leſs incom to the breadth of fourteen inches. They are hung parallel to each moded with the ſmoak,and their cannon are managed with greater other in rows, ſtretching from one ſide of the ſhip to the other; as facility. The large ſhips having greater folidity of frame, are the cannon therefore cannot be worked while the hammocks are better calculated to reſiſt the effects of battle and tempeſt. In ſuſpended in this ſituation, it becomes neceſſary to move them as general alſo they fail better than the ſmall ones, except in fine quick as poſſible. By this circumſtance a double advantage is ob- weather; for in a freſh wind, when the ſea becomes agitated, they tained: the batteries of cannon are immediately cleared of an en- have always a ſuperiority. The fire ſhips do not fucceed fo well cumbrance, and the hammocks are converted into a fort of ра- againſt large ſhips as the ſmaller ones; the artillery will ſink them rapet, to prevent the execution of ſmall ſhot on the quarter-deck, or oblige them ſooner to relinquiſh their deſign, and they are eaſily tops, and forecaſtle. tops, and forecaſtle. At the ſummons of the boatſwain,“ up all towed away by the great long-boats. The line of a fleet, hammocks,” every failor repairs to his own, and, having ſtowed which has abundance of capital ſhips, need not be ſo much in his bedding properly, he cords it up firmly with a lathing, or cloſed as that of an enemy who has fewer. The former may be line, provided for that purpoſe. He then carries it to the quarter- alſo leſs numerous without being weaker. deck, poop, or forecaſtle, or wherever it may be neceffary. As An open line will, on many occaſions, work more eaſily than each ſide of the quarter-deck and poop is furniſhed with a net- one which is more incloſed; and, if it is leſs numerous, the move work, ſupported by iron cranes, fixed immediately above the gun- ments thereof are more expeditions, the ſignals better attended, the wale, or top of the ſhip's fide, the hammocks thus corded are firmly general order more exactly preferved,and the ſhips leſs liable to be ſtowed by the quarter-maſter between the two parts of the netting, feparated. Hence it will be lefs embarraſſed by a change of wind, ſo as to form an excellent barrier ; ſo as to form an excellent barrier ; the tops, waiſt, or forecaſtle, and the order will be foon re-eſtabliſhed. A leſs numerous line are then fenced in the ſame manner. will more readily approach or eſcape from an enemy or hoſtile While theſe offices are performed below, the boatſwain and his ſhore ; and, finally, when cruiſing in a ſmaller ſpace, it will not be mates are employed in ſecuring the ſail-yards to prevent them ſo much contracted. From the preceding reflections, it reſults, from tumbling down when the ſhip is cannonaded, as ſhe might that the line which contains more capital ſhips will be ſtronger thereby be diſabled, and rendered incapable of attack, retreat, or than one more numerous if compoſed of ſmaller ſhips, This re purſuit. The yards are now likewiſe ſecured by ſtrong chains, fection, however, does not exclude a certain number of the third or ropes, additional to thoſe by which they are uſually ſuſpended. and fourth rates, which is neceſſary in the naval armaments. - The boatſwain alſo provides the neceſſary materials to repair the We have already pointed out the advantages of a weather line; rigging wherever it may be damaged by the ſhot of an enemy, and but here we muſt obſerve that it has, nevertheleſs, its defects, to ſupply whatever parts of it may be entirely deſtroyed. The car- which ſometimes counterbalance the advantages above recited. penter and his crew, in the mean while, prepare his ſhot plugs and If the fea is rough and the wind boiſterous, it cannot readily fight mauls to cloſe up any dangerous breach that may be made near the with the lower-deck battery: it cannot decline the action without ſurface of the water, and provide the iron-work neceſſary to refit the dangerous expedient of forcing through the enemy's line ; and, the chain pumps, in caſe their machinery ſhould be wounded in if it keeps the wind, the lee-line may incloſe and totally deſtroy it, the engagement. eſpecially if it is inferior in number to the latter, or if the ſhips. The gunner, with his mate and quarter-gunner, is buſied in ex- thereof are in a bad condition ; for it then can find no other re- amining the cannon of the different batteries, to ſee that their fource but in the dexterity of its maneuvres, unleſs it is favoured its manæuvres, unleſs it is favoured charges are thoroughly dry and fit for execution, to have every by wind or any overſight of the enemy. The diſabled ſhips of the thing ready for furniſhing the great guns and ſmall arms with pow- weather-line muſt tack to avoid falling into the enemy's-fleet ; and der as ſoon as the action begins, and to keep a fufficient number of if they are much ſhattered, they may be altogether feparated cartridges continually filled to ſupply the place of thoſe expended from their own fleet, particularly if they are in the rear of the in battle. The maſter and his mates are attentive to have the fails line. properly trimmed according to the ſituation of the ſhip, and to re- The line to leeward has alſo its advantages, which have occaſi duce or multiply them, as occaſion requires, with all poſlibe ex- onally been preferred to thoſe of the weather-line. The ſhips of pedition. The lieutenant viſits the differentdecks to ſee that they the former may uſe the guns of their lower decks without the ha are effectually cleared of all encumbrance, fo that nothing may re- zard of taking in much water at the ports in ſtormy weather; tard the execution of the artillery,and to enjoin the other officers to whereas the line to windward dares not open them without the diligence and alertneſs in making the neceſſary diſpoſition of the greateſt danger. If the lee-line, although more numerous, cannot expected engagement, ſo that every thing may be in readineſs at fo eaſily double upon the van and rear of the enemy, and incloſe a moment's warning. Wobb them between two fires, it may nevertheleſs have opportunities of When the hoſtile ſhips have approached each other, to a compe- tacking, and cutting off part of the enemy's rear, by obliging tent diſtance, the drums beat to arms, the boatſwain and his mates them to bear away, or ſeparate from the reſt. The diſabled ſhips pipe all hands to quarters at every hatchway. All the perſons ap- to leeward are much more readily removed from the line than thoſe pointed to manage the great guns immediately repair to their re- to windward : without being obliged to tack and continue ex ſpective ſtations; the crows, handſpikes, rammers, ſponges, pow- poſed to the enemy's fire, they bear away and remain at a compe der-horns, matches, and turn-tackles, are placed in order by the tent diſtance from the fleet in a ſtate of fafety ; finally, the lee-line ſide of every cannon: the hatches are immediately laid to prevent can with more facility avoid the action than its adverſary, a circum any one from deferting his poſt by eſcaping into the lower apart- ſtance which is extremely favourable to an inferior ſquadron ments: the marines are drawn up in rank and file on the quarter- The defects of the lee-line, on the contrary, are, that it cannot deck, poop, and fore-caſtle: the laſhing of the great guns are caſt decide the time and diſtance of the battle, which may commence looſe, and the tompions withdrawn: the whole artillery, above and before it is ſufficiently formed, and it will perhaps be attacked by below, is run out at the ports, and levelled to the point-blank range an enemy, who bears away upon it in regular order The fire and ready for firing. The neceſſary preparations being completed, and ſmoke of the weather-line are a great inconvenience to it, and it the officers and crew ready at their reſpective ſtations to obey the cannot eaſily break the enemy's line with its fire-ſhips, which are order; the commencement of the action is determined by the very ſlowly and with great difficulty conveyed to windward. mutual diſtance and ſituation of the adverſe ſhips, or by the fignal It muſt be remarked, that the admiral's fhipattentively preſerves of the commander in chief of the fleet or ſquadron. The cannon her ſtation in the centre of the line; for if the commander in being levelled in parallel rows, projecting from the ſhip's ſide, the chicf ſhould give way to the caprice or inattention of any of thofe moſt natural order of battle is evidently to range the thips a-breaſt under his direction it would introduce an endleſs diſorder into the of each other, eſpecially if the engagement is general. The moſt ſquadron. In an engagement, the ſhips are generally brought to convenient diſtance is properly within the point of a blank range with the main top-fails laid back, and their fore-top-fails full, for of a muſket, ſo that all the artillery may do effectual cxecution. the purpoſe of bearing away more readily when occaſion requires. The combat uſually begins by a vigorous cannonađe, accom- The line is ſaid to be formed a-breaſt when the ſhip’s fides are all panied with the whole efforts of the ſwivel-guns and the ſmall parallel to each other in a line which croſſes their keels at right The method of firing in the platoons, or vollies of cannon angles. This is more frequently uſed in purſuing or retreating, at once, appears inconvenient in the ſea-ſervice, and perhaps ſhould with the wind right-aft, ſo that the line forms a perpendicular with never be attempted unleſs in the battering of a fortification. The the direction of the wind. 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They are uſed as a place of rez captain of each gun is particularly enjoined to fire only when the treat when a ſhip is boarded by her adverſary, and are therefore piece is properly directed to itsobject , that the ſhot may not be fruit-fitted with ſeveral ſmall loop-holes, through which to fire the ſmall leſsly expended. The lieutenants, who command the different arms, whereby the ſhip's crew inay defend themſelves and annoy batteries, traverſe the decks to ſee that the battle is poſecuted with the enemy. They are likewiſe furniſhed with ſeveral ſmall caiſ- vivacity, and to exhort and animate the men to their duty. The foons, called powder-cheſts, which are fixed upon the deck, and midſhipmen ſecond the injuctions, and givethe neceſſary aſſiſtance, filled with powder, old nails, &c. and may be fired at any time wherever it may be required, at theguns,committed to their charge. from the cloſe quarters upon the boarders. The gunner ſhould be particularly attentive that all the artillery is SECT. IV. CONSTRUCTION of SHIPS. fufficiently ſupplied with powder, and that the cartridges are care All edifices, whether civil or military, are erected in confes fully conveyed along the deck in covered boxes. The havock quence of certain eſtabliſhed plans, which have been previouſly produced by the continuation of this mutual aſſault may be conjec- | altered or improved till they have arrived at the deſired point of tured by the reader's imagination; battering, penetrating and ſplin- perfection. The conſtruction of ſhips appears alſo tò require at tering the ſides and decks, ſhattering or diſmounting the cannon, leaſt as much correctneſs and preciſion as the buildings which are mangling or deſtroying the rigging, cutting afunder or carrying founded upon terra firma. A modern ſhip is undoubtedly the away the maſts and yards, piercing and tearing the fails, ſo as to nobleſt machine that ever was invented, and conſiſts of ſo many render them uſeleſs, and wounding, diſabling, or killing the ſhip's parts, that it would require a whole volume to deſcribe it minute- company. The comparative vigour and reſolution of aſſailants to ly. And as the ſeveral pieces of timber of which the fabric is effect theſe pernicious conſequences in each other, generally deter- compoſed, with their aſſemblage and union would be unintereſt mine their ſucceſs or defeat. We ſay generally; becauſe the fate | ing to the generality of our readers; we have therefore, to give of the combat may ſometimes be decided by an unforeſeen inci a collective view of a firſt rate ſhip, exhibited a repreſentation dent. The defeated ſhip having acknowledged the victory by ſtrik- of one of thoſe floating citadels, with all her maſts, yards, and ing her colours, is immediately taken poſſeſſion of by the conquer- | rigging erect, and the ſeveral fails furled to their yards and ſtays. or, who ſecures her officers and crew as priſoners in his own ſhip, We have alſo given a ſection of a firſt rate, ſhewing the interior and inveſts his principal officers with the temporary command of parts. To the repreſentation we have alſo annexed the follows the prize. ing explanations. The engagement being concluded, they begin the repair ; the section of THE INTERNAL PARTS OF A FIRST RATE cannon are ſecured by their breechings and tackles with all conve SHIP, FROM STEM TO Stern. See the Plate annexed nientexpedition. Whatever fails havebeen rendered unſerviceable The principal parts are diſtinguiſhed by, A, the ſtern abaft. are unbent, and the wounded maſts and yards ſtruck upon the deck | B, the poop. C, the quarter-deck. D, the fore-eaſtle. E, the and fiſhed or replaced by others. The ſtanding rigging is knotted, upper-deck. F, the middle-deck. G, thegun-deck. H, theor- and the running rigging ſpliced wherever neceſſary. Proper ſails lop. I, the hold. K, the head. are bent in the room of thoſe which have been diſplaced as uſeleſs. All particulars in either of theſe parts are diſtinguiſhed by num- The carpenter and his crew areemployed in repairing the breaches bers, 1, 2, 3, &c. againſt which there is placed the letter of the made in the ſhip’s hull by ſhot-plugs, pieces of plank, and ſheet alphabet which refers to the principal part or parts where that par- lead. The gunner and his aſſiſtants are buſied in repleniſhing the ticular is to be found, viz. I, The tafferel. 2,The upper lights and allotted number of charged cartridges to ſupply the ſpace of thoſe balcony. 3, The lower lights and balcony. 4, The ward room which have been expended, and in refitting whatever furniture of lights. 5. The counter. 6, The tranſoms. 7. The faſhion- the cannon may have been damaged by the late action. Such is the pieces. 8, The rudder. 9, The tiller. 10, Timbers of the ſtern, uſual proceſs and conſequences of an engagement between two head, &c. 11, The ſtern poit. 12, Rails. 13, Brackets. 14, ſhips of war, which may be conſidered as an epitome of a general The fife-rails on one ſide. 15, The companion. 16, Cabins battle between a fleet or ſquadron. The latter, however, involves for lieutenants, maſters, and mates. 17, Timber-heads. 18, a greater variety of incidents, and neceſſarily requires more com Hances or falls, on the ſhips fide. 19, Beams of the decks. 20, prehenſive ſkill and judgment in the commanding officer. Bulk heads. 21, Gangway and ſtairs. 22, Ports. 23, En- The ſtratagem of boarding is chiefly practiſed by privateers upon trance into the gallery. 24, The ſtate room. 25, The bulk- merchant-ſhips, who are not ſo well provided with men, and rarely head of the ſtate-room. 26, Bulk-head of the coach. 27, Cabins attempted in the royal navy; the battle being generally decided in for boatſwain, carpenter, and mates. 28, Beak-head bulk-head. of war, by the vigorous execution of a cloſe cannonade. An 29, Gratings. 30, Cats-tail. 31, Cook-room chimney. 32, officer ſhould maturely conſider the danger of boarding a ſhip of Main-capítan. 33, Jeer-capſtan. 34, Bits and croſs pieces. 35, war, before he attempts it, and be well aſſured that his adverſary Standing cabins for midſhipmen. 36, Flying and winding ſtairs. is weakly manned ; for perhaps he wiſhes to be boarded, and if ſo, 37, Ladders. 38, Common table. 39, Cook-room and furnaces. a great ſlaughter will neceſſarily follow. The ſwell of the ſea 40, Standards to the ſide and head. 41, Cabbins for gunner and ought alſo to be conſidered ; becauſe it may run fo high as to ex mates. 42, Bit-pins. 43, Croſs pieces for the cables. 44, poſe both the ſhips to the danger of ſinking. There is, perhaps, Standars. 45, Manger. 46, Hatch-ways. 47, Partitions for very little prudence in boarding a ſhip of equal force, and when it ſteward and ſtore rooms. 48, Bread room abaft, powder-room is attempted it may be either to windward or to leeward, according afore. 49, Breaſt-hooks. 50, Upper futtock-riders. 51, Lower to the comparative force or fituation of the ſhips; if there be any furtocks. '52, Floor-riders. 53, Hawſe-holes. 54, Upright fwell or ſea it may be more adviſeable to lay the enemy aboard on pillars. 55, Well-pump and ſhot lockers. 56. Steps for the the lee-fide, as the water is there the ſmootheft; beſides, if the maſts. 57, The kelſon, 58, The appearance of the floor- boarder is repulſed, in that ſituation he may more eaſily withdraw timbers cut. 59, Lower ends of the futtocks. 60, The riſing or his men, and ſtand off from his adverſary; but as the weather-ſhip dead-wood. 61, The keel. 62, The ſtem. 63, Knee of the can generally fall to leeward at any time, it is perhaps more eligi- head. 64, The trail-boards. 65, Cheeks. 66, Figure. 67, ble to keep to windward, by which ſhe will be enabled to rake her Funnel for eaſe. 68, Bow-ſprit. 69, Fore-maft. 70, Mainmaít. antagoniíts, and fire the broadſide into her ſtern, as the croſſes it in 71, Mizen-maſt. 72, Piſdell. 73 Entering-port. palling to leeward, which will do great execution amongſt her men EXPLANATION OF A REPRESENTATION OF A FIRST by ſcouring the whole length of her deck. RATE SHIP OF WAR, LYING AT ANCHOR, WITH Boarding may be performed in different places of the ſhip, ac HER RIGGING, Gc. See the Plate annexed. cording to the circumſtances, preparation, and poſition of both the Parts of the Hull. A, the cat-head; B, the fore-chains ; C, affailants, having previouſly ſelected a number of men armed with the main-chains ; D, the mizen chains ; E, the entering port; piſtols, and cutlaſſes, a number of powder-flakes or flaſks, charged F, the hawfe holes ; G, the poop lanterns ; H, the cheſs-tree ; with gunpowder, and fitted with a fuſe, are alſo provided to be 1, the head; K, the ſtern. thrown upon the enemy's deck, immediately before the aſſault. L, The bowſprit. 1, 2, Yard and fail. 3, Gammoning. 4, Beſides this, the boarder is generally furniſhed with an earthen Horſe. 5, Bob-ſtay. 6, Sprit-ſail ſheets. 7, Pendants. 8, Braces thell, calleda ſtink-pot, which, on that occafion, is ſuſpended from and pendants. 9, Halliards. 10, Lifts. II, Clew-lines. 12, his yard-arms or bowſprit-end. The machine is alſo charged with Sprit-fail horfes. 13, Bunt-lines. 14, Standing-lifts. 15, Sprit- powder mixed with other inflammable and fuffocating materials, fail top. 16, Flying jib boom. 17, Flying jib ſtay and fail. 18, with a lighted fuſe at the aperture. Thus prepared for the ac Halliards. 19, Sheets. 20, Horſes, tion, and having grappled his adverſary, the boarder diſplays his M. The ſprit-fail top-maſte 21, Shrouds. 22, 23, Yard and fignal to begin the aſſault; the fuſes of the ſtink-pot and powder- fail. 24, Sheet. 25, Lifts. 26, Braces and pendants. 27, Cap. fialks being lighted they are immediately thrown upon the deck 28, Jack-ſtaff . 29, Truck. 30, Jack flag. of the enemy, where they burſt and catch fire, producing an in N. The fore-maft. 31, Runner and tackle. 32, 33, Shrouds. tolerable ſtench and ſmoke, and filling the deck with tumult and 34, Laniards. 35, Stay and laniard. 36, Preventer-ſtay and diſtraction; amidſt the confuſion occaſioned by this infernal laniard. 37, Woolding the maſt. 38, Yard and fail. 39, ratus, the detachment provided ruſh aboard ſword in hand, under Horſes. 40, Top. 41, Crow-foot. 42, Jeers. 43, Yard- çover of this ſmoke, on their antagoniſt, who is in the ſame tackles. 44, Lifts. 45, Braces and pendants. 46, Sheets. 47, dicament with a citadel ſtormed by the beſiegers, and generally Fore tacks. 48, Bow-lines and bridles. 49, Fore' bunt-lines. overpowered, unleſs he is furniſhed with extraordinary means of 50, Fore leech-lines. 51, Fore top ropes. 52, Puttock ſhrouds. O, The men appa- pre- NA V AL A F F AIR S. mizen-top- to 0, The fore top-maſt . 53, 54, Shrouds and Laniards. 55, Amiddle-ſtay-ſail, which ſtands between the two laſt. All theſe Yard and fail. 56, Stay and fail. 57, Runner. 58, Back ſtays. ay-ſails are between the main and fore mafts. The ſtay-Sails, 59, Halliards. 60, Lifts. 61, Braces and pendants. 62, Horſes. between the main-maſt and mizen maſt are the mizen ſtay-sail, 63, Clew-lines. 64, Bow lines and bridles. 65, Reef-tackles. and the mizen-top-maſt-ſtay-fail , and ſometimes a 66, Sheets. 67, Bunt-lines. 68, Croſs-trees. 69, Cap. gallant-ſtay-fail above the latter. The ſtay-fails between the fore- P, The fore top-gallant maſt. 70, 71, Shrouds and laniards. maſt and bowſprit are the fore-ſtay-fail,t; the fore-top-maft-ſtay- 72, Yard and fail . 73, Back ſtays. 74, Stay. 75, Lifts. 76, ſail, and the jib, x. There are, beſides, two ſquare fails extended Clew-lines. 77, Braces and pendants. 78, Bow-lines and bridles. by yards under the bowſprit, one of which is called the ſprit-Sail , 79, Flag ſtaff. 80, Truck. 81, Flag-ſtaff ſtay. 82, Flag of y, and the other the ſprit ſail-top-fail, z. lord high-admiral. The ſtudding-Sails, being extended upon the different yards Q, The main maſt. 83, 84, Shrouds. 85, Laniards. 86, of the main-maſt and fore maſt, are likewiſe named according Runner and tackle. 87, Pendant of the gornet. 88, Guy of ditto. their ſtations, the lower, top-maſt, or top-gallant-ſtudding-fails . 89, Sail of ditto. 90, Stay. 91, Preventer-ſtay. 92, Stay tackle. The ropes by which the lower yards of a ſhip are hoiſted up to 93, Woolding the maſt. 94, Jeers. 95, Yard tackles. 96, Lifts. their proper height are called the JEARS. In all other fails the 97, Braces and pendants. 98, Horſes. 99, Sheets. 100, Tacks. ropes employed for this purpoſe are called HALLIARDS. Theprin- 101, Bow-lines and bridles. 102, Crow-foot . 103, Top-rope. cipal ſails are expanded by halliards, ſheets, and bow-lines, except 104, Top. 105, Bunt-lines. 106, Leech-lines. 107, Yard and fail. the courſes, which are always ſtreched out below by a tack and " R, The main top-maſt. 108, 109, Shrouds and laniards. 110, ſheet. They are drawn up together or truffed up, by bunt-lines, Yard and fail. 111, Puttock ſhrouds. 112, Back ſtays. 113, Stay. clue-lines åd, fig. 2. leech-lines, e e; reel-tackles, ff;flab-line, 114, Stay ſail and ſtay halliards. 115, Runnets. 116, Halliards. 88; and ſpilling-lines. Thebunt-lines and leech-lines, which país 117, Lifts. 118, Clew-lines. 119, Braces and pendants. 120, on the other ſide of the ſail, are expreſſed by dotted lines in the Horſes. 121, Sheets. 122, Bow-lines and bridles. 123, Bunt- figure. The courſes, top-fails, and top-gallant-ſails, are wheeled lines. 124, Reef-tackles. 125, Croſs-trees. 126, Cap. about the maſt, ſo as to ſuit the various directions of the wind, by S, The main top-gallant maſt. 127, 128, Shrouds and laniards. braces. The higher ſtudding-Sails, andin general all the ſtay-ſails, 1 29, Yard and fail. 130, Back-ſtays. 131, Stay. 132, Stay fail are drawn down, ſo as to be furled or taken in by down-hauls. and halliards. 133, Lifts. 134, Braces and pendants. 135, Bow. The principal ſails of a ſhip are the courſes, or lower fails a, as lines and bridles. 136, Clew-lines. 137, Flag-ſtaff. 138, Truck. | in fig. 2, the top-fails b, which are next inorderabovethe courſes, 139, Flag-ſtaff ſtay. 140, Flag ſtandard. and the top-gallant-fails c, which are expanded above the top-fails . T, The mizen-maſt. 141, 142, Shrouds and laniards. 143, The courſes are the main-fail, fore-fail,and mizen, main-ſtay-ſail , Pendants and burtons. 144, Yard and fail. 145, Crow-foot. 146, fore-ſtay-fail, and mizen-Itay-fail, but more particularly the three Sheet. 147, Pendant-lines. 148, Peck brails. 149, Stay-ſail. 150, firſt . The main-ſtay-ſail is rarely uſed except in ſmall veſſels. Stay. 151, Dericand ſpan. 152, Top. 153, Croſs jack yard. 154, In all quadrangular fails the upper edge is called the head; the Croſs jack lifts. 155, Croſs jack braces. 156, Crofs jack ſings. fides or ſkirts are called leeches: and the bottom or lower edge is V, Themizen top-maſt. 157, 158, Shrouds and laniards. 159, called the foot. If the head is parallel to the foot, the two lower Yard and ſail. 160, Back ſtays. 161, Stay. 162, Halliards. 163, corners are denominated clues, and the upper corners earings. Lifts. 164, Braces and pendants. 165, Bow-lines and bridles. In all triangular ſails, and in thoſe four-ſided ſails, wherein the 166, Sheets. 167, Clew-lines. 168, Stay-fail. 169, Croſs-trees. head is not parallel to the foot, the foremoſt corner at the foot is 170, Cap. 171, Flag-ſtaff . 172, Flag ſtaff ſtay. 173, Truck. 174, called the tack, and the after lower-corner the clue; the foremoſt Flag union. 175, Enſign ſtaff. 176, Truck. 177, Enſign. 178, perpendicular or Noping edge is called the fore-leech, and thehind- Poop ladder. 179, Bower cable. moſt the after-leech. The heads of all four-ſided ſails, and the Deſcription of a naval chain-pump, a well known machine, fore-leeches of lateen ſails, are attached to their reſpective yard or uſed to diſcharge the water from the ſhip's bottom into the ſea, gaff by a number of ſmall cords called robands; and the extremities whoſe lower end reſts upon the ſhip's bottom, between the tim are tied to the yard-arms, or to the peck of the gaff, by earings. The bers, in an apartment called the well, encloſed for this purpoſe ſtay-ſails are extended upon ſtays between the maſts, on which they near the middle of the ſhip’s length. are drawn up or downoccaſionally, as a curtain ſlides upon Conſiderable improvements have been made on the naval and their lower parts are ſtretched out by a tack and ſheet. The chain-pump, by Mr. Cole, under the direction of Captain Ben clues of a top-ſail are drawn out to the extremities of the lower tinck. The chain of this machine is more ſimple and mecha- | yard by two large ropes called the top-fail-ſheets; and the clues nical, and much leſs expoſed to damage. It is exactly ſimilar to of the top-gallant-Sails are in like manner extended upon the top- that of the fire engine; and appears to have been firſt applied to ſail-yard-arms, as exhibited in the figure. The ſtudding-fails are the pump by Mr. Mylne, to exhauſt the water from the caiſſons ſet beyond the leeches or ſkirts of the main-ſail and fore-fail , or at Blackfriars bridge. It has thence been transferred to the marine of the top-fails, or top-gallant-fails of a ſhip, their upper and lower by Captain Bentinck, after having received ſome material additions | edges are accordingly extended by poles, run out beyond the ex- to anſwer that ſervice. The principal ſuperiority of this pump to tremities of the yards for this purpoſe. Thoſe ſails, however, are the old one is, 1. That the chain is more ſimple and more eaſily | only ſet in favourable winds and moderate weather. worked, and of courſe leſs expoſed to injuries by friction. 2. That Yards of a ſhip, are long pieces of timber, tapering at each end, the chain is ſecured upon the wheel, and thereby prevented from fitted acroſs the ſeveral maſts, to carry the ſails, and extend them jerking back when charged with a column of water. to the wind. The fails are faſtened to the yards at the heads; ſo may be eaſily taken up and repaired when broken or choaked with as to be hoiſted up, and let down together with them, by ropes, ballaſt, &c. 4. That it diſcharges a much greater quantity of water called halliards. The main-yard is that of the main-maſt . The with an inferior number of men. mizen-yard the bolt-ſprit-yard, &c. are thoſe of the mizen, &c. In this figure a ſection of this machine at large is exhibited, See the ſhipatanchor, n. 2. 20. 37. 44. 67.86.93. 109. I 26. 138. as fixed in a frigate of war, wherin A is the keel, V the floor All yards are either ſquare or lateen; the former of which are timbers, X the kelſon, a a a the ſeveral links of the chain, b b the ſuſpended acroſs the maſt at right angles, and the latter obliquely. valves, C the upper wheels, D the lower wheels, c c the cavities The Square-yards, Fig. 2, are nearly of a cylindrical ſurface ; upon the ſurface of the wheels to receive the valves as they paſs they taper from the middle, which is called the ſings, towards round thercon, and d d the bolts fixed acroſs the ſurface of the the extremities, which are termed the yard-arms; and the dif- wheels to fall in the interval between every two links to prevent tance between the ſings and the yard-arms on each ſide is divi- the chain from ſliding back. ded, by the artificers, into quarters, which are diſtinguiſhed into The links of the chain, which are no other than two long plates the firſt, ſecond, third quarters, and yard-arms. The middle of iron with a hole at each end, and fixed together by two bolts ſery quarters are formed into eight ſquares, and each of the end-parts ing as axles, are repreſented on a larger ſcale, as a a. The valves is figured like the fruſtum of a cone. All the yards of a ſhip are are two circular plates of iron with a piece of leather between ſquare, except that of the mizen. them ; theſe are alſo exhibited at large, by b b. The lifts of the main-yard are exhibited by g ; in fig 2. the Having thus exhibited a view of a firſt rate ſhip of war with horſes and their ſtirrups by h, i ; the reef-tackles, and their pen- the fails furled to the reſpective yards, ſtays, &c. we ſhall pro dants, by k, l; and the braces, and brace-pendants, by m, n.. ceed to a deſcription of the ſails, mafts, and yards, with their The lateen-yards evidentlyderive their names from having been reſpective names and uſes, as illuſtrated by repreſentations in peculiar to the ancient Romans. They are uſually compoſed of Fig. 1 and 2, which laſt Figure repreſents a ſhip with three ſeveral pieces, faſtened together by wooldings, which alſo ſerve as maſts in full fail. ſteps, whereby the failors climb to the peek, or upper extremity, in All fails derive their name from the maſt, yard or ſtay, upon order to furl or caſt looſe the fail. The mizen-yard of a ſhip, and which they are extended. Thus the principal ſail extended upon the main-yard of a bilander,are hung obliquely on the maſt, almoſt the main maſts is called the main-fail. d, fig. 2, the next above, in the ſame manner as the lateen-yard of a xebec, ſetter, or polacre. which ſtands upon the main-top-maſt, is termed the main-top We deſire to acknowledge with gratitude the affiſtance we have Sail, e; and the higheſt, which is ſpread acroſs the main-top-gal received in the early part of the ſubject from an ingenious correſ- lant-maſt, is named the main-top-gallant-fail, b. In the ſame man pondent, under the ſignature of NAUTICUS; we have not treated ner there is the fore-fail, g; the fore top-fail, h; and the fore-top on Naval Architecture, as it would go far beyond our bounds, gallant-fail, i; the mizenk; the mizen top-fail, 1; and mizen-top and prove very unintereſting to our readers ; but thoſe who wiſh gallant-fail, m. Thus alſo there is the main-ſtay-fail , o; main to conſult this department of Naval affairs are referred to Fale top-mait-ſtay-fail, p; and man-top-gallant-ſtay-ſail, q; with a coner's Marine Dictionary, quarto. its rod, 3. That it Hlags of Different Diferent/ Nations ) S PK Admiralty Vice Admiral White Red Blue Standard of Great Britain. Union St George Custom House Trinity House East India Com: VART Algiers Amsterdam America China Corsica Danes Dantzic ole ieces o Dut East Ind Com Dut West Ind Com Elbing Embden France 2 3 SIC Crenoa Hamburg 2 13 Irish Koningsberg Leghorn X AAAAAAAA Moors Lubec 2 Majorca Malta Man Marseilles ᎩᎳ ᏛᎾᏛᏉ C C C I boo WWY Ostend Naples 2 Oporto Persia Popes Portugal Pruſsia Regusa Biga 2 Rep? of Holland Rotterdam Ruſsia SYN Ruſsia Merch Sallee Sardinia Scotch Sicily Spain Spanish Flag To Spanish Galleon Sweden Tunis Venice Turkey West Friesland Tuscany Engraved for Hall's Encyclopæertia & Printed for C.Cooke, N°27 Paternoster Row. dan senar por loss or damage to this plans to take BANKES ' RE ÉN LAN Cumberland KAMT SCHAT ) CAPA OROILLN CA FR 160 ket I I VITATI Seven : largats FR O Z E LANDS 180 " ARCTIC WORLD Përplaying the Tracks of 2 Porn : South Cape A R S () СЕ А. N CAPT' COOK, D Meridian of Greenwich Phepsi hehurn ZE MBL.I BAFFIN'S BAY cali NOVA R. 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Neke Britain Pai I N D I AN Bawaria S O U TV: P C thiriamm Blanc Nevinha Hali Semana Sunda Str limor Sul S!Christuin 1780 lombava AMERI Atalu ZOMIA Saturation 19 Pidy Halss Scheiben hand alic Land disc 16:20 Lozambique Madagalea Villary " Jlar:27 Μάνομου με S OUT Hernavs I. Gilenarlar Dela Pri Jabirto Wepa A Voftas 0 Natat CE PedeleLand HOLLAND A N Fresh Water Balat174 C.of Good Hope Valve B. 30 O N Decs 30 Mar. 10,1772 rest Perth me Csü kulcnia forma 1770 (Flowe Plicks ATLAN TI (272 Panta mani tentés B. I sean Pirkt 40 Jan.27 January FINOIVIL Jana GRE SOUTH SE 50 Doc.14 Cou of Greenwich Chrismus Holna... TUM Chontage, Land Meridian TUT Toc neon . JU vloe seen TI *778 7°XXII XXIII II IV VI VII VMI IX X XIV XVI XVII XVII XIX xx XXI XXII 70 sprint 20 o 610 slo Zoo 120 140 160 18° 2oo 220 240 260 28 o Long East from 30 o Greenwich. 320 Long East 3 40 from Greenwich. O Drunn i Enuwd!, T. Livm 120 H 16 G SYSTEM OF NAVIGATION. ΝΑΙ theoretical. PART I. fleur-de-lis) alway's pointing as an index to the magnetic north. INTRODUCTORY PRINCIPLES OF NAVI The top of the box is covered with a glaſs pane, that the motion of GATION. Toto Bros | the card may not be diſturbed by the wind. The compaſs box AVIGATION is the art of conducting a fhip through the is to be fo placed in the ſhip, that the middle ſection of the box, parallel to its fides, may be parallel to the middle ſection of the ocean to fome diſtant port; and is either mechanical or ſhip, along its keel. There are ſea compaſſes fomewhat differ- Mechanical Navigation comprehends the art of working a ently conſtructed ; but this before deſcribed, is according to the ſhip, fo as to obſerve ſuch courſe or direction as is afligned by moſt common or uſual form. Alſo, beſides the common fea com- the navigator, and more properly comes under the article NA- paſs, there is another called the azimuth compaſs, which differs from the other only in this, that the circumference of the card or VAL AFFAIRS, to which I refer the reader, though it is al- molt impoffible that it ſhould be attained, otherwife than by box, is divided into degrees, and there is fitted to the box an in- dex with two fights, which are upright pieces of braſs placed di- actual practice and manual exerciſe at ſea. Theoretical Navigation comprehends thoſe methods by which ametrically oppoſite to each other, through which the fun, ftar, a navigator determines the latitude and longitude of a ſhip at fea, &c. is viewed at the time of obſervation. This compaſs is to take the bearing of any celeſtial object. Fig. 2. is a repreſentation and what courſe or courſes ſhe muſt ſtear, ſo as to arrive fafe at the intended port . This refts chiefly in computations fwers both the purpoſes of a common compafs and alſo of an azi- of an improved compaſs as fitted up in the box for uſc, which an- founded on obfervations made on the fun, moon, and ſtars, and muth compaſs. The card in this figure, from the point of view the courſe and diſtance which the ſhip has run, with the uſe of in which it is taken, not being clearly feen, we have introduced proper charts, &c. In this branch we ſhall lay down thoſe methods which appear the beſt adapted to practice, and which a more perfect repreſentation thereof in fig. 3. 7. Variation of the Compaſs, is an arch of the horizon, contained are of the moſt general uſe ; referring our more curious readers to that excellent and elaborate work, entitled, “ Elements of between the meridian of the place, and the magnetic meridian, or direction of the needle. If the needle point to the eaſtward of Navigation," by J. Robertſon, late librarian to the Royal So- the true meridian, is is called eaſt variation; if to the weſtward ciety, and maſter of the Royal Academy at Portſmouth. thereof, weſt variation. After the diſcovery of this property of SECT. I. DEFINITIONS. the magnet, mariners and others many years uſed the compaſs bu without knowing that it in any degree deviated in its direction 1. The Courſe of any ſhip is the angle which the Chip’s way from the true north ; and about the middle of the 16th century, nakes with the meridian. ſo poſitive were ſome of this, that they treated with contempt the 2. The Departure, is the whole eaſting or weſting which a notion of its variation, wlrich at that time began to be ſuſpected. ſhip continually makes, in paffing from one meridian to another. But careful obſervations ſoon diſcovered that in England and its 3. Rhumb Line, is the path that a ſhip deſcribes during any neighbourhood the needle pointed to the eaſtward of the true north; one courſe. A rhumb line makes the fame angle with all meri and the quantity of this deviation being known, mariners became dians; and therefore upon the globe it is a ſpiral line, which as well ſatisfied as if the compaſs had none, becauſe, by making conſtantly approaches the pole, except in an eaſt and weſt a conſtant allowance for the variation, the true courſe could be ob- courſe, where it coincides with the parallel, and in a north and tained. However, it was found from ſucceſſive obſervations, that ſouth courſe, which is upon the meridian. . the variation was not a conſtant quantity, but that it gradually di- 4 Lee-way of a ſhip, is the angle which a ſhip's real courſe miniſhed, and at laſt, namely, about 1657, it was foundat London, makes with her intended courſe, occaſioned by contrary winds that the needle pointed due north; ſince which timeit has been get- and a rough ſea. ting to the weſtward ; and now the variation is about 22 deg. to 5. Log-line, is uſed to meaſure the diſtance the ſhip has run, the weſtward of the north. So that in any one place it may be and confifts of a cord divided into ſeveral equal parts, called | ſuſpected, that the variation has a kind of libratory motion, tra- knots, each knot, or part, containing 46 or 47 feet. This line verſing through the north to certain limits eaſtward and weſt- is faftened to a board about 7 inches long, called the log ; to the ward. But the ſettling of this point muſt be left to time. other end of which is fixed as much lead as will cauſe it to ſwim 8. Log-board. In the ſteerage or ſome convenient place in the upright in the water. In dividing the log-line, there muſt be ſhip, there generally hangs a black-table, called the log-board, di- allowed 12, 15, or 18 fathom of ſtray-line, according to the vided into ſeven columns; in the firſt is written with chalk, the largeneſs of the ſhip, ſo that the log, when thrown over board, hours of the day; in the ſecond, the knots that the ſhip runs dur- may be out of the ſhip's wake, before they begin to count ; and ing half a minute, for determining the ſhip's rate; in the third, the for the more readily diſcovering this point of commencement, fathoms; in the fourth, the courfes ſteered by the compaſs; in the there is uſually faſtened to it a piece of red rag. . The log-line fifth, the winds ; in the ſixth the lee-way, or how far the ſhip is being thus prepared, it is wound about a reel which turns eaſily drove to the leeward of the courſe ſteered by the compaſs; and round, ſo that when hove overboard the line veers out as faſt as in the ſeventh, the tranſactions of the day. the ſhip fails. When in the veering out of the line, the red-rag 9. Log-book is the book ruled like a log-board, in order to con- comes to hand, a half minute glaſs, ready for that purpoſe, muſt tain the daily copies of the remarks written on the log. board, be inſtantly turned; and when the glaſs has run out, the line which book is elteemed the only authentic record of a ſhip's muſt be ſtopped, and it muſt be noted how many knots are run tranſactions. off, for fo many miles does the ſhip fail in an hour. In point of 10. A Sea Journal, is a book in which are entered the moſt frictneſs, each knot ſhould be about 50 feet; for in order that it remarkable daily occurrences relating to the ſhip during her may give the rate of the ſhip correct, it ought to be the fame voyage outward and homeward. Some make one book ſerye part of a nautical mile (or both part of a degree) that a half minute both for Journal and Log-book. is of an hour, viz. I 20th part; but it is found by experience that II. Ship’s-reckoning, is that account by which it can be known the log will drag a little after the ſhip, and fo make the diſtance at any time where the ſhip is, and on what courſe, or courſes, Tun out too little. Experience in a great meaſure muſt ſettle the ſhe muſt ſteer to gain her port. point as to the diſtance of each knot; beſides fome uſe glaſſes of 12. Dead-reckoning, is that account deduced from occurrences 28 ſeconds, as half minute glaſſes, and ſo the length between written on the log-board. each knot muſt be leſs on that account. 13. Charts, are maps of the ſea, and ſea coaſts. When the 6. The Mariners Compaſs, is an inſtrument uſed to point out degrees of latitudeand longitude are made every where equal, ſuch the way which a ſhip goes, or is to go at fea. It conſiſts of three a chart is called a plain chart. If the meridians are drawn parallel, parts, namely, the box, the card or fly, and the needle, (ſee fig. 2.) | and the degrees thereon be made to increaſe towards the polesin pro- The box which contains the card and needle, is a circular braſs portion to the cofines of the latitudes, that fort of chart is called a box, hung within a ſquare wooden one, by two concentric rings, Mercator's chart. The former is on the ſuppoſition that the earth called jimbals, fo fixed by croſs centres to the two boxes, that the is a perfectly flat ſurface, and anſwers well enough for ſhort diſtan- inner one or compaſs box thall retain an horizontal poſition in all ces, or the deſcription of particular places. In the latter, though the motions of the ſhip. The card or fly, is a circle of ſtiff paper, meridians, are alſo drawn parallelto one an other, yet by lengthen- repeſenting the horizon, and is divided into 32 equal parts, each | ing the degrees of latitude in theabove proportion, it gives the bear- of which is called a rhumb or point of the compaís. Theſe ings of places, the ſame as they have upon the globe; by which alſo points are all named according to their poſitions, and inſerted the longitude is truly determined, for the degrees of longitude on quite round the compafs. Thus, north, north by eaſt . north the globe decreaſe as the cofine of the latitude'; and the degrees of north eaſt; north eaff by north ; north eaſt, &c. but inſtead of latitude being here increaſed in that proportion, it cauſes the reſult the words, the initial only of every word is placed (ſee fig. 1. in of the calculations for the difference of longitude from plain trian- the plate to this Syſtem). Alfo each point is divided into quar- gles enly, to be the ſame as would be deduced from ſpherical tri- ter points. The needle is a ſtraight piece of ſteel, made mag- angies. Hence the principles of thoſe charts agree with thoſe of netical, by being properly touched with a load itone the globe ; and they are the beſt adapted for the purpoſe of mari- perty is to point with one end towards the North pole. This ners. Gerrard Mercator, a Fleming, was the firſt who publiſhed needle is fixed to the under ſide of the card, and in the centre is a chart ſomewhat ſimilar, and from thence they are called Merca- placed a conical ſocket, which is put upon an upright pointed tor's charts ; but his chart was not in true proportion. Mr. Ed- pin fixed in the bottom of the box ; ſo that the card hanging on ward Wright, an Engliſhman, was the firſt who diſcovered the pin, turns, with the needle, freely round its centre ; that point the true principles of thoſe charts ; and the proper methods of of it which is over the north end of the needle (marked with a calculation depending thereon. In juſtice therefore to his memory, No. 116 * H the Its pro- NAVIGATION. V quan- I the theory and art of calculation at leaſt ought to be aferibed the water, as will be more particularly ſhewn hereafter; for that to him, as being the real inventor, even though the charts be will increaſe or decreaſe the lee-way, according as it oppoſes or called Mercator's, on account of his firſt making a chart in ſome confpires with the motion of the ſhip. degree ſimilar, though erroneous, and without advancing any Alſo differently conſtructed ſhips will make different lee-ways; fixed principles. and the ſame ſhip, according as ſhe is in or out of repair, will make 14. Meridional Diſtance, is the diſtance in miles of any given different lee-ways. Ships that draw moſt water make the leaſt place from the meridian of another place. This is counted in lee-way, and a ſhip out of her trim makes the moſt lee-way. the parallel of latitude of the given place. The method that is moſt to be depended on for finding the lee- 15. Difference of Longitude, is an arch of the equator, er way in any ſhip is as follows: ſet the ſhip's wake by the compaſs, the degrees contained, between the meridians of two given places. through which you will diſcover the angle between it and the keel, 16. Meridional Parts, are the ſeveral lengths on the meridian which is the lee-way; or if you are within ſight of land, take the line reckoned from the equator to all latitudes agreeable to the angle between the ſhip's keel and that point of land which always principles of the Mercator's chart, and digeſted in a table for uſe. bears on the ſame point of the compaſs, and it will be the 17. Meridional Difference of Latitude of two places, is the tity of lee-way. difference of the meridional parts anſwering to the latitudes of SECT. IV. the places, when the latitudes are both north or both fouth. But OF FINDING THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS. if the latitudes are of contrary names, ſuch difference is equal to the ſum of thoſe parts. I have already explained what the variation of the compaſs is; 18. Dip of the Horizon, in taking obfervations of the ſun, ſtars, and in order to allow for it readily, the mariner ſhould be fur- &c. the obſerver's eye being raiſed abovethe level of the ſea, he ſees niſhed with correct variation charts, or with a table of the varia- an horizon below the level of the true one, and conſequently the tion for all thoſe places on the globe where it has been truly af- inſtrument gives an altitude too great, when a fore obſervation is certained. In places where the variation has not been deter- uſed, and too ſmall when a back obſervation is uſed. This error mined, it may be found by means of the ſun's amplitude or azi. is called the dip of the horizon, as it depends on the height of muth as follows: the eye above the water, corrections for different heights may be For finding it by the Amplitude. computed and put in order in manner of a table for uſe. Rule. Add the log ſecant of the latitude, (abating radius) to For definitions of other terms that occur in Navigation, fee the log-line of the ſun's (or ſtar's) declination ; and the ſum will Syſtem of Aſtronomy. be the log-line of the true amplitude, which is ever of the ſame name with the declination whether North or South. Then find SECT. II. the ſun's magnetic amplitude, thus: Having an azimuth com- THE REQUISITES FOR A NAVIGATOR. paſs, move the box about till the four cardinal points of the card A navigator ſhould be furniſhed with correct charts of all thoſe coincide with the four lines in the ſides of the compaſs box; parts that lie between the port failed from, and the place the ſhip then keeping the box ſteady, turn the index till the centre of the is bound to, ſo that by inſpection thereof it may be diſcuvered | fun, at riſing or ſetting (when his lower edge juſt touches the in any part of the voyage what courſe the ſhip ought to ſteer to horizon) is ſeen through both the fights ; ſo will the degrees be- gain the deſired port; and in thoſe charts, or in an index to them, tween the north point of the compaſs, and the end of the index there ſhould alſo be inſerted an account of the various rocks, pointing to the fun, be the ſun's magnetic amplitude. Then if ſhoals, and other obſtructions that navigators have met with; as the ſun's true and magnetic amplitudes agree, there is no varia- alſo of the foundings in different places, to the end that the ma tion: but if they diſagree, and are both of the ſame name, that riner by thoſe helps may be the better enabled to ſteer clear of is, both north or both fouth, their difference is the variation.- danger. He ſhould alſo have proper inſtruments for the taking If when they diſagree, the true and obſerved amplitudes be of of obſervations, ſuch as the croſs-ſtaff, Davis's quadrant, but different names, viz. one north and the other ſouth, their ſuin above all, that new improved quadrant invented by Mr. John is the variation; and to determine whether the variation is eaſt- Hadley; and he should alſo be fupplied with the Nautical Ephe- erly or weſterly, obſerve this rule, viz. Let the obſerver's face meriſes, publiſhed under the direction of the board of longitude, be turned to the ſun, then if the true amplitude be to the right and with the requiſite tables to the Nautical Ephemeris; both of hand of the magnetic, the variation is eaſterly, but if to the left which are foldat Heather'sin Leadenhall-ſtreet; moreover he ſhould weſterly. be provided with a good ſcaleand caſe of inſtruments for the purpoſe EXAMPLE Let the ſun's declination be 21° N. the latitude of laying down the ſhip's courſe, and drawing the plans of coaſts 4927', and the ſun's magnetic amplitude at ſetting 111°N. harbours, &c. and with a good time piece; adding to which, he required the variation ? tib yubor tom ſhould have a ſuitable knowledge of the theory of navigation, To Logarithm ſine 209 9.55433 viz. the method of keeping a dead reckoning and of taking and video at Add Logarithm Sect. 49° 27' managing obſervations, making all proper allowances; and theſe 0.18701 abating Radius med matters it is preſumed he will find ſufficiently handled in this Gives Logarithm fine 33° 27' brief Treatiſe, without purchaſing any other book on the ſubject, the true Amplitude North 9.7,4134 and in the moſt clear and ſatisfactory manner. Then from true Amplitude Weit 33° 27' North SECT. III. Take the Magnetic Amplitude Weſt 11° 30 North Remains the Variation 57 RULES AT SEA, FOR MAKING ALLOWANCES FOR LEE-WAY. Here both the true and magnetic amplitudes lying both to the It ſeldom happens but a ſhip makes either more or leſs lee-way, north of the weſt point of the horizon, their difference gives the and as the ſhip's real courſe differs from the courſe ſteered by ſo variation ; and as the true amplitude (when the obſerver's face is much as the lee-way amounts to, even were there no other irre turned towards the fun) is to the right hand of the magnetic am- gularity, it is therefore neceſſary in the firſt place that the quan- plitude, it denotes that the variation of the compaſs is ſo much tity of lee-way ſhould be aſcertained, in order that by means eaſterly. thereof the courſe ſteered may be corrected ſo as to get the truc 2. To find the Variation by the Sun's Azimuth. or real courſe of the ſhip. Rule. Find the ſun's true azimuth thus. Add the comple- The common allowances for lee-way are as under: ment of the altitude, the complement of the latitude, and the fun's iſt. When a fhip is cloſe hauled, has all her ſails ſet, the water (or ſtar's) polar diſtance into one fum, from half that ſum ſubtract ſmooth, and a moderate gale of wind, ſhe is then ſuppoſed to the polar diſtance, and note the half fum and remainder. Then make little or no lee-way. His soos add together the arithmetical complement of the log cofine of the 2d. An allowance of one point is generally made when it blows latitude, the arithmetical complement of the log coſine of the al- fo freſh that the ſmall fails are taken in. titude, the ſide of the ſaid half ſum, and the fine of the ſaid re- 3d. An allowance of two points, when the top-fails are cloſe | mainder into one ſum, then half the ſum of theſe four logarithms reefed. will give the cofine of half the true azimuth, and the double thereof 4th. Two points and a half are allowed, when one top-ſail is the true azimuth. And the magnetic azimuth muſt alſo be taken muſt be handed. by the compaſs thus: ſet the box ſo that the four cardinal points of 5th. Three points and a half are allowed when both top-fails the card ſtand oppoſite to the four lines in the compaſs box, and are to be taken in. hold the box in that poſition ; moving the index till the fights 6th. When the fore courſe is handed the allowance is 4 points. being directed to the ſun's (or ſtar's) centre, the ſhadow of the 7th. When trying under the main-fail only, 5 points are ſtring joining the fights is obſerved to fall directly along the mid- allowed. dle of the index, then the degrees in the arch intercepted between 8th. An allowance of 6 points is made, when both main and the end of the index next the ſun and the north point of the card fore courſes are taken in. will give the magnetic azimuth required. If the ſun does not 9. When the ſhip tries a hull, or all her fails handed, then an Thine bright enough to give a ſtrong shadow, look through one allowance of 7 points is made. of the ſights, and move the index till one of the ſtrings cut the But notwithſtanding thoſe common adopted rules, a great deal fun's (or ſtar's) azimuth. Then if the true and obſerved azi. will ſtill depend upon the judgment and experience of the mari- muths be both on the eaſt; or both on the weſt-ſide of the meri- ner ; for in all theſe caſes a rougher ſea and harder wind will dian, their difference is the variation; but if one of them be on increaſe the lee way. Alſo regard muſt be had to the ſetting of the eaſt, and the other on the weſt of the meridian, their ſum is the 21 N A VIG A TION. amplitude. 9097 Sum 196 9.99555 81° 49 II 20 1 7 15 the variation, and to know whether the variation be eaſterly or courſe is from the meridian, then ſay, as 8 points is to 90°, ſo is weſterly, obſerve the ſame directions here, with reſpect to the the fhip’s courſe in points of the compaſs to the degrees and azimuth, as were laid down in the preceding article reſpecting the minutes anſwering to the ſhip's courſe, or if the degrees be given, and it be required to find the number of points anſwer- When the azimuth is obſerved, the altitude of the object muſt ing thereto, fay, as 90° is to 8 points, fo is the given number be taken at the ſame time. of degrees to the points required. For practice it will be con- N. B. The ſun's polar diſtance, is his diſtacce from the neareſt, or venient to have a table of the degrees, &c. anſwering to every the elevated pole. When the latitude and declination are both point ani quarter point of the compaſs ready calculated. north or both fouth, then the complement of the declination is the PART II. polar diſtance, but if the latitude and declination be one nrih METHOD OF KEEPING AND MANAGING A and the other ſouth, the declination added to 90° gives the polar SHIP's ACCOUNT, OR RECKONING AT SEA, diſtance. EXAMPLE, fuppoſe in lat. 26° 30' N. the ſun's altitude in the ( SUALLY TERMED THE DEAD RECKONING.) forenoon be 24° 28', his declination 22° 40 N. and the obſerved The method of eſtimating or calculating a ſhip's place at ſea, magnetic azimuth 68ļº from the north, required the variation of depends on the knowledge of plain trigonometry; and there the compaſs. mestic nie od are commonly theſe two things given, namely the courſe ſteer- Iſt. Let there be found the ſun's true azimuth as under: syns ed, or the angle that the ſhip's way makes with the meridian, Co-lat=63°. 30'Arith. Comp. of log. Coſ. ofla. 26° 30' 0.04821 and the diſtance run, as meaſured by the log-line, from which Co-alt.=65 32 Arith. Comp. of log. Coſ. of al. 24° 28' 0.04086 to determine how much ſhe has altered her latitude, and what O's polar did 67 20 Log. One of half fum 98° 11' for which all meridian ſhe is arrived at, or how much is her difference of 22 (being above 90°) uie the ſupplement longitude from the place failed from. Half fum 98 Log. line of half difference 30°: 51'. 9.70994 Was the earth a flat ſurface, as was formerly ſuppoſed, the Polar diſt. 67 Sum 19-79456 matter would be eaſy and ſelf evident, to any one the leaſt ac- Remainder 30 51 Half ſum=Coline 37° 52'. To= 9.89928 quainted with plain trigonometry; for the meridians being on The true azim. N 75°45' E that ſuppoſition every where parallel, it would be only finding Magneticazim. N68.30 E The double of which is the true Az:muth from the North = 75° 45' nearly the two legs of a plain right-angled triangle, by having the hy- Variation pothenuſe, (or diſtance run) and one angle given ; that leg op- Hence the variation of the compaſs is found to be 7°, 15', which poſite the given angle (or ſhip's courſe) being the ſhip's departure is éaſt variation, becauſe the ſun's true azimuth is to the right from the meridian (which in that caſe would be equal to the ħand of the magnetic azimuth, when the obſerver's face is to difference of longitude ; and the other leg would be that part wards the fun. of the meridian failed from, which is contained between the N. B. The variation may be readily found by taking the ſun's latitude failed from, and the latitude arrived at, and th refore altitude in the morning, and obſerving what point of the com equal to the difference of latitude. But as the earth is globular, pafs he bears upon ; and alſo obſerving what point of the compaſs and all the meridians come to a point, at the poles, ſuch an the fun bears upon again in the afternoon when the altitude is the hypotheſis as that of ſuppoſing the earth a flat ſurface muſt be fame ; then the middle point between the two will be the true egregiouſly falſe, except in ſhort diſtances near the equator. meridian, and the difference between that and the magnetic me However, notwithſtanding the fallaciouſneſs of the hypo- ridian, ſhewn by the compaſs, is the variation. In correcling a theſis, it ſo happens, that this method (uſually called plain fail- fhip’s courſe for variation, if the variation is eaſterly, it muſt be ing) will find the latitude true, though not the longitude ; but ſince allowed for to the right hand in all courſes ſteered, and upon all bear the method of failing by the globe, ſupplies us with true rules for ings that are taken by the compaſs; but if the variation is weſterly, both latitude and longitude, I ſhall proceed to explain the nature it muſt be allowed for to the left hand thereof. Thus, if a ſhip is of globular failing, and juſtly explode the former, as ſerving ſteered eaſt, and I know there is half a point eaſterly variation, only to encumber the mariner with needleſs forms and precedents, then the true courſe is E. by S. Į E. Again if the magnetic of no uſe to any but the ſchool-mafters, who gets paid for the courſe is S. W. and the variation be 2 points wefterly, then the time that he is employed in teaching them. true courſe is S. S. W. and in like manner for any other. . SECT. I. SECT. V. GLOBULAR SAILING. TO FIND THE SETTING OF A CURRENT AND ITS Asallthe meridians on the globe interſect each other at the poles VELOCITY.io orto ſo all thoſe parallel circles, named parallels of latitude, diminiſh, When there is a fmooth ſea and little wind, and you ſuſpect or are each leſs than the former in paſſing from the equator to the there is a current, ſend out the buat to a ſmall diſtance from the poles, till at the pole, the parallel circle vaniſhes, and becomes a mip, with three or four men in her, who are to be ſupplied mere point; and therefore as thoſe circles do gradually decreafe to with a compaſs, log-line, half minute glaſs, and a large trian nothing, the length of a degree of longitude, which is the 360th part gular board ; to one ſide of this board, let there be faſtened as thereof, muſt decreaſe in the ſame manner; and conſequently the much lead as will link it; and to the three angles, tie three method of failing by the plane chart, which conſiders all meridians equal pieces of line, and knot the other three ends together, and every where parallel to each other, and a degree of longitude every thereto let there be faſtened another line of 100 fathoms long where of the ſame length, muſt be exceedingly erroneous. Yet, as or more. Then being off from the ſhip, caſt over the board it has heen always deſirable to every practical navigator, that the letting it ſink 60, 80, 100, or 120 fathoms, if your line will art of computing a ſhip's reckoning at ſea, might be brought un- allow it, that being done, faſten the line to the ſtern of the boat, der as eaſy rules as poſſible; and as there ariſe the moſt ſimple ideas and it will bring her up, and make her ride as if ſhe were at when the earth is ſuppoſed a flat ſurface, ſo navigators have ſtrove anchor. Then caftover the log, turn up the glaſs, and as you to form their methods as conformable to that ſuppoſition as might vecr out the log-line, ſet the drift of the log by the compaſs, be; but ſo as to make ſuitable allowances for the globular figure of and it will thew how the current ſets, and the length of the log the earth. Now, ſince by the plane chart, where the meridians are line run out will be the current's motion ; but you muſt add to ſuppoſed parallel, a degree of longitude is every where taken as the drift for ļ part, according to the length of the line ſhe equal to a degree of latitude, or to a degree of longitude on the equa- rides at, for both the boat and the board will drive; the bigger tor, and conſequently every where greater than it ought to be, ex- and heavier however the board is, the leſs they will drive. In cept on the equator, Mr. Gerrard Mercator, a Fleming, about the deed, if the board be heaved out of the thip into the wake, year 1555 or 1556, ſtruck upon the idea of lengthening the degrees and ſuffered to ſink far enough, it will ſhew the apparent direc of latitude upon the plane chart, in approaching to the pole in the tion of the current, and the line run off compared with the like manner as the degrees of longitude on the globe are leffened or thip’s way, will help to determine its velocity. diminiſhed towards the pole; in order that a chart on a plane fur- Alſo the direction of a current may be nearly conjectured face might be made to exhibit the degrees of latitude and longitude from the poſition of the waves or furrows of the ſea ; for the in the like relation or proportion to each other as they have upon direction of the current's motion; is always perpendicular to the globe; and in 1556 he publiſhed a chart (though not a correct theſe waves or furrows. one) according to that principle; but this idea of his appears to have If a ſhip be at reſt, or have no proper motion of her own in been more a chance thought, than the effects of good learning, as the ſea, and if at the ſame time the ſea has a current towards it is evident from the incorrectneſs of his chart, that he was a ſtran- any point, then it is the ſame thing as if there was no current, ger to the due proportions; nor was he able to advance any rules and the ſhip was failing towards ſuch point with the ſame mo for computatior, fo there is little room to doubt but he was to- tion as that of the current. Hence, if a ſhip fails upon any tally ignorant whether any true methods of computation could be courſe in a current, one may, inſtead of conſidering the cur deduced from ſuch a principle or not. However, about the year rent's motion, conſider the ſhip as having a new courſe, the 1590, Mr. Edward Wright, an Engliſhman, diſcovered the true fame in all reſpects as that of the current. This will be more principles upon which ſuch a chart ſhould be conſtructed and about fully exemplified further on. the year 1599 he publiſhed a bcok entitled, “The Errors in Navi- Method of reducing points of the compaſs into degrees, &c. and gation,' wherein he gave a true chart, and fully illuſtrated its the contrary tur- and uſe, and laid down the methods of computation, fuited to RULE. Knowing the point of the compaſs on which the a table of meridional parts, calculated by him for that purpoſe, fhip is ſteered, count how many points and quarter points, the which was the firſt thing of the kind introduced into navigation; and : na- N A VIGA TION. and therefore, in juſtice to his memory, that method ſhould not be at once put an end to all cavils reſpecting the truth of Mr. called Mercator's Sailing, but Mr. Wright's Sailing, for Merca- Wright's method of failing. tor was never acquainted with the true principles, but barely Thus let ABFQ(fig.5,) be a rhumb line deſcribed by a Ship; caught the idea of lengthening in ſome meaſure the degrees of la P being the pole. Divide the rhumb or diſtance AF into an in- titude towards the pole, that their proportion to the degrees of lon finite number of equal parts, as AB,BC,CD, &c. through A,B,C, gitude on the plain chart might approach in fome d gree to the &c. draw the meridians PA, PB, PC, &c. and the parallels of proportion which they have upon the globe. latitude AL, Bk, Cp. Dg, &e. Theſe will form an infinite num- But Mr. Wright Jewed, that when the lengths of the degrees of ber of ſmall triangles ABk, BCP, CD , &c. all equal and fimilar; latitude on a plain chart, in advancing towards the pole are as the for all the hypothenuſes AB, BC, CD, &c. are equal by conſtruc- coſines of the latitudes to radius; or which is the ſame, in the ratio tion ; and the angles kAB, PBC, gCD, &c. are equal (by Defi- to each other , as the ſecants of the latitudes, they will then preciſely | nition 3.) whence all the ſides Ak, Bp, Cg, &c. are equal; as alſo bear the ſame proportion to their correſponding degrees of longi- all the lides kB,PC,D,&c. Now, ſince the triangles themſelves tude, (the meridians being ſuppoſed every where equally diſtant) as are ſuppoſed infinitely ſmall , the difference between ſuppoſing them the degrees of latitude on the globe itſelf do to the degrees of longi plane triangles, or parts of a ſphere, will be an infinitely ſmall tude on their correſponding parallels . And hence he very jully difference of the ſecond order, or a difference which is infinitely concluded, that in order to gain this proportion, the diſtance of leſs than one of theſe infinitely ſmall triangles, and therefore any parallel of latitude from the equator, muſt be equal to the fum there cannot ariſe even the leaſt aſſignable error, by taking thoſe of the ſecants of all the intermediate latitudes. And upon this prin infinitely ſmall triangles as plane triangles, for when ſuch differ- ciple he conſtructed charts, and calculated a table of meridional ence is infinitely multiplied, the reſult is only a quantity infinitely parts to be uſed in computation. In this chart therefore, though the leſs than the leaſt finite quantity. Wherefore by plane trigono- degrees of latitude and longitude bear the ſame proportion to each metry, as radius: finé kAB: : AB: kB :: BC:pC::CD:gD, other as they do upon the globe, yet they every where exceed their &c. and by compoſition radius ſine kAB :: AB+BC+CD, due quantities on the globe, in proportion as the radius exceeds the &c. : kB+pC+gD, &c. &c. : kB+pctgD, &c. But AB+BC+CD, &c. or AF, is coſines of the reſpective latitudes. Alſo from the paralleliſm of the the diſtance run; and kB+pC+gD, &c. is the departure by meridians; it likewiſe follows, that in Mr. Wright's chart, every Definition 2. Therefore it is as radius: fine k AB :: diſtance run: rumb line (which on the globe is a ſpiral line) will be a right line, departure, or alternately radius : diſtance :: ſine of courſe (kAB) ſeeing that every rumb line on the globe cuts all the meridians at : departure, which is the ſame as the firſt rule before given, and equal angles, which in a chart, where all the meridians are parallel, hence the ſecond rule follows of courſe. can only be when the line is a right line. Hence by having a table Alſo the 3d Rule for the longitude may be demonſtrated much of meridional parts, the rules of operation become ſimilar to thoſe after the ſame manner. For let A, F, be two places, then ſince it that had before been uſed on the old plane chart, they being all has been proved that the infinitely ſmall triangles upon the globe, derived from a plane right angled triangle, only here a true allow ABk, BCp, &c. are all ſimilar and equal, and by the nature of ance is made for the finding of the longitude of which, by the old Mercator's chart theſe triangles are each of them projected into charts, navigators could ſcarcely form even any tolerable gueſs. others, upon the chart likewiſe ſimilar to theſe and one another, In order to illuſtrate this, let A (fig, 4) be a port from which a the angle of the courſe remaining the fame in both. Now in Thip ſets fail, let AE be the meridian line, and let the ſhipſail upon any ſmall triangle, as ABk, ſince its departure kB, by the conſtruc- a courſe between the northand the weſt, denoted by the line ABD, tion of the chart, is ſo far enlarged as to be repreſented by its cor- to a certain diſtance as AB, then BC is the departure from the me reſponding difference of longitude ; therefore the difference of lati- ridian; AC the difference of latitude, and the angle BAC the courſe tude Ak, will be increaſed in the ſame proportion, viz. as kB : ftcered. Now on the old plane chart the departure BC in miles is diff. longitude of kB or of A and B :: proper diff. lat Ak : its meri- taken as the difference of longitudes in minutes, which would be dional difference of latitude. Therefore from the fimilitude of all true, did not the length of a degree of longitude diminiſh as has bc theſe triangles, it will be as the meridional parts of Ak: diff. lon- fore been obſerved; in paſſing from the equator to the pole, but gitude of A and B :: Ak : kB : Bp : pC: Cg:5D, &e. :: (by ſince that is the caſe, the length of the line BC on the parallel of compoſition). Ak+Bp+Cg; + &c. or AR : kB+PC+gD, &c. latitude, will contain more degrees of latiitude than a like diſtance or the departure. And again as AR : departure :: meridional parts would do on the equator: but if the degrees of latitude between Ak :: diff. longitude A,B, :: meridional parts of Bp : diff. longitude A and C be ſeverally lengthened in the proportion of the radius to B, C, :: meridional parts Cg : diff. longitude C, D, &c. :: (by the fine complements of the latitudes, or be made equal to the ſe- compoſition) ſum of all the meridional parts of Ak, Bp, Cg, &c. cant of the intermediate latitudes, reaching to E, then will the that is, of AR : ſum of all the differences of longitude of AB, correſponding diſtance DE be equal to the difference of longitude, BC, CD, &c. or the difference of longitude of the two places accounting a mile for a minute; for on the plane chart (reckon- A and F. And alternately as the proper diff. lat. : departure :: ing a mile to a minute) BC contains leſs degrees of longitude meridional parts of AR: diff. longitude of A and F. which is the than it would do on the globe, in proportion as the fine comple- ſame as the 3d Rule, and the other Rules follow from the nature ment of latitude is leſs than radius, but AE is greater than AC of ſigns and tangents. in that proportion; and as AC is to BC as AE is to ED, therefore Thusare the foregoing rules demonſtrated to be true in the ſtricteſt ED is greater than BC, in the ſame proportion ; viz. as a de ſenſe, being founded on real mathematical principles. There is gree of longitude on the equator, is greater than a degree of lon however another uſeful rule to be obſerved, and that is for finding gitude on the parallel BC, and confequently DE truly denotes the longitude, when the ſhip makes either a direct Eaſt or Weſt the difference of longitude correſponding to the departure BC. courſe, uſually called parallel failing, which rule is this: on Hence by plane trigonometry (when the courſe and diſtance RULE VII. As the cofine of latitude is to radius, so is the diſ- run are given, as is uſually the cafe) we have theſe rules for tance of two places in one parallel, to the difference of longitude, finding the departure and difference of latitude. or ſince the cofine is to radius, as radius is to the ſecant of any Rule 1. For the DepartURE.—As Radius is to (AB) | arch, the rule may be rendered more commodious for working, the diſtance run fo is the fine of the courſe (fine=angle BCA) to thus: As radius is to the ſecant of the latitude, ſo is the diſtance the departure (BC). along the parallel to the correſponding difference of longitude. The RULE II. FOR THE DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE,— As reaſon of this rule is obvious, for the circumference of any parallel radius is to the diſtance run, (AB); ſo is the cofine of courſe (= circle is to the circumference of the earth at the equator, as the cofine of angle BCA) to the difference of latitude (AC). Then cofine of the latitude to radius; and therefore as thecoſine of the la- the departure, and difference of latitude being thus found, the dif titude is to radius, fo is any part of the parallel circle to a corre- ference of longitude is found by ſimilar triangles, as under. ſponding part on the equator; and a geographical mile on the RULE III. TO FIND THE DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE. equator is a minute of longitude. As the proper difference of latitude (AC) is to the departure (BC) Having laid down the uſeful rules of ſailing, it remains that I fo is the meridioral difference of latitude AE, according to the give an example or two to ſhew how they are applied in the actual lengthened degrees of latitude before deſcribed, to the difference of practice at ſea. longitude. Or, the firſt caſe for the departure may be perform- An Example, illuſtrating the foregoing Rules. ed thus : Admit a ſhip in the latitude of 50° north, ſails N by E. 100 Rule IV. Having firſt found the Differnce of Latitude, ſay miles ; required her preſent latitude and difference of longitude, as Radius is to the Difference of Latitude, ſo is the Tangent of fuppofing her courſe to be truly corrected? the Courſe to the Departure. Alfo if the departure be found firſt, the difference of latitude may be found thus : I. To find the Departure, ſay by RULE I. As radius RULE V. As Radius is to the Departure, fois the Cotangent of Log. IO,00000 Is to diſtance run the Courſe to the Difference of Latitude. And hence the differ- (100) 2,00000 So is fine of courſe 11° 15' ence of longitude may like wiſe be found thus : 9,29024 RULE VI. As Radiusis to the Tangent of the Courſe, ſo is the To departure 19.52 miles Eaſt 1,29024 Meridional Difference of Latitude to the Difference of Longitude, II. For the Difference of Latitude by Rule II. all of which rules follow from the doctrine of right angled plane As radius 10,00000 triangles ; for which refer to our Treatiſe on TRIGONOMETRY. Is to diſtance run (100) 2,00000 The truth of theſe rules may alſo be deduced from the nature So is cofine of courſe (11° 15') 9,99157 and properties of a ſphiral rhumb paſſing on the globe itſelf with To difference of lat. 98,08 miles or 1° 38' 1,99157 out regard to the chart before-mentioned, which therefore mult Hence the latitude arrived at. is 51° 38' North. III. To NA VIGA TIO N. = 156 III. To find the Difference of Longitude by Rule III. found by multiplying the meridional parts(156) by the natural tan- gent of the courſe, viz. .199 and the product is 31.04 minutes, The meridional parts.anſwering to lat. 50º = 3474 both of them agreeing nearly with the anſwers found by logarithms. The meridional parts for lat. 51° 38 = 3630 If I had continued the table to four places of decimals, it would, The meridional difference of lat. ſpeaking as a critic, have been ſomething more exact ; but this is Then as proper difference of lat. 98,08 log. 1,99157 near enough for anyparticular purpoſes of this nature,and expedition Is to the departure (found above) 19,52 1,29024 requires that one ſhould not beincumbered with unneceſſary figures. So is the meridional difference of lat. 156 2,19312 The Method by the Traverſe Table. 3,48336 In a table of the difference of latitude and departure, and in To the difference of lon. 31,03 minutes eaſt 1,49179 the column of diſtance look for the diſtance ; and oppoſite there- The method of performing theſe by logarithms, as above, is to to, under the proper courſe, you have the difference of latitude and departure. Thus, oppoſite 100, in the column of diſtance fubtract the logarithms of the iſ term from the ſum of the loga- rithms of the 2d and 3d terms ; and the remainder is the loga- you have 98.1, and 19.5, for the difference of latitude, &c. depar- rithm of the fourth term or anſwer, as has been ſhewn in our ac- ture reſpectively agreeing with the former method. count of logarithms; for which ſee alſo our Treatiſe on Trigono- The Method by Gunter's Scale. metry. I. The extent from radius to 7 points (the complement of the But the difference of longitude is found more eaſily without courſe) on the line marked S. R. will reach from the diſtance the departure by the 6th Rule, as under. 100 to the difference of latitude 98.08 on the line of numbers. II. The extent from 7 points to i point on the failline, mark- As radius 10,00000 ed S. R. will reach from the meridional difference of latitude Is to tangent of courſe (11°15') - 9,29866 So is meridonal diff. latitude (156) 2,19312 156 to the difference of longitude 31.03 on the line of numbers. To diff. longitude 31.03 as defore 1,49178 The Method of Conſtruction. Draw a meridian line ABD (fig. 6.) and with the radius of This rule faves the trouble of finding the departure, and, the 60°. taken from the line of chords, deſcribed an arc de; make firſt term being radius, the operation is performed as it were mere- de=to 11° 15' the degrees in the given courſe, and draw the line by addition. Indeed were it not that in working days reckon- ACE, on which from a ſcale ſet off from A to C 100, the diſt- ings, navigators have come into the method of adding together ance failed, and draw BC perpendicular to ABD ; then AB mea- all the Eaſtings, and all the Weſtings, and then making their dif- ference a common departure, from which they find the difference of latitude 98.08, and BC is equal to 19,5 the departure; then the ſured on the ſame ſcale of equal parts, is equal to the difference of longitude for the whole at once, it would not be worth while latitude failed to being known, the meridional difference of lati- finding the departures at all, ſince the departure only ſerves as a tude, viz. 156 muſt be found as before, and ſet off from A to D, means for finding the difference of longitude, which as I have and DE muſt be drawn parallel to BC, ſo will DE=31.03 the obſerved is eaſier found without it, as in the foregoing operation. | difference of longitude required. N. B. Tables of Difference of Latitude and Departure, and Meridional parts, are inſerted in the Book of requiſite Tables men- The Method of calculating the Difference of Longitude by the tioned in Section II. and in almoſt every common Book of Navi- Log-tangents, withoat a table of Meridional Parts. gation. We therefore thought it uſeleſs to give them a place in From a table of fines and tangents, find the difference of the log- u work of this kind, which is more intended to point out improve- | tangents of half the complements of the latitudes of the two places, ments in the principles of Science ; than to abound in matters that and multiply it by 10.000, and reſerve the product ; then ſay are to be met with in common. as the tangent of the conſtant angle 51° ; 38' 9" (the log-tangent The Method by Natural Numbers. of which is 10,015') is to the ſaid reſerved product, ſo is the tan- In working the above cafes it is hardly worth while to have re gent of the courſe to the difference of longitude. In the forego- courſe to logarithms, as they are as readily performed, or perhaps | ing example, the latitude failed from is 50° N; half its comple- more ſo, by natural numbers: the operation being only a ſhort ment is 20°, and the log-tangent thereto is 9.56106. Alſo the multiplication, without having any further reference to tables. latitude failed tois 51°: 38' N; half its complement is 19° : 11', And to this end, I have here annexed a ſhort table of natural fines, and the log-tangent thereof is 9.54146. The difference of theſe tangents and ſecants, to every point, and I point of the compaſs, log-tangents is .01960, which multiplied by 10,000 makes 196, the radius being ſuppoſed an unit. for the reſerved number. A TABLE of NATURAL SINES, TANGENTS, &c. Then as log-tangent of conſtant angle 51°: 38=10.10151 Is to the reſerved product 196 log. 2.29225 points fine coſine tang. cotang. ſecant. coſecant So is tangent of courſe 11° 15' 9,29866 ..049 .999 .049 | 20.355 20.380 7 2 / 11.59091 / 를 ​.098 .995 | .098 10.143 1.005 10.172 7. To difference of longitude 31 minutes 1.48940 .147 989.148 6.741 6.815 7. N. B. The truth of this method is demonſtrable by the doc- .195 .981.199 5.027 5.126 7 trine of Auxions. ーーーーー ​I • 243 .970 .250 3.991 1.031 4.115 63 The Method of Calculating the Difference of Longitude by taking II • 290 .957 .303 1.045 3.445 6 i a Mean Latitude, uſually called Middle Latitude Sailing. •337 .941.358 2.795 1.062 2.968 61 In calculating by this method, the departure is to be found as .383.924 •414 2.414 1.082 2.6136 before, and then that departure is accounted as though it had been all made along that parallel of latitude, which lies in the middle, 21 •427 .904.473 2.114 1.106 2.339 between the place failed from and the place failed to (during any 21 .471 .882 •534 1.871 1.134 5 one direct courſe): according to this principle the departure be- 2.514.858.599 1.668 1.166 1.945 5 comes the ſame as meridional diſtance in that parallel, and is to 3 •556.831 .668 1.497 1.203 1.800 5 be turned into longitude, as has been taught in Rule VII. In the foregoing example, the middle latitude is 50°: 49' and 3.596.803 -742 1.348 1.245 1.679 4 the cperation will be aſunder. 3 Ž | .634 .821 As Radius .773 1.218 1.294 1.570 4 1 log. 10.00000 3 } .672 •741.906 I.103 1.350 1.489 Is to fecant of middle lat. 50° 49' 10.19942 4. 4 •707 •707 1.414 1.414 So is departure 19:52 1.29024 To difference of longitude 31, 1.48906 coſine fine cota. | tangen. cofeca fecant point Agreeing with Wright's method by the meridional parts, and By the help of this ſhort table, and a table of meridional parts, with the log-tangents. For ſhort diſtances, ſuch as occur in a day's I am of opinion the latitude and longitude of a ſhip at ſea, accord- reckoning, this method will be always ſufficiently near the truth, ing to the dead reckoning, may be more expediouſly eſtimated, except in very high latitudes indeed, and then it will not err than by having recourſe to logarithms ; for the trouble of taking much; and as it does not require a table of meridional parts, and out the logarithms and adding them together, &c. and of finding is withal fo exceeding eaſy and fimple, it deſerves, in general to the required number anſwering to the logarithm at laſt, will always be practiſed in preference to the other methods. take up more time than is required for performing th ſhort ope- Other Rules uſeful to the Practical Mariner. ration by natural ſines; beſides, by this method, there is leſs room It has been obſerved that in particular navigation, there are to error, ſeeing that there are few tables which are printed perfect- generally given the ſhip's courſe and diſtance run, to find from ly correct, and conſequently practical tables ſhould be reduced to thence the ſhip's latitude and longitude: and to detetmine this mat- as narrow bounds as the caſe will admit of; as the probability of ter from the dead reckoning, the foregoing rules are amply fuffi- error will be proportionally the leſs. cient, proper allowances being previouſly made for lee-way, va- In the foregoing example, the difference of latitude is found by riation of the compaſs, currents, &c. Yet the things that in prac- multiplying the diſtance 100, by the natural coſine of the courſe, tical navigation are generally a part of the data, or ſuppoſed to be (that is the cofine of 1 point) which by the table .981; and the pro- known, may, in the theory, be ſuppoſed as unknown, while on the ductis 98.1 miles or minutes. Alſo the diffcrence of longitude is I contrary, matters that are generally to be determined as quantities 1 unknown 1.001 Ι.ΟΙΙ I 1.020 3.296 I 3 2 5 å 2.1 21 uururu C I. I. 4 No. 116 * N A VIGA TION. unknown in the practical part, may in a theoretical conſideration to the difference of latitude, half of which being added to or fub- be ſuppoſed as given: which cauſes a great variety of caſes; and tracted from the given latitude, will give the middle latitude more if it anſwers no other end, it contributes at leaſt to the perfecting exact; with which repeat the operation and the difference of la- of pupils in the knowledge of this excellent art. And that this titude will be had ſufficiently correct. ſyſtem may not be deficient herein, I ſubjoin the following caſes, II. For the Diſtance. The difference of latitude being found with the different methods of folution; and alſo remarks upon by one of the above methods, the diſtance may be determined by each, ſhewing in what poſſible occurrences the ſame may be of uſe. Caſe II. foregoing Case I. Given both latitudes, and the diſtance ; required REMARK. When you are ſure that you can depend upon the the courſe, departure, and difference of longitude. courſe as inſerted on the log-board, and that by help of a good time- I. For the Courſe. As the diſtance is to radius, ſo is the differ- piece, or ſome other means, you have got your longitude correct, ence of latitude, to the coſine of the courſe. then this caſe will ſerve for the correcting of the difference of II. For the Departure. Having found the courſe, proceed as latitude, and the diſtance run, if they are found to be incorrect. in Rule 1. in the laſt ſection. Case V. Given one latitude, the diſtance and difference of III. For the Difference of Longitude. The departure and longitude, required the other latitude and the courſe. Allume a courſe being known, proceed for the difference of longitude, either courſe as near the true courſe as you can, by means of which find to Rule III. or Rule IV. or according to the method of log-tan- the difference of latitude, the other latitude, and departure, till by gents, or middle latitude, contained in the foregoing ſection. the method of trial and error you obtain a difference of latitude that REMARK. When a ſhip is bound to any port, and the diſtance ſhall have the ſame proportion to the departure as the meridional of the two ports and their difference of latitude are known, this caſe difference of latitude has to the difference of longitude ſerves to determine the courſe the ſhip ought to ſteer, and the lon REMARK. When you can depend upon the log for the diſtance gitude of the place failed to; alſo, when you have your latitudes run, and on your time piece or obſervations for the difference of true by obſervation and can depend upon your log for the diſtance longitude, you may by this method correct your courſe, ſo as to run, this ſerves to correct the courſe and find the longitude. get the difference of latitude true, if it was wrong before. CASE II. Given the courſe, and both latitudes ; required the CASE VI. Given the courſe, diſtance, and difference of lon- diſtance, departure, and difference of longitude. gitude, required both the latitudes. Affume one latitude, and 1. For the Diſtance. As the coſine of the courſe is to the ra thençe find the other, till by the rule of falſe poſition, you find dius, ſo is the difference of latitude to the diſtance. the difference of latitude, as the ſame proportion to the departure as II. For the Departure. As radius is to the tangent of the the meridional difference of latitude has to the difference of longitude: courſe, fo is the difference of latitude to the departure. REMARK. If this caſe can ever be of uſe at ſea, it muſt be when III. For the Difference of Longitude. As radius is to the tan the ſhip is in unknown latitudes, and the mariner has been deprived gent of the courſe, ſois the meridional difference of latitude to the of his inſtruments for making obſervations, but by a good time piece difference of longitude. Or by the method of log-tangents, ſay as and the riſing or ſetting of ſtars, &c. he has been able to determine the tangent, 51° 38' 9" is to the tangent of the courſe, fo is the the difference of longitude during a certain courſe; when that is the difference of the log-tangents of half the complements of the lat- caſe, and a tolerable dead reckoning has been kept, he may by this titudes, multiplied by 10.000, to the difference of longitude. Or, method find his latitude. by middle latitude, ſay, as the cofine of the middle latitude is to CASE VII. Given the latitude and the difference of longitude the tangent of the courſe, ſo is the difference of latitude to the made along any parallel of that latitude, to find the diſtance. This difference of longitude. is found by varying the proportion in Rule VII. of laſt ſection. REMARK. When the bearing between two ports and their la The proportion varied to ſuit this caſe becomes ; as radius is to titudes are known, this ferves to determine their diſtance and dif the cofine of the latitude, ſo is the difference of longitude to the ference of longitude; alſo, when by obſervation you have the lat diſtance. titudestrue, and you are ſenſible there can be no material error in the REMARK. This ſerves to correct the log or diſtance run, when courſe, this caſe ſervesto correct the diſtance,and find the longitude. by obſervation or a time piece, you have got the longitude true, CASE III. Both latitudes and difference of longitude being and you can depend upon the courſe. given, to determine the courſe, and diſtance. CASE VIII. Given the diſtance run along any parallel of la- I. For the courſe. Asthe meridional difference of latitude is to titude, and the difference of longitude, anſwering thereto to find radius, ſo is the difference of longitude to the tangent of the courſe. the latitude. As the diff. long. : dift. :: radius : cofine of latitude. Or, by the log-tangents, ſay, as the difference of the log-tangents, REMARK. This may ſerve to find the latitude when tne mari- of half the complements of the latitudes, multiplied by 10,000 ner's ſituation is as has been deſcribed in the Remarks to Cafe VI. is to the tangent of 51° 38' 9" fo is the difference of longitude to SECT. II. the tangent of the courſe: or, by middle latitude, ſay, as the differ- CURRENT SAILING. ence of latitude is to the difference of longitude, ſo is the cofine of the middle latitude to the tangent of the courſe. Currents are certain ſtreams ofthe ocean which ſet or move for- II. For the Diſtance. As the coſine of the courſe is to radius(or as ward in particular directions, by means of which a ſhip's courſe is radius :: the ſecant of the courſe) : : the diff. of lat.to the diſtance. either altered, or elſe her motion is accelerated or retarded, accord- REMARK. This caſe may ſerve to determine how much the real ing as the current's motion either conſpires with, or oppoſes the or true courſe of any ſhip differs from her courſe as ſteered by the motion of the ſhip as driven by the wind. If the motion ofthe ſhip compaſs, for the latitudes and longitudes of two diſtant places being and current be the ſame way, then the ſhip's motion will be in- had by obſervation, the true courſe mayhence be determined, and creaſed by a quantity equal to the motion of the current. If their that being compared with the courſe ſteered, will ſhew the dif motions are in a contrary direction, the ſhip’s motion will be re- ference, and from thence you may judge what allowances it is ne tarded by a quantity equal to the current's motion. And when the ceſſary to make for lee-way, currents, variation, &c. on future direction of the ſhip's motion croſſes the direction of the current's occaſions. By this you may alſo find how much the true diſtance motion, then the direction of the ſhip’s motion will be altered, and along any rhumb differs from the diſtance as meaſured by the ſhe will be driven in a courſe that lies between the direction of the log, which if there is any error in the log will be a means of current's motion and the direction of the ſhip's motion as ſhewn by correcting it. Alſo by knowing the latitude and longitude of the the compaſs. Under the article Motion in this work it has been port the ſhip is bound to; and what latitude and longitude the ſhewn that if a body is acted on by two forces, and lines are drawn Thip is in, one may from hence determine what courſe the ſhip denoting the direction of each, and the quantities of motion by ought to ſteer to gain her deſtined port; ſo that this caſe is ex them produced in a given time, and if two other lines be drawn ceeding uſeful at ſea. parallel to thoſe lines forming a parallelogram, then the motion of CASE IV. One latitude, the courſe, and difference of longi- the body foacted on will be along the diagonal of the parallelogram, tude being given, to determine, the otherlatitude and the diſtance. and the length of the diagonal willdenotethe quantity of motion in I. For the other Latitude. As tangent of the courſe is to radi the like given time. Hence, as was obſerved before when a fhipis us, fo is the difference of longitude to the meridional difference of acted on by a current, it is the ſamething as if ſhe made two courſes latitude, which ſubtracted from or added to the meridional parts during a given time; one of which is in the direction ſhewn by the of the given latitude, as the caſe ſhall require, will give the meri compaſs and according to the rate given by the log; and the other dional parts of the required latitude, which latitude may therefore according to the ſetting of the current, andat the rate of the current. be found by referring to the table of meridional parts ; or as the EXAMPLE. A ſhip running fouth at the rate of per tangent of the courſe is to the difference of longitude fo is the tan hour, in ten hours croſſes a certain current, which all that time gent of 51° 38' 9" to 10,000 times the difference of the log was ſetting eaſt, at the rate of 3 miles per hour; required the ſhip's tangent of half the complements of the two latitudes; the 10000 true courſe and the diſtance failed. (See fig. 7.) part of which therefore being added to or fubtracted from the Here the ſhip is firſt ſuppoſed to be at A, herimaginary courſe log-tangent of half the complement of the given latitude, accordis along the line AB; but her real courſe is along the line ÁC, the ing as the caſe ſhall require, will give the log-tangent of half the diagonal of the parallelogram, the known ſides of which are A B, complement of the required latitude; then the half complement = 50 miles ( = 10 X 5 ) and B C=30=10 X 3). being had, the double will be the complement of the latitude, Hence there are given the two legs of a right angled triangle to which ſubtracted from 90° leaves the latitude itſelf. Or by find the hypothenuſe or diſtance; wherefore by trigonometry, middle latitude thus, aſſume the given latitude, or ſome other as the ſum of the logarithm of A Band B C= the logarithm of 58. the middle latitude, and then ſay, as the tangent of the courſe is 31 miles the diſtance. Then by trigonometry, as the diſtance, (A to fuch aſſumed middle latitude, fo is the difference of longitude C) is to radius, ſo is BC to the line of the angle A= 30°. 58' the 5 miles half NAVIGATION. 50 30 11 | that way. the angle of the ſhip's courſe, anſwering nearly to S. E. by S. S. the reader has made himſelf well acquainted with trigonometry he So by the reſolution of plane triangles, may any ſhip's courſe be cannot be at a loſs how to reſolve any queſtion of this fort. determined. And the courſe being thus corrected, where there are SECT. IV. currents, are to be entered in the log-book. Or the ſhip's rate and How TO FIND THE DISTANCE OF A CAPE, OR HEAD. courſe may be ſet down as ſhewn by the log and the compaſs; and LAND, &c. AT SEA. afterwards the courſe and rate of the current, and the difference of latitude and departure being put down for each, will give the Suppoſe a ſhip to be failing on ſome known courſe, as from A fame reſult, as to the fhip's place at fea, as if you had uſed the towards B, (fig. 10.) and a cape is diſcovered at C. Then to find corrected courfe. In the above example, according to the latter its diſtance, take the bearing of the cape C by the compaſs, from method the caſe will be as under: A. Alſo after you have failed a known diſtance, AB, on the ſame Courſes | Diſtance N S E WI courſe, take the bearing of the cape again at B; ſo there will be The annexed table is given the diſtance BA, and the angles A and B, and ſubtracting their S 50 according to the method E fum from 180°, the remainder is the angle C at the cape; and to 30 practiſed for computing find the diſtance, the proportion is as follows, viz. As the fine of a ſhip's place at the end the angle C is to the diſtance AB, ſo is the fine of the angle B, 50 | 30 of each day's failing, or to AC, the diſtance of the cape at the firſt obſervation. "after a number of courſes run. The firſt column contains the cor- N. B. The diſtance may be determined pretty near, by the re- rected courſes of the ſhip; the ſecond the diſtance run on each port of a gun fired from a cape, &c. For count how many ſeconds courſe, the next two columns contain the differences of latitude, ac- of time there are between ſeeing the flaſh of the firing, and hearing cording as the ſame ſhall be north or ſouth, and the two latter co- the report, and multiply the ſame by .185, will give you the diſtance lumns contain the departure to each courſe, that characteriſed E in ſea miles. Various problems might be introduced under this being the column for Eaſt Departure, and that titled with a W, head, which however would have very little uſe in navigation, being the column for Weſt Departure. Then the difference of the except fo far as they might tend to perfect a pupil in trigonometry. total of the North and South differences of latitude, gives the dif- SECT. V. ference of latitude between the latitude the ſhip is in, and the ports failed from, which is N. or S. according as ſhe has made RULES FOR CORRECTING A Ship’s RECKONING. more North or South difference of latitude. Alſo the difference of I. Always when opportunity offers, take the meridian altitude the eaſt and weſt departures is uſually reckoned as a common de of the ſun or a known ſtar, and from thence proceed to find the parture for the whole of a ſhip’s run in one day, and is named eaſt latitude, as ſhewn in our Syſtem of Aſtronomy ; then if the lati- departure, or weſt departure, according as the eaſt departure or tude obſerved, agree with the latitude by account, your reckon- weſt departure is the greateſt . In this example the courſe of the ing requires no correction. ſhip is fouth 50 miles, which makes 50 miles difference of lati II. Iftheobfervedand computed latitudes differ, examine whe- tude without any departure, then the current is taken as a courſe, ther you have committed any miſtake in allowing for variation or which as it has ſet eaſt at the rate of 3 miles an hour for 10 hours, leeway, or in the caſting up of your reckoning. If not, fee if you makes 30 miles for the difference in that direction; and hence have rightly allowed for currents. If a ſtrong wind has ſtood a the departure is 30 miles eaſt, without any difference of longi- good while one way, aſſure yourſelf a current ſets more or leſs tude; therefore the ſhip in the whole has made a difference of la- titude 50 miles fouth, and a departure 30 miles eaſt, which lati III. At all opportunities get the variation, by the fun's ampli- tude and departure are anſwerable to the ſame courſe and diſtance, tude or otherwiſe. And if the variation had been taken wrong, you as was determined by the former method. may find a correction in the latitude and departure, thus: Judge as SECT. III. near as you can how long the variation has been wrong accounted; SAILING TO WINDWARD. probably it has altered gradually ever ſince the laſt obfervation, and therefore you may ſafely take half the time ſince that was; Suppofe WA (fig. 8) to be the direction of the wind and the then find the difference of latitude and departure for that time, and angle W A D or WAF, the neareſt a ſhip can lie to the wind. ſay, as radius: ſine of the error of variation :: departure : correc- And fuppoſe a ſhip to fail from the port A, to the port B, and it is tion in latitude : : and ſo is the diff. latitude to the correction in required to find the point C in the courſe AC, where ſhe muſt departure. Then lay a thread over the compafs, to repreſent the turn to windward. Having made the angles WAD and WAF true meridian, and to ſhew the error of variation. If the ſhip's the neareſt the ſhip can lie to the wind; through B, draw BC, courſe lie farther from this thread, than it did before (from the parallel to FA interſecting AD in C; then C, is the place ſuppoſed meridian) the correction of departure is to be added to required. Now in a trigonometrical calculation, there is given the departure; but if nearer, the correction of latitude muft be the diſtance of the ports AB, and the angle WAB, and WAF, added to the difference of latitude. And theſe corrections in lati- or WAC, and from thence the angle BAC is had, being tude and departure, are always of a contrary kind, viz. if, one be angle WAC - WAB, and the angle FAB is alſo known, or its added, the other muſt be ſubtracted. equal ABC, and from thence is known the angle ACB. Hence IV. Ifa current is the cauſe of the error, and you have found the proportion is as the fine of Angle ACB : AB : : fine of angle out its direction and courſe, you may correct the departure thus : ABC : AC, the diſtance from the port A along the courſe AC, ſay as radius : correction in latitude: : tangent of current's courſe ; where the ſhip muſt turn to windward along the courſe BC to gain correction in departure, which is to be reckoned the fame way the port B. (eaſt or weſt) as is the current's motion. By this the departure will EXAMPLE. Suppoſe the wind at due North denoted by the line be corrected to agree with the obſerved latitude. AW, and a port at B, diſtant 80 miles, bears N. N. E. from E, V. When none of theſe appear to be the cauſe of the error, it and I find that I can make my way along AC within 6 points of muſt lie eitherin the courſe or diſtance run. In which caſe obſerve the wind, required how far I muſt ſail along that courſe before I whether the ſhip has out-run the reckoning, or the reckoning is a can make a direct courſe to the port B? Here the angle BAC is head of the ſhip, for the reckoning muſt be brought to the ſhip. 4 points, the angle ABC is 8 points, and theangle ABC is 4 points, Alſo conſider your courſe ſince the time of the laſt obſervation Then as ſine of ACB=4 points or 45º = -9.84948 whether it has laid nearer to the meridian, or to the eaſt and weſt ; Is to ſine AB 80 1.903009 viz. whether the difference of latitude or the departure be greater; So is fine ABC 8 points or radius if the former, it is probable the error is in the diſtance failed ; TO AC=113.1 the diſtance required 205361 therefore take the difference of latitude and the departure from the time of the laſt obſervation, and ſay, as diff. latitude : to de- To find the Place of turning to Windward in a current.--Sup- parture :: error in latitude : to correction in departure, which is poſe a ſhip ſails from A to B (fig. 9,) in a current that ſets in the to be added to the departure when the ſhip is foremoſt, but fub- direction Al, from A to I; and if WA bethe point of the wind, to tracted when the reckoning is foremoſt. In this caſe the correc- find the place where to turn to windward ? Make the angle WAE tion of difference of latitude and departure are of like kind, viz. and WAF the neareſt the ſhip can lie to the wind. And make if one be added the other is added, and vice verſa, AE to EH, and AF to FG as the motion of the ſhip to the motion VI. But if the courſe has been nearer the eaſt and weſt, than the of the current, and draw FG and EH parallel to AI; then through north and ſouth, ſince the laſt obſervation, then the error is moſt G, and H, draw the lines AG and AHC. From B draw BC | likely in the courſe, wherefore fay as departure : diff. latitude :: fo parallel to AG, and from C draw CD, parallel to AF, and from is error in latitude to correction in departure, which is to be added B draw BD parallel to AI; then C is the point of turning to wind to the departure, if the reckoning is before the ſhip; but fubtracted ward, and the ſhip is to ſteer the courſe and diſtance A e, and by the when the ſhip is foremoſt. In this caſe the correction in latitude motion of the current ſhe will be brought to C, when ſhe muſt and departure are of a contrary kind, viz. when one is added, the fteerthe courſe and diſtance CD, and by the motion of the current other muſt be ſubtracted. When you fail near the eaſt or weſt, fhe will be driven to B, as required. Note, if the direction of the the above correction will not be worth notice, it will be fofinall. current be from I to A, the points G and H muſt be taken on the VII. When the difference of latitude and departure are nearly other ſide of the lines AF, and AE; but the reſt of the bufineſs equal, and you ſuſpect either courſe or diſtance, correct where you will be the ſame. From the nature of the conſtruction the trigono- | think the error lies. Ifyou are doubtful whether of them is wrong, metrical calculation is eaſily deduced; other caſes of this nature correct only the latitude, leaving the departure as it was; for if · might be propoſed, but as they would have little ufe in practical both the courſe and diſtance be faulty, their corrections will be navigation, I fhall paſs on to other matters; at the ſame time if | contrary, and deſtroy each others effects. VIII. To to I0.00000 NAVIGATION. the proper VIII. To correct the longitude : having got the correction in | G, F. A is the horizon vane, B the ſhadow vane ; C, the fight departure, take the meridional difference between the computed vane; de, is the 6o arc, containing 60 or 65 degrees. FG, the and obſerved latitude, and ſay as error in latitude: to correction in 30 arc, containing 30 or 25 degrees. In uſing this inſtrument the departure :: meridional diff. latitude : to correction in longitude, vane B muſt be put to an even degree, leſs by 15° or 20°, than the which muſt be applied the ſame way, (eaſt or weſt) as the correc zenith diſtance ; then turning the back to the fun, and looking tion of departure is applied. through the vanes C and A, raiſe or ſettle the inſtrument, till the IX. The error in the diſtance may ariſe from the log; or half | ſhadow of the upper edge of the vane B fall on the flit A; then raiſe minute glaſs. When the fault is in the glaſs, ſay as the ſeconds or ſettle the vane C, till you ſee the horizon appear through C and tun by the glaſs, are to 30 ſeconds, ſo is the diſtance run by the A. Thus you have the altitude of the fun; and adding the degrees log to the true diſtance When the fault is in the log, ſay as 50 on the arc ed to the degrees on the arc F G, gives the zenith dif- feet is to the diſtance between each knot, fo is the diſtance run by tance. But this muſt be corrected by allowing for refraction, and the log, to the true diſtance. When both log and glaſs are faulty, | parallax. multiply thrice the meaſured length of a knot, by the diſtance SECT. II, run per log, the product divided by 5 times the meaſured time Of The Cross STAFF, OR FORE-STAFF. of the glaſs will give the true diſtance. This is uſed for taking the altitude of a ſtar, (fig. 12.) it con- SECT. VI. fiſts of a ſtaff, AD, and three or four croſſes BC ; to ſuit different THE METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING À MERCATOR'S altitudes. The ſtaff AD is graduated on each ſide in a different CHART. manner, for the different crofſes. In uſing it, put on When a chart istocommence from the equatot. Having a ſcale croſs CB; and place the end A as near the eye as poſſible ; and of convenient length, draw a line to repreſent the equator; and turning, the face to the ſtar, move the croſs CB, back or forward, croſſing that at right angles, another to repreſent the meridian of till the ſtar appears in the upper end C ; and the horizon at the ſome known place, ſuch as London, Paris, &c. the upper end of lower end B; then you have the altitude number on the inner edge which will repreſent the north, and the lower the fouth. From of the croſs, and on that fide of the ſtaff belonging to the croſs you the ſcale take bo in your compaſſes, and with one foot on the meri- obſerve with: dian, and at the point of interſection with the equator, fet off that SECT. III. diſtance both ways on the equator, if the chart is to contain both OF THE NOCTURNAL. eaſt and weſt longitude: but if it is only tocontaineither eaſt or weſt longitude, lay it off on that ſide of the meridian the caſe requires; The nocturnal (fig. 13.) is an inſtrument, chiefly ufed at ſea, which gives the point where the meridian cuts the equator at one to take the altitude or depreſſion of fome of the ſtars about the degree difference of longitude; theſame diſtance turned over again, pole, in order to find the latitude, and the hour of the night. will give the point where the meridian cuts the equator, at the next There are nocturnals of various contrivances, ſome of them pro- degree of longitude; and thus the places of all the meridians, as far jections of the ſphere; ſuch as the hemiſpheres, or planiſpheres, as the chart is to extend in longitude, may be determined. Having or the plane of the equinoctial; thoſe ordinarily uſed by the ſea- found the places of all the meridians, draw aline perpendicular to the men are two ; the one adapted to the polar ſtar, and the first of the equator at each extremity, and on each lineſetoff from the equator, guards of the Little Bear; the other to the pole-ftar, and the a diſtance equal to the meridional parts of the higheſt latitude, pointers of the Great-Bear. which the chart is intended to include; join theſe points by a The nocturnal conſiſts of two circular plates (fig. 13.) applied line parallel to the equator, and the chart will be bounded, then on each other. The greater, which has a handle to hold the in- through every degree of longitude on the equator, draw me ſtrument is about 2 inches diameter, and is divided into twelve ridians parallel to one another; and on both the extreme meridi parts, agreeing to the twelve months; and each month ſubdivided ans, ſet off the meridional parts, anſwering to every degree of la into every fifth day: and fo, as that the middle of the handle cor- titude; join each by lines parallel to the equator, and ſo the chart reſponds to that day of the year, wherein the ſtar here regarded has will be truly divided to every degree of latitude and longitude ; | the fame right afcenfion with the ſun. If the inſtrument be fitted then on the extreme meridians, inſert the degrees of latitude in for two ſtars, the handle is made moveable. The upper left cir- figures at leaſt to every 5 or 10 degrees, which will ſerve as an cle is divided into twenty-four equal parts, for the twenty-four index for finding the degrees of latitude, the latitude being every hours of the day, and each hour ſubdivided into quarters, as in the where the ſame in the fame parallel : alſo from the firſt meridian, figure. Theſe twenty-four hours are noted by twenty-four teeth; number the degrees of longitude both ways on the equator, and to be told in the night. Thoſe at the hours twelve are diſtinguiſhed the chart will be drawn, except the planning thereon coaſts, &c. by their length. In the centre of the two circular plates, is ad- as may be thought neceſſary and uſeful. This is done by making juſted a long index, A, moveable upon the upper plate. And the a fine point on that place in the chart, where the latitude and lon three pieces, viz. the two circles and index are joined by a rivet gitude is the ſame as the latitude and longitude of the place you which is pierced through the centre, with a hole two inches in di- would have deſcribed; and doing this with many bounding points, ameter for the ſtar to be obſerved through. head-lands, &c. a line may be drawn through thoſe points which When the nocturnal is uſed, turn the upper plate till the longeſt will repreſent the out-lines of any coaſt, the boundaries of any tooth, marked 12, be againſt the day of the month on the under ifand, place&c. to which may be annexed the depths of water, ſet- plate; then, bringing the inſtrument near the eye, ſuſpend it by the ting of currents, variation of the compaſs, and whatever elſe may handle, with the plane nearly parallel to the equinoctial; and be thought convenient for the chart to contain. viewing the pole ſtar through the hole of the centre, turn the in- When a chart is not to commence from the equator, an eaſt and dex about, till, by the edge coming from the centre, you ſee the weſt, or longtude line, may be drawn through any known latitude bright ſtar or guard of the Little Bear (if the inſtrument be fitted parallel to the meridian, and divided into equal parts or degrees, in to that ſtar :) then that tooth of the upper circle, under the edge like manner as was the equator; then the parts of meridional differ- of the index, is at the hour of the night, on the edge of the hour- ence of latitude between the given latitude and the latitude, or lati- circle ; which may be known without a light, by accounting the tudes to which the chart is propofed to reach, muſt be applied on the teeth from the longeſt, which is for the hour 12. meridians from ſuch longitude line, both ways, if the chart is to contain places ſituate on both ſides of fuch longitudeline, and then SECT. IV. through the ſeveral points draw lines interſecting one another, and DescriPTION OF HADLEY's QUADRANT (Fig. 14) AS the chart will be completed as before. In order that our readers CONSTRUCTED IN THE BEST MANNER BY MR.ADAMS, may have a full and clear comprehenſion of the nature and con OPTICIAN IN FLEET-STREET. ſtruction of this uſeful chart, we ſhall not confine ourſelves, as others have done, to giving a bare ſketch of one in narrow and This Inſtrument conſiſts of the following parts : confined limits, but ſhall, excluſive of the navigation plate, preſent 1. The arc BC, which is generally an octant or eighth part of a them with a whole ſheet chart of all the known world, including circle, but is more uſeful when a ſextant or ſixth part of a circle. all the late diſcoveries of Captain Cook and others, which cannot 2. The index D ; ab, the nonius ſcale. fail of proving uſeful to thoſe who learn navigation, as well as 3. E, the index glaſs, or ſpeculum. highly inſtructive to ſuch as wiſh to be wellinformed in geography, 4. F, the fore horizon glaſs; and G. the back horizon glaſs. the globe of the earth being in this chart repreſented in a plane, 5. K, the dark glaſſes or ſcreens. from which a knowledge of the true bearings and latitude and lon- 6. H, I, two fight vanes. gitude of places, is more readily acquired than from any globular The arc BC is firmly attached to two radii or bars, AB, BC, maps, though it muſt be confefied that in thoſe kinds of maps, the which are ſtrengthened and bound togethr by two braces L, M. true diſtances are not preſerved, which towards the pole cauſes The index D is a flat bar of braſs that turns on the centre of the the places to appear ſomewhat diſtorted. octant ; at the lower end of the index there is an oblong opening; to one fide of this opening the nonius ſcale is fixed, to ſubdivide PART III. the diviſions of the arc ; at the bottom or end of the index, there -DESCRIPTION AND USE OF SEA INSTRUMENTS. is a piece of braſs, which bends under the arc, carrying a ſpring SECT. I. which makes the nonius ſcale lie cloſe to the diviſions ; it is fur- OF THE SEA QUADRANT, CALLED Davis's QUADRANT. niſhed with a ſerew to fix the index in any deſired poſition ; and the beſt inſtruments have an adjuſting ſcrew fitted to the index (See Fig. 11.) This inſtrument is uſed for taking the ſun's that it máy move more ſlowly, and with greater regularity and altitude, and conſiſts of three vanes, A, B, C; and two arcs, ed, and accuracy than by the hand. The in the little Clements of Navigation. See the Mystem Part 3. 3 Lizard E Fig: 5. Fig. 16 Fig: 14. Fig.15. PA Fig. 17. A K JW.by S.W.37 F Lizard 107. of Ship from Distance LR Total difference of Latitude DI 9G MMS B G H L T Ships whole departure Fig.18 H Η Fig. 4. B D E L B Fig.6. E D Fig: 7. E G F B С dl M M B С B С 90 A 815 80 00 65 60 515 50 45 40 20 15 10 6 Fig.13. Fig. 3. 130 20 10 10 181 20 90 70 18 10 6 10 1'0 oto 10 30 to 507 Fig. 1 50 10 OG 30 2 2 30 20 10 May 8 12 30 3 70 30 20 2րշակ2.14 Bear 131 20 to M KON North MNN N.by E. TNN 90 90 Lo Nov. 8 31 M 31 N.E.byN. NAIMN MN 9 0 OL 5 N.E. 8 20 609 MTOMN olz S 30 20 w 01 9 GT OZ OC 09 x 61 08 10 MNM N.E.by E. ok 9 8 I oc 요 ​OGHI E.NE. 6 og 0718 91 90 TL os OT 'N TIM 7 OL OL OL E.by N. 016 8 782M East 8 'S OM E.by S. 7 Fig. 8. E.SE MSM W F B S.E.byE. >D B 9 6 I Fig: 9. MOM'S S.W. G S.E. 5 S.W.by S. H S.S.W. 1 S.by W. South S.by E. S.E.by S. S.S.E. mo 3 co F 2 EVA 2 1 1 e S B A P Fig:10 Fig.19. Fig: 2. R A H W A D Fig11. В B. B С Fig.12. с A B F Engraved for Eatis Encyclopædia, & Binted for C. Cooke, 1927, Paternoster Row. Lodne sal 4 NAVIGATION. Thus it may The Index Glaſs is deſigned to receive the image of the fun, ſea ſeen in the filvered part of the mirror may join exactly to, and or any other object, and reflect it upon the horizon glaſſes. form one continued line with the edge of the ſea ſeen through the The braſs frame with this glaſs is fixed to the index by the ſcrew tranſparent part of the glaſs: this done, obſerve whether the index C. the other ſcrews ſerve to replace it in a perpendicular poſition, if diviſion on the nonius agrees with the o line on the arc; if it do not, by any accident it ſhould be deranged. the number by which they differ is a quantity to be added to the The Horizon Glaſſes are mirrors which receive the reflected rays obſervation, if the index line is beyond the o on the limb; but if from the object, and tranſmit them to the obſerver. They are not the index line of the nonius ſtands between 0 and go degrees, then entirely quick-filvered; for the upper one, F. is only filvered on its this error is to be fubtracted from the obſervation That part of lower part, or that half next the quadrant; the other half is tranſ the arc beyond o towards the right hand is called the arc of exceſs; parent, and the back part of the frame is cut away, that nothing the nonius muſt be read the contrary way; or which is the ſame may impede the fight through the unſilvered part of the glaſs. The thing, you may read them off in the uſual way, and take their com- other horizon glaſs is ſilvered at both ends, but leaving in the middle plement to 20, and you will have the real number of degrees and a tranſparent flit, through which the horizon may be ſeen. Both minutes to be added to the obſervation. of theſe glaſſes are ſo mounted as to have their poſitions ſet truly Adjuſt the index glaſs, thus: Being provided with the two by their adjuſters at the back, ſhould the frame of the inſtrument adjuſting tools repreſented at fig. 15 and 16, (which are two wooden be warped. frames with two lines on each, exactly at the ſame diſtance from the The ſhades or dark glaſſes, K, are two red or dark glaſſes, and bottom) place the quadrant in an horizontal poſition on a table, one green one, for preventing the bright rays of the ſun or the glare put the index about the middle of the arc, turn back the dark of the obſerver. They may be glaſſes, place one of the above mentioned tools near one end of the uſed ſeparately or together, as the brightneſs of the object may arc, the other at the oppoſite end, the ſide with the lines towards require. The green glaſs alſo may be uſed alone if the ſun be very the index glaſs; then look down the index glaſs, directing the fight faint; it is alſo uſed for taking the altitude of the moon, and in parallel to the plane of the inſtrument, you will ſee one of the tools aſcertaining her diſtance from a fixed ſtar. by direct viſion, the other by reflexion in the mirror. By moving When the glaſſes are uſed in the fore obſervation, they are fixed the index a little they may be brought exactly together. If the as repreſented in the figure. When uſed for the back obſervation, lines coincide, the mirror is rightly fixed, if not, it muſt be reſtored they are removed to N. to its proper ſituation by looſening the ſcrew and tightening the The two fight vanes H, I, are perforated pieces of braſs deſigned fcrew, or vice verſa. to direct the fight parallel to the plane of the quadrant. That which The fore-horizon glaſs muſt be placed perpendicular to the is fixed at I, is uſed for the fore obſervation, the other for the back | plane of the inſtrument, by the following means: having adjuſted obſervation. the index and horizon glaſſes, ſet the index diviſion of the nonius The Diviſions of the Arc, &c. The limb is divided from right exactly againſt o on the limb; hold the plane of the quadrant parallel to left into go diviſions, which are to be conſidered as degrees, to the horizon, and obſerve the image of any diſtant object at each of which is ſub-divided into 3 equal parts, of which are there- | land, or of the horizon itſelf at ſea. If the image ſeen by reflexion fore 20 minutes each. The odd minutes are obtained by means be higher than the object ſeen directly, releaſe the fore ſcrew, and of the fmall diviſions, which are placed on the ſmall arc of the tighten the back ſcrew; and vice verſa, if the image ſeen by index. reflection be loweſt. Thus proceed till both are of an equal The nonius, or ſubdividing ſcale, depends on this ſimple circum- height; and by moving the index you can make both objects appear • ſtance, that if any iine be divided into equal parts, the length of each as one. Care muſt be taken to looſen one ſcrew before the other is ſcrewed part will be greater the fewer diviſions there are in the original line, up, and to leave the adjuſting ſcrews tight. and on the contrary, the length of each diviſion will be leſs, in pro- THE USE OF THIS INSTRUMENT. portion as the diviſions are more numerous. be obſerved that the two extreme ſtrokes on the To take the Altitude of the Sun by the fore Obſervation. nonius contain 7 degrees, or 21 of the aforementioned ſmall divi The inſtrument, being previouſly adjuſted, one or two of the fions, but that it is divided only into 20 parts, each of theſe parts dark glaſſes ſhould be placed before the horizon glaſs, that the will be longer than thoſe of the arc, by ---th part or (1 minute) than image may be viewed without injury to the eye. Hold the quadrant the diviſions of the arc; conſequently if the firſt or index diviſion of in a vertical poſition, the arc downwards) either by the braces or the nonius be ſet preciſely oppoſite to any degree, the relative poſition the radii, as may be moſt convenient. Let the eye be at the upper of the nonius and the arc muſt be altered one minute before the next hole in the fight vane, and the lower part of the limb againſt the divifion on the nonius will coincide with the next diviſion of the breaſt. Turn towards the fun, and direct the fight to that part of arc; the ſecond diviſion will require a change of 2 minutes, the third the horizon that lies directly under it, keeping the quadrant as near of 3 minutes, and ſo on till the 20th ſtroke on the nonius arrive as you can judge in a plane paſſing through the fun's centre, and the at the next 20 minutes on the arc, the index diviſion will then have neareſt part of the horizon, moving at the ſame time the index with moved exactly 20 minutes from the diviſion whence it ſet out, and the left hand, ſo as to bring the image of the ſun down towards the the intermediate diviſions of each minute have been regularly pointed horizon, then ſwing the quadrant round in a line parallel to the out by the diviſions of the nonius. If therefore, in taking an obſer line of fight, by this means the image of the fun may be made to vation, the index diviſion ſtands at 40°, then 40° is the meaſure of deſcribe the arc of a circle, with the convex fide downwards. Now the required angle. If it coincides with the next diviſion beyond if that edge of the ſun, which is obſerved, juſt touches the horizon, 40 it is 40° 20': if with the ſecond diviſion beyond 40, the angle is as a circle touches its tangent, the obſervation is rightly made. And 40°, 40' &c. But if the index does not coincide with 40°, but that the degrees and minutes pointed out by the nonius on the arc, ſhew the next diviſion to it is the firſt coincident diviſion, then is the the apparent altitude of the ſun's lower limb, to which add the ſun's required angle 40° 1'. If it had been the ſecond diviſion the angle apparent femidiameter, and you have the apparent altitude of the would have been 40° 2' and ſo on to 20', when the index diviſion fun's centre, coincides with the firſt 20 minutes from 40°. This however is to be corrected by allowing for refraction and Again, fuppoſe the index diviſion to ſtand between 30° and parallax, as will be ſhewn hereafter. Note, alſo the altitude muſt 30° 20', and that the 16th diviſion on the nonius coincides with a be corrected by allowing for the dip of the horizon, occafioned diviſion on the limb, then the angle is 30° 16'. by the obſerver's eye being above the plane of the horizon. Alſo ſuppoſe the index diviſion to ſtand between 35° 20' and To take the Altitude of a Star. 35° 40': and at the ſame time the 12th diviſion on the nonius ſtands directly oppoſite to a diviſion on the arc, then will the angle the quadrant in a vertical poſition as before directed ; look through Set the index of the nonius to the o line of the limb: and hold To adjuſt the Inſtrument for a fore Obſervation. the fight vane and the tranſparent part of the horizon glaſs ſtraight Set the fore-horizon glaſs parallel to the index glaſs, by the up to the ſtars; which will coincide with the image ſeen in the fil- following method : Set the index line of the nonius exactly againſt vered part, and form one ſtar ; but as foon as you move the index O of the limb, and fix it there by the ſcrew at the under-ſide; then forwards, the reflected image will deſcend below the real ftar; you look through the fight, I, at the edge of the ſea, or ſome diſtant muſt follow this image by moving the whole body of the quadrant very object. The edge of the ſea will be ſeen directly through the un- downwards, ſo as to keep it in the filvered part of the horizon glaſs, filvered part of the glaſs'; but by reflection, in the ſilvered as the motion of the index depreſles it until it comes down exactly If part. the horizon in the filvered part exactly meets and forms one con- to the edge of the horizon. The altitude of a ſtar muſt be cor- tinued line with that ſeen through the unſilvered part, then is the rected by allowing for refraction and parallax. inſtrument ſaid to be adjuſted, and the horizon glaſs is parallel to the SECT. V. index glaſs. But if the horizons do not coincide, then looſen the milled nut on the underſide of the quadrant, and turn the horizon OF HADLEY's SexTANT, AS CONSTRUCTED AND SOLD BY MR. GEORGE ADAMS. glaſs on its axis, by means of the adjuſting lever, till you have made them perfectly coincide; then fix the lever firmly in the ſituation The ſextant is an inſtrument of the ſame kind as the former, thus obtained, by tightening the middle nut. This adjuſtment only in this the arc conſiſts of the ſixth part of a circle inſtead of an ought to be repeated before and after every aſtronomical obſervation. eighth part, which renders it more uſeful in taking the angular diſtances of the ſun and moon; or of the moon and a ſtar, &c. To find the Index Error, if any. for the purpoſe of finding the longitude. The inſtrument being adjuſted as near as poſſible as above, move Fig. 4. Plate V. of Aſtronomy, repreſents an inſtrument of this the index forward and afterwards bring it back, ſo that the edge of the fort. The arc AA is divided into 120 degrees, each divided into Nº 117. VOL. III. * K 3 parts be 35° 32' N AVIGATION. computed or half an SERVATION. 3 parts of 20 minutes each, as in the former inſtrument, which are Syſtem of Aſtronomy. Take the difference between this declination, and that for the noon of the day at London, as ſhewn again ſubdivided by the nonius into every half minute. by the Ephemeris; from which alſo take the daily difference of de- In order to obſerve correctly, an adjuſting ſcrew B is added to the index, through which it can be moved with greater accuracy clination at that time, and ſay, as the daily difference of declination is than by the hand, but this ſcrew does not act till the index is fixed to the above found difference, ſo is 360° to the difference of longitude. by the finger ſcrew C. SECT. III. There are four tinged glaſſes at D, each of which is ſet in a ſeparate frame that turns on a centre. They are uſed to ſcreen and BY THE ECLIPSES OF JUPITER'S SATELLITES. ſave the eye from the brightneſs of the ſolar image and the glare of the moon, and may be uſed feparately or together as occafion requires: difference of longitude between the meridian of the place, and that Knowing (from the dead reckoning) within a ſmall quantity, the There are three more ſuch glaſſes' placed behind the horizon glaſs at of London, turn the ſame into time, by allowing 15 degrees to an E, to weaken the rays of the fun or moon when they are viewed hour, then from the Nautical Ephemeris take the time of the eclipſe's directly through the horizon glaſs. The frame of the index glaſs I, is firmly fixed by a ſtrong cock happening at London, and to that time add the time anſwering to the difference of longitude, if the place is eaſt from London; or ſubtract to the centre plate of the index. The horizon glaſs F is fixed in a frame that turns on the axes or pivots, which move in an exterior it, if weſt, and you will have the time nearly when to look for the frame'; the holes in which the pivots move may be tightened by four eclipfe at that place; therefore begin to obſerve a quarter, hour before, and note the preciſe time when you ſee the beginning ſcrews in the exterior frame; G is a ſcrew by which the horizon or end of the eclipſe, and the difference between that time and the glaſs may be ſet perpendicular to the plane of the inſtrument; ſhould this ſcrew become looſe it may be eaſily tightened by turning the time at London turned into degrees, is the difference of longitude capſtan-head ſcrew, H. required, which is eaſt, if the time obſerved be after the time at Lon- The ſextant is furniſhed with a plane tube (fig. 7. in ſaid Plate) don; but weſt, if before. without any glaſſes; and to render the object Itill more diſtinct, it N. B. The ſame may be performed by an eclipſe of the moon. has alſo two teleſcopes; one of which (fig. 5,) repreſenting the SECT. IV. objects erect, or in their natural poſition, and the other (fig. 6,) thews them inverted. The teleſcopes are to be ſcrewed into a By A LUNAR OBSERVATION, HAVING GIVEN THE ALTI- circular ring at K; this ring reſts on two points againſt an exterior TUDES OF THE MOON AND SUN, OR A FIXED STAR, AND ring, and is held thereto by two ſcrews; by means of which the THEIR ANGULAR DISTANCES, WITH THE TIME OF OB- axis of the teleſcope may be ſet parallel to the plane of the fextant. Fig. 8. is a circular head with tinged glaſſes to ſcrew on the eye end In order to the ſolution of this problem, the true angular diſtance of either of the teleſcopes. The glaſſes are contained in a circular muſt be firſt found as follows: plate, which has four holes; three of which are fitted with tinged I. From the ſun's refraction, take his parallax in altitude, and the glafles, the fourth is open. Fig. 9. is a ſmall ſcrew driver; and remainder will be the correction of the ſun's altitude. The correc- fig. 10, a magnifying glaſs. tion of a ſtar's altitude is its refraction only. The refraction and As to the adjuſting of this inſtrument, thoſe who know how to ſun's parallax to all altitudes, are contained in page I, of the requi- adjuſt the octant already deſcribed, cannot be at a loſs how to adjuſt the ſextant. The principal points are to ſet the horizon glaſs per- ſite tables to be uſed with the Nautical Ephemeris, as is alſo the dip pendicular to the plane of the ſextant, and the axis of the teleſcope the furface of the water. of the horizon for the different heights of the obſerver's eye, above parallel thereto. Altitudes are taken by the ſextant in like manner as by the octant; the ſextant is alſo uſed in taking angular diſtances; rallax, out of the Nautical Ephemeris; increaſe its index by 10, II. Take the proportional logarithm of the moon's horizontal pa- I fhall therefore ſay a few words on that head, referring however the reader for a more full deſcription of the nature and uſe of both and ſubtract the log-cofine of the moon's apparent altitude from the ſun's, and the remainder will be the proportional logarithm of her theſe inſtruments to a little pamphlet, by Mr. Adams, optician, de- parallax in altitude; then from her parallax in altitude, take the figned for the inſtruction of thoſe who purchaſe his octants, or ſex- tants, and which therefore every one that uſes ſuch inſtruments refraction anſwering to her apparent altitude, and the remainder will be the correction of her altitude. ought to have III. Add the ſun's apparent altitude to the moon's, and take half To take the Angular Diſtance between the Moon and the Sun. the ſum; ſubtract the leſs from the greater, and take half the differ- The moon ſhould be viewed directly through the unſilvered part ence; add together the co-tangent of the half ſum, the tangent of the of the horizon glaſs, but the ſun by reflection. If the fun be to the half difference, and the co-tangent of half the obſerved diſtance, the left hand of the moon, the fextant muſt be held with its face down-fum, rejecting 20 from the index, is the log-tangent of an arc A. wards, but with the face upwards if the ſun be to the right of the moon; IV. When the ſun's altitude is greater than the moon's, take the ſet the index to the diſtance of the neareſt limbs of the ſun and moon, difference between A, and half the apparent diſtance; but if the computed in a rough manner from the Nautical Ephemeris; direct moon's altitude be greateſt, take their ſum; and to the co-tangent of the teleſcope to the moon, putting the fextant into ſuch a poſi- tude, and the proportional logarithm of the correction of the ſun's this fum or difference, add the co-tangent of the ſun's apparent alti- tion, that if you look edge-ways againſt it, it may ſeem to form a line paſſing through the ſun and moon. Then give the ſextant a altitude; their ſum, when 20 is rejected from the index, is the pro- fweep, or ſwing round a line parallel to the axis of the teleſcope, portional logarithm of the firſt correction of the apparent diſtance. and the reflected image of the ſun will paſs by the moon to and V. If the difference of the arc A, and half the apparent diſtance fro, fo near that you cannot fail of ſeeing it. The neareſt edges or was taken in the preceding article, take now their ſum; but if their limbs may now be brought into exact contact, by moving the index, ſum was then taken, now take their difference; and to the log co- and then uſing the adjuſting ſcrew. The index will then ſhew the tangent of this ſum or difference, add the log co-tangent of the apparent diſtance of the neareſt edges of the ſun and moon. moon's apparent altitude, and the proportional logarithm of the cor- And the true diſtance of their centres may be thence determined, as will rection of the moon's altitude; the fum, rejecting 20 from the in- be ſhewn when we treat of the method of working obſervations. dex, is the proportional logarithm of the ſecond correction. In a fimilar manner the angular diſtance between the moon and a VI. If the arc A be leſs than half the apparent diſtance, the firſt ftar, &c. may be obſerved. Only here the ſtar muſt be viewed correction muſt always be added to, and the ſecond ſubtracted from, direct, and the moon by reflection. the apparent diſtance; but when the arc A is greater than half the apparent diſtance, both the firſt and ſecond corrections muſt be PART IV. added, if the ſun's altitude be leſs than the moon's; but if the METHODS OF FINDING THE LONGITUDE. moon's be the leaſt, both muſt be ſubtracted to give the corrected diſtance of the ſun and moon. SECT. I. VII. Add together the proportional logarithms of the ſum and BY HELP OF A PERFECT TIME Keeper. differences of the moon's altitude, and the ſecond correction of the obſerved diſtance, the log-tangent of the corrected diſtance, and the If a time-keeper was ſo contrived as to go uniformly in all ſea- conſtant log 1.5820, the ſum rejecting 10 from the index is the pro- fons, and in all places, and regulated to the true time at London, or Greenwich; then the time of the day under any other meridian be- portional log of the third correction, to be added to the corrected diſtance when it is leſs than go, but fubtracted when it is above, ing known, the difference between that time and the London or and this gives the true diſtance required. Then for the longitude Greenwich time, would give the difference of longitude. Hence a find the time at Greenwich, when this true diſtance happened, good time-piece is of the utmoſt importance at ſea; and many which is readily done from the Nautical Ephemeris. The difference artiſts have endeavoured to conſtruct ſuch as ſhould in all ſituations between the Greenwich time and the time at the ſhip, turned into keep true time; and that excellent artiſt Mr. John Harriſon, fuc- degrees, by allowing 15° to an hour, is the difference of longitude. ceeded ſo well in his attempt, that the commiſſioners of longitude It being requiſite, in order to the finding the longitude by the ordered him a reward of 10,000l. foregoing method, to know the true time at the ſhip, the following methods of regulating the time-piece may be pra&tiſed as often as SECT. II. circumſtances will admit of them. BY THE Sun's DECLINATION. I. By equal Altitudes. The ſhip lying by, let the ſun's altitude be taken in the forenoon, at three or four hours diſtant from Let ſuch obſervations of the ſun be made, as are ſufficient for de- termining its declination, by ſome of the methods given in the noon; ſet down that time and altitude. In the afternoon, wait till the ſun has exactly the ſame altitude, (the index of the quad- rant NAVIGATION. noon; 27 miles. 2 4 8 12 5 6 12 61 rant being already ſet to the morning altitude) and note down that JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE, &c. time, then the half fum of theſe two times is the apparent time Monday 28. Theſe 24 thewn by the clock or watch, when the ſun was on the meridian hours freſh gales. At 4 A. M. hove up the Beſt Bower, and let go the ſmall Bower. At Q of that place. When in any caſe it is wanted to reduce the appa- rent to mean time, ſeek in the nautical almanack the equation of hove up the ſmall Bower, and let go the Beſt Bower again. time, anſwering to the given day, and apply it as the title directs to the apparent time, will give the mean time. Tueſday 29. At 6 P. M. ſtrong gales and heavy rain. At 8 II. By an Obſervation of the Sun's Altitude. At a convenient veered out the long ſervice, and let go the ſheet time take the altitude of the ſun's upper or lower limb, then ſub- anchor under foot. At 9 A. M. hove up the ſheet tract or add, as the caſe ſhall be, the fun's apparent ſemidiameter ; anchor. Wind variable from S. by W. to W. and from the ſum or difference take the dip of the horizon and the Wedneſday Theſe 24 hours moderate and fair. Wind W. refraction, and you will have the ſun's altitude at the centre cor- April 30. by S. rected for dip and refraction. The parallax in altitude ſhould be added to this, but in general it will not ſenſibly affect the altitude, Thurſday Theſe 24 hours fair with freſh gales. At 3 P. M. for this purpoſe, it being at the horizon only about 9". At the time May 1. got top-gallant-maft down. At 10 A. M. got yards and top-maſt up. Wind S. W. of the obſervation, find the ſhip’s latitude and longitude by account, and correct the ſun's declination for the day (obtained from the Friday 2. At 2 P. M. hove ſhort, at 4 weighed and failed. Nautical Ephemeris) by the difference of longitude and time from At 6 S. fore-land bore N. N. W. diftant 4 miles, then having the latitude, declination, and zenith diſtance, At 2 A. M. Fairlee bore N. diftant 6 miles; at 6 find the hour angle, as has been ſhewn in the Syſtem of Aſtronomy, Beachy bore N. E. by E. 9 miles. Freſh gales and which, turned into time, ſhews the apparent time when the obſer- clear; ſeveral ſhips ſtanding up channel ; cloſe reefed yation was made. The like may be had from a ſtar's altitude, &c. both top-fails; at 12 Bembridge point bore W.N.W. with this addition, that when the hour angle is found it muſt be ap- plied to the ſtar's right afcenfion, and it will give the right aſcen- Saturday 3. Freſh gales and clear. At 5 P. M. let out one reef fion of the mid-heaven. Then the difference between the right of each top-fail. At 7 A. M. Portland light bore aſcenſion of the mid-heaven, and the ſun's right aſcenſion, (found W. N. W. 9 miles. At 10 A. M, it bore N. E. for the place and time) is the apparent time of the obſervation. 12 miles. Fifteen fail of merchantmen in fight. Wherefore, regulate the watch by the apparent time thus found. N. B. In altitudes, taken by the fore obſervation, the dip of the Afterwards the ſhip approaching to the Lizard, the mate begins to keep account of the ſhip's way from the log-board as follows : horizon and the refraction are always to be ſubtracted from the ſun's or moon's apparent central altitudes, and the parallax is to be added JOURNAL from London to MADEIRA. in order to get the true altitudes at the centre. In the fixed ſtars, HKFI Courſes Winds LW Rem. on board Sun. May II. the dip and refraction muſt be ſubtracted, the parallax as to theni Theſe 24 hours moderate is inſenſible; and in common cafes it is ſo ſmall, even in the ſun, gales, and fair weather. that it need not be regarded, except near the horizon. The Nautical 6 At 6 P.M. the Lizard bore Ephemeris fhews the apparent ſemidiameters of the fun or moon, 4 S. W. by S. N.W. N. by E. diſtance 6 leagues, which muſt be added to altitudes made on the lower limb, but ſub- 10 4 5 from which I take my de- tracted from thoſe on the higher limb, in order to obtain the appa- parture, it being in the lat. rent central altitudes. 25 of 49° 57' N. and Long: 50 There being a ſufficient number of Examples in the Nautical 41 51 5 S. W. 14' W. of London, unbent Ephemeris and requiſite table, which no mariner ſhould be without, 5 5 the cables, and ſtowed the I thought it unneceflary to introduce any here. 8 51 5 anchor, 14. fail in ſight ſtand- PART V. 101 51 5 ing to weſtward. THE METHOD OF KEEPING A SEA JOURNAL. Variation I point weſterly. I have before obſerved that a ſea journal is a book in which are en Courſe Dirt./s. w lat. by tered the moſt remarkable daily occurrences at ſea during a ſhip's voy- lat. by Ob M.dift. dif. lon long.in-Bear. & Diſt. D. R. age; and that this book is frequently ſo ordered, as to ſerve for a 107 98 48 48°2IN 0° 481 1° 14'16° 28'w log-book alſo. 16°28 301 54 miles. There is ſeldom, however, any log account kept till a ſhip is near In the above day's account, the Lizard bearing N. by E. diſtance loſing fight of land; and then the bearing of ſome known cape, head 6 leagues, is the ſame as if the ſhip had failed that diſtance from the land, point, &c. is obſerved, and its diſtance computed ; a regular ac Lizard upon the oppoſite, or S. by W. point of the compaſs, and al- count of the ſhip's way is then kept, and the ſhip is ſaid to make lowing for the variation of the compaſs at that place, makes it S. her departure from that place. The log in merchant's ſhips is uſu half E. diſtance 18 miles, which is to be ſet down as the firſt courſe, ally heaved every two hours, but in ſome king's fhips it is heaved and diſtance in the following traverſe table, which table for the day every hour. The following is a ſpecimen of ſuch remarks as are is generally put down at the bottom of each journal page, together uſually made at firſt ſetting out at ſea, and before the ſhip makes with the calculations deduced therefrom, &c. her departure. The firſt courſe ſteered by the compaſs is S. W. by W. which I. THE TITLE OF THE JOURNAL. allowing for the variation (11 point) makes S. W. by S. half W. A Journal of a Voyage from London to Madeira, in the Nancy and the ſum of all the diſtances failed on that courſe till 2 o'clock, of London, R. T. Commander, kept by T. W. Mate. (when it alters) is 187 miles, which being doubled, becauſe the log is Departure from the Lizard in Lat. 49' 57' N. Long. 5° 14' W. | only heaved every 2 hours, gives 37 miles; which corrected courſe bound for Funchal in Madeira, in Lat. 32. 38 N. Long. 17. 6 W. and diſtance I fet down in the traverſe table under the former. In bearing from Lizard point S. 27° 1' W. diſtance 1156 miles. like manner the ſecond courſe (variation allowed, and diſtance doubled) is S.S.W.W.56 miles. Then from the table of difference of latitude II. THE JOURNAL REMARKS PREVIOUS TO THE DEPAR- and departure, I find the difference of latitude and departure to each TURE FROM THE LIZARD. courfe, and put them down in the table, and add them up; and I find the whole difference of latitude JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE, &c. TRAVERSE TABLE. the ſhip has made is 95.9 miles Wedneſday At 5 A. M. the pilot came on board; then weighed fouth, and that ſhe has made 1.8 Courſe. Dift. N. and failed from Tower Wharf. At 11 came to with fouth, and that ſhe has made 1.8 the Beſt Bower at Black-wall. Wind S. S. W. departure eaſt, and 49.9 depar- ture weft; taking the difference S. E. Thurſday24. Freſh gales and cloudy weather with rain. At of the departures, the total de S. W. by S. ; W. S. S. W. įW. 5 A. M. weighed and failed; at 9 came to anchor parture is 48.1 weft; therefore at Graveſend, and cleared ſhip. Wind from S. S. W. with this difference of latitude 95.9 1.8 49 9 | to N.N. W. and departure, I find the dif- At 4 P. M. weighed and failed, moderate weather ; ference of longitude either by 48. at 9 came to with the Beſt Bower at Nore in 91 the table of meridian parts or middle latitude, as has been before fathoms; freſh gales; at 4 A. M. weighed and taught, I find the difference of longitude, which is 74 miles, or failed; at II came to anchor in the Downs in 7 fa 1° 14' which write down in the 8th column under the day's ac- thoms, Deal Caſtle bearing W. į S. diſtant 3 miles: count; and therefore the longitude the hip is in is 6° 28' W. which Wind W. by S. I enter in the 9th column. Alſo with the ſaid diff. latitude and departure I find the ſhip's Saturday 26. At i P. M. ſent the pilot on ſhore. The firſt and courſe from the Lizard as though ſhe had failed on one point of the middle parts of theſe 24 hours moderate and fair. compaſs the whole time, and it comes out S. 26°, 30' W. and the The latter part ſtrong gales and cloudy. diſtance in a direct courſe is 107 miles, both of which I put down Strong gales and cloudy. At 2 P. M. veered out in their proper columns: (namely, the firſt and ſecond columns) alſo the long ſervice of the Beſt Bower, top-gallant- the difference of latitude being 95.9 (or 96) S. I put that down in yards down. At 4 P. M. ftruck yards and top-maſts. the third column at the bottom, with an S. above it; and the differ- Theſe 24 hours very hard gales of wind." Wind ence of longitude I put down in the fourth column with W. above W. by S. it. The latitude the ſhip is in, is 48° 21' N. which I write in the S.26°30' Uhant N80 W. Lat Depart. S. E. W. April 23. 18 37 56 17.9/1.8 28.6 49.4 - 23:5 26.4 1.8 Friday 25. Sunday 27 fifth NAVIGATION PART VI. fifth column. The meridional difference of latitude I place in the leventh column. Alſo Uſhant being ſituate in latitude 48° 30' N. A SELECTION OF OTHER ARTICLES OF USE TO and 5° 5' W. I proceed to calculate by the rules before laid down, THE PRACTICAL NAVIGATOR. its bearing and diſtance, and I find it bears N. 80° 26' E. diſtant 54 miles, which I put down in the tenth column, and as no obſerva- SECT. I. tions of the ſun, &c. have been made, that day's account is com- puted. N. B. The difference of latitude and departure may be TO DETERMINE THE POSITION OF THE SAILS OF A SHIP, IN found by trigonometrical calculation for each courſe, but it is RESPECT TO THE WIND, THE POSITION OF THE RUDDER, ſooner done by the table of difference of latitude and departure. AND WAY OF WORKING A SHIP. In this manner the navigator is to proceed from day to day, mak- ing proper allowances for lee-way and currents when there are any, The fails of a ſhip have more or leſs force to move the ſhip, ac- as well as for the variation; but the currents may be inſerted in the cording to the different poſition they have in reſpect of the ſhip’s traverſe table (their ſetting and velocity being known) as a diſtinct keel, as well as in reſpect to the wind; concerning which, obſerve courſe, by doing which a true allowance will be had. Alſo alti- theſe general Rules. tudes of the ſun, ſtars, &c. for finding the latitude ſhould be taken, Rule I. Head fails fèrve to keep a veffel ſteady, and to make and inſerted in the journal at all opportunities; and the operations her wear. Main fails tend only to move the centre of gravity of the performed as ſhewn in the Syſtem of Aſtronomy. Then the lati ſhip. Mizen fails keep a ſhip from ſheering backwards and for- tude being had true, dead reckoning muſt be corrected by the rules | wards; and ſerve to force a ſhip’s ſtern to leeward. Sails have before laid down in order to get the longitude right; for which pur more force the tighter they are hoiſted; and a fail that bags has poſe however, the lunar obſervation ſhould be taken as often as leſs power. The higher a fail. is placed, the more wind it will poflible. Then the latitude and longitude being determined right receive to move the ſhip. Wet fails draw more than dry ones. by obſervation, the dead reckoning account ſhould begin a-new, un II. Any one fail gives the greateſt motion to the fhip when it leſs there was reaſon to ſuſpect that the obſervations were not ſtands at right angles to the keel, and the ſhip goes directly before the well made. wind. But in all the fails together, (becauſe one fail keeps the The foregoing method of caſting up a ſhip’s reckoning (though wind from another ;) if the wind come at an angle of about 60 de- conſtantly practiſed) is not ftri&ily true, as it ſuppoſes equal grees, they will have the moſt power to move the ſhip. Likewiſe departures to be uniformly made in failing on each courſe; the nearer a right angle any fail makes with the keel, or ſhip’s way, which if not true, though upon an average in one day's run, it may the leſs lee-way ſhe makes, and the further from a right angle, the not materially err. The true method is to find the difference of more lee-way. longitude made along each courſe, and to inſert the ſame in columns Again, the nearer the way of the wind is with the way of the titled Eaſt and Weſt, in like manner as for the departure; then the ſhip, the leſs lee-way; and the more diſtant or acroſs, the more difference of their furns is the true difference of longitude the ſhip lee-way ſhe makes. . has made that day if the courſe and diſtance were truly aſcertained; III. As to the moſt advantageous placing of the fails : If S be and is eaſt or weſt, according as the eaſt or weſt longitudes were a fhip (fig. 19.) SD her way, SA the fail, WS the direction of the the greateft. wind, or the point it blows from. Then if the thip lie near the A ſhip’s difference of latitude and departure during a day's fail- wind, the angle WSA muſt be almoſt twice the angle ASD, that ing, may be determined by drawing from a good ſcale on paper;" is, the angle between the wind and the fail, ſhould be nearly double for meaſuring how far ſhe then is from the meridian failed from the angle between the fail and the keel. If the wind come near at will be the departure; and the diſtance meaſured on the meridian right angles to the way of the ſhip, the angle WSA muſt be once between where the line of departure cuts it, and the place failed and a half the angle ASD. And if the go almoſt before the wind, from, is the difference of latitude. Fig. 17. is a repreſentation of the fail muſt almost biſect the angle between the point of the wind the ſhip's courſes, during the above day's failing after ſhe took and the keel. And ſuch poiitions will give the greateſt motion to her departure. the ſhip. And to cauſe her to gain the moſt to windward, the angle The following is a queſtion in navigation propoſed and anſwered WSD muſt be 55, WSA 35, and ASD 20, or thereabouts, if any in the following manner. ſhip can lie ſo nigh the wind; if not, then they muſt be in that Suppoſe two ports, one in latitude of 30° N. the other in lat. proportion. 40° N. and their difference of longitude 50°, required the bearing IV. If the wind come almoſt acroſs the way of the ſhip, then and diſtance of each of them from an iſland equally diſtant from the ſharper the head fails are ſet, the more power they have to turn both, in 18° of South Latitude. the ſhip's head about. Again, if the way of the wind be nearly the Firſt fay as the meridional difference of latitude of the two Ports fame as the way of the ſhip, the fail ought to make an angle with 1735) : difference of longitude (3000) :: proper difference of lati the keel of 54 degrees. If the wind make an angle of 40 or 50 deg. tude (600) : departurc (2449). Then the courſe is had by this propor- with the ſhip's way, the angle between the fail and the keel may tion, as meridional difference of latitude is to radius, fo is difference be about 30 degrees. And theſe poſitions will turn her faſteſt of longitude to tangent of the courſe, which comes out 76° 14'. about. This being done, proceed to deſcribe the fituation of the two V. The moſt advantageous poſition of the rudder, ſo as to have ports and iſland, thus. Draw A B (fig. 18.) = to the departure of the greateſt force poſſible in turning the hip about, is, when it the two ports, and make BC perpendicular thereto, and equal to makes an angle with the keel of 54ž degrees. The fafter a ſhip the difference of latitude. So will A and B repreſent the two fails, the better ſhe will anſwer her helm ; if the ſail very ſlow, ſhe ports. Draw A E perpendicular to A B and equal to the differ will ſcarce iteer at all. If ſhe heel much, ſhe will not anſwer the ence of latitude between the port A and the iſland (2880 miles) helm ſo well. and draw E F parallel to A B. Alſo from the middle of the line A B erect a perpendicular HD, cutting A F in D, then D is SECT. II. the place of the iſland. Alſo let fall the perpendicular HG; then the angle GHD is equal to the complement of the courſe TO FIND THE TIME OF HIGH WATER AT ANY GIVEN =13° 46'; alſo H G=48°+50=530=3180 miles, and Place, therefore as rad. :HD (3180) ſo is tangent of ZGHD (13° 46') to G D=779. Alſo EG=į AB=1224.5; and GD+EG Rule. By the tide-table, in the Book of Requiſite Tables, find 1224.5+779=ED=2003.5 miles = the departure that a the time of full ſea on the full or change day, for the place propoſed; fhip would make in failing from the port A to the iſland at D. add to this the time of the moon's ſouthing. Alſo 2449–2003.5=445 miles, the departure that a ſhip would Otherwiſe , by the Nocturnal. Set 12 o'clock on the middle make in failing from the port C to the ſaid iſland. Then A E be- piece; to the time of high water at the new or full moon, on the ing 2880 miles, A D is = 2880° +2003.51)} = 3508.2 great piece: then bring the long index to the moon's ſouthing or miles nearly = the diſtance between the iſland and each port. age on the middle piece; this cuts the inner circle (the circle of Then as the diſtance AD (3508.2) : rad. :: E D (2003!) : fine hours) of the great piece, as required. 34° 50' ſ, a ſhip's courſe in failing from the port A to the iſland, ſo Example. At the Lizard, it is full ſea at 7: 30 at the full, by that if the port in the latitude of 30° N. be to the Weſt of that in the table. And ſuppoſe the moon to be fouth, at 16%, the ſum is the latitude of 40° N. its bearing from the iſland is N. W. by 24): that is , a quarter paſt 12 next day, the time of high water. N. 1° W. but if it is ſituate to the eaſt of the other latitude, then In this Syſtem, I have cautiouſly endeavoured to explain the whole its bearing from the iſland is N. E. by N. 1° 7. E. Alſo as the Art of Navigation, in a conciſe, clear, and practical way; and have diſtance CD(= AD = 35082): rad. :: DI(=IE- ED = exploded thoſe uſeleſs methods with which books on this ſubječt have 445 ] miles) : fine 7° 17' 7o, a ſhip's courſe in failing from the been generally incumbered. I have therefore been ſilent on great port C to the iſland B; ſo that if the port C is to the Eaſt of the Circle Sailing; for ſhips being ſteered by the compaſs, can never fail port A, it will bear N. by E. 3° 57' } N. from the iſland: or if on the arc of a great circle, except on a direct north or fouth courſe, it is to the weſt of the port A, the bearing will be N. by W. or along the Equator, which caſes require not the application of Spherics. 3° 57' * N. Therefore I truſt it will appear, that while I have been expunging N. E. The diſtance here given is not on the arc of a great of eſſential ſervice at ſea. extraneous matter, I have not rejected any article that could prove circle, but on the rhumb-lines which paſs between the iſland and the ports, it being apprehended that ſuch is the true ſenſe of the queſtion. EXCISE-OFFICE, BROAD STREET. ROBERT MOODY. N E C N E C water. For an NAUTILUS, a genus belonging to the order of vermes tel has been debated with much ingenuity by writers of the firſt emi- tacea. The ſhell conſiſts of one ſpiral' valve, divided into ſeveral nence, from Hobbes and Clarke, to Prieſtley and Gregory. See apartments by partitions. For a more particular account, ſee the PREDESTINATION. Syſtem of ConCHOLOGY, Genus XIX. Neceſsity is uſually confounded with conſtraint; yet, in effect, There are 17 ſpecies, chiefly diſtinguiſhed by particularities in neceſsity, according to Rochefoucault, differs from conſtraint in this, their ſhells. Bonani obſerves, that this genus of ſhell-fiſh is very that the former is joined with the pleaſure and inclination of the well named from the Greek vautiao, which fignifies both “a will, to which conſtraint is contrary. Simplicius, after Plato and fhip” and “a failor;" for that the ſhells of all the nautili carry the Epictetus, diſtinguiſhes two kinds of neceſsity; the one violent or appearance of a ſhip with a very high poop. It is by ſome imagined, coactive, which is oppoſite to liberty; the other ſpontaneous or volun- that men firſt learned the art of navigation from this animal. tary, very conſiſtent with it; this latter adds he, is that which ne- The moſt remarkable diviſion of the nautili is into the thin and ceffitates all things conſiſtent with their nature, as being connatural thick-ſhelled kinds. The firſt is called nautilus papyraceus; and its to them; ſince AUTOXIVNTOV, a thing that is ſelf-moved, muſt of ne- ſhell is indeed no thicker than a piece of paper when out of the ceflity be removed according to its own nature, i. e. ſpontaneouſly. When this ſpecies is to fail, it expands two of its arms This diſtinction is admitted by many of the divines, particularly by on high, and between theſe ſupports a membrane, which it throws St. Auguſtine, who urges it againſt the Pelagians, as is Thewn by out on this occaſion: this ſerves for its fail, and the two other Janſenius. The learned diſtinguiſh a phyſical neceſsity and a moral arms it hangs out of its ſhell, to ſerve occaſionally either as oars neceſsity; and a ſimple abſolute neceſsity, and a relative one. or as a ſteerage; but this laſt office is generally ſerved by the tail. Phyſical NECESSITY, is the want of a principle, or of a natural When the ſea is calm, it is frequent to ſee numbers of theſe crea means neceſſary to act; which is otherwiſe called a phyſical or na- tures diverting themſelves in this manner: but as ſoon as a ſtorm tural impotence. riſes, or any thing gives them diſturbance, they draw in their legs, Moral NECESSITY, is only a great difficulty; ſuch as that ariſ- and take in as much water as makes them ſpecifically heavier than ing from a long habit, a ſtrong inclination, or violent paſſion. that in which they float; and then they ſink to the bottom. When Simple or abſolute NECESSITY, is that which has no dependence they riſe again, they void this water by a number of holes, of which on any ſtate or conjuncture, or any particular fituation of things, their legs are full. The other nautilus, whoſe ſhell is thick, but is found every where, and in all the circumſtances in which never quits that habitation. the agent can be ſuppoſed. Such is in a blind man the neceſſity he NAVY, the fleet or ſhipping of a prince or ſtate. is under of not diſtinguiſhing colours. account of the laws, diſcipline, management, &c. of the navy of Relative NECESSITY, is that which places a man in a real inca- Great Britain, naval tactics,, naval engagements, with the con pacity of acting, or not acting in thoſe circumſtances, and that ſtruction of ſhips, &c. ſee the Treatiſe on Naval Affairs. ſituation he is found in; though in other circumſtances, and ano- Navy, or Viktualling Bills, are bills or orders for the payment ther ſtate of things, he might act, or not act. All theſe kinds of of money, iſſued by the commiſſioners of the navy, and other boards neceſſity are oppoſite to liberty; ſince, even in the laſt, it is as im- in that department, on the treaſurer of the navy, for ſtores pur poflible for a man to act, or not act, as if he were in a ſtate of chaſed, &c. Theſe bills are not payable at any fixed time, but abſolute , ſimple, and phyſical neceſſity. The learned admit other bear intereſt at the rate of 4 per cent. after fix months, from the date ſpecies of neceſſity; antecedent, concomitant, conſequent, &c. of their being regiſtered at the reſpective offices; and they have Antecedent NECESSITY, is that ariſing from an antecedent cauſe, generally been paid off within eighteen months, or two years, from neceſſarily operating. Such is the neceſſity of the ſun's riſing to- the time of their being iſſued. morrow morning. NAYRES, the nobility of the Malabar coaſt. We We may with Concomitant NECESSITY, ariſes from an antecedent cauſe, but truth affirm that they are the oldeſt nobility in the world; for the depends on the circumſtances of the effect; the effect all the while moſt ancient writers mention them, and quote the law that permits being free. Thus it is neceffary Peter fit, fuppoſing he is fitting. the Nayre ladies to have many huſbands ; every one being allowed Metaphyſical or Philofophical Necessity, is a term much uſed four. Their houſes, which ſtand ſingle, have as many doors as the by modern writers; and which ſome have defined to be, that by lady has huſbands. When one of them viſits her, he walks round which a thing cannot but be, or whereby it cannot be otherwiſe. the houſe, ſtriking with his ſabre on his buckler : he then opens But a much approved author on this ſubject objects againſt this de- his door, and leaves a domeſtic with his arms in a kind of porch, finition, and obſerves, that philoſophical neceſſity is really nothing elſe who ſerves to inform others that the lady is engaged. It is ſaid, than the full and fixed connection between the things fignified by the that one day in the week the four doors are all opened, and all her ſubject and predicate of a propoſition, which affirms ſomething to huſbands viſit her, and dine together with her. Each huſband be true; ſo that it is in no reſpect different from their certainty. gives a ſum of money, or portion, at the time of marriage; and When there is ſuch a connection, then the thing affirmed in the the wife only has the charge of the children. The Nayres, even propofition is neceſſary in a philoſophical ſenſe; whether any op- the Samorin, and the other princes, have no other heirs than the pofition or contrary effort be ſuppoſed or fuppofable in the caſe, or children of their ſiſters. This law was eſtabliſhed, that the Nayres, When the ſubject and predicate of the propoſition, which af- having no family, might be always ready to march againſt the firms the exiſtence of any thing, either ſubſtance, quality, act, or enemy. When the nephews are of age to bear arms, they follow circumſtance, have a full and certain connection, then the exiſtence their uncles. The name of father is unknown to a Nayre child. of that thing is ſaid to be neceſſary in a metaphyſical ſenſe. He ſpeaks of the huſbands of his mother and of his uncles, but Thoſe that are commonly called Neceffarians allow no other li- never of his father. berty to man, that is not reſtrained by this kind of necellity: and NAZARITE, or NAZAREAN, or Nazarines, a term which when they conſider intelligent beings as the ſubjects of it, ſome of may ſignify. I. One that is of Nazareth, or any native of this them diſtinguiſh it into moral and natural neceffity. Moral neceſſity city. 2. It was given to Jeſus Chriſt and his diſciples, and is is uſed in a variety of ſenſes; ſometimes for a neceſſity of moral obli- commonly taken in a ſenſe of deriſion and contempt, in ſuch authors gation; and often for great obligation in point of intereſt: ſome- as have written againſt Chriſtianity. 3. It has been taken for a times by moral neceſſity is meant that apparent connection of things; fect of heretics called Nazareans. 4. For a Nazarite, a man that which is the ground of moral evidence; and ſo it is diſtinguiſhed has laid himſelf under the obligation of a vow to obſerve the rules from abſolute neceſſity, or that ſure connection of things, that is a of Nazariteſhip, whether it be for his whole life, as Sampſon and foundation for infallible certainty: and ſometimes by moral neceſity John the Baptiſt, or only for a time, as thoſe mentioned in Num is meant that neceſſity of connection and conſequence, which ariſes bers vi. 18, 19, 20. Amos ii. 11, 12. Laſtly, the name Nazarite from ſuch moral cauſes as the ſtrength of inclination or motives, in ſome paſſages of ſcripture denotes a man of particular diſtinction and the connection, ſubſiſting in many caſes, between theſe and cer- and great dignity in the court of ſome prince. tain volitions and actions. By natural neceſity, as applied to men, The Nazareate was a ſtate of ſeparation from the reſt of man they underſtand ſuch neceſity as men are under, through the force of kind; particularly in three things. 1. In that the perſon devoted natural cauſes; in contradiſtinction to thoſe that are called moral hereto drank no wine. 2. In that they did not ſhave their heads, cauſes; ſuch as habits and diſpoſitions of the heart, and moral in- but let the hair grow. 3. In avoiding the touch of dead people, ducements and motives. which they held a defilement. Mr. Hobbes, who is ſaid to have been the firſt that underſtood NEBULOUS, Cloudy, in aſtronomy, a term applied to certain and maintained the proper doctrine of philoſophical neceſity, gives the of the fixed ſtars, which ſhew a dim, hazy light; being leſs than following account of it, in his Leviathan, p. 108. Liberty and ne- thoſe of the ſixth magnitude, and therefore ſcarce viſible to the naked ceſity are conſiſtent; as in the water that hath not the liberty, but a eye, to which at beſt, they only appear like little duſky ſpecks or neceſſity of deſcending in the channel; fo likewiſe in the actions clouds. Through a moderate teleſcope, theſe nebulous ſtars plainly | which men voluntarily do, which, becauſe they proceed from their appear to be congeries or cluſters of ſeveral little ſtars. will, proceed from liberty; and yet, becauſe every act of man's NECESSARY, in a philofophical ſenſe, that which cannot but will, and every deſire and inclination, proceedeth from fome cauſe, be, or cannot be otherwiſe. The learned make a great many kinds and that from another cauſe, in a continual chain, (whoſe firſt link or diviſions hereof: as, neceſſary in cauſing ; when there is a cauſe is in the hand of God, the firſt of all cauſes), proceed from neceſſity: from which an effect muſt neceſſarily follow: neceſſary in predicat- fo that to him, who could ſee the connections of thoſe cauſes, the ing ; neceſſary in being, &c. There is alſo a logical neceſſary; phy- | neceſſity of all men's voluntary actions would appear manifeft; and, fical neceſſary; and there are metaphyſical and moral neceſſaries. therefore, God, that ſeeth and diſpoſeth all things, ſeeth alſo that the NECESSITY, what is done by a neceſſary cauſe, or a power liberty of man, in doing what he will , is accompanied with the necef- that is irreſiſtible. In this ſenſe neceſſity ſtands oppoſed to liberty. ſity of doing that which God will, and no more or leſs ; for though Whether man is a neceſſary or a free agent, is a queſtion which men may do many things, which God does not command, nor is, Nº 117. VOL. III. * L therefore, no. N E C NEC appeara ances. therefore, the author of them, yet they can have no paſſion, will, or view of things as ſhall carry us beyond falſe and fallacious appetite to any thing, of which appetite God's will is not the cauſe; and did not his will affure the neceſity of man's will, and conſe 5. Another argument in favour of neceſſity is the following: if quently of all that on man's will dependeth, the liberty of men a man was not a neceſſary agent, determined by pleaſure and pain, would be a contradiction and impediment to the omnipotence and there would be no foundation of rewards and puniſhments, which liberty of God. are the effential ſupports of ſociety. Theſe would be uſeleſs, be- Mr. Collins, one of the moſt admired writers on the ſubject of cauſe if men were free or indifferent to pleaſure or pain, they neceſsity, has ſtated the queſtion concerning human liberty in the fol could be no motives to a man to do or forbear any action. lowing manner: man, he ſays, is a neceſſary agent, if all his actions 6. Another argument of the ſame kind is deduced from the na- are ſo determined by the cauſes preceding each action, that not one ture of morality: for if a man was not a neceſſary agent, determined paſt action could poffibly not have come to paſs, or have been other- | by pleaſure and pain, he would have no notion of morality, or mo. wiſe than it hath been; nor one future action can poſſibly not come tive to practiſe it; and if he were indifferent to pleaſure and pain, to paſs, or be otherwiſe than it ſhall be. But he is a free agent, if he would have no rule to go by, and might never judge, will, and he is able, at any time, under the circumſtances and cauſes he then practiſe right. Every act of the will, it is ſaid, is excited by ſome is, to do different things; or, in other words, if he is not unavoidably motive, which motive is the cauſe of that act ; and if volitions are determined, in every point of time, by the circumſtances he is in, properly the effect of motives, then they are neceſſarily connected and cauſes he is under, to do that one thing he does, and not poſſibly with their motives; whence it is inferred, that volition is neceſſary, to do any other. According to this ſtate of the queſtion, he under and doth not proceed from any felf-determining power in the will, takes to prove, that man is a neceſſary agent; and that there neither This argument has been illuſtrated and urged in all its force by is nor can be ſuch a thing as liberty. 1. He appeals to expérience; many modern writers, from M. Leibnitz to Dr. Prieſtley, the la alledging, that, though the vulgar urge this in proof of liberty, it is and moſt zealous advocate for neceſsity: and it has often been an- not a proof of it; that many celebrated philoſophers and theologers, ſwered by Dr. Clarke and others, who have ſtrenuouſly maintained, both ancient and modern, have given definitions of liberty, that are that liberty is perfectly conſiſtent with men's acting from a regard conſiſtent with fate or neceſsity: that ſome great patrons of liberty to motives. do, by their conceſſions in this matter, deſtroy all arguments from Suppofing, ſays Dr. Price, a power of ſelf-determination to exiſt, experience; that all the actions of men may be ranked under the it is by no means neceſſary that it ſhould be exerted without a regard four heads of perception, judging, willing, and doing as we will to any end or rule: on the contrary, it can never be exerted without and that experience does not prove any of theſe to be free; and ſome view or defign. Whoever acts, means to do ſomewhat. that experience not only does not prove liberty, but, on the contrary, The power determining ourſelves by the very nature of it, wants an men may ſee by experience, that they are neceſſary agents. It is, end to rule or guide it; and no probability or certainty of its being ſays he, matter of experience, that man is ever determined in his exerted agreeably to a rule, can have the leaſt tendency to infringe or willing; we experience perfect neceſsity; and they, who think liberty diminiſh it . All that ſhould be avoided here, is the intolerable ab- a matter of experience, yet allow that the will follows the judgment furdity of making our reaſons and ends, in acting, the phyſical cauſes of the underſtanding, and that when two objects are preſented to or efficients of action. This is the ſame with aſcribing the action man's choice, one whereof appears better than the other, he cannot of walking, not to the feet, or the power which moves the feet, but chuſe the worſt. 2. Man is a neceſſary agent, becauſe all his ac to the eye, which only ſees the way. The perception of a reaſon tions have a beginning; for whatever has a beginning, muſt have a for acting, or the judgment of the underſtanding, is no more than cauſe, and every cauſe is a neceſſary cauſe: and if any action ſeeing the way: it is the eye of the mind, which informs and di- whatſoever can be done without a cauſe, then effects and cauſes rects; and whatever certainty there may be, that a particular deter- have no neceſſary relation; and, conſequently, we ſhould not be ne mination will follow, ſuch determination will be the ſelf-determina- ceſſarily determined in any caſe at all. 3. Liberty would not be a tion of the mind; and not any change of its ſtate ſtamped upon it, perfection, but an imperfection; whereas, on the contrary, necef over which it has no power, and in receiving which, inſtead of being ſity is an advantage and a perfection. 4. Liberty is conſiſtent with an agent, it is merely a paſſive ſubject of agency. Although the the Divine preſcience; for if God foreknows the exiſtence of any views and ideas of beings may be the occaſion of their acting; yet thing, as it depends on its own cauſes, that exiſtence is no leſs ne it is a contradiction to make them the mechanical efficients of their ceſlary than if it were the effect of his decree; for it no leſs implies actions ; fo neceſſary and important is the diſtinction inſiſted upon a contradiction, that cauſes ſhould not produce their effects, than by Dr. Clarke, between the operation of phyſical cauſes and the in- that an event ſhould not come to paſs that is decreed by God. fluence of moral reaſons. This argument for neceſsity has been urged by a variety of writers; Upon the whole, the queſtion concerning liberty is not, whether and the advocates for liberty have felt its force, and endeavoured to the views or ideas of beings influence their actions, but what is the obviate it. Some have actually given up the Divine preſcience : nature of that influence. If we ſay, that it is ſome kind of me- ſome have allowed the ſeeming contradiction, implied in the fore chanical or phyſical efficiency; or, with Dr. Prieſtley, after knowledge of a contingent event, and have acknowledged them Hobbes and Leibnitz, that man has no other liberty, in following felves incapable of removing it; others have endeavoured to recon motives, than water has in running down hill, or than the arms of cile the foreknowledge of God and the liberty of man, by alledging, a ſcale, preſſed by weights, have in riſing and falling; then it muſt that there is a great difference between God's foreknowledge and his follow, that man never acts; and it muſt be folly to applaud or re- decrees, with regard to the neceſsity of future events; for God's pre- proach ourſelves for our conduct; and there is an end of all moral ſcience has no influence at all on our actions; his infallible judg- obligation and accountableneſs. See LEIBNITZIAN PHILOSOPHY. ment, concerning contingent truths, does no more alter the nature of However the Neceffarians do not allow theſe conſequences; but, the things, and cauſe them to be neceſſary, than our judging right, on the contrary, maintain, that the doctrine of the neceſſary influ- at any time concerning a contingent truth, makes it ceaſe to be con ence of motives upon the mind of man, makes him the proper ſub- tingent; or, than our ſenſe of a preſent truth is any cauſe of its be- ject of diſcipline, reward and puniſhment, praiſe and blame, both ing true or preſent. in the common and philofophical uſe of the words; and that the In the argument, ſays Dr. Clark, drawn againſt liberty from the doctrine of ſelf-determination, independently of the influence of divine preſcience, it muſt not firſt be ſuppoſed that things are in motives, entirely diſqualifies a man from being the proper ſubject their own nature neceſſary; but from the divine preſcience or power of them. of judging infallibly (which power is as much more extenſive and Mr. Edwards, an acute writer on this ſubject, has endeavoured to infallible than in man, as the divine nature and underſtanding are ſu prove, that liberty of indifference is not only not neceſſary to virtue, perior to ours), concerning free events, it muſt be proved, that but utterly inconſiſtent with it; and that all habits of inclination, things otherwiſe ſuppoſed free, will, therefore, unavoidably become whether virtuous or vicious, are inconſiſtent with the Arminian no- neceſſary, which can no more be proved, than it can be proved that tions of liberty and moral agency. And Dr. Prieſtley obſerves, that an action, fuppoſed at this preſent time to be free, is yet (contrary the ſenſe of ſelf-reproach and ſhame is excited by our finding that to the ſuppofition) at the ſame time neceſſary; becauſe, in all pait we have a difpofition of mind leading to vice, and on which motives time, whether foreknown or not foreknown, it could not, upon that to virtue, in particular caſes, have had no influence. If we aſk, very ſuppoſition of its being now freely done, but be future. whence proceeds that diſpoſition, and how it comes to paſs, that It cannot reaſonably be diſputed, that there is an eſſential dif motives to virtue had not a greater influence, we muſt ultimately ference between the foreknowledge and permiſſion of events, and aſcribe the inefficacy of the one, and the evil tendency of the other, the preordination and production of them; and the ſcheme of ne to God, who made us what we are, and placed us in the ſituation ceſſity ſeems directly to charge God with being the efficient cauſe which we occupy. Dr. Prieſtley overcomes this difficulty by or author of thoſe vices and evils, which ariſe from circumſtances alledging, that the diſtinction between things natural and moral and connections of his previous and abſolute appointment. Indeed, entirely ceaſes in the ſcheme of neceſsity; that the vices of men many of the advocates of this ſcheme will not admit the conſequence come under the claſs of common evils, producing miſery for a that ſeems to be fairly deducible from their opinion: however, Dr. time, but, like all other evils, in the ſame great fyftein, ultimately Prieſtley very candidly allows it. It certainly (ſays he) ſounds fubſervient to greater good. In this light, he ſays, every thing harſh to vulgar ears to ſay, that in all thoſe crimes that men charge without diſtinction may be aſcribed to God. However, he acknow- themſelves with, and reproach themſelves for, God is the agent: | ledges, that this is a view of moral evil, which, though innocent and and that, in ſuch caſes, they are in reality no more agents than even uſeful in ſpeculation, no wiſe man can or would chuſe to act a ſword is an agent, when employed to commit a murder. It does require ſtrength of mind not to ſtartle at ſuch a concluſion; application of ſuch a means of good; though a being of infinite upon himſelf, becauſe our underſtandings are too limited for the but then it requires nothing but ſtrength of mind; i. e. ſuch a knowledge may introduce it with the greateſt advantage. If there be N E C N E C be any foundation for the doctrine of neceſsity, i. e. if all events ariſe and which, it is to be preſumed, his will (if left to itſelf) would re- from preceding ſituations, and the original ſituations of all things, ject. As puniſhments are therefore only inflicted for the abuſe of together with the laws by which all changes of ſituation take place, that free will which God has given to man, it is highly juft and were fixed by, the Divine Being, there can be no difference what equitable that a man ſhould be excuſed for thoſe acts which are done ever, with reſpect to his cauſation of one thing more than another, through unavoidable force and compulſion. and even whatever takes place in conſequence of his withholding his 1. Of this nature, in the firſt place, is the obligation of civil ſpecial and extraordinary influence, is as much agreeable to his will ſubjection, whereby the inferior is conſtrained by the ſuperior to act as what comes to paſs in conſequence of the general laws of nature. contrary to what his own reaſon and inclination would ſuggeſt: But our ſuppoſing that God is the author of fin (as by the ſcheme of as when a legiſlator eſtabliſhes iniquity by a law, and commands neceſsity he muſt in fact be the author of all things), by no means im the ſubject to do an act contrary to religion or found morality. plies, that he is a ſinful being; for it is the diſpoſition of mind, and How far this excuſe will be admitted in foro conſcientiæ, or whether the deſign, which conſtitute the ſinfulneſs of an action. If, there the inferior in this caſe is not bound to obey the divine rather than fore, this diſpoſition and deſign be good, what he does is morally the human law, it is not our buſineſs to decide; though, among the good. To the ſame purpoſe he obſerves, that the proper founda caſuiſts, it is believed the queſtion will hardly bear a doubt. But, tion, or rather the ultimate object of virtue is general utility; however that may be, obedience to the laws in being is undoubtedly ſince it conſiſts of ſuch conduct as tends to make intelligent crea a ſufficient extenuation of civil guilt before the municipal tribunal. tures the moſt truly happy in the whole of their exiſtence; though, The ſheriff who burnt Latimer and Ridley, in the bigotted days of with reſpect to the agent, no action is denominated virtuous, that is Queen Mary, was not liable to puniſhment from Elizabeth for not voluntary, or that does not proceed from ſome good motive. executing ſo horrid an office; being juſtified by the commands of And this reaſoning he applies to the Deity, who purſues the happi that magiſtracy which endeavoured to reſtore Superſtition, under neſs of his creatures by ſuch means as are beſt calculated to ſecure the holy auſpices of its mercileſs fiſter, Perſecution. that end, and which are fanctified by it. And he farther adds, that As to perſons in private relations, the principal caſe where con- the Deity may adopt ſome things, which he would not have choſen ſtraint of a ſuperior is allowed as an excuſe for criminal miſconduct, on their account, but for the ſake of other things, with which is with regard to the matrimonial ſubjection of the wife to her huſ- they were neceſſarily connected. band: for neither a ſon nor a ſervant are excuſed for the coinmiſ- The ſcriptures, according to this laſt writer, are favourable to the ſion of any crime, whether capital or otherwiſe, by the command or doctrine of neceſsity; though he does not think that the ſacred wri coercion of the parent or maſter; though in ſome caſes the com- ters were, ftrictly ſpeaking, Neceſſarians, for they were not phi mand or authority of the huſband, either expreſs or implied, will loſophers: but their habitual devotion led them to refer all things to privilege the wife from puniſhment, even for capital offences. And God, without reflecting to the rigorous meaning of their language; therefore, if a woman commit theft, burglary, or other civil offences and very probably, had they been interrogated on the ſubject, they againſt the laws of ſociety, by the coercion of her huſband, or even would have appeared not to be apprized of the proper extent of the in his company, which the law conſtrues a coercion, ſhe is not Neceffarian ſcheme, and would have anſwered in a manner unfa guilty of any crime; being conſidered as acting by compulſion, vourable to it. and not of her own will. Which doctrine is at leaſt 1000 years The reader who is deſirous of being farther acquainted with the old in this kingdom, being to be found among the laws of King reaſoning of different writers on this ſubject, may conſult the Col Ina the Weſt-Saxon. In treaſon alfo (the higheſt crime which lection of Papers between Leibnitz and Clarke, 1717. Collins's a member of ſociety can, as ſuch, be guilty of), no plea in coverture Philofophical Enquiry concerning human Liberty, 1735, 3d ed. ſhall excuſe the wife; no preſumption of the huſband's coercion with Clarke's Anſwer. Edwards on the Freedom of the Will, ſhall extenuate her guilt: as well becauſe of the odiouſneſs and 8vo. 1775, 4th ed. Prieſtley's Doctrine of Philoſophical Neceſſity, dangerous conſequence of the crime itſelf, as becauſe the huſband, 8vo. 1777. Correſpondence between Dr. Price and Dr. Prieſt- having broken through the moſt ſacred tie of ſocial community by ley, 8vo. 1778. Hartley's Obſervations on Man, 8vo. 1749. rebellion againſt the ſtate, has no right to that obedience from a NECESSITY, in mythology, a power ſuperior to all other powers, wife, which he himſelf as a ſubject has forgotten to pay. In in- and equally irreſiſtible by gods and by men. Herodotus, as he is ferior miſdemeanors alſo, we may remark another exception, that quoted by Cudworth, mentions an oracle which declared that a wife may may be indicted and ſet in the pillory with her huſband, God himſelf could not fhun his deſtined fate.” And among the for keeping a brothel: for this is an offence touching the domeſtic fragments of Philemon collected by Le Clerc, is the following æconomy or government of the houſe, in which the wife has a fentence: principal ſhare ; and is alſo ſuch an offence as the law preſumes to Δουλοι βασιλεων εσμεν, οι βασιλεις θεων, ο θεος αναγκης. be generally conducted by the intrigues of the female ſex. And in 1. mars all caſes where the wife offends alone, without the company or “ We are ſubject to kings, kings to the gods, and God to re coercion of her huſband, ſhe is reſponſible for her offence as much ceflīty.” Hence it is, that, in the Iliad, we find Jove himſelf, the as any feme-fole. fire of gods and men, regretting that he was reſtrained by neceſsity 2. Another ſpecies of compulſion or neceſſity is what our law from reſcuing his favourite fon from the ſword of Patroclus. Nay, calls dureſs per minas; or threats and menaces, which induce a fear to ſuch a height was this impiety carried in the earlieſt ages of of death or other bodily harm, and which take away for that reaſon Greece, that we find Heſiod and Homer teaching that the gods the guilt of many crimes and miſdemeanors, at leaſt before the themſelves were generated by neceſsity, of night and chaos. human tribunal. But then that fear which compels a man to do This power, though always repreſented as blind and unintelligent, an unwarrantable action ought to be juſt and well-grounded; ſuch, was however worſhipped as a goddeſs, bearing in her hand large « qui cadere poſsit in virum conſtantém, non timidum et meticuloſum,” iron-nails, wedges, anchors, and melted lead, as emblems of the as Bracton expreſſes it, in the words of the civil law. Therefore, inflexible ſeverity of her nature. “ In the city of Corinth ſhe had in time of war or rebellion, a man may be juſtified in doing many a temple, in which the goddeſs Violence likewiſe reſided, and into treaſonable acts by compulſion of the enemy or rebels, which would which no perſon was ever permitted to enter but the prieſt who admit of no excuſe in the time of peace. This, however, ſeems only, officiated in facris.” or at leaſt principally, to hold as to poſitive crimes, ſo created by Learned men have exerciſed their ingenuity in vain attempts to the laws of ſociety, and which therefore fociety may excuſe; but trace this portentous notion to its origin. Some, who wiſhed to not as to natural offences, ſo declared by the law of God, wherein interpret it in a pious fenſe, have ſuppoſed that the gods who were human magiſtrates are only the executioners of divine puniſhment. ſubject to neceſsity were only thoſe who were the miniſters of the And therefore though a man be violently aſſaulted, and hath no other ſupreme numen; and that by neceſsity itſelf was meant nothing poſible means of eſcaping death but by killing an innocent perſon, more than divine providence. But this is not conſiſtent with this fear and force ſhall not acquit him of murder; for he ought Hefiod and Homer's generation of the gods, or with the epithets rather to die himſelf than eſcape by the murder of an innocent. Jeva neceſsitas , dura neceſsitas , by which this power was perpetually law of nature, and ſelf-defence its primary canon, have made him But in ſuch a caſe he is permitted to kill the aſſailant; for there the diſtinguiſhed. Others, and among them Moſheim, have ſuppoſed that this monſtrous fable was invented by the pagan prieſts, and his own protector. diligently inculcated upon the minds of the people, in order to ex- NECROMANCY, the art of revealing future events by a cuſe the villanies of the objects of their worſhip. For, ſays he, pretended communication with the dead. who could be indignant at Jupiter's numberleſs adulteries, after it This ſuperſtitious and impious impoſture appears to have had was known that in all his actions he was the ſervant of blind ne its origin at a very early period in Egypt, and to have been thence ceſſity? In the thefts of Mercury, the whoredoms of Venus, and the propagated in every nation with the manners of which hiſtory has frequent ſquabbles of the other gods, there could be no moral tur- made us acquainted. The conqueſts of Seſoſtris might introduce pitude, if they were under the influence of a ſuperior power. it into India; the Iſraelites would naturally borrow it from the people among whom they ſojourned 400 years; and it would eaſily Numina cum videas duris obnoxia fatis, find its way into Phoenicia, from the vicinity of that country to the Invidia poſſis exonerare deos. land of its nativity. From the Egyptians and Phænicians it was This account of the matter is at leaſt as plauſible as any other adopted, with the other rites of paganiſm, by the Greeks ; and it which is uſually given. See PARCE. was imported into Rome with Grecian literature and Grecian NECESSITY, in law, as it implies a defect of will, excuſes from It was not however confined to the pagan nations of the guilt of crimes. See CRIME. antiquity; it ſpread itſelf through all the modern nations of Europe, Compulſion and inevitable neceſsity are a conſtraint upon the will, and took ſuch deep root as to be long retained even after thoſe whereby a man is urged to do that which his judgment diſapproves; nations were converted to the Chriſtian faith. Of manners. N E C NE E Dodona, young Of its early antiquity we have complete evidence in the writings | tians and Jews did by their familiar ſpirits. By a ſmall diſplay of of Moſes, where it is ſeverely condemned as an abomination to the critical learning this might be eafily proved from the popular ſtory Lord; and though it appears to have even then ſpread into Phce of Orpheus and Eurydice, which certainly was founded on one nicia, we might yet conclude its birth-place to have been Egypt, of theſe necromantic deceptions exhibited in a cave near becauſe, at their exody, the Iſraelites were corrupted only by where the prieſts had a hades or infernal manſion, in humble imita- Egyptian ſuperſtitions, and becauſe necromancy ſeems to be one tion of thoſe with which the firſt of them were well acquainted in of thoſe whoredoms which the prophet Ezekiel repreſents his coun Egypt. It is indeed evident, without the aid of criticiſm: no man of trymen as having brought with them from Egypt, and continued to any letters is ignorant, that whatever ſuperſtitions of this kind practiſe till they were carried captives into Babylon. prevailed among the Romans were borrowed from the Greeks. If from ſacred we proceed to conſult profane authors, we ſhall But we all know that Virgil makes one of his ſhepherds, by means find them not only affirming Egypt to have been the birth-place of of certain herbs, poiſons, and ſenſeleſs charms, raiſe up ghoſts necromancy, but in ſome degree accounting for the origin of ſo from the bottoms of their graves; and Lucan has fabricated a ſtory impious a deluſion. From Diodorus the Sicilian we learn, that of this kind, which may be conſidered as an exact parallel to the the Grecian fable of Charon, the ferry-man of hell, of Styx, Coc witch of Endor. Juſt before the battle of Pharſalia he makes cytus, the Elyſian Fields, Tartarus, the judgment of Minos, and Pompey travel by night to a Theffalian forcereſs, and anxiouny This female necromancer, by Radamanthus, &c. with the whole ſcenery of the infernal regions, | inquire of her the iflue of the war. were imported from Egypt into Greece. The ancient Egyptians, a tedious proceſs of charms and incantations, conjures up the ghost and indeed all the people of the eaſt, made uſe of caves for bury- of a ſoldier who had been lately lain. The phantom, after a long ing places, which were well ſuited to the folemn ſadneſs of the preamble, denounces a prediction much of the fame kind with that ſurviving friends, and proper receptacles for thoſe who were never which the king of Iſrael received from Samuel at Endor; and more to behold the light. In Egypt, many of thoſe fubterraneous though we have elſewhere ſhown, that nothing but the ſpirit of cavities being dug out of the natural rock, ſtill remain and God could have foreſeen the inevitable deſtruction of Saul, his fons, command the admiration of travellers; and near to the pyramids in and his army (fee Magic), it was very eaſy for any man of toler- particular there are ſome apartments of a wonderful fabric, which able fagacity to foreſee the defeat of Pompey's raw and undiſciplined though they extend in length 4400 feet, and are about 30 feet in troops-by the hardy veterans of the victorious Cæſar. depth, appear to have been, if not entirely dug, at leaſt reduced to It would be endleſs to enumerate all the fallacious evocations of form by the chizzel or pick-axe of the artiſt. ghoſts, and the ambiguous reſponſes returned by thoſe pretended From the practice of burying in ſuch caverns ſprung the opinion ſpirits, of which we have accounts from the poets and hiſtorians that the infernal manfions were fituated fomewhere near the centre of the celebrated nations of antiquity. of the earth, which by the Egyptians was believed to be not very That all theſe pretences, whether ancient or inodern, to the diſtant from its ſurface. In theſe dreary manſions, it was very power of divination by means of familiar ſpirits, or by the art of eaſy for ſuch adepts as the prieſts of Egypt to fabricate Erebus, necromancy, were groundleſs as well as impious, it would be Tartarus, the Elyſian Fields, and all thoſe ſcenes which were dif- affronting the underſtandings of our readers to offer any proof. played before the initiated (ſee MYSTERIES), and by them de Under the article MAGIC we have ſaid enough on the ſubject , ſcribed to the million of the people. As it was in thoſe dark abodes and perhaps more than enough, to thoſe who know that dæmons, that necromancy was practiſed, it would be no difficult matter for if they have any exiſtence, and the departed fpirits of good and ſuch magicians as withſtood Mofes to impoſe ſo far upon the cre- bad men, are all under the controul of Him who governs the in- dulous vulgar, as to make them believe, that in conſequence of tellectual as well as material world by fixed and equal laws.- their evocations they actually ſaw the ghoſts of their friends aſcend Theſe details of ſuperſtition, however, will not be uſeleſs, if, by out of the earth. It appears, from the book of Exodus, that the ſhowing how poor and wretched a creature man becomes when left Iſraelitiſh women were, even in the wilderneſs, well acquainted to his own inventions, they ſhall make any one grateful for the with the uſe of the mirror, which was therefore undoubtedly known benefits of good government, and the bleſſings of revealed religion. to the Egyptians. But a mirror of a particular form and properly NECTĂR, Ventap, among the ancient poets, the drink of the illuminated at the inſtant required, might eaſily be made to refect , fabulous deities of the heathens. See AMBROSIA. in a cavern from which all other light was carefully excluded, the NECTARINE, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the genus image of the deceaſed, who was called upon by the necromancer; 1 perſica, a fruit greatly eſteemed for its delicious favour, and ſuppoſed and we can readily conceive, that with reſpect to the queſtion to be to have its name from the nectar of the Gods, in heathen ſtories. propoſed, a perſon might be concealed, prepared to give ſuch am It differs in nothing from the peach, but in having a ſmoother ſkin biguous anſwers, as would ſatisfy the inquirer, and at the ſame and firmer pulp. We have ten kinds of nectarine cultivated by the time ſave the credit of the oracle. The terrified imaginations of curious in gardening; viz. Fairchild's early nectarine, ripening in the ſpectators would aid the deluſion, and make a very flight the end of July: the Ebruge, Newington, ſcarlet, Brugnon or reſemblance paſs for the ghoſt or clownov of their departed friend; Stalian, and Roman, which ripen in Auguſt; the murry, golden, or the necromancer might aſſign plauſible reaſons why a ſpectre, and Temple's, which ripen in September; and the Peterborough, after having dwelt for ſome time in the infernal regions, ſhould or late green nectarine, which ripens about the middle of October. loſe ſomething of its reſemblance to the body which it animated. For particular directions for the planting, pruning, preſervation Such juggling tricks, though performed by artiſts leſs accom and whole culture of this plant; ſee Treatiſe on Gardening, Arti- pliſhed than Jannes and Jambres, have gained credit among people cle Fruit GARDEN. much more enlightened than the Egyptians can poſſibly have been NECTARIUM, in botany, from nektar, the fabled “ drink when the ſcience of necromancy was invented by their prieſts. of the gods;" defined by Linnæus to be a part of the corolla, or That the Ifraelites, notwithſtanding the prohibition of their appendage to the petals, appropriated for containing the honey, a legiſlator, continued to practiſe the rites of necromancy, is appa- ſpecies of vegetable falt under a fluid form, that oozes from the rent from Saul's tranſaction with the witch of Endor (ſee Magic). plant, and is the principal food of bees and other inſects. From the ſame tranſaction, it is likewiſe apparent that the witches Notwithſtanding this definition, which ſeems to conſider the of Iſrael, and therefore, in all probability, the necromancers of nectarium as neceſſary a part of the corolla as the petals; it is cer- Egypt, pretended to evocate the ghoſts of the dead by a dæmon tain that all flowers are not provided with this appendage, neither or familiar ſpirit, which they had at their command to employ upon indeed is it eſſential to fructification. every emergency. This dæmon was called os, and therefore Saul In diſcriminating the genera, the nectarium often furniſhes an deſires his ſervants to find him a woman who was miſtreſs of eſſential character. It is probable that thoſe wretched impoſtors had in Plants which have the nectarium diſtinct from the petals, that is, their pay ſome perſons who occaſionally acted the part of a not lodged within their ſubſtance, are affirmed by Linnæus to be dæmon, and when the execution of the plot required their agen- generally poiſonous. The following are adduced as examples: cy, emitted, by means of a cavity dug for that purpoſe, a low monk's hood, hellebore, columbine, fennel-flower, graſs of Par- hollow voice from below the ground. Hence we find Ifaiah, in naſlus, barren-wort, oleander, marvel of Peru, bean-caper, ſuccu- his denunciations againſt Ariel, ſaying, “ Thou ſhalt be brought | lent ſwallow-wort, fraxinella, and honey flower. down, and ſhalt ſpeak out of the ground; and thy ſpeech ſhall be NEEDLE, a very common little inſtrument or utenſil made of low out of the duft, and thy voice ſhall be as one that hath a fa- | ſteel. miliar fpirit (an oB) out of the ground, and thy ſpeech ſhall whil Dipping-Needle, or Inclinatory Needle, a magnetical needle, ſo per out of the duſt. hung, as that, inſtead of playing horizontally, and pointing out north But though the Egyptian prieſts were undoubtedly the inventors and ſouth, one end dips, or inclines to the horizon, and the other of the whole myſtery of necromancy, and though it was from them points to a certain degree of elevation above it. For the pheno- imported into Greece by the Selli or prieſts of Dodona, it does mena, uſes, &c. of this inftruinent, ſee the article DIPPING NEE- not appear that the Grecian necromancers pretended to be maſters of obs or familiar ſpirits. Mopfus, Orpheus, Linus, Eumolpus, NE EXEAT REGNO, in law, is a writ to reſtrain a perſon &c. who either travelled into Egypt in queft of knowledge, or were from going out of the kingdom without the king's licence. F.N.B. actually natives of that country, inſtructed the early Greeks in this 85. It may be directed to the ſheriff, to make the party find furety occult ſcience: but whatever might be the practice of theſè apoſtles that he will not depart the realm, and on refuſal to commit him themſelves, their diſciples profefled to do all the feats of magic by performing certain rites, by offering certain facrifices, by muttering goes, he may be fined. And this writ is granted on a fuit being to priſon: or it may be directed to the party himſelf; and if he then a certain form of words, by charms, ſpells, and exorciſms. By commenced againſt a man in the chancery, when the plaintiff fears aheſe they pretended to evocate the dead as certainly as the Egyp- the defendant will fly to ſome other country; and thereby avoid the juſtice an OB. DLE. N E G N E G four ways. Sect. II. juſtice and equity of the court; which hath been ſometimes prac 7. The influence of the ſun in hot countries, and the manner of tiſed: and when thus granted, the party muſt give bonds to the life of their inhabitants, are the remote cauſes of the colour of Ne- maſter of the rolls, in the penalty of ioool. or ſome other large groes, Indians, &c. groes, Indians, &c. And the ways of living in uſe amongſt moſt fum, for yielding obedience to it; or ſatisfy the court, by anſwer, nations of white people, make their colours whiter than they were affidavit, or otherwiſe , that he hath no deſign of leaving the king- originally, or would be naturally. dom, and give ſecurity. In ſupport of this propoſition, the doctor obſerves, that the ſkin NEGATIVE, a term that denies, or implies a denial of any is deprived of its white colour, by the force and infuence of the ſun, thing. Logicians, &c. fay a negative cannot be proved but by con- Ift. By being rendered opaque, from a diſſipation of verting it into an affirmative. See Syſtem of Logic, Part II. its more aqueous, and pellucid juices. and pellucid juices. 2dly. By a concretion of its veſſels and glandules, from this diſſipation of its more aqueous con- NEGATIVE EleEtricity. For a clear and accurate deſcription of tents, which renders the ſkin both thicker and denſer, or more cal- the properties and effects of this branch of the ſcience of electricity, lous and rigid. 3dly. By a new accretion of many new inembranes; fee the SYSTEM, Sect. III. which render it thick and opaque., 4thly. By increaſing thoſe parts NEGRO, Homo pelle nigrâ, a name given to a variety of the or principles, in the compoſition of the epidermis, which have the human ſpecies, who are entirely black, and are found in the Torrid greateſt refractive power; as the terreſtial and fixed faline; but ef- zone, eſpecially in that part of Africa which lies within the tropics. | pecially the tenacious and ſulphureous, which refract and abſorb light In the complexion of negroes we meet with many various ſhades; more ſtrongly than any other ſubſtances; while the more tranſpa- but they likewiſe differ far from other men in all the features of rent and pellucid principles, as the aqueous, ſpirituous, and volatile their face. Round cheeks, high cheek-bones, a forehead ſomewhat faline, are evaporated by the heat, which cauſes the other more fixed elevated, a ſhort, broad, flat noſe, thick lips, ſmall ears, uglineſs, principles to be accumulated; and theſe particles being likewiſe and irregularity of ſhape, characteriſe their external appearance. more comminuted by the ſun, will, on this account, be black; as The negro women have the loins greatly depreſſed, and very large | happens to oil when well boiled. Theſe cauſes, with thoſe firſt buttocks, which gives the back the ſhape of a ſaddle. Vices the mentioned, may, the doctor thinks, by conſpiring, make the ſkin moſt notorious ſeem to be the portion of this unhappy race: idle quite black; eſpecially if we add another effect of the ſun's power, neſs, treachery, revenge, cruelty, impudence, ſtealing, lying, pro a peculiar necroſis of the epidermis, occaſioned by the forcible vi- fanity, debauchery, naſtineſs, and intemperance, are ſaid to have brations, contractions, and exſiccations of its fibres by the ſun-beams, extinguiſhed the principles of natural law, and to have ſilenced the which cauſe it to turn black, as theſe, or other parts do, by the heat reproofs of conſcience. They are ſtrangers to every ſentiment of of an inflammation, or a fever, in gangrenes, black tongues, &c. compaſſion, and are an awful example of the corruption of man We cannot pretend to follow the author in all the details of hiş when left to himſelf, obſervations on this ſubject, nor of his anſwer to a material objec- · The origin of the negroes, and the cauſe of their remarkable tion already mentioned from Mr. Boyle, that the fun cannot be the difference from the reſt of the human ſpecies, have much perplexed cauſe of the colour of Negroes, becauſe ſeveral nations, in the ſame the naturaliſts. Mr. Boyle has obſerved, that it cannot be produced | latitude with thoſe Negroes, are not made black by it. He ſeems by the heat of the climate: for though the heat of the ſun may to think the heat of Africa greater than that of other parts of the darken the colour of the ſkin, yet experience does not ſhew that it world. Whether it be fo, or not, is, we apprehend, not eaſy to is ſufficient to produce a new blackneſs like that of the negroes. determine : but it would be a ſtrong confirmation of his doctrine, In Africa itſelf, many nations of Ethiopia are not black; nor if we could ſee any people, originally white, become black and were there any blacks originally in the Weſt Indies. In many woolly by tranſplantation, or vice verſa, which cannot be the caſe. parts of Aſia, under the fame parallel with the African region in Lord Kaimes, on the other hand, and ſuch philoſophers as he, habited with the blacks, the people are but tawny. He adds, that whoſe genius and imagination are too lively to ſubmit to a dry and there are negroes in Africa beyond the ſouthern tropic; and that a painful inveſtigation of facts, have contended, that no phyſical cauſe river ſometimes parts nations, one of which is black, and the other is ſufficient to change the colour, and what we call the regular only tawny. Dr. Barriere alleges, that the gall of negroes is black, features of white men, to the dark hue and deformity of the woolly- and being mixed with their blood is depoſited between the ſkin and headed negro. And it is to be obſerved, that naturaliſts who are ſcarf-ſkin. Their arguments have been examined with much conſtantly examining the numerous links which connect the chain acuteneſs and ingenuity by Dr. Stanhope Smith of New Jerſey, of nature, refute the poſition that the heat of the ſun is the cauſe of Dr. Hunter, and profeſſor Zimmerman, who have made it in a the colour of the Negroes, Indians, &c. and affirm, on the contrary, degree probable, that the action of the ſun is the original and chief that the African is as much a diſtinct ſpecies from the European, cauſe of the black colour, as well as diſtorted features of the negro. in the Genus Homo, as the bull-dog is to the grey-hound, or the See COMPLEXION. lap-dog to the maſtiff in the Genus Canis. They contend that the However, Dr. Mitchel of Virginia, in the Philoſophical Tranſ anatomical ſtructure can be no more affected by the alteration of actions, No. 476. has endeavoured by many learned arguments to the climate in the ſpecies of the Genus Homo, than in thoſe of the prove, that the influence of the ſun in hot countries, and the man- Genus Canis. It is ſurpriſing that this powerful argument ad- ner of life of their inhabitants, are the remote cauſes of the colour of duced by naturaliſts ſhould never have been adverted to, or the Negroes, Indians, &c. The propoſitions adduced by the Dr. anſwered by their opponents; for certainly, if we attend to the are the following characteriſtic diſtinctions of the animal ſtructure of the five ſpecies 1. The colour of white people proceeds from the colour which of the Genus Homo, enumerated by Linnæus, we ſhall find a won- the epidermis tranſmits; that is, from the colour of the parts under derful difference. This evidently demonſtrates the ſeparate links the epidermis, rather than from any colour of its own. in the chain of the ſyſtem of nature, which many naturaliſts have 2. The ſkins of Negroes are of a thicker ſubſtance, and denſer confidered as evident marks of diſtinguiſhed ſeparation; they there- texture, than thoſe of white people, and tranſmit no colour through fore maintain that the African and European do not deſcend from them. the ſame ſtock, but are of a diſtinct creation. But this is carrying 3. The part of the ſkin which appears black in Negroes, is the the argument too far. corpus reticulare cutis, and external lamella of the epidermis: all Negroes are brought from Guinea and other coaſts of Africa, other parts are the ſame colour in them with thoſe of other people, and ſent to America and the colonies in the Weſt Indies, to culti- except the fibres which paſs between thoſe two parts. vate tobacco, fugar, indigo, &c. and in Mexico and Peru to dig in 4. The colour of Negroes does not proceed from any black hu the mines; and this commerce, incompatible with the principles mour, or fuid parts contained in their ſkins; there being none ſuch either of religion or humanity, is now carried on by all the nations in any part of their bodies, more than in white people. of Europe that have ſettlements in the Weſt Indies. Mahoinetan 5. The epidermis, eſpecially its external lamella, is divided into nations, too, import negroes from the pagan parts of Africa, for two parts by its pores and ſcales, two hundred times leſs than the the purpoſe of making them eunuchs, and guards of their harems, particles of bodies on which their colours depend. The beſt ſlaves for Weſt India purpoſes are the negroes who are This is founded on Leeuwerihoeck's obſervation, that a portion brought from Angola, Senegal, Cape Verd, the river Gambia, the of the epidermis no bigger than what can be diſcerned by the naked kingdoms of the Jaloffes, &c. eye, is divided into 125000 pores, and theſe pores muſt divide ſuch There are various ways of procuring theſe Negroes: fome, to à portion of the ſkin into as many particles. But the particles of avoid famine, ſell themſelves, their wives, and children to their bodies on which their colours depend, are, by Sir Iſaac Newton's princes, and great men, who have wherewithai to ſubſiſt them. Optics, lib. ii. p. 3. prop. 7. 600 times leſs than thoſe which can be Others are made priſoners in war; and great numbers ſeized in ex- diſcerned by the naked eye. Therefore, the particles of the ſkin curſions made for that very purpoſe by the petty princes upon one muſt be about 200 times leſs than theſe. It may alſo be obſerved, another's territories; in which it is uſual to ſweep away all both old that ſuch a ſmall portion of the epidermis is diviſible into 250 ſcales, and young, male and female. which muſt increaſe the number of its parts. The Negroes make a frequent practice of ſurpriſing one another 6. From theſe propofitions, and from Sir Iſaac Newton's theory while the European veſſels are at anchor, and dragging thoſe they of light and colours, the doctor thinks he may conclude, that the have caught for ſale, and it is no extraordinary thing to ſee the ſon proximate cauſe of Negroes is threefold; viz. the opacity of their ſell, after this manner, his father or mother, and the father his own fkin, proceeding from the thickneſs and denſity of its texture, which children, for a few bottles of brandy, or a bar of iron. As ſoon as obſtructs the tranſmiſſion of the rays of light, from the white and the ſhip has its complement, it immediately makes off; the poor red parts under the ſkin, together with its greater refractive power, wretches, while yet in ſight of their country, falling into ſuch deep which abſorbs theſe rays; and the ſmallneſs of the particles of this grief and deſpair in the paſſage, that a great part of them languiſh, ſkin, which hinders it from reflecting any light: fall into fickneſs, and die. It has been calculated that upwards of Nº 117. VOL. III. * М. one N E G N E P It is a fact, for generally other one hundred thouſand ſlaves have for many years been exported by | ſmall number of females in proportion to the males, and the diffo. the Europeans from the coaſt of Africa. lute and licentious lives which the males lead. Through the whole of the peninſula of Africa with which we which phyſiologiſts muſt account, that when a woman, whether white or black, has a promiſcuous intercourſe with a number of are acquainted, ſlavery has been prevalent from time immemorial. In the interior parts, one claſs of the people are born ſlaves to ano- men, ſhe very feldom conceives children; and as our negroes in the Weſt Indies are inſtructed in no principles of religion, and ther; and on the gold coaſt, a freeman is reduced to that ſtate for crimes real or imaginary. Priſoners of war are all conſidered as have appetites as keen as their maſters and their miſtreſſes, it is not flaves, and, together with criminals, are ſold, either by one negro ſurpriſing that of the females abandon themſelves to licentious many chief to another, or by flave-brokers, to European merchants. amours, and become in conſequence incapable of conception. The Slaves which are born ſuch are not permitted to be ſold out of the popilh clergy in the French and Spaniſh iſlands, and the Moravian country, unleſs they have been guilty of ſome offence which would and Methodiſt paltors in their own, are at the utmoſt pains to in- have ſubjected them either to that ſtate or to death, though they ſtruct the negroes in what they conceive to be the truths of Chriſtia had been born freemen. anity; whilſt the miſſionaries of the Engliſh church too The crimes for which freemen are made flaves, are theft, debt, neglect every duty of their ſacred function. The biſhop of Lon. adultery, and witchcraft; and it is not uncommon for perſons to don has been expected, as dioceſan of the Weſt Indies, to take game themſelves away. All ſavages have an itch for games of upon himſelf the forming of ſome plan for the religious inſtruction hazard; and a negro will ſtake his freedom on a throw of the dice. of the negroes in the colonies ſuited to their temporal condition; If he loſe, no trial is neceſſary; he immediately ſurrenders himſelf but in juitice to that prelate, as well as to the memory of his im to his ſucceſsful antagoniſt. Perſons accuſed of crimes are tried mediate predeceſſors, it is proper to acquaint the public, that ſince by certain judges called Pynims, who wear a peculiar ſtraw hat as the death of Dr. Gibſon in 1748, the biſhop of London has had no a badge of their office; and the trial is fairly conducted, according eccleſiaſtical authority whatever in the colonies, nor any to the laws of the country, either in the market-place or in an open epiſcopal connection with them, than that of conferring orders court of juſtice. Witchcraft proved againſt a man involves in his upon their candidates for livings. That the colonies would gladly punilhment the whole family, which is always extirpated, if there adopt any proper plan for improving the morals and meliorating be not a European merchant to buy them; and adultery commit- the condition of the negroes, has been lately proved by the moſt ted with the wife of a great man is conſidered as a crime of too reſpectable evidence given at the bar of the houſe of lords; and deep a dye to be puniſhed with ſlavery either to a black or a white were ſuch a plan put in execution, there cannot be a doubt, bur maſter : ſuch offenders are inſtantly doomed to death. that the ſlaves would be more diligent and faithful, the maſters Human ſacrifices have at all times been practiſed in Africa ; and have lefs occafion to exerciſe cruelty, and the females, if imported Tuch is the depravity of the Negro princes, that there is reaſon to in a ſufficient number, be as prolific as other women in the ſame believe that priſoners of war are either all ſacrificed or ſold to latitudes. foreign merchants. That inſolvent debtors ſhould be reduced to Both in France and in England laws have been lately enacted, flavery, among a people ſo very barbarous, can excite no wonder, to preſerve the lives of negroes on what is called the middle paſſage, when we conſider that the ſame thing took place among the Ro and to regulate the adminiſtration of juſtice to the negro-ſlaves in mans, in the earlier periods of the commonwealth. It likewiſe the Weſt Indies. An edict to this purpoſe was, ſo far back as took place among the Jews, and all other ancient nations; and it March 1724, publiſhed' at Verſailles, called the black code; and is apparent from the poems of Homer, that the early Greeks treated laws have been lately made by the parliament of Great Britain, to their captives, whether male or female, as part of their property. inſure better accommodation to the negroes on board of ſhip from Of the ſlaves imported into the Britiſh colonies, great part are Africa to the ſugar iſlands. The colonial aſſemblies have likewiſe brought from a great diſtance to the coaſt; and as theſe exhibit themſelves enacted laws to protect the perſons of the the perſons of the negroes while little or no ſymptoms of uneaſineſs at their being ſold into a foreign in their ſtate of ſervitude ; and in ſome eſtates, theſe laws have country, and doomed to ſerve maſters whom they never ſaw before, been ſo well obſerved, that we have been informed by gentlemen The probability is, that they have been born ſlaves to tyrants ſo cruel, of undoubted veracity, that they have known negro-ſlaves poſſeſſed that no change of maſters can, in their apprehenſion, increaſe their of one, two, and 3000l. So horrible, however, to a Britiſh ear is wretchedneſs. Negroes born on the coaſt are often extremely the very found of the word ſlavery, that a ſociety was ſome years ago miſerable on the thoughts of being ſold to a foreign maſter; becauſe inſtituted at London, for the purpoſe of procuring an abolition of the theſe men were originally free, and expect ſuch treatment as they ſlave trade; and petitions to parliament for the ſame purpoſe were have ſeen their own chiefs inflict upon priſoners of war, or perſons obtained from almoſt every county and town in the kingdom. The who, among them, have been reduced from freedom to a ſtate of ſucceſs of theſe petitions, as well as their conſequences, remain Navery. ſtill to be determined. Theſe facts are mentioned, not with a view to defend or condemn NEHEMIAH, a canonical Book of the Old Teſtament, ſo the Britiſh llave-trade ; but merely becauſe they account for that called from the name of its author. Nehemiah was born at Baby- ferocity and brutality by which Negroes in many reſpects reſemble lon, during the captivity, and ſucceeded Ezra in the government of the moſt ſavage beaſts of prey. Some of them have been known Judah and Jeruſalem. He was a Jew, and was promoted to the of- to feed on their brothers, and to devour their own children. But fice of cup-bearer to Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of Perſia ; when what indeed can be expected of men in their unhappy ſituation ? the opportunities he had of being daily in the king's preſence, togea Almoſt all blacks, but eſpecially thoſe of Loanga, treat their women ther with the favour of Eſther, the queen, procured him liberty to re- as vile ſlaves, created ſolely to amuſe and obey them. The wife pair and fortify the city of Jeruſalem, in the ſame manner as it was often dares not look at her lord; ſhe ſpeaks to him on her knees; before its deſtruction by the Babylonians. On his going to Jeruſa- and yet this painful and humiliating ſituation is not diſtreſſing to lem, he finiſhed the rebuilding of the walls in fifty-two days, and them. Some Negroes, however, are ſufficiently attached to their dedicated the gates of the city with great folemnity. He then re- wives, and exceedingly fond of their miſtreſſes: theſe yield in no formed fome abuſes which had crept in among his countrymen. reſpect to the men, but obey without reſerve the natural impulſe of The hiſtory of theſe tranſactions is the ſubject of this book. their conſtitution. We likewiſe find Negroes of Congo, who, in NEPHRITICS, in pharınacy, medicines proper for diſeaſes of order to pleaſe, become great jeſters and buffoons. A ſingle Congo the kidneys, eſpecially the ſtone.—Such particularly are the roots of ſlave is ſufficient to diffuſe chearfulneſs and good humour through althæa, dog's graſs, aſparagus, fago, pellitory of the wall, mallows, whole plantation. But how comes it about that female Negroes, pimpinella, red chick-peaſe, peach-kernels, turpentine, &c. who are ſo prolific in Africa, are not equally ſo in America ? NEPHRITIS, in medicine, a diſeaſe of the reins, kidneys, &c. To diſcover the cauſe of ſuch ſterility, is an object worthy of the For a deſcription of the ſymptoms, cauſes, and cure, ſee the Syſtem, attention of government. According to ſome, theſe ſlaves are often Genus 18. ya inſtigated by the bitterneſs of their lot to rid themſelves of a burden NEPTUNE, in mythology, the ſon of Saturn and Rhea, and which other mothers ſupport with pleaſure. This, however, can brother of Jupiter and Pluto. He is commonly repreſented ſtand- not be the fact. Without in any degree pleading the cauſe of the ing with his trident in his right hand, which was his peculiar ſcep- Weſt India planters, we may venture to ſuppofe, that, in this caſe, tre, as lord of the Mediterranean feas, and ſeems to have been uſed intereſt will ſupply the place of that principle of humanity which | by him chiefly to rouſe up the waters; for we find ſometimes that their opponents affirm them to want. To rear a negro is leſs ex he lays it aſide, when he is to appeaſe them ; but he reſumes it, penſive than to purchaſe one from Africa ; and by the confeſſion when there is any occaſion for violence. Virgil. Æn. ii. v. 612. of all parties, a creole ſlave is double the value of one juſt imported. makes him ſhake Troy from its foundations with it; and in Ovid, That ſelfiſhneſs, therefore, of which the fugar-planters have been Met, i. v. 284. it is with the ſtroke of this that the waters are let ſo often and ſo vehemently accuſed, would make them, one ſhould looſe from the general deluge. The dolphin is in his left hand, think, encourage, by every means in their power, the propagation and he treads on the beak of a ſhip; to fhew that he preſided over of negroes, ſince by the laws of the colonies the child of a female the ſeas, or more particularly, over the Mediterranean ſea ; which llave is the property of her maſter. We doubt not that in the was the great, and almoſt the only ſcene for navigation, among the Weſt Indies, as every where elſe, there are men who in ſudden old Greeks and Romans. The poets have deſcribed this god, as burſts of paſſion forget their intereſt as well as their duty; and we paſſing over the calm ſurface of the waters, in his chariot drawn by are not inclined to deny, that there may be many inſtances of ſea-horſes. The fine original deſcription of this is in Homer; from cruelty practiſed on the flaves both male and female ; but in Africa, whom Virgil, Æn. i. v. 155. and Statius Achil. i. v. 60. have copied crueliy is reduced to a ſyſtem, and yet the mothers nurſe and rear it. A triton is ſometimes repreſented on each ſide, as guiding thoſe their children. that draw the chariot of Neptune. His aſpect in all the beſt figures One cauſe certainly of the barrenneſs of colonial negroes, is the of him is majeſtic and ſerene. The lower ſort of artiſts exhibit him N E R N E W Genus 51. be con- him fometimes with an angry diſturbed air ; and one may obſerve | vigour of the mind, and its power of ſelf-enjoyment. Diſorders of the ſame difference in this particular, between the great and inferior this kind proceed from any cauſe that contributes to relax the body, poets , as there is between the good and bad artiſts. Thus Ovid, or depreſs the ſpirits ; ſuch are exceſs of ſtudy, and want of proper Met. ii. v. 271. deſcribes Neptune with a fullen look; whereas exerciſe, drinking weak watery liquors, frequent bleeding, purging, Virgil, Æn, i. v. 127. expreſsly tells that he has a mild face, even vomiting, immoderate venery, great fatigue, want of ſleep, anxiety when he is repreſenting him in a paſſion. Neptune had a great and grief, unwholeſome air, &c. For a copious deſcription of the number of temples erected to his honour, as well as feaſts and ſymptoms, cauſes, and cure of the ſeveral diſorders incident to the games eſtabliſhed in token of reſpect, both in Greece and Italy. nervous ſyſtem; ſee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 46 and Spence's Polymetis, p. 65. p. 215, &c. NEREIS, in vermeology, a genus of animals belonging to the NET, a device for catching fiſh and fowl. See the articles order of vermes molluſca. The body is oblong, linear, and fitted for FISHERY and Fowl. creeping; it is furniſhed with lateral penciiled tentacula. There NEURITICS, in pharmacy, medicines uſeful in diſorders of are in ſpecies; of which the moſt remarkable is, the Noctiluca, the nerves. or noctilucous nereis, which inhabits almoſt every ſea, and is one NEUROGRAPHY, ſignifies a deſcription of the nerves. See of the cauſes of the luminouſneſs of the water. Theſe creatures the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part VI. Sect. 2. throughout. thine like glow-worms, but with a brighter ſplendour, ſo as at NEUROPTERA, in entomology, the name by which Lin- night to make the element appear as if on fire all around. Their næus calls an order of four-winged inſects, from their wings being bodies are ſo minute as to elude examination by the naked eye. membranaceous with nerves, and being diſpoſed in a reticulated It is ſometimes called nereis phoſporans; and is thus deſcribed by form. In the Linnæan ſyſtem there are ſeven genera compre- Griſelin: The head is roundiſh and flat, and the mouth acumi- hended under this order. For claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, nated. The two horns or feelers are ſhort and ſubulated. The Order IV. eyes are prominent, and placed on each ſide the head. The body NEUTER, a perſon indifferent, who has eſpouſed neither party, is compoſed of about 23 ſegments or joints, which are much leſs and is neither friend nor foe. In grammar it denotes a ſort of nearer the tail than at the head. Theſe ſegments on both ſides the GENDER in nouns, which are neither maſculine nor feminine. animal all end in a ſhort conical apex, out of which proceeds a little Neuter Verb. For definition and explanation of theſe articles, bundle of hairs: from under theſe bundles the feet grow in the form ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. I. Sect. I. and Part II. Art. V. of ſmall flexile ſubulated figments deſtitute of any thing like claws. NEUTRAL Salts, among chymiſts, are a ſort of intermediate It is ſcarcely two lines long, and is quite pellucid, and its colour ſalts between acids and alkalis ; partaking of the nature of both. is that of water green. They are found upon all kinds of marine Formerly thoſe only were called neutral ſalts, which were compoſed plants; but they often leave them and are found upon the ſurface of acids and alkalis united together to the point of ſaturation, ſo of the water: they are frequent at all ſeaſons, but eſpecially in that they had no acid nor alkaline property, and thence they were ſummer before ſtormy weather, when they are more agitated and called neutral. But now this name is commonly extended to com- more luminous. Their numbers, and wonderful agility, added to binations of acids with all ſubſtances, with which they can fo unite, their pellucid and thining quality, do not a little contribute to their that they loſe entirely or moſtly their acid qualities; as, for inſtance, illuminating the ſea, for myriads of thoſe animalculæ may when they are united with earthy or metallic ſubſtances. Mr. Boyle tained in the portion of a ſmall cup of ſea-water. Innumerable alſo gives the appellation neutral to a ſort of ſpirits, differing, in di- quantities of them lodge in the cavities of the ſcales of fiſhes, and to vers qualities, both from vinous, acid, and urinous ſpirits. Theſe them probably do the fiſhes owe their noctilucous quality. “ I have he alſo calls anonymous and adiaphorous ſpirits. See the Syſtem of obſerved with great attention (ſays Barbut), a fiſh juſt caught out CHY MISTRY, Part I. Chap. V. of the fea, whoſe body was almoſt covered with them; and have NEWTONIAN Philoſophy, the doctrine of the univerſe, and, examined them in the dark : they twiſt and curl themſelves with particularly of the heavenly bodies; their laws, affections, &c. as amazing agility, but ſoon retire out of our contracted ſight; pro delivered by Sir Iſaac Newton. bably their glittering numbers dazzling the eye, and their extreme The terin Newtonian philoſophy is applied very differently; minuteneſs eluding our reſearches. It is to be obſerved, that whence have ſprung divers confuſed notions relating to it. Some when the unctuous moiſture which covers the ſcales of fiſhes is authors, under this philoſophy, include all the corpuſcular philofo- exhauſted by the air, theſe animals are not to be ſeen; nor are the phy conſidered as it now ſtands corrected and reformed by the diſ- fiſhes then noctilucous, that matter being perhaps their nouriſh coveries and improvements made in ſeveral parts thereof by Sir ment when living, as they themſelves afford food to many marine Iſaac Newton, in which fenſe it is that' Graveſande calls his animals. They do not ſhine in the day-time, becauſe the ſolar Elements of Phyſics, Introductio ad Philoſophiam Newtonianam. rays are too powerful for their light; however aggregate or im And in this ſenſe the Newtonian is the ſame with the new philo- menſe their number.” Their appearance is particularly brilliant ſophy, and ſtands contradiſtinguiſhed to the Carteſian, the Peripa- when the wind is in the caſt and ſouth-eaſt points, and in winter- tetic, and the ancient corpuſcular. nights preceded by a warm day. If water containing theſe ani Others, by Newtonian philoſophy, mean the method or order malcules be kept warm, they retain their light two whole days which Sir Iſaac Newton obſerves in philoſophizing, viz. the rea- after they are dead; but in cold water loſe it in eight hours; mo ſoning and drawing of concluſions directly from phenomena, exclu- tion and warmth, which increaſe their vivacity and ſtrength, in- ſive of all previous hypotheſes; the beginning from ſimple princi- creaſe their light alſo. SA ples ; deducing the firſt powers and laws of nature from a few ſelect NERVE, NERVUS, in anatomy, a round, white long body, like phenomena, and then applying thoſe laws, &c. to account for other a cord, compoſed of ſeveral threads, or fibres, deriving its origin things. See Law of Nature. And, in this ſenſe the Newtonian from the brain, or the ſpinal marrow, and diſtributed throughout Philoſophy is the ſame with the experimental philoſophy; and ſtands all parts of the body; ferving for the conveyance of a particular oppoſed to the ancient corpuſcular. juice, by ſome called animal ſpirits, for the performance of ſenfa. Others, by Newtonian philoſophy, mean that wherein phyſical tion, and motion. For the origin, uſes, and deſcription of the bodies are conſidered mathematically; and where geometry and nerves, ſee the Syſtem, Part VI. Sect. II. throughout. For a mechanics are applied to the ſolution of phenomena. In which repreſentation of the poſterior view of the ſpinal marrow, with the ſenſe, the Newtonian is the ſame with the mechanical and mathe- origin of its nerves, ſee Plate XI. fig. 4. For the diſtribution of matical philoſophy. the nerves from the brain, and ſpine, ſee fig. 5. for the origin of Others again, by Newtonian philoſophy, underſtand that part of the nerves as they proceed from the ſkull, ſee fig. 3. for the nerves phyſical knowledge which Sir Iſaac Newton has handled, improved, of viſion, ſee fig. Io. For a repreſentation of the nerves as they and demonſtrated in his Principia. paſs off to the thorax, abdomen, ſee Plate XII. For a repreſen- Others, laſtly, by Newtonian philoſophy, mean the new principles tation of the nerves of the liver, gall-bladder, pancreas, ſtomach, which Sir Iſaac Newton has brought into philofophy; the new with the ganglions, &c. fee Plate XIII. a ſyſtem founded thereon; and the new ſolutions of phenomena thence Nerves microſcopically examined. Mr. Leeuwenhoeck endea deduced; or that which characteriſes and diſtinguiſhes his philoſophy voured by his microſcope to diſcover the ſtructure of the nerves from all others; which is the ſenſe wherein we ſhall chiefly con- in the ſpinal marrow of an ox; he ſaw there with great delight, mi- ſider it. nute hollow veſſels of an inconceiveable firmneſs, inveſted with their As to the hiſtory of this philoſophy, we have but little to ſay: it proper membrane, and running out in length parallel to one another, was firſt made public in the year 1686, by the author, then a fellow and making up their compoſition ; and though ſome hundreds of of Trinity college, Cambridge; and in the year 1713, republiſhed, their veſſels go to the formation of the leaſt nerve that can be ex with conſiderable improvements. Several other authors have ſince amined, he not only diſcerned the cavities in them, which he com attempted to make it plainer; by ſetting aſide many of the more puted to be three times leſs than their diameters, but in ſome per ſublime mathematical reſearches, and ſubſtituting either more ceived the orifices as plainly as the holes in a pricked paper are to obvious reaſoning, or experiments, in lieu thereof; particularly be ſeen when looked at againſt the ſun. It requires, however, Whilton, in his Prælect. Phyſ. Mathemat. Graveſande in Ele- great dexterity and expedition to make this examination with fuc ment. & Inftit. and Dr. Pemberton in his View; and Maclaurin, ceſs; for after a thin ſlice of the ſpinal marrow is placed before the in his excellent work, intitled, An Account of Sir Iſaac Newton's microſcope, in leſs than a ininute's time it becomes dry, and the Philoſophical Diſcoveries. whole appearance vaniſhes. Baker's Microſcope, p. 145. Notwithſtanding the great merit of this philoſophy, and the uni- Nervous Diſorders compoſe a very numerous claſs of the dif. verſal reception it has met with at home, it gained ground, at its firſt eaſes incident to mankind. Theſe, whilſt under various forms and publication, but ſlowly abroad; Newtonianiſm had ſcarce two or modes of attack, they exhauſt the ſtrength of the body, impair the three adherents in a nation ; but Carteſianiſm, Huygenianiſm, and Leibnitzianiſin, NIC NIG caſes Leibnitzianiſm, maintained their ground, till the force of truth of theſe patients complained of vertigo. In 52 of the number iſ prevailed. And it is now held in the utmoſt veneration both at excited nauſea; in the two laſt caſes he directs the medicine to be home and abroad. The philoſophy itſelf is laid down principally in ſuſpended, and the doſes leſſened. Dr. Fowler tried it in 30 the third book of the Principia. The two preceding books are of dropſy, viz. four of anaſarca, or general dropſy: two of aſcites taken up in preparing the way for it, and laying down ſuch prin- and 12 of dropfical ſwellings of the legs, were all cured. In ten ciples of mathematics as have the neareſt relation to philoſophy: other caſes it afforded conſiderable relief; and in three caſes only ſuch are the laws and conditions of powers. And theſe, to render it was of no uſe. In ten inſtances of dyſury, the infufion was ano themſelves leſs dry and geometrical, the author illuſtrates by fcholia dyne and diuretic, thereby abating pain, relaxing the urinary paſ- in philoſophy, relating chiefly to the denſity and reſiſtance of bodies, fages, and promoting urine.--In dyſuries from gravel, it facilitates the motion of light and ſounds, a vacuum, &ic. the expulſion of calcareous or gritty matter. In the third book he proceeds to the philoſophy itſelf; and from Dr. Fowler ſpeaks of the uſe of tobacco in injections ; an ounce the fame principles deduces the ſtructure of the univerſe, and the of the infuſion in a pint of water-gruel at a time, and repeated in powers of gravity, whereby bodies tend towards the fun and planets ; caſes of obftinate conſtipation, as the caſe may require. In the and from theſe powers, the motions of planets and comets, the theory dry belly-ach, in the Weſt Indies, injections of the ſmoke of tobacco of the moon, and the tides. have long been employed with the happieſt effects. The whole of the Newtonian philoſophy, as delivered by the After all, the internal uſe of tobacco ſhould be very limited, and author, is contained in his Principia or Mathematical Principles of can only be ſafe in the hands of a ſkilful and attentive practitioner, Natural Philoſophy. Tobacco is ſometimes uſed externally in unguents for deſtroying NICKEL, in chemiſtry and mineralogy, a ſubſtance claſſed among cutaneous inſects, cleanſing old ulcers, &c. Beaten into a maſh the ſemimetals, though ſeveral eminent chemiſts are of opinion that with vinegar or brandy, it has ſometimes proved ſerviceable for it is a compound; and Mr. Bergman, who has made more experi- removing hard tumours of the hypochondres: an account is given ments upon it than any other perſon, conjectures that it is a mo in the Edinburgh eſſays of two caſes of this kind cured by it. "The dification of iron. It was firſt obtained from an ore called kupfer-moſt common uſes of this plant, however, are either as a ſternu- nickel, ſometimes grey coloured, but often of a reddiſh-yellow; tatory when taken by way of ſnuff, as a maſticatory by chewing though ſeveral others are now diſcovered. 66 It had its name it in the mouth, or as effluvia by ſmoking it; and when taken in (ſays Mr. Bergman), and probably ſtill retains it, from this cir- moderation, it is not an unhealthful amuſement. Before pipes cumſtance, that though it has the appearance of containing copper, were invented it was uſually ſmoked in ſegars, and they are ſtill in not the ſmalleſt particle of that metal can be extracted from it, uſe among ſome of the ſouthern nations. The method of preparing even by fire.” theſe is at once ſimple and expeditious. A leaf of tobacco being NICOTIANA, tobacco; a genus of the monogynia order, formed into a ſmall twiſted roll, ſomewhat larger than the ftem belonging to the pentandria claſs of plants. There are ſeven fpe- of a pipe, and about eight inches long, the ſmoke is conveyed cies, of which the moſt remarkable is the tabacum, or common through the winding folds which prevent it from expanding, as tobacco-plant. This was firſt diſcovered in America by the Spa- through a tube; fo that one end of it being lighted, and the other niards about the year 1560, and by them imported into Europe. It | applied to the mouth, it is in this form uſed without much in- had been uſed by the inhabitants of America long before; and was convenience. But, in proceſs of time, pipes being invented, they called by thoſe of the iſlands, yoli, and patun by the inhabitants of were found more commodious vehicles for the ſmoke, and are now the continent. It was ſent into Spain from Tabaco, a province of in general uſe. Yucatan, where it was firſt diſcovered, and from whence it takes Among all the productions of foreign climes introduced into its common name. Sir Walter Raleigh firſt introduced it into theſe kingdoms, ſcarce any has been held in higher eſtimation by England about the year 1585, and was the firſt who taught them perſons of every rank than tobacco. In the countries of which it how to ſmoke it. Tobacco is commonly uſed among the Oriental is a native, it is conſidered by the Indians as the moſt valuable nations, though it is uncertain by whom it was introduced among offering that can be made to the beings they worſhip. They uſe them. Conſiderable quantities of it are cultivated in the Levánt, on it in all their civil and religious ceremonies. When once the ſpiral the coaſts of Greece and the Archipelago, in Italy, and in the iſland wreaths of its ſmoke aſcend from the feathered pipe of peace, the of Malta. compact that has been juſt made is conſidered as facred and invio-- There are two varieties of that ſpecies of Nicotiana, which is lable. Likewiſe when they addreſs their great Father, or his cultivated for common uſe, and which are diſtinguiſhed by the guardian fpirits, reſiding as they believe in every extraordinary pro- names of Oronokoe, and ſweet-ſcented tobacco. They differ from duction of nature, they make liberal offerings to them of this cach other only in the figure of their leaves ; thoſe of the former valuable plant, not doubting but that they are thus ſecured of being longer and narrower than the latter. protection. Uſe. Since the introduction of tobacco into Europe 156@, va Tobacco is made up into rolls by the inhabitants of the interior rious medical properties have been aſcribed to it at different times parts of America, by means of a machine called a tobacco wheel. by Stahl and other German phyſicians; but the manner in which With this machine they ſpin the leaves, after they are cured, into a of late years it has been ſpoken of by the generality of writers on twiſt of any ſize they think fit; and having folded it into rolls of the materia medica, has occaſioned it to be almoſt wholly diſmiſſed about 20 pounds each, they lay it by for ufe. In this ſtate it will from modern practice, at leaſt from internal uſe: but this circum- keep for ſeveral years, and be continually improving, as it always ftance has not deterred Dr. Fowler, a phyſician of eminence in grows milder. The Illinois uſually form it into carrots: which is Staffordſhire, from commencing an inquiry into its medicinal done by laying a number of leaves, when cured, on each other, effects; and he has given the reſult of his experiments, which ſeem after the ribs have been taken out, and rolling them round with to be accurately and faithfully related. pack-thread till they become cemented together. Theſe rolls That tobacco, under proper regulations, may be adminiſtered commonly meaſure about 18 or 20 inches long, and nine round in internally, not only as a ſafe but as an efficacious remedy, eſpecially the middle part. Tobacco forms a very confiderable article in as a diuretic in caſes of dropſy and dyſury, ſeems certain enough. This property, amongſt the vaſt number that have been attributed NICTITATING Membrane, in anatomy, a thin membrane, to it, however, ſeems ſcarcely ever to have been hinted at. which covers the eyes of ſeveral creatures, and ſhelters them from The forms in which Dr. Fowler ordered it were either in infu- duſt, or too much light; yet is ſo thin, that they can ſee indiffer- fion, tincture, or pills. ently well through it. This nititating membrane is chiefly found in Take of tobacco leaves dried an ounce; boiling water one pound: the bird and fiſh kind. See Syſtem of COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. infuſe them for an hour in a cloſe veſſel ſet in a warm place, and Chap. II. Sect. II. and Chap. III. Sect. II. ſtrain off about 14 ounces. Then add two ounces of rectified This membrane, in the eagle's eye, is remarkably cloſe and firm, ſpirit of wine. infomuch as to be accounted as a ſecond eyelid; and hence that re- Take of dried tobacco leaves an ounce, of rectified ſpirits, Spaniſh markable firmneſs of the eagle's fight in viewing the ſun. white wine, or vinegar, one pint, to be infuſed for four days. NIGHT, that part of the natural day, during which the ſun is Take of dried tobacco leaves in powder 1 drachm, of the con underneath the horizon: or, night is that ſpace of time, wherein the ſerve of rofes enough to make it in a maſs ; which is to be divided ſun is out of our hemiſphere. Under the equator, the nights are al- into 60 pills. ways equal to the days. Under the poles, the night continues half Of the infufion, or tincture, Dr. Fowler gives from fix to 100 year. The ancient Gauls and Germans divided their time not by drops twice a day in water, or in a cordial julip, or other proper days, but nights; as appears from Tacitus and Cæfar; and the vehicle, ſufficient to produce the effect in adults; but in irritable Arabs do the ſame at this day. See Day, Hour, &c. The ſame habits he feldom exceeded 25 drops. To a patient of 10 years old is alſo obſerved of our Saxon anceſtors. he gave 50 drops; to a child of five years old 20 drops; but to NIGHTINGALE, in ornithology; a ſpecies of the Genus patients under five years old he never ventured to preſcribe it. MOTACILLA, in ornithology. For deſcription of the Genus, fee The firſt effects of the infuſion is a tranſient heat in the ſtomach MOTACILLA. The nightingale takes its name from night and the and throat, as if the patient had taken a dram. The next general Saxon word galan, “ to fing;" expreſfive of the time of its melody. effect in a moderate doſe is diuretic, with or without a light ver In fize it is equal to the redſtart; but longer-bodied, and more ele- tigo and giddineſs, and frequently nauſea. In painful-cafes, it gantly made. *The colours are very plain. Mr. Hunter found by proves anodyne, and in ſome caſes occaſions drowſineſs and ſleep; diſſection, that the muſcles of the larynx are ſtronger in the nightin- in others drowſineſs, with a ſenſe of heat and reſtleſſneſs. gale than in any bird of the fame fize. Dr. Fowler gave this medicine in 115 caſes: in 93 of which This bird, the moſt famed of the feathered tribe, for the variety, it proved diuretic; in 40 of theſe caſes it occafioned purging; 79 length, and ſweetneſs of its notes, viſits England the beginning of commerce. a April, Ν Ο Β N O B us part April, and leaves us in Auguft . In England they frequent thick that quality or dignity which raiſes a man above the rank of a hedges , and low coppices ; and generally keep in the middle of the peaſant or a commoner. buſh, ſo that they are very rarely ſeen. They form their neft of At a time when the public mind is fo much agitated on this oak leaves, a few bents and reeds. The eggs are of a deep brown. ſubject, or ſubjects nearly allied to it, perhaps the leſs that is ſaid When the young ones firſt come abroad, and are helpleſs, the old on it the better. We ſhould therefore (as far as concerns the birds make a plaintive and jarring noiſe with a ſort of ſnapping as queſtion about its expediency in civil life, or the contrary) moſt if in menace, purſuing along the hedge the paſſengers. cheerfully paſs it over in ſilence, did we not eſteem it our duty They begin their ſong in the evening, and continue it the whole to give our readers at leaſt ſome idea of it, and were it not our night. Theſe their vigils did not paſs unnoticed by the ancients : bulineſs to lay before them a few of thoſe arguments which of late the lumbers of theſe birds were proverbial; and not to reſt as have been lo copiouſly retailed both for and againſt this illuſtrious much as the nightingale, expreſſed a very bad ſleeper. This order of civil ſociety ; leaving them, however, that liberty which was the favourite bird of the Britiſh poet Milton, who omits no every man unqueſtionably ought to be allowed, of judging for opportunity of introducing it, and almoſt conſtantly noting its themſelves as they ſhall fee moſt proper. love of ſolitude and night. How finely does it ſerve to compoſe Whether that equality of rank and condition which has of late of the folemn ſcenery of his Penferoſo ; when he deſcribes it been ſo loudly contended for would be more agreeable to the order In her faddeſt ſweeteſt plight, of nature, or more conducive to the happineſs and proſperity of Smoothing the rugged brow of night; mankind, may indeed be made a queſtion ; but it is a queſtion, While Cynthia checks her dragon yoke. we apprehend, which cannot receive different anſwers from men Gently o’er th' accuſtom’d oak. capable of reflecting without prejudice and partiality. A ſtate of Sweet bird, that ſhunn'ſt the noiſe of folly, perfect equality can fubfiſt only among beings poſſeſſing equal Moſt muſical, moſt melancholy! Thee, chauntreſs, oft the woods among, talents and equal virtues : but ſuch beings are not men. Were I woo to hear thy evening ſong. all mankind under the conſtant influence of the laws of virtue, The reader will excuſe a few more quotations from the ſame a diſtinction of ranks would be unneceſſary ; but in that caſe civil governmentitſelfwould likewiſe be unneceſſary, becauſe men poet, on the ſame ſubject ; the firſt deſcribes the approach of even- would have attained all that perfection to which it is the object of ing, and the retiring of all animals to their repoſe. civil government as well as of religion to guide them ; every man Silence accompanied; for beaſt and bird, then would be a law unto himſelf. But whilft, in ſo many breaſts, They to their graffy couch, theſe to their neſts Were flunk; all but the wakeful nightingale, the ſelfiſh paflions predominate over thoſe which are focial, vio- She all night long her amorous deſcant lung. lence muſt be reſtrained by authority ; and there can be no autho- rity without a diſtinction of ranks, ſuch as may influence the pub- When Eve paſſed the irkſome night preceding her fall, ſhe, in a lic opinion. . dream, imagines herſelf thus reproached with loiing the beauties of the night by indulging too long a repoſe. It is well obſerved by Hume, that government is founded only on opinion : and that this opinion is of two kinds, opinion of in- Why ſleep'ſt thou, Eve? now is the pleaſant time, tereſt, and opinion of right. When a people are perſuaded that it The cool, the filent, lave where ſilence yields To the night-warbling bird, that now awake is their intereſt to ſupport the government under which they live, Tunes ſweeteſt his love-labour'd ſong. that government muſt be very ſtable. But among the worthleſs The ſame birds fing their nuptial ſong, and lull them to reſt. and unthinking part of the coinmunity, this perſuaſion has feldon place. All men, however, have a notion of rights—of a right to How rapturous are the following lines ! how expreffive of the de- property and a right to power; and when the majority of a nation licate ſenſibility in our Milton's tender ideas. confiders a certain order of men as having a right to that eminence The earth in which they are placed, this opinion, call it prejudice or what Gave ſign of gratulation, and each hill; Joyous the birds ; freſh gales and gentle airs we will, contributes much to the peace and happineſs of civil Whiſper'd it to the woods, and from their wings ſociety. There are many, however, who think otherwiſe, and Flung roſe, flung odours from the ſpicy ſhrub, imagine that “the ſociety in which the greateſt equality prevails Diſporting, till the amorous bird of night muſt always be the moſt ſecure. Theſe men conceive it to be the Sung ſpouſal, and bid haſte the evening ſtar buſineſs of a good government to diſtribute as equally as poſſible On his hill top to light the bridal lamp. Theſe, lull'd by nightingales, embracing ſlept ; thoſe bleffings which bounteous nature offers to all.” It may rea- And on their naked limbs the flowery roof dily be allowed that this reaſoning is concluſive ; but the great Shower'd roſes, which the moon repair’d. queſtion returns, “ How far can equality prevail in a ſociety which Theſe quotations from the beſt judge of melody, we thought due is ſecure? and what is poſſible to be done in the equal diſtribution to the ſweeteſt of our feathered choiriſters; and we believe no of the bleſſings of Nature ?” Till theſe queitions be anſwered, reader of taſte will think them tedious. we gain nothing by declaiming on the rights and equality of men; Virgil ſeems to be the only poet among the ancients who hath and the anſwers which have ſometimes been given to them ſup- attended to the circumſtance of this birds tinging in the night time. poſe a degree of perfection in human nature, which, if it were real, would make all civil inſtitutions uſeleſs, as well as the reveries of Qualis populea merens Philomela, ſub umbra Amiſſos queritur fætus, quos duras arator thoſe reformers. The conduct of the democratic ſtates of Pagan Obfervans nido implumes detraxit : at illa antiquity, together with the oppreffive anarchy and ſhameful vio- Flet noctem, ramoque ſedens miſerabile carmen lences which we have ſeen and ſtill ſee in a neighbourhood king- Integrat, et mæſtis late loco qucftibus implet. Geo. IV. 1. 511. dom, will be conſidered by many as a full and fatisfactory anſwer, As Philomel in poplar ſhades, alone, deduced from experience, to all the ſchemes of the viſionary theo- For her loft offspring pours a mother's moan, riſ : ſuch facts at leaſt render the abolition of the order of nobi- Which ſome rough ploughman marking for his prey, lity a matter of more importance, and of infinitely greater diffi- From the warm neft, unfedg'd bath dragg’d away ; Percht on a bough, ſhe all night long complains, culty, than thoſe who plead for it are diſpoſed to allow. And fills the grove with fad repeated ſtrains. F. Warton. It is an opinion not uncommon, and at leaſt plauſible, that the nobility of a well regulated ſtate is the beſt fecurity againſt mo- NIPPLE, Papilla, in Anatomy, a prominence ariſing from the narchial deſpotiſm or lawleſs uſurpation on the one hand, and the middle of the breaſt or mamma : fee the Syſtem, Part IV. confufion of democratic infolence on the other. Self-intereſt is the Sect. I. moſt powerful principle in the human breaſt; and it is obviouſly NITRE, or SALTPETRE, is a neutral ſalt, compoſed of nitrous the intereſt of ſuch men to preſerve that balance of power in ſociety acid, ſaturated with fixed vegetable alkali. It is found immerſed upon which the very exiſtence of their order depends. As it is in imperceptible particles, in earthy ſubſtances, as the particles of our buſineſs, however, to exhibit all opinions of any celebrity, we metals in their ores, and is diſcoverable in theſe bodies by an acrid ſhall lay before our readers a ſhort extract from Dulaure's Critical and pungent taſte, and a ſenſation of coldneſs with which it affects Hiſtory of the French nobility, which contains, in few but forcible the tongue : fometimes alſo it is found native and pure, in form words, ſome of the common arguments againſt this diſtinction of of an efloreſcence, or ſhapeleſs ſalt, either in its ore, or on old ranks. walls, and yields after ſolution hexaedral priſmatic cryſtals. Nobility (ſays he), a diſtinction equally impolitic and immo- See the Syſtem of CHYMYSTRY, Part I. Chap. V. Sect. III. ral, and worthy of the times of ignorance and of rapine, which Art. I. gave it birth, is a violation of the rights of that part of the nation Nitre is found naturally cryſtallized in India, and as it is ſwept that is deprived of it; and as equality becomes a ſtimulus towards from earths or ſtones with brooms, it is called the ſweepings of diſtinction, ſo on the other hand this is the radical vice of a govern- nitre, or of faltpetre. A nitre may alſo be obtained from ſeveral ment and the ſource of a variety of evils. It is almoſt impoſſible plants; and theſe are the two kinds of natural nitre. All other that there ſhould be any uncommon inſtances of virtue in a ſtate, nitre is begun by nature, but art is required to extract and purify it. when recompences belong excluſively to a certain claſs of ſociety, NITROUS Acid. For a particular account of the nature and and when it coſts them no more to obtain theſe than the trouble of qualities of this branch of chymiſtry, ſee the Syſtem, Part I. being born. Amonſt the liſt of privileged perſons, virtues, talents, Chap. V. Sect. III. and genius, muit of courſe be much leſs frequent than in the NOBILITY in general ſignifies dignity, grandeur, or great other claſſes, fince, without the poſſeflion of any of theſe qualities, neſs ; more particularly, it ſignifies antiquity of family, joined they who belong to it are ſtill honoured and rewarded. Thoſe with riches; in the common acceptation of the word, it means who profit by this abſurd ſubverſion of principles, and thoſe who No. 118. N N O B N O B par- peers For MENT. loſe by this unjuſt diſtribution of favours, which ſeem to have ancient baronies annexed, or ſuppoſed to be annexed, to their grown into a right, cannot have any other than falſe, immoral, epiſcopal lands; and thus, in 11 Hen. VI. the poſſeſſion of the and pernicious ideas concerning merit. caſtle of Arundel was adjudged to confer an carldom on its pofi A perſect equality, however, in rank and fortune has feldom feffor. But afterwards, when alienations grew to be frequent, the been contended for, except by the moſt ignorant enthuſiaſts. It dignity of peerage was confined to the lineage of the party ennobled, is indeed doubtful whether it could poſlībly exiſt, The more and inſtead of territorial became perſonal. Actual proof of a tenure moderate and rational reformers have acknowledged, that as theſe by barony became no longer neceſſary to conítitute a lord of differences have always exiſted in ſome way or other, fo, from the liament; but the record of the writ of ſummons to him or his infinite variety of talents and attainments in the world, we have anceſtors was admitted as a fufficient evidence of the tenure. reaſon to expect they will exiſt in every form of government and Peers are now created either by writ or by patent made to their among every people. The queſtion, therefore, is reduced to though by length of time it is loſt . The creation by this: Whether the preſent mode of diſtinction, or any other which writ, or the king's letter, is a ſummons to attend the houſe of could be inſtituted in its ſtead, be upon the whole the beſt? That by the ſtile and title of that barony which the king is pleaſed to the preſent is not perfect, or wholly without faults, few will be confer; that by patent is a royal grant to a ſubject of any dignity fanguine enough to contradict; and a wiſe man in the ſober hour and degree of peerage. The creation by writ is the more anci. of philoſophical reflection will ſcarce preſume to affert, that any ent way, but a man is not ennobled thereby, unleſs he actually other ſcheme which human ingenuity can plan would be wholly takes his feat in the houſe of lords: and ſome are of opinion that without imperfection, or altogether free from error. The caſe is, there muſt be at leaſt two writs of fummons, and a ſitting in two the errors of our own ſyſtem are preſent, and on this account we diſtinct parliaments, to evidence an hereditary barony: and there ſee and feel them with peculiar force : the other plan we look for fore the moſt uſual, becauſe the ſureſt, way is to grant the dignity ward to, perhaps in too fanguine a manner, and we probably for by patent, which endures to a man and his heirs according to the get, in the deluſive heat of imagination, that if diſtinction depended limitations thereof, though he never himſelf makes uſe of it. Yet entirely on merit, we ſhould ſcarce find a ſociety of men ſo honeſt, it is frequent to call up the eldeſt fon of a peer to the houſe of lords or ſo able, as always to reward it according to its deſerts; or if by writ of ſummons, in the name of his father's barony: becauſe this were poſſible, as perhaps in the nature of things it is not, ſuch in that caſe there is no danger of his children's loſing the nobility is the ſelf-partiality of the generality of men, that few would think in caſe he never takes his ſeat; for they will ſucceed to their grand- he were dealt juſtly by if he were not promoted as well as his father. Creation by writ has alſo one advantage over that by pa- neighbour ; and it is clearly impoſſible to promote every one. tent: for a perſon created by writ holds the dignity to him and his ſuch reaſons then, and many more which our limits oblige us to heirs, without any words to that purport in the writ; but in letters omit, may think (and we are inclined to think with them), that it patent there muſt be words to direct the inheritance, elſe the dig- is ſafer to remain as we are, as we know the evils that attend our nity endures only to the grantee for life. For a man or woman ſituation, and are ſtill able to bear them, rather than to hazard a may be created noble for their own lives, and the digniíy not de- change, which, with ſome benefits, might alſo perhaps increaſe the ſcend to their heirs at all, or deſcend only to ſome particular heirs : troubles, and deſtroy many of the pleaſures of ſocial life. as where a peerage is limited to a man and the heirs male of his Perhaps it may not be amiſs to lay before our readers the follow body by Elizabeth his preſent lady, and not to ſuch heirs by any ing obſervations from that moſt judicious commentator on the former or future wife. laws of England, Mr. Juſtice Blackſtone, on this important ſubject. 2. Let us next take a view of a few of the principal incidents at- " The diſtinction of rank and honours (ſays he) is neceſſary in tending the nobility, excluſive of their capacity as members of every well governed ſtate, in order to reward ſuch as are eminent parliament, and as hereditary counſellors of the crown, both of for their ſervices to the public, in a manner the more deſirable to which we have conſidered under the articles LORDS and PARLIA- individuals, and yet without burden to the community; exciting And firſt we muſt obſerve, that in criminal caſes a no- thereby an ambitious, yet laudableardour, and generous emulation, bleman ſhall be tried by his peers. The great are always obnox- in others. And emulation, or virtuous ambition, is a ſpring of ious to popular envy; were they to be judged by the people they action which, however dangerous or invidious in a mere republic might be in danger from the prejudices of their judges; and would or under a deſpotic ſway, will certainly be attended with good ef moreover be deprived of the privilege of the meaneft ſubjects, that fects under a free monarchy; where, without deſtroying its ex of being tried by their equals, which is ſecured to all the realm, by iſtence, its exceſſes may be continually reſtrained by that ſuperior magna charta, c. 29. It is ſaid, that this does not extend to biſhops, power from which all honour is derived. Such a ſpirit, when na who, though they are lords of parliament, and fit there by virtue of tionally diffuſed, gives life and vigour to the community; it ſets their baronies; which they hold, jure ecclefiæ, yet are not ennobled all the wheels of government in a motion, which, under a wiſe re in blood, and conſequently not peers with the nobility. As to peer- gulator, may be directed to any beneficial purpoſe; and thereby eíſes, no proviſion was made for their trial, when accuſed of treaſon every individual may be made ſubfervient to the public good, while or felony, till after Eleanor ducheſs of Glouceſter, wife to the lord he principally means to promote his own particular views. A protector, had been accuſed of treaſon, and found guilty of witch- body of nobility is alſo more peculiarly neceſſary in our mixed craft, in an eccleſiaſtical fynod, through the intrigues of cardinal and compounded conſtitution, in order to ſupport the rights of Beaufort. This very extraordinary trial gave occafion to a ſpecial both the crown and the people, by forming a barrier to withſtand ſtatute, 20 Hen. VI. c. 9. which enacts, that psereſſes, either in the encroachments of both. It creates and preſerves that gradual their own right, or by inarriage, ſhall be tried before the ſame ju- Scale of dignity, which proceeds from the peaſant to the prince; dicature as peers of the realm. If a wonian, noble in her right, riſing like a pyramid from a broad foundation, and diminiſhing to a marries a commoner, ſhe ſtill remains noble, and ſhall be tried by point as it riſes. It is this aſcending and contracting proportion her peers: but if ſhe be only noble by marriage, then by a ſecond that adds ſtability to any government ; for when the departure marriage with a commoner the loſes her dignity; for as by marriage ſudden from one extreme to another, we may pronounce that ſtate it is gained, by marriage it is alſo loft. Yet if a ducheſs-dowager to be precarious. The nobility, therefore, are the pillars, which marries a baron, ſhe continues a duchoſs ſtill; for all the nobility are reared from among the people, more immediately to ſupport are pares, and therefore it is no degradation. A peer or peereis the throne ; and, if that falls, they muſt alſo be buried under its (either in her own right or by marriage) cannot be arreſted in civil ruins. Accordingly, when in the laſt century the commons had caſes: and they have alſo many peculiar privileges annexed to their determined to extirpate monarchy, they alſo voted the houſe of peerage, in the courſe of judicial proceedings. A peer ſitting in lords to be uſeleſs and dangerous. And ſince titles of nobility are judgment, gives not his verdict upon oath, like an ordinary jury- thus expedient in the ſtate, it is alſo expedient that their owners man, but upon his honour; he arſwers alſo to bills in chancery ſhould forin an independent and feparate branch of the legiſlature. upon his honour, and not upon his oath : but when he is examined If they were confounded with the maſs of the people, and like them as a witneſs, either in civil or criminal caſes, he muſt be ſworn; had only a vote in electing repreſentatives, their privileges would for the reſpect which the law ſhews to the honour of a does peer, foon be borne down and overwhelmed by the popular torrent, not extend ſo far as to overturn a fettled maxim, that, in judicio non which would effe&tually level all diſtinctions. It is therefore creditur niſi juratis. The honour of peers is however fo highly highly neceſſary that the body of nobles ſhould have a diſtinct af tendered by the law, that it is much more penal to ſpread falſe re- f.mbly, diſtinct deliberations, and diſtinct powers from the com ports of them, and certain other great officers of the realm, than of mons.”---Theſe remarks, at a time like the preſent, deſerve our other men: ſcandal againſt them being called by the peculiar name ſerious attention. of ſcandalum magnatum, and ſubjected to peculiar puniſhment, by The origin of nobility in Europe is by ſome referred to the divers ancient ſtatutes, Geths; who, after they had ſeized a part of Europe, rewarded peer cannot loſe his nobility but by death or attainder; though their captains with titles of honour, to diſtinguiſh them from the there was an inítance, in the reign of Edward IV. of the degrada- common people. In this place we fhall conſider the manner in tion of George Neville, duke of Bedford, by act of parliament, on which they may be created, and the incidents attending them. account of his poverty, which rendered him unable to ſupport his 1. The right of peerage ſeems to have been originally territorial; dignity. But this is a ſingular inſtance; which ſerves at the ſame that is, annexed to lands, honours, caſtles, manors, and the like, the time, by having happened, to fhew the power of parliament; and, proprietors and poffeffors of which were (in right of thoſe eſtates) by having happened but once, to fhew how tender the parliament allowed to be peers of the realm, and were ſummoned to parlia hath been in exerting ſo high a power. It hath been ſaid, indeed, ment to do fuit and ſervice to their ſovereign, and, when the land that if a baron waſtes his eitate, lo that he is not able to ſupport the was alienated, the dignity paſſed with it as appendant. Thus the biſhops ſtill ſit in the houſe of lords in right of ſucceflion to certain degree, the king may degrade him: but it is expreſsly held by later authorities, that a peer cannot be degraded but byact of parliament. А I NODE Ν Ο Ν N ON 1 NODE, Nodus, in ſurgery, denotes a tumor, ariſing on the « The laws againſt the Papiſts are forigorous, though not profef- bones; and uſually proceeding from Come venereal cauſe. Node fedly of the fanguinary kind, that they do all the hurt that can por- amounts to the ſame with what is otherwiſe called exoſtoſis. Node fibly be done in cold blood: But in anſwer to this it may be obſery- is more particularly applied to the tumors or protuberances ed, (what foreigners who only judge from our ſtatute-book are not ariſing on the joints of old gouty people ; called alſo tophi. They fully apprized of) that theſe laws are feldom exerted to their utmoſt are ſuppoſed to be formed of a thick, crude, heavy, vifcid, indi rigour ; and, indeed, if they were, it would be very difficult to ex- geſted matter, mixed with a hot, ſharp, bilious juice, the groſſer cuſe them ; for they are rather to be accounted for from their hiſto- and more terreſtrial part whereof being detained, grows into a ſtony ry, and the urgency of the times which produced them, than to be fort of concretion. approved (upon a cool review) as a ſtanding fyſtem of law. The NODES, in Aſtronomy, the two points wherein the orbit of a reſtleſs machinations of the Jeſuits during the reign of Elizabeth, planet interſects the ecliptic. For definition, ſee the Syſtem, the turbulence and uneaſineſs of the Papiſts under the new reli- Sect. VII. gious eſtabliſhment, and the boldneſs of their hopes and wiſhes for NOMENCLATURE, NOMENCLATURA, a catalogue of fe the ſucceſſion of the queen of Scots, obliged the parliament to veral of the more uſual words in any language, with their fignifi counteract ſo dangerous a ſpirit by laws of a great, and then per- cations, compiled in order to facilitate the uſe of ſuch words, to haps neceſſary, ſeverity. The powder-treaſon, in the ſucceeding thoſe who are to learn the tongue: ſuch are our Latin, Greek, reign, ſtruck a panic into James I. which operated in different French, &c. Nomenclatures. The Chymical Nomenclature has, ways; it occafioned the enacting of new laws againſt the Papiſts; within theſe few years, undergone a total change : in our Syſtem but deterred him from putting them in execution. The intrigues we have accordingly ſtated the motives which induced M. Lavoi of queen Henrietta, in the reign of Charles I. the proſpect of a Po- fier, and other eminent French Chymiſts, to propoſe and adopt the piſh ſucceſſor in that of Charles II. the aſſaſſination-plot in the New Nomenclature. We have explained the principles on which reign of king William, and the avowed claim of a Popiſh pre- the new terms are founded ; and, to render thoſe new terms more tender to the crown, in fubſequent reigns, will account for intelligible, we have prefixed the old terms, by which the ſeveral the extenſion of theſe penalties at thoſe ſeveral periods of our articles were denominated, previous to the introduction and gene- hiſtory.” ral adoption of the New Nomenclature. See the Syſtem, under But now, that all fears of a pretender are vaniſhed ; and the the head New NOMENCLATURE, and the ſeveral Articles, as they power and influence of the pope has become feeble, ridiculous, and reſpectively occur. deſpicable , not only in Britain, but in almoſt every kingdom of Eu- NOMINATIVE, in Grammar, the firſt caſe of nouns which are rope; and as, in fact , the Britiſh Catholics folemnly diſclaim the declinable. The ſimple poſition, or laying down of a noun, or dangerous principles aſcribed to them; the Britiſh legiſlature, giv- name, is called the Nominative-caſe; yet it is not ſo properly a ing way to that liberality of ſentiinent, becoming Proteſtants, caſe, as the matter or ground whence the other caſes are to be have lately repealed the moſt rigorous of the above edicts, viz. formed, by the ſeveral changes and reflections given to this firſt the puniſhment of Popiſh prieſts or ſeſuits,who ihould be found to termination. See the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. I. Sect. I. and Part teach, or officiate in the ſervice of the church; which acts were II. Chap. III. Article III. felony in foreigners, and high treaſon in the natives of this king- NONCONFORMISTS,thoſe who refuſe to join the eſtabliſhed dom: -The forfeitures of Popih heirs, who had received their worſhip. Nonconformiſts, in England, are of two forts. Firſt, ſuch education abroad; and whoſe eſtates went to the next Proteſtant as abſent themſelves from divime worſhip in the eſtabliſhed church, heir :- The power given to the ſon, or other relation, being a through total irreligionzand attend the ſervice of no other perſuaſion. Proteſtant, to take poſſeſſion of the father's or other relation's Theſe, by the ſtat, i Eliz. c. 2. 23 Eliz. c. 1. and 3 Jac. I. c. 4. eſtate, during the life of the real proprietor:- And the debarring forfeit one ſhilling to the poor, every Lord's day they ſo abſent Papiſts from the power of acquiring any legal property by pur- themſelves, and 20l. to the king, if they continue ſuch default for a chaſe. month together; and if they keep any inmatė, thus irreligiouſly In propoſing the repeal of theſe penalties, it was obſerved, That diſpoſed in their houſes, they forfeit 102. per month. beſides that ſome of them had now ceaſed to be neceſſary, others The ſecond ſpecies of Nonconformiſts are thoſe who offend were at all times a diſgrace to humanity. The impriſonment of through a miſtaken or perverſe zeal. Such were eſteemed, by the a Popiſh prieſt for life, only for officiating in the ſervices of his Engliſh laws, enacted ſince the time of the Reformation, to bé Pa religion, was horrible in its nature: and, although the mildneſs of piſts and Proteſtant Diſfenters; both of which were ſuppoſed to be government had hitherto ſoftened the rigour of the law in the equally ſchiſmatics, in not communicating with the national church; practice, it was to be remembered, that the Roman Catholic prieſts with this difference, that the Papiſts divided from it upon material, conſtantly lay at the mercy of the baſeft and moſt abandoned of though erroneous, reaſons ; but many of the diffenters upon matters mankind--of common informers; for, on the evidence of any of of indifference, or, in other words, upon no reaſon at all. theſe wretches, the magiſterial and judicial powers were of necef- certainly (ſays Sir William Blackſtone ) ouranceſtors were miſtaken ſity bound to enforce all the ſhameful penalties of the act. Others in their plans of compulſions and intolerance. The fin of ſchiſm; as of theſe penalties held out the moſt powerful temptations for the ſuch, is by no means the object of temporal coercion and puniſh commiſſion of acts of depravity, at the very thought of which ou ment. If , through weakneſs of intellect, through miſdirected piety, nature recoils with horror: They ſeemed calculated to looſen all through perverſeneſs and acerbity of temper, or (which is often the the bands of ſociety; to diffolve all civil, moral, and religious ob- caſe) through a proſpect of ſecular advantage, in herding with a ligations and duties, to poiſon the ſources of domeſtic felicity, and party, men quarrel with the ecclefiaftical eſtabliſhment, the civil to annihilate every principle of honour. The encouragement magiſtrate has nothing to do with it, unleſs their tenets and prac- given to children to lay their hands upon the eſtates of their pa- tice are ſuch as threaten ruin or diſturbance to the ſtate. He is rents, and the reſtriction which debars any man from the honeſt bound indeed to protect the eſtabliſhed church: and if this can be acquiſition of property, need only to be mentioned to excite indig- better effected by admitting none but its genuine members to of- nation in an enlightened age' fices of truſt and emolument, he is certainly at liberty ſo to do ; In order the better to ſecure the Engliſh eſtabliſhed church the diſpoſal of ofices being matter of favour and diſcretion. But, againſt perils from Nonconformiſts of all denominations, Infidels, this point being once ſecured, all perſecution for diverſity of opi Turks, Jews, Heretics, Papiſts, and ſectaries, there are, however, nions, however ridiculous or abſurd they may be, is contrary to tivo bulwarks erected: called the corporation and teſt aft: by the every principle of found policy and civil freedom. The names former of which, no perſon can be legally elected to any office re- and ſubordination of the clergy, the poſture of devotion, the mate lating to the government of any city or corporation, unleſs, within rials and colour of the ininiſter's garment, the joining in a known a twelvemonth before, he has received the facrament of the Lord's or unknown form of prayer, and other matters of the ſame kind, fupper, according to the rights of the church of England; and he is muſt be left to the option of every man's private judgment. alſo enjoined to take the oaths of allegiance and ſupremacy at the “With regard therefore to Proteſtant diſſenters, although the ex fame time that he takes the oath of office; or, in default of either of perience of their turbulent diſpoſition in former times occafioned ſe theſe requiſites, ſuch election ſhall be void. The other, called the veral diſabilities and reſtrictions (which I ſhall not undertake to juf Teſt Act, directs all officers, civil and military, to take the tify) to be laid upon them by abundance of ſtatutes, yet at length oaths and make the declaration againſt tranſubſtantiation, in any of the legiſlature, with a true ſpirit of magnanimity, extended that in the king's courts at Weſtminſter, or at the quarter-feſſions, with- dulgence to theſe ſectaries, which they themſelves, when in power, in ſix calendar months after their admiſſion; and alſo within the had held to be countenancing ſchiſm, and denied to the church of ſame time to receive the ſacrament of the Lord's ſupper, accord- England. ing to the uſage of the church of England, in ſome public church, “As to Papiſts, what has been ſaid of the Proteſtant Diſfenters immediately after divine ſervice and ſermon, and to deliver into would hold equally ſtrong for a general toleration of them; pro eourt a certificate thereof, ſigned by the miniſter and church- vided their ſeparation was founded only upon difference of opinion wardens, and alſo to prove the ſame by two credible witneſſes ; in religion, and their principles did not allo extend to a fubverkon upon forfeiture of 500!. and diſability to hold the ſaid office. And of the civil government. if once they could be brought to re of much the ſame nature with theſe is the ſtatute 7 Jac. I. c. 2. nounce the fupremacy of the pope, they might quietly enjoy their which permits no perſon to be naturaliſed or reſtored in blood, but leven facraments, their purgatory, and auricular confeffion; their ſuch as undergo a like teſt; which teſt having been rernoved in worſhip of relics, and images; nay, even their tranſubſtantiation. 1753, in favour of the Jews, was the next feffion of parliament re- But while they acknowledge a foreign power, fuperior to the fo- ſtored again with ſome precipitation. vereignty of the kingdom, they cannot complain, if the laws of that NON-JURORS, are perſons that refuſe to take the oaths to the kingdom will not treat them upon the footing of good ſubjects. government, " Yet N OR N 0 S government, who are liable to certain penalties'; and for a third of cally lighter than the circumambient air ; hence, of courſe, they fence to abjure the realm. aſcend: and being elevated to the upper regions of the air and The Non-jurors, or high-church men, were particularly diſtin driven by the winds from warmer to colder climates, the cold guiſhed by the following principles: 1. They maintained the doc makes them combine and ftiffen. When they are afterwards agi- trine of paſſive obedience. 2. That the hereditary fucceffion to tated by different currents of air, they ſparkle and crackle like the throne is of divine inſtitution, and therefore can never be in the hairs of cats and other animals when ſtiffened with cold. terrupted, ſuſpended, or annulled, on any pretext. 3. That the This corruſcation in quite cold atmoſpheres, and in thoſe which church is ſubject to the juriſdiction, not of the civil magiſtrate, but are more temperate, appears in different poſitions in the horizon, of God alone, particularly in matters of a religious nature. 4. zenith, or otherwiſe, according to the ſituation of the fpectator, That, conſequently, the biſhops depoſed by king William III. re and the poſition of the elevated exhalations. The difference of mained, notwithſtanding their depoſition, true biſhops to the day colours the Doctor fuppoſes to ariſe from the different qualities of of their death ; and that thoſe who were fubftituted in their places the articles combined, thoſe of the moſt inflammable nature ſhin- were the unjuſt poffeffor of eccleſiaſtical dignities were rebels ing with the greateſt luſtre. SUTATO The Doctor likewiſe tries to account for theſe lights not appear- againſt the ſtate, as well as ſchiſmatics in the church, and that all, therefore, who held communion with them, were alfo charge- ing, or but feldom appearing, in ancient times. The atmoſphere, able with rebellion and ſchiſm. And, 5. that this ſchiſm, which he thinks, was not impregnated with materials proper to produce rends the church in pieces, is a moſt heinous ſin, whoſe puniſh them. He imagines that the increaſed conſumption of fuel, in ment muſt fall heavy on all thoſe who do not return ſincerely to America in particular, the burning of volcanoes, and the approach the true church, from which they have departed. of blazing ſtars, whoſe atmoſpheres have been ſo expanded by the NON-NATURALS, in Medicine, res non naturales. are the ſun's heat that part of them have fallen into the earth's atmof- cauſes and effects of diſeaſes, whether near or remote. Phyſicians phere, and communicated to it new matter, have ſo changed and have digeſted all the cauſes of diſeaſes into fix claſſes, which they prepared our air, that whenever its conſiſtence is proper, then, if call the fix non-naturals. Theſe are, 1. Air. 2. Meat and drink. the light of the fun and moon is not too powerful, the aurora 3. Motion and reſt. 4. The paſſions of the mind. 5. Excre- borealis will appear. tions and retenſions. '6. Sleep and waking. They are thus | NOSE, the organ of ſmell. The uſes of the noſe are, its called, becauſe, by their uſe or abuſe, they become either good, giving us the ſenſe of ſmelling ; its ſerving in the great office of naturals ; or evil, contra-naturals. But the diviſion, in effect, is reſpiration, and in modelling the voice ; it receiving the abundant of no great uſe; the cauſes of diſeaſes being much more commo humours from the eyes, and in adding to the beauty of the face. diouſly laid down otherwiſe. For deſcription, as an organ of fenſe, ſee the Syſtem of ANATOMY, NORTH, one of the four cardinal points of the horizon, being Part VII. Sect. III. For thoſe parts which relate to the bones, that interfection of the horizon and meridian which lies neareſt our fee Part I. Sect. II. Art. II. For thoſe which relate to the Mul- pole. cles, fee Part II. Sect. II. Table of Muſcles, Art. V. For re- North-Eaſt Paſage. The advocates for the north-eaſt paſſage, preſentation of the Bones and Muſcles of this part of the human fays a late writer, have divided that navigation into three parts; and face, ſee the Plates I. and II. with their explanations. by endeavouring to ihew that theſe three parts have been paſſed at In Tartary, the greateſt beauties are thoſe who have the leaſt different times, they conclude from thence, that the whole taken noſes. Ruybrock mentions the wife of the great Jenghiz Khan collectively, is practicable. Theſe three parts are, 1. From Arch as a celebrated beauty, becauſe ſhe had only two holes for a noſe. angel to the river Lena. 2. From the Lena round Tſchukotſkoi The Crim Tartars break the noſes of their children while young, Noſs, (or the north-eaitern promontory of Aſia) to Kamtſchatka : as thinking it a great piece of folly to have their noſes ſtand and 3. From Kamtſchatka to Japan. With reſpect to the firſt before their eyes. In moſt other countries, China excepted, great part, no one ever aſſerted, that it has been performed in one voy noſes are an honour. age: from an account of the ſeveral voyages that have been made In what the beauty of the noſe conſiſts, different nations have in theſe feas it appears, that there is a cape between the rivers different opinions : and the following reflections of Sir Joſhua Chatanja and Piafida, that has never yet been doubled. As to Reynolds on this ſubject, are perhaps the moſt philoſophical ac- the ſecond diviſion of the north-eaſt-paſſage, it has been affirmed, count of the beauty of form that is to be found in any language, that a paſſage has been effected by ſeveral veſſels, which have, “I ſuppoſe (ſays Sir Joſhua) it will be eaſily granted, that no man at different times, failed round the northern extremity of Afia. can judge whether any animal be beautiful in its kind, or deform- But from the Ruſſian accounts it is inſerted, that it has been per ed, who has ſeen only one of that ſpecies; that is as concluſive in formed but once, viz. by one Deſhneff, who, in 1648, is faid to regard to the human figure: fo that if a man born blind was to reco- have doubled this formidable cape. Of the third, or remaining ver his fight, and the moſt beautiful woman was brought before part of this paſſage, no doubt can be entertained. The connec him, he could not determine whether ſhe was handſome or not ; tion between the ſeas of Kamtſchatka and japan has been eſta nor, if the moſt beautiful and moſt deformed were produced, could bliſhed by many voyages. Coxe’s Account of the Ruſſian Dif he any better determine to which he ſhould give the preference, coveries, &c. 4to 1780. having ſeen only theſe two. To diſtinguiſh beauty, then, implies NORTH-West Paſage. A north-weſt paſſage by Hudſon’s bay the having ſeen many individuals of that ſpecies. If it is aſked, into the Pacific Ocean, has been more than once attempted of how is more ſkill acquired by the obſervation of greater numbers ? late years, but, hitherto, without ſucceſs. Some greatly doubt of I anſwer, that, in conſequence of having ſeen many, the the practicability of ſuch an enterprize, and think the obſerva- | acquired even without ſeeking after it, of diſtinguiſhing between tions made by the Rulians give us ſmall hopes. But, as they accidental blemiſhes and excreſcence ; which are continually vary- have not yet publiſhed the particulars of their diſcoveries, little can ing the ſurface of Nature's works, and the invariable general form be ſaid about them. Some general things may be ſeen in the which Nature moſt frequently produces, and always ſeems to in- Phil. Tranſ. Nº 482. ſect. 14. It appears from thence, that the tend in her productions. Ruſſians have paſſed between the land of Nova Zembla, and the Every ſpecies of the animal as well as the vegetable creation coaſt of Aſia, and as the Dutch did formerly diſcover the northern may be ſaid to have a fixed or determinate form, towards which na- coaſts of Nova Zembla, we may be well aſſured, that the country ture is continually inclining, like various lines terminating in the is really an iſland. Captain Meres in the account of his voyage centre ; or it may be compared to pendulums vibrating in differ- to the North-weſt coaſt of America, fuggeſts an idea of the prac ent directions over one central point; and as they all croſs the ticability of this paſſage. centre, though only one paſſes through any other point, fo it will NORTHERN LIGHTS, the fame with aurora borealis, under be found that perfect beauty is oftener produced by nature than defor- which article we have given a copious account of this phenomenon, | mity: I do not mean than' deformity in general, but thananyone kind of and of the ſuppoſed cauſes of it. Natural ſcience, however, does | deförmity. To inſtance in a particular part of a feature : the line not arrive at perfection at once, and it is well if it does ſo after that forms the ridge of the noſe is beautiful when it is ſtraight ; trials repeated for years with care and accuracy. How far the this then is the central forın, which is oftener found than either cauſes that have been aſſigned for this appearance will account for concave, convex, or any other irregular form that ſhall be propoſed. it, or whether they will be able to remove all difficulties, it is not As we are then more accuſtomed to beauty than deformity, we for us to determine ; but it is the part of philoſophers to hear all may conclude that to be the reaſon why we approve and admire fides, and to attend with patient affiduity to every hypothefis, reject it, as we approve and admire cuſtoms and faſhions of dreſs for ing or receiving as reaſon, after the ſtricteft inveſtigation, ſhall no other reaſon than that we are uſed to them: ſo that though ſeem to favour the one ſide or the other. Wiſhing to lay before habit and cuſtom cannot be ſaid to be the cauſe of beauty, it is cer- our readers every thing important either in ſcience or in litersture, tainly the cauſe of our liking it'; and I have no doubt, but that if we cannot let paſs the opportunity which the preſent article aifords we were more uſed to deformity than beauty, deformity would then us, of mentioning an hypotheſis which Doctor Stearns, an Ame loſe the idea now annexed to it, and take that of beauty; as if the rican, formed, about the year 1788, to account for the appearances whole world thould agree that yes and no ſhould change their mean- called aurora borealis, and aurora auſtralis. For this laſt, fee AURORA BOREALIS, N° 3. ing, yes would then deny, and no would affirm. Whoever undertakes to proceed further in this argument, and Doctor Stearns ſuppoſes that theſe phenomena originate from endeavours to fix a general criterion of beauty reſpecting different aqueous, nitrous, fulphureous, bituminous, and other exhalations, ſpecies, or to ſhow why one ſpecies is more beautiful than other, from the fumes of various kinds of earths or other minerals, vege it will be required from him firſt to prove that one ſpecies is really tables, animals, fires, volcanoes, &c. Theſe, he thinks, become more beautiful than another. That we prefer one to the other, rarefied, and being charged with electrical Auid, become ſpecifi- and with very good reaſo.1, will be readily granted; but it does power is 2 not Ν Ο Τ N O V ment. ; not follow from thence that we think it a more beautiful forin they diſtinguiſh nothing into negative, which is the abſence orf we have no criterion of form by which to determine our judg of reality in any ſubject, and privative, which is the abſence of re- He who fays a fwan is more beautiful than a dove, means ality in a ſubject capable thereof, or wherein it oug it to be found little more than that he has more pleaſure in ſeeing a ſwan than a NOTION, notio, in Logic, an idea or repreſentation of any thing dove, either from the ſtatelineſs of its motions, or its being a more in the mind. This term, and the word idea, are often taken in the rare bird ; and he who gives the preference to the dove, does it ſame ſenſe; but an ingenious author obſerves, that we cannot from ſome aſſociation of ideas of innocence that he always annexes ſtricily be ſaid to have an idea of an active being, or of an action, to the dove : but if he pretends to defend the preference he gives to although we may be ſaid to have a notion of them. I have ſome one or the other, by endeavouring to prove that this more beauti knowledge, or notion, of my mind, and its acts about ideas, inaf- ful form proceeds from a particular gradation of magnitude, undu much as I know, or underſtand; what is meant by thoſe words. lation of acurye, direction of a line, or whatever other conceit of his What I know, that I have fome notion of. However the terms imagination he ſhall fix on as a criterion of form, he will be continu idea and notion may be uſed convertibly. But yet it conduces to ally contradicting himſelf, and find at laſt that the great mother of na clearneſs and propriety, that we diſtinguiſh things very different ture will not be ſubjected to ſuch narrow rules. Among the va by different names. It is alſo to be remarked, that of all relations rious reaſons why we prefer one part of her works to another, including an act of the mind, we cannot ſo properly be ſaid to have the moſt general, I believe, is habit and cuſtom: cuſtom makes, an idea, but rather a notion of the relations or habitudes between in a certain ſenſe, white black, and black white; it is cuſtom alone things; but, if in the modern way, the word idea is extended to determines our preference of the colour of the Europeans to the ſpirits, relation, and acts; this is after all, an affair of verbal con- Æthiopians; and they, for the ſame reaſon, prefer their own colour cern. Berkeley Princip. of Hum. Knowl. Sect. 142. p. i60. 161. to ours. I ſuppoſe nobody will doubt, if one of their painters was See alfo the Article IDEA: to paint the goddeſs of beauty, but that he would repreſent her NOVEL, a fictitious narrative in profe, which profeſſes to black, with thick lips, flat noſe, and woolly hair: and it feems to exhibit the natural workings of the human heart, the happineſs me he would act very unnaturally if he did not; for by what cri and miſery of private life, and, above all, the nature of the af- terion will any one diſpute the propriety of his idea ? We indeed, fection called Love, and the conſequence of indulging it in cer- fay, that the form and colour of the European is preferable to that tain circumſtances. of the Ethiopian ; but I know of no other reaſon we have for it, The novel ſprung out of the old romance, and has been cen- but that we are moſt accuſtomed to it. It is abſurd to ſay, that ſured for infipidity, as its parent was for extravagance. (See beauty is poſſeiſed of attractive powers, which irreſiſtibly ſeize the ROMANCE.) That the greater part of thoſe abſurd things, which, correſponding mind with love and admiration, ſince that argu under this title, are daily iſſuing from the preſs, deſerve all the ment is equally concluſive in favour of the white and the black contempt with which they can be treated, is a poſition which we philoſophers. feel not ourſelves inclined to controvert ; but we cannot admit The black and white nations muſt, in reſpect of beauty, be con that any ſpecies of writing is in itſelf infipid, merely becauſe num-: ſidered as of different kinds, at leaſt a different ſpecies of the ſame bers have atteinpred it without fuccefs. The heroic poems of kind; from one of which to the other, as I obſerved, no inference Blackmore are univerſally known to be contemptible perform- can be drawn. ances; and if we had before us all the heroic poetry that has ever « Novelty is ſaid to be one of the cauſes of beauty : that no been written, how many thouſands of volumes ſhould we have as, velty is a very fufficient reaſon why we ſhould admire, is not de mean as either Prince Arthur, King Arthur; Eliza; or Alfrea? nied; but becauſe it is uncommon, is it therefore beautiful ? The Yet no critic has hitherto dared to maintain, that heroic poetry is beauty that is produced by colour, as when we prefer one bird to an inſipid ſpecies of writing. another, though of the ſame form, on account of its colour, has It has been often affirmed with learned ſolemnity, that the nothing to do with this argument, which reaches only to form. peruſal of novels tends to corrupt the youth of both ſexes; to I have here conſidered the word beauty as being properly applied produce effeminacy in men and extravagant notions of the happi- to form alone. There is a neceſſity of fixing this confined ſenſe neſs of love in women ; that it diverts the minds of the former for there can be no argument if the ſenſe of the word is extended from more ſerious and uſeful ſtudies, and expofes the latter to the to every thing that is approved. A rofe may as well be ſaid to be arts of ſeduction. That there are ſome novels to which this ob- beautiful, becauſe it has a fine ſmell, as a bird becauſe of its colour. jectioni iš applicable; is certainly a fact. That a novel might be When we apply the word beauty, we do not mean always by it a written ſo as to intereſt the heart in behalf of virtue, as much as more beautiful form, but foinething valuable on account of its ra any one has ever warped it to the ſide of vice, is a truth which no rity, uſefulneſs, colour, or any other property. A horſe is ſaid to man will ever venture to call in queſtion who has any knowledge be a beautiful animal; but had a horſe as few good qualities as a of human nature; and therefore we are decidedly of opinion, tortoiſe, I do not imagine that he would be then eſteemed beau that there may be novels worthy at once of the perufal of inex- tiful. perienced youth and hoary wiſdom. A critic, by no means too « A fitneſs to the end propoſed is ſaid to be another cauſe of indulgent to works of fancy, and among whoſe failings laxity of beauty : but fuppofing we were proper judges of what form is the morals has never been numbered, thus expreſſes himſelf on the moſt proper in an animal to conſtitute ſtrength or ſwiftneſs, we al ſubject of novel-writing :-“ Theſe familiar hiſtories may per. ways determine concerning its beauty before we exert our under haps be made of greater uſe than the folemnities of profeſſed ſtanding to judge of its fitneſs. morality, and convey the knowledge of vice and virtùe with more “From what has been ſaid, it may be inferred, that the works of efficacy than axioms and definitions. But if the power of exam ., nature, if we compare one fpecies to another, are all equally beau ple is ſo great, as to take poſſeſſion of the memory by a kind of tiful ; and that preference is given from cuſtom, or ſome affocia violence, and produce effects almoſt without the intervention of tion of ideas; and that in creatures of the fame ſpecies beauty is the the will, care ought to be taken, that, when the choice is unre- medium or centre of all various forms.” ſtrained, the beſt examples only ſhould be exhibited ; and that NOSOLOGY, Nogonoyie, compounded of voros. malady, diſ what is likely to operate fo ſtrongly, ſhould not be miſchievous eaſe, and noyos diſcourſe, reaſon, a diſcourſe or treatiſe of diſeaſes ; or uncertain in its effects." otherwiſe called PATHOLOGY. We have ſaid, that the novel profeſſes above all things to ex- The celebrated Linnæus adopted a plan, and framed a ſet of bibit the nature of love and its conſequences. Whether this be inſtitutes, under the title Genera Morborum: his ſcheme was eſſential to fuch performances may perhaps be reaſonably queſ- firſt publiſhed in a theſis in 1759, in a ſmall quarto, in 1763. tioned; but it has been made an important part of the drama in In the claſſification of diſeaſes, he has nearly retained the arrange moſt novels, and, we think, with great propriety. It is the ob- ment of M. Sauvages, but he has altered his terms, changed the ject of the noveliſt to give a true picture of life, diverſified only order of the claſſes, and added a new claſs, with which he begins by accidents that daily happen in the world, and influenced by his method. paſſions and qualities which are really to be found in converſing The fymptomatic plan of arranging diſeaſes has ſince been fol with mankind. To accompliſh this object, he conceives a hero lowed by ſome other profeſſors of phyſic. Dr. Vogel of Gottingen, or heroine, whom he places in a certain rank of life, endues with in 1764, publiſhed his Definitones Generum Morborum ; Dr. certain qualities of body and mind, and conducts, through many Cullen of Edinburgh has alſo publiſhed a Synopſis Nofologæ Me viciſſitudes of fortune, either to the ſummit of happinefs or to the thodicæ, and made it the baſis of his Firſt Lines of the Practice of abyſs of miſery, according to the paſſion which he wiſhes to excite Phyſic; in which by omitting many genera, and reducing others in his readers. In the modern novel, this hero or heroine is never to the rank of ſpecies only, he has very conſiderably abridged the placed on a throne, or buried in a cottage; becauſe to the mo- whole ; upon this plan is formed our Syſtem of MEDICINE. narch and the cottager no difficulties occur which can deeply in- NOSTRILS, Nares, the two apertures or cavities of the noſe, tereſt the majority of readers. But But among the virtuous part of through which the air paſſes, and which ſerve to convey odours the intermediate orders of fociety, that affection which we call to carry off the pituita ſeparated in the finus of the baſe of the love feldom fails, at ſome period of life, to take poſſeſſion of the cranium. ' The noſtrils are ſeparated by a cartilage called feptum hearts of both ſexes ; and wherever it has place, it muſt be pro- narium, and lined with a very ſenſible membrane. See the Syſtem ductive of happineſs ductive of happinefs or of miſery. In the proper management of of ANATOMY, Part VII. Sect. III. this paſſion conſiſts much of the difficulty of the novel-writer. He NOTHING, nihil, nihilum, or non ens. The learned diſtin muſt exhibit his hero as feeling all the pangs and pleaſures of love, guiſh between nothing taken ſtrictly, which is what is impoſſible, as ſometimes animated with hope, and ſometimes ready to ſink or implies a contradiction; and nothing taken more generally, into deſpair, but always exerting himſelf to obtain the gratifica- which is both applied to what is poffible, and impoſſible. Again, tion of his wiſhes. In doing this , care ſhould be taken, eithe: No. 118. * than 2 and to N O V NUC that he never tranfgreſs the laws of virtue, or at leaſt that he never not, in fome way, contribute towards the winding up of tranſgreſs them with impunity. the piece. A living author, deeply read in Grecian literature, and « It is juſtly conſidered as the greateſt excellency of art to far from being prejudiced in behalf of any modern, has been heard mitate nature; but it is neceſſary to diſtinguiſh thoſe parts of to ſay, thát, had Ariſtotle ſeen Tom Jones, he would have pro- nature which are moſt proper for imitation: greater care is ſtill nounced it a poem, perfect in its kind. The buſineſs of the Noveliſt is to intereſt the heart by a diſplay required in repreſenting life, which is ſo often difcoloured by paf- fion or deformed by wickedneſs. If the world be promiſcuouſly of the incidents of common life. In doing this, he muſt exhibit deſcribed, I cannot perceive (ſays the great critic already quoted) ſcenes that are probable, and record ſpeeches that are natural. He of what uſe it can be to read the account; or why it may not be is not at liberty to invent, but only to ſelect, objects, and to call, from the maſs of mankind, thoſe individuals upon which the atter- as ſafe to turn the eye immediately upon mankind, as upon a mir- ror which ſhows all that preſents itſelf without diſcrimination. tion ought moſt to be employed. The more cloſely he adheres to It is therefore not a ſufficient vindication of a character, that it is this rule, the more deeply does he intereſt us in his narrative; drawn as it appears; for many characters ought never to be becauſe every reader ſees at once, that it is poſſible he may, at ſome drawn : nor of a narrative, that the train of events is agreeable to time or other, be in circumſtances nearly reſembling thoſe of the obſervation; for that obſervation which is called knowledge of the hero of the tale. But the buſineſs of life is not tranſacted in world will be found much more frequently to make men cunning pompous language, nor the ſpeeches of real lovers made in verſe, either rhimed or blank. than good. The purpoſe of theſe writings is ſurely not only to Was Tom Jones to be tranſlated into ſhow mankind, but to provide that they may be ſeen hereafter verſe, we ſhall venture to aſſert, it would quickly loſe its hold of with leſs hazard; to teach the means of avoiding the ſnares which the public mind; becauſe the hero would appear in a light which are laid by treachery for innocence, without inſuring any wiſh every heart muſt feel to be unnatural. for that ſuperiority with which the betrayer flatters his vanity ; to It is well obſerved by Johnſon, that the taſk of the Novel- give the power of counteracting fraud, without the temptation writer requires, together with that learning which is to be gained to practiſe it; to initiate youth by meek encounters in the art of from books, that experience which can never be attained by ſoli- neceſſary defence; and to increaſe prudence without impairing tary diligence, but muſt ariſe from general converſe, and accurate virtue. obſervation of the living world. Their performances have, as Ho- - Many writers, for the fake of following nature, ſo mingle race expreſſes it, plus oneris quantum variæ minus, little indul- good and bad qualities in their principal perſonages, that they are gence, and therefore more difficulty. They are engaged in por-- both equally conſpicuous; and as we accompany them through traits of which every one knows the original, and can detect any their adventures with delight, and are led by degrees to intereſt deviation from exactneſs of reſemblance. Other writings are ſafey ourſelves in their favour, we loſe the abhorrence of their faults, except from the malice of learning, but theſe are in danger from becauſe they do not hinder our pleaſures; or perhaps regard them every common reader; as the ſlipper ill-executed, was cenſured with ſome kindneſs for being united with ſo much merit. There by a fhoemaker, who happened to ſtop in his way, at the Venus of have been men, indeed, ſplendidly wicked, whoſe endowments Apelles.” It is in thus faithfully copying nature that the excel- threw a brightneſs on their crimes, and whom ſcarce any villainy lence of Fielding confifts. No man was ever better acquainted made perfectly deteſtable, becauſe they never could be wholly di with the ſhades which diverſify characters, and none ever made veſted of their excellencies: but ſuch have been, in all ages, the his perſonages act and ſpeak more like real men and women, in the great corruptors of the world; and their reſemblance ought no particular circumſtances which he deſcribes. more to be preſerved than the art of murdering without pain. < But the fear of not being approved, as a juſt copier of human " In narratives where hiſtorical veracity has no place, there manners, is not the inoſt important concern that an author of this ſhould be exhibited the moſt perfect idea of virtue; of virtue not claſs ought to have before him. Novels are written chiefly to the angelical, nor above probability (for what we cannot credit we young, the ignorant; and the idle, to whom they ſerve as lectures ſhall never imitate) but the higheſt and pureſt that humanity can of conduct, and introduction into life. In every ſuch work it reach, which, exerciſed in ſuch trials as the various revolutions of ſhould therefore be carefully inculcated, that virtue is the higheft things ſhall bring upon it, ray, by conquering ſome calamities, proof of underſtanding, and the only ſolid baſis of greatneſs; and and enduring others, teach us what we may hope, and what we that vice is the natural conſequence of narrow thoughts ; that it can perform. Vice, (for vice is neceſſary to be ſhown) ſhould begins in miſtake and ends in ignominy: And, fince love muſt diſguſt; nor ſhould the graces of gaiety, or the dignity of courage, be introduced, it ſhould be repreſented as leading to wretchedneſs, be fo united with it, as to reconcile it to the mind. Wherever it whenever it is feparated from duty or from prudence.” appears, it ſhould raiſe hatred by the malignity of its practices, NOVELTY, or Newness. Of all the circumſtances that and contempt by the meanneſs of its ſtratagems; for, while it is raiſe emotions, not excepting beauty, nor even greatneſs, ſays ſupported by either parts or fpirit, it will feldom be heartily ab Lord Kames, in his Elements of Criticiſm, Novelty hath the moſt horred.” powerful influence. A new object produces inſtantaneouſly an If theſe obſervations be juſt, and to us they appear unanſwer emotion, termed wonder, which totally occupies the mind, and for able, Richardſon's Lovelace is a character which ought never to a time excludes all other objects. Converſation, among the vul- have been drawn. In the graces of gaiety, and the dignity of cou gar, never is more intereſting than when it turns upon ſtrange ob- rage, in liberality without profuſion, in perſeverance and addreſs, jects, and extraordinary events. Men tear themſelves from their he every where appears as the firſt of men; and that honour with native country in ſearch of things rare and new; and Novelty con- which he protects the virtue of his « Roſe-bud,” if any inſtruction verts into a pleaſure the fatigues, and even perils of travelling. is to be drawn from it, can only lead the admirers of Richardſon To what cauſe ſhall we aſcribe theſe fingular appearances ? To to believe, that another Clariſla might be in perfect ſafety,were ſhe curiolity, undoubtedly; a principle implanted in human nature for to throw herſelf upon the honour of another Lovelace. Yet, in the a purpoſe extremely beneficial, that of acquiring knowledge ; and compoſition of this ſplendid character, there is not one principle the emotion of wonder raiſed by new and ſtrange objects, inflames upon which confidence can ſecurely reſt; and Lovelace, whilſt he our curiolity to know more of ſuch objects. This emotion is dif- is admired by the youth of both ſexes, and eſcapes the contempt of ferent from admiration: Novelty, wherever found, whether in a all mankind, muſt excite in the breaſt of the cool moraliſt, fenti quality or action, is the cauſe of wonder ; admiration is directed ta ments of abhorrence and deteftation. the perſon who performs any thing wonderful. A French critic, ſpeaking of this character, ſays, “ By turns I The higheſt degree of wonder arifes from unknown objects that could embrace and fight with Lovelace. His pride, his gaiety, have no analogy to any ſpecies we are acquainted with. Skake- his drollery, charm and amuſe me: his genius confounds me, and peare in a ſimile introduces that ſpecies of novelty : makes me finile ; his wickedneſs aſtoniſhes and enrages me; but at the ſame time I admire, as much as I deteft him.” Surely this As glorious to the fight is not the character which ought to be preſented to the inexperi- As is a winged meſſenger from heaven Unto the white up-turned wond'ring eye enced and ardent mind! Of mortals, that fall back to gaze on him The moſt perfect characters which we at preſent recollect in When he beſtrides the lazy-pacing clouds, any novel are, Richardſon's Grandifon, and Fielding's Allworthy.- And fails upon the bofom of the air. The virtues of the former are perhaps, tinctured with moral Romeo and Juliet. pe- dantry, if we may uſe the expreſfion; and the latter ſuffered him NOUN, nomen, in Grammar, a name or word which expreſſes felf to be long impofed upon by the arts of the hypocrite, and the the ſubject ſpoken of; or expreſſes a ſubject whereof ſomething is, philoſophical coxcomb; but without ſome defects they would not or may be affirmed ; as, man, food, whiteneſs, Henry, &c. See the be human virtues, and therefore no objects of human imitation. Clariffa is an excellent character : She has as much perfection as SYSTEM, Part I. Chap. I. Sect. I. Chap. III. Article II. NOURISHMENT. See NUTRITION. can be expected in woman, whilft ſhe exhibits, at the ſame time, NUCLEUS, in general, denotes the kernel of a nut, or even fome obvious defects. As it is the object of the Noveliſt to intereſt the heart, and to any feed encloſed within a huſk. The term Nucleus is alſo uſed for the body of a comet. communicate inſtruction through the medium of pleaſure, his work, NUCTA, a dew, which, falling in Egypt, about St. John's like a tragedy or comedy, ſhould be one, exhibiting a hero or he day, is, by the ſuperſtitious natives of the country, conſidered as roine, whoſe ſucceſs every incident ſhould contribute to forward or to retard. In this reſpect no work of fancy has ever furpaſſed deed, ſo beneficial, that this belief is little ſurpriſing among a peo- miraculous, and the peculiar gift of that ſaint. Its effects the Tom Jones of Fielding. It is conſtructed upon principles of ple ſo totally ignorant of natural cauſes as the modern Egyptians ; the foundeít criticiſin, and contains not a ſingle event which does for it is acknowledged, by the moſt enlightened travellers, to ſtop the are, in- N UM N UP the plague, and announce a ſpeedy and plentiful inundation of the one; two, or more ſyllables. Whereas, the two frequent repetitiori country. Theſe effects are thus rationally accounted for, by Mr. of monoſyllables renders the ſtyle pitiful and grating. 3. It contributes greatly to the numeroufneſs of a period; to Bruce. « In February and March the ſun is on its approach to the ze have it cloſed by magnificent and well-founding words. nith of one extremity of Egypt, and of courſe has a very conſider 4. The numbers depend not only on the nobleneſs of the words able influence upon the other. The Nile having now fallen low, in the cloſe, but in thoſe of the whole tenor of the period; as in the water, in certain old ciſterns, which, though they ſtill exiſt, are that fine oration of Cicero for Fonteius, a brother of one of the fuffered to accumulate all the filth of the river, becomes putrid, Veſtal maids: Nolite pati, judices, aras, deorum immortalium, and the river itſelf has loſt all its finer, and volatile parts, by the Veſtæque matris, quotidianis virginum lamentationibus de veſtró continued action of a vertical ſun ; ſo that, inſtead of being ſubject | judicio commoveri. to evaporation, it grows daily more and more inclined to putre 5. To have the period flow eaſily and equably, the harſh con- faction. About St. John's day it receives a plentiful mixture of currence of ters and words is to be very ſtudiouſly avoided, the freſh and fallen rain from Ethiopia, which dilutes and refreihes particularly the frequent meeting of rough conſonants : as, the the almoſt corrupted river, and the ſun near at hand exerts its in beginning the firſt ſyllable of a word with the laſt of the pre- Auence upon the water, which is now become light enough to be ceding : the frequent repetition of the ſame letter or fyllable; and exhaled, though it has ſtill with it a mixture of corrupted fluid. the frequent uſe of like-ending words. Laſtly, the utmoſt care It is in February, March, or April only, that the plague begins in is to be taken, left in aiming at oratoral numbers, you ſhould fall Egypt.” into poetical ones ; and inſtead of proſe write verſe ; which even Our philoſophical traveller does not believe it an endemical dif Cicero himſelf is ſometimes guilty of: witneſs Cum loquitur, eaſe; but aſſigns very ſufficient reaſons for thinking that it comes tanti, fletus gemitujque fiebant. from Conſtantinople, with merchandize, or with paſſengers, at the With regard to Engliſh compoſition, the following cautions very time of the year when the air, by the long abſence of dews, ſhould be obferved: a number of monoſyllables ſhould not be has attained a degree of putridity proper to receive it. In this crouded together, nor ſeveral words of the ſame termination, eſpe- ſtate of the atmoſphere, the infection continues to rage till the pe- cially if the affent falls on the ſame ſyllable in each of thein ; nor riod of St. John's day, when it is ſuddenly ſtopped by the dews oc- ſhould a ſentence end with a monoſyllable: to which may be ad- caſioned by a refreſhing mixture of rain-water, which is poured ded, that very long words are not ſuited to the beginning or con- into the Nile, at the beginning of the inundation. The firſt and cluſion of a period. Ward's Orat. vol. 1. p. 380, &c. moſt remarkable ſign of the change effected in the air, is the ſud- NUMERATION, in Arithmetic, the art of eſtimating or den ſtopping of the plague. Every perſon, though ſhut up from pronouncing any number or ſeries of numbers. The characters, ſociety, for months before, buys, ſells, and communicates with his whereby numbers are ordinarily expreſſed, are the nine following neighbour, without any ſort of apprehenſion ; and as far as our ones ; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. See the Syſtem, Chap. I. author could learn, upon fair enquiry, it was never known that NUMERATOR, in ſpeaking of fractions, ſignifies the num- one fell fick of the plague after the anniverſary of St. John. He ber, which ſhews how many of thoſe parts, which the integer admits that ſome have died of it after that period; but of them the is ſuppoſed to be divided into, are expreſſed by the fraction. The diſeaſe had got ſuch hold, under the moſt putrid influence of the numerator is that part of a fraction which is placed over the little air, that they could not recover. To corroborate this the bar, by which it is ſeparated from the under number called ory, which attributes ſo much to the benign influence of the the denominator, and which ſhews into how many parts the inte- falling due, he obſerves, that immediately after St. John's day, ger is divided. For a full definition, ſee the Syſtem of Arith- the cloaths of the many thouſands who have died during the late METIC, Chap. IV. continuance of the plague, are publicly expoſed in the market- NUMIDA, in Ornithology, a genus belonging to the order place; and that all theſe, though conſiſting of furs, cotton, filk, of gallinæ. On each ſide of the head there is a kind of coloured and woollen cloths, which are the ſtuffs moſt retentive of infec fleſhy horn ; and the beak is furniſhed with cere near the noſtrils. tion, imbibing the moiſt air of the evening and the morning, are There is but one ſpecies, the meleagris pintado, or Guinea-hen; handled, bought, put on, and worn, without any apprehenſion of a native of Africa. It is of the ſize of the common hen, but danger, and without a ſingle accident being known to have with a longer neck. Its body is ſloped like that of a partridge, happened to any one, poſſeſſing this happy confidence. and its colour is all over a dark grey, very beautifully ſpotted with NUMBER, in Grammar, is a modification of nouns, verbs, ſmall white ſpecks; there is a black ring round the neck; its &c. to accommodate them to the varieties of their objects, con- head is reddith, and it is blue under the eyes. They naturally ſidered with regard to number. See the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. I. herd together in large numbers, and breed up their young in Sect. I. common; the females taking care of the broods of others, as well NUMBERS, in Poetry, Oratory, &c. are certain meaſures, as of their own. Barbut informs us, that in Guinea they are in proportions, or cadences, which render a verſe, period, or ſong, flocks of 200 or 300, that' perch on trees, and feed on worms agreeable to the ear. Poetical and Proſaic NUMBERS are ſome and graſhoppers ; that they are run down and taken by dogs; what different. and that their fleſh is tender and ſweet, generally white, though Poetical Numbers conſiſt in a certain harmony in the order, ſometimes black. They breed very well with us. quantities, &c. of the feet and ſyllables, which make the piece mu- ſentation, ſee Plate III. Genus 49. tical to the ear, and fit for ſinging ; for which all the verſes of the NUNCIO, or NUNTIO, an ambaſſador from the pope to ſome ancients were intended. The Numbers are what conſtitute the catholic prince or ſtate; or a perſon who attends on the pope's air and character of a verſe, and denomínate it ſmooth, or ſoft, or behalf, at a congreſs, or an aſſembly of ſeveral ambaſſadors. The low, or rough, or fonorous. The following lines of Milton fur word nuncio has the ſame import with ambaſſador; but is re- nith an inſtance of ſoft, eaſy numbers: ſtrained, in its uſe, to the ambaſſadors of pope's alone ; as that of internuncio is to their envoys extraordinary. The nuncio has Then feed on thoughts, which voluntary move Harmonious Numbers; as the tuneful bird a juriſdiction, and may delegate judges, in all the ſtates where Sings darkling, and, in fhadieſt covert hid, he reſides, except in France, where he has no authority, but Tunes her nocturnal note- that of a ſimple ambaſſador. How different from the Numbers of theſe ! NUN, a woman, in ſeveral Chriſtian countries, who devotes herſelf, in a cloiſter or nunnery, to a religious life. See the Arms met with arms, fauchions with fauchions claſh, Article MONK. And ſparks of fire, ſtruck out from armour flaſh. In ſome few inſtances, perhaps, it may have happened that Rhetorical, or Profaic Numbers, are a ſort of ſimple unaffected nunneries, monaſteries, &c. may have been uſeful as well to mo- harmony, leſs glaring than that of verſe; yet ſuch as is perceived rality and religion as to literature: in the groſs, however, they and affects the minds with pleaſure. The Numbers are that by have been highly prejudicial: and however well they might be which the ſtyle is ſaid to be eaſy, free, round, flowing, &c. ſuppoſed to do when viewed in theory, in fact they are unnatural Numbers are things abſolutely neceſſary in all writing, and even and impious. It was furely far from the intention of Providence in all ſpeech. Hence Ariſtotle, Tully, Quintillian, &c. lay down to ſeclude youth and beauty in a cloiſtered ruin, or to deny them abundance of rules as to the beſt manner of intermixing dactyls, the innocent enjoyment of their years and ſex. fpondees, anapeſta, iambuſes, choraic, dichoraic moloſluſes, &c. NUPTIAL RITES, the ceremonies attending the folemniza- in order to have the Numbers perfect. tion of marriage, which are different in different ages and coun- The ſubſtance of what we have ſaid, is reducible to what follows: tries. We cannot omit here a cuſtom which was practiſed by the 1. The ſtyle becomes numerous, by the alternate diſpoſition and Hottentots on theſe occaſions ; The ceremony is performed in temperature of long and ſhort fyllables; ſo as that the multitude of this very ſingular manner. The men ſquat in a circle, the bride- short ones neither render it too haſty, nor that of longer ones too groom is placed in the center : the women ſquat and form anc- dow and languid. ther circle to ſurround the bride. The prieit then goes fron one Sometimes, indeed, long or ſhort ſyllables are deſignedly thrown circle to the other, and alternately urines on both bride and bride- together, without any ſuch mixture, to paint the celerity or ſlow- groom, who make furrows with their nails in the greaſe with neſs of a thing by that of the numbers. which they are plaiſtered, in order to rub in the precious libation. Quadrupedante putrem fonitu quatit ungula campum. Æneid. 1. 8. Luetantes The prieſt then pronounces the benediction in theſe words, ventos, tempeſtateſque fonoras. May you live happily together ; may you have a ſon before the years end; may he be a good huntſman and a great warrior.” 2. The ſtyle becomes numerous by the intermixing words of NURSING ز For repre- Id. l. 1. 1 N U S N U T nine years. Tobago. NURSING OF CHILDREN. The following obſervations are a nuſance, in which caſe, even the cutting down a gate that crofles the reſult of long experience. A child, when it comes into the the highway is legal; yet if a man deſtroys the nuſance himſelf, be- world, is almoſt a round ball; it is the nurſe's part to affiſt na fore he commences his action, he cannot have it afterwards, nor ture, in bringing it to a proper ſhape. The child ſhould be laid recover damages. Neither the lord of a manor, nor the king him- (the firſt month) upon a thin matraſs, rather longer than itſelf, ſelf, can licence any perſon to make or erect a nuſance. Manwood makes three kinds of nuſances in the foreſt; the firſt, common nu- which the nurſe will keep upon her lap, that the child may always To lie ſtraight, and only ſit up as the nurſe flants the matraſs. fance; the ſecond, ſpecial nuſance; the third, general nuſance. fet a child quite upright before the end of the firſt month, hurts the The writ of nuſance, de nocumento, is either fimply de nocumento, eyes, by making the white part of the eye appear below the upper or de parvo nocumento, Writs of nuſance are now properly termed eye-lid. Afterwards the nurſe will begin to ſet it and dance up treſpaſſes, and actions upon the caſe. it by degrees. The child muſt be kept as dry as poſlible. NUTATION, in Aſtronomy, a kind of trepidation, or tremu- The cloathing ſhould be very light, and not much longer than lous motion of the axis of the earth; whereby its inclination to the the child, that the legs may be got at with eaſe, in order to have plane of the ecliptic is not always the ſame; but varies backwards them often rubbed in the day with a warm hand or flannel, and in and forwards ſome ſeconds; and the period of theſe variations is This nutation was diſcovered by Dr. Bradley, who particular the inſide of them. Rubbing a child all over takes off ſcurf, and makes the blood publiſhed an account of his diſcovery in the year 1737. He alſo circulate. The one breaſt ſhould be rubbed with the hands one diſcovered the caufe of this phenomenon in the Newtonian ſyſtem way, and the other the other way, night and morning at leaſt. of attraction. The ankle-bones and inſide of the knees ſhould be rubbed NUTMEG. The tree which produces this fruit was former- twice a day; this will ſtrengthen thoſe parts, and make the child ly thought to grow only in the Banda Iſlands. It is now paſt a ftretch its knees and keep them flat, which is the foundation of an doubt, however, that it grows in the Iſle of France and in all or erect and graceful perſon. A nurſe ought to keep a child as little moſt of the iſles of the ſouth ſeas. It ſeems a little remarkable in her arms as poſſible, left the legs ſhould be cramped, and the that this trade, which is certainly a lucrative one, fhould have toes turned inwards. Let her always keep the child's legs looſe. been ſo long monopolized by the Dutch. Their cunning and The oftener the poſture is changed, the better. Toffing a child deſire to retain it in their own hands ſeems to account for the about, and exerciſing it in the open air in fine weather, is of the idea that fo generally prevailed formerly that it grew only in their greateſt ſervice. In cities, children are not to be kept in hot ſettlements. (See MYRISTICA.) It was reported as early as rooms, but to have as much air as poſſible. Want of exerciſe the year 1751, upon what appeared at that time to be good is the cauſe of large heads, weak and knotted joints, a contracted grounds, that it was likely to be produced in the Weſt-Indies. breaſt, which occaſions coughs and ſtuffed lungs, an ill-ſhaped An Engliſh failor ſaid he had ſeen ſome trees in Jamaica, and the perſon, and waddling gait, beſides a numerous train of other ills. governor on enquiry found it ſo, and that they agreed exactly The child's Aeſh is to be kept perfectly clean, by conſtantly with the deſcription given of thoſe in the Spice Iſlands in the waſhing its limbs, and likewiſe its neck and ears; beginning with Eat Indies. This account, which was given in the Gentleman's warm water, till by degrees it will not only bear, but like to be Magazine for January 1751, we have never ſeen confirmed ; and waſhed with cold. Riſing early in the morning is good for all therefore we ſuppoſe that the expectations formed were either children, provided they awake of themſelves, which they gene fruſtrated or premature : however, it is certain, as we have ob- rally do: but they are never to be waked out of their ſleep, and ferved under the generic name, that a wild ſpecies of it grows at as ſoon as poſſible to be brought to regular ileeps in the day. When To avoid repetition, or the appearance of prolixity, laid in bed or cradle, their legs are always to be laid ſtraight. we muſt refer thoſe who wiſh for farther information reſpecting Children, till they are two or three years old, muſt never be ſuf the trade in this article to M. P. Sonnerat's account of a voyage fered to walk long enough at a time to be weary. A principal to the Spice Iſlands and New-Guinea, which was printed at Paris thing to be always attended to is, to give young is, to give young children conſtant in 1775, and tranſlated into Engliſh and printed at Bury St. Ed- exerciſe, and to keep them in a proper poſture. mund's, in 1781, &c. and to Bougainville’s voyage, and Dr. Two caps are to be put on the head, till the child has got moſt Hawkeſworth's compilation of Engliſh voyages. of its teeth. The child's dreſs for the night may be a fhirt, a It will not, however, we truſt, be deemed improper nor beſide blanket to tie on, and a thin gown to tie over the blanket. For our purpofe, if we lay before our rea - rs the following account further particulars, ſee the Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, Part IX. of the dangerous conſequences of uſing this article to exceſs. It Sect. I. IV. was given by Dr. Jacob Schmidius, publiſhed in the Gentleman's NUSANCE; in Law, is uſed not only for a thing done to the Magazine for 1767. hurt or annoyance of another, in his free lands or tenements, but “A gentleman of Lower Sileſia, about thirty-ſix years old, of alſo for the aſſize, or writ lying for the ſame. a good conftitution, and who enjoyed a good ſtate of health, hav- The word is mentioned 22 Hen. VIII. cap. 4. Nuſances ing felt, during ſome days, ſome cholic pains, took it in his head, are either public or private: a public nuſance is an offence againſt by way of remedy, to eat four nutmegs, which weighed alltoge- the public in general, either by doing what tends to the annoyance ther two ounces, and he drank, in eating them, ſome glaſſes of beer; of all the king's ſubjects, or by neglecting to do what the common which he had no ſooner done, but he was ſeized with a great heat, good requires: in which caſe annoyances and injuries to ſtreets, a violent pain in the head, a vertigo and delirium, and was in- highways, bridges, and large rivers; as alſo diſorderly ale-houſes, ſtantly deprived of the uſe of ſight, ſpeech, and of all his ſenſes. bawdy-houſes, gaming-houſes, ftages for rope-dancers, mounte He was put to bed, where he remained two days and two nights; banks, &c. cottages erected ſingly on the waſte, making and ſelling his body was oppreſſed with laſſitude, always drowſy, yet without of fquibs and fire-works, or throwing them about in any ſtreet, being able to ſleep. The third day he was in that lethargic ſtate, eaves-droppers, a common-field, and keeping of hogs in any city, which is called a coma vigil, with a weak and intermitting pulſe. or market-town, are held to be common nuſances. A private nu Cephalic remedies, cordials, and among others the ſpirit of cepha- fance is when only one perſon or family is annoyed, by the doing lic vitriol, and the eſſence of caftoreum, were adminiſtered in good of any thing; as where a perſon ſtops up the light of another's ſpirit of fal ammoniac. The fourth day he recovered a little, but houſe, or builds in ſuch a manner, that the rain falls from his houfe had abſolutely loſt his memory, ſo as not to remember the leaſt rapon his neighbours; as likewiſe the turning or diverting water thing he had done in his life. A continued fever then came on, from running to a man's houſe, mill, meadow, &c. corrupting or accompanied by an obſtinate watchfulneſs; a palpitation of the poiſoning a water-courſe, by erecting a dye-houſe; or a lime-pit, heart ſeemed to be the fore-runner of other ſymptoms, and he w for the uſe of trade, in the upper part of the ſtream; ſtopping up a finally ſtruck with a pally in all his limbs. way that leads from houſes to lands; ſuffering a bouſe to decay, to “ At the expiration of eight days, he recovered the uſe of rea- the damage of the next houſe; erecting a brew-houſe in any place fon, and ſaid, that during the firſt four days of his illneſs, he ſeemed not convenient; or an houſe of office, &c. fo near another perfon's to himſelf to have conſtantly a thick veil before his eyes, and that houſe as to offend him by its ſmell; or exerciſing any offenſive trade, a great number of ſparks and fialhes continually iſſued from it. and ſetting up a fair or market to the prejudice of another. All the bad fymptoms of this melady yielded at laſt ſucceſſively to Indictment lies for a public or common nuſance at the king's fuit, the continued uſe of remedies ſuited to his condition; and in three whereon the party offending ſhall be fined and impriſoned; but no months time he was perfectly recovered, but he was particularly action can be brought in this caſe except one man ſuffers more by a indebted for his cure to mercurial and ammoniacal remedies. common nuſance than another; as where a pit is dug in the high “ According to chemical principles, it might perhaps be ſaid, way, and he falls into it. Action on the caſe, or aſfize of nuſance, that the aromatic and oily ſalt contained in nutmeg, of which this lies, for any private nuſance, at the ſuit of the party aggrieved, and patient had taken too large a doſe, had immediately excited fo on ſuch actions judgment is given that the nuſance ſhall be removed, great an agitation in the humours, and ſo rapid a motion in the and the injured party recover damages: but if a perſon has only a animal ſpirits, as in ſome meaſure to partake of the nature of fire, years in a houſe or lands, as he has no freehold therein, he and that a viſcid and narcotic fulphur, which reſides likewiſe in can only have an action on the caſe, by which means the nuſance the nutmeg, though in a leſs ſenſible manner, being carried at the will be removed without his recovering damages. The continuation ſame time into the maſs of blood, by ſuddenly fixing the animal of a nuſance is by the law conſidered as a new nuſance, and therefore, ſpirits, and intercepting their courſe in the nerves, had afterwards where a perſon fuffers a nulance to be ſet up, and then alienates and cauſed the ſtupor in the limbs, the aphony, and the palſy. But lets the land, &c. without removing it, an action of the caſe lies a I leave others to explain theſe phenomena ; my only view, by gainſt him who erected it; and alſo againſt the alienee or leſſee, for communicating this obſervation, being to ſhow that the immo- continuing it. It has been adjudged that any perſon may remove derate uſe of nutmeg may be attended with very great danger.” NUTRITION ter of N UT N U T as are worn off. NUTRITION, in the animal economy, the acceſſion or ap- and veſſels on the ſerum, introduces various chariges therein, till poſition of new parts to the body, ſimilar to thoſe it already con at length a part of it be rendered ſubtile enough for the purpoſe re- Ited of, either for its augmentation, or for the reparation of ſuch quired. This, when exhauſted, is inſtantly repaired : and thus we have the true immediate matter of nutrition. But this fame By the continual motion of the fluids in the minute veſſels of the humour, loſing too many of its oily parts, by many repeated cir- body, and the actions of the muſcles, &c. finall parcels are of ne culations, is rendered too ſharp; and being likewiſe ſtripped of ceffity worn off from the folids, become mixed with the fluids, its moſt liquid parts, from the ſame cauſe, becomes too denſe, and move with them, and are at length eliminated and exhaled through is thus rendered unfit for this ſecretion. Hence the receffity of the pores. And, at the ſame time, the fluids, diminiſhed, as they new chyle, and new food, to keep up nutrition. are, by a conſtant aitrition, apply to the orifices of the perſpiring The matter of nutrition thus aſcertained, the manner wherein, vefſels, and vaniſh out of the body. Hence the animal body, by and the cauſe whereby it is effected, are as follow: a juice being the very condicion of its frame, becomes ſoon liable to deſtruction. driven directly through a full, conic, or cylindric, elaſtic or rigid To preſerve life, therefore, it is necellary, that a reſtitution be carnal; if its courſe be from a wider to a narrower part, or if it made to the juices and ſolids of the body, equal and ſimilar to have any thing to oppoſe its motion, will endeavour to ſtretch the what is loſt in thoſe motions; which is what we call the action of ſides of its canal, according to the axis of its length. This muſt nutrition. Now, the loft juices are eaſily ſupplied by meat, drink, be the caſe every where in the body, except, perhaps, in the veins aii, &c. taken in the ſtomach, digeſted, converted into chyle, and receptacles. By this niſus, or endeavour, how weak ſoevery then into blood, and thence ſecreted by the proper duct, and car continually repeated, the veſſels will be inſenſibly lengthened out; ried, by the action of the body, to the proper receptacles ; after and, in lengthening, they will be made more and more flender. the manner laid down under DIGESTION, CHYLIFICATION, Hence the laſt extremities of the veſſels, which in man are ex- Bloor, and the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part V. Sect. VI. & VII. tremely ſmall, are continually ſtretched, and rendered leſs and leſs But the nutrition of the ſolid parts is much more obſcure. This, coherent, i. e. ſtill nearer to a diffolution; and thus at length indeed, has proved the ſubject of infinite doubts and differences will they cohere ſo weakly, as ſcarce to differ from fluids. While among authors ; nor had we any rational or ſatisfactory accounts ſuch motion goes on, therefore, and the propulſion is continued. of the ſame, till that of the accurate Boerhaave, whoſe doctrine is there will, of neceſſity, happen theſe two things: firſt, the utmoſt as follows: every folid part of the body conſiſts of other leffer particles of the minuteſt tubes, being torn off, will again be con- ones, in all reſpects like the larger ; veſſels, v. g. of veſicles, and verted into a kind of humour, what part of the body foever they thoſe of others ſtill ſmaller ; bones of officles, &c. Which ſtructure ſtick in. Secondly, the ſmalleſt particles, which, by their union, goes beyoud all limits of ſenſe, however aſſiſted by art; as appears compoſed the fendereſt fibrillæ, will be ſo feparated from each by the experiments and obſervations of Malpighi, Ruyſch, Leewen other, as to leave open interſtices in thoſe places where before hoeck, and Hook. Yet it is ſcarce poſſible this diviſion and ſub they cohered. Both theſe effects will be produced at all times, diviſion ſhould be infinite, as thoſe of foods and juices are. and in all parts of the body, ſo long as life continues, eſpecially Again, it appears from microſcopic views,-injections, ſmall where nature is ſtrong, and the actions of the body is violent. wounds, exficcations, &c. that the ſolid parts of the body are very But the ſame humour whereby theſe effects are produced contain- {mall, compared with the fluids; and it is alſo demonftrable, from ing abundance of particles ſimilar to thoſe thus ſeparated and loſt, conſidering the riſe and generation of the veſſels, and the reſolu conveys and applies them to thoſe interſtices, by that very impetus tion of the greater veſſels into their ſmaller conſtituent ones, that whereby it endeavours to diſtend the canals; and thus intercepted, all the folid maſs of the body is conſtructed of mere nerves, as its at length, it forms, adapts and faſtens them, ſo as to adhere in the ele nents. And, in effect, all this maſs, an incredible ſmall par fame manner as the former. ticle only excepted, at firſt, aroſe out of what was a very ſmall col The matter, preparation, application, energy of motion, ſtill liquament, much like the nervous juice itſelf; as is abundantly remaining the fame ; what, from time to time, is loſt, is thus pre- ſhewn by the great Malpighi, in his two treatiſes on incubated ſently reſtored; and the folids continue in the fame ſtate as before eggs. For neither does the white of the egg nouriſh, till, by i.e. they are perpetually nouriſhed, and ſupplied, and preſerved. In means of the incubation, it have paſſed innumerable degrees of this the Creator's wiſdom is very conſpicuous ; in that the ſame fluidity, from its firſt thickneſs, to that exceeding ſubtilty where power which inevitably deſtroys, does repair again at the ſame in it terminates. But even then, the liquor, thus given to the time, and by the ſame action ; and that the greater the loſs is, the embryo, is exceedingly thick, in compariſon with what it is to more copious the ſupply; and, laſtly, that thoſe parts firſt ſpent in be, when converted into its veſſels and viſcera. Now, the firſt the action of the body, are the firſt reſtored. Farther, it is evident, tender ſolids, ariſing from this ſubtile humour, do again paſs in that the newer, the more tender, and the nearer to the moving finite interinediate degrees before they arrive at their utınoſt ſtate cauſe theſe veſſels are, the more eaſily will they be lengthened, and conſiſtence; as is ſhewn by Malpighi in eggs, and by Ruyſch diſtended, deſtroyed, and repaired : our bodies, therefore, the in embryoes and fætuſes. Hence, therefore, it follows, that the nearer to their origin, the more do they grow. For, the action, ſolids, in their firſt formation out of the liquids whence they ſtill continuing, the greater veſſels become more extended by their ariſe, only differ from thein in reſt, coheſion, and figure. There fluid ; and at the fame time, the finaller, whereof the membranes, fore, ſuch a particle, now in its fluid ſtate, will become a part of or coats, of the larger fort are compoſed, are compreſſed, dried, the folid to be formed out of it, as ſoon as there happens to be and at laſt concreted, and grow up; whence ariſes a firmneſs, in- a power to effect its coheſion with the other ſolid parts, howſoever. deed, of the fibres, but a loſs of the veſicles. Thus what were that coheſion be effected. formerly veſſels, commence mere hard ligaments; and thus the This cohefion is eaſily produced in a fibre already formed, if Auids being once fixed, the ſeveral veſſels coaleſce: from the con- there happen to be a proper cavity in the ſolid, left open by ſome currence of theſe cauſes ariſe the ſtrength, hardneſs, rigidity, and loſt particle, and, at the ſame time, a particle in the fluid, anſwer thickneſs, of the ſolid parts. Hence the number of vefſels is able thereto in bulk, figure, and nature; and, laſtly, if there be greateſt in embryoes, and as age cornes on, it ſenſibly diminiſhes; a power wherewithal to intrude it in that place, or accomodate it and hence it is, that their weakneſs conſtantly declines, and their thereto. Thus will ariſe a real nutrition of the ſolids in the minute ſtrength and firmneſs increaſe. In young people, therefore, the veſſels, by whoſe union the large ones are formed ; that is, in the quantity of humours is redundant, and greatly exceeds the ſolids : nerves, or in vefſels ſimilar thereto. Which being impracticable mnen, the ſolids exceed the fluids. And hence we ſee the by any other liquid than that brought into theſe vefſels, it appears reaſon, manner, and appearance, of growth, ſtate, declenſion, and, very evident, that the nervous juice, at leaſt a juice perfectly like at length, of death, frorn pure old age. it, is the immediate matter of nutrition : hence nutrition appears A perſon who conſiders this account, and compares it with what one of the laſt and moſt perfect actions of the body: fince, to have is actually obſervable in the body, will find every circumſtance to this laudable, all the precedent actions muſt of neceſſity have obtain ; thus the whole cuticula is every where, and at all times, been fo. conſtantly deſquamating, peeling off, and again renewing ; and The chyle, therefore, which ſome make the immediate matter thus the hair, nails, teeth, continually rubbed, torn, and worn off, of nutrition, is, indeed, fitted to fill the larger veſſels; but it come again : parts taken off from the vefſels and the bones foon cannot nouriſh or reſtore them. This, when attenuated, changed, grow again : and the fordes, or filth, rubbed off from the extre- more intimately mixed in the lungs by means of reſpiration, and mities of the veſſels, when examined by a microſcope, or diluted, thus fitted for the paſſage of certain veſſels, is indeed rendered and viewed in water, appear plainly to conſiſt both of ſolid and fitter, yet far from being quite fit to be the matter of nutrition. Auid parts; and thoſe carried off by waſhing, ſhaving, &c. are the But, by the repeated action of the lungs, the viſcera, veſſels, fame. Hence, too we ſee, that a general increaſe of the bulk of &c. there is formed out of this humour, a ſoft, tenaceous, plaſtic, the body, with regard to habit, as in fat, fleſhy, brawny perſons, infipid ſeru!n, which, thickening by the fire becomes perfectly does not ariſe from any increaſe of the ſolids, but by their exten- like the white of an egg. This Auid, therefore, has in it all the fion into larger cavities, crouded with ſtagnant humours. And conditions found in that, from whence, by ſure experience, we hence fatneſs becomes hurtful, as it loads, weakens, and ſuffo. know all the ſolid parts of an animal ariſe by mere incubation. It is, therefore, a ltep nearer, but is not yet quite diſpoſed for Whence ariſes a very conſiderable diſtinction between nutrition nutriment; much leſs is the cruor, or red globular part of the and repletion, to which a phyſician muſt have ſpecial regard ; the blood ſo. Neither are yet fitted to enter the veſſels ; yet both one ſtrengthening and condenſing the veſſels, the other weakening. the one and the other are, by different authors, made the nutritive looſening, and extending the ſame. Hence, laſtly, we ſee, why juice. the fabric of the ſolids is not deſtroyed by the contained fluids; But as the heat of the incubation, ſo the action of the viſcera how our machine comes to ſubiit ſo long; why, when a nerve is N. 118. * corrupted, a in old cates. P NY i NYM great corrupted, the nutrition of that part it belongs to ceaſes; and why « The following anecdote will ſerve to thew, that during the the ſame obtains in the artery : why in an embryo there are no rutting ſeaſon theſe animals are fierce and vicious, and not to be A labouring man, without knowing that the ſolids, in a fætus very few, in old men a great deal ; and why | depended upon. even the nerves, tendons, arteries and receptacles, become firſt animal was near him, went up to the outſide of the incloſure; cartilaginous, and then bony. Dr. Prieſtley concludes, from ſome the Nyl-ghau, with the quickneſs of lightning, darted againſt the wood-work with ſuch violence that he broke it to pieces, and experiments undertaken with a view of diſcovering the principle of broke off one of his horns cloſe to the root. The death of the nutrition, in vegetable and animal ſubſtances, that the principle is phlogiſton, in ſuch a ſtate as to be capable of becoming, by pu animal, which happened ſoon after, was ſuppoſed to be owing to trefaction, a true inflammable air, but not generally ſuch as to the injury he fuſtained by the blow. burn with exploſions; but rather with a blue and lambent flame, “ Bernier ſays, that it is the favourite amuſement of the Mogut mixed with a certain proportion of fixed air. This principle in emperor tu hunt the Nyl-ghau; and that lie kills them in nutrition, is immediately held in ſolution by the gaſtric juice, and numbers, and diſtributes quarters of them to his omrahs; which in the chyle formed by it: and when it has entered into the circu ſhows that they are deemed good and delicious food. The Nyl- lation with the chyle, and anfwered the purpoſe in the animal ghau is frequently brought from the interior parts of Aſia as a æconomy for which it is deſigned, it is thrown out again by means rare and valuable preſent to the Nabobs and other great men, at of the blood in the lungs, and communicated to the air, which our ſettlements in India. It remains to be conſidered, whether is phlogiſticated with it. Exp. and Obf. vol. v. Sect. 6. this rare animal might not be propagated with ſucceſs in this coun- Buffort, in order to account for nutrition, account for nutrition, ſuppoſes the try. That it will breed here is evident from experience; and, if it body of an animal or vegetable to be a kind of mould, in which ſhould prove docile enough to be eaſily trained to labour, its great the matter neceſſary to its nutrition is modelled and aſſimilated to ſwiftneſs and conſiderable ſtrength might be applied to the moſt the wliole. But (continues he) of what nature is this matter valuable purpoſes.” which an animal or vegetable aſſimilates to its own ſubſtance ? NYMPH, in Mythology, an appellation given to certain in- What power is it that communicates to this matter the activity ferior goddefies, inhabiting the mountains, woods, waters, &c. and motion neceſſary to penetrate this mould ? and, if fuch a force ſaid to be the daughters of Oceanus, and Tethys. All the ưni. exiſt; would it not be by a ſimilar force that the internal mould verſe was repreſented as full of theſe nymphs, who are diſtin- itſelf might be reproduced ? guiſhed into ſeveral ranks or claſſes. The general diviſion of them As to the firit queſtion, he ſuppofes that there exiſts in nature is into celeſtial and terreſtrial; the former of which were called an infinite number of living organical parts, and that all organized | Uraniæ, and were ſuppoſed to be intelligences that governed the bodies conſiſt of ſuch organical parts ; that their production coſts heavently bodies or ſpheres. The terreſtrial nymphs, called Epi- nature nöthing, ſince their exiſtence is conſtant and invariable; / geiæ, preſided over the ſeveral parts of the inferior world; and fo that the matter which the animal or vegetable aſſimilates to its were divided into thoſe of the water and thoſe of the earth. The ſubſtance, is an organical matter of the fame nature with that of nymphs of the water were the Oceantides, or nymphs of the ocean; the animal or vegetable, which conſequently may augment its vo the Nereids, the nymphs of the ſea; the Naiads and Ephydriades, lume without changing its form or altering the quality of the ſub the nymphs of the fountains; and the Limniades, the nymphs of ftance in the mould. the lakes. The nymphs of the earth were the Oreades, or nymp'ıs As to the ſecond queſtion: There exiſt (ſays he) in nature cer of the mountains; the Napoc, nymphs of the meadows; and the tain powers, as that of gravity, that have no affinity with the ex Dryads and Hamadryads, who were nymphs of the foreſts and ternal qualities of the body, but act upon the moſt intimate parts, groves. Beſides theſe, we meet with nymphis w'io took their and penetrate them throughout, and which can never fall under names from particular countries, rivers, &c. as the Cithæroniades, the obſervation of our ſenſes. ſo called from mount Citharon in Bæotia: the Dodo-ines, froni And as to the third queſtion, he anſwers, that the internal Dodona; Tiberiades, from the Tiber, &c.—Goats were fome- mould itſelf is reproduced, not only by a ſimilar power, but it is times ſacrificed to the nymphs; but their conſtant offerings were plain that it is the very fame power that cauſes the unfolding and milk, oil, honey, and wine. reproduction thereof: for it is ſufficient (proceeds he), that in an NYMPH, among naturaliſts, that ſtate of winged inſects be- organized body that unfolds itſelf, there be ſome part fimilar to tween their living in the form of a worm and their appearing in the whole, in order that this part may one day become itſelf an or the winged or moſt perfect ſtate. The eggs of inſects are firſt organized body, altogether like that of which it is actually a hatched into a kind of worms or maggots ; which afterwards paſs part. into the nymph-ſtate, furrounded with thells or caſes of their own NYL-GHAU, in Mammalia, a ſpecies of the genus Bos, a native ſkins : ſo that, in reality, theſe nymphs are only the embryo in- of the interior parts of India.“ It ſeems,(ſays Bewick, in his Hiſtory ſects wrapped up in this covering; from whence they at laſt get of Quadrupeds) to be of a middle nature, between the cow and looſe, though not without great difficulty. During this nymph- the deer, and carries the appearance of both in its form. In fize ſtate the creature loſes its motion. Swammerdam calls it nympha it is as much fmaller than the one, as it is larger than the other : aurelia, or ſimply aurelia ; and others give it the name of chryſalis its body, horns, and tail, are not unlike thoſe of a bull; and the a term of the like import. See the Article CHRYSALIS. head, neck, and legs, are ſimilar to thoſe of a deer. The colour NYMPHA is uſed by naturaliſts for the inſects themſelves, in general is a h or grey, from a mixture of black hairs and white: while they have yet only the form of worms, or maggots. The all along the ridge or edge of the neck, the hair is blacker, longer, word properly ſignifies bride, or a new married woman ; it being and more eret, making a ſhort, thin, and upright mane, reach now, when it has laid aſide its former ſkin, that it begins to ihew ing down to the hump. Its horns are ſeven inches long, fix all its parts diſtinctly. In this change it loſes its motion for a inches round at the root, tapering by degrees, and terminating in while, as when in the egg ; ſo that theſe inſects are twice in their a blunt point: the ears are large and beautiful, ſeven inches in nympha ftate, firſt in the maggot, which is their firſt nympha; and length, and ſpread to a conſiderable breadth ; they are white on the again in this change, which is their ſecond. Sae CATERPILLAR, edge, and on the inſide, except where two black bands mark the CHRYSALIS, ſee alſo METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS, in the Syf- hollow of the ear with a zebra-like variety. The height of this tein of ENTOMOLOGY. animal, at the ſhoulder, is four feet one inch; behind the loins it NYMPH/E, in Anatomy, are two ſoft, fpongy red bodies, only meaſures four feet. of a cavernous ſtructure, ſomewhat reſembling the wattles under - The female differs conſiderably from the male, both in height a cock's throat, defcending from the tip of the clitoris to the fides and thickneſs, being much ſmaller ; in ſhape and colour very of the urinary paſſage, thus reaching to about the middle of the much reſembling a deer; and has no horns. She has four nipples, orifice of the vagina ; where they grow leſs and leſs till they diſ- and is ſuppoſed to go nine months with young: She commonly has appear. See the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XV. Art. II. one at a birth, but ſometimes two. “ Several of this ſpecies were brought to this country in the year Their breadth is uncertain, uſually in maids half a finger; fome- times they are large, and are capable of being diſtended to a great 1767, which continued to breed annually for ſome years after. degree; ſo as to hang a good way out of the body: whence, in Dr. Hunter, who had one of them in his cuſtody for ſome time, fome, it has been neceſſary to cut theſe, as well as the clitoris. The deſcribes it as an harmleſs and gentle animal; that it ſeemed uſe of the nymphæ is by ſwelling, in the act of coition, to embrace pleaſed with every kind of familiarity, always licked the hand that the penis, and by their ſenſibility to affect the woman, and mutually either ſtroaked or fed it, and never once attempted to uſe its horns invite to procreation. The ſubſtance is very ſpongy, compofed of offenſively. It ſeemed to have much dependence on the organs of ſmell, and ſnuffed keenly whenever any perſon came in fight; membranes, and veſſels looſely cohering, and therefore ealily dif- tendible. it did fo likewiſe when food or drink was brought to it; and would NYMPHOMANIA, in Medicine, the ſame with furor ute- not taſte the bread which was offered it, if the hand that preſented it rinus. For the Cauſes, Syſtems and Cure, ſee the Syſtem, Ge- happened to ſmell of turpentine. " Its manner of fighting is remarkable, and is deſcribed thus.- nus 69. Two of the males at Lord Clive's being put into an incloſure, NYMPHOTOMIA, in Surgery, the operation of cutting off were obſerved, while they were at ſome diſtance from each other, part of the nymphæ, or of the clitoris, by ſome alſo called nympha, to prepare for the attack, by falling down upon their knees; they when they are fo large and tumid as to prevent the conſummation then thufiled towards each other, keeping ſtill upon their knees ; of marriage, or render it very difficult. The Egyptians, Galer obſerves, frequently practiſed the Nymphotamia ; but in our parts and at the diſtance of a few yards they made a ſpring, and darted of the world it is rarely found neceſſary. The Nymphotamia is, againſt each other with great force. properly ſpeaking, the circumciſion of women. Ο Α Κ O A T O with tan. 1 THE 14th letter, and fourth vowel, of our alphabets pro- O, 9 nounced as in the words noſe, roſe, &c. The found of this letter is often ſo ſoft as to require it double, and thai chiefly in the middle of words; as gooſe, reproof, &c. And in fome words this of is pronounced like a u ſhort, as in flood, blood, &c. Among the Iriſh, the letter O, at the beginning of the name of a family, is a character of dignity, annexed to great houſes. Thus, in the hiſtory of Ireland, we frequently meet with the O Neals, O Carrols, &c. conſiderable houſes in that iſland. Camden obſerves, that it is the cuſtom of the lords of Ireland, to prefix an O to their names to diſtinguiſh them fron, the commonalty. OAK, the Engliſh name of the genus quercus, for deſcription fee QUERCUS. The ancient druids had a moſt profound veneration for oak trees. Pliny ſays that, “ the druids (as the Gauls call their ma- gicians or wiſe men) held nothing ſo ſacred as the milletoe, and the tree on which it grows, provided it be an oak. They make choice of oak groves in preference to all others, and perform no rites without oak-leaves ; ſo that they ſeem to have the name of druids from thence, if we derive their name from the Greeks.” &c. (See DRUIDS and CARNEDDE. Maximus Tyrius ſays the Celtæ or Gauls worſhipped Jupiter under the figure of a lofty oak. This uſeful tree grows to ſuch a ſurpriſing magnitude, that were there not many well authenticated inſtances of them in our own country, they would certainly appear difficult of belief. In the 18th volume of the Gentleman's Magazine we have the dimenſi- ons of a leaf twelve inches in length and ſeven in breadth, and all the leaves of the ſame tree were equally large. On the eſtate of Woodhall, purchaſed in 1775 by Sir Thomas Rumbold, Bart. late governor of Madras, an oak was felled which ſold for 431. and meaſured 24 feet round. We are alſo told of one in Milwood 10- relt, near Chadde fley, which was in full verdure in winter, getting its leaves again after the autumn ones fell off. In Hunter's Eve Tyn's Sylva, we have an account of a very remarkable oak ar Green- dale ; which Gough, in his edition of Cambden, thus minutely deſcribes: “ The Greendale oak, with a road cut through it, ſtill bears one green branch. Such branches as have been cut or broken ff are guarded from wet by lead. The diameter of this tree at the top, whence the branches iſſue, is 14 feet 2 inches ; at the ſurface of the ground 11 feet : circumference there 35 feet; height of the trunk 53, height of the arch 10, width 6. Mr. Evelyn men tions ſeveral more oaks of extraordinary fize in Workſop park.”' In the Genileman's Magazine for 1773, we have an account of one differing very eſſentially from the common one ; it is fre- quent about St. Thomas in Devonshire, and is in that county called Lucombe oak, from one William Lucombe who fucceff- fully cultivated it near Exeter. It grows as Straight and hand- fome as a fir; its leaves are evergreen, and its wood as hard as that of the common oak. Its growth is ſo quick, as to exceed in 20 or 30 years the altitude and girth of the common one at It is cultivated in various places; Cornwall, Somerſet- fhire, &c. The bark, in medicine, is alſo a ſtrong aſtringent; and hence ſtands recommended in hæmorrhages, alvine fluxes, and other pre- ternatural or immoderate ſecretions; and in theſe it is ſometimes attended with good effects. Some have alledged, that by the uſe of this bark every purpoſe can be anſwered which may be obtained from Peruvian bark. But after ſeveral very But after ſeveral very fair trials, we have by no means found this to be the caſe. Beſides the bark, the buds, the acorns, and their cups are ufed ; as alſo the galls, which are excrefcences cauſed by inſects on the oaks of the eaſtern countries, of which there are divers ſorts ; ſome perfectly roundand finooth, fome rougher with ſmall protuberances, but all generally having a round hole in them. All the parts of the oak are ftyptic, bind ing, and uſeful in all kinds of Auxes and bleedings, either inward or outward. The bark is frequently uſed in gargariſms, for the re- laxation of the uvula, and for fore mouths and throats: it is alſo uſed in reſtringent clyſters and injections, againſt the prolapſus uteri or ani. The The acorns, beaten to powder, are frequently taken by the vulgar for pains in the ſide. The only officinal prepara- tion is the aqua germinum quercus. OAK-Leaves. Theuſes of oak bark in tanning, and in hot-beds, is generally known. For the latter of theſe purpoſes, however, oak- leaves are now found to anſwer equally well, or rather better. In the notes to Dr. Hunter's edition to Evelyn's Treatiſe on Foreſt- trees, we find the following directions for their uſe by W. Speechly. The leaves are to be taken up as fuon as poſſible after they fall from When raked into heaps, they ſhould immediately be carried into ſome place near the hot-houſes, where they may lie to couch. Mr. Speechly ſays it was his cuſtom to fence them round with charcoal hurdles, or any thing elſe, to keep them from being blown about the garden in windy weather. In this place they tread them well, and water them in caſe they happen to have been brought in dry. The leap is made lix or ſeven feet thick, and covered over with old mats, or any thing elſe, to prevent the upper leaves from being blown away. In a few days the heap will come to a ſtrong heat. For the firſt year or two in which he uſed theſe leaves, our author did not continue them in the heap longer than ten days or a fortnight; but by this method of management they ſettled ſo much when brought to the hot-houſe, that a ſupply was very foon tea quired : and he afterwards found, that it was proper to let them re- main five or fix weeks in the heaps before they are brought to the hot-houſe. In getting them into the pine pits, if they appear dry, they are to be watered, and again trodden down exceedingly well, in layers, till the pits are quite full. The whole is then covered with tan-bark, to the thickneſs of two inches, and well trodden down, till the ſurface becomes ſmooth and even. On this the pine- pots are to be placed in the manner they are to ſtand, beginning with the middle row firſt, and filling up the ſpaces between the pots In this manner we are to proceed to the next row, till the whole be finiſhed ; and this operation is performed in the ſame manner as when tan cnly is uſed. The leaves require no further trouble through the whole ſeaſon; as they will retain a conſtant and regular heat for 12 months without ſtirring or turning ; and our author informs us, that if he may judge from their appearance when taken out, (being always entire and perfect), it is probable they would continue their heat through a ſecond year ; but, as an annual ſupply of leaves is eaſily obtained, the experiment is hardly worth making. After this, the pines will have no occaſion to be moved, but at ſtated times of their management, viz. at the ſhift- ing them in their pots, &c. when at each time a little freſh tan thould be added, to make up the deficiency ariſing from the fettling of the beds ; but this will be inconſiderable, as the leaves do not ſettle much after their long couching. During the firſt two years of our author's practice he did not ufe any tan, but plunged the pine pots into the leaves, and juſt covered the ſurface of the beds, when finilhed, with a little ſaw-duſt, to give it a neatneſs. This method, however, was attended with one inconvenience; for by the caking of the leaves they ſhrunk from the ſides of the pots, whereby they became expoſed to the air, and at the ſame time the heat of the beds was permitted to eſcape. “ Many powerful reaſons, fays Mr. Speechly, may be given why oak-leaves are preferable to tanner's bark, "1. They always heat regularly ; for during the whole time that I have uſed them, which is near ſeven years, I never once knew of their heating with violence; and this is ſo frequently the cale with tan, that I affirm, and indeed it is well known to every perſon converſant in the management of the hot-houſes, that pines ſuffer more from this one circumſtance, than all the other incidents put together, inſects excepted. When this accident happens near the time of the fruiting, the effect is ſoon ſeen in the fruit, which is exceedingly imall and ill-Shaped. Sometimes there will be little or no fruit at all ; therefore gardeners who make uſe of tan only for their pines, ſhould be moſt particularly careful to avoid an over- heat at that critical junclure, the time of thewing the fruit. "1. The heat of oak-leaves is conſtant : whereas tanner's bark generally runs cold in a very thort time after its furious heat is gcne off. This obliges the gardener to give it frequent turnings in order to promote its heating. Theſe frequent turnings, not to mention the expence, are attended with the worſt conſequences ; for by the continual moving of the pots backwards and forwards, the pines are expoſed to the extremes of beat and cold, whereby their growth is conſiderably retarded; whereas, when leaves are uſed, the pines will have no occaſion to be moved but at the times of potting, &c. The pines have one peculiar advantage in this undiſturbed ſituation ; their roots grow through the bottoms of the pots, and mat among the leaves in a ſurpriſing manner. From the vigour of the plants when in this ſituation, it is highly probable that the leaves, even in this ſtate, afford them an uncommon and agreeable nouriſhment. 3. There is a ſaving in point of expence; which is no incon- ſiderable object in places where tan cannot be had but from a great diſtance. “4. The laſt ground of preference is, that decayed leaves make good manure ; whereas rotten tan is experimentally found to be of no value. I have often tried it both on ſand and clay, and on wet and dry land; and never could diſcover, in any of my experiments, that it deſerved the name of a manure ; whereas decayed leaves are the richeſt, and of all others the moſt proper manure for a garden. Leaves mixed with dung make excellent hot-beds; and I find that beds compounded in this manner, preſerve their heat much longer than when made entirely with dung; and in both caſes, the appli- cation of leaves will be a conſiderable ſaving of dung, which is a circumſtance on many accounts agreeable. See cloſe of the Syſtem of GARDENING, under the article CULTURE of Pines in the Hot- houſe. OAT, in Botany. See AVENA. The native place of the common oat, cultivated in our fields, is unknown; that the only account of it, in its natural ſtate, which we then had, is in Anſon's Voyage ; and that the report of ſuch an author reſpecting facts in natural hiſtory is not intitled to im- plicit credit. We had not then ſeen the Travels of Mr. Bruce, whoſe botanical knowledge is very ſuperior to that of moſt voy- agers, or we ſhould have mentioned his account of the oats which he found growing wild in Arooſi, a ſmall territory in Abyſſinia, not far from the ſource of the Nile. « Wild oats (ſays he) grow up here ſpontaneouſly to a prodigious height and ſize, capable often of concealing both the horſe and his rider, and ſome of the ſtalks being little leſs than an inch in circumference. They have when 100. the trees. I O A T c OCĆ among op- To call upon when ripe, the appearance of ſmall canes. The inhabitants make obſerving the effects of repeated ſwearing upon the morals of no ſort of uſe of this grain in any period of its growth ; the up- Scotchmen. • Cuſtom-houſe oaths (fays Lord Kames, in his permoſt thin huſk of it is beautifully variegated with a changeable Sketches of the Hiſtory of Man) have become ſo familiar Purple colour ; the taſte is perfectly good. I often made the meal us, as to be ſwallowed without a wry face; and is it certain that into cakes in remembrance of Scotland." Our author informs bribery and perjury in electing parliament members are not ap. us, that the Abyſſinians could never be brought to reliſh theſe proaching to the ſame cool ſtate ? Men creep on to vice by degrees. cakes, which they ſaid were bitter, burnt their ſtomachs, and Perjury, in order to ſupport a friend, has become cuſtomary of late made them thirſty. He is, however, decidedly of opinion, that years, witneſs fictitious qualifications in the electors of parliament the wild oat of Aroofli is the oat in its original ſtate ; and that it men, which are made effectual by perjury; yet, ſuch is the dege- has degenerated every where in Europe. From the facts which he neracy of the preſent times, that no man is the worſe thought of itates, this opinion ſeems to be well founded, upon that account. We muſt not flatter ourſelves that the poiſon OATH, an affirmation or promiſe, accompanied with an invoca will reach no farther: a man who boggles not at perjury to ſerve tion of God to witneſs what we ſay; and with an imprecation of a friend, will in time become ſuch an adept as to commit perjury his vengeance, or a renunciation of his favour, if what we affirm in order to ruin a friend when he becomes an enemy.” be falſe, or what we promiſe be not performed. Coronation Oath, ſee the Article KING. The laws of all civilized ſtates have required the ſecurity of an OBADIAH, or the Prophecy of OBADIA H, a canonical book oath for evidence given in a court of jultice, and on other occaſions of the Old Teſtament, which is contained in a ſingle chapter, and of high importance; and the Chriſtian religion utterly prohibits is partly an invective againſt the cruelty of the Edomites, who fwearing, except when oaths are required by legal authority. In mocked and derided the children of Iſrael as they paſſed into capri- deed no ſerious and reflecting theiſt, whether he admit the truth of vity; and, with other enemies, their confederates, invaded and revelation or not, can look upon ſwearing on trivial occaſions as preſſed thoſe ſtrangers, and divided the ſpoil among themſelves : any thing elſe than a fin of a very heinous nature. and partly a prediction of the deliverance of Iſrael, and of the vic- that infinite and omnipreſent Being, who created and ſuſtains the tory and triumph of the whole church over her enemies. univerſe, to witneſs all the impertinence of idle converſation, of OBELISK, in Architecture, a truncated, quadrangular, and which great part is commonly uttered at random, betrays a ſpirit ſlender pyramid, raiſed as an ornament, and frequently charged ci- ſo profane, that nothing ſhort of experience could make us believe ther with infcriptions or hieroglyphics. it poſſible for a creature endowed with reaſon and reflection to be Obeliſks appear to be of very great antiquity, and to be firſt habitually guilty of a practice ſo impious. No man can plead in raiſed to tranſmit to poſterity precepts of philoſophy, which were extenuation of this crime, that he is tempted to ſwear by the im cut in hieroglyphical characters; afterwards they were uſed to portunity of any appetite or paſſion implanted in the human breaſt: immortalize the great actions of heroes, and the memory of perſons for the utterance of a profane oath communicates no pleaſure, and beloved. The firſt obeliſk mentioned in hiſtory was that of Ra- removes no uneaſineſs; it neither elevates the ſpeaker, nor depreſſes maſes king of Egypt, in the time of the Trojan war, which was the hearer. 40 cubits high. Phius, another king of Egypt, raiſed one of 55 Quakers and Meravians, ſwayed by theſe conſiderations, and by cubits; and Ptolemy Philadelphus, another of 88 cubits, in memo- the ſenſe which they put upon certain text of Scripture, refuſe to ry of Arſinoë. Auguſtus ere&ted one at Rome, in the Campus ſwear upon any occafion, even at the requiſition of a magiſtrate, Martius, which ſerved to mark the hours on an horizontal dial, and in a court of juſtice. Theſe ſcruples are groundleſs; and ſeem drawn on the pavement. They were called by the Egyptian to proceed from an incapacity to diſtinguiſh between the proper uſe prieſts, the Fingers of the Sun, becauſe they were made in Egypt and abuſe of ſwearing. It is unqueſtionably impious to call upon alſo to ſerve as ſtyles or gnomons to mark the hours on the ground. God to witneſs impertinences, or to uſe his tremendous name as a The Arabs ſtill call them Pharoah's Needles; whence the Italians mere expletive in converſation ; but it by no means follows, that call them aguglia, and the French giguille. we may not piouſly call upon him to witneſs truths of importance, OBJECT, ſomething apprehended, or preſented to the mind by or invoke his name with reverence and folemnity. No individual ſenſation or by imagination. An object is ſomething that affects could, without groſs profaneneſs, pray for a thouſand times more us by its preſence, that moves the eye, ear, or ſome other of the wealth than he may ever have occaſion to uſe; but it was never organs of ſenſe; or, at leaſt, is repreſented to us by the imagination. thought profane to pray“ day by day for our daily bread, for rain The ſchool-philoſophers define object to be that about which a from heaven, and fruitful ſeaſons.” If it be lawful to aſk of God power, act, or habit is employed. Thus, good is the object of the theſe earthly bleſſings, becauſe he alone can beſtow them ; it can will; truth of the underſtanding ; ſo colour is the object of fight; not ſurely be unlawful, where the lives or properties of our neigh- ſound, of hearing, &c. bours, or the ſecurity of government is concerned, to invoke him.Objets are uſually divded into next, proxima, which are thoſe, with reverence to witneſs the truth of our aſſertions, or the fince the power or habit is immediately applied on; in which ſenſe, rity of our intentions; becauſe of our truth in many caſes, and of colour is the next object of light: and remote, which are thoſe our ſincerity in all, none but he can be the witneſs. only perceived by means of the former; in which ſenſe, the wall The text of Scriptuře upon which the Quakers chiefly reſt their is the remote object of fight, ſince we only ſee it by means of its argument for the unlawfulneſs of all ſwearing under the Goſpel, is colour, &c. our Saviour's prohibition (Mat. v. 34): “I ſay unto you, ſwear Ideas are the immediate objects of the mind in thinking; bodies, not at all. But whoever thould take the trouble of turning over their relations, attributes, &c. are the mediate objects. Hence it his Bible, and looking at the context, will perceive, that it is only appears, that there is a ſort of ſubordination of objects. But note, in ordinary converſation, and by no means in courts of juſtice, that that a next object, with regard to a remote one, is properly a ſub- our Lord prohibits his followers from ſwearing at all. ject, not an object. But though a nation has an undoubted right to require the ſecu Objects that reflect or emit the rays of light, which occafion vi- rity of an oath upon occaſions of real importance, we do not heli fion. Objects of themſelves are inviſible; we only ſeem to per- tate to ſay, that, in our opinion, it is ſomething worſe than bad ceive them, becauſe the different texture of their ſurface, diſpoſing policy to multiply oaths ; and to hold out to the people tempta them to reflect differently coloured rays, occaſion in us ſeveral ſen- tions to perjure themſelves. The ſecurity which an oath affords, ſations of colour, which we attribute to them. depends entirely upon the reverence which attaches to it in the The objects of the eye, or viſion, are painted on the retina ; mind of him by whom it is given; but that reverence is much though not there erect, but inverted, according to the laws of op- weakened by the frequency of oaths, and by the careleſs manner in tics. This is eaſily ſhewn, from Carte's experiment of laying bare which they are too often adminiſtered. An excellent inoraliſt, Mr. the vitreous humour on the back part of the eye, and putting over Paley,obſerves, with truth, that“the levity and frequency with which it a bit of white paper, or the ſkin of an egg, and then placing the oaths are adminiſtered, has brought about a general inadvertency fore part of the eye to the hole of a darkened moon. By this to the obligation of them, which both in a religious and political means is had a pretty landſcape of the objects abroad, painted in- view is much to be lamented: and its merits (continues he) public vertedly on the back of the eye. How, in this caſe, the objects conſideration, whether the requiring of oaths on ſo many frivolous which are painted inverted ſhould be ſeen erect, is matter of con- occaſions, eſpecially in the qualification for petty offices, has any troverſy. other effect than to make them cheap in the minds of the people. OBLIQUUS, in Anatomy, is applied to ſeveral muſcles of the A pound of tea cannot travel regularly from the ſhip to the con head, eye, and abdomen. For their reſpective names, origins, in- ſumer without coſting half a dozen oaths at leaſt : and the ſame ſertions, and uſes, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Table of Muſcles under ſecurity for the due diſcharge of his office, namely that of an oath, the ſeveral heads. is required from a church warden and an archbiſhop, from a petty OBTURATOR, in Anatomy, a name given to two muſcles of conſtable and the chief juſtice of England. Let the law continue the thigh. For their origin, inſertion and uſes, ſee the Syſtem, its own fanctions, if they be thought requiſite : but let it ſpare the Part II. Table of Muſcles, Art. 25. folemnity of an oath ; and where it is neceſſary, from the want of OCCIPITO Frontalis, in Anatomy, a muſcle of the head. For ſomething better to depend upon, to accept a man's own word or its origin, inſertion and uſe, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Table of own account, let it annex to prevarication penalties proportioned | Muſcles, Art. 1. to the public conſequence of the offence." That theſe pernicious conſequences of freqııent oaths are not OCCULT, ſomething ſecret, hidden, or inviſible. The occult ſciences are, magic, necromancy, cabbala, aſtrology, &c. See felt only in England, we have the evidence of another reſpectable theſe Articles. Agrippa has ſeveral books of occult philoſophy, writer, whoſe acuteneſs well qualified him to obſerve, whilſt his full of the vaineſt, wildeſt dreams imaginable: and Fludd nine vo- dation in ſociety furnibed him with the beſt opportunities of lumes of the Cabbala, or Occult Sciences, wrapt up under figures I or OEC O IL 1 The or Hebrew characters. Weak philoſophers, when unable to doctrine of the animal economy is nearly connected with phyfio- diſcover the cauſe of an effect, and unwilling to own their igno logy, which explains the ſeveral parts of the human body, their ſtructure, uſe, &c. See the Articles GENERATOR and NUTRI- rance, ſay, it ariſes from an occult virtue, an occult cauſe, an oc- cult quality. TION, ſee alſo the Syſtems of ANATOMY and MEDICINE. OCEAN, in Geography, that vaſt collection of ſalt and navi DEMA, Oldue, a tumour which appears whitish, ſoft, and gable waters, in which the two continents, the firſt including Eu lax, without any notable change of colour, heat, pain, or pulfa- rope, Aſia, and Africa, and the laſt America, are incloſed like tion ; and which yields to the preſſure of the finger, ſo as for fome time to retain the dent or impreſſion thereof. illands, The ocean is diſtinguiſhed into three grand diviſions. 1. The DEMATOUS, ſomething that is of the nature of an cedema; Atlantic ocean, which divides Europe and Africa from America, or ſeized, or afflicted, with an ædema. Thus we ſay, an ædematous which is generally about 3000 miles wide. 2. The Pacific ocean, arm, oedematous leg, &c. Phyſicians divide tumours into infiam- or South-ſea, which divides America from Aſia, and is generally matory, ædematous, ſcirrhous, ſcrophulous, cancerous, &c. For the about 10,000 miles over. And, 3, The Indian ocean, which le cauſes, ſymptoms, and methods of treating external tumours in parates the Eaſt Indies from Africa; which is 3000 miles over. general, ſee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, Order II. Genus, 8, and The other ſeas, which are called oceans, are only parts or branches Order III, Genus 58. of theſe, and uſually receive their names from the countries they CSOPHAGUS, O!GOWeiyo,, in Anatomy, the gula, or gullet ; a border upon. For deſcription of their ſeveral oceans, ſeas, &c. membranous pipe or paſſage, whereby our food and drink are con- fee the Syſtem of GEOGRAPHY, under the diſtinct Articles of veyed from the mouth to the ſtomach. See the Syſtem, Part III. EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, and AMERICA. For repreſentation, Sect. IV. ſee the reſpective Maps, annexed to the Syſtem. OESTRUS, in Entomology, a genus of infects belonging OCTANDRIA, formed of ontz, eight, and unus male, in bo- to the order of diptera. It has no mouth; but three punctures, tany, the eighth claſs of plants in Linnæus's Sextual Syſtem, with without trunk or beak : Antennæ tapfer, proceeding from a lenti- hermaphrodite flowers, and eight ſtamina, or male parts in each. . cular joint. There are five ſpecies of which the following is the This claſs comprehends four orders, viz. monogynia, including thir- moſt remarkable. ty-one genera of plants with one ſtyle; digynia, containing four The tarandi.---Thorax yellow; with a black line between the genera of plants with two ſtyles ; trigynia, comprehending five wings, which are iinmaculate : Abdomen tawny, laſt ſegment genera with three ſtyles ; and tetragynia, containing three genera black. They infeſt the back of the rein-deer, ſo as greatly to retard with four ſtyles. See the Syſtem, Sect. IV. Art. IV. and the breed. The rein-deer of Lapland are obliged every year to Plate IV. Ay to the Alpine mountains, to eſcape the purſuit of theſe inſects; OCULUS, the Eye, in Anatomy. For deſcription at large of yet a fourth part of their number periſh by them at two years old : the ſeveral component parts, ſee the Syſtem, Part VII. Secť. V. the reſt are emaciated, and have their ſkins ſpoiled. It is one of for repreſentation, ſee Plate II. Fig. 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14. the moſt curious genera of infefs. They are diſtinguiſhed into For the diſcaſes incidental to the eye, ſee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, ſeveral ſpecies, by reaſon of the different places wherein they de. Claſs IV. Order I. Genus 62 and 63. poſit their eggs. Some, inſtructed by nature that their eggs can- ODE, oda, from the Greek ady, cantus, ſong, or ſinging, in not be hatched but under the ſkins of living creatures, ſuch as poetry, a ſong, or a compoſition proper to be fung, and compoſed bulls, cows, rein-deer, ſtags, and camels, fix upon them at the for that purpoſe. inſtant of laying their eggs. From the hinder part of their body ODYSSEY, the name of an epic poem compoſed by Homer, iſſues a whimble of wonderful ſtructure. It is a ſcaly cylinder, which, when compared with the Iliad, exhibits its author as the compoſed of four tubes, which draw out like the pieces of a ſpying- ſetting fun, whoſe grandeur remains without the heat of his glaſs; the laſt is armed with three hooks, and is the gimblet with meridian beams. which the ceſtri bore through the tough hides of horned cattle. The poet's deſign in the odyſſey was to paint the miſeries of a The animal ſeems to experience no pain from the puncture, un- kingdom in the abſence of its ſupreme governor, and the evil con- leſs the infect, plunging too deep, attacks ſome nervous fibre; in ſequences reſulting from a diſregard of law, and of that ſubordina which caſe, the beaſt runs about, and becomes furious. eggs tion without which ſociety cannot exiſt. With this view he fets being hatched, the grub feeds on the matter of the wound. The before his countrymen the adventures of a prince who had been place of its abode forms upon the body of the quadrupeds a bunch obliged to forſake his native country, and to head an army of his ſometimes above an inch high. When full-grown, the larya breaks ſubjects in a foreign expedition ; and he artfully contrives, with through the tumor, and ſlides down to the ground; for doing out interrupting the narrative, to make the reader acquainted which it takes the cool of the morning, that it may neither be over- with the ſtate of the country in the abſence of its ſovereign. The powered by the heat of the day, nor chilled by the cold of the night: chief having gloriouſly finiſhed the enterpriſe in which he was en- it then digs itſelf a burrow, into which it retires. Its ſkin grows gaged, was returning with his army; but in ſpite of all his eager- hard, and turns to a very ſolid ſhell. There it is transformed to neſs to be at home, he was detained on the way by tempeſts for a chryſalis, and afterwards to a winged inſect. Nature has pro- ſeveral years, and caſt upon ſeveral countries differing from each vided for every exigence: the ſhell wherein the eſtrus is incloſed, others in manners and in government. In theſe dangers his com- is of ſo ſtrong a texture that it could not make its way out, if at panions, not ſtrictly obeying his orders, periſh through their own one of the ends there were not a ſmall valve, faſtened only by a fault. In the mean time the grandees of his country abuſe the very ſlight filament, The firſt puſh the deſtrus makes, the door freedom which his abſence gave them ; conſume his eſtate ; con- gives away and the priſon opens. The inſect wings its way to ſpire to deſtroy his fon; endeavour to compel his queen to accept woods and places frequented by cattle. one of them for her huſband ; and indulge themſelves in every OFFICINAL, formed of officina, a ſhop, in pharmacy, a term ſpecies of violence, from a perſualion that he would never return. applied to ſuch medicines, whether ſimple or compound, as are re- In this they were diſappointed. He returns; and diſcovering quired to be conſtantly kept in readineſs in the apothecaries ſhops, himſelf only to his ſon and ſome others who had maintained their to be mixed up in extemporaneous preſcriptions. The officinal allegiance, he is an eye-witneſs of the inſolence of his enemies, simples are appointed, among us, by the college of phyſicians ; and puniſhes them according to their deſerts, and reſtores to his iſland the manner in making the compoſitions is directed in their Dif- t iat tranquillity and repoſe to which it had been a ſtranger during penſatory. OFF-SETS, in Gardening, &c. are thoſe young ſhoots which the many years of his abſence. Such is the fable of the Odyſſey, in which there is no opportu- ſpring and grow from roots that are round, tuberous, or bulbous. nity of diſplaying that vigour and ſublimity which characterize the For the planting and management of the ſeveral roots alluded to, Iliad. “ It deſcends from the dignity of gods and heroes, and ſee the Syſtem, Months January, May, and September. warlike achievements; but in recompence we have more pleaſ- OIL, in Natural Hiſtory, an unétuous inflammable ſubſtance ing pictures of ancient manners. Inſtead of that ferocity which drawn from ſeveral natural bodies, as animal and vegetable ſub- ſtances. reigns in the other poem, this preſents us with the moſt amiable Animal oils are their fats, which are originally vegetable oils : images of hoſpitality and humanity ; entertains us with many a wonderful adventure ; and inſtructs us by ſuch a conſtant vein of all animal ſubſtances yield them, together with their volatile ſalts morality and virtue which runs through the poem,” ſometimes in in diſtillation. Vegetable oils are obtained by expreſſion, infuſion, and diſtillation. The oils by expreſſion are obtained from the ſeed precepts, and always in the conduct of the hero, that we ſhould not wonder if Greece, which gave the appellation of wiſe to men leaves, fruit, and bark of plants ; thus, the feed of muſtard, and of who uttered ſingle ſentences of truth, had given to Homer the the ſun-flower, almonds, nuts, beech-maſt, &c. afford a copious oil title of the Father of Virtue, for introducing into his work ſuch by expreſſion; and the leaves of roſemary, mint, rue, wormwood, a number of moral maxims. As a poem,however, the Odyſſey has thyme, ſage, &c. the berries of juniper, olives, Indian cloves, nut- its faults. The laſt twelve books are tedious and languid ; and meg, mace, &c. the barks of cinnamon, faſſafras, and clove, yield we are diſappointed by the calm behaviour of Penelope upon the a conſiderable proportion of eſſential oil by diſtillation. The method diſcovery of her long loſt huſband, of procuring oils by expreſſion is very ſimple : thus, if either ſweet ECONOMY, denotes the prudent conduct, or diſcreet and or bitter almonds, that are freſh, be pounded in a mortar, the oil may be forced out with a preſs, not heated ; and in the ſame man- frugal management, whether of a man's own eſtate, or that of ner ſhould the oil be preſſed from linſeed and muſtard. The avoid- another. ing the uſe of heat in preparing theſe oils, intended for internal me- Animal OECONOMY, comprehends the various operations of na- dicinal uſe, is of great importance, as heat gives them a very pre- ture in the generation, nutrition, and preſervation of animals. The judicial rancidneſs. * Q This No. 119. OIL O L E upon them. the noſe of the worm; and, finally, to cohobate the water, or pour This method holds of all thoſe vegetable matters that contain back the liquor of the ſecond running upon the matter in the fill , a copious oil, in a looſe manner, or in certain cavities or recep- tacles; the fides whereof being broke, or ſqueezed, makes them let repeating this once or twice. The directions here laid down for go the oil they contain: and thus the zeit or oil of lemon peel, obtaining the ponderous oils to advantage, are eaſily transferred to orange peel, citron peel, &c. may be readily obtained by preſſure, the obtaining of the lighter; ſo that we need not dwell particularly without the uſe of fire. But how far this method of obtaining oil, Many of the eſſential oils being dear, it is a very common practice may be applied to advantage, ſeems not hitherto conſidered. It has to adulterate or debaſe them ſeveral ways, ſo as to render them been cornmonly applied to olives, almonds, linſeed, rape-ſeed, cheaper both to the ſeller and the buyer. Theſe ſeveral ways ſeem beech-maſt, ben-nuts, walnuts, bay-berries, mace, nutmeg, &c. reducible to three general kinds, each of which has its proper me- but not, that we know of, to juniper-berries, caſhew-nuts, In- thod of detection, viz. 1. With expreſſed oils. 2. With Alcohol. dian cloves, pine apples, and many other ſubſtances that might be And, 3. with cheaper eſſential oils. enumerated, both of foreign and domeſtic growih. It has how- If an eſſential oil be adulterated with an expreſſed oil, it is eaſy to ever, been of late ſucceſsfully applied o muſtard ſeed, ſo as to ex- diſcover the fraud, by adding a little ſpirit of wine to a few drops tract a curious gold-coloured oil, leaving a cake behind, fit for of the ſuſpected effential oil, and, ſhaking them together; for the making the common table muſtard. Certain dry matters, as well fpirit will diffolve all the oil that is eſſential, or procured by diftil- as moiſt ones, may be made to afford oils by expreſſion, by grind- lation, and leave all the expreſſed oil, that was mixed with it , 42- ing them into a meal, which being ſuſpended to receive the vapour touched. of boiling water, will thus be moistened ſo as to afford an oil in the If an eſſential oil be adulterated with alcohol, or rectified ſpirit fame manner as almonds; and thus an oil may be procured from of wine, it may be done in any proportion, up to that of an equal linſeed, hemp-feed, lettuce-ſeed, white-poppy ſeed, &c. As to the treatment of oils obtained by expreſſion, they ſhould quantity, without being eaſily diſcoverable, either by the ſmell or be ſuffered to depurate themſelves by ſtanding in a moderately cool tafte : the way to diſcover this fraud, is to drop a few drops of the oil into a glaſs of fair water; and if the oil be adulterated with ſpi- place, to ſeparate from their water, and depoſit their fæces; from rit, the water will immediately turn milky, and, by continuing to both which they ought to be carefully freed. And if they are not thus rendered ſuſficiently pure, they may be waſhed well with freſh ſhake the glaſs, the whole quantity of ſpirit will be abſorbed by the water, and leave the oil pure at top. water, then thoroughly ſeparated from it again by the ſeparating glaſs, whereby they may be rendered bright and clear. Finally, if an eſſential oil be adulterated by a cheaper eſſential The next claſs of oils are thoſe made by infuſion, or decoction, oil, this is commonly done very artfully: the method is to put fir- wood, turpentine, or oil of turpentine, into the ſtill, along with the wherein the virtues of ſome herb or flower is drawn out in the oil; herbs to be diſtilled for their oil, ſuch as roſemary, lavender, ori- as the oils of roſes, chamomile, hypericum, alder, &c. However, theſe require to be differently treated : thus, for the ſcented flowers, ganum, &c. and by this means, the oil of turpentine diſtilled from particularly roſes, inſolation does beſt; becauſe much boiling would theſe ingredients, comes over in great quantity, and intimately exhale their moſt fragrant parts : but oils impregnated with green blended with the oil of the genuine ingredient. The oils thus adul- herbs, as thoſe of chamomile and alder, require long boiling, be- terated always diſcover themſelves in time, by their own flavour fore they receive the green colour deſired. And, in general, no being overpowered by the turpentine ſmell : but the ready way to detect the fraud, is to drench a piece of rag or paper in the oil, and oils will bear to be boiled any longer than there remains ſome aque- ous humidity, without turning black. There are many compound hold it before the fire; for thus the grateful flavour of the plant oils prepared in the ſame manner, viz. by boiling and inſolation, will Ay off, and leave the naked turpentine-ſcent behind. and then ſtraining off the oil for uſe. The virtues of oil being the ſame with thoſe of the ſubſtances The ſame contrivance has likewiſe its uſe in making effences for from whence they are obtained, may be learned under their ſeveral articles. the ſervice of the perfumer : not only where eſſential oils cannot be well obtained in ſufficient quantities, but alſo where they are too The uſe of oil in ſtopping the violent ebullition of various ſub- dear. The eſſential oil of jeſſamine-flowers, honey-ſuckles, ſweet- ſtances, may be very great in many occalions of life. It is well briar, damaſk-roſes, lilies of the valley, &c. are either extremely dear, known that if a mixture of ſugar, honey, or the like, be boiling on or ſcarcely obtainable by diſtillation; and in ſome of them the odo- the fire, and in danger of railing over the ſides of the veífel, the rous inatter is ſo ſubtile as almoſt to be loſt in the operation. But pouring in a little oil immediately makes it ſubſide. In many if theſe flowers be barely infuſed in fine oil of nuts, or oil of ben, caſes the marking a circle round the inſide of a vefiel, in which a drawn without heat, and kept in a cool place, their ſubtile odorous liquor of this kind is to be boiled, with a piece of hard ſoap, ihall, like matter will thus paſs into the oil, and richly impregnate it with the a magic ring, confine its ebullition to that height, and not ſuf- flavour. And theſe eſſences may be rendered ſtill more perfect by fer it to itir any farther : This is wholly owing to the oil, or fat, ſtraining off the oil at firſt put on, and letting it ſtand again, with- contained in the foap: but there is, beiides theſe, another very im- out heat, upon freſh flowers; repeating the operation twice or portant uſe of oil, on a like occaſion, which is the pouring of a thrice. little of it on any metallic ſolution, while making; this reſtrains Oils or fats may likewiſe be obtained by boiling and expreſſion, the aſcent of the noxious vapours; preſerves the operator from from certain animal ſubſtances ; for the membranes which contain danger; and, at the ſame time, by keeping down the evaporating the fat, being chopped ſmall, and ſet in a pan over the fire, become matter, gives redoubled ſtrength to the menſtruum. fit for the canvas bag, and by preſſure, afford a large quantity of fat, Pliny nas mentioned an extraordinary effect of oil, in ſtilling the as we ſee in the art of chandlery, which thus extracting the oily ſurface of water when it is agited with waves, and the uſe made of matter, leaves a cake behind, commonly called graves. it by the divers, for this purpoſe. Omne, ſays he, oleo tranquiliari, As to the eſſential oils of vegetables, they are obtained by diſtil- &c. lib. i. cap. 103, and Plutarch, in Quæſt . Natur. aſks, Cur lation with an alembic and a large refrigeratory. Water muſt be mare oleo conſperſum perlucidum fit et tranquillum ? Pliny's account added to the materials, in ſuſficient quantity to prevent their burn- feems to have been either diſcredited or diſregarded by our writers ing; and they ſhould be macerated or digeſted in that water, a little on experimental philoſophy, till it was confirmed by ſeveral cu- time before diſtillation. The oil comes over with the water, and rious experiments of Dr. Franklin, which were publiſhed in the either ſwims on the top, or ſinks to the bottom, according as it is year 1744. The property of oil abovencentioned has, however, ſpecifically heavier or lighter than water. been well known to modern divers, and dredgers for oyſters, at Gibraltar and elſewhere. This proceſs is applicable to the diſtilling of the eſſential oils from flowers, leaves, barks, roots, woods, gums, and balfam.s, with a OLEA, the OLIVE-TREE ; a genus of the monogynia order, Night alteration of circumſtances, as by longer digeſtion, briſker diſ- belonging to the diandria claſs of plants. tillation, &c. according to the tenacity and hardneſs of the ſubject, There are two ſpecies, 1. The Europea, or common olive-tree, the ponderoſity of the oil, &c. riſes with upright ſolid ſtems, branching numerouſly on every fide, Eſſential oils may be divided into two claſſes, according to their 20 or 30 feet high; fpear-ſhaped, ſtiff, oppoſite leaves, two or different ſpecific gravities; ſome Aoating upon water, and others three inches long, and half an inch or more broad; and at the ax- readily ſinking to the bottoin. Thus, the eſſential oils of cloves, illas finall cluſters of white flowers, ſucceeded by oval fruit. This cinnamon, and faſſafras, readily fink; whereas, thoſe of lavender, ſpecies is the principal fort cultivated for its fruit: the varieties of marjoram, mint, &c. ſwim in water : the lighteſt of theſe eſſential which are numerous, varying in fize, colour, and quality. It is a oils is, perhaps, that of citron-peel, which even floats in fpirit of native of the ſouthern warm parts of Europe, and is cultivated in wine; and the heavieſt ſeems to be oil of faſſafras. great quantities in the ſouth of France, Italy, and Portugal, for the For obtaining the full quantity of the more ponderous oils from fruit to make the olive-oil, which is in ſo great repute, and is tranſ- cinnamon, cloves, ſaſſafras, &c. it is proper to reduce the ſubjects ported to all parts, to the great advantage of thoſe countries where to powder; to digeſt this powder for ſome days in a warm place, the trees grow in the open ground: the green fruit is alſo in much with thrice its quantity of ſoft river water, made very faline by the eſteem for pickling, of which we may ſee plenty in the ihops. addition of ſea-ſalt, or ſharp with oil of vitriol; to uſe the ſtrained 2. The capenſis, or cape box-leaved olive, riſes with thrubby decoction or liquor left behind in the ſtill, inſtead of common water, ſtems, branching numerouſly from the bottom, fix or ſeven feet for freſh digeſtion; to uſe for the ſame purpoſe the water of the fe- high; ſmall , oval , thick, ſtiff, ſhining leayes ; and, at the axillas, cond running, after being cleared of its oil; not to diſtil too large ſmall cluſters of whitith flowers ; fucceeded by ſmall fruit of in- a quantity of theſe ſubjects at once; to leave a conſiderable ferior value. Theſe trees are often fent over from Italy to the Ita- part of the ſtill, or about one fourth, empty; to uſe a briſk fire, or a ſtrong lian warehouſes in London, along with orange-trees, &c. where boiling heat at the firit, but to ſlacken it afterwards; to have a pretty large plants may be purchaſed reaſonably. tew full head, with a proper internal ledge and current leading to Olives have an acrid, bitter, extremely diſagreeable taſte : pick- led OL Y Ο Ν Α ир led, as we receive them from abroad, they prove leſs diſagreeable. OLYMPICS, or OLYMPIC Games, were folemn games, which The Lucca olives, which are ſmaller than the others, have the laſted five days, famous among the ancient Greeks; inftituted, ac- weakeſt taſte; the Spaniſh, or larger, the ſtrongeſt ; the Provence, cording to fome, by Hercules, in honour of Jupiter, in the year of which are of a middling ſize, are generally the moſt eſteemed. the world 2886, and re-eſtabliſhed by Iphitus, 372 years after this The oil obtained from this fruit has no particular taſte or fmell, period; and held at the beginning of every fifth year, that is, every and does not greatly differ in quality from oil of almonds. From 5oth month, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, a city of the ripe fruit, two or three forts are obtained, differing in degree | Élis; to exerciſe their youth in five kinds of combats. The prize of purity; the pureſt runs by light preſſure; the remaining mag contended for was a crown made of a peculiar fort of wild olive ma, heated and preſſed more ſtrongly, yields an inferior fort, with appropriated to this uſe. ſome dregs at the bottom, called amurca. All theſe oils contain a OMEN, is a word which, in its proper fenfe, ſignifies a fign conſiderable quantity of aqueous moiſture, and a mucilaginous ſub or indication of fome future event taken from the laaguage of a Itance, which ſubject them to run into a putrid ftate: to prevent perſon ſpeaking without any intent to prophecy. this, the preparers add ſome fea-falt, which, imbibing the aqueous It is more than probable that this practice of making ordinary and mucilaginous parts, ſinks with them to the bottom; by this events ominous of good or bad fortune took its riſe in Egypt, the means the oil becomes more homogene, and conſequently leſs fuf- parent country of almoſt every ſuperſtition of paganiſm; but ceptible of alteration. In its paſſage to us, ſome of the falt, thrown wherever it may have ariſen, it ſpreads itſelf over the whole inha- from the bottom, by the ihaking of the veſſel, is ſometimes mixed bited globe, and at this day prevails in a greater or leſs degree with and detained in the oil, which in our colder climates, becomes among the vulgar of all nations. too thick to ſuffer it freely to ſubfide ; and hence the oil is fome In England, it is reckoned a good omen, or a ſign of future times met with of a manifeſtly ſaline taſte. happineſs, if the ſun ſhines on a couple coming out of the church Oil of olives is an ingredient in the conpoſition of a great many after having been married. It is alſo eſteemed a good ſign if it rains balſams, ointments, plaſters, mollifying and relaxing liniments. It whilſt a corpſe is burying; is of an etnollient and folvent nature; mitigates gripes of the Happy is the bride that the ſun ſhines on; colic, and the pains accompanying dyſentery; and is one of the Happy is the corpſe that the rain rains on. beſt remedies when one has chanced to ſwallow corroſive poiſons; but it by no means prevents the fatal accidents which enſue from To break a looking-glafs is extremely unlucky; the party to the bite of a ſnake, as has been pretended. It is an effectual cure, whom it belongs will loſe his beſt friend. See the Article Au- as M. Bourgeois tells us, for the ſting of whaſps, bees, and other GURY. inſects. A bandage ſoaked in the oil is immediately applied to the This ſuperſtitious practice of auguring good or ill from trifling ſting, and a cure is obtained without any inflammation or events, and from the particular phaſes of the moon, has no con- ſwelling. nection whatever with popiſh prieſtcraft: it ſhows that the Ro- As the laurel branch is the fymbol of glory, ſo the olive-branch mith clergy, even in the darkeſt age, were at pains to eradicate it covered with leaves has from the moſt ancient times been the em- as idle and impious; and it may be inferred, that it is a relic in the e blem of concord, the ſymbol of friendſhip and peace. of Druidiſm handed down by tradition from an era prior to the in- The leaves of olive-trees have an aſtringent quality. Many troduction of chriſtianity into the Highlands and iſles of Scotland. people uſe them in making gargles for infaminations of the That the Druids were acquainted with the particular doctrines of throat. Pythagoras has been ihown elſewhere (fee Druids;) that Virgil OLEAGINOUS, ſomething that partakes of the nature of oil; was no ſtranger to the Pythagorean philoſophy is known to every or out of which oil may be expreſſed. Thus olives, nuts, almonds. ſcholar; that Pythagoras and his foll wers were addicted to the do- &c. are oleaginous fruits, or fruits out of which oil is expreſſed, tages of magic has been made apparent in that article; and there- Pines, firs, &c. are oleaginous woods, yielding reſin, turpentine, &c. fore it appears to us probable at leaſt, that the attention paid to Of all woods, oleaginous ones burn the beſt. An oleaginous urine pretended omens, not only in the Highlands, but alſo in the low in malignant fevers is a ſign of death. country of Scotland, and indeed among the vulgar in every coun- OLFACTORY Nerves, in Anatomy, the firſt pair of nerves try of Europe, is a remnant of one of the many ſuperſtitions which ſpringing out of the medulla oblongata; fo called as being the im- the Druids impoſed upon their deluded follows. That it is con- mediate inſtruments of ſmelling. See the Syſtem, Part VI. trary to every principle of found philofophy, all philoſophers will Sect. II. and Plate XI. Letter K. readily acknowledge: and whoever has itudied the writings of St. OLIBANUM, in Pharmacy, a gummy reſin, the product of Paul muſt be convinced that it is inconſiſtent with the ſpirit of the juniperus lycra (Lin.) brought from Turkey and the Eaſt In genuine chriſtianity. dies, uſually in drops or tears like thoſe of maſtich, but larger; of 1 OMENTUM, in Anatomy, a fat-thin membrane, ſpread over a pale yellowiſh, and ſometimes reddiſh, colour; a moderately the inteſtines, and following them in all their finuofities. The warm pungent taſte, and a ſtrong, not very agreeable ſinell. omentum is the ſame with what is otherwiſe called epiploon, coul, re- This drug is not however, in any of its ſtates, what is now ticulum, &c. See the Syſtem, Part. III. Sect. II. and Plate V. called thus or frankincenſe in the ſhops. See Frankincen'e and the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part. IV. Chap. II. Sect. IV. OMNIUM is a term of finance, denoting all the particulars in- OLIO, or Oglio, a favoury diſh, or food, compoſed of a great cluded in the contract between government and the public for a variety of ingredients; chiefly found at Spaniſh tables. The forms loan: ſuch a ſtock at 3 or 4 per cent. lottery tickets at a ſtipulated of olios are various. To give a notion of the ſtrange aſſemblage, price, annuities for a certain term, &c. See FUND. we ſhall here add one from an approved author. of OMPHALO-MESENTERIC, in Anatomy. All fætuſes are beef, neats tongues boiled and dried, and Bologna fauſages; boil wrapped in at leaſt too coats, or membranes; moſt of them have them together, and, after boiling two hours, add mutton, pork, a third, called allantoides, or urinary.---Some, as the dog, cat, hare, veniſon, and bacon, cut in bits; as alſo turnips, carrots, onions, &c. have a fourth, which has two blood veſſels; viz. a vein and an and cabbage, borage, endive, marigolds, ſorrel, and ſpinach; then artery, called omphalo meſenteries; becauſe palling along the ſtring ſpices, as faffron, cloves, mace, nutmeg, &c. This done, in ano- to the navel, and terminating in the meſentery. ther pot put a turkey or gooſe, with capons, pheaſants, wigeons, ONANIA, or ONANISM, terms lately framed to denote the and ducks, partridges, teals, and ſtock doves, ſnipes, quails, and crime of ſelf-pollution mentioned in ſcripture to have been com- larks, and boil them in water and falt. In a third veſſel, prepare a mitted by Onan, and puniſhed in him with death. This practice, fauce of white wine, ſtrong broth, butter, bottoms of artichokes, however common, hath among all nations been reckoned a very and cheſnuts, with cauliflowers, bread, marrow, yolks of eggs, great crime. In ſcripture, beſides the inſtance of Onan above- mace, and ſaffron. Laſtly, diſh the olio, by firſt laying out the mentioned, we find ſelf-polluters termed effeminate, unclean, filthy, beef and veal, then the veniſon, mutton, tongues, and ſauſages, and abominable. Even the heathens, who had not the advantage of and the roots over all; then the largeſt fowls , then the ſmallest, revelation, were of the ſame opinion, as appears from the follow- and laſtly pour on the ſauce. ing lines of Martial. ON OLIGARCHY, formed from oney Q., few, and uszli, govern Hoc nihil effe putes! ſcelus eft; mihi crede, ſed ingens ment, a form of government, wherein the adminiſtration is in the Quan: um vix animo concipis ipſe tuo. hands of a few perſons. The ſtates of Venice and Genoa You think it's nothing ! it's a crime, believe! ranked among oligarchies. Oligarchy amounts to much the ſame A crime 1o great you ſcarcely can conceive. thing with ariſtocracy; unleſs perhaps the former imports a kind Dr. Tiflot has publiſhed a treatiſe on the pernicious effects of of defect or corruption; as if the ſovereign power were monopo this ſhameful practice, which appears to be no leſs baneful to the liſed by a few perſons, in prejudice of the rights of a great number. mind than the body. He begins with obſerving, that, by the con- OLYMPIAD Diuje tuias, in Chronology, a ſpace or period of tinual waſte of the human body, aliments are required for our ſup- four years; whereby the Greeks reckoned their timne. See EPO- port. Theſe aliments, however, require certain preparations in The Peloponneſian war began on the firſt year of the 87th the body itſelf; and when by any means we become ſo altered that Olympiád. Alexander the Great died the firſt year of the 114th; theſe preparations cannot be effected, the beſt aliments then prove and Jeſus Chriſt was born on the firſt year of the 195th Olympiad. inſufficient for the ſupport of the body. Of all the cauſes by The Olympiads were alſo called anni Iphiti, from iphitus, who in- which this morbid alteration is brought on, none is more com- ſtituted, or at leaſt renewed, the ſolemnity of the Olympic games. mon than too copious evacuations; and of all evacuations, that We do not find any computation by Olympiads after the 364th, ofte ſemen is the moſt pe nicious when carried to exceſs. It is which ended with the year of Chriſt 440. Except that in a char alſo to be obſerved, that though exceſs in natural venery is pro- ter of our king Ethelbert, the years of his reign are said to be ductive of reckoned by Olympiads. very dangerous diſorders, yet an equal evacuation by felf Fig. 6. Take rump may be Wan CHA. I Ο ΝΙ. O PA ܪ fruit tree. ſelf-pollution, which is an unnatural way, is productive of others try, have found in leeks a fomniferous quality ; but this ftill more to be dreaded. The conſequences enumerated by Dr. is not yet confirmed by a ſufficient number of experiments. Tiſſot are as follow: Belides the three abovementioned, there are ſeveral others, belong. 1. All the intellectual faculties are weakened; the memory fails; ing to the ſame tribe, which we uſe as condiment: but only the leek and onion as diet. In its recent ſtate, the onion is the moſt the ideas are confuſed, and the patient ſometimes even falls into a acrid ; in its boiled ſtate, the leek retains its acrimony moſt tena- ſlight degree of inſanity. They are continually under a kind of in- ward reſtleſſneſs, and feel a conſtant anguiſh. They are ſubject to ciouſly. On account of this, and ſome difference of texture, the giddineſs; all the ſenſes, eſpecially thoſe of ſeeing and hearing onion is more eaſily dig. Ited, and more univerſally uſed than the leck; grow weaker and weaker, and they are ſubject to frightful being more eaſily broke down, and more generally agreeable. dreams. The three forts of onions propagated for the ſake of their roots, 2. The ſtrength entirely fails, and the growth in young perſons for winter vſeg are the Straſburg onion, the red Spaniſh onion; and is conſiderably checked Some are afflicted with almoſt continual the white Egyptian onion. For the cultivation of this uſeful root, watching, and others dofe almoſt perpetually. Almoſt all of them fee Treatiſe on GARDENING; Article Kitchen-garden; Months become hypochondriac or hyſteric, and are afflicted with all the February, July, and Auguſt. evils which attend theſe diſorders. Some have been known to ſpit ONYX, in Mineralogy, one of the ſemi-pellucid gems, with calcareous matter; and others are afflicted with coughs, flow fe variouſly coloured zones, but none red; being compoſed of cryſtal, vers and conſumptions. debaled by a ſmall admixture of earth; and made in either of a 3. The patients are affected with the moſt acute pains in different number of Alat plates, or of a ſeries of coats ſurrounding a central parts of the body, as the head, breaſt, ſtomach, and inteſtines; nucleus, and ſeparated from each other by veins of a different co- while ſome complain of an obtuſe ſenſation of pain all over the lour, reſembling zones or belts. We have four fpecies of this body, on the ſlighteſt impreſſion. gem. I. A bluiſh-white one, with broad white zones. 2. A 4. There are not only to be ſeen pimples on the face, which are very pure onyx, with ſnow-white veins. 3. The jaſponix, or one of the moſt common ſymptoms; but even blotches, or ſuppu horny-onyx, with green zones. 4. The brown onyx, with bluiſh- rative puſtules, appear on the face, noſe, breaſt, and thighs; and white zones, ſometimes fleſhy excreſcences ariſe on the forehead. The word, in the Greek language, fignifies nail ; the Poets 5. The organs of generation are alſo affected; and the ſemen is making this ſtone to have been formed by the Parcæ, from evacuated on the flighteſt irritation, even that of going to ſtool. a piece of Venus's nails, cut off by Cupid, with one of his Numbers are aflicted with an habitual gonorrhoea, which entirely arrows. See the Syſtem. deſtroys the vigour of the conſtitution, and the matter of it reſem OOROO, a kind of cloth, made by the people of Otaheite and bles a fetid ſanies. Others are affected with painful priapiſms, of other iſlands in that neighbourhood, from the bark of the bread- dyſuries, ftranguries, and heat of urine, with painful tumours in Aouta is a name given in thoſe countries to another the teſticles, penis, bladder, and ſpermatic cord. Impotence in a kind of cloth, made of the bark of the paper-mulberry tree, pre- greater or leſs degree is the never-failing conſequence of this de ciſely after the ſame manner. See Bankes's Geography, page 51. teſtable vice. OPACITY, in Philoſophy, a quality of bodies which render The functions of the inteſtines are ſometimes totally deſtroy them opake ; that is, impervious to the rays of light. The term ed; and ſome patients complain of coſtiveneſs, others of diarrhea, opacity, is uſed in oppoſition to tranſparency. piles, and the running of a fætid matter from the fundament. Opacity, according to the Carteſians, conſiſts in this: that the With regard to the cure, the firſt ſtep is to leave off thoſe practices pores of the body are not all ſtrait, or directly before each other ; or which have occaſioned the diſeaſe: and which our author aſſerts is rather not pervious every way. no caſy matter; as, according to him, the ſoul itſelf becomes pol But this doctrine is deficient: for though it muſt be a'lowed, that luted, and can dwell on no other idea; or, if ſhe does, the irritabi to have a body tranſparent, its pores muſt be ſtrait, or rather open lity of the parts of generation themſelves quickly recal ideas of the every way; yet how it thould happen, that not only glaſs and dia- ſame kind. This irritability is, no doubt, much more to be dreaded monds, but even water, whoſe parts are ſo very moveable, ſhould than any pollution the ſoul can have received; and by removing it, have all their pores open and pervious every way; and, at the there will be no occafion for exhortations to diſcontinue the prac ſame tiine, the fineſt paper, or the thinneſt gold plate fhould ex- tice. The principal means for diminiſhing this irritability are in clude the light, for want of ſuch pores, is inconceivable. So that the firſt place, to avoid all ſtimulating, acrid, and ſpicey meats. A another cauſe of opacity muſt be found. Now all bodies have low diet, however, is improper, becauſe it would further reduce the vaſtly more pores or vacuites than are necefſary for an infinite body, already too much emaciated. The food ſhould therefore be number of rays to find a free paſſage through them in right lines, nutritive but plain, and ſhould conſiſt of fleſh rather roaſted than without ſtriking on any of the paris themſelves ; for ſince water is boiled, rich broths, &c. It is certain, however, that as theſe foods nineteen times lighter, i. e. ſo much rarer than gold; and yet gold contribute to reſtore the ſtrength of the body, the ſtimulus on the itſelf is ſo very rare, that magnetic effluvia paſs freely through it, organs of generation will be proportionably increaſed by the ſemen without any oppoſition ; and quickſilver is readily received within which is conſtantly ſecreted, and which will now be in larger quan its pores, and even water itſelf by compreſſion; it muſt have much tity than ever in healthy perſons, owing to the great evacuations of more pores than ſolid parts : conſequently, water muſt have, at it which have preceded. Some part of the ſemen is gradually ab leaſt, forty times as much vacuity as ſolidity. forbed by the lymphatics; in conſequence of which the remainder The cauſe, therefore, why ſome bodies are opake, does not con- becomes thick, acrid, and very ſtimulating. To remedy this, exer ſiſt in the want of rectilinear pores, pervious every way; but ei- ciſe is to be uſed, and that not only for pleaſure, but till it is attended ther in the unequal denſity of the parts, or in the magnitude of with a very conſiderable degree of fatigue. The lleep alſo muſt be pores, and their being either empty, or filled with a different mat- no more than is barely ſufficient to repair the fatigues occaſioned by ter; whereof, the rays of light, in their paſſage, are arreſted by in- the exerciſe, or other employment; for an exceſs of ſleep is as bad numerable refractions and reflections, till falling at length, on as idleneſs or ſtimulating foods. Exceſs in wine, or intoxicating ſome ſolid part, they become quite extinct, and are utterly abſorbed. liquors are alſo to be avoided; or rather ſuch liquors ought never to Hence cork, paper, wood, &c. are opake; while glaſs, dia- be taſted, unleſs as a medicine to reſtore the exhauſted ſpirits: and monds, &c. are pellucid. For in the confines or joining of parts to all this ought to be joined the Peruvian bark, which hath this ad alike in denſity, ſuch as thoſe of glaſs,water, diamonds, &c. among mirable property, that, with little or no ſtimulus, it reſtores the tone themſelves, there ariſes no refraction or reflection, by reaſon of the of the ſyltem, and invigorates the body, in a manner incredible to equal attraction every way; ſo that ſuch of the rays of light as thoſe who have not obſerved its effects. If theſe directions are fol enter the firſt ſurface, paſs it rait through the body, excepting ſuch lowed, the patient may almoſt certainly expect a recovery, provided as are loſt and abſorbed, by ſtriking on ſolid parts : but in the bor- any degree of vital ſtrength remains; and thoſe who defire a life of dering of parts unequal in denſity, ſuch as thoſe of wood and pa- celibacy on a moral account, will find them much more effectual per, both with regard to themſelves, and with regard to the air or than all the vows of chaitity they can make. empty ſpace in their larger pores, the attraction being unequal, OŃCA, in Mammalia, a ſpecies of the genus Felis: For de the reflections and refractions will be very great: thus the rays ſcription of the Gerus, ſee Felis. Of this ſpecies, there are two will be unable to paſs through ſuch bodies, being continually driven varieties. See Plate IV. Order-III. Genus XIII. Species IV. about till they become extinct. Variety I and 2. That this interruption or diſcontinuity of parts is the chief cauſe ONION. Onions, leeks, and garlic, are all of the fame genus, of opacity, Sir Iſaac Newton argues, does appear hence ; that all and in their recent ſtate are acrid, but harmleſs to the human body. opake bodies immediately begin to be tranſparent, when their pores When, by ageor climate, this acrimony is too great, we do not uſe become filled with a ſubſtance of equal, or almoſt equal, denſity them as food. In Spain, the garlic being equally mild with the with their parts. Thus paper dipped in water or oil, the ſtone onion, is uſed as common food. By the ordinary culinary prepa called oculus mundi, ſteeped in water, linen cloth dipped in oil ar ration their acrimony is diffipated, and a remarkably mild ſubſtance vinegar, and other ſubſtances ſoaked in ſuch fluids as will inti- remains, promiſing much nutriment, which thoſe who can digeſt mately pervade their little pores, become more tranſparent than be- them raw will certainly obtain. Though ſometimes ſhunned as fore. food, yet they are on that account uſed in medicine, uniting the On the contrary, the moſt tranſparent ſubſtances, by emptying two qualities of pectorals, viz. on the account of their acri their pores, or ſeparating their parts, may be rendered very opakę. mony, being in their recent ſtate expectorant; in their boiled Thus ſalts, or wet paper, or occulus mundi, by drying; horn, by ftate, on account of their mucilage, demulcent, provided ſcraping; glaſs, by pulverizing, or flawing ; and water itſelf, aby the quantity taken be ſufficient. Some, of late, in this coun being beat into bubbles or froth, are rendered opake. Indece Ο Ρ Η OPI rent. blage of Indeed, to render bodies opake, and coloured, their interſtices moilt or dry; in the firſt there is a ſhedding of tears; in the ſecond, muſt not be leſs than of ſome determinate fize; for the moſt opake none at all. It ſometimes happens in the ophthalmia that the two bodies that are, if their parts be very minutely divided, as when eyelids are ſo diſtorted that the eye continues conſtantly open,with- metals are divided in acid menftruums, become perfectly tranſpa out being able to fhut. The immediate cauſe of the ophthalmia is the blood flowing in OPAL, in Natural Hiſtory, a ſpecies of the chroaſtaces genus too great abundance in the little veſſels of the adnata, ſo as to ſtag- of gems.-This ſpecies of precious ſtone is generally eſteemed the nate therein, and by that means diſtend them. The remote cauſes molt beautiful of all the fiinty tribe, which appears to be owing to are the ſame with thoſe of other inflammations. This diſeaſe may its changeable appearance, when viewed by reflection:- The forın be occaſioned by external injuries; by the ſtoppage of cuſtomary of the opal is that of a pebble like the agate, with which authors evacuations ; by long expoſure to the night air ; by watching, and in general have claffed it, from a ſuppoſed reſemblance, of which reading or writing much by candle-light; by drinking ſpirituous there appears no ſort of proof. On the contrary, Bergman's ana liquors ; by exceſs of venery; by the acrid fumes of metals; by a lyſis points it out to be of a very different nature from the genus venereal taint, and by a ſcrophulous or gouty habit. The diſeaſe of Aints, of which the agate is a ſpecies ; magneſia conſtituting a is ſometimes epidemic, eſpecially after wet ſeaſons; and Dr. Bu- large part of its compoſition, and not entering at all into that of the chan obſerves, that he has frequently known it to prove infectious. agate; if we are to judge from the analyſis of the parent ſpecies, or It may be alſo occaſioned by a moiſt air, or living in low damp flint, there being none yet publiſhed of agate. The ſpecific gravity houſes. In children it often proceeds from imprudently drying up of the opal is likewiſe extremely different from that of the agate. ſcabby heads, a running behind the ears, or other ſimilar diſcharges : Wallerius tells us, that its ſpecific gravity is upwards of 1900. It and it often ſucceeds the ſmall-pox or meaſles, eſpecially in children loſes its colourand tranſparency in the fire, and in other reſpects is of a fcrophulous habit. A flight inflammation of the eyes eſpeci- affected by it in the very ſame manner as quartz or Aint would be. ally from an external cauſe, is eaſily cured; but when the diſeaſe is It may be melted with borax, but not without great difficulty. violent, and continues long, it often leaves ſpecks upon the eyes, OPERA, a dramatic compoſition, ſet to muſic, and ſung on the or dimneſs of fight, and ſometimes ends in total blindneſs. ftage, accompanied with muſical inſtruments, and enriched with OPHTHALMIC Nerves. The fifth pair of nerves of the brain, magnificent dreſſes, machines, and other decorations. Bruyere ſays, | dividing into three branches: the firſt is called ophthalmic, becauſe that it is eſſential to the opera to keep the mind and the ears in it goes to the eye. This, again, ſubdivides into two branches, an enchantment. St. Evremond calls the opera a chimeral aſſem after ſending out ſeveral twigs, which compaſs the optic nerves, poetry and muſic, where the poet and muſician take from and are diſtributed into the choroides. See Syſtem of ANATOMY, the effect of each other's production. Part VI. and Plate XI. Fig. 10. Lett. g. When the language is thoroughly underſtood, we ſhould ima OPIATES, medicines of a thicker conſiſtence than a ſyrup, gine, that to make an opera agreeable to good ſenſe, much prepared with opium ſcarcely fluid. They conſiſt of various in- would depend upon the choice of the ſubject; for it is ſurely ab gredients, made up with honey or ſyrup: and are to be uſed for a furd to have perſons of all ranks, and on every occaſion, perpetu Jong time either for purgative, alterative, or corroborative inten- ally accompanied with the regular reſponſes of ſymphony. To tions. The word opiate is alſo uſed, in general, for any medi- hear Cæſar, Scipio, or Macbeth, when forming plans to enſure cine given with an intention to produce ſleep, whether in the form victory, or hatching plots of treaſon and murder, talking in recita of electuaries, drops, or pills. tive, and keeping time with fiddles, would ſurely diſguſt every per OPINION is that judgment which the mind forms of any pro- ſon whoſe fenle bad not all evaporated in found; but when the poſition, for the truth or falſehood of which there is not ſufficient ſubject repreſented naturally admits of muſic in real life, we can evidence to produce ſcience, or abſolute belief. fuppoſe an opera to afford to perſons of taſte, one of the moít ex That the three angles of a plane triangle are equal to two right quiſite and refined entertainments of which human nature is ca angles, is not a matter of opinion, nor can it with propriety be pable. called an object of the mathematician's belief: he does more than By thoſe who were eſteemed the beſt judges of the art, the believe it; he knows it to be true. When two or three men, Engliſh language was conſidered as too rough and inharmonious for under no temptation to deceive, declare that they were witneſſes of the inuſic of the opera; and, on the other hand, critics, whoſe an uncommon, though not preternatural event, their teſtimony is taſte was built on the baſis of common ſenſe, looked upon a draina complete evidence, and produces abſolute belief in the minds of in a foreign and unknown tongue as the greateſt of all abſurdities. thoſe to whom it is given : but it does not produce ſcience like Many of them, however, pleaded for operas in the Engliſh lan rigid demonſtration. The fact is not doubted, but thoſe who have guage ; and it is well known that Addiſon, who was one of the op it on report do not know it to be true, as they know the truth of poſers of the Italian opera on the London ſtage, wrote, in his propoſitions intuitively or demonſtrably certain. When one or native tongue the opera of Roſamond. This is confeſſedly a beau two men relate a fory including many circumſtances to a third tiful poem; but, in the opinion of Dr. Burney, it adds nothing to perſon, and another comes who poſitively contradicts it either in Addiſon's fame, as it ſhews his total ignorance of the firſt princi whole or in part, he to whom thoſe jarring teſtimonies are given ples of muſic, and of courſe his unfitneſs for the taſk he had under weighs all the circumſtances in his own mind, balances the one taken. againſt the other, and lends an aſſent, more or leſs wavering, to The connoiſſeurs in muſic give a preference to operas in the that fide on which the evidence appears to preponderate. This Italian language, from two conſiderations: firſt, they conceive that affent is his opinion reſpecting the facts of which he has received fenſe and found are two ſeparate gratifications, and that by ſuch different accounts. blending elegant poetry with delightful harmony, the attention Opinions are often formed of events not yet in being. Were is divided between them: ſo that neither affords that exquiſite gra an officer from the garriſon of Nimeguen, inveſted by the French tification as when ſeparately conſidered : another motive is, that the in November 18, 1794, to come while we are writing on this ſub- Italian language is the moſt harmonious of the living languages: ject, and tell us that the ſoldiers in the garriſon are in good health and therefore beſt adapted to convey thoſe exquiſite founds. and high ſpirits ; and every ſhot which they fire upon the aſſailants OPERATION, in Chymiſtry, denotes the proceíſes, or ex produces ſome effect ; and that they have plenty of excellent pro- periments, by means whereof the proper changes are produced in viſions, whilſt the aſſailants are periſhing by hunger; we ſhould bodies, and the effect of the art produced. The changes chymiſtry abſolutely believe every fact which he had told us upon the evidence produces in bodies are reducible to two kinds; viz. an union of of his teſtimony ; but we could only be of opinion that the aſſai- parts, and a ſeparation thereof: thus, chymiſtry either ſeparates lants would raiſe the ſiege. In forming opinions of this kind, ſpirits, falts, oils, &c. or compounds them together. All chymi upon which, in a great meaſure, depends our ſucceſs in any pur- cal proceſſes, therefore, are reducible to two general kinds, viz. ſuit, every circumſtance ſhould be carefully attended to, and our ſuch whereby the parts of bodies, before joined or united are fe judgments guided by former experience. Truth is a thing of ſuch parated, which the ancient chymiſts called ſolution ; and ſuch importance to man, that he ſhould always purſue the beſt methods whereby the parts before disjoined, are combined, or united, called for attaining it; and when the object eludes all his reſearches, he coagulation. Sec thoſe Articles; the other operative parts are in ſhould remedy the diſappointment, by attaching himſelf to that ferted in the courſe of the Alphabet. which has the ſtrongeſt reſemblance to it; and that which moſt re- OPHIORHIZA, in Botany, a genus of the monogynia order, fembles truth is called probability, as the judgment which is belonging to the pentandria claſs of plants. The corolla is fun. formed of it is termed opinion. See PROBABILITY. nel-ihaped; the capſule twin, bilocular, and polyſpermous. There OPIUM, in the Materia Medica, is an inſpiſſated juice, partly are two fpecies; the moſt remarkable of which is the Aſiaticum, of the reſinous and partly of the gummy kind, brought to us in or true Lignum Colubrinum. The root of this is known in the cakes from eight ounces to a pound weight. Eaſt Indies to be a ſpecific againſt the poiſon of the moſt dreadful Opium is the juice of the papaver album, or white poppy, animal, called the Hooded-ſerpent. There is a treatiſe in Ameen. with which the fields of Aſia Minor are in many places ſown, as Acad. tom. iv. upon this ſubject, wherein the author, Joh. And. ours are with corn. When the heads are near ripening, they Darelius undertakes, from the deſcription of ſuch authors as had wound them with an inſtrument that has five edges, which on be- ſeen it upon the ſpot, to aſcertain the plant from which the genuine ing ſtuck into the head makes at once five long cuts in it; and root is taken ; and aſſerts, that that which has been ſold in the ſhops from theſe wounds the opium Aows, and is next day taken off by is very different, and of a poiſonous nature. a perſon who goes round the field, and put up in a veſſel which he OPHTHALMIA, in Surgery, a diſeaſe of the eyes; properly, carries faſtened to his girdle ; at the ſame time that this opium is an inflammation of the tunica adnata, or conjunctiva ; accompanied collected, the oppoſite ſide of the poppy head is wounded, and with a redneſs, ſwelling, heat, and pain. The ophthalmia is either the opium collected from it the next day. * R Opiuma No. 119. OPİ ΟΡ Τ I ſtrona o to act as the moſt powerful of all ftyptics. “Having laid bare the Opium at preſent is in great eſteem, and is one of the moſt va- crural artery of a rabbit (ſays the Doctor), I divided it, when the luable of all the ſimple medicines. In its effects on the animal ſyſtem, it is the moſt extraordinary ſubſtance in nature. It touches blood inſtantly flew out with confiderable velocity; ſome of a the nerves as it were by magic and irreſiſtable power, and ſteeps ſtrong folution was then applied to the divided artery, the ends of the ſenſes in forgetfulneſs ; even in oppoſition to the determined which in a ſhort ſpace of time contracted, and the hæmorrhagy ceaſed. The ſame experiment was performed on the brachial ar, will of the philoſopher or phyſiologiſt, appriſed of its narcotic effect. tery with like ſucceſs. The modification of matter is infinite; and who ſhall truly ſay The effects of a ſtrong ſolution of opium upon the heart, apa by what peculiar or ſpecific configuration of its parts, opium, even pears from the ſame experiment to be very extraordinary. in the quantity of a fingle grain, adminiſtered to the human body, opened the thorax of a rabbit (ſays the Doctor) and by diffection ſhall aſſuage the moſt raging pain, and procure profound ſleep. placed the heart in full view; the aorta was then divided, and the animal bled till it expired. After the heart had remained motiona The action of matter upon matter, thus exemplified in the effect of opium, on the animal ſyſtem, is not leſs aſtoniſhing and incom leſs ten minutes, and every appearance of life had ceaſed for the prehenſible, than that of ſpirit upon matter, or the agency of mind ſame length of time, I poured on the heart a quantity of my ſtrong on the motive powers of the body. ſolution; it was inſtantly thrown into motion, which continued The firſt effects of opium are like thoſe of a ſtrong, ſtimulat two minutes : I then added more of the ſolution, and the action ing cordial, but are ſoon ſucceeded by univerſal languor or irreſil was again renewed. By thus repeating my applications, the mo- tible propenſity to ſleep, attended with dreams of the moſt raptur tions of the heart were ſupported more than ten minutes. I after- ous and enthuſiaſtic kind. After thoſe contrary effects are over, wards opened the thorax of a rabbit, and, without doing any injury which are generally terminated by a profuſe ſweat, the body be to the large blood veſſels, placed the heart in view. A quantity comes cold and torpid : the mind penſive and deſponding; the head is affected with ſtupor, and the ſtomach with fickneſs and the motions as to render it impoſſible to number them: by renew- nauſea. ing the application, theſe were continued for ſome conſiderable It is not our buſineſs, neither is it in our power, to reconcile that time. The ſurface of the heart now appeared uncommonly red, and continued ſo ſome time." diverſity of opinion which has lately prevailed concerning the manner in which opium produces its effects; or to determine whe Opium contains gum, reſin, eſſential oil, ſalt, and earthy mat- ther it acts fimply on the brain and nerves, or, according to the ter ; but its narcotic or ſomniferous power has been experimentally found to reſide in its eſſential oil. experiments of Fontana, on the maſs of blood only. Opium is the moſt ſovereign remedy in the materia medica, for Dr. Smyth, while at Smyrna, took pains to obſerve what the caſing pain and procuring ſleep, and alſo the moſt certain antif doſes of opium taken by the Turks, in general, were. He found paſmodic yet known ; but, like other powerful medicines, be that three drams in a day were a common quantity among the comes highly noxious to the human conſtitution, and even mortal, larger takers of it, but that they could take fix drams a day with- when improperly adminiſtered. Its liberal and long continued out miſchief. A Turk eat this quantity before him, three drams uſe has been obſerved greatly to injure the brain and nerves, and to in the morning, and three in the evening, with no other effect than diminiſh their influence on the vital organs of the body. By its its giving him great cheerfulneſs. But the taking it thus habitually firſt effects, which are exhilarating, it excites a kind of temporary greatly impairs the conſtitution; the perſons who accuſtom them- delirium, which diſſipates and exhauſts the ſpirits; and, by its felves to it, can by no means live without it, and are feeble and ſubſequent narcotic power, occaſions confuſion of ideas and loſs weak; their legs are uſually thin, and their guns eaten away, ſo of memory, attended with nauſea, giddineſs, headach, and conſti that the teeth ſtand bare to the roots; they are alſo often of a yel- pation of the bowels; in a word, it ſeems to fufpend or diminilh low complection, and look much older than they really are. The all the natural ſecretions and excretions of the body, that of per Turkiſh meſſengers, when fent upon buſineſs of hafte, always ſpiration only excepted. carry opium with them, and take largely of it when tired; they Thoſe who take opium to exceſs, become enervated and ſoon ſay it immediately gives them ſtrength and ſpirits to proceed, taken look old; when deprived of it, they are faint, and experience the with proper precaution. Phil. Tranſ. Nº 223. langour and dejection of ſpirits common to ſuch as drink ſpiritu Dr. Lewis has given us the following view of the general effects ous liquors in exceſs; to the bad effects of which it is ſimilar, of opium. It renders the ſolids, while the operation of the opiürni ſince, like thoſe, they are not eaſily removed without repetition of continues, leſs ſenſible of every kind of irritation, whether proceed- the doſe. ing from an internal cauſe, or from acrimonious medicines, as can- By the indiſcriminate uſe of that preparation of opium called tharides, and the more active mercurials, of which it is the beſt cor- Godfrey's cordial, many children are yearly cut off ; for it is fre rector, It relaxes the nerves; abating or removing cramps or quently given doſe after doſe, without moderation, by ignorant ſpaſms, even thoſe of the moft violent kind; and increafing para- women and mercenary nurſes, to filerce the cries of infants and lytic diſorders and debilities of the nervous ſyſtem. It incraſſates lull them to ſleep, by which they are at laſt rendered ſtupid, inac thin ferous humours in the fauces and adjacent parts; by which tive, and rickety. means, it proves frequently a ſpeedy cure for ſimple catarrhs and Opium is univerſally known to be uſed as a luxury in the eaſt. tickling coughs; but in phthiſical and peripneumonic caſes, dan- Mr. Groſe informs us, that moſt of the hard labouring people at gerouſly obſtructs expectoration, unleſs this effect be provided Surat , and eſpecially the porters, take great quantities of this drug, againſt by ſuitable additions, as ammoniacum and ſquills. It pro- which, they pretend, enables them to work, and carry heavier duces a fullneſs and diſtenſion of the whole habit; and thus exaſpe- burdens than they otherwiſe could do. Some of theſe, our author rates inflammations both internal and external, and all plethoric affures us, will take more than an ounce at a time without detri ſymptoms. It promotes perſpiration and ſweat; but reſtrains all ment. Many people in opulent circumſtances follow the ſame other evacuations, unleſs when they proceed from relaxation and cuſtom, but with very different motives. Some uſe it merely for inſenſibility of the parts, as the colliquative diarrhoea in the advanced the ſake of the pleaſing delirium it occaſions ; others for venereal ſtate of hectic fevers. It promotes labour-pains, and delivery more purpoſes, as by this means they can lengthen the amorous congreſs effectually than the medicines of the ſtimulating kind uſually re- as much as they pleaſe, though they thus are certain to bring on an commended for that purpofe; partly perhaps by increaſing pleni- abſolute impotency and premature old age at laſt. For this pur rude, and partly by relaxing the ſolids, or taking off ſpaſmodic ſtric- poſe it is uſually taken in milk : and when they have a mind to And indeed all the preceding effects are perhaps conſe- check or put an end to its operation, they fwallow a ſpoonful or quences of one general power, being nearly allied to thoſe which two of lime juice, or any ſimilar acid. natural ſleep produces. It is alſo conſidered as a great inſpirer of courage, or rather Willis, Sylvius, and Muller, look on opium as a coagulating poi- inſenſibility to danger; ſo that the commanders make no ſcruple ſon, which fixes the ſpirits in the nerves. Wepfer and Pitcairn, of allowing large quantities of it to the ſoldiers when they are go on the contrary, maintain it to be a hot diffolving poifon, which ing to battle or engaged in any hazardous enterprize. ſubtiliſes the blood, exalts and reduces it to vapours, which bloat The beſt opium in the world is ſaid to come from Patna on the up the arteries; and the bloated arteries, compreſſing the veins river Ganges, where, at leaſt, the greateſt traffic of it is made, and and nerves, ſhut up the paſſage of the ſpirits. from whence it is exported all over India ; though in ſome parts, OPOSSUM, in the ſyſtem of Mammalia, a ſpecies of the Genus eſpecially on the Melay coaſts, it is prohibited under pain of death, Didelphis. For deſcription of the Genus, ſee Didelphis . For re- on account of the madneſs, and murders conſequent upon that preſentation of the ſeveral ſpecies, ſee Plate VI. Order 3. Genus 17. madneſs, which are occaſioned by it ; notwithſtanding which ſe Species, 1, 3, 6, 7, 8 and 9. vere prohibition, however, it is plentifully ſmuggled into all theſe OPTATIVE, in Grammar, the third mood in the conjugation countries. of verbs, ſerving to expreſs an ardent defire or wiſh for Opium applied externally is emollient, relaxing, and diſcutient, Inſtead of a particular mood, or a particular fet of inflections to ex- and greatly promotes ſuppuration ; if long kept upon the ſkin, it preſs this deſire, the Engliſh, Latins, &c. expreſs it by an adverb'of takes off the hair, and always occaſions an itching in it; ſometimes it exulcerates it, and raiſes little bliſters, if applied to a tender part. wiſhing prefixed to it. The Latins by utinam; the French by plứt à Dieu; and the Engliſh by would to God, &c. · See the SYSTEM, Sometimes, an external application, it allays pain, and even occa Part I. Chap. I Sect. I. fons fleep : but it muſt by no means be applied to the head, eſpe. OPTIC Nerves, the ſecond pair of nerves, ſpringing from the cially to the futures of the ſkull: for it has been known to have crura of the medulla oblungata, and paſſing thence to the eye. See the moſt terrible effects in this application, and even to bring on the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part VI. Sect. II. and Plate XI. Fig. 10. death itſelf. Letters a, a. It appears, too, from ſome curious experiments made by Dr. Leigh, OPTICS, optica, is properly the ſcience of direct viſion. tures. any thing. Elements of Opticos. Se the System Plate: B ВІ Fig. 2. Fug.7. Fig. 4 P Fig. 6. Fig. 7. a K TIL P A 16 2002 A B Fig.3 6 + T 1 R L R D E Di H I- P E Fig. 8. Fig.5. Α. -B A Fig. I. g 外 ​FIG II Bali IG Q O EZ -V с R R Fig.11. O Fig.12 Fig.13. JR Fig.1).AR N Fig.16 Q C B В P R Fig. 75. Q Fig 10. R G m +P ARR SL IR Fig.19. R A G Fig.17 Fig.18. А Fig. 27 F a Fig. 22 . А Fig. 23 R A Fig.241. R R C Fig.20. R B IV R А a la A R Fig.25. Fig.26. Fig. 27 Fig. 28. Fig.29. P P P D Q 19 #f V Q R Q 9 A 9 Α. Р P a R R R L D DI Fig.32 Fig.37. Fig.33. R B Fig. 37 Fig.31) B R L Fig.35. А. N DI Fig.30 B P SL I B M Fig. 36. R P Р I T TA B В /G GY C P C K G Q: Т Р DY Fig.38. Fig.43. Fig.-14. F D R G R 149.39. R Fig.10. Fig. 11 D Fig. 12. 4 A R P Flo. 15. V IN R R R 1 R B H R Fig. 16. F T C -R 1 Fig. 17. Fig.18. Fig.50. с c B В B: А. Fig.5). f R V R Fig.52 H Н Fig. 53. Fig. 19 D G Р a l'ig. 56. S 1 9 RP F 719,5). Fig.57. B В B R P ITA P R R P P Fig.60 Q lig.59 1 63 A Fig.55. B Tg 05 P. R R R Fig. 67. Fig. 62 7 FP t P Prig.61. Prig.65. R to P FR Fig.66. Fig 2 & 69. B Х D А R F W P G Fig.68 & 70. Fig. 73. AB S piolet D Q B M1 760 Z 자 ​c TP VI illet Q Fig. 72. Q Fig. 7. B: Fig. 74. Fig. 75. P R SYSTEM OF OPTICS. OTU of light. PTICS is a ſcience which explains the properties of light, the 7. Refraction; is the bending or breaking of a ray of light, when nature of viſion, and whatever relates to the fight.---In this it goes out of one medium into another. as well as other ſciences, the ancient philoſophers, though they pre 8. The Angle of Incidence, is the angle made by the incident rays tended to ſearch out the cauſes of natural things, purſued no other and the perpendicular to that point of the ſurface on which the ray falls. method than forming hypothetical conjectures without any rational foundation. And they endeavoured to defend their hypotheſes, by 9. The Angle of Reflection, is the angle comprehended between plauſible arguments of wit, and the figures of logic; flattering them the reflected ray, and the perpendicular on that point of the ſurface, felves, that thereby they had fully eſtabliſhed them, and given a on which it falls. true account of natural cauſes and effects beyond the poſſibility of 10. The Angle of Refraction, is the angle which the refracted oppoſition. ray makes with the perpendicular to the refracting ſurface, at the But the moderns found it neceſſary to purſue another method. point of incidence. And the refracted angle; is that contained be- They ſaw clearly that the nature of things could never be known tween the incident and refracted rays. without careful obſervation and experience, they therefore ſet about II. The Focus, is a point in which all the reflected or refracted to make all the poſſible experiments upon every ſubject that be rays meet together. The point from which the rays ſeem to di- came the object of their enquiry. By theſe means they diſcovered verge, is called the virtual focus. The point to which parallel rays what cauſes produced ſuch and ſuch effects, what cauſes and effects are reflected or refracted is the principal focus. were neceſſarily linked together, and what relation and proportion 12. The focal Diſtance, is the diſtance of the focus from the re- they bore to each other. flecting or refracting ſurface. This generally relates to the prin- Proceeding in this manner, the fagacious Newton, found out cipal focủs. the nature of light, analyed it, and diffolved it into its conſtituent 13. Conjugate Foci, are two ſuch points, that either of them particles, which before were undiſcovered by mankind. He has being the radiant point, the other will be the focus. thewn, that light conſiſts of particles of different colours and differ- 14: A Lens is a ſolid piece of glaſs of which the two fides are ent degrees of refrangibility; and that the colour of each ray is ſegments of ſpheres, and poliſhed. permanent and laſting; and its degree of refrangibility invariable: 15. A. Speculum or Mirror, is any poliſhed ſurface which re- that its particular colour can never be changed by any refraction Alects the rays or reflection. But in this, as in almoſt every ſubject he handled, SECT. II. An EXPLANATION OF THE NATURĖ AND CONA he opened a new field, for the old philoſophers were all of opinion, STRUCTION OF The Eye. (See Plate II. Fig. 1.) that light had no difference or variety of its conſtituent parts, but was in its own nature ſimple and uniform; and that colours were ABCE is the eye, its figure ſpherical; by reaſon of which, it is nothing but modifications of the light, or dilatations of the rays, eaſily moved any way in its ſocket. in its focket. The fore part at A is more cauſed by reflections and refractions; whereas they depend upon convex than the reſt. It is contained in three membranes, the a real ſeparation of the heterogeneous rays. And optic writers outermoſt is the ſclerotica; the ſecond the tunica choroides; the were univerſally of opinion, that the reflection of light was cauſed fore part of it is called the iris, which conſiſts of many fibres like by the particles thereof ſtriking againſt the ſolid parts of bodies, into ſo many radii. The third or innermoſt is called the retina, which which they could not enter, and thence repelled back, like other is nothing but the optic nerve, ſpread over the bottom of the eye. reflected bodies. But Sir Iſaac Newton amply proved, that they In theſe are contained the three humours of the eye; the firſt is are driven back and reflected before they touch the body; and that HAI, called the aqueous humour, which is a thin liquor like water. by ſome inherent power in the reflecting body, which acts at a ſmall The ſecond is FG the chriſtalline, in the form of a lens, more con- diſtance from its ſurface, in lines perpendicular thereto. vex behind towards C. Adjoining to this is the third KL, called the vitreous humour. 'Who could ever have thought, that the opacity of bodies depend- The chriſtalline is more denſe than the vi- ed on their poroſity; and yet the ſame great philoſopher has ſhewn, treous, and the vitreous more denſe than the aqueous humour, and that their opacity ariſes from the multiplicity of reflections within altogether make a compound lens, which refracts the rays of light, the pores of bodies, when the particles are of a different ſize. And iſſuing from an object PR, to the bottom of the eye, and there the ſame bodies become tranſparent, when their pores are filled paints its image pr in the focus upon the retina, inverted. The with a medium of the fame denſity as the particles of the body. figure of the aqueous humour is a meniſcus, and ſo is that of the It is paſt diſpute, that viſion is cauſed by the rays of light en- vitreous. The fore part of the ſclerotica is called the cornea, and tering into the eye; and painting the image of the object, upon that part adjoining to it, is called the white of the eye. Within the the retina at the bottom of the eye. When theſe rays paſs through cornea is a coat called the uvea; in the middle of this is a hole O, the fame medium continued between the object and the eye, they called the pupil, to let in the rays of light. And the pupil is con- come from every part of the object to the eye in right lines; and tracted or dilated by ſeveral muſcular fibres in the uvea or iris, ac- this is direct viſion. When they come not directly from the object cording as more or leſs light falls cording as more or leſs light falls on the eye, and that by an invo- to the eye, but fall upon ſome poliſhed body, and are reflected luntary motion. D is the optic nerve going from the retina to the from thence to the eye, in which they form the image of that ob- common ſenſorium in the brain, where theſe images are perceived. ject; then this ſort of viſion is called reflex viſion. Here the This is not in the middle of the eye, but lies nearer the ſide E, eye properly ſees the image cauſed by reflection, and not the object it- which is towards the noſe. Round the edge of the chriſtalline FG, felf. A body muſt be truly poliſhed to give a perfect image by re- is a ring of fibres, by help of which the diſtance AC is made longer flection; for a rough uneven furface ſcatters the rays, that they ar ſhorter, in order to bring the image pr upon the retina, for diſtinct make no image, or a very deformed one. If the rays paſſing from viſiòn. And perhaps theſe fibres alſo make the chriſtalline more or the object to the eye, go through different mediums, as air, water, leſs convex at the ſame time. This ring of fibres is called the liga- glaſs, &c. then the rays will be refracted at entering a different me- mentum ciliare; and its back part is black, to ſtifle the rays that are dium, and come to the eye in other right lines, of different direc- reflected upon it. The eye is moved in the head by ſeveral muſcles tion from the former; and this is called refracted viſion. So that inſerted in the ſclerotica, ſo that it may be quickly directed to any there are three different caſes of viſion, whereby objects may be object. If the image of an object does not fall upon the retina at feen; and theſe make three diſtinct parts of the ſcience of Optics; pr, the viſion will be confuſed. "If it falls ſhort, or nearer FG; then. of which the firſt is the moſt ſimple, and the last the moſt com- a concave lens that makes the rays more diverging will bring them plex. to the retina. This is the caſe of purblind or ſhort-fighted people, As viſion is the moſt uſeful, as well as the moſt delightful fenſe who are forced to look very near an object: or elſe they muſt uſe we have; ſo the ſcience of optics which teaches the improvement concave fpectacles. If the rays do not unite till they get beyond the and perfection of this fenſe; muſt be the moſt valuable of any, as retina, as in moſt old people; then a convex lens of a due focus, it not only explains the manner of viſion, but from the fame prin- held between the eye and object, will make them converge, and ciples teaches how to ſupply a proper help for bad eyes, and to re- fall upon the retina. Therefore long-fighted people muſt uſe convex medy the ſeveral defects of our light, by the help of proper inſtru- ſpectacles. Although the image is painted inverted in the eye, yet ments contrived according to the rules of this art. we judge it erect; becauſe by cuſtom and experience we always find it fo. The diameters of images at the bottom of the eye, as PART I. DIRECT VISION. pr, are proportional to the angles which the objects fubtend at the SECT. I. DEFINITIONS. as POR; the ſame as in a lens; and are reciprocally as eye, the diſtances of the ſame object viewed in different places. The 1. A Ray of light, is an extremely ſmall part of it moving in a eye is in reality no more than a camera obſcura, for the rays of right line, or otherwiſe. 2. A Beam of light is a ſenſible part of it, conſiſting of a great light flowing from all the points of an object, through the pupil of the eye, do by the refraction of the humours of the eye, paint number of the image thereof in the bottom of the eye. Juſt ſo it is in the 3. A Pencil of rays, is a portion of light of a conical form, pro- camera obſcura, where all the rays refracted by a lens in the win- ceeding from a point, or elſe tending to a point. dow ſhut, or paſſing through a ſmall hole in it, paint the image on 4. Parallel Rays, are ſuch as run in parallel directions; con- the oppoſite wall. verging rays, are thoſe that tend to a point; diverging rays, are The eye can only ſee a very ſmall part of an object diſtinctly ſuch as proceed from a point. For the collateral parts of the object are not repreſented 5. A Medium, is whatever the rays of light paſs through, diſtinctly in the eye ; and therefore the eye is forced to turn itſelf as water, oil, glaſs, air, or any tranſparent body; and even a ſucceſſively to the ſeveral parts of the object it wants to view, that, they may fall near the axis of the eye, where alone diſtinct viſion 6. Refiečtion, is when a ray of light flies off from the ſurface it is performed falls upon, without entering into it. When rays. at once. vacuum. OPTICS. TAY Let S 50DE2 DE ai When any point of an object is ſeen diſtinctly with both eyes, periments likewiſe confirm that it moves in right lines. Hence theſe inferences: the axes of both eyes are directed to that point, and meet there. 1. No rays of light are naturally converging; but always diverge. But if the axes of both eyes are not directed to the object, that ob- 2. Rays that ſhew things far diſtant, fall upon the eye parallel . ject will appear double, becauſe the pictures in the two eyes do not . And to thew things near hand, they diverge from a point; which fall upon correſpondent or ſimilar parts of the retina. to cauſe diſtinct viſion, ought to have a proper diſtance, as 6, 8, 12 Whatever light falls upon that part of the retina, where the inches, &c. or as near as the eye will permit. optic nerve, D, ſprings, makes no impreſſion; and therefore if the PROP. VI. The denſity of rays frowing from an object, or any part picture of an object falls thereon, it is not perceived, and ſo that ob- of an-object; is reciprocally as the ſquare of the diſtance. ject is inviſible. This will appear by placing a ſmall bright object before Let the rays flow from A, (Plate 2. fig. 3.) and fall upon the and looking at it with one eye, and moving your eye la- you, terally towards the contrary fide (towards the left, if it be the right plane BC; then taking the plane BC away, let the ſame light fall on any other plane DE, which is done by producing the lines AB, eye) the object will diſappear, and ſeem to be loſt; and, moving it AC, to D and E. Then the area of the ſurface BC, is to the area ſtill further it will appear again. Now this place is not at the bot- of the ſurface DE; as BC2 to DE?; or as ABP to AD2. tom of the eye, but nearer the noſe in both of them ; ſo that no be any ſmall ſpace, I the quantity of light contained in DAE. rays, either parallel or' diverging, that come from any object, can Is fall upon that place in both the eyes; wherefore any object we di Then BC2:::: —the number of rays on the ſpace s, at BC2 rect the eyes to, will always be viſible, at leaſt to one eye. Is the diſtance AB. And DE2 : 5::1: : number of SECT.III. OF SUCH PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AS ARE DEDUCED rays 310 FROM EXPERIMENTS. on the ſpace s; at the diſtance AD. And the denſity of light being as the number of rays; it will be, denſity of light at B: denſity of Prop. I. When the eye views many objects at great diſtances, it refers Is Is all their places to the ſurface of a ſphere, whoſe center is the eye light at D:: :: DE2 : BC2 : : AD2 : ABP. BC 2 itſelf. Hence, 1. The quantity or intenſity of light, flowing from a For as far as an eye can ſee diſtinctly in any one direction, ſo far luminous object, is reciprocally as the ſquare of the diſtance. it can ſee in any other direction, if not hindered by intermediate bodies ; and this it can do quite round. Hence, when the objects 2. The brightneſs of an object, is the ſame at all diſtances from the eye ; if none of the rays be prevented.---For the brightneſs is we look at are at great diſtances, it is natural to ſuppoſe them at the ſame, when the ſame quantity of light falls upon equal diſtances. For under equal circumſtances, nothing appears the ſame quan- There tity of the retina, in the eye; or when the denſity of the light on the to make one diſtance to be judged greater than another. retina is the ſame. But the denſity of light falling on the pupil, or fore we take the ſimpleſt way, and ſuppoſe them all equidiſtant, or conſider them as ſo. Whence theſe diſtances being all equal or the quantity of light falling on it, is reciprocally as the ſquare of the ſuppoſed equal, and all proceeding from one point, it is plain they diſtance. And by (Prop. III. Cor. 3.) the apparent magnitude of the radii of a ſpherical ſurface, whoſe center is that point. That is, the object is reciprocally as the ſquare of the diſtance. Therefore the the eye places all theſe objects in the ſurface of a ſphere, whoſe ceni- quantity of light on the pupil, is as the apparent magnitude of the ter is the eye itſelf. Hence theſe inferences: object, that is, as the ſpace taken up on the retina: and hence the 1. The eye is always placed in the center of its own view. quantity of light being as the ſpace taken up, its denſity is given: 2. Any portion of the heavens which falls under our view, ap- and therefore the brightneſs is given, or remains the ſame. pears as the portion of the concave ſurface of a ſphere. PPOP. VII. If a Room be made quite dark, and a ſmall hole in the window fout be made. The obje&ts out of the Houſe being ſtrongly Prop. II. Such rays as enter the eye perpendicularly , have the greateft illuminated; the rays proceeding from them, through the hole, will power to cauſe diſtinct viſion. form their pictures on a paper, or on the oppoſite wall, in their pro- This is matter of obſervation; and it is plain that rays which are per colours; but in an inverted poſition. oblique have leſs force to produce their effects; and may be ſo ob Let PQR, (fig. 4.) be the dark room; F, the hole in the window lique as to produce no ſenſible effect at all. Therefore, thoſe rays ſhut; ABCD an object without. The rays proceeding from the that are moſt direct, are moſt efficacious in cauſing viſion. top A, in the right line AF, will form its image at a towards the Prop. III. An object appears greater or leſs, according as it is ſeen bottom of the wall. And the rays proceeding from the bottom C, under a greater or leſſer angle. in the line CF, will paint its image at the top c. Likewiſe the rays Let A Ca (Plate II. fig. 2.) be the axis of the eye ; AB, DE two proceeding from the left B, in the line BF, will make the image of equal objects. To the eye at C, draw BCb, and ECc. Then the B on the right hand at b. And thoſe proceeding from the right hand D, in the line DF, will form its image on the left at d. object BA appears under the angle BCA, or bca, and ED under the angle ECD, or eCa. But eCa is greater than bCa; and ae greater Likewiſe all the rays proceeding from the line AC, will form its than ab. But ae' aby are the appearances or pictures of the objects image ac. And thoſe from BD will make its image bd. And the like for DE, AB, upon the retina of the any Therefore the former ap- eye. other object expoſed to the hole F. If the hole F be very ſmall, the pictures will be very diſtinct, but hardly viſible for pears greater than the latter. Hence, 1. T'he diſtance between two objects A and B, appears to be want of light. And if the hole be large, the pictures will be greater, as the diſtance of the ſpectator is leſs-For at the diſtance brighter, but not diſtinct. To remedy theſe things, a broad convex CD, the diſtance of the object appears under the angle ECD or lens of a proper focus, muſt be placed in the hole made wide enough to receive it. eCa. And at the diſtance AC, it appears under the angle BCA, Prop. VIII. The light of the ſun conſiſts of rays differently 2. The apparent linear magnitude of an objet AB, is recipro- refrangible. cally as the diſtance CA—for AB appears no greater than DF. EXPER. 1. To prove this by experiment, In a very dark cham- But DF:DE or AB :: CD:CA. That is, the apparent magnitude ber, make a round hole as F, (fig. 5,) about 1 inch diameter, in the window ſhut EG. of AB: apparent magnitude of DE :: CD : CA. Place a glaſs priſm ABC very near the hole, 3. The ſuperficial magnitude of an object is reciprocally as the ſo that a beam of light SF coming in at the hole, may paſs through ſquare of the diſtance. For the apparent heights will be recipro- thepriſm and be refracted upwards, towards the oppoſite wall of cally as the diſtance. And for the ſame reaſon the apparent breadths the chamber, and there form a coloured image of the ſun PT. will alſo be reciprocally as the diſtance. Therefore the This priſin is triangular at each end, 3 or 4 inches long, and is apparent ſur- po- face compounded of theſe, will be reciprocally as the ſquare of the liſhed on the 3 fides AB, BC, CA. It is here placed parallel to the diſtance. horizon, and its axis perpendicular to the beam SF. Turn the priſm ſlowly about the axis, and you will ſee the refracted light, on Prop. IV. An obje£t appears ſituated in that place, from which the the wall, or the coloured image of the ſun, firſt to deſcend, and then rays laſt of all diverge, in coming to the ſpectator's eye. to aſcend. Between the deſcent and aſcent, when the image ſeems. For an object always appears to be fituated in that place from ſtationary, ſtop the priſm and fix it there. For in that poſture the which the rays diverge, and come directly to the refractions of the light on the two ſides CB, CA, are equal to one rays another. are brought there by reflection or refraction, they make the ſame picture in the bottom of the eye as when they come directly from So likewiſe in other experiments, when you would have the re- that place. And all viſion being performed by the pictures upon fractions on both ſides the priſm to be equal, you muſt note the the retina; when theſe are alike, we muſt judge the ſituation of the place on the wall where the image ſtands ſtill between two contrary object to be alike. motions; and make it faſt there. In this poiture of the priſm all the following experiments are to be made, unleſs ſome other poſture is Prop. V. From every point of a luminous object, the rays of light di- deſcribed. The priſm remaining in this poſition, let the refracted verge and flow every where in right lines, through the ſame medium. light fall perpendicularly upon a lheet of white paper at the oppoſite For if the rays do not flow from every part of the object, ſuch no wall of the chamber, and you will ſee the ſolar image formed on the parts as have none flowing from them cannot be viſible. And it paper to be oblong, and not oval, but terminated with two rectilinear Aows in all manner of directions, becauſe, in any ſituation of the eye, and parallel fides, and two ſemi-circular ends: the ſides bounded the ſame part of the object appears and may be ſeen ; and being light there decaying, and vaniſhing by degrees. Here the breadth pretty diſtingly, but the ends very confuſedly and indiſtinctly, the viſible in all fituations, the light muſt flow in all directions. And it muft flow in right lines in the ſame medium, for no reaſon can be anſwers to the ſun's diameter; at 18{ feet from the priſm, the given why it ſhould deviate more to one fide than another. Ex- breadth diminiſhed by A inch; the diameter of the hole, is iš inch, and ſubtends an angle at the priſm of half a degree, which is the 3 fun's or bCa. eye. If the O P T I C S. way, I 8, 15, 6, 6, any new ſün's apparent diameter. The length is 10 inches, when the ånd fo in order to the violet; which is molt. And the ſpaces takčij refracting angle of the priſm C is 64 degrees. With a leſs angle up by theſe, are not equal ; the orange and purple being little more of the priſon the length of the image will be leſs. If the priſm be than half each of the reſt, which are nearly equal.—This is known turned about its axis that way which makes the rays emerge more by meaſuring the parts of the image PT, (fig. 5.) obliquely to the ſide AC, the image ſoon becomes an inch or two 5. Objects ſeen through glaſſes in purified or homogeneal light longer, or more. And if the priſm be turned about the contrary will appear diſtinct; but very corifuſed in heterogeneal or common ſo as to make the rays fall more obliquely on the fide CB, light. the image becomes an inch or two ſhorter. And therefore in SCHOL. Sir J. Newton, by accurately meaſuring the ſpaces, trying this experiment, one muſt be careful in placing the priſm that the ſeveral colours take up, found them as follows: ſo, that the refractions on both ſides may be alike. red, orarige, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. This experiment tried with a priſm, whoſe refracting angle C . is 62 į degrees, the length of the image will be 9 or 10 inches, Where the whole length of the image is i. at the fame diſtance. The magnitude of the hole in the window ſhut, the different thickneſs of the priſm, where the rays paſs PROP. IX. Rays of light which differ in colour, differ alſo in de- through, the different inclinations of the priſm to the horizon, (or grees of refrangibility. different heights of the ſun), make no ſenſible changes in the length Exper. Take an oblong piece of paper as DGI, (fig. 7.) of the image. Neither does the different matter of the priſm make draw a line croſs it in the middle, to divide it into two equal parts. any; for in a priſm made of plates of glaſs and water within, there Paint one end DG with blue, the other GI with red, as ſtrong as is the ſame reſult. Alſo the rays always go in right lines from the you can. Lay it flat where there is light enough; look at it priſim tɔthe image. And therefore at their going out of the priſm, through a glaſs priſm, held parallel to have all that inclination to one another, which cauſes the length if the refracting angle of the priſon be upwards, ſo that the paper of the image; that is, the inclination of 2 į degrees or more. From may ſeem to be lifted upwards by refraction, the blue half FO will all which it is plain, the rays falling on P are more refrangible than be lifted higher by refraction, than the red half OK. But if the thoſe falling on T. For if the rays were all alike refrangible, the refracting angle of the priſon be turned downwards, ſo that the image PT would be a circle, whoſe length is equal to its breadth; paper may ſeem to be carried lower by refraction, its blue half will which is eaſily proved thus: Let SKHP be a ray coming from the be carried lower than the red half. Therefore the light from the lower part of the ſun to the higher part of the image, and refracted blue is more refracted, and confequently is more refrangible, than by the priſm at K and H; SLIT a ray which comes from the the light from the red. higher part of the ſun, to the lower part of the image, and is re Hence 1. All light naturally conſiſts of heterogeneous rays, fracted at L and I. Suppoſe the refraction on both ſides the priſm, which exhibit different colours. are equal; we have, refraction at K= refraction at I, and refrac 2. Every ſort of homogeneal rays produces its proper colour, tion at H= refraction at L. Then by addition, the refractions at according to its degree of refrangibility. And ſuch colour cannot K and H = refractions at I and L. And therefore the two rays be changed by any reflexions or refractions. Alſo thoſe rays that being equally refracted, have the ſame inclination to one another agree in colour are of the ſame degree of refrangibility. after refraction as before; that is, half a degree, equal to the ſun's 3. There are as many ſimple colours as there are degrees of re- apparent diaineter. So then PT would ſubtend an angle at the frangibility, and therefore an infinite number. prifm of half a degree, and therefore would be equal to the breadth, For though in Exp. 1. Prop. VIII. there are only ſeven ſimple and conſequently the image would be round. But inſtead of that, colours mentioned; yet each of them conſiſts of an infinite num- it is five times longer than it is broad, ber of degrees, and therefore are infinitely various. Likewiſe the image P T is coloured: for from T to P it has 4. If the ſun's light conſiſted but of one fort of rays, there theſe different colours in this order, red, orange, yellow, green, would be but one colour in the whole world, for all things would blue, purple, violet, at the places, r, 09 y, 8, 6, p. v, reſpectively. be of one colour. Nor would it be poſſible to produce So that the moſt refracted part at Pis violet, and the leaſt refracted colour by reflexion or refraction. And of conſequence the variety at T is red. And the intermediate part, all the other colours. of colours depends upon the compoſition of light. Exp. 2. When a beam of light is let in at the hole F, of the win- ... dow ſhut; hold the priſm in ſuch a poſition that its axis Prop. X. Whiteneſs, or the Sun's light is compounded of all the may be perpendicular to the beam. Then look through the priſm to the Primary colours mixed in a due Proportion. hole, and turning the priſm backward and forward, to find when EXPER. Let a beam of light be refracted by a priſın, as in the image is ſtationary; there ſtop the priſm, the refraction on Exper. 1. Prop. VIII. and made to form the image P on a piece both ſides being then equal. Then looking through it, at the of paper (fig. 5.) Then let the paper be taken away, and a lens hole; the length of the image will appear to be many times held in the refracted rays ſo as they may fall upon it, and it will greater than the breadth. The moſt refracted part being violet ; cauſe the coloured light which diverged from the prifm to con- and the leaſt refracted, red. The middle parts blue, green, yellow verge, and meet again at its focus. If y hold a paper behind the in order. And if the priſm be removed out of the ſun-beam, and lens, the ſolar image will appear upon it intenſely coloured ; and then looking through it at the hole, you will have the ſame appear- | by receding from the lens, thoſe colours will come more and more Now if all the rays were refracted alike, the hole would ap towards one another; and by mixing together, will more and more pear round when refracted through the priſm. So that at equal dilute one another continually; till at length the paper comes to incidencies there is a confiderable inequality of refraction. the focus, where by a perfect mixture, all the colours will wholly To try what is the effect of refracting the rays a ſecond vaniſh, and be converted into whiteneſs; the whole light appearing time. Things being ordered as in the firſt experiment, place a now upon the paper, like a little white circle. little white circle. And afterwards fecond priſm clofe by the firſt in a croſs poſition as DH, (fig. 6), by moving farther from the lens, 'the rays which converged and that it may again refract the beam which comes through the firſt met at the focus, will now croſs one another there, and diverge priſm. The firſt priſm refracts it upwards; and the ſecond, ſide from thence, and thereby make the colours to appear again, but ways. By the firſt priſm alone the beam is refracted to PT, and in a contrary order, the red being now above, and the violet be- yi is the image made by the refraction of the two croſs priſms to low. Here then the ſun beam SE, which at firſt was white, is by gether. Then it will appear by the refraction of the ſecond priſm, the refraction or the priſm ABC refolved into its original colours ; that the breadth of the image is not encreaſed, but the upper part theſe colours, by the refraction of the lens, are again intimately P ſuffers a greater refraction in both priſms; and the lower part T, | mixt, and reduced to their original whiteneſs. a leſs refraction in both priſms; and that without any dilatation of Now it is evident this whiteneſs is made up of all the colour of the image in breadth. Likewiſe as before, the upper part q appears the image. For if any of the colours be ſtopt at the lens, the white- violet; and the lower part t, red; and the reſt as before. So that neſs will ceaſe, and degenerate into that colour which is made by here is no dilatation or ſplitting of rays. And if a third and even the compoſition of the remaining colours. And if the intercepted a fourthi priſin be placed in the ſame manner after the ſecond, the colour be then let pafs, and fall upon that compound colour, it will reſult will be the ſame; and the moſt refrangible rays will be moſt immediately reſtore its whiteneſs by mixing with them. Thus if refracted, as before ; and the leaſt, the leaſt refracted, whilſt their the blue rays be intercepted, the reſt will appear reddiſh, and then colours remain unchanged. letting the blue paſs, the whiteneſs is reſtored. And if the red Hence, 1. Every ray' of light has a peculiar degree of refran be ſtopt, the reſt will appear blueiſh; and letting the red pafs, the gibility which cannot be changed by any reflections or refractions ; whiteneſs is again reſtored. but remains conſtantly and invariably the ſame. And in making this white, the ſeveral rays do not ſuffer any change 2. The confuſed viſion of any object ſeen through a refracting by acting upon one another. For if the paper be held beyond the body or medium, ariſes from the different refractions of the light. - | focus, and the red colour be ſtopt, and then let paſs again, the violet For different rays flowing from the ſame point of an object, will colour on the paper ſuffers no change. Neither will the red be be refracted to different points on the retina at the bottom of the eye. changed by ſtopping and letting paſs the violet. 3. The light reflected or emitted from all bodies, conſiſts of When the paper is held in the focus, and the white image there rays differently refrangible.-—- For the light reflected from all bodies be viewed through a priſm, you be viewed through a priſm, you will have a coloured image like PT. on the earth, is the ſun's light. And beſides, if one looks at any And if any colour at the lens be ſtopt, and let paſs by turns, it will object through a priſm, that object will appear tinged with different diſappear and return as often ; but the remaining colours will not colours, ſuffer any change. One colour then depends on one ſort of rays, 4. Hence alſo the ſimple primary colours are ſeven ; red, orange, and another colour on another fort. yellow, green, blue, purple, violet. The red being leaſt refracted, Hence, 1. A mixture of colours may be made, which ſhall be S like ance. Exp. 3: No. 119. OPTICS. parts like the colour of homogeneal light. But it will differ in this, that lours remain the ſame as before, only they become more faint and the parts of it will be differently refrangible. languid, eſpecially when wet on the under fide. Therefore the Hence I. All colours in the world are either the colour of ho thickneſs of the plate to produce any colour, depends only on the mogeneal light; or compounded of them. denſity of the plate, and not on the denſity of the incloſing 2: A body that reflects no colour is black. medium. But the colours are more vivid as their denſities are 3. Black is no colour, and white is all colours. different. EXPER. 5. Two object glaffes being laid on one another as in PROB. XI. If any body be placed in ſimple or homogeneal light of Experiment i. If a ſpectator looks obliquely at them, the rings any colour ; it wil appear of the ſame colour. of colours will be increaſed in bigneſs. Hence the colour of ſome Exper. Suppoſe the beam of light SF (fig. 5. to paſs through plates will change by changing the poſition of the eye: From theſe the hole F, in the window ſhut, and being refracted by the priſm experiments it is plain, that the colour of bodies depend upon the ABC, to caſt the image PT on the oppoſite wall, and to form all thickneſs and denſity of the particles that compoſe them. the original priſmatic colours. Take a bit of paper, and hold in Hence, 1. If the denſity or ſize of the particles in the ſurface of the red light, and it will appear red. Hold it in the orange, yellow, a body be changed: the colour is likewiſe changed. green, blue, &c. ſucceſſively; and it will appear orange. yellow, 2. When the thickneſs of the particles of a body is ſuch, that one green, blue, &c. ſucceſſively. ſort of light or colour is reflected ; another light or other colours Take a bit of coloured paper, and hold it in the red light, and it will be tranſmitted. And therefore the body will appear of the will appear red: alſo hold it in the orange, yellow, green, &c. and firſt colour. This appears by Exper. 1. where the tranſmitted it will appear orange, yellow, green, &c. reſpectively. But it will light is different from the reflected light. appear moſt luminous when placed in the light of its own kind. 3. The thickneſs of a plate of air, between two glaſſes, which The room muſt be dark in trying this experiment. reflects a deep yellow; muſt be 178000, or 17&bon, or 176707, &c. The colours of all bodies ariſe from hence, that ſome bodies parts of an inch. And that of a plate of water between two glailes, reflect one ſort of rays, others another ſort of rays, more copiouſly will be of it. than the reſt. And they become coloured, by reflecting the light of 4. The thickneſs of a plate may be ſuch, that it will reflect dif- their own colours more plentifully, and that of all other colours ferent colours. more ſparingly. Therefore it is light only that gives colour to bo 5. The particles of bodies reflect rays of one colour, and tranſa dies; and they have naturally no colour in themfelves; and a body mit thoſe of another. And this is the ground of all their colours. may be made to be of any colour, by holding it in the light of that 6. The cauſe of reflection, is not the impinging of light on the colour. ſolid of bodies. But it is by a certain power, uniformly dif- fuſed over the whole ſurface of the reflecting body. Prop. XII. The colours of natural bodies depend upon the ſize and 7. Bodies reflect and refract light by one and the ſame power, denſity of the compounding particles. For when light goes out of the glaſs into the air, very obliquiely; Exper. 1. Take two object glaſſes belonging to two long tele- if its incidence be made more oblique, it is totally reflected. ſcopes, one a plane convex, the other a double convex. Lay the Again, experience ſhews, that light is alternately reflected and plane ſide of one, as AEB upon the convex fide of the other CED tranſmitted, by thin plates of glaſs for many ſucceſſions, according (fig. 8.) Then, looking perpendicularly upon them, you will ſee a to the thickneſs of the glaſs. Likewiſe thoſe bodies that have the black ſpot in the middle where they touch; and ſeveral concentric greateſt refracting power, reflect the greateſt quantity of light. rings of colours about it, as Z, E, G, H, I, A, &c. Theſe rings | Prop. XIII. Every ray of light in its puffage through any refract- may be reckoned of ſeveral orders, by reaſon of the ſame colour ing ſurface, is put into a certain tranſient conſ'itution or ſtate, which coming over again. Theſe orders are as follow, 1. Z, black, blue, ar in the progreſs of the ray returns at equal intervals; and diffoſes the white, yellow, red. 2. F, violet, blue, green, yellow, red. 3. G. ray at every return, to be tranſmitted, and between the returns to purple, blue, green, yellow, red. 4. H. green, red. 5. I. greeniſh blue, red, &c. Which colours grow weaker and weaker from the be reflexed by it. center; and alſo narrower and narrower. This is manifeſt by Exper. 1, 2, and 3. By theſe experiments But if the light be made to paſs through the glaſſes to the eye, it appears, that one and the ſaine ſort of rays at equal angles of in- the ſpot in the middle will be white; and the orders of colours, go- cidence, on any thin tranſparent plate, is alternately' reflected and ing from the center, quite contrary to the others. I, White, yel- tranſmitted, according as the plate increaſes in progreſſion of the 1 lowiſh red. 2. Black, violet, blue, white, yellow, red. 3. Violet, numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. ſo that at the thickneſs 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. blue, green, yellow, red, &c. The black lines between the glaſſes, the rays are reflected ; and at the thickneſſes 2, 4, 6, 8, &c. they at, F, G, H, I, A, are diſtances in arithmetical progreſſion, being are tranſmitted ; and thereby make the rings of light. And this (by the places where the ſame colour returns, by reflected light, as at Exper. 4.) depends on both the ſurfaces of the glaſs. Hence, the firſt trial. 1. The reaſon why the ſurfaces of bodies reflect part of the light Meaſuring the diameters of the rings in the brighteſt part, their falling on them, and tranſmit the reſt , is becauſe ſome rays at their ſquares are found to be in arithmetical progreſſion of the odd num incidence, are in fits of eaſy reflection, and others in fits of eaſy bers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, &c. And ſince one of the glaſſes is plane tranſmiſſion ; calling the returns of theſe diſpoſitions of the rays, and the other ſpherical ; their diſtances at theſe rings, that is, at Z, the fits of eaſy reflection or tranſmiſſion. F, G. H, &c. muſt be in the ſame progreſſion. Alſo meaſuring 2. Thoſe ſurfaces which refract the rays moſt ſtrongly in fits of the diameters of the faint rings, in the middle between the bright eaſy refraction ; do refect them moſt ſtrongly in fits of eafy ones ; their ſquares, and conſequently the diſtances of the glaſſes reflection. there, appear to be in the arithmetical progreffion of the even num- 3. of a deep yellow paſs perpendicular out of any bers, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, &c. And from the known radius of the medium into air; the interval of the fits of eaſy reflection are the lower glaſs, the diameter of any ring may be computed, and confe ogőooth part of an inch. And of the fame length are the fits of quently the diſtance of the glaſſes in that place. Hence the diſtance ealy tranſmiſſion. of the glaſſes in the middle of the firſt dark ring is found to bez gobo 4. When a plate is thinner thanzkodo, the rays are all tranſmitted part of an inch. And half of it multiplied by 1,3,5,7, &c. 5. The intervals of the fits are ſhorteſt in the moſt refrangible rays. gives the diſtance of the glaſſes or the thickneſs of included air, at the 6. All bodies appear tranſparent, whoſe particles and pores are moſt luminous parts of all the bright rings, 175000, 17500, 17:00, too ſmall to cauſe any reflections. 173000, &c. and 17X17o, 178007, 178000, &c. the thickneſs at the 7. The opacity of bodies ariſes from the multitude of reflections within them. Exper 2. Wetting the objects with water : as the water 8. The conſtituent parts of bodies are the greateſt whoſe colours crept in between them, the circular rings grew leſs. And by mea- are moſt dilute. ſuring their diameters, and from thence finding the diſtances of the 9. A body becomes tranſparent, by filling the pores of it with glaſſes, theſe diſtances were found leſs than before in proportion as a fluid of the ſame denſity with itſelf. For all the parts being of 3 to 4; that is, as the fines of refraction out of water into air. equal denſity, there can be no refraction within it, and therefore Exper. 3. Viewing theſe rings of colours in a dark room, in will go ſtrait forward and paſs through it. homogeneal light, they become more diſtinct. And trying all the priſmatic colours ſucceſſively, the red circles will appear to be big- Prop. XIV. Bodies act upon light at ſmall diſtances, by attraction than the blue or violet. The diſtances of the glaſſes, at the red ger und repulfion. and violet circles, are as 141 to 9. Theſe rings are not of various Exper. I. Make a hole with a pin in a thin piece of lead ; and colours, but appear only of that priſmatic colour, with which they placing it in the hole of a window ſhut, let a beam of the ſun's are illuminated. And the light which falls on the deep ſpaces be light paſs through it, into a dark room. Then will the Shadows tween the coloured rings, is tranſmitted through the glaſſes with of hairs, threads, pins, ſtraws, &c. be bigger than they would be, out any variation of colour. From hence the origin of theſe rings if the rays of light paſſed by them in right lines. And it is the ſame is manifeſt ; viz. That the air between the glaſſes, according to its thing, whether the ſmall body be encompafied with air or water, various thickneſs, is diſpoſed in fome places to reflect, and in others &c. The ſhadows of ſcratches in glaſs, and the veins in it, are to tranſmit the light of any one colour; and in the ſame place, to broader than they ought to be, reflect that of one, where it tranſmits that of another. The dia Let X (fig. 9.) be a hair placed in the beam ; ADG, BEH, meter of the 6th circle made by the yellow was to of an inch. KNO, LÖR, rays of light paffing by the ſides of it, bent at X, Exper. 4. Take very thin plates of iſinglaſs , or muſcovy and falling upon the paper GQ. TI, VS, the direet light. The glaſs, that thew the colours ; then by wetting theſe plates, the co light paſſing neareſt the hair, as at D and N, is the moſt bent; paff- When rays darkeſt parts. the rays ing OPTICS pn or I n ing tº G and Q, the fartheſt afunder; thoſe that are further off, as Hence, I. If I--> be the light loſt or deſtroyed in paſliny at E and O, are leſs bent; and ſo on, to TI and VS. Therefore through the ſpace or depth a; 1-pr will be the light loſt in pafl- the force acting upon the light is ſtrongeſt at the leaſt diſtance, | ing through the depth na. making the ſhadow GQ; and weaker at greater diſtances. 2. The light tranſmitted at the depth ma, is to the light tranf- EXPER. 2. The ſhadow of all ſorts of bodies are bordered with mitted at the depth no, as pm to pu. three parallel fringes of coloured light; the neareſt to the ſhadow, 3.' The light tranſmitted through any depth as à, is to the light the brighteſt; and the furtheſt, very faint. The order of the co tranſmitted through the depth na, ás i to pr—I. lours, reckoning from the innermoſt, are violet, blue, green, yellow, For the lights tranſmitted are as p to pa, that is, as i to red. So by looking on the ſun through a feather or black ribbon, P held cloſe to the eye, ſeveral fringes of colours will appear. pot; where n may be whole or fractional. EXPER. 3. Let the ſun ſhine through a ſmall hole made by a 4: The brightneſs of an object is nearly the ſamej at all diſtances pin in a plate of lead; and place a priſm at the hole to refract the of the eye from it. light, on the oppoſite wall. The ſhadows of all bodies held in the 5. In general at - of the diſtance, n times the light comes into coloured light, will be bordered with fringes of the colour of that light in which they are held: in the red they will be red; in the the eye, and the picture is n times as big, and the denſity the ſame blue, blue, &c. And the fringes made in the red light will belarg as before, becauſe n times the light is ſpread over n times the ſpace. eſt, thoſe in the violet, leaft; the green ones of a middle fize. When a hair is held in a white beam of the ſun's light (Experim. PROP. XVII. The proportion of moon light to day light, or the light I and 2.) and caſts a ſhadow, which is bordered by three fringes of of the fun, at full moon, is as I to 96 thouſand, nearly. For the moon's radius is to the earth's radius as I to 3.65; and coloured light; theſe colours ariſe from the various inflexions, by ſince the radius of the moon's orbit is 60 of the earth's radii; which the rays are ſeparated, and being ſeparated, produce each its therefore the radius of the moon's orbit, or its diſtance from the own colour. Froir theſe experiments it is obvious, that the rays of light are acted on by ſome force or other that turns them out earth is 60 x 3.65 or 219 of the moon's radii. Now ſuppoſe of their direct courſe. And as this force bends the rays not into equal ſpaces at the earth and moon to be equally illuminated; and that the whole ſurface of the moon was thus equally illuminated, and the ſhadow of the body that acts upon them, but from the ſhadow; in that reſpect it muſt be a repulſive force, and (by Exper. I.) is the light reflected therefrom all around, ſo far as the ſurface of a ſtrongeſt at the leaſt diſtance. ſphere paſſing through the earth, deſcribed from the moon's cen- INFER. 1. It is probable that the rays of light in the points of ter; then all this light is ſpread upon this ſurface; and conſe- contact with bodies, and extremely near it, are acted on by an at- quently its denſity will be leſs in the reciprocal proportion of theſe tractive force. And at greater diſtances with a repulfive one. ſurfaces, or reciprocally as the ſquares of the diameters. That is, For if the rays were acted on in all cafes and circumſtances by the denſity of the light at the moon (which is ſuppoſed the ſame a repulſive force, the light would all be expelled at once out of the with daylight) is to the denſity at the earth (reflected from the luminous body. But it is more probable, that theſe particles of moon;) as the ſquare of 219 to 1. But ſince in reality, there is light are kept in the body by ſome attractive force ; till they be not ſo much light falls on the moon, being no more than what falls on her diſk, and her diſk being but half her hemiſphere, the denſity fhaken off by the vibrating motion of the body, and thrown be- of light at her ſurface, upon each hemiſphere will be but half as yond the reach of attraction; the contrary power of repulfion then much. begins, and drives it away with amazing velocity. Therefore it will be, as day-light, to moon-light; fo is 2. This power which acts upon light is infinitely ſtronger than 47961 to 1, or as 95922 to 1, or in round numbers as 96000 the force of gravity. - For the velocity of light being ſurpriſingly to 1. Hence, and the ſmall diſtance the active force extends to, makes the 1. Moon-light is to day-light; as half the ſquare of the moon's great, radius, to the ſquare of the moon's diſtance, when ihe is full. And time of acting, ſmall beyond all comprehenſion. And therefore in ſuch an infinitely ſmall time, the finite force of gravity would have in the quadratures, as the ſquare of the moon's radius, to the ſquare of the moon's diſtance. After the fame manner may be no manner of effect. 3. But the force of repulſion acting on light, decreaſes found the light of any other celeſtial body, compared with day- very faft in regard to the diſtance; ſo that in a very ſmall ſpace it becomes light; let it be Venus. Put d=- ſun's diſtance from the earth, v=Venus diſtance from the ſun, a = her diſtance from the nothing 4. Bodies and light act mutually upon one another; bodies, earth, r = her radius. Now if Venus and the earth were equally illuminated by the ſun, her light to day-light would be as į rr:aa. upon light by emitting, reflecting, refracting, and infecting it. But Venus being nearer the ſun, is more enlightened in the ratio of And light upon bodies, by heating them, and putting their parts into motion. to 1; therefore her light is to day light:: 1 rrx 2 5. Black bodies, grow hot ſooner by light than any other bodies; redd: ovaa. and white bodies later. For the light falling on them is not re- But ſince in her quadratures, d=a nearly, there- fected, but enters the bodies; and by being often reflected and fore, Venus's light is to day-light; as į rr to vv. And that is as refracted within it, excite a briſk motion among the internal parts. I to 804.000000, nearly. . But white bodies reflect moſt of the light, and therefore, are but 2. The light of Venus in her quadratures, is to day-light; as I little affected by it. to 800 millions.--This is ſuppoſing the radius of Venus, to her diſtance from the ſun, to be as I to 14200. Prop. XV. The motion of light is not inſtantaneous, but is per 3. The light of the moon is 8000 times as great as the light formed in time; and ſpends about eight minutes in paling from of Venus. Suppoſing both of thein to reflect all the light that the ſun 'to the earth. falls on them. 19 This is proved from the eclipſes of Jupiter's ſatellites; for PART II. when the earth is between the fun and Jupiter, theſe eclipſes hap- CATOPTRICS, OR REFLECTED VISION. pen about eight minutes ſooner than they ought to do, by the rules of calculation. And when the earth is beyond the ſun, a leſs Defin. Catoptrics is that part of optics which treats of the diſtance to move over, from the ſatellites to the earth, in the firſt pictures of objects formed by light reflected from a mirror. caſe, than in the ſecond, by the diameter of the earth's orbit. And SECT. I. ELEMENTARY PROPOSITIONS. therefore the radius of the earth's orbit requires eight minutes of time for the light to paſs through it. PROP. I. All rays of light falling on a reflecting ſurface, in the Hence it ſame angle; are reflected in equal angles. appears that the rays of light are extremely ſmall bo- dies, projected with incredible velocity from the luminous body. Exper. Let F (fig. 10.) be a hole in the window ſhut, G a reflecting furface placed horizontally. Let a beam of light from PROP. XVI. If light enters into a denſe medium, and in its motion the ſun FG, come through the hole F, and fall upon the reflecting in that medium, a part of it be loft, ſo that only the part p. gets ſurface G, and then be reflected to H on the oppoſite wall; the fi- through the ſpace a. Then the quantity of light which gets through gure of the reflected light at H will be circular like the hole F. the ſpace na in the same continued medium, will be pa. And therefore there is no ſeparation of the rays as in refraction. I take it for granted, that if any quantity of light paſſes into a And no colours are brought by reflection. Alſo if the denſe medium, and in moving through the ſpace a loſes any part, held any way between G and H parallel to the wall at H; the as to thereof; if half the quantity of light enters it, it will loſe to image received upon the paper will always be ſimilar to the image of that half in the ſame ſpace; or if a quarter of the light enters at H, and of a circular form. And therefore the rays that had the it, it will loſe to of that quarter, and ſo on. Therefore there will al ſame incidence, will run parallel to one another after reflection; ways be a certain part of the incident light, get through equal ſpaces. and conſequently are reflected at equal angles. Indeed the beam Suppoſe then the light gets thro’ the ſpace a; then of that, or FG grows wider as it is further from F, and GH grows bigger as it is further from G; but this is only owing to the apparent that is, 8 will get thro' magnitude of the ſun's diameter. For from any one point of the fun's diſk, the rays which fall parallel on G, will be reflected 2a, and of that or - pa- There- will get through 3a; and ſo on. rallel to H. Hence the ſeparation of the rays of light by reflec- fore of the entering light will get through the ſpace na. And tion, is trifling compared with that by refraction. Prop. II. If a ray of light be reflected from a plain ſurface; the inſtead of putting p, the quantity of light getting through the ſpace na will be pn. angle of reflection will be equal to the angle of incidencr. Let AB (fig. 11.) be the incident ray, CD the reflected one. RS dd dd : aa :: UV TV 2 83 9 of 91 OPTICS. =TAG = ÁTF, 2 2 rays fali Som And if pa- principal focus P, or PFFVR+VF;according as Fand Rare FAG ŘS the reflecting ſurface, PQRS the infinitely thin ſpace, within RAF then by fubtraction FÀT=! which the repulſive force of the body is contained, ABmCD the pro- greſs of the ray. Draw an infinite number of lines parallel to PQ therefore TF=AF=FC, becauſe ZCAF=CAR-ACF. or RS, fuch as nt, oq. Then ſince the repulſive force begins at B, Hence 1. FC, FA, FT, are all equal to one another. it will continually bendor inflect the ray, into the curve Bom, till it 2. The tangent AT biſects the angle FAG. comes to its loweſt point m, where it will be parallel to the reflect 3. If CQ=QV, then Q is the focus of the rays falling on V, ing ſurface. Afterwards it will recede from the plane SR, de- or the principal focus. fcribing the curve mqC. And ſince the forces are equal at the equal 4. And QF (=half TV) is the ſpace on which all the diſtances ó and q, n and t, &c. therefore the particle of the curve that come from the whole ſurface AV. And mg, will be equal and ſimilar to the particle om, and at to on. 5. If AV (fig. 16.) be any curve, and a ray of light RA(or GAJ for the ſame reaſon, all the particles of the curve mqC will be be reflected into the line AH. If VL be drawn parallel to AR, equal and ſimilar to the correſponding particles of the curve moB; and AL perpendicular to the curve at A. Then AH=HL. For and therefore the whole mqC will be equal and ſimilar to the whole produce AL to C, that AC may be the radius of curvature in A; moR. And conſequently the angle at C and B will be equal; and draw CF parallel to VL, and produce AH to interfect it in F the angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence. Then F is the focus of the rays reflected by the circle, paſſing Hence, 1. If a ray of light be reflected from any point of a curve through A, and therefore of the portion of the curve at A that ſurface; the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. coincides with it. Wherefore (by the ift inference) CF=AF, 2. The ray of incidence and reflection are both in a plane, per and conſequently (by ſimilar triangles) LH=AH. pendicular to the reflecting ſurface, in the point of incidence. 6. When parallel rays fall on the ſurface of a ſphere, thoſe 3. A ray of light falling perpendicular to any furface, is reflected neareſt the vertex, have their focus neareſt the center. back in the ſame perpendicular. But moving parallel to it, will Prop. VI. If a VA (fig. 17. and 18.) be a ſmall portion of a re- continue fo. flecting ſpherical ſurface, C its center, V its vertex; R the radiant 4. If the reflected ray at O; return back through OS, it will point, from or towards which the rays flow; F the focus after re- be reflected to R. flection at A. Then it will be VR: VF:: CR: CF, nearly. PROP. III. If rays proceeding from a radiant point R (fig. 12.) For by (Prop. IV.) If Å be the point of incidence, it is ÁR: fall upon a reflečting plane ſurface PL; the focus of the reflected AF :: CR : CF. But the arch VA being extremely ſmall, rays, will be at F, in the line RF perpendicular to the reflecting AR=VR, and AF=VF, very near. Therefore VR: VF :: CR: CF. ſurface; and as far on the other ſide of it. That is PF=PR. The points R, F, are conjugate foci to one another; that is, if For fince RPF is perpendicular to PL; let RS be any incident R be the radiant point, F will be the focus; or if F be the radiant ray; and SO the reflected ray. Produce OS backward to F. point, R will be the focus. Where I uſe radiant points in a ge- Then (Prop. 2.) ZPSR=ZLSO=PSF. Therefore in the neral ſenſe, for the point, which the rays either diverge from, or right angled triangles PSR, PSF; all the angles are reſpectively converge to, before reflection. equal, and PS common; therefore RF equal PF. Therefore the reflected SO proceeds from F, in the perpendicular RF, ſo that Prop. VII. If a VA (fig. 19.) be a ſmall portion of a reflecting ray PF=PR. And by the ſame reaſoning, if RN be any other incident Spherical ſurface, whoſe center is C, and V its vertex. ray, its reflected ray NH will proceed from F. And conſequently rallel rays, or thoſe from an infinite diſtance, as RA or GA, fall F is the virtual focus of the reflected rays, which therefore all upon it, and F be the focus of the reflected rays; then F is in the diverge from F. middle of the radius VC, or VF=FC. Hence 1. The diſtance of the focus F from the eye at O, is For (by the laſt Prop.) VR: CR::VF: CF. But becauſe equal to the incident and reflected rays taken together, that is OF R is infinitely diſtant, VR=CR, therefore VF-CF. =OS+SR Hence 1. Rays diverging from F, the middle point of the radius, 2. Rays converging to F, and reflected by the plane PL, con or converging to F, and reflected by the ſpherical ſurface VA, will after reflection go parallel to one another. 3: If rays proceeding from an object at R be reflected by the 2. A luminous body placed in F, the middle point of the radius, plane PL to an eye at O; the object will appear to be placed at F, will caſt a light to a great diſtance, by reflection from the concave the focus of the reflected rays, where they laſt diverged from. ſurface. 3. The principal focus of a reflecting ſpherical ſurface, is in Prop. IV. If rays proceeding from a radiant point R, (fig. 13. and the middle point of the radius at F. And the principal focal dif- 14.) all upon any point Sof a reflekiing ſpherical ſurface VS, and F tance FV, is half the radius. be the focus of the reflected rays; it will be, SR:CR :: SF : CF. C being the center of the ſphere. PROP. VIII. Let Aa (fig. 20 and 21.) be a ſmall part of a reflect- ing Spherical ſurface'; C the center, V the vertex, P the principal For (fig. 13.) the angle of reflection CSF being equal to the an focus, R the radiating point (or that which the rays diverge from, gle of incidence CSR (Prop. III.); therefore the angle RSF is bi- or converge to, before refie£tion). And if F be the focus after re- ſeeted, and confequently SR : SF :: CR: CF. And (fig. 14.) flection, then will PR, PC or PV, and PF, be in continual pro- draw FA parallel to RS, and produce CS to B; and if FSD be portian. the reflected ray, then the angle FSA = BSD = (Prop. II.) For (fig. 20.) ſince VF-PF=PF+FC, therefore VF- BSR=SAF; therefore SF=AF. Then by the ſimilar triangles FC=2PF. But (Prop. VI.) VR: VF :: CR : CF; by divi- CRS and CFA, SR: CR:: AF or SF : CÉ. From the above fion VR : VF :: VR-CR (VC) : VF-(2PE) :: 2VP: are deduced thefe inferences. 2PF :: VP: PF. And again, by diviſion VR : VF :: VR- 1. When the radiating point R, and the focus F, art both on VP (PR): VF-PF (VP). Therefore PR: VP::VP: PF. one ſide of the reflecting ſurface, if the rays diverge from one, they And (fig. 21.) VR: VF :: CR-VR (CV or 2VP): CF- converge to the other. VF (2PF):: VP: PF. And by addition, VR: VF:: VR+ 2. When the radiating point R and focus F are on different fides VP (PR): VF+PF (VP). Therefore PR : VP::VP: PF. of the reflecting ſurface; if the rays diverge from one, they diverge Hence 1. F and R are conjugate foci to one another, and lye from the other. But if they converge But if they converge to one, they converge to the always the ſame way from P. other, by reflection. 2. The rectangle of the diſtances of the radiant point, and of 3. If R is at an infinite diſtance, then SF=CF. the focus, from the principal focus, is equal to the ſquare of the 5. If R is the radiant point; make the _RSC=CSF, or RSB radius of the ſphere. PR XPF= Å VC. -BSD, and draw SF, or DSF, and F is the focus of the re 3. The principal focal diſtance is equal to the rectangle of the diſtances, of the focus, and of the radiant point, from the vertex, di- 5. The focus of rays proceeding from any radiant point R; is in vided by the ſum or difference of theſe diſtances; according as F the line RCV, joining the point R and the center. For taking Vs and R are on the fame or different fides of V; that is, VP= =VS, the focus is in the place where the rays meet, which are re VRXVF. flected from all points of the arch Ss. Let RS, Rs, be two correſ VR + VF pondent ones, then the angles SRF, sRF, being equal , and alſo RSF and RsF; therefore SF, SF will meet ſome where in the line 4. If R be the radiant point, F its correſpondent focus; or R RCV, at F. and F, conjugate foci; the diſtance of that focus F, from the 6. A ſmall obje&t placed in the center, cannot be ſeen by reflec- VF2 tion. Or the eye placed in the center, can ſee nothing by reflec- tion. For all the reflected rays go alſo to the center. on the fame or different fides of V. Schol. The three laſt propoſitions lay the foundation of all that is Prop. V. If VA (fig. 15.) be a reflecting Spherical ſurface, whoſe practicable in Optics, fo far as reflected light is concerned. For no center is C. And if a ray of light RA (or GA) parallel to CƯ, curve is made uſe of to reflect the rays of light, but the ſphere; as fall upon A, and be reflected to F. Draw the tangent AT, then it is ſcarcely practicable to grind glaffes accurately in the form of will TF-FC. any other curve. In uſing ſpherical ſurfaces, a ſmall ſegment only For CAT being a right angle, and ZCAF being (by Prop. II.) is to be taken; becauſe the parts of the ſurface remote from the RAF+FAG. vertex, reflect the rays to different foci; which are ſo much fur angle CAR; we ſhall have CAT- and CAF ther from the principal focus, as the reflecting part is further from the vertex And therefore if a large ſegment was uſed, the rays from verge to R. е flected rays. 2 4. O P TICs. the image 2d+r dr -2dtr 2d-r that is, f =-zd 2d from any ſingle point of an object, could not be brought to a ſingle | Hence rays proceeding from the focus F, will be reflected by the point in the focus, which would be attended with a deal of confuſion. ſurface of the paraboloid, parallel to the axis. The following propoſition gives a general rule for determining the foci of all glaſſes univerſally, whether convex or concave; and Prop. XII. The image of a right line inade by a reflecting plane ſur: whether tħe rays diverge or converge, and from whatever diſtances, face, is alſo a right line. finite or infinite, they proceed. Let AB (fig 25) be a reflecting plane, PR a right line, Q the Prop. IX. Let Aa (fig. 22.) be a ſmall portion of a reflecting Sphe-middle point of it. Draw Pp, Q9, Rr,perpendicular to the plane rical ſurface, C its center, R the radiating point. To find F the AB, cutting it in D, I, L. And make Dp= DP, Iq=IQ. focus of the rays after reflection. and Lr=LR, then (Prop. III.) P,9; r; will be the foci of P, Q, R; and Put the diſtance VR=d, radius of the ſphere CV=r, and focal milar and equal to the figure DpqrL, by conſtruction. And there- pr of PŘ. Whence the figure DPQRL is fi- diſtance VF=f. fore fince PQR is a right line, par is alſo a right line. dr Then f = -, very near. Where, if the rays converge, or AV Hence 1. The image of a plain figure, ſeen in a reflecting plairi 2d+r ſurface is alſo a plain figure, equal and ſimilar to the figure itſelf. be concave, d or r will be negative. 2. The image of any object, made by an upright reflecting plane, For CR=d+r, and CF=r-f. And (by Prop: VI.) has its parts in a contrary poſition, the left ſide being to the right, VR:VF:: CR: CF; that is, d:f:: dtr: r- r-f. Whence and the right to the left hand; the difference being the fame as the dr ſeal, and its print on the wax. But in a horizontal reflector, the dr-df = dft rf, which being reduced, f= objeét will appear upſide down; the parts lying to either hand, Hence 1. If d is infinite, or R is at an infinite diſtance, then r remaining the ſame as in the object. vaniſhes, and f=ir. 2. If R is on the concave ſide, d is negative, and f= Prop. XIII. If AVa (fig. 26 and 27) be a ſpherical reflector, the 2dr objeet PQR an arch of a circle, having the ſame center C, its image dr par, by reflexion, will alſo be an arch of a circle, having the ſame that is, f= And moreover, if r is infinite, as in a plane center C. And its image will be direct or inverted, according as it furface, f=-d. is on the ſame or different ſide of the center C, with the obječt. 3. If r is negative, or the reflecting ſurface concave towards R, Here p is the focus of P, q of Q, and r of R. Let e, f, g, be the -dr dr then f= principal foci of the points A, V, a, of the reflecting ſurface. Then 2 dr r- (by Prop. VII.) we have f Q:fC (f V:f%) in continual pro- 4. If AV is concave towards R, and d infinite, then r is nega- portion, and g R: gC: gr; alſo e P: eC: ep, alſo in continual tive, and f= - dr that is, f=- r. proportion. But the two firſt terms are the ſame in all, and there- fore the laſt ; that is fq=gr =ep. And ſince fC=g C=eC, 5. If it is a plane ſurface, then r is infinite, and f=d. the ſums or remainders will be equal, qC=rC=p C, therefore From this general ſolution it is plain, that when the focal diſtance rpq is the arch of a circle whoſe center is C. And ſince the rays comes out affirmative, it is to be taken right forward; but if nega- croſs at the center C, if the image be on the ſame ſide of C as the tive, it muſt be taken backward, from the vertex. Alſo from this object, it will be in the ſame poſition; but on different fides, in a Propoſition ſeveral other Problems may be reſolved. As if it be re- different poſition. Hence, SON quired to know, what muſt be the radius of a ſphere, to repreſent 1. The length of the object PR, is to the length of the image 2df the given object R, at the given focus F, we haver: the radius pr; as CP the object's diſtance from the center, is to CP the dil- def tance of the image from the center. of the ſphere. From this equation, it is plain, that if d be greater 2. On the contrary, if par be a circular object, its image PQR than f, the reflector will be convex towards the object. But if f will alſo be a circular arch concentric with the object. be greater than d, r will come out negative, and the reflector will 3. The image of a ſpherical ſurface, ſeen by reflection in a fphe- be concave to the object. If d be equal to f, r comes out infinite, rical reflector parallel to it, will appear a ſpherical ſurface, alſo pa- and in this caſe, the ſpeculum muſt be a plane ſurface. rallel to it. Again, if it be required to find the diſtance of an object R, from 4. If a right line be placed directly before a concave reflector, the given ſpeculum AV, to have the focus at the given place F, we its image will appear concave ; but in a convex reflector, the ſhall haved the diſtance from a convex ſpeculum. But ;mage will appear convex. r-2f rf Prop. XIV. The object and its image, ſubtend equal angles at the if the ſpeculum be concave to the object, then d =.tz'f vertex of the reflector ; that is, PVR=pVr. Hence in a convex fpeculum, if r be greater than 2 f, the object will be on the convex ſide. Butif af be greater than r; it will be Let PR, (Fg. 28 and 29), be an object, pr its image. Through on the concave fide. And if r= 2f, the diſtance of the object the center C, draw QCV perp. to PR. Draw VP, VR, Vp, Vr, will be infinite ; and f will be the focal diſtance of parallel rays. and PpA, Rra, paſſing through C. Then (Prop. VI.) VO: V The principal focus of a reflecting ſpherical ſurface may alſo be :: QC:qC :: (ſimilar triangles) PQ: p4. And ſince the angles at Q and q are right, the angle PVQ=P Vq. In like manner found by experiments, as follow: RVQ=rVq; whence PVR=pVr. 1. For a concave reflector. Hold it directly before the ſun, and Hence the object and its image are equal to one another, where hold a bit of paper before it to receive the refle&ted light. Move this they meet together. paper back and forward till the white ſpot of light be the leaſt pof- Prop. XV. The linear magnitude or diameter of the obje&t PR, fible, and that is the focus, (fig.28 and 29,) is to the magnitude of the image pr; as the diſtance 2. For a convex reflector. Cover it with paper, having two of the object from the vertex of the glaſs VO, to the diſtance of pin holes made in it on contrary ſides. Then expoſe it to the ſun the image from it Vq. beams, and hold another paper before it, having a hole made in it For (by laſt Prop.) the angles PVR, and p Vr being equal, and fo big as to let the ſun's rays paſs through to the two pin holes. the triangles PVR and pVrſimilar, we have PR: pr::VQ: Vq. Then you will ſee two white ſpots of reflected light on each ſide Therefore 1. The diameters or linear magnitudes of the object the hole. Move the paper back and forwards, till the diſtance of and image, are as their diſtances from the center of the reflector. the ſpots be twice the diſtance of the holes in the cover, firſt mark- PR:pr:: CQ: Cq. For PR:pr:: VQ: Vq:: (by Prop. VI.) ed upon the paper. Then the diſtance of the paper from the lens CQ: Ca. is the principal focal diſtance. 2. If f be the principal focus; then the diameter or linear mag- Prop. X. If rays flow from one focus R (fig. 23) of a ſpheroid nitude of the object, ſo that of the image, is as the principal focal or hyperboloid BA ; they will be reflected by the curve ſurface, into diſtance, to the diſtance of the image from the principal focus; or the other focus F. as the diſtance of the object from the principal focus, to the prin- cipal focal diſtance. For from the properties of the conic ſections, the lines AR, AF, For we had PR: pr::VQ: V9:: CO: Cq:: VQ-CQ drawn to the foci of an ellipſis, make equal angles with the curve ; (or CQ-VQ): Ôq-Cq (or Cq – V9):: CV: 2f9:: fv: and therefore the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. fq::f0:f V. And the ſame is true of the hyperbola ; therefore if RA be the in- 3. Hence alſo it follows, that a convex reflector leſſens an object. cident ray, AF will be the reflected one. Hence F is the real 4. Alſo a concave reflector leſſens an object, when it is farther focus in the ellipſis, and only a virtual focus in the hyperbola. from the glaſs than the radius of the reflector. Prop. XI. Ifrays RA (fig. 24) parallel to the axis of a paraboloid ter 5. But a concave reflector magnifies an object, when it is nearer BA, be reflected by the ſurface thereof; they will all be reflected in- to it, than the radius of the reflector ; and then only. to F, the focus of it. 6. The image pr is always terminated at p, by the extreme ray PA, which paſſes through the center C of the reflector. And if For from Conic ſections, the line FA drawn to the focus, and the object be an immenſe diſtance, it is terminated by the radius RA parallel to the axis, make equal ang!es with the curve at A. CA, drawn parallel to the extreme ray PV, at the vertex. For Therefore if RA be the incident ray, AĚ will be the reflected one. when the object is infinitely diſtant, PV and PCA are parallel. * PROP. XVI. rf 1 2 No. 120. OPTICS. AB2 07 Tq² EVE pra X AB2 or V2 2. In AB2 upon PROP. XVI. As the diſtance of the object from the principal focus of rę to an eye at C. And this is ſo, wherever O is; or the place of a reflector, is to its diſtance from the reflector ; fo is the principal of the eye. focal diſtance, to the diſtance of the image from the reflector; that Prop. XX. The brightneſs of the image pr formed by the reflecting is, fQ: VQ:: FC: Va. See fig. 28 & 29. concave AB (fig. 28.) from the luminous object PR is as Forf being the principal focus, we have (by Prop. XV.) VQ: V 9:: PR: pr. And(by Cor. 2. Prop. XV.) PR: pr::f0:5V; as the area of the lens directly, and the ſquare of the diſtance of the therefore f Q: f V or fС:: VQ:Vq. image reciprocally. Hence, If the object and image be equidiſtant from the reflec- For if the brightneſs of the object be given, the quantity of light tor ; they will coincide either in the center or vertex of the re- reflected from the ſpeculum to the image, will be as the magni- flector, and become equal. tude of the object and of the reflector directly, and the ſquare of For if VQ = Vq, then f Q=fC or f V, and Q falls upon C, the diſtance reciprocally. Whence the light falling on the image is as or elſe upon V; and then pr=PR. PR2 x AB ; alſo the denſity of the light, or the brightneſs of Prop. XVII. In a convex ſpeculum, the image always appears erect QV2 and on the other ſide of the glaſs, as in a plain ſpeculum. And ſo it the image is as the quantity of light directly, and the area of the does in a concave, when the object is between the glaſs and the prin- PR2 x AB But ſince PR, pr, are cipal focus. But in a concave ſpeculum, when the object is further image reciprocally, or as QV2 x pul from it than the principal focus, the image is on the ſame ſide of the parallel , and (Prop. XIV.) the angle PVR=p Vr, &c. PR: glaſs, and inverted in every reſpect. PRP pr2 For fig. 29, let RP be placed where it will before the convex aA, | pr::QV:qV, and Therefore the brightneſs of its image rp will be on the contrary ſide. And if rp be an object, QV2 AB2 its image RP will be on the contrary fide, till rp comes to f, and the image is as Hence theſe Inferences, then RP will be infinitely diſtant. But when it is between f and qV2 X pr2 9V 2 C (fig. 28) as at 93 the image RP is on the ſame ſide. Or if RP 1. If the brightneſs of the object be increaſed in any ratio, which be the object, then the image rp is on the ſame ſide, but inverted; AB2 becauſe the object and image are on different ſides of the center, call B; the brightneſs of the image will then be as where the rays croſs. And if the object PR be moved to an in- very remote objects, if f be the principal focal diſtance; finite diſtance, the image pr will be moved to f, ſtill on the ſame ſide of the glaſs. Hence, then the brightneſs of the image will be as B. 1. If the center is between the object and image, they either f both approach to it, or both fly from it. And if the ſpeculum be For then Vq becomes equal to f. between them, they either both approach the ſpeculum, or both fly 3. The brightneſs of the image increaſes as the area of the glaſs from it. For (fig. 28.) when C is between Q and q, the greater increaſes; but its diſtinctneſs decreaſes that account. CQ_is, the greater is Cq. And (fig. 29.) when is betwen them, PROP. XXI. If a concave ſpeculum A a (fig. 28.) be held directly the greater VQ is, the greater is Vq. to the rays of the ſun; and any combuſtible body be held in the prin- 2. As an object moves from the glaſs on the convex ſide to an cipal focus f, it will be fired by the heat thereof. infinite diſtance, its image moves from the glaſs to the principal focus. And as the object moves from an infinite diſtance on the For all the rays of the ſun are reflected into the focus, forming concave fide, to the center, the image moves from the principal there, by refection, the image of the ſun. Which image muſt be focus to the center alſo, where they meet. And further, if the of an intenſe heat, becauſe all the rays that fall upon the ſpeculum, object moves from the center to the principal focus ; the image are brought thither. And the broader the ſpeculum is, the more moves from the center, the contrary way, to an ináinite diſtance. rays are contained in that ſmall ſpace; and may be ſo increaſed by And as the object moves from the principal focus to the vertex, the breadth of the glaſs, as to burn or melt all ſorts of bodies placed the image moves from an infinite diſtance on the convex hide to there ; as is plain from numerous experiments. the vertex alſo, where they meet again. For (fig. 29.) whilft the 1. The heat generated in the focus of the glaſs, is to the fun's object moves through VQ, the image moves through Vq to f. direct heat; as the area of the glaſs, is to the area of the image in And (fig. 28.) whilſt the object moves through QC, the image the focus. For the rays that fall upon the glaſs, are all brought moves through fC. Alſo whilſt the object moves through Cf the into that ſpace, where their denſity is reciprocally as the areas they image moves through CQ to an infinite diſtance ; and (fig. 29) are contained in. whilſt the object moves through f V, the image moves from an in 2. The degrees of heat in different reflectors, are as the ſquares finite diſtance through Q V. of the diameters directly, and the ſquares of the focal diſtances re- 3 The image is upright or inverted, according as the image and ciprocally. For the denſity of the ciprocally. For the denſity of the rays in each, are in that object are on the fame or different fides of the center., portion. Prop. XVIII. To ſee the image of an object made by any ſpherical PROP. XXII. If parallel rays, RA, CV, (fig. 30.) are reflected Speculum ; the eye muſt be placed in the diverging rays, at a proper from a concave (or convex ) [pherical ſurface Aa, of a ſmall height diſtance for diſtinct viſion, and facing the image. VP. Let F be the focus of the extreme ray AF, Q the principal For to ſee the image, one muſt look at it, as one would do at focus. Then the aberration of the rays, in the length of the axis any viſible object. And therefore, in order to be ſeen, the rays VC, is equal to half the height of the ſegment; QF ={ VP, nearly. muſt diverge from it to the eye placed at a proper diſtance. Thus to ſee the image pr (fig. 28.) reflected from the concave ſpeculum For draw the tangent AT. Then by the nature of the circle Aa, the eye muſt be placed ſomewhere in the line qCQ. But if CP: CV:: CV: CT, And dividing, CP: CV:: CV-CP PR was the image (of the object pr.) the eye muſt be placed be- (VP): CT-CV (TV). But VP being very ſmall, CP is = CV yond Q. Again, (fig. 29) to ſee the image rq, reflected by the nearly, therefore VP = VT. But (Prop. V.) TF = FC, or convex ſpeculum Aa, the eye muſt be placed without the glaſs in CF = {CT. And (Prop. VII.) VQ=QC, or CQ={ CV. the line VQ. But if rp is an object, and RP its image, then the Therefore CF - CQ or FQ= But eye muſt be placed in the line VC, on the concave fide. The 222 focus Q being only a virtual focus, to which the rays only tend but (Inference 4. Prop. V.). QF is the ſpace on which all the rays fall , that come from the whole ſurface A.?, that is, QF is the aberration 1. If the eye be placed near the ſpeculum, in the converging of the rays in length; therefore { VP is equal to that aberration. rays, before they reach the image ; it will perceive the intage (of Hence, 1. The aberration QF = { TV exactly, or the objed) beyond the glaſs, at the ſame diſtance nearly as the ob- ject) is before it; and of the ſame magnitude. VA3 2. If an image be looked at, with both eyes placed very near it, 2. The lateral aberrations at the principal focus is = nearly. and in the diverging rays; (or elfe it cannot be leen at all) ; it will appear double. For the axes of the eyes cannot both be directed length, are as the ſquares of the diameters; and the lateral aberra- 3. The radius of the ſphere being given; the aberrations in to an object extremely near, and the caſe is the fame in all cobjects tions, as the cubes of the diameters of the reflectors. near hand, as well as this image. PART III. PROP. XIX. If an object rp (fig. 28.) be placed in the principal focus of a concave reflector; its apparent magnitude to the eye, DIOPTRICS, OR REFRACTED VISION. at any place whatever as O), will be invariably the ſame ; and equal DEFINITIONS. to the apparent magnitude to the naked eye, wken ſeen from C the center of the ſpeculum. 1. Dioptrics is that part of Optics, which treats of light re. Here RP the image will be at an infinite diſtance. And (by | made by refraction. fracted through different mediums, and the pictures of objeds Inference 1 and 3. Prop. VII.) all the rays of the pencil rBV will 2. A Lens is a folia tranſparent body as AB (fig. 31.) generally be reflected parallel to one another, and to the axis aC paſſing through the center of the ſpeculum ; and therefore the angle VOR, of glaſs, being of ſuch a ſhape, that the ſides of it are either flat, or which is the apparent magnitude of the image to the eye at 0, is the ſegments of ſpherical ſurfaces. Of theſe there are ſeveral forts, equal to the angle V Ca or VCr, which is the apparent magnitude fide and convex on the cither. 3. Plano concave, or plain on orde as, 1. Plain on both sides. 2. Plano convex, being plain on one pro- CQ or FQ=CT-CV_TV_VÝ AV2 4VC nearly. 2VC? OPTICS Alſo a = fide and concave on the other. 4. Double convex, being convex on PROP. III. If A, B, C, (fig. 34.) be three refrakting mediums, cona both ſides. 5.Double concave, being concave on both ſides. 6. A tained between parallel ſurfaces; and if a ray of light DE paſſing Meniſcus, being convex on one ſide, and concave on the other. through them be refračied at E and F, and paſs through the third 3. Thie Axis of a lens, is a right line perpendicular to both the in direction FG. It will ſuffer the ſame refraction by paſſing ſurfaces, or paſſing through both their centers. through A, B, C, as if it went immediately out of A into C. 4. The Vertex is the point where the axis cuts the ſurface of For let the medium C approach the medium A in direction FE, the lens. and the medium B grow thinner and thinner, till F fall upon E, SECT. I. ELEMENTARY PROPOSITIONS. and the medium B be vaniſhed; yet this will make no difference Prop. I. If a ray of light AC (fig. 32.) paſs into a refracting me in the poſition of the line FG. And therefore the refraction into dium ; the line of incidence ACD, is to the fine of refraction ECF, the medium C will be the ſame whether the ray paſs through B, or in a conſtant ratio. goes immediately from A to C, without coming into B at all. And Let the ray BC falling obliquely on the refracting medium MS, the ſame likewiſe appears from experiments. be refracted in the line CN. And the ray ACI be refracted into Hence 1. If there be never ſo many refracting mediums con- the line CE. Draw AP perpendicular to MS, and make CH= tained between parallel ſurfaces; the whole refraction of a ray is CP, and CL = CM. And draw HIE and LN perpendicular to the ſame at laſt, in paſſing through all of them; as it would be in CS. And let the equal lines BC, AC, reprefent the equal mo paſſing immediately out of the firſt into the laſt. tions of the rays B and A. Then ſuppoſing BC parallel or nearly 2. If ſeveral mediums A, B, C, terminated by parallel planes, be coinciding with the refracting plane ; let the motion AC be reſolved encompaſſed on all ſides by ſome other medium; any ray RD into the two motions, AP, PC; AP being perpendicular, and PC moving out of this other medium, and paſting through all the reſt, parallel to the refracting ſurface. Now bodies act upon light by will emerge parallel to itſelf, at coming into this other medium the forces of attraction and repulſion ; and theſe forces are directed again; that is, GS will be parallel to RD. For the refraction is in lines perpendicular to the ſurface of the refracting body MS. the ſame as if all the mediums A, B, C, were away; and GS has Therefore the motions of the rays BC, PC, which are parallel to the ſame direction as RD. MS, ſuffer no alteration by the refraction of the medium. Con Prop. IV. If A, B, C, (fig. 35.) be three mediums, and the fines fequently in the very fame time that the rays A and B move to C, of incidence and refraction out of A into B, be a and b; and out of they would move to I and L without refraction, where CL = CB= A into C, be a and c; then thoſe out of B into C, will be b and co CA = CI. But by the refraction of the medium, that from B Let the mediums B and C be encompaſſed by the medium A; goes to N, and that from A goes to E, in the perpendiculars LN, and let RD be a ray refracted at D, F, and G, and proceeding to HE, becauſe the parallel motion is the ſame as before. But (from K. Then (by Inférence 2, Prop. 3.) GK will be parallel to RD. the principles of Mechanics) the velocities of the rays A, B, which At D,F,G, let fall the perpendiculars LDO, NFP, IGH. Then were equal before refraction, will alſo be equal after ; and there by reaſon of the parallels GK, RD, and GH, DL, the angle HGK fore CN = CE. LDR. Whence a = S.RDL, b =s. ODF = S.DFN Now in the right angled triangle CLN, we have S. CLN (MC =S. incidence of the ray DF, on the medium C. D):: S.CNL (NCF):: CN:CL:: CE: CI:: (in the triangle S.HGK, and conſequently c =S. FGI=S.GEP=S. refrac- CÉI) S. CIH (ACD): S.CEH (ECF.) That is, S.ACD the an tion of the ray into the medium C. Therefore the fines of inci. gle of incidence: S.EC F the angle of refraction:: rad : S.NCF, dence and refraction out of B into C, are b and c. or in a given ratio, from which we gather theſe inferences. ExAMP. Let A be air, B water, and C glaſs. And let the fines 1. If the refracted ray EC be turned directly back to the point of incidence and refraction out of air into water be as 4 to 3; and of incidence; it will be refracted into the line CA, before deſcribed out of air into glaſs as 17 to II, or as 4 to 4 X H1; then a = 4, by the incident ray. 17 2. The angles of incidence and refracrion iye both in one plane, which is perpendicular to the refracting ſurface at the point of in- b=3, c= 4X11. Therefore the fine of incidence and refrac- cidence. 17 3. Heterogeneal rays of light have different degrees of refraction; tion out of water into glaſs will be 3 and 4X11, or as 3 x 17 to but in any one conſidered by itſelf, the fine of incidence is in a 17 given ratio to the fine of refraction. 4 X II, or as 51 to 44. 4. If AC be the incident ray, and CE the refracted ray; and if Hence, If the fine of incidence and refraction out of B into C, AC produced cut the perpendicular HE in I. Then CÉ: CI:: be as b'to c; and out of C into D as r to s. Then thoſe out of B into D will be as br to cs. fine of the angle of incidence : to the fine of the angle of refrac- tion. For by this Propoſition the fines of incidence and refraction out 5. The velocity of light in the firſt medium ADC, is to its ve- of C into B are as c and b; and out of C into D, as r to s, or as a locity in the fecond medium CFN; as the fine of the angle of re- Therefore thoſe out of B into D, will be as b to, fraction, to the fine of the angle of incidence. 6. If parallel rays paſs out of one medium into another, they will br to cs. alſo be parallel after refraélion : the refracting ſurface being a plane. EXAMP. If the fines of incidence and refration out of glaſs into Prop. II. If heterogeneal light le refrafted out of glaſs into air ; air, be as 20 to 31; and out of air into water, as 4 to 3. Then the the fine of incidence, is to the fine of refraction of the leaſt, and fines of incidence and refraction out of glaſs into water, will be as moſt refrangible rays; as 50 to 77 and 78. 20 X 4 to 31 X 3, or as 80 to 93. This is proved by experiment thus; take a glaſs priſm BCD, PROP. V. The forces of bodies to refract light, are nearly as their (fig. 33.) with a very acute angle C, and place it ſo, that a ray of the denſities; excepting that unctious and ſulphureous bodies refract fun AF coming through a ſmall hole in the window ſhut, near the more than others of the ſame denſity. priſm, may fall perpendicularly upon the ſide DC, and be refracted By the laws of uniformly accelerated motion, if the body is by the oppoſite ſide at Y, the moſt refrangible rays to P, and the given, the velocity is as the force and time; and the ſquare of leaſt refrangible to T. Then if EYG be perpendicular to the fide the velocity, as force x time x velocity; that is, as the force x CB, by meaſuring the angles AYE, TYG and PYG, the fines of ſpace deſcribed, and that is (when the ſpace is given) as the force. theſe angles will become known. Let AF (fig. 36) be the refracting ſurface, and let it be divided into For example, if the angle of the priſm BCD be 31° 36'; then an infinite number of equal parts terminated by parallel planes pa! - ſince the triangles CFY and CYE are both of them right angled, fing through A, B, C, D, &c. Put a=AB or BC, &c. f, g, h, &c. the angle BCĎ=FYE the angle of incidence at Y=31, 36, for the forces acting in AB, BC, CD, &c. which may be eſteemed whoſe line is .524. And the angles TYG and PYG will be 53, uniform. Then the velocities acquired in falling frorn reſt, through 36, and 54, 441; whoſe fines are .805 and .8165. But .524 and AB, BC, CD, will be as vf, V8, Vb; and their ſquares as fi 8, .805 and .8165 are nearly to one another as 50, 77 and 78. h. But the ſquare of the velocity at B being f, the ſquare of the Hence 1. The angle PYT, which the coloured image fubtends, velocity at C is=ſquare of the velocity at B7 the ſquare of the is about 1° 8' }, or 1° 9', ſubtracting the ſun's diameter. velocity in paſſing through BC from reſt=fta. And the ſquare 2. In the coloured image PT, the lengths of the ſeveral colours, of the velocity at D=ſquare of the velocity at C + the ſquare of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, violet, are found to be to the velocity in paſſing through CD=f+9+h. And ſo on, tois, is, 1a, is, š; it is eaſy to divide the angle PYT in that therefore the velocity at F=Vf+8+ b&c. = ſquare root proportion; and then there will be had the fines of refraction at the of the force. confines of all the colours; that is, 77, 771, 775 775, 771, 77'}, Let AB (fig. 37.) be the refracting ſurface, IC the incident ray, 775, 78. For the irsage is divided after the manner of a muſical infinitely near AC, and CR the refracted ray. Let CB=CA, and cord, as Sir Iſaac Newton has found. And in ſmall arches, the BR perpendicular to CB. Then CB (=CI=1.) is the parallel differences of the fines are nearly as the differences of the arches. motion of the ray, and BR the perpendicular motion, which is ge- 3. If light paſs out of glaſs into air; the fine of incidence, is to nerated by the refraction: and therefore BR is as the ſquare root of the fine of refraction of the mean rays; as II to 17, or as 20 to 31; the refracting force, as was ſhewn before; and the refracting force which is a greater refraction than as 2 to 3. For the mean refran is as the denlity, therefore the ſquare of BR is as the denſity of gible rays are thoſe at the confines of the blue and green, or nearer the medium, the green, whoſe refraction is 771, or 771. By a like experiment, Let the fines of incidence and refraction be as mton; then we have the line of incidence and refraction of the leaſt refrangible rays out m:n:: CR: CB=1, and CR—", and BR²=CR2-CB2 of water into air is as 3 to 4, or as 81 to 198; and of the moſt re- frangible, aş 81 to 109. Therefore in the following table, againſt the names of the bodies CS to- or as m mm n nin I. 1 OPTICS. m n Draw FH 0.0012 48 9 | 2.568 41 20 5 II 22 beza 21 .70 IO 21 Іоо Ι.ΟΙ 2 22 1.32 9 IOO 41 bodies in the firſt column, you have the fines of incidence and refrac ARP is 48 : 40, the angle of refraction AFP becomes ĝo. And tion in the ſecond, the ſquare of BR or the refracting power in the at C, the apparent place of R will be at F, ſo that FÚ: RP.. third, their denſity or ſpecific gravity in the fourth, and their ratio 3 : 4, or PF = PR. in the fifth column. PROP. VIII. If AV be any refracling Spherical ſurface, C the cen- Refraction Refracting the Ra ter, R the radiant point, F the focus after refraction ; then RA X Bodies Denſity tio fine of incidence: CR * fine of refraction :: AF: CF. See fig. 42, power 43, 44 and 45. Pſeudo topaz 23 14 | 1.699 4.27 0.39 Let RA be the incident ray, AG the refracted one. 3201 3200 | 0.000625 .52 parallel to CA, cutting RA in H. _Then < RHF =RAC -- Glaſs of 17 5.28 angle of incidence, and AFH = FAC = angle of refraction. Intimony Put m, n, for the fines of incidence and refraction. Then in the A Selenitis 61 1.213 2.252 .54 triangle AFH, S.RHF or AHF (m): S.AFH (n) :: AF : AH. Glaſs 31 1.4025 2.58 .54 And by ſimilar triangles, AR : CR :: AH: CF, and ex equo, Rock Cryſtal 25 16 1.445 2.65 :54 m X AR:n x CR :: AF: CF. Inand Cryſtal 31.778 2.72 .65 Hence 1. on the contrary, if the rays go the contrary way in Sal Gemma 17 1.388 2.143 .64 the line GA or FA, they will be refracted to R; and R and F will Alumn 35 24 | 1.1267 1.714 .65 Borax be conjugate foci. 15 1.1511 1.714 .67 2. If rays diverging from R, converge to F; then changing Nitre 32 1.345 1.9 the mediums, rays converging to R will diverge from F. Or if Vitriol 303 200 1.295 1.715 •75 rays diverging from R, diverge from F, then changing the me- Oil Vitriol 7 1.041 .61 1.7 Rain Water diums, rays converging to R, will converge to F, after refraction. .78 529 396 0.7845 Which faves the labour of drawing more figures. Gum Arabic 31 1.179 1.375 .85 Prop. IX. If AVa be a very ſmall part of a refraning ſpherical 0.866 Spirit Wine 73 0.8765 Camphire ſurface, C the center, R the radiating point or objest, F the focus 3 1.25 0.996 1.25 after refraction; then the diſtance of the object and vertex Oil Olive 15 1.1511 0.913 1.26 ŘV x'fine of incidence : Diſtance of the objeet and center RCX Linſeed Oil 40 27 | 1.1948 0.932 1.28 fine of refraction :: Diſtance of the vertex and focus VF : Diſtance Spt turpentine 25 17 1.1626 0.874 Amber of the center and focus CF, nearly. (See the Figures mentioned 14 1.4.2 1.04 1.36 in the laſt Propoſition.) Diamond 4.949 3.4 1.45 Let RA be the incident ray, AG or AF the refracted ray; then This table of Sir Iſaac Newton's made from a great many ex- ſince A is very near the vertex V, RA=RV, and AF =VF nearly. And putting m, n for the lines of incidence and refraction, periments, ſhews that theſe bodies that differ from a conſtant ratio, mx AR:n X CR :: AF: CF; that is, m X RV:n x CR:: are ſuch as abound more or leſs with oily ſulphureous particles: and VF: CF. Hence that ſuch oily fulphureous ſubſtances have a greater refractive power 1. If m, n, be the fines of incidence and refraction, then m x than others, in proportion as they are of a more ſulphureous nature. Therefore, 1. The ſquare of BR is as the denſity of the medium. VR + nx CR : m X VR:: CV: VF. 2. Refraction out of a thinner medium into a thicker, is made Prop. X. If parallel rays RA, RV, fall upon any refracting ſpherical towards the perpendicular ; and the contrary. ſurface AV, (fig. 46 and 47) whoſe center is C; F will be the PROP. VI. Let AGFO (fig. 38.) be any denſe medium, AE perp. focus of the refracted rays, ſo that, the fine of incidence : fine of to AO, HO in incident ray, making the angle HOF infinitely refraction:: AF:CF. Draw the radius CA, then RAC or ACF is the angle of inci- ſmall, OB, OC the refraced rays, being the leaſt and moſt refran- gible. Draw Bc parallel to AO, cutting OC in c; through c dence (or its ſupplement), and FAC the angle of refraction. Let m, n, be the fines of incidence and refraction. Then in the triangle draw a ce parallel to AE ; then in any other denſe medium AGH, ACF, S.ACF (m): S.CAF (n):: AF: CF. Hence if the leaſt refrangible rays (of the incident ray HO) paſs to D; then drawing De parallel to AO to cut ae in 1. If the rays be turned back in the line GA, and refracted at A, the moſt refrangible ey will paſs through e. they will emerge parallel. rays Let the ray OE cut De in r, and if HO or OA be the velocity 2. If AV be any refracting curve, AC perp. to the curve in A; of the incident and CF parallel to RA: and if RA be the incident ray, AF the ray, then (Prop. I. Inference 5.) OB, OC, OD, OÉ refracted ray: then AF: FC: S.incidence: S.refraction. will be the velocity of the rays going to B,C,D,E; and AB? : (Prop. XÍ. If parallel rays RA, RV, fall on a very ſmall part of a AD2 :: denſity of the firſt medium: denſity of the ſecond : : AC2: AE?. And AB: AC:: AD: AE; whence AC: CB:: AE: refracting ſpherical ſurface Aa, whoſe center is C ; and if i bé ED. And by ſimilar triangles, Bc: AO:: (CB: CA:: ED: the focus, then fine of incidence : fine of refraction :: VF : CF, EA::) Dr: AO; whence Dr=Bc=De, and r falls upon e in nearly . See fig. 46 and 47: the line abe. Therefore in all mediums, where the angle of inci- For as AV is a very ſmall arch, AF = VF nearly, therefore dence is a right angle, the extreme refracted rays will cut the paral-(Prop: XII), S.incidence: S.refraétion :: AF (VF): CF. Hence lels AE, ae, in the points B, c, and D, e, making Bc, De alſo pa- m, n, be the fines of incidence and refraction; then m-1: m:: radius CV: FV the principal focal diſtance from the ver- rallel to one another, and to the refracting ſurface OA. But this does not hold good when the angle of incidence is not a right angle. For m : n:: VF (VC + CF): CF, and by diviſion, Hence if the medium is ſuch, that the mean refrangible rays, are m-n:m:: VC: VF. refracted at an angle of 45° with OA, then the rays will be the 2. The focus of parallel rays refracted by a convex ſpherical moſt diſperſed by refraction. For the angle DOE will be greater ſurface of glaſs iis diſtant from the vertex near three times the when AO makes 45 degrees with a line drawn from O, biſecting radius. For mis to n, nearly as 3 to 2, and men to m as I to 3. 3. As m-n the difference of the fines: to n the lefſer': : as De. Prop. VII. If R be the radiant point, (fig. 39.)RP perpendicular CV the radius: to VF-VC, or CF the diſtance of the focus from the center. to the refracting plane ſurface PA. Then if RA bethe incident ray, AH the refrated ray, cutting RP in F; then F will be the focus, Prop. XII. If AV be a ſmall portion of a refracting ſpherical ſur- so that FĂ: RA:: S.incidence : S.refraction. face; (fig. 48) C the center, R the radiating point or the focus of For the angle PRA=angle of incidence, and PFA=angle the incident rays, F the focus of the refracted rays. And if m= of refraction, and in the triangle ARF, FA: RA:: S.FRA: S.incidence, n = S.refraction, RV=d, CV=r, VF=f; S.PFA:: S.angle of incidence : S.angle of refraction. mdr then f= Hence 1. As the fine of refraction : to the fine of incidence :: where if the rays converge, or AV be the incident ray: the refracted ray. men X d-RT 2. If rays diverging from R, diverge from F, after refraction ; concave ; d or r will be negative. For ſince the arch AV is very ſmall, RA=RV,=d, AF= then rays converging to F will converge to R after refraction. 3. Parallel rays falling on a refracting plane, are refracted into V=f. Draw FH parallel to CA, cutting RA in H. Then by ſimilar triangles RC (d+r): CF (f—r:: RA or RF (d): AH parallel lines. For R and F being at an infinite diſtance; all rays proceeding from R will be parallel to one another, and all rays pro- df-dr. Then in the triangle AFH, S.AHF or CAH (m): ceeding from F will alſo be parallel. 4. If rays diverging from R, diverge from F. after refraction ; n df- Whence then changing the mediums, the rays diverging from F, will diverge from R, after refraction. 5. If rays RA, Ra, (fig. 40) falling near P, be refracted from m, and ndf +nrf=dmf - dmr, or mdf -- ndf -- dtr the focus F; then FP: RP:: S.incidence : S. refraction. For mdr then FA=FP, and RA=RP, nearly. nrf=mdr, therefore f= Hence, 6. If R (fig. 41) is an obje&t under water, and the eye moves md-nd-nr from C to D and then to H, &c. the object will ſeem to riſe in the mdr mdr I. f== perp, RP, till at laſt it vaniſhes in P. Hence water looks deepeſt mn. dar md -nxdur when looked at perpendicularly; but it appears not then to be ſo mdr deep as it is, by a fourth part. For when the angle of incidence 2. If rays fall on a concave refractor, f = m--1.d+nr I. If tex. == 3 d+r df - dr nf = 3. If OPTICS 3. - n m r. n2 т wards R. vertex. to go indr back and forward till this ſpot, which is the ſun's image, be the If the rays converge to R, f=s m — n.d+nr leaſt poffible; there fix it. Then the diſtance of the paper from the lens, is the focal diſtance required, or the burning point. md 4. If it be a plain furface, f = 2. Cover one ſide of a convex lens with paper, having ſeveral holes made in it with a pin; and placing the glaſs directly If the be parallel, f= 5. againſt the fun beams; the light paſſing through the holes, will rays make ſo many white ſpots upon a paper held behind it. Move the SCHOL. From this ſolution it follows, that when f the focal dif paper back and forward till all theſe ſpots coincide in one; there is tance comes out affirmative, it muſt be taken directly forward the focus. And the diſtance of the paper from the glaſs being mea- from V, but when it is negative, it muſt be taken backward to ſured, will give the focal diſtance. In the ſame manner that f is found from having d and PROP. XVIII. To find the vertex or center of a lens. r, given; either d, or r, may be found from having the reſt given. în all caſes where the rays converge to F, (fig. 49.) if a circle Hold the lens at a proper diſtance from the eye, and obſerve the BD be deſcribed with any radius from the center F, to cut the two reflected images of a candle, made from the two ſurfaces. refracted rays AF; theſe rays, paſſing through the meniſcus Move the lens till the two images coincide, and that point is the AVDB, will go to the fame focus F. For theſe rays : paffing truly centered, otherwiſe not. And if this be in the middle of its ſurface, the lens is perpendicularly through the refracting ſurface BD, go right for- ward. And for the ſame reaſon, rays diverging from F, will go PROP. XIX. Wherever the rays, which come from all the points of an to R as before. object, meet again in ſo many other points, to which they converge PROP. XIII. If parallel rays RA, V fall upon a ſmall portion of a by refraktion; there they will make the picture of the object upon Sphere, and be refracled by the firſt furface to T; they will be re- any white body on which they fall. Fracted by the ſecond ſurface to F, to the middle of DT. See fig. 50. Let PR (fig. 56.) be any object, AB a lens. The rays that di- Let the rays RA, FG meet in H; then fince the cord AG cuts verge from any point Q falls upon the lens, and are refra&ted to the curve at A, G in equal angles, the refractions will be equal at their focus 9 where they all meet, and make the image of Qupon A and G; whence the triangle AHG is equiangular, and equila a paper held there. In like manner the rays which diverge from teral. But FT being parallel to AH, the triangle GFT is ſimilar P, are refracted to their focus p, and there give the image of P; to AHG; whence GF=FT. But GF being=DF very near, and the rays diverging from R, are refracted to r, and make the therefore DF=FT. Hence, if parallel rays fall upon any part image of R. And thus, from all the intermediate points of the ob- of a ſphere; and T be the focus after the firſt refraction; F will ject, the rays proceeding to the lens, are refracted to as many cor- be the focus after the ſecond, ſo that GF=FT. reſpondent points in the focus; and will altogether make there the PROP. XIV. In image pqr of the object POR, in its proper íhape and colours. But lens BH, if tivo radii CA, ca, be drawn paral- any lel 10 one another, from the centers C, C, of the two ſurfaces; and the picture is inverted or turned upſide down, and the right ſide to the left. Aa be drawn cutting the axis in D. Then every ray that paſſes through D, Jhall have its incident and emergent rays parallel. Hence; 1. Rays flowing from all the points of an object, paint the image thereof, in the real focus, and may be ſeen there upon a See fig. 51 and 52. . By reaſon of the parallels CA, and ca, the triangles CAD, and white paper; or without the paper it may be ſeen there hanging in cad, are ſimilar; therefore CD is to cD, as CA to ca, that is in a the air, by an eye at O, placed at a proper diſtance, as 6 or 8 inches, &c. behind the focus. given ratio; and therefore the point D is invariable. And further the angles at A and o being equal, the line Aa cuts the two ſur- 2. An object ſeen by refraction, appears in that place, from faces in the ſame angle, and therefore if the ray Aa be ſuppoſed whence the rays after their laſt refraction, diverge to the ſpectators both eye. the refractions will be equal and contrary; that is, ways, they will make equal angles with Aa, and lie contrary ways, and Prop. XX. The object and its image made by a lens, ſubtend equal therefore are parallel. angles at the lens. Hence, I. in double convex and double concave lenſes, the point D lies within the lens; in a plano convex or plano concave, it is For let D be the center of the lens (fig. 57. and 58.) AB, PQR at the convex or concave ſurface; but in a meniſcus, it lies out the object, par its image. Then PDp is nearly a ſtraight line, of the lens, nearer to the greateſt curvity. And in a ſphere, it is and likewiſe RDr is alſo a ſtraight line; conſequently the angle at the center. PDR ſubtended by the object, is equal to the angle pDr fubtended 2. The courſe of a ray, paffing through D, very near the axis, by the image, the angular point being at the center of the lens D. - be taken for a ítrait line, without ſenſible error. Hence, 1. The object and image are equal, when they meet may 3. The point D is fo placed, that CG:cF :: DG: DF. together. 4. As the ſum of the radii (or the difference in a meniſcus) : to 2. The object and image made by a ſingle refration, fubtend the lefler radius :: fo the thickneſs of the lens : to the diſtance of equal angles at the center of the refracting ſurface. For the un- D from the vertex of greater curvature. refrared rays flowing from the extremes of the object, paſs through 5. If Aa be any ray paſſing through D; then the tangents to the center; and the object and image are contained between theſe. the lens at A and a, will be parallel. In addition to the foregoing Propoſitions, the following Proper- 6. For every point A of the lens, there is ſome ray or other AG, ties are demonſtrated by Mr. Emerſon. whoſe incident and refracted rays will be parallel; and that is the 1. The length of an object, is to the length of the image, made ray paſſing through D. by a lens ; as the diſtance of the object from the center of the lens N. R. The point D is by optic writers called the Center of the to the diſtance of the image from it. lens. 2. A convex magnifies an object, when it is nearer than twice Prop. XV. Having the lens a V, and the radiant point R given; the principal focal diſtance: but if further off, it leſſens it. to find the focus F, after the refraction of both the ſurfaces. See 3. In all cafes a concave lens diminiſhes an object, or the image fig. 53 and 54. is leſs than the object. Let m, n, be the fines of incidence and refraction, and make m 4. The length of the object, and the length of its image made by X Rv-n X Re:m x Rv :: the radius uc : vf, and f is the a ſingle' refraction; are as their diſtances from the center of the focus after the firſt refraction at av. Again vf — V=Vf; refracting ſurface. then make as m X Cf-n X Vf:n X Vf:: radius CV:VF, 5. The apparent magnitude of a body, is as the angle which the and F is the focus after the ſecond refraction at AV. image appears under to the in And thus eye you may proceed to find the focus after refraction by a third or 6. If the object and its image be both on the ſame ſide of the fourth ſurface, &c. lens; the image will be erect; if they be on different fides, the image will be inverted. Prop. XVI. An oblique pencil of rays SAGC, (fig. 55.) has its 7. When the object and image are on different ſides the lens, Focus G a little nearer the lens, than a direct pencil RAFC. as the object approaches the lens che image recedes from it; or if the For if I S=DR, then the angle CSA will be ſomething leſs than object recedes, the image approaches it. the angle CRA; and upon that account the rays SA, SC, will be 8. If the object and image be both on one ſide of the lens; if ſooner brought to interfect at G, than the rays RA, RC, do at F. the object moves towards the lens; the image alſo moves towards But further, the rays RA, RC, falling very nearly perpendicular to the lens. And if the object moves from it, the image moves from it. the ſides of the lens AC, HN, are leſs bent, than the rays SA, SC, 9. In a convex lens, if the object be beyond the principal focus, which fall obliquely on both ſides the lens. For the more oblique its image will be on the other ſide of the glaſs inverted. But if the they are, the more they are bent, and turned out of their direct object is nearer than the principal focus, the image will be on the way. And conſequently the oblique rays SA, SC will ſooner in fame ſide of the glaſs erect. terſect in G, than thoſe at F. But ſince the angle RDS is gene 10. In a concave lens, the object and image are always on one rally very finall , the difference between DF and DG will likewiſe ſide of the lens. be very ſmall. II. If a convex lens be fixt in the window ſhut, and the room PROP. XVII. To find the principal focus of any lens. made dark, the pictures of external objects will be painted upon a 1: Hold a convex lens perp." againſt the rays of the ſun, , paper held in the focus of the glaſs. hold a white paper behind it; to receive the refra&ted light, which 12. If an object be placed in the principal focus of a lens, its will make a round white ſpot upon the paper. Move the paper apparent magnitude at any place whatever, beyond the lens, will be * U invariably any place. No. 120 OPTICS. 17. If the If the eye 2Rr R- qCU, 72 M2 = 212 n m n AB2 invariably the ſame; and equal to the apparent magnitude when lens, it will caſt a light to a great diſtance. For the rays emerg- feen from the center of the lens with the naked eye. ing nearly parallel, will not unite till at a great diſtance. 41. In a double convex glaſs of equal radii, the principal fo- 13. The apparent magnitude of a body placed in the principal focus will always continue the ſame, however the eye is moved cus is diſtant, the radius of the ſphere; or the focal diſtance is backward and forward from the lens. equal to the radius. 14. The nearer the eye is to the lens, the more of the object ap- 42. In a ſphere, the principal focus is diſtant half the radius; of an hemiſphere of the radius, when the convex ſide is expoſed to pears; and the further off , the leſs of it is ſeen. 15. If the object be nearer than the principal focus, its apparent the rays; and twice the radius, when the plane fide is expoſed. magnitude becomes leſs in going from the glaſs. But if the ob- 43. In a plano convex, the diſtance of the principal focus is equal je& be further, the apparent magnitude will increaſe, in going to the diameter, when the plane ſide is expoſed to the rays; but from it. to the diameter — the thickneſs, when the convex fide is ex- 16. If the eye be fixed in the principal focus, the apparent mag poſed. nitude of an object will be invariably the ſame, wherever the object 44. In a double convex glaſs of different ſpheres, the diſtance 2Rr is placed before the glaſs. of the principal focus is eye is fixed at a lefs diſtance than the principal focus; R+r the apparent magnitude of an object is diminiſhed, as it is further 45. In double concaves of equal radii, the principal focus is removed from the glaſs, but by flow degrees. diftant the radius of the ſphere, and is virtual. 18. If the eye be fixed at a greater diſtance than the principal 46. In a plano concave, the principal focus is diſtant twice the focus; the apparent magnitude of an object is increaſed, as it is re- dius, and is virtual. moved from the glaſs; till it comes to the conjugate focus, in re 47. In a double concave glaſs of different ſpheres, the diſtance {pe&t to the eye; and then it becomes infinite, and infinitely con- 2Rr of the principal focus is and is virtual. fuſed, and begins to be inverted; and going further off, it is di- Rtr miniſhed again. 19. If the and object be fixed, and a convex lens be moved 48. In a meniſcus, the diſtance of the principal focus is from the object to the eye; the apparent magnitude of the object increaſes to the middle, and then decreaſes to the eye. When it the concave ſide being expoſed to the rays. comes into fuch a poſition, that the 49. If rays iſſuing from the radiant point R, (fig. 53 and 54.) and object are conjugate eye be refracted by the lens Av; let m, n = fines of incidence and foci, the object is infinitely confuſed. refraction, d=Ry, the diſtance of the radiant point. 20. If the eye and object be fixed, and a concave lens be moved the radius of the nearer ſurface. R=CV the radius of the fur- from either of them to the other; the apparent magnitude of the ob- ther ſurface. t=Vv the thickneſs of the lens. f=VF the ject will decreaſe to the middle, and then increaſe again. The ap- parent diſtance is reciprocally as the apparent magnitude; and in focal diſtance. p = -> pm = qn; then f general we judge the apparent diſtance of an object to be the very ſame, as we ſuppoſe the diſtance of a real object to be; from which mpdr R — ndRt + nprRt the rays come to our eyes with the ſame degree of confuſion. md. Xr+R- mpr R - dt X m - n + nrt wherein, if the 21. The brightneſs of the image pr, formed by the lens AB rays converge, or if av, AV, be concave the contrary way, then from the luminous object PR; will be as the area of the d, r, or R, is negative. Hence. Dq2 pdrR lens directly, and the ſquare of the diſtance of the image reciprocally. 50. If t be nothing or inconſiderable, then f= Alſo the brightneſs of the image increaſes with the area of the glaſs, dxr+R-Rpr but the diſtinctneſs of it decreaſes. See (fig. 57.) and is the ſame on both fides the lens, whilſt the diſtance d conti- 22. Converging rays are made more converging, by a convex nues the ſame. lens; and diverging rays are made more diverging by a concave. And if the lens be of glaſs; then f = 6drR-2dRt + 4rRt 23. Parallel rays falling on one ſide of a convex lens A, (fig.59.) 3d Xr+R-6rR—dt+2rt will be refracted to P or p on the other ſide. 2drR 24. Parallel rays falling on one ſide of a concave lens A; will or when t = 0, f= by refraction, diverge from P or p on the ſame fide. d xr+R - 2rR 25. In a convex lens A, rays diverging from P or p; will Alſo in a plano convex, if t= 0, and AV a plane ſurface; emerge parallel on the other fide. ndr 26. In a concave lens A, rays converging to P or Pi will d- emerge parallel, going out of the lens on the ſame ſide. 51. Ift = 0, and the lens has equal convexities; then f = 27. In convex lenſes, rays diverging from R (fig. 60.) beyond ndr dr P; will converge to F beyond p. And the contrary. And in glaſs, f= 28. In convex lenſes, rays diverging from R (fig. 61.) which m - 1 X 24 - is nearer than P; will diverge from F on the ſame ſide with R. 52. When t=0, in a double concave, f= pdrR 29. In convex lenſes, rays converging to F, (fig. 62.) will by refraction converge to R, nearer than Por f. -axr+R-prR 30. In concave lenſes, rays converging to R, (fig. 63.) beyond And when the radii are equal, f=- dr P; will diverge from F, beyond p, and the contrary. atr 31. In concave lenſes, rays converging to F, (fig. 64.) nearer 53. In a plano concave, expoſed with the concave ſide to the than p; will by refraction converge to R, beyond F. -pdR 32. In concave lenſes, rays diverging from R, (fig. 65.) beyond atok p; will after refraction diverge from F, nearer than p. 54. In a meniſcus, the convex fide turned to the rays, fa 33. In concave lenſes, rays diverging from R, (fig. 66.) nearer - drR than p, will diverge from F, nearer ſtill than p. d xr-R+prR 34. Let parallel rays Sa, Rv, (fig. 53 and 54.) be refracted by mdr the lens Av; ſuppoſe the fines of incidence and refraction as m to 55. The focal diſtance made by a ſingle refraction is- put the radius of the ſegment towards the object cv =r; m-n.d-n. the radius of the ſegment from the object CV=R, the thickneſs 56. If the radiant point and the focus be equidiſtant from a lens; of the lines vV=t, the principal focal diſtance VF=f. And they will each of them be diſtant twice the principal focal diſtance, 57. If the radiant point be nearer the lens, than the principal P= , 9= ; therefore mp mp = ną. focus; the rays after refraction will diverge; if it is in the princi- pal focus, they will emerge parallel; and if it is further off, they Rn X qr-t M XR+r--+ x m --- ni wherein if av, or AV be convex the 58. If P, po (fig. 67. and 68.) be the principal foci of a fphere contrary way, then r or R is negative. or lens Av; R the radiant point; F the focus by refraction; D the 35. If t=0, or inconſiderable, then f=pRr, and is the center of the ſphere or lens; then RP, RD, RF, are continual R+r? proportionals, where P and F muſt lie the ſame way from R. ſame on either ſide of the lens. 59. If Av be a lens or ſphere, (fig. 69. and 70.) F the focus of the refracted rays which flow from the radiant point R, p the prin- 36. Ift=0, and av be a plane ſurface, then f = R. cipal focus. Then RF: RD::DF: Dp, the principal focal diſ- 37. If t=0, and AV a plane ſurface, f= For RF:RD:: RD: RP, and by diviſion, RF: RF - RD (DF):: RD : RD-RP (PD or p D.) 38. If t=0, and R=r, then f= X Ir. 60. In a convex, the principal focal diſtance Dp= RD X DF RD + DF 39. The principal focal diſtance made by one refraction, is 61. RF: DF :: DF:pF, or pF = DF2 X DF. RF RF For ſince RF: RD :: DF: Dp, by diviſion RF: RF-RD 40. If a luminous body be placed in the principal focus of a (DF) :: DF: DF-Dp (pF.) 4 62. Hence, then f = m n. nr d-1 nga 3 rays, f ==PAR n; and n m Then f = m2 - 1 M m will converge. n mn tance. n .1. -n m n m- _DF M - n OPTICS fun's rays mm of the ray. n 2 anm - n 8 02772 X nn 2 аа mm men 2VF mm т n2 62. Hence, the focus F may be found geometrically thus. Let of rain of a ſpherical figure, Cits center, and let AN be one of the P be the principal focus; with the center D and radius DP, de rays incident upon it at N, and then refracted to F, where let fcribe the arch PG, cutting any incident ray RA, in G. Join it either go out of the drop by refraction to V, or be reflected to G; DG, and draw AF parallel to it, cutting the axis RD in F, then and at G let it either go out by refraction to R, or be reflected to H; F is the focus. and at H let it either go out by refraction to S, or be reflected to I, 63. The diſtance of the radiating point and its focus made by a &c. On the incident ray AX, and the refracted one NF, let fall convex lens, is the leaſt poſſible; when they are equidiſtant from the perpendiculars CD, ČE. Draw the diameter BQ parallel to the incident the lens. ray AN. And let, m, n, be the lines of incidence and re- 64. The radiating point and its focus is at the leaſt diſtance fraction out of air into water. Draw NC, CF. Now in the pro- from each other, when each of them is diſtant from the lens, twice greſs of the ray AN, through the points N, F, G, H, &c. it is con- the principal focal diſtance. tinually changing its direction, the ſame way about the circle, till 65. If a convex lens be held direAly to the rays of the ſun; and at laſt it emerges out of the drop, making the angle of refraction, a combuſtible body be held in the principal focus, the heat of the equal to that at its incidence; for all the lines NF, FG, GH, &c. rays will ſet it on fire. are equal. Then to find the direction in which it at laſt emerges, 66. The heat in the focus of the lens, is to the fun’s direct heat; produce NF to W, FG to T, GH to Y, &c. and then we muſt as the area of the glaſs, to the area of the image in the focus. find the ſum of the angles XNW, WFT, TGY, &c. and YHS, 67. The degrees of heat in the foci of different lenſes; are as which makes the whole change of direction, or the revolution of the ſquares of the diameters directly, and the ſquares of the focal the ray in its progreſs. Draw CZ perpendicular to FG. Then in diſtances reciprocally. the quadrilateral CEFZ, the angles at Ê and Z are right; therefore 68. If AB be a plane convex lens, (fig. 71.) expoſed with the the angle ECZ+EFZ, = two right angles = EFZ + ZFW, plane ſide to the parallel homogeneous rays NA, CV. And if P be therefore ECZ=ZFW, or ZFW=NCF = 2NCE. Put t= the principal focus, or that of rays falling near V, and F the focus number of reflections, F, G, H, &c. Then ſince all the external of the ray AF; m, n the fines of incidence and refraction out of a angles at F, G, H, are equal, the ſum of them all is=tx ZFW rare into a denſe medium, x=DV, the verſed ſine of the arch =2t X NCE, to which add XNF + YHS or 2XNF, and the ſum is 2t x NCE+2XNF, for the whole change of direction AV. Then the aberration PF=. But XNF-XNC-ENC, and NCE=R-CNE n X m (putting R=a right angle), therefore the whole change of direc- 69. Putting AD = y, the aberration by the figure of the lens, tion is=2tR-2t + 2 x CNE + 2CNX, or twice the quantity mm y y that is, PF= tR-tti X CNE+CNX. And this being known, it is eaſy to find the angle the emerging ray makes with the incident 70• The aberration of the ſphericalneſs of the figure, is as the ray AN or BQ. This is true of any ray whatſoever, but to our pur- verſed ſine, or as the ſquare of the cord of half the arch AV. poſe there is but one poſition of the ray AN, which will bring 71. The aberration in length PF, of a plane convex lens, is 47 the colours, and this is next to be found. times its thickneſs, nearly. Let AN be an incident ray of any colour, and let it emerge at H, 72. ' The lateral aberration FG correſponding to PF, is = deſcribing the tract ANFGÁS. Now that the rays of any colour emerging at H, may affect the ſenſe itrongly, they ought to emerge parallel, for if they emerge and fall upon the eye, in different direc- AD2 tions, they mix with other rays of a different colour, and cannot ap- 73. The aberration PF = X and the correſ- pear ſenſible. And there will be ſo few rays of that colour in any AD3 one direction, that they cannot excite any ſenſation. And ſince to pondent lateral aberration FG= -X 2VF2 excite ſo ſtrong a ſenſation, the rays of any one colour ought to emerge parallel, and as they are alſo parallel at their incidence: 74. In a double convex lens, of the ſame focal diſtance; the therefore we muſt find what poſition, or what angle of incidence, aberrations will be nearly the ſame as in the plano convex. the ray AN muſt have, that all the rays of that colour, emerging at 75. If the rays do not come parallel, but diverging, the aberra a ſmall diſtance from H, may be all parallel to HS. Now this can tion will be ſomething greater; and converging ſomething leſs; but only be when the ſum of all the angles 2tR — 2t+2 x CNE+ may be taken for the ſame. 76. If parallel rays (or any others nearly) fall upon the plane 2CNX is a maximum or minimum. For by the nature of a maxi- mum or minimum, ſuch a quantity remains the ſame for a ſmall fide of a plano convex lens, the diameter of the leaſt circle of aber- variation of the arch BN. Now we may obſerve, that when the ration, is the aberration made at the principal focus; or 2QI= arch BN is very ſmall, the arch FQ is very ſmall; and as BN grows FG = ys AD 3 greater, FQ grows greater, and BF leſſer; and when BN ap- 4 aa proaches a quadrant, OF grows leſs again, and BF bigger. So that 77. The circle whoſe diameter is 2QI, contains all the BF firſt decreaſes to a certain limit, and then increaſes again, and fracted by the lens, between A and B. at that limit it is at its minimum. But the quantity 2tR 21 +2 78. Hence if the principal focal diſtance is given; the lateral xCNE+2CNX depends much upon the ſituation of F, and aberrations are as the cubes of the breadths of the lens. And if therefore will be at its minimum when the rays at H emerge parallel. the breadth of the lens be given, the lateral aberration is recipro- Now ſince 2tR is given, 2tR—2t+2 * CNE + 2CNX, cally as the ſquare of the focal diſtance. 79. Having given AF, the leaſt diſtance that a long-fighted per- will be at its minimum when 2t+2 X CNE-2CNX is a fon can ſee diſtinctly; or the greateſt diſtance a ſhort-lighted perſon maximum, or when t + 1 x CNE-CNX is a maximum. can ſee diſtinctly; and AQ the diſtance he wants to ſee diſtinctly, But t+1 x CNE — CNX is a maximum, when t+1 x incre- then AC the radius of a double convex, or double concave, for that ment of CNE = increment of CNX. Let y=CD or NM the purpoſe will be AF X AQwhen it is the radius of a convex fine of incidence; CN=1; m, n, the fines of incidence and re- AF-AQ fraction, and take Nn a very ſmall increment or decrement of BN, lens, it will ſuit the long-fighted perſon; and when it is the radius and drawing no parallel to AN, No will be the increment or decre- of a concave lens, it is for the ſhort-ſighted, (ſee (fig. 72 and 73.) ment of MN; then y=CE the fine of refraction, and its 80. A long-fighted perſon that cannot ſee diſtinctly nearer than F; (fig. 72.) cannot ſee diſtinály nearer than Q, by help of the increment = glaſs BD. But from Q to C, or further, he can ſee diſtinctly. --x No. And by the nature of the circle, conſine 81. If the long-ſighted perſon can only ſee objects diſtinctly,which No are very remote; then he muſt have a convex lens whoſe focal dif- (VI— yy) : radius (1) : : No : Nn: the incre- tance is AQ, to ſee objects diſtinály at the diſtance AQ. 82. A ſhort-fighted perſon that cannot ſee diſtinctly further than nnyy ment of BN or Z CND. Alſo confine( VI- F; (fig. 73.) cannot ſee diſtinctly further than Q, by help of the : radius concave glaſs RD. But can ſee diſtinctly from Q to F, or nearer. nx No 83. If AF be the greateſt diſtance, a ſhort-fighted perſon can (1) : : increment of the fine of refraction( *No): MVI-nnyy ſze diſtin&tly; then by help of a concave, whoſe radius or focal diſtance is ÁF, he will be able to ſee all remote objects to infinity. the increment of the arch or angle of refraction CNE. Therefore SECT. II. OF THE MAGNITUDE, POSITION, AND Co- nxN. No ttix LOURS OF THE RAINBOW. Put p=it I, then myi-nnyy VI-yy The rainbow never appears but when it rains in the ſun-fhine; and is cauſed by the refraction and reflection of the ſun's light par- рп fing through the drops of falling rain. And it may be made artifici- and pn XVI - yy=Vmm — nny's ally, by ſpouting up water, and cauſing it to fall down in drops, in nnyy VI – yy the fun's rays; in theſe drops the colours will appear to a ſpectator and fquaring, ponn- ppnnyy=mm— nnyy; and reducing, pönnyy- ſtanding in a due poſition. Alſo it may be ſhewn in globes of glaſs Andy being nnyy =ppnn Pønn — mm; and y=vppnn filled with water, and placed in the fun in a proper poſition. To Pp-Inn underſtand how the bow is made; let BNFG (fig. 24.) be a drop known, the angles CND and CNÉ, are known, and conſequently the mm Х m ni Х n 72 m - - n 4VF2 rays re- n VI-yy :) mm mm mm I V mm mm NOSSO OPTICS. be 549 7 the quantity of the angle of deviation of the ray, 21R-DXCNE+ be towards the fun; but in the fourth the violet is from the fun. AN But their light is weakened fo by reflections, that they never appear, ray 2CNX. And the angle in which HS cuts the incident When the angle of revolution (or change of direction) of the or BQ, will be known ; for if the deviation be 180 degrees, the incident and emergent rays will coincide, and the emergent ray emerging ray differs not much from a ſemicircle or any odd num- will return back to the fun. ber of ſernicircles; one muſt look for the bow towards the ſun's Since y depends upon the quantities of m and n, it is evident oppoſition. But when it differs not much from a circle or any that the rays of different colours, having a different degree of re number of circles, one muſt look towards the fun for the bow. Thus the firſt and ſecond bows are ſeen oppoſite to the fun, and the frangibility, will have different limits of BN, and will emerge pa- third and fourth towards it. rallel in different points H, and will cut BQ at different angles. And theſe ſeveral ſorts of rays being ſeparated from one another, If the angle of revolution falls ſhort of a ſemicircle or any num- will appear each in their proper colours. ber of ſemicircles, the violet colour will be on the inſide the bow. For the firſt rainbow : if light paſſes out of air into water, m and But if it exceed them, the violet would be on the outſide. Thus in n will be 108 and 81 for the leaſt refrangible rays, or the red ; and the firſt and third bows, the violet is within; and in the ſecond and 109 and 81 for the moſt refrangible rays, or the violet. And there fourth, without fore in this bow, where m=108, p=2, y comes out=86036 PART IV. =S.59, 22,=CNX, and CNE=40, 11. And 2R-4CNE OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. +2CNX=137, 58, and this or its ſupplement 42, 2, is the angle ART. I. Doctor Withering's B-tanical Microſcope, as conſtrusted by the emergent ray makes with the incident ray for the red. And in Mr George Adams. like manner when m=109, the angle which the emergent ray This little inftruinentis repreſented at fig. 10. Plate III. It con- makes with the incident ray, will be found 40, 17, for the violet. ſiſts of three braſs plates A, B, C, which are parallel to each other; Again, in the ſecond bow, where p=3, m = 108, we ſhall find the wires D and Eare rivetted into the upper and lower plate which y=95015 = 8.71, 50=CNX, and CNE=45, 27 ; and 4R are by this means united to each other ; the middle plate or ſtage is -6CNF +2CNX=230, 57, which exceeds 180 by 50, 57, the moveable on the aforeſaid wires by two little ſockets which are angle made with the incident ray, for the red. And when m=109, fixed to it. The two upper plates each contain a magnifying lens, the angle the violet emergent ray makes with the incident will ray but of different powers : one of theſe confines and keeps in their places, the fine point F, the forceps G, and the ſmall knife H. Now fuppofe O to be the eye of the ſpectator, and OP a line To uſe this Inſtrument. Unſcrew the upper lens, and take out drawn thro' the ſun and the eye (fig. 75). And let the angles POE the point of the knife and the forceps, then ſcrew the lens on again, =40 17, POF = 42, 2, POG-50, 57, and POH= 54, 7. And place the object on the ſtage, and then move it up and down till let theſe angles-be turned about their common ſide OP; then ſhall you have gained a diſtinct view of the object, as one lens is made the other fides OE, OF, OG, OH, deſcribe the extreme arches of a ſhorter focus than the other, and ſpare lenſes, of a ftill deeper of two rainbows AFBE, and CHDG. For if E, F, G, H, be focus, may be had if required. drops of water placed any where in the conical ſurfaces deſcribed Art. II. Common botanical Microſcope. This little inſtrument by OE, OF, OG, OH, and be illuminated by the ſun's rays SE, is repreſented at fig. 9. Plate III. It appears preferable to Doctor SF, SG, SH; the angle SEO or POE of 40, 17, will be the Withering's, being equally ſimple and more extenſive in its ap- greateſt angle in which the violet rays will after one reflection be plication, and the ſtage unincumbered. A B, a fmall arm carrying refracted to the eye ; and therefore all the drops in the line OE, the two magnifiers, one fixed to the upper part as at B, the other ſhall ſend the moſt refrangible rays moſt copiouily to the eye, and to the lower part of the arm at C, theſe may be uſed ſeparately or thereby ſtrike the ſenſes with the deepeſt violet colour. And in combined together. The arm at B is fupp:ited by the ſquare like manner the angle SFO or POF of 42, 2, will be the greateſt pillar- I K, the lower end of which fits into the focket É, of the foot angle under which the red rays can emerge out of the drops, and FG, the itage DL is made to ſlide up and down the ſquare pillar, therefore will come moſt copiouſly to the eye and ſtrike the ſenſes H a concave mirror, for reflecting light on the object. with that colour. And the rays that have intermediate degrees To uſe this Microſcope. Place the object on the ſtage, reflect the of refrangibility, ſhall come molt copiouſly from drops between E light on it from the concave mirror, and regulate it to the focus by and F, and ſtrike the ſenſes with the inte inediate colours; that is, moving the ſtage nearer to, or further fron, the lens at B. The from the in ide to the outſide of the bow, the colours will appear ivory ſliders paſs through the ſtage. Other objects may be fixed in the order violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. in the nippers L, M, and then brought under the eye glaſſes; or Again in the ſecond bow, the angle SGO or POG of 50, 57, they may be laid on one of the glaſſes which fit the ſtage. ſhall be the leaſt angle under which the red rays, after two reflec ART. III. The Solar Microſcope, as conſtructed by MR. ADAMS. tions can emerge out of the drops, and come moſt copiouſly in the This inſtrument is repreſented'in Plate III, at the figures 1, 2 line OG, and ſtrike the ſenſe with that colour. And the angle SHO 3, 4, 5. A B CD, (fig. 1.) repreſents the body of the micro- or POH of 54, 7, ſhall be the leaſt angle in which the violet rays ſcope conſiſting of two braſs tubes, EF, is the top of the inner after two reflections can emerge out of the drops, and therefore moveable tube ; the end of of the ſingle-tooth and pinion micro- they will come moſt copiouſly to the eye ; and ſtrike the ſenſe with ſcope (fig. 2.) ſcrews into the top of the inner tube ; at the end AB, that colour. And by the fame argument the drops between G and of the external tube there is a lens to receive the light of the ſun H, ſhall ſtrike the ſenſe with the intermediate colours; therefore from the mirror KL, and to collect and condenſe it on the object; from the inſide to the outſide of the bow, the colours will appear the end AB, ſcrews into the circular plate GHI. KL, a long in this order, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. And frame fixed to the circular-plate; in this frame there is a plain mir- fince theſe four lines OE, OF, OG, OH, may be fituated any ror to reflect the rays, of the fun on the lens at AB... where in the conical ſuperficies, what is ſaid of the drops and co worm or ſcrew, which is cut on the lower part of the nut M, works lours in theſe lines, is to be underſtood of the drops and colours in a ſmall wheel which is fixed to the frame KL, ſo that by turr- every where in thoſe ſurfaces. But the ſecond bow, by reaſon of the ing the nut, the frame KL is moved up or down ; the nut N moves light loft by two reflections does not always appear, and is always the mirror to the rightor left. O, P, two ſcrews to faften the ſquare fainter than the firſt. Theſe would be the angles if the ſun was plate to the window ſhutter. but a point, but from his apparent diameter, the breadth of the Fig. 2. Plate III. is the ſingle microſcope; ef the end which ſcrews bows will be increaſed half a degree, whence the breadth of the on to the upper part E (fig. 1.) of the internal tube of the body; inner bow will be 2, 15; and of the outer one 3, 40; and their 9 fig. 2. is the dovetailed ſlit for receiving the ſlider (fig. 5.) g the diſtance 8, 25; the radii of the inner bow 40, 2, and 42, 17, of the hole in which the megalaſcope magnifier (fig. 3). is to be ſcrewed outer one 50, 42, and 54, 22 ; and this appears to be ſo by obſer when the ſlider (fig. 5.) is removed. At bare the moveable plates, vation, when their colours are ſtrong and lively. It may be ob between which are the ſliders placed; under the lowermoſt of theſe ferved, that all the rays but the violet in the line SE, will emerge the lens, repreſented at fig. 4, is to be placed, when the magnifiers from E in a greater angle than SEO made by the violet, and will No. 1, 2, 3, and 4, fig. 5, are to be uſed. ek, is a ſmall piece of therefore all paſs below the eye; and all the rays but the red, in rack work, which is moved backwards and forwards, by the pinion the line SF, will emerge from F in a leſſer angle than SFO made that is fixed to the lower end of the milled nut b; by the gradual by the red, and will therefore paſs above the eye; by which means, motion of this rack: the objects are adjuſted to the foci of the dif- only red will appear in the line OF, and only violet in the line OE. ferent lenſes. Fig. 5, is a braſs ſlider with four or fix lenſes, or They that have a mind to meaſure the bow, may obſerve that its magnifying glaſſes; it is to be inſerted into the hole at q, fig. 2. radius is equal to the height of the bow and the height of the Plate I. either of the magnifiers may be placed before the object, ſun together; and therefore is eaſily meaſured with a quadrant. by ſliding it one way or the other, you may perceive when the glaſs And if the ſun's altitude be greater than 42, 17, the inner bow is in the center of the eye hole, by a ſmall ſpring falling into a notch cannot be ſeen; nor the exterior one, if his altitude exceed 54, 22. which is made on the fide of the ſlider oppolite to each lens. In the third and fourth rainbows y is .97373 and .98366 reſpec- To uſe the ſolar Microſcope. tively, and CNX = 76, 50, and 79, 38. Whence 2tR + 2CNX Faſten the ſquare (plate IIT. (fig. 1) againſt the inſide of a win- -2PX CNE=318, 20, and 400, 31, reſpectively, putting mand dow-fhutter by the two ſcrews O, P, which are to go from the out- n as 4 to 3 for the red rays . And therefore in the 3d rainbow, the fide of the window ſhutter through it, and then be ſcrewed into emerging ray cuts the incident ray at an angle of 41, 40; and in their reſpective holes in the ſquare plates G, H, I. The mirror is to the 4th, at an angle of 40, 31, both moving from the ſun. And be on the outſide of the ſhutter paſſing through a hole made for therefore looking towards the ſun, the red rays in theſe rainbows that purpoſe. Darken the room, then place a ſcrew at a convenient would appear at the diſtance from him of 41, 40 and 40, 31 re diſtance from the window; the further it is from it, the larger is ſpectively, and nearly coinciding. And in the 3d the violet would the image; move the mirror KL by the two nuts M, N, till the I fun's Plate 3 (Thieroncopos — eSre e hijstem of options . B В 1 T'ig2. Fig.1. 1 Fig. 9 I D L d To E. lig! D T Solar Microscope. Common Botanical Microscope. 1 P L l'ig: 5 Tig: 10. II l'ig. 7. 1) Fig. 6. Tig 3 B B Fig: 3. C Botanical Microscope. I VI B B b D D K I D. T C K I S. d L L 2 F O O R S. I 011 R VI R G II Compound Thicroscope. Double and Single Microscope . (ilpepers Thicroscope OPTICS. fun's rays come through the inſtrument in an horizontal direction ſite to each magnifier in this ſlide there is a notch, and in the dovea to the ſcreen, forming a round ſpot thereon. Screw the microſcope tailed part of the arm CD, there is a ſpring which falls into the (fig. 2.) into its place EF; (fig. 1.) put the ſlider with the lens aboyementioned notch, and thus makes each magnifier coincide (fig. 5.) in its proper ſituation, and the object ſlider between the with the center of the body. Paſs the ivory ſlider you intend to plates at h (fig. 2.) adjuſt the object to the focus of the magnifying uſe between the upper plates of the ſlide holder KL, and then rea lens by the ſcrew h, till the object appears diſtinct and clear on the fiect as itrong a light as you can on the object, by means of one ſcreen by moving the internal tube of the body, the object may be of the mirrors ; after this, adjuſt the object to the focus of the mag- placed at different diſtances from the lens which is fixed at AB, fo nifier, and your eye by turning the milled ſcrew, the motion of as to be ſufficiently illuminated, and yet not ſcorched by the ſolar rays. this raiſes and depreſſes the ſtage NIS. Apparatus belonging to the common Solar Microſcope, Square Plate, ART. VI. ADAMS’s Improved Compound Microſcope. and Mirror. Fig. 7. Plate III. repreſents this microſcope.--- Its advantages The body of which conſiſting of two tubes one within the other, of this over the preceding microſcope, conſiſts firſt in the motion, the ſingle microſcope, the megalaſcope lens (fig. 3.), the ſlider which may be given to the body, the ſtage, and the mirrors, by (fig. 5) with lenſes ; the two ſcrews O, P, (fig. 1. fix ivory ſliders, means of the joint CD, which has both a vertical and horizontal a tale box, and ſome glaſs tubes ; alſo, a ſlider or braſs caſe contain motion; ſo that the microſcope may be placed either in an horir ing a plane piece of glaſs and a braſs ſlider with holes, into which zontal or inclined ſituation ; and thus be adapted to the eaſe of the are cemented ſmall concave glaſſes deſigned for confining ſmall in obſerver, and be uſed when he is fitting down. If the mirror QOR fects between the plane and concave glaſs, which are thus preſerved is taken off, the light will be conveyed in a direct line to the object from being cruſhed and prevented from wandering out of view. without any reflection. Secondly, that the body may be removed ART. IV. Culpeper's, or the three pillared Microſcope. over any part of the ſtage, and thus over the object. The arm Fig. 8. Plate III. repreſents this Microſcope which conſiſts of a which carries the body, moves to the right or left on a central pin, large exterior body ABCD, ſupported on three ſmall ſcrolls, which and may alſo be moved backwards or forwards by the milled nut b. are fixed to the ſtage EF; the ſtage is ſupported by three larger Thirdly, the concave or fat mirrors are much larger than thoſe fcrolls that are ſcrewed to the mahogany pedeſtal GH. There is a of fig. 6. In every other reſpect, the microſcope is ſimilar to drawer in the pedeſtal which holds the apparatus. The concave the foregoing, and may be managed by the deſcriptions thereof, for mirror is fitted to a ſocket in the center of the pedeſtal. The which purpoſe, fimilar letters are affixed to the fame parts. lower part LMCD, of the body forms an exterior tube, into which ART. VII. The improved Solar Microſcope, which is conſtructed the upper part of the body ABLM ſlides, and may be moved up to exhibit tranſparent and opake Objects. or down ſo as to bring the magnifiers, which are ſcrewed on at N, Fig. 4. Plate IV. repreſents the folar microſcope, generally ſup- nearer to, or further from, the object. poſed to afford the moſt entertainment, on account of the wonder- To uſe this Microſcope. Screw one of the buttons which contains ful extent of its magnifying power, and the eafe with which fe- a magnifying lens to the end N of the body, place the ſlider with veral perſons may view each ſingle object at the fame time. The the objects between the plates of the ſlider-holder. Then to attain uſe of it was, however, confined for many years only to tranſparent diſtinct viſion and a pleaſing view of the objects, adjuſt the body objects. About the year 1774, M. B. Martin ſo far improved this to the focus of the lens you are uſing, by moving the upper part inſtrument, as to render it applicable to opake as well as to tranſpa- gently up and down, and regulate the light by the concave mirror. rent objects, exhibiting the magnified image of either kind on a large For opaque objects two additional pieces rnuſt be uſed, the firſt ſcreen; ſpeaking of it himſelf, he ſays, with this inſtrument all is a cylindrical tube of braſs, repreſented at fig. 21. Plate III. opake objects, whether of the animal, vegetable, or mineral king - which ſits on the cylindrical part of N on the body, the ſecond piece dom, may be exhibited in great perfection in all their native beauty; is the concave ſpeculum (fig. 8.) Plate I. this is to be ſcrewed to the lights and ſhades, the prominencies and cavaties, and all the the lower end of the aforeſaid tube : the upper edge of this tube varieties of different hues, tints and colours, heightened by the re- fhould be made to coincide with the line, which has the ſame num flection of the folar rays, condenſed upon them.”. Tranſparent ber affixed to it, as to the magnifier you are uſing. objects are alſo ſhewn with greater perfection than in the common Art. V. Adams's improved double and ſingle Microſcope. ſolar microſcope. Fig. 4. repreſents this inſtrument mounted, for AB, Fig. 6. Plate III. repreſents the body of the microſcope, con exhibiting opake objects. Fig. 5. are the fingle tooth and pinion taining a double eye glaſs and a body glaſs ; it is here fhewn as microſcope, which is uſed for thewing tranſparent objects; the ſcrewed to the arm C D, from whence it may be occaſionally re cylindrical tube Y, being made to fit into the tube FE, fig. 4.- moved either for the conveniency of packing; or when the inſtru- | Fig.6, the ſlider which contains the magnifiers; it fits into a dove- ment is to be uſed as a ſingle microſcope. The eye glaſſes and tail, which is at the upper part of the microſcope, fig. 5. ABCD body glaſſes are contained in a tube which fits into the exterior tube EF, fig. 4. repreſents the body of the ſolar microſcope ; one part AB, by cutting out a little thin tube when the microſcope is in uſe, thereof, ABCD, is conical, the other CDEF, is cylindrical. The the magnifying power of each lens is increaſed. The body AB, of cylindrical part receives the tube G of the opake box, or the tube the microſcope, is ſupported by the arm CD; this arm is fixed to the Y of the ſingle microſcope, fig. 5. At the large end AB of the main pillar C F, which is ſcrewed firmly to the mahogany pedeſtal. conical part, there is a lens to receive the rays from the mirror, GH; there is a drawer to this pedeſtal which holds the apparatus. and to refract them towards the box HIKL. NOP, is a braſs NIS, is the plate or ſtage which carries the ſlider-holder KL; frame, which is fixed to the moveable circular plate abc; in this this ſtage is moved up or down the pillar CF, by turning the mil frame there is a plane mirror to reflect the ſolar rays on the afore- led nut M; this nut is fixed to a pinion, that works in a toothed mentioned lens. This mirror may This mirror may be moved into the moſt con- rack, cut on one ſide of the pillars. By means of this pinion the venient poſition for reflecting the light by means of the nuts e ſtage may be gradually raiſed or depreſſed, and the object adjuſted to and R. By the nut Q; it may be moved from eaſt to weſt; it may the focus of the different lenſes. KL is the ſlider-holder, which be elevated or depreſſed by the nut R. d, e, two ſcrews to faſten fits into a hole that is in the middle of the ſtage NIS. It is uſed the microſcope to a window ſhutter. The box for opake objects to confine and guide either the motion of the ſliders which contain is repreſented at HIKL ; it contains a plane mirror M, for reflect- the objects, or the glaſs tubes that are deſigned to confine ſmall ing the light that it receives from the large lens to the object, and fiſhes for viewing the circulation of the blood. The ſliders are to thereby illuminating it; S is a ſcrew to adjuſt this mirror, or be paſſed between the two upper plates, the tubes through the bent place it a proper angle for reflecting the light. V, X, two tubes plates. L, is a braſs tube, to the upper part of which is fixed the of braſs, one fliding within the other, the exterior one in the box condenſing lens before ſpoken of, it fits into the under parts of the HIKL; theſe carry the magnifying lenſes; the interior tube is ſlider-holders N, I; and may be ſetat different diſtances from the ſometimes taken out, and the exterior one is then uſed by itſelf. Part object, according to its diſtance from the mirror or the candle. of this tube may be ſeen in the plate within the box HİKL. At H This tube is ſeen the further drawn out in fig. 7. Plate III. there is a braſs plate, the back part of which is fixed to the hollow Fig. 6, is the frame which holds the two mirrors, one is plane, tube h, in which there is a ſpiral wire, which keeps the plate always the other concave. Theſe mirrors may be moved in various direc- bearing againſt the ſide H, of the braſs box HIKL, the ſliders with tions in order to reflect the light properly by means of the pivots the opake objects, paſs between this plate and the ſide of the box; to on which they move in the ſemicircle QSR, and the motion of the put them there, the plate is to be drawn back by means of the nut g. femicircle itſelfon the pin S; the concave mirror generally anſwers ---ik, a door to one ſide of the opake box. The foregoing pieces beſt in the day time ; the plane mirror combines better with the conſtitute the ſeveral parts neceſſary for viewing opake objects. We condenſing lens, and a lamp or candle. At D there is a focket for ſhall now proceed to deſcribe the Single Microſcope, which is uſed receiving the pin of the arm (fig. 11. Plate of Microſcopic Appara for tranſparent objects: but in order to examine theſe, the box HIKL, tus) to which the concave ſpeculum for reflecting light on opake muſt be firſt removed, and in its place we muſt inſert the tube Y objects is fixed. At S is a hole and ſit for receiving either the of the ſingle microſcope, that we are now going to deſcribe. Fig.5. nippers (fig. 12.) or the fiſh pan (fig. 15.) when theſe are uſed, the repreſents a large tooth and pinion microſcope ; at m within ſlider-holder must be removed. T, a hole to receive the pin of the the body of this microſcope are two thin plates that are to be ſe- convex lens, fig. 19. parated in order to let the ivory ſliders paſs between them; they To uſe the improved double Microſcope. Take the microſcope out are preſſed together by a ſpiral ſpring, which bears up the under of the box, ſcrew the body into the round end of the upper part of plate, and forces it againſt the upper one. The ſlider, (fig. 6.) that the arm CD. Place the braſs ſliders which contain the magnifiers contains the magnifier fits into the hole n; any of the magnifiers into the dovetailed flit, which is on the under ſide of the aforeſaid may be placed before the object by moving the aforeſaid ſlider: arm, as ſeen at E, (fig. 6. Plate III.) and ſide it forwards until the when the magnifier is at the center of the hole P, a ſmall ſpring falls magnifier you mean to uſe is under the center of the bodies: oppo into one of the notches, which is on the fide of the ſlider, (fig. 6.) * x Under No. 120. O P T I C S. nut m. Under the plate mi, are placed two lenſes for enlarging the field of wooden body B. QRSTVX, along ſquare bar,which paſſes through view on the ſcreen, the ſmaller of the two is fixed on a piece of braſs, the fockets Y,Z, and carries the ſtage or frame that hold the on. and is neareſt the plate m; this is to be taken out when the magni-jects; this bar may be moved backward or forward, in order to ad fiers, number 4, 5, or 6, are uſed, or when the megalaſcope lens | juſt it to the focus, by means of the pinion which is at a. be is a (fig: 7.) is uſed; but is to be replaced for number 1, 2 3 (fig. 6.) handle furniſhed with an univerſal joint, for more conveniently This microſcope is adjuſted to the focus by turning the nut 0: turning the pinion; when the handle is removed, the nut (fig. 2. ) may be uſed in its ſtead. de fig. 1. is a braſs bar, to ſupport the To uſe the Solar Microſcope. (fig. 4.) Make a round hole in the curved piece Kl, and keep the body AB firm and ſteady. FGHI window ſhutter, a little larger than the circle abc; paſs the mirror CNP, through this hole, and apply the ſquare plate to the ſhutter; then is the ſtage for opake objects; it fits upon the bar QRST, by mark with a pencil the places which correſpond to the two holes means of the focket hi, and is brought nearer to or removed fur- through which the ſcrew is to paſs; take away the microſcope, and ther from the magnifying lens, by turning the pinion a; the ob- bore two holes at the marked places fufficiently large to let the jects are placed in the front ſide of the ſtage, (which cannot be ſeen milled ſcrews paſs through them. Theſe ſcrews are to paſs from in this figure) between four ſmall braſs plates; the edges of two of the outſide of the ſhutter, to go through it; and being then ſcrewed theſe are ſeen at KL; the two upper pieces of braſs are moveable; into their reſpective holes in the ſquare plate, they will when they are fixed to a plate, which is acted on by a ſpiral ſpring that ſcrewed home hold it faſt againſt the inſide of the Mutter, and thus preſſes them down, and confines the ſlider with the objects; this ſupport the microſcope. Screw the conical tube ABCD, to the circle plate, and the two upper pieces of braſs, are lifted up by the ſmall abc. and then ſlide the tube G of the opake box into the cylindri- At the lower part of the ſtage there is a ſemicircular lamp cal part CDEF, of the body, if opake objects are to be examined; of glaſs 1, which is deſigned to receive the light from the lamp, but if they be tranſparent objects you mean to fhew, then place the and to collect and throw it on the concave mirror 0; from tube Y, (fig 5.) within the tube CDEF (fig. 4.) The room is to be whence it is to be reflected on the object. The upper part FGRS darkened as much as poſſible that no light may enter but what pafies of the opake ſtage takes out, that the ſtage for tranſparent objects through the body of the microſcope, for on this circumſtance, toge may be inſerted in its place. ther with the brightneſs of the ſun ſhine, the perfection and diſtinct Fig. 3. repreſents the ſtage for tranſparent objects; the two legs number 5 and 6, the microſcope as going to be uſed for opaice objects . * 1. Adjuſt the ſtage for opake objects; 7 is the part which confines or holds the mirror NOP, ſo as to receive the ſolar rays by means of the two the ſliders; and through which they are to be moved; 9 and 10, 2 finger ſcrews or nuts. Q, R; the firſt, Q, turns the mirror to the braſs tube, which contains the lenſes, for condenſing the light, right or left; the ſecond R, raiſes or depreſſes it; this you are to and throwing it upon the object; there is a ſecond tube within that do till you have reflected the ſun's light through the lens at AB, marked 9 and 10, which may be placed at different diſtances from ſtrongly upon a ſcreeen of white paper, placed at fome diſtance from the object, by the pin 1 1. When this ſtake is uſed as a ſingle mi- the window, and formed thereon a round ſpot of light. An unex-croſcope without any reference to the lucernal, the magnifiers, or perienced obſerver will find it more convenient to obtain the light, object lenſes, are to be ſcrewed into the hole 12, and to be adjuſted by forming this ſpot before he puts on either the opake box, or the to a proper focus by the nut 13. N. B. At the end AB of the tooth and opinion microſcope. Now put in the opake box, and place wooden body, there is a flider which is repreſented as partly drawn the object between the plates at H; open the door ik, and adjuſt the out at A; when quite taken out, three grooves will be perceived, mirror M, till you have illuminated the object ſtrongly. If you one of which contains a board that forms the end of the box, the cannot effect this by the ſcrew S, you muſt move the ſcrews Q, R, next contains a frame with a grey glaſs; the third, or that furtheft in order to get the light reflected ſtrongly from the mirror NOP, from the end AB, two large convex lenſes. or the mirror M, without which the latter cannot illuminate the ob To examine opake obječts with the Lucernal Microſcope. ject. The object being ſtrungly illuminated, ſhut the door ik, and a The microſcope is repreſented as mounted, and entirely ready diſtinct view of the object will ſoon be obtained on your ſcreen by for this purpoſe, in (fig. 1.) To render the uſe of this instrument adjuſting the tubes VX, which is effected by moving them back eaſy, it is uſually packed with as many of the parts together as wards or forwards. A round ſpot of light cannot always be pro poſſible. It occupies on this account, rather more room, but is cured in northern latitudes, the altitude of the ſun being often too much leſs embarraſſing to the obſerver, who has only three parts low; neither can it be obtained when the ſun is directly perpendi to put on, after it is taken out of its box; namely, the guide for cular to the front of the room. As the ſun is continually chang the eye, the ſtage, and the tube with its magnifier. But to be ing its place, it will be neceſſary, in order to keep his rays full more particular, take out the wooden ſlide A, then lift out the cover upon the object, to keep them continually directed through the and the grey glafs from their reſpective grooves, under the ſlider A. axis of the inſtrument by the two ſcrews Q and R. Put the end N, of the guide for the eye LMN, into its place, To view tranſparent obje&ts. Remove the opake box, and inſert ſo that it may ſtand in the poſition which is repreſented in this fi- the tube Y, of fig. 5, Plate IV. in its place; put the ſlider (fig. gure. Place the ſocket, which is at the bottom of the opake ſtage, 6.) into its place at n, and the ſlider, with the object, between on the bar QXT, ſo that the concave mirror o may be next the end the plates at m; then adjuſt the mirror NOP, as before directed, DE, of the wooden body. Screw the tubes P, O, into the end DE; by the ſcrews Q, R, ſo that the light may paſs through the ob the magnifier you intend to ufe, is to be ſcrewed on the end of ject; regulate the focus of the magnifier by the ſcrew O. The theſe tubes. The handle b, or milled nut (fig. 2.) muſt be placed moſt pleaſing magnifiers are the fourth and fifth. The ſize of on the ſquare end of the pinion a. Place the lamp lighted before the object may be increaſed or diminiſhed by altering the diſtance of the glaſs lamp n, and the object you intend to examine between the ſcreen from the microſcope : five or fix feet is a good diſtance. the ſpring plates of the ſtage, and the inſtrument is ready for uſe. To examine tranſparent objects of a larger ſize, or to render the in To uſe the Lucernal Microſcope in the Excmination of tranſparent ſtrument what is uſually called a megalaſcope. Take out the ſlider Oljects. The microſcope is to remain as before; the upper part (fig. 6.) from its place in fig. 5. and ſcrew the button (fig. 7.) into fg sy of the opake ftage, muſt be removed, and the ſtage for tran- the hole at P (fig. 5.) and remove the glaſs which is under the fparent objects, repreſented at fig. 3, put in its place; the end plate at m, and regulate the focus by the foregoing directions. number 9, and number 10, to be next the lamp. Place the grey N. B. At the end of the tube G, there is a lens for increaſing glaſs in its groove at the end AB, and the objects in the ſlider-holder the denſity of the rays, for the purpoſe of burning or melting, any at the front of the ſtage; then tranſmit as ſtrong a light as you are combuſtible or fuſible ſubſtance. This lens muſt be removed in able on the object, which you will eaſily do by raiſing or lowering moſt caſes, leſt the objects ſhould be burnt; the intenſity of the the lamp. The object will be beautifully depicted on the grey light is alſo varied by moving this tube backwards or forwards. glaſs; it muſt be regulated to the focus of the magnifier, by turning ART. VIII. The Improved Lucernal Microſcope. the pinion a. The object may be viewed either with or without Fig. 1. Plate IV.repreſents this inſtrument to view opake objects; the guide for the eye; an obferver will ſee an object to the greateſt ABCDE, is a large mahogany pyramidical box, which forms the advantage, by uſing this guide which is to be adjuſted as we have de- body of the microſcope; it is ſupported firmly on the braſs pillar fcribed before. Take the large lens out of the groove, and receive FG, by the means of the ſocket H, and the curved piece IK. LMN, the image on the grey glaſs; in this caſe the guide for the eye is of is a guide for the eye, in order to direct it in the axis of the lenſes; no uſe; if the grey glaſs is taken away, the image of the object it conſiſts of two braſs tubes, one ſliding within the other; and a may be received on a paper ſcreen. Some tranſparent objects ap- vertical flat piece, at the top of which is the hole for the eye. pear to the greateſt advantage, when the lens at 9 and 10 is taken The outer tube is ſeen at MN; the vertical piece is repreſented at away; as by giving too great a quantity of light, it renders the edges LM; the inner tube may be pulled out, or puſhed in, to adjuſt leſs ſharp. For a further account of Microſcopic Apparatus, ſee it it to the focus of the glaſſes. The vertical piece may be raiſed, or under that head in the alphabet. depreſſed, that the hole, through which the object is to be viewed may coincide with the center of the field of view; it is fixed by a In digeſting this Syſtem, I have had recourſe to the beſt authors ! milled ferew at M, which could not be ſhewn in this figure. At could procure, as Newton, Gregory, Smith, Martin and others; par- N is a dovetailed piece of braſs, made to receive the dovetail at the ticularly Mr. Emerſon, whoſe Treatiſe is judicious, both as to method end of the tubes MN, by which it is affixed to the wooden box and ſcience. I have alſo been favoured with the liberty of copying, ABCDE, the tubes M, N, may be removed from this box occa- extracts, deſcriptive of the moſt modern and improved Microſcopes and fionally, for the convenience of packing it up in a leſs compaſs. their Apparatus, from a valuable work of Mr. George Adams, OP, a ſmall tube which carries the magnifiers.-- one of the entitled ESSAYS ON THE MICROSCOPE, &c. mag- nifiers; it is ſerewed into the end of a tube, which ſlides within ROBERT MOODY. the tube P; the tube P may be unſcrewed occaſionally from the EXCISE OFFICE, BROAD STREET. TREATISE Plute 1 Microscopus _elve lystem of Optics - Ilams's e Improved pivernale Microscope,. B. D I ( B 11 D C II R KO V T lig: . Fig.). 9 10 G Fig. Fig. 6 co Tig: 1 » 6 4 3 II Solar (pekee Hierosseope. 7 E G L R Tig.5. Y R Εν ΙΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑ T P I Fig. 7. 117 Copied by Permiſsion from Midlams; says on the Microscope. TREATISE ON ORATORY; Or, The Art of Speaking well upon any Subject, in order to perfuade. THE INTRODUCTION. oratory was then carried to a conſiderable height among the Gre- cians. Nor have there been wanting fome eminent writers of this SECT. I. OF THE RISE AND Progress of ORATORY. kind among the Greeks ſince the time of Quintilian; two of whom HE invention of Oratory is by the Egyptians, and the fables we cannot omit to mention, Hermogenes, and Longinus the au- of the poets, aſcribed to Mercury. And it is well known, that thor of the incomparable treatiſe of the Sublime, a book which the Greeks made their deities the authors likewiſe of other arts, can ſcarce be too much commended or too often read. and ſuppoſed that they preſided over them. Hence they gave Mer It was long before Rome received this art, and not without diffi- cury the titles of Alor G. and 'Epuns, from both which names come culty at firſt. The reaſon was, becauſe the Romans were for ſeveral words that ſignify“ to ſpeak.” And Ariſtides calls eloquence the ages wholly addicted to military affairs, and to enlarge their territo- gift of Mercury; and for the ſame reaſon anciently the tongue was ries; ſo that they not only neglected to cultivate learning, but conſecrated to him. He was likewiſe ſaid to be the interpreter or thought the purſuit of it a thing of ill tendency, by diverting the meſſenger of the gods; which office very well ſuited him, as he ex minds of their youth from the cares and toils of war, to a more ſoft celled in eloquence. Hence we read in the Sacred Writings, that and indolent kind of life. Therefore folate as the year of their city when the people of Lyſtra took Barnabas and Paul for gods in hu- | 592, when by the induſtry of fome Grecians the liberal arts began man ſhape, becauſe of that ſudden and ſurpriſing cure which was to flouriſh in Italy, a decree paſſed the ſenate, by which all philo- wrought upon the lame man, they called Barnabas Jupiter, and ſophers and rhetoricians were ordered to depart out of Rome. But Paul Mercury; for this reaſon, as the inſpired writer tells us, in a few years after, when Carneades, Critolaus, and Diogenes, becauſe he was the chief ſpeaker," that is (as the ſpectators then who were not only philoſophers but orators, carne ambaſſadors from thought) the interpreter or ſpokeſman of Barnabas. Athens to Rome; the Roman youths were fo charmed with the But to paſs over theſe fictions of the heathen deities, let us hear eloquence of their harangues, that they could no longer be ſtopt what Quintilian ſays of the origin of this art, who ſeems to give a from purſuing the ſtudy of oratory. And by a further acquaintance very probable account of it in the following paſſage. “The faculty with the Greeks, it foon gained ſuch eſteem, that perſons of the of ſpeech (ſays he) we derive from nature; but the art from obſerva firſt quality employed their time and pains to acquire it. And a tion. For as in phyſic, men, by ſeeing that ſome things promote young gentleman who was ambitious to advance himſelf in the health and others deſtroy it, formed the art upon thoſe obſervations; ſervice of his country, could have little hopes of ſucceſs, unleſs he in like manner, by perceiving that ſome things in diſcourſe are ſaid had laid the foundation of his future proſpects in that ſtudy. to advantage, and others not, they accordingly marked thoſe things, Seneca tells us, that Lucius Plotius, a Gaul, was the firſt who in order to imitate the one, and avoid the other. They alſo added taught the art of oratory at Rome in Latin; which Cicero ſays, fome things from their own reaſon and judgment, which being con was while he was a boy; and when the moſt ſtudious perſons went firmed by uſe, they began to teach others what they knew them to hear him, he lamented that he could not go with them ; being felves.” But no certain account can be given when, or by whom, prevented by the regard he paid to the opinion of ſome of his this method of obſervation firſt began to take place. Ariſtotle ſup- friends, who thought that greater improvements were made by ex- poſes, not without reaſon, that the firſt lineaments of the art were erciſes in the Greek language under Grecian maſters. Seneca adds, very rude and imperfect. Pauſanias, indeed, in his Deſcription of that this profeſſion continued for ſome time in the hands of freed- Greece, tells us, that Pittheus, the uncle of Theſeus, taughtitat Tre men; and that the firſt Roman who engaged in it was Blandus of zene a city of Peleponneſus, and wrote a book concerning it; which the equeſtrian order, who was ſucceeded by others; ſome of whoſe he read himſelf, as it was publiſhed by one of Epidaurus. But as lives are yet extant, written by Suetonius, as many of the Grecians Pittheus lived above 1000 years before Pauſanias, who flouriſhed in are by Philoſtratus and Eunapius. Quintilian likewiſe gives us the the time of the emperor Adrian, ſome are of opinion he might be names of thoſe among the Romans, who wrote upon the art. “The impofed upon by the Epidaurian, who publiſhed this book underthe firſt (ſays he) as far as I can learn, who compoſed any thing upon name of Pittheus. It is very reaſonable to believe that the Greeks this argument, was M. Cato the cenfor. After him Anthony the had the principles of the art ſo early as the time of Pittheus. For orator began upon the ſubject, which is the only work he has left, Theſeus his nephew lived not long before the taking of Troy, and that imperfect. Then followed ſome of leſs note. But he who which according to Sir Iſaac Newton, happened 904 years before carried eloquence to its higheſt pitch among us, was Cicero; who the birth of Chriſt; at which time Cicero thought it was in much has likewiſe by his rules given the beſt plan both to practiſe and eſteem among them. “Homer (ſays he) would never have given teach the art. After him modeſty would require us to mention no Ulyſſes and Neſtor in the Trojan wars ſo great commendations on more, had he not told us himſelf, that his books of rhetoric ſlipt account of their ſpeeches (to one of whom he attributes force, and out of his hands, while he was but a youth. And theſe leſſer things, to the other ſweetneſs of expreſſion) if eloquence had not in thoſe which many perſons want, he has purpoſely omitted in his dif- times been in great repute.” And left any one ſhould imagine, that courſes of oratory. Cornificius wrote largely upon the ſame ſubject; in thoſe days they made uſe only of ſuch helps as nature and prac Stertinius and Gallio the father, each of them ſomething. But tice could afford them; the ſame poet informs us, that Peleus ſent Celfus and Lenas were more accurate than Gallio; and in our Phenix with his ſon Achilles to the Trojan war, to inſtruct him not times Virginius, Pliny, and Rutilius. And there are at this day only in the art of war, but likewiſe of eloquence. But who were ſome celebrated authors of the ſame kind, who, if they had taken the profeſſors of this art for ſome ages following, is not known. in every thing, might have ſaved much pains.” Time has ſince For Quintilian ſays, that afterwards Empedocles is the firſt upon deprived us of moſt of the writers mentioned here by Quintilian. record, who attempted any thing concerning it. And he, by Sir But we have the leſs reaſon to regret this loſs, ſince it has preſerved Iſaac Newton's account, flouriſhed about 500 years after Troy was to us Cicero's treatiſes upon this ſubject; which we may well ſup- taken. At which time, as Cicero obſerves, men being now ſenſible poſe to have been chiefly owing to their own excellency, and the of the powerful charms of oratory, and the influence it had upon great eſteem they have always had in the world. Beſides his Two the mind, there immediately aroſe ſeveral maſters of it; the chief books of Invention, which Quintilian here calls his Books of Rheto- of whom are mentioned by Quintilian. But Gorgias ſeems to have ric, there are extant of his, Three books of an Orator; one Of famous excelled all the reſt in fame and reputation; for he was ſo highly Orators; and another, which is called The Orator; as alſo his To- applauded by all Greece, that a golden ſtatue was erected to him at pics, a preface Concerning the beſt ſort of Orators, and a treatiſe Of Delphos, which was a diſtinguiſhing honour conferred upon him the parts of Oratory. Each of which treatiſes, whether we regard only. And he is ſaid to have been ſo great a maſter of oratory, that the juſtneſs and delicacy of the thought, the uſefulneſs of the rules, in a public aſſembly he would undertake to declaim immediately or the elegance and beauty of the ſtyle, deferves to be frequently upon any ſubject propoſed to him. He wrote, as Cicero informs us, periſed by all who are lovers of eloquence. For who can be in the demonſtrative or laudatory way; which requires moſt of the thought ſo well qualified to give the rules of any art, as he who ex- fublime, and makes what Diodorus Siculus ſays of him the more celled all mankind in the practice of them? But thoſe Four books probable that “he firſt introduced the ſtrongeſt figures, members 10 Herennius, which are publiſhed among Cicero's works, ſeem of periods oppofite in ſenſe, of an equal length, or ending with a with good reaſon to be attributed to Cornificius, whom Quintili like found, and other ornaments of that nature." And hence thoſe an here mentions. Celſus alſo is by ſome affirmed to have taught figures, which give the greateſt force and luſtre to a diſcourſe, were oratory, whom he alſo places among the rhetoricians, and whoſe anciently called by his name. Cicero tells us farther, that Thraſy-Eight books of Medicine are yet extant, written in ſo beautiful a machus and Gorgias were the firſt who introduced numbers into ſtyle as plainly ſhews him to be a maſter of eloquence. But Quin- proſe, which Iſocrates afterwards brought to perfection. Quintilian tilian himſelf exceeded all who went before him in diligence and likewiſe mentions Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus, and Thraſyma accuracy as a writer. His Inſtitutions are ſo comprehenſive, and chus, as the firſt who treated of common-places, and thewed the written with ſuch great exactneſs and judgment, that they are ge- uſe of them for the invention of arguments. Nor muft weomit Pla- | nerally allowed to be the moſt perfect work of the kind. With to, whoſe elegant dialogue upon this ſubject is ſtill extant, which he this excellent author we ſhall finiſh the account of the Latin entitles Gorgias. For though he does not lay down the common rhetoricians. rules of the art; yet he very well explains the nature of it, and There were indeed ſome others in the following ages, whoſe maintains its true end and uſe againſt the generality of its profef- works are yet extant; but as they contain nothing of moment, fors, who had greatly perverted the original deſign of it. Thus, by the which is not to be found in thoſe already mentioned, we ſhall ftudy and induſtry of ſo many ingenious and great men, the art of | forbear to name them. Much leſs ſhall we deſcend to that numer - * Y No. 121. Ous TOT ORATORY. ous body of writers, who ſince the revival of learning have beauties of eloquence, they captivate the minds of the audience treated upon this ſubject, for the ſame reaſon. A very good judge, with the higheſt pleaſure, engage their attention, and by an irre- the Archbiſhop of Cambray, has given it as his opinion, that the fiftible force move and bend them to the deſign of the ſpeaker. method of forming the beſt ſyſtem of oratory, is to collect it from The principal end and deſign of oratory is to perſuade. For the fineſt precepts of Ariſtotle, Cicero, Quintilian, Longinus, and which reaſon it is frequently called the art of perſuaſion. Indeed the orator has often otherſubordinate views; as when he endeavours other celebrated authors; with proper examples taken from the either to delight his hearers with what is pleaſant and agreeable, or choiceſt parts of the pureſt antiquity. And this is the method at- tempted to be purſued in the following treatife. 100 l to conciliate their good opinion by a ſmooth and artful addreſs; SECT. II. OF THE NATURE OF ORATORY. but ſtill both theſe are in order to perſuade and excite them to The terms rhetoric and oratory, having no other difference but action. And while the orator employs his art in purſuing only thoſe ends for which it was at firſt deſigned, the perſuading men to that one is taken from the Greek language and the other from the Latin, they may be uſed promiſcuoufly; but the caſe is not the good and virtuous actions, and diffuading them from every thing fame with reſpect to the words rhetorician and orator. For al that is ill and vicious; nothing can be more commendable in itſelf , though the Grecians uſed the former, both to expreſs thoſe who or uſeful to human ſocieties. SECT. III. OF THE DIVISION OF ORATORY. taught the art, and thoſe who practiſed it; yet the Romans after- wards, when they took that word into their language, confined Oratory conſiſts of four parts; invention, diſpoſition, elocution, it to the teachers of the'art, and called the reſt orators. And there and pronunciation. This will appear by conſidering the nature ſeems to have been a ſufficient reaſon for this diſtinction, ſince the of each of them, and what it contributes in forming an orator. art was the ſame in both, and might therefore go by either name; Every one who aims to ſpeak well and accurately upon any ſub- but the different province of rhetoricians and orators rendered it ject, does naturally in the firſt place inquire after and purſue fuck proper they ſhould be called by different names. thoughts aś may ſeem moſt proper to explain and illuſtrate the It is not neceſſary to uſe many words, to prove that oratory is an thing on which he deſigns to diſcourſe. And if the nature of art. For it is comprized under certain rules, agreeable to reaſon, it requires that he ſhould bring reaſons to confirm what he ſays, delivered in a regular method, and ſuited to attain the end it pro he not only ſeeks the ſtrongeſt, and ſuch as are like to be the beſt poſes; which are characters ſufficient to denominate it an art. In- received; but alſo prepares to anſwer any thing which may be deed the caſe is the fame here, as in moſt other things, that a offered to the contrary. This is invention. After this he deli- good genius of itſelf is more ſerviceable, than the moſt exact ac berates with himſelf in what method to diſpoſe of thoſe things quaintance with all the rules of art, where that is wanting. But it which have occured to his mind, that they may appear in the is fufficient that art help nature, and carry it farther than it can plaineſt light, and not loſe their force by diſorder and confuſion. otherwiſe advance without it. And he who is deſirous to gain the This is the buſineſs of diſpoſition. His next concern is to give his Teputation of a good orator, will find the aſſiſtanceofboth very necef- thoughts an agreeable dreſs; by making choice of the fitteſt words, ſary. Some perſons have thought that many of the common ſyſtems cleareſt expreſſions, ſmooth and harmonious periods, with other written upon the ſubject of oratory have been attended with this ornaments of ſtyle, as may beſt ſuit the nature of his ſubject, inconvenience, that by burdening the mind with too great a num- | brighten his diſcourſe, and render it moſt entertaining to his hear- ber of rules about things of leſs importance, they have oftentimes ers. And this is called elocution. The laſt thing he attends to, is to rather diſcouraged than promoted the ſtudy of eloquence. This un- deliver what he has thus compoſed, with a juſt and agreeable pro- doubtedly is anextreme which ſhould be always carefully avoided. nunciation. And daily experience convinces us, how much this But however, lån indifferent guide in a ſtrange road is better than contributes both to engage the attention, and impreſs what is ſpoken none at all. It may be worth while tohear Quintilian's opinion upon upon the mind. This then is the this head“I would not (fays he) have young perſons think they are in order to qualify ourſelves for diſcourſing to the beſt advantage: * fufficiently inſtructed, if they have learned one of theſe compends though by cuſtom and habit theſe things become ſo familiar to us, which are commonly handed about, and fancy themſelves ſafe in that we do not always attend to them ſeparately in their natural the 'decrees, as it were, of theſe technial writers. The art of ſpeak- order. However, it is the buſineſs of art to follow nature, and to ing requires much labour, conſtant ſtudy, a variety of exerciſe, ma treat of things in that manner which ſhe dictates. ny trials, the greateſt prudence, and readineſs of thought. How- PART I. ever, theſe treatiſes are uſeful, when they ſet you in a plain and OF INVENTION. open way, and do not confine you to one narrow tract, from which Shots SECT. I. OF INVENTION IN GENERAL. he who thinks it a crime to depart muſt move as ſlowly as any one Invention, conſidered in general, is the diſcovery of ſuch things that walks upon a rope.” We ſee he is not for having us confine as are proper to perſuade. And in order to attain this end, the ourſelves too cloſely to fyſtems, though he thinks they are of ſer orator propoſes to himſelf three things: To prove or illuſtrate the vice at firſt, till uſe and experience render them leſs neceſſary... | ſubject upon which he treats; to conciliate the minds of his hearers; The buſineſs of oratory is to teach us to ſpeak well; which, as and to engage their paſſions in his favour. And as theſe require Cicero explains it, is to ſpeak juſtly, methodically, floridly, and co different kinds of arguments or motives, invention furniſhes him piouſly. Now, in order to ſpeak juftly, or pertinently, a perſon muſt with a ſupply for each of them. An argument, as defined by be maſter of his ſubject, that he may be able to ſay all that is pro- Cicero, is a reaſon, which induces us to believe, what before we per, and avoid whatever may appear foreign and trifling. And he | doubted of. And as different kinds of diſcourſes require different muſt clothe his thoughts with ſuch words and expreſſions, as are arguments, rhetoricians have conſidered them two ways; "moſt ſuited to the nature of the argument, and will give it the neral, under certain heads, as a common fund for all ſubjects; greateſt force and evidence. And as it teaches to ſpeak juſtly, ſo, and in a more particular manner, as they are ſuited to demonſtra- likewiſe methodically. This requires, that all the parts of a diſcourſe tive, deliberative, or judicial diſcourſes. At preſent we ſhall kommun be placed in their proper order, and with ſuch juſt connexion, as treat only upon the former of theſe. to reflect a light upon each other, and thereby to render the whole A lively imagination, and readineſs of thought, are undoubtedly both clear in itſelf, and eaſy to be retained. But the ſame method a very great help to invention. Some perſons are naturally en- is not proper for all diſcourſes. And very frequently a different dued with that quickneſs of fancy, and that penetration of mind, manner is convenient in handling the ſame ſubject. For it is that they are ſeldom at a loſs for arguments either to defend their plain, that art as well as nature, loves variety; and it diſcovers the own opinions, or to attack their adverſaries. However, theſe ſpeaker's judgment, when the diſpoſition of his diſcourſe is fo things being the gift of nature, and not to be gained by art, do not framed, as to appear eaſy and natural, rather than the effect of properly fall under our preſent confideration. It will be readily induſtry and labour. li tuon art loob brune granted, that great learning and an extenſive knowledge are a To ſpeak floridly, is ſo peculiar a property of this art, that ſome noble fund for invention. An orator therefore ſhould be furniſhed have wholly confined to the pomp and ornaments of language. with a ſtock of important truths, ſolid maxims of reaſon, and a But that it extends farther, and reſpects things as well as words, variety of knowledge, collected and treaſured up both from ob- we ſhall have occaſion to ſhew hereafter. It contains indeed the ſervation, and a large acquaintance with the liberal arts; that whole ſubject of elocution, but does not wholly conſiſt in it. True he may not only be qualified to expreſs himſelf in the moſt agree- and folid eloquence requires not only the beauties and flowers of | able manner, but likewiſe to ſupport what he ſays with the language; but likewiſe the beſt ſenſe and cleareſt reaſoning. Be- | ſtrongeſt and cleareſt arguments. But becauſe all are not born ſides, rhetoric gives rules for the ſeveral ſorts of ſtyle, and di with a like happy genius, and have not the ſame opportunity to reets the uſe of them agreeably to the nature of the ſubject. cultivate their minds with learning and knowledge; and becauſe But the force of oratory appears in nothing more than a copiouſneſs nothing is more difficult than to dwell long upon the conſideration of expreſſion, ora proper manner of enlargement, ſuited to the na of one thing, in order to find out the ſtrongeſt arguments which ture of the object; which is of great uſe in perſuaſion, and forms may be offered for and againſt it; upon theſe accounts, art has the laſt property, required by Cicero, of ſpeaking well. A ſhort preſcribed a method to lefſen, in ſome meaſure, theſe difficulties, and conciſe account of things isoften attended with obſcurity, from and help every one to a ſupply of arguments upon any ſubject . an omiſſion of ſome neceſſary circumſtances relating to them. Or, And this is done by the contrivance of common places, which Ci- however, where that is not the caſe, yet for want of proper embel cero calls the ſeats or heads of arguments, and by a Greek name liſhments to enliven the diſcourſe, and thereby to excite and fix the topics. They are of two forts, internal and external. hearers attention, it is apt to flip through their minds without leav- Internal topics, comprehend three heads ; Definition, Enume- ing any impreſſion. But where images of things are drawn in ration, and Notation. their full proportion, painted in their proper colours, ſet in a clear Definition explains the nature of the thing defined, and thews light, and repreſented in different views, with all the ſtrength and what it is. And to whatſoever the definition agrees, the things defined ods in 10 T ORA T O R Y. defined does fo likewiſe. a word. ren invention. If therefore Socrates be a rational for his advantage. The characters of the witneſſes are alſo to creature, he is a man; becauſe it is the definition of a man, that be conſidered ; and if any thing be found in their lives or beha- he is a rational creature. viour that is juſtly exceptionable, to invalidate their evidence, it Enumeration takes in all the parts of a thing. And from this ought not to be omitted. And how they are affected to the con- we prove, that what agrees to all the parts, agrees to the whole : tending parties, or either of them, may deſerve conſideration ; and what does not agree to any one or more parts, does not agree for ſome allowances may be judged reaſonable in caſe of friend- to the whole : As when Cicero proves to Piſo that all the Roman ſhip, or enmity, where there is no room for any other exception. ftate hated him, by enumerating the ſeveral ranks and orders of But regard ſhould chiefly be had to what they teſtify, and how Roman citizens who all did fo. far the cauſe is affected by it. And where witneſſes are produced Notation, or etymology, explains the meaning or ſignification of on one ſide only, as orators ſometimes attempt to leſſen the credit From which we reaſon thus: “ If he cannot pay his of this kind of proof, by pleading that witneſſes are liable to be debts, he is inſolvent; for this is the meaning of the term inſolvent. corrupted, or biaffed by ſome prevailing intereſt or paſſion, to From this brief account of common places, it is eafy to conceive which arguments taken from the nature and circumſtances of what a large field of diſcourſe they open to the mind upon every things are not ſubject ; it may be anſwered, on the other hand, ſubject. Theſe different conſiderations furniſh out a great num that ſophiſtical arguments and falſe colourings are not expoſed to ber and variety of arguments, ſufficient to ſupply the moſt bar infamy or puniſhment, whereas witneſſes are reſtrained by ſhame and penalties, nor would the law require them if they were not External Topics. When the orator reaſons from ſuch topics as neceſſary. do not ariſe from his ſubject, but from things of a different nature, The third and laſt head of external arguments are Contracts; theſe are called external. They are all taken from authorities, and which may be either public or private. By public are meant the are by one general name called Teſtimonies. Now a teſtimony tranſactions between different ſtates, as leagues, alliances, and may be expreſſed by writing, ſpeech, or any other ſign proper to the like ; which depend on the laws of nations, and come more declare a perſon's mind. And all teſtimonies may be diſtinguiſhed properly under deliberative diſcourſes, to which we ſhall refer into two forts, divine and human. A divine teſtimony, when them. Thoſe are called private which relate to leſſer bodies or certainly known to be ſuch, is inconteſtable, and admits of no de focieties of men, and ſingle perſons; and may be either written bate, but ſhould be acquiefced in without heſitation. Indeed the or verbal. And it is not ſo much the true meaning and purport ancient Greeks and Romans eſteemed the pretended oracles of of them that is here conſidered, as their force and obligation. their deities, the anſwers of their augurs, and the like fallacies, | And, as the Roman law declares, “ Nothing can be more agree- divine teſtimonies: but with us no one can be ignorant of their able to human faith, than that perſons ſhould ſtand to their agree- true notion, though they do not fo directly come under our pre ments. Therefore, in controverſies of this kind, the party, fent conſideration. Human teſtimonies, conſidered as furniſhing whoſe intereſt it is that the contract ſhould be maintained, will the orator with arguments, may be reduced to three heads ; plead that ſuch covenants have the force of private laws, and writings, witneſſes, and contracts. ought religiouſly to be obſerved, ſince the common affairs of By Writings, here, are to be underſtood written laws, wills, or mankind are tranſacted in that manner; and therefore to violate other legal inſtruments, expreſſed and conveyed in that manner. them, is to deſtroy all commerce and ſociety among men. On And it is not ſo much the force and validity of ſuch teftimonies, the other ſide it may be ſaid, that juſtice and equity are chiefly conſidered in themſelves, that is here intended, as the occaſion of to be regarded, which are immutable; and beſides, that the pub- diſpute which may at any time ariſe concerning their true deſign lic laws are the common rule to determine ſuch differences, which and import, when produced in proof upon either ſide of a con are deſigned to redreſs thoſe who are aggrieved. And, indeed, troverſy. A writing is ſaid to be ambiguous, when it is capable where a compact has been obtained by force or fraud, it is in itſelf of two or more ſenſes, which makes the writer's meaning uncertain. void, and has no effect either in law or reaſon. But, on the other Ambiguity may ariſe either from ſingle words, or the conſtruction hand, the Roman lawyers ſeem to have very rightly determined, of ſentences. From ſingle words; as when either the ſenſe of a that all ſuch obligations as are founded in natural equity, though word, or the application of it, is doubtful. As, ſhould it be queſ not binding by national laws, and are therefore called nuda-paita, tioned, whether ready money ought to be included under the ap ought, however, in honour and conſcience to be performed. pellation of chattels left by a will: or, if a teſtator bequeath a By the ſtate of a controverſy, we are to underſtand the princi- certain legacy to his nephew Thomas, and he has two nephews pal point in diſpute between contending parties, upon the proof of that name. Ambiguity is alſo ſometimes occaſioned from the of which the whole cauſe or controverſy depends. We find it ex- conſtruction of a ſentence; as when ſeveral things or perſons preſſed by ſeveral other names in ancient writers : as, the conſti- having been already mentioned, it is doubtful to which of them tution of the cauſe, the general head, and the chief queſtion. And that which follows ought to be referred. For example, a perſon as this is the principal thing to be attended to in every ſuch diſ- writes thus in his will : “Let my heir give as a legacy to Titius, courſe, fo it is what firſt requires the conſideration of the ſpeaker, an horſe out of my ſtable, which he pleaſes." Here it may be and ſhould be well fixed and digeſted in his mind, before he pro- queſtioned, whether the word he refers to the heir or to Titius ; ceeds to look for arguments proper to ſupport it. Thus Anthony, and conſequently, whether the heir be allowed to give Titius the Roman orator, ſpeaking of his own method in his pleading, which horſe he pleaſe, or Titius may chooſe which he likes beſt. ſays: “ When I underſtand the nature of the cauſe, and begin A controverſy may ariſe when two writings happen to clash to conſider it, the firſt thing I endeavour to do is, to ſettle with with each other, or at leaſt ſeem to do. Of this Hermogenes myſelf what that is to which all my diſcourſe relating to the mat- gives the following inſtance. One law enjoins : “He who con ter in diſpute ought to be referred : then I diligently attend to tinues alone in a ſhip during a tempeſt, ſhall have the property of theſe other two things, How to recommend myſelf, or thoſe for the ſhip.” Another law ſays, “ A diſinherited fon ſhall enjoy no whom I plead, to the good eſteem of my hearers; and how to part of his father's eſtate.” Now a ſon who had been diſinherited influence their minds, as may beſt ſuit my deſign. ” by his father, happens to be in his father's ſhip in a tempeſt, and of proceeding appears very agreeable to reaſon and prudence. For continues there alone, when every one elſe had deſerted it. He what can be more abſurd than for a perſon to attempt the proof claims the ſhip by the former of theſe laws, and his brother tries of any thing, before he has well ſettled in his own mind a clear his right with him by the latter. In ſuch caſes, therefore, it may and diſtinct notion, what the thing is which he would endeavour firſt be conſidered, whether the two laws can be reconciled. And if to prove ? Quintilian deſcribes it to be, “That kind of queſ- that cannot be done then, which of them appears more equitable. tion which ariſes from the firſt conflict of cauſes.' Of interpretation, in which the diſpute turns upon the true But beſides the principal queſtion, there are other ſubordinate meaning and explication of the law in reference to that particular queſtions, which follow upon it in the courſe of a diſpute, and caſe. We have the following inſtance of this in the Pandects. ſhould be carefully diſtinguiſhed from it. Particularly that which “A man who had two ſons, both under age, ſubſtitutes Titius as ariſes from the reaſon, or argument which is brought in proof of heir to him who ſhould die laſt, provided both of them died in the principal queſtion. For the principal queſtion itſelf proves their minority. They both periſh together at ſea before they nothing, but is the thing to be proved, and becomes at laſt the come to age. Here ariſes a doubt whether the ſubſtitution can concluſion of the diſcourſe. Thus, in the cauſe of Milo, Cicero's take place, or the inheritance devolve to the heir at law.” The argument is: I killed Clodius juftly, becauſe he aſſaſſinated me. latter pleads, That as neither of them can be ſaid to have died Unleſs the Clodian party be ſuppoſed to deny this, they give up laft, the ſubſtitution cannot take place ; which was ſuſpended, their cauſe. From hence therefore this fubordinate queſtion fol- upon condition that one died after the other. But to this it may lows :-Whether Clodius aſſaſſinated Milo? Now Cicero ſpends be ſaid, It was the intention of the teſtator, that if both died in much time in proof of this, as the hinge on which the firſt quef- their nonage, Titius ſhould ſucceed to the inheritance; and there tion, and conſequently the whole cauſe, depended. For if this fore it makes no difference whether they died together, or one was once made to appear, the lawfulneſs of Milo's killing Clo- after the other; and ſo the law determines it. dius, which was the grand queſtion or thing to be proved, might The ſecond head of external arguments are Witneſſes. Theſe be inferred as an allowed conſequence from it. may either give their evidence, when abſent, in writing ſubſcribed Though all the examples we have hitherto brought to illuſtrate with their name ; or preſent, by word of mouth. And what both this ſubject, have been taken from judicial caſes; yet not only of them teſtify, may either be from hearſay, or what they ſaw thefe, but very frequently diſcourſes of the deliberative kind, and themſelves, and were preſent at the time it was done. As the ſometimes thoſe of the demonſtrative, are managed in a contro- He weight of the evidence may be thought greater or leſs on each of verſial way. All controverſies have their ſtate ; and therefore theſe accounts, either party will make ſuch uſe of it as he finds | Quintilian very juſtly obſerves, that “ ſtates belong both to ge- neral This way ORA T OR Y. neral and particular queſtions; and to all ſorts of cauſes, demon other accompliſhment. And in actions thoſe are moſt confide- ſtrative, deliberative and judicial.” In Cicero's oration for the rable, and will be heard with greateſt approbation, which a per- Manilian law, this is the main point in diſpute between him and fon either did alone, or firſt, or wherein he had feweſt aſſociates ; thofe who oppoſed that law: “Whether Pompey was the fitteſt as likewiſe thoſe which exceeded expectation, or were done for perſon to be intruſted with the management of the war againſt the advantage of others, rather than his own. And further, as Mithridates ?” This is a ſubject of the deliberative kind. And the laſt ſcene of a man's life generally commands the greateſt re- of the ſame nature was that debate in the ſenate, concerning the gard, if any thing remarkable at that time was either ſaid or done, demolition of Carthage. For the matter in diſpute between Cato, it ought particularly to be mentioned. Nor ſhould the manner of who argued for it, and thoſe who were of the contrary opinion, his death, or cauſe of it, if accompanied with any commendable ſeems to have been this: Whether it was for the intereſt of the circumſtances, be omitted ; as if he died in the ſervice of his Romans to demoliſh Carthage?” And ſo likewiſe in thoſe two country, or in the purſuit of any other laudable deſign. fine orations of Cato and Cæſar, given us by Salluſt, relating to The third and laſt period relates to what followed after the death the conſpirators with Cataline, who were then in cuſtody, the of the perſon. And here the public loſs, and public honours con- controverſy turns upon this: “ Whether thoſe priſoners 1hould be ferred upon the deceaſed, are proper to be mentioned. Sepulchres, puniſhed with death, or perpetual impriſonment?" Examples of ſtatues and other monuments to perpetuate the memory of the dead, the demonſtrative kind are not ſo common ; but Cicero's oration at the expence of the public, were in common uſe both among the concerning the “ Anſwers of the foothſayers," may afford us an Greeks and Romans. But in the earlieſt times, as theſe honours inſtance of it. Several prodigies had lately happened at Rome, were more rare, ſo they were leſs coſtly. For as in one age it was upon which the foothſayer3 being conſulted, affigned this as the thought a ſufficient reward for him who died in the defence of his reaſon of them, Becauſe ſome places conſecrated to the gods, had country, to have his name cut in a marble inſcription, with the been afterwards converted to civil uſes. Clodius charged this cauſe of his death ; ſo, in others; it was very common to ſee the upon Cicero, whoſe houſe was rebuilt at the public expence, after ſtatues of gladiators, and perſons of the meaneſt rank, erected in it had been demoliſhed by Clodius, and the ground conſecrated public places. And therefore a judgment is to be formed of theſe to the goddeſs Liberty. Cicero, in this oration, retorts the charge; things from the time, cuſtom, and circumſtances, of different na- and thews, that the prodigies did not reſpect him, but Clodius. tions; ſince the frequency of them renders them leſs honourable, So that the queſtion in diſpute was: “To which of the two thoſe and takes off from their evidence as the rewards of virtue. Bur, prodigies related ? This oration does not appear to have been as Quintilian ſays, “ Children are an honour to their ſpoken in a judicial way, and muſt therefore belong to the de cities to their founders, laws to thoſe who compiled them, arts to monſtrative kind. His invective againſt Pifo is alſo much of their inventors, and uſeful cuſtoms to the authors of them. the ſame nature, wherein he compares his own behaviour and In praiſing of perſons, care ſhould always be taken, to ſay no- conduct with that of Piſo. thing that may ſeem fictitious, or out of character, which may call Whoever engages in a controverſy, ought in the firſt place, to the orator's judgment or integrity in queſtion. Light and trivial conſider with himſelf the main queſtion in diſpute, to fix it well things in commendations are likewiſe to be avoided, and nothing an his mind, and keep it conſtantly in his view ; without which mentioned but what may carry in it the idea of ſomething truly he will be very liable to ramble from the point, and bewilder valuable, and which the hearers may be ſuppoſed to wiſh for, and both himſelf and his hearers. And it is no leſs the buſineſs of is proper to excite their emulation. Theſe are the principal heads the hearers principally to attend to this; by which means they of praiſe with relation to men. In difpraiſe, the heads contrary to will be helped to diſtinguiſh and ſeparate from the principal quef theſe are requiſite; which being fufficiently clear from what has tion what is only incidental, and to obſerve how far the principal been ſaid, need not particularly be inſiſted on. With reſpect to queſtion is affected by it; to perceive what is offered in proof, things as diſtinguiſhed from perſons, we are to underſtand by them and what is only brought in for illuſtration ; not to be miſled by all beings inferior to man, whether animate or inanimate; as like- digreſſions, but to diſcern when the ſpeaker goes off from his fub wiſe the habits and diſpoſitions of men, either good or bad, when ject, and when he returns to it again; and, in a word, to ac conſidered ſeparately, and apart from their ſubject, as arts and company him through the whole diſcourſe, and to carry with ſciences, virtues and vices, with whatever elſe may be a proper fub- them the principal chain of reaſoning upon which the cauſe de- / ject for praiſe or difpraiſe. Some writers indeed, have, for their pends, ſo as to judge upon the whole, whether he has made out own amuſement, and the diverſion of others, diſplayed their elo- his point, and the concluſion follows from the premiſes. quence in a jocoſe manner upon ſubjects of this kind. So Lucian SECT. II. ARGUMENTS SUITED TO DEMONSTRATION. has written in praiſe of a fly, and Synefius an elegant encomium Theſe conſiſt either in praiſe or diſpraiſe : and agreeably to the upon baldneſs. Others, on the contrary, have done the like in a nature of all contraries, one of them will ſerve to illuſtrate the Such is Seneca's apotheoſis or confecration of the other. Now we either puaiſe perſons or things. In praiſing or dif emperor Claudius; and the Myfopogon or beard-hater, written praiſing perſons, rhetoricians preſcribe two methods. One is, to by Julian the emperor. Not to mention ſeveral modern authors, follow the order in which every thing happened that is mentioned who have imitated them in ſuch ludicrous compoſitions. But as in the diſcourſe; the other is, to reduce what is ſaid under certain to theſe things, and all of the like nature, the obſervation of An- general heads, without a ſtrict regard to the order of time. In pur tony in Cicero ſeems very juſt: “ That it is not neceſſary to re- fuing the former method, the diſcourſe may be very conveniently duce every ſubject we diſcourſe upon to rules of art." For many divided into three periods; the firſt of which will contain what are ſo trivial, as not to deſerve it; and others ſo plain and evi- preceded the perſon's birth ; the ſecond, the whole courſe of his dent of themſelves, as not to require it. life ; and the third, what followed upon his death. Under the * A prudent orator will be cautious of oppoſing any fettled and firſt of theſe may be comprehended what is proper to be ſaid con prevailing notions of thoſe whom he addreſſes; unleſs it be ne- cerning his country or family. And therefore, if theſe were ho ceffary, and then he will do itin the ſofteſtand moſt gentle manner. nourable, it may be ſaid to his advantage, that he no way dif SECT. III. CHARACTER AND ADDRESS OF AN ORATOR. graced them, but acted ſuitably to ſuch a deſcent, But if they were 1 Having conſidered the firſt part of invention, which furniſhes not ſo, they may be either wholly omitted, or it may be ſaid, that the orator with ſuch arguments as are neceſſary for the proof of inſtead of deriving thence any advantage to his character, he has his fubject, we are next to thew what are the proper means to conferred a laſting honour upon them; and that it is not of fomuch conciliate the minds of his hearers ; to gain their affection ; and moment where, or from whom, a perſon derives his birth, as how to recommend both himſelf, and what he ſays, to their good opi- he lives. In the ſecond period, which is that of his life, the qua nion and eſteem. For the parts of invention are commonly thus lities both of his mind and body, with his circumſtances in the diſtinguiſhed, that the firſt reſpects the ſubject of the diſcourſe, , world, may be ſeparately conſidered. Though, as Quintilian the ſecond the ſpeaker, and the third the hearers. Now the ſecond rightly obſerves: “ All external advantages are not praiſes for of theſe, which we have at preſent to explain, is by Quintilian themſelves, but according to the uſe that is made of them. For called a propriety of manners. And in order to expreſs this, it is riches, and power, and intereſt, as they have great influence, and neceſſary, as he tells us, “ that every thing appear eaſy and natu- may be applied either to good or bad purpoſes, are a proof of the ral, and the diſpoſition of the ſpeaker be diſcovered by his words. temper of our minds ; and therefore we are either made better or We may form an eaſy conception of this from the conduct of ſuch worſe by them.' But theſe things are a juſt ground for com perſons who are moſt nearly concerned in each others welfare.- mendation. when they are the reward of virtue, or induſtry. As when relations or friends converſe together upon any affairs Bodily endowments are health, ſtrength, beauty, activity, and of importance, the temper and diſpoſition of the ſpeaker plainly the like; which are more or leſs commendable, according as fhews itſelf by his words and manner of addreſs. And what na- they are employed. And where theſe, or any of them are want ture here directs to without colouring or diſguiſe, the orator is ing, it may be thewn, that they are abundantly compenſated by to endeavour to perform by his art. the more valuable endowments of the mind. Nay, ſometimes It is further neceſſary that the orator ſhould know the world, a defect in theſe may give an advantageous turn to a perſon's cha and be well acquainted with the different tempers and diſpofi- racter; for any virtue appears greater in proportion to the diſad tions of mankind. Nor indeed can any one reaſonably hope to vantages the perſon laboured under in exerting it. But the chief ſucceed in this province, without well conſidering the circumſtan- topics of praiſe are taken from the virtues and qualifications of ces of time and place, with the ſentiments and diſpoſitions of the mind. And here the orator may conſider the diſpoſition, thoſe to whom he ſpeaks ; which, according to Ariſtotle, may education, learning, and ſeveral virtues, which ſhone through diſtinguiſhed four ways, as they diſcover themſelves by the ſeve- the whole courſe of the perſon's life. In doing which the pre- ral affe&tions, habits, ages, and fortunes of mankind. And each ference ſhould always be given to virtue, above knowledge or any of theſe requires a different conduct and manner of addreſs. ſatirical way. 57 be It OR A T OR Y. whom he addreſſes. of its ap- It is the orator's buſineſs, therefore, to conſider theſe ſeveral bring him into contempt of the court, for pretending to rival him characters and circumſtances of life ; with the different bias and in the accuſation of Verres, for which he was altogether unfit. way of thinking they give to the mind ; that he may fo conduct To deliberative diſcourſes may be referred fear, hope; and ſhame. himſelf in his behaviour and manner of ſpeaking, as will render Fear ariſes from the apprehenſion of ſome great and impending him moſt acceptable, and gain him the good eſteem of thoſe evil. For the greateſt evils, while they appear at a diſtance, do not much affect us. Such perſons occafion fear, who are poffeffed with SECT. IV. OF THE PASSIONS, power, eſpecially if they have been injured, or apprehend fo. Like- wiſe thoſe who are addicted to do injuries, or who bear us an ill As it is often highly neceſſary for the orator, fo it requires his will. And the examples of others, who have ſuffered in a like greateſt ſkill, to engage the paſſions in his intereft. Quintilian cafe, or from the ſame perſons, help to excite fear. From the cir- calls this the ſoul and ſpirit of his art. And, doubtleſs, nothing cumſtances therefore either of the thing, or perſon, it will not be dif- more diſcovers its empire over the minds of men, than this power ficult for the orator to offer ſuch arguments as may be proper to to excite, appeaſe, and ſway their paſſions, agreeably to the de awaken this paſſion. So Demoſthenes, when he would perſuade fign of the ſpeaker. Hence we meet with the characters of ad the Athenians to put themſelves in a condition of defence againſt mirable, divine, and other ſplendid titles, aſcribed to eloquence king Philip, enumerates the ſeveral acts of hoftility already com- by ancient writers. For the paſſions are to the mind, what the mitted by him againſt the neighbouring ſtates. And becauſe men's wind is to a fhip; they move, and carry it forward ; and he who private concerns generally more affect them than what relates to the is without them, is in a manner without action, dull and lifeleſs. public; it is proper fometimes to Thew the neceffary connection There is nothing great or noble, to be performed in life, wherein theſe have with each other, and how the ruin of one draws the the paſſions are not concerned. We ſhall here conſider the paf other after it. The contrary paſſion to fear is hope ; which ariſes, fions, as they may be ſeparately referred, either to demonſtrative, either from a proſpect of ſome future good, or the apprehenſion of deliberative, or judicial diſcourſes ; though they are not wholly fafety from thoſe things which occaſion our fear. Young perſons confined to any of them. To the demonſtrative kind, we may are eaſily induced to hope the beſt, from the vigour of their ſpirits. refer joy and ſorrow, love and hatred, emulation and contempt. And thoſe who have eſcaped former dangers, are encouraged to Joy is an elation of the mind, ariſing from a ſenſe of fome pre hope for the like ſucceſs for the future. The examples of others, fent geod. Such a reflection naturally creates a pleaſant and agree alſo, eſpecially of wiſe and conſiderate men, have often the ſame able ſenſation, which ends in a delightful calm and ferenity. This good effect. To find them calm and fedate when expoſed to the is heightened by a deſcription of former evils, and a compariſon like danger, naturally creates confidence and the hopes of ſafety. between them and the preſent felicity. Thus Cicero endeavours But nothing gives perſons that firmneſs and ſteadineſs of mind, to excite in the minds of his fellow citizens the higheſt ſenſe of under the apprehenſion of any difficulties, as a conſciouſneſs of joy and delightat Cataline's departure from Rome, by repreſent their own integrity and innocence. Let dangers come from what ing to them the imminent danger which threatened both them quarter they will, they are beſt prepared to receive them. They and the city while he continued among them. can calmly view an impending tempeſt, obſerve the way Sorrow, on the contrary, is an uneaſineſs of mind ariſing from proach, and prepare themſelves in the beſt manner to avoid it. In a ſenſe of ſome preſent evil. This paſſion has generally a place in Cicero's oration for the Manilian law, he encourages the Roman funeral diſcourſes. And it may be heightened, like the former, citizens to hope for ſucceſs againſt Mithridates, if they choſe by compariſon, when any paſt happineſs is ſet in oppoſition to a Pompey for their general, from the many inſtances of his former preſent calamity. Hence Cicero aggravates the ſorrow at Rome, ſucceites, which he there enumerates. occafioned by the death of Metellus, from his character and great Shame ariſes from the apprehenſion of thoſe things that hurt a ſervices to the public, while living. perſon's character. Modeſty has been wiſely implanted in mankind Love excites us to eſteem one another for ſome excellency, and by the great Author of nature, as a guardian of virtue, which ought to do him all the good in our power. Itis diſtinguiſhed from friend- for this reaſon to be cheriſhed with the greateſt care; becauſe as ship, which is mutual; and therefore love may continue where Seneca has well obſerved, “if it be once loft, it is ſcarce ever to be friendſhip is loſt; that is, the affection may remain on one ſide. recovered." Therefore the true cauſe or foundation of thame is any And when we aſſiſt a perſon from no other motive but to do him a thing baſe or vicious; for this wounds the character, and will not kindneſs, Ariſtotle calls this good will. Love takes its riſe from a bear reflection. And he muſt arrive at no ſmall degree of infenſi- variety of cauſes. Generoſity, benevolence, integrity, gratitude, bility, who can ſtand againſt ſuch a charge, if he be conſcious to courteſy, and other ſocial virtues, are great incitements to love any himſelf that it is juſt. Therefore, to deter perfons from vicious ac? one endued with ſuch qualities. And perſons generally love thoſe tions, or to expoſe them for the commiſſion of them, the orator en- who are of a like diſpoſition with themſelves, and purſue the ſame deavours to ſet them in ſuch a light as may moſt awaken this paf- views. It is therefore the chief art of a flatterer to fuit himſelf in fion, and give them the greateſt uneaſineſs by the reflection. On every thing to the inclination of the perſon whoſe good graces he the other hand, immodeſty, or impudence, which confifts in a con- courts. When the orator would excite this affection towards any tempt of ſuch things as affect the reputation, can never be too much perſon, it is proper to ſhew, that he is poſſeſſed of at leaſt fome, if diſcouraged or expoſed. And the way of doing this is, to make uſe not all, of theſe agreeable qualities. When the conſpirators with of ſuch arguments as are moſt proper to excite ſhame. We have a Cataline were to be brought to juſtice, Cicero was very ſenſible of very remarkable inſtance of itin Cicero's ſecond Philippic, wherein the envy he ſhould contract on that account, and how neceſſary it he affixes this character upon Mark Anthony, through every was for him to ſecure the love of the Roman ſenate for his ſupport ſcene of his life. and protection in that critical juncture. And this he endeavours to To judicial diſcourſes, may be referred anger and lenity, pity do in his fourth oration againſt Cataline, by repreſenting to them, and indignation. in the moſt pathetic manner, that all the labours he underwent, Anger is a refentment, occaſioned by fome affront, or injury, done the difficulties he conflicted with, and the dangers to which he without any juſt reaſon. Now men are more inclined to refent was expoſed on that account, were not for his own fake, but for ſuch a conduct, as they think they leſs deſerve it. Therfore per- their ſafety, quiet, and happincfs. fons of diſtinction and figure, who expect a regard ſhould be paid Hatred is oppoſed to love, and produced by the contrary diſpoſi to their character, can the leſs bear any indications of contempt. tions. And therefore perſons hate thoſe, who never did them any And thoſe who are eminent in any profeſſion or faculty, are apt to injury, from the ill opinion they have of their baſe and vicious in be offended, if reflections are caſt either upon their reputation or clinations. So that the way to excite this paſſion is, by ſhewing that art. Magiſtrates alſo, and perſons in public ſtations, fometimes any one has committed ſome heinous fact with an ill intent. And think it incumbent on them to reſent indignities, for the fupport the more nearly affected perſons are by ſuch actions, in what they of their office. But nothing ſooner inflames this paſſion than if good account of the greateſt concern, the higher in proportion their ha ſervices are rewarded with ſlight and neglect. The inſtance of tred riſes. Since life therefore is eſteemed the moſt valuable good, Narſites, the Roman general, is remarkable in this kind; who after Cicero endeavours to render Mark Anthony odious to the citizens he had been ſucceſsful in his wars with the Goths,falling under the of Rome, by deſcribing his cruelty. itali difpleaſure of the emperor Juſtin, was removed from the govern- Emulation is a diſquiet, occaſioned by the felicity of another, not ment of Italy, and received by the empreſs with this taunt, That becauſe he enjoys it, but becauſe we defire the like for ourſelves. he muſt be ſent to weave among the girls ; which fo provoked him So that this paſſion is in itſelf good and laudable, asit engages men that he ſaid he would weave ſuch a web as they ſhould rever be able to purſue thoſe things which are ſo. For the proper objects of emu to unravel. And accordingly, he ſoon after brought down the Lon- lation are any advantages of mind, body, or fortune, acquired by gobards, a people of Germany, into Italy; where they ſettled them- ftudy or labour. Emulation therefore is excited by a lively repre ſelves in that part of the country, which from them is now called ſentation of any deſirable advantages which appear to be attainable Lombardy. The time and place in which an injury was don", and from the example of others who are or have been poſſeſſed of them. other circumſtances that attended it, may likewiſe contribute very But where the felicity of another occaſions an uneaſineſs, not from much to heighten the fact. Hence Demoſthenes, in bis oration the want of it, but becauſe he enjoys it, this paſſion is called envy, againſt Midias, endeavours to aggravate the injury of being ſtruck which the ancients deſcribe as an hideous monſter, feeding upon ky him, both as he was then a magiſtrate, and becauſe it was done itſelf, and being its own tormentor. at a public feſtival. From hence it appears, that the perfons, who Contempt is oppoſed to emulation, and ariſes from miſconductin moſt uſually occaſion this paflion, are ſuch as neglect the rules of things not of themſelves vicious: As where a perſon either acts be deceney, contemn and inſultothers, or oppoſe their inclinations; as low his ſtation and character, or affects to do that for which he is likewiſe the ungrateful, and thoſe who violate theties of friendſhip, nt qualified. Thus Cicero endeavours to expoſe Cæcilius, and or requite favours with injuries. But when the orator endeavours No. 121. to ORATORY. his ko excite anger, he ſhould be careful not to exceed due bounds in any natural genius, which I am ſenſible how ſınall it is'; or any aggravating the charge, left what he ſays, appear rather to proceed ability in ſpeaking, wherein I own I have been very converfant, from prejudice, than a ſtrict regard to the demerit of the action. or any ſkill acquired from the ſtudy and precepts of the beſt arts, Lenity is the remiſſion of anger. The deſigns of men's actions are to which my whole life has been devoted: this Aulus Lucinius principally to be regarded; and therefore what is done ignorantly or has, in a particular manner, a right to demand of me the fruit through inadvertency, is ſooner forgiven. Alſo to acknowledge a of all theſe things. For as far back as I can remember, and call fault, ſubmit, and aſk pardon,are the ready means to take off reſent to mind what paſſed in my youth, to the preſent time, he has been ment. For a generous mind is foon cooled by ſubmiſſion. Beſides, my chief adviſer and encourager both to undertake and purſue he who repents of his fault, does really give the injured party ſome this courſe of ſtudies.” When the orator ſets out with the perſons fatisfaction, by puniſhing himſelf; asall repentance is attended with of thoſe to whom the diſcourſe is made, it is not unuſual to com- grief and uneaſineſs of mind, and this is apt very much to abate mend them for their virtues, and thoſe eſpecially which have a the deſire of revenge. As, on the contrary, nothing is more pro more immediate relation to the preſent ſubject. Thus Cicero be- voking, than when the offender either audaciouſly juſtifies the fact, gins his oration of thanks for the pardon of Marcellus, with an or confidently denies it. Men are likewiſe wont to lay aſide their encomium upon the mildneſs, clemency, and wiſdom of Cæfar, reſentment, when their adverſaries happen by ſome other means to whom it was addreſſed. to ſuffer what they think a fufficient ſatisfaction. Laſtly, eaſy cir- | 2. Attention. On this head, Cicero ſays, “ We ſhall be heard cumſtances, a lucky incident, or any thing which gives the mind attentively by one of theſe three things; if we propoſe what is great, a turn to mirth and pleaſure, has a natural tendency to remove neceſſary, or for the intereſt of thoſe to whom the diſcourſe is ad anger. For anger is accompanied with pain and uneaſineſs, which dreſſed.” So that, according to him, the topics of attention are very ill ſuit joy and cheerfulneſs. The orator therefore, in order much the ſame with thoſe of good opinion, when taken from the to aſſuage and pacify the minds of his auditors, will endeavour to ſubject. And indeed, people are naturally led to attend either to leffen their opinion of the fault, and by that means to take off the thoſe things or perſons of which they have entertained a favoura edge of their reſentment. And to this purpoſe, it will be proper able opinion. But in order to gain this point, the orator fome- either to repreſent that the thing was not deſigned, or that the party times thinks it proper to requeſt the attention of his audience. is ſorry for it: or to mention his former ſervices; as alſo to ſhew Thus Cicero, in his defence of Cluentius, after having ſhewn the the credit and reputation which will be gained by a generous for- heinouſneſs of the charge againſt him, concludes his introduction giveneſs. And this laſt topic is very artfully wrought up by Ci- in the following manner, ſpeaking to the judges: “Wherefore I cero, in his addreſs to Cæſar, in favour of Ligarius. intreat, that while I briefly and clearly reply to a charge of many Pity ariſes from the calamities of others, by reflecting, that we years ſtanding, you will, according to your uſual cuſtom, give me ourſelves are liable tothe like misfortunes. So that evils, conſidered a kind and attentive hearing.' as the common lot of human nature, are principally the cauſe of 3. Some general account of the ſubject of the diſcourſe. This pity. And this makes the difference between pity and good-will, is always neceſſary, which the two others are not. And therefore which ariſes merely from a regard to the circumſtances of thoſe who it muſt be left to the prudence of the orator, when to uſe or omit want our aſſiſtance. But conſidering the uncertainty of every thing them, as he ſhall judge proper, from the nature of his diſcourſe, about us, he muſt ſeem in a manner diveſted of humanity, who has the circumſtances of his hearers, and how he ſtands with them no compaſſion for the calamitics of others; ſince there is no afflic But ſome account of the ſubject is what cannot be neglected. For tion which happens to any man, but either that, or fome other as every one expects to be foon informed of the deſign of the ſpeaker, great, may fall upon himſelf. But thoſe perſons aregenerally ſooneſt and what he propoſes to treat of. Nor when they are all made uſe touched with this paſſion, who have met with misfortunes them- of, is it neceſſary they ſhould always ſtand in the order we have ſelves. And by how much greater the diſtreſs is, or the perſon ap here placed them. Cicero fometimes enters immediately upon pears leſs deſerving it, the higher pity does it excite: for which ſubject, and introduces the other heads afterwards. As in his reaſon, perſons are generally moſt moved at the misfortunes of third oration againſt Cataline, made to the body of the Roman their relations and friends, or thoſe of the beſt figure and charac- people, which begins thus: “You ſee that the ſtate, all your lives, ter. The orator therefore, in order to excite the greater pity, will eſtates, fortunes, wives and children, and this ſeat of the greateſt endeavour to heighten the idea of the calamity, from the ſeveral empire, the moſt flouriſhing and beautiful city, having by the fa- circumſtances both of the thing itſelf and the perſon who labours vour of heaven towards you, and my labours, counſels, and dan- under it. A fine example of this may be ſeen in Cicero's defence gers, been this day reſcued from fire and ſword and the very jaws of Muræna, cap 40. &c. of deſtruction, are preſerved and reſtored to you.” And then he Indignation, as oppoſed to pity, is an uneaſineſs at the felicity of proceeds to recommend himſelf to their eſteem and benevolence, another who does not ſeem to deſerve it. But this reſpects only ex- from the confideration of theſe benefits. Theſe are the heads ternal advantages, ſuch as riches, honours, and the like ; for vir which commonly furniſh matter for this part of a diſcourſe. But tues cannot be the object of this paſſion. Ariſtotle therefore ſays, orators often take occaſion from the time, place, largeneſs of the “that pity and indignation are generally to be found in the ſame aſſembly, or ſome other proper circumſtance, to compliment their perſons, and are both evidences of a good diſpoſition.” Now the hearers, recommend themſelves, or introduce the ſubject upon orator excites this paſſion, by ſhewing the perſon to be unworthy which they are about to treat. Inſtances of each of theſe may of that felicity which he enjoys. And as, in order to move com be met with in ſeveral of Cicero's orations. paflion, it is ſometimes of uſe to compare the former happy ſtate of SECT. II. NARRATION. the perſon with his preſent calamity: fo here, the greater indigna The orator having prepared his hearers to receive his diſcourſes tion is raiſed, by comparing his former mean circumſtances with with candour and attention, and acquainted them with his his preſent advancement: as Cicero does in the caſe of Vatinius. neral deſign in the introduction, before he proceeds directly to his Theſe are the paſſions with which an orator is principally con ſubject, often finds it neceſſary to give ſome account of what pre- cerned. In addreſſing to which, not only the greateſt warmth and ceded, accompanied, or followed upon it. And this, he does in force of expreſſion is often neceſſary; but he muſt likewiſe firſt order to enlarge the view of the particular point in diſpute, and endeavour to impreſs his own mind with the ſame paſſion he place it in a clearer light. This is called narration ; which is a would excite in others, agreeable to that of Horace :: recital of ſomething done, in the order and manner in which it was My grief with others juſt proportion bears ; done. I here are four properties required in a good narration ; To make me weep, you muſt be firſt in tears. that it be ſhort, clear, probable, and pleaſant. PART IT. OF DISPOSITION. 1. The brevity of a narration is not to be judged of barely As Invention ſupplies the orator with neceſſary materials, ſo form its length: for that may be too long, which contains but a lit- Diſpoſition directs him how to place them in the moſt proper and tle ; and that too ſhort, which comprehends a great deal. Where- ſuitable order. Diſpoſition therefore, conſidered as a part of ora fore this depends upon the nature of the ſubject, fince ſome things tory, naturally follows invention. And what is here chiefly in- require more words to give a juft repreſentation of them, and tended by it is, the placing the ſeveral parts of a diſcourſe in a others fewer. That may properly therefore be called a ſhort nar- juſt method and dependance upon one another. Writers are not ration, which contains nothing that could well have been omitted, all agreed in determining the parts of an oration ; though the dif nor omits any thing which was neceſſary to be ſaid. Now, in or- ference is rather in the manner of conſidering them, than in the der to avoid both theſe extremes, care ſhould be taken not to go things themſelves. But Cicero, whom we ſhall here follow, men further back in the account of things, nor to trace them down low- tions fix, namely, Introduction, Narration, Propoſition, Confir er, than the ſubject requires; to ſay that only in the general, which mation, Confutation, and Concluſion. does not need a more particular explication; not to aſſign the cauſes SECT. I. INTRODUCTION. of things, when it is enough to ſhew they were done: and to omit The deſign of this is to prepare the minds of the hearers for a ſuch things as are ſufficiently underſtood, from what either pre- ſuitable reception of the remaining parts that are to follow. And ceded, or was conſequent upon them. But the orator ſhould be for this end, three things are requiſite; that the orator gain the careful, left, while he endeavours to avoid prolixity, he run into good opinion of his hearers, that he ſecure their attention, and give obſcurity. Horace was very ſenſible of this danger, when, he ſaid: them fome general notion of his ſubject. By ſtriving to be ſhort, I grew obſcure. 1. Good opinion. When the orator introduces his diſcourſe with 2. Perſpicuity. This may juſtly be eſteemed the chief exeellency his own perſon, he will be careful to do it with modeſty, and ſeem rather to extenuate his virtues and abilities, than to magnify them. thoughts to others, that muſt be its greateſt excellence, which con- of language. For as the deſign of ſpeech is to communicate our We have a very fine example of this in Cicero's oration for the poet Aulus Licinius Archias, which begins thus : “ If I have perfpicuity therefore is requiſite in all diſcourſe, ſo it is particularly tributes moſt to this end; and that, doubtleſs, is perfpicuity. As ſerviceable ORA TOR Y. 3. ſerviceable in a narration, which contains the ſubſtance of all that for which reaſon, likewiſe, they have often no diſtinct propoſition. is to be ſaid afterwards. Wherefore if this be not ſufficiently un But where arguments are brought in defence of the ſubject; this derſtood, much leſs can thoſe things which receive their light from is properly confirmation. For, as Cicero defines it, “ confirmation it . Now the following things render a narration clear and plain: is that which gives proof, authority, and ſupport to a cauſe, by Proper and ſignificant words, whoſe meaning is well known and reaſoning.' And for this end, if any thing in the propoſition determined ; ſhort ſentences, though full and explicit, whoſe parts ſeems obſcure, or liable to be miſunderſtood, the orator firſt takes are not perplexed, but placed in their juſt order; proper particles care to explain it, and then goes on to offer ſuch arguments for to join the ſentences, and ſhew their connexion and dependance on the proof of it, and repreſent them in ſuch a light, as may be moſt each other ; a due regard to the order of time, and other circum- proper to gain the affent of his hearers. But here it is But here it is proper to ſtances neceſſary to be expreſſed; and laſtly, ſuitable tranſitions. obſerve, that there are different ways of reaſoning fuited to different Probability. Things appear probable, when the cauſes af arts. The mathematician treats his ſubject after another manner ſigned for them appear natural ; the manner in which they are de than the logician, and the orator in a method different from them fcribed is eaſy to be conceived; the conſequences are ſuch as might | both. The forms of reaſoning uſed by orators are four; Syllo- be expected ; the characters of the perſons are juſtly repreſented ; gifm, Enthymem, Induction, and Example. and the whole account is well atteſted, conſiſtent with itſelf, and 1. By Syllogiſm. A fyllogiſm is a form of reaſoning which con- agreeable to the general opinion. Simplicity likewiſe in the man-, ſiſts of three propoſitions, the laſt of which is deduced from the two ner of relating a fact, as well as in the ſtyle, without any reſerve former. The firſt of theſe is called the major propoſition, or, for or appearance of art, contributes very much to its credibility. brevity, the major; the ſecond the minor propoſition, or minor; and For truth loves to appear naked and open, ſtript of all colouring or the third, the concluſion. But as the laſt is oppoſed to the other diſguiſe. The conſpiracy of Cataline was ſo daring and extra two jointly, they are called the premiſes, and this the concluſion. vagant, that no one, but ſuch a deſperado, could ever have under So we may reduce Cicero's argument, by which he endeavours taken it with any hopes of ſucceſs. However, Cicero's account to prove, that Clodius aſſaulted Milo, and not Milo Clodius, to of it to the fenate was ſo full and exact, and ſo well ſuited to the a fyllogiſm in this manner: character of the perſon, that it preſently gained credit. And He was the aggrefjör, whoſe advantage it was to kill the otber. therefore, when, upon the concluſion of Cicero's ſpeech, Cataline But it was the advantage of Clodius to kill Milo, und not Milo's who was preſent, immediately ſtood up, and deſired they would to kill him. not entertain ſuch hard thoughts of him, but conſider how much Therefore Clodius was the aggreſſor, or he aſſaulted Milo. his family had always been attached to the public intereſt, and 2. By Enthymem. But orators do not often uſe complete fyllo- the great ſervices they had done the ſtate ; their reſentments roſe giſms, but moſt commonly enthy mems. An enthymem is an im- fo high, that he could not be heard: upon which he immediately perfect fyllogiſm, conſiſting of two parts; the concluſion, and one left the city, and went to his aſſociates. of the premiſes. And in this kind of fyllogiſm, that propoſition is 4. The laſt thing required in a narration is, that it be pleaſant | omitted, whether it be the major or minor, which is ſufficiently and entertaining. And this is more difficult, becauſe it does not manifeſt of itſelf, and may eaſily be ſupplied by the hearers. But admit of that accurate compoſition, and pompous dreſs, which de the propoſition that is expreſſed is uſually called the antecedent, and lights the ear, and recommends ſome other parts of a diſcourſe. the concluſion the conſequent. So if the major of that fyllogiſm be For it certainly requires no ſmall ſkill in the ſpeaker, while he omitted, by which Cicero endeavours to prove that Clodius aſſault- endeavours to expreſs every thing in the moſt natural, plain, and ed Milo, it will make this enthymem: cafy manner, not to grow flat and tireſome. For Quintilian's The death of Milo would have been an advantage to Clodius. remark is very juſt, that, “ the moſt experienced orators find no Therefore Clodius was the aggreſor; or, therefore he aſſaulted Milo. thing in eloquence more difficult, than what all, who hear it, fan 3. By Induction: That is, when one thing is inferred from cy they could have ſaid themſelves.” And the reaſon of this ſeems ſeveral others, by reaſon of the fimilitude between them. And very obvious. For as all art is an imitation of nature, the nearer it this way of reaſoning is often very uſeful in popular diſcourſes. reſembles that, the more perfect it is in its kind. Hence unex For many perſons are ſooner moved by examples and fimilitudes, perienced perſons often imagine that to be caſieſt, which ſuits beſt than by arguments taken from the nature of things. Every one with thoſe natural ideas to which they have been accuſtomed ; till, either endeavours to think right, or at leaſt would be eſteemed ſo upon trial, they are convinced of their miſtake. Wherefore, to to do. But it is often no eaſy matter to take in the force of an render this part of a diſcourſe pleaſant and agreeable, recourſe argument, eſpecially for thoſe who have been accuſtomed to ex- muſt be had to variety, both in the choice of words, and turns of the amine things cloſely, and weigh them duly in their minds. And cxpreſſion. And therefore queſtions, admirations, interlocutions, therefore, when this cannot be done without ſome pain and un- imagery, and other familiar figures, help very much to diverſify caſineſs to the mind, till it become habitual by practice, it is not and enliven a narration, and prevent it from becoming dull and to be wondered at if ſuch perſons are beſt pleafed with that way of tedious, eſpecially when itis carried on to any conſiderable length. reaſoning by which they imagine they can form a judgment of SECT. III. PROPOSITION. things with the greateſt eaſe and facility. But though inductions In every juſt and regular diſcourſe, the ſpeaker's intention is to are made from all kinds of ſimilitudes, yet thoſe uſually carry the prove or illuſtrate ſomething. And when he lays down the ſubject greateſt force with them which are drawn from like facts. Such upon which he deſigns to treat, in a diſtinct and expreſs manner, is that of Cicero in his oration for the Manilian law: for when this is called the propoſition. Orators uſe ſeveral ways in laying ſome perſons objected to Pompey's being intruſted with the Mi- down the ſubject of their diſcourſes. Sometimes they do it in one thridatic war, as a thing not cuſtomary to put ſuch an acceſſion general propoſition. At other times, to give a clearer and more of power into the hands of one man; Cicero removes that objec- diſtinct view of their diſcourſe, they ſubjoin to the propoſition the tion, by producing ſeveral inſtances of the like nature, and par- general heads of argument by which they endeavour to ſupport it. ticularly ſhews that more new honours had already been conferred But when the ſubject relates to ſeveral different things, which re on Pompey than upon any other Roman citizen before him, which quires each of them to be ſeparately laid down in diſtinct propo had all been employed to the advantage of the ſtate. I will fitions, it is called partition. There are three things requiſite in not, ſays he, take notice that two very great wars, the Punic and a good partition ; that it be ſhort, complete, and conſiſt but of a Carthaginian, were both managed by one general; and two very few members. powerful cities, which threatened this empire moſt, Carthage and A good and juſt partition is attended with conſiderable advan Numantia, both deſtroyed by the ſame Scipio. I will not ob- tages. Forit gives both light and ornament to a diſcourſe. And it ſerve, that both you and your fathers thought fit to place the ſafety is alſo a great relief to the hearers, who, by means of theſe ſtops of the government alone, in Caius Marius ; and that the ſame and refts, are much better enabled to keep pace with the ſpeaker perſon ihould carry on the war with Jugurtha, with the Cimbrians, without confuſion, and by caſting their thoughts either way, from and with the Teutones. You remember how many new powers what has been ſaid, both know and are prepared for what is to fol have already been conferred on Pompey ;" which he then pro- low. And as perſons, in travelling a road with which they are ac ceeds to enumerate, and from thence infers, that the objection quainted, go on with greater pleaſure and leſs fatigue, becauſe they of novelty was no juſt reaſon againſt his being entruſted with the know how far it is to their journey's end; fo to be appriſed of the conduct of that important war. And as to other ſimilitudes, it ſpeaker's deſign, and the ſeveral parts of his diſcourſe which he may thus be ſhewn by induction, that virtuous habits are gained propoſes to treat on, contributes very much to relieve the hearer, and improved by practice. Bodily ſtrength is increaſed and con- and keep up his attention. This muſt appear very evident to all firmed by daily exerciſe: All manual arts are acquired by repeated who conſider how difficult it is to attend long and cloſely to one trials and experiments: The liberal ſciences are alſo attained by thing, eſpecially when we do not know how long it may be before conſtant ſtudy and application : And in like manner the mind is we are like to be releaſed. Whereas, when we are before-hand formed to virtue, and improved in it, by the continual practice acquainted with the ſcheme, and the ſpeaker proceeds regularly from of right actions. one thing to another, opportunity is given to eaſe the mind, by re 4. By Example. Rhetoricians uſe this word in a different ſenſe laxing the attention and recalling it again when neceſſary. from the common acceptation. For that is uſually called an exam- SECT. IV. CONFIRMATION. ple, which is brought either to prove or illuſtrate ſome general affer- The orator having acquainted his hearers, in the propoſition, tion: As if any one ſhould ſay, that human bodies may be brought to with the ſubject on which he deſigns to diſcourſe, uſually proceeds Suſtain the greateſt labours by uſe and exerciſe; and inorder to prove either to prove or illuſtrate what he has there laid down. For ſome this, ſhould relate what is ſaid of Milo, of Croton, that “ by the diſcourſes require nothing more than an enlargementor illuſtration, conſtant practice of carrying a calf ſeveral furlongs every day, he to ſet them in a proper light, and recommend them to the hearers; | could carry it as far after it was to its full fize.” But in oratory the ORATORY. 13 the word example is uſed for any kind of fimilitude; or, as Voſſius He who confeſes he has killed another, ought not to be al- defines it, “ When one thing is inferred from another, by reaſon lowed to ſee the light. of the likeneſs which appears between them.” Hence it is called But Milo confeſſes this. an imperfe&t induction, which infers ſomething from ſeveral others Therefore he ought not to live. of a like nature. But as was obſerved before, in ſpeaking of in For a full definition of propofitions, affirmative, negative, abſo duction, fo likewiſe in examples, thoſe have the greateſt force in.lute and conditional; with their diviſion into ſelf-evident and de- reaſoning, which are taken from facts. Now facts may be com monſtrable ; together with the ſeveral kinds of reaſoning, and pared with reſpect to ſome agreement or ſimilitude between them, forms of ſyllogiſms, the reader is referred to our Syſtem of LOGIC, which in themſelves are either equal or unequal. Of the former Part II. Sect. II. III. and I V. and Part II 1. throughout. kind this is an inſtance: “ Cato acted as became a patriot and The laſt method of confutation, is when the orator does in ſome a lover of his country's liberty, in oppoſing the arms of Cæſar ; fenſe grant theadverſary his argument, and at the fame time ſhews and therefore ſo did Cicero. The reaſon of the inference is its invalidity. And this is done by a variety of ways, according to founded in the parity of the caſe, which equally concerned all the different nature of the ſubject. Sometimes he allows what was good ſubjects of the Roman government at that time. For all ſaid may be true; but pleads, that what he contends for is neceſſary. were alike obliged to oppoſe a common enemy, who endeavoured This was the method by which Hortenſius propoſed to bring off to ſubvert the conſtitution, and ſubject them to his own arbitrary Verres, as we have already ſhewn from Cicero, whoſe words are power. Thus we have given a brief account of the principal theſe, addreſſing himſelf to the judges: “What ſhall I do? which ways of reaſoning commonly made uſe of by orators. way ſhall I bring in my accuſation : where ſhall I turn myſelf? SECT. Y. CONFUTATION. for the character of a brave general is placed like a wall againſt all- the attacksI can make. I know the place, I perceive where Hor- The forms of reaſoning here are the ſame as have been already tenſius intends to diſplay himſelf. He will recount the hazards of explained under confirmation. Confutation, however, is often the war, the neceſſities of the ſtate, the ſcarcity of commanders; and more difficult taſk: becauſe he who is to prove a thing comes uſu then he will intreat you, and do his utmoſt to perſuade you, not to ally prepared; but he who is to confute it, is frequently left to aſud ſuffer the Roman people to be deprived of ſuch a commander upon den anſwer. For which reaſon, in judicial caſes, Quintilian ſays, the teſtimony of the Sicilians, nor the glory of his arms to be ſullied “ It is much eaſier to accuſe than defend, as it is to make a wound by a charge of avarice.”. Atother times the orator pleads, that al- than to heal it.” Therefore, not only a good judgment, but a rea though the contrary opinion may ſeem to be attended with advan- dineſs of thought alſo, ſeems neceſſary for this province. But, in tage, yet that his own is more juſt or honourable. Such was the all diſputes, it is of the greateſt conſequence to obſerve where the cafe of Regulus, when his friends endeavoured to prevail with him ſtreſs of the controverſy lies. For without attending to this, per to continue at Rome, and not return to Carthage, where he knew fons may cavil about different matters without underſtanding each he muſt undergo a cruel death. But as this could not be done with- other, or deciding any thing. And in confutation, what the ad out violating his oath, he refuſed to hearken to their perſuaſions. verſary has advanced ought carefully to be conſidered, and in what Another way of confutation is, by retorting upon the adverſary his manner he has expreſſed himſelf. As to the things themſelves; own argument. Thus Cicero in his defence of Ligarius, ſays: whether they immediately relate to the matter in diſpute, or are “ You have, Tubero, that which is moſt deſirable to an accuſer, the foreign to it. Thoſe things that are foreign to the ſubject, may confeſſion of the accuſed party; but yet ſuch a confeffion, that he either be paſt over in ſilence, or in a very few words thewn to be was on the ſame ſide that you, Tubero, chöfe yourſelf, and your fa- inſignificant. And there ought likewiſe to be a diſtinction made ther too, a man worthy of the higheſt praiſe. Wherefore, if there between ſuch things as relate to the ſubject, according to their was any crime in this, you ought firſt to confeſs your own before importance. Thoſe that appear to have no great weight, ſhould you attempt to faſten any upon Ligarius.” The orator takes this be ſlightly remarked. For to inſiſt largely upon ſuch matters is advantage where an argument proves too much, that is, more both tireſume to the hearers and apt to bring the judgment of the than the perſon deſigned it for, who made uſe of it, fpeaker into queſtion. And therefore things of that nature aregene- SECT. VI. CONCLUSION. rally better turned off with an airof neglect, a pungent queſtion, or an agreeable jeſt, than confuted by a ſerious and laboured anſwer. Rhetoricians make the concluſion of a diſcourſe to conſiſt of two But thoſe things, which relate to the merits of the cauſe, may parts; recapitulation, and an uddreſs to the paſſions. I. Recapitula be confuted either by contradicting them, or by ſhewing ſome tion is a ſummary account of what the ſpeaker has before offered miſtake in the reaſoning, or their invalidity when granted. in maintenance of his ſubject; and is deſigned both to refreſh the Things may be contradi&ted ſeveral ways. What is apparently memory of the hearers, and to bring the principal arguments toge- falſe may be expreſsly denied. We have an inſtance in Cicero, ther into a narrow compaſs, that they may appear in a ſtronger who firſt upbraids Mark Anthony as guilty of a breach not only of light. We have a very exact and accurate example of repetition good breeding, but likewiſe of friendſhip, for reading publicly a in Cicero's oration for Quintius. Cicero was then a young man, private letter he had ſent him. And then adds; “ But what will and ſeems to have kept more cloſely to the rules of art, than after- you ſay now, if I ſhould deny that I ever ſent you that letter? wards, when by uſe and practice he had gained a greater feedom How will you prove it? By the hand-writing? In which I con of ſpeaking. The partition of his ſpeech runs thus: “We deny, fels you have a peculiar ſkill, and have found the benefit of it. Sextus Nevius, that you was put into the poſſeſſion of the eſtate But how can you make it out? For it is in my ſecretary's hand. of P. Quintius, by the prætor's edict. This is the diſpute be- I cannot but envy your maſter, who had ſo great a reward for tween us. I will therefore ſhow, firſt, that you had no juſt cauſe teaching you to underſtand juſt nothing. For what can be more to apply to the prætor for poffeffion of the eſtate of P. Quin- unbecoming not only an orator, but even a man, than for tius ; then that you could not pofſefs it by the cdict; and laſtly, to offer ſuch things, which if the adverſary denies, he has nothing that you did not poſſeſs it. When I have proved theſe three more to ſay?" It is a forcible manner of contradicting a thing, things, I will conclude.” Now Cicero begins his concluſion with by ſhewing, that the adverſary himſelf maintained the contrary. a repetition of thoſe three heads, and a ſummary account of the So when Oppius was charged with defrauding the ſoldiers of their ſeveral arguments he made uſe of under each of them. But they proviſions, Cicero refutes it, by proving, that the ſame perſons are too long to be here exhibited. charged Oppius with a deſign to corrupt the army by his liberality. 2. We now proceed to the other part of the concluſion, which An adverſary is never more effectually ſilenced than when you conſiſts in an addreſs to the paſſions. Indeed the orator ſometimes can faſten contradictions upon him ; for this is ſtabbing him with endeavours occaſionally to work upon the paſſions of hishearers in his own weapon. There is likewiſe an ironical way of contra other parts of his diſcourſe, but more eſpecially in theconcluſion, dicting a thing, by retorting that and other things of the like nature where he is warmeſt himſelf, and labours to make them fo. For the upon the adverſe party. Thus Cicero, in his oration againſt main deſign of the introduction is to conciliate the hearers, and gain Vatinius, ſays: “ You have objected to me, that I defended their attention; of the narration, propoſition, and confirmation, Cornelius, my old friend, and your acquaintance. But pray why to inform them; and of the concluſion to move them. And there- ſhould I not have defended him? Has Cornelius carried any fore, to uſe Quintilian's words, “ Here all the ſprings of eloquence law contrary to the omens? Has he violated any law? Has he are to be opened. It is here we ſecure the minds of the liearers, if aflaulted the conſul? Did he take poffeffion of a temple by force what went before was well managed. Now we are paſt the rocks of arms? Did he drive away the tribune, who oppoſed the and ſhallows, all the fails may be hoiſted. And as the greateſt part paſſing a law? Has he thrown contempt upon religion? Has of the concluſion conſiſts in illuſtration, the moſt pompous language he plundered the treaſury? Has he pillaged the ſtate? No, theſe, and ſtrongeſt figures have place here.” Now the paſſions to which all theſe, are your doings?” Such an unexpected return is fome the orator more particularly addreſſes, differ according to the nature times of great ſervice to abate the confidence of an adverſary. of the diſcourſe. In demonſtrative orations when laudatory, love, A ſecond way of confutation is, by obſerving ſome flaw in the admiration, and emulation are uſually excited; but in invectives, reaſoning of the adverſe party. We ſhall endeavour to illuſtrate hatred, envy, and contempt. "In deliberative ſubjects, either the this from the ſeveral kinds of reaſoning treated of before under con- hope of gratifying ſome deſire is ſet in view, or the fear of fome im- firmation. And firſt as to fyllogiſms; they may be refuted, either pending evil. pending evil. And in judicial diſcourſes, almoſt all the paſſions by ſhewing ſome miſtake in the premiſes, or that the concluſion is have place, but more eſpecially reſentment and pity; infomuch not juſtly deduced from them. So when the Clodian party con that moſt of the ancient rhetoricians mention only theſe two.- tended, that Milo ought to ſuffer death for this reaſon, Becauſe he But having treated upon the nature of the paſſions, and the me- had confeſſed that he had killed Clodius; that argument, reduced thods ſuited both to excite and allay them, in Part I. Sect. IV. to a ſyllogiſm, would ſtand thus: we ſhall at preſent only add a few general obſervations, which may any one ORATORY: may not be improper in this place; where the ſkill of the orator ſtruction. But we ſhall conſider them jointly, and in a manner in addreſſing to them is more eſpecially required. different from grammarians; for with them all words are eſteemed The orator will obſerve what circumſtances either of things, or pure, which are once adopted into a language, and authoriſed by perſons, or both, will furniſh him with motives proper to apply to uſe. And as to phraſes, or forms of expreſſion, they allow them thoſe paſſions he deſires to excite in the minds of his hearers Thus all the ſame claim, which are agreeable to the analogy of the Cicero, in his orations for Plancus and Sylla, moves his hearers tongue. But in oratory, neither all words nor all expreſſions are from the circumſtances of the men; but in his accuſation of Verres, ſo called, which occur in language ; but ſuch only as come re- very frequently from the barbarity and horrid nature of his crimes ; commended by the authority of thoſe who ſpeak or write with ac- and from both, in his defence of Quintius. But the ſame paſſion curacy and politeneſs. Indeed it is a common ſaying, that we may be excited by very different methods. This is plain from the Thould think with the learned, and ſpeak with the vulgar. But the writings of thoſe Roman ſatyriſts which are yet extant; for they meaning of that expreſſion is no more than that we ſhould ſpeak have all the ſame deſign, and that is to engage men to a love of virtue agreeably to the common uſage of the tongue, that every one may and hatred of vice: but their manner is very different, fuited to the underſtand us; and not chooſe fuch words or expreſſions as are genius of each writer. Horace endeavours to recommend virtue, either difficult to be underſtood, or may carry in them an appear- by laughing vice out of countenance, Perſius moves us to an ab ance of affectation and fingularity. But in order to fet this matter horrence and deteftation of vice, with the gravity and ſeverity of a in a clear light, we ſhall here recount the principal things which philoſopher ; and Juvenal, by open and vehement invectives. So vitiate the purity of language. orators make ufe of all theſe methods in exciting the paſſions ; as And firſt, itoften happens, that ſuch words and forms of ſpeaking may be ſeen by their diſcourſes, and particularly thoſe of Cicero. as were introduced by the learned, are afterwards dropped by them But it is not convenient to dwell long upon the ſame paſſion. For as mean and ſordid, from a ſeeming baſeneſs contracted by vulgar the image thus wrought up in the minds of the hearers, does not uſe. For polite and elegant ſpeakers diſtinguiſh themſelves by laſt a great while, but they ſoon return to reflection. When the their diſcourſe, as perſons of figure do by their garb ; one being emotion therefore is once carried as high as it well can be, they the dreſs of the mind, as the other is of the body. And hence it ſhould be left under its influence, and the ſpeaker proceed to ſome comes to paſs; that both have their different faſhions, which are new matter, before it declines again. Moreover, orators fome often changed; and as the vulgar affect to imitate thoſe above them times endeavour to raiſe contrary paſſions to each other, as they are in both, this frequently occaſions an alteration when either becomes concerned for oppofite parties. So the accuſer excites anger and too trite and common. But beſides theſe fordid words and expreſ- reſentment, but the defendant pity and compaſſion. Atother times, ſions, which are rendered ſo by the uſe of the vulgar; there is one thinks it ſufficient to allay and take off that paffion which the another ſort firſt introduced by them; which is carefully to be other has raiſed, and bring the hearers to a calm and fedate confi avoided by all thoſe who are deſirous to ſpeak well. For the vul . deration of the matter before them. But this eſpecially is to be gar have their peculiar words and phraſes, ſuited to their circum- regarded, that the orator expreſſes the ſame paſſion himſelf with ſtances, and taken from ſuch occurrences as uſually occur in their which he endeavours to affect others ; and that not only in his way of life. Thus in the old comedians, many things are ſpoken action and voice, but likewiſe in his language : and therefore his by ſervants, agreeable to their character, which would be very un- words, and manner of expreſſion, ſhould be ſuited to that pertur becoming from the mouth of a gentleman. And we cannot but bation and diſorder of mind which he deſigns to repreſent. How daily obſerve the like inſtances among ourſelves. Again, this is ever, a decency and propriety of character is always carefully to common to language with all other human productions, that it be obſerved ; as Cicero very well remarks, “ A neglect of this is in its own nature liable to a conſtant change and alteration. is not only very culpable in life, but likewiſe in diſcourſe. Nor For, as Horace has juſtly obſerved. do the ſame things equally become every ſpeaker, or every au- All human works ſhall waſte, dience; nor every time, and every place.” And therefore he greatly Then how can feeble words pretend to laſt! commends that painter, who, deſigning to repreſent in a picture Nothing could ever pleaſe all perſons, or at leaſt for any length of the facrifice of Iphigenia Agamemnon's daughter, drew Calchas time. And there is nothing from which this can leſs be expected the prieſt with a ſad countenance : Ulyſſes, her father's great than language. For as the thoughts of men are exceedingly va- friend, more dejected; and her uncle Menelaus, moſt diſconfolate; rious, and words are the ſigns of their thoughts; they will be but threw a veil over the face of Agamemnon himſelf, as being conſtantly inventing new ſigns to expreſs them by, in order to unable to expreſs that exceſs of ſorrow which he thought was convey their ideas with more clearneſs, or greater beauty. If we proper to appear in his countenance. conſider our own language, it will appear to have been in a man- As perſons are commonly more affected with what they ſee thari ner entirely changed from what it was a few ages ſince. To men- what they hear, orators ſometimes call in the aſſiſtance of that tion no others, our celebrated Chaucer is to moſt perſons now fenfe in moving the paſſions. For this reaſon it was uſual among almoſt unintelligible, and wants an expoſitor. And even ſince the Romans, in judicial caſes, for accuſed perſons to appear with a our own memory, we cannot but have obſerved, that many words dejected air, and a ſordidgarb, attended by their parents, children, and expreſſions, which a few years ago were in common uſe, are or other relations and friends, with the like dreſs and aſpect ; as now in a manner laid aſide and antiquated ; and that others have likewiſe to ſhew their ſcars, wounds, bloody garments, and other conſtantly ſucceeded, and daily do ſucceed, in their room. So things of the like nature, in open court. So when, upon the death true is the obſervation of the ſame poet: of Cæſar, Mark Anthony harangued the populace, he at the ſame time expoſed to their view the garment in which he was ſtabbed Some words that have or elſe will feel decay, Shall be reſtor'd, and come again in play: fixed upon a pole; at which ſight they were ſo enraged, that im- And words now fam’d, ſhall not be fancied long; mediately they ran with lighted torches to ſet fire to the houſes of They ſhall not pleaſe the ear, nor move the tongue: the conſpirators. But this cuſtom at laſt became ſo common, and As uſe ſhall theſe approve, and thoſe condemn; was fometimes ſo ill conducted, that the force of it was greatly Uſe, the ſole rule of ſpeech, and judge ſupreme. abated, as we learn from Quintilian. We muſt therefore no leſs abſtain from antiquated or obſolete PART. III. OF ELOCUTION. words and phraſes, than form fordid ones. Elocution directs us to ſuit both the words and expreſſions of a But farther: As on the one hand we muſt avoid obfolete words diſcourſe to the nature of the ſubject, or to ſpeak with propriety and phraſes; fo on the other, we ſhould refrain from new ones, and decency. This faculty is in one word called eloquence; and or ſuch whoſe uſe has not yet been ſufficiently eſtabliſhed, at leaſt thoſe perſons who are poſſeſſed of it are therefore ſtyled eloquent. among thoſe of the beſt taſte. Words may be conſidered as new Elocution is twofold; general and particular. The former in two reſpects either when they are firſt brought into a language, treats of the ſeveral properties and ornaments of language in com or when they are uſed in a new ſenſe. As the former of theſe may mon; the latter conſiders them as they are made uſe of to form ſometimes leave us in the dark by not being underſtood, ſo the lat- different ſorts of ſtyle. ter are moſt apt to miſlead us; for when we hear a word that has SECT. I. GENERAL ELOCUTION. been familiar to us, we are preſently led to fix that idea to it with This, according to rhetoricians, conſiſts of three parts ; Ele which it has uſually been attended. And therefore, in both caſes, gance, Compoſition, and Dignity. A diſcourſe which has all theſe ſome previous intimations may be neceſſary. Cicero, who perhaps properties ſuitably adjuſted, muſt, with reſpect to the language, be enlarged the furniture of the Roman tongue more than any one perfect in its kind, and delightful to the hearers. perſon beſides, appears always very cautious how he introduces Art. I.ELEGANCE.-- Elegance conſiſts in two things; Purity, any thing new, and generally gives notice of it when he attempts and Perſpicuity : And both theſe, as well with reſpect to ſingle it, as appears in many inſtances ſcattered through his works. words, as their conſtruction in ſentences. Theſe properties in But beſides thoſe things already mentioned, any miſtake in the language give it the name of elegant, for a like reaſon that we call ſenſe of words, or their conſtruction, is oppoſed to purity. For other things fo which are clean and neat in their kind. But in to ſpeak purely, is to ſpeak correctly. And ſuch is the nature of the common uſe of our tongue, we are apt to confound elegance theſe faults in elocution, that they are often not ſo eaſy to be ob- with eloquence ; and ſay, a diſcourſe is elegant, when we mean by ſerved by hearing as by reading. Whence it is, that many perforis the expreſſion, that it has all the properties of fine language. are thought to ſpeak better than they write ; for while they are By purity we are to underſtand the choice of ſuch words and ſpeaking, many ſlips and inaccuracies eſcape diſregarded, which phraſes as are ſuited and agreeable to the uſe of the language in in reading would preſently appear. And this is more eſpecially which we ſpeak: And ſo grammarians reduce the faults they op the caſe of perſons unacquainted with arts and literature ; who poſe to it to two forts, which they call barbariſm and foleciſm; the by the aſſiſtance of a lively fancy and flow of words, often ſpeak former of which reſpects ſingle words, and the latter their con with great eaſe and freedom, and by that means pleaſe the ear ; sk when. No. 121 A a ORATORY. when, at the ſame time, what they ſay, would not ſo well bear ART. II. COMPOSITION. reading. We ſhall oniy add, that a diſtinction ought likewiſe to COMPOSITION, in the ſenſe it is here uſed, gives rules for the be made between a poetic diction, and that of proſe writers. For ſtructure of ſentences, with the ſeveral members, words, and folla- poets in all languages have a ſort of peculiar dialect, and take bles, of which they conſiſt, in ſuch a manner as may beſt contribute greater liberties, not only in their figures, but alſo in their choice to the force, beauty, and evidence of the whole. Compoſition con- and diſpoſition of words ; ſo that what is a beauty in them would ſiſts chiefly of two parts, which rhetoricians call period and order. often appear unnatural and affected in profe. The firſt of theſe treats on the ſtructure of ſentences; the ſecond, Perfpicuity, as well as purity, conſiſts partly in ſingle words, of the parts of ſentences, which are words and members. and partly in their conſtruētion. PERIOD. As to ſingle words, thoſe are generally cleareſt and beſt under In every ſentence or propoſition, ſomething is ſaid of ſomething. ſtood which are uſed in their proper ſenſe. But it requires no ſmall | That of which ſomething is ſaid, logicians call the ſubject; aná attention and ſkill to be well acquainted with the force and pro that which is faidof it, the predicate: but in grammatical terms, the priety of words ; which ought to be duly regarded, ſince the former is a noun fubftantive of the nominative caſe, and the latter & perfpicuity of a diſcourſe depends ſo much upon it. Cæſar ſeems finite verb. Theſe two parts may of themſelves conſtitute a fen- plainly to have been of this mind, when he tells us, “ The foun tence: As when we ſay, The ſun ſhines, or The clock ſtrikes, the dation of eloquence confifts in the choice of words." It may not words ſun and clock are the ſubject in theſe expreſſions, ſhines and be amiſs, therefore, to lay down ſome few obſervations, by which Atrikes the predicate. But moſt commonly they are accompanied the diſtinct notions of words and their peculiar force may more with other words, which in grammatical conſtruction are faid eaſily be perceived. All words may be divided into proper words either to be connected with or to depend upon them; but in a and tropºs. Thoſe are called proper words, which are expreſſed in logical conſideration they denote ſome property or circumſtance their proper and uſual fenſe. And tropes are ſuch words as are relating to them. As in the following ſentence: A good man applied to ſome other thing than what they properly denote, by loves virtue for itſelf. The ſubject of this ſentence is, a good reaſon of fome ſimilitude, relation, or contrariety between the two man ; and the predicate, or thing affirmed of him, that he loves things. So, when a ſubtle artful man is called a fox, the reaſon virtue for itſelf . But the two principal or neceſſary words, on of the name is founded in a ſimilitude of qualities. If we ſay, Cicero which all the reſt depend, are, man and loves. Now a ſimple will always live, meaning his works, the cauſe is transferred to fentence conſiſts of one ſuch noun and verb, with whatever elſe the effect. And when we are told, Cafar conquered the Gauls, is joined to either or both of them. And a compound ſentence we underſtand that he did it with the aſſiſtance of his army; where contains two or more of them; and may be divided into ſo many a part is put for the whole, from the relation between them. And diſtinct propofitions, as there are ſuch nouns and verbs, either when Cicero calls Anthony a fine guardian of the ſtate every one expreffed or underſtood. So in the following ſentence, Compliance perceives he means the contrary. But the nature and uſe of tropes gains friends, but truth procures hatred, there are two members, will be explained more fully hereafter in thier proper place. All each of which contains in it an entire propofition. For Compli- words mult at firſt have had one original and primaryfignification, ance gains friends, is one complete fentence; and, Truth procures which, ſtrictly ſpeaking, may be called their proper Jenſe. But hatred, is another; which are connected into one compound ſene it ſometimes happens through length of time, that words loſe tence by the particle but. their original ſignification, and aſſume a new one, which then be As the principal art relating to this part of compoſition lies in the comes their proper ſenſe. So hoftis in the Latin tongue at firſt frame and ſtructure of fuch compound ſentences as are properly ſignified a ſtranger ; but afterwards that fenfe of the word was en called periods, we ſhall briefly treat upon them under this head. tirely laid aſide, and it was uſed to denote a public enemy. And In the formation of theſe periods, two things are chiefly to be re- in our language, it was well known, that the word knave ancient- garded; their length, and cadency. As the length ought to be ſuited ly ſignified a ſervant. The reaſon of the change ſeems to be much to the breath of the ſpeaker, the ancient rhetoricians ſcarce admit the ſame, as in that of the Latin word latro; which firſt ſignifi- of more than four colons; by which we may here underſtand com- ed a ſoldier, but afterwards a robber. Beſides, in all languages it has pound members of a moderate fize, which will be generally found frequently happened, that many words have gradually varied a ſuitable and proportionate length. For to extend them farther from their firſt ſenſe to others ſomewhat different; which may, than the voice can well manage, muſt be painful to the ſpeaker, and notwithſtanding, all of them, when rightly applied, be looked of conſequence unpleaſant to the hearers. As to the cadency, upon as proper. Nay, in proceſs of time, it is often difficult to what Cicero has obſerved is found true by experience, that the ears ſay which is the original, or moſt proper fenſe. judge what is full and what is deficient; and direct us to fill up our But perſpicuity ariſes not only from a choice of ſingle words, but periods, that nothing be wanting, of which they expect. When likewiſe from the conſtruction of them in ſentences. For the mean the voice is raiſed at the beginning of a ſentence, they are in ſuf- ing of all the words in a ſentence, conſidered by themſelves, may pence till it be finiſhed; and are pleaſed with a full and juſt ca- be very plain and evident; and yet, by reaſon of a diſorderly plac-- dency, but are ſenſible of any defect, and are diſpleaſed with re- ing them, or confuſion of the parts, the ſenſe of the whole may be dundancy. Therefore care muſt be taken that periods be neither very dark and obſcure. Nowit is certain, that the moſt natural or deficient, and as it were maimed, that is, that they do not drop der is the plaineit; that is, when both the words and parts of before their time, and defraud the ears of what ſeemed to be pro- fentence are ſo diſpoſed, as beſt agrees with their mutual relation miſed them; nor on the other hand offend them by too long and and dependence upon each other. And where this is changed, as immoderate excurſions. But as all diſcourſe is made of diſtinct is uſually done, eſpecially in the ancient languages, for the greater ſentences, ſo the uſe of periods is not promiſcuous, but ſuited to beauty and harmony of the periods; yet due regard ishad by the beſt anſwer different deſigns in ſpeaking. And in this view they are writers to the evidence and perſpicuity of the expreſſions. But to conſidered and made uſe of by the orator. ſet this ſubject in a clearer light, on which the perfection of lan- ORDER. guage fo much depends, we ſhall mention ſome few things which By order, rhetoricians mean the placing each word and mem- chiefly occaſion obfcurity; and this either with reſpect to ſingle ber of a ſentence in ſuch a manner as will moſt contribute to the words or their conſtruction. force, beauty, or evidence of the whole. Order is of two kinds, And firſt, all ambiguity of expreſſion is one cauſe of obſcurity. natural and artificial. This ſometimes ariſes from the different ſenfes in which a word is Artificial order, as it reſpects ſimple ſentences, has little or no capable of being taken. So we are told, that upon Cicero's addref- regard to the natural conſtruction of words ; but diſpoſes them in fing himſelf to Octavius Cæſar, when he thought himſelf in danger ſuch á manner, as will be moſt agreeable to the ear, and beſt an- from his reſentment, and reminding him of the many ſervices hehad ſwer the deſign of the ſpeaker. As to compound ſentences, that is, done him, Octavius replied, He came the laſt of his friends. But ſuch as conſiſt of two or more members, either ſimple, or com- there was a deſigned ambiguity in the word laſt, as it might either pounded, what relates to the words in each member ſeparately, reſpect the time of his coming, or the opinion he had of his friend is the ſame as in ſimple ſentences. But with regard to the diſpo- ſhip. And this uſe of ambiguous words we ſometimes meet with, ſition of the ſeveral members, that may be called the natural order, not only in poetry, where the turn and wit of an epigram often which ſo places them as they mutually depend on each other. ieſts upon it; but likewiſe in proſe, either for pleaſantry or ART. III. DIGNITY. ridicule. Dignity conſiſts in the right uſe of tropes and figures. It is Again, obſcurity is occafioned either by too ſhort and conciſe a not ſufficient for an orator to expreſs himſelf with propriety and manner of ſpeaking, or by fentences too long and prolix ; either clearneſs, or in ſmooth and harmonious periods; but his language of theſe extremes have ſometimes a bad conſequence. Another muſt likewiſe be ſuited to the nature and importance of the ſubject. cauſe of obſcurity, not inferior to any yet mentioned, is parentheſis, | And therefore, as elegance gives rules for the firſt of theſe, and com- when it is either too long or too frequent. This of Cicero, in poſition for the ſecond; ſo does dignity for the laſt of them. Tropes his oration for Sylla, is longer than we uſually find in him: “O and figures are diſtinguiſhed from each other in ſeveral reſpects. immortal gods! (for I muſt attribute to you what is your own ; Tropes moſt affect ſingle words, but figures whole fentences. A nor indeed can I claim ſo much to my own abilities, as to have trope conveys two ideas to the mind by means of one word; but a been able of myſelf to go through ſo many, fo great, ſuch different figure throws the ſentence into a different form from the common affairs, with that expedition, in that boiſterous tempeſt of the and uſual manner of expreſſion. Beſides, tropes are chiefly de- ſtate), you infiamed my mind with a deſire to ſave my country.” | ſigned to repreſent our thoughts; but figures our paſſions. But where any obfcurity ariſes from ſuch ſentences, they may TROPES frequently be remedied by ſeparating the parentheſis from the reſt A trope as it has been uſually defined, is, the change of a word of the ſentence, and placing it either before or after. from its proper ſignification to ſome other with advantage. The words a ORATORY. words, with advantage, are added in the definition, becauſe a trope are eſteemed the fineſt and ſtrongeſt, which give life and action fa ought not to be choſen, unleſs there is ſome good reaſon for uſing it inanimate things. The reaſon of which is, becauſe they do as it rather than the proper word. But in what manner, or how far, it were invigorate all nature, introduce new forms of beings, and re- can be ſaid of all tropes in general, that they change the proper preſent their images to the fight, which of all the f nfes is the fignification of words, will beſt appear by conſidering the nature of quickeſt, moſt active, and yet moſt unwearied. Câre muſt be taken each kind of them ſeparately. Now in every trope a reference is not to venture upon too bold and daring metaphors. Poets indeed had to two things, which occaſionstwo ideas, one of the things ex claim greater liberty in this reſpect, whoſe view is often to amuſe, preſſed, and another to that thing to which it has a reſpect, and is terrify, or delight, by heightening the juſt and natural images of fupplied by the mind. For all tropes are taken either from things things. But it is expected the orator ſhould reaſon coolly, though internally related, as the whole and a part; or externally, as caufe ſtrongly and forcibly; and not by theatrical repreſentations ſo and effect, ſubject and adjunct; or from ſome ſimilitude that is tranſport the mind, as to take it off from reflection, unleſs per- found between them; or from a contrariety. The firſt of theſe is haps on ſome particular occaſion. And yet on the other hand, called fynecdoche, the ſecond metonymy, the third metaphor, and the metaphors ought not to ſink below the dignity of what they are laſt irony. We ſhall explain theſe hereafter. But though in reality deſigned to expreſs; but the idea they convey ſhould at leaſt be there are but four kinds of tropes, which are diſtinguiſhed by ſo equal to the proper word in the place of which they are ſubſti- many different reſpects which things bear one to another; yet as tuted. All forced and harſh metaphors ſhould be avoided, the one theſe ſeveral reſpects are found in a variety of ſubjects, and attended being no leſs diſagreeable to the mind than the other to the ear. with different circumſtances, the name of tropes have from hence Nor ſhould they come too thick in a diſcourſe. In a word, they been greatly multiplied. And for diſtinction fake we ſhall call the ought not to be uſed, but either where a proper word is wanting, former primary, and the latter ſecondary, tropes. Wenow proceed or they are more ſignificant or beautiful than the proper word. to conſider the reaſons which have occaſioned the introduction of 2. Metonymy. This, as defined by Quintilian, is, the putting tropes. And theſe, as Quintilian obſerves, are three, neceſity, one word for another, But Voflius defcribes it more fully, when emphaſis, and beauty. he calls it “A trope, which changes the names of things that are Tropes were firſt introduced from neceſity, becauſe no language naturally united, but in ſuch a manner as that one is not of the contains a fufficient number of proper words to expreſs all the dif eſſence of the other.” When it is ſaid, to put one word for ano- ferent conceptions of our minds. The mind conſiders the ſame ther, or to change the names of things, the meaning is, that the thing various ways; views it in different lights ; compares it with word ſo uſed changes its fenſe, and denotes fomething different other things ; and obſerves their ſeveral relations and affections ; from its proper ſignification. Thus, when Mars is put for war, wherein they agree, and in what they differ. From all which re and Ceres for corn, they loſe their perſonal fenſe, and ſtand for the flections, it is furniſhed with almoſt an infinite number of ideas; effects of which thoſe deities were ſaid to be the cauſe. So like- which cannot all of them be diſtinguiſhed and expreſſed by proper wiſe. when Virgil ſays, words, ſince new ones occur daily. He drank the frothing bowl, A fecond reaſon abovementioned for the uſe of tropes was, em the word bowl muſt neceffarily ſignify the liquor in the bowl. Me- phaſis. Tropes often expreſs things with greater force and evi- tonymies are very uſeful in language; for they enrich a diſcourſe dence, than can be done by proper words. We receive much the with an agreeable variety, and give both force and beauty to an ex- greater part of our knowledge by our ſenſes. And fimilitudes taken preſſion. Metonymies are commonly diſtinguiſhed into four kinds, from ſenſible things, as in metaphors, very much aſſiſt the mind in from the different manner in which things are naturally, but ex- its reflections upon thoſe things which do not come under the cog- | ternally, united to one another. Now things are thus united, or nizance of our ſenſes. Nay, fometimes one bright and lively trope one thing depends upon another, either with reſpect to its produc- ſhall convey a fuller and more juſt idea of a thing, than a large tion, or in the manner of its exiſtence when produced. In the for- periphrafis. So when Virgil calls the Scipios two thunderbolts of mer way the effect depends upon its cauſe, and in the latter the war, he gives a more lively image of the rapid force and ſpeedy adjunct upon its ſubject. And henceariſe four ſorts of metonymies, fucceſs of their arms, than could have been conveyed by a long which receive their names from the cauſe and effect, the ſubjeet and defcription in plain words. But beauty and ornament have been the adjunét. It is called a metonymy of the cauſe, when the external another cauſe of the uſe of tropes. Some ſubjects require a more cauſe is put for the effect. The external cauſe is two fold, the agent florid and elegant dreſs than others. When we deſcribe or ap and end, which are uſually called the efficient and final cauſe. Of plaud, ornaments of ſpeech, and a gaiety of expreſſion are requi the former kind are ſuch metonymies, where the inventor or au- ſite. And it is the buſineſs of an orator to entertain his hearers thor is put for what was invented or effected by him. Thus, as we at the ſame time that he inſtructs them. Now Cicero, who was ſaid before, Ceres is fometimes put for corn, the uſe of which ſhe an admirable judge of the force and power of eloquence, has ob was ſaid firſt to have introduced; and Mars for war, over which ſerved, that tropical expreſſions give the mind the greateſt delight he was thought to preſide. The ſecond kind of metonymy puts the and entertainment. “I have often wondered, (ſays he), why tropes effect for the efficient cauſe, whether the agent, or only the means ſhould give greater pleaſure than proper words. I imagine the and iſtrument. So Virgil calls the two Scipios the deſtruction of reafon muſt be, either that there is an appearance of wit in neg Lybia, becauſe they were the agents who effected it. And Horace lecting what is at hand, and making choice of ſomething at a compliments his patron Mæcenas with the titles of being his guard diſtance; or that the hearer is furniſhed with a different thought, and honour; that is, hisguardian, and the author of his honour. But without being led into a miſtake, which affords a very agreeable when Cicero tells the citizens of Rome, that the death of Cladius pleaſure; or that a whole ſimilitude is conveyed to the mind by a was their ſafety, he means the occaſion only of their ſafety. In fingle word; or that, particularly in the beſt and moſt lively meta theſe inſtances, the effect is put for the efficient cauſe. The third phors, the image is preſented to our ſight, which is the quickeſt of kind of metonymy is, when the ſubject is put for the adjunct. By our ſenſes.” And therefore he ſuppoſes, that “as garments were ſubject here, in a large ſenſe of the word, may be underſtood that firſt invented from neceſſity, to ſecure us from the injuries of the wherein ſome other thing is contained, or about which it is con- weather, but improved afterwards for ornament and diſtinction; ſo verſant; as likewiſe the poffeffor with reſpect to the thing he pof- the poverty of language firſt introduced tropes, which were after feffes; and the thing ſignified, when put for the ſign of it. Now, wards increaſed for delight." As a moderate uſe of tropes, juſtly by the firſt of theſe ways of ſpeaking, the ſeat of any faculty or applied, beautifies and enlivens a diſcourſe; ſo an exceſs of them affection, is uſed for the faculty or affection itſelf. So it is uſual cauſes obſcurity, by running it into abftrufe allegories and riddles. to ſay, a man of a clear head, when we mean a clear mind or un- Tropes are not the common and ordinary dreſs of our thoughts, derſtanding; the ſeat of the mind being in the head. In like but a foreign habit: and therefore he who fills his diſcourſe with manner, the place where any actions are performed, is put for a continued ſeries of them, ſeems to act like one who appears in the actions done in it. As when Cicero ſays, “Do not always public in a ſtrange dreſs, which no man of character would chooſe think of the forum, the benches, the roſtra, and the fenate;' to do. meaning the diſcourſes which were uſually made in thoſe places. PRIMARY TROPES. So likewiſe the country, or place of reſidence, is put for the in- Metaphor. A metaphor, as uſually defined, is: A trope, which habitants, as in that paſſage of Cicero: “And to omit Greece, changes words from their proper ſignification to another different which always claimed pre-eminence for eloquence, and Athens, from it, by reaſon of ſome ſimilitude between them. A word, when the inventreſs of all ſciences, where the art of ſpeaking was uſed metaphorically, does not alter its ſignification, but retains its invented and perfected; in this city of ours, (meaning Rome), proper ſenſe. In every ſimilitude three things are requiſite: two no ſtudies have prevailed more than that of eloquence." Where things that are compared together; and a third, in which the ſimi the words Greece and Athens ſtand to denote the inhabitants of litude or likeneſs between them conſiſts. And therefore, to keep thoſe places. The fourth kind of metonymy is that wherein the to this example, when Horace calls a Roman ſoldier a lion, if the adjunct is put for the ſubject, which is done in the ſame variety word lion did not contain its proper ſenſe, there could be no fimili of ways as the former. It is therefore a metonymy of the adjunct, tude; becauſe there would not be two things to be compared toge when the thing contained is put for that which contains it. As ther with reſpect to a third, which is neceffary in every ſimilitude, when Virgil ſays, “They lie down upon purple;” that is, upon and was deſigned by this expreſſion. The real difference between couches dyed with purple. And again, “They crown the wine;' a metaphor and a fimilitude conſiſts in this; that a metaphor has meaning the bowl which contained the wine, it being the cuſtom not thoſe ſigns of compariſon which are cxpreffed in a ſimilitude. of the ancients to deck their bowls with garlands at their enter- The uſe of metaphors is very extenſive, as large as univerſal na tainments. By theſe tropes likewiſe virtues and vices are put for ture. For there are ſcarce any two things which have not ſome the perſons in whom they are found. As in that beautiful paſ- fimilitude between them. As to the choice of metaphors, thoſe | fage of Cicero, where, comparing the profligate army of Cataline with ORATORY. in treating SECONDARY TROPES. with the forces of the ſtate, he ſays, “On this fide modeſty is engaged, on that impudence; on this chaſtity, on that lewdneſs; Secondary Tropes are ſo called, becauſe they are all of the ſame on this integrity, on that deceit; on this piety; on that profane nature with the former, and may be referred to ſome or other of neſs; on this conſtancy, on that fury; on this honour, on that them, though they have received different names. They are chiefly baſeneſs; on this moderation, on that unbridled paſſion; in a eightin number; Antonomaſia, Communication, Litotes, Euphemiſm. word, equity, temperance, fortitude; prudence, and all virtues, Catachrelis, Hyperbole, Metalepſis, and Allegory. The three firitof theſe are ſimple tropes, and may all be referred to a Synecdoche, engage with injuſtice, luxury, cowardice, raſhneſs, and all vices.? But the five laſt are of a mixed or complex nature, and not con- And to this trope thoſe expreſſions are to be referred, in which appear any thing is put for the object about which it is converſant. Laſtly, | fined to any one of the primary tropes; as will by this metonymy, the ſign is put for the thing it ſignifies; as, upon them in order. When any diſpleaſing or ungrateful thing the ſceptre for the regal dignity, and the ſword for the authority is expreſſed by a more ſoft and agreeable word, it is called eupbe of the magiſtrate. miſm. And as the word made uſe of is either contrary to the 3. Synecdoche. This is a trope by which either the whole of a proper word, or only different from it, it may be referred to differ- thing is put for a part of it, or a part for the whole; ſo that the ent tropes. The Latins have a ſoft way of expreſſing their difre. two things, whoſe ideas are preſented to the mind in this trope, gard to a perſon by ſaying valeat ; which we have borrowed from are internally related to each other : And thus rhetoric is an in- them, and ſay, fare him well. When the contrary being intended tegral whole in reſpect to the four parts that compoſe it, namely, to what is expreſſed, it comes properly under an irony. Catachren invention, diſpoſition, elocution, and pronunciation. So like-ſis ſignifies any harſh trope, though it is moſt commonly found wiſe any aggregate body, as a civil community, which is diviſible in metaphors. It is principally uſed by poets, who make choice into thoſe who govern and are governed; or any army, conſiſting of it for novelty, or to enforce an expreſſion, where the proper of the general, and his ſoldiers. As an whole therefore, in each word does not ſeem ſtrong enough. As when Milton, in deſcrib- of theſe acceptations of the word, is frequently put for a part, ing the angel Raphael's deſcent from heaven, fays, he and a part for the whole; hence ariſes fix ſpecies or forts of fy- Sails between worlds and worlds; necdoche. The firſt of theſe puts the genus for the ſpecies. where the novelty of the word enlivens the image more than if he Thus, virtue in general is ſometimes uſed to denote ſome parti- | had ſaid flies. Hyperbole is the boldeſt of all tropes; for it exceeds cular fort of virtue. The ſecond kind of fynecdoche puts the the ſtrict bounds of truth, and repreſents things either greater or ſpecies for the genus. Thus bread denotes any kind of food; as leſs, better or worſe, than they really are. But the repreſentation when a perſon is ſaid to get his bread by his labour. The third is made in ſuch a manner as not to impoſe on the hearers. For ſpecies of this trope is, when the eſſential whole is put for one of an hyperbole is not uſed to define or deſcribe any thing accurately, its parts; that is, either for the matter or form. Thus, in the but only to magnify or depreſs it in a conſiderable degree, when evangelift, Mary Magdalen ſays, They have taken away my Lord, we either cannot or do not chooſe to repreſent it exactly. The and I know not where they have laid him; meaning his body. So exceſs in this trope is called auxeſis ; as when we ſay of any thing it is uſual to ſay of a deceaſed perſon, He was buried at ſuch a that is very high, it reaches to the ſkies. The defect, or contrary time. The fourth kind of fynecdoche is, when either the matter extreme, is termed meioſis : So we ſay of a very lean perfon, he is or form is put for the who'e being. Thus ſilver and gold are uſed nothing but ſkin and bones, or a mere ſkeleton. It is principally me- to ſignify money made of thoſe metals ; as when we ſay, I have taphorical, but ſometimes taken from other tropes. Sometimes so much ſilver, or ſo much gold. And the word ſoul, both in our two or more tropes, and thoſe of a different kind, are contained own and other languages is put for the whole perſon. By the fifth under one word, ſo that ſeveral gradations, or intervening ſenſes, fort of fynecdoche, the whole of any material thing or quantity, come between the word that is expreſſed, and the thing deſigned whether continued or diſcrete is put for a part of it. So when | by it. And this is called a metalepſis. The conteſts between Sylla Cicero ſays, A war is kindled through the whole world; in com and Marius proved very fatal to the Roman ſtate. Julius Cæfar pliment to his country he calls the Roman empire the world. was then a young man. But Sylla obſerving his aſpiring genius, And this expreſſion is alſo uſed by hiſtorians. Thus Cornelius ſaid of bim, “ " In one Cæfar there are many Mariuſes.” In this Nepos, ſpeaking of the quarrel between Mark Anthony and Au- expreſſion there is a metalepfis. Allegory. As a metalepfis com- guftus, tells us, that each of them deſired to be lord of the world. priſesſe veral tropes in one word, ſo this is a continuation of feve- And in like manner St. Luke ſays, There went out a decree from ral tropes in one or more ſentences. Thus Cicero ſays, « For- Cæfar Auguſtus, that all the world ſhould be taxed. The ſixth tune provided you no field, inwhich your virtue could run and dif- and laſt kind of fynecdoche puts a part of any material thing or play itſelf:” When the words field and run are metaphors taken quantity for the whole of it. So we ſay of a man, He Shelters from corporeal things, and applied to the mind. Allegories gene- himſelf under ſuch an one's roof; that is, in his houſe. And of rally conſiſt of metaphors: which being the moſt beautiful trope, a fleet, that it conſiſts of ſo many fail; meaning ſo many ſhips. And a number of them well choſen and put together is one of the fineſt to this kind of fynecdoche may alſo be referred ſuch expreſſions in and brighteſt ornaments in language, and exceeds a ſingle meta- which the fingular number is put for the plural ; as if one ſhould phor in luſtre, as a conſtellation does a ſeparate ftar fay, man is liable to be miſled by the influence of irregular paſions; FIGURES. meaning all men, or mankind in general. Or when leſs than the The term figure ſeems to have been borrowed from the ſtage, real number is put for any round number. Thus ſome ancient where the different habits and geſtures of the actors, ſuitable to writers, when they ſpeak of the Grecianarmada which came againſt the ſeveral characters they ſuſtained, were by the Greeks called Troy, call it a fleet of a thouſand ſhips; though, according to synuals, and by the Latins figure : And it is not unuſual with us Homer's lift, it contained 1186. And ſo likewiſe the Greek to ſay of a perſon, both with reſpect to his dreſs and action, that interpreters of the Old Teſtament are uſually called the Seventy; he makes a very bad, or a very graceful; figure. And as language whereas in reality they were ſeventy-two. is the dreſs, as it were, of our thoughts, in which they appear and 4. Irony. This is a trope in which one contrary is ſignified by are repreſented to others; fo any particular manner of ſpeaking, another: As if any one ſhould ſay, well done; when at the ſame may in a large ſenſe of the word be called its figure, in which la- time his deſign is to intimate that the thing was ill done. So that titude writers ſometimes uſe it. But rhetoricians have reſtrained by this manner of expreſſion, the ſpeaker appears to mean fome the ſenſe of the word to ſuch forms of ſpeech as differ from the thing contrary to the ſenſe of the word he makes uſe of. Not that more common and ordinary ways of expreſſion; as the theatrical the word is changed from its uſual ſignification; but by the cir- habits of actors, and their deportment on the ſtage, are different cumſtances attending the expreſſion, we perceive the contrary to from their uſual garb and behaviour atother times. A figure there- what is ſpoken is intended. fore, in the ſenſe it is uſed by rhetoricians, is, A mode of Speaking The ſubjects of irony are vices and follies of all kinds. And this different from, and more beautiful and emphatical than, the ordi- way of expoſing them is often more effectual than ſerious reaſoning: nary and uſual way of expreſſing the ſame ſerle. It muſt contain for many perſons, who, either from temper or want of reflection, ſome beauty, or expreſs ſome paſſion, to merit a place among rhe- cannot be moved by the force of an argument, are not proof againſt torical figures, and to be marked out for imitation. Ariſtotle, the poignancy of wit and raillery. And therefore we find the moſt who treats fo accurately upon other parts, ſays very little of this. grave and ſerious perſons have not declined the uſe of this trope But the Greek writers who came after him have abundantly fup- upon proper occafions. Socrates, whom the oracle pronounced the plied that deficiency. It is to them we owe the chief obſervati- wiſeſt man of his age, gave fo much into it, that he got the name ons, that have been made on this ſubject. Indeed they have of elpwv, that is, the droll. In the ſacred writings we have a re treated the matter with that minuteneſs and fubtilty that Quin- markable inſtance of it in the prophet Elijah, where he challenges tilian ſeems, not without reaſon, to think they nave multiplied the prieſt of Baal to prove the truth of his deity: for it is ſaid | figures to an exceſs. But though it was ſo late before they were expreſsly, “ He mocked them, and ſaid, Cry aloud, for he is a taken notice of, and introduced into the art of ſpeaking; yet the god; either he is talking, or he is purſuing, or he is on a journey, uſe of them in diſcourſe was doubtleſs very ancient. The author or peradventure he ſleepeth, and muſt be waked.” And Solomon of Homer's life, which ſome have aſcribed to Plutarch, has ſhewr, takes the like method to expoſe the follies of youth by this ironi- by examples taken out of him, that there is ſcarce a figure menti cal apoſtrophe, “Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth,” with what oned by rhetoricians, but is to be met with in that moſt ancient follows, which is all ironical. Nay, our Saviour himſelf thought poet. And, if we conſider the nature of ſpeech, we ſhall eaſily fit thus to reprove the Jewiſh doctors, when he ſays, “ Full well ye perceive that mankind muſt have been under a neceſſity very early reject the commandment of God, that ye may keep your own tra to introduce the uſe of tropes for ſupplying the want of proper dition:" Where, by the words full well, or, as it is in the original, words to expreſs their ſimple ideas: ſo the like neceflity muſt have axws, it is very evident that a ſevere reprimand was intended. put them upon the uſe of figures to repreſent their different paſſions. Though ORA TOR Y. ger, Now as Though both of them were afterwards increaſed, and improved | of fuch writings from the words and manner of expreſſion which in ſuch a manner as to become the chief ornaments of language. have been in uſe at different times. And we may often obſerve in The paſſions of men have been always the ſame ; they are im perſons a fondneſs for ſome particular words and phraſes; and a planted in us by nature, and we are all taught to diſcover them by peculiarity in the turn or connection of their ſentences, or in their the ſame ways. When the mind is difturbed, we ſhew it by our tranſitions from one thing to another; by which their ſtyle may countenance, by our actions, and by our words. Fear, joy, an be known, even when they deſign to conceal it. For theſe things, alter the countenance, and occaſion different 'emotions and through cuſtom and habit, will ſometimes drop from them, not- geſtures of the whole body. And we know with what paſſion a withſtanding the greateſt caution to prevent it. man is affected, by hearing his words, though we do not ſee him. Different countries have not only a different language, but like- He does not expreſs himſelf as he uſually does at other times when wiſe a peculiarity of ſtyle ſuited to their temper and genius. The cool and fedate. Objects appear to him in a different view, and eaſtern nations had a lofty and majeſtic way of ſpeaking. Their therefore he cannot but ſpeak of them in a different way. He in words are full and fonorous, their expreffions ſtrong and forcible, terrogates, he exclaims, he admires, he appeals, he invokes, he and warmed with the moſt lively and moving figures. This is very threatens, he recals his words, repeats them, and by many other evident from the Jewiſh writings in the Old Teſtament, in which different turns of expreſſion varies his ſpeech, no leſs than his we find a moſt agreeable mixture of fimplicity and dignity. On countenance, from his common and ordinary manner. the contrary, the ſtyle of the more northern languages generally nature ſeems to teach us by theſe figurative expreſſions how to partakes of the chilneſs of their climate. " There is,” ſays Mr. repreſent the different commotions of our minds, hence ſome have Addiſon, “ a certain coldneſs and indifference in the phraſes of thought fit to call figures the language of the paſions. And as theſe our European languages, when they are compared with the oriental are given us, among other wiſe ends, to excite us the better to forms of ſpeech. And it happens very luckily, that the Hebrew provide for our preſervation and ſafety, this is done ſometimes by | idioms run into the Engliſh tongue with a peculiar grace and force of arms, and at other times by diſcourſe. And therefore beauty. Our language has received innumerable elegancies and Cicero very properly compares the conduct of an orator to the improvements from that infufion of Hebraiſms, which are derived exerciſes of the palæſtru: in which, as each combatant endea to it out of the poetical paſſages in holy writ. They give a force vours not only to defend himſelf and attack his adverſary, but of energy to our expreſſions, warm and animate our language, likewiſe to do both with decency; ſo the principal weapons of an and convey our thoughts in more ardent and intenſe phraſes than orator, as he repreſents them, are figures, which being no leſs the any that are to be met with in our own tongue. There is ſome- ornaments of language than images of our paſſions, anſwer all thing ſo pathetic in this kind of diction, that it often ſets the theſe purpoſes. Beſides, figures chiefly diſtinguiſh the different mind in a flame, and makes our hearts burn within us.'' kinds of ſtyle, furniſh it with an agreeable variety, and often ſerve Again, people of different nations vary in their cuſtoms and to repreſent things in a clear and forcible manner. From this manners, which occaſions a diverſity in their ſtyle. This was fhort account of the nature of figures, the advantage of them to very remarkable in the Attics, Afiatics, and Rhodians, and is an orator is very evident. They are a ſort of natural eloquence, often taken notice of by ancient writers. The Athenians, while which every one falls into without attending to it, ſuitably to that they continued a free ſtate, were an active, induſtrious, and fru- temper of mind with which he is affected himſelf, and is deſirous gal people ; very polite, and cultivated arts and ſciences beyond to affect others. Figures are peculiarly ſerviceable to an orator any other nation : but as they had powerful enemies, and were for anſwering many different intentions. And as he finds them in exceeding jealous of their liberties, this preſerved them from life, from thence he muſt copy them ; as a painter does the fea wantonneſs and luxury. And their way of ſpeaking was agree- tures of the countenance, and the ſeveral parts of the body; figures able to their conduct ; accurate and cloſe, but very full and ex. being to the one, what lines and colours are to the other. We preſſive. The Aſiatics, on the other hand, were more gay and ſhall now proceed to lay down a few directions for the proper uſe looſe in their manners, devoted to luxury and pleaſure; and ac- of figures. And firſt they ſhould always be accommodated to the cordingly they affected a florid and ſwelling ſtyle, filled with re- ſentiments, and riſe in proportion to the images deſigned to be dundancies and ſuperfluities of expreſſion. conveyed by them. So far as they are founded in reaſon, they are If we take a view of our own tongue, Chaucer ſeems to have fuited to impreſs the mind; but where the language outſtrips the been the firſt who made any conſiderable attempts to cultivate it. thought, though it may pleaſe the ear, and ſome weak perſons And whoever looks into him, will perceive the difference to be ſo may be carried away with a pomp of words, yet an intelligent great from what it is at preſent, that it ſcarce appears to be the hearer will focn ſee through the thin and airy dreſs. It is the fame language. The gradual improvements it has ſince received, fenſe which gives weight to the figure, as that by ſtriking the are very evident in the writers almoſt of every ſucceeding age ſince imagination awakens the mind, and excites it to act in conformity that time; and how much farther it may be ſtill carried, time only to reaſon. But, the tow frequent uſe of figures ought to be avoided. can diſcover. But the chief diſtinction of ſtyle ariſes from the dif- For what was obſerved in relation to tropes, is alſo true with re ferent ſubjects or matter of diſcourſe. The ſame way of ſpeaking fpect to theſe; that a great number of them is apt to darken and no more ſuits all ſubjects than the ſame garment would all perſons. obſcure the ſtyle. Laſtly, figures ſhould be fo interwoven with a A prince and a peaſant ought not to have the ſame dreſs; and diſcourſe, as not to render the ſtyle rough and uneven, ſometimes another different from both becomes thoſe of a middle ſtation in high, and at other times low : now dry and jejune, then pompous life. The ſtyle therefore ſhould always be adapted to the nature and florid. In a word, they thould rather ſeem to ariſe from na of the ſubject, which rhetoricians have reduced to three ranks or ture than art; to offer themſelves, than to be the effect of ſtudy ; | degrees ; the low or plain ſtyle, the middle or temperate, and the and to appear not like patches upon a face, but the agreeable lofty or ſublime: Which are likewiſe called characters, becauſe beauty of a found and healthy complexion. they denote the quality of the ſubject upon which they treat. It SECT. 11. PARTICULAR ELOCUTION. ſeldom happens that the ſame perſon excels in each of theſe cha- Or that part of Elocution which conſiders the ſeveral Properties racters. They ſeem to require a different genius, and moſt people and Ornaments of Language as they are made uſe of to form are naturally led to one of them more than another ; though all different ſorts of Style. of them are requiſite for an orator upon different occafions. Art. I. Of Style, and its different Characters. ART. II. THE LOW STYLE. The word ſtyle, properly ſignifies the inſtrument which the an This we ſhall conſider under two heads, thoughts and language ; cients uſed in writing. For as they commonly wrote upon thin in each of which theſe ſeveral characters are diſtinguiſhed from beards covered over with wax, and ſometimes upon the barks of one another. With reſpect to the former, as the ſubjects proper trees, they made uſe of a long inſtrument like a bodkin, pointed at for this ſtyle are either common things, or ſuch as ſhould be treated one end, with which they cut their letters; and broad at the other, in a plain and familiar way ; ſo plain thoughts are moſt ſuitable to to eraſe any thing they choſe to alter. And this the Latins called it, and diſtinguiſh it from the other characters. By plain thoughts Stylus. But though this be the firſt ſenſe of the word, yet after are meant ſuch as are ſimple and obvious, and ſeem to riſe natu- wards it came to denote the manner of expreſſion. In which ſenſe rally from the ſubject, when duly conſidered ; ſo that anyone, up- we likewiſe uſe it, by the ſame kind of trope which we call any on firſt hearing them, would be apt to imagine they muſt have one's writing his hand. The reaſons which occaſion a variety of occurred to himſelf. Not that this is really the caſe, but becauſe ſtyle are principally theſe. Since both ſpeech and writing areonly the more natural a thing is, the more eaſy it ſeems to be; though ſenſible expreſſions of our thoughts, by which we communicate in reality it is often otherwiſe ; and the perfection of art lies in them to others; as all men think more or leſs differently, fo con its neareſt reſemblance to nature. Therefore, in order to ſpeak fequently they in ſome meaſure differ in their ſtyle. No two per- | plainly and clearly upon any ſubject, it muſt firſt be duly confi- fons, who were to write upon one ſubject, would make uſe of all dered, wellunderſtood, and thoroughly digeſted in the mind; which the ſame words. And were this poſſible, yet they would as cer though it require labour and ſtudy, yet the more a perſon is maf- tainly differ in their order and connection as two painters, who ter of what he ſays, the leſs that labour will appear in his diſ- uſed the ſame colours in painting the ſame picture, would necef- courſe. This natural plainneſs and fimplicity, without any dif- vary their mixture and diſpoſition of them, in the ſeveral guiſe or affectation, very much contributes to give credit to what gradations of lights and ſhades. As every painter therefore has is ſaid. Nor is any thing more apt to impoſe on us than the ap- fomething peculiar in his manner, ſo has every writer in his ſtyle. pearance of this, when artfully affumed. But there are two pro- It is from theſe internal characters, in a good meaſure, that critics perties of plain thoughts, one of which ought conſtantly to attend undertake to diſcover the true authors of anonymous writings ; | them in common with all thoughts, and the other is often neceſſary and to thew that others are ſpurious, and not the genuine produc- to animate and enliven this character: The former of theſe is tions of thoſe whoſe names they bear; as they judge of the age I juſtneſs and propriety, which is what reaſon dictates in all caſes. Bb The ſarily No. 122. ORA TOR Y. tor. “ You had (ſays be The other property which ſhould often accompany plain and was a fine character given of Grotius, when very young, on the fimplethoughts, is, thatthey be gay and ſprightly. This is neceſ account of his ſurpriſing genius and uncommon proficiency in ſary to animate and enliven ſuch diſcourſes as require the low learning, that he was born a man. As if nature, at his cominginte ſtyle. The fewer ornaments it admits of, the greater fpirit and the world, had at once furniſhed him with thoſe endowments vivacity is requiſite to prevent its being dry and jejune. A thought which others gradually acquire by ſtudy and application. The may be very briſk and lively, and at the ſame time appear very laſt property of a fine thought, which we ſhall take notice of, is natural, as the effect of a ready and flowing wit. Such thoughts, novelty. Mankind are naturally pleaſed with new things; and attended with agreeable turns, are very ſuitable to this ſtyle ; but when at the fame time they are ſet in an agreeable light, this very care Thould be taken, left, while fancy is too much indulged, the much heightens the pleaſure. Indeed there are few ſubjects but juſtneſs of them be overlooked. With reſpect to the language pro- what have been ſo often conſidered, that it is not to be expected per for this ſtyle, it may be obſerved in general, that the dreſs they ſhould afford many thoughts entirely new ; but the ſame ought to be agreeable to the thoughts, plain, ſimple, and unaffected. thought ſet in a different light, or applied to a different occaſion, But the firſt thing that comes under conſideration is elegance, or a has in ſome degree a claim of novelty. Cicero, in his treatiſe of proper choice of words and expreſſions; which ought always to an orator, among ſeveral other encomiums which he there gives ſuit the idea they are deſigned to convey. And purity, both in the to Craffus, fays of him: “ Craſſus always excelled every other choice of words and expreſſions, is never more neceſſary than it is perfon, but that day he excelled himſelf.” He means as an ora- here. This may be called neatneſs in language. And to be plain But elſewhere he applies the ſame thought to Cæſar, upon and neat at the ſame time, is not only very conſiſtent, but the for another account; and with ſome addition to it. mer can to other way recommend itſelf, than as joined with the he) before conquered all other conquerors by your equity and cle- latter. The next thing to be regarded is compoſition, which here mency, but to-day you have conquered yourſelf: you ſeem to does not require the greateſt accuracy and exactneſs. A ſeeming have vanquiſhed even victory herſelf, therefore you alone are truly negligence is ſometimes beautiful in this ſtyle, as it appears more invincible.” This thought, with a little variation of the phraſe, natural. Short ſentences, or thoſe of a moderate length, are like has ſince appeared in ſeveral late writers ; and it is now grown wiſe upon the whole beſt ſuited to this character. Long and accu common to ſay of a perſon, who excels in any way, upon his do- rate periods, finely wrought up with a gradual riſe, harmonious ing better than he did before, that he has outdone himſelf. As numbers, a due proportion of the ſeveral parts, and a juſt cadency, to the language proper for the middle ſtyle, in general, it may are therefore improper, as they are plainly the effect of art. As obſerved, that as the proper ſubjects of it are things of weight and to order, the plaineſt and cleareſt diſpoſition, both of the words importance, though not of that exalted nature as wholly to capti- and members of ſentences, and what is moſt agreeable to the vate the mind and divert it from attending to the diction ; fo all natural conſtruction, beſt ſuits with this character. For one of the ornaments of ſpeech, and beauties of eloquence, have place its principal beauties is perfpicuity. And a proper connection here. With regard to elegance, it is plain that a different choice likewiſe of ſentences, with a regular order in the dependence of of words makes a very great difference in the ſtyle, where the ſenſe things one upon another, very much contributes to this end. is the fame. Sometimes one ſingle word adds a grace and weight A freedom and eaſe both of thought and expreſſion, attended with to an expreſſion, which, if removed, the ſenſe becomes flat and an agreeable humour and pleaſantry, are its peculiar beauties that lifeleſs. Now ſuch words as are moſt full and expreſſive, fuit beſt engage us. As we fee perſons of faſhion and good breeding, with this character. Epithets alſo, which are proper and well che- though in the plaineſt habit, have yet ſomething in their air and fen, ferve very much to beautify and enliven it, as they enlarge manner of behaviour that is very taking and amiable. Some the ideas of things, and ſet them in a fuller light. The moſt ac- what of the like nature attends this ſtyle. It has its difficulties, curate compoſition, in all the parts of it, has place here. Periods, which are not ſo eaſily diſcerned, but from experience. For it the moſt beautiful and harmonious, of a due length, and wrought requires no ſmall ſkill, to treat a common ſubject in ſuch a man up with the moſt exact order, juſt cadency, eaſy and ſmooth con- ner as to make it entertaining. The fewer ornaments it admits nexion of the words, and flowing numbers, are the genuine orna- of, the greater art is neceſſary to attain this end. Lofty ſubjects ments which greatly contribute to this character. But the princi- often engage and captivate the mind by the ſublimity of the pal diſtinction of ſtyle ariſes from tropes and figures. By theſe it ideas ; and the forid ſtyle calls in all the aſſiſtance of language is chiefly animated and raiſed to its different degrees or characters, and eloquence. But the plain ſtyle is in great meaſure ſtripped as it receives a leſſer or greater number of them ; and thoſe either of thoſe advantages; and has little more to recommend it, than more mild, or ſtrong and powerful. As to tropes, thoſe which af- its own native beauty and fimplicity. ford the moſt lively and pleaſing ideas, eſpecially metaphors, ſuir ART. III. THE MIDDLE STYLE. the middle character. It is a pretty remark, which has been made This we ſhall treat in the ſame manner as we did the former, | by fome critics, upon two verſes of Virgil; one in his Eclogues, by conſidering firſt the mutter, and then the language proper for and the other in his Georgics. The former of theſe works is for the it. As the ſubjects proper for this ſtyle are things of weight and moſt parts written in the low ſtyle ; as the language of ſhepherds importance, which require a gravity and accuracy of expreſſion ; | ought to be; but the latter in the middle ſtyle, ſuitable to the na- ſo fine thoughts are its diſtinguiſhing mark, as plain thoughts are ture of the ſubject, and the perſons for whom it was deſigned, the of the low character, and lofty thoughts of the ſublime. Now greateſt men in Rome not thinking it below them to entertain a fine thought may deſerve that character from fome or other of themſelves with rural affairs. The like may alſo be faid of figures the following properties. The firſt property we ſhall mention either of words or ſentences, in reference to this character ; which is gravity and dignity. Thus Cicero in a ſpeech to Cæſar ſays, admits of the fineſt defcriptions, moſt lively images, and brighteſt “ It has been often told me, that you have frequently ſaid, you figures, that ſerve either for delight, or, to influence the paſſions have lived long enough for yourſelf. I believe it, if you either without tranſport or ecſtacy, which is the property of the ſublime, lived or was born for yourſelf only.” Nothing could either be This is indeed the proper feat of ſuch embelliſhments, which ſup- more fit and proper than this was when it was ſpoken ; or, at the port and make up a principal part of the middle or forid ſtyle. ſame time, a finer compliment upon Cæſar. For the civil war Deſcriptions are not only a great ornament to a diſcourſe , but was now over, and the whole power of the Roman government repreſent things in a very lively and agreeable manner. In what in the hands of Cæſar; fo that he might venture to ſay, he had a beautiful light has Cicero placed the polite arts and ſciences, lived long enough for himſelf, there being no higher pitch of when, deſcribing them from their effects, he thus repreſents to us glory to which his ambition could aſpire. But then there were the great advantages as well as pleaſures, which they afford to the many things in the ſtate that wanted redrefſing, after thoſe times mind? « Other ſtudies neither ſuit with all times, nor all of diſorder and confuſion, which he had not yet been able to ef all places: but theſe improve youth, delight old age, adorn profpe- fect, and of which Cicero here takes an opportunity to remind rity, afford a refuge and folace in adverſity, pleaſe at home, are no him. Another property of a fine thought is beauty and elegance. hindrance abroad ; ſleep, travel, and retire with us.” And they of- It is a fine compliment which Pliny pays to the emperor Tra ten affect us very powerfully, when they are addreſſed to the ſenſes. jan, when he ſays: “ It has happened to you alone, that you Similitudes and compariſons are another great ornament of this was father of your country, before you was made fo.” Some of ſtyle, and ofteneſt found here. Nothing can be finer than the the Roman emperors had been complimented with the title of compariſon between thoſe two great orators Demoſthenes and Ci- father of their country, who little deſerved it. But Trajan had cero, made by Quintilian, when he ſays, “ Demoſthenes and Ci- a long time refuſed it, though he was really fo, both by his good cero differ in their elocution; one is more cloſe, and the other government, and in the eſteem of his ſubjects, before he thought more copious ; the former concludes more conciſely, and the latter fit to accept of it. The next property of a fine thought is delicacy. takes a larger compaſs; the one always with pungency, and the As, in the objects of our ſenſes, thoſe things are ſaid to be deli other generally with weight ; one can have nothing taken from cate which affect us gradually in a ſoft and agreeable manner, fo him, and the other nothing added to him; the latter has more of art, a delicate thought is that which is not wholly diſcovered at once, and the former more of nature. But this muſt be allowed to De- but by degrees opening and unfolding itſelf to the mind, diſclofes moſthenes, that he made Cicero in a great meaſure what he was. more than was at firſt perceived. Quintilian ſeems to refer to For as Tully gave himſelf wholly to an imitation of the Greeks, this, when he ſays, “Thoſe things are grateful to the hearers, he feems to us to have expreſſed the force of Demoſthenes, the which when they apprehend, they are delighted with their own Auency of Plato, and the pleaſantry of Iſocrates.” Similitudes ſagacity; and pleaſe themſelves, as though they had not heard, taken from natural things, ſerve very much to enliven the ſtyle, but diſcovered them.” Such thoughts are not unlike the ſketches and give it a cheerfulneſs; which is a thing ſo common and well of ſome pictures, which let us into the defign of the artiſt, and known, that we need not produce any inſtances of it. Theſe, and help us to diſcern more than the lines themſelves expreſs. It ! ſuch like florid figures, are ſometimes found in hiſtorians, but of- ages, nor tener ORATORY. tence. part tener in orators; and indeed this middle character, in the whole of their force. But more eſpecially, nothing ſuperfluous ought to it , is beſt accommodated to the ſubjects of hiſtory and oratory. be admitted, which very much enervates the force of a ſen. ART. IV. THE SUBLIME STYLE. The ſublime is the moft noble, as well as the moſt difficult Another thing to be attended to in compoſition, is the connec- of an orator's province. It is this principally which Cicero tion of the words with regard to the ſound; that the pronunciation, requires in his perfect orator, whom he could not deſcribe in words, in paſſing from one to another, may be moſt agreeable to the ear, but only conceived of in his mind. And indeed, the nobleſt ge and beſt ſuited to the nature of the ſubject. And as this is ge- nius and greateſt art are both requiſite to form this character. nerally ſomething grand and magnificent, ſuch a contexture of For where nature hath been moſt liberal in furniſhing the mind them as will give the greateſt force and energy to the expreſſion with lofty thoughts, bright images, and ſtrong expreſſions; yet, is moſt proper for the ſublime. Soft and languid ſounds are very without the aſſiſtance of art there will ſometimes be found a mix unſuitable to this character. They ſoothe and pleaſe the ear; ture of what is low, improper, or miſplaced. And a great genius, but rather link and depreſs the mind, than excite it to things like a too rich foil, muſt produce flowers and weeds promiſcuouſly, great and noble. In this reſpect therefore, our tongue, by its mul- without cultivation. But the juſteſt propriety, joined with the titude of confonants, is more ſuitable for ſublime diſcourſes, than greateſt ſtrength and higheſt elevation of thought, are required to ſome other modern languages, which abound with vowels. complete the true ſublime. Art therefore is neceſſary to regulate III. The laſt head to be conſidered, is the proper uſe of tropes and perfect the taſte of thoſe who are deſirous to excel in this and figures; which is here ſo neceſſary, that the title of dignity character. In explaining the nature and properties of this cha ſeems to have been given to this part of elocution, from the affift- racter, we ſhall conſider firſt the thoughts, and then the language, ance it more eſpecially affords to this character. For if, as has been in each of which it is diſtinguiſhed from them. obſerved from Longinus, compoſitions will ſometimes create a fort 1. Sublime, as it relates to Thoughts. Lofty and grand ſenti- | of fublimity; this much oftener happens from the force and efficacy ments are the baſis and foundation of the true ſublime. Longi of ſome lively tropes and ſtrong figures. As to tropes, bright nus therefore adviſes thoſe who aſpire at this excellence, to ac metaphors are peculiarly ſuited to raiſe and animate the ſtyle. cuſtom themſelves to think upon the nobleſt ſubjects. A mind ART. V. STYLE OF AN ORATOR. that always dwells upon low and common ſubjects, can never The ſtyle of an orator comprehends all the characters already raiſe itſelf ſufficiently to repreſent things great and magnificent in explained, of low, middle, and ſublime, as they are applied by him their full extent and proper light. But he who inures himſelf to in the different parts of his province. For that the language mult conceive the higheſt and moſt exalted ideas, and renders them be ſuited to the nature of the ſubject, we have had occaſion to oba familiar to his thoughts, will not often be at a loſs how to expreſs ſerve already; and the different view of the ſpeaker or writer, ne- them ; for where proper words are wanting, by metaphors and ceffarily occaſions a variety in the manner of expreſſion. Now an images taken from other things, he will be able to convey them in orator has three things in his view; to prove what he afferts, to re- a juſt and adequate manner. Noble and lofty thoughts are prin- | preſent it in an agreeable light, and to move the paſſions. Theſe cipally thoſe which either relate to divine objects, or ſuch things are all neceſſary, we do not mean in the order wherein we have as among men are generally eſteemed the greateſt and moſt il now mentioned them, but that the diſcourſe may upon the whole luſtrious._Of the former fort is that of Homer, when deſcribing have its deſired effect upon the audience. For unleſs the mind be the goddeſs Diſcord, he ſays, that ſhe convinced of the truth of what is offered by ſolid and cogent argu- Walks on the ground, and hides her head in clouds. ments, neither will the moſt eloquent diſcourſe afford a laſting plea- This ſtretch of thought, ſays Longinus, as great as the diſtance ſure, nor the moſt pathetic long influence the affections. Though, between heaven and earth, does not more repreſent the ſtature of on the other hand, the hearers expect to be entertained at the ſame the goddeſs, than the meaſure of the poet's genius and capacity. time they are informed; and therefore, unleſs the language be But ſuch images, however beautiful in poetry, are not ſo proper | agreeable to their taſte, they will ſoon call off their attention, and for an orator, whoſe buſineſs it is to make choice of thoſe which are think but meanly of the ſpeaker. And unleſs both theſe are warmed fuited to the nature of things and the common reaſon of mankind. and animated by a becoming pathos, the ſpeaker may very proba- The true ſublime is conſiſtent with the greateſt plainneſs and bly miſs of his end, in bringing hisaudience over to his ſentiments. fimplicity of expreſſion. And, generally ſpeaking, the more plain For bare conviction is not ſufficient with many perſons to excite and natural the images appear, the more they ſurpriſe us. How them to action. They will acquieſce in the truth of a thing which fuccinct, and yet how majeſtic, is that expreſſion of Cæſar upon they cannot contradict, or will not give themſelves the trouble to his victory over Pharnaces ; I came, I ſaw, I conquered. But examine; and at the ſame time remain unconcerned to proſecute it. there cannot be a greater or more beautiful example of this, than And the pleaſure of a florid diſcourſe will of itſelf ſoon vaniſh, like what Longinus has taken notice of from Moſes. « The legif- the harmony of muſic, or the charms of a fine poem. And there- lator of the Jews, (fays he) no ordinary perſon, having a juſt no fore to captivate his audience, ſecure them in his intereſt, and puſh tion of the power and majeſty of the Deity, has expreſſed it in them upon action, it is neceſſary for the orator to engage their af- the beginning of his laws in the following words: And God ſaid, fections; theſe are, as it were, the ſprings of the foul, which ma- what? Let there be light; and there was light. Let the earth be naged by a ſkilful hand, move and direct it at pleaſure. Now each made, and it was made.” This inſtance from the divine writer, of theſe parts of an orator's province requires a different ſtyle. The and the character here given of him by that excellent critic, is the low ſtyle is moſt proper for proof and information; becauſe he has more remarkable, as he was himſelf a Pagan. And certainly no. no other view here but to repreſent things to the mind in the laboured deſcription could raiſe in the mind an higher conception plaineſt light, as they really are in themſelves, without colouring of the infinite power of the Deity, than this plain and ſhort nar or ornament. The middle ſtyle is moſt ſuited for pleaſure and en- ration. To command nature itſelf into being by a word, repre ter tainment, becauſe it conſiſts of ſmooth and well-turned periods, fents it at once altogether boundleſs and unlimited harmonious numbers, with florid and bright figures. But the ſub- 2. The Sublime, with regard to Language. What we have to lime is neceſſary in order to ſway and influence the paſſions. Here offer upon this ſubject, will come under the three heads of Ele the orator calls in the aſſiſtance both of nature and art; the moſt gance, Compoſition, and Dignity; which comprehend all the pro raiſed and lofty thoughts, cloathed with the brighteſt and ſtrongeſt perties of ſtyle. colouring, enter into this character. 1. Elegance. Thoſe words and expreſſions chiefly contribute But as an orator has frequently each of theſe views in the ſame to form the ſublime, which are moſt fonorous, and have the great- diſcourſe, we ſhall firſt give a ſummary deſcription of the ſeveral eft ſplendour, force, and dignity. But the ancient languages have characters of ſtyle, which we have formerly diſcourſed on more at much the advantage of ours in both reſpects ; for their words are large; that, by placing them together in one view, the difference generally longer, and they are abundantly more happy in their between them may be more plain and obvious: and then we ſhall compoſitions. The uſe of proper epithets does alſo in a particu- proceed to ſhow to what particular parts of a diſcourſe each of them lar manner contribute to this character. For as they denote the is more eſpecially to be applied. As ſhorter periods are proper in qualities and modes of things, they are, as it were, ſhort deſcrip- the low ſtyle, folleſscare is neceſſary in their turn and cadency. Ifa tions ; ſo that being joined to their ſubjects, they often greatly fentence now and then drop unexpectedly, and diſappoint the ear, or enlarge and heighten their image. Thus, when the character of has ſomething rough and harſh in its compoſition, it is no blemiſh divine poet is given to Homer or Virgil, or prince of orators to in this character. For as it is ſuited to the manner of common Demoſthenes or Cicero, it conveys to the mind a more fublime diſcourſe, an appearance of regard to the ſubject, rather than the idea of them than the bare mention of their name. form of expreſſion, is more becoming than any beauties of art. But II. Compoſition : The force of which, as Longinus obſerves, the words ſhould be well choſen and proper, ſuited to the ideas they is ſo great, that ſometimes it creates a kind of fublime where the are deſigned to convey; the expreſſions plain and clear, and the thoughts themſelves are but mean, and gives a certain appearance artificial ornaments few and modeft . As the middle fyle is more of grandeur to that which otherwiſe would ſeem but common.— adapted for pleaſure and delight, it admits of all thoſe beauties and But compoſition conſiſts of ſeveral parts; the firſt of which, in ornaments which foothe and entertain the mind. It has more force the order we have hitherto conſidered them, is period. Subli and energy than the low ſtyle, but leſs than the ſublime. Smooth mity ariſes from ſeveral parts of a period ſo connected as to give and harmonious numbers, well-turned periods, of a juſt length, force, as well as beauty, to the whole. The periods therefore in delightful cadency, and accurate diſpoſition of the words, are ſuited this character ſhould be of a proper length. If they are too ſhort, to this ſtyle. The moſt beautiful and ſhining tropes, which ſtrike they loſe their juſt weight and grandeur; and are gone almoſt be the fancy, and all thoſe verbal figures which, by repetition, fimi- fore they reach the car; as, on the contrary, when they are too litude, or proportion of founds, pleaſe and gratify the ear, help to prolix, they become heavy, and unweildy, and bythat means loſe form this character. The like is to be ſaid as to figures of fentences: The ORATORY. The moſt florid and beautiful, ſuch as enumeration, deſcription, | neareſt reſemblance to nature. Cicero, ſpeaking upon this fub. fimilitude, and the like, are here the moſt proper. ject, ſays: “ It is certain that truth (by which he means nature) But it is the ſublime ſtyle which perfects the orator. This re in every thing excels imitation; but if that was ſufficient of itſelf quires the moſt forcible and emphatical words, the boldeſt meta in action, we ſhould have no occaſion for art.” In his opinion phors, and ſtrongeſt figures. In verbal figures, repetitions, fyno- therefore (and who was ever a better judge?) art in this caſe, as nyms,gradations, contraries, with others of a like force and energy, well as in many others, if well managed, will aſſiſt and improve are chiefly employed here. But figures of ſentences are the moſt nature. But that is not all; for ſometimes we find the force of conſiderable and principally contribute to make up this character. it ſo great and powerful, that, where it is wholly counterfeit, it Among theſe are ſimilies taken from lofty ſubjects. But due care will for the time work the ſame effect as if it was founded in muſt likewiſe be taken of the form, conſtruction, and harmony of truth. truth. This is well known to thoſe who have been converſant the periods, which ſeem beſt diſpoſed, when long and ſhort ones with the repreſentations of the theatre. In tragedies, though are intermixed. For though round and ſwelling periods carry in we are ſenſible that every thing we fee and hear is feigned and them fomething grand and majeſtic, yet many times they move too counterfeit, yet ſuch is the power of action, that we are often- flow to ſtrike the paſſions; whereas ſhort ones are more acute and times affected by it in the ſame manner as if they were all realities. pungent, and, by returning quick, awaken the mind, and raiſe the Anger and reſentment at the appearance of cruelty, concern and paſſions. But to render it complete, it muſt be ſupported with ſtrong folicitude for diſtrefied virtue, riſe in our breaſts ; and tears are reaſon, grandeur of thought, and ſentiments every way equal to extorted from us for oppreffed innocence: though at the fame the expreffion; without which it will be very liable to ſwell into time, perhaps, we are ready to laugh at ourſelves for being thus bombaſt, and end barely in amuſement. Regard muſt be had to decoyed. If art then has fo great an influence upon us, when the nature of the ſubject, the time, place, perſons, and other cir- ſupported only by fancy and imagination; how powerful muſt be cumſtances, by all which the ſtyle is to be regulated. To diſcourſe the effect of a juſt and lively repreſentation of what we know to in a lofty and grand way upon a common topic, or in a low and be true and real? As action therefore was judged ſo neceſſary a flat manner upon a ſublime argument, are both equally injudici- qualification in an orator among the ancients, ſo they made uſe Ous. Cicero refers us to ſome diſcourſes of his own, as inſtances of ſeveral methods and expedients for the better attaining it. of each kind. His oration for Cæcinia, he ſays, is written in the The principal of which we ſhall briefly mention. low ſtyle, that for the Manilian law in the middle ſtyle, and that Decency of pronunciation is an habit. And as all habits are for Rabirius in the ſublime; and his Actions againſt Verres, with gained by time, ſo the fooner they are learned, they are generally ſome others, are patterns of the variety here mentioned. And he acquired with greater eaſe. For while perſons are young, they are gives us a very comprehenſive deſcription of a perfect orator in a not only more flexible, and capable of any particular bent, but very few words, when he ſays: “He is one who can ſpeak upon a they are likewiſe free from the trouble of encountering and ſub- low ſubject acutely, upon a lofty ſubject with ſublimity, and upon duing contrary habits, which doubles the labour, and increaſes the a moderate ſubject temperately.” By which he means no more, difficulty of attaining any laudable quality. Quintilian was very than one who is maſter of the three characters here deſcribed, and ſenſible of this in the caſe here before us; and therefore, in order knows when and how to uſe them. But although he mentions ſe to have perſons trained up to it, he begins with them in their veral among the Greeks, and ſome few among the Romans, who childhood, and defcends ſo low as even to give directions how they excelled in one or other of theſe different kinds; yet one who ex ſhould be taught to pronounce when they firſt learn to read. And celled in them all, he ſuppoſes never to have exiſted, except in he adviſes, that they ſhould then be inſtructed where to fufpend the imagination. The reaſon perhaps may be, becauſe each of them their voice, and make the proper pauſes, both in diſtinguiſhing the ſeems to require a very different genius, ſo that different genius, ſo that it is ſcarce poſſi ſeveral parts of the ſame ſentence, and in ſeparating one ſentence ble for the ſame perſon to ſucceed in them all. Since therefore it from another: likewiſe when to raiſe or fink their voice, or give is ſo rare and difficult a matter to gain the command of each in it a proper inflection; to be flower or faſter, more vehement or ſe- any good degree, it is better perhaps for every one to purſue that date, as the nature of the things may require; and that the tone of which nature ſeems moſt inclined to, and to excel in it, than to their voicebe always manly and grave, but at the ſame time mixed ſtrive againſt their genius. For every kind has its perfections; and with an agreeable ſweetneſs. Theſe things may perhaps appear it is more commendable to be maſter of one thing, than to do fe in themſelves ſmall; but if duly attended to, they will be found of veral but indifferently. conſiderable ſervice to bring us to a juft and proper pronunciation. PART IV. PRONUNCIATION. For in every thing that is to be attained by practice, it is a great SECT. I. PRONUNCIATION IN GENERAL. advantage to ſet out right at firſt. The ancients likewiſe had per- PRONUNCIATION is alſo called Action by ſome of the ancients. ſons whom they called phonaſei, whoſe proper buſineſs it was to Though if we attend to the proper ſignification of each of thefe teach them how to regulate and manage their voice; and others, words, the former reſpects the voice, and the latter the geſtures and who inſtructed them in the whole art of pronunciation, both as to motions of the body. But if we conſider them as fynonymous their voice and geſtures. Theſe latter were generally taken from terms, in this large ſenſe pronunciation or action may be ſaid to be, the theatre, being ſome eminent experiencedactors. So Quintilian, a ſuitable conformity of the voice, and the ſeveral motions of the treating of the province of theſe perſons, ſays: “ The comedian body, in ſpeaking, to the ſubject matter of the diſcourſe. The beſt ought to teach them how to rclate facts, with what authority to ad- judges among the ancients have repreſented this as the principal viſe, with what vehemence to expreſs anger, and with what ſoftneſs part of an orator's province, from whence he is chiefly to expect compaſſion.” And ſpeaking of geſtures, he ſays, “ He ſhould ad- ſucceſs in the art of perſuaſion. When Cicero, in the perſon of moniſh them to raiſe their countenance, not diſtort their lips, or Craſſus, has largely and elegantly diſcourſed upon all the other ſtretch their mouths." With ſeveral other directions of the like parts of oratory, coming at laſt to ſpeak of this, he ſays: “ All the kind. And we are told concerning the emperor M. Antoninus. former have their effect as they are pronounced. It is the action uſually called the philoſopher, that, His firſt maſters were Eu- alone that governs in ſpeaking; without which the beſt orator is of pherio the grammarian, and Geminus the comedian. But though no value, and is often defeated by one in other reſpects much his they made uſe of actors to inſtruct their youth in forming their inferior.” And he lets us know, that Demoſthenes was of the ſame ſpeech and geſtures, yet the action of an orator was much dif- opinion, who when he was aſked what was the principal thing in ferent from that of the theatre. Cicero very plainly repreſents oratory, replied, Action; and being aſked again a ſecond and a this diſtinction, in the words of Craffus, when, ſpeaking of ora- third time, what was next conſiderable, he ſtill made the ſame an tors, he ſays: “ The motions of the body ought to be ſuited to ſwer. By which he ſeemed to intimate, that he thought the whole the expreſſions, not in a theatrical way, mimicking the words art did in a manner conſiſt in it. And indeed, if he had not judged by particular geſticulations; but in a manner expreſſive of this highly neceſſary for an orator, he would ſcarce have taken the general ſenſe; with a fedate and manly reflection of the ſides; ſo much pains in correcting thoſe natural defects, under which not taken from the ſtage and actors, but from the exerciſe of arms he laboured at firſt, in order to acquire it. For he had both a weak and the paleſtra." And Quintilian fays to the ſame purpoſe: voice, and likewiſe an impediment in his ſpeech, ſo that he could “Every geſture and motion of the comedians is not to be imitated, not pronounce diſtinctly ſome particular letters. The former of nor to the fame degree.” They thought the action of the theatre which defects he conquered, partly by ſpeaking as loud as he too light and extravagant for the imitation of an orator; and there- could upon the ſhore, when the ſea roared and was boiſterous; | fore, though they employed actors to inform young perſons in the and partly, by pronouncing long periods as he walked up-hill; firſt rudiments, yet they afterwards fent them to the paleſtra, or both which methods contributed to the ſtrengthening of his voice. ſchools deſigned on purpoſe to teach them a decent and graceful And he found means to render his pronunciation more clear and management of their bodies. And ſuch ſchools, as Quintilian in- articulate, by the help of ſome little ſtones put under his tongue. forms us, were in uſe both among the Greeks and Romans: Juſt Nor was he leſs careful in endeavouring to gain the habit of a be as of latter ages children learn to dance, in fome meaſure with the coming and decent geſture; for which purpoſe he uſed to pronounce ſame intention. Nor, after all this pains and induſtry, did they yet his diſcourſes alone before a large glaſs. And becauſe he had got think themſelves fufficiently qualified to take upon them the cha- an ill cuſtom of drawing up his ſhoulders when he ſpoke; to amend racter of orators. But it was their conſtant cuſtom to get together that, he uſed to place them under a ſword, which hung over him ſome of their friends and acquaintance who were proper judges of with the point downward. Such pains did the prince of the Greci ſuch performances, and declaim before them in private. The bu- an orators take to remove thoſe difficulties, which would have ſineſs of theſe perſons was to make obſervations both on their lan- been ſufficient to diſcourage an inferior and leſs aſpiring genius. Iguage and pronunciation. And they were allowed the greateſt free- The more natural the pronunciation is, it will of conſequence dom to take notice of any thing they thought amiſs, either as to in- be the more moving, fince the perfection of art conſiſts in its accuracy of method, impropriety of ſtyle, or indecency of their voice or ORA TOR Y. or actions. This gave them an opportunity to correct any ſuch de to be clear, when the organs of ſpeech are ſuited to give every fects at firſt, before they became habitual. What effects might not ſingle letter, and all the combinations of them in fyllables and juſtly be expected from ſuch an inſtitution? Perſons trained up in words, their proper and diſtinct ſounds. Such a voice is very this manner, with all thoſe advantages, joined to a good natural pleaſing and agreeable to the hearers; and no leſs an happineſs to genius, could not fail of making very complete orators. Having the ſpeaker, as it faves him a great expence of ſpirits. A full thus far treated on pronunciation in general, we ſhall now con voice is not the fame as a ſtrong nor a loud voice. It fills the ear, fider the parts of it ſeparately, which are, voice and gefiure, but it is often not pleaſant. And therefore to render it ſo, as well SECT. II OF THE VOICE. as audible, it ſhould be frequently varied. However this ſeems Voice is one kind of ſounds. Now the influence of ſounds, better ſuited to the character of an orator, than a ſmall and thrill either to raiſe or allay our paſſions, is evident from muſic. And voice, becauſe it has ſomething in it more grave and manly. And certainly the harmony of a fine diſcourſe, well and gracefully pro thoſe who have the misfortune of a very ſmall voice, ſhould be nounced is ás capable to move us, if not in a way fo violent and cautious of raiſing it to too high a pitch, eſpecially atonce; becauſe ecſtatic, yet no leſs powerful, and more agreeable to our rational the ſudden compreffure of the organ is apt to occaſion a ſqueaking faculties. As the buſineſs of this ſection is to offer ſome confi and very diſagreeable found. A ſoft and ſmooth voice is of all the derations for the juft and decent management of the voice, it may moſt muſical, eſpecially if it be flexible ; and on the contrary, no- not be improper in the firſt place to obſerve in general, what na thing is leſs harmonious than a voice that is harſh and rough. ture does when free and unconſtrained. As perſons are differently For the one grates as diſagreeably upon the ear, as the other gives affected when they ſpeak, ſo they naturally alter the tone of their it pleaſure and delight. From the confideration of theſe properties voice, though they do not attend to it. It riſes, finks, and has of the voice, we may conclude that to be the beſt and fitteſt for an various infiections given it, according to the preſent ſtate and diſ orator, which is moderate, diſtinct, firm, clear, and ſmooth, and poſition of the mind. When the mind is calm and fedate, the withal eaſily flexible to the ſeveral degrees and variations of ſound voice is moderate and even; when the former is dejected with for which every part of the diſcourſe may require. row, the latter is languid ; and when that is inflamed by paſſion, SECT. III. Of GESTURE. this is raiſed and elevated. It is the orator's buſineſs, therefore, By this is meant, a ſuitable conformity of the motions of the to follow nature, and to endeavour that the tone of his voice ap countenance, and ſeveral parts of the body in ſpeaking, to the ſub- pear natural and unaffected. And for this end he muſt take care ject-matter of the diſcourſe. The word geſture is here uſed in a to fuit it to the nature of the ſubject ; but ſtill ſo as to be always larger ſenſe than is ordinarily done in common language. For we grave and decent . Though the muſic of fpeech conſiſts in the rarely make uſe of that word to denote the motions of the coun- variations of the voice, yet they muſt be gradual to render them tenance, or any parts of it; but as theſe make a conſiderable part pleaſant. Sudden and great changes at once are rather to be of our preſent ſubject, they muſt here be comprehended under this eſteemed chaſms in ſpeaking, than variations. Beſides, as they term. It is not agreedamong the learned, whether voice or geſture has often prevent the hearers from taking in the ſenſe of what is ſaid, the greater influence upon us. But as the latter affects us by the it gives them no ſmall uneaſineſs that they are obliged to ſtretch eye, as the former does by the ear, geſture in the nature of it ſeems their attention. Many perſons are too apt to be guilty of this, to have this advantage, that it conveys the impreſſion more ſpcedi- eſpecially at the end of a ſentence, by dropping the laſt word, which ly to the mind; for the fight is the quickeſt of all our ſenſes. Nor ought in a particular manner to be expreſſed diſtinctly, becauſe is its influence leſs upon our paſſions; nay, in ſome inſtances it the meaning of the whole ſentence often depends upon it. appears to act more powerfully. A caſt of the eye ſhall expreſs That ſome expreſſions ought to be pronounced faſter and ſwifter defire in as moving a manner, as the ſofteſt language; and a diffe- than others, is very manifeſ . Gay and ſprightly ideas ſhould not rent motion of it, reſentment. To wring the hands, tear the hair, only be expreſſed louder, but alſo faſter, than ſuch as are fad and or-ſtrike the breaſt, are all ſtrong indications of ſorrow. And he melancholy. And when we preſs an adverſary, the voice ſhould be who claps his hand to his ſword, throws us into a greater panic briſk and quick. But to hurry on in a precipitant manner without than one who only threatens to kill us. Nor is it in ſome reſpects pauſing, till ſtopt for want of breath, is certainly a very great fault. leſs various and extenſive than language. Cicero tells us, he often This deſtroys not only the neceſſary diſtinction between ſentence diverted himſelf by trying this with Roſcius the comedian; who and ſentence, but likewiſe between the ſeveral words of the ſame could expreſs a ſentence as many ways by his geſtures, as he him- fentence; nay, and often occaſions us to expreſs our words by ſelf by words. And ſome dramas have been carried on wholly by halves, while one is thrown ſo faſt upon another, that we are not mutes, who have performed every part by geſtures only, without able to give each its full and juſt found. By this means all the words, in a way very intelligent, as well as entertaining to the grace of ſpeaking is loft, and in a great meaſure the advantage of ſpectators. Well therefore might Cicero call action (or geſture) hearing. For when the ears of the hearers cannot keep pace with the language of the body, ſince it is capable in ſo lively a manner the volubility of the ſpeaker's tongue, they will be little the better to convey both our ideas and paſſion's. for what he ſays. As a precipitant and haſty pronunciation is But with reſpect to oratory, geſtore may very properly be called culpable, fo likewiſe on the other hand, it is a fault to ſpeak too the ſecond part of pronunciation ; in which, as the voice ſhould flow. This ſeems to argue a heavineſs in the ſpeaker. And as be ſuited to the impreſſion it receives from the mind, ſo the ſea he appears cool himſelf, he can never expect to warm his hearers, veral motions of the body ought to be accomodated to the various and excite their affections. When not only every word, but every tones and reflections of the voice. fyllable is drawn out to too great a length, the ideas do not come Though ſtanding appears to be the moſt proper poſture for faſt enough to keep up the attention without much uneaſineſs. For ſpeaking in public, yet it is very unbecoming for the body to be till the ſenſe is completed, the mind is in ſuſpenſe; and, if it be entirely without any motion like a ſtatue. It ſhould not long con- held long in that ſituation, it will of courſe flag and grow tired. tinue in the ſame poſition, but be conſtantly changing, though the Indeed, in ſome caſes, it is requiſite the pronunciation ſhould be motion be very moderate. There ought to be no appearance of flower than in others; as in repreſenting things great and difficult, ſtiffneſs, but a certain eaſe and pliableneſs, naturally ſuiting itſelf or in expreſſing ſome particular paſſions, as admiration, or grief. to every expreſſion ; by which means, when a greater degree of But the extreme weare now ſpeaking of, is a ſlowneſs equally con motion is neceſſary, it will appear leſs ſudden and vehement. For tinued through a whole diſcourſe, which muſt neceſſarily render as the raiſing, ſinking, and various inflections of the voice muſt it flat and lifeleſs. Now, to avoid either of the two extremes laſt be gradual; fo likewiſe fhould the motions of the body. It is mentioned, the voice ought to be fedate and diſtinct. And in order only on ſome particular occaſions, that an haſty vehemence and to render it diſtinct, it is neceſſary, not only that each word and impetuoſity is proper in either caſe. fyllable ſhould have its juſt and full found, both as to time and ac- ! But nothing is more indecent, than violent motions and agita- cent; but likewiſe that every ſentence, and part of a ſentence, tions of the head. And therefore, when a witty writer, who is ſhould be ſeparated by its proper pauſe and interval. This is more well known among us, would convey the moſt ridiculous idea of eaſy to be done in reading, from the aſſiſtance of the points; but a pretender to knowledge, he expreſſes it thus: it is no lefs to be attended to in ſpeaking, if we would pronounce For having three times thook his head in a diſtinct and graceful manner. For every one ſhould ſpeak in To ſtir his wit up, thus he ſaid. the ſame manner as he ought to read, if he could arrive at that ex It is the countenance that chiefly repreſents both the paſſions actneſs. A ſtrong voice is very ſerviceable to an orator, becauſe, if and diſpoſition of the mind. By this we expreſs love, hatred ; joy, it want ſome other advantages, he is, however, capable to make forrow; modeſty, and confidence: by this we ſupplicate, threaten, himſelf heard. And if at any time he is forced to ſtrain it, he is in footh, invite, forbid, conſent, or refuſe; and all this without ſpeak- leſs danger of its failing him before he has finiſhed his diſcourſe. ing. Nay, from hence we form a judgment not only of a per- But he who has a weak voice, ſhould be very careful not to ſtrain ſon's preſent temper, but of his capacity and natural diſpoſition: it, eſpecially at firſt. He ought to begin low, and riſe gradually And therefore it is common to ſay, ſuch an one has a promiſing to ſuch a pitch as the key of his voice will well carry him, without countenance, or that he promiſes little by his countenance. The beirg obliged to fink afterwards. Frequent inflections of the voice ſeveral parts of the face bear their part, and contribute to the proper will likewiſe be ſome aſſiſtance to him. But eſpecially he ſhould and decent motion of the whole. In a calm and fedate diſcourſe take care to ſpeak deliberately, and eaſe his voice, by allowing all the features retain their natural ſtate and fituation. In forrow, due time for reſpiration at all the proper pauſes. It is an extreme the forehead and eyebrows lour, and the cheeks hang down. But much leſs inconvenient for ſuch a perſon rather to ſpeak ton flow, in expreſſions of joy and cheerfulneſs, the forehead and eyebrows than too faſt. But this defect of a weak voiee is ſometimes capable are expanded, the cheeks contracted, and the corners of the mouth of being helped, by the uſe of proper methods , as is evident from drawn upwards. Anger and reſentment contract the forehead, the inſtance of Demoſthenes, before mentioned. A voice is ſaid I draw the brows together, and thruſt out the lips. And terror Cc elevates HUDIB. No 122 ORA TOR Y. clevates both the brows and forehead. As theſe are the natural, which enables us to converſe one with another. And ſuch is the ſigns of ſuch paſſions, the orator ſhould endeavour to conform to contrivance of our make, and influence of our minds upon the them. But as the eyes are moſt active and fignificant, it is the ad- mechaniſm of our bodies, that we can not only communicate our vice of Cicero that the greateſt care ſhould be taken in their ma- thoughts to each other, but likewiſe our paſſions. For, as Cicero nagement. And he gives this reaſon for it, “ Becauſe other parts well obſerves, “Every motion of the mind has naturally is peculiar of the countenance have but few motions; whereas all the paſſions countenance, voice, andgeſture; and the whole body, every poſition of the ſoul are expreſſed in the eyes, by ſo many different actions, of the face, and ſound of the voice, like the ſtrings of an inſtru- which cannot poſſibly be repreſented by any geſture of the body, ment, act agreeably to the impreſſion they receive from the mind." if the eyes are kept in a fixed poſture." In pronunciation, likewiſe, the orator ought not only to know the Common experience does in a great meaſure confirm the truth ſeveral qualities of the voice, and proper geſtures of the body ; but of this obſervation. We readily gueſs at a perſon's intention, alſo when and where to make uſe of them. For not only different or how he is affected to us by his eyes. And any fudden change ſubjects, but alſo different parts of the ſame diſcourſe, and even or emotion of the mind is preſently followed by an alteration in particular expreſſions, often require a difference in the manner of the look. In ſpeaking therefore upon pleaſant and delightful ſub- pronunciation, both as to the voice and geſture. Having therefore jects, the eyes are briſk and cheerful; as, on the contrary, they treated on both theſe parts of pronunciationin general, it may not Ink and are languid in delivering any thing melancholy and for be improper now to conſider, how they are to be applied in each of rowful. This is ſo agreeable to nature, that before a perſon ſpeaks, the two reſpects laſt mentioned. Let us ſuppoſe a perſon preſenta we are prepared with the expectation of one or the other from his ing himſelfbefore an aſſembly, in order to make a diſcourſe to them. different aſpect. So likewiſe in anger, a certain vehemence and It cannot be decent immediately to begin to ſpeak as ſoon as ever intenſeneſs appears in the eyes, which, for want of proper words he makes his appearance. He will firit ſettle himſelf , compoſe his to expreſs it by, we endeavour to repreſent by metaphors taken countenance, and take a reſpectful view of his audience. This from fire, the moſt violent and rapid element, and ſay in ſuch caſes, prepares them for filence and attention. To begin precipitately, the eyes ſparkle, burn, or are inflamed. In expreſſions of hatred or without firſt allowing either himſelfor his hearers time to compoſe deteſtation, it is natural to alter the look, either by turning the themſelves, looks as if he was rather performing a taſk, than had eyes aſide, or downwards. Virgil has very juſtly obſerved this: any deſign to pleaſe them; which will be very apt to make them for when he deſcribes Æneas meeting with Dido in the Elyſian | as uneaſy till he has done, as he ſeems to be himſelf. Perſons ſhades and addreſſing her, he repreſents her diſregard of him, commonly form ſome opinion of a ſpeaker from their firſt view of by ſaying, him; which prejudices them either in his favour, or otherwiſe, as Diſdainfully ſhe look'd; then turning round, to what he ſays afterwards. A grave and fedate, aſpect inclines Still fix'd her eyes unmov'd upon the ground. them to think him ſerious ; that he has conſidered his ſubject, and She ſhewed her reſentment for his former treatment of her, by may have ſomething to offer worth their attention. A haughty not vouchſafing to look on him. Indeed, the eyes are ſometimes and forbidding air occaſions diſtaſte, as it looks like diſreſpect. Å turned downwards upon other occaſions, as to expreſs modeſty. wandering giddy countenance argues levity. A dejected drooping And if at any time a particular object be addreſſed to, whatever appearance is apt to raiſe contempt, unleſs where the ſubject is it be, the eves ſhould be turned that way. melancholy. And a cheerful aſpect is a proper prelude to a plea- But as all the paſſions are in the moſt lively manner expreſſed fant and agreeable argument. in the eyes, their motions ought to vary according to the different To ſpeak low at firſt has the appearance of modeſty, and is nåture of thoſe paſſions they are ſuited both to diſcover in the beſt for the voice, which, by riſing gradually, will with more ſpeaker; and convey to his hearers; ſince, as the quickeſt acceſs to eaſe be carried to any pitch that may be afterwards neceffary, the mind is by the fight, a proper well-timed look will fometimes without ſtraining it. However, ſome variation of the voice is fooner effect this than it can be done by words; as in diſcharging always proper to give it an harmony. Nay, and ſometimes it is a cannon, we are ſtruck with the light before we hear the found. not improper for an orator to ſet out with a confiderable degrec of As to other parts of the body diſtinct from the head, the ſhoulders warmth, expreſſed by ſuch an elevation of the voice, and geſtures ought not to be elevated. Nor, on the other hand, ſhould they be of the body, as are ſuited to repreſent the emotions of his mind. drawn down, and depreſſed; becauſe this occaſions a ſtiffneſs both But this is not ordinarily the caſe. to the neck and the whole body. Their natural poſture therefore is In the narration, the voice ought to be raiſed to ſomewhat an beſt, as being moſt eaſy and graceful. A continued motion of the higher pitch. Matters of fact ſhould be related in a very plain and arms any way, is by all means to be avoided. Their action ſhould diſtinct manner, with a proper ſtreſs and emphaſis laid generally be very moderate, and follow that of the hands, unleſs circumſtance, accompanied with a ſuitable addreſs and motions of in very pathetic expreſſions, where it may be proper to give them the body, to engage the attention of the hearers. The propoſition a more lively ſpring. or ſubject of the diſcourſe, ſhould be delivered with a very clear The hands need never be idle. Quintilian ſeems to think them and audible voice. and audible voice. For if this be not plainly heard, all that fol- as neceſſary and powerful in action, as Cicero does the eyes. And lows in proof of it cannot well be underſtood. The confirmation as they ought to correſpond with our expreſſions, ſo they ought to admits of great variety, both of the voice and geſtures. In reaſon- begin and end with them. In admiration, and addreſſes to heaven, / ing the voice is quick and pungent, and ſhould be enforced with they muſt be elevated, but never raiſed above the eyes; and in ſuitable actions. In confutation the arguments of the adverſe party ſpeaking of things below us, they are directed downwards. Side ought firſt to be repeated in a plain and diſtinct manner, that the motion ſhould generally begin from the left, and terminate gently ſpeaker may not ſeem to conceal, or avoid the force of them. on the right. In demonſtrating, addreſſing, and on ſeveral cther In the concluſion, both the voice and geſture ſhould be briſk occaſions, they are moved forward; and in threatening, ſometimes and ſprightly, which may ſeem to ariſe from a ſenſe of the ſpeak- thrown back. But when the orator ſpeaks of himſelf , his right-er's opinion of the goodneſs of his cauſe, and that he has offered hand ſhould be gently laid on his breaſt. When no other motion nothing but what is agreeable to reaſon and truth; as likewiſe is neceſſary, the hands ſhould be kept about as high as the breaſt, | from his aſſurance that the audience agree with him in the ſame fo as to make nearly a right angle with the arm. This is not only ſentiments. All exclamations ſhould be violent. When we graceful, but likewiſe the moſt eaſy poſture, and gives the leaſt addreſs inanimate things, the voice ſhould be higher than when ſtrain to the muſcles. They ſhould never be ſuffered to hang down, to animated beings ; and appeals to heaven muſt be made in a the cuſhion or bar. The left hand ſhould never loftier tore than thoſe to men. move alone, but accommodate itſelf to the motions of the right. After all that has been ſaid upon this pleaſing and elegant ſub- The hands ſhould generally be open; but in expreſſions of com-ject, it is impoſſible to gain a juft and decent pronunciation of punction and anger they may be cloſed. All finical and trifling voice and geſture merely from rules, without practice and an actions of the fingers ought to be avoided ; nor ſhould they be imitation of the beſt examples ; which ſhews the wiſdom of the ſtretched out and expanded in a ſtiff and rigid poſture, but kept ancients, in training up their youths to it , by the aſiſtance of mal- eaſy and pliable. ters, to form both their ſpeech and actions. That perſons ſhould The geſtures we have hitherto diſcourſed of, are ſuch as natu well conſider their own make and genius, eſpecially with reſpect rally accompany our expreſſions. And we preſume thoſe we have to the paſſions. We ſeldom find that any actor can excel in all mentioned, if duly attended to, will be found fufficient to anſwer characters; but if he performs one well, he is deficient in ano- all the purpoſes of our modern pronunciation. ther. And therefore they are commonly ſo prudent as to confine SECT. IV. themſelves to ſuch as beſt ſuit them. The caſe is the ſame in an orator ; who ſhould therefore keep within thoſe bounds which na- The ſubject of pronunciation is of ſo great importance to an ture ſeems to have preſcribed for him. Some are better fitted for orator, that it can neither be too clearly laid down, nor too ſtrongly action than others, and moſt for ſome particular action rather than inculcated. If we inquire into the cauſes of that ſurpriſing power others; and what fits very well upon one would appear very awk- it hasoverus, and by what means it fo ſtrongly affects us, this may ward in another. Every one therefore ſhould firſt endeavour to in ſome meaſure appear by reflecting on the frame and conſtitution | know himſelf, and manage accordingly. Though in moſt caſes, of human nature. For our infinitely great and wiſe Maker has ſo nature may be much aſſiſted and improved by art and exerciſe, formed us, that not only the actions of the body are ſubject to the Upon a review of the reſpective authors on this ſubject, we have direction of the mind; but we are likewiſe endowed with various made choice of Dr. Ward's Treatiſe, conceiving it beſt adapted to paſſions and affections, that excite us to purſue thoſe things which the purpoſes and economy of this work. We have omitted all the fun make for our happineſs, and avoid others which are hurtful to us. perfluous definitions and examples, and made ſuch occaſional remarks And as we are made for ſociety, we are alſo furniſhed with ſpeech, and additions as weconceived would beſt tend to elucidate this treatiſee upon each SOME PARTICULAR RULES FOR THE VOICE AND GESTURE. OR D Ꭰ OR D V. 2 ORBIT, in aſtronomy, the path of a planet or comet, or the is mentioned to have cleared her character, when fuſpected of curve that it deſcribes in its revolution round its central body ; | familiarity with Alwyn biſhop of Wincheſter. The firſt ac- thus, the earth's orbit is the curve which it deſcribes in its an count we have of chriſtians appealing to the fire-ordeal, as a proof nual courſe round the ſun, and uſually called the ecliptic. See of their innocence, is that of Simplicius, biſhop of Autun, who the Syſtem of ASTRONOMY. lived in the fourth century. This prelate, as the ſtory is related, ORCHARD, a garden department, conſigned entirely to the before his promotion to the epiſcopal order, had married a wife, growth of ſtandard fruit-trees, for furniſhing a large ſupply of who loved him tenderly, and who, unwilling to quit him after the moſt uſeful kinds of fruit. his advancement, continued to ſleep in the ſame chamber with In the orchard you may have, as ſtandards, all ſorts of apple- him. trees, moſt forts of pears and plums, and all ſorts of cherries : The ſanctity of Simplicius ſuffered, at leaſt in the voice which four ſpecies are the capital orchard fruits ; each of them of fame, by the conſtancy of his wife's affection; and it was compriſing numerous valuable varieties. But to have a complete rumoured about; that the holy man, though a biſhop, perſiſted, orchard, you may alſo have quinces, medlars, mulberries, fer in oppoſition to the eccleſiaſtical canons, to taſte the ſweets of vice-trees, filberts, Spaniſh nuts, berberries ; likewiſe walnuts matrimony: upon which his wife, in the preſence of a great and cheſnuts; which two latter are particularly applicable for concourſe of people, took up a conſiderable quantity of burning the boundaries of orchards, to ſcreen the other trees from the coals, which ſhe held in her cloaths, and applied to her breaſts, inſults of impetuous winds and cold blaſts. All the trees ought without the leaſt hurt to her perſon or her garments, as the le- to be arranged in rows from 20 to 30 feet diſtance, as hereafter gend ſays; and her example being followed by her huſband with directed. the like ſucceſs, the filly multitude admired the miracle, and But ſometimes orchards conſiſt entirely of apple-trees, parti- | proclaimed the innocence of the loving pair. A ſimilar trick was cularly in the cider-making countries, where they are cultivated played by St. Brice, in the fifth century. Moh. Eccl. Hift. in very great quantities in large fields, and in hedge-rows, for the fruit to make cyder for public ſupply. In Europe water-ordeal was performed, either by plunging the And ſometimes whole orchards of very conſiderable extent bare arm up to the elbow in boiling-water, and eſcaping unhurt are entirely of cherry-trees. But in this caſe, it is when the thereby, or by caſting the perſon ſuſpected into a river or pond of fruit is deſigned for ſale in ſome great city, as London, &c. for cold water; and if he floated therein without any action of the ſupply of which city, great numbers of large cherry-orchards | ſwimming, it was deemed an evidence of his guilt; but if he are in fome of the adjacent counties, but more particularly in funk, he was acquitted. It is eaſy to trace out the traditional Kent, which is famous for very extenſive cherry-orchards; many relics of this water-ordeal, in the ignorant barbarity ſtill practiſed of which are entirely of that ſort called Kentiſh-cherry, as being in many countries to diſcover witches, by caſting them into a generally a great bearer; others are ſtored with all the prin- pool of water, and drowning them to prove their innocence. cipal forts of cultivated cherries, from the earlieſt to the lateſt And in the Eaſtern empire the fire-ordeal was uſed for the ſame kinds. purpoſe by the emperor Theodore Laſcaris; who, attributing A general orchard, however, compoſed of all the before-men his ſickneſs to magic, cauſed all thoſe whom he ſuſpected to han- tioned fruit-trees, ſhould conſiſt of a double portion of apple dle the hot iron : thus joining (as has been well remarked) to trees or more, becauſe they are conſiderably the moſt uſeful fruit, the moſt dubious crime in the world, the moſt dubious proof of and may be continued for uſe the year round. innocence. The utility of a general orchard, both for private uſe and The ſuperſtitious weakneſs of mankind, when left to them- profit, ſtored with the various forts of fruit-trees, muſt be very | felves, is aſtoniſhing. There is indeed nothing ſo abſurd but great, as well as afford infinite pleaſure from the delightful ap they may be made moſt firmly to believe, nor ſo impious but they pearance it makes, from early ſpring till late in autumn. In will do. Nor can a more notorious inſtance of the truth of this fpring the various trees in bloffom are highly ornamental ; in aſſertion be poſſibly given than that of the trial by ordeal. The fummer the pleaſure is heightened by obſerving the various fruits groſs abſurdity as well as impiety of pronouncing a man guilty advancing to perfection ; and as the ſeaſon advances, the mature unleſs he was cleared by a miracle, and of expecting that all the growth of the different ſpecies arriving to perfection, in regular powers of nature ſhould be ſuſpended by an immediate interpofi- fucceſſion, from May or June, until the end of October, muſt tion of providence to ſave the innocent, whenever it was pre- afford exceeding delight, as well as great profit. ſumptuouſly required, is felf-evident. Yet the origin of it may ORDEAL, an ancient form of trial.-It was an appeal to be traced as well to neceſſity as to ſuperſtition. At the time in which the immediate interpoſition of divine power, and was peculiarly it originated in England, as well as in other countries in Europe, diſtinguiſhed by the appellation of judicium Dei; and ſometimes it was no eaſy matter for an innocent perſon, when accuſed of vulgaris purgatio, to diſtinguiſh it from the canonical purgation, 1 guilt, to get himſelf cleared by the then eſtabliſhed mode of trial. which was by the oath of the party. There were two ſorts of It was therefore natural for ſuperſtition to fly to Heaven for thoſe it more common than the reſt, at leaſt in Europe, fire ordeal, teſtimonies of innocence which the abſurdity of human laws of- and water ordeal. The former was confined to perſons of higher ten prevented men from obtaining in the ordinary way; and in rank, the latter to the common people. Both theſe might be this way doubtleſs did the trial by ordeal commence : and thus performed by deputy : but the principal was to anſwer for the begun by neceſſitous ſuperſtition, it was foftered by impious prieſt- fucceſs of the trial; the deputy only venturing ſome corporal craft and unjuſt power. There was during all the great pain, for hire, or perhaps for friendſhip. room for colluſion and deceit; and there can be no queſtion but That the purgation by ordeal, of ſome one kind or other, is it was often practiſed: it could not therefore on any account, or very ancient, admits not of a doubt; and that it was very uni in any caſe, be a ſign of innocence or of guilt. verſal in the times of ſuperſtitious barbarity, is equally certain. Beſides thoſe particular methods of trial which we have already It ſeems even to have been known to the ancient Greeks: for mentioned, there were ſome few more common in European in the Antigone of Sophocles, a perſon ſuſpected by Creon of a countries; as the judicial combat—the ordeal of the croſs-the miſdemeanour, declares himſelf ready “to handle hot iron and ordeal of the corſned. to walk over fire,” in order to manifeſt his innocence ; which The judicial combat was well ſuited to the genius and ſpirit the fcholiaft tells us was then a very uſual purgation. And Gro- of fierce and warlike nations, and was, as we may reaſon- tius gives us many inſtances of water-ordeal in Bithynia, Sardi- | ably expect, one of the moſt ancient and univerſal modes, of nia, and other places. It ſeems, however, to be carried to a trial. greater height among the Hindoos, than ever it has been in any We know that it was exceedingly common in Germany in very nation, or among any people, however rude or barbarous ; for remote ages. It was alſo uſed in ſome countries on the conti. in a paper of the Afiatic Reſearches communicated by the cele nent at pretty early periods: it is not, however, mentioned in brated Warren Haſtings, Eſq. we find that the trial by ordeal any of the Anglo-Saxon laws ; and it does not appear to have among them is conducted in nine different ways: firſt, by the been much uſed in England till after the Conqueſt. There are, balance ; ſecondly, by fire; thirdly, by water ; fourthly, by however, two remarkable inſtances of it upon record, which we poiſon ; fifthly, by the Colha, or water in which an idol has ſhell give in the words of Dr. Henry: “ Henry de Eſſex; here- been waſhed; fixthly, by rice; feventhly, by boiling oil; eighthly, ditary ſtandard-bearer of England, fled from a battle in Wales, by red-hot iron ; ninthly, by images. A. D. 1158, threw from him the royal ſtandard, and cried out, The methods of performing the ordeals ſpecified, are too ab with others, that the king was ſlain. Some time after, he was ſurd and rediculous to merit particular notice; but to ſhew that accuſed of having done this with a treaſonable intention, by Ro- this cuſtom has not only prevailed among the unenlightened Hin bert de Montfort, another great baron, who offered to prove the doos, but amongſt the Europeans, and even in our country, in truth of his accuſation by combat. Henry de Effex denied the forier times, we ſhall cite the following inſtances. charge, and accepted the challenge. When all preliminaries In Europe fire ordeal was performed either by taking up in were abjuſted, this combat was accordingly fought in the pre- the hand, unhurt, a piece of red-hot iron, of one, two, or three ſence of Henry the II. and all his court. Effex was defeated, pounds weight ; or elſe by walking, bare-foot, and blindfold, and expected to be carried out to immediate execution. But the over nine red-hot ploughſhares, laid length wiſe at unequal diſtan- | king, who was no friend to this kind of trial, ſpared his life, ces: and if the party eſcaped being hurt, he was adjudged inno and contented himſelf with confiſcating his eſtate, and making cent; but if it happened otherwiſe, as without colluſion it uſually him a monk in the abbey of Reading. did he was then condemned as guilty. However, by this lat “ The priory of Tinmouth in Northumberland, was a cell ter method Queen Emma, the mother of Edward the confeſſor, of the abbey of St. Alban's. One Simon of Tinmouth claimed a right proceſſes ORD ORI a right to two corrodies, or the maintenance of two perſons in find the ſubject fo well handled by the learned hiſtorian whom we have already quoted, as far as concerns the ordeals in ancient the priory, which the prior and monks denied. This cauſe was brought before the abbot of St. Alban's, and his court baron, Britain, which mutatis mutandis will anſwer for others, that we ſhall finiſh the article, which has already extended we fear to who appointed it to be tried by combat on a certain day, before him and his barons. Ralf Gubion, prior of Tinmouth, ap too great a length, in his words: “ If we ſuppoſe that few or none peared at the time and place appointed, attended by his cham- eſcaped conviction who expoſed themſelves to thoſe fiery trials, pion, one William Pegun, a man of gigantic ſtature. The com- For the hiſtories of thoſe times we Thall be very much miſtaken. bat was fought, Pegun was defeated, and the prior loſt his cauſe ; contain innumerable examples of perſons plunging their naked at which he was ſo much chagrined, that he immediately reſigned arms into boiling water, handling red hot balls of iron, and his office. This judicial combat is the more remarkable, that walking upon burning ploughſhares, without receiving the lealt it was fought in the court of a ſpiritual baron, and that one of injury. Many learned men have been much puzzled to account the parties was a prieſt." for this, and diſpoſed to think that Providence graciouſly inter- We need ſcarcely add, that this deteſtable form of trial was poſed, in a miraculous manner for the preſervation of injured innocence. the foundation of the no leſs deteſtable form of duelling, which ſo much diſgraces our age and nation ; which is defended only But if we examine every circumſtance of thoſe fiery ordeals by ignorance, falfe honour, and injuſtice ; which is a relic of with due attention, we ſhall ſee ſufficient reafon to ſuſpect barbarous ſuperſtition; and which was abſolutely unkown to that the whole was a groſs impoſition on the credulity of man- to thoſe brave a generous nations, the Greeks and Romans, which kind. The accuſed perſon was committed wholly to the prieſt it is ſo much the faſhion to admire, and who in this particular who was to perform the ceremony three days before the trial, in ſo well merit our imitation. which he had time enough to bargain with him for his deliverance, It was ſo much the cuſtom in the middle ages of Chriſtianity, and give him inſtructions how to act his part. On the day of to reſpect the croſs even to ſuperſtition, that it would have trial, no perſon was permitted to enter the church but the prieſt been indeed wonderful if the ſame ignorant bigotry had not con- and the accuſed till after the iron was heated, when twelve friends verted it into an ordeal : accordingly we find it uſed for this pur of the accuſer, and twelve of the accuſed, and no more, were poſe, in ſo many different ways as almoſt to preclude deſcription. admitted, and ranged along the wall on each ſide of the church, We ſhall however tranſcribe, for the fatisfaction of our readers, at a reſpectful diſtance. After the iron was taken out of the fire, Dr. Henry's account of it, and of the corſned: “ In criminal ſeveral prayers were ſaid; the accuſed drank a cup of holy water, trials, the judgment of the croſs was commonly thus conducted. and ſprinkled his hand with it, which might take a conſiderable When the priſoner had declared his innocence upon oath, and time, if the prieſt was indulgent. The ſpace of nine feet was appealed to the judgment of the croſs, two ſticks were prepared meaſured by the accuſed himſelf with his own feet, and he would exactly like one another : the figure of the croſs was cut on one of probably give but ſcanty meaſure. He was obliged only to touch theſe ſticks and nothing on the other: each of them was then wrap- one of the marks with the toe of his right foot, and allowed to ped up in a quantity of fine white wool, and laid on the altar, or on ſtretch the other foot as far towards the other mark as he could, the relics of the ſaints ; after which a ſolemn prayer was put up fo that the conveyance was almoſt inſtantaneous. His hand was to God, that he would be pleaſed to diſcover, by evident ſigns, not immediately examined, but wrapped in a cloth prepared for whether the priſoner was innocent or guilty. Theſe ſolemnities that purpoſe, three days. May we not then, from all theſe pre- being finiſhed, a prieſt approached the altar, and took up one of cautions, ſuſpect that thoſe prieſts were in pofſeſſion of fome ſecret the ſticks, which was uncovered with much anxiety. If it was that ſecured the hand from the impreſſions of ſuch a momentary the ſtick marked with the croſs, the priſoner was pronounced in touch of hot iron, or removed all appearances of theſe impreſſions nocent; if it was the other, he was declared guilty. When the in three days; and that they made uſe of this ſecret when they judgment of the croſs was appealed to in civil cauſes, the trial ſaw reaſon? Such readers as are curious in matters of this kind was conducted in this manner: The judges, parties, and all con may find two different directions for making ointments that will cerned, being aſſembled in a church, each of the parties choſe a have this effect in the work here quoted. What greatly ſtrength- prieſt, the youngeſt and ſtouteſt that he could find, to be his re ens theſe ſuſpicions is, that we meet with no example of any preſentative in the trial. Theſe repreſentatives were then placed champion of the church who ſuffered the leaſt injury from the one on each ſide of ſome famous crucifix; and at a ſignal given, touch of hot iron in this ordeal; but when any one was ſo fool- they both at once ſtretched their arms at full length, ſo as to form hardy as to appeal to it, or to that of hot water with a view to a croſs with their body. In this painful poſture they continued deprive the church of any of her poffeffions, he never failed to to ſtand while divine ſervice was performing; and the party burn his fingers, and loſe his cauſe." whoſe repreſentative dropped his arms firſt loſt his cauſe. ORGASM opraoues, denoting violence or turgeſcency; form- « The corſned, or the conſecrated bread and cheefe, was the ed from opraw, turgeo, “ I ſwell,” an ecſtaſy or impetuous ordeal to which the clergy commonly appealed when they were deſire of coition, occaſioned by a turgeſcency of the feminal vef- accuſed of any crimes : in which they acted a very prudent part, fels, which are no longer able to reſtrain their contents. The as it was attended with no danger or inconveniency. This or ancients alſo extend orgaſm to the other humours, and even ex- deal was performed in this manner: A piece of barly-bread, and crements, which being accumulated, and coming to ferment, a piece of cheeſe, were laid upon the altar, over which a prieſt demand excretion. Quincey uſes orgaſm for an impetuous or pronounced certain conjurations, and prayed with great fervency, too quick motion of the blood or ſpirits; whereby the muſcles are that if the perſon accuſed was guilty, God would ſend his angel diftended with an uncommon force. Gabriel to ſtop his throat, that he might not be able to ſwallow ORGIA, feaſts and ſacrifices in honour of Bacchus, held that bread and cheeſe. Theſe prayers being ended, the culprit every third year, and chiefly celebrated by wild diſtracted women, approached the altar, took up the bread and cheeſe, and began to called Bacchæ. The chief ſolemnities were performed in the eat it. If he ſwallowed freely, he was declared innocent ; but night, to conceal, perhaps, their ſhocking impurities; and a if it ſtuck in his throat, and he could not ſwallow, (which we mountain was generally choſen as the place of celebration. They may preſume ſeldom or never happened,) he was pronounced were inſtituted by Orpheus ; and from him are ſometimes called guilty. Orphica. There were beſides theſe a variety of other ordeals practiſed Authors are not agreed as to the derivation of the word in Chriſtian countries, many of which retain the ſame names as but if we - conſider the frantic proceedings of the Baccha- among Pagans, and differ only in the mode of execution. In nalians, óper, furor, bids fair for the true etymology. See all nations of Chriſtians where thoſe trials were uſed, we find MYSTERY. the clergy engaged in them. Indeed, in England, fo late as ORIOLUS, or ORIOLE, in ornithology, a genus belonging King John's time, we find grants to the biſhops and clergy to to the order of picæ. The bill in this genus is ſtrait, conic, uſe the judiciun ferri. aqua, et ignis. And, both in England very ſharp pointed ; edges cultrated, inclining inwards; man- and Sweden, the clergy preſided at this trial, and it was only | dibles of equal length. Noſtrils ſmall, placed at the baſe of the performed in the churches or in other conſecrated ground; for bill, and partly covered. Tongue divided at the end. Toes, which Stiernhook gives the reaſon, Nor defuit illis opera et labo- | three forward, one backward; the middle joined near the baſe ris pretium; ſemper enim ab ejuſmodi judicio aliquid lucri ſacer- to the outmoſt one.—Theſe birds are inhabitants of America, dotibus obveniebát. But, to give it its due praiſe, we find the except in a few inſtances; are a noiſy, gregarious, frugivorous, canon law very early declaring againſt trial by ordeal, or vulgaris granivorous, and voracious race, very numerous and often have purgatio, as being the fabric of the devil, cum ſit contra præcep- penſile neſts. tum Domini, Non tentabis Diminum Deum tuum. Upon this The moſt remarkable ſpecies is the ſharp-tailed oriole which authority, though the canons themſelves were of no validity in is about the ſize of a lark : The bill is buſhy ; the crown is brown England, it was thought proper (as had been done in Denmark and cinereous ; the cheeks are brown, bounded above and below above a century before) to diſuſe and aboliſh this trial entirely in with deep dull yellow. The throat is white; the breaſt, fides, our courts of juſtice, by an act of parliament in 3 Hen. III. thighs, and vent, are a dull pale yellow, ſpotted with brown according to Sir Edward Coke, or rather by an order of the king the belly is white; the back is varied with aſh-colour, black and in council. white; the wings-coverts are duſky, with ferruginous edges. may ítill perhaps be a poftulatum with fome of our readers | The quills are alſo duſky ; the tail conſiſts of narrow ſharp pointed how the effects of the fe trials were evaded, and how it was pof- feathers, of a duſky colour tinged with olive, and obſcurely bar- fibie to appear to do, what we know could not be really done, red ; and the legs are pale brown. For repreſentation fee Plate without material injury to the perſons concerned : and here we 1. Genus 14. j 0 SYSTEM OF ORNITHOLOGY. RNÍTHOLOGY is a ſcience which treats of birds ; de cere (cera); in ſome birds with a carneous appendage, as the tur- fcribes their form, external and internal; and teaches their key; or a callous, as the curaſſo. In birds of In birds of prey, the bill is veconomy and uſes. But, before we proceed to analyſe the cha hooked at the end, and fit for tearing: in crows, ſtraight and racteriſtic parts of birds, it will be proper to premiſe an explana ſtrong for picking : in water-fowl, either long and pointed, for tion of the terms uſed by naturaliſts in deſcribing them. ſtriking: or ſlender and blunt, for fearching in the mire; or flat EXPLANATION of ſome Technical Terms in Ornithology and broad, for gobbling. Its other uſes are for building neſts; uſed by PENNANT and LINNÆUS. feeding the young ; climbing as in parrots; or, laſtly, as an in- ſtrument of defence, or offence. 1. Cere. Cera. The naked ſkin that covers the baſe of the bill in the hawk kind. 2. Nostrils, (nares), the nice inſtruments of diſcerning their Emarginatum. A bill is called roſtrum emarginatum when food, are placed either in the middle of the upper mandible, or there is a ſmall notch near the end : this is near the baſe, or at the baſe, as in parrots; or behind the baſe, as conſpicuous in that of butcher birds and in toucans and hornbills; but ſome birds, as the gannet, are def- thruſhes. titute of noſtrils. The noſtrils are generally naked: but ſometimes 3. Roftrum ſubulatum. A term Linnæus uſes for a ſtraight and covered with briſtles reflected over them, as in crows, or hid in flender bill. the feathers, as in parrots, &c. The fore-part of the head is called 4. Unguiculatum. A bill with a nail at the end, as in thoſe of gooſanders and ducks. the front (capiſtrum); the ſummit (vertex), or the crown: the When the edges of the bill are very ſharp, hind part, with the next joint of the neck (rucha), the nape: the 5. Roſtrum cultratum. ſuch as in that of the crow. ſpace between the bill and the eyes, which in herons, grebes, &c. 6. Nares Lineares. . When the noſtrils are very narrow, as in is naked, (lora), the ſtraps: the ſpace beneath the eyes (genæ), ſea-gulls. the cheeks. 7. Emarginate. With a rim round the noſtrils, as in the 3. Orbits, (orbitæ), the eye-lids ; in fome birds naked, in ſtare. others covered with ſhort ſoft feathers. Birds have no eye-brows; 8. Lingua ciliata. When the tongue is edged with fine briſtles, but the grous kind have in lieu a ſcarlet naked ſkin above, which as in ducks. are called ſupercilia; the ſame word is alſo applied to any line of 9. Integra. When plain or even. 10. Lumbriciformis. When the tongue is long, round, and llen- a different colour that paſſes from the bill over the eyes. der, like a worm, as that of thelwoodpecker. 4. EARS. Birds are deftitute of auricles or external ears, having II. Vibriſſa. Vibriſæ pectionatæ, ſtiff hairs that grow on an orifice for admiffion of found; open in all but owls, whoſe ears each ſide the mouth, formed like a double are furniſhed with valves. comb, to be ſeen in the goatſucker, flycatcher, 5. The Chin, the ſpace between the parts of the lower mandi . &c. ble and the neck, is generally covered with feathers; but, in the 12. Lorum. The ſpace between the bill and the eye, ge cock and ſome others, have carneous appendages called wattles nerally covered with feathers; but in ſome (palearia); in others, is naked, and furniſhed with a pouch, capa- birds naked, as in black and white grebe. 13. Capiſtrum. ble of great dilatation (Jacculus), as in the pelican and corvorants. A word uſed by Linnæus to expreſs the ſhort feathers on the forehead juſt above the 6. Neck, (collum), the part that connects, the head to the bo- bill. In crows theſe fall forwards, over the dy, is longer in birds than dy, is longer in birds than any other animals; and longer in ſuch noſtrils. as have long legs than thoſe that have ſhort, either for gathering 14. Orbits. Orbita, The ſkin that ſurrounds the eye, which is up their meat from the ground, or ſtriking their prey in the water, generally bare; particularly in the heron and except in web-footed fowl, which are, by reverſing their bodies, parrot. deſtined to ſearch for food at the bottom of waters, as ſwans, and 15. Baſtard Wing A ſmall joint riſing at the end of the middle the like. Birds, eſpecially thoſe that have a long neck, have the Alula Spuria, part of the wing, or the cubitus; on which are three or five feathers. of retracting, bending, or ſtretching it out, in order to power 16. Leller coverts of the The ſmall feathers that lie in ſeveral rows change their centre of gravity from their legs to their wings. wings. on the bones of the wings. The under coverts II. BODY. Tectrices primæ. are thoſe that line the inſide of the wings. 17 Greater coverts. The feathers that lie immediately over the 1. Conſiſts of the BACK, (dorſum): which is flat, ſtraight, and Teatrices fecundæ. quill feathers and ſecondary feathers. inclines; terminated by the 18. Quill feathers. The largeſt feathers of the wings, or thoſe 2. RUMP, (uropygium), furniſhed with two glands, ſecreting a Primores. that riſe from the firſt bone. fattiſh liquor from an orifice each has, which the birds expreſs 19. Secondary feathers. Thoſe that riſe from the ſecond. with their bills to oil or anoint the diſcompoſed parts of their fea- Secondariæ. thers. Theſe glands are particularly large in moſt web-footed wa- 20. Coverts of the tail. Thoſe that cover the baſe of the tail. ter-fowl; but in the grebes, which want tails, they are ſmaller. Uropygium. 21. Vent feathers. Thoſe that lie from the vent to the tail. 3. BREAST, (pectus) is ridged and very muſcular, defended by Criſſum Linnæi. a forked bone, (clavicula), the merry-thought. The ſhort winged 22. The tail. Rectrices. birds, ſuch as grous, &c. have their breaſts moſt fleſhy or muſcu- 23. Scapular feathers. That riſe from the ſhoulders and cover the lar; as they require greater powers in flying than the long-winged ſides of the back. birds, ſuch as gulls, herons, which are ſpecifically lighter, and The hinder part of the head. have greater extent of fail. 25. Pes didačtylus. In which the foot is compoſed of two toes, 4. BELLY, (abdomen), is covered with a ſtrong ſkin, and con- obſerved only in the oftrich. tains the entrails. 26. Pes tridactylus vel Such as want the back toe. 5. The VENT, or vent-feathers, (criſum), which lies between curſorius. the thighs and the tail. The anus lies hid in thoſe feathers. 27. Pes ambulatorius. All the toes divided to the bottom. 28. Pes graſorius. The outer toe more or leſs united to the III. LIMBS. middle one, particularly conſpicuous in the feet of the kingsfiſher. 1. WINGS, (ala), adapted for flight in all birds except the dodo, oſtriches, great auk, and the penguins, whoſe wings are too ſhort for 29. Pes ſcanforius. The foot of the woodpecker, formed for climbing. Climbing feet. the uſe of flying; but in the dodo and oſtrich, when extended, ferve 30. Finned foot. Pes Such as thoſe of the grebes. to accelerate their motion in running; and in the penguins perform cobatus. the office of fins, in ſwimming or diving. The wings have near 31. Scolloped foot. The webs indented in the fides, as in the their end an appendage covered with four or five feathers called the coots and ſcolloped-toed ſandpipers. baſtard wing, (ala notha), and alula ſpuria. The lefſer coverts 32. Semipalmated. When the webs reach only half way of the (tectrices), are the feathers which lie on the bones of the wings. Pes ſemipalmatus. The greater coverts are thoſe which lie beneath the former, and 33. Digitis 4 omnibus All the four toes connected by webs, as in o palmatis. cover the quill-feathers and the ſecondaries. The quill-feathers the corvorants. 34. Ungue poftico selili. When the hind claw adheres to the leg (primores), ſpring from the firſt bones (digiti and metacarpi) of the without any toe, as in the petrels.nl wings, and are io in number. Quill-feathers are broader on their 35. Pedes compedes. When the legs are placed ſo far behind as inner than exterior ſides. The ſecondaries (ſecondariæ), are thoſe to make the bird walk with difficulty, or as that riſe from the ſecond part (cubitus), and are about 18 in num- is if in fetters; as is the caſe with the auks, ber, are equally broad on both ſides. The primary and ſecondary grebes, and divers. wing feathers are called remiges. A tuft of feathers placed beyond SECT. I. EXTERNAL PARTS OF BIRDS. the ſecundaries near the junction of the wings with the body. This, A Bird may be divided into Head, Body, and Limbs. in water-fowl, is generally longer than the ſecondaries, and cunei- form. The ſcapulars are a tuft of long feathers ariſing near the I. HE A D. junction of the wings (brachia) with the body, and lie along the 1. BILL (roftrum), is a hard horny ſubſtance, conſiſting of an ſides of the back, but may be eaſily diſtinguiſhed, and raiſed with upper and under part, extending from the head, and anſwering to one's finger. The inner coverts are thoſe that clothe the under the mandibles in the quadrupeds. Its edges generally plain and ſide of the wing. The ſubaxillary are peculiar to the greater Pa- ſharp, like the edge of a knife, cultruted, as are the bills of crows; radiſe. The wings of ſome birds are inſtruments of offence. The but ſometimes ſerrated, as in the toucan; or jagged, as in the gan anhima of Marcgrave has two ſtrong ſpines in the front of cach net and ſome herons; or péčtinated, as in the duck; or denticulated, wing. A ſpecies of plover, has a ſingle one on each ; the whole as in the merganſers; but always deſtitute of real teeth immerſed tribe of jacana, and the gambo, or ſpur-winged gooſe of Mr. in ſockets. The baſe in falcons is covered with a naked ſkin or Willoughby, the ſame. DU-I The The Binder is deſired to obſerve that this Sheet [D d—1] is to be placed before Haif Sheet [D d---2] it being an additional Half Sheets introduced in the neve Edit.on of this work, to enlarge on the Article ORDEAL. 24. Nucha. Pes pinnatus. toes.nl No. 122. ORNITHOLOGY, TAY is 2. The Tall is the director, or rudder, of birds in their flight ; bending downward, of the interior upwards, lying cloſe on each they riſe, ſink, or turn by its means; for, when the head points one other, ſo that, when ſpread, not a feather miſſes its impulſe on the the tail inclines to the other ſide: it is, beſides, an equilibrium air. The component parts of theſe feathers are deſcribed before. way, or counterpoiſe to the other parts; the uſe is very evident in the (2.) The feathers that cover the body, kite and ſwallows. The tail conſiſts of ſtrong feathers (rectrices), called the plumage, have little ſhaft, and much vane; and never zo in number, as in the woodpeckers, &c. 12 in the hawk tribe, are exerted or relaxed, unlefs in anger, fright, or illneſs . (3. ) and many others; in the gallinaceous, the merganſers, and the The Down, (plume), which is diſperſed over the whole body duck kind, of more. It is either even at the end, as in moſt birds; amidſt the plumage, is ſhort , ſoft, unconnected, conſiſts of lanugi- or forked, as in ſwallows; or cuncated, as in magpies, &c. or nous vanes, and is intended for excluding that air or water which rounded, as in the purple jackdaw of Cateſby. The grebe is def- may penetrate or eſcape the former. This is particularly apparent titute of a tail, the rump being covered with down; and that of in aquatic birds, and remarkably ſo in the anſerine tribe. There the caffowary with the feathers of the back. Immediately over are exceptions to the forms of feathers. The vanes of the futax- the tail, are certain feathers that ſpring from the lower part of the illary feathers of the Paradiſe are unconnected, and the laminæ back, and are called the coverts of the tail, (uropigium). diſtant, looking like herring-bone. Thoſe of the tail of the oſtrich 3. Thighs, (femora), are covered entirely with feathers in and head of a ſpecies of curaffo, curled. Thoſe of the caffowary all land-birds, except the buſtards and the oſtriches; the lower conſiſt of two ſhafts, ariſing from a common ſtem at the bottom: part of thoſe of all waders, or cloven-footed water-fowl, are na as do, at the approach of winter, (after moulting), thoſe of the ked; that of all web-footed fowl the ſame, but in a leſs degree; ptarmigans of arctic countries. The feathers of the penguins in rapacious birds, they are very muſcular. particularly thoſe of the wings, conſiſt chicily of thin flat ſhafts. 4. Legs,(crura); thoſe of rapacious fowls very ſtrong, furniſhed and more reſemble ſcales than feathers; thoſe of the tail, like with large tendons; and fitted for tearing and a firm gripe. The ſplit whale-bone. legs of fome of this genus are covered with feathers down to the SECT. II. FLIGHT OF BIRDS. toes, ſuch as the golden eagle; others to the very nails; but thoſe of moſt other birds are covered with ſcales, or with a ſkin divided The flight of brds is various; for, had all the ſame, none could into ſegments, or continuous. In ſome of the pies, and in all the elude that of rapacious birds. Thoſe which are much on wing, or paſſerine tribe, the ſkin is thin and membranous; in thoſe of flit from place to place, often owe their preſervation to that cauſe: web-footed water-fowl, ſtrong. The legs of moſt birds are placed thoſe in the water, to diving. Kites, and many of the falcon near the centre of gravity ; in land-birds, or in waders that want tribe, glide ſmoothly through the air, with fcarce any appa- the back toe, exactly ſo ; for they want that appendage to keep rent motion of the wings. Moſt of the order of pies fly quick, them erect. Auks, grebes, divers, and penguins, have their legs with a frequent repetition of the motion of their wings. The Pa- placed quite behind, ſo are neceſſitated to fit erect : their pace radiſe floats on the air. Woodpeckers fly awkwardly, and by jerks, awkward and difficult, walking like men in fetters: hence Lin and have a propenſity to fink in their progreſs. The gallinaceous næus ſtyles their feet pedes compedes. The legs of all cloven- | tribe, in general, fly very ſtrong and ſwiftly; but their courſe is fel- footed water fowl are long, as they muſt wade in ſearch of food: dom long, by reaſon of the weight of their bodies. The columbine of the palmated, ſhort except thoſe of the flamingo, the avoſet, race is of fingular ſwiftneſs; witneſs the flight of the CARRIER- and the courier. Pigeon. The paſſerine fly with a quick repetition of ſtrokes; their 5. Feet, ípedes), in all land-birds that perch, have a large Aight, except in migration, is feldom diſtant. Among them, the back toe: moſt of them have three toes forward, and one back ſwallow tribe is remarkably agile, their evolutions fudden, and ward. Woodpeckers, parrots, and other birds that climb much, their continuance on wi their continuance on wing long. Nature hath denied flight to the have two forward, two backward; but parrots have the power of ſtruthious; but ſtill, in running, their ſhort wings are of uſe, when bringing one of their hind toes forward while they are feeding erect, to collect the wind, and like fails to accelerate their motion. themſelves. Owls have alſo the power of turning one of their Many of the greater cloven-footed water-fowl, or waders, have a fore toes backward. All the toes of the ſwift turn forward, which flow and flagging flight; but moſt of the leffer fly ſwiftly, and moſt is peculiar among land birds: the tridactylous woodpecker is alſo of them with extended legs, to compenſate the ſhortneſs of their anomalous, having only two toes forward, one backward: the tails. Rails and gallinules, fly with their heads hanging down. oſtrich is another, having but two toes. Coots and grebes, with difficulty are forced from the water; but 6. Toes, (digiti). The toes of all waders are divided: but, be when they riſe, fly ſwiftly. Grebes, and alſo divers, fly with their tween the exterior and middle toe, is generally a ſmall web, reach hind parts downwards, by reaſon of the forwardneſs of their wings, ing as far as the firſt joint. The toes of birds that ſwim are either Web-footed fowl are various in their flight. Several have a fail. plain, as in the ſingle inſtance of the common water-hen or galli- ing or flagging wing, ſuch as gulls. Penguins and a ſingle auk- nule ; or pinnated, as in the coots and grebes; or entirely webbed are denied the power of flight. Wild geeſe, in their migrations, or palmated, as in all other ſwimmers. All the plover tribe, or do not fly all together, but in a regular figure, in order to cut charadrii, want the back toe. In the ſwimmers, the ſame want the air with greater cafe; for example, in long lines, in the figure prevails among the albatroſſes and auks. No water-fowl perch, of a B, or ſome pointed form or letter. except certain herons, the corvorant, and the ſhag. SECT. III. NUPTIALS, NIDIFICATION, AND EGGS OF 7. Claws, (ungues). Rapacious birds have very ſtrong, hooked, Birds. and ſharp claws, vultures excepted. Thoſe of all land-birds that rooſt on trees have alſo hooked claws, to enable them to perch in 1. Moſt birds are monogamous, or pair; in ſpring fixing on a ſafety while they ſleep. Thegallinaceous tribe have broad concave mate, and keeping conſtant till the cares of incubation and educa- claws for ſcraping up the ground. Grebes have flat nails like the ting the young brood is paſt. This is the caſe, as far as we know, human. Among water-fowl, only the ſkua, and the black-toed with all the birds of the firſt, ſecond, fourth and fifth orders . gull, have ſtrong hooked or aquiline claws. All land-birds perch | Birds that loſe their mates early, affociate with others; and birds on trees, except the ſtruthious and fome of the gallinaceous tribes. that loſe their eggs will pair and lay again. The male, as well Parrots climb; woodpeckers creep up the bodies and boughs of as the female, of ſeveral, join alternately in the trouble of incu- trees; ſwallows cling. All water-fowl reſt on the ground, except | bation, and always in that of nutrition ; when the young are hatch- certain herons, and one ſpecies of ibis, the ſpoonbill, one or two ed, both are bulied in looking out for and bringing food to the fpecies of ducks and of corvorants. neſtlings; and at that period the mates of the melodious tribes, IV. FEATHERS. who, before were perched on fome ſprig, and by their warbling alleviated the care of the females confined to the neſt, now join in FEATHERS are deſigned for two uſes; as coverings from the the common duty. Of the gallinaceous tribe, the greateſt part are inclemency of the weather, and inſtruments of motion through polygamous, at leaſt in a tame ftate; the pheaſant, many of the the air. They are placed in ſuch a manner as to fall over one grous, the partridges, and buſtards, are monogamous; of the grous, another, (tegulatim), ſo as to permit the wet to run off, and to ex the cock of the wood, and the black game, aſſemble the females clude the cold; and thoſe on the body are placed in a quincuncial during the ſeaſon of love, by their cries. The males of polyga- form; moſt apparent in a thick-ſkinned water-fowl, particularly mouş birds neglect their young; and, in ſome caſes, would deſtroy in the divers. them, if they met with them. The economy of the ſtruthious 1 The parts of a feather are, the ſhafts ; corneous, ſtrong, light, order, in this reſpect, is obſcure. It is probable that the three fpe- rounded, and hollow at the lower part; at the upper, convex above, cies in the genus oſtrich are polygamous, like the common poul- concave beneath, and chiefly compoſed of a pith. try, for they lay many eggs; the dodo is ſaid to lay but one. All 2. On each ſide the ſhafts are the vanes, broad on one ſide, waders or cloven-footed fowl are monogamous; and all with pin- narrow on the other; each vane conſiſts of a multitude of thin la nated feet, are alſo monogamous, except the ruffs. The ſwimmers minæ, ſtiff, and of the nature of a ſplit quill. Theſe laminæ are or web-footed fowl obſerve the ſame order, as far as can be remark- cloſely braced together by the elegant contrivance of a multitude of ed with any certainty; but many of the auks aſſemble in the rocks ſmall briſtles; thoſe on one ſide hooked, the other ſtraight, which in ſuch numbers, and each individual fo contiguous, that it is not lock into each other, and keep the vanes ſmooth, compact, and poſſible to determine their method in this article. It may ſtrong. The vanes near the bottom of the ſhafts are foft, uncon marked, that the affection of birds to their young is very violent nected, and downy. during the whole time of nutrition, or as long as they continue in Feathers are of three kinds. (1.) Such as compoſe inſtru a helpleſs ſtate; but, as ſoon as the brood can fly and ſhift for it- ments of Aight: as the pen-feathers, or thoſe which form the wings felf, the parents neglect, and even drive it from their haunts, the and tail, and have a large ſhaft. The vanes of the exterior ſide 1 affection ceaſing with the neceſſity of it: but, during that period, che Pastor be re- 3. ORNITHOLOG Y. to 20. near the water-ſide. Grebes, in the water, a ficating neft, per- together. They formed the diviſion of terreſtrial and The mothers nurſe it, and the fires defend. fixeggs; except the titmice and the wren, which lay is ör 18, and The young diſmiſs ’d, to wander earth, or air, the goatfucker, which lays only two. The ſtruthious order, which There ſtops the inſtinct, and there ends the care: The link diffolves; each ſeeks a freſh embrace; conſiſts but of two genera, diſagree much in the number of eggs : Another love ſucceeds, another race. the oſtrich laying many, as far as 50; the dodo but one. The clo- ven-footed water-fowl, or waders, lay, in general, four eggs: the 2 The neſt of a bird is one of thoſe daily miracles that from crane and the Norfolk plover, ſeldom more than two. All thoſe of its familiarity is paſſed over without regard. We ſtare with won- the ſnipe and plover genus are of a dirty wlnite, or oliveſpotted with der at things that rarely happen, and neglect the daily operations black, and ſcarce to be diſtinguiſhed in the holes they lay in. The of nature that ought firſt to excite our admiration, and claim our bird called the Land Rail, (an ambiguous ſpecies, lays from 15 attention. Each bird, after nuptials, prepares a place ſuited to its Of birds with pinnated feet, the coot lays ſeven or eight fpecies, for the depofiting its eggs and ſheltering its little brood: eggs, and thoſe white. different genera, and different ſpecies, fet about the taſk in a man- The web-footed, or ſwimmers, differ in the number of their ner ſuitable to their ſeveral natures; yet, every individual of the eggs. Thoſe which border on the order of waders, lay few eggs; fame ſpecies collects the very ſame materials, puts them together the avoſet, two; the flamingo, three; the albatroſs, the auks, and in the fame form, and chooſes the ſame fort of ſituation for placing guillemots, lay only one egg a-piece: the eggs of the two laſt are of this temporary habitation. The young bird of the laſt year, which a fize ſtrangely large in proportion to the bulk of the birds. They never ſaw the building of a neft, directed by a heaven-taught fa- are commonly of a pale green colour, fpotted, and ſtriped ſo vari- gacity, purſues the ſame plan in the ſtructure of it, and ſelects the ouſly, that not two are alike ; which gives every individual the fame materials as its parent did before. Birds of the ſame ſpecies, means of diſtinguiſhingits own on the naked rock, where ſuch mul- of different and remote countries, do the ſame. The ſwallows of titudes aſſemble. Divers, only two. Terns and gulls lay about Britain, and of the remoter parts of Germany, obſerve the ſame three eggs, of a dirty olive, ſpotted with black. Ducks lay from order of architecture. The neſts of the larger rapacious birds are eight to twenty eggs; the eggs of all the genus are of a pale green, rude, made of ſticks, and bents, but often lined with ſomething or white, and unſpotted. Penguins probably lay but one egg. Of foft; they generally build in high rocks, ruined towers, and in de- the pelican genus, the gannet lays but one egg; the ſhags or corvo- folate places: enemies to the whole feathered creation, they ſeem rants, fix or ſeven, all white: the laſt the moſt oblong of eggs. A conſcious of attacks, and ſeek folitude. A few build A few build upon the minute account of the eggs of birds might occupy a treatiſe of it- ground. Shrikes, the leaſt of rapacious birds, build their neſts in felf. This is only meant to ſhew the great conformity nature ob- buſhes, with moſs, wool, &c. The order of pies is very irregular ſerves in the ſhape and colours of the eggs of congenerous birds ; in the ſtructure of their neſts. Parrots, and in fact all birds with and alſo, that ſhe keeps the fame uniformity of colour in the eggs, two toes forward and two backward, lay their eggs in the hollows as in the plumage of the birds they belong to. Zinanni publiſhed, of trees. And moſt of this order creep along the bodies of trees, at Venice, in 1737, a treatiſe on eggs, illuſtrated with accurate and lodge their eggs alſo within them. Crows build in trees: among figures of 1 o6 eggs. Mr. Reyger of Dantzick publiſhed in 1766, them, the neſt of the magpie, compoſed of rude materials, is made a poſthumous work by Klein, with 21 plates, elegantly coloured: with much art, quite covered with thorns, and only a hole left for but much remains for future writers. admittance. The neſts of the orioles are contrived with wonderful SECT. IV. fagacity, and are hung at the end of fome bough, or between the ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT. forks of extreme branches. In Europe, only three birds have pen Conſidering the many ſyſtems that have been offered to the pub- file neſts; the common oriola, the parus pendulinus, or hang- lic oflate years, Mr. Pennant gives the preference to thatcompoſed neſt titmouſe, and one more. But in the torrid zones, where by Mr. Ray in 1667, and afterwards publiſhed in 1678 ; but ob- the birds fear the ſearch of the gliding ſerpent and inqui- ferves, at the ſame time, that it would be unfair to conceal the wri- fitive monkey, the inſtances are very frequent ; a marvellous ter, from whom our great countryman took the original hint of inſtinct implanted in them for the preſervation of their young. I forming that ſyſtem which has proved the foundation of all that has All of the gallinaceous and ſtruthious orders lay their eggs on the been compoſed ſince that period. It was a Frenchman, Belon of ground. The oſtrich is the only exception, among birds, of Mans, who firſt attempted to range birds according to their natures; the want of natural affection : " Which leaveth her eggs in the and performed great matters, conſidering the unenlightened age he earth, and warmeth them in the duſt, and forgeteth that the lived in; for his book was publiſhed in 1555. His arrangement of foot may cruſh them, or the wild beaſt may break them.” The rapacious birds is as judicious as that of the lateſt writers. For his columbine race makes a moſt artleſs neſt, a few ſticks laid acroſs fecond chapter treats of vultures, falcons, ſhrikes, and owls: in the may ſuffice. Moſt of the paſſerine order build their neſts in ſhrubs next, he paſſes over to the web-footed water-fowl, and to the clo- or buſhes, and ſome in holes of walls or banks. Several in the ven-footed: in the fifth, he includes the gallinaceous and ſtruthi. torrid zone are penſile from the boughs of high trees, that of ous; but mixes with them the plovers, buntings, and larks: in the the taylor-bird, (fee MOTACILLA) a wondrous inſtance. Some ſixth are the pies, pigeons, and thruſhes; and the ſeventh takes of this order, ſuch as larks, and the goat-fucker, on the ground. in the reſt of the paſferine order. Notwithſtanding the great defects Some ſwallows make a curious plaiſter-neſt bencath the roofs of that every naturaliſt will at once ſee in the arrangement of the leſſer houſes; and an Indian ſpecies, one of a certain glutinous matter, birds of this writer, yet he willobſerve a rectitude of intention inge- which are collected as delicate ingredients for foups of Chineſe neral, and a fine notion of ſyſtem, which was left to the following epicures. Moſt of the cloven-footed water-fowl, or waders, layage to mature and bring to perfection. Accordingly, Mr, Ray, and upon the ground. Spoonbills and the common heron build in his illuſtrious pupil the Hon. Francis Willoughby, affumed the trees, and make up large neſts with ſticks, &c. Storks build plan ; but, with great judgment, arranged into their proper ftati- on churches, or the tops of houſes. Coots make a great neſt ons and proper genera which mixed great haps adhering to ſome neighbouring reeds. Web-footed fowl aquatic birds ; they made every ſpecies occupy its proper place, breed on the ground, as the avofet, terns, ſome of the gulls, mer conſulting at once exterior form and natural habit. They could ganſers, and ducks: the laſt pull the down from their breaſts, to not bear the affected intervention of aquatic birds in the midſt of make a fofter and warmer neft for their young. Auks and gu terreſtrial birds. They placed the laſt by themſelves, clear and illemots lay their eggs on the naked ſhelves of high rocks; pen diſtinct from thoſe whoſe haunts and economy were ſo different. guins, in holes under ground: among the pelicans, that which The fubjoined ſcheme of arrangement by Mr. Pennant, is gives name to the genus, makes its neft in the deſert on the ground. introduced with the following obſervations. Shags ſometimes on trees; corvorants and gannets, on high rocks, “ Mr. Ray's general plan is ſo judicious, that to me it ſeems with ſticks, dried algæ, and other courſe materials.lwon 100 ſcarce poſſible to make any change in it for the better : yet, not- 3. Rapacious birds, in general, lay few eggs; eagles, and the withſtanding he was in a manner the founder of ſyſtematic zoo- larger kinds, fewer than the leffer. The eggs of falcons and owls logy, later diſcoveries have made a few improvements on his la- are rounder than thoſe of moſt other birds; they lay more than bours. My candid friend Linnæus did not take it amiſs, that I, fix. The order of pies vary greatly in the number of their in part, neglect his example: for I permit the land-fowl, Parrots lay only two or three white eggs. Crows lay fix eggs, to follow one another, and divided by the water-fowl, the greeniſh, mottled with duſky. Cuckoos, as far as we can learn, grallæ, and anſeres of his ſyſtem ; but, in my generical arrange- two. Woodpeckers, wryneck, and kingsfiſher, lay eggs of a clear ment, I moſt punctually attend to the order he has given in his white and ſemi-tranſparent colour. The wood-peckers lay fix, the ſeveral diviſions, except in thoſe of his anſeres, and a few of his others more. The nuthatch lays often in the year, eight at a time, grallæ. For, after the manner of Mr. Briffon, I make a diſtinct white, ſpotted with brown. The hoopoe lays but two cinereous order of water-fowl with pinnated feet, placing them between the eggs. The creeperlays a great number of eggs. The honey-fucker, waders or cloven-footed water-fowl, and the web-footed. The of- the leaſtand moſt defenceleſs of birds, lays but two: but Providence trich, and land-birds with wings uſeleſs for Alight, I place as a dif- wiſely prevents the extinction of the genus, by a ſwiftneſs of flight tinct order. The trumpeter (pſophia Linnæi), and the buſtards, I that eludes every purſuit. The gallinaceous order, the moſt uſeful place at the end of the gallinaceous tribe. All are land-birds. The of any to mankind, lay the moſt eggs from 8 to 20. Benigna circa firſt multiparous, like the generality of the gallinaceous tribe ; the bocnatura, innocua et eſculenta animalia fæcunda generavit, is a fine laſt granivorous, ſwift runners, avoiders of wet-places ;, and both obſervation of Pliny. With exception to the buſtard, a bird that have bills ſomewhat arched. It muſt be confeſſed, that both have hangs between the gallinaceous and the waders, which lays only legs naked above the knees; and the laſt, like the waders, lay but two. The columbine order lays but two white-eggs; but the do- few eggs. They ſeem ambiguous birds that have affinity with each meſtic kind, breeding almoſt every month, ſupports the remark of order; and it is hoped that each naturaliſt may be indulged the tole- the Roman naturalift. All of the paſſerine orderlay from four to ration of placing them as ſuits his own opinion.” TABLE eggs. ORNITHOLOG Y. GENERA OF BIRDS. DIVISION 1. AVES TERRESTRIS, or LAND BIRDS. ORDER I. ACCEPTRES, or RAPACIOUS, i Vultur, Vulture. 3 Strix, Ozol. 2 Falco. Falcon. TABLE of Pennant's ARRANGEMENT, with the correſpondent ORDERS and GENERA in the SYSTEMA NATURÆ Of Linnæus. DIVISION I. LAND-BIRDS. Order 1. Rapacious. Accipitres LINNÆI. II. Pies. Picæ. III. Gallinaceous. Gallina. IV. Columbine. Paſſeres. V. Pafferine. Paſſeres. s Gallina VI. Struthious. | Gralla. Division II. WATER-FOWL. Order VII. Cloven-footed Gralla. or Waders. s Anſeres. VIII. Pinnated feet. Gralla. IX. Web-footed. Anſeres. Gralla. Cuckoo.. 25 Sitta, Bee-eater. Hoopoe. Creeper. 1 Vulture, 2 Falcon, 3 Owl, 34 Colius, ORDER II. PICÆ, or PIES. 4 Lanius, Shrike. 18 Trogon, Curucui. 5 Pfittacus, Parrot. 19 Bucco, Barbet. 6 Ramphaltos, Toucan. 20 Cuculus, 7. Momotus, Motmot. 21 Junx, Wryneck. 8 Scythrops, 22 Picus, Woodpecker. 9 Buceros, Hornbill. 23 Galbula, Jacamar. 10 Buphaga, Beefeater. 24 Alcedo, King sfiber. 11 Crotophaga, Ani. Nuthaich. 12 Callæas, Wattle-Bird. 26 Todus, Tody. 13 Coryus, Crow. 27 Merops, 14 Coracias, Roller. 28 Upupa, 15 Oriolus, Oriole. 29 Certhia, SALLE 16 Gracula, Grakle. 30 Trochilus, Humming Bird. 17 Paradifæa, Paradiſe Bird. ORDER III. PASSERES, or PASSERINE. 3i Sturnus, Starling 40 Muſcicapa, Flycatcher. 32 Turdus, Thruſh. 41 Alauda, Lark. 33 Ampelis, Chatterer. in due 42 Motacilla, Wagtail. 43 Sylvia, Warbler. 35 Loxia, Grofbeak: 44 Pipra, Manakin, 36 Emberiza, Runting, Titmouſe. 37 Tanagra, Tanager. 46 Hirundo, Swallow. 38 Fringilla, Finch. 47 Caprimulgus, Goatfucker, 39 Phytotoma, ORDER IV. COLUMBÆ, or COLUMBINE. 48 Columba, Pigeon. ORDER V. GALLINÆ, or GALLINACEOUS. Peacock. 55 Tinamus, Tinamon. 50 Meleagris, Turkey. 56 Tetrao, Grous. 51 Penelope, 57 Perdix, Partridge. 52 Numida, Pintado. 58 Pfophia, 53 Crax, Curajo. Buſtard. 54 Phafianus, Pheaſant. ORDER VI. STRUTHIONES, or STRUTHIOUS. 60 Didus, Dodo. 62 Caſuarius, Calowary. 61 Struthio, African Oſtrich. 63 Rhea, American Oſtrich Coly. 4 Shrike, 5 Parrot, 6 Toucan, 7 Motmot, 8 Hornbill, 9 Beefeater, IO Ani, II Wattle, 12 Crow, 13 Roller, 14 Oriole, 15 Grakle, 16 Paradiſe, 45 Parus, DIVISION I. ORDER I. RAPACIOUS. Vultur. Strix. Falco. ORDER II. PIES. Lanius. 17 Curucui, Trogon. Pſittacus. 18 Barbet, Bucco. Ramphaſtos. 19 Cuckoo, Cuculus. Ramphaſtos. 20 Wryneck, Junx. Buceros. 21 Woodpecker, Picus. Buphaga. 22 Jacamar, Alcedo. Crotophaga. 23 Kingsfiſher, Alcedo. 24 Nuthatch, Sitta. Corvus. 25 Tody, Todus. Coracias. 26 Bee-eater, Merops. Oriolus. 27 Hoopoe, Upupa. Gracula. 28 Creeper, Certhia. Paradiſæa. 29 Honeyſucker, Trocbilus, ORDER III. GALLINACEOUS. Phaſianus. 35 Pheaſant, Phafianus. Meleagris. 36 Grous, Tetrao. Numida. 37 Partridge, Tetrao. Crax. 38 Trumpeter, Pfophia. . Pavo. 39 Buſtard, Otis. ORDER IV. COLUMBINE. Columba. ORDER V. PASSERINE. Sturnus. 49 Flycatcher, Muſcicapa. Turdus. Alauda. Ampelis. 51 Wagtail, Motacilla, Loxia. 52 Warblers, Motacilla. Loxia. 53 Manakin, Pipra, Emberiza. 54 Titmouſe, Parus. Tanagra. 55 Swallow, Hirundo. Fringilla. 56 Goatſucker, Caprimulgus. ORDER VI. STRUTHIOUS. Didus. 58 Oſtrich, Struthio. 49 Pavo, Trumpeter.it 59 Otis, 30 Cock, 31 Turkey, 32 Pintado, 33 Curaſlo, 34 Peacock, 40 Pigeon, 50 Lark, 41 Stare, 42 Thruſh, 43 Chatterer, 44 Coly, 45 Groſbeak, 46 Bunting, 47 Tanager, 48 Finch, 79 Parra, 57 Dodo, Parra. but 73 Rail, Rallus. 93 Sterna, DIVISION II. Order VII. CLOVEN-FOOTED, or WADERS. 59 Spoonbill, Platalea. 68 Sandpiper, Tringa. 63 Screamer, Palamedea. 69 Plover, Charadius. 61 Jabiru, Mycteria. 70 Oyſtercatcher, Hämatopus. 62 Boatbill, Cancroma. 71 Jacana, 63 Heron, Ardea. 72 Pyatincole, Hirundo. 64 Umbre, Scopus Briss. 65 Ibis, Tantalus. 74 Sheathbill, hi 66 Curlew, Scolopax. 75 Gallinule, Fulicas 67 Snipe, Scolopax. ORDER VIII. PINNATED-FEET. 76 Phalarope, Tringa. 78 Grebe, Columbus. 91 77 Coot, Fulica. ORDER IX. WEB-FOOTED. Recurviroſtra. 88 Gull, Larus, 80 Courier, Currira BRISS. 89 Petrel, Procellaria. 81 Flammant, Phoenicopterus. 90 Merganſer, Mergus. 82 Albatroſs, Diomedia. 91 Duck, Anas. 83 Auk, Alca, 92 Pinguin, ſ Diomedea. 84 Guillemot, Colynbus. Phaeton. 85 Diver, Colymbus. 93 Pelican, Pelicanus. 86 Skimmer, Rhyncops. 94 Tropic, Phaeton. 87 Tern, Sterna. Plotus. 90 Uria, 79 Avoſetta, DIVISION II. AVES AQUATICÆ, or WATER-BIRDS. ORDER VII. GRALLÆ, or WADERS. 64 Platalea, Spoonbill. 73 Tringa, Sandpiper. 65 Palamedea, Screamer. 74 Charadius, Plover. 66 Mycteria, Jabiru. 75 Curforius, 67 Cancroma, Boatbill. 76 Hæmatopus, Oyſter-Catcher. 68 Scopus, Umbre. 77 Glareola, Fratincole. 3007 69 Ardea, Heron. ori 78 Rallus, Rail. 70 Tantalus, Ibis. Jacana. En 71 Numenius, Curlew. 80 Gillinula, Gallinule. 72 Scolopax, Snipe. 81 Vaginalis, Sheath-bill. SINODE ORDER VIII. PINNATIPEDES With PINNATED FEET. 82 Phalaropus, Phalarope. 84 Podicepo, Grebe. 83 Fulica, Coot. ORDER IX. PALMIPEDES, or WEB-FOOTED. * Pedibus lon- Skimmer. gioribus, * With . Tern. στα ο 85 Recurviroſtra Avoſet. 94 Larus, Gull. 86 Corrira, Courier. 95 Procellaria, Petrel. 87 Phænicopterus Flamingo. 96 Mergus, Merganfer. ++ Pedibus bre- Duck. vioribus, } tt With ſhort legs.97 Anas, 98 Aptenodytes, Pinguin. 88 Diomedea; Albatroſs. 99 Pelicanus, Peiican. 89 Alca, Auk. 100 Phaeton, bmi Tropic Bird. Guillemot. 101 Plotus, Darter. 91 Colymbus, Diver. to be In the latter arrangements of birds, although it cannot be ſaid that the authors have loſt ſight of their great predeceffor, Lin- næus, yet the neceſſity of deviating from him muft feem obvi- ous, when the very great number of ſpecies that have come to our knowledge of late years, fufficient to juſtify ſuch alteration, and ſatisfy the moſt fcrupulous advocates of this great man, is conſidered. In his laſt edition of the Syſtema Nature, Linnæus enumerates about 930 birds only ; but in the Index and Synopſis of Mr. Latham, they have been increaſed to very near 4000, a number never imagined by former writers on the ſubject to exiſt in nature. M. Biberg, in his excellent treatiſe Oeconobdia Naturæ aman. acad. vol. 2. calculates the probability of the vegetable kingdom furniſhing as far as 10,000 ſpecies ; that of the vermes 2000 ; infects 10,000 ; amphibia 300 ; fiſhes 2000 ; birds 2000 ; qua- drupeds 200. How far we have already exceeded this number in every department the naturaliſts can teſtify; but how much farther the liſt may be increaſed, no one will pretend to foretel, whilſt the ardour and indefatigable induſtry of the preſent race of naturaliſts, added to the taſte for poſſeſſing new acquiſitions, and exploring new countries, ſhall continue. We have not entered into a deſcription of the modes and eco- nomy of life peculiar to the ſpecies belonging to each Genus, as they are deferibed under the reſpective Genera, in the order of the alphabet. 95 Darter. 92 fome new gen To the above we have thought it neceſſary to fubjoin an extract of the Orders and Genera as they ſtand in the Index Ornithologicus and General Synopſis of Birds, as publiſhed by Mr. Latham; as from the copious manner in which he has treated the ſubject, and from a very great addition he has been enaled to make to this branch of natural hiſtory, ſome deviations from the plan of preceding ou- thors, as well as the forination of ſome new genera, have neceſſarily ariſen. TABLE of the ORDERS and GENERA of BIRDS, according to Mr. Latham. AVIUM ORDINES. ORDERS OF BIRDS. DIVISIUM I. DIVISION I. Order I. Accipitres, Rapacious. . II. Picæ Pies. JII. Pafleres, Paſſerine. IV. Collumbæ, Columbine. V. Gallina. Gallinaceous. VI. Struthiones, Struthious. DIVISION II. DIVISION II. Order VII. Gralla. Wadirs. VIII. Pinnatipedes. Pinnattu' feet. IX. Palmipedes. Wcb-footed. Plate 1 Olafi Birds Dirision - Land Birks Order Papacious Oder ? Fes la System of Ornithology > cou B e 势 ​Order L.Gerus 3.0wi Order I. Cenus 3.Owl Order 7. Tichts 1 Jutture Order 7. Gen 2. Falcon Order. 2 Pies. Ant b. A B Ordu 2. Geus 5. Parrot Order 2. Genus 5. l'rot Order 2. Geus 4. Slike Order 2. Genus 5. Parrot Order Genus Toucan Order 2.Genus 7.Motmot Order 2. Genus 9. Beeteater Order R. Cenu Sllornbill 출 ​sed Order ? Genus iialtie Orår 2.Gcuus 12. Crow Order 2. Genus 13. Roller Order 2. Genus 10. Ani Order 2. Gauis 16. Paradise Order 2. Gemus 17. Curacue Orde: 2.Gauus 14. Oriole Order 2. Genus 15. Grable Eduard del oefedip Published as the Ad direct or C Croke Voy Paternoster Ron March 204 may. Plate 2. Claps 2 Birds Division 1 Order 2 Pois. Sa System of Ornithology Order 2. Genus 21. Woodpecker Order 2. Genus. 20. Wryneck Order 2. Genus 19. Cuckoo Order 2. Genus 18. Barbet Order 2. Genus 25.Tody Order 2. Genus 24. Nuthatch Order 2. Genus 23 King sfisher Order 2. Genus 22.Jacamar 2 I ANGA Order 2. Genus 29. Humming būd Order 2.Genus 28. Creeper Order 2. Genus 27. Hoopo e Order 2. Genus 26. Bee-eater Order 3 Paſserine ů Order 3. Genus 33. Coly Order 3. Genus 32. Chatterer Order 3. Genus 31. Thrush Order 3. Genus 30. Stare co Order 3. Geraus 37. Finch Order 3. Genus 36. Tanager Order 3. Genaus 35. Bunting Order 3. Genus 34. Grosbeak Edvard detin Published as the Act directs, by C. Cooke Nº 17 Paternoster Row Sep 18 2789 Taylor sculp 1 Pale;}. Clasfis ( 2. Brirds Division Sand Birds, Order 3. Paſserine, Order 4. Columbine, Order 5.Gjallinaceous. See System of Omilhology: Orter 3.6m 39.Lark. Onder 3. Genite 38.7 hatcher: Order 3.Gm 10.7tail. Urter 3. Camus -//'arbleve. Onder 3.Comus +2.Hankin. Order 4. Columbine. B Onder 3.Genus 13.Timouse Order 3.Genu 14.mallow'. Order 3. Tremite +5.Goalsucker, Order Klienus 10lireon. Order H.Genus 10.1'incon. Orders Gallinaceous. Order J. Genw 47. Peacock Order 5.6inus 18. Turker". " Order5. Genus 4.2 Pintade. A B В Order 5.Genus 50. Curayson'. Order: 5.Cena 57. Phezeant. Order 5.6 cm 57. Phant. Order 5. Geys 57. Pheasant. Order 5. Gemur 52.Tinmou. Onder 5. Gemu 63. Grus Order 5. Gems 56.Buslarl. Order 3. Ciem 15.1. Partridor. Order 5. ben 55. Trumpeter. Plate f. Clap 132, Orelercollections Onkr; Wintetis, Ole olijstem of Ornithology 2 Birds ( بر Division Wir way Order 6. Ginus 5, Dudo. Order 6. Genus 39 falšowary. Order: 6. Gemus 58.0slich. DIVISION 2. Water Towl. 02 M whe Order 7. Ironus 60. Spoonbill. Order 7. lionus 61. Screamer. Ordor 7. inns 6.Jabiru. Oridir 7. bonus 63. Boatbill. Duke Cron Order benus 66.Ibis: Oridir linus 67.Curlow. Order 7.Gonus 0 / Umbre, Orderinus 05.7Loron: Order 7. tenus 68. Snipe. Ordir 7. fins 09. Sandpiper. Orider 7.Genus 70.Plover. Order 7.Cenus 77.038107-catcher. Order 7.Genus 7? Pratincole. Order 7.0 Genus 75 Rail. Order 7. licnus 74. Jacana. Order 7. 6nus 73.Gallinule Order 7. Genus 76,Sheathbil. Puidigliant 73 CM 120 Parliam Ron, Mar. 29,1794. Tanlor sculp! Birds, Order 8. Pinnated Seet, Order 9. Web-footed Sa Ornithology : Order 8. Genus 77. Phalarope. Order 8. Genus 78. Coot. Order 8. Genus 79. Grebe. Order 9. Gemus 30. Aroset. N Order 9. Genus 81. Courier. Order 9. Gemw 32. Flamingo. Order 9. Genus 83. Albatrofs. Order 9. Genus 84. tuk. Orda 9. Genus 85. Guillemot Order 9. Genus 86. Diver Order 9. Gemus 87. Skimmer Order 9. Genus 88. Tern. Order 9. Genus 89. Gull. B BE Order 9. Gcnus 90. Petrel. Order 9. Genus 91. Jerganser: Order 9. Genus 92. Duck Order 9. Genus 92 Duck. ACD Order 9. Genus 93.Penguin Edvard deli: Order 9. Gerus 94.Pelican Order 9. Geus 95. Tropic. Orda 9. Gemus 96. Datter. Engraved for Halls Encyclopædia, & Printeil für i.Cooke. N° 17, Paternoster Row. Oct1.1797. J. Taylor sculp Plate 0 Various Parts, of Birds which regulate their Olafsification, See System of Ornithology 13 6 10 8 15 18 2 16 19 15 28 17 27 29 21 18 22 26 34 30 35 33 31 25 32 Engraved by W. Page. Drawn by S. Edwards Publiſhed as the det directs, by C. Cooke , 17 , Paternoster Row. Tuhy 1.1795- ORP O RY ger OROBUS, BITTER VETCH: a Genus of the Decandria or left us by Diofcorides, and much eſteemed at preſent by our der, belonging to the Diadelphia claſs of plants. painters. This is found in ſeveral places, as in the iſlands of the The Scots Highlanders have a great eſteem for the tubercles of Archipelago, in the mines of Goſſelaer in Saxony, in ſome parts the roots of the tuberoſus, or ſpecies ſometimes called wood-pea. of Turkey, and the Eaſt Indies, and in its utmoſt purity about They dry and chew them in general to give a bitter reliſh to their li- Smyrna ; this makes the fineſt of all yellows in painting. The quor ; they alſo affirm that they are good againſt moſt diſorders of the ſmall flaked, yellow kind, which is the common orpiment of breaſt, and that by the uſe of them they are enabled to reſiſt hun the ſhops, is alſo of a fine colour, though greatly inferior to the for- and thirſt for a long time. In Breadalbane and Roſsſhire, mer. The Indians uſe orpiment, corrected with juice of lemons they ſometimes bruiſe and ſteep them in water, and make an with good ſucceſs againſt fevers. agreeable fermented liquor with them. They have a ſweet taſte, The red arſenic, or realgar, is likewiſe found in an indurated fomething like the roots of liquorice; and, when boiled, we are ſtate, and in irregular or ſtalactitical maſſes. It is either It is either opaque told, they are nutritious and well flavoured; and in times of or ſemitranſparent; ſometimes it is found quite tranſparent, and ſcarcity they have ſerved as a ſubſtitute for bread. regularly cryſtalliſed in octoedral priſms or pyramids; in which ORPHEUS, in ancient mythology, was the ſon of Oeagrus, laſt form it is called ruby of arſenic. Its ſpecific gravity is about king of Thrace, and of the Muſe Calliope. He excelled in 3225; it contains 16 per cent. of ſulphur; and its red colour is poetry, and eſpecially in muſic, to ſuch a degree, that he is re eaſily deſtroyed by the nitrous acid. In order to analyſe theſe preſented as taming the moſt ferocious animals, changing the courſe two kinds of orpiment, they ought to be digeſted in marine acid, of the winds by his melody, and as cauſing the trees of the foreſt adding the nitrous by degrees to aſſiſt the ſolution. The ſulphur to dance in concert with his lyre. In the character of Orpheus, is then left on the filter, while the arſenic remains in the ſolution. according to the account that is recorded concerning him, were from which it may be precipitated in its metallic form by zinc, comprehended not only the ſciences of muſic and poetry, but thoſe adding ſpirit of wine to the ſolution. See the Syſtem of Chymis- alſo of moral philoſophy, legiſlature, and theology. Diodorus Try, Part III. Chap. I. Sect. I. Siculus, lib. iv. cap. 25. ſays of him, that he was a man who ORRERY, an aſtronomical inſtrument or rather machine for diligently applied himſelf to literature, and having learned the repreſenting the motions and various appearances of the ſun and mythical part of theology, travelled into Egypt, where he attain- planets; and hence, with greater propriety, called PLANETARI- ed to farther knowledge, and became the greateſt of all the Greeks UM. The reaſon of its being called an orrery was this: Mr. in the myſterious rites of religion, theological ſkill, and poetry. Rowley, a mathematical inſtrument-maker, having got one from To which Pauſanias, lib. ix. p. 586. adds, that he gained great Mr. George Graham, the original inventor, to be ſent abroad authority, as being believed to have found out expiations for wicked with ſome of his own inſtruments, he copied it, and made the actions, remedies for diſeaſes, and appeaſements of the divine firſt for the earl of Orrery. Sir Richard Steel, who knew nothing diſpleaſure. The general tradition of the Greeks derived the of Mr. Graham's machine, thinking to do juſtice to the firſt en- Thracian religious rites and myſteries from Orpheus; and Suidas courager, as well as to the inventor, of ſuch a curious inſtrument, expreſsly declares it is commonly ſaid, that Orpheus the Thra called it an orrery, and gave Mr. Rowley, the praiſe due to Mr. cian was the firſt inventor of the religious myſteries of the Greeks, Graham. Deſaguliers, Experiment. Phil. vol. i. p. 430. For and that religion was called @ensuaisin Threſkeia, as being a a copius deſcription of the ORRERY, its conſtruction and uſes, Thracian invention. Some, however, have doubted, from what ſee the Syſtem of ASTRONOMY, Sect. XVI. For repreſenta- Cicero ſays, Orpheum poetam docet Ariſtoteles nunquam fuiſſe; tion, ſee Plate II. For a full deſcription of the conſtruction and Ariſtotle teacheth, that there never was ſuch a man as Orpheus uſes of the Planetarium Tellurian and Lunarian, an inſtrument the poet, whether there ever exiſted ſuch a perſon. But Dr. made by Mr. George Adams, ſee the Syſtem of ASTRONOMY, Cudworth has ſhewn, from the general teſtimony of ancient wri Sect. XVI. For repreſentation, ſee Plate II. ters, that there was ſuch a perſon, who is commonly ſuppoſed to ORTHODOXY, formed from opfos, right, and doža, opinion, have lived before the Trojan war, (that is, in the time of the judgment, a ſoundneſs of doctrine or belief, with regard to all Iſraelitiſh judges) or at leaſt to have been ſenior to Heſiod and the points and articles of faith. According to the proper etymo- Homer, and alſo to have died a violent death; moſt writers af- logy of the word, orthodoxy denotes what every honeſt man be- firming that he was torn in pieces by women, becauſe their huſ lieves his own opinions to be, in contradiſtinction to the opinions bands deſerted them, in order to follow him. The ſame learned of others, which he rejects. In England it is vulgarly reſtricted writer has alſo inquired into the ſuſpected authenticity of the to ſignify the opinions contained in the Thirty-nine Articles ; poems aſcribed to Orpheus; and he inclines to the opinion, that and in Scotland it is in like manner uſed to denote the doctrines they were either written by him, or that they were very ancient, contained in their confeſſion of faith. It is, in general, applied and contained his doctrine and opinions. He farther argues, that to the opinions that are maintained by thoſe called CALVINISTS. though Orpheus was a polytheiſt, and aſſerted a multiplicity of Orthodoxy is uſed in oppoſition to heterodoxy, or hereſy. gods, he nevertheleſs acknowledged one ſupreme, unmade deity, ORTHOGRAPHY, formed from optos, right, and yeaon, as the original of all things; and that the Pythagoreans and Pla- writing, in grammar, the art of ſpelling: that is, writing words toniſts not only held Orpheus in great eſteem, being commonly juſtly, and with all the proper and neceſſary letters. Orit is the called by them the Theologer, but were alſo thought in a great art of combining letters into fyllables, and ſyllables into words. meaſure to have owed their theology and philofophy to him, de- Orthography makes one of the greateſt diviſions or branches of riving it from his principles and traditions. Cudworth’s Intel- grammar. See the System, Part II. Chap. I... lectual Syſtem, book i. chap. 4. § 17. p. 294, &c. ed. 2. by Birch. ORYZA, RICE, in botany: a Genus of the Digynia order, ORPÍMENT, auripigmentum, in natural hiſtory, a bitu- belonging to the Hexandria claſs of plants; the calyx is a bivalved minous mineral compoſed of ſulphur and arſenic, ſometimes ar uniflorous glume; the corolla bivalved, nearly equal and adhering tificially produced, but found alſo native in the earth, and to the ſeed. There is but one ſpecies, namely the ſativa or com- conſtituting one of the ores of arſenic. It is of two kinds, red mon rice. This plant is greatly cultivated in moſt of the eaſtern and yellow, the former generally found in an indurated ſtate ; countries, where it is the chief ſupport of the inhabitants; and though Cronſtedt ſuppoſes that it may alſo be met with in looſe great quantities of it are brought into England and other European ſcaly powder, as it is ſometimes met with in the ſhops. It is countries every year, where it is much eſteemed for puddings, ommonly found in (hapeleſs maſſes, very ſeldom cryſtalliſed; &c. it being too tender to be produced in theſe northern countries though Baron Borne once found it in a polyhedral form on a blue without the aſſiſtance of artificial heat; but from fome ſeeds clay in Hungary. The name red orpiment has been given by which were formerly ſent to Carolina there have been great the more judicious to ſandarach, and by the vulgar to red arfe- quantities produced, and it is found to ſucceed as well there as in nic; but it is to be reſtrained only to this foſſile, which is of a fine the eaſtern countries. Zine bright red, and of the regular texture of the orpiments, and an Rice, according to Dr. Cullen, is preferable to all other kinds fwering all their characters. It is a very beautiful ſubſtance of of grain, both for largeneſs of produce, quantity of nouriſhment, a fine bright red, very gloſſy, and a little tranſparent, and is and goodneſs. This, he ſays, is plain from macerating the dif- found in the Turkiſh dominions, in the iſlands of the Archipela- ferent grains in water; for, as the rice ſwells to the largeſt ſize, go, and even in our own country, Dr. Hill having received ſome ſo its parts are more intimately divided. Rice is ſaid to affect of it from Cornwall, under the name of red mundic. The yel- the eyes; but this is purely prejudice. Thus it is alledged a low kind is met with commonly of ſhining flexible lamellæ like particular people of Aſia, who live on this grain, are blind-eyed: mica, the ſpecific grávity about 5515. It burns with a blue but if the ſoil be fandy, and not much covered with herbagej flame, and contains about one tenth of its weight of ſulphur.- and as theſe people are much employed in the field, this affec- It is found native in Hungary, and in many parts of Germany tion of their eyes may be owing to the ſtrong reflection of the and the Turkiſh dominions : it is the common orpiment of the rays of light from this fandy ſoil ; and our author is the more Thops. Some are of opinion, that the noxious qualities of the inclined to this opinion, becauſe no ſuch effect is obſerved in arſenic are ſo much counteracted by the fulphur with which this Carolina, where rice is very commonly uſed. ſubſtance is mixed, that it may be ſwallowed with ſafety; but Dr. Percival informs us, that as a wholeſome nouriſhment Macquer poſitively afferts the contrary, and very ſeriouſly cautions rice is much inferior to falep. He digeſted feveral aliamentary againſt its uſe, even though we be certain that the orpiment is mixtures prepared of mutton and water, beat up with bread, native. There is beſides a broad-flaked, gold-coloured kind, well ſea-biſcuit, falep, rice Acur, fago powder, potato, old cheeſe, known among the ancients, as is plain from the deſcription of it &c. in a heat equal to that of the human body. In 48 hours No. 122. D d-2 they This being an additional Half Sheet [D d—2] to the new Edition of this work, the Binder is deſired to be careful in placing it after Sheet, [D d-1). Should it be miſplaced, or thrown out, in the Binding, under the idea of its being a Duplicate Sheet, the Work will be rendered imperfect. OSI OST of the nations, claimed this Ofiris as their own, and pretended they had all acquired a vinous ſmell , and were in briſk fermen- being firſt worſhipped only as a demigod, was in proceſs of time tation, except the mixture with rice, which did not emit any advanced to full divinity, and confounded with his heavenly god. air-bubbles, and was but little changed. The third day ſeveral father. The Greeks, who, though original in nothing, were of the mixtures were ſweet, and continued to ferment; others always prompted by their vanity, to hold themſelves cut as the first had loſt their inteſtine motion, and were four; but the one which contained the rice was become putrid. From this experiment it that he was the ſon of Jupiter and Niobe. He reigned, fay they , appears that rice, as an aliment is now of fermentation, and a over the Argives; but afterwards delivered his kingdom to his very weak corrector of putrefaction. It is therefore an improper brother Algialeus, and took a voyage into Egypt, of which he diet for hoſpital patients, but more particularly for ſailors, in made himſelf maſter, and married lo or Ifis. He eſtabliſhed long voyages, becauſe it is incapable of preventing, and will not good laws there; and they were both after their deaths worſhipped contribute much to check the progreſs of, that fatal diſeaſe the as gods. That this is a ridiculous fiction needs no proof; fince ſea-fcurvy: Under certain circumſtances , rice ſeems diſpoſed of every one knows, that good laws were eſtabliſhed in Egypt long itſelf , without mixture, to become putrid. For by long keeping before the Argives had any king, or indeed exiſted either as a it ſometimes acquires an offenſive foetor. Nor, according to tribe or nation. om our author, can it be conſidered as a very nutritive kind of food, OSSIFICATION, in the animal economy, the formation on account of its difficult folubility in the ſtomach. Experience Experience of the bones, but more particularly the converſion of parts na- confirms the truth of this conclufion; for it is obſerved by the turally ſoft to the hardnefs and conſiſtency of bones. Bones, planters in the Weſt Indies, that the negroes grow thin, and Dr. Drake contends, are formed out of the moſt comminute or are leſs able to work, whilſt they ſubfiſt upon rice. broken parts of the blood ; ſince we ſee that the blood of old OSCILLATION, in mechanics, vibration; or the reciprocal men, which by a long courſe of circulation becomes in a man- aſcent and deſcent of a pendulum. Axis of OscillATION, is ner unfit for the common office of nutrition, will however oflify, a right line, parallel to the apparent horizontal one, and paſſing and convert into bones, many of the tendons and ligaments, and through the centre; about which the pendulum oſcillates. Mr. even the coats of the veſſels themſelves, whoſe ſubſtance being Huygens's whole doctrine of oſcillation is founded on this hy next to the bones the moſt compact, admits only of the ſmallett potheſis, that the common centre of gravity of ſeveral bodies, particles of the blood, which therefore ſooneft become offeous, connected together, muſt return precifely to the ſame height as they are frequently found. Dr. Neſbit's opinion of oſſifica- whence it fell; whether thoſe weights return conjointly, or whe tion is, that in the blood, or a fluid fecreted from it, there is an ther, after their fall, they return ſeparately: each with the velo- offifying juice, having particles which are not apparent: that city ithad then acquired. This ſuppoſition was oppoſed by ſeveral, whenever nature deſires an offification between membranes, or and very much ſuſpected by others. And ſome, who inclined to within a cartilage, the occaſions a more than uſual afflux of this believe it true, yet thought it too daring to be admitted into a fluid ; which ſo much diftends the veſſels which were before in- ſcience, which demonſtrates every thing. viſible, as to make them capable of receiving the red globules of OSIRIS, in mythology, one of the gods of ancient Egypt, blood, which is always to be ſeen near to the place where offifi- and very generally believed to have been the ſun, or at leaſt the cation is begun. In this blood, gritty bony particles may be mind actuating that luminary. The Egyptians derived all things felt by the point of a knife, which have been formed by the at: from two principles, an active and a paſive. Their active traction and coheſion of the particles of the oſlifying juice ob- principle, according to the learned Jablonſki, was an infinite and ſtructed, along with the other groffer fluids, in the beginning of eternal ſpirit ; and their paſſive principle was night. This fpi the veſſels prepared to receive refluent juices. The blood being rit they conſidered ſometimes as a male, ſometimes as a female, capable of forming fine membranes, the membranous parts of a divinity, and occaſionally they attributed to it both ſexes; but it bone, which act as a gluten to keep theſe particles and fibres to does not appear to have been the object of their worſhip. The gether, if there be any ſuch, that do not ariſe from the coats of carlieſt objects of pagan adoration were the ſun, moon, and pla its veffels, are produced by a coheſion round the cretaceous par- nets; and that the philoſophers and prieſts of ancient Egypt wor ticles of a part of the fluid, in which they were generated and Thipped the fun by the name of Oſiris, may be proved by num contained. Thus the membranes of cartilages ſerve as a bed be- berleſs teſtimonies from the moſt authentic records of antiquity. tween or within which the bony particles are depoſited, or ſhoot; Diogenes Laertius affirms, that they held the ſun and moon for but without any intermixture of the particles of the bone and car- divinities, and that they called the latter Iſis. In the hieroglyphic tilage, or continuation of the fibres of the one ſubſtance to thoſe writings of ancient Egypt, « Oſiris was repreſented by a ſceptre of the other, as is evident in cartilages containing bones kept and an eye,” to denote that this god was the ſun looking down long enough in water, and then ſlit; for the bone will, as ſoon from heaven on all things upon earth. as the large veſſels that enter its ſubſtance are divided, ſlip as Some of the ancients, and a few of the moſt learned mo eaſily, and perhaps eaſier from it than an acorn does out of its derns have contended, that by Oſiris the Egyptians under cup: and there is a ſmoothneſs and poliſh of the parts of both ſtood the Nile, or ſpirit of the Nile, whilſt others have confounded cartilage and bone, which ſhew there is no conjunction of the him with the Grecian Bacchus. In one ſenſe Oſiris might be fibres of the two ſubſtances. While the bones are increaſing Bacchus, becauſe the original Bacchus was himſelf the ſun. See within cartilages, the cartilages are extended and ſpread out ; by MYSTERY which, with the preſſure which they ſuffer, and the great influx It is indeed true, that the Greeks, who borrowed their reli of various fluids, and the nutritious matter being hindered to gion as well as the firſt principles of ſcience from Egypt, attri flow freely into them they decreaſe continually, and at laſt may buted to their Bacchus many of the actions of Oſiris; but it is truly be ſaid to be entirely deſtroyed. Dr. Buddeus endeavours Jikewiſe true, that they gave him other attributes, which the to prove, that the preternatural oflifications, which are com-- Egyptian god could not poſſeſs conſiſtently with the known fu monly ſaid to be formed in different parts of the body, do not de- perſtitions of that country. Diodorus Siculus, Euſebius, Sextus ſerve that name ; for that theſe hard fubſtances have ſcarce any Empericus, &c. all affirm, that the Egyptians worſhipped the other properties of bone except whiteneſs and hardneſs. fun by the name of Oſiris, but that by this name they meant the OSTEOLOGY, oseOdos.c, formed from ostov, bone, and hoor, power or governing mind of the ſun, as the Greeks and Romans | diſcourſe, that part of anatomy which teaches the nature and fabric ſeem to have done by their Phoebus and Apollo. of the bones of the human body; their form, diſpoſition, articu- But though the original Ofiris was undoubtedly the ſun, or lation, uſe, &c. For a full defeription and explanation of this the intelligence actuating the ſun, yet there is reaſon to believe part of Anatomy, ſee the SYSTEM, Part I. throughout. For that there was a ſecondary Ofiris, who at a very early period repreſentation, ſee Plate I. orang reigned in Egypt, and was deified after his death for the benefits OSTREA, the oyſter, a Genus belonging to the order of Vermes he had rendered to his country. This is indeed ſo generally ad Teftacea. For the generic character and deſcription of the princi- mitted, as to have occaſioned great controverſies among the learned pal ſpecies of this Genus, ſee the Syſtem of CONCHOLOGY, Or- reſpecting the time when he flouriſhed, and whether he was the der II. Genus 14. civilizer of rude barbarians or the victorious ſovereign of a poliſh-|This ſea-fiſh occupies in the ſcale of nature one of the degrees ed nation. The illuſtrious Newton, it is well known, has the moſt remote from perfection : deſtitute of defenſive weapons adopted the latter opinion; and with much plauſibility endea and progreſſive motion, without art or induſtry, it is reduced to voured to prove, that Oſiris was the ſame with Sefoftris or Serac; mere vegetation in perpetual impriſonment, though it every day but it muſt be confeſſed, that his concluſion is contrary to all opens regularly to enjoy the element neceffary to its preſervation. the moſt authentic records of antiquity; and that it would be eaſy | The animal figure, and the ſprings of its organization, are ſcarce by the ſame mode of arguing, to give a Thew of identity to two difcernible through the coarſe and ſhapeleſs maſs ; a ligament perſons univerſally known to have flourished in very diſtant ages. placed at the ſummit of the ſhell ſerves as an arm to its operations. The annals of Egypt, as may be ſeen in the writings of Hero-Oyſters are reputed to be hermaphrodites ; the ſpawn which dotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, and others, who they caſt in May adheres to the rocks and other matters at the copied from thoſe annals, expreſsly aſſerted the diſtinct perſona bottom of the ſea ; and in the ſpace of 24 hours is provided with lity of Ofiris and Sefoftris, and placed them in æras vaſtly diſtant ſhells in which are contained other oyſters that never leave the from each other. Ofiris, if any credit be due to thoſe hiſtorians, ſpot on which they were fixed, till the greedy fiſherman tears was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy; and, as was cuſto them from the element. The green oyſters eaten at Paris are mary in thoſe days, having either received the name of the ſun, commonly brought from Dieppe. Their colour is owing to the or communicated his own to that luminary, was after his death care taken to bed them in creeks, encompaſſed with verdure, deified for the benefits which he had rendered to his country, and whence they acquire their delicacy. Common oyſters ſhould be freſh, OST OST their ſpat. Knew at fuſt taſte. nouriſhing. SECA freſh, tender, and moiſt. The moſt eſteemed are thoſe caught fummer: but that the earthịhath the greater power, Brickelſea pits at the mouth of rivers, and in clear water. Great account is green both winter and ſummer : and for a further proof, a pit with- made of oyſters from Brittany, but ſtill greater of thoſe that come in a foot of a greening-pit will not green; and thoſe that did green from Marennes in Saintonge. Preference is given to thoſe that very well, willin timeloſe their quality. The oyſters, when the tide are edged with ſmall brown fringe, or beard, which epicures call comes in, lie with their hollow ſhell downwards; and when it goes fecundated oyſters ; but that thoſe are females is a miſtake. The out, they turn on the other ſide: they remove not from their place; want of freſh water renders oyſters hard, bitter, and unpalatable. unleſs in cold weather, to cover themſelves in the ouſe. The Mud and ſea-weeds deſtroy them in their very birth; galangal | reaſon of the ſcarcity of oyſters, and conſequently of their dear- root, muſcles, ſcollops, ſca-ſtars, and crabs, are formidable ene neſs, is, becauſe they are of late years bought up by the Dutch. mies to the oyſters. There are found in Spain red and ruffet “ There are great penalties by the admiralty court laid upon coloured oyſters ; in Illyria, brown coloured, with the fleſh thoſe that fiſh out of thoſe grounds which the court appoints, or black; and in the Red Sea, of the colour of the Iris. Oyſters that deſtroy the cultch; or that take any oyſters that are not of ſize, or of the mangle-tree are of two forts; thoſe of St Domingo are de that do not tread under their feet, or throw upon the ſhore, a fiſh licate, adhering to the ſtumps of the trees that dip in the water. which they call a five-finger, reſembling a ſpur-rowel, becauſe that The negro divers cut them off with a bill, and they are ſerved fiſh gets into the oyſters when they gape, and fucks them out. upon table with the roots. « The reaſon that ſuch a penalty is ſet upon any that ſhall Britains has been noted for oyffers from the time of Juvenal, deſtroy the cultch, is, becauſe they find that if that be taken a- who, fatyrizing Montanus an epicure, ſays, way, the ouſe will increaſe, and the muſcles and cockles will breed He, whether Circe's rock his oyſters bore, there, and deſtroy the oyſters, they having not whereon to ſtick Or Lucrine lake, or diſtant Richborough's ſhore, “ The oyſters are fick after they have ſpat; but in June and The luxurious Romans were very fond of this fiſh, and had | July they begin to mend, and in Auguſt they are perfectly well : their layers or ſtews for oyſters as we have at preſent. Sergius the male oyſter is black fick, having a black ſubſtance in the fin; Orata was the firſt inventor, as early as the time of L. Craffus the female white-fick (as they term it,) having a milky ſubſtance the orator. He did not make them for the fake of indulging his in the fin. They are falt in the pits, falter in the layers, but appetite, but through avarice, and made great profits from them. falteſt at ſea.' Orata got great credit for his Lucrine oyſters; for, ſays Pliny, The oyſter affords the curious in microſcopic obfervations a the Britiſh were not then known. very pleaſing entertainment. In the clear liquor many little round The ancients eat them raw, having them carried up unopened, living animalcules have been found, whoſe bodies being conjoined, and generally eating them at the beginning of the entertainment, form ſpherical figures, with tails not changing their place other- but fometimes roaſted. They had alſo a cuſtom of ſtewing them wiſe than by finking to the bottom, as being heavier than the with mallows and ducks, or with fiſh, and eſteemed them very fluid ; theſe have been ſeen frequently ſeparating, and then com- ing together again. In other oyſters, animalcules of the ſame Britain ſtill keeps its ſuperiority in oyſters over other countries. kind were found, not conjoined, but ſwimming by one another, Moſt of our coaſts produce them naturally; and in ſuch places whence they ſeemed in a more perfect ſtate, and were judged by they are taken by dredging, and are become an article of com Mr. Leewenhoek to be the animalcules in the roe or femen of merce, both raw and pickled. The very ſhells, calcined, be the oyſters. A female oyſter being opened, incredible multitudes come an uſeful medicine as an abſorbent. In common with of ſmall embryo oyſters were ſeen, covered with little ſhells, per- other ſhells, they prove an excellent manure. fectly tranſparent, and ſwimming along Nowly in the liquor ; and Stews or layers of oyſters are formed in places which nature in another female, the young ones were found of a brown co- never allotted as habitations for them. Thoſe near Colcheſter lour, and without any appearance of life or motion. Monſieur have been long famous; at preſent there are others that at leaſt Joblot alſo kept the water running from oyſters three days, rival the former, near the mouth of the Thames. The oyſters, and it appeared full of young oyſters ſwimming about nimbly in or their ſpats, are brought to convenient places, where they im it; theſe increaſed in ſize daily; but a mixture of wine or the prove in taſte and ſize. It is an error to ſuppoſe, that the fine vapour of vinegar killed them. green obſerved in oyſters taken from artificial beds, is owing to In the month of Auguſt oyſters are ſuppoſed to breed, becauſe copperas ; it being notorious how deſtructive the ſubſtance or the young ones are then found in them. Mr. Leewenhoek, on the folution of it is to all fiſh. We cannot give a better account of the 4th of Auguſt, opened an oyſter and took out of it a prodigious cauſe, or of the whole treatment of oyſters, than what is preſerv number of minute oyſters, all alive, and ſwimming nimbly about ed in the learned biſhop Sprat's hiſtory of the Royal Society, Society, in the liquor, by means of certain exceeding ſmall organs, ex- from p. 307 to 309. tending a little way beyond their ſhells; and theſe he calls their “ In the month of May, the oyſters caſt their ſpawn, (which beards. In theſe little oyſters, he could diſcover the joinings of the the dredgers call their ſpats); it is like to a drop of candle, and fhells; and perceive that there were ſome dead ones, with their about the bigneſs of a half-penny. The ſpat cleaves to ſtones, fhells gaping. Theſe, though ſo extremely minute, are ſeen to old oyſter-ſhells; pieces of wood, and ſuch like things, at the be as like the large oyſters in form, as one egg is to another. As bottom of the ſea, which they call the cultch. It is probably to the ſize of them, he computes, that 120 of them in a row conjectured, that the fpat in 24 hours begins to have a ſhell. In would extend an inch : and conſequently, that a globular body, the month of May, the dredgers (by the law of the admiralty whoſe diameter is an inch, would if they were alſo round, be court) have liberty to catch all manner of oyſters, of what ſize equal to 1.728.000 of them. He reckons 3000 or 4000 are in foever. When they have taken them, with a knife they gently one oyſter, and found many of the embryo oyſters among the raiſe the ſmall brood from the cultch, and then they throw the bairds; fome faſtened thereto by ſlender filaments, and others eultch in again, to preſerve the ground for the future, unleſs they laying looſe ; he likewiſe found animalcules in the liquor 500 be fo newly fpat, that they cannot be ſafely ſevered from the times leſs than the embryo oyſters. It is not very uncommon cultch ; in that caſe they are permitted to take the ſtone or ſhell to fee on oyſter-ſhells, when in a dark place, a ſhining matter &c. that the ſpat is upon, one ſhell having many times 20 fpats. or bluiſh light, like a flame of brimſtone, which ſticks to the fin- After the month of May, it is felony to carry away the cultch, gers when touched, and continues ſhining and giving light for a and puniſhable to take any other oyſters, unleſs it be thoſe of conſiderable time, though without any conſiderable heat. This fize, that is to ſay) about the bigneſs of an half-crown piece, or ſhining matter being examined with a microſcope, was found when, the two ſhells being ſhut, a fair. ſhilling will rattle be to contiſt of three ſorts of animalcules ; the firſt whitiſh, and hav- tween them. ing 24 or 25 legs on a ſide, forked, a black ſpeck on one part of « The places where theſe oyſters are chiefly caught, are cal the head, the back like an cel with the ſkin ſtripped off. The led the Pent-Burnham, Malden, and Colne-waters; the latter ſecond fort, red, reſembling the common glow-worm, with folds taking its name from the river of Colne, which paſſeth by Col on its back, but legs like the former ; a noſe like a dog's, and cheſter, gives name to that town, and runs into a creek of the one eye in the head. The third fort ſpeckled, with a head like fea, at a place called the Hythe, being the ſuburbs of the town. a ſole, with many tufts of whitiſh hairs on the ſides of it. Some This brood and other oyſters they carry to the creeks of the ſea, much larger and greyiſh might be ſeen, having great heads, two at Brickelſea, Melfy, Langno, Frinrego, Wivenho, Toleſbury, | horns like a ſnail's, and fix or eight whitiſh feet; but theſe did and Saltcoaſe; and there throw them into the channel, which not ſeem to ſhine. they call their beds or layers, where they grow and fatten ; and OSTRICH, the Engliſh name of the Genus Struthio, in the in two or three years the ſmalleſt brood will be oyſters of the Syſtem of OrnithŐLOGY. For deſcription of the Genus See fize aforeſaid. Thoſe oyſters which they would have green, they | STRUTHIO. For the repreſentation, ſee Plate IV. Genus 58. put into pits about three feet deep in the falt-marſhes, which are TO OTIS, in ornithololgy, a Genus of birds belonging to the or- pverflown only at ſpring-tides, to which they have ſluices, and der of Grallæ. There are four ſpecies, principally diſtinguiſhed let out the falt-water until it is about a foot and half deep. Theſe by their colour. The moſt remarkable the tarda, or buſtard, is pits, from ſome quality in the ſoil co-operating with the heat of the largeſt of the Britiſh land-fowl; the male at a medium the ſun, will become green, and communicate their colour to the weighing 25 pounds: there are inſtances of ſome very old ones oyſters that are put into them in four or five days, though they weighing 27. The breadth nine feet ; the length near four Be- commonly let them continue there fix weeks or two months, in lides the fize and difference of colour, the male is diſtinguiſhed which time they will be of a dark green. To prove that the from the female by a tuft of feathers about five inches long on ſun operates in the greening, Toleſbury pits will green only in each ſide of the lower mandible. Its neck and head are afh-co- * Еe loured; No. 123 OVI O V I Wher- loured : the back is barred tranverſely with black and bright ruſt | viviparous infects. Bartholine gives an account, in his Medical colour: the greater quill-feathers are black: the belly white: Obſervations, of a hen, which, inftead of eggs, brought forth no the tail is marked with broad red and black bars, and conſiſts of leſs than five living chickens; but ſhe died of it. twenty feathers : the legs duſky. OVIS, the SHEEP, in the Syſtem of MAMMA LIA, a Genus of The female is about half the ſize of the male : the crown of the Order of Pecora; the characters of which are theſe: The the head is of a deep orange, traverſed with black lines; the horns are concave, turned backwards, and full of wrinkles ; there reſt of the head is brown. The lower part of the fore-ſide of the are eight fore-teeth in the under-jaw, and no dog-teeth. The neck is afh-coloured : in other reſpects it reſembles the male, ſpecies are, only the colours of the back and wings are far more dull. 1. Aries, or ram and ewe, the horns of which are ſhaped like a Theſe birds inhabit moſt of the open countries of the ſouth half-moon, and compreffed. See Plate IX, Genus, 31, Species, 1 and eaſt parts of this iſland, from Dorſetſhire, as far as the | The ſheep, unqueſtionably a mild and gentle creature, is alſo re- Wolds in Yorkſhire. They are exceeding ſhy, and difficult to preſented by Buffon as the moſt ftupid, defenceleſs, and timid of be ſhot; run very faſt, and when on the wing can fly, though all quadrupeds ; inſomuch that, without the aſſiſtance of Nowly, many miles without refting.. It is ſaid that they take it could never, he thinks, have ſubſiſted or continued its ſpecies flight with difficulty, and are ſometimes run down with gre- in a wild ſtate. hounds. They keep near their old haunts, ſeldom wandering os The female is abſolutely devoid of every art and of every above 20 or 30 miles. Their food is corn and other vegetables, means of defence. The arms of the ram are feeble and awkward. and thoſe large earth-worms that appear in great quantities on the in great quantities on the His courage is only a kind of petulance, which is uſeleſs to him- downs before ſun-riſing in the fummer. Theſe are replete with felf , incommodious to his neighbours, and is totally deitroyed by moiſture, anſwer the purpoſe of liquids, and enable them to live caftration. The wedder is ſtill more timid than the ſheep. It is long without drinking on thoſe extenſive and dry tracts. Beſides fear alone that makes ſheep ſo frequently affemble in troops: upon this, nature hath given the males an admirable magazine for the ſmalleſt unuſual noiſe, they run cloſe together ; and theſe their ſecurity againſt drought, being a pouch, whoſe entrance alarms are always accompanied with the greateſt ſtupidity. They lies immediately under the tongue, and which is capable of hold- know not how to fly from danger, and ſeem not even to be conſci- ing near ſeven quarts ; and this they probably fill with water, to ous of the hazard and inconvenience of their ſituation. ſupply the hen when ſitting, or the young before they can fly. ever they are, there they remain obſtinately fixed; and neither Buftards lay only two eggs, of the ſize of thoſe of a gooſe, of a rain nor inow can make them quit their ſtation. To force them pale olive-brown, marked with ſpots of a dark colour ; they to move or to change their route, they muſt be provided wish a make no neſt, only ſcrape a hole in the ground. In autumn they chief, who is learned to begin the march:)the motions of this chief are (in Wiltſhire) generally found in large turnip-fields near the are followed, ſtep, by ſtep, by the reſt of the flock. But this chief Downs, and in flocks of 50 or more. For repreſentation, ſee himſelf would alſo continue immoveable, if he were not puſhed Plate III Genus 56. off by the ſhepherd, or hy his dog, an animal which perpetually 9 OTTER, the Engliſh name of the ſpecies Lutra, belonging watches over their ſafety, which defends, direcis, ſeparates, aí- to the Genus Muſtela, in the ſyſtem of Mammalia. For de- fembles, and, in a word, communicates to them every movement ſcription of the Genus, ſee Mustela. For repreſentation of neceſſary to their preſervation. this ſpecies, ſee Plate V. Genus 15, ſpecies 1. “Of all quadrupeds, therefore, ſheep are the moſt ſtupid, and OVA, in the Human Anatomy, are little ſpherical bodies, in derive the ſmalleſt reſource from inſtinct. The goat, who fo the form of bladders or bubbles ; conſiſting each of two concentric greatly reſembles the ſheep in other reſpects, is endowed with much membranulæ, replete with a limpid humour, like the white of more fagacity. He knows how to conduct himſelf on every emer- anegg, found under the external membranes of the ovaries of wo- gency: he avoids danger with dexterity, and is eaſily reconciled men, and connected to the minute orifices of the veſicles that to new objects. But the ſheep knows neither how to fly nor to at- compoſe the fubſtances of the ovaries themſelves by a calyx. After tack: however imminent her danger, ſhe comes not to man for the uſe of venery, the ova ſwell ſenſibly, become more and more aſſiſtance fo willingly as the goat; and, to complete the picture pellucid, their membranes grow thieker, and at length raiſe that of timidity and want of fentiment, ſhe allows her lamb to be car- of the ovary in form of papillæ, till at laſt, breaking the mem ried off, without attempting to defend it, or ſhowing any mark of branes of the ovary, they are detached from the calyx, taken in reſentment. Her grief is not even expreffed by any cry different to the cavities of the Fallopian tubes, and thence conveyed into from that of ordinary bleating.' the womb; where being cheriſhed and impregnated with a male In this climate ewes fed in good paſtures admit the ram in ſeed, they commence embryos ; or for want of that are again July or Auguft; but September or October are the months when ejected. Seethe Syſtem, Part II I Sect.XV. See the Syſtem of Mid- the greateſt part of our ewes, if left to nature, take the ram. They WIFERY, Part I. Sect. I. See alſo the Article GenERATION. young about five months, and generally bring forth but » OVARY, ovarium, in anatomy, that part of a female ani- one at a time, though one at a time, though frequently two: in warm climates, thev mal wherein the ova or eggs, are formed and lodged. See the may bring forth twice in a year; but in Britain, France, and moſt Syſtem. Part III. Sect. XV. and Plate 10. Fig. 3. Letter M. parts of Europe, only once. They give milk plentifully for ſeven See alſo the Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, Part I. Sect. I. and Plate or eight months. They live from 10 to 12 years: they are capa- 1. Fig. 4. Letters M. K. ble of bringing forth as long as they live, when properly managed ; OVARIUM of Fiſh. All fiſh have svaria, but they as well but are generallv old and uſeleſs at the age of ſeven or eight years . as the eggs they contain differ greatly in the different kinds, in The ram who lives 12 or 14 years, becomes unfit for propagating number, ſituation, figure, and ſtructure. See the Syſtem of when eight years old. The ram, ewe, and wedder, when one COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. Chap. III. Sect. 2. Over-flowing, or inundation. The farmers of England terwards , t ey loſe the two foreteeth next to thcfe ; and at the year old, loſe the two foreteeth of the under jaw; fix months af- age having long obſerved how great an advantage it was to meadow of three years, the teeth are all replaced. The age of a ram may and paiture land to be ſometimes over-flowed by the fudden riſe likewiſe be diſcovered by the horns, which always appear the of brooks, rivers, or the like, which brings the ſoil of the uplands firſt year, and frequently as ſoon as they are brought forth. Theſe upon them, and makes them need no other mending or manur horns uniformly acquire an additional ring every year, as long as ing, though conſtantly mowed, have found an artificial method the creature lives. The ewes commonly have no horns, but a of working the ſame end, and by it producing the ſame good ef- kind of long protuberance in place of them: however, ſome of fect in many of their grounds without any ill one. For the moſt For the moſt them have two, and ſome four horns, approved methods of effecting this important purpoſe in Agricul- | In Spain, and the ſouthern parts of Europe, the flocks are ture, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. XIX. kept in ihades or ſtables during the night; but in Britain, where OVIPAROUS, in natural hiſtory, a term applied to ſuch there is now no danger from wolves, they are allowed to remain animals as produce their young ab ovo, from the egg; as birds, in- without, both night and day; which makes the animals more fećts, &c. The oviparous kind ſtand in oppoſition to thoſe which healthy, and their fleſh a more wholeſome food. Dry and moun- bring forth their young alive, called viviparous animals, as man, tainous grounds , where thyme and ſheep's feſcue grafs abound, are quadrupeds, &c. Oviparous animals may be defined to be ſuch | the beſt for the paſturing ſheep. The ſheep is fubject to many dif- as conceive eggs, which they afterwards bring forth, and from eaſes: fome ariſe from inſects which depoſit their eggs in different which, by the incubation of the parent, or ſome other principle of parts of the animal: others are cauſed by their being kept in wet warmth and fermentation, at lengtli ariſe animals ; which after paſtures; for as the ſheep requires but little drink, it is naturally they have ſpent the moiſture or humour they were ſurrounded | fond of a dry fuil. The dropfy, vertigo, (the pendro of the Welſh) withal, and are grown to a ſufficient bulk, firmneſs, and ſtrength, the pthiſis, jaundice, and worms in the liver, annually make great break their ſhell, and come forth. The oviparous kind, beſide havoc among our flocks : for the firſt diſeaſe, the ſhepherd finds birds, include divers ſpecies of animals ; as ferpents, lizards, tor- a remedy by turning the infected into fields of broom; which plant toiſes, erabs, lobſters, &e. The diſtinction between oviparous and has been alſo found to be very efficacious in the fame diſorder viviparous creatures, ſeems, in the inſect world, to be much leſs among the human ſpecies. The ſheep is alſo infeſted by different fixed and determinate than is ſuppoſed. It is evident, that ſome forts of inſects: like the horſe, it has its peculiar æſtrus or gadfly, fies, which are naturally oviparous, if they are kept from the find- | which depoſits its eggs above the noſe in the frontal tinuſes; when ing a proper nidus for their eggs, be it meat, or any thing elſe, thoſe turn into maggots, they become exceſlive painful, and cauſe will tetain them ſo long beyond their due time of excluſion, that thoſe violent agitations that we ſo often ſee the animal in. The they will hatch into worms in the body of the parerit, and be after- | French ſhepherds make a common practice of eaſing the theep, by warts depoſited alive in fleſh, or in the manner of the young of the trepanning and taking out the maggot ; this practice is ſometimes go with ufes Ο XY O X Y 1 3. out. preſentation, fee Plate IX. Genus 31. Species 3. For ſeveral im- uſed by the Engliſh ſhepherds, but not always with the ſame fuc and animal kingdoms have baſes compounded of different ſimple wers . Beſides theſe inſects, the ſheep is troubled with a kind of combuſtible bodies. Thus fugar, all the gums, mucus, and tick and louſe, which magpies and ſtarlings contribute to eaſe it ſtarch, are vegetable oxyds; the bafes of which are hydrogene of, by lighting on its back, and picking the inſects off. and carbonne, combined in various proportions. We find ac- 2. The Guineenſis, or Guinea ſheep, has pendulous ears, lax cordingly, that all theſe bodies are, by farther additions of OXY- hairy dew lips, and a prominence on the hind part of the head. genes, convertible into acids, and it is probable that theſe acids The wool is ſhort, like that of a goat. It is a native of Guinea. differ from each other only in the proportion of the hydrogene The Strepſiceros, or Cretan ſheep, has ſtrait carinated horns, and carbonne in their baſes. The bafes of the animal oxyds are twiſted in a ſpiral manner. It is a native of mount Iola. For re- ſtill more complicated; all, or moſt of them, conſiſting of va- rious combinations of azote, phoſphorus, hydrogene, carbonne, portant informations reſpecling theſe highly uſeful animals. See and fulphur. See the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part I. through- the ſyſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. 24. 10 OUTLAWRY, the puniſhment of a perſon who being called OXYDATION, is the term employed by the later chymiſt; into law, and lawfully, according to the uſual forms, fought, to expreſs the proceſs by which bodies are converted into oxyds; does contemptuouſly refuſe to appear. and it is allowed on all hands to be exactly ſimilar to combuſtion. The effect of being outlawed at the ſuit of another, in a civil The nature of this proceſs has been much diſputed; and the cauſe, is the forfeiture of all the perſon's goods and chattels to queſtion on this ſubject involves in itſelf great part of the contro- the king, and the profits of his land, while the outlawry re verſy between the followers of the immortal Stahl and the juſtly mains in force. If in treaſon or felony, all the lands and tené celebrated Lavoiſier, the founders of the phlogiſtic and antiphlo- ments which he has in fee, or for life, and all his goods and giſtic theories, which have for ſome years divided the chymical chattels, are alſo forfeited: and beſides, the law interprets his world. A view of this queſtion ſufficiently diſtinct, may be ta- abſence as a ſufficient evidence of guilt ; and without requiring ken from the caſe of metals and their oxyds. Metallic calces farther proof, accounts the perſon guilty of the fact, on which (oxyds ſay the phlogiſtians) are ſimple bodies, which, when enſues corruption of blood, &c. And then, according to Brac united with phlogiſton, form metals. The proceſs of reduction ton, he may periſh without law, &c. However, to avoid in- conſiſts in expoſing the ores of metals to an intenſe heat ia contact humanity, no man is intitled to kill him wantonly or wilfully ; with ſome inflammable body, and commonly charcoal . During but in ſo doing he is guilty of murder, unleſs it happens in en this operation, ſay they, the charcoal being inflamed, parts with deavouring to apprehend him: for any body may arreſt an out its phlogiſton, which is immediately abſorbed by the calx, and law, either of his own head, or by writ or warrant of capias ut a metal is formed. Lavoiſier and his followers, on the con- lagatum, in order to bring him to execution. trary, contend that metals are ſimple bodies; but that in the If after outlawry, in civil caſes, the defendant publicly ap ſtate of oxyds, that is, as they commonly exiſt in their ores, they pear, he is to be arreſted by a writ of capias utlagatum, and com are combined with oxygene. But as oxygene at a high tempera- mitted till the outlawry be reverſed: which reverſal may be had ture is more ſtrongly attracted by charcoal than by moſt metals, by the defendant's appearing in court (and in the king's-bench, during the proceſs of reduction the oxyd is decompounded, and by ſending an attorney, according to ſtatute 4 and 5 W. and M. the oxygene unites with the charcoal to form carbonic acid, leav- cap. 18.), and any plauſible circumſtance, however trifling, is ing the regulus or metal free. On this point hinges the great in general ſufficient to reverſe it; it being conſidered only as a queſtion, the deciſion of which muſt materially affect almoſt proceſs to force appearance. The defendant muſt, however , every part of chymical theory. Without preſuming to decide pay full coſts, and muſt put the plaintiff in the ſame condition between theſe two opinions, the former of which is ſtill ſupported as if he had appeared before the writ of exigi facias was awarded. by one or two chymiſts of the firſt rank, we agree with Dr. Black It is appointed by magna charta, that no freeman ſhall be out- in thinking that, though there ſtill remain a few facts which lawed, but according to the law of the land. A minor or a wo have not been thoroughly explained on antiphlogiſtic principles, man cannot be outlawed. this theory is much more ſimple, and better ſupported by facts, In Scotland outlawry anciently took place in the caſe of re than any that precede it. It has this great advantage over the fuſal to fulfil a civil obligation, as well as in criminal cafes. At doctrine of Stahl, that it requires not the ſuppoſition of any ar- preſent however, it only takes place in the two caſes of Aying bitrary body, which does not affect our ſenſes, and of the exiſtence from a criminal proſecution, and of appearing in court attended of which we have not even a ſhadow of proof. Perhaps we by too great a number of followers. But the defender, upon may farther venture to aſſert, that though it may be extremely appearing at any diſtance of time and offering to ſtand trial , is difficult, or even impoſſible to refute the phlogiſtic theory, influ- intitled de jure to have the outlawry reverſed, and to be admit enced as we have all been by a ſtrong prejudice in its favour; yet ted to trial, accordingly, and even to bail if the offence be had it been brought forward for the firſt time, when our know- bailable. ledge had arrived at the point which it now holds, it never would OWL. Tbe Engliſh name of the Genus Strix, in the Syf- have been generally received. See CALCINATION, COMBUS- tem of ORNITHOLOGY: For defeription of the Genus, &c. TION, INFLAMMATION. fee Strix. For repreſentation, ſee Plate I. Genus 3. OXYGENE, a term adopted in the new chymical nomencla- OX, the Engliſh name of a Species of the Genus Bos, after ture to expreſs the acidifying principle; from déus “ acid," and having undergone the operation of caſtration, for the purpoſe of “ to generate.” It is not found naturally in a ſeparate food and agriculture. For directions concerning the choice and ftate, but always combined or mixed with ſome other ſubſtance. uſes of this animal, ſee Article Bos, and the Syſtem of Agri In this aeriform or elaſtic ſtate, it is called by the French chymiſts CULTULE, Sect. 13. oxygenous gas, and is the ſame as the dephlogiſticated air of OXYD, is the term uſed in the new chymical nomenclature | Prieſtley and Cavendiſh, the empyreal air of Scheele, the vital to expreſs a very numerous claſs of bodies formed by the union air and pure air of other modern chymiſts. It was called de- of certain baſes with a ſmaller proportion of oxygene than what phlogiſticated by the followers of Stahl's doctrine, who imagined is neceſſary for their converſion into acids. (See OXYGENE). it to be air deprived of phlogiſton; the epithet of empyreal was The moſt remarkable of theſe bodies are what were formerly given to it by Mr. Scheele, who firſt diſcovered it to be the only called metallic calces, and have for their bafe fome metallic fub- conſtituent part of the atmoſphere which contributes to ſupport in- ſtance. It is in this ſtate that metals are contained in their flammation or combuſtion. He made many curious experiments ores. from which they are extracted, and converted into the re on inflammation, and was the firſt who completely analiſed com- guline or metallic form, by the proceſs called reduction. Me mon air, ſhowing it to conſiſt of 27 parts of empyreal, 72 of foul, tals are converted into oxyds by combuſtion, and by folution in and 1 of fixed air. He found, that theſe 27 parts only were acids; and many of them aſſume this form from the action of conſumed by a burning body ; and that thefe, during the act of the atmoſphere alone, but more readily wien this is aſſiſted by combuſtion, were united and combined with the inflammable moiſture. During their converſion into oxyds, metals loſe their body burnt in them, ſo as to form a compound no longer com- fplendor, and acquiring a conſiderable increaſe of abſolute weight, buſtible. Lavoiſier extending theſe experiments, found that the put on an earthly, pulverent appearance. It has of late been body, thus produced by empyreal air, being combined with the fuppoſed that all earths are metallic oxyds, and that all of them matter of the inflammable body burnt in it, was, in many caſes, would be capable of reduction, were we poſſeſſed of any body an acid: in conſequence of which property, he gave this air the for which oxygene had a ſtronger elective attraction than that name of oxygene, i.e. " the generator acidity.” He was perhaps by which it is kept in conjunction with the baſes of theſe fup- too haſty in adopting this name; for the ſame air is found in poſed axyds. But this opinion, being perfectly unſupported by combination with inflammable matter, forming compounds that experiment, cannot be admitted in a ſcience which, like the are by no means acid, of which we ſhall content ourſelves with chymiſtry of the preſent day, aſpires to demonſtration. producing only one example, namely water, which is the com- The term oxyd, however, is not confined to the combinations pound reſulting from the combination of this air with inflamma- of metals with oxygene, but expreſſes that firſt degree of oxyge- ble air. ble air. See WATER. nation in all bodies which, without converting them into acids, Common atmoſpheric air was found by Scheele to promote cauſes them to approach to the nature of ſalts; and of theſe there animal life in a manner fomewhat ſimilar to its promoting com- is a prodigious variety; as the oxyd of phoſphorus, which is the buſtion. He extended his experiments to this ſubject alſo; and Avhite concrete fubſtance into which that body is converted by he concludes, that this empyreal air is the only part of the atmo - combuſtion: the oxyd of azote, or nitrous air of Dr. Prieſtly; phere which is capable of ſupporting animal life, and that no and a great many others. Moſt of the oxyds from the vegetable animal can exiſt a minute without it. In conſequence of this property yliopoul O Y S O Y S gene- property it has been called vital air. Since, however, it is ab together ; ſo that unleſs very carefully taken up, it is not eaſy to ſolutely neceſſary for the ſupport both of combuſtion and of ani preferve them in pairs. mal life, and ſince neither of theſe can exiſt without it, both the OYSTER-Shells, an alkali far more powerful than is terms empyreal and vital are deficient, expreſſing only certain rally allowed, and are in all probability much better medicines properties of this claſtic fuid (which may alſo be ſaid of the word than many of the moſt coſtly and pompous alkalis of the fame oxygene); and hence ſome later chymiſts have fuggeſted the pro claſs. The proof of alkalis is in their ſolution by acid-ſpirits ; priety of defining it by the name of pure'air. See COMBUSTION, and Mr. Homberg found, that they diſſolved far eaſier in acids INFLAMMATION, Water, and the Syſtem of AEROLOGY, of nitre and ſea-ſalt than either pearls or coral, or indeed than any Sect. III. and XIII. of the reſt. This he ſuppoſes to be owing to their containing in OYSTER, the Engliſh name of the Genus OstrEA. See the body of the ſhell a large portion of fal-falſus, which is eaſily the Article OSTREA. perceived upon the tongue, and which keeps the whole ſubſtance Fofile OYSTERS. The largeſt bed that is known of foſſile of the ſhell in a fort of half diffolved ſtate. Theſe ſhells are oyſters is that near Reading in Berkſhire. They are entirely found to produce very ſenſible effects on the ſtomach, when it is Thaped, and have the ſame ſubſtance with the recent oyſter-Thells'; | injured by acid humours; and Mr. Homberg thinks, that this and yet ſince the oldeſt hiſtories that mention the place give an eaſineſs of ſolution is a great argument for their good effects, account of them, we muſt ſuppoſe they have lain there for a long and that the quantity of ſal-falſus which it contains, contributes time. They extend over no leſs than ſix acres of ground ; and not a little towards it; for we are not to look upon that as a ſalt juſt above them is a large ſtratum of a greenith loam, which merely, but as a ſalt of a peculiar nature, formed of ſea-falt by some writers call a green earth, and others a green fand. It is the organs of the animal, and the ſeveral fermentations it under compoſed of a crumbly marle, and a large portion of ſand. Un- goes in the body of it, in the ſame manner as the nitrous and der them is a thick ſtratum of chalk. They alllie in a level bed ; other falts of the earth ceaſe to be nitrous, &c. whenever they and the ſtrata above the ſhells are natural, and appear never to become blended with the juices of plants, and form with them have been dug through till the time of finding the Thells. a falt peculiar to that plant; which is evidently the caſe as far The oyſter-ſhells and green earth united make a ſtratum of as reſpects this falt, it being plainly of a more penetrating taſte, about two feet thick ; and over this there is a much thicker ſtra and of a different ſmell, from the falt left by the ſea-water be- tum of a bluiſh and very brittle clay ; but neither has this ever tween the ſeveral external ſcales or flakes of the ſhell. Oyſter- been dug through, except where the ſhells are found. This is ſhells being thus found by Mr. Homberg to be a very valuable vulgarly denominated piercy-clay, and is eſteemed uſeleſs. This medicine, and as one of the common methods of preparing them clay-bed is about a yard deep, and above it is a ſtratum of fullers is by calcination, is by calcination, which, he obſerves, conſiderably impairs their earth, about two feet and a half deep; it is extremely good, and is virtues, he gives the following methods of preparing them for uſed by the clothiers. Over this there lies a ſtratum of a fine white taking inwardly, which he himſelf always uſed. Take the hol- ſand, unmixed either with the clay or fuller's earth: this is near low ſhells of the oyſters, throwing away the flat ones, as nor ſeven feet deep, and above it is a ſtratum of a ſtiff red clay, of fufficiently good ; make them perfectly clean, and then dry them which tiles are made. This is again covered with a little vege in the fun; when they appear dry, beat them to pieces in a mar- table mould; the depth however of this ſtratum of tile-clay can ble mortar: they will ſtill be found to contain a large quantity of not be aſcertained, on account of the unevenneſs of the hill. moiſture; lay them therefore again in the ſun till perfectly dried, Theſe oyſters are occaſionally found whole, but moſt frequently and then finiſh the powdering them, and fift the powder through in ſingle ſhells. When they are in pairs, there is generally ſome a fine fieve. Give 20 or 30 grains of this powder every mor- of the green ſand found within them: they feldom ſtick very fait ) ning, and continue it three weeks or a month. P A I P P A I Perhe touens of which is formed by expreffing the breath fame: or p, the 15th letter and the 11th conſonant of the alphabet;, haave, and moſt other authors on this ſubject, aſſign a ſtretching of the nerves as the only immediate cauſe of pain: but as the what more ſuddenly than in forming the ſound of b ; in other re nerves do not appear to conſiſt of fibres, this cauſe of pain does fpects theſe two ſounds are pretty much alike, and are often con not ſeem to be well founded: nor indeed will it be eaſy to treat founded one with another. When h ſtands before t or ſ, its this ſubject clearly, but in proportion as the means of ſenſation found is loſt; as in the words pſalms, Pſychology, ptolemaic, ptiſan, are underſtood. &c. When placed before h, they both together have the found Many kinds of pain are met with in authors: ſuch as, A gra- of f; as in philofophy, phyſic, &c. vitative pain; in which there is a ſenſe of weight on the part af. Among aſtronomers, P. M. is uſed to denote poſt meridiem, or fected, which is always ſome fleſhy one, as the liver, &c. A afternoon. Among phyſicians, P, ſtands for pugil, or the eighth pulſative pain; which Galen ſays, always ſucceeds ſome remarka- part of an handful, P. Æ. partes æquales, or equal parts of the ble inflammation in the containing parts, and is obſerved in ab- ingredients ; P. P. fignifies pulvis patrum, or Jefuit's bark in ſceſſes while ſuppurating. A tenſive pain, which is alſo called powder ; and ppt, præparatus, or prepared.. a diſtending pain; it is excited by the diſtenſion of fome nervous, PACA, a ſpecies of the Genus Mus in the Syſtem of Mam- muſcular, or membranous part, either from ſome humour, or malia. For deſcription of the Genus, ſee Mus; for repreſenta- from flatulence. An accute pain is, when great pain is attend- tion of this Species, ſee Plate 7. Genus 24. Species 6. ed with quick and lively ſenſations : A dull pain is, when a kind PACIFIC Ocean, or South-Sea, in geography, that vaſt oce of numbneſs is as much complained of as the pain is. an which ſeparates Afia from America , it is called Pacific, from The mediate and more remote cauſes of pain are generally ob- the moderate weather the firſt mariners, who failed in it, met vious ; and when ſo, the cure will confilt for the moſt part in with, between the tropics ; and it was called South Sea, becauſe removing them : for though in many inſtances the chief com- the Spaniards croſſed the Iſthmus of Darien from North to plaint is very diſtant from the ſeat of theſe cauſes, yet their re- South. It is properly the weſtern ocean with regard to America. moval is the proper method of relief. See the Syſtem of MI- See the Syſtem on the NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE DICINE, paſſim. EARTH. Perhaps all pains may be included, with irritation, in thoſe that PAGAN, paganus, a heathen, gentile, or idolater, one who have ſpaſm or inflammation for their fource. When pain is ow- adores falſe gods. See MYTHOLOGY. ing to inflammation, the pulſe is quicker than in a natural ſtate ; PAGANISM, the religious worſhip and diſcipline of pagans: it is alſo generally full, hard and tenſe; the pain is equal, throb- or the adoration of idols and falſe gods. The gods of paganiſm bing, and unremitting. If a ſpaſm is the cauſe, the pulſe is rare- were either men, as Jupiter, Hercules, Bacchus, &c. or fictitious | ly affected; at intervals the pain abates, and then returns with perſons, as Victory, Fame, Fever, &c. or beaſts, as in Egypt, ſome degree of aggravation; gentle motion ſometimes abates, crocodiles, cats, &c. or finally, inanimate things, as onions, fire, or even cures, in fome inſtances : but in inflammatory caſes no and water, &c. See IDOLATRY and MYTHOLOGY. ſuch effects are ever experienced. See Dr. Lobb's Treatiſe on PAGOD, a name which the Portugueſe have given to all the painful Diſtempers. temples of the Indians, and all the idolaters of the Eaſt. The The pain fo frequently attendant on women in child-bed, called pagods of the Chineſe ard Siameſe are exceedingly magnificent. after-pains (from their happening only after being delivered of a The revenues of the pagod of Janigrade are ſo great as to fubfift, child, are often occaſioned by ſcooping to fetch away coagulated every day, from fifteen to twenty thouſand pilgrims. Pagod is blood, which is a needleſs endeavour. When no improper treat- alſo uſed for the idol adorned in the temple. Hence many gave ment in delivering the ſecundines can be ſuſpected, the irritability the name of pagod to thoſe little porcelain images brought from of the uterus alone is to be conſidered as the cauſe. Care ſhould China. be taken not to confound theſe after-pains with, or miſtake the PAIN, an uneaſy ſenſation, ariſing from a ſudden and violent pains attending puerperal fevers, for the colic. After-pains come folution of continuity, or other accident in the nerves, mem by fits, and foon go off; but return at different intervals, which branes, veſſels, muſcles, &c. of the body. Pain, according to are longer each day, and after two or three days are uſually at an fome, conſiſts in a motion of the organs of ſenſe; and, according end, though ſometimes they continue feven or cight: notwith- to others, it is an emotion of the foul occafioned by thoſe organs. | ſtanding theſe pains, the lochia flow properly, and generally more As the brain is the ſeat of ſenſation, ſo it is of pain, Boer- | abundantly after the ceſſation of each fit; this does not happen in PAI P A L may in a year. at in colicky complaints, nor is the belly ſo free from tumefaction gether, unleſs during incubation, at which time the female is when the puerperal fever is attendant. As theſe pains are of the fed by the male. A greater number than a ſingle pair are nevet ſpaſmodic kind, anodynes and gentle opiates, with frequent ſeen in company. draughts of warm caudle, camomile tea, &c. are all that are re Gregarious birds pair, in order probably to prevent diſcord quired in order to their relief. See the Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, in a fociety confined to a narrow ſpace. This is the caſe parti- Part X. Sect. 5. cularly of pigeons and rooks. The male and female fit on the Among the various caufes of pain a ſingular one is related in eggs alternately, and divide the care of feeding their young. the third vol. of the Lond. Med. Obf. and Inq. p. 241, &c.— Partridges, plovers, pheaſants, - ſea-fowl, grouſe, and other Some perſons who had taken cold during their being ſalivated, kinds that place their neſts on the ground, have the inſtinct of were afflicted with pains which refifted all the uſual methods of pairing ; but differ from ſuch as build on trees in the following relief. At length the author of the narrative referred to fug particular, that after the female is impregnated, the completes geſted the cauſe; and by exciting a freſh falivation the pains abat her taſk without needing any help from the male. Retiring ed; the ſpitting was kept up a little while, and permitted to abate from him, ſhe chooſes a ſafe ſpot for her neſt, where ſhe can with ſome caution; and thus the cures were completed. find plenty of worms and graſs-feed at hand; and her young, as PAINTING, PICTURA, the art of repreſenting all viſible foon as hatched, take foot, and feek food for themſelves. The objects by lines and colours, on an even and uniform ſurface. only remaining duty incumbent on the dam is, to lead them to Painting is ſaid to have had its riſe among the Egyptians; and the proper places for food, and to call them together when danger Greeks, who learned it of them, carried it to its perfection, if we impends. Some males, provoked at the defertion of their mates; believe the ſtories related of their Apelles and Zeuxis. The break the eggs if they ſtumble on them. Eider ducks pair like Romans were not without conſiderable maſters in this art, in the other birds that place their neſts on the ground; and the female latter times of the republic, and under the firſt emperors; but finiſhes her neſt with down plucked from her own breaſt. If the inundation of Barbarians, who ruined Italy, proved fatal to the neſt be deſtroyed for the down, which is remarkably warm painting, and almoſt reduced it to its firſt elements; nor was it re and elaſtic, ſhe makes another neſt as before If ſhe is robbed covered in Europe till the age of Julius II. and Leo X. This laſt a ſecond time, the makes a third neſt; but the male furniſhes the revolution in the hiſtory of painting has given occaſion for dif down. A lady of ſpirit obſerved, that the eider duck may give tinguiſhing it into ancient and modern. The ancient painting a leſſon to many a married woman, who is more diſpoſed to comprehends the Greek and Roman: the modern has formed pluck her huſband than herſelf. The black game never pair: in feveral ſchools, each of which has its peculiar character and merit. ſpring, the cock on an eminence crows, and claps his wings; and It was in Italy, however, that the art afterwards returned to all the females within hearing inſtantly refort to him. its ancient honour, and about the middle of the thirteenth century, Pairing birds, excepting thoſe of prey, fock together in Fe- when Cimabue, born at Florence, A. D. 1240, betaking him- bruary, in order to chooſe their mates. They ſoon diſperſe, and ſelf to the pencil, tranſlated the poor remains of the art, from a are not ſeen afterward but in pairs. Pairing is unknown to Greek painter or two, into his own country. He was feconded quadrupeds that feed on graſs. To ſuch it would be uſeleſs ; as by ſome Florentines: the firſt who got any reputation was Ghir the female gives fuck to her young while ſhe herſelf is feeding. landaio, Michael Angelo's maſter, born in 1449; Pietro Peru If M. Buffon deſerves credit, the roe-deer are an exception.- gino, Raphael Urbin's maſter, »born in 1446; and Andrea Ve They pair, though they feed on graſs, and have but one litter rocchio, Leonardo Da Vinci's maſter, born in 1432. But theſe ſcholars vaſtly furpaſſed their maſters; they not only Beaſts of prey, ſuch as lions, tigers, wolves, pair not. The effaced all that had been done before them, but carried painting to female is left to ſhift for herſelf and for her young; which is a a pitch from which it has, till within theſe twenty years, been laborious taſk, and often ſo unſucceſsful as to ſhorten the life of declining. It was not by their own noble works alone that they many of them. Pairing is effential to birds of prey, becauſe advanced painting, but by the number of pupils they bred up, incubation leaves the female no ſufficient time to hunt for food. the ſchools they formed. Pairing is not neceſſary to beaſts of prey, becauſe their young can Angelo, born in 1474, in particular, founded the ſchool of bear a long faſt. Add another reaſon, that they would multiply Florence; Raphael, born in 1483, the ſchool of Rome; and ſo faſt by pairing, as to prove troubleſome neighbours to the hu- Leonardo, born in 1445, the ſchool of Milan; to which muſt be man race. Among animals that pair not, males fight deſperately added, the Lombard ſchool, eſtabliſhed about the ſame time, about a female. Such a battle among horned cattle is finely de- and which became very confiderable under Giorgione, born in ſcribed by Lucretius. Nor is it unuſual for ſeven or eight lions 1477, and Titian, born alſo in 1477. Beſides the Italian maſters, to wage bloody war for a ſingle female. there were other very great ones on this fide the Alps, who had The ſame reaſon that makes pairing neceſſary for gregarious no communication with thoſe of Italy: ſuch were Albert Durer, birds, obtains with reſpect to gregarious quadrupeds; thoſe eſpe- in Germany; Holbens, in Switzerland; Lucas in Holland ; cially who ſtore up food for winter, and during that ſeaſon live and others in France and Flanders; but Italy, and particularly in common. Diſcord among ſuch would be attended with worſe Rome, was the place where the art was practiſed with the greateit conſequences than even among lions and bulls, who are not con- fucceſs; and where, from time to time, the greateſt maſters were fined to one place. The beavers, with reſpect to pairing, reſemble produced. To Raphael's ſchool ſucceeded that of the Caraccios, birds that place their neſts on the ground. As ſoon as the young which has laſted, in its ſcholars, almoſt to the preſent time. In are produced, the males abandon their ſtock of food to their mates, Paris thay have two conſiderable bodies of painters: the one the and live at large; but return frequently to viſit them while they royal academy of painting and ſculpture; the other the community are fuckling their young. Hedgehogs pair as well as ſeveral of of maſters in painting, ſculpture, &c. Our own country has for the monkey-kind. We are not well acquainted with the natural the two laſt centuries been diſtinguiſhed by its artiſts, and by the hiſtory of theſe animals; but it would appear that the young re- encouragement it has afforded to perſons of diſtinguiſhed merit. quire the nurſing care of both parents. Seals have a fingular The art of painting is divided, by Freſnoy, into three principal economy. Polygamy ſeems to be a law of nature among them, parts; invention, deſigning, and colouring; to which fome add as a male affociates with ſeveral females. The ſea-turtle has no a fourth, viz. difpofition. Felibien divides painting into compo occaſion to pair, as the female concludes her taſk by laying her ſition, deſigning, and colouring. eggs in the fand. The young are hatched by the fun and imme- The only difference between painting and drawing is in the diately crawl to the ſea. management of the colours; which it would be abſurd in pactiti PALAMEDEA, in ornithology, a Genus belonging to the oners to attempt before they have acquired a competent knowledge order of Grallæ. The character of this Genus, according to La- of drawing. Beſides, had we under this head, entered into the tham, is, the bill bends down at the point, with a horn, or with management of the colours, it would have been of very little uſe, a tuft of feathers erect near the baſe of it ; the noſtrils are oval; as it cannot be obtained without practice, and a ſtrict obſervation the toes are divided almoſt to their origin, with a ſmall mem- of the capital maſters. We ſhall therefore refer the readers to our brane between the bottoms of each. Treatiſe on Drawing, wherein the fundamental principles of this There are two fpecies of it; the firſt of which is the Palame- elegant art are fully explained. dea Cornuta, or horned ſcreamer. It is about the fize of a tur- PAIRING, the uniting or joining in couples.—The inſtinct key; in length about three feet four inches. The bill is two of pairing is beſtowed on every ſpecies of animals to which it is inches and a quarter long, and black; the upper mandible is a neceſſary for rearing their young; and on no other ſpecies. All little gibbous at the baſe, the under ſhuts beneath it, as in the wild birds pair ; but with a remarkable difference between ſuch gallinacecus tribe: the noſtrils are oval and pervious, and placed as place their neſts on trees, and fuch as place them on the near the middle of the bill. From the crown of the head ſprings ground. The young of the former, being hatched blind, and a ſlender horn of more than three inches in length, and pointed without feathers, require the nurſing care of both parents till at the end. For repreſentation, fee Plate IV, Genus 31. they are able to fly. The male feeds his mate on the neſt, and It is remarked that they are always met with in pairs; and if one cheers her with a ſong. As ſoon as the young are hatched, fing- dies, the other mourns to death for the loſs. They frequent places ing yields to a more neceffary occupation, that of providing food near the water; makea large neſtof mud, in the ſhape of an oven, for a numerous iffue; a taſk that requires both parents. upon the ground; and lay two eggs, the ſize of thoſe of a gooſe. Eagles and other birds of prey build on trees, or on other The young are brought up in the neſt till able to ſhift for them- inacceſſible ſpots. They not only pair, but continue in pairs all felves. The cornuta is a rare fpecies. It is found in certain the year round; and the ſame pair procreates year after year. diſtricts in Cayenne, Guiana, Surinam, and other parts of This at leaſt is the caſe of cagles: the male and female hunt to South America, chiefly in the marſhes and wet ſavannas, and Ff the 5 No. 123 PAL Ρ Α Ν for the moſt part near the ſea. Theſe ſhould ſeem to be the the temple was encompaſſed with another row of pillars fifty feet birds mentioned by Ulloa, which are called by the inhabitants high; but the temple itſelf was only thirty-three yards in length, of Quito diſpertadores, or “awakeners," from their giving no and thirteen or fourteen in breadth. This is now converted into tice to others of the approach of danger ; as on hearing the leaſt a moſque, and ornamented after the Turkish manner. North of noiſe, or ſeeing any one, though at a great diſtance, they riſe this place, is an obeliſk, conſiſting of ſeven large ſtones, beſides from the ground, and make a loud chattering like a magpie, its capital, and the wreathed work about it, about fifty feet high, continuing the noiſe, and hovering over the object which cauſed and juſt above the pedeſtal, twelve in circumference. Upon this the alarm, whereby the reſt of the birds, taking the hint, are there was probably a ſtatue, which the Turks have deſtroyed. At able in time to eſcape the impending danger. This ſcreaming a ſmall diſtance there are two others, and a fragment of a third, noiſe, which ſome authors relate as being exceedingly loud and which gives reaſon for concluding that they were once a continued terrible, has occafioned Mr. Pennant to give the Genus the row. There is alſo a piazza forty feet broad, and more than half a name annexed to it. In Dr. Hunter's muſeum there is a fine mile in length, incloſed with two rows of marble pillars, twenty- ſpecimen of this bird, brought from Cayenne. fix feet high, and eight or nine feet in compaſs; and the number PALATE, palatum, in anatomy, the fleſh that compoſes the of theſe, it isсomputed, could not have been lefs than five hundred roof, i. e. the upper and inner part of the mouth. Du Lau and fixty. Near this piazza appear the ruins of a ſtately building, rence ſays it has its name from the Latin pali; becauſe encloſed ſuppoſed to have been a banquetting-houfe, clegantly finiſhed, with two rows of teeth, reſembling little ſtakes, which the La with the beſt fort of marble. In the weſt ſide of the piazza there tins call puli. The palate is a little vaulted or concave ; it is are ſeveral apertures for gates into the court of the palace, each lined with a glandulous coat, under which are great numbers of adorned with four porphyry pillars, thirty feet long and nine in pretty conſpicuous glands, ſcattered in the fore-part of it like circumference. There are ſeveral other marble pillars differently grains of millet, with many interſtices, whoſe excretory duets, arranged, on the pedeſtals of which there appear to have been in- piercing the membrane, open into the mouth; but towards the ſcriptions, both in the Greek and Palmyrene languages, which hinder part they lie much thicker; and about the root of the are now altogether illegible. Among theſe ruins there are alſo uvula, they are gathered ſo cloſe together, that they appear to many ſepulchres, which are ſquare towers, four or five ſtories high, form one pretty large conglomerate gland, called by Verheyen, and varying in ſize and ſplendor. We are indebted for an ac- glandula conglomerata palatina. For defcription of the bones of count of theſe very magnificent remains of antiquity, partly the palate, ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. 2, Art 2. to fome Engliſh merchants who viſited them in 1678 (Phil. PALATINATE, PALATINATUS, a province or diſtrict, Tranſ. N° 217, 218.) but chiefly to M. Bouverie and Mr. poffefſed by a palatine, and from which he takes his title and Dawkins, accompanied by Mr. R. Wood, who travelled thither dignity. The palatinates now ſubſiſting, are either thoſe of in 1751, The reſult of their obſervations was publiſhed in 1753, Germany or Poland. Thoſe of Germany are the principalities in the form of an Atlas, containing fifty-ſeven copper-plates, ad- of the Upper and Lower Rhine, i. e. of Bavaria, and the Rhine. mirably executed. The palatinates in Poland are the provinces and diſtricts of the PALPITATION, palpitatio, in medicine, beating, or pule Poliſh grandees or ſenators, who are the governors thereof. ſation, of any of the folid parts of the body, eſpecially the heart. PALMATED Roots, are tuberoſe roots of a fattish ſhape, For the deſcription, cauſes, prognoſis, and cure of this diſeaſe, and divided into ſeveral oblong and ſlender branches, reſembling fee the Syſtem, Genus 13. ſo many fingers. Of this fort are the roots of fome of the orchis PALSY, paralyſis, in medicine, a difeaſe wherein the body, or kind, called hence palmated. See Syſtem of BOTANY, Sect. I, ſome of its parts, lose their motion, and ſometimes their ſenſation, and Plate I. or feling. For de cription, caufes, prognoſis, and.cure, ſee the PALM-SUNDAY, Dominica, PALMARUM, the Sunday Syſtem ; Genus 36. next before Eaſter-Sunday; or the laſt Sunday in LENT. It has PAN, in mythology, the ſon of Mercury and Penelope, and been thus called from the primitive days, on account of a pious the deity who preſided over huntſmen, ſhepherds, and thoſe whoſe ceremony then in uſe, of bearing pulms, in memory of the trium- | occupations led them to frequent the fields. The fable fays, that phant entry of Jeſus Chriſt into Jeruſalem, eight days before the Mercury transformed himſelf into a he-goat to pleaſe Penelope ; feaſt of the paſſover, deſcribed by St. Matthew, chap. xxi. St. and to this circumſtance is attributed the origin of his horns and Mark, chap. xi. and St. Luke, chap. xix. cloven feet, as well as the whole tribe of fauns and fatyrs. He is PALMYRENE Ruins, or Ruins of PALMYRA, in ancient called Pan, Tici, it is ſaid, becauſe Penelope, in the abſence of and modern geography, are the ruins of a famous city of this name, Ulyffes, granted favours to all her lovers, and Pan himſelf was ſituate in a deſart of Syria, about forty-eight leagues from Alep the fruit of this intercourſe. However, Epimenides ſays, that he po, and as far from Damaſcus, twenty leagues weſt from the was the ſon of Jupiter and Caliſta ; others ſay, that he was the Euphrates, and in the latitude of 34 N. N. Little is known con ſon of the Air and a Nereid, or of the Heaven and Earth. He is cerning the ſtate of Palmyra fince the time of Mahomet, except commonly repreſented with a ſhepherd's crook, and a kind of that it was conſidered as a place of ſtrength, and that in the flute, with many pipes. He was particularly revered among the twelfth century there were two thouſand Jews in it. Arcadians, to whom he iſſued oracles, and who celebrated in ho- With reſpect to the ruins, they appear to be of two different and nour of him, the LUPERCALIA. Evander carried the worſhip diſtinct periods; the oldeſt are ſo far decayed as not to admit of and feaſts of Pan to Rome. menſuration, and ſeem to have been reduced to that ſtate by the The Egyptians give a different account of this deity. Accord- hand of time; the other appears to have been broken into frag- ing to them, he was one of the generals of Oſiris, who engaged ments by violence. Of the inſcriptions none are earlier than the with Typhon; and whoſe army being ſituated in a valley, all the birth of Chriſt, and none are later than the deſtruction of the city avenues of which were guarded by the enemy, he ordered the fol- by Aurelian, except one, which mentions Dioclefian. It is ſcarcely diers in the night to march with loud acclamations, which being leſs difficult to account for the ſituation of this city than for iis returned in echoes, terrified the enemy, and put them to fight; magnificence ; the moſt probable conjecture is, that as ſoon as the whence they ſay comes the expreſſion PANIC terror. Polyænus ſprings of Palmyra were diſcovered by thoſe who firſt traverſed the attributes to Pan the invention of the order of battle of the pha- defart in which it is ſituated, a fettlement was made there for the lanx, and of the diſtribution of an army into the right and left purpoſe of carrying on the trade of India, and preſerving an inter-wings, or horns, whence, it is ſaid, he derived his horns. The courſe between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. This trade, name Pan, which fignifies all, has led fome to make him the ſym- which flouriſhed long before the Chriſtianæra, accounts not only bol of nature. See the Articles Mystery and MYTHOLOGY. for its ſituation, but alſo for its wealth. As it lay between Egypt, PANACEA, Davaxed, formed from 7.0", all, and axeollcht, Perſia, and Greece, it was natural to expect, that traces of the cure, an univerſal medicine or remedy for all diſeaſes. The accu- manners and ſciences of thoſe nations ſhould be diſcovered among rate Boerhaave overturns the notion of panaceas; and ſhews, from the Palmyrenes; who accordingly appear to have imitated the the different cauſes, natures, effects, feats, &c. of diſeaſes, that Egyptians in their funeral rites, the Perſians in their luxury, and ſeveral may, indeed, be cured by one medicine; but all by none. the Greeks in their buildings; and therefore the buildings, which He obſerves, that the moſt univerſal remedies known, are water, now lie in ruins, were probably neither the works of Solomon, fire, mercury, and opium; and adds, that by theſe alone, cauti- nor of the Seleucidæ, nor, few excepted of the Roman emperors, ouſly diſguiſed, fome have acquired the reputation of univerſal but of the Palmyrenes themſelves. phyſicians .. Palmyra was formerly encompaſſed by palms and fig-trees, and PANAX Ginſeng in Botany. A Genus of the Diecia order covered an extent of ground, according to the Arabs, near ten miles belonging to the Polygamia claſs of plants. There are five ſpecies, in circumference; and might probably have been reduced to its the moſt remarkable is the Quinquefolium or five leaved Gin- preſent and confined and ruined ſtate by quantities of fand, driven feng ſuppoſed to be the ſame with the Tartarian Ginſeng, the over it by whirlwinds. The walls of this city are Aanked by ſquare figure and deſcription of that plant which have been ſent to Eu- towers, and it is probably by their general direction, that they in rope, agreeing perfectly with the American playt. For a copious cluded the great temple, and are three miles in circumference. | deſcription of this plant, its medical virtues, &c. See the Article But of all the monuments of art and magnificence in this city, the GINSENG. soft confiderab e is the Temple of the Sun. The whole ſpace PANCREAS, Havrepeas, formed of mav, all, and xpeas, fleſh, containing its ruins, is a ſquare of two hundred and twenty yards, in anatomy, a great conglomerate gland; or a body compoſed of an encompaſſed with a ſtately wall, and adorned with pilaſters within infinite number of little glands, tied up in the ſame common and without to the number of 62 on a fide. Within the court are membrane; ſituate at the bottom and hind-part of the ſtomach, the remains of two rows of very noble marble pillars, 37 feet high; and reaching from the duodenum to the ſpleen. For a full de- ſeription, PAP PAP III. fig. 4, Letter D. It is found very feription, ſee the Syſtem, Part I. For repreſentation, ſee Plate | Species. 1. The fomniferum, or ſomniferous common garden- poppy. There are a great many varieties, ſome of them ex- PÁNDORA, in mythology, the name of the firſt woman ac tremely beautiful. The white officinal poppy is one of the cording to Hefiod; ſo called from run, all, and dcupov, gift: be varieties of this fort. It grows often to the height of five or fix cauſe the gods united to confer upon her every quality and feet , having large flowers, both fingles and doubles, ſucceeded endowment that could conduce, as the fable ſays, to the miſery by capſules or heads as large as oranges, each containing about of mankind. Pandora, it is farther ſaid, kept theſe gifts in a 8000 feeds. vefſel, the cover of which ſhe opened, and they were diſperſed The fomniferous quality of the white poppy is well known. over the face of the earth. This quality reſides in the milky juice of the capſule contain- PANEL, or PANNEL, is more commonly uſed for a fche- ing the feeds, nor is it evaporated by drying the juice; hence_ dule, or roll, containing the names of fuch jurors as the ſheriff the dried capſules are preſerved in the ſhops for making the returns to paſs upon any trial. Hence the impanelling of a jury, fyrup. The infpiffated juice itſelf is a kind of opium; and for is the entering of their names, by the ſheriff, into a panel, or an account of its virtues, ſee the Article OPIUM. The ſeeds little ſchedule of parchment; called alſo the panel of afize, pa- alſo make a very agreeable emulſion, but have no ſoporific nellum aſlife. virtue. PANTHEON, lav.Seov, thus named from Tav, all, and Jeos, The liquor, ſtrongly preſſed out of the capſules, fuffered to God, in architecture, a temple, or church, of a circular form, ſettle; clarified with whites of eggs, and evaporated to a due dedicated to all the gods, or to all the ſaints. The pantheon of conſiſtence, yields an extract which is about one-fifth or one- ancient Rome is of all others the moſt celebrated, and that whence fixth of the weight of the heads. This poffeffes the virtues of all the reſt take their names. It was built by Agrippa, ſon-in-opium, but requires to be given in double its doſe to anſwer the jaw of Auguſtus, in his third conſulate, twenty-five years before fame intention, which it is ſaid to perform without occafioning Chriſt': though ſeveral antiquarians and artiſts have ſuppoſed that a nauſea and giddineſs, the uſual effects of opium. This extract the pantheon exiſted as long ago as the commonwealth, and that was firſt recommended by Mr. Arnot; and a ſimilar one is now Agrippa only emoelliſhed it and added the portico. To this pur received in the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia. poſe they alledge the authority of Dion Caffius, who ſpeaking of convenient to prepare the fyrup from this extract, by diffolving Agrippa, ſays, he alſo finiſhed or perfected the pantheon. It one dram in two pounds and a half of ſimple ſyrup. The ſyrupus was dedicated by him to Jupiter Ultor, Jupiter the Revenger; papaveris albi, as directed by both colleges, is a uſeful anodyne, and had the name pantheon on account of the great number of and often ſucceeds in procuring ſleep, where opium fails; it is ftatues of the gods ranged in ſeven niches all round it; and becauſe more eſpecially adapted to children. White poppy heads are alſo built of a circular form, to repreſent heaven, the reſidence of the uſed externally in fomentations, either alone, or more frequently gods. It has but one door, and one window receiving all its light added to the decoction pro fomento. from the top of its dome. It is one hundred and forty-four feet 2. The rhoeas, or wild globular-headed poppy, poppy, is common diameter within, and juſt as much in height, and of the Corin in corn-fields, and flowers in June and July. The capſules of thian order. Before each niche are two columns of antique yellow this ſpecies, like thofe of the fomniferum, contain a milky juice, marble fluted, and one entire block. The whole wall of the of the narcotic quality, but the quantity is very inconſiderable, temple, as high as the grand cornice inclufive, is caſed with divers and has not been applied to any medical purpoſe; but an extract forts of precious marble in compartments: and the frieze is en prepared from them has been ſucceſsfully employed as a ſedative. tirely of porphyry. The flowers have ſomewhat of the ſmell of opium, and a muci- The eruption of Veſuvius, in the reign of Tiberius, damaged laginous taſte, accompanied with a ſlight degree of bitterneſs. the pantheon very conſiderably; but it was ſucceſſively repaired A fyrup of theſe flowers is directed in the London Pharmacopeia, by Domitian, Adrian, and Septimius Severus; and it fubfiſted which has been thought uſeful as an anodyne and pectoral, and in all its grandeur till the incurfion of Alaric, in the time of Ho is therefore preſcribed in coughs and catarrhal affections; but it norius: on this occaſion it was ſtripped of ſeveral of its ſtatues and ſeems valued rather for the beauty of its colour than for its virtues ornaments of gold and ſilver. About thirty-nine years after this, as a medicine. Genſeric, king of the Vandals, took away part of its marbles and PAPER, ſheets of a thin matter, made of ſome vegetable ftatues ; at length pope Boniface IV. obtaining this pantheon of ſubſtance. The materials on which mankind have, in different the emperor Phocas, converted it into a church, without any ages, contrived to write their ſentiments, have been extremely teration in the building; and dedicated it to the Virgin, and all various ; in the early ages they made uſe of ſtones, and tables of the martyrs. And it ſtill ſubliſts at Rome under the title of wood, wax, ivory, &c. Notre Dame de la Rotonda. However, in 655, Conſtantius II. Paper with regard to the manner of making it, and the materi. ſtripped it of its inſide and outſide brazen coverings, which he als employed therein, is reducible to ſeveral kinds; as Egyptian tranſported to Syracuſe. paper, made of the ruſh papyrus; bark-paper, made of the inner PANTHER, the Engliſh name of the ſpecies Pardalis, rind of ſeveral trees; cotton-paper ; incombuſtible paper; and belonging to the Genus Felis, in MAMMALIA. See PARDALIS. European paper, made of linen-rags. PANTOMIME, Ilavtoulos, among the ancients, a perſon PAPER-Money, is a term frequently made uſe of for bank-bills, who could imitate all kind of actions and characters by ſigns and which paſs currently in trade inſtead of gold and ſilver. geſtures without ſpeaking. Concerning this ſpecies of currency, the national utility of which The pantomimes made a part in the theatrical entertainments has been controverted by ſome, we have the following obſervations of the ancients; their chief employment was to expreſs, in gef- in Dr. Smith's Treatiſe on the Wealth of Nations : « The ſub- tures and action, whatever the chorus fung, changing their ſtitution of paper in the room of gold and ſilver money replaces countenance and behaviour as the ſubject of the ſong varied.- a very expreſſive inſtrument of commerce with one much leſs They were very ancient in Greece, being derived from the he- being derived from the he- | coſtly, and ſometimes equally convenient. . Circulation comes to roic times, according to ſome ; but however this may be, they be carried on by a new wheel, which it coſts leſs both to erect were certainly known in Plato's time. In Rome, it was ſo late and maintain than the old one. as the time of Anguftus before they made their appearance. As “ When the people of any particular country have ſuch confi- to their dreſs, it was various, being always fuited as near as pof- dence in the fortune, probity, and prudence of a particular ban- fible to that of the perſon they were to imitate. The crocota was ker, as to believe that he is always ready to pay upon demand ſuch much uſed among the Roman pantomimes, in which and other of his promiffory notes as are likely at any time to be preſented female dreſſes they perſonated women. to him, thoſe notes come to have the ſame currency as gold and We have this account of them in Gibbon's hiſtory: “ The ſilver money, for the confidence that ſuch money can at any time pantomimes, who maintained their reputation from the age of be had for them. Auguſtus to the ſixth century, exprefled, without the uſe of “ A particular banker lends among his cuſtomers his own pro- words, the various fables of the gods and heroes of antiquity; miſſory notes, to the amount, we ſhall ſuppoſe, of 100,000l. As and the perfection of their art, which ſometimes diſarmed the thoſe notes ſerve all the purpoſes of money, his debtors pay him gravity of the philofopher, always excited the applauſe and won the ſame intereſt as if he had lent them ſo much money. This der of the people. The vaſt and magnificent theatres of Rome intereſt is the ſource of his gain. Though ſome of thoſe notes are were filled by 3000 female dancers, and by 3000 fingers, with continually coming back upon him for payment, part of them con- the maſters of the reſpective choruffes. Such was the popular, tinue to circulate for months and years together. Though he has favour which they enjoyed, that in a time of ſcarcity, when all generally in circulation, therefore, notes to theamount of 100,0001. ftrangers were baniſhed from the city, the merit of contributing 20,000l. in gold and ſilver may frequently be a ſufficient provi- to the public pleaſures exempted them from a law which was fion for anſwering occaſional demands. By this operation there- ftrictly executed againſt the profeflors of the liberal arts." fore, 20,000l. in gold and ſilver perform all the functions which Parítomimes are ſtill very common in England: they differ 100,000l. could otherwiſe have performed. Eighty thouſand indeed in ſome reſpects from thoſe of antiquity ; but they retain pounds of gold and ſilver can therefore, in this manner, be the name, and like theſe they conſiſt in the repreſentations of ſpared from the circulation of the country; and if different things merely by geſtures, operations of the ſame kind ſhould, at the ſame time, he PAPAVER, the POPPY: a Genus of the Monogynia order, carried on by many different banks and bankers, the whole belonging to the Polyandria claſs of plants. The corolla is te circulation may be thus conducted with a fifth part only of the trapetalous ; the calyx diphyllous; the capſule bilocular opening gold and ſilver. at the pores below a perfifting ſtigma. • Let us ſuppoſe, for example, that the whole circulating mo- ney al- P A P PAP wages or re- employ, pur- any ney of fome particular country amounted, at a particular time, ( culating capital of any ſociety can employ, we muſt always have to 1,000,000 ſterling, that fum being then fufficient for circulat- regard to thoſe parts of it only which conſiſt in proviſions, mate ing the whole annual produce of their land and labour. Let us rials, and finiſhed work: the other, which conſiſts in money, ana fuppofe too, that, ſome time thereafter, different banks and ban which ſerves only tocirculate thoſe three, muſt always be deducted. kers, iſſued promiſſory notes, payable to the bearer, to the amount In order to put induſtry into motion, three things are requiſite; of 1,000,000, reſerving in their different coffers 200,000l, for materials to work upon, tools to work with, and the anſwering occaſional demands. There would remain, therefore, compence for the fake of which the work is done. Money is nei in circulation 800,000l. in gold and ſilver, and 1,000,000 of ther a material to work upon, nor a tool to work with; and though bank-notes, or 1,800,00ol. of paper and money together. But the wages of the workman are commonly paid to him in money, the annual produce of the land and labour of the country had be his real revenue, like that of all other men, conſiſts, not in the fore required only 1,000,000 to circulate and diſtribute it to its money, but in the money's worth; not in the metal pieces, but proper confumers, and that annual produce cannot be immedi- | in what can be ately augmented by thoſe operations of banking. One million, “ The proportion of induſtry which any capital can therefore, will be ſufficient to circulate it after them. The goods muſt evidently be equal to the number of workmen whom it care to be bought and ſold being preciſely the ſame as before, the ſame ſupply with materials, tools, and a maintenance ſuitable to the quantity of money will be ſufficient for buying and ſelling them. nature of the work. Money may be requiſite for purchaſing the The channel of circulation, if I may be allowed ſuch an expref- materials, and tools of the work, as well asthe maintenance of the ſion, will remain preciſely the ſame as before. One million we workmen. But the proportion of induſtry which the whole capital have ſuppoſed fufficient to fill that channel. Whatever, therefore, can employ, is certainly not equal both to the money which pur- is poured into it beyond this ſum, cannot run in it, but muſt over chaſes, and to the materials, tools, and maintenance, which are flow. One million eight hundred thouſand pounds, are poured in- purchaſed with it; but only to one or other of theſe two values, to it. Eight hundred thouſand pounds, therefore, muſt overflow, and to the latter more properly than to the former. that ſum being over and above what can be employed in the cir “ When paper is ſubſtituted in the room of gold and ſilver mom culation of the country. But though this ſum cannot be employed ney, the quantity of the materials, tools, and maintenance, which at home, it is too valuable to be allowed to lie idle. It will there the whole circulating capital can ſupply, may be increaſed by the fore be ſent abroad, in order to ſeek that profitable employment whole value of gold and ſilver which uſed to be employed in which it cannot find at home. But the paper cannot go abroad; | chafing them. The whole value of the great wheel of circula becauſe at a diſtance from the banks which iffue it, and from the tion and diſtribution is added to the goods which are circulated and country in which payment of it can be exacted by law, it will not diſtributed by means of it. The operation, in ſome meaſure, be received in common payments. Gold and ſilver, therefore to reſembles that of the undertaker of ſome great work, who in con- the amount of 800,000 will be ſent abroad, and the channel of ſequence of ſome improvement in mechanics, takes down his old home circulation will remain filled with 1,000,000 of paper, in machinery, and adds the difference between its price and that of ſtead of 1,000,000 of thoſe metals which filled it before. the new to his circulating capital, to the fund from which he “ But though ſo great a quantity of gold and ſilver is thus ſent furniſhes materials and wages to his workmen. abroad, we muſt not imagine that it is ſent abroad for nothing, “ What the proportion is which the circulating money of or that its proprietors make a preſent of it to foreign nations. country bears to the whole value of the annual produce circulated They will exchange it for foreign goods of fome kind or another, by means of it, it is perhaps impoſſible to determine. It has been in order to ſupply the conſumption either of fome foreign country computed by different authors at a fifth, at a tenth, at a twentieth, or their own. and at a thirtieth part of that value. But how ſmall foever the pro- “ If they employ it in purchaſing goods in one foreign country portion which the circulating money may bear to the whole value in order to ſupply the conſumption of another, or in what is call of the annual produce, as but a part, and frequently but a ſmall ed the carrying trade, whatever profit they make will be an ad part of that produce, is ever deſtined for the maintenance of in- dition to the neat revenue of their own country. It is like a new duſtry, it muſt always bear a very conſiderable proportion to that fund, created for carrying on a new trade; domeſtic buſineſs be part. When, therefore, by the ſubſtitution of paper, the gold and ing now tranſacted by paper, and the gold and ſilver being con ſilver neceſſary for circulation is reduced to perhaps a fifth verted into a fund for this new trade. the former quantity, if the value of only the greater part of the “ If they employ it in purchaſing foreign goods for home con other four-fifths he added to the funds which are deſtined for the ſumption, they may either firſt purchaſe ſuch goods as are likely maintenance of induſtry, it muſt make a very conſiderable additi- to be conſumed by idle people who produce nothing, ſuch as fo on to the quantity of that induſtry, and conſequently to the value reign wines, foreign filks, &c. or ſecondly, they may purchaſe of the annual produce of land and labour. an additional ſtock of materials, tools, and proviſions, in order “ An operation of this kind has, within theſe 25 or 30 years to employ an additional number of induſtrious people, who re been performed in Scotland, by the erection of new banking produce, with a profit, the value of their annual conſumption. companies in almoſt every conſiderable town, and even in fome “ So far as it is employed in the firſt way, it promotes pro- country villages. The effects of it have been preciſely thoſe before digality, increaſes expence and conſumption, without increaſing deſcribed. The buſineſs of the country is almoſt entirely carried production, or eſtabliſhing any permanent fund for ſupporting that on by means of the paper of thoſe different banking companies, expence, and is in every reſpect hurtful to the ſociety. with which purchaſes and payments of all kinds are commonly “ So far as it is employed in the ſecond way, it promotes in made. Silver very feldom appears, except in the change of a twen- duſtry; and though it increaſes the conſumption of the ſociety, ty-Shilling bank-note, and gold ſtill ſeldomer. But though the con- it provides a permanent fund for ſupporting that conſumption, duct of all thoſe different companies has not been unexceptionable, the people who confume, re-producing, with a profit, the whole and has accordingly required an act of parliament to regulate it ; value of their annual conſumption. The groſs revenue of the the country notwithſtanding, has evidently derived great benefit fociety, the annual produce of their land and labour, is increaſed from their trade. I have heard it aſſerted, that the trade of the city by the whole value which the labour of thoſe workmen adds to of Glaſgow doubled in about 15 years after the firſt erection of the the materials upon which they are employed; and their neat banks there; and that the trade of Scotland has more than qua- revenue by what remains of this value, after deducting what is drupled fince the firſt erection of the two public banks at Edin- neceſſary for ſupporting the tools and inſtruments of their trade. burgh; of which the one, called The Bank of Scotland, was eſta- “ That the greater part of the gold and ſilver which, being bliſhed by act of parliament in 1695, the other, called The Royal forced abroad by thoſe operations of banking, is employed in Bank, by royal charter in 1727. Whether the trade, either of Sco -- purchaſing foreign goods for home conſumption, is and muſt be land in general, or the city of Glaſgow in particular, has really employed for purchaſing thoſe of this ſecond kind, ſeems not only increaſed in fo great a proportion during ſo fhort a period, I do not probable, but almoſt unavoidable. Though ſome particular men pretend to know. If either of them has increaſed in this proportion, may ſometimes increaſe their expence very conſiderably, though it feems to be an effect too great to be accounted for by the fole their revenue does not increaſe at all, we may be aſſured that no operation of this cauſe. That the trade and induſtry of Scotland, claſs or order of men ever does ſo: becauſe, though the principles however have increaſed very conſiderably during this period, and of common prudence do not always govern the conduct of every that the banks have contributed a good deal to this increaſe, can- individual, they always influence that of the majority of every not be doubted. claſs or order. But the revenue of idle people, conſidered as a The value of the ſilver money which circulated in Scotland claſs or order, cannot in the ſmalleſt degree be increaſed by thoſe before the Union, 1707, and which immediately after it was operations of banking. Their expence in general, therefore, brought into the bank of Scotland in order to be re-coined, amoun- cannot be much increaſed by them, though that of a few indivi ted to 411,1171, 1os. gd. ſterling. No account has been got of duals among them may, and in reality ſometimes is. The de the gold coin; but it appears from the ancient accounts of the mint mand of idle people, therefore, for foreign goods, being the fame, of Scotland, that the value of the gold annually coined fomewhat or very nearly the ſame, as before, a very ſmall part of the money exceeded that of the filver. There were a good many people too which being forced abroad by thoſe operations of banking, is em upon this occaſion, who, from a diffidence of repayment, did not ployed in purchaſing foreign goods for home-conſumption, is bring their ſilver into the bank of Scotland; and there was, beſides likely to be employed in purchafing thoſe for their uſe. The ſome Engliſh coin which was not called in. The whole value of greater part of it will naturally be deſtined for the employment of the gold and ſilver, therefore, which circulated in Scotland before induſtry, and not for the maintenance of idleneſs. the Union, cannot be eſtimated at leſs than 1,000,000 ſterling. It * When we compute the proportion of induſtry which the cir- ſeems to have conftituted almoſt the whole circulation of that country: part of Ρ Α Ρ P A R country; forthough the circulation of the bank of Scotland, which “ The paradiſe of the Mahommedans is ſaid by them to be had then no rival, was conſiderable, it ſeems to have made but a ſituated above the ſeven heavens, or in the ſeventh, and next very ſmall part of the whole. In the preſent times, the whole under the throne of God; and to expreſs the amenity of the place, circulation of Scotland cannot be eſtimated at leſs than 2,000,000, they tell us that the earth of it is of the fineſt wheat flower, or of of which that part which conſiſts in gold and ſilver moſt probably the pureſt muſk, op of ſaffron ; and that its ſtones are pearls and does not amount to 500,000. But though the circulating gold and jacinths, the walls of its buildings enriched with gold and ſilver, filver of Scotland have ſuffered fo great a diminution during this and the trunks of all its trees of gold, amongſt which the moſt period, its real riches and proſperity do not appear to have fuf remarkable is the tree tuba, or tree of happineſs. They pretend fered at all. Its agriculture, manufactures, and trade, on the con that this tree ſtands in the palace of Mohammed, though a branch trary, the annual produce of its land and labour, have evidently of it will reach to the houſe of every true believer, loaded with been augmented. pomegranates, dates, grapes, and other fruits of ſurpriſing biga PAPILLÆ Pyramidales, are little eminences ariſing from the neſs, and delicious taſtes, unknown to mortals. If a man de- fubcutaneous nerves. Theſe papillæ are always the moſt nume fires to eat of any particular kind of fruit, it will immediately rous and conſpicuous in the places of moſt acute fenfe, as the be preſented to him ; or if he chooſes fleſh, birds ready dreſſed tongue, glans of the penis, vagina, labia, æſophagus, ventricle, will be ſet before him, and ſuch as he may wiſh for. They add, ſmall inteſtines, and tips of the fingers and toes, where the cutis that this tree will ſupply the bleſſed, not only with fruit, but they are covered with is extremely thin. In the other parts of the with ſilk garments alfo, and beaſts to ride on, adorned with rich body the cutis is thicker, and the papillæ are much fewer, ſmaller, trappings, all which will burſt forth from the fruit ; and that the &c. Theſe papillæare ſuppoſed to be the immediate organ of feeling. tree is ſo large, that a perſon mounted on the fleeteſt horſe would PAPILLÆ of the Tongue, in anatomy, are little eminences of not be able to gallop from one end of its ſhade to the other in the tongue, ſo called from their reſemblance to the papillæ of the 100 years. Plenty of water being one of the greateſt additions breaſt. From the papillary tunic of the tongue ariſe numerous ner to the pleaſantneſs of any place, the Alcoran often ſpeaks of the vous papillæ, which, penetrating the viſcous ſubſtance over them, rivers of paradiſe as the principal ornament. Some of theſe rie terminate under the ſurface of the tongue. It is by means of theſe vers are ſaid to flow with water, fome with milk, ſome with wine, papillæ, that the tongue is ſuppoſed to have its faculty of taſting. and others with honey: all of them have their ſources in the root See the Syſtem, Part VII. Sect. 2. of this treeof happineſs; and, as if theſe rivers were not ſufficient, PAPISTS, in eccleſiaſtical hiſtory, are thoſe who acknowledge we are told that the garden of this paradiſe is alſo watered by a the POPE to be ſupreme head of the church, or who profeſs the great number of lefſer ſprings and fountains, whoſe pebbles are popiſh religion. There are many penal laws in force againſt the rubies and emeralds, their earth of camphor, their beds of muſk, papiſts: but the moſt rigid are diſpenſed with, on their taking the and their ſides of ſaffron. But all thoſe glories will be eclipſed oath of allegiance. See Non CONFORMISTS. by the reſplendent and exquiſite beauty of the girls of paradiſe, PARABOLA, in geometry, a figure ariſing from the ſection the enjoyment of whoſe company will conftitute the principal fe- of a cone, when eut by a plane parallel to one of its ſides. See licity of the faithful. Theſe (they fay) are not formed of clay, as CONIC Sections in the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. I. mortal women, but of pure muſk; and are, as their prophet PARADISE,a term primarily uſed for the place wherein Adam often affirms in his Alcoran, free from all the natural defects was ſeated, during his innocence; and from which he was ex and inconveniencies incident to the ſex. Being alſo of the ſtrict- pelled for diſobeying God: this is called, in a ſtricter manner, the eſt modeſty, they keep themſelves ſecluded from public view in Terreſtrial Paradiſe. The word is formed of Ilagadeiros, orchard, pavillions of hotíow pearls, ſo large, that, as ſome traditions have a place ſtored with apples, and all kinds of fruit. Moſes calls it the it, one of them will be no leſs than 16, or, as others ſay, 60 miles Garden of Eden, q. d. garden of delight from any, wdovn, voluptas, long, and as many broad. With theſe the inhabitants of para- pleaſure. The critics are in diſpute about the preciſe place of Pa diſe, may taſte pleaſures in their height; and for this purpoſe radiſe. Some, as Hardouin, &c. will have it in Judea, in the place will be endowed with extraordinary abilities, and enjoy a per- where now is the lake Genefareth ; others, as Le Clerc, &c. in petual youth." Syria, towards the fprings of the Orontes, and Chryforrhoe : but PARADISE-Loft, the name of a modern epic poem, the firſt in neither of thoſe places do we diſcover any track of the rivers and fineſt of thoſe compoſed by Milton. wherewith the Paradiſe in Moſes's deſcription was watered. Cal The ſubject of this poem is extraordinary; it had never be- met and ſome other ingenious critics have placed the terreſtrial Pa fore been attempted, and ſeemed to be above the efforts of hu- radiſe in Armenia, near mount Ararat, where Noah's ark was left: man genius. Angels and devils are not the machinery, but the and imagine they there diſcovered the ſources of the four rivers principal actors in it; fo that what would appear marvellous in which watered the garden of Eden, viz. Euphrates; Hiddekel, now any other compoſition, is in this only the natural courſe of the Tigris; Gihon, now Araxes; and Pifon, now Phazzo. But events.—The poet's intention was, as he expreſſes it himſelf, to Sir J. Chardin affures us in his travels, that the Phazzo ſprings vindicate the vindicate the ways of God to men. How far Milton was hap- out of the mountains of Caucaſus, northward of the kingdom of py in the choice of his ſubject, may be queſtioned. It has led Imereti, and far enough from mount Ararat : beſide, that in Ar him into difficult ground, though it certainly ſuited the daring menia we have no ſigns of the countries of Havilah and Ethiopia, ſublimity of his genius. It is a ſubject for which he alone was which thoſe rivers waſhed after their departure from Eden. fitted ; and, in the conduct of it, he has ſhown a ſtretch both of There are various other opinions, as to this point: Poftellus | imagination and invention which is perfectly wonderful. will have Paradiſe placed under the north-pole; grounding his no PARADISEA, in ornithology, a Genus of birds belonging to tion upon the ancient tradition of the Egyptians and Babylonians, the order of Picæ. The beak is covered with a belt or collar of that the ecliptic or ſun's way was at firſt at right angles to the downy feathers at the baſe; and the feathers on the ſides are very equator ; and ſo paſſed over the north-pole. Others are againſt long. The Portugueſe firſt found theſe birds on the iſland of Gi- limiting it to any one place, and contend, that it included the lolo, the Papua iſlands, and New Guinea ; and they were known whole face of the earth, which was then, as it were, one continued by the name of birds of the ſun. The inhabitants of Ternate call ſcene of pleaſure, till altered upon Adam's tranſgreſſion. How them manuco dewata, the “bird of God;" whence the name ma- ever, both theſe opinions are equally incompatible with the ac nuco diata, uſed by fome naturaliſts, is derived. The peculiar count in the book of Geneſis; others, as Origen, Philo, &c. inter- length and ſtructure of their ſcapular feathers hinders them from pret the ſcripture relation of Paradiſe allegorically. But the moſt ſettling, in high winds, on trees; and when they are thrown on common and probable opinion is that of Hopkinſon, Huet, Bo the ground by theſe winds, they cannot riſe again. If taken by chart, &c. who place Paradiſe between the confluence of the Eu the natives, they are immediately killed, as their food is not phrates and Tigris, and their ſeparation. Theſe rivers are two of known; and they defend themſelves with great courage with thoſe wherewith the garden of Eden was watered : Pifon was a their formidable bills. branch ariſing out of one of them after their ſeparation; and Gihon The largeſt bird of Paradiſe is commonly two foot four inches another branch ariſing from the other, on the ſide of Armenia, in length; the head is ſmall; the bill hard and long, of a pale co- or the weſt: accordingly Ethiopia, one of the countries which theſe lour. The head and back-part of the neck is lemon-coloured, a rivers waſhed, was inconteſtibly Arabia Deſerta; for Mofes calls little black about the eyes; about the neck, the bird is of the his wife, who was of this country, an Ethiopian; and Havilah, brighteſt gloſſy emerald green, ſoft like velvet; as is alſo the breaſt, the other country, muſt have been the Chuſiſtan in Perſia; where which is black; the wings are large, and cheſnut-coloured; the were anciently found gold, bdellium, the onyx, &c. mentioned in back-part of the body is covered with long, ſtraight, narrow fea- Moſes's deſcription. The great difficulty in this ſyſtem is, that thers, of a pale brown colour, ſimilar to the plumes of the oſtrich. Moſes ſpeaks expreſsly of four rivers, each of which had its ſource Theſe feathers are ipread when the bird is on the wing: for which in the garden of Eden; whereas this gives us anly two rivers, reaſon he can keep very long in the air. On both ſides of the which were ſeparated into four branches. belly are two tufts of ſtiff and ſhorter feathers, of a golden yellowg PARADISE is alſo uſed in the New Teſtament, and by chriſtian and ſhining. From the rump proceed two long ſtiff ſhafts, which writers, for the final habitation of the bleſſed, or heaven. are feathered on their extremities. It may not be improper, however, in this place to give a de Theſe birds are not found in Key, an iſland fifty Dutch miles ſcription of the paradiſe of the Mahommedans. The ſenſuality caſt of Banda ; but they are found at the Aroo iſlands, lying 15 and abſurdity of that impoſtor muſt be apparent to all men. Their Dutch miles farther eaſt than Key, during the weſterly or dry religion has no conſiſtency in its parts, and the deſcriptions of monſoon; and they return to New Guinea as ſoon as the eaſterly the future enjoyments of the faithful are miſerable inſtances of or wet monſoon fets in. They come always in a flock of human weakneſs and folly. 40, and are led by a bird which the inhabitants of Aroo call the king 30 or No. 123 PAR PAR op- it impoffible that two lines, which no where king. This leader is black, with red ſpots: and conſtantly flies is, as the difference of longitude is to the radius, fo is the diſtance higher than the reſt of the flock, which never forſake him, but of the co-fine to the latitude. 2. Given, the difference of lon ſettle as ſoon as he ſettles ; a circumſtance that frequently proves gitude between two places under the ſame parallel ; required, their ruin when the king lights on the ground, whence they are their diſtance. The rule is, as radius to difference of longitude, not able to riſe on account of the ſingular ſtructure and diſpoſition fo is co-fine of latitudes to diſtance. 3. Given, the diſtance be of their plumage. They are likewiſe unable to fly with the wind, tween two places in the ſame latitude: required, their difference which would ruin their looſe plumage; but take their flight con of longitude. The rule is, as the co-line of latitude te diſtance ſtantly againſt it, cautious not to venture out in hard blowing wea ſo is radius to difference of longitude. See the Syſtem of NAVI: ther, as a ſtrong wind frequently obliges them to come to theground. GATION, Part II. Sect. I. During their flight they cry like ſtarlings. Their note, however, PARALLELIPIPED, in geometry, one of the regular bo- approaches more to the croaking of ravens; which is heard very dies, or folids, comprehended under fix parallelograms, the plainly, when they are in diſtreſs from a freſh gale blowing on the poſiteones whereofare ſimilar, parallel, and equal. A parallelipiped back of their plumage. In Aroo, theſe birds ſettle on the higheſt is by ſome defined, a priſm whoſe baſe is a parallelogram. See trees, eſpecially on the ficus benjamina of the hortus malabaricus, the SYSTEM, Sect. I. commonly called the waringa tree. The natives catch them with PARALLELOGRAM, in geometry, a quadrilateral right- bird-lime or in nooſes, or ſhoot them with blunt-arrows; but lined figure, whoſe oppoſite ſides are parallel and equal to each though ſome are ſtill alive when they fall into their hands, the other. See the SYSTEM, Part I. Sect. I. and II. Plate I. fig. catchers kill them immediately, and ſometimes cut the legs off: 35, 36, 37, and 38. then they draw out the entrails, dry and fumigate the bodies with PARALYSIS, παραλυσις, formed from σαράλυο, I unbind, fulphur or ſmoke only, and ſell them at Banda for half a rixdol- this diſeaſe being ſuppoſed to unbind the nerves and muſcles, in lar each ; but at Aroo they may be bought for a ſpike-nail or a medicine, a diſeaſe called PALSY. See the System, Genus 36. piece of old iron. Flocks of theſe birds are often ſeen flying from PARAPET, breaftwork, in fortification, a defence or ſcreen, one iſland to the other againſt the wind. In caſe they find the on the extreme of a rampart, or other work, ſerving to cover the wind become too powerful, they fly ſtraight up into the air, till foldiers, and the cannon from the enemy's fire. See the System, they come to a place where it is leſs agitated, and then continue Sect. I. under the Article DeFINITION, and Plate II. fig. 1. their flight. During the eaſtern monſoon their tails are moulted, Letters x, x. ſo that they have them only during four months of the weſtern PARAPHIMOSIS, Tapoluog, formed of capo, much, and monſoon. For repreſentation, ſee Plate I, Genus 16. Qiliew, I bind, in medicine, a diſorder of the penis, wherein the PARADOX, Tupodožov, in philoſophy, a propoſition ſeeming- prepuce is ſhrunk, and withdrawn behind the glans, ſo as not to ly abſurd, as being contrary to ſome received opinions, but yet be capable of being brought to cover the ſame. This happens true in fact. ofteneſt in venereal diſorders, where the humours diſcharged fre- The vulgar and illiterate take almoſt every thing, even the quently prove ſo ſharp, as to cauſe this retraction. There fome- moſt important, upon the authority of others, without ever ex times ariſes a neceſſity, in this caſe, to ſnip or cut the prepuce amining it themſelves. Although this implicit confidence is ſel open, otherwiſe the humours will be bent up under it, and do a dom attended with any bad conſequences in the common affairs great deal of miſchief. For deſcription, cauſes, and cure, ſee of life, it has nevertheleſs, in other things, been much abuſed ; the SYSTEM, Genus 76. and in political and religious matters has produced fatal effects. PARCÆ, goddeſſes who, according to the ancient Pagan It muſt be owned, that credulity has done much more miſchief theology, preſide over the periods or durations of human lives . in the world than incredulity has done, or ever will do ; becauſe Theſe the ancients frequently confounded with the Fates or Def- the influences of the latter extend only to ſuch as have ſome ſhare tinies; and, in effect, the Parcæ, according to Plato, were the of literature, or affect the reputation thereof. And ſince the hu- daughters of Neceſſity and Deſtiny. The Parcæ were three, man mind is not neceſſarily impelled, without evidence, either Clotho, Lacheſis, and Atropos ; becauſe, all things have their to belief or unbelief, but may ſuſpend its afſent to, or diſſent beginning, progreſs, and end. Hence the poets tell us, the Parcr from, any propoſition till after a thorough examination ; it is to ſpun the thread of men's lives; that Clotho held the diſtaff, and be wiſhed that men of learning, eſpecially philoſophers, would drew the thread; Lacheſis-twirled the ſpindle and ſpun it; and not haſtily, and by firſt appearances, determine themſelves with Atropos cut it. reſpect to the truth or falihood, poſſibility, or impoſſibily, of PÁRDALIS, a ſpecies of the Genus Felis, in MAMMALIA. things. For deſcription of the Genus, fee FELIS. For repreſentation, A perſon who has made but little progreſs in the mathematics, ſee Plate IV. Genus 13. Species 5. Variety 1. though in other reſpects learned and judicious, would be apt to PARDON, in criminal law, is the remitting cr forgiving an offence committed againſt the king. Laws (ſays an able wri- inches aſunder, may continually approach towards one another, ter) cannot be framed on principles of compaſſion to guilt; yet and yet never meet, though continued to infinity: and yet the juſtice, by the conſtitution of England, is bound to be adminiſ- truth of this propoſition may be eaſily demonſtrated. And many, tered in mercy: this is promiſed by the king in his coronation oath: who are good mechanics, would be as apt to pronounce the ſame, and it is that act of his government which is the moſt perſonal if they were told, that though the teeth of one wheel ſhould take and moſt entirely his own. The king condemns no man; that equally deep into the teeth of three others, it ſhould affect them rugged taſk he leaves to his courts of juſtice: the great operation in ſuch a manner, that, in turning it any way round its axis, it of his fceptre is mercy. His power of pardoning was ſaid by our Kould turn one of them the ſame way, another the contrary way, Saxon anceſtors to be derived à lege fua dignitatis: and it is de- and the third no way at all. clared in parliament, by ſtat. 27 Hen. VIII.C 24. that no other No ſcience abounds more with paradoxes, than geometry: perſon hath power to pardon or remit any treafon or felonies thus, that a right line ſhould continually approach to the hyper- whatſoever ; but that the king hath the whole and fole power bola, and yet never reach it, is a true paradox; and in the fame thereof, united and knit to the imperial crown of this realm. manner a ſpiral may continually approach to a point, and yet This is indeed one of the great advantages of monarchy in ge- not reach it in any number of revolutions, however great. neral above any other form of government, that there is a ma- PARALLAX, Ilaparaažis, in aſtronomy, an arch of the hea- giſtrate who has it in his power to extend mercy wherever he vens intercepted between the true place of a ſtar, and its appa- thinks it is deſerved; holding a court of equity in his own breaſt, rent place. See the Syſtem, Sect. VII. DEFINITIONS. See alſo to foften the rigour of the general law, in ſuch criminal caſes as Problems 15, 16, and 17.. merit an exemption from puniſhment. Pardons (according to PARALLEL, in geometry, is applied to lines, figures, and ſome theoriſts) ſhould be excluded in a perfect legiſlation, where bodies, which are every-where equidiſtant from each other ; or puniſhments are mild but certain ; for that the clemency of the which, though infinitely produced, would never either approach prince ſeems a tacit diſapprobation of the laws. But the exclu- nearer, or recede farther from each other. See the System, Part fion of pardons muſt neceffarily introduce a very dangerous power I. Sect I. in the judge or jury; that of conſtruing the criminal law by the PARALLEL Rays, in optics, are thoſe which keep at an equal fpirit inſtead of the letter ; or elſe it muſt be holden, what no diſtance in reſpect to cach other, from the viſible object to the man will ſeriouſly avow, that the ſituation and circumſtances of eye, which is ſuppoſed to be infinitely remote from the object. the offender (though they alter not the eſſence of the crime) ought See the System, Part I. Sect. I. to make no diſtinction in the puniſhment. In democracies, how- PARALLEL Sphere, that ſituation of the fphere wherein the ever, this power of pardon can never ſubfift; for there nothing equator coincides with the horizon, and the poles with the zenith higher is acknowledged than the magiſtrate who adminiſters the and nadir. In this ſphere all the parallels of the equator become laws: and it would be impolitic for the power of judging and of parallels of the horizon, confequently no ſtars ever riſe or ſet, pardoning to centre in one and the ſame perſon. This as the but all turn round in circles parallel to the horizon ; and the fun, preſident Monteſquieu obferves) would oblige him very often to when in the equinoctial, wheels round the horizon the whole day. contradict himſelf, to make and to unmake his deciſions: it would After his riſing to the elevated pole, he never ſets for ſix months; tend to confound all ideas of right among the maſs of people, as and after his entering again on the other ſide of the line, he never they would find it difficult to tell, whether a priſoner were dil- riſes for ſix months longer. charged by his innocence, or obtained a pardon through favour. PARALLEL Sailing, in navigation, is the failing under paral- | In Holland therefore, if there be no ſtadtholder, there is no power lel of latitude. Of this there are but three caſes. I. Given, the de- of pardoning lodged in any other member of the ſtate. But in parture and diftance; required the latitude. The rule for which | monarchies the king acts in a ſuperior ſphere; and though hệ regulates P A R PAR regulates the whole government as the firſt mover, yet he does enjoined by any municipal laws; nature, in this reſpect, working not appear in any of the diſagreeable or invidious parts of it. ſo ſtrongly as to need rather a check than a ſpur. Whenever the nation ſee him perſonally engaged, it is only in 3. The laſt duty of parents to their children is that of giving works of legiſlature, magnificence, or compaſſion. To him there them an education ſuitable to their ſtation in life: a duty pointed fore the people look up as the fountain of bounty and grace; and out by reaſon, and of far the greateſt importance of any. For, as theſe repeated acts of goodneſs, coming immediately from his own Puffendorff very well obſerves, it is not eaſy to imagine or allow, hand, endear the ſovereign to his fubjects, and contribute more that a parent has conferred any confiderable benefit upon his child than any thing to root in their hearts that filial affection and per- by bringing him into the world, if he afterwards entirely neglects fonal loyalty which are the ſure eſtabliſhment of a prince. his culture and education, and ſuffers him to grow up like a mere The king may pardon all offences merely againſt the crown beaſt, to lead a life uſeleſs to others, and ſhameful to himſelf. or the public ; excepting, 1. That to preſerve the liberty of the Yet the municipal laws of moſt countries ſeem to be defective in ſubject, the committing any man to priſon out of the realm, is this point, by not conſtraining the parent to beſtow a proper edu- by the habeas corpus act, 31 Car. II. c. 2, made a præmunire, cation upon his children. Perhaps they thought it puniſhment unpardonable even by the king... Nor, 2, can the king pardon, enough to leave the parent, who neglects the inſtruction of his fa- where private juſtice is principally concerned in the proſecution mily, to labour under thoſe griefs and inconveniencies which his of offenders: Non potefi ex gratiam facere cum injuria et damno family, fo uninſtructed, will be ſure to bring upon him. Our laws, aliorum. Therefore, in appeals of all kinds, (which are the ſuit, though their defects in this particular cannot be denied, have in not of the king, but of the party injured) the proſecutor may re one inſtance made a wiſe proviſion for breeding up the riſing ge- leaſe: but the king cannot pardon. Neither can he pardon à neration ; ſince the poor and laborious part of the community, common nuiſance, while it remains unredreſſed, or ſo as to pre when paſt the age of nature, are taken out of the hands of their vent an abatement of it: though afterwards he may remit the parents, by the ſtatutes for apprenticing poor children ; and are fine: becauſe though the proſecution is veſted in the king to avoid placed out by the public in ſuch a manner as may render their the multiplicity of ſuits, yet (during its continuance) this offence abilities, in their ſeveral ſtations, of the greateſt advantage to the favours more of the nature of a private injury to each individual commonwealth. The rich indeed are left at their own option, in the neighbourhood, than of a public wrong. Neither, laſtly, whether they will breed up their children to be ornaments or diſ- can the king pardon an offence againſt a popular or penal ſtatute, graces to their family. after information brought; for thereby the informer hath acquired PARENTAL, ſomething belonging to the relation of parent. a private property in his part of the penalty. See PARENT. There is alſo a reſtriction of a peculiar nature, that affects the PARENTAL Affection, the endearing attachment of parents to prerogative of pardoning, in caſe of parliamentary impeachments, their children, including in it love; a deſire of doing good to viz. that the king's pardon cannot be pleaded to any ſuch im- thoſe who by an act of our own depend upon us for all that they peachment, ſo as to impede the inquiry, and ſtop the proſecution enjoy.. Nature even excites this affection in brutes, but in them of great and notorious offenders. Therefore, when in the reign it continues only ſo long as it is neceſſary for the preſervation of of Charles the ſecond, the earl of Danby was impeached by the their offspring ; their offspring ; for when theſe are able to provide for themſelves, houſe of commons of high treaſon and other miſdemeanors, and it ceaſes, and the relation is forgotten. In man, however, though pleaded the king's pardon in bar of the ſame, the commons al it leffens, or at leaſt becomes leſs anxious as the dependance of ledged, “That there was no precedent that ever any pardon was the child becomes leſs, it never entirely ceaſes, except in ſome granted to any perſon impeached by the commons of high treafon, few inſtances of extreme depravity. Authors, however, have or other high crimes, pending the impeachment;" and there- imagined and Lord Kames among the reſt, that after the child upon refolved, “That the pardon ſo pleaded was illegal and void, is provided for, and no more depends on the parent, all affec- and ought not to be allowed in bar of the impeachment of the tion would ceaſe, where it not artificially preſerved and confirmed commons of England,” for which reſolution they aſſigned this by habit. Whether his lordſhip, in this opinion, be right or reaſon to the houſe of lords, “That the ſetting up a pardon to wrong, we ſhall not pretend to ſay. One thing, however, is be a bar of an impeachment defeats the whole uſe and effects of certain, that be it natural or not, it is one of the greateſt com- impeachments: for ſhould this point be admitted, or ſtand doubt forts of life, even when all dependance has ceaſed. It matters ed, it would totally diſcourage the exhibiting any for the future; not that there are many inſtances where this comfort is not felt. whereby the chief inſtitution of the preſervation of the govern- Human depravity has often obliterated the fineſt feelings of the ment would be deſtroyed.” Soon after the Revolution, the com mind; and it is not to be wondered at if in ſome inſtances it do mons renewed the ſame claim, and voted, “ That a pardon is ſo in the caſe before us. A good heart certainly can enjoy no not pleadable in bar of an impeachment." And at length, it greater ſatisfaction than that ariſing from grateful returns of kind- was enacted by the act of ſettlement, 12 & 13 W. III. c. 2. neſs and affection to an aged parent. As the vexations which p2- « That no pardon under the great feal of England ſhall be plead-rents receive from their children haſten the approach of age, and able to an impeachment by the commons in parliament.” But, double the force of years ; fo the comforts which they reap from after the impeachment has been folemnly heard and determined, them are balm to all other forrows, and diſappoint the injuries of it is not underſtood that the king's royal grace is farther reſtrained time. Parents repeat their lives in their offspring ; and their or abridged: for after the impeachment and attainder of the fix concern for them is fo near, that they feel all their ſufferings, and rebel lords in 1715, three of them were from time to time re taſte all their enjoyments, as much as if they regarded their own prieved by the crown; and at length received the benefit of the perſons. However ſtrong we may ſuppoſe the fondneſs of a fa- king's moſt gracious pardon. ther for his children, yet they will find more lively marks of ten- The effect of ſuch pardon by the king is to make the offender derneſs in the bofom of a mother. There are no ties of nature a new man; to acquit him of all corporal penalties and forfeitures to compare with thoſe which unite an affectionate mother to her annexed to that offence for which he obtains his pardon ; and children, when they repay her tenderneſs with obedience and love. not ſo much to reſtore his former, as to give him a new credit Diodorus Siculus alſo lib. 34. gives us a ſurpriſing inſtance of and capacity. But nothing can reſtore or purify the blood when the ſame warm affection. Cambalus, a young gentleman of once corrupted, if the pardon be not allowed till after attainder, character and fortune in the city of Mulgeatum, being one day but the high and tranſcendant power of parliament. Yet if a out a courſing, was way-laid, and very near being robbed and perſon attainted receives the king's pardon, and afterwards hath murdered by the banditti who infeſted that part of the country. a fon, that ſon may be heir to his father ; becauſe the father be- Gorgus, the young gentleman's father, happened to come by at ing made a new man, might tranſmit new inheritable blood; the very inſtant, to whom Cambalus related the danger he was though, had he been born before the pardon, he could never in. The ſon was on foot, the father on horſeback ; but no foon- have inherited at all. er had he heard the melancholy tale, than he leapt from his horſe, PARENT, a term of relation applicable to thoſe from whom deſired his ſon to mount, and make the beſt of his way into the we immediately derive our being. city : but Cambalus, preferring his father's ſafety to his own, The duties of parents to legitimate children conſiſt in three would by no means conſent to it; on the contrary, conjured his particulars; their maintenunce, their protection, and their edu- father to leave him, and take care of himſelf. The father, ſtruck cation. with the generoſity and affection of his fon, added tears to entrea- 1. The municipal laws of well regulated ſtates have all taken ties, but all to no purpoſe. The conteſt between them is better care to enforce the duty of maintenance, though providence has conceived than deſcribed-while bathed in tears, and beſeeching done it more effectually than any laws, by implanting in the breait each other to preſerve his own life, the banditti approached, and of every parent that natural snory, or inſuperable degree of affec- ftabbed them both. tion, which not even the deformity of perſon or mind, not even Amongſt the ancient Greeks, the ſentiments of parental affec- the wickedneſs, ingratitude, and rebellion of children, can totally tion were exceedingly ſtrong and ardent. The mutual tender- fuppreſs or extinguiſh. The civil law obliges the parent to pro- neſs of the huſband and the wife was communicated to their off- vide maintenance for his child; and if he refuſes, judex de ea spring ; while the father viewed in his child the charms of its cognofcet. Nay, it carries this matter ſo far, that it will not ſuf- mother, and the mother perceived in it the manly graces of its fer a parent at his death totally to diſinherit his child, without father. As paternal kindneſs is the moſt ſimple and natural ex- expreſsly giving his reaſon for fo doing; and there are fourteen panſion of ſelf-love, ſo there are innumerable inſtances of it in fuch reaſons reckoned up, which may juſtify ſuch diſinheriſon. all countries ſavage and civilized. 2. From the duty of maintenance we may eaſily paſs to that of PARENTHESIS tagavbson, formed of zupa, inter, between, protection; which is alſo a natural duty, but rather permitted than and evlegis, Poſition, q. d. putting between, in grammar, certain in- tercalary PAR PAR TUATION. ercalary words inſerted in a diſcourſe, which interrupt the ſenſe 1215, in the great charter granted by that prince; wherein he proa or thread, but which ſeem neceſſary for the fuller underſtanding miſes to ſummon all archbiſhops, biſhops, abbots, earls, and great of the ſubject. See the Syſtem, Part II. Chap. IV. Art. Punc barons, perſonally; and all other tenants in chief under the crown, by the ſheriff and bailiffs; to meet at a certain place, with 40 days notice, to affefs aids and feutages when neceſſary. And this con PARIETALIA Offa, in anatomy, the third or fourth bones ſtitution has ſubſiſted in fact at leaſt from the year 1266, 49 Hen: of the cranium; ſo called becauſe they form the parietes or ſides of the head. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. 2, and Plate I. fig. III. there being ſtillextant writs of that date, to ſummon knights; 1. Letter b. citizens, and burgerfes, to parliament. PARIETES, in anatomy, a term uſed for the incloſures or We proceed therefore to enquire wherein conſiſts this conſtitu. membranes that ſtop up or cloſe the hollow parts of the body; tion of parliament, as it now ſtands, and has ſtood for upwards eſpecially thoſe of the heart, the thorax, &c. The parietes of of 500 years. And in the proſecution of this enquiry, we ſkaall the two ventricles of the heart are of unequal ſtrength and thick conſider, neſs; the left exceeding the right, becauſe of its office, which is Firſt, The manner and time of its aſſembling. to force the blood through all parts of the body ; whereas the Secondly, Its conſtituent parts. right only drives it through the lungs. Thirdly, The laws and cuſtoms relating to parliament, PARLIAMENT, PARLIAMENTUM, in England, is the Fourthly, The methods of proceeding, and of making ſtatutes, grand aſſembly of the three eſtates of the kingdom, conſiſting of in both houſes. the King, the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and the Commons, And, laſtly, The manner of the parliament's adjournment, pro- ſummoned together by the King's authority, to conſider of matters rogation, and diſſolution. relative to the public welfare, and particularly to enact and repeal 1. As to the Manner and time of Aſſembling. Che parliament is laws. regularly to be ſummoned by the king's writ or letter iſſued out of ORIGIN AND PREROGATIVE OF PARLIAMENT. chancery by advice of the privy-council, at leaſt 40 days before it The original or firſt inſtitution of parliament is one of thoſe begins to fit. It is a branch of the royal prerogative, that no par- matters which lie ſo far hidden in the dark ages of antiquity, that liament can be convened by its own authority, or by the authority of the tracing of it out is a thing equally difficult and doubtful. The any, except the king alone. And this prerogative is founded word parliament itſelf (or colloquium, as ſome of our hiſtorians upon very good reaſon. For, ſuppoſing it had a right to meet ſpon- tranſlate it) is, comparatively, of modern date, derived from the taneouſly, without being called together, it is impoſſible to con- French, and ſignifying the place where they met and conferred to ceive that all the members, and each of the houſes, would agree gether. It was firſt applied to general aſſemblies of the ſtates under unanimouſly upon the proper time and place of meeting: and if Louis VII. in France, about the middle of the 12th century. But half of the members met, and half abſented themſelves, who ſhall it is certain, that, long before the introduction of the Norman lan determine which is really the legiſlative body, the part aſſembled, guage into England, all matters of importance were debated and or that which ſtays away? It is therefore neceſſary, that the par- ſettled in the great councils of the realm: a practice which ſeems liament ſhould be called together at a determinate time and place; to have been univerſal among the northern nations, particularly and, highly becoming its dignity and independance, that it ſhould the Germans; and carried by them into all the countries of Eu be called together by none but one of its own conſtituent parts : rope, which they over-ran at the diffolution of the Roman empire. and, of the three conſtituent parts, this office can only appertain Relics of which conſtitution, and various modifications and changes, to the king; as he is a ſingle perſon, whoſe will may be uniform are ſtill to be met with in the diets of Poland, Germany, and Swe and ſteady; the firſt perſon in the nation being ſuperior to both den, and were alſo in the aſſembly of the eſtates in France; for what houſes in dignity; and the only branch of the legiſlature that has a was there called the parliament was only the ſupreme court of ſeparate exiſtence, and is capable of performing any act at a time juſtice, conſiſting of the peers, certain dignified ecclefiaftics, and when no parliament is in being. Nor is it an exception to this judges; which neither was in practice, nor was ſuppoſed to be in rule, that, by fome modern ſtatutes, on the demiſe of a king or theory, a general council of the realm. queen, if there be then no parliament in being, the laſt parliament With us in England, this general council hath been held im revives, and is to fit again for ſix months, unleſs diſſolved by the memorially, under the ſeveral names of michel-Synoth, or“ great fucceffor ; for this revived parliament muſt have been originally council,” michel-gemote, or “great meeting,” and more fre ſummoned by the crown. quently wittena-gemote, or “the meeting of wiſe men." It was alſo It is true, that the convention-parliament which reſtored king ſtyled in Latin, commune concilium regni, magnun concilium regis, Charles II. met above a month before his return ; the lords by curia magna, corventus magnatum vel procerum, afiſa generalis, their own authority, and the commons in purſuance of writs iſſued and ſometimescommunitas regni Anglia. We have inſtances of its in the name of the keepers, of the liberty of England by authority meeting to order the affairs of the kingdom, to make new laws, of parliament ; and that the ſaid parliament ſat till the 29th of and to amend the old, oras Fleta expreſſes it novis injuriis emerfis December, full ſeven months after the Reſtoration; and enacted nova conſtituere remedia, ſo early as the reign of Ina king of the many laws, ſeveral of which are ſtill in force. But this was from Weſt Saxons, Offa king of the Mercians, and Ethelbert king of the neceſſity of the thing, which ſuperſedes all law; for if they Kent, in the ſeveral realms of the heptarchy. And, after their had not ſo met, it was morally impoſſible that the kingdom ſhould union, the Mirror informs us, that king Alfred ordained for a per- have been fettled in peace. And the firſt thing done after the petual uſage, that theſe councils ſhould meet twice in the year, or king's return was, to paſs an act declaring this to be a good par- oftener, if need be, to treatof the government of God's people; how liament, notwithſtanding the defect of the king's writs. So that they ſhould keep themſelves from fin, ſhould live in quiet, and as the royal prerogative was chiefly wounded by their fo meeting, ſhould receive right. Our ſucceeding Saxon and Daniſh monarchs and as the king himſelf, who alone had a right to objeét, con- held frequent councils of this fort, as appears from their reſpec- fented to wave the objection, this cannot be drawn into an ex- tive codes of laws; the titles whereof uſually ſpeak them to be ample in prejudice of the rights of the crown. Beſides, we ſhould enacted, either by the king with the advice of his wittena-gemote, alſo remember, that it was at that time a great doubt among the or wiſe men, as, Hæc funt inftituta, quæ Edgarus rex confilio fa- lawyers, whether even this healing act made it a good parliament, pientum ſuorum inſtituit; or to be enacted by thoſe ſages with the and held by very many in the negative; though it ſeems to have advice of the king, as, Hæc funt judicia, quæ fapientes confilio re been too nice a ſcruple. And yet, out of abundant caution, it gis Ethelſtani inſtituerunt; or laſtly, to be enacted by them both was thought neceſſary to confirm its acts in the next parliament, together, as, Ha ſunt inſtitutiones, quas rex Edmundus et epiſcopi by ſtatute 13 Car. II. c.7. & c. 14. ſui cum ſapientibus ſuis inftituerunt. It is likewiſe true at the time of the Revolution, A. D. 1688, There is alſo no doubt but theſe great councils were occaſion the lords and commons by their own authority, and upon the ally held under the firſt princesof the Norman line. Glanvil, who fummons of the prince of Orange, (afterwards king William,) wrote in the reign of Henry II. ſpeaking of the particular amount met in a convention, and therein diſpoſed of the crown and king- of an amercement in the ſheriff's court, ſays, it had never yet been dom. But it muſt be remembered, that this aſſembling was up- aſcertained by the general aſlize, or aſſembly, but was left to the on a like principle of neceſſity as at the Reſtoration ; that is, up- cuſtom of particular counties. Here the general aſſize is ſpoken of on a full conviction that king James the ſecond had abdicated as a meeting well known, and its ſtatutes or deciſions are put in a the government, and that the throne was thereby vacant; which manifeſt contradiſtinction to cuſtom, or the common law. And fuppofitionof the individual members was confirmed by their con- in Edward III's time an act of parliament, made in the reign current reſolution, when they actually came together. And, in of William the Conqueror, was pleaded in the caſe of the ab ſuch a caſe as the palpable vacancy of a throne, it follows ex bey of St. Edmund's-bury, and judicially allowed by the court. neceſſitate rei, that the form of the royal writs muſt be laid aſide, Hence it indiſputably appears, that parliaments, or general otherwiſe no parliament can ever meet again. For let us put councils, are coeval with the kingdom itſelf. How thofe parli- How thoſe parli- another poſſible caſe, and ſuppoſe, for the ſake of argument, that aments were conſtituted and compoſed, is another queſtion, which the whole royal line ſhould at any time fail, and become extinct, has been matter of great diſpute among our learned antiquarians; which would indiſputably vacate the throne: in this ſituation it and particularly whether the commons were ſummoned at all ; feems reaſonable to preſume, that the body of the nation, confift- or, if ſummoned, at what period they began to form a diſtinct ing of Jords and commons, would have a right to meet and ſet- aſſembly. But, without entering into controverſies of this fort, tle the government; otherwiſe there muſt be no government at it may be ſufficient to obſerve, that it is generally agreed, that in the main the conſtitution of parliament, as it now ſtands, was all. And upon this and no other principle did the convention in 1688 aſſemble. The vacancy of the throne was precedent to marked out ſo long ago as the 17th year of king John, A. D. their meeting without any royal ſummons, not a conſequence of it. They PA R P A R They did not aſſemble without writ, and then make the throne upon each other. In the legiſlature, the people are a check upon vacant; but, the throne being previouſly vacant by the king's the nobility, and the nobility, a check upon the people, by the abdication, they aſſembled without writ, as they muſt do if they mutual privilege of rejecting what the other have reſolved; while aſſembled at all. Had the throne been full , their meeting would the king is a check upon both, which preſerves the executive n10t have been regular ; but, as it was really empty, ſuch meeting power from encroachments. And this very executive power is became abſolutely neceſſary. And accordingly it is declared by again checked and kept within due bounds by the two houſes, ſtatute 1 W. & M. ſt. 1. C. 1. that this convention was really the through the privilege they have of enquiring into, impeaching, two houſes of parliament notwithſtanding the want of writs or and puniſhing the conduct (not indeed of the king, which would other defects of form. So that, notwithſtanding theſe two capital deſtroy his conſtitutional independence) but (which is more bene- exceptions, which were juſtifiable only on a principle of neceſſity, | ficial to the public) of his evil and pernicious counſellors. (and each of which, by the way, induced a revolution in the go- Thus every branch of our civil polity ſupports and is ſupported, vernment), the rule laid down is in general certain, that the king regulates and is regulated, by the reſt: for the two houſes natu- only can convoke a parliament, and this by the ſtatute 4 Ed. III. rally drawing in two directions of oppoſite intereft, and the preto- c. 14, he is bound to do, “every year once, and more often if need gative in another ſtill different from them both, they inutually keep be," which proviſion of the flatute, though fufficiently explicit in each other from exceeding their proper limits; while the whole is enjoining the calling of a parliament, at leaſt once in a year, was prevented from ſeparation, and artificially connected together by evaded by the conſtruction given to it, by the king, in referring the mixed nature of the crown, which is a part of the legiſlative, the words if need be to the whole proviſion; and thus by conſti and the ſole executive magiſtrate. Like three diſtinct powers in tuting himſelf the ſole judge of the neceſſity, endeavoured to mechanics, they jointly impel the machine of government in a di- govern without a parliament, under the pretence that there was rection different from what either, acting by itſelf, would have no need of one, and by this conſtruction leaving the grievance done; but at the ſame time in a direction partaking of each, and intended to be redreſſed in the ſame ſtate as before. This occa formed out of all; a direction which conſtitutes the true line of fioned the ſtatute 36 Ed. III. C. 10. by which it was enacted, that the liberty and happineſs of the community. « for maintenance of the ſtatutes and redreſs of grievances which III. Having conſidered the conſtituent parts of the ſovereign daily happen, a parliament ſhall be holden every year, as another power, or parliament, each in a ſeparate view, we now proceed to time was ordained by ſtatute.” This ſhould alſo be a new Parlia examine the laws and cuſtoms relating to parliament, united ment, and not merely a Seſion of a former Parliament, as is evident together and conſidered as one aggregate body. The power and from the uſage of tlie times; for it appears that for ſome time pre- juriſdiction of parliament, ſays Sir Edward Coke, is ſo tranſ- vious to the 4th Edw. III. a New Parliament fat once at leaſt çendent and abſolute, that it cannot be confined, either for cauſes or every year, and frequently oftener; and this continued to be the perſons, within any bounds. And of this high court he adds, it uſage for 69 years after, until Richard II. affected abſolute power. may be truly ſaid, Si antiquitatem ſpectes, eſt vetuftiffima; ſi digni- Vide Rot. Parl. Rymer's Fædera, &c. Hence it appears, that tatem, eft honoratiſſima; ſi juriſdictionem, eft capaciffima. It hath Annual Parliaments are the ancient conſtitution of England. ſovereign and unaccountable authority in making, confirming, en-- The calling of annual parliaments, however poſitively enjoined larging, reſtraining, abrogating, repealing, reviving, and expound- by theſe ftatutes, was nevertheleſs conſidered as ſo great a reſtrictioning of laws, concerning matters of all poſlible denominations, on ſuch of our monarchs as were inclined to govern without par eccleſiaſtical or temporal, civil, military, maritime, or criminal; liaments, that they neglected the convoking them, ſometimes for a this being the place where that abſolute deſpotic power, which muſt very conſiderable period, under pretence that there was no need of in all governments reſide fomewhere, is entruſted by the conſti- them. But, to remedy this, by the ſtatute 16 Car. II. c. I, it is tution of theſe kingdoms. All miſchiefs and grievances, operations, enacted that the fitting and holding of Parliament, ſhall not be and remedies, that tranſcend the ordinary courſe of the laws, are intermitted above three years at the moft. And by the ſtatute I within the reach of this extraordinary tribunal. It can regulate or W. & M. ſt. 2. C. 2. it is declared to be one of the rights of the new-model the fucceffion to the crown; as was done in the reign people, that for redreſs of all grievances, and for the amending, of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter the eſtabliſhed reli- ſtrengthening, and preſerving the laws, parliaments ought to begion of the land; as was done in a variety of inſtances, in the held frequently. And this indefinite frequency is again reduced to reigns of king Henry VIII. and his three children. It can change a certainty by ſtatute 6 W. & M. c. 2. which enacts, as the ſtatute and create afreſh even the conſtitution of the kingdom and of par- of Charles the ſecond had done before, that a new parliament ſhall liaments themſelves; as was done by the act of union, and the be called within three years after the determination of the former. ſeveral ſtatutes for triennial and feptennial elections. It can, in II. The conſtituent Parts of a Parliament are, the king's majeſty, hort, do every thing that is not naturally impoffible; and therefore ſitting there in his royal political capacity, and the three eſtates of ſome have not ſcrupled to call its power, by a figure rather too the realm ; the lords fpiritual , the lords temporal, (who fit together - bold, the omnipotence of parliament. True it is, that what the par- with the king in one houſe), and the commons, who ſit by them liament doth, no authority upon earth can undo. So that it is a ſelves in another. And the king and theſe three eſtates together matter moſt eſſential to the liberties of this kingdom, that ſuch form the great corporation or body politic of the kingdom, of which members, be delegated to this important truſt as are moſt eminent the king is ſaid to be caput, principium, et finis. For upon their for their probity, their fortitude, and their knowledge; for it was coming together the king meets thein, either in perſon or by repre a known apothegm of the great lord treaſurer Burleigh, 66 That ſentation: without which there can be no beginning of a parlia England could never be ruined but by a parliament;" and as Sir ment; and he alſo has alone the power of diffolving them. Matthew Hale obſerves, this being the higheſt and greateſt court, It is highly neceſſary for preſerving the balance of the conſtitu over which none other can have juriſdiction in the kingdom, if by tion, that the executive power ſhould be a branch, though not the any means a miſgovernment ſhould any way fall upon it, the ſub- whole, of the legiſlature. The total union of them, we have ſeen, jects of this kingdom are left without all manner of remedy. To would be productive of tyranny; the total disjunction of them, for the ſame purpoſe the preſent Monteſquieu, though we truſt too the preſent, would in the end produce the ſame effects, by cauſing haſtily, preſages, that as Rome, Sparta, and Carthage, have loſt that union againſt which it ſeems to provide. The legiſlature their liberty, and periſhed; ſo the conſtitution of England will in would ſoon become tyrannical, by making continual encroach time loſe its liberty, and periſh ; it will periſh whenever the legiſ- ments, and gradually aſſuming to itſelf the rights of the executive lative power ſhall become more corrupt than the executive. power. Thus the long parliament of Charles the firſt, while it acted It muſt be owned that Mr. Locke, and other theoretical writers, in a conſtitutional manner, with the royal concurrence, redreſſed have held, that there remains ſtill inherent in the people a ſupreme many heavy grievances, and eſtabliſhed many falutary laws. laws. But power to remove or alter the legiſlative, when they find the legiſla- when the two houſes aſſumed the power of legiſlation, in excluſion tive act contrary to the truſt repoſed in them ; for when ſuch truſt of the royal authority, they ſoon after aſſumed likewiſe the reins of is abuſed, it is thereby forfeited, and devolves to thoſe who gave it.” adminiſtration; and, in conſequence of theſe united powers, over But however juſt this concluſion may be in theory, we cannot adopt turned both church and ſtate, and eſtabliſhed a worſe oppreſſion it, nor argue from it, under any diſpenſation of governinent at pre- than they pretended to remedy. To hinder therefore any ſuch en fent actually exiſting. For this devolution of power, to the people croachments, the king is himſelf a part of the parliament; and as at large, includes in it a diffolution of the whole form of govern- this is the reaſon of his being ſo, very properly therefore the ſhare ment eſtabliſhed by that people; reduces all the members to their of legiſlation, which the conſtitution has placed in the crown, original ſtate of equality; and by annihilating the ſovereign power, confifts in the power of rejecting, rather than reſolving; this being repeals all poſitive laws whatſoever before enacted. No human ſufficient to anſwer the end propoſed. For we may apply to the laws will therefore ſuppoſe a caſe, which at once muſt deſtroy all royal negative, in this inſtance, what Cicero obſerves of the nega- | law, and compel men to build afreſh upon a new foundation ; nor tive of the Roman tribunes, that the crown has not any power of will they make proviſion for fo deſperate an event, as muſt render doing wrong, but merely of preventing wrong from being done. all legal proviſions ineffectual. So long therefore as the Engliſh The crown cannot begin of itſelf any alterations in the preſent conſtitution laſts, we may venture to affirm, that the power of par- eſtabliſhed law : but it may approve or diſapprove of the alterations liament is abſolute and without controul. ſuggeſted and conſented to by the two houſes. The legiſlature In order to prevent the miſchiefs that might ariſe, by placing this therefore cannot abridge the executive power of any rights which extenſive authority in hands that are either incapable or elſe im- it now has by law, without its own conſent; ſince the law muſt per proper to manage it; it is provided by the cuſtom and law of par- petually ſtand as it now does; unleſs all the powers will agree to liament, that no one ſhall fit or vote in either houſe, unleſs he be alter it. And herein indeed conſiſts the true excellence of the 21 years of age. This is alſo expreſsly declared by ſtatute 7 & 8 government, that all the parts of it form a mutual check W. III. c. 25. With regard to the houſe of commons, doubts Нh have Britiſh N° 124. P A R P A R a have ariſen, from fome contradictory adjudications, whether or not preſide there, and manage the formality of buſineſs, is the lord chan- a minor was incapacitated from ſitting in that houſe. It is alſo cellor, or keeper of the king's great ſeal, or any other appointed enacted by ſtatute 7 Jac. I. c. 6. that no member be permitted to by the king's commiſſion: and if none be ſo appointed, the houfe enter the houſe of commons till he hath taken the oath of allegiance of lords (it is ſaid) may elect. The ſpeaker of the houſe of com- before the lord ſteward or his deputy: and by 30 Car. II. ſt. 2. & mons is choſen by the houſe; but muſt be approved by the king. i Geo. I. c. 13. that no member ſhall vote or fit in either houſe And herein the uſage of the two houſes differs, that the ſpeaker of till he hath in the preſence of the houſe, taken the oaths of allegi- the houſe of commons cannot give his opinion, or argue any queſ ance, ſupremacy, and abjuration, and ſubſcribed and repeated the tion in the houſe; but the ſpeaker of the houſe of lords, if a lord of declaration againſt tranſubſtantiation, and invocation of ſaints, and parliament, may. In each houſe the act of majority binds the the ſacrifice of the maſs. Aliens, unleſs naturalized, were like whole: not, as at Venice, and many other ſenatorial aſſemblies, wiſe by the law of parliament incapable to ſerve therein: and now privately, or by ballot. This latter method may be ſerviceable, to it is enacted by ſtatute 12 & 13 W. III. c. 2. that no alien, even prevent intrigues and unconſtitutional combinations; but it is im- though he be naturalized, ſhall be capable of being a member of poſſible to be practiſed with us, at leaſt in the houſe of commons, either houſe of parliament. And there are not only theſe ſtanding where every member's conduct is ſubject to the future cenſure of incapacities; but if any perſon is made a peer by the king, or his conſtituents, and therefore ſhould be openly ſubmitted to their elected to ſerve in the houſe of commons by the people, yet may the inſpection. reſpective houſes, upon complaint of any crime in ſuch perſon, and To bring a bill into the houſe, if the relief fought by it is of proof thereof, adjudge him diſabled and incapable to fit as a mem private nature, it is firſt neceſſary to prefer a petition; which muſt ber, and this by the law and cuſtom of parliament. be preſented by a member, and uſually ſets forth the grievance de- For as every court of juſtice hath laws and cuſtoms for its direc fired to be remedied. This petition (when founded on facts that may tion, fome the civil and canon, ſome the common law, others be in their nature diſputed) is referred to a committee of members, their own peculiar laws and cuſtoms; ſo the high court of parlia- who examine the matter alledged, and accordingly report it to the ment hath alſo its own peculiar law, called the lex et confuetudo par- houſe; and then (or, otherwiſe , upon the mere petition) leave is liamenti; a law which Sir Edward Coke obſerves is ab omnibus given to bring in the bill. In public matters, the bill is brought quærenda, a multis ignorata, a paucis cognita. It will not there in upon the motion made to the houſe, without any petition at all . fore be expected that we ſhould enter into the examination of this The perſons directed to bring in the bill, preſent it in a compe- law with any degree of minuteneſs: fince, as the ſame learned author tent time to the houſe, drawn out on paper, with a multitude of aſſures us, it is much better to be learned out of the rolls of parlia- blanks, or void ſpaces, where any thing occurs that is dubious, or ment and other records, and by precedents and continual experi- neceſſary to be ſettled by the parliament itſelf; (ſuch, eſpecially, as ence, than can be expreſſed by any one man. It will be ſufficient the preciſe date of times, the nature and quantity of penalties, or of to obſerve, that the whole of the law and cuſtom of parliament has any ſums of money to be raiſed) being indeed only the ſkeleton of its origin from this one maxim, “That whatever matter ariſes the bill. In the houſe of lords, if the bill begins there, it is (when concerning either houſe of parliament, ought to be examined, dif of a private nature) referred to two of the judges, who examine and cuſſed, and adjudged in that houſe to which it relates, and not elſe report the ſtate of the facts alledged, to ſee that all neceſſary parties where.” Hence, for inſtance, the lords will not ſuffer the com- confent, and to ſettle all points of technical propriety. This is mons to interfere in ſettling the election of a peer of Scotland; the read a firſt time, and at a convenient diſtance a ſecond time; and commons will not allow the lords to judge of the election of a bur after each reading the fpeaker opens to the houſe the ſubſtance of geſs; nor will either houſe permit the ſubordinate courts of law to the bill, and puts the queſtion, whether it ſhall proceed any farther. , examine the merit of either caſe. But the maxims upon which The introduction of the bill may be originally oppoſed, as the bill they proceed, together with the method of proceeding, reſt entirely itſelf may at either of the readings; and, if the oppoſition ſucceeds, in the breaſt of the parliament itſelf; and are not defined and aſcer the bill inuſt be dropped for that ſeſſion; as it muſt alſo, if oppoſed tained by any particular ſtated laws. with ſucceſs in any of the ſubſequent ſtages. Privilege of parliament was principally eſtabliſhed, in order to After the ſecond reading, it is committed; that is, referred to a protect its members not only from being moleſted by their fellow committee: which is either ſelected by the houſe in matters of ſubjects, but alſo more eſpecially from being oppreſſed by the power ſınall importance; or elſe, upon a bill of conſequence, the houſe of the crown. If therefore all the privileges of parliament were reſolves itſelf into a committee of the whole houſe. A committee once to be ſet down and aſcertained, and no privilege to be allowed of the whole houſe is compoſed of every member; and, to form it, but what was ſo defined and determined, it were eaſy for the exe the ſpeaker quits the chair, (another member being appointed chair- cutive power to deviſe ſome new caſe, not within the line of pri- man), and may fit and debate as a private member. In theſe com- vilege, and under pretence thereof to harraſs any refractory member, mittees the bill is debated clauſe by clauſe, amendments made, the and violate the freedom of parliament. The dignity and indepen- blanks filled up, and ſometimes the bill entirely new modelled. dence of the two houſes are therefore in a great meaſure preſerved After it has gone through the committee, the chairman reports it to by keeping their privileges indefinite. Some, however, of the more the houſe with ſuch amendments as the committee have made; and notorious privileges of the members of either houſe, are privilege then the houſe reconſiders the whole bill, and the queſtion is re- of ſpeech, of perſon, of their domeſtics, and of their lands and goods. peatedly put upon every clauſe and amendment. clauſe and amendment. When the houſe As to the firſt, privilege of ſpeech, it is declared by the ſtatute i hath agreed or diſagreed to the amendments of the committee, and W. & M. ſt. 2. c. 2. as one of the liberties of the people, « That ſometimes added new amendments of its own, the bill is then the freedom of ſpeech, and debates, and proceedings in parliament, ordered to be engroffed, or written in a ſtrong groſs hand, on one or ought not to be impeached or queſtioned in any court or place out more long rolls (or preſſes) of parchment ſewed together. When of parliament.” And this freedom of ſpeech is particularly de this is finiſhed, it is read a third time, and amendments are ſome- manded of the king in perſon, by the ſpeaker of the houſe of com times then made to it; and if a new clauſe be added, it is done by mons, at the opening of every new parliament. tacking a ſeparate piece of parchment on the bill, which is called a All the former privileges of parliament which derogated from the rider. The ſpeaker then again opens the contents; and, holding it coinmon law are now at an end, ſave only as to the freedom of the up in his hands, puts the queſtion whether the bill ſhall paſs. If member's perſon; which in a peer (by the privilege of peerage) is this is agreed to, the title to it is then ſettled; which uſed to be a for ever ſacred and inviolable; and in a commoner (by the privilege general one for all the acts, paſſed in the ſeſſion, till in the fifth year of parliament) for forty days after every prorogation, and forty days of Hen. VIII. diſtinct titles were introduced for each chapter. before the next appointed meeting : which is now in effect as long After this, one of the members is directed to carry it to the lords, and as the parliament ſubſiſts, it ſeldom being prorogued for more than deſire their concurrence; who, attended by ſeveral more, carries it eight days at a time. As to all other privileges which obſtructed the to the bar of the houſe of peers, and there delivers it to their ſpeaker, ordinary courſe of juſtice, they were reſtrained by the ſtatutes 12 who comes down from his wool-fack to receive it. W. III. c. 3. 2 & 3 Ann. c. 18. and 11 Geo. II. c. 24. and are It there paſſes through the ſame form as in the other houſe, (ex- now totally aboliſhed by ſtatute 10 G. III. c. 50. which enacts, cept engroſſing, which is already done); and, if rejected, no more that any ſuit may any time be brought againſt any peer or mem- notice is taken, but it paſſes fub ſilentio, to prevent unbecoming ber of parliament, their ſervants, or any other perſon entitled to alterations; but if it is agreed to, the lords ſend a meſſage by two privilege of parliament; which ſhall not be impeached or delayed maſters in chancery (or ſometimes two of the judges) that they have by pretence of any ſuch privilege, except that the perſon of a mem agreed to the ſame: and the bill remains with the lords, if they ber of the houſe of commons ſhall not thereby be ſubjected to any have made no amendment to it. But if any amendments are made, arreſt or impriſonment. Likewiſe, for the benefit of commerce, ſuch amendments are ſent down with the bill to receive the concur- it is provided by ſtatute 4 Geo. III. c. 33. that any trader, having rence of the commons. If the commons diſagree to the amend- privilege of parliament, may be ſerved with legal proceſs for any ments, a conference uſually follows between members deputed from juſt debt, (to the amount of 100l.); and unleſs he makes ſatisfac each houſe; who for the moſt part ſettle and adjuſt the difference: tion within two months, it ſhall be deemed an act of bankruptcy; but, if both houſes remain inflexible, the bill is dropped. If the and that commiſſions of bankrupt may be iſſued againſt ſuch privi commons agree to the amendments, the bill is ſent back to the lords leged traders in like manner as againſt any other. by one of the members, with a meſſage to acquaint them therewith. IV. We proceed next to conſider the method of making laws, The ſame forms are obſerved mutatis mutandis, when the bill begins which is much the ſame in both houſes; and we ſhall treat it very in the houſe of lords. But, when an act of grace or pardon is briefly, beginning with the houſe of commons. But firſt we muſt paſſed, it is firſt ſigned by his majeſty, and then read once only in premiſe, that for diſpatch of buſineſs, each houſe of parliament has each of the houſes, without any new engroffing or amendment. its ſpeaker. The ſpeaker of the houſe of lords, whoſe office it is to And when both houſes have done with any bill, it always is depo at ſited P A R P A R fited in the houſe of peers, to wait the royal aſſent; except in the to determine the ſeſſion. And if at the time of an actual rebellion; caſe of a bill of ſupply, which after receiving the concurrence of the or imminent danger of invaſion, the parliament ſhall be ſeparated lords, is ſent back to the houſe of commons. by adjournment or prorogation, the king is empowered to call them The royal afſent may be given two ways; 1. In perſon; when together by proclamation, with 14 days notice of the time appointed the king comes to the houſe of peers, in his crown and royal robes, for their reaſſembling. A diſſolution is the civil death of the parlia- and ſending for the commons to the bar, the titles of all the bills ment; and this may be effected three ways: 1. By the king's will, that have paſſed both houſes are read; and the king's anſwer is expreſſed either in perſon or by repreſentation. For as the king has declared by the clerk of the parliament in Norman-French: a badge, the ſole right of convening the parliament, ſo alſo it is a branch of it muſt be owned, (now the only one remaining) of conqueſt; and the royal prerogative, that he may (whenever he pleaſes) prorogue which one could wiſh to ſee fall into total oblivion; unleſs it be the parliament for a time, or put a final period to its exiſtence. If reſerved as à folemn memento to remind us that our liberties are nothing had a right to prorogue or diſſolve a parliament but itfelf, mortal, having been once deſtroyed by a foreign force. If the king it might happen to become perpetual. And this would be extremely conſents to a public bill, the clerk uſually declares, Le roy le veut, dangerous if at any time it ſhould attempt to encroach upon the - The king wills it ſo to be;" if to a private bill, Soit fait comme executive power; as was fatally experienced by the unfortunate king il eſt deſire, « Be it as it is deſired,” if the king refuſes his affent ; Charles I. who, having unadviſedly paſſed an act to continue the it is in the gentle language of Le roy s'aviſera, “ The king will parliament then in being till ſuch time as it ſhould pleaſe to adviſe upon it.” When a bill of ſupply is paſſed, it is carried up diſſolve itſelf, at laſt fell a ſacrifice to that inordinate power which and preſented to the king by the ſpeaker of the houſe of commons; he himſelf had conſented to give them. It is therefore extremely and the royal affent is thus expreſſed, Le roy remercie ſes loyal ſujects, neceſſary that the crown ſhould be empowered to regulate the dura- accepte leur benevolence, et auſi le veut; “ The king thanks his tion of theſe aſſemblies, under the limitations which the Engliſh loyal ſubjects, accepts their benevolence, and wills it fo to be. In conſtitution has preſcribed : ſo that, on the one hand, they may caſe of an act of grace, which originally proceeds from the crown, frequently and regularly come together for the diſpatch of buſineſs and has the royal aſſent in the firſt ſtage of it, the clerk of the and redreſs of grievances; and may not, on the other, even with parliament thus pronounces the gratitude of the ſubject: Les pre the conſent of the crown, be continued to an inconvenient or un- lats, ſeigneurs, et commons, en ce preſent parliament aſſemblees, au conſtitutional length. 2. A parliament may be diſſoived by the nom de touts vous autres ſujects, remercient tres humblement votre demiſe of the crown. This diſſolution formerly happened imme- majeſte, et prient a Dieu vous donner en fante bonne vie et longue; diately upon the death of the reigning fovereign : for he being is The prelates, lords, and commons, in this preſent parliament conſidered in law as the head of the parliament, (caput, principium, aſſembled, in the name of all your other ſubjects, moſt humbly thank et finis), that failing, the whole body was held to be extinct. But your majeſty, and pray to God to grant you in health and wealth the calling a new parliament immediately on the inauguration of the long to live." By the ſtatute 33 Hen. VIII. c. 21. the king may fucceffor being found inconvenient, and dangers being apprehended give his aſſent by letters patent under his great feal, ſigned with from having no parliament in being in caſe of a diſputed ſucceſſion, his hand, and notified in his abfence to both houſes aſſembled it was enacted by the ſtatutes 7 & 8 W. III. c. 15. and 6 Ann. together in the upper houſe. And when the bill has received the c. 7. that the parliament in being ſhall continue for ſix months royal aſſent in either of theſe ways, it is then, and not before, a after the death of any king or queen, unleſs ſooner prorogued or ſtatute or act of parliament. diſſolved by the ſucceſſor : that if the parliament be, at the time of An act of parliament, thus made, is the exerciſe of the higheſt the king's death, ſeparated by adjournment or prorogation, it ſhall authority that this kingdom acknowledges upon the earth. It hath notwithſtanding afſemble immediately: and that if no parliament is power to bind every ſubject in the land, and the dominions there then in being, the members of the laſt parliament ſhall aſſemble, unto belonging; nay, even the king himſelf, if particularly named and be again a parliament. 3. Laſtly, a parliament may be dif- therein. And it cannot be altered, amended, diſpenſed with, fuſ ſolved or expire by length of time. For if either the legiſlative pended, or repealed, but in the ſame forms and by the ſame autho-body were perpetual, or might laſt for the life of the prince who rity of parliament: for it is a maxiın in law, that it requires the ſame convened them as formerly, and were ſo to be ſupplied, by occaſi- ſtrength to diffolve, as to create, an obligation. It is true, it was onally filling the vacancies with new repreſentatives; in theſe caſes, formerly held, that the king might in many caſes diſpenſe with penal if it were once corrupted, the evil would be paſt all remedy; but ſtatutes : but now by ſtatute i W. and M. ſt. 2. c. 2. it is declared, when different bodies ſucceed each other, if the people ſee cauſe to that the ſuſpending or diſpenſing with laws by regal authority, diſapprove of the preſent, they may rectify its fault in the next. Α. without conſent of parliament, is illegal. legiſlative aſſembly alſo, which is ſure to be ſeparated again, V. There remains only, in the laſt place, to add a word or two (whereby its members will themſelves become private men, and concerning the manner in which parliaments may be adjourned, ſubject to the full extent of the laws which they have enacted for prorogued, or diffolved. An adjournment is no more than a conti others), will think themſelves bound, in intereſt as well as duty, nuance of the ſeſſion from one day to another; as the word itſelf to make only ſuch laws as are good. The utmoſt extent of time ſignifies; and this is done by the authority of each houſe ſeparately that the ſame parliament was allowed to ſit, by the ſtatute of 6 W. every day; and ſometimes for a fortnight or a month together, as at & M. c. 3. was three years; after the expiration of which, reckon- Chriſtmas or Eaſter, or upon other particular occaſions. other particular occaſions . But the ing from the return of the firſt ſummons, the parliament was to have adjournment of one houſe is no adjournment of the other. It hath no longer continuance. By the ſtatute i Geo. I. ſt. 2. c. 38. (in alſo been uſual, when his majeſty hath fignified his pleaſure that order, profeſſedly, to prevent the great and continued expences of both or either of the houſes ſhould adjourn themſelves to a certain frequent elections, and the violent heats and animofities conſe- day, to obey the king's pleaſure ſo ſignified, and to adjourn ac quent thereupon, and for the peace and ſecurity of the government cordingly. Otherwiſe, beſides the indecorum of a refuſal, a proro then juſt recovering from the late rebellion), this term was prolonged gation would aſſuredly follow; which would often be very incon to ſeven years; and, what alone is an inſtance of the vaſt authority venient to both public and private buſineſs. For prorogation puts of parliament, the very fame houſe that was choſen for three years, an end to the ſeſſion; and then ſuch bills as are only begun and not enacted its own continuance for ſeven. So that, as our conſtitution perfected, muſt be reſumed de novo, (if at all) in a ſubſequent ſeſſion; now ſtands, the parliament muſt expire, or die a natural death, at whereas, after an adjournment, all things continue in the ſame ſtate the end of every ſeventh year, if not ſooner diſſolved by the royal as at the time of the adjournment made, and may be proceeded on prerogative. We ſhall conclude this article with an account of without any freſh commencement. A prorogation is the continu fome general forms not taken notice of under any of the above ance of the parliament from one ſeſſion to another; as an adjourn- heads. In the houſe of lords, the princes of the blood fit by them- ment is a continuation of the ſeſſion from day to day. This is done ſelves on the ſides of the throne; at the wall on the king's right by the royal authority, expreſſed either by the lord chancellor in his hand, the two archbiſhops fit by themſelves on a form. Below Majeſty's preſence, or by commiſſion from the crown, or fre them, the biſhops of London, Durham, and Wincheſter, and all quently by proclamation. Both houſes are neceſſarily prorogued the other biſhops, fit according to the priority of their confecration. at the ſame time; it not being a prorogation of the houſe of lords On the king's left hand the lord treaſurer, lord preſident, and lord or commons, but of the parliament. The ſeſſion is never under privy-ſeal, fit upon forms above all dukes, except the royal blood; ſtood to be at an end until a prorogation; though unleſs ſome act then the dukes, marquiſſes, and earls, according to their creation. be paſſed, or ſome judgment given in parliament, it is in truth no Acroſs the room are wool-facks, continued from an ancient cuf- ſeſſion at all. And formerly the uſage was, for the king to give the tom; and the chancellor, or keeper, being generally the ſpeaker of royal afſent to all ſuch bills as he approved at the end of every feſ the houſe of lords, fits on the firſt wool-fack before the throne, fion, and then to prorogue the parliament, though ſometimes only with the great ſeal or mace lying by him; below theſe are forms for a day or two; after which all buſineſs then depending in the for the viſcounts and barons. On the other wool-facks are feated houſes was to be begun again. Which cuſtom obtained ſo ſtrongly the judges, maſters in chancery, and king's council , who are only that it once became a queſtion, Whether giving the royal aſſent to to give their advice in point of law: but they all ſtand up till the a ſingle bill did not of courſe put an end to the ſeſſion? And though king gives them leave to fit. The commons fit promiſcuouſly; it was then reſolved in the negative, yet the notion was ſo deeply only the ſpeaker has a chair at the upper end of the houſe, and the rooted, that the ſtatute i Car. I. c. 7. was paſſed to declare, that clerk and his affiftant ſit at the table near him. And his majeſty's the king's aſſent to that and ſome other acts ſhould not put an end miniſters, who are members of the houſe of commons, fit on the to the ſeſſion; and even ſo late as the reign of Charles II. we find right hand of the ſpeaker, and the bench on which they fit is a proviſo frequently tacked to a bill , that his Majeſty's aſſent thereto generally denominated the Treaſury Bench. When a member of ſhould not determine the ſeffion of parliament. But it now ſeems the houſe of commons ſpeaks, he ſtands up uncovered, and directs to be allowed that a prorogation muſt be expreſsly made, in order his ſpeech to the ſpeaker only. If what he ſays be anſwered by another, PAR P A R repre- known verſe, or part of a verſe of a writer, without making any writing verſes in the taſte and ſtyle of authors little approved. the cauſe of another, he is not allowed to reply the ſame day, unleſs perſonally | Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, by changing Nobilior into Mobilior alluded to: but when the commons, in order to have a greater Another kind of parody conſiſts in the mere application of ſome freedom of debate, have refolved themſelves into a committee of the whole houſe, every member may ſpeak to a queſtion as often as change in it, with a view to expoſe it. A fourth inſtance is that of he thinks neceſſary. In the houſe of lords they vote, beginning at the puiſne, or loweſt baron, and fo up orderly to the higheſt, The rules of parody regard the choice of a ſubject, and the man: évery one anſwering, Content or Not content. In the houſe of com ner of treating it. The ſubject ſhould be a known and celebrated mons they vote by ayes and noes; and if it be dubious which are the work : as to the manner it ſhould be by an exact imitation, and greater number, the houſe divides. If the queſtion be about bring an intermixture of good natural pleaſantry. ing any thing into the houſe, the ayes goes out; but if it be about PAROXYSM, acepotušuos, formed from wagę much, and ožus, any thing the houſe already has, the noes go out. In all diviſions acute, in medicine, the ſevere fit of a diſeaſe, under which it grows the ſpeaker appoints four tellers, two of each opinion. In a com higher, or exaſperates; as of the gout, &c. Paroxſym is fome- mittee of the whole houſe, they divide by changing ſides, the ayes times alſo uſed for the acceſs or return of a diſeaſe that intermits; taking the right and the noes the left of the chair; and then there as an ague. are but two tellers. PARROT, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the genus Pſita The High Court of PARLIAMENT is the ſupreme court of the tacus. For deſcription of the Genus, ſee PsiTTACUS: for kingdom, not only for the making, but alſo for the execution of ſentation, ſee Plate I. Genus 5. laws; by the trial of great and enormous offenders, whether lords PARSNIP, in botany, the Engliſh name of the genus Paffinaca. or commoners, in the method of parliamentary impeachment. As For deſcription of the Genus, ſee PASTINACA. for acts of parliament to attaint particular perſons of treaſon or PARSON and VICAR. A parſon, perfona eccleſiæ, is one that felony, or to infict pains and penalties, beyond or contrary to the hath full poſſeſſion of all the rights of a parochial church. He is common law, to ſerve a ſpecial purpoſe, we ſpeak not of them; called parſon, perſona, becauſe by his perſon the church which is being to all intents and purpoſes new laws, made pro re nata, and an inviſible body, is repreſented; and he is in himſelf a body cor- by no means an execution of ſuch as are already in being. But an porate, in order to protect and defend the rights of the church (which impeachment before the lords by the commons of Great Britain, in he perſonates) by a perpetual ſucceſſion. He is ſometimes called parliament, is a proſecution of the already known and eſtabliſhed the rector or governor of the church: but the appellation of parſon law, and has been frequently put in practice; being a preſentment (however it may be depreciated by familiar, clowniſh, and indif- to the moſt high and ſupreme court of criminal juriſdiction by the criminate uſe) is the moſt legal, moſt beneficial, and moſt honour- moſt folemn grand inqueſt of the whole kingdom. A commoner able title that a pariſh-prieſt can enjoy; becauſe ſuch a one (Sir cannot, however, be impeached before the lords for any capital Edward Coke obſerves) and he only, is ſaid vicem ſeu perfonam offence, but only for high miſdemeanors; a peer may be impeached ecclefiæ gerere. A parſon has, during his life, the freehold in him- for any crime. And they uſually (in caſe of an impeachment of a ſelf of the parſonage-houſe, the glebe, the tithes, and other dues. peer for treaſon) addreſs the crown to appoint a lord high ſteward, But theſe are ſometimes appropriated; that is to ſay, the benefice for the greater dignity and regularity of their proceedings: which is perpetually annexed to ſome ſpiritual corporation, either ſole or high ſteward was formerly elected by the peers themſelves, though aggregate, being the patron of the living; whom the law eſteers he was generally commiſſioned by the king ; but it hath of late equally capable of providing for the ſervice of the church as any years been ftrenuouſly maintained, that the appointment of an high ſingle private clergyman. ſteward in ſuch caſes is not indiſpenſibly neceſſary, but that the The appropriating corporations, or religious houſes, were wont houſe may proceed without one. The articles of impeachment are to depute one of their own body to perform divine ſervice, and ad- a kind of bills of indictment, found by the houſe of commons, and miniſter the ſacraments, in thoſe pariſhes of which the ſociety was afterwards tried by the lords; who are in caſes of miſdemeanors thus the parſon. This officiating miniſter was in reality no more conſidered not only as their own peers, but as the peers of the than a curate, deputy, or vicegerent of the appropriator, and there- whole nation. This is a cuſtom derived to us from the conſtitution fore called vicarius, or « vicar.” His ſtipend was at the diſcretion of the ancient Germans; who in their great councils ſometimes of the appropriator, who was, however, bound of common right to tried capital accuſations relating to the public: Licet apud concilium find ſomebody, qui illi de temporalibus, epiſcopo de fpiritualibus, debeat accuſare quoque, et diſcrimen capitis intendere. And it has a peculiar reſpondere. But this was done in ſo ſcandalous a manner, and the propriety in the Engliſh conſtitution; which has much improved pariſhes ſuffered ſo much by the neglect of the appropriators, that upon the ancient model imported hither from the continent. For the legiſlature was forced to interpoſe: and accordingly it is enacted, though in general the union of the legiſlative and judicial power by ſtatute 15 Ric. II. c. 6. that in all appropriations of churches the ought to be moſt carefully avoided, yet it may happen that a ſubject; dioceſan biſhop ſhall ordain (in proportion to the value of the church) intruſted with the adminiſtration of public affairs, may infringe a competent ſum to be diſtributed among the poor pariſhioners an- the rights of the people, and be guilty of ſuch crimes as the ordi nually; and that the vicarage hall be ſufficiently endowed. It nary magiſtrate either dares not or cannot puniſh. Of theſe the ſeerns the pariſh were frequently ſufferers, not only by the want of repreſentatives of the people, or houſe of commons, cannot pro divine ſervice, but alſo by with-holding thoſe alms for which, among perly judge; becauſe their conſtituents are the parties injured, and other purpoſes, the payment of tithes was originally impoſed; and can therefore only impeach. But before what court ſhall this im therefore in this act a penſion is directed to be diſtributed among the peachment be tried ? Not before the ordinary tribunals, which poor parochians as well as a ſufficient ſtipend to the vicar. But he, would naturally be ſwayed by the authority of ſo powerful an ac being liable to be removed at the pleaſure of the appropriator, was cuſer. Reaſon therefore will ſuggeſt that this branch of the legif not likely to inſiſt too rigidly on the legal ſufficiency of the ftipend; lature, which repreſents the people, muſt bring its charge before and therefore, by ſtatute 4 Hen. IV. c. 12. it is ordained, that the the other branch, which conſiſts of the nobility, who have neither vicar ſhall be a ſecular perſon, not a member of any religious houſe; the fame intereſts, nor the ſame paſſions, as popular aſſemblies. that he ſhall be vicar perpetual, not removeable at the caprice of the This is a vaſt ſuperiority which the conſtitution of this iſland enjoys monaſtery; and that he ſhall be canonically inſtituted and inducted, over thoſe of the Grecian or Roman republics; where the people and be ſufficiently endowed, at the diſcretion of the ordinary; for were at the ſame time both judges and accuſers. It is proper that theſe three expreſs purpoſes, to do divine ſervice, to inform the peo- the nobility ſhould judge, to inſure juſtice to the accuſed: as it is ple, and to keep hoſpitality. The endowments, in conſequence of proper that the people ſhould accuſe, to inſure juſtice to the com theſe ſtatutes, have uſually been by a portion of the glebe or land monwealth. And therefore, among other extraordinary circum belonging to the parſonage, and a particular ſhare of the tithes, ſtances attending the authority of this court, there is one of a very which the appropriators found it moſt troubleſome to collect, and fingular nature, which was inſiſted on by the houſe of commons in which are therefore generally called privy, or ſmall tithes; the greater the caſe of the earl of Danby, in the reign of Charles II. and is now or predial tithes, being ſtill reſerved to their own ufe. But one enacted by ſtatute 12 and 13 W. III. c. 2. that no pardon under the and the ſame rule was not obſerved in the endowment of all vicarages. great feal ſhall be pleadable to an impeachment by the commons of Hence, fome are more liberally, and ſome more fcantily endowed: Great Britain in parliament. and hence the tithes of many things, as wood in particular, are in PARNASSUS, in geography and mythology, a mountain in ſome pariſhes rectorial, and in ſome vicarial tithes. Greece, conſecrated, by the poets, to the Muſes, thence called The diſtinction therefore of a parſon and vicar is this: The par- Parnaſlides, to Apollo and to Bacchus. It is deſcribed as having fon has for the moſt part the whole right to all the eccleſiaſtical dues two ſummits, between which ariſes the Caftalian fountain. The in his pariſh; but a vicar has generally an appropriator over him, Greeks call this mountain Licaoura. entitled to the beſt part of the profits, to whom he is in effect per- PARODY, a popular maxim, adage, or proverb. petual curate, with a ſtanding ſalary. Though in ſome places the PARODY, is alſo a poetical pleaſantry, conſiſting in applying vicarage has been conſiderably augmented by a large ſhare of the the verſes written on one ſubject, by way of ridicule, to another; great tithes; which augmentations were greatly aſſiſted by the ſta- or in turning a ſerious work into a burleſque, by affecting to tute 2'7 Car. II. c. 8. enacted in favour of poor vicars and curates, obſerve as near as poſſible the ſame rhimes, words, and cadences. which rendered ſuch temporary augmentations (when made by the The parody was firſt ſet on foot by the Greeks; from whom appropriators) perpetual. we borrow the name. It comes near to what ſome of our late When a vicar is inſtituted, he, beſides the uſual forins, takes, if writers call traveſty. Others have more accurately diſtinguiſhed required by the biſhop, an oath of perpetual reſidence; for the maxim between a parody and burleſque; and they obſerve, that the change of law is, that vicarius non habei vicarium: and as the non-refidence of a ſingle word may parody a verſe; or of a ſingle letter a word. of the appropriators Thus, in the laſt calé, Cato expoſed the inconſtant diſpoſition of vicarages, the law judges it very improper for them to defeat the end of P A R PAR or of their conſtitution, and by abſence to create the very miſchief , biggeſt particles, whereon the operations in chemiſtry, and the which they were appointed to remedy: eſpecially as, if any profits colours of natural bodies, depend, and which, by cohering; com- are to ariſe from putting in a curate and living at a diſtance from pofe bodies of fenſible bulks. the pariſh, the appropriator, who is the real parfon, has undoubt The coheſion of the particles of matter, according to the Epi- edly the elder title to them. When the ordinary is alſo the patron, cureans; was effected by hooked atoms; the Ariſtotelians thought and confers the living, the preſentation and inſtitution are one and it managed by reſt; that is, by nothing at all. But Sir Iſaac the fame act, and are called a collation to a benefice. By inſtitution Newton ſhews it is done by means of a certain power, wliereby collation the church is full, ſo that there can be no freſh preſenta- the particles mutually attract or tend towards each other, which tion till another vacancy, at leaſt in the caſe of a common patron: is ſtill perhaps giving a fact without the cauſe. By this attrac- but the church is not full againſt the king till induction; nay, even tion of the particles he ſhows that moſt of the phenomena of the if a clerk is inſtituted upon the king's preſentation, the crown may leſler bodies are affected, as thoſe of the heavenly bodies are by the l'evoke it before induction, and preſent another clerk. Upon inſti attraction of gravity. See ATTRACTION and COHESION. tution alſo the clerk may enter on the parſonage-houſe and glebe, Organic PARTICLES, are thoſe fmall moving bodies which and take the tithes; but he cannot grant or let them, or bring an are imperceptible without the help of glaſſes; for beſides thoſe action for them, till induction. See INDUCTION. animals which are perceptible to the fight, fome naturaliſts réckon For the rights of a parſon or vicar, in his tithes and eccleſiaſtical this exceeding ſmall ſpecies as a ſeparate claſs, if not of animals dues, ſee TITHES. As to his duties, they are ſo numerous, that properly ſo called, at leaſt of moving bodies, which are found in it is impracticable to recite them here with any tolerable conciſeneſs the ſemen of animals, and which cannot be feen without the help or accuracy; but the reader who has occaſion may conſult Bp. Gib of the microſcope. In conſequence of theſe obſervations, different fon’s Codex, and Burn's Ecclefiaftical Law. We ſhall therefore only ſyſtems of generation have been propoſed concerning the ſpermatic juſt mention the article of reſidence, upon the ſuppoſition of which worms of the male and the eggs of the female. In the ſecond the law doth ſtyle every parochial miniſter an incumbent. By fta- volume of Buffon's Natural Hiſtory, ſeveral experiments are re- tute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. perſons willingly abſenting themſelves | lated, tending to ſhew that thoſe moving bodies which we dil- from their benefices, for one month together, or two months in the cover by the help of glaſſes in the male ſemen are not real animals, year, incur a penalty of 51. to the king, and 51. to any perſon that but organic, lively, active, and indiſtructible molecules, which will ſue for the ſame; excepting chaplains to the king, or others poſſeſs the property of becoming a new organized body ſimilar to therein mentioned, during their attendance in the houſehold of ſuch that from which they were extracted. Buffon found ſuch bodies as retain them; and alſo except all heads of houſes, magiſtrates, and in the female as well as in the male femen; and he ſuppoſes that profeſſors in the univerſities, and all ſtudents under forty years of the moving bodies which he obſerved with the microſcope in infu- age reſiding there bona fide, for ſtudy. Legal reſidence is not only fions of the germs of plants are likewiſe vegetable organic mole- in the parish, but alſo in the parſonage-houſe; for it hath been cules. Needham, Wriſberg, Spallanzani, and ſeveral other writers reſolved, that the ſtatute intended reſidence, not only for ſerving the on the animal economy, have purſued the ſame tract with M. de cure and for hoſpitality, but alſo for maintaining the houſe, that the Buffon. fucceffor alſo may keep hoſpitality there. Some ſuppoſe that theſe organic molecules in the ſemen anſwer We have ſeen that there is but one way whereby one may become no purpoſe but to excite the venereal deſire: but fuch an opinion a parſon or vicar; there are many ways by which one may ceaſe cannot be well founded; for eunuchs, who have no feminal liquor to be fo. 1. By death. 2. By ceffion, in taking another benefice; are nevertheleſs ſubject to venereal deſire. With reſpe&t to the for by ſtatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. if any one having a benefice beautiful experiments which have been made with the microſcope of 81. per annum, or upwards, in the king's books, (according on organic molecules, M. Bonnet, that learned and excellent ob- to the preſent valuation), accepts any other, the firſt ſhall be ad ſerver of nature, remarks that they ſeem to carry us to the fartheſt judged void, unleſs he obtains a diſpenſation; which no on) is verge of the ſenſible creation, did not reaſon teach us that the entitled to have but the chaplains of the king and others therein ſmalleſt viſible globule of ſeminal liquor is the commencement of mentioned, the brethren and ſons of lords and knights, and doctors another univerſe, which, from its infinite ſmallneſs, is beyond and bachelors of divinity and law, admitted by the univerſities of the reach of our beſt microſcopes.—Animalcules, properly ſo called, this realm. And a vacancy thus made for want of a diſpenſation, muſt not be confounded with the wonderful organic particles of is called ceffion. 3. By confecration; for, as was mentioned before, Buffon. See ANIMALCULE. when a clerk is promoted to a biſhopric, all his other preferments PARTING, in chemiſtry, an operation by which gold and are void the inſtant that he is conſecrated. But there is a method, ſilver are ſeparated from each other. As theſe two metais reſiſt by the favour of the crown, of holding ſuch livings in commendam. equally well the action of fire and of lead, they muſt therefore be Commenda, or eccleſia commendata, is a living commended by the ſeparated by other methods. This ſeparation could not be effected crown to the care of a clerk, to hold till a proper paftor is provided if they were not ſoluble by different menſtruums. for it. This may be temporary for one, two, or three years, or Nitrous acid, marine acid, and ſulphur, which cannot diſſolve perpetual, being a kind of diſpenſation to avoid the vacancy of the gold, attack filver very eaſily; and therefore theſe three agents living, and is called a commenda retinere. There is alſo commenda furniſh methods of ſeparating ſilver from gold, or of the operation recipere, which is to take a benefice de novo in the biſhop's own called parting. gift, or the gift of ſome other patron conſenting to the ſame; and Parting by nitrous acid is the moſt convenient, and therefore this is the ſame to him as inſtitution and induction are to another moſt uſed, and even almoſt the only one employed by goldſmiths clerk. 4. By reſignation. But this is of no avail till accepted by and coiners. Wherefore it is called ſimply parting. That made the ordinary, into whoſe hands the reſignation muſt be made. 5. with the marine acid is only made by cementation, and is known By deprivation, either by canonical cenſures, or in purſuance of by the name of concentrated parting. Laſtly, parting by fulphur divers penal ſtatutes, which declare the benefice void, for ſome is made by fuſion, which the chymiſts call the dry way, and is nonfeaſance or neglect, or elſe ſome malefeaſance or crime; as for therefore called dry parting. fimony; for maintaining any doctrine in derogation of the king's PARTNERSHIP, is a contract among two or more perſons, ſupremacy, or of the thirty-nine articles, or of the book of com to carry on a certain buſineſs, at their joint expence, and ſhare the mon-prayer; for neglecting after inſtitution to read the liturgy gain or loſs which ariſes from it. gain or loſs which ariſes from it. Of this there are four kinds. and articles in the church, or make the declaration againſt popery, 1. Occaſional joint trade, where two or more merchants agree or take the abjuration-oath; for uſing any other form of prayer to employ a certain ſum in trade, and divide the gain or loſs fo foon than the liturgy of the church of England; or for abſenting him as the adventure is brought to an iſſue. This kind of contract ſelf 60 days in one year from a benefice belonging to a popiſh being generally private, the parties concerned are not liable for patron, to which the clerk was preſented by either of the univer each other. If one of them purchaſe goods on truſt, the furniſher, ſities; in all which, and ſimilar caſes, the benefice is ipfo facto who grants the credit through confidence in him alone, has no re- void, without any formal ſentence of deprivation. courſe in caſe of his inſolvency, againſt the other partners. They PARTICLE, in phyſiology, the minute part of a body, an are only anſwerable for the ſhare of the adventure that belongs to aſſemblage of which conſtitutes all natural bodies. In the new the inſolvent partner. If it be propoſed to carry the adventure philoſophy, particle is often uſed in the ſame ſenſe with atom in further than originally agreed on, any partner may withdraw his the ancient Epicurean philofophy, and corpuſcle in the latter. intereſt; and, if it cannot be ſeparated from the others, may inſiſt Some writers, however, diſtinguiſh them; making particle an that the whole ſhall be brought to an iſſue. See Syſtem of ARITH- aſſemblage or compoſition of two or more primitive and phyſically METIC, Article XIV. indiviſible corpuſcles or atoms; and corpufcle, or little body, an 2. Standing companies, which are generally eſtabliſhed by aſſemblage or maſs of ſeveral particles or fecondary corpuſcles. written contract between the parties, where the ſtock, the firm, The diſtinction, however, is of little moment; and, as to moſt duration, the diviſion of the gain or loſs, and other circumſtances, purpoſes of phyſics, particle may be underitood as fynonymous are inſerted. with corpuſcle. Particles are then the elements of bodies: it is All the partners are generally authorized to ſign by the firm of the various arrangement and texture of theſe, with the difference the company, though this privilege may be confined to ſome of of the coheſion, &c. that conſtitute the various kinds of bodies, them by particular agreement. The firm ought only to be ſub- hard, ſoft, liquid, dry, heavy, light, &c. The ſmalleſt particles ſcribed at the place where the copartnery is eſtabliſhed. If a part- or corpuſcles cohere with the ſtrongeſt attractions, and always ner has occaſion, when abſent, to write a letter relating to their compoſe bigger particles of weaker coheſion; and many of theſe affairs, he ſubſcribes his own name on account of the company. cohering compofe bigger particles, whoſe vigour is ſtill weaker ; When the ſame partners carry on buſineſs at different places, they and thus on for divers ſucceſſions, till the progreſſion end in the generally chooſe different firms for each. Houſes that have been Ii long Nº 124 P A R PAR partner- in a covey. long eſtabliſhed, often retain the old firm, though all the original | quently these are 200l. to be divided. Now nobody would lená partners be dead or withdrawn. money upon the event of the buſineſs fucceeding, which is A's The powers of each partner are, in general, diſcretionary; but ſecurity, under 6 per cent, therefore A muſt be allowed 6ol. fors they ought not to act, in matters of importance, without conſulting the intereſt of his money. B. before he engaged in the together, when there is an opportunity. No partner is liable to ſhip, earned 301. a-year in the fame employment: his labour make good the loſs ariſing from his judging wrong in a caſe where therefore, ought to be valued at 30l, and the 200l. muſt be divided he had authority to act. If he exceeds his power, and the event between the partners in the proportion of 60 to 30; that is, A prove unſucceſsful, he muſt bear the loſs; but if it prove ſucceſsful, muſt receive 1331. 6s. 8d. and B 661. 135. 4d. If there be no- the gain belongs to the company: yet, if he acquaints the company thing gained, A loſes his intereſt, and B his labour, which is immediately of what he has done, they muſt either acquieſce therein, right. If the original ſtock be diminiſhed, by this rule B loſes or leave him the chance of gain, as well as the riſk of loſs. his labour as before ; whereas A loſes his intereſt and part of the All debts contracted under the firm of the company are binding principal : for which eventual diſadvantage A is compenſated, by on the whole partners, though the money was borrowed by one of having the intereſt of his money computed at 6 per cent, in the them for his private uſe, without the conſent of the reſt: and if a diviſion of the profits when there is any. It is true, that the divi- partner exceeds his power, the others are nevertheleſs obliged to fion of the profit is ſeldom forgotten in the conſtitution of the implement his engagements, though they may render him reſpon- partnerſhip, and is therefore commonly ſettled by expreſs agree- ponſible for his miſbehaviour. Although the ſums to be advanced ment; but theſe agreements, to be equitable, ſhould purſue the by the partners be limited by the contract, if there be a neceſſity principle of the rule here laid down. All partners are bound by for raiſing more money to anſwer emergencies or pay the debts of what any one of them does in the courſe of the buſineſs; for the company, the partners muſt furnish what is neceſſary, in pro- quoad hoc, each partner is conſidered as an authoriſed agent for portion to their ſhares. A debt to a company is not cancelled by the reſt.' the private debts of the partner; and, when a partner becomes PARTRIDGE, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the genus inſolvent, the company is not bound for his debts beyond the extent Tetrao. For deſcriptior., fee TETRAO: for repreſentation, fee of his ſhare. The debts of the company are preferable, on the Plate III. Genus 54. coinpany's effects, to the private debts of the partners. The partridge is ſo valuable at the table, that a great many ways Partnerſhip is generally diſſolved by the death of a partner : yet, of taking it have been invented by ſportſmen, all of which ſucceed when there are more partners than two, it may, by agreement, ſub from the natural folly and timidity of the animal. The places fiſt ameng the ſurvivors. Sometimes it is ſtipulated, that, in caſe | partridges delight in moſt are corn-fields, eſpecially whilſt the corn of the death of a partner, his place ſhall be ſupplied by his ſon, or grows, for under that cover they fhelter and breed: neither are ſome other perſon agreed on. The contract ought to ſpecify thoſe places unfrequented by them when the corn is cut down, the time and manner in which the ſurviving partners ſhall reckon by reaſon of the grain they find there, eſpecially in wheat-ſtubble with the executors of the deceaſed for his ſhare of the ſtock, and a the height of which they delight in, being to them as a covert or reaſonable time allowed for that purpoſe. ſhelter. When the wheat ſtubble is much trodden by men or When partnerſhip is diffolved, there are often outſtanding debts beaſts, they then betake themſelves to the barley ſtubble, pro- that cannot be recovered for a long time, and effects that cannot vided it be freſh and untrodden ; and they will in the furrows, eaſily be diſpoſed of. The partnerſhip, though diffolved in other amongſt the clots, branches, and long graſs, hide both themſelves reſpects, ſtill ſubfifts for the management of their outſtanding and coveys, which are ſometimes twenty in number; nay, thirty affairs; and the money ariſing from them is divided among the vid 02 partners, or their repreſentatives, when it is recovered. But as When the winter-ſeaſon is arrived, and the ſtubble-fields are this may protract the final ſettlement of the company's affairs to a ploughed up, or over-foiled with cattle, partridges reſort into the very inconvenient length, other methods are ſometimes uſed to up nd meadows, and lodge in the dead graſs, or fog under hedges, bring them to a concluſion, either in conſequence of the original | amengſt mole-hills, or under the roots of trees; ſometimes they contract, or by agreement at the time of diffolution. Sometimes reſort to coppices and under-woods, eſpecially if any cornfields are the debts and effects are ſold by auction; ſometimes they are divided adjacent, or where there is grown broom, brakes, fern, &c. among the partners; and when there are two partners, one divides In the harveſt-time, when every field is full of men and cattle, them into ſhares, as equal as poſſible, and the other chooſes either in the day-time they are found in the fallow-fields which are next ſhare he thinks beſt. If a partner withdraws, he continues re adjoining to the corn-fields, where they lie lurking till evening or ſponſible for his former partners till it be publickly known that he morning, and then they feed among the ſheaves of corn. hath done ſo. A deed of ſeparation, regiſtered at a public office, When their haunts are known, according to the ſituation of the is ſufficient preſumption of ſuch notoriety. country and ſeaſon of the year, the next care mult be to find them 3. Companies, where the buſineſs is conducted by officers. out in their haunts, which is done ſeveral ways. Some do it by the There are many companies of this kind in Britain, chiefy eſtabliſhed eye only; and this art can never be taught, but learned by fre- for purpoſes which require a larger capital than private merchants quent experience, the colour of the birds being ſo like that of the can command. The laws with reſpect to theſe companies, when earth at a diſtance, that no eye but a very converſant one could not confirmed by public authority, are the ſame as the former, but diſtinguiſh them. When they are once ſeen, the buſineſs is to the articles of their agreement uſually very different. The capital | keep the eye upon them, and then to keep in continual motion. is condeſcended on, and divided into a certain number of ſhares, They are a very lazy bird, and by this means will let a perſon whereof each partner may hold one or more, but is generally reſtric almoſt tread upon them; though if the perſon ſtand ſtill to eye ted to a certain number. Any partner may transfer his ſhare; and them, they will riſe immediately, though they be at a conſiderable the company muſt admit his aſſignee as a partner. The death of diſtance. the partners has no effect on the company. No partner can act Another method of diſcovering them, is by going to their haunts perſonally in the affairs of the company: but the execution of their very early in the morning, or at the cloſe of the evening, which buſineſs is intruſted to officers, for whom they are reſponſible; is called the jucking time. The noiſe of the cock partridge is to and, when the partners are numerous, the ſuperintendency of the be attended to at this time, and is very loud and earneſt. The hen officers is committed to directors choſen annually, or at other ap will ſoon come up to the cock after her making the noiſe, which pointed times, by the partners. ſhe does by way of anſwer; and when they have got together, their 4. Companies incorporated by authority. A royal charter is chattering will diſcover them. chattering will diſcover them. Thus they may always be found neceſſary to enable a company to hold lands, to have a common at theſe times. But there is a yet better method of finding this ſeal, and enjoy the other privileges of a corporation. A charter bird, which is by the call. The buſineſs, in order to have fucceſs is ſometimes procured, in order to limit the riſk of partners: for, in this way, is carefully to learn the notes of the partridge, and in every private company, the partners are liable for the debts, be able to imitate all the ſeveral ſounds. When perfect in this, without limitation ; in corporated ſocieties they are only liable for the perſon is to go to the haunts morning and evening, and placing their ſhares in the ſtock of the ſociety. The incorporation of ſo himſelf in ſome place where he can ſee the birds without being cieties is ſometimes authoriſed by act of parliament; but this high ſeen by them, he is to liſten to their calling; and when they are authority is not neceſſary, unleſs for conferring excluſive privileges. heard, he is to anſwer in the ſame notes, doubling again as they Mr. Paley ſays, “ I know of nothing upon the ſubject of partner do: by continuing this, they may be brought ſo near, that the fhip that requires explanation, but how the profits are to be divided perſon lying down on his back may count their whole number. where one partner contributes money and the other labour, which Having in this manner found where the birds are, the next care is is a common caſe. to catch them, “ Rule. From the ſtock of the partnerſhip deduct the ſum ad They are ſo fooliſh, that it is extremely eaſy to take them in vanced, and divide the remainder between the moneyed partner In order to this, there needs no more than the going out, and the labouring partner, in the proportion of the intereſt of the provided with two or three nets, with melhes ſomewhat ſmaller than money to the wages of the labour, allowing ſuch a rate of intereſt thoſe of the pheaſant nets, and walking round about the covey, a as money might be borrowed for upon the ſame ſecurity, and ſuch net is to be fixed ſo as to draw over them, on pulling a line at a wages as a journeyman would require for the ſame labour and diſtance. All this inay be eaſily done ; for ſo long as the ſportf- truſt. man contines moving about, and does not fix his eye too intenſely Example. A advances 1000l. but knows nothing of the buſi upon them, they will let him come near enough to fix the net, neſs: B produces no money, but has been brought up to the buſi without moving. If they lie ſo ſtraggling, that one net will not neſs, and undertakes to conduct it. At the end of the year the cover them, then two or three muſt be fixed in the ſame man- stock and effects of the partnerſhip amount to 1200l. conſe The ſportſınan may then draw the nets over them, and they nets. ner. will P A S PAS again We ſtrongeſt bird-lime, and the ſportſman muſt will often lie ſtill with the nets upon them till he comes up to a wonderful uniformity in that operation; each claſs of emotions fright them; then they will riſe, and be entangled in the net. and paſſions being invariably attended with an external appearance A fecond method of taking them is with bird-lime ; this is done peculiar to itſelf. Theſe external appearances, or ſigns, may not by means of wheat-ſtraws. Theſe muſt be large, and cut off be improperly be conſidered as a natural language, expreſſing to all tween knot and knot; they muſt be well lined with the belt and beholders emotions and paſſions as they ariſe in the heart. Hope, a out with him. Having found a field where there are partridges, is often to be read in his face; and beauty, which makes ſo deep he is to call; and if they anſwer, he is then to ſtick up the limed an impreſſion, is known to reſult, not ſo much from regular fea- ftraws in rows acroſs two or three lands, and going backward, call tures and a fine complection, as from good-nature, good-fenſe, to them, leading them on in the road where the ſtraws are: {prightlineſs, ſweetneſs, or other mental quality, expreſſed upon they will follow one another like a flock of chickens, and come the countenance. Though perfect ſkill in that language be rare, out to the call; and will in their way run upon the ſtraws, and yet what is generally known is ſufficient for the ordinary purpoſes liming themſelves they will daub one another by crowding together, of life. The external expreſſions of paſſion form a language un- to that very few of them will be able to eſcape. derſtood by all, by the young as well as the old, by the ignorant as But there is yet a pleaſanter way of taking them than this, that well as the learned: we talk of the plain and legible characters of is, by driving of them. In order to this, an engine is to be made that language; for undoubtedly we are much indebted to experi. of canvas ſtuffed with ſtraw, to repreſent a horſe; this horſe and ence, in deciphering the dark and more delicate expreſſions. nets are to be taken to the haunts of the partidges, and the nets Where then ſhall we apply for a ſolution of this intricate problem, being placed ſlanting or flopewiſe in the lower part of the field, which ſeems to penetrate deep into human nature? Undoubtedly the ſportſman is to take the wind in his back and get above them, if the meaning of external ſigns be not derived to us from fight, driving them downwartls ; his face is to be covered with ſomething nor from experience, there is no remaining ſource whence it can green or blue, and placing the horſe before him, he is to go towards be derived but from nature. them ſlowly and gently; and by this means they will be raiſed on may then venture to pronounce, with ſome degree of con- their legs, but not on their wings, and will run before the horſe fidence, that man is provided by nature with a ſenfe or faculty that into the nets. If in the way they go into a wrong path, the horſe lays open to him every paſſion by means of its external expreſſions. is to be moved to face them; and they will thus be driven back And we cannot entertain any reaſonable doubt of this, when we again, and driven every way the ſportſman pleaſes. reflect, that the meaning of external ſigns is not hid even from PARUS, or Titmouse, in ornithology, a genus belonging to infants : an infant is remarkably affected with the paſſions of its the order of paſſeres. The bill is very entire, covered at the baſis nurſe expreſſed on her countenance; a ſmile chears it, a frown with hairs; the tongue is truncated and hairy. There are 14 makes it afraid: but fear cannot be without apprehending danger: ſpecies; of which the following is the moſt remarkable. and what danger can the infant apprehend, unleſs it be ſenſible The coeruleus, or blue titmoufe, is a very beautiful bird. The that its nurſe is angry? We muſt therefore admit, that a child can bill is ſhort and duſky: the crown of the head of a fine blue; read anger in its nurſe's face; of which it mult be ſenſible intui- from the bill to the eyes is a black line; the forehead and cheeks tively; for it has no other mean of knowledge. We do not affirm, white; the back of a yellowiſh green ; the lower ſide of the body that theſe particulars are clearly apprehended by the child; for to yellow; the wings and tail blue, the former marked tranfverfly produce clear and diſtinct perceptions, reflection and experience with a white bar; the legs of a lead colour. They frequent gar are requiſite : but that even an infant, when afraid, muſt have dens, and do great injury to fruit trees, by bruiſing the tender buds ſome notion of its being in danger, is evident. in ſearch of the inſects which lie under them. It breeds in holes That we ſhould be conſcious intuitively of a paſſion from its of walls, and lays 12 or 14 eggs. For claſſification, ſee the Syſtem. external expreſſions, is conformable to the analogy of nature: the For repreſentation, ſee Plate III. Genus 43. knowledge of that language is of too great importance to be left PASQUIN, a mutilated ftatue at Rome, in a corner of the upon experience; becauſe a foundation ſo uncertain and precarious, palace of the Urſini. It takes its name from a cobler of that city would prove a great obſtacle to the formation of ſocieties. Wiſely called Paſquin, famous for his ſneers and gibes, and who diverted therefore is it ordered, and agreeable to the ſyſtem of Providence, himſelf by paſſing his jokes on all that went through that ſtreet. that we ſhould have nature for our inſtructor. After his death, as they were digging up the pavement before his Manifold and admirable are the purpoſes to which the external door, they found in the earth the ſtatue of an ancient gladiator, ſigns of paſlion are made ſubſervient by the Author of our nature. well cut, but maimed and half ſpoiled: this they ſet up in the Diffocial paſſions, being hurtful by prompting violence and place where it was found, and by common conſent named it miſchief are noted by the moſt conſpicuous external ſigns, in order Paſquin. Since that time all ſatires are attributed to that figure; to put us upon our guard : thus anger and revenge, eſpecially when and are either put into its mouth, or paſted upon it, as if they ſudden, diſplay themſelves on the countenance in legible characters. were written by Paſquin redivivus; and theſe are addreſſed by The external ſigns, again, of every paſlion that threatens danger, Paſquin to Marforio, another ſtatue at Rome. When Marforio raiſe in us the paſſion of fear: which frequently operating without is attacked, Paſquin comes to his aſſiſtance, and, when Paſquin reaſon or refleétion, moves us by a ſudden impulſe to avoid the is attacked, Marſorio alliſts him in his turn; that is, the people impending danger. make the ſtatues ſpeak juſt what they pleaſe, Of all the external ſigns of paſſion, thoſe of affli&tion or diſtreſs PASQUINADE, or Pasquil, is properly a fatyrical libel, are the moſt illuſtrious with reſpect to a final cauſe, and deſervedly faſtened to the ſtatue of Paſquin. Hence, by extenſion, the term merit a place of diſtinction. They are illuſtrious by the ſingularity becomes uſed for any ſatire, lampoon, or ſneer upon the public, of their contrivance; and alſo by inſpiring ſympathy, a paſſion or upon the ruling powers. There is this difference between a to which human ſociety is indebted for its greateſt bleſſing, that paſquirade and ſatire; that the end of the latter is to correct and of providing relief for the diſtreſſed. A ſubject fo intereſting, de- reform ; whereas that of the former is only to ſcoff and expoſe. ferves a leiſurely and attentive examination. The conformity of PASSAGE, in commerce, or right of Passage, is an impo- the nature of man to his external circumſtances, is in every parti- fition which ſome princes exact by their officers or farmers, in cular wonderful: his nature makes him prone to ſociety; and certain narrow cloſe places of their territories, either by land or ſociety is neceſſary to his well-being, becauſe in a ſolitary ſtate he fea, on all veſſels, vehicles, and carriages of all kinds; and even is a helpleſs being, deſtitute of ſupport, and in his diſtreſſes deſtitute ſometimes on perſons as paſſengers coming in or going out of of relief: but mental ſupport, the ſhining attribute of ſociety, is ports, &c. The paſſage of the Sound, (that famous ſtraight, which is of too great moment to be left dependent upon cool reaſon; it is carries us out of the German into the Baltic ſea), is the moſt cele ordered more wiſely, and with greater conformity to the analogy brated paſſage in Europe. The dues thereof belong to the king of of nature, that it ſhould be enforced even inſtinctively by the paſ- Denmark, and are paid at Elſinore or Cronenburg. fion of ſympathy. Here ſympathy makes a capital figure; and Birds of Passage, are ſuch as only come to us at certain contributes, more than any other means, to make life eaſy and ſeaſons, and diſappear again; being ſuppoſed to paſs the ſea to comfortable. But the benevolence of our nature gives a very dif- ſome other climate. Among the birds of paſſage are the ſtork, ferent direction to the painful paſſion of ſympathy, and to the de- ſwallow, nightingale, martin, woodcock, quail, hooded crow, fire involved in it; inſtead of avoiding diſtreſs, we fly to it in order cuckoo, wryneck, ſeveral ſpecies of the pigeon and thruſh, ſnipe, to afford relief; and our ſympathy cannot be otherwiſe gratified curlew, ſeveral ſpecies of ſand-piper, long-legged plover, land than by giving all the ſuccour in our power. Thus external ſigns rail, ſeveral ſpecies of grebe, divers, terns, merganſers, many ſpe- of diſtreſs, though diſagreeable, are attractive: and the ſympathy cies of ducks, &c. they inſpire is a powerful cauſe, impelling us to afford relief even PASSERES, the name of an order in the ſecond claſs of Zoology to a ſtranger, as if he were our friend or relation. For the characteriſtic deſcription, and the claſſifi It is a noted obſervation, that the deepeſt tragedies are the moſt cation of the reſpective genera belonging to this order, ſee the crouded; which in a partial view will be thought an unaccountable Syſtem of ORNITHOLOGY, Sect. IV. bias in human nature. Love of novelty, deſire of occupation, PASSIONS, in moral philoſophy, are certain motions of the beauty of action, make us fond of theatrical repreſentations; and ſoul, which make it purſue what appears to be good, and avoid when once engaged, we muſt follow the ſtory to the concluſion, whatever threatens evil . On the juſt regulation and ſubordination whatever diſtreſs it may create. But we generally become wiſe of the paſſions depends in a great meaſure the happineſs of mankind. by experience; and when we foreſee what pain we ſhall ſuffer External Signs of Emotions and Passions. So intimately con- during the courſe of the repreſentation, is it not ſurpriſing that nected are the foul and body, that every agitation in the former pro- perſons of reflection do not avoid ſuch ſpectacles altogether? And duces a viſible effect upon the latter.' There is at the ſame time, the latter. There is at the ſame time, yet one who has ſcarce recovered from the diſtreſs of a deep tragedy, reſolves called AVES. PA S PAS The troubled Tyber chafing with his ſhores, reſolves coolly and deliberately to go to the very next, without the Cæfar ſays to me, Dar'lt thou, Caſſius, now llighteſt obſtruction from felf-love. The whole myſtery is ex- Leap in with me into this angry flood, plained by a ſingle obſervation : That ſympathy, though painful, And ſwim to yonder point ?---Upon the word, is attractive ; and attaches us to an object in diſtreſs, inſtead of Accoutred as I was, I plunged in, And bid him follow; fo indeed he did. prompting us to fly from it. And by this curious mechaniſm it The torrent roar'd, and we did buffet it is, that perſons of any degree of ſenſibility are attracted by afflic- With luſty ſinews; throwing it aſide, tion ſtill more than by joy. And ſtemming it with hearts of controverſy. To conclude: the external ſigns of paſſion are a ſtrong indica- But ere we could arrive the point propos'd tion, that man, by his very conftitution, is framed to be open and Cæfar cry'd, Help me, Caſſius, or I ſink. ſincere. A child, in all things obedient to the impulſes of nature, I, as Æneas, our great anceſtor, Did from the flames of Troy upon his ſhoulder hides none of its emotions; the ſavage and clown, who have no The old Anchiſes bear; fo from the waves of Tiber guide but pure nature, expoſe their hearts to view, by giving way Did I the tired Cæfar: and this man to all the natural ſigns. And even when men learn to difſemble Is now become a god; and Caffius is their ſentiments, and when behaviour degenerates into art, there A wretched creature, and muſt bend his body Atill remain checks, that keep diſſimulation within bounds, and If Cæfar do but careleſsly nod on him. He had a fever when he was in Spain; prevent a great part of its miſchievous effects; the total ſuppreſſion And when the fit was on him, I did mark of the voluntary figns during any vivid paſſion begets the utmoſt How he did make. 'Tis true, this god did ſhake; uneaſineſs, which cannot be endured for any conliderable time: His coward lips did from their colour fly: this operation becomes indeed leſs painful by habit; but luckily And that fame eye, whoſe bend doth awe the world, Did loſe its luſtre ; I did hear him groan ; the involuntary ſigns cannot, by any effort, be ſuppreſſed nor even Ay, and that tongue of his, that bade the Romans diſſembled. An abſolute hypocriſy, by which the character is con- Mark him, and write his ſpeeches in their books, cealed and a fiétitious one aſſumed, is made impracticable; and Alas! it cry'd ---Give me ſome drink, Titinius,--- nature has thereby prevented much harm to ſociety. We may pro- Like a fick girl. Ye gods, it doth amaze me, nounce, therefore, that Nature, herſelf ſincere and candid, intends A man of ſuch a feeble temper ſhould So that mankind ſhould preſerve the ſame character, by cultivating the ſtart of the majeſtic world, get And bear the palm alone. Julius Cafar, ačt 1. fc. 3, fimplicity and truth, and baniſhing every ſort of diffimulation that tends to miſchief. When by great ſenſibility of heart, or other means, grief becomes Influence of Passion with reſpect to our Perceptions, Opinions, immoderate, the mind, in order to juſtify itſelf, is prone to magnify and Belief. So intimately are our perceptions, pafſions, and actions the cauſe; and if the real cauſe admit not of being magnified, the connected, it would be wonderful if they ſhould have no mutual mind ſeeks a cauſe for its grief in imagined future events : influence. That our actions are too much influenced by paſſion, Buſby. Madam, your Majeſty is much too fad: is a known truth ; but it is not leſs certain, though not ſo well You promis'd, when you parted with the king, known, that paſſion hath alſo an influence upon our perceptions, To lay aſide ſelf-harming heavineſs, opinions, and belief. For example, the opinions we form of men And entertain a cheerful diſpoſition. Queen. To pleaſe the king, I did; to pleaſe myſelf, and things are generally directed by affedion : An advice given by I can not do it. Yet I know no cauſe a man of figure hath great weight; the ſame advice from one in a Why I ſhould welcome ſuch a gueſt as grief; low condition is deſpiſed or neglected: a man of courage under- Save bidding farewell to ſo ſweet a gueſt rates danger; and to the indolent the ſlighteſt obſtacle appears un- As my ſweet Richard: yet again, methinks, ſurmountable. Some unborn forrow, ripe in Fortune's womb, Is coming tow'rd ine: and my inward ſoul There is no truth more univerſally known, than that tranquility With ſomething trembles, yet at nothing grieves, and ſedateneſs are the proper ſtate of mind for accurate perception More than with parting from my lord the king. and cool deliberation; and for that reaſon, we never regard the Richard II. at 2. fc. 5o opinion even of the wiſeſt man, when we diſcover prejudice or paſſion behind the curtain. Paſſion hath ſuch influence over us, Shakeſpeare exhibits beautiful examples of the irregular influence as to give a falſe light to all its objects. Agreeable paſſions pre- of paſſion in making us believe things to be otherwiſe than they poſſeſs the mind in favour of their objects; and diſagreeable pal- are. King Lear, in his diſtreſs, perſonifies the rain, wind, and fions, not leſs againſt their objects: A woman is all perfection in thunder; and in order to juſtify his reſentment, believes them to her lover's opinion, while in the eye of a rival beauty ſhe is auk- be taking part with his daughters : ward and diſagreeable : when the paſſion of love is gone, beauty Lear. Rumble thy bellyfull, fpit fire, ſpout rain! vaniſhes with it;--nothing left of that genteel motion, that ſprighly Nor rain, wind, thunder, fire, are my daughters. converſation, thoſe numberleſs graces which formerly, in the I tax not you, ye elements, with unkindneſs; I never gave you kingdoms, call’d you children : lover's opinion, charmed all hearts. To a zealot every one of his You owe me no ſubſcription. Then let fall own ſect is a faint, while the moſt upright of a different ſect are Your horrible diſpleaſure.---Here I ſtand your brave; to him children of perdition : the talent of ſpeaking in a friend, is A poor, infirm, weak and deſpis’d old man! more regarded than prudent conduct in any other. Nor will this But yet I call you ſervile miniſters, That have with two pernicious daughters join'd ſurpriſe any one acquainted with the world, our opinions, the reſult Your high-engender'd battles, 'gainſt a head frequently of various and complicated views, are commonly ſo flight So old and white as this. Oh! oh!.'tis foul! A&t 3. ſc. 2, and wavering, as readily to be ſuſceptible of a bias from paſſion. mon.se With that natural bias another circumſtance concurs, to give Hamlet, ſwelled with indignation at his mother's ſecond marri- paſſion an undue influence on our opinions and belief; and that is age, was ſtrongly inclined to leſſen the time of her widowhood, the a ſtrong tendency in our nature to juſtify our paſſions as well as our ſhortneſs of the time being a violent circumſtance againſt her; and actions, not to others only, but even to ourſelves. That tendency is he deludes himſelf by degrees into the opinion of an interval ſhorter peculiarly remarkable with reſpect to diſagreeable paſſions : by its than the real one: influence, objects are magnified or leſſened, circumſtances ſup- Hamlet. That it ſhould come to this! plied or ſuppreſſed, every thing coloured and diſguiſed, to anſwer But two months dead ! nay, not ſo much; not two--- So excellent a king, that was, to this, the end of juſtification. Hence the foundation of ſelf-deceit, where Hyperion to a ſatyr: ſo loving to my mother, a man impoſes upon himſelf innocently, and even without ſuſpi- That he permitted not the wind of heav'n cion of a bias. Viſit her face too roughly. Heav'n and Earth! We proceed to illuſtrate the foregoing obſervations by proper Muſt I remember---why, ſhe would hang on him, examples: As if increaſe of appetite had grown Gratitude, when warm, is often exerted upon the children of the By what it fed on: yet, within a month---- Let me not think---Frailty, thy name is Woman! benefactor; eſpecially where he is removed out of reach by death A little month! or ere thoſe ſhoes were old, or abſence. The paſſion in this caſe being exerted for the ſake of With which the followed my poor father's body, the benefactor, requires no peculiar excellence in his children: Like Niobe, all tears------why the, even ſne--- but the practice of doing good to theſe children produces affection (O heav'n! a beaſt, that wants diſcourſe of reaſon, for them, which never fails to advance them in our eſteem. By Wou'd have mourn'd longer)---married with mine uncle, My father's brother; but no more like my father, ſuch means, ſtrong connections of affection are often formed Than I to Hercules. Within a month!-- among individuals, upon the ſlight foundation now mentioned. Ere yet the ſalt of moſt unrighteous tears Envy is a paſſion, which, being altogether unjuſtifiable, cannot Had left the fluſhing in her gauled eyes, be excuſed but by diſguiſing it under ſome plauſible name. She married------Oh, moſt wicked ſpeed! to poſt At the ſame time, no paſſion is more eager than envy, to give its object a With ſuch dexterity to inceſtuous ſheets ! It is not, nor it cannot come to good. diſagreeable appearance: it magnifies every bad quality, and fixes But break, my heart, for I muſt hold my tongue. Aft 1. fc. 3. on the moſt humbling circumſtances : The power of paſſion to falſify the computation of time is re- Caffius. I cannot tell what you and other men markable in this inſtance : becauſe time, which hath an accurate Think of this life; but for my ſingle felf, meaſure, is leſs obſequious to our deſires and wiſhes, than objects I had as lief not be, as live to be which have no preciſe ſtandard of leſs or more. In awe of ſuch a thing as I myſelf, I was born as free as Cæfar, ſo were you: Good news are greedily ſwallowed upon very ſlender evidence; We both have fed as well; and we can both our wiſhes magnify the probality of the event, as well as the Endure the winter's cold as well as he. veracity of the relater; and we believe as certain, what at beſt is For once, upon a raw and guſty day, doubtful : Quel P A S PAS us, are Quel, che l'huom vede, amor li fa inviſible To preſerve the foreſaid reſemblance between words and their E l'inviſibil fa veder amore. meaning, the ſentiments of active and hurrying paſſions ought to be Queſto creduto fu, che'l miſer ſuole Dar facile credenza a' quel, che vuole. dreſſed in words where ſyllables prevail that are pronounced ſhort Orland. Furiof. cant. 1. f. 56. or faſt ; for theſe make an impreſſion of hurry and precipitation. For the ſame reaſon, bad news gains alſo credit upon the flighteſt | Emotions, on the other hand, that reſt upon their objects, are beſt evidence: fear, if once alarmed, has the ſame effect with hope, to expreſſed by words where fyllables prevail that are pronounced who thews more knowledge of human nature than any of our phi: ftate of mind, is where words, not only of long, but of many fylla- magnify every circumſtance that tends to conviction. Shakeſpeare, long or flow. A perſon affected with melancholy, has a languid and flow train of perceptions. The expreſſion beſt ſuited to that loſophers, hath in his Cymbeline repreſented this bias of the mind; for he makes the perſon who alone was affected with the bad news, bles, abound in compoſition ; and for that reaſon, nothing can be finer than the following paſſage. yield to evidence that did not convince any of his companions. And Othelio is convinced of his wife's infidelity from circum- In thoſe deep folitudes, and awful cells; ſtances too ſlight to move any perſon leſs intereſted. It is certain, Where heav’nly-penſive Contemplation dwells, And ever-muſing Melancholy reigns. Pope. Eloiſa to Abelard. however, that wonders and prodigies are ſwallowed by the vulgar, upon evidence that would not be ſufficient to aſcertain the moſt fa- In general, the language of violent paſſion ought to be broken miliar occurrence. It has been reckoned difficult to explain that and interrupted. Soliloquies ought to be ſo in a peculiar manner : irregular bias of mind; but we are now made acquainted with the language is intended by nature for fociety; and a man when alone, influence of paſſion upon opinion and belief: a ſtory of ghoſts or though he always clothes his thoughts in words, ſeldom gives his fairies, told with an air of gravity and truth, raiſeth an emotion of words utterance, unleſs when prompted by ſome ſtrong emotion; wonder, and perhaps of dread; and theſe emotions impoſing on a and even then by ſtarts and intervals only. Shakeſpeare's folilo- weak mind, impreſs upon it a thorough conviction contrary to quies may be juſtly eſtabliſhed as a model; for it is not eaſy to reaſon. Opinion and belief are influenced by propenſity as well conceive any model more perfect, Of his many incomparable as by paſſion. An innate propenſity is all we have to convince us foliloquies, the two following only ſhall be quoted, being different in their manner. that the operations of nature are uniform. Hamlet: Oh, that this too, too folid fleſh would melt, Language of Passion. Among the particulars that compoſe Thaw and reſolve itſelf into a dew! the ſocial part of our nature, a propenſity to communicate our Or that the Everlaſting had not fix’d opinions, our emotions, and every thing that affects is remark- His canon 'gainſt ſelf-ſlaughter! O God! O God! able. Bad fortune and injuſtice affect us greatly; and of theſe we How weary, ſtale, flat, and unprofitable Seem to me all the uſes of this world! fo prone to complain, that if we have no friend nor acquaintance Fie on't! O fie! ’tis an unweeded garden, to take part in our ſufferings, we ſometimes utter our complaints That grows to ſeed! things rank and groſs in nature aloud, even where there are none to liſten. But this propenſity Poffefs it merely.---- Hamlet, aɛt 1. ſc. 3. operates not in every ſtate of mind. A man immoderately grieved, « Ford. Hum! ha! is this a viſion ? is this a dream ? do I ſleep? ſeeks to afflict himſelf, rejecting all conſolation : immoderate grief Mr. Ford, awake; awake, Mr. Ford; there's a hole made in your accordingly is mute: complaining is ſtruggling for confolation. beſt coat, Mr. Ford! this 'tis to be married ! this 'tis to have linen It is the wretch's confort ſtill to have and buck baſkets ! Well, I will proclaim myſelf what I am ; I Some ſmall reſerve of near and inward woe, will now take the leacher; he is at my houſe ; he cannot 'ſcape Some unſuſpected hoard of inward grief, Which they unſeen may wail, and weep, and mourn, me; 'tis impoſſible he ſhould; he cannot creep into a half-penny And glutton-like alone devour. Mourning Bride, act 1. ſc. 1. purſe, nor into a pepper-box. But left the devil that guides him When grief ſubſides, it then, and no ſooner, finds a tongue: we ſhould aid him, I will ſearch impoſſible places; tho’ what I am I complain, becauſe complaining is an effort to diburden the mind cannot avoid, yet to be what I would not, ſhall not make me tame." of its diſtreſs. This obſervation is finely illuſtrated by a ſtory which Merry Wives of Windſor, aft 3 . laſt: Herodotus records, b. 3. Cambyſes, when he conquered Egypt, Theſe foliloquies are accurate and bold copies of nature : in a made Pfamenitus the king priſoner; and for trying his conſtancy, paſſionate ſoliloquy one begins with thinking aloud; and the ſtrong- ordered his daughter to be dreſſed in the habit of a ſlave, and to be eft feelings only are expreſſed; as the ſpeaker warms, he begins employed in bringing water from the river; his ſon alſo was led to imagine one liſtening, and gradually flides into a connected dif- to execution with a halter about his neck. The Egyptians vented courſe. How far diſtant are ſoliloquies generally from theſe moa their ſorrow in tears and lamentations: Plamenitus only, with a dels ? So far indeed as to give diſguſt inſtead of pleaſure. The downcaſt eye, remained ſilent. Afterward meeting one of his com firſt ſcene of Iphigenia in Tauris diſcovers that princeſs, in a ſoli- panions, a man advanced in years, who, being plundered of all, loquy, gravely reporting to herſelf her own hiſtory. There is the was begging alms, he wept bitterly, calling him by his name. ſame impropriety in the firſt ſcene of Alceſtes, and in the other in- Cambyſes, ſtruck with wonder, demanded an anſwer to the follow troductions of Euripides, almoſt without exception. Nothing can ing queſtion : “ Pſamenitus, thy maſter Cambyſes is deſirous to be more ridiculous: it puts one in mind of a moft curious device know, why, after thou hadít ſeen thy daughter ſo ignominiouſly in Gothic paintings, that of making every figure explain itſelf by a treated, and thy ſon led to execution, without exclaiming or weep- written label iſſuing from its mouth Soliloquies upon lively or ing, thou ſhould it be ſo highly concerned for a poor man, no way intereſting ſubjects, but without any turbulence of paffion, may be related to thee?” Pfamenitus returned the following anſwer: “ Son carried on in a continued chain of thought. If, for example, the of Cyrus, the calamities of my family are too great to leave me the nature and ſprightlineſs of the ſubject prompt a man to ſpeak his power of weeping; but the misfortunes of a companion, reduced thoughts in the form of a dialogue, the expreſſion muſt be carried in his old age to want of bread, is a fit ſubject for lamentation.” on without break or interruption, as in a dialogue between two Surpriſe and terror are ſilent paſſions, for a different reaſon : they perſons ; which juſtifies Falſtaff's ſoliloquy upon honour. agitate the mind ſo violently, as for a time to ſuſpend the exerciſe What need I be ſo forward with Death, that calls not on me? of its faculties, and among others the faculty of ſpeach. Love and Well, 'tis no matter, Honour pricks me on. But how if Honour revenge, when immoderate, are not more loquacious than immode- | prick me off, when I come on? how then? Can Honour ſet a leg? Tate grief. But when theſe paſſions become moderate, they ſet No. Or an arm ? No. Or take away the grief of a wound? No. the tongue free, and, like moderate grief, become loquacious. Mo- | Honour hath no ſkill in ſurgery then ? No. What is honour? a derate love, when unſucceſsful, is vented in complaints; when word.—What is that word honour ? Air; a trim reckoning.-Who ſucceſsful, is full of joy expreſſed by words and geſtures. hath it? He that dy'd a Wedneſday. Doth he feel it? No. Doth Figurative expreſſion, being the work of an enlivened imagi- he hear it ? No. Is it inſenſible then? Yea, to the dead. But will nation, cannot be the language of anguiſh or diſtreſs. Otway, ſen it not live with the living ? No. Why? Detraction will not ſuffer ſible of this, has painted a ſcene of diſtreſs in colours finely adapted it. Therefore I'll none of it; honour is a mere feutcheon : and to the ſubject: there is ſcarce a figure in it, except a ſhort and na- ſo ends my catechifm.” Firſt Part, Henry IV. aft 5. ſc. 2. tural ſimile with which the ſpeech is introduced. Belvidera talking And even without dialogue, a continued diſcourſe may be juſti- to her father of her huſband. fied, where a man reaſons in a ſoliloquy upon an important ſubject; Think you ſaw what paſs’d at our laſt parting : for if in ſuch a caſe it be at all excuſable to think aloud, it is ne- beheld him, like a raging lion, ceſſary that the reaſoning be carried on in a chain ; which juſtifies Pacing the earth, and tearing up his ſteps, that admirable ſoliloquy in Hamlet upon life and immortality, being Fate in his eyes, and roaring with the pain a ſerene meditation upon the moſt intereſting of all ſubjects. And Of burning fury; think you ſaw his one hand the ſame conſideration will juſtify the ſoliloquy that introduces the Fix'd on my throat, while the extended other Graſp'd a keen threat’ning dagger: oh! 'twas thus 5th act of Addiſon's Cato. We laſt embrac'd, when, trembling with revenge, PASSIONS, in medicine, make one of the non-naturals, and He dragg’d me to the ground, and at my boſom produce very ſenſible effects. Joy, anger, and fear, are the princi- Preſented horrid death; cried out, My friends! pal. In the two firſt, the ſpirits are hurried with too great vi- Where are my friends ? ſwore, wept, rag`d, threaten’d, lovd; For he yet lov’d, and that dear love preſerv'd me vacity; whereas, in fear or dread, they are, as it were curbed and To this laſt trial of a father's pity. concentrated: whence we may conclude, that they have a very bad I fear not death, but cannot bear a thought effect upon health; and therefore it will be beſt to keep them within That that dear hand ſhould do th' unfriendly office. bounds as much as poſſible, and to preſerve an inward ſerenity, If I was ever then your care, now hear me : calmneſs, and tranquility. Fly to the fenate, ſave the promis'd lives Of his dear friends, ere mine be made the facrifice. PASSIVE, a term of relation, implying a thing to ſuffer, or Venice Preſerv'd, ast 50 undergo the action of ſome other; which in reſpect hereof, is de- * Kk nominated Think you Nº 124 PAS P A S 66 It is of powers nominated attive. In all generations, philoſophers conceive an PASTINACA, the PARSNEP: A genus of the digynia order, active power, and a paſſive. The Chymiſts divide their principles, belonging to the pentandria claſs of plants; and in the natural me or elements, into active and paſive. Paſive are ſuch as have no thod ranking under the 45th order, Umbellate. The fruit is an active force inheritant in themſelves, and which only act by being elliptical compreſſed plane; the petals are involuted and entire. joined with ſome of the others. Such are phlegm and earth; ſome There are only two ſpecies of this genus ; the principal of which ſay alſo ſalt, and, in effect, all but ſulphur, or fire, which they | is the paſtinaca ſativa, or garden-parſnep: which is an fine efculent root. will have the only principles of action and motion in the univerſe. It is propagated by fowing the ſeeds in Fe. PASSIVE Obedience, a political doctrine which has been much bruary or March, in a rich mellow foil, which muſt be deep dug, miſrepreſented, and is, of courſe, very obnoxious to the friends of that the roots may be able to run deep without hindrance. freedom. Some nonjurors, in the end of the laſt and in the be It is a common practice to low carrots at the ſame time, upon ginning of the palling century, imagining that monarchy is the the ſame ground with parſneps : and if the carrots are deſigned to be only lawful form of government, and that hereditary monarchy is | drawn young, there is no harm in it. The parſneps, when they are the only lawful ſpecies of that government, have coupled with paſ- grown up a little, muſt be thinned to a foot diſtance, and care five obedience the ridiculous notion of a divine, hereditary, in- fully kept clear of weeds. They are fineſt taſted juſt at the ſeaſon defeaſible right of certain families to govern with deſpotic ſway all when the leaves are decayed : and ſuch as are deſirous to eat them in other families of the ſame nation. See NONJURORS. The ab- The ab- | ſpring ſhould have them taken up in autumn, and preſerved in ſand. ſurdity of this notion needs not to be dwelt upon; but it may not When the ſeeds are to be ſaved, ſome very ſtrong and fine plants be improper to obſerve, that it has nothing to do with paſſive obe ſhould be left four feet diſtant; and towards the end of Auguſt , dience. or in the beginning of September, the ſeeds will be ripe : they muſt As taught by the ableft reaſoners, who think that they are ſup- then be carefully gathered, and dried on a coarſe cloth. They ported by fioly ſcripture, paſſive obedience is as much a duty under ſhould always be fown the ſpring following; for they do not keep republican as under monarchical governments; and it means no well. more, but that private individuals are bound by the moſt folemn Hints have been given and experiments made by agricultural moral ties not to reſiſt the ſupreme power whereſoever placed in ſocieties, reſpecting parſneps, in order to raiſe them for winter any nation. The ſupreme power can only be the legiſlature; and food to cattle. It has long been a cuſtom in ſome parts of Brit- no man or body of men, who have not the power of enacting tany, to ſow parſneps in the open field for the food of cattle ; as and abrogating laws can, on this principle, claim paſſive obe we are informed by the firſt volume of the tranſactions of a So- dience from any ſubject. Whether the principle be well or ill ciety inſtituted in that province, for the encouragement of the deco- founded, the abſurdity which commonly attaches to the phraſe nomical and commercial intereſts of their country. paſive obedience, originates from the miſtaken loyalty of the ad great importance (ſay they) that parſneps ſhould be univerſally cul- herents of the houſe of Stuart, who to aggravate the illegality of the tivated; becauſe they afford an excellent and wholeſome food for revolution, were wont to repreſent James II. as ſupreme over both all kinds of cattle during the winter, and may be uſed to great ad- houſes of parliament, and of courſe over all law. That ſuch re vantage to fatten them. Our hogs have no other food in all that veries were fooliſh, we need no other evidence than the ſtatute-book, ſeaſon, and our bullocks and oxen thrive well upon it. Our cows which ſhews, that in the office of legiſlation, the king, lords, and fed with parſneps give more milk than with any other winter fod- commons, are co-ordinate ; and that when any of thefe der, and that milk yields better butter than the milk of cows nou- ſhall take upon itſelf to counteract the other two, the duty of paf- riſhed with any other ſubſtance. Our horſes fatten with this food; five obedience will oblige the ſubject to ſupport the legiſlature. though ſome pretend that it renders them leſs mettleſome, and hurts That reſiſtance to the legiſlature, if lawful on any occaſion, can be their legs and eyes. Cattle eat theſe roots raw at firſt lliced length- ſo only to oppoſe the moſt violent tyranny, has been ſhown by Mr. wiſe; and when they begin not to reliſh them, they are cut in Hume with great cogency of argument, and is indeed a propoſition pieces, put into a large copper, preſſed down there, and boiled ſelf-evident. That it can never be lawful on any occaſion, Biſhop with only ſo much water as fills up the chaſms between them. Berkley endeavoured to prove by a chain of reaſoning which it They then eat them very greedily, and continue to like them.” would be difficult to break. We enter not into the controverſy, but PASTORAL, ſomething that relates to ſhepherds, paſtores . refer our readers to Hume's Elays and Berkley's Paſſive Obedience The poets repreſent the innocence of a paſtoral life, and paſtoral and Nonreſiſtance, or as it was intitled by a late editor, the Meaſure manners, in the moſt agreeable light. We muſt not imagine them of Submiſion to civil Government. We ſhall only obſerve, that ſo beautiful in nature as in their deſcriptions. Moſt authors, ex- there is a great difference between active and paſſive obedience ; cept the Engliſh, eſteem paſtoral of the dramatic kind ; and define and that many who conſider themſelves bound on no account what it a dramatic piece, wherein the perſons are clad like nymphs and ever to reſiſt the ſupreme power, would yet ſuffer death rather than ſhepherds, and act their own amours. The ſcene is always in the do an immoral action in obedience to any law of earthly origin. fields or the woods; whence Taſſo calls paſtoral, lavola boſcareccia. PASSOVER, oxoxa, a ſolemn feaſt, celebrated among the Jews, It is certain this kind of paſtoral fable, compoſed according to the on the fourteenth day of the moon next after the vernal equinox. rules of the ſtage, was unknown among the ancients. The Greeks This feaſt was called by the ancient Latins and Greeks, pafcha, not and Latins have indeed introduced ſhepherds in their eclogues; but from waoxw, I ſuffer, as Chryſoſtom, Irenæus, and Tertullian, theſe eclogues had nothing theatrical in them ; nor were the ſhep- weakly imagine, but from the Hebrew peſahh, paſage, leap ; herds ever brought upon the ſtage. This kind of dramatic paſtoral the deſign of the feaſt being to commemorate the deſtroying angel's is as yet but little known among us : nor have we any thing con- paſſing over the houſes of the Iſraelites, when he entered in and de fiderable under the title of paſtorals, but country pieces after the Itroyed the firſt-born in thoſe of the Egyptians. Exod. xii. 27. manner of the eclogues or idyllions of the ancients. Every paſtoral, Many erroneouſly imagine, that it was in memory of their paſſing even in this laſt view, ſhould have a little plot or fable, which may the Red Sea that the paſſover was inſtituted; though it is certain the deſerve the title of a paſtoral ſcene. It muſt be ſimple, and but feaſt was held, and had its name, before the Iſraelites took a ſtep of one, yet, not ſo as refuſe all digreſſions, provided they be but ſhort. their way out of Egypt, and conſequently ſeveral days before their This rule of the plot is every where obſerved by Virgil. paſsing the Red Sea. Beſides the paſſover celebrated on the four Paſtoral life may be conſidered in three different views; either teenth of the firſt month, there was a ſecond paſover held on the ſuch as it now actually is; when the ſtate of ſhepherds is reduced to fourteenth of the ſecond month after the equinox, inſtituted by be a mean, ſervile, and laborious ſtate ; when their employments God in favour of travellers, and ſick perſons, who could not at are become diſagreeable, and their ideas groſs and low: or ſuch tend at the firſt, nor be at Jeruſalem on the day. The Greeks, as we may ſuppoſe it once to have been, in the more early and and even ſome of the catholic doctors, from the thirteenth, eigh- ſimple ages, when it was a life of eaſe and abundance; when the teenth, and nineteenth chapters of St. John, take occaſion to con wealth of men conſiſted chiefly in flocks and herds, and the clude, that Jeſus anticipated the day marked for the paſſover in the ſhepherd, though unrefined in his manners, was reſpectable in his law ; but the authority of the three evangeliſts ſeems to evince the ſtate; or, laſtly, ſuch as it never was, and never can in reality be, contrary. See Whitby's Diſſertation on this ſubject, in an appen when, to the eaſe, innocence, and ſimplicity of the early ages, we dix to the fourteenth chapter of St. Mark. attempt to add the poliſhed taſte, and cultivated manners, of mo- PASTIME, a ſport, amuſement or diverſion. Paſtimes of ſome dern times. Of theſe three ſtates, the firſt is too groſs and mean, kind ſeem to be abſolutely neceſſary, and to none more than to the the laſt too refined and unnatural, to be made the ground-work of man of ſtudy; for the moſt vigorous mind cannot bear to be always paſtoral poetry. Either of theſe extremes is a rock upon which bent. Conftant application to one purſuit, if it deeply engage the the poet will ſplit, if he approach too near it. We ſhall be diſ- attention, is apt to unhinge the mind, and to generate madneſs; of gulted if he gives us too much of the ſervile employments and low which the Don Quixote of Cervantes, and the aſtronomer of John. | ideas of actual peaſants, as Theocritus is cenſured for having fome- fon, are two admirably-conceived inſtances. But though paſtime times done; and if, like ſome of the French and Italian writers of is neceſſary to relieve the mind, it indicates great frivolity when paſtorals, he makes his ſhepherds diſcourſe as if they were coura made the buſineſs of life; and yet the rich and the great, who are tiers and ſcholars, he then retains the name only, but wants the not obliged to labour for the means of ſubſiſtance, too often rove ſpirit of paſtoral poetry. from paſtime to paſtime with as conſtant aſliduity as the mecha PASTRY, that branch of cookery which is chiefly taken up nic toils for his family, or as the philoſopher devotes himſelf to the making pies, paſties, cakes, &c. Dr. Cullen obſerves, that paſte cultivation of ſcience. When thoſe paſtimes tend to give elaf is very hard and digeſtible without butter ; and even with it, is apt ticity to the mind or ſtrength to the body, ſuch conduct is not only to produce heart-burn and aceſcency. Perhaps this is increaſed by allowable, but praiſe-worthy; but when they produce effects the burned butter, from a certain ſenſibility in the ſtomach, which oc- reverſe of theſe, it is both hurtful and criminal. cafions in PAT Ρ Ε Α ceſcent and acrid. 3 caſions all empyreumatic oils to be long retained, and ſo turn ran. ſeveral towns and provinces, which belong at this time to the eftate of the church, over which the pontiff exerciſes fovereign PASTURE Ground, is properly that which is not cultivated ; authority, To make what belonged to the churches the more that is, it is neither meadow, nor arable; but reſerved for the feed reſpected, they uſually gave their patrimonies the names of the ing of cattle. The beſt domains are thoſe confifting in paſture; faints they held in the higheſt veneration. Thus the church of they need no tilling. Holland is a country abounding much in paſ- Ravenna called its inheritance the patrimony of St. Apollinarius ; ture: Paſture-land is of ſuch advantage to huſbandry, that many that of Milan the patrimony of St. Ambroſe. prefer it even to corn-land, becauſe of the ſmall hazard and labour PATRIOTISM, a love of one's country, which is one of the that attend it, and as it lays the foundation for moſt of the profit nobleſt paſſions that can warm and animate the human breaſt. It that is expected from the arable land; becauſe of the manure the includes all the limited and particular affections to our parents, cattle afford which are fed upon it. Where dung is not to be children, friends, neighbours, fellow-citizens, and countrymen. It bought, as is often the caſe in places diſtant from large towns, the ought to direct and limit'their more confined and partial actions farmer is forced to proportion his arable to his paſture land, in ſuch within their proper and natural bounds, and never let them en- a manner, that the cattle fed on the latter may be ſufficient for a croach on thoſe ſacred and firſt regards we owe to the great public ſupply of dung, ſo neceſſary for producing the fruits of the former. to which we belong. Were we folitary creatures, detached from For the management, and particularly the moſt approved me the reſt of mankind, and without any capacity of comprehending a thods of watering and draining paſture-land, ſee Syſtem of AGRI public intereſt, or without affections leading us to deſire and pura CULTURE, Sect. XIX. For the beſt manure, ſee Sect. II. ſue it, it would not be our duty to mind it, nor criminal to neglect PATELLA, in anatomy, a bone which covers the fore-part it. But as we are parts of the public ſyſtem, and are not only ca- of the joint of the knee; called alſo mola, rotula, and popularly | pable of taking in large views of its intereſts, but by the ſtrongeſt the knee-pan. See the Syſtem, Part I. and Plate I. Fig. 1, letter f. affections connected with it, and prompted to take a ſhare of its PATHETICI, in anatomy, the fourth of the ten pair of nerves, concerns, we are under the moſt ſacred ties to proſecute its ſecu- which ariſe from a ſmall medullary chord that is behind the teſtes rity and welfare with the utmoſt ardour, eſpecially in times of they paſs down on the ſides of the medulla oblongata, and proceed public trial. Rome, Athens, and Lacedæmon, owed their exiſ- ing under the dura mater, by the ſides of the cella turcica, they go tence and glory to patriotiſm, founded on noble principles, and through the foramen lacerum, and are wholly ſpent on the obli ſupported by diſtinguiſhing virtues. But the moſt perfect patrio- quus major. See the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. IÍ. tiſm is that which comprehends the rights of mankind in general. The pathetici, are the ſmalleſt nerves of the brain; and have The author of the Spirit of Laws ſeems to have been actuated by their name, pathetic, from their ſerving to move the eyes in the va ſentiments of univerſal patriotiſm. rious paſſions: and they are by ſome alſo called amatorii, from the PATRONAGE, or ADVOWSON, a ſort of incorporeal here- great uſe made thereof by lovers in ogling, &c. See the Syſtem, ditament, conſiſting in the right of preſentation to a church or ec- Part VI. Sect. VI. cleſiaſtical benefice. See the Article ADVOWSON. PATRIARCH, patriarcha, formed of wsclpia, family, and αρχων, , PAVO, the Peacock, in ornithology; a genus belonging to chief, one of thoſe firit fathers who lived towards the beginning of the order of gallinæ. The head is covered with feathers which the world; and who became famous by a long line of deſcendants. bend backwards; the feathers of the tail are very long, and beauti- Abraham, Iſaac, and Jacob, and his twelve fons, are the patri fully varigated with eyes of different colours. There are three archs of the Old Teſtament. Seth, Enoch, &c. were antedilu ſpecies. vian patriarchs. Long life and number of children were the 1. The criſtatus, or common peacock of Engliſh authors, has a bleſsings of the patriarchs. The patriarchal government conſiſted compreſſed creſt and folitary ſpurs. It is a native of India ; and of the fathers of families, and their firſt-born after them, exerciſing we are aſſured, that they are ſtill found in a wild ſtate in the iſlands all kinds of eccleſiaſtical and civil authority, in their reſpective of Ceylon and Java. So beautiful a bird could not long be per- houſholds : and to this government, which continued till the time mitted to be a ſtranger in the more diſtant parts: for ſo early as the of the Iſraelites dwelling in Ægypt, ſome have aſcribed an abſo days of Solomon, we find, among the articles imported in his lute and deſpotic power, extending even to the puniſhment by Tarſhiſh navies, apes and peacocks. A monarch fo converſant in death. In proof of this, they alledge the curſe pronounced by all branches of natural hiſtory, all branches of natural hiſtory, “who ſpoke of trees, from the Noah upon Canaan, Gen. ix. 25. but it is replied that in this af cedar of Lebanon, eyen unto the hyflop that ſpringeth out of the fair Noah ſeems to have acted rather as a prophet than a patriarch. wall; who ſpoke alſo of beaſts and of fowls," would certainly not Another inſtance of ſuppoſed deſpotic power is Abraham's turning neglect furniſhing his officers with inſtructions for collecting every Hagar and Iſhmael out of his family, Gen. xxi. 9, &c. but this curioſity in the countries they voyaged to, which gave him a know- furniſhes no evidence of any ſingular authority veſted in the patri ledge that diſtinguiſhed him from all the princes of his time. Ælian archs as ſuch, and peculiar to thoſe ages. The third inſtance al relates, that they were brought into Greece from ſome barbarous ledged to the ſame purpoſe is that of Jacob's denouncing a curſe country; and were held in ſuch high eſteem, that a male and fe- upon Simeon and Levi, Gen. xlix. 7, which is maintained by others male were valued at Athens at 1000 drachmæ, or 321. 55. Iod. to be an inſtance of prophetic inſpiration more than of patriarchal Their next ſtep might be to Samos; where they were preſerved authority. The fourth inſtance is that of Judah with regard to about the temple of Juno, being the birds ſacred to the goddeſs : Tamar, Gen. xxxvii. 24. with regard to which it is obſerved, that and Gellius, in his Noctes Attice, c. 16. commends the excellency Jacob the father of Judah, was ſtill living; that Tamar was not of the Samian peacocks. It is therefore probable, that they were one of his own family; and that ſhe had been guilty of adultery, the brought here originally for the purpoſe of ſuperſtition, and after- puniſhment of which was death, by burning, and that Judah on wards cultivated for the uſes of luxury. We are alſo told, when this occaſion might ſpeak only as a proſecutor. Jennings's Jewiſh Alexander was in India, he found vaſt numbers of wild ones on Antiq. vol. i. p. 1. &c. the banks of the Hyarotis ; and was ſo ſtruck with their beauty, as On the whole, however, it is difficult to ſay which of theſe opi to appoint a ſevere puniſhment on any perſon that killed them. nions are moſt agreeable to truth. Men who believe the origin For repreſentation, ſee Plate III. Genus 47. of civil government, and the obligation to obedience, to ariſe from Peacock's creſts, in ancient times, were among the ornaments of a ſuppoſed original contract, either real or implied, will be na the kings of England. Ernald de Aclent was fined to king John turally led to weaken the authority of the patriarchs : and thoſe in 140 palfries, with ſack-buts, lorains, gilt fpurs, and peacock's again who eſteem government to be a divine inſtitution, will be creſts, ſuch as would be for his credit. as apt to raiſe that authority to the higheſt pitch that either reaſon 2. The bicalcaratas has a ſmall creſt and double ſpurs. It is a or ſcripture will permit them. It cannot be denied, that autho native of China. rity exiſted in fathers, and deſcended to their firſt-born, in the firſt 3. The muticus has a ſharp-pointed creſt, and no ſpurs; the ages of the world, and it is neither unnatural nor improbable to orbits of the eyes are red. imagine, that the idea of hereditary power and hereditary honours PAVO, Peacock, in aſtronomy, a conſtellation of the ſouthern was firſt taken from this circumſtance. But whether authority has hemiſphere, unknown to the ancients, and not viſible in our nora deſcended through father and ſon in this way to our times, is a thern parts of the world, containing fourteen ſtars ; ſee the Sys- circumſtance that cannot in one inſtance be aſſerted, and can be TEM, Sect. VIII. denied in a thouſand. The real ſource of the dignity and of the PEACE, in our law books, &c. is reſtrained to a quiet and inof- authority of modern times ſeems to have been, ſkill in the art of fenſive carriage towards the king, and his people, Lamb. Eire- war, and ſucceſs in the conduct of conqueſts. narch. Where any man ſtands in danger of harm from another, PATRIMONY, patrimonium, a right or eſtate, which a perſon and makes oath thereof before a juſtice of the peace, he muſt be inherits from his anceſtors. The name patrimony was alſo given ſecured by good bond, which is called binding to the peace. Any to the effects or revenues, wherewith a church or religious houſe juſtice of the peace may, ex officio, bind all thoſe to keep the peace, was endowed. In which ſenſe, authors ſtill ſay, the patrimony who, in his preſence, make any affray; or threaten to kill or beat of the church of Rimini, of Milan, &c. another, or contend together with hot and angry words; or go The church of Rome, in the time of the fall of the Roman em about with unuſual weapons or attendance, to the terror of the peo- pire, acquired conſiderable territories, partly by purchaſe, and ple: and all ſuch as he knows to be common barrettors; and ſuch partly by the generoſity of princes, &c. not only in Italy, but alſo as are brought before him by the conſtable for a breach of the peace in Sicily and other remoter parts of Europe. "Theſe were called in his preſence, and all ſuch perſons, as, having been before bound the patrimony of St. Peter, which were afterwards augmented by to the peace, have broken it and forfeited their recognizances. Alſo the benefactions of Pepin, king of France, who added the ex- wherever any private man hath juſt cauſe to fear that another will archate of Ravenna: and by Charlemagne, who gave to the pope burn his houſe, or do him a corporal injury, by killing, impriſon- ing Ρ Ε Α PE A DALUS. ing, or beating him; or that he will procure others fo to do; he ſtone fix inches thick, and a foot long under his body; which is to may demand furety of the peace againſt ſuch perſon; and every juſ ferve him as ballaſt, and prevent its being driven away by the mo. tice of the peace is bound to grant it, if he who demands it will tion of the water, and to enable him to walk more ſteady among the waves. make 'oath, that he is actually under fear of death or bodily harm; Beſides this, they tie another very heavy ſtone to one and will ſhew that he has juſt cauſe to be ſo, by reaſon of the foot, whereby they are ſoon funk to the bottom of the ſea : and other's menaces, attempts, or having lain in wait for him; and will as the oyſters are uſually ſtrongly faſtened to the rocks, they arm alſo farther ſwear that he does not require ſuch furety out of malice their fingers with leather mittens, to prevent their being wounded or mere vexation. This is called ſwearing the peace againſt another; in ſcraping them violently off ; and ſome even carry an iron rake, and if the party does not find ſureties, as the juſtice in his diſcre for the purpoſe. Laſtly, each diver carries down with him a tion ſhall require, he may immediately be committed till he does. large net, in manner of a ſack, tied to his neck by a long cord, A recognizance for keeping the peace, when given, may be forfeited the other end whereof is faſtened to the ſide of the bark. The by ary a&tual violence, or even an affault, or menace to the perſon fack is intended for the reception of the oyſters gathered from the of him who demanded it, if it be a ſpecial recognizance ; or, if the rock, and the cord is to pull up the diver, when his bag is full or recognizance be general, by any unlawful action whatſoever, that when he wants air. In this equipage he precipitates himſelf , either is, or tends to, a breach of the peace. Blackft. Com. b. ſometimes above ſixty feet under water. As he has no time to iv. p. 251. &c. loſe there, he is no ſooner arrived at the bottom than he begins to run PEACH Tree, in botany, the Engliſh name of the genus amygda from ſide to ſide, ſometimes on ſand, ſometimes on a clayey earth, lus. For deſcription of the genus and ſeveral ſpecies, ſee AMYG and ſometimesamong the points of rocks; tearing off the oyſters he meets with, and cramming them into his budget. At whatever PEACOCK, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the genus depth the divers be, the light is ſo great that they eaſily ſee whatever pavo. For deſcription of the genus, ſee Pavo,&c. paſſes in the ſea, with great clearneſs. And to their confternation, PEAR-Tree, in botany, the Engliſh name of the genus Pyrus. they ſometimes ſee monſtrous fiſhes, from which all their addreſs in For deſcription of the genus, &c. ſee Pyrus. mudding the water, &c. will not always ſave them; but they be. PEARCH, or PERCH, in ichthyology, the Engliſh name of the come their prey. genus Perca. For the deſcription of the genus, &c. ſee Perca. For The beſt divers will keep under water near a quarter of an hour; the method of angling for pearch, and the baits, ſeaſons, &c. ſee during which time, they hold their breath without the uſe of oils , the Article ANGLING. or any other liquors; only acquiring the habit by long practice. PEARL, in natural hiſtory, a hard, white, ſhining body, uſually When they find themſelves ſtraightened, they pull the rope to which roundiſh, found in a teſtaceous fiſh reſembling an oyſter. Pearls, the bag is faſtened, and hold faſt by it with both hands; when the though eſteemed of the number of gems by our jewellers, and people in the bark, taking the ſignal, heave them up into the air, highly valued, not only at this time, but in all ages, proceed only and unload them of their fiſh, which is ſometimes five hundred from a diſtemper in the creature that produces them, analogous to oyſters, ſometimes not above fifty. Some of the divers need a mo- the bezoars, and other ſtony concretions in ſeveral animals of ment's reſpite to recover breath; others jump in again inſtantly, other kinds. continuing this violent exerciſe, without intermiſſion, for many M. Reaumur has a very curious piece on the ſubject of the for hours. On the ſhore they unload their barks, and lay their oyſters mation both of the ſhells and pearls, in the Memoirs of the French in an infinite number of little pits, dug four or five feet ſquare, in Academy, anno 1717. He obſerves, that pearls are formed like the fand ; raiſing heaps of ſand over them to the height of a man, other ſtones in the animals; as thoſe, e. gr. in the bladder, kid which at a diſtance, look like an army ranged in battle. In this neys, &c. and that they are apparently the effects of a diſeaſe of condition they are left, till the rain, wind, and ſun, have obliged the fiſh. In effect, they are all formed of a juice extravaſated out them to open, which ſoon kills them. Upon this the fleſh rots of ſome broken veſſels, and detained, and fixed, among the mem and dries, and the pearls, thus diſengaged, tumble into the pit upon branes. To evince the poſſibility of this, he ſhews that the ſhells taking the oyſters out. After clearing the pits of the groſſer filth, of ſea-fiſh, as well as thoſe of ſnails, &c. are wholly formed of a they lift the ſand ſeveral times, to ſeparate the pearls. But what glutinous ſtony matter, ouſing out of the body of the animal. care ſoever they take herein, they always loſe a great many. After Now it is no wonder that an animal, which has veſſels wherein cleaning and drying the pearls, they are paſſed through a kind of circulates a ſufficient quantity of ſtony juice to build, thicken, and ſieve according to their ſizes. The ſmalleſt are ſold as ſeed pearls ; extend a ſhell, ſhould have enough to form ſtones alſo, in caſe the reſt are put up to auction, and ſold to the higheſt bidder. the juice, deſtined for the growth of the ſhell, ſhall chance to over Manner of fiſhing for Pearls in the Weſt-Indies. The ſeaſon for flow, and burſt forth in any cavity of the body, or among the mem fiſhing there is uſually from Oétober to March. In this time there branes. The veſſels which conveyed that juice being broken, ſet out from Carthagena ten or twelve barks, under the convoy of there is formed a little maſs or collection of the juice, which, har a man of war called l’Armadilla. Each bark has two or three dening, becomes a pearl of the ſame colour with the part of the flaves for divers. Among the barks there is one called Capitana; to ſhell to which it correſponds. Theſe circumſtances ſeem effec which all the reſt are obliged to bring at night what they have caught tually to determine the formation of pearls, and to eſtabliſh the in the day, to prevent frauds. The divers never live long, by reaſon new ſyſtem beyond contradiction. of the great hardſhips they ſuſtain; continuing ſometimes under The fiſh in which theſe are uſually produced is the Eaſt-Indian water above a quarter of an hour. The method is the ſame as pearl-oyſter, as it is commonly called. Beſides this ſhell, there in the Eaſt India fiſheries. The Indians eſteemed pearls before are many others that are found to produce pearls; as the common the diſcovery of America; and when the Spaniards arrived there, oyſter, the muſcle, and ſeveral others; the pearls of which are they found great quantities ſtored up, which the Americans ſet great often very good; but thoſe of the true Indian berberi, or pearl value on. But they were almoſt all imperfect, and their water yel- oyſter, are in general ſuperior to all. The ſmall or the ſeed-pearls, low and ſmoaky, becauſe they uſed fire in opening the fiſhes. alſo called ounce-pearls, from their being ſold by the ounce and not The Manner of fiſhing for pearls in Panama in South America. by tale, are vaſtly the moſt numerous and common: but, as in dia The pearl fiſhery is carried on in the iſlands of the gulph of monds, among the multitudes of ſmall ones, there are ſmaller Panama. The greateſt parts of the inhabitants employ ſuch of numbers and larger found, ſo in pearls there are larger and larger their negroes in it as are good ſwimmers. Theſe llaves plunge kinds; but as they increaſe in fize, they are proportionablý leſs and replunge in the ſea in ſearch of pearls, till this exerciſe has ex- frequent; this is one reaſon of their great price. We have Scotch hauſted their ſtrength or their ſpirits. pearls frequently as big as a little tare, ſome as big as a large pea, Every negro is obliged to deliver a certain number of oyſters. and ſome few the ſize of a horſe-bean; but theſe are uſually of a Thoſe in which there are no pearls, or in which the pearl is not bad ſhape, and of little value in proportion to their weight. Phi- entirely formed, are not reckoned. entirely formed, are not reckoned. What he is able to find be- lip II. of Spain had a pearl perfect in its ſhape and colour, and of yond the ſtipulated obligation, is conſidered as his indiſputable pro- the ſize of a pigeon's egg. The fineſt, and what is called the true perty: he may ſell it to whom he pleaſes; but commonly he cedes ſhape of the pearl, is a perfect round; but if pearls of a confi it to his maſter at a moderate price. derable ſize are the ſhape of a pear, as is not unfrequently the caſe, Sea monſters, which abound more about the iſlands where pearls they are not leſs valued, as they ſerve for ear-rings and other or are found than on the neighbouring coafts, render this fiſhing dan- naments. All pearls are formed of the matter of the ſhell, and gerous. Some of theſe devour the divers in an inſtant. The conſiſt of a number of coats ſpread with perfect regularity one manta fiſh, which derives its name from its figure, ſurrounds them, over another, in the manner of the ſeveral coats of an onion, or rolls them under its body, and ſuffocates them. In order to de- like the ſeveral ſtrata of the ſtones, found in the bladders or fto fend themſelves againſt ſuch enemies, every diver is armed with a machs of animals, only much thinner. poniard : the moment he perceives any of theſe voracious fiſh, he Manner of fiſhing for pearls, in the Eaſt Indies. There are two attacks them with precaution, wounds them, and drives them away. feaſons of pearl fiſhing in the year ; the firſt in March and April, | Notwithſtanding this, there are always ſome fiſhermen deſtroyed, the ſecond in Auguſt and September. The more rain there falls and a great number crippled. in the year, the more plentiful are the fiſheries. In the opening The pearls of Panama are commonly of a very fine water. of the ſeaſon, there appear ſometimes two hundred and fifty barks Some of them are even remarkable for their ſize and figure: theſe on the banks; in the larger barks are two divers; in the ſmaller, were formerly ſold in Europe. Since art has imitated them, and one. Each bark puts off from ſhore before fun-riſe, by a land the paſſion for diamonds has entirely ſuperſeded or prodigiouſly di- breeze, which never fails; and returns again by a fea breeze, which miniſhed the uſe of them, they have found a new mart more ad- fucceeds it about noon. As ſoon as the barks are arrived at the vantageous than the firſt.' They are carried to Peru, where they place where the fiſh lie, and have caſt anchor, each diver binds a are in great eſtimation, . This Ρ Ε Α PED try This branch of trade has, however, infinitely leſs contributed land, deſtroying ruſhes, and other bad kinds of graſs, and in their to give reputation to Panama, than the advantage which it hath ſtead producing great quantities of natural graſs. They burn great long enjoyed of being the mart of all the productions of the coun quantities of peat-aſhes in ſome parts of Berkſhire and Lancaſhire; of the Incıs that are deſtined for the old world. Theſe riches and eſteem them one of the beſt dreſſings for their fpring crops. which are brought hither by a ſmall feet, were carried, ſome on PEBBLES, calculi, in natural hiſtory, the name os a genus of mules, others by the river Chagre, to Porto Bello, that is ſituated foſſils, diſtinguiſhed from the flints and homochroa, by their hay- on the northern coaſt of the iſthmus which ſeparates the two ſeas ing a variety of colours. Theſe are defined to be ſtones, compoſed PEASANT, a hind, one whoſe buſineſs is in rural labour. of a chryſtalline matter, debafed by earths of various kinds in the It is amongſt this order of men that a philoſopher would look fame ſpecies, and then ſubject to veins, clouds, and other variega- for innocent and ingenuous manners. The ſituation of the pea tions; uſually formed by incruſtations around a central nucleus, fantry is ſuch as fecludes them from the devaſtations of luxury but ſometimes the effect of a fimple concretion, and veined like and licentiouſneſs; for when the contagion has once reached the the agates, by the diſposition which the motion of the fluid they receſſes of rural retirement, and corrupted the minds of habitual were formed in gave their differently coloured fubſtances. innocence, that nation has reached the ſummit of vice and is PECCANT, in medicine, an epithet given to the humours of haftening to that decay which has always been the effect of vi the body, when they offend either in quantity or quality, i. e. cious indulgence. The peaſantry of this country ſtill in a great when they are either morbid, or in too great abundance. Moſt meafure retain that fimplicity of manners and ruſtic innocence diſeaſes ariſe from peccant humours, which are either to be cor- which ought to be the characteriſtic of this order of fociety ; and rected by alteratives and ſpecifics, or elſe to beevacuated. in many parts, their condition is ſuch as, were all its advantages PECORA, the fifth order of the claſs of Mammalia. For de- fufficiently known, would create envy in the minds of thoſe who feription of the ſeveral Genera, ſee them as they occur in the order have toiled through lifé, amidſt the buſtle of the world, in queſt of the Alphabet. For reprefentation of the moſt remarkable fpe- of that happineſs which it could not confer, cies of each Genus, fee Plate IX, Order 5. O fortunatos nimium, ſua ſi bona norint, PECTORAL Medicines, or ſimply PECTORALS, are remedies Agricolas.- Virgil. proper to ſtrengthen and relieve the breaſt: or medicines intended In other countries the peaſants do not enjoy the ſame liberty as againſt diſeaſes of the breaſt or lungs. Their ordinary intention they do in our own, and are conſequently not ſo happy. In all is either to attenuate, or to thicken the humours of thoſe parts, feudal governments they are abject ſiaves, entirely at the difpo- which cauſe coughing, &c. and render them fit to be expectorated fal of ſome petty deſpot. This was the caſe in Poland, where or ſpit out. the native peaſants were ſubject to the moſt horrid Navery, though PEDANT, a ſchoolmaſter, or pedagogue, who profeſſes to in- thofc defcended of the Germans, who ſettled in Poland during ſtruct and govern youth, and teach them the humanities and the arts. the reign of Boleſlaus the Chaſte and Caſſimir the Great, en PEDANT is alſo uſed for a rough unpoliſhed man of letters, joyed very diſtinguiſhed privileges. Amongſt the native ſlaves, who makes an impertinent uſe of the ſciences, and abounds in too, thoſe of the crown were in a better condition than thoſe of unfeaſonable criticiſms and obſervations. Dacier defines a pedant, individuals. a perſon who has more reading than good ſenſe. Pedants are PEAT, a well known inflammable ſubſtance, uſed in many people ever armed with quibbles and fyllogiſms; they breathe no- parts of the world as fuel. There are two fpecies : thing but difputation and chicanery, and purſue a propoſition to 1. A yellowiſh-brown or black peat, found in mooriſh grounds the laſt limits of logic. Malebranche deſcribes a pedant, as a man in Scotlard, Holland, and Germany.-When freſh, it is of a full of falfe erudition, who makes a parade of his knowledge, and fifts, according to Kirwan, of clay mixed with calcareons is ever quoting fome Greek or Latin author, or hunting back to a remote etymology. Si. Evremont ſays, that to paint the folly earth and pyrites ; ſometimes alſo it contains common ſalt. of a pedant, we muſt repreſent him as turning all converſation While ſoft, it is formed into oblong pieces for fuel, after the PY to ſome one ſcience or ſubject which he is beſt acquainted with. ritaceous and ſtony matters are ſeparated. By diſtillation it yields There are pedants of all conditions, and of all robes. Wicque- water, acid, oil, and volatile alkali; the aſhes containing a ſmall fort ſays, an ambaſſador, always attentive to formalities and de- proportion of fixed alkali; and being either white or red accord corums, is nothing elſe but a political pedant. ing to the proportion of pyrites, contained in the ſubſtance. PEDANTRY, or PEDANTISM, the quality or manner of a 2. The ſecond ſpecies is found near Newbury in Berkthire. pedant. Tofwell up little and low things, to make a vain ſhew In the Philoſophical Tranſactions for the year 1757, we have of ſcience, to heap up Greek and Latin without judgment, to an account of this ſpecies ; the ſubſtance of which is as follows: tear thofe to pieces who differ from us, about a patlage in Sueto- Peat is a compoſition of the branches, twigs, leaves, and roots nius, or the etymology of a word, to ftir up all the world againſt of trees, with graſs, ſtraw, plants, and weeds, which having lain a man for not admiring Cicero enough, to be intereſted for the long in water, is formed into a maſs fo ſoft as to be cut with a reputation of an ancient as if he were our next of kin, form what ſharp ſpade. The colour is a blackiſh brown, and it is uſed in we properly call pedantry. many places for firing. There is a ſtratum of this peat on each PEDILUVIUM, or BATHING of the Feet. The uſes fide of the Kennet, near Newbury in Berks, which is of warm bathing in general, and of the pediluvium in particu- from about a quarter to half a mile wide, and many miles long. lar, are ſo little underſtood, that they are often prepoſterouſly The depth below the ſurface of the ground is from one foot to uſed, and ſometimes as injudiciouſly abſtained from. eight. Great numbers of entire trees, are found lying irregular In the Edinburgh Medical Eſſays, we find an ingenious au- Ty in the true peat. They are chiefly oaks, alders, willows, and thor's opinion of the warm pediluvium, notwithſtanding that of firs, and appear to have been torn up by the roots: many horſes Borelli, Boerhaave, and Hoffman, to the contrary, to be, That heads, and bones of ſeveral kinds of deer ; the horns of the ante the legs becoming warmer than before, the blood in them is lope, the heads and tuſks of boars, and the heads of beavers, are warmed: this blood rarifying, diſtends the veſſels ; and in cir- alſo found in it. Not many years ago an urn of a light brown co culating imparts a great degree of warmth to the reſt of the maſs lour, large enough to hold about a gallon, was found in the peat and as there is a portion of it conſtantly paſſing through the legs, pit in Speen moor, near Newbury, at about 10 feet from the and acquiring rew heat there, which heat is in the courſe of cir- river, and four feet below the level of the neighbouring ground. culation communicated to the reſt of the blood, the whole maſs Juſt over the ſpot where the urn was found, an artificial hill was rarifying, ocćupies a larger ſpace, and of conſequence circulates raiſed about eight feet high ; and as this hill conſiſted both of with greater force. The volume of the blood being thus increaſed peat and earth, it is evident that the peat was older than the urn. every veſſel is diftended, and every part of the body feels the ef- From the ſide of the river ſeveral ſemicircular ridges are drawn fects of it; the diſtant parts a little later than thoſe firſt heated. round the hill, with trenches berween them. The urn was brok The benefit obtained by a warm pediluvium is generally attri- en to ſhivers by the peat-diggers who found it, fo that it could buted to its making a derivation into the parts immerſed, and a not be critically examined; nor can it be known whether any revulſion from thoſe affected, becauſe they are relieved; but the thing was contained in it. cure is performed by the direct contrary method of operating, Peat afhes, properly burnt for a manure, are noble improvers viz. by a greater force of circulation through the parts affected, both of cern and graſs land: but the ſubſtance from which they removing what was ſtagnant or moving too fluggiſhly there! ſhould be got is an under ſtratum of the peat, where the fibres and Warm bathing is of no ſervice where there is an irreſoluble ob- roots of the earth, &c. are well decayed. Indeed the very beſt ſtruction, though, by its taking off from a ſpaſm in general, it are procured from the loweſt ſtratum of all. This will yield a may ſeem to give a moment's eaſe; nor does it draw from the large quantity of very ſtrong aſhes, in colour (when firſt burnt) diſtant parts, but ofteri hurts by puſhing againſt matter that will like vermilion, and in taſte very ſalt and pungent. Great care not yield with a ſtronger impetus of circulation than the ſtretched and caution ſhould be uſed in burning theſe aſhes, and alſo in pre and diſeaſed veſſels can bear: ſo that where there is any ſuſpi- ſerving them afterwards. The method of burning them is much cion of ſcirrhus, warm bathing of any fort ſhould never be uſed. the ſame as burning charcoal. The peat muſt be collected into On the other hand, where obſtructions are not of long ſtanding, a large heap, and covered ſo as not to flameout, but ſuffered to con the impacted matter is not obſtinate, warm baths may be of fume ſlowly, till the whole ſubſtance is burnt to an afh. The aſh great ufe to reſolve them quickly. In recent colds, with ſlight es thus burnt are held in moſt efteem; but the peat aſhes burnt in humoral peripneumonies, they are frequently an immediate cure. eommon firing are in many places uſed for the fame purpoſes, and This they effect by increaſing the force of the circulation, open- Cold at the ſame price. ing the ſkin, and driving freely through the lungs that lentor Peat aihes are found excellent in ſweetening four meadow which ſtagnated or moved flowly in them. As thus conducing LI 3 Ne. 125 to PEE PEE I homas Comptom, counter to the reſolution of obſtructions, they may be conſidered as fhort pendant. Thus, the biſhops fit in the houſe of lords, in right and ſafe fevers; and in uſing them we imitate nature, which by of ſucceſſion to certain ancient baronies annexed, or ſuppoſed to á fever often carries off an obſtructing cauſe of a chronical ail be annexed, to their epiſcopal lands : and though they are lords mcnt. Borelli, Boerhaave, and Hoffman, are all of opinion, that of parliament, they are not properly of the degree of nobility, the warm rediluvium acts by driving a larger quantity of blood their blood is not ennobled, nor their peerage hereditary: and, into the parts immerſed. But arguments muſt give way to facts: therefore, they are tried not by peers, but by a common jury: and the experiments related in the Medical Effays ſeem to prove to a when one of the nobility is tried by his peers in parliament, the demonſtration, that the warm pediluvium acts by rarifying the ſpiritual lords muſt withdraw, and make their proxies. blood. But afterwards, when alienations became frequent, the dignity A warm pediluvium, when rightly tempered, may be uſed as of peerage was confined to the lineage of the party ennobled, and a ſafe cordial, by which circulation can be rouſed, or a gentle inſtead of territorial, became perſonal. Peers are now created by fever raiſed ; with this advantage over the cordials and ſudori writ or patent. The creation by writ, or the king's letter, is a fics, that the effect of them may be taken off at pleaſure. ſummons to attend the houſe of peers, by the ſtyle or title of that Pediluvia are ſometimes uſed in the ſmall-pox; but Dr. Ste- barony which the king is pleaſed to confer; that by patent, is a venfon thinks their frequent tumultuous operations render that royal grant to a ſubject of any dignity or degree of peerage. The ſuſpected, and at beſt of very doubtful effect: and he therefore creation by writ is more ancient, but a man is not ennobled prefers Monſ. Martin of Lauſanne's method of bathing the ſkin, thereby, unleſs he takes his ſeat in the houſe of lords : and, not only of the legs, but of the whole body, with a ſoft cloth therefore, the moſt uſual, becauſe the foreſt way, is to grant the dipped in warm water, every four hours, till the eruption : by dignity by patent, which inſures to a man and his heirs, accord- which means the puſtules may become univerſally higher, and ing to the limitations thereof, though he never makes uſe of it. confequently more ſafe. Creation by writ, however, has one advantage over that by pa- PEDLAR, a travelling foot-trader. See HAWKER. Among tent; for a perſon created by writ holds the dignity to him and the Britiſh and French the pedlars are deſpiſed, but it is other his heirs, without any words to that purport in the writ: but in wiſe in certain countries. In Spaniſh America, the buſineſs is In Spaniſh America, the buſineſs is letters patent, there muſt be words to direct the inheritance; or fo profitable, that it is thought by no means diſhonourable ; and elſe the dignity endures only to the grantee for life. A peer can- there are many gentlemen in Old Spain, who, when their cir not loſe his nobility but by death or attainder, and though ſome cumſtances are declining ſend their fons to the Indies to retrieve have ſaid, that if a baron waſte his eſtate, ſo that he is not able their fortunes in this way. Almoſt all the commodities of Europe to ſupport the degree, the king may degrade him; yet it is ex- are diſtributed through the ſouthern continent of America by preſsly held by later authorities, that a peer cannot be degraded means of theſe pedlars. but by act of parliament. PEDICLE, pediculus, in botany, foot-fłałk: that little fkalk Peers of the realm are by their birth hereditary counſellors of the whereby the leaf, fruit, or flower is ſuſtained, and connected by crown, and may be called together by the king, to impart their ad- its branch or ftem. Flowers will keep freſh a long time after vice, in all matters of importance to the realm, either in time of gathering, by immerging their pedicles in water. The great fe- parliament, or when there is no parliament in being; and it is uſu- cret of preſerving fruits for the winter is to ſeal up their pedicles ally conſidered as the right of each particular p'er of the realm to with wax. Cherries with the ſhorteſt pedicle are eſteemed the demand an audience of the king, and to lay before him, with de- beſt. The piſtil of the flower ſometimes becomes the pedicle of cency, and reſpect, ſuch matters as he ſhall judge of importance to the fruit. See the SYSTEM, Sect II. the public weal. The claims of peerage may be hereafter eaſily fet- PEDICULUS, the Louse, in entomology, aGenus of inſects tled, fince by a ſtanding order of the houſe of lords, May, 1767, the belonging to the order of Aptera. It has ſix feet, two eyes, and heralds are directed to take exact accounts, and preſerve regular a ſort of ſting by the mouth; the feelers are as long as the tho entries of all peers and peereſſes of England, and their reſpective rax; and the belly is depreſſed and ſublobated. In order to know deſcendants; and it is required that an exact pedigree of each peer, the true hiſtory and manner of breeding of theſe creatures, Mr. and his family, ſhall on the day of his firſt admiſſion, be delivered Leewenhoeck put two female lice into a black ſtocking, which to the houſe, by Garter, the principal king at arms. As to the pri- he wore night and day. He found on examination that in fix vileges of peers, ſee NOBILITY and PARLIAMENT. days one of them had laid above 50 eggs; and, upon diſſecting it, The houſe of lords have a right to take cognizances originally of he found as many yet remaining in the ovary: whence he con all public accounts, and to enquire into any miſapplication, or de- cludes, that in twelve days it would have laid 100 eggs. Theſe fault in the diſtribution of public monies; or of any other miſma- eggs naturally hatch in ſix days, and would then probably have nagement whatſoever. Towards the latter end of the reign of king produced 50 males, and as many females: and theſe females Charles the Firſt, the houſe of lords afferted their juriſdiction of coming to their full growth in 18 days, might each of them be hearing appeals from the chancery, which they do upon a paper pe- ſuppoſed after 12 days more, to-lay 100 eggs; which eggs, in tition, without any writ directed from the king; and for this their fix days more, might produce a brood of 5000 ; ſo that in eight foundation is, that they are the great court of the king and that weeks, ene louſe may fee 5000 of its own deſcendents. Signior therefore the chancery is derived out of it, and by conſequence that Rhedi, who has more attentively obſerved theſe animals than a petition will bring the cauſe and record before them. This was any other author, has given ſeveral engravings of the different much controverted by the commons, in the reign of Charles the ſpecies of lice found on different animals. Men, he obſerves, are Second, but is now pretty well ſubmitted to, becauſe it has been fubject to two kinds ; the common louſe, and the crab-louſe. thought too much, that the chancellor ſhould bind the whole pro- He obſerves alſo, that the ſize of the lice is not at all proportioned perty of the kingdom without appeal. to that of the animal which they infeft; ſince the ſtarling has As we have noblemen of ſeveral ranks, ſo we may have noblewo- them as large as the ſwan. For further deſcription, ſee Micro men, or Peereſſes, and theſe may be by creation, deſcent, or marri- {copie Objects ; for repreſentation in the natural ſize, and as it age; and firſt king Henry VIII. made Ann Bullen, marchioneſs appears when magnified, ſee Plate II. Fig. 3 For a copious of Pembroke: king James 1. created the lady Compton, wife to Sir deſcription of this infect. See the Article LOUSE. PEDUNCLE, among botaniſts, expreſſes that little ſtalk her huſband, without any addition of honour to him; and alſo the which grows from the trunk or branches of a plant, and ſupports fame king made the lady Finch viſcounteſs of Maidſtone, and af- the parts of fructification, the flower and the fruit, of either. terwards counteſs of Winchelſea, to her and the heirs of her body: See the Syſtem, Sect. II. and king George I. made the lady Schulemberg ducheſs of Ken- PEER, in general, ſignifies an equal, or one of the fame rank dal. A woman noble by creation or deſcent, marrying one under and ſtation : hence in the acts of fome councils, we find theſe the degree of nobility, ſtill remaineth noble, but if ſhe be noble by words, with the conſent of our peers, biſhops, abbots, &c. Af- marriage only, ſhe loſeth her dignity if ſhe marry afterwarda com- terwards the ſame term was applied to the vallals or tenants of moner; though not if the ſecond huſband is noble, and inferior in the fame lord, who were called peers, becauſe they were all dignity to the firſt huſband ; and by the courteſy of England, wo- equal in condition, and obliged to ſerve and attend him in his men noble by marriage, always retain their nobility. A counteſs courts; and peers in fiefs, becauſe they all held fiefs of the ſame or baroneſs may not be arreſted for debt or treſpaſs; for though in lord. The term peer is now applied to thoſe who are impan- reſpect of their ſex, they cannot ſit in parliament, they are neverthe- nelled in an inqueſt upon a perſon for convicting or acquitting leſs peers of the realm, and ſhall be tried by their peers, &c. him of an offence laid to his charge ; and the reaſon why the jury PEERAGE, the dignity of a peer, attached to a duchy, earldom, is ſo called, is becauſe by the common law and the cuſtom of barony, or the like. The king of England confers peerage at plea- this kingdom, every perſon is to be tried by his peers or equals ; fure. King George the Firſt offered his parliament to reſign that a lord by the lords, and a commoner by commoners. Sve the branch of his prerogative, and to have the number of peers limit-- Article JURY. ted. The reaſon, inſiſted on, was the inconvenience accruing, Peer of the Realm, a noble lord who has a ſeat and vote in to the ſtate from an arbitrary and immoderate uſe thereof; the the Houſe of Lords, which is alſo called the Houſe of Peers. See prince having it in his power to throw what number of his crea- NOBILITY. The right of peerage ſeems to have been originally tures he pleafes into the upper houſe of parliament. The twelve territorial; that is, annexed to lands, honours, caſtles, manors, peers, created at once in a late reign, was a main argument in be- and the like ; the proprietors and poffeffors of which were (in half of the peerage bill. It is recorded as a ſaying of king Char- right of thoſe eſtates) allowed to be peers of the realm, and were les; that if his friends could but ſecure him a houſe of commons, ſummoned to parliament to do ſuit and ſervice to the king; and he would put his whole troop of guards into the upper houſe, but when the land was alienated, the dignity paſſed with it as an ap- he would have the peers, SYSTEM OF PEERAGE. THE 1 THE PROGRESS AND INCREASE OF BARONIAL | Greåter Barons, by military ſervice, in capité ; and the latter of the HONOURS IN ENGLAND. Greater Barons, or kings chief tenants, who held of him in capité HE origin of Nobility in Europe is by fome referred to the by barony. All the Kings Barons, or free Tenants , who had ju- Goths; who, after they had ſeized on a part of Europe, re riſdiction over their homagers, were anciently entitled to fit in the warded their Captains with Titles of Honour, to diſtinguiſh them Great Council, or Parliament. The Leffer Barons being very nu- from the common people. That the Barors of England were pow- merous, and the Greater Barons very powerful, both by their at- erful before the Conqueſt, is clear from Harold Earl of Kent be tendants and their own number, in a parliamentat Oxford in 1 258, ing able to ſeize the crown, upon the death of Edward the Confef overawed Henry 111. into conceſſions, which in a great meaſure for; but their greateſt power aroſe from William the Conque- ftripped him of his power; and a few years afterwards, in 1265, ror, who, not conſidering the trouble they might give his deſcen- they defeated him and his fonat Lewes, where he was made priſoner dants, gave English manors in a very profuſe manner to his follow by the Barons, headed by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leiceſter. ers, with extenſive powers; to Hugh Lupus, his nephew, in 1070, The victors themſelves being now afraid of the conſequence of he gave the title and Earldom of Cheſter, to hold as he held the ſuch another tumultuous meeting, inſtead of keeping to the old crown (by the ſword) to enable him to keep the Welſh in awe. forin, ſummoned not all, but only thoſe of the Greater Barons, He was the firſt hereditary Earl, and exerciſed fovereign authority who were of their party; andinſtead of the Leſſer Barons, who uſed over it 40 years, and during that time created 8 Barons. The alſo to come with large retinues, they ordered the Sheriffs in each whole county of Durham, with the title of Earl of Northumber- country, to cauſe two Knights in every Shire to be choſen; and one land, he gave to Walcher, the Biſhop, in 1076; one of whoſe fuc ortwo Burgeſſes for each Borough, to repreſent the body of the peo- ceffors was hardy enough to take up arms againſt Richard I. by ple reſiding in thoſe counties and boroughs. The king, recovering whom he was defeated, and taken prifoner; and upon the Pope's his liberty, not only followed their precedent, but is ſuppoſed to demanding his enlargement, as a ſon of the Church, the King fent have gone farther; and to be the firſt who fent Writs of Summons the Biſhop's armour (upon which he wrote, “See if this be thy to ſome that were not Barons by tenure, to ſit inter Barones, on Son's Coat') to Rome, which ſilenced his Holineſs. account of their quality or prudence. This new mode of calling Notwithſtanding William gave them ſuch power, he admitted fome Barons to parliament, omitting others, and adding whatever upwards of twenty to the dignity of Earl, (Earles, or Ealdermen, the King pleaſed to the number, tended too much to increaſe the and ſometimes Aldermen, and other names) which title was known power of the crown not to be followed by Edward I. and his fuc- among the Saxons, and even the Romans; but they were officiary, ceffors. The Barons by Tenure, were by theſe means effectually and their officers not hereditary, till the Norman Conqueft: Earl- humbled. Their ſeats in Parliament were become a matter of doms then began to be feudal, hereditary, and patrimonial. At firſt grace, net of right; and, from this time properly, were no ways they defcended to heirs general, but from the time of Edward I. neceffary either to the commencement or continuance of a Peer- they have uſually been limited to heirs-male. Thoſe who were age ; than which there cannot be a greater abſurdity. Camden then made Earls, were frequently of the Blood-royal; for which ſays , that Henry III. reckoned 150 Baronies in England; mean- reaſon our monarchs call them in all public writings, Our moſt dear ing, no doubt, Greater Baro nies; but the method above-mentioned Couſin. This was the greateſt dignity in England for above 300 letlened the number, or rather made it uncertain. years, till Edward III. created his ſon Duke of Cornwall. EDWARD I. in 25 years, created one hundred and fixty-one William Rufus conferred the dignity of Earl but on four Barons, and but three Earls. Barons, and but three Earls. There were ſeveral in this and the families. following reigns that had Summons to Parliament, without actual HENRY I. only five. creation. He inſtituted the degree of Knights Bannerets. Indeed STEPHEN's ſituation obliged him to indulge his adher- EDWARD II. created fifty-ſeven Barons, and but fix Earls ; ents, on fifteen of whom he beſtowed the title; and MAUD, his three of whom were of Blood royal. He ſuppreſſed the order of opponent, advanced three others, amongſt whom was the Earl of Knights Templars, in June 1308. Hereford in 1141, being the firſt created by Patent; the general EDWARD III. firſt conferred the title of Duke, which he did in fule being by writ of ſummons. 1335, on his fon EDWARD the BLACK PRINCE, who was created Henry II. added nine Peers during his reign, among whom Duke of Cornwall; and in 1359, Edward conferred the ſame dig- was Malcolm King of Scotland, created Earlof Huntingdon 1954; nity on his couſin Henry Plantagenet, ſon of the great Earl of and Ranulph de Blundeville, Duke of Bretagne, created Earl of Lancaſter, the father of Blanch, wife of John of Gaunt. He alſo, Richmond 1187. de in 1362, created his ſon Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and John of RICHARD Í. made only fix Peers, among whom was Otho Gaunt, Duke of Lancaſter, on the death of the above Henry, his Duke of Saxony, created Earl of York, June 24, 1190. He was father-in-law, to whom, by right of his wife, he was heir. It the firſt King of England, who carried in his ſhield Three Lions | ſhould be remembered, that Edward III. 1328, was the firſt of Pallant, and in his reign coats of arms came to be hereditary in fa- our Kings who aſſumed the title of King of France, dropping that milies, they owing their origin to the Croiſades. After gaining a of Duke of Aquitaine (as Henry III. had before quitted that of complete victory over the French at Gyfors in 1193, he took the Normandy) and at the ſame time quartered the Fleurs-de-lis with motto, Dieu & Mon Droit. the arms of England. So long as the title of Duke made a conſpi- John created eight Peers, among whom was Guy de Thouars, cuous part of their own ſtyle, it is no wonder that they did not Duke of Bretagne, created Earl of Richmond 1216. He granted attempt beſtowing it upon ſubjects. the privilege to the Baron of Kinſale, of being covered in the pre- The title of Duke, however, was conferred very ſparingly for fence of his Sovereign. many ages after; and ſeldom on any that were not ſome way allied The long reign of Henry III. produced eight Barons and to the crown; as was Mowbray Duke of Norfolk, deſcended from fourteen freſh created Earls; among whom was Richard Planta Thomas de Brotherton, in whoſe right the Dukes of Norfolk now genet, the King's brother, eſteemed the richeſt ſubject in Europe, quarter the Royal Arms of England. De la Pole, Duke of Nor- and on that account elected King of the Romans, who had no folk, was alſo allied to the crown; and Stafford, Duke of Bucking- higher title than that of Earl of Cornwall. The great Edmund ham, was deſcended from Humphry Duke of Glouceſter ; on Plantagenet, a prince of the Blood (who had 2000 men in his re which account, the late Earls of Stafford quartered the Royal tinue) was only Earl of Lancaſter, Arms of England and France, within a ſilver border; which arms Before the 49th of Henry III. (1265.) the ancient Partiaments are alſo quartered by the Earls of Huntingdon and Leiceſter, as conſiſted of the Archbiſhops, Biſhops, Abbots, Earls, and Barons ; being deſcended from legitimate fons of the Kings of England; which laſt title Edward the Confeffor introduced out of Norman- paffing unnoticed the natural children of later Sovereigns. Charles dy; from which time the title of Thane (fignifying the ſame degree Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, married the Queen Dowager of of perſons) began to grow outof uſe. The title of Baron was by no France, fifter to Henry VIII.and Grey, Duke of Suffolk, married means fo honourable at firſt, as it has become ſince; the citizens the only daughter by that marriage. Seymour, Duke of Somerſet, of London, and other places, having anciently been ſtyled Barons; was uncle to Edward VI.–Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, was but it was the moſt general and univerſal title of Nobility ; for the firſt Duke not allied to the crown, except Dudley, Duke of originally every one of the Peers of fuperior rank had alſo a baro- Northumberland, whoſe fon, Lord Guilford, had married Lady ny annexed to his other titles. But it hath ſometimes happened, Jane Grey, to whom Edward I. bequeatl. d the crown. that when an ancient Baron hath been raiſed to a new degree of EDWARD III. crowned William de Montacute Earl of Salif- Peerage, in the courſe of a few generations the two titles have de- bury, King of the Iſle of Man, in October 1343; and beſides the fcended differently; one perhaps to the male deſcendants, the four Dukes already mentioned, he conferred the dignity of Baron other to the heirs-general; whereby the earldom, or other fuperior on fifty-five, and of Earl on twenty two in the courſe of fifty years title, hath fubfiſted without a barony: and there are many modern reign. In 1330 he inſtituted the order of the Garter, whoſe num- inſtances, where Earls and Viſcounts have been created, without ber of Knights 1hould not exceed 26, including the Sovereign. annexing a barony to their own honours : fo that the rule doth not During this reign, 51 received this noble order, which ſince has hold univerſally, that all Peers are Barons. become ſo eminent, that there is no royal or princely family in In the Conqueror's time, according to Dugdale," he who had Europe, but has at one time or other, ſince its inſtitution thought not 40 hides of land, or 3840 acres, was not reputed a Baron. it an hopour to be admitted into the number of its companions. Yet Camden, ſpeaking of the ſame time, fays, there were ac RICHARD II. his grandſon, beſtowed, in 1397, the firſt title of counted Barons who held their landsbyan entire Barony, which is Ducheſs of Norfolk on Mary Plantagenet, and that of Duke on 13 Knights fees and a third," fuppofed to have been equal to 4 or eight. He twice conferred the titles of Marquis, firſt on Robert de 5oco pounds per rnn. preſent money. It is poſſible, the former Vere, whom he created Marquis of Dublin and Duke of Irel ind may ſpeak of the qualification of the Leffer Barons, who heldof the (Engliſh titles) in 1385; and in 1387, firſt created a Baron by Pa- tent PEER AGE. TE . year of his was 1 giving titles: he made, indeed, excluſive of the blood-royal, but tent in John de Beauchamp, Baron Beauchamp; beſides thoſe, he coulin Henry, who was a great favourite with her, and carried created eleven Earls, and eleven Barons. At his coronation, a the news of her death to King James, had his peerage from him Champion is firſt mentioned to have been introduced in the JAMES I. her fucceffor, who reigned 22 years, was fond of ceremony. A Barony by Patent goes to the heir-male, being almoſt univer two dukes ; Stuart, Duke of Richmond ; and Villers, Duke of fally fo limited; but a Barony by Writ, now goes to the heirs ge- | Buckingham. The title of Marquis he conferred but once, which neral; and, in caſe of more female heirs than one, it becomes in was on George Villers, afterwards Duke of Buckingham ; but abeyance: when the king may make his option, and grant it to that of Earl twenty-ſeven times, Viſcounts thirteen times, and Baron forty-nine times. The Earls of Arundel, Southampton, and which of them he thinks fit. HENRY IV. during a reign of 13 years and a half, created one Eſſex, and the Lord Paget, were reſtored in the firſt Duke, five Earls, and eleven Barons, and inſtituted the order reign ; and Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham's mother, of the Bath in 1399. made a Counteſs for life in 1618; and the widow of Sir Moyle Henry V.who reigned 9 years and a half, created three Dukes Finch, Viſcounteſs Maidſtone, 1623. Beſide James's vanity and five Earls. and the probable motive of attaching the great commoners to him HENRY VI. whoſe reign extended to 38 years and a half, cre ſelf and his family, another reaſon may be given for his being fo ated eight Dukes, two Marquiſſes, twelve Earls, thrce Viſcounts laviſh of his honours. In Scotland, where he was bred, nobility (the firſt of whom was John Beaumont, Viſcount Beaumont, in was a thing of leſs confequence and ſplendour than in this part of 1439) and thirty-two Barons. the iſland. The peers there always ſat in the ſame aſſembly with the EDWARD IV. in a troubleſome reign of 14 years, created five Commons by whom they might at any time be out-voted and Dukes, two Marquiſfes, ſeventeen Earls, two Viſcounts, and controlled: and, however ancient and honourable their families twenty-one Barons, He was the firſt Sovereign of England, that might be, they were, in general, much inferior to the Engliņa in his Seal, or in his Coin, is crowned with an arch diadem. Lords in point of fortune. In a political view, the King was right EDWARD V's ſhort reign produced no new creation. in multiplying the Peers. The national wealth was increaſed, the RICHARD III. who reigned not quite 3 years, created one Commons were rather too great, and the Houſe of Peers wanted Duke, three Earls, and one Viſcount. to be ſtrengthened. Perhaps, in ſome inſtances, his favours might On the acceſſion of HENRY VII. the number of Peers were re have been beſtowed more diſcreetly. The moſt exceptionable part duced in all to fifty; conſiſting of the Dukes of Norfolk and Suf of his conduct in this matter, ſeems to have been the giving awar folk, the Marquis of Dorſet, fifteen Earls, one Viſcount, and the titles of ſome of the moſt illuſtrious English families, who had about thirty Barons. Beſides the Duke of Buckingham, and the the misfortune of being under attainder. His giving the title of Earl of Devonſhire, the Viſcount Beaumont, and the Lady Hun Devonſhire, firſt, to Lord Montjoy; and then to Lord Cavendish, gerford reſtored ſoon after. His creations were few, being too in deprived the Courtenays of enjoying their ancient honours. Again, teat in deſtroying their power to increaſe their number. Blood by his giving the title of Weſtmoreland to the Fanes, the Ne- Royal excepted, he made but one Duke, Jaſper de Hatfield, his villes, Lords Abergavenny, have hitherto been cut off from being father's brother, Duke of Bedford; and butone Marquis, Berkeley reſtored to their ancient honour of Earl of Weſtmoreland. The Marquis of Berkeley. He created but two Earls, Stanley Earl of Greys, Earls of Stamford, in like manner, are deprived of being Derby, and De Chandew Earl of Bath : no more than one Vif reinſtated to their title of Marquis, by James making Sackville, count, with eleven Barons, in a reign of 23 years. At his death Lord Buckhurſt, Earl of Dorſet. The Howards were ſpared; there were the Duke of Buckingham, the Marquis of Berkeley, yet the Earl of Arundel, fearing left his title of Norfolk might ten or eleven Earls, no Viſcounts, and about thirty Barons. be given away, obtained the favour of being created Earl of that HENRY VIII. beſides Margaret, Counteſs of Saliſbury, of the county in the next reign ; and the Seymours had the good fortune Blood Royal, created only two Dukes, Brandon Duke of Suffolk, to ſee Carr, who had got their title of Somerſet, die without male and Fitzroy Duke of Richmond and Somerſet. One Marquis, iſſue, by which means thoſe two moſt noble families were reſtored Courtenay Marquis of Exeter ; Anne Bulleyn, Marchioneſs of to their ancient titles, and the honour of Peerage. During the Pembroke : fourteen Earls, four Viſcounts, and about thirty Ba- | reign of James, in 1611, he inſtituted the order of Baronets, which rons. He reſtored the Duke of Norfolk and Lord Berkley, and at firſt was not intended to exceed 200, but he exceeded that received the title of Lord D'Arcy, which had been in abeyance. number by five or ſix. His fon Charles I. increaſed them to 250, His reign was long, (37 years) and there were ſeveral attainders. and Charles II. made near 430. Till about the Revolution At his death there were no more than one Duke, Suffolk ; one the number was upon the increaſe, but has fluctuated very Marquis, Dorſet,fifteen Earls; one Viſcount,and about 33 Barons: much ever ſince ; however, their number at preſent is upwards by which it appears, that the increaſe of lay Peers in his time was When James died, the lay-peerage conſiſted of the but ſmall, much leſs than one might have expected, conſidering Duke of Buckingham, the Marquis of Wincheſter, forty-two how greatly he had added to the property of the laity, and how Earls, eleven Viſcounts, one Viſcounteſs, about forty-eight Ba- much he had reduced the Ecclefiaftical Bench. In the room of rons, and Lady Deſpencer. So that in this reign, the number twenty-five parliamentary Abbots and two Priors, he added only was almoſt doubled, being advanced from about fifty-fix to one fix to the number of Biſhops. Five of the fees erected by him ſtill hundred and five. remain, that of Weſtminfter had only one Biſhop, and conti CHARLES I. whoſe troubleſome reign continued 24 years, be- nued but nine years. fides the Duke of York his ſon, the Prince Rupert his nephew, EDWARD VI. in his ſhort reign of but 7 years, created Sey- | Duke of Cumberland, he created the Ducheſs of Dudley, Ducheſs mour, Duke of Somerſet; Grey, Duke of Suffolk; Dudley, Duke of Buckingham; and James Stuart, Duke of Richmond; the Earls of Northumberland , Parre, Marquis of Northampton ; and Pau of Worceſtor, Hertford, and Newcaſtle, Marquiſies of thoſe let, Marquis of Wincheſter. The title of Earl he conferred five places; and the Earl of Kingſton, Marquis of Dorcheſter. He times, that of Viſcount once, and made eight Barons, beſides re conferred the title of Earl or Counteſs on thirty-ſeven perſons, ſtoring the Lords Stafford and D'Arcy, and ſummoning Lord Ruf the title of Viſcount on nine, and ſeventy-ſix arons and Baron- fel in his father's life time. At his deceaſe there were the Dukes eſies. He inſtituted the order of Nova-Scotia Baronets in 1625, of Suffolk and Northumberland, the Marquiffes of Northamp- from which time to the Union there were 230 created; but their ton and Wincheſter, filteen Earls, one Viſcount, and about number is now greatly reduced. At the time of his untimely thirty-ſeven Barons, death, there were two Dukes, four Marquifles, fix Earls, ſeven MARY,who reigned 5 years, reſtored the Howards to the Duke Viſcounts. and fixty Barons; in all one hundred and thirty-three dom of Norfolk, the Courtenays to the Marquiſate of Exeter, and Peers, excluſive of the Royal Family. the Percy's to the Earldom of Northumberland. She granted the CHARLES II. athis Reſtoration had only five leſs, having made privilege of being covered in her preſence to the Earlof Sufiex, who two Earls and four Barons during his excluſion, and reſtored Nor- had been hergeneral, but conferred no title above that of Viſcount. folk and Somerſet dukedoms ; during his reign, he created two of Hercreations were Brown, Viſcount Montacute ; and five Barons. his miſtrefies Ducheſſes, and fix of their offspring Dukes ; which, ELIZABETH, who reigned about 44 years, found at her accef with ten others, made eighteen Dukes, one Marquis, forty-one fion, one Duke, Norfolk; one Marquis, Wincheſter ; fifteen Earls, three Counteffes, nine Viſcounts, two Viſcounteſſes, fifty- Earls, two Viſcounts, and thirty-eight Barons, in all fifty-ſeven five Barons, and Baroneſſes, in all one hundred and thirty-ſeven Peers. She created no more than five Earls, one Viſcount, and Peers and Peereffes, including thofe by Writ of Summons. He cighteen Barons : ſhe reſtored the Marquis of Northampton, and granted the Barons Coronets, whofe equipages before could not be Lords Dacre of the South, and Stourton; and the Seymour and diſtinguiſhed from commoners ; many of whom, as being defcend- Dudlev families to the Earldoms of Hertford and Warwick. At ants of Knights of the Garter and Bath, were equally entitled to her death the number of Peers was nearly the ſame as at heraccef- ſupporters, as fome Baronets are by grants from the Crown. fion ; the leaving one Marquis, Wincheſter ; fixteen Earls, two JAMES II. whoſe reign was but 4 years, added, one Duke Viſcounts, and about thirty-ſeven Barons ; in all fifty-fix Peers. (Berwick) ; one Marquis (Powys) ; two Earls, two Counteties, Queen Elizabeth had too much of the wiſdom of her grandfather, and five Barons. to ſet up a power he had pulled down: ſhe did not even ennoble Sir WILLIAM III. and MARY, who reigned 13 years, being Nicholas Bacon, father of her Lord Chancellor, who was her unable to gratify all the great men who were concerned in the Lord Keeper; and rather choſe to confer the honour of the Garter Revolution, had recourſe to the raiſing powerful Earls to the on Sir Philip Sidney, who refuſed the crown of Poland at her re title of Duke,' and powerful Barons to that of Earl They qucft, than make him a Peer ; ſhe conferred no higher title than created eight Dukes, two Marquiſies, ſeventeen Earls, four Vif- that of Baron Hunidon on Henry Cary, her firſt coufin; and his counts, and fifteen Barons, in all 46 Honours. ANNE, of 520. PEERAGE. nours. She created five Dukes before the Union, and the Dukes of Anne, who reigned 13 years, was by nd means ſparing of ho- | flowers in the hape of ſtrawberry leaves. He is ſtýled, His Grace and uſually ſtyled by the King and Queen, Our Right Truſty and Dover and Brandon after, whoſe feats in the Houſe were then Right Entirely Beloved Couſin, and if of the Privy Council, then denied, but Brandon has been ſince allowed. Before the Union with the addition of Counſellor. His Title The High and Mighty The alſo had created three Marquiſſes; five Earls, and eight Barons. Prince. And all his fons are by courteſy ſtyled Lords, and his At the Union, which took place in 1706, there were twenty-two daughters Ladies. Dukes, three Marquiſſes, fixty-ſeven Earls; nine Viſcounts, fifty MARQUIS.—This dignity, which is called by the Saxons eight Barons, beſides fix Peereſſes in their own right; ſo that the Markin Reve, and by the Germans Markgrave, took its original chole number of lay-peerages was then 165, or thereabouts . After from Mark or March, which, in the language of the northern the Union (he created one Duke, Kent, before Marquis, beſides nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was to guard or govern Dover and Brandon, four Earls, one Viſcount, and ſeventeen the frontiers of a province. This title, which hath the next place Barons; in all, 47. At the Queen's death the Peers were 172. of honour to a Duke; was introduced ſeveral years after that title GEORGE I. whoſe reign was 13 years, at his acceſſion was much had been eſtabliſhed in England; and the firſt on whom it wascon- in the fame ſituation as Charles II.and William HII. He created ferred was the great favourite of King Richard II. Robert de Vere, four of the Blood-Royal Dukes, and ten more of his nobles to the Earl of Oxford, who was created Marquis of Dublin, and by him fame dignity, beſides the Ducheſs of Kendal, twenty-two Earls, placed in parliament between the Dukes and Earls. The creation and Counteſſes, nine Viſcounts, and one Viſcounteſs, and thirteen to this dignity was with nearly the ſame ceremony as that of a Barons in all; and at his death, the Peers amounted to 187. In Duke ; but they are now created by patent; under the Great Seal. 1725 George I. received the order of the Knights of the Bath, Hiscoronation robes are of erimſon velvet, lined with white taffeta, which had lain dormant from the coronation of Charles Il. The and has four guards of ermine on the right ſide, and three on the antiquity of this order is very conſiderable, being firſt introduced left, fet at equal diſtances, with gold-lace above each guard, and is into England by the Saxons. The firſt created at coronations | tied up to the left ſhoulder by a black ribband. Hiscap is of crimſon was October 13, 1399, by Henry IV. velvet, lined with ermine, having a gold tafſel at top. His coronet | George Il. who reigned 33 years, had not the ſame reaſons for is of gold; and has pearls and ſtrawberry-leaves mixed alternately indulgence to his nobles; therefore he conferred the title of Duke round of equal height. His title is, Moſt Noble and Puiſſant upon none but his beloved grandſon Edward Duke of York, and Prince ; and he is ſtiled by the King or Queen, Our Right Truſty the additional title of Newcaſtle-under-line to his late Grace of and Entirely Beloved Couſin. and Entirely Beloved Couſin. His ſons by the courteſy of Eng- Newcaſtle, with remainder to the Earl of Lincoln his nephew, land are titled Lords, and his daughters Ladies. the preſent Duke. His Majeſty created the Marquis of Rocking EARL.—This honour, which came from the Saxons, was of ham, and Marchioneſs de Grey, fifty-one Earls, two Viſcounts, great dignity and power, and for many ages continued the higheſt one Counteſs, one Viſcounteſs, thirty-nine Barons, and one rank in England, till King Edward III. created Dukes, and Baroneſs . At the deceaſe of his late Majeſty there were, includ- Richard II. created Marquiſſes, both of whom had precedency ing Blood-Royal, twenty-three Dukes, one Marquis, one Marchi- affigned above Earls. They had anciently, for the ſupport of their Gnefs, ſeventy-nine Earls, eleven Viſcounts, fixty Barons, and nine ftate, the third penny out of the ſheriff's court, iſſuing out of the Peereſſes in their own right; in all, 184 Peers and Peereſſes. pleas of the ſhire whereof they had their title; as in ancient times George III. aſcended the throne in 1760, and having at there were no Counts or Earls, but had a county or ſhire for his this time feven fons and two brothers, to whom no higher titles Earldom : Afterwards, the number of Earls increaſing, they took can be given than Duke, will not readily confer it on a ſubject; their title from ſome eminent town or village, or even from their the Duke of Northumberland being the only one diſtinguiſhed by own ſeat or park; and ſome from illuſtrious families, as Saliſbury, that honour ; beſides admitting the claim of the Duke of Ha Peterborough, Stamford, Paulett, Cholmondeley, Ferrers, Wal- milton to the title of Brandon. degrave, Stanhope, Athburnham, &c. &c. Nor were titles confined THE ENGLISH AND IRISH DIGNITIES. to England alone, as ſome are taken from the Kingdom of France, Conferred and reſtored by each of our SOVEREIGNS during their as Albermarle and Tankerville. Upon the increaſe of Earls, reſpective Reigns. their revenue ceaſed, and their powers were much abridged ; and it Iriſh. Eng. Iriſh. Eng. became the cuſtom of the Kings of England to aſſign fome ſtated penſion to the perſon whom he ennobled, for the better ſupport of William I. Edward V. his dignity,and it was commonly done in the following proportion: II. Richard III. Viſcounts a fee of twenty marks, Earls of L.20, Marquiſſes of Henry I. 5. Henry VII. Stephen 26 forty marks, and Dukes of L. 40, out of fome particular part of Henry VIII. 17 the royal revenue. A creation-fee to Barons has not yet been 7 9 Edward VI. ſettled ; Charles I. when he created Montjoy Blount,Lord Mont- Richard I. Queen Mary 9 joy of Thurveſton in Derbyſhire, aſſigned to him, and his heirs John 4 Queen Elizabeth 3 29 male, a creation-fee of twenty marks per annum. Anciently an Henry III. James 1. 98 Earl was created with nearly the ſame ceremony as a Duke or a Edward I. 164 Charles I. 57 130 Marquis, but they are now created by letters patent. His corona- II. 63 Charles II. 137 tion robe is the ſame as a Duke or a Marquis, except that he has III. James II. Richard II. only three rows of ſpots. His parliamentary robes are the ſame William and Mary 14 | as a Duke or a Marquis, except that he has only three guards of Henry IV. 17 Queen Anne 8 47 ermine and gold-lace. His cap is the ſame as theirs. It is uncer- -V. 8 George I. 54 60 tain when the coronets of Dukes, Marquiſſes, and Earls were VI. 57 George II. 76 99 ſettled. Sir Robert Cecil, Earl of Saliſbury, Viſcount Cran- Edward IV. 3 George III. bourn, was the firſt of that degree that wore a coronet. An THE DEGREES OF PEERAGE IN ENGLAND Earl's coronet has pearls raiſed upon points, and ſtrawberry-leaves The Degrees of Nobility in Great Britain and Ireland are five, low between them. His title is, Right Honourable, and he is viz. DUKES, MARQUISSES, EARLS, VISCOUNTS, and BA- ſtyled by the King or Queen, Our Right Truſty and Right Well RONS ; to which may be added a Sixth, viz, the Biſhops, as they | Beloved Couſin. are from that dignity entitled to a ſeat in the Houſe of Peers. VISCOUNT. :-was anciently the name of an office under an DUKE-is now the firſt rank of nobility ; but it was the Earl, Vice Comes, who being oftentimes required at court, was cleventh of Edward III. before this dignity was introduced into his deputy to look after the affairs of the county ; but, in the England, when his eldeſt ſon, commonly called the Black Prince, reign of Henry VI. it became a degree of honour, and was made was created Duke of Cornwall. The only ceremony at his in- hereditary. The firſt Viſcount in England, created by patent, veſtiture, was girding him with the ſword. When John of Gaunt, was John Lord Beaumont, who was by the above King created ſon of King Edward III, was created Duke of Lancaſter by the Viſcount Beaumont, and he gave him precedence above all bas fame Monarch, he had inveſtiture, not only by the King's girding He is created by letters patent. His coronation robes are him with the ſword, but by putting on him a cap of fur, under a the ſame as an Earl's, except that he has only two rows and a coronet of gold fet with precious ſtones In the twenty-firſt of half of plain white fur ; and the fame diſtinction on his parlia- King Richard II. the Duke of Hereford, and ſeveral others, were mentary robes. His cap is the ſame; and his coronet is fura created by putting a cap of honour on their heads, and by deliver rounded with a row of pearls cloſe to the chaplet. His title is, ing a rod into their hands; then the ſurcoat, mantle, hood, and Right Honourable, and he is ſtyled by the King or Queen, Our patent, were introduced with much ceremony; all which is now Right Truſty and Well beloved Couſin. omitted, they being now created by patent. The mantle and ſur BISHOPS.-The precedence of Biſhops was ſettled by ſta- coat which a Duke wears at the coronation of a King or Queen is tute 31ſt Henry VIII. chap. x. to be next to Viſcounts, they be of crimſon velvet, lined with white taffeta, and the mantle is dou-ing Barons of the Realm. They have the title of Lords, and bled from the neck to below the elbow with ermine, having four Right Reverend Fathers in God. Before the Saxons came into rows of ſpots on each ſhoulder. His parliamentary robes are of fine England, there were in this kingdom three Archbiſhopricks, viz. ſcarlet cloth, lined with white taffeta, and the mantle is doubled with London, York, and Caerleon upon Uſk, each of which had many four guards of ermine at equal diſtances, with gold lace above each ſuffagans; but, ſoon after St. Auguſtine's arrival in England, guard, and is tied up to the left ſhoulder by a black riband. His he, from the great kindneſs he received from the King of Kent, cap is of crimſon velvet,lined with ermine, having a gold tafſel on ſettled the Metropolitan See at Canterbury; where it has conti- the top; and his coronet, which is of gold alſo, is ſet round with nued ever ſince. York continued Archiepiſcopal, but London and Caerleon 20 O 4 5 18 Henry II. 2 22 6 8 I 22 55 o 4 81 41 5 II 4 2 34 46 2 57 184 149 rons. No. 125. Mm PEERAGE. preferred to precedency from knights, at the co- ſo lowed place before ordinary eſquires. And all bachelors of disi- nity, law, phyſic, and mulie; maſters of arts, barriſters in the inns of courts ; lieutenant-colonels, majors, captains, other commif It is alſo quoted by Sir George Mackenzie, in his Obſerva- . Saxons to be much at eafe ; ſo one of its Biſhops removed the See to St. David's in Wales. The Archbiſhop of Canterbury is the Chancellor is the next ; and the Archbiſhop of York is the third : houſhold, may equal, if not precede, any gentleman, that has first peer in Great Britain next the Royal Family; the Lord High fioned military officers and pieces patent officers in the king they taking place of all Dukes, and have the title of Grace given none of theſe qualifications. them. The Archbiſhop of Canterbury writes himſelf, By Di In towns corporate, the inhabitants of cities are uine Providence ; but the Archbiſhop of York, and the other Bi thoſe of boroughs; and thoſe who have borne magiſtracy to ai Drops, By Divine Permiſion. The Biſhops of London, Durham, others. And herein a younger alderman takes not and Wincheſter, have precedence of all Biſhops; the others his ſenior being knighted, or as being the elder knight; as was the yank according to the feriority of conſecration. caſe of alderman Craven, who, though no knight, had place as BARON. This dignity, which is either by writ or patent, is fenior alderman, before all the reſt who were extremely ancient, and its original name in England was Vavaf tonation of king James . This is to be underſtood as to public four, which by the Saxons, was changed into Thane, and by the meetings relating to the town; for it is doubted, whether it wil Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the Hiſtory hold good in any neutral place. It has been alſo determined in of England, and undoubtedly had aſſiſted, or been ſummoned to the earl marſhal's court of honour, that all who have been lord parliament; but ſuch is the deficiency of public records, that the mayors of London, ſhall every where take place of all knights- firſt precept to be found is of no higher date than the 49th vear of bachelors, becauſe they have been the king's lieutenants. King Henry III. which, although it was iſſued out in the King's flame, it was neither by his authority nor by his direction; for, not tions on Precedency, that in the caſe of Sir John Crook, ferjeant only the King himſelf, buthis fon Prince Edward, and moſt of the at law, it was adjudged by the judges in court, that ſuch ſerjeants nobility who ſtood loyal to him, were then priſoners in the hands as were his feniers , though not knighted, ſhould have preference of the rebellious Barons; having been ſo made in the month of May notwithſtanding his knighthood. preceding, at the battle of Lewes, and ſo continued until the me RULES OF PRCEDENCY AMONG WOMEN. morable battle of Eveſham, which happened in Auguſt the year The precedency among men being known, that which is due following; when, by the happy eſcape of Prince Edward, he reſcued to women, according to their ſeveral degrees, will be eaſily de the King and his adherents out of the hands of Simon Mountfort, monſtrated : but it is to be obſerved, that women, before mar. Earl of Leiceſter. It cannot be doubted but that ſeveral parlia- riage, have precedency by their father, with this difference be ments were held by King Henry III. and King Edward I. yet no tween them and the male children; that the ſame precedency is record is to be found giving any account thereof (except the 5th of due to all the daughters that belongs to the oldeſt; which is no King Edward I.) until the 22d year of the reign of the laſt-men among the ſons; and the reaſon of this diſparity ſeems to be tioned King. Some of the Barons were only ſummoned once. that daughters all ſuceeed equally, whereas the oldeſt ſon ex When a Baron is called up to the Houſe of peers by writ of Sum- cludes all the reſt. mons, the Writ is in the King's name, and he is directed to come By marriage a woman participates of her huſband's dignities; to the parliament appointed to be held at a certain time and place, but none of the wife's dignities can come by marriage to her and there to treat and adviſe with his Majeſty, the prelates, and huſband, but are to defcend to her next heir. nobility, about the weighty affairs of the nation. The ceremony If a woman have precedency by creation, or birth ; ſhe re- of the admiſſion of a Baron into the Houſe of Peers is thus : He tains the fame though ſhe marry a commoner; but if a woman is brought into the Houſe between two Barons, who conduct him nobly born, marry any p nobly born, marry any peer, ſhe ſhall take place according to the to the Lord Chancellor, his Patent, or Writ of Summons, be- degree of her huſband only, though ſhe be a duke's daughter . ing carried by a King at Arms, who preſents it kneeling to the A woman privileged by marriage with one of noble degree, Lord Chancellor, who reads it, and then congratulates him on his ſhall retain the privilege due to her by her huſband, though he becoming a member of the Houſe of Peers, and inveſts him with ſhould be degraded by forfeiture, &c. for crimes are perſonal. his parliamentary robe. The patent is then delivered to the Clerk The wife of the eldeſt fon of any degree, takes place of of the Parliament, and the oaths are adminiſtered to the new Peer, the daughters of the fame degree, who always have place who is then conducted to his feat on the Barons Bench. Some immediately after the wives of ſuch eldeſt fons, and both of Barons hold their ſeats by Tenure. The firſt who was raiſed to them take place of the younger ſons of the preceding degree, this dignity by patent was John de Beauchamp of Holt Caſtle, Thus the lady of the eldeſt ſon of an earl takes place of an created Baron of Kidderminſter, in Worceſterſhire, to him and earl's daughter, and both of them precede the wife of the his heirs-male, by King Richard II. in the rith year of his reign. youngeſt ſon of a marquis ; alſo the wife of any degree precedes He inveſted him with a mantle and cap. The coronation-robes the wife of the eldeſt ſon of the preceding degree. Thus, the of a Baron are the ſame as an Earl's, except that he has only two wife of a marquis precedes the wife or the eldeſt ſon of a dukc. rows of ſpots on each ſhoulder. Inlike mannerhis parliamentary GENEALOGICAL DESCENT TO GEORGE III. FROM robes have but two guards of white fur, with rows of gold-lace. EGBERT, THE FIRST KING OF ENGLAND. In other refpects they are the ſame as other Peers. King Charles EGBERT, of the Saxon race, firſt King of England, crowned II. granted a coronet to the Barons. It has ſix pearls, ſet at equal A. D. 819; died 838; was ſucceeded by his fon Ethelwolf, crowned diſtances, on the chaplet. His cap is the ſame as a Viſcount's. 838 ; died 855 ; whoſe eldeſt ſon Ethelbald was crowned 8573 His ſtile is, Right Honourable; and he is ſtiled by the King or died 860; who was ſucceeded by his three brothers, the youngeſt Queen, Right Truſty and Well Beloved among Men. of whom was Alfred, crowned 872 ; died 900 ; whoſe daughter RULES OF PRECEDENCY. Elfrida married Baldwin II. count of Flanders, from whom de- The order of precedency, which is obſerved in general, is fcended, in a direct line, Matilda of Brunſwick, who married thus: That perſons of every degree of honour or dignity take William duke of Normandy, the conqueror of England. After place according to the ſeniority of their creation, and not of Alfred died, the crown deſcended to Edward the Elder, his ſon, who years, unieſs they are deſcended from the blood-royal; in which was crowned 900; died 925 ; and was fucceeded by A thelftan, bis caſe, they have place of all others of the fame degree. eldeſt ſon, who died without iflue 940, and the crown deſcended The younger fons of the preceding rank take place from the tohis brother Edmund, who died in 946: whoſe ſiſter Thyra mar- eldeſt ſon of the next mediate, viz. the younger fons of dukes ried Gormo III. king of Denmark, from whom defcended Swaine, from the eldeſt ſons of earls ; the younger ſons of earls from the King of England, 1012, who died 1015; father of Canute I. who addeſt ſons of barons. All the chain of precedency is founded was king of England 1027 ; Harold, king of England 1036; and upon Canute II. , that died 1041, Edmund, ſon of Henry VIII. cap. 10, anno 1539. Edward , But there have been fince ſome alterations made in this act, by 1 and dying 975, was ſucceeded by Edward I 1. who was murdered ſeveral decrees and eſtabliſhments in the fucceeding reigns, byhis ſtep mother and was ſucceeded byhisſonEtheldred, who died whereby all the fons of viſcounts and barons are allowed to pre 1016, and was ſucceeded by his fon Edmund II. ſurnamed Iron- cede baronets. And the eldeſt ſons and daughters of baronets have fides, who dying in 1017, his ſon Edward was driven into exile, place given them before the eldeſt ſons and daughters of knights, where he had two children, Edward Atheling who died without il- of what degree or order foever, though ſuperior to that of a ba- ſue, and Margaret fole heireſs to the crown of England, fet alide ronet; theſe being but temporary dignities, whereas that of ba- by the Conqueſt, married Malcolm III. king of Scotland, whole Tonets is hereditary: and the younger fons of baronets are to daughter Maud, in 1101, was married to Henry I. ſon of Willi- have place next after the eldeſt of knights. am duke of Normandy, the conqueror of England; which Henry Obferve alſo, that as there are ſome great officers of ſtate, who ſucceeded his father in England 1100, and died in 1135; whole take place, although they are not noblemen, above the nobility daughter Maud was married to Henry V. emperor of Germany, of higher degrees ; ſo there are ſome perſons, who, for their dig- and in 1154, her ſon Henry II. was crowned king of England, nities in the church, degrees in the univerſities, and inns of court, and dying in 1189, left two ſons, and a daughter named Matilda, officers in the ſtate or army, although they are neither knights, or Maud, married to Henry the Lion, duke of Brunſwick, from nor gentlemen born, yet take place among them. Thus, all co whom Erneſtus Auguftus, elector of Hanover, father of king lonels and field-officers who are honourable, as alſo the maſter of George I. was lineally deſcended, and who married, 1658, So- the ordnance, quarter-maſter-general, doctors of divinity, law, | phia the Grand-daughter of James I. king of England, and Vich phyſic, and muſic ; deans, chancellors, prebendaries, heads of of that name of Scotland, who was defeended from Matilda, or colleges in univerſities, and ſerjeants at law, are, by courteſy, al Maud, daughter of Henry I. as before ſhewn. QUE MAL MON. DROIT linee of Waless leathes. KOT LE DROI) hrms of the thing Princes of the Blood Shopil , Dukes j Marquiping 75mpláno . be the skiputem of Porage SOIT IN DIEU. ET The King ho QUI MAI QUT SOIT SO12 aalle VAL) INSE ICH DIEN Prince of Wales Duke of York OUT - MAI . QUI. I MAL OIT SOIT ENSE NSE مرا Duke of Clarence DUKES Duke of Gloucester 12 XTCT DEVOTRE FLEURIE LORECT ASPERO ÆVI VTTTS roy POUR MELIORIS IL TIME GEN LA IT PRETIUM DECISCO YU TAKE USPICIUN Sermici ROSE JE Rulment Grafion Beaufort Albans Pesca VITI'S JYLLO TAVY XLIIGA PARVEKLIS IN SIRI SARA VENU Y DIET POUR Leets Bedford DEFEND Marlborough Devonshire Ruitland Google + TONTT HUTANDO L'ERFICE | DONEC ME VON NENO TTILLOTGUT Brander TENTESAUS ME Huaster: LIGNE DIAPONENT SIC Portland Manchester Dorset Bridgewater PHONTE )1:11 1.1 BV OYUT SPERANCE Miwcastle Northumberland MARQUISSES ahl 22 DIFETA FIDES DOMAT hem CAUSE NUS SERIO tl BONNE QUAM Buckinuhan ATAPE ARA COEXF13 PIACRAMENTAS Then SERO JAY Lanvitown Vind CUSED Salisbury Bath PEÉR À G E. land 1766. PART 1. Douglas Hamilton, DUKE of BRANDON and HAMILTON, marquis of Hamilton and Baron of Dutton. [Creation] Duke of Brandon, 1711. PEERAGE OF ENGLAND. See duke of HAMILTON in the Peerage of Scotland, SECT. I. DUKES. Brownlow Bertie, DUKE of ANCASTER, duke of Keſteven, marquis and earl of Lindſey, born May 1, 1729, ſucceeded his nephew. Robert, Peers of Blood Royal, Duke of Cornwall, &c. the late duke, July 8, 1779. [Creation] Duke of Ancalter, 1715. The Moſt High, Puiſſant, and Moſt Illuſtrious Prince, GEORGE William Henry-Cavendiſh Bentwick, DUKE of PORTLAND, mar- AUGUSTUS-FREDERICK, Prince of Great Britain, Prince of Wales, quis of Tichfield, viſcount Woodſtock, and baron of Cirenceſter, born Elečtoral Prince of Brunſwick-Lunenburg. DUKE of CORNWALL and Rotheſay, Earl of Cheſtºr and Carrick, Baron Renfrew, Lord of the April 14, 1738, ſucceeded his father William, May 1, 1762. [Creation.] Duke of Portland 1716. Ines, Great Steward of Scotland, Knight of the Garter, &c. &c. Born, William Montagu, DUKE of MANCHESTER, viſcount Mandeville Auguſt 12, 1762. Created Prince of Wales, Aug. 17, 1762, and earl of and baron Montagu of Kimbolton, born Mar. 3, 1763, ſucceeded his fa- Cheſter by the ſame letters-patent, and in 1765 elected a Knight Compa- ther George, Sept. 2, 1788 [Creation.] Duke of Mancheiter 1716. nion of the moſt noble order of the Garter, was inſtalled at Windſor July John Frederick Sackville, DUKE of DORSET, earl of Dor et and Mid 25, 1771; and took his ſeat in the houſe of Peers, as Duke of Cornwall dleſex, baron Buckhurſt, and baron Cranfield, was born March 25, 1745, and Earl of Cheſter, November 11, 1783. and ſucceeded his uncle Charles, the late duke, jän. 6, 1769. [Creation.] The firſt creation of a Duke in England was by a charter, dated March Duke of Dorſet 1720. 13, 1337, by King Edward III. in favour of his ſon Edward, ſurnamed Fraucis Egerton, DUKE of BRIDGEWATER, marquis of Brackley, the Black Prince, wherein he was declared Duke of Cornwall, to hold earl of Bridgwater, vilcount Brackley, and baron of Elleimere; was born himſelf and his heirs, Kings of England, and to their firſt born ſons; by May 21, 1726, iucceeded the late duke John, his brother, in 1748.--- virtue of which the eldeſt ſon of the king of England, is duke of Cornwall [Creation.] Duke of Bridgewater 1720. the moment he is born. Henry-Fynes Pelham-Clinton DUKE of NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LINE, The Earldom of Cheſter was a creation by letters-patent by Henry III. in the county of Stafford, earl of Lincoln, Knight of the Garter; was in 1247, and annexed to the eldeſt ſon of the King of England for ever. born July, 1762, ſucceeded his father Henry-Fynes Pelham, Feb, 22, Prince Edward, his eldeſt ſon, was created Earl thereof, and the title has 1791. [Creation.] Duke of Newcaſtle 1756. been enjoyed by all his ſucceſſors. Hugh Percy, DUKE of NORTHUMBERLAND, earl of Northumber. The title of Prince of Wales, after the reduction of the Britiſh Prince land, earl Percy, baron Warkworth, of Warkworth caſtle, and a baronet Llhewelyn, and the incorporation of that principality with England, was in right of his father; and baron Percy, Lucy, Poynings, Fitz-Payne, firſt conferred upon Prince Edward, the infant ſon of Edward I. in June Bryan, and Latimer, in right of his mother ; born Aug. 14, 1742, and 1 284; ever ſince which time the principality has always been under the lucceeded his father June 6, 1786, [Creation.] Duke of Northumbera government of the Engliſh; and notwithſtanding the title of Prince of Wales has been ſeveral times merged in the crown, yet it was never be- SECT. II. MARQUISSES. ftowed but on the heir to the throne. Francis Powlet; MARQUIS of WINCHESTER, and earl of Wiltſhire, As preſumptive heir to the Crown of Great Britain, he is Hereditary to which hunours he ſucceeded on the death of Henry duke of Bolton, &c. Steward of Scotland, Duke of Rotheſay, Earl of Carrick, and Baron of Renfrew; titles ſettled in 1399 by Robert III. King of Scotland, on the who dying Dec. 25, 1794, without male iſſue, the dukedom became ex- tinct, and the marquiíate and earldom deſcended as above; but the barony Prince his eldeſt ſon, perpetually appropriating thoſe titles to the future of St. John of Baling became in abeyance between the late duke's daugh- Princes of Scotland, as ſoon as born; and from the acceſſion of James I. ters. [Creation.] Marquis of Wincheſter 1549. they have been continued to the Princes of Great Britain. Jemima De Grey, MARCHIONESGREY, and baroneſs Lucas, of Prince Frederick, DUKE of YORK and ALBANY in Great Britain, Crudwell, born 1722, fucceeded to the title of Marchioneſs Grey, &c. on and Eari of Ulster in Ireland; Biſhop of Oſnaburgh in Germany, Knight the death of her grandfather, Henry late duke of Kent June 5, 1740.--- of the Garter and Knight of the Bath, &c. ſecond ſon of His Majeſty, &c. a Lieutenant General in the Army, Colonel of the ſecond regiment of [Creation.] Marchioneſs Grey. George Grenville-Nugent-Temple, MARQUIS of BUCKINGHAM, Foot Guards or Colditream Regiment. His Royal Highneſs was bern earl Temple, Viicount and baron Cobham, as well as earl Lugent, in Auguſt 16, 1763, elected Biſhop of Oſnaburgh, Feb. 27, 1964, and cre- Ireland, and Knight of the Garter; born June 175, 1753, ſucceeded his ated to the above titles, Nov. 27, 1784. father, Sept. 12, 1779, in his Engliſh honours; and to the Iriſh on O&t. Prince William Henry, DUKE of CLARENCE and St. ANDREW's 13, 1788; was declared Lord Lieutenant of the kingdom of Ireland July in Great Britain, and Earl of Munster in Ireland, Knight of the Gar- 31, 1782, to whom the inſtitution of the order of St. Patrick owes its ori. ter, and Knight of the Thiſtle, third ſon of his Majeſty, a Captain in the gin. In 1784 was advanced to the dignity of an Engliſh marquis, end a Royal Navy. His Royal Highneſs was born Auguſt 21, 1768, and created to the above titles May 16, 1789, ſecond time declared chief governor of the kingdom of Ireland. [Creation.] Marquis of Buckingham 1784. Prince William-Henry, DUKE of GLOUCESTER and EDINBURGH, William Petty, MARQUIS of LANSDOWN, viſcount Calne and Can- in Great Britain, and Earl of CONNAUGHT in Ireland, by patent Nov. ſton, and baron Wycomb, and alſo earl of Shelburne, viſcount. Fitzmau. r9, 1704; next brother to his Majeſty ; Gen. of his Majeſty's Forces; Col. of the firſt Reg. of Fout Guards. 'Chancellor of the Univerſity of rice, and baron Dunkerton, (Iriſh honours); and knight of the Garter; born 1737, ſucceeded his father the late lord May 14, 1761. [Creation.] Dublin ; Kanger and Keeper of Windſor Foreſt and Cranbourn Chace; Marquis of Lanſdown 1784. Ranger of Hamp on Court Park, Warden and Keeper of the New-FO- Grenville-Leveſon Gower, MARQUIS of STAFFORD, earl Gower, reſt in Hampſhire, &c. and Knight of the Garter, in 1762. viſcount Trentham, and Lord Gower, baron of Stittenham, and baronet, born Nov. 25, 1743, and was created Duke and Earl as above, Nov. 17, born 1717, lucceeded his father Dec. 5, 1754. [Creation.] Marquis. of 1764. Stafford 1786. N. B. The Dukes of the Blood Royal are ſtyled Moſt Illuſtrious. Charles Howard, DUKE of NORFOLK, Earl marſhal, and hereditary George Townſhend, MARQUIS TOWNSHEND, viſcount Townſ- earl marſhal of England, Earl of Arundel, Surry, and Norfolk, baron of hend of Raynham, and baron Townſhend of Lynn Regis; and baronet ; born Feb. 28, 1724, and ſucceeded his father the late viſcount, March Mowbray, Howard, Segrave, Brewſe of Gower, Fitz-Alan, Warren, 12, 1764. [Credition. ] Marquis I ownthend 1787. Clun, Oſwaldeſtre, Maltraver, Greyſtock, Fornival Ver on, Lovetot, Strange of Blackiere, and Howard of Caſtle-Riſing ; premier duke, earl, james Cecil, MARQUIS of SALISBURY, earl of Saliſbury, viſcount Cranbourn, and baron Cecil, of Effendon, was born Sept. 1748, ſucceeded and baron of England, next the blood royal, and chief of the family of Howards. He was born March 15, 1746, and ſucceeded his father his father the late earl, Sept. 1780. [Creation.] Marquis of Saliſbury 1789, Charles the late duke, uguſt 1, 1786. [Crcation ] Duke of Norfolk 1483. Thomas Thynne, MARQUIS. of BATH, viſcount Weymouth, and Edward Seymour, DUKE of SOMERSET, baron Seymour, and ba- baron Thynne, of Warminſter, knight of the Garter, and baronet, born ronet, born Jan. 2, 1717-18, ſucceeded his father the late duk , Dec. Sept. 13, 1734, ſucceeded Thomas the late viſcount, his father, Jan. 12. 15. 1757. [Creation] Duke of Somerſet 1546 : 1751. [urcution.] Marquis of Bath 1789. Charles Lennox, DUKE of RICHMOND in England, of Lennox in john janes Hamilton, MARQUIS of ABERCORN, viſcount Hamil- Scotland, and Aubigny in France, (confirmed at Paris 1777) earl of ton, and earl of Abercorn. [Creation.] Marquis of Abercorn 1790. See earl of Abercorn in the Scotch Peerage. March and Darnley, Baron of Settrington nd Turbolton ; born Feb. 22, 1735, ſucceeded Charles the late duke his father, Aug. 8, 1750 [ Creation ] Char es Cornwallis, MARQUIS and EARL CORNWALLIS, viſct. Duke of Richmond 1675. Broome, Baron Cornwallis, and Baronet, born Dec. 31, 1738, fucceeded Auguſtus-Henry Fitzroy, DUKE of GRAFTON, earl of Euſton and his father, June 23, 1763. [Creation] Marquis Cornwallis, 1792. Arlington, Vicount Thetford and Ipſwich, baron of Arlington and Sud- Francis Seymour Conway, MARQUIS and EARL of HER I FORD, bury; born Sept. 28, 1736; ſucceeded his grandfarher Charles, the late earl of Yarmouth, vitcount Beachamp, lord Conway, baron of Ragley, Duke of Grafton, May 6, 1757. [Creation.] Duke of Grafton 1675. and baron Conway of Killallagh in Ireland, born Feb. 12, 1743, ſuc- Henry Somerſet, DUKE of BEAUFORT, Marquis of Worceſter, ceeded his father Francis, the late marquis, June 14, 1794. [Creation] carl of Glamorgan, viſcount Grofmont, baron Herbert, lord of Ragland, Marquis of Hertford, 1793. SECT. III. EARLS. Chepſtow and Gower, all in the county of Monmouth; as alſo baron Beaufort of Caldecot-caſtle; L. L. D. born O&t. 16, 1744, ſucceeded Charles Talbot, EARL of SHREWSBURY, in England, Wexford his father Charles, the late duke, who died November 1, 1756. [Creation.] and Waterford in Ireland, and baron Talbot, Strange of Blackmere, Duke of Beaufor 1682. Furnival, Verdun, Lovetot, Giffard of Brimsfield, Comyn of Badenagh, Aubrey Beauclerk, DUKE of St. ALBANS, earl of Burford, baron or Badenock, Valence, and Montchenſy, born March 8, 1754, ſucceeded of Heddington, and baron Vere of Hanworth, in Middleſex. ; born June his uncle George, the late earl, July 21, 1787. [Creation.] Earl of 3, 1740, fucceeded his couſin, Teb. 16, 1786. [Creation] Duke of St. Shrewſbury 1442. Albans, 1684 Edward Smith Stanly, EARL of DERBY, baron Stanly of Latham, Francis Godolphin Oſborn, DUKE of LEEDS, marquis of Caermar- and baronet, ſucceeded his grandfather the late earl, Feb. 22,1766. [Cre. then, earl of Danby, viſcount Latimer and Dumblaine, baron Oſborne ation.] Earl of Derby 1485. of Kiveton, and a baronet; fucceeded his father Thomas, the late duke George Herbert, EARL of PEMPROKE, and Montgomery, baron March 23, 1789. [Creation] Duke of Leeds, 1694. Herbert of Cardiff, Roſs, Kendal, Parr, Fitz-Hugh, Marmion, St. Quin- Francis Ruflél, DUKE OF BEDFORD, marquis of Taviſtock, earl of tin, and Herbert of Shurland; was born Sept. 10, 1759. and ſucceeded Bedford, baron Ruſſel , of Cheneys-Thornhaugh, and baron Howland, Henry the late earl, his father, Jan. 28, 1794. [Creation.] Earl of Pem. of Streatham in Surry; was born July 22, 1765, and ſucceeded his grand- father January 14, 1771. [Creation] Duke of Bedford, 1694. John Howard, EARL of SUFFOLK, earl of Berkſhire, viſcount An- William Cavendiſh, DUKE of DEVONSHIRE, marquis of Harting dover, and baron Howard of Charleton; ſucceeded his coulin February ton, Earl of Devonſhire, baron Cavendith, of Harwick, born December 24, 1783. [Creation] Earl of Suffolk, 1603. 14, 1748, and ſucceeded his father the late duke, October 2, 1764. Henry Cecil, EARL of EXETER, and baron of Burleigh, born March (Creation] Duke of Devonſhire, 1694: 14, 1754, ſucceeded his uncle Brownlow, the late earl, Dec. 27, 2793, George Spencer, DUKE of MARLBOROUGH, marquis of Bland [Creation] Earl of Exeter, 1605. ford, earl of Sunderland and Marlborough, baron Spencer of Worm Spencer Compton, EARL of NORTHAMPTON, baron Compton, leighton, baron Churchill of Sandridge; born Jan. 28, 1738, ſucceeded ſucceeded his brother Charles, the late earl, O&tober 18, 1763, born 1730, his father Charles, Oct. 20, 1758. [Creation] Duke of Marlborough, [Creation] Earl of Northampton, 1618. 1702. Bafil Fielding, FARL of DENBIGH, viſcount Fielding, baron Field John-Henry Manners, DUKE of RUTLAND, marquis of Granby, ing of Newnhain Paddox, and St. Litz; allo earl of Deimond, viſcount earl of Rutland, baron Roos of Hamlake, Truſbut and Belvoir, baron Callan, and baron Fielding of Lecaghe, in Ireland, was born January 3, Manners, of Haddon, was born Jan. 3, 1778, and ſucceeded his father, 1720 : fucceeded his father William, the late earl, Auguſt 2, 1755.- who died Oct, 24, 1787. [Creation] Duke of Rutland, 1703, [Grection] Earl of Denbigh, 1622, Joho He was broke 1551. P E ER AGE. Jóhr Fane, EARL OF WESTMORELAND, and baron Burgherſ ; George Auguſtus Calvering Cooper, EARL COOPER, Viſcount born the ift of January, 1759, and ſucceeded his father on the 26th of Fordwich, baron Cooper, ef Wingham, and baronet; and a Prince of April, 1774. [Creation] Earl of Weſtmoreland, 1624. the Roman Empire ; fucceeded his father Dec. 225 1789. [Creation.] Charles Henry Mordaunt, EARL of PETERBOROUGH, earl of Earl Cooper 1717. Monmouth, viſcount Mordaunt of Avalon, baron Mordaunt of Turvey, Charles Stanhope, EARL STANHOPE, viſcount Stanhope, of Mahon, and baron Mordaunt of Ryegate, was born May 11, 1758, ſucceeded his and baron of Elvafton, ſucceeded his far her Phillip, the late earl, March father Charles, the late earl, Aug. 1, 1779. [Creation] Earl of Peter 7, 1786, born Aug 3, 1753. [Creation.] Earl Stanhope 1717. borough, 1627. Robert Sherard, EARL and BARON of HARBOROUGH, and George Harry Grey, EARL of STAMFORD, baron Grey of Groby, lord Sherard in England, and baron Leitrim, in Ireland. His lordſhip baron Bonville and Harrington, born October 1, 1737 ; ſucceeded his was born O&. 15, 1719, and ſucceeded his brother Bennett, Feb. 24. father, the late earl, May 20, 1768. [Creation] Earl of Stamford, 1628. 1770. [Creation] Earl ot Harborough 1719. George Finch, EARL of WINCHELSEA, earl of Nottingham, viſ Thomas Parker, EARL of MACCLESFIELD, baron of Macclesfield, count Maidſtone, baron Fitz-herbert of Eaſtwell, lord Finch of Daven viſcount Parker, born Ost. 12, 1723, ſucceeded his father March 17, 1769 try, lord of the Royal Manor of Wye, in Kent; was born Nov. 4, 1751, [Creation.] Earl of Macclesfield 1721. and ſucceeded his uncle, the late earl, on the ad of Aug. 1769. (Creation] George Fermor, EARL of POMFRET, and lord Lempſter, born Earl of Winchelſea, 1628. Jan. 8, 1768, fucceeded his father George, the late earl, June 9, 1786. Phillip Stanhope, EARL of CHESTERFIELD, baron Stanhope of [Creation.] Earl of Pomfret 1721. Shelford; was born Nov. 10, 1755, ſucceeded to theſe honours on the William Graham, EARL GRAHAM, and baron Graham, of Belford, death of Phillip Dormer, the late earl, March 24, 1773. [Creation] Earl in the county of Northumberland, in England, and duke of Montrofe in of Cheſterfield, 1628. Scotland. For an account of this fanily, ſee duke of Montroſe, in the Sackville Tufton, EARL of THANET, baron Tufton, hereditary peerage of Scotland. ſheriff of Weſtmoreland and Cumberland; lord of the honour of Skipton John Kerr, EARL KERR, and baron Kerr, of Wakefield, in York. in Craven; was born June 30, 1769; fucceeded his father, who died ſhire; and duke of Roxburgh, in Scotland. For an account of this fa- April 19, 1986. [Creation] Earl of Thanet, 1628. mily, fee duke of Roxburgh, in .he Peerage of Scotland. John Montagu, EARL of SANDWICH, viſcount Hinchinbroke, baron James Waldegrave, EARL WALDEGRAVE, viſcount Chewton, Montagu of St, Neots, in Huntingdonſhire ; born Jan. 26, 1744 ; fuc baron Waldegrave of Chewton, and baronet; born July 30, 1785, fuc ceeded John, the late earl, his father, April 30, 1792. . [Creation] Earl of ceeded his brother George, the late earl, July 29, 1794. [Creation.] Eart Sandwick, 1660. Waldegrave 1729. William Anne Holles Capel, EARL of ESSEX, viſcount Malden, and John Aſhburnham, EARL of ASHBURNHAM, viſcount St. Aſaph, baron Capel of Hadham; born O&tober 7, 1732, ſucceeded his father and baron of Aſhburnham ; born Oct. 30, 1724, ſucceeded his father William, late earl, Jan. 8, 1743. [Creation] Earl of Effex, 1661. John, the earl, March 10, 1737. [Creation.] Earl of Aihburnham 1730. James Brudenell, EARL of CARDIGAN, baron Brudenell of Stanton Thomas Howard, EARL of EFFINGHAM, lord Howard; born Ja. Wivil , and baron Brudenell of Dean, and baronet ; born April 20, 1725, nuary 13, 1746-7; ſucceeded his father Nov. 19, 1763. [Creation.] Earl ſucceeded his brother George, late duke of Montagu, in the earldom and of Effingham 17316 barony, May 28, 1790, who died without male iſſue, and the dukedom Horatio Walpole, EARL of ORFORD, viſcount Walpole, baron Wal. became extin&t. [Creation] Earl of Cardigan, 1661. pole, and baron Houghton, born April 12, 1718, ſucceeded his nephe Frederick Howard, EARL of CARLISLE, viſcount Howard of Mor George, the late earl, Dec. 5, 1791. [Creation.] Earl of Orford 1741 1 peth, baron Dacres of Gillefiand, born May 28, 1748, ſucceeded his Charles Stanhope, EARL of HARRINGTON, viſcount Peterlham, father Henry, September 4, 1758. [Creation.] Earl of Carliſle, 1661. baron of Harrington, born March 20, 1773; fucceeded his father Wil- Henry Scot, EARL of DONCASTER, and baron Tynedale, in Nor liam, the late carl, April 1, 1779. [Greation,] Barl of Harrington 1741. thumberland. His Grace is known by the title of Duke of Buccleugh, &c. John Wallop, EARL of PORTSMOUTH, viſcount Limington, and in Scotland. For particulars, ſee the Scotch Peerage. baron Wallop, of Farley-Wallop, born June 29, 1742, ſucceeded his Anthony-Aſhley Cooper, EARL of SHAFTSBURY, baron Amley, of grandfather Nov. 23, 1762. [Creation.] Earl of Portſmouth 1743. Winbourne St. Giles, baron Cooper, of Powlett, born Sept. 17, 1761, George Grevile, EARL of WARWICK, earl of Brooke, and lord and ſucceeded his father, the late earl, May 27, *1771. [Creation.] Earl Brooke, baron Brooke of Beauchamp-court, in Warwickſhire; born of Shaftſbury, 1672. Sept. 16, 1746, ſucceeded his father the late earl July 6, 1773. [Creation.] Willoughby Bertie, EARL of ABINGDON, and baron Norreys of Earl of Warwick 1746. Rycote, born January 16, 1740, ſucceeded his father Willoughby, the George Hobart, EARL of BUCKINGHAMSHIRE ; lord Hobart, ba. late earl, June 10, 1760. [Creation.] Earl of Abingdon, 1682. ron Hobart of Blickling, and baronet; born 1724, ſucceeded his brother Henry Noel, EARL of GAINSBOROUGH, viſcount Campden of Camp John, the late earl, Aug. 3, 1793. [Creation.] Earl of Buckinghamſhire den, baron Noel of Ridlington, baron Hicks of Ilmington, baron Noel of 1746. vir more Titchfield, and baronet; ſucceeded his brother Baptiſt, the late earl, in William Fitz-William, EARL FITZ-WILLIAM, viſcount Milton, May 1770. [Creation.] Earl of Gainſborough, 1682. and a lord Fitz-William, and baron of Milton, in England; alſo earl Fitz-Wil. Other-Hickman Windſor, EARL of PLYMOUTH, and baron Wind liam, viſcount Milton, and baron Fitz-William of Liffor, or Liflord, in for of Badenham, in Buckinghamſhire; born May 30, 1751, ſucceeded Ireland. [Creation ] Earl Fitz-William 1746. his father, the late earl, April 20, 1771. 1771. [Creation.] Earl of Plymouth, George-Edward-Henry-Arthur Herbert, EARL of POWYS, viſcount 1682. Ludlow, lord Herbert, of Cherbury, baron Powys, of Powys-caſtle, and George-Auguflus Lumley-Saunderſon, EARL of SCARBOROUGH, baron Herbert of Cherbury in Ludlow, born July 7, 1755 ; ſucceeded viſcount and baron Lumley, of Lumley Caſtle, and viſcount Lumley, of his father, the late earl, Sept. II, 1772. [Creation.] Earl Powys 1748. Waterford, in the kingdom of Ireland; ſucceeded his father May 14, George Wyndham, EARL of ÉGREMONT, baron of Cockermouth, 1782, was born Sept. 22, 1758, unmarried. [Creation] Earl of Scarbo and baronet, born Dec. 7, 1751, and ſucceeded his father the late earl, rough, 1690. Aug. 21, 1763. [Creation.] Earl of Egremont 1749. Williani-Henry Naſſau, EARL of ROCHFORD, viſcount Tunbridge, George-Simon Harcourt, EARL HARCOURT, viſcount Harcourt, baron of Enfield; was born June 28, 1754 ; ſucceeded his uncle William, viſcount Nuneham, baron Harcourt; ſucceeded Simon, the late eari, the late earl, Sept. 28, 1781. [Creation] Earl of Rochford, 1696. Sept. 16, 1777. [Creation.] Earl of Harcourt 1749. William Charles Keppel, EARL of ALBEMARLE, viſcount Bury, George Auguſtus North, EARL of GUILFORD, lord North, and baron Alford, of Aſhford, in Kent, born May 13, 1772, ſucceeded his Guilford, born Sept. 11, 1757, ſucceeded his father, Frederick, the late father, the late earl, O&tober 13, 1772. [Creation] Earl of Albermarle, earl, Aug. 3, 1792. [Creation.] Earl of Guilford 1752. 1696. Philip Yorke, EARL of HARDWICKE, viſcount Rovſton, lord George-William Coventry, EARL of COVENTRY. viſcount Deer Hardwicke, baron Hardwicke; born May 29, 1757, ſucceeded his uncle hurit, born April 26, 1722 ; ſucceeded his father William, the late earl, the late earl, May 16, 1790. [Creation.] Earl of Hardwicke 1754. March 18, 1751. [Creation] Earl of Coventry, 1697, Henry Vane, EARL of DARLINGTON, viſcount and baron Barnard, of Barnard-caſtle, in the biſhoprick of Durham ; born July 27, 1766, fuc- ford, and baron of Hoo, in England; alſo viſcount Grandiſon, in Ire ceeded his father Henry, the late earl, who died Sept. 8, 1792. [Creation.] land, was born June 9, 1735, and ſucceeded his father as earl of Jerſey, Earl of Darlington 1754. Auguſt 29, 1769, and alſo lucceeded to the title of viſcount Grandiſon, Belafyſe, EARL FAUCONBERG, viſcount Belafyſe, and baron Fau- in Ireland, upon the death of the late earl Grandiſon. [Creation] Earl of conberg ; and baronet; ſucceeded his father, the late earl, in Feb. 1744, Jerſey, 1697 [Creation.] Earl Fauconberg 1756. John Poulett, EARL POULETT, viſcount Hinton, and baron Poulett, Henry- Thomas Fox-Strangways, EARL of ILCHESTER, lord Ilchef- of Hinton St. George, born April 7, 1756, ſucceeded his father Vere, the ter and Stavordale, baron Strangways, of Woodford-Strangways, baron late earl, April 14, 1788, [Creation] Earl of Poulett, 1706. of Redlynch ; born July 27, 1747, and ſucceeded his father the late earl, George-James Cholmondeley, EARL of CHOLMONDELEY, viſcount Sept. 29, 1776. [Creation.] Earl of Ilcheſter 1756. Malpas, and viſcount Cholmondeley, of Namptwich, baron of Newburgh, John Richard Welt, EARL DE LA WAR, viſcount Cantalupe, baron and alſo viſcount Chalinondeley, of Kells, and baron Newburgh, in Ire de la War, and lord Weft; born July 28, 1758, and ſucceeded his bro- land; born April 30, 1749, and ſucceeded his grandfather, June 10, 1770. ther, Jan. 1783. [Creation.] Earl de la War 1761. [Creation.] Earl of Cholmondeley 1706. Jacob Pleydell-Bouverie, EARL of RADNÓR, viſcount Folkeſtone, Edward Harley, EARL of OXFORD, earl Mortimer, and baron Har baron of Longford, in Wilts, baron Ple, dell-Bouverie, of Coleſhill, in ley of Wigmore! was born Sept. 2, 1726, ſucceeded his father Edward Berks, and baronet; born March 4, 1750, ſucceeded his father William, April 11, 1755. [Creation.] Earl of Oxford 1711. the late earl, Jan. 28, 1776. [Creation.] Earl of Radnor 1765. Robert Shirley, EARL FERRERS, viſcount Tamworth, and baro George-John Spencer, EARL SPENCER, viſcount Spencer and Althorpe, net, born Sept. 25, 1756, ſucceeded his father Robert, the late earl, and baron Spencer. of Althorpe, in the county of Northampton; born April, 18, 1787. [Creation.] Earl Ferrers 1711. Sept. 1, 1758, ſucceeded his father John, the late earl, October 31, 1783. William Wentworth, EARL of STRAFFORD, viſcount Wentworth, of Wentworth-Woodhouſe, baron of Satinborough, Raby, Newmarſh, John Pitt, EARL of CHATHAM, viſcount Pitt, of Burton-Pynſent, , , and Overfley, and baronet; born 1712 ; ſucceeded his father Thomas, in the county of Somerſet ; born Sept. 10, 1756, and in 1778,- -fucceeded the late earl, in Nov. 1739. [Creation.) Earl of Strafford 1711. his father, the late earl, who was ennobled for his tranſcendant abilities, W lliam Legge, EARL of DARTMOUTH, baron of Dartmouth, and the eminent ſervices he had rendered the nation. [Creation.] Earl of viſcount Lewiſham ; born 1725, ſucceeded William the late earl, his Chatham 1766. grandfather, Dec. 15, 1750. [Creation.] Earl of Dartmouth 1711. Henry. Bathurſt , EARL BATHURST, baron Bathurſt, of Battleſdon, Charles Bennet, EARL of TANKERVILLE, baron of Oflulíton, born and baron Apſley; born May 22, 1762, and ſucceeded his father Aug. b, Nov: 15, 1743, fucceeded his father Charles, the late earl, O&t. 27, 1767. 1794. [Creation.] Earl Bathurſt 1772. [Creation.] Earl of Tankerville 1714. Wills Hill, EARL of HILLSBOROUGH, and viſcount Fairford, in Heneage Finch, EARL of AYLESFORD, and baron Guernſey, born England. His lordſhip is known by the title of Marquis of Downſhire in July 15, 1751, ſucceeded his father, the la e earl, May 9, 1777. [Creation. ] Ireland. See Marquis of DOWNSHIRE, in the Peerage of Ireland. [Cre- Earl of Aylesford 1714. ation.] Earl of Hillſborough 1722. Frederick Hervey, EARL of BRISTOL, lord Hervy of Ickworth, Thomas Bruce Brudenell, EARL of AYLESBURY, lord Bruce, of biſhop of Derry, in Ireland; born Aug. 1730, ſucceeded his brother Tottenham; born 1730, was created June 8, 1776, on the demiie of his Dec. 23, 1779. [Creation.] Earl of Briſtol 1714. Uncle, the late earl. Henry Yelverton, EARL of SUSSEX, viſcount de Longueville, baron Thomas Villiers, EARL of CLARENDON, lord Hyde, of Hindon, in Grey of Ruthyn, Haſtings, Weysford, and Valence; and baronet; born the county of Wilts, and baron of the kingdom of Pruſia; born Dec. 25, July 7, 1729, ſucceeded his brother Auguftus, the late earl, in 1758.- 1753, ſucceeded his father Thomas, the late earl, Dec. 11, 1786. [Cross- (Creation.] Earl of Suſſex 1717. tion] Earl of Clarendon 1776. Henry - APIER Carls of England. Der System of Perug? 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MILLE QUX VIRTUS Duo TRUCTOR PARI Ellingham Orford Harrivaton Portsmouth Tarwick Buckinghamſhire IND IRT O: TNPS ET ET MORE FIDE Fiturillian Lewis Eurement Harecord Hertford Guillord Published as the Act directs, br C. Cooke 1.27 . Paternoster Rog als DUCUM CAUT PERERE Enginsh Earls, Wiscounts) 3 Bishops, See System (of Peerage. Plate 3 NVID PETUAS IMIDE Ussez DIRE NEC KUPTAS NEG TEMERE ET BELI SANS DE VINCIT Cornwallis MA OD NEC FAIRE BONNE JOUR VIRTUS Hardwick Darlington Fauconberg Icheſter Delawar F LIBERTE DROIT NUMINEN ARA CARION PERFIC TA FOY BLANK AUT AND DJEU DEFEND LITE Spencer TIEN PENIGNO ETENTES THINK Radngr Chatham Bathurst Hillsborough Aylesbury cro HEP CRUR AIRTUT EL TUELAND EQUUS VIRUM KAR IKO LIBERIATO IN1 NE (FIDÈL COTICUT Clarendon VILE Abergavenny ERIL Mansfield INFERRUM Leicester SUO CON Uxbridge MAGISTRI TUSINDICATS Lonsdale اه they a WLJENU "STUTTI MA CHARACTIE WOENDO NIHIL ALGES TER VETTUR US NON STEN FARIUM AUT WANDELL THE NON Norwich HUMANA NINIMO LILITATISVILLE Talbot Grosvenor $FECTEMURA Beaulieu Camden HORTATORIO Strange anmann WTA GALUSI M DIE Line EORT DE DEO PLAYSTIUM SCUTUM POTCUNQUE FORTE Edgcumbe LACUERIT Howe fortescue ENGLISHVISCOUNTS. QODDD ODD DDDD AONSTANTIN HONOREM CAUSE RAISO (CCIENCA WIRTUTUM PIDES BONNE JAY MEC SPERNERS PASSE BASIS CREDIENTI SUIVEZ Hereford (MECOURRER EC GEVE FATIENCE Montague Marquis Townshend Weymouth Bolingbroke Falmouth ജ 222 ) BOD BIEMII FECI NARDUS JE US JUSTA UBI TUEBOR Torrington COM PENSE Leinster LAPS USQU Courtenay COMME Wentworth Dudley Maynard PODO CORON DIE EORT DE TEXTES VIRTUSY AVANT STA LEGE Hamden AV PLAYSERE (RIT NUNQUAM SOLA NOBILITAS Hamilton ET DROIT Sydney Earl Edgaumbe Sackville ENGLISH ARCHBISHOPS. Canterbury York BISHOPS BISHOPS 1 London Wincheſter Durham Norwich S'Asaph Bangor ka Bath&Wells Bristol Carlisle Chester Chicheſter S'Davids Ely Exeter Gloucefter XFR Hereford Landaft Lincoln Litchfield Orford Peterborough Rochester Saliſbury Worcester Publijhed Arcording to Act of Parliament by C. Cooke. N° 17, Paternoster how Woman & Burons ا of England, In System of Peerage ? Plate 4. 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EN OROR Thurlow OUR ACES GRACE Bruderell EXCI Loughborough NON HEBILE ) Walſingham Dineror Gage Publipred According to tet of Parliament, by Cooke 177 Paternoster finir PEER AGE. 1784. = 2200 Henry Nevill, EARL of ABERGAVENNY, viſcount Nevill, and Aug.27, 1767, ſucceeded his father George, the late viſcount, Aug. 28 baron Abergavenny; born 1784, fucceeded his father George, the late 1783. [Creation] Viſcount Sackville 1782. Thomas Townſhend, VISCOUNT SYDNEY, 01 St. Leonard's, Glou- earl, Sept. 10, 1785. [Creation] Earl of Abergavenny 1783. George Townſhend, EARL of the county of LEICESTER, baron De ceſterſhire, June 9, 1789. and lord Sydney, of Chillehurſt, in Kentz Ferrars, of Chartley, lord Bouchier, Lovayne, Baffet, and Compron, March 6, 1783. [Creation] Viſcount Sydney 1789. eldeſt ſon of marquis Townſhend, born April 18, 1753, ſucceeded as ba- SECT. V. ron de Ferrars, on the death of his mother, Sept. 14, 1770, the being the ARCHBISHOPS AND BISHOPS of ENGLAND ſince his MAJESTY'S only child of James, fifth earl of Northampton, and Elizabeth, baroneſs de Ferrars, of Chartley in the county of Stafford. [Creation] Earl of Leicef Acceſfion, with the Sum each See is charged in the King's Books, and their rea? Value. ter 1784. Henry Bailey - Paget, EARL of UXBRIDGE, lord Paget, of Beaudeſert, ARCHBISHOP of CANTERBURY. Hon. Dr. Frederick Corn- fucceeded to this barony on the death of Henry, the late earl of Uxbridge, wallis, tranſlated from Litchfield and Coventry, died March 19, 1783; Nov. 16, 1769, being deſcended by his mother from William the fifth and was ſucceeded by Dr. Moore, tranſlated from Bangor, Lord Arch- lord Paget. [Creation] Earl of Uxbridge 1784. biſhop of Canterbury, primate of all England, prefid. of corp. of fons James Lowther, EARL of LONSDALE, viſcount Lowther, baron Low of the clergy, and ſociety for propagation of the goſpel, truſtee of the Britiſh Muleum, and a governor of the Charter-houſe. ther, baron of Kendal, baron of Burgh; and a baronet. [Creation] Earl of Lonſdale 1784. Rated in the King's books at £. 2682 12 2. Real value 8000. ARCHBISHOP of YORK. Hon. Dr. Robert Drummond, tranſlated Alexander Gordon, EARL of NORWICH, and lord Gordon of Hunt- ley, Engliſh honours; to which he was created July 2, 1784; His grace from Saliſbury, died 1776, when Dr. William Markham, tranſlated from is known by the title of duke of Gordon, in Scotland. See Duke of GOR Cheſter, ſucceeded ; lord archbiſhop of York, primate of England, and pon, in the Peerage of Scotland. lord high almoner to his Majeſty. £. 1600 7000 BISHOP of LONDON. Dr. Robert Lowth, tranſlated from Oxford, John Chetwynd Talbot, EARL TALBOT, viſcount of Ingeſtrie, in Staffordſhire ; lord Talbot, baron of Henſol, born April 23, 1977, fuc- dying Nov. 3, 1787, was ſucceeded by Dr. Beilby Porteus from Chefter . ceeded his father, the late earl, May 19, 1793. [Creation] Earl Talbot £. 1000 = 6000 BISHOP of DURHAM. Dr. Thomas Thurlow, brother to lord Richard Groſvenor, EARL GROSVENOR, viſcount Belgrave, in the Thurlow, who died May 27, 1791: and was ſucceeded by Hon. Shute county palatine of Cheſter; lord Groſvenor, baron Groſvenor, of Eaton, Barrington, uncle to Viic. Barrington, cuſtos rotulorum of the principa. in Cheſhire, and baronet; was born June 18, 1731, ſucceeded his father lity of Durham. f. 1821 13 = 8739 BISHOP of WINCHESTER. Dr. John Thomas fucceeded from Sa- Aug. 1, 1755, as baronet, and was created a peer, April 9, 1761. [Cre- ation] Earl Groſvenor 1784. liſbury, died in May, 1781, and the Hon. Dr. Brownlow North fucceed - Edward-Huſſey Montague, EARL BEAULIEU, lord Beaulieu, was ed from Worceſter: uncle of the earl of Guilford, prelate of the order of the Garter. advanced to the dignity of an earl July 8, 1784. £. 2873 18 1 = 7400 John-Jeffries Pratt, EARL CAMDEN, viſcount Bayham, and lord BISHOP of CHICHESTER. Dr. (now Sir) William Ashburnham, Camden; born 1759 ; ſucceeded his father, the late cari, April 18, 1794. Bart. ſucceeded 1754; rector of Geſtling in Suflex. £.677 1 3 = 2600 BISHOP of PE TERBOROUGH. Dr. John Hinchliffe died 1793, ank [Creation] Earl Camden 1786. John Murray, EARL STRANGE, and lord Murray, of Stanley, in the was ſucceeded by Dr. Spencer Madan. £. 414 178 1700 county of Glouceſter, was ſo created Aug. 8, 1786. His grace is known BISHOP of St. ASAPH. Dr. Samuel Halifax died in 1790, and was by the title of duke of Athol, in Scotland. See Scotch Peerage. ſucceeded by Dr. Lewis Bagot, brother to lord Bagot. £. 187 118 = 1600 Richard Howe, EARL HOWE, viſcount Howe, and lord Čienawiy, in BISHOP of ROCHESTER. Dr. John Thomas, who was ſucceeded Ireland; and baronet ; fucceeded his brother, George-Auguſtus, the late 1793, by Dr. Samuel Horſley, dean of Weſtminſter, dean of the order of Bath. viſcount July 5, 1758, and is an admiral of the Blue. [Creation] Earl £.358 40= 2400 BISHOP of BATH and WELLS, Dr. Edward Willes died in 1775, and Howe 1788. George Edgecumbe, EARL of MOUNT EDGECUMBE, viſcount was ſucceeded by Dr. Charles Moſs, Biſhop of St. Davids, and F. R. S. Edgecumbe, and Valetort, lord Mount Edgecumbe, born 1730, fucceeded £.533 1 3 his brother Richard, in the barony, May 10, 1761. [Creation] Earl of BISHOP of OXFORD. Dr. John Butler was tranſlated, Feb. 7, 1788, Mount Edgecumbe 1789. to Hereford, and was ſucceeded by Dr. Samuel Smallwell. Hugh Forteſcue, EARL FORTESCUE, viſcount Ebrington, and lord £. 381 II O 2800 Forteſcue, of Caſtle-hill, born March 12, 1753, ſucceeded his father BISHOP of EXETER. Hon. Dr. Frederick Keppel died Dec. 1777 Matthew, the late lord. July 10, 1789. [Creation] Earl Forteſcue 1789. and was ſucceeded by Dr. John Roſs. £.500 = 2700 Henry Digby, EARL DIGBY, lord Digby, baron of Sherborne, in the BISHOP of WORCESTER. Dr. Brownlow North was tranſlated in county of Dorſet, and alſo baron Digby in Ireland; born Jan. 6, 1773, May 1781, to Wincheſter, and was ſucceeded by Dr. Richard Hurd, clerk ſucceeded his father, Sept. 25, 1793. [Creation] Earl Digby 1790. of the cloſet to the king. £.929 13 3 = 3400 Algernon Percy, EARL of BEVERLY, lord Lovaine, and baron of BISHOP of ELY. Dr. Edmund Keene dying in July 1781, was ſuc- Alnwick; born Jan. 21, 1749-50, ſucceeded to the barony on the death ceeded by the Hon. Dr. James Yorke, uncle to the earl of Hardwicke. of his father, the late duke of Northumberland, June 6, 1786. [Creation] £. 2134 18 6 = 4000 Earl of Beverly 1790. BIHSOP of LITCHFIELD and COVENTRY. Dr. Richard Hurd, Joſeph Damer, EARL of DORCHESTER, viſcount Milton, Engliſh who was tranſlated to Worceſter in July 1781, was ſucceeded by the Hon. honours; alſo baron Milton of Shroníhill in Ireland; born March 12, 1718. Dr. James Cornwallis, brother to earl Cornwallis. fr. 559 17 3 = 2800 [Creation] Earl of Dorcheſter 1792. BISHOP of GLOUCESTER. Dr. Samuel Halifax, tranflated to the David Murray, EARL of MANSFIELD, in Middleſex; alſo viſcount ſex of St. Afaph, was ſucceeded, May 23, 1789, by Dr. Richard Beadon, Stormont, Baron of Scoon, and Balvaird, in Scotland, he ſucceeded to maſter of Jeſus college, Cambridge. £315 7 3 = 2200 the earldom on the death of his uncle William, the late carl, March 15, BISHOP of SALISBURY. Hon. Dr. Shute Barrington, who, May 1793 ; but to his Scotch honours on the death of his father, in 1748. His 27, 1791, was tranſlated to Durham, and was ſucceeded by Dr. John lady is a counteſs in her own right, by the entail of the earldom of Mans Douglas, chancellor of the order of the Garter. f. 1385 59 = 3500 field, in Nottinghamſhire, on the death alſo of his uncle, as before men BISHOP of LANDAFF. Hon. Dr. Shute Barrington was tranſlated tioned. [Creation] Earl of Mansfield 1776. to Saliſbury in July 1782, and was ſucceeded by Dr. Richard Watſon. Henry Herbert, EARL of CARNARVON, and baron Porcheſter, born £. 154 14 2 = 1600 Aug. 20, 1741. [Creation] Earl of Carnarvon 1793. BISHOP of BANGOR. Dr. John Moore, who, in April 1783, was tranſlated to Canterbury, and was ſucceeded by Dr. John Warren. SECT. IV. VISCOUNTS. £. 131 16 3 George Devereux, VISCOUNT HEREFORD, and baronet; premier BISHOP of NORWICH. George Horne, who was preceded by Dr. viſcount of England, born April 25, 1744, and ſucceeded his brother Charles Manners Sutton, reg. of the order of the Garter. Edward, the late viſcount, in July 1783. [Creation] Viſcount Hereford f. 834 11 7 = 5000 1549 BISHOP of St. DAVID's. Dr. Samuel Horſley was tranſlated 1793, George-Samuel Brown, VISCOUNT MONTAGU. This honour is ſaid to Rocheſter, and was ſucceeded by Dr. William Stuart, brother to the to belong to Baron Kilmaine of Ireland, the late viſcount dying unmarried, earl of Bute. £.428 12 I Sept. 7, 1794. [Creation] Viſcount Montagu 1554. BISHOP of BRISTOL. Chriſtopher Wilſon dying in 1784, was ſuca George-Richards St. John, LORD VISCOUNT BOLINGBROKE, and ceeded by Dr. Henry Reginald Courtenay. £.224 11 0 = 1500 St. John, lord St. John, of Lydiard-Tregoze, and lord St. John, of Bat BISHOP of LINCOLN. Dr. Thomas Thurlow, tranſlated Jan. 24, terſea; born March 5, 1761, fucceeded his father, May 5, 1787. [Cre 1717, to Durham, and was ſucceeded by Dr. George Prettyman, dean of ation] Viſcount Bolingbroke 1712. St. Paul's. 6.828 4 9 = 3200 Evelyn-George Boſcawen, VISCOUNT FALMOUTH, baron Boſca BISHOP of CARLISLE. Dr. John Douglas, who was tranſlated to wen-Roſe, fucceeded Hugh, the late viſcount, his uncle, Feb. 4, 1782. Saliſbury, May 27, 1791, was fucceeded by the Hon. Dr. Edward Ver- [Creation] Viſcount Falmouth 1720. non, brother to lord Vernon. £.531 49 = 2800 George Byng, VISCOUNT TORRINGTON, lord Byng, and baronet, BISHOP of HEREFORD. Hon Dr. Harley who died Jan. 7, 1788, born in 1739; ſucceeded George, the late viſcount his father, April 6, was ſucceeded by Dr. John Butler. £.768 1 10 = 3000 1750. [Creation] Viſcount Torrington 1721. BISHOP of CHESTER. Dr. Beilby Porteus, in 1787, was tranſlated William-Robert Fitzgerald, VISCOUNT LEINSTER, of Taplow, in to London, when Dr. William Cleaver, principal of brazen noſe college, the county of Bucks: his grace is known by the title of duke of Leintter, Oxford, fucceeded. £. 420 13 3= 2700 in the kingdom of Ireland. See duke of Leinſter in the Peerage of Ireland. BISHOP of SODOR and MAN. The biſhop of this Iſand is fuffragan [Creation] Viſcount Leinſter 1746. to the archbiſhop of York, who conſecrates him. The duke of Athol Thomas Noel, VISCOUNT WENTWORTH, of Welleſborough, and nominates the biſhop, the king confirms his choice; but becauſe a ſubject lord Wentworth of Nettleſted, and a baronet; was born Nov. 13, 1745, preſents to this ſee, the biſhop is not allowed a ſeat in the houſe of lords; and ſucceeded his father, the late viſcount, Oct. 31, 1774. [Creation though in every other reſpect has equal rank and power with the reſt of the Viſcount Wentworth 1762. biſhops; he is ſtyled lord biſhop, becauſe he is baron of the Iſland. Dr. William Courtenay, VISCOUNT COURTENAY, of Powderham-caſ George Maſon was ſucceeded in this ſee in 1780, by Dr. Clandius Crigan, tle, in the county of Devon, and baronet; born July 30, 1768; ſucceeded SECT. VI. BARONS. his father William, the late viſcount, Dec. 14, 1788. [Creation] Viſ Edward Southwell-Clifford, LORD DE CLIFFORD, Weſtmoreland, count Courtenay 1762. and Veſcy; born June 2, 1767, ſucceeded his father Edward, the late William Ward, VISCOUNT DUDLEY, vifcount Ward, lord Ward lord, Nov. 1, 1777. [Creation] Baron de Clifford 1295. of Birminghan; born Jan. 21, 1750, ſucceeded his half-brother John, George-William-Frederick Oſborne, LORD CONYERS; and by cour- the late viſcount, Oét. 8, 1788. [Creation] Viſcount Dudley 1763. teſy, Marquis of Carmarthen, as the eldeſt ſon of the duke of Leeds; born Charles Maynard, VISCOUNT MAYNARD, and lord Maynard, of Jan. 2, 1775; ſucceeded his mother, the late baroneſs Conyers, Jan. 26, Much-Eaſton, and haronet. His lordſhip was born Aug. 9, 1751. and 1784. [Creation] Baron Conyers 1294. ſucceeded his father William in his baronetage, 1773; and upon the death Thomas Stapleton, LORD LE DESPENCER, and a baronet; born of the late viſcount, June 30, 1775, ſucceeded as viſcount and baron Nov. 10, 1766, ſucceeded his father in the baronetage Jan. I, 1781, and Maynard. [Creation] Viſcount Maynard 1766. the late Rachal Auſten Daſhwood, baronefs le Delpencer, on May 16, Thomas Hampden-Trevor, VICOUNI HAMPDEN, lord Trevor, 1788. [Creation] Baron le Deſpencer 1295. of Bromham ; fucceeded his father Robert, the late viſcount, Auguſt 21, Robert George William Trefulus, BAKON CLINTON and SAYE, ta 1783, was born Sept. 11, 1746. [Creation] Viſcount Hampden 1766. which honour he ſucceeded on the death of George the late earl of Or- George Germain, VISCOUNT SACKVILLE, lord Bolebroke, born ford, who died 1791 without male iſſue, when this title, being a barony Nn = I 200 2000 No. 125 in PEERA GE. county Heſter Pitt, BARONESS CHATHAM, was advanced to the dignity of a peereſs, Oct. 5, 1761, I George III. by the title of baronefs Chatham, of Thomas Pelhani, LORD PELHAM, of Stanmer, in the county of Suſſex; George Venables Vernon, LORD VERNON, and baron of Kinderton, born March 28, 1739 ; ficceeded his brother Thomas, the late lord, Sept. 11, Francis-Reynolds Morton, LORD DUCIE, of Tortworth, in Glouceſterſhire; in fée, deſcended to the iſſue of baroneſs Clinton and Saye, his grandmo- ther. (Creation] Baron Clinton 1398. Chatham in Kent, with limitation to her heirs male by her late huſband, Wild George-Thickneſſe-Tuchet, LORD AUDLEY ; born Feb. 4, 1758; ſuc- liam Pitt earl of Chatham. ceeded his uncle John, late earl of Caſtlehaven, who died April 22, 1777, as baron Audley. [Creation] Baron Audley 1403. Richard-Henry Roper, LORD DACRÉ; born June 14, 1745; ſucceeded was born Feb. 26, 1728, fueceeded to this title 1768, upon the death of The Charles Trevor who died without iſſue, July 3, 1794. [Creation] 1460. mas the late duke of Newcaſtle. [Creation] Baron Pelham 1762. Priſcilla-Barbara-Eliz. Burrell, BARONESS WILLOUGHBY DE ERES. Henry-Richard Fox, LORD HOLLAND, baron of Holland in Lincoln- BY, by original creation, in 1314: by writ of ſummons, Jan. 15, 1580. fhire, and of Foxley in Wilts ; born Nov. 23, 1773, fucceeded his father Henry Arundel, LORD ARUNDEL of WARDOUR; and Count of the Stephen, the late lord, November 26, 1774. [Creation] Baron Holland 17627 ſacred Roman Empire; born March 31, 1740 ; ſucceeded his father Henry the Jolin-Jaines Percival, LORD LOVELL, lord Holland, baron Lovell, baron Holland, fucceeded his father, Dec. 20, 1772. [Creation] Baron Lovell late lord, September 21, 1756. [Creation] Baron Arundel 1605; Count of the Roman Empire, 1595. 1762, Eliz. Rawdon, BARONESS HUNGERFORD, Newmarch, Botreaux, Molins, and Moel, mother to the preſent earl of Moira, in Ireland ; fucceeded Cheſhire ; born May 9, 1735, and ſucceeđed his father, Auguſt 2, 1780. [Cire to the above baronies on the death of her brother, the late earl of Huntingdon, ation] 1792. O&t. 2, 1789. [Creation] Baron of Hungerford 1482. Charles-Philip Stourton, LORD STOURTON, baron Stourton, born Aug. 22, 1752 ; ſucceeded his father William, Oct. 3, 1781. [Creation] Baron 1785. [Creation] 1763. Stourton 1448. John Campbell, LORD SUNDRIDGE, of Combank in the county of Kent; Elizabeth Somerſet, BARONESS BOTETOURT, and ducheſs Dowager and in failure of his iſſue to the lords Frederick and William, his brothers, and of Beaufort. [Creation] Baroneſs 1465. their heirs, December 20, 1766. His Grace is known by the title of duke of Charlotte Murray, BARONESS STRANGE, lady of the Iſle of Man, Argyl in Scotland, ſee duke of Argyl in the Peerage of Scotland. mother of the preſent duke of Athol, baroneſs in her own right, by deſcent from Martin-Bladen Hawke, LORD HAWKE; born Sept. 20, 1744, ſucceeded her great grandmother, a daughter of the earl of Derby, beheaded in 1651. his father, the late lord, oa. 16, 1781. [Creation] Baron Hawke 1776. John-Peyto Verney, LORD WILLOUGHBY DE BROKE; born Aug. Jeffery Amherſt, LORD AMHERST, born in 1727, was created baron 4, 1738 ; ſucceeded his uncle Richard, the late lord, Auguſt 11, 1752. [Pre Amherft, of Holmefdale, in Kent, May 20, 1776, baron Amherſt of Montreal, ation] Baron Willoughby de Broke 1492. in Kent, Auguſt 28, 1788. Edward-Timewell Brydges, LORD CHANDOS, of Sudley caſtle, 1553. Brownlow Cuft , LORD BROWNLOW, baron Brownlow, of Belton in [Creation] Baron Chandos 1553. Lincolnſhire, and a baronet; born Dec. 3, 1744. [Creation] Baron Brown. low 1776. Henry-Beauchamp St. John, LORD ST. JOHN of Bletſoe, and baronet; born Auguſt 2, 1758, ſucceeded his father John, the late lord, in June 1767. George Pitt, LORD RIVERS, born 1720, was created baron Rivers of [Creation] 1559. Stratfieldlay, in the county of Southampton, May 20, 1776. John Griffin-Griffin, LORD HOWARD of WALDEN; baron of Bray Nathaniel Ryder, LORD HARROWEY, baron of Harrowby, in the county brooke, in Northamptonſhire, Auguſt 30, 1788; called up to the houſe of of Lincoln; born June 3, 1735, was created a peer May 20, 1776. peers by writ of ſummons Aug. 7, 1784. Howard of Walden ; Aug. 18, Thomas Foley, LORD FOLEY, of Kidderminſter; was born Dec. 22, 1780; 1784. [Creation] Baron Howard 1597. and ſucceeded his father, the late lord, July 2, 1793. [Creation] Baron Robert-Edward Petre, LORD PETRE of WRITTLE, in Eſſex, fucceeded Foley 1776. Robert-James, the late lord, his father, July 13, 1742. [Creation] Baron Edward Thurlow, LORD THURLOW, of Aſhfield, in the county of Suf. Petre 1603. folk, born 1735, created a peer June 2, 1778. Gregory-William-Fiennes Twilleton, LORD SAYE and SELE ; born April Alexander Wedderburn, LORD LOUGHBOROUGH, in the of 34, 1769, fucceeded his father, Thomas, the late lord, July 1, 1788. [Cre- Leiceſter; born Feb. 13, 1733, was created baron Loughborough, June 14, 1780 . ation] Baron by writ, 1447. George-Talbot-Rice-Cardonnel, LORD DINEVOR, in Carmarthenſhire ; John Bligh, LORD CLIFTON, baron Clifton of Leighton of Bromſwold, born O&t. 8, 1765; ſucceeded to the barony on the death of his mother the late in England, created 1608. His lordſhip is known by the title of earl of Darnley, baroneſs March 14, 1793, created October 17, 1780. in Ireland ; ſee the earl of DARNLEY, in the Peerage of Ireland. William-Hall Gage, LORD GAGE, of Thirle, in Suſſex; fo created Oc. Charles Dormer, LORD DORMER, of Wenge, and baronet; born 1722, tober 17, 1780; and alſo viſcount Gage, of the kingdom of Ireland. ſucceeded his father, Otober 8, 1785. [Creation] 1615. Thomas De Grey, LORD WALSINGHAM, of Walſingham, in the county Henry Roper, LORD TEYNHAM; born May 3, 1764; ſucceeded his of Norfolk ; born July 14, 1748, ſucceeded his father, William the late lord, father Henry, the late lord, Dec. 10, 1786. [Creation] 1616. May, 9, 1781. [Creation] Baron Walſingham, 1780. William Byron, LORD BYRON, of Rochdale: born Nov. 5, 1722; fuc William Bagot, LORD BAGOT, of Blithfield, in the county of Stafford, ceeded William, late lord Byron, his father, Auguſt 8, 1736. [Creation] and a baronet; born Feb. 20, 1728, was created a peer, October 17, 1780. Baron Byron 1643. Charles Fitzroy, LORD SOUTHAMPTON, brother to the duke of Graf- William Craven, LORD CRAVEN, born September 1, 1770; ſucceeded ton, born June 25, 1737, was October 17, 1780, created a peer by the title his father, the late lord, Sept. 26, 1791. [Creation] Lord Craven 1665. of baron of Southampton. Charles Clifford, LORD CLIFFORD of Chudleigh; born Nov. 2, 1759 ; Richard-Barre Dunning, LORD ASHBURTON; was born September 20, fucceeded Hugh, his father, late lord Clifford, Jan. 15, 1793. [Creation] 1782, and ſucceeded his father John, the late lord, Auguſt 18, 1783. [Cre- Baron Clifford 1672. ation] 1782, Edmund Boyle, LORD BOYLE, of Marſton, in the county of Somerſet, William Norton, LORD GRANTLEY, baron of Markenfield in the county {ucceeded his brother Hamilton, Jan. 17, 1764; his lordſhip is known by of York; born Feb. 19, 1742, ſucceeded his father, Fletcher, the late lord, the title of earl of Cork in Ireland ; ſee the earl of Cork in the Peerage of January 1, 1789. [Creation] Lord Grantley 1782. Ireland. George Rodney, LORD RODNEY; born Dec. 25, 1753, ſucceeded his fa- Robert-Auriol Drummond, LORD HAY of Pedwarden, in England; his ther George-Brydges the late lord, May 24, 1792. [Creation] 1782. lordſhip is known by the title of earl of Kinnoul, in Scotland ; ſee the earl of Francis Rawdon-Haſtings, LORD RAWDON, earl of Moira, in Ireland, Kinnoul, in the Peerage of Scotland. was created baron Rawdon, of Rawdon in the county of York, March 4, Henry Willoughby, LORD MIDDLETON, of Middleton, and baronet ; 1783. born Dec. 19, 1726 ; fucceeded his couſin the late lord, January 19, 1781, by Thomas Pitt, LORD CAMELFORD, baron Bocconoc in the county of writ of ſummons. [Creation] Lord Middleton 1711. Cornwall, created to that title Jan. 5) 1784. He was born Feb. 25, 1775) George Onflow, LORD ONSLOW, lord Clandori, who was created lord and ſucceeded his father the late lord, May 24, 1793. Cranley of Ember-Court, in Surry, May 14, 1776, and a baronet; ſucceeded Henry-Frederick-Thynne Carteret, LORD CARTERET, of Hawnes, in as lord Onſlow, and Clandon, on the death of the late lord October 9, 1766. the county of Bedford, born Nov. 17, 1735, which title was conferred on his [Creation] Baron Onſlow, 1716. lordſhip, January 30, 1784. Robert Marſham, LORD ROMNEY, and a baronet; born Sept. 28, 1744; Edward Craggs, LORD ELIOT, of St, Germains, in Cornwall, born fucceeded his father, the late lord Romney, Nov. 14, 1793. [Creation] Baron July 8, 1727, created to that title January 30, 1784. Romney 1716. Thomas Bulkeley, LORD BULKELEY, of Beaumaris, in the county of Charles Sloane Cadogan, LORD CADOGAN, baron of Oakley, in Buck Angleſea (ſo created May 14, 1784); alſo viſcount Bulkeley of the kingdom inghamſhire, born Oct. 29, 1728, ſucceeded his father Charles, the late lord, of Ireland. See viſcount Bulkeley in the Peerage of Ireland. Sept. 24, 1776. [Creation] Baron of Oakley 1718. Thomas Egerton, LORD GREY of WILTON, in the county of Hereford, Peter King, LORD KING, baron of Ockham, born in 1776, and ſucceeded and a baronet; was advanced to the peerage May 15, 1784. his father Thomas, Nov. 23, 1793. [Creation] 1725. Charles Cocks, LORD SOMERS, baron of Eveſham, in the county of John Monſon, LORD MONSON, born May 25, 1753, ſucceeded his father, Worceſter, and a baronet, born June 29, 1725; was created a peer, May 17, the late lord, July 20, 1774. [Creation] Baron Monſon 1728. 1784 Thomas Bromley, LORD MONTFORT, baron of Horſeheath ; born Feb. John Parker, LORD BORINGDON, baron of Boringdon, in the county of 11, 1733; fucceeded his father Henry, the late lord, Jan. 1, 1755. [Creation] Devon; born May 2, 1779, fucceeded his father, the late lord, Jan. 1789, 1741. [Creation] 1784. John Howe, LORD CHEDWORTH, and baron of Chedworth ; born Aug. Thomas Noel Hill, LORD BERWICK, of Attingham, in Shropſhire ; 22, 1754; ſucceeded his uncle Frederick-Henry, the late lord, Oct. 6, 1781. born O&t. 7, 1774, ſucceeded his father, the late lord, in 1778. [Creation] 1734, Creation] Lord Chedworth 1741. James Dutton, LORD SHERBORNE, baron Sherborne, of Sherborne, in Edwin Sandys, LORD SANDYS, baron of Omberſley in Worceſterſhire; the county of Glouceſter, born Oct. 1744; created a peer, May 20, 1784. born April 28, 1726, ſucceeded his father, the late lord, April 21, 1770. Henry-James, Scott-Montagu, LORD MONTAGU, of Broughton in Creation] 1743 Northamptonſhire, born Dec. 16, 1776, is the ſecond fon of the duke of Buc- William Ponfonby, LORD PONSONBY, of Syfonby; his lordſhip is known cleugh in Scotland, and ſucceeded to this barony on the death of the late duke of by the title of earl of Beſborough, in Ireland. Montagu, in 1790, agreeable to the patent granted in 1786. Horatio Walpole, LORD WALPOLE, of Woolterton, in Norfolk; born William Douglas LORD DOUGLAS; created an Engliſh baron, Aug. 8, June 12, 1723; fucceeded his father Horatio, the late lord, February 5, 1757. 1786. His Grace is known by the title of Duke of Queenſbury, in Scotland. [Creation] 1756. See the Scotch Peerage. Henry-Legge Stawell, LORD STAWELL, of Somerton in the county of George-de-la Poer Beresford, LORD TYRONE, of Haverford-Weſt, cre- Somerſetz born Feb. 22, 1757 ; ſucceeded his mother, the late baroneſs, July ated an Engliſh baron, Aug. 8, 1786. His lordſhip is known by the title of 29, 1780. [Creation] Baron Stawell 1760. marquis of Waterford, in Ireland. For particulars, &c. fee marquis of Wa- Lewis-Monſon Watſon, LORD SONDES, of Lees-court, in the county of terford in the peerage of Ireland. Kent; born Nov. 28, 1728; was advanced to the dignity of a peer, May 20, Richard Boyle, LORD CARLETON, baron of Carleton, in Yorſhire ; 1760. His lordſhip is brother to lord Monſon, and upon the death of Thomas, created Aug. 8, 1780, a peer of England. His lordſhip is known by the title earl of Rockingham, took the name of Watſon. of earl of Shannon, in Ireland ; ſee the peerage of Ireland, &c. Thomas Robinſon, LORD GRANTHAM, of Grantham in Lincelnſhire, John-Huſſey Delaval, LORD DELAVAL; created an Engliſh peer, Aug. and a baronet : was born Dec. 8, 1781, ſucceeded liis father the late lord, July 8, 1736; and baron Delaval in Ireland. 20, 1786. [Creation] Baron Grantham 1761. Charles Jenkinſon, LORD HAWKESBURY, baron of Hawkeſbury, in Nathaniel Curzon, LORD SCARSDALE, and baronet ; born Dec. 23, 1727, the county of Glouceſter, created a peer, Auguit 8, 1786. was created a peer, April 9, 1761, by the title of lord Scarſdale of Scarſdale, Harbord Harbord, LORD SUFFIELD, of Suffield in the county of Norfolk; Derbyshire. born Jan. 26, 17349 created Aug. 21, 1786; alſo a baronet. Frederick liby, LORD BOSTON, and baronet ; was born June 9, 1749, Guy Carleton, LORD DORCHESTER, baron of Dorcheſter, in the and fucceeded his father, the late lord, March 30, 1775. [Creation] Baron county of Oxford; created Aug. 21, 1786. Boſton 27616 Francis VIT POS Plate 5 Barons of Englana) Sa Systemy Verang. OUTINENS ET DEVE ET PPETTU ENGLISH BARONS non, RECTT RAI HONESTIS VORUM LOLUMB SERVI ET REEB PU MERANTVERS KOVILE UNG ASTE AVT Southampton Portchefer ESTUDIIS Bagot Ashburton NON GENERAL Grantley Rodney КутоТА, w 2500 SPARSIMUS GVUB 7 VANT LIBERT ADEVOIR DIEU 144 ET EN DROIT QUE TELA Rawdon EINOS QUO Vis. 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OECUS ADDIT Kethe HERÆSTED Dunbar Home Elgin Haddington Wetu GRACE DUGI PENSE SEND IRISCH ET MENERI Gaioway GOD Lauderdale Loudon Dumfries Troquair Wemys Pubiifred ar de Aci directs by C.cooke, N.°27. Paternoster Row Soul PEER À Ĝ E. John Kerr, DUKE of ROXBURGH, marquis of Beaumont and ĉesa ford; earl of Roxburgh and Kelio; viſcount Broxmeuth, lord Kerr, of koxburgh, Cesford, and Caverton, in Scotland, and alſo an Engliſh peer, by the ſtyle and title of earl Kerr, of Wakefield, in the county of York, was born in April, 1740, and ſucceeded his father Robert, the late duke, Aug. 20, 1755. [Creation] Duke of Roxburgh, 170%. SECT. II. MARQUISES. George Hay, MARQUIS of TWEEDDALE, earl of Tweeddale, viſ- count Peebles, and lord Yeſter, ſucceeded his couſin, November 16, 1787. [1694. John Willian Kerr, MARQUIS of EOTHIAN, earl of Lothian, cari of Ancram, lord Kerr of New Sottle, and Jedburgh; born 1737, and fuc- ceeded his father the late marquis, April 20, 1775. [Creation.] Marquis of Lothian, 1701. William Johnſton, MARQUIS of ANNANDALE, earl of Annandale, earl of Hartfield, viicount Annan, and Lord Johnſton, of Lockwood, Lochmaban and Moffat, in Annandale; a baronet, and hereditary keeper of Lochmaban; ſucceeded his brother James, the late marquis, in 1792, [ Creation.] Marquis of Annandale, 1701. SECT. III. EARLS. Elizabeth Sutherland, COUNTESS of SUTHERLAND, and baroneſs of Strathnaver, in the county of Sutherland, born June, 1765, ſucceeded her father June 16, 1766. [Creation. ] Earl of Sutherland 1057 . George Linſay Crawford, EARL of CRAWFORD, earl of Lindſay ; viſcount and lord Garnock; lord Crawford and Spinzy, fucceeded his fa- ther George, the late earl, June 25, 1781. [Creation.] Earl of Crawford, in the county of Lanerk, 1399. George-James Hay, EARL of ERROL, lord Hay of Slaines, heredi- tary high conſtable of Scotland; born May 13, 1767, and ſucceeded his father June 3, 1788. [Creation.] Earl of Errol, 1452. Jane Elizabeth Leſlie, COUNTESS of ROTHES, baroneſs of Leley, and Bambreigh, ſucceeded her brother John, June 18, 1773. [Crection] Earl of Rothes, in the county of Elgin, 1457- George Keith, EARL MARISHAL, lord Keith, lord Mariſhal of Scotland, and hereditable ſheriff in the county of Kincardin; which titles, on the death of the late earl mariſhalin 1778, became extinct in this branch. but was claimed Sept. 8, 1782, by George Keith, Eſq. of Northfield, a deſcendent of Sir Robert Keith, which claim was examined before a ref- pectable jury of noblemen and gentlemen, of which the earl of Buchan was chancellor. Such a connected chain of evidence, from 1413, was. produced, as is without a parallel even in the annals of Scoich nobility, much more in thoſe of this country. [Creation] Earl Mariſhal 1755. George Douglas, EARL of MORTON, and lord Aberdour, in Fife- ſhire, and baron Douglas in England, fucceeded his father, Sept. 27, 1774. [Creation] Earl of Morton, in the county of Edinburgh, 1456. David Stewart Erſkine, EARL of BUCHAN, and baron Cardroſs, of Mentieth, in the county of Perth; ſucceeded his father Dec. 1, 1767.- [Creation] Earl of Buchan, in 1469. John Gunningham, EARL of GLENCAIRN, and lord Kilmaures, ſucceeded his brother James, Jan. 30, 1791. [Creation] Earl of Glen- cairn, in the county of Dumfries, 1485. Archibald Montgomery, EARL of EGLINGTOUN, and lord Mont- gomery, in the diſtrict of Coningham, in the county of Air, fucceeded his brother the late earl, Oct. 24, 1769. [Creation] Earl of Eglingtoun, in 1503. Francis Auguſtus, LORD HEATHFIELD, baron Gibraltai, ſucceeded his father, the late lord. [Creation] Baron Gibraltar, 1787. Lloyd Kenyon, LORD KENYON, baron of Gredington, in the county of Flint; and a baronet. [Creation] 1788. James Harris, LORD MALMSBURY, baron of Malmſbury in Wilt- thire, born April 20, 1746. [Creation] 1788. Archibald Douglas, LORD DOUGLAS, created a peer, June 19, 1790. Edward Laſcelles, LORD HAREWOOD, created a peer, June 19, 1790. Arthur Fiſherwick, LORD FISHERWICK, created an Engliſh peer, June 19, 1790. His lordſhip is known by the title of marquis of Donegal, in the kingdom of Ireland. For particulars fee the Iriſh Peerage. James Duff, LORD FIFE, created an Engliſh peer, June 19, 1790. His lordſhip is known by the title of earl of Fife, in the kingdom of Ireland. For particulars ſee the Iriſh Peerage. James Bucknall Grimſton, LORD VERULAM, created an Engliſh peer, June 19, 1790. His lordſhip is known by the title of viſcount Grim- Itone in the kingdom of Ireland. For particulars ſee the Iriſh Peerage. William Wyndham Grenville, LORD GRENVILLE, brother to the marquis of Buckingham, born O&t. 25, 1759, was created a peer of Great Britain, by the title of baron Grenville, Nov. 21, 1790. George Douglas, LORD DOUGLAS, of Lochleven, was created an Engliſh peer, July 16, 1791. His lordſhip is known by the title of earl of Morion, in the kingdom of Scotland. For particulars ſee the Scotch Peerage. Henrietta Laura Pulteney, BARONESS of BATH, to which title ſhe was created, July 21, 1792. William Eden, LORD AUCKLAND, was created an Engliſh peer, May 18, 1793, having been created baron Auckland in Ireland. John Fitzpatrick, LORD UPPER OSSORY, of Ampthill, was created an Engliſh peer, Aug. 12, 1794. His lordſhip is known by the title of earl of Upper Oſſory, in the kingdom of Ireland. See the Iriſh Peerage, for his creations, &c. Edward Clive, LORD CLIVE, of Walcot, in Salop, was created an Engliſh peer, Aug. 14, 1794. His lordſhip is a peer of Ireland by the fame title. Henry Phipps, LORD MULGRAVE, was created an Engliſh peer. Aug. 14, 1794. His lordſhip is a peer of Ireland by the ſame title. William-Henry Lyttleton, LORD LYTTLETON, was created an Engliſh peer, Aug. 14, 1794. His lordſhip is a peer of Ireland by the title of lord Weftcote. Welbore Ellis, LORD MENDIP, was created a peer of England, Aug. 14, 1794, with ſeveral remainders. Henry Bridgman, LORD BRADFORD, and a baronet, was created a peer of England, Aug. 14, 1794. James Peachy, LORD SELSEY, and a baronet, was created a peer of England, Aug. 14, 1794. Thomas Dundas, LORD DUNDAS, and a baronet, was created a peer of England, Aug. 14, 1794. Astheton Curzon, LORD CURZON, was created a peer of England, Aug. 14, 1794: Charles-Anderſon Pelham, LORD YARBOROUGH, was created a peer of England, Aug. 14, 1794. PART II. PEERAGE OF SCOTLAND. SECT. I. DUKES. Peers of Blood Royal have nominal Tiles, but no Votes for the Sixteen Peers. Prince George-Auguſtus-Frederick Prince of Great Britain, Prince of Wales, DUKE of ROTHESAY, earl of Carrick and baron of ken- frew, lord of the iſles, and great ſteward of Scotland. See duke of Corn- wall in the Peerage of England. Prince Frederick, DUKE of ALBANY in Scotland, and York in Great Britain. See duke of York in the Peerage of England. Prince William-Henry, DUKE of St. ANDREWS in Scotland, and Clarence in England. See duke of Clarence in the Peerage of England. Prince William-Henry, DUKE of EDINBURGH in Scotland, and Glouceſter in England. See duke of Glouceſter in the Peerage of England. Douglas Hamilton, DUKE of HAMILTON, in Scotland, Chattelhe- rault in France, and Brandon in England; marquis of Hamilton, Clyf- uule, and Dougląs; earl of Angus, Arran, and Lanerk, lord Macanſhire, Polmont, Abernethy, Aberbrothick, Dutton, and Hamilton in England; hereditable keeper of the king's palace of Holyrood-houſe at Edinburgh; fucceeded his brother the late duke, July 7, 1769. [Creation] 'Duke of Hamilton, 1643 Henry Scot, DUKE of BUCCLEUGH, earl of Buccleugh, earl of Dal- keith, baron Scot of Buccleugh, and Eſkdale, in Scotland, and a peer of England, by the title of lord Tinſdale, in Northumberland, and earl of Doncaſter, in Yorkſhire; was born Sept. 2, 1746, and ſucceeded his grand- father Francis, the late duke, April 22, 1751. [Creation] Duke of Buc- Charles Lennox, DUKE of LENNOX, in Scotland. His grace is known by the title of duke of Richmond, in England, and Abigny in France. See duke of Richmond, in the peerage of England. Alexander Gordon, DUKE of GORDON, marquis of Huntly, earl of Huntley, earl of Enzie, and baron Gordon of Strathbogy, viſcount of Inverneſs, lord Badenoch, Lochaber, Strathaven, Achindon, Balmore, Gratley, and Kilcardine, Scotch honours; lord Gordon of Huntly, and earl of Norwich, Engliſh honours; fucceeded his father, Coſmo-George, the late duke, in Aug. 1752. [Creation] Duke of Gordon, 1684. James Douglas, DŮKE of QUEENSBURY, marquis of Queenſbury and Dumfries, earl of Queenſbury, March, Ruglen, Drumlanrig, San- quar, and folway, viſcount Drumlanrig, Nith, Torthorala, Tibbers, and Roſs ; Middleby, Tibbers, and Dornick: baron Douglas in the Engliſh Peerage , fucceeded his father as earl of March, and as earl of Ruglen in right of his mother ; and in 1778, on the death of the late duke, became duke of Queenſbury, &c. [Creation] Duke of Queenſbury, 1684. John Campbell, DUKE of ARGYL, marquis of Argyl, Lorn, and Kintyre, earl of Argyl, Campbell and Cowal ; viſcount Locho, and Gle- nilla; lord of Inverary, Mull, Morven, and Tyrie; ſucceeded his father the late duke of Argyl, Nov. 17, 1770, [Creation.] Duke of Argyl 1701, John Murray, DUKE, MARQUIS, and EARL of ATHOL, marquis and earl of Tullibardinviſcount Glenalmond, lord Murray, and lord of the Ife of Man; Earl Strange, and baron Murray, in England; was born June 30, 1755, and fucceeded his father, the late duke, Nov. 4, 1774. [Creation.] Duke of Athol 1675. James Graham, DUKE of MONTROSE, marquis of Montroſe, earl of Montroſe, marquis Granam, and lord Graham, Dundaff, Kincarn, Mindoc and Kinabar, in Scotland; and earl and lord Graham of Belford in the county of Northumberland, in England; born Sept. 8, 1755 ; lucceeded his father Sept, 23, 1790. [Creation.] Duke of Montroſe 1707. Archibald Kennedy EARL of CASSILLIS, and lord Kennedy, ſuc- ceeded his father, the late earl, Dec. 29, 1794. [Creation] Eard of Caf- ſillis, 1509. cleugh, 1673 Francis Stewart, EARL of MORAY, and lord Down, of down, in Mentieth, in the county of Perth, fucceeded his father July 7, 1767:-- [Creation] Earl of Moray 1561. William Home, EARL of HOME, and baron of Douglas, ſucceeded his father, Dec. 14. 1786. [Creation] Earl of Home, 1604. John Home, EARL of DUNBAR, deſcended from Alexander, iſt earl of Dunbar and Home, fo created by James VI. March 4, 1604. This title was claimed by John Home, Eſq. of the county of Berwick, and al- lowed him by the theriff and a reſpectable jury, O&t. 11, 1776, being de- fcended from Sir Alexander Home, to whom the title was adjudged, 1689. John Bowes-Lyon, EARL of STRATHMORE, and earl Kinghorn, lord Lyon and Glamis, ſucceeded his father the late earl, in April, 1776. [Creation] Earl of Sirathmore, foon after the reſtoration of Charles II. John James Hamilton, EARL of ABERCORN, and lord Abercorn, lord Paiſley, alſo viſcount Strabane, in Ireland, and lord Mountcaſtle, Kilpatrick, and baronet of the ſame kingdom; likewiſe, marquis of Aber- corn, and viſcount Hamilton, in England; ſucceeded his uncle James, the late earl, Oct. 9, 1989. [Creation] Earl of Abercorn, 1606. Archibald Erſkine, EARL of KELLIE, viſcount Fenton, and lord Dirleton, premier viſcount of Scotland ; born in 1736, ſucceeded his bro- ther Oet. 15, 1781. [Creation] Earl of Kellie, 1619, Charles Hamilton, EARL of HADDINGTON, and lord Binning, fuc- ceeded his father Thomas, May 10, 1794. [Creation] Earl of Hadding- ton, 1619. John Stewart, EARL of GALLOWAY, and lord Garlies, knight of the Thiſtle; ſucceeded his father the late earl, Sept. 23, 1773. [Creation] Earl of Galloway, 1623. James Maitland, EARL of LAUDERDALE, viſcount Maitland, lord Thirlettane, Muffelburgh, and Bolton; hereditary royal ſtandard bearer of Scotland, and a baronet; ſucceeded Charles his father, Aug. 17, 1789. [Creation] Earl of Lauderdale, 1623. Flora Muir Campbell, COUNTESS and BARONESS of LOUDON, and baroneſs Machlane, ſucceeded her father the late earl, who died April 28, 1786. [Creation] Earl of Loudon, 1633. Robert-Auriol Drummond, EARL of KINNOUL, viſcount Dupplin, and baron of Kinſauns in Scotland, and baron Hay of Pedwarden, in En- gland ; fucceeded Thomas May, the late earl, Dec. 27, 1787. [Creation] Earl Kinnoul, 1633. Patrick Crichton, EARL of DUMFRIES, viſcount Air, and Lord Crichton, of Sanquhar, Cumnock, &c. fucceeded in the right of his mo- ther, upon the death of his uncle, the late earl of Dumfries, July 27, 1768. [Creation] Earl of Dumfries, 1633. Thomas Bruce, EARL of ELGIN, earl of Kilcardin, lord Bruce, of Kinloſs and Torry, ſucceeded on the death of his brother the late earl, July 8, 1777. [Creation] Earl of Elgin, 1611. Francis Charteris Wemyſs-Charteris, EARL of WEYMYSS. [Cre- ation] Earl of Weymyſs, 1633. George Ramſay, EARL. of DALHOUSIE, andlord Ramſay, ſucceeded his father George, the late earl, Nov. 15, 1787. [Creaiion] Earl of Dala houſie, 1633 Charles Stewart, EARL of TRAQUAIR, lord Traquair, and lord Linton, ſucceeded his father, April, 1779. [Creation] Earl of Traquair, 1633 David P E ERA G E. See duke of David Ogilvie, EARL of AIRLY, 1637, lord Ogilvie and Lentrathin, net, fucceeded his brother George, in 1768. [Creation] Baron Reay 1628. 1637. [Creation] Earl of Airly, 1637. James Ogilvie, EARL of FINLATER and SEAFIELD, viſcount Red Walter Aſton, LORD ASTON, of Forfar, in the county of Forfar, haven, and lord Deſkford, ſucceeded his father in 1770. [Creation] earl ſucceeded to this title, on the death of the late lord, in March 1768 - of Finlater and Seafield 1637. [Creation] Baron Aſton 1620. David Lelly, EARL of LEVEN, earl of Melvil, lord Melvil and Bal John Maclellan, LORD KIRKCUDBRIGHT, fucceeded his father, gony; fucceeded his father Alexander, Sept. 2, 1754. Creation] Earl of December 2, 1772. [Creation] Baron Kirkcudbright 1633. Leven 1641. Cecilia Forreſter, BARONESS FORRESTER, of Cofiorphin in Mid. Lionel Tollemache, EARL of DYSART, lord Huntingtour, born Lothian, ſucceeded her mother 1784. [Creation] Baron Ferreiter 1533. 1747, ſucceeded his father, the late earl, in March, 1770. [Creation.] William Ogilvie, LORD BANFF, ſucceeded his father, Dec. 2, 1771. Earl of Dyfart 1646. [Creation] Baron Banff 1642. Dunbar Douglas, EARL of SELKIRK, lord Dair, ſucceeded his grand Alexander Murray, LORD ELIBANK, and baronet; ſucceeded his uncle John, the late earl, in 1745. [Creation] Earl of Selkirk 1646. uncle, the late lord, Nov. 12, 1785. [Creation] Baron Elibank 1643. William Carnegy, EARL of NORTHESK, lord Roſehill, fucceeded David Falconer, LORD HALKERTOUN, fucceeded his brother, his father George, the late earl, June 21, 1792. [Creation] Earl of Nor William, the late lord, December 12, 1776. [Creation] Baron Halker- theſk 1647. toun 1647. Alexander Lindſay, EARL of BALCARRAS, and lord Lindſay, of John Rollo, LORD ROLLO; born 1773, ſucceeded his father John, Cumbernald, ſucceeded his father, the late earl, in March, 1767. [Creation] 1784. [Creation] Baron Rollo 1649. Earl of Balcarras 1651. James Ruthven, LORD RUTHVEN, of Freeland in the county of Perth, Anthony - James Radcliffe, EARL of NEWBURGH, viſcount New fucceeded his father, Dec. 27, 1789; born Oct. 16, 1777. [Grection) burgh, and lord Kennard, who ſucceeded his father James-Bartholomew, Baron Ruthven 2651. the late earl, Jan. 2, 1786. [Creation] Earl of Newburgh 1647. John Leſlie, LORD NEWARK; ſucceeded his father, Alexander, George Gordon, EARL of ABOYNE, and lord Gordon, of Glenlivet March 10, 1791, but his vote was rejected in Feb. 1793. [Creation] Ba and Strathaven, ſucceeded Charles, his father, Dec. 28, 1794. [Creation] ron Newark 1660. Earl of Aboyne 1661. John Kerr Ballenden, LORD BALLENDEN, in the county of Selkirk ; Archibald Cochran, EARL of DUNDONALD, and lord Cochran, fuc ſuccceded his father, Kerr, the late lord, in 1744. [Creation] Baron of ceeded his couſin, the late earl, April 5, 1778. [Creation] Earl of Dun Ballenden 1661. donald 1669. George Kinnaird, LORD KINNAIRD, of Inſture in the county of Anthony Keith Falconer, EARL of KINTORE, lord Keith, and is Perth; fucceeded his father, Aug. 1, 1767. [Creation] Lord Kinnaird claimed by the above. 1682. John Campbell, EARL OF BREADALBANE, viſcount Glenorchy, PART III. lord Campbell, and baronet, born in 1762, ſucceeded his diſant couſin John, in July, 1782. [Creation] Earl of Breadalbane 1677. PEERAGE OF IRELAND, George Gordon, EARL of ABERDEEN, and lord Haddo, in the coun- Peers of Blood Royal. ty of Aberdeen, ucceeded his father William, 1745. [Creation] Earl of Aberdeen 1682. Prince Frederick, EARL of ULSTER, in the kingdom of Ireland. See John Murray, EARL of DUNMORE, viſcount Fincaſtle, and lord duke of York, in the Peerage of England. Murray, of Blair, Moulin, and Tillimet, ſucceeded his father William, Prince William Henry, EARL of MUNSTER, in the kingdom of Dec. 1, 1756. [Creation] Earl of Dunmore, 1686. Ireland. See duke of Clarence, in the Peerage of England. Mary Hamilton, COUNTESS of the ISLANDS of ORKNEY, viſcounteſs Prince William Henry, EARL of CONNAUGHT, in the kingdom of Kirkwall, and baroneſs Deghmont; born Sept. 4, 1755, fucceeded her Ireland. See duke of Glouceſter, in the Peerage of England. mother Anne, May 10, 1790. [Creation] Counteſs of the Iſlands of Ork- SECT. I. DUKH. ney 1696. William Robert Fitzgerald, DUKÊ of LEINSTER, marquis Kildare, Thomas Carmichael, EARL of HYNDFORD, lord Carmichael, and earl and baron of Offalev; and viſcount Leinſter, of Taplow, in the king- baronet; ſucceeded upon the death of the late earl, in 1787. [Creation] dom of Great Britain, was born March 2, 1749, and ſucceeded his father, Earl of Hyndford 1701. the late duke, Nov. 19, 1773. [Creation] Duke of Leinſter 1766. John Dalrymple, EARL STAIR, viſcount Stair, and lord Stair of Dal- SECT. II. MARQUISSES. rymple, of Newliſton and Stranrawer, ſucceeded upon the death of the Henry de Burgh, MARQUIS CLANRICARDE, earl of Clanricarde, late earl of Stair, Oct. 1789. [Creation] Earl of Stair 1703. lord Dunkellin, born Jan. 8, 1743; fucceeded his father in May 1782. Niel Primroſe, EARL of ROSEBERRY, viſcount Roſeberry, lord [Creation] Marquis of Clanricarde 1789. Dalmeney, ſucceeded his father James, the late earl, Nov. 20, 1735.— George de la Poer-Beresford, MARQUIS of WATERFORD, earl [Creation] Earl of Roſeberry 1703. and viicount of Tyronne, lord Beresford, of Beresford, and baronet; George Boyle, EARL of GLASGOW, viſcount Kelburn, and lord born Jan. 8, 1735; ſucceeded his father Marcus, the late earl, April 4, Boyle, of Stewarton, born March 26, 1766, ſucceeded his father, the late 1763. [Creation] Marquis of Waterford 1789. earl, March 12, 1775. [Creation] Earl of Glaſgow 1703. Wills Hill, MARQUIS of DOWNSHIRE, earl and viſcount Hillſbo- John Stuart, EARL of BUTE, viſcount and lord Mount-Stuart, baron rough, viſcount and lord Kilwarling, Iriſh titles; and earl of Hilliborough, Mount-Stuart and Cardiff, in the Engliſh peerage; ſucceeded his father, viſcount Fairford, and baron Harwich in England, born Feb. 23, 1753, the late earl, Jan. 28, 1783. [Creation] Earl of Bute 1703. ſucceeded his father, Oct. 13, 1793. [Creation] Marquis of Downſhire 1789. James Hope, EARL of HOPETOUN, viſcount Aithrie, and lord Hope, Arthur Chicheſter, MARQUIS and EARL of DONEGAL, viſcount ſucceeded his father, Feb. 12, 1781. [Creation] Earl of Hopetoun 1703. Chicheſter, earl and lord Belfaſt, alſo baron Fiſherwick in England, fuc- William-Charles Colyear, EARL of PORTMORE, viſcount Malling- ceeded his uncle Arthur the late. earl, in 1756, born June 13, 1739.- ton, in the county of Roxburgh, and lord Portmore, ſucceeded his father [Creation] Marquis of Donegal 1791. Charles, the late earl, in 1785. [Creation] Earl of Portmore 1703. Charles Moore, MARQUIS and EARL of DROGHEDA, viſcount Henry Scot, EARL of DELORAINE, viſcount Hermitage, and baron Moore, and baron Melifont; born June 29, 1730, ſucceeded his father, Scot of Goldylands, all in the county of Roxburgh, born in January, 1736, Edward, Oft. 28, 1758. [Creation] Marquis of Drogheda 1792. ſucceeded his father Henry, in Jai1. 1740. [Creation] Earl of Deloraine 1706. SECT. III. EARLS. SECT. IV. VISCOUNTS. John Butler, EARL of ORMOND and OSSORY, and viſcount Thurles, Henry Thomas Cary, VISCOUNT FALKLAND, and lord Cary, fucceeded to the titles and acknowledged as ſuch in 1792. [Creation] ſucceeded his grandfather, Lucius-Ferdinand the late viſcount, Febru Earl of Ormond and Offory 1326. ary 27, 1785; born 1766. [Creation] Viſcount Falkland 1620. Edmund Boyle, EARL of CORK, earl of Orrery, viſcount Dungarvon David Murray, VISCOUNT STORMONT, lord of Scoon and Balvarid, lord Boyle of Youghall, lord Borghill; and baron Boyle in England, was and earl of Mansfield in England, on the death of his uncle in 1793; fuc born Nov. 21, 1742, and ſucceeded his brother Hamilton, the late earl, ceeded his father in 1748. [Creation] Viſcount Stormont 1612. Jan. 17, 1764. [Creaiion] Earl of Cork 1620. John Arbuthnot, VISCOUNT ARBUTHNOT, lord Arbuthnot, in George Frederick Nugent, EARL of WESTMEATH, lord Delvin, the county of Kincardin, ſucceeded his father John, the late viſcount in born Nov. 18, 1760; ſucceeded his father, the late earl, Sept. 7, 1792 May 21, 1791. [Creation] Viſcount Arbuthnot 1641. [Creation] Earl of Weſtmeath 1621. Thomas Osborne, VISCOUNT LATIMER and DUMBLAIN, lord William Brabazon, EARL of MEATH, lord Brabazon, and Ardee ; Oſborne, of Kiveton. His Grace is known by the title of duke of Leeds born July 6, 1769, ſucceeded his father, the late earl Jan. 4, 1790. [Cre. in England. See duke of Leeds in the Peerage of England. ation] Earl of Meath 1620. SECT. V. BARONS. Henry Barry, EARL of BARRYMORE, viſcount Buftevant, lord James Somerville, LORD SOMERVILLE, ſucceeded his father in Barry of Olethan and Ibawne; was born Aug. 16, 1770, and ſucceeded 1766. [Creation] Baron Somerville 1424. his brother, March 5, 1793. [Creation] Earl of Barrymore 1627: James Forbes, LORD FORBES, ſucceeded his father in 1763. [Cre James Plunket, EARL of FINGAL, baron Kelleen, fucceeded his ation] Baron Forbes 1440. father, the late earl, Aug. 21, 1793, born Sept. 9, 1759. [Creation] William Cathcart, LORD CATHCART, ſucceeded his father, Aug. Earl of Fingal 1628. 13, 1776, [Creation] Baron Cathcart 1445. Richard Lambert, EARL of CAVAN, viſcount Kilcourſy, and lord George Fraſer, LORD SALTOUN, lord Abernethy, ſucceeded his Lambert, born Sept. 10, 1763, iucceeded his father the late earl in 1778. brother Alexander, Sept. 12, 1793. [Creation] Baron Saltoun 1445. [Creation] Earl of Cavan 1647. William John Gray, LORD GRAY, ſucceeded his father John, in Murrough O'Bryen, EARL of INCHIQUIN, and lord Burren. [Cre- Auguſt 1782. [Creation] Lord Gray 1445. ation] Earl of Inchiquin 1454. Charles Sinclair, LORD SINCLAIR, who proved his deſcent from Charles-Henry Coole, EARL of MOUNTRATH, viſcount Caſtle- Matthew Sinclair, 4th ſon of Henry, 7th lord Sinclair; and on his claim Coote, lord Caſtle-Cuff, and baronet; ſucceeded his father, Algernon, ing the honours of his family, in 1782, they were allowed him, the at in Auguſt, 1744. [Creation] Earl of Mountrath 1660. tainder having been reverſed. George Forbes EARL of GRANARD, viſcount Granard, lord Clane- Hugh Semple, LORD SEMPLE, in the county of Renfrew; ſucceeded hugh, and baronet; born June 14, 1760, ſucceeded his father, the late the late lord, in February 1782. [Creation] Lord Semple 1489. earl, April 10, 1780. [Creation] Earl of Granard 1684. John Elphingiton, LORD ELPHINGSTON; ſucceeded his father Frederick-Chriſtian-Rhynhart de Ginkel, EARL of ATHLONE, vif- John Aug. 19, 1794. [Creation] Baron Elphingſton 1509. count of Aghrim, and lord of Ballymore; ſucceeded his father, the late James Sandilands, LORD TORPHICHEN, in Weſt-Lothiam, fucceed earl, in 1748. [Creation] Earl of Athlone 1691. ed his father, in 1765. [Creation] 1563. William Fitz-William Wentworth, EARL FITZ-WILLIAM, vil- John Leſly, LORD LINDORES, in the county of Fife, ſucceeded on count Milton, and baron Fitz-William of Lifford in Ireland; alſo earl the death of the late lord, June 27, 1775. [Creation] Baron Lindores 1600. Fitz-William, viſcount Milton and lord Milton in Northamptonſhire in Robert-Walter Stewart, LORD BLANTYRE, in the county of Lanerk, England. See the peerage of England. He was born May 30, 1748, an! born Dec. 26, 1775, ſucceeded his father O&. 30, 1783. [Creation] Baron fucceeded his father William, the late earl, Aug. 9, 1756. [Creation] Blantyre 1606. Earl Fitz William 1716. John Colvile, LORD COLVILE, of Culcoſs, fucceeded his brother Francis Thomas Fitz-Maurice, EARL of KERRY, viſcount Clan- Alexander, May 21, 1777. [Creation] Baron Colvile 1609. Maurice, lord Kerry and Linaw; born Sept. 9, 1749, and ſucceeded Francis Napier, LORD NAPIER, of Merchiſton, ſucceeded his father his father William, April 4, 1747. [Creation] Earl of Kerry 1722. William, Jan. 2, 1775. [Creation] Baron Napier 1627. John Bligh, EARL DARNLEY, viſcount Darnley, loru Clifion of James Cranſton, LORD CRANSTON, in the county of Edinburgh, Ra hmore, alíolord Clifton of Leighton Bromſwold, in England; fucceeded fucceeded his brother William, July 29, 1778. [Creation] 1680. his father John, the late earl, July 31, 1781; born June 30, 1767. [Cre- Hugh Mackay, LORD REAY, in the county of Caithneſs, and baro ation] Earl of Darnley 1725. 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See: marquis of Kanturk, lord Perceval of Burton, and baronet, lord Lovel and Holland Buckingham, in the Engliſh peerage. of Enmore, in Great Britain, born Jan. 29, 1738, ſucceeded his father, the Jolin Crcibie, EARL of GLANDORE, and viſcount Crefoie, lord Branden, late earl, Dec 20, 1972. [Creation] Earl of Egmont 1733. in the county of Kerry; born May 1753, ſucceeded his father Maurice, the late William Ponſonby, EARL of BESBOROUGH, viſcount Duncannon, lord lord, April 11, 1781. [Creation] Earl of Glandore 1776. Beſborough, in Ireland; lord Ponſonby, baron Ponſonby of Syſonby, in England, Edward Stratford, EARL of ALDBOROUGH, of the Palatinate of Upper born Jan. 24, 1758, ſucceeded his father William the late carl, March íi, Ormond, vifccunt Amiens and Aldborough, and lord of Baltinglais, in the 1793. [Creation] Earl of Beſborough 1739. county of Wicklow, ſucceeded his father, May 29, 1777. [Greation] Earl Henry-Thomas Butler, EARL of CARRICK, viſcount Ikerine, and lord of Aldborough 1777. Butler, of Liſmullen ; was born May 19, 1746, and fucceeded his father, the William Henry Forteſcue, EARL of CLERMONT, viſcount Clermont, late earl, in May 1774. [Creation] Earl of Carrick 1748. and lord Clermont, in the county of Louth; born Aug. 5; 1722, created earl John Fitz-Patrick, EARL of UPPER OSSORY, in Queen's county, lord Gowran, in the county of Kilkenny; and baron of Ampthill in England, born Stephen Moore, EARL and VISCOUNT MOUNT-CASHELL, in the in May 1745, ſucceeded his father John, the late earl, Sept. 23, 1758. [Cre county of Tipperary and lord Kilworth, of Moore-Park, in the county of ation] Earl of Upper Offory 1751. Cork; born March 19, 1770, fucceeded his father Stephen, the late viſcount, William Petty, EARL of SHELBURNE, viſcount Fitz. Maurice, lord May 1790. [Creation Earl Mount-Caſhell 1781. Dunkerton. His lordſhip is known by the title of marquis of Lanſdown in En Thomas Pakenham, EARL and BARON LONGFORD, born in 1774; gland. See marquis of Lanſdown in the peerage of England.com ſucceeded to the earldom on the death of his mother, the late counters, in 1794, Richard Boyle, EARL of SHANNON, viſcount Bandon, in the county of and to the barony on the death of his father in 1792. [Creation] Earl of Long- Cork, lord Boyle, of Caſtle-Martyr, in Ireland ; and baron Carleton, of Great on the death of his father in Britain, born Jan. 30, 1727, ſucceeded his father, Dec. 28, 1764. [Creation] Ann-Catharine Macdonall, COUNTESS of ANTRIM, viſcounteſs Dunlure, Earl of Shannon 1756. Baroneſs Antrim, born Aug. 11, 1789, ſucceeded her father, the late narquis Clothworthy Skeffington, EARL MASSAREENE, viſcount and lord of Antrim in theſe honours, July 28, 1791. [Creation] Earl of Antrim 1735. Lough-Neagh, and baronet; born Jan. 28, 1743; ſucceeded his father Cloth John Dawſon, EARL of PORT-ARLINGTON, in Queen's county, worthy, the late earl, in 1764. [Creation] Earl of Maffareere 1756. viſcount Carlow, in the county of Carlow, and lord Dawſon of Dawſon-court, Robert-Herbert Butler, EARL of LANESBOROUGH, viſcount Laneſbo in queen's county; ſucceeded his father, the late viſcount, Aug. 22, 1779. rough, lord Newton-Butler, born July 1761, ſucceeded his father Humphrey, He was born Aug. 23, 1741. [Creation] Earl of Port Arlington 1785. in January, 1779. [Creation] Earl of Laneſborough 1756. Barry Maxwell, EARL FARNHAM, viſcount Farnham, and lord Farn- James Hamilton, EARL of CLANBRASSIŁ, viſcount of the town of ham, lucceeded to the barony on the death of his brother, O&. 10, 1779.- Limerick, and lord Claneboy in the county of Downe; was born Aug. 13, 1729, [Creation] Earl of Farnham 1785. is brothers and ſucceeded his father the late earl, in 1752. [Creation] Earl of Clanbraſſil he late earl, in 1752 Henry-Lawes Lutterell, EARL CARHAMPTON, viſcount Carhampton, 1756. and lord Irnham, of Luttrellſtown, in the county of Dublin; fucceeded his fa- George Rotchford, EARL of BELVEDERE, viſcount Belfield, lord Bel ther, the late earl, Jan. 11, 1797. [Creation] Earl of Carhameton 1785. field, born O&t. 12, 1738, ſucceeded his father, the late earl, November 5, John Bourke, EARL of MAYO, viſcount Mayo, of Monecroner, and ba.. 7774 [Creation] Earl of Belvedere 1756. ron Naas of Naas, born Jan. 18, 1766, and -fucceeded his father, the late Thomas Bermingham, EARL of LOUTH, lord Athenry, in the county Archbiſhop of Tuam, Aug. 20, 1794. [Creatioi] Earl of Mayo 1735. of Galway, premier baron of Ireland, ſucceeded his father, Francis, lord Athen Francis-Charles Anneley, EARL ANNESLEY, viſcount Glerawley, and, ay, March 4, 1750. [Creation] Earl of Louth 1759. lord Anneſlev; born Nov. 1740, and ſucceeded his father, Sept. 12, 1770. James Duf, EARL of FIFE, viſcount Macduff, lord Braco, of Kilbryde, [Creation] Earl Annelley 1769.men in the county of Cavan, and haron Fife in England, fucceeded his father Wil William Willoughby Cole, EARL of ENNISKILLEN, viſcount Ennil- Tam, the late earl, in December 1763. [Creation] Earlof Fife 1759. killen, lord Mount-Florence, of Florence-Court, in the county of Fermagnah; Richard Colley-Welley, EARL of MORNINGTON, viſcount Welleſly, of born March 12, 1736; ſucceeded his father John, the late lord, Jan. 6, 1768. Dengancaſtle, lord Mornington of Mornington in the county of Meath; was [Creation] Earl of Enniſkillen 1789. born June 20, 1760, and ſucceeded his father, May 22, 1784. [Creation] Earl John Creighton, EARL ERNE, viſcount and lord Erne, of Crum-Caſtle, of Mornington 1760. SER in the county of Fermanagh, ſucceeded his father, May 25, 1772. [Creation] Peter Ludlow, EARL of LUDLOW, viſcount Preſton, and lord Ludlow, Earl of Erne 1789. of Ardfalla in the county of Meath, born April 21, 1730, ſucceeded his father Joſhua- john Proby, EARL CARYSFORT, and lord Carysfort, in the in 1750. [Creation] Earl of Ludlow 1760. Dans of Wicklow; knight of St. Patrick, was born Aug. 12, 1751, and George Carpenter, EARL of TYRCONNEL, viſcount Callingford, and fucceeded his father, the late lord, Of. 18, 1772. [Creation] Earl of Carys. lord Carpenter, of Killaghy, in the county of Kilkenny; born June 30, 1750, fucceeded his father George, the late earl, March 8, 1762. [Creation] Earl of Edmund Butler, EARL of KILKENNY, and viſcount Mountgarret, born Tyrconnel 1761. 1771, fucceeded his father, Edmund the late vilcount, July 17, 1793. [Crea- John Rawdon Haſtings, EARL of MOIRA, lord Rawdon and baronet, alſo tion] Earl of Kilkenny 1793. Parte baron Rawdon, in England, and on the death of his uncle the late earl of Hunt 1 Arthur Anneſley, EARL MOUNTNORRIS, viſcount Valentia, baron ingdon, took the name of Haſtings, born Dec. 7; 1754, and ſucceeded his father Mountnorris, and Altham, and a baronet, born Aug. 7, 1744, fucceeded his John, the late earl, June 20, 1793. [Creation] Earl of Moira 1761. father Richard 1761. [Creation] Earl Mountnorris 1793. Arthur-Saunders Goré, EARL of ARRAN, viſcount Sudley, of Caſtle Otway Cuff, ÉARL, VISCOUNT, and BARON DES ART, ſucceeded Gore, in the county of Mayo, lord Saunders, of Deeps, in the county of Wex his brother John, the late viſcount, Nov. 25,,1767. [Creation] Earl Defart 1793. ford, was born July 25, 1734, ſucceeded his father the late earl, April 21, Alice Howard, COUNTESS of WICKLOW, to which title ſhe was cre- 1773. [Creation] Earl of Arran 1762. career ated, Dec. 20, 1793. James Stopford, EARL of COURTOWN, viſcount Stopford, and lord John Scott, EARL and VISCOUNT CLONMEL, and baron Earlsfort, Courtown in the county of Wexford; born May 28, 1731, ſucceeded his father born June 8, 1739. [Creation] Earl Clonmel 1793. James, Jan. 12, 1770. [Creation] Earl of Courtown 1762. George Macartney, EARL, VISCOUNT, and BARON MACARTNEY, Joſeph Leeſon, EARL of MILLTOWN, in the county of Dublin, viſcount [Creation] Earl Macartney 1794. Ruſborough of Ruffelſtown, and lord Ruſborough, of Ruſborough in the county Charles Tottenham Loftus, EARL of ELY, viſcount and baron Loftus, of Wicklow, born Dec. 13, 1729, ſucceeded his father, Ost. 2, 1783. [Cre- was created earl of Ely 1794. ation] Earl of Milltown 1763. SECT. IV. VISCOUNTS. James Caulfield, EARL CHARLEMOUNT, viſcount Charlemount, and Jenico Preſton, VISCOUNT GORMANSTON, ſucceeded his father An- lord Caulfield, in the county of Armaghi, born Auguſt 22, 1728, fucceeded his thony, Dec. 15, 1986, was born in 1777, and is claimant to the title granted father James, the late viſcount, April 21, 1734. [Creation] Earl of Charle 1478, and has lain dormant ſince 1691. mount 1763. 2. George-Buffey Villiers, VISCOUNT GRANDISON. His lordſhip is John Saville, EARL MEXBOROUGH, of Lifford in the county of Done known by the title of the earl of Jerſey in England. See earl of Jerſey in the gal, viſcount Pollington, of Ternes, and lord Pollington of Longford; born Engliſh peerage. April 8, 1761, ſucceeded his father John, Feb. 12, 1778. [Creation] Earl Charles Lee-Dillon, VISCOUNT DILLON, in the county of Mayo; was Mexborough 1766. born Nov. 6, 1745, fucceeded to the eſtates and honours of his anceſtors, Edward Gartlı Turnour, EARL of WINTERTON, viſcount Turnour, which he claimed, Jan. 22, 1788 [Creation] Viſcount Dillon 1621 2. lord Winterton of Gort in the county of Galway, ſucceeded his father, Auguſt John Netterville, VISCOUNT NETTERVILLE, of Douth, in the IO, 1788. [Creation] Earl Winterton 1766. county of Meath, born in 1744, ſucceeded his father John, March 19, 1750. Thomas Taylor, EARL BECTIVE, viſcount Headfort, lord Headfort, in [Creation] Viſcount Netterville 1622. TRUCK the county of Meath ; born O&t. 20, 1724, was created an earl 1766. Robert Needham, VISCOUNT KILMOREY; lucceeded his father Jolin, George Malon-Villiers, EARL GRANDISON, of Dromana in the county the late viſcount, May 27, 1791. [Creation] Viſcount Kilmorey 1625. of Waterford, and viſcount Grandiſon ; born July 23, 1751, ſucceeded his George-Auguſtus Lumley-Saunderfon, LORD LUMLEY, of Waterford. mother Elizabeth, in 1782. [Creation] Earl Grandiſon 1766. His lordihip is known by the title of earl of Scarborough in England. See earl Thomas St. Lawrence, EARL of HOWTH, viſcount St. Lawrence, and of Scarborough, in the Engliſh peerage. Jord Howth, in the county of Dublin; born May 10, 1730; ſucceeded his father Lionel Sınythe, VISCOUNT STRANGFORD, in the county of Downe; William, April 4, 1748. [Creation] Earl of Howth 1767. born May 19, 1753, ſucceeded his father Philip, the late viſcount, April 29, Charles Coote, EARL of BELLAMONT, lord Coote of Coloony, upon 1787. [Creation] Viſcount Strangford 3628. the death of the late earl of Bellamont, 1764, ſucceeded to the barony of Co Philip Wenman, VISCOUNT WENMAN, of Tuam, lord Wenman, of loony. (Creation] Earl of Bellamont 1767. Kilmaynhain, and baronet ; born April 18, 1742, and ſucceeded his father, Edward King, EARL of KINGSTON, of Roſcommon, viſcount and lord the late viſcount, Aug. 16, 1760. [Creation] Viſcount Wenman 1628. Kingſton, of Kingſborough, born March 24, 1726. [Creation] Earl of King Rodolphus Taaffe, VISCOUNT TAAFFE, of Corran, lord Bailymote, both in the county of Sligo, fucceeded his father the late viſcount, December William Molyneux, EARL of SEFTON, and viſcount Molyneux, of Ma 29, 1769. [Creation] Viſcount 'Taaffe 1628. ryhorough, and baronet ; born Sept. 18, 1972, fucceeded his father, Charles Charles Jones, VISCOUNT RANELAGH, lord Jones, of Nayan, fuc- William, Dec. 30, 1794. [Creation] Earl of Sefton 1771.1 ceeded to the title on the death of the third viſcount, who died without male illut, Robert Jocelyn, EARL of RODEN, viſcount Jocelyn, and lord Newport, in 1711, but the title was not claimed till 1759. [Creation] Viſcount Rane- of Newport, in the county of Tipperary; born 1731, fucceeded his father, as lagh 1628. was not claimed till 17 viſcount, in 1756. [Creation] Earl Roden 1771. Richard Fitz-William, VISCOUNT FITZ-WILLIAM, of Merion, John Dennis Browne, EARL OF ALTAMONT, viſcount Weſtport, and lord Fitz William of Thorn-Caftle; born in Auguſt 1745, and ſucceeded his lord Mount Eagle, in the county of Mayo ; fucceeded his father the late earl, father, May 25, 1776. [Creation] Viſcount Fitz-William 1629. in 1780. [Creation] Earl of Altamont 1771. Charles Cockayne, VISCOUNT CULLEN, lord Cullen, in the county of Ralph Gore, EARL of ROSS, in the county of Fermanagh, viſcount Bel Donegal; born Sept. 2, 1710, fucceeded his father Charles the late viſcount. lile, of Belline, in the ſame county, and lord Göre, of Manot-Gore, in the [Creation] Viſcount Cullen 1542. county of Donegal, born Nov. 12, 1725, advanced to the dignity of earl of Henry Leigh, VISCOUNT TRACY, lord Tracy, of Rathcoole, in the county of Dublin, fucceeded his brother, Thomas Charles, February 2, 1792.. Wilmot Vaughan, EARL of LISBURNE, in the county of Antrim, vif- [Creation] Viſcount Tracy 1642. count Lifburre, and lord Vaughan, of Fethers; fucceeded his father, Jan. 19, Thomas-James Bulkeley, VISCOUNT BULKELEY, of Caſhel, in the 2766, as viſcount Liſburne. [Creation] Earl of Lifbume 17.76. county of Tipperary, and baron Beaumaris in England, born Dec. 10, 1752. Jolin Meade, EARL of CLANWILLIAM, in the county of Cork, viſcount [Creation] Viſcount Bulkeley 1643. Clanwill.2m, lord Gilford, and baronet; born April 21, 1744. [Creation] Gorge Barnewall, VISCOUNT KINGSLAND, lord Turvey, both in the county of Dablin; was born Auguſt 12, 1758 ; fucceeded his rather March 11, George Grenville Nugent-Temple, EARI NUGENT. His lordfhip is 1774. [Creation) Viſcount Kingſland 1646. Oo George d his father, Of. 3, <337734. Iton 168. Rofs, 1772. Barl of Clanwilliam 1776. No. 126. PE E RA G E. count 1793 Promo- Real tion. Val. fo 1779 5000 1779 4000 1766 3.200 1775 3700 1763' 7000 TIITTI |||II|| 158.2 4000 1780 2300 2000 1781 2500 1784 3500 1782 2000 1783 2300 1787 2900 1787 2400 » in England. See carl of Harborou George-Jaines Cholmondeley, VISCOUNT CHOLMONDELEY, of Cornelius Maude, VISCOUNT HEWARDEN, baron Mountaif, in the Kells, lord Cho!mondeley, of Newburgh, in Ireland. His lordſhip is county of Flint, and a baronet, born 1729, was advanced to the dignity of viícount 1793. Red known by he title of earl Cholmondeley, in England. See earl Cholmon- deley in the Engliſh peerage. John Fitzgibbon, VISCOUNT and BARON FITZGIBBON, of Lower John-Chriſtoplier Dawney Burton, VISCOUNT DOWN!; and baro Connello, in the eounty of Limerick, was advanced to the dignity of vit. net; born Nov. 15, 1764, ſucceeded his father Dec. 21, 1780. [Creation] SECT. V. Viſcount Downe 1680. Richard Howe, VISCOUNT HOWE, baron of Clenawley. His lord- ARCHBISHOPS AND BISHOPS. fhip is known by the title of earl Howe in England, ſee the Engliſh peerage. ARCHBISHOPS. John-James Hamilton, VISCOUNT STRABANE, lord Mountcaitle. His lordſhip is known by the title of marquis of Abercorn in England. See Dr. William Newcome, D. D. Armagh, Primate of all the Engliſh peerace. Ireland 1768 8000 Robert Moleſworth, VISCOUNT MOLESWORHT, of Swords, in the Dr. Robert Fowler, Dublin, primate of Ireland coun'y of Dublin, lord Philipſtown in King's county ; born 1729, ſuc- Dr. Charles Agar, Caſhel, primate of Munſter ceeded his couſin Richard, June 23, 1793. [Creation] Viſcount Molef- Hon. Dr. Richard Beresford, Tuam, primate of Connaught . 1782 4000 worth 1716. BISHOPS. Richard Chetwynd, VISCOUNT CHETWYND, of Bearhaven, in the Hon. Dr. Henry Maxwell, Meath county of Cork, Icrd Rathdowne, born Sept. 29, 1757, and ſucceeded Dr. George Lewes Jones, Kildare 1770 2600 his father William, Nov. 12, 1791. [Creation] Viſcount Chetwynd 1717. Elphin Thomas-George Broderick, VISCOUNT MIDLETON, and lord Bro- Dr. Rich. Marley, Waterford, and Liſmore 1779 2600 derick, of Midleton in 'he county of Cork; born 7756, ſucceeded his Rt. Hon. F. Hervy, D. D. and E. E. Derry brother, the late viſcount, Nov. 7, 1791. [Creation] Viſcount Midleton Dr. James Hawkins, Raphoe, to the 1780 2600 1717. Dr. John Hotham, Clogher Guſtavus Hamilton, VISCOUNT BOYNE, lord Hamilton, of Stack- Dr. William Kerry, Killaloe and Kilfenora allan, both in the county of Meath; born Dec. 20, 1749, ſucceeded his Dr. Thomas Lewis, Offory 1782 father, July 30, 1789. [Creation] Viſcount Boyne 1717. past Dr. William Bennet, Cloyne Jofhua Allen, VISCOUNT ALLEN, and lord Allen, of Stillorgan, in Dr. Thomas Bernard, Limerick, Ardfert, Aghado the county of Dublin, born April 26, 1728, ſucceeded his brother John, Dr. Thomas Percy, Dromore Nov. 10, 1753. [Creation] Viſcount Allen 1717. Dr. William Dick'on, Down and Connor James Bucknall Grimſon, VISCOUNT GRIMSTON, lord Dunboyne, Dr. John Law, Kiilala and Achonry and baron Verulam of Gerhambury, in England, and a baronet, born Dr. Broderick, Clonfert and Kilmacduah May 9, 1747, fucceeded his father the late viſcount, Dec. 15, 1773. [Creation] Viſcount Grimſton 1719. int, Dec. 15, 1773. Dr. Euſeby Cleaver, Leigh!in and Fernes 77 1789 2200 Dr. Williain Forſter, Kilmore 1789 2600 William-Wildman Barrington, VISCOUNT BARRINGTON, of Ard- Dr. Thomas Stopford, Cork and Roſs 1790 2700 glaſs, lord Barr ngton of Newcaſtle, ſucceeded his uncle, Feb. 1, 1793. (Creation] Viſcount Barrington 1720. par SECT. VI. BARONS . Henry Gage, VISCOUNT GAGE, of Caſtle-iſland, lord Caſtle-bar, John de Courcy, LORD KINSALE, lord Courcy, of Courcy, an baron Gage, of High Meadows, in Great Britain, and a baronet, born lord Kinrole in the ſaid coun:y; ſucceeded his father, the late lord, March March 4, 1761, and ſucceeded his uncle William-Hall, Ost. 12, 1791. 12, 1776. [Creation] Baron of Kinſale 1397.5 [Creation] Vi count Gage 1721. is ct 13, 57 Randal Plunket, LORD DUNSANY, in the county of Meath, born Henry Teniple, VISCOUNT PALMERSTON, of Palmerſton, in the Dec. 16, 1750, ſucceeded his father, 1781. [Creation] 1438. county of Dublin, lord Temple of Mount temple, in the county of Sligo ; Richard Butler, LORD CAHIER, in the county of Tipperary, born born Dec. 4, 1739, ſucceeded his grandfather, Herry, the late viſcount, Nov. 13, 1775, ſucceeded his diſtant coulin, June 10, 1788. [Creation] 1543. who died June 10, 1757. [Creation Viſcount Palmerſton 1722. Edward Digby, LORD DIGBY, baron of Geathill, in King's county; John Bateman, VISCOUNT BATEMAN, lord Culmore, fucceeded his being earl Digby in England, ſee the English peerage. [Crection] Baron father William, who died in Nov. 1744. [Creation] Viſcount Bateman 1732. Digby 1620. Robert Moncton Arundel, VISCOUNT GALWAY, in the county of Andrew- Thomas Blayrrey, LORD BLAYNEY, of Monaghan, born Galway, and lord Killard, in the county of Clare, born Aug. 18, 1752, 1772, ſucceeded his brother, April 2, 1784. [Creation] 1621. and ſucceeded his brother William-Henry, March 2, 1774. [Creation] Robert Sherard, LORD LEITRIM. His kezdſhip is known by the Viſcount Galway 1772. SO title of earl of Harborough, in England. See earl of Harborough in the 1 Richard Wingfield, VISCOUNT POWERSCOURT, of Powerſcourt, Engliſh peerage. in the county of Wicklow, lord Wingfield; born Oct. 29, 1762, and fuc Francis-Seymour-Conway, LORD CONWAY, baron of Ragley, and ceeded his father, Aug. 8, 1788, [Creation] Viſcount Powerfcourt 1743. baron of Killaltah, in Ireland. His lordſhip is known by the title of earl William Flower, VISCOUNT ASHBROOK, lord Caſtle Durrow, born of Hertford, in England. See earl of Hertford in the Engliſh peerage. Oct. 19, 1767, ſucceeded his father, Henry, Aug. 1780. [Creation] Vil George Evans, LORD CARBERY, in the county of Cork; ſte ceeded couni Athbrook 1751. FDM his father George, the late lord, May 26, 1783. (Creation] 1715- Harvy-Redmond Morres, VISCOUNT MOUNTMORRES, lord Mount Matthew Aylmer, LORD AYLMER, of Balrath, in the county of morres, of Caſtlemorres, in the county of Kilkenny ; fucceeded his fa Meath ; born 1775, ſucceeded his father, in 1785. [Creation] 1718. ther, April 6, 1766. [Creation] Viſcount Mountmurres 1763. Joſeph Damer, LORD MILTON, of Shrone-Hill, in the county of Arthur-Hill Trevor, VISCOUNT DUNGANNON, in the county of Tipperary, in Ireland. His lordſhip is earl of Dorcheſter, in England. Tyrone, lord Hill, of Olderfeet, in the county of Antrim, was born See the Engliſh peerage. [Creation] 1753. CA Oct. 2, 1763, and ſucceeded his grandfather, ihe late viſcount, Jan. 30, John Lylaght, LORD LISLE, of Mount-North, in the county of Cork, 1771. [Creation] Viſcount Dungannon 1765: ſucceeded his father, June 15, 1781. [Création] Lord Lille 1758. Hercules Rowley, VISCOUNT LONG FORD, baron of Summerhill, William Hanger, LORD COLERAIN, of Colerain, in the county of born March, 1737, ſucceeded his mother, the late viſcounteſs, Dec. 18, Londonderry; ſucceeded his brother John, the la e lord, Jan. 27, 1795- 1791. [Creation] Viſcount Longford 1766. (Creation] Baron Colerain 1762. Thomas-Arthur Southwell, VISCOUNT SOUTHWELL, lord South Edward Clive, LORD CLIVE, of Plaſſey, in the county of Clare; allo well, ſucceeded his father, 1780, born April 16, 1742 [Creation] Viſ baron Clive, in England ; born March 7, 1754, and ſucceeded his father, count Southwell 1717. the late lord, Nov. 23, 1774. [Creation] Baron Plaiſey 1762. disse botol Thomas-Veſey, VISCOUNT DE VESCI, lord Knapton, and baronet ; Henry Phipps, LORD MULGRAVE, of New-Role, in the county of ſucceeded his father, the late lord, June 25, 1761. [Creation] Viſcount Wexford; born 1755, ſucceeded his brother Conſtantine John, the late de Vefci, June 22, 1776. lord, Ost. 10, 1792. [Creution] Baron of New-Roſe 1767. dodol James Hewitt, VISCOUNT LIFFORD, lord Lifford in in the county Charles-George Perceval, BARON of ARDEN, of Lohort Caſtle, in of Donegal ; fucceeded his father, James, the late viſcount, in April the county of Cork; born O&t. 1, 1756, ſucceeded his mother, the late 1789. Creation.] Viſcount Lifford 1781.no baroneſs, 1784. [Creation) Baron Arden 1770. Nicholas Ward, VISCOUNT BANGOR, lord Bangor, ſucceeded his Richard Philipps, LORD MILFORD, and a baronet; was created a father Bernard, May 20, 1781, was born 1750. [Creation] Viſcount peer in 1776. Bangor 1781. Thomas Wynn, LORD NEWBOROUGH. [Creation] 1776. Penniſton Lamb, VISCOUNT MELBOURNE, lord Melbourne, of Charles Bingham, LORD LUCAN, of Caſtlebar, in the county Kilmore, and baronet. [Creation] Viſcount Melbourne 1780. Mayo, and a baronet. [Creation] Baron Lucan 1776. fy Henry-Welbore Agar, VISCOUNT CLIFDEN, lord Clifden, ſuc Alexander Macdonald, LORD MACDONALD, baron of Slate, in the ceeded his father, Dec. 28, 1788. [Creation] Viſcount Clifden 1781. county of Antrim, and a baronet. [Creation] Baron Macdonald 1776. Thomas Daw'on, VISCOUNT CREMORNE, lord Dartry, born April William Mayne, LORD NEWHAVEN, of Carrickmayne, in the county 1725. [Creation) Viſcount Cremorne 1785. of Dublin. [Creation] Baron Newhaven 1776.htm Arthur Acheſon, VISCOUNT GOSFORD, lord Gosford, who fuc Williain Edwardes, LORD KENSINGTON. [Creation] 1776, ceeded his father Archibald, Sept. 5, 1790. [Creation] Viſcount Goſ William Henry Lyttleton, LORD WESTCOTE, of Balamare, in the county of Longford, and a baronet. [Création] Baron Weſtcote 1776. Fobert Howard, VISCOUNT WICKLOW, lord Clonmore, of Clon Robert Ongley, LORD ONGLEY, of Old Warden; born Oct. 3. 1770, more-caſtle, in the coun'y of Carlow, ſucceeded his father, June 26, 1789. ſucceeded his father, in 1785. [Creation] 1776. [Creation] Vi count Wicklow 1785. Molyneux Shuldham, LORD SHULDHAM. [Creation] 1776. Hayes St. Leger, VISCOUNT DONERAILE, lord Doneraile, fuc John-Henry Upton, LORD TEMPLETOWN, in the county of Ar- ceeded his father, 1787, born March 9, 1755. [Creation] Viſcount Do trim, in the kingdom of Ireland; born Nov. &, 1771, fucceeded his fa- ther, in 1785. on Edmund Sexton Pery, VISCOUNT PERY, of Newtown.Pery, near Hugh Malley, LORD MASSEY, of Duntryleague, in the county of Li- Limerick, born 1719. [Creation] 1785. merick ; born Oat. 24, 1761, ſucceeded his father. the late lor!, April Almar-Lowry Corry, VISCOUNT BELMORE, lord Belmore, of Car 17, 1790. [Creation] 1776. tle Coole, in the county of Fermanagh. [Creation] Viſcount Belmore 1789. Matthew Robinſon, LORD ROKEBY, of Armagh, ſucceeded the late Henry Burton Conyngham, VISCOUNT CONYNGHAM, lord Co lord, Oct. 10, 1794. [Crection] Baron Rokeby 1777: nyngham, of Mount Charles, in the county of Donegall; born Dec. 26, Robert-Tillon Deane, LORÐ MUSKERRY, of Dromore, in the 1766, and ſucceeded his father in 1737. [Creation] Viſcount Conyngham county of Cork, and a baronet, born 1745, created a peer by the title 1789. uf baron Muſkerry 1781. 1 homas Knox, VISCOUNT NORTHLAND, and baron Willes, of John-Baker Holroyd, LORD SHEFFIELD, lord Dunamore, loud Dungannon, was advanced to the dignity of viſcount July 5, 1791. Sheffield, baron of Roſcommon, with remainder of the laſt title in failure Arthur Pomeroy, VISCOUNT and BARON HARBERTON, of Car of iſſue male, ſeveraliy to his daughters and their illue maie. [Creations berry, in Kildare; was advanced to the dignity of vi'count 1791. Lord Sheffield 1783. Andrew- Thomas Stewart, VISCOUNT and BARON CASTLESTE Samuel Hood, LORD HOOD, baron of Catherington, and baronet.- WART, advanced to the dignity of viſc unt 1793. [Creatiol] 1783 Robert Clements, VISCOUNT and BAKON LEITRIM, of Manor William Tonſon, LORD RIVERSDALE, ſucceeded his father William Hamilion, in the county cf Leitrim, was advanced to the dignity of viſ the late lord, who was created a peer Ost. 13, 1783. count 1793 John Hufrey Delaval, LORD DELAVAL; was created a peer of Ire. Francis Mathew, VISCOUNT and BARONLANDAFF, was advanced land Oct. 7, 1783. to the dignity of viſcount 1733. Richard Hely Hutchinſon, LORD DONOUGHMORE, cf Knocklefty, Ta UNT of ford 1785. neraile 1785. del nostre Amos Ploite. o Barons of Irelano. Vi the System : of 5 Peraya NERITA RENTE Arosses OMNIAN LIBERTAS PUGUSTISITE HISTINN DGOD FORWARD Castlestuart VINCIA BE MY Cahire JAYEGRA MENSE kusale Dunsant Blainen Carberry IRANI BR. 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USUIV Fitzgibbon Carleton Auckland Hountjov Londonderry Kilmaine + + VINCES AGENDO SOLUME JASTUTI SIGNO VON NOBIS NON VIX POC UVIRTUTT НcТЕУГСР Cloncurry Annaly Eardley Glentworth Oriet Callan TIRAS STIRO PER Clenbrock ITRNARE S. Helens Caledon P E E Ρ Ε Ε PO in the county of Tipperary; born Jan. 29, 1756, ſucceeded his mother, ciently near the ſurface they dart down upon it with the ſwift the late baroneſs, June 24, 1788. [Creation] 1783. neſs of an arrow, feize it with unerring certainty, and ſtore ir John Pennington, LORD MUNCASTER, was, Sept. 20, 1783, cre- ated baron Muncaſter, in the county of Cumberland, with remainder to up in their pouch. They then riſe again, though not without his brother Lowther Pennington. great labour, and continue hovering and fiſhing, with their head Richard Pennant, LORD PENRHYN, of Penrhyn, in the county of on one ſide as before. This work they continue with great ef- Low:h, created the 9th of November 1783. fort and induſtry till their bag is full, and then fly to land to de- Cornelius O’Callaghan, LORD LISMORE, baron Liſmore of Shanbally in the county of "Tipperary, born in 1740, created June 27, 1985. vour and digeſt at leiſure the fruits of their induſtry. This, howe- Richard Malone, LORD SUNDERLIN, of Lake Sunderlin, in the ver, it would appear, they are not long performing ; for towards county of Weſtmeath; was created a peer July 5, 1785. night they have another hungry, call, and they again reluctantly Hugh Carleton, LORD CARLETON, of Anner, in the county of Tip- go to labour. At night, when their fiſhing is over, and the toit perary, to which title he was created June 16, 1789. William Eden, LORD AUCKLAND, to which title he was created of the day crowned with ſucceſs, theſe lazy birds retire a little way Auguſt 18, 1789. ***," from the Thore; and, though with the webbed feet and clumſy Luke Gardiner, LORD MOUNTJOY, in the county of Tyróne, to figure of a gooſe, they will be contented to perch no where but upon which title he was created O&t. 18, 1789. trees among the light and airy tenants of the foreſt. There they Robert Stewart, LORD LONDONDERRY, in the county of Lordon- derry, to which dignity he was created Auguſt 18, 1789. take their repofe for the night; and often ſpend a great part of the John Brown, LORD KILMAINE, of the Neale, in the county of day, except ſuch times as they are fishing, fitting in diſmal ſo- Mayo, and baronet; was created a peer in Oct. 1789, lemnity, and, as it would ſeem, half aſleep. Their attitude is with Nicholas Lawleſs, LORD CLONCURRY, in the county of Kildare, the head reſting upon the great bag, and that reſting upon their and a baronet, was created a peer, Nov. 18, 1789. Sampſon Eardley, LORD EARDLEY, of Spalding, and a baronet; fituation, till the calls of hunger break their repoſe, and till they breaſt. There they remain without motion, or once changing their was created a peer, 02. 1789. Edmund-Henry Pery, BARON GLENTWORTH, born 1757, ſuc find it indiſpenſibly neceſſary to fill their magazine for a frein ceeded his father, William Cecil, biſhop of Limerick, &c. July 4, 1794, meal. Thus tiveir life is ſpent between Neeping an i eating; and and is nephew to viſcount Pery. [Creation] 1790. Margaretta lofter, BARONESS ARIEL, of Collon, in the county of they are as foul as they are voracious, as they are every moment voiding excrements in heaps as large as one's fift. The ſame in- George Agar, BARON CALLAN, of Callan in the county of Kildare, dolent habits ſeem to attend them even in preparing for incuba- born April 18, 1754, and was created to the above barony, June, 1790. tion, and defending their young when excluded. The female Robert Dillon, BARON CLONBROCK, of Clonbrock, in the county of Galway, was born Feb. 27, 1954, and created to the above peerage makes no preparation for her neft,nor ſeems to chooſe any place in in June 1790: preference to lay in; but drops her eggs on the bare ground to the James Alexander, BARON CALEDON, of Caledon in the county of number of five or fix; and here continues to hatch them. At- Tyrone, born 1730, and was created to the above peerage in June, 1790. tached to the place, without any deſire of defending her eggs or Allen Fitzherbert, BAKON St. HELENS, born Feb. 1753, and was her young, ſhe tamely fits and ſuffers them to be taken from under created a peer, 1791. Mary Verney, BARONESS FERMANAGH, and was created to the her. Now and then ſhe juſt ventures to peck, or to cry out peerage June 14, 1992. DNA when a perſon offers to beat her off. See Plate V. Genus 94. Sarah Cavendiſh, BARONESS WATERPARK, of Waterpark, in PELLICLE, pellicula, a thin film or fragment of a membrane the county of Cork, to which dignity ſhe was created June 14, 1792. Lawrence Harman Harman, BARON OXMANTOWN, in the county or ſkin. The epidermis, or cuticula, is a little pellicle, covering of Dublin, to which honour he was created Sept. 25, 1792. the derma, cutis, or ſkin. The valves of the veins and arteries Jolin O'Neil, BARON O'NEIL, of Slanes-caſtle in the county of An are inſenſible pellicles which open and ſhut to promote the cir trim, to which honour he was created Nov. 18, 1793: culation. When any chymical ſolution is evaporated in the ge- Francis Bernard, BARON of BANDON, to which honour he was created in Dec. 1793. neral heat, till a thin ſkin or film ariſes a-top, it is called an eva- Thomas Greaves, LORD GRAVES, Baron of Graveſend, in the coun- poration to a pellicle: in this caſe there is but juſt liquor enough ty of Londonderry, to which honour he was created Nov. 14, 1794. left to keep falts in fuſion. Alexander Hood, BARON BRID PORT, of Cricket St. Thomas, PELLUCID, formed of pellucco,or perlucci, I ſhine through, brother of Lord Hood, to which honour he was created Nov. 14, 1794. a term of the ſame import with diaphanus, or tranſparent. Pel- SUOLO lucid ſtands oppoſed to opake. w sieci PEGASUS, among the poets a horſe imagined to have wings, PELVIS, in anatomy, the lower part of the cavity of the abdo- being that whereon Bellerophon was fabled to be mounted when men ; thus called from its reſemblance to a balon, or ewer, called he engaged the Chimera. The opening of the fountain Hippo- in Latin pelvis. Moſt writers on that important part of the Hu- crene, on mount Helicon, is aſcribed to a blow of Pegaſus's hoof. man Syſtem, have omitted to illuſtrate their deſcriptions by re- It is feigned to have flown away to heaven ; where it became à preſentations ; and the Plates which have been introduced have conſtellation. Mi to styluontais ortu guvert been executed in fo different a manner, as to be of very little uſe PEGASUS, in aſtronomy, the name of a conſtellation of the in explaining the ſubject. For a deſcription of the bones of the northern hemiſphere, figured in form of a flying horſe. The pelvis, ſee the System, Part I. Sect. III. Art. 3: For repreſen- ftars in this conſtellation, in Ptolemy's Catalogue, are twenty, in tation, fee Plate I. tation, ſee Plate I. Fig. 1. & 2. For the contents of the Male Tycho's nineteen, in Hevelius's thirty-eight, in the Britannic Pelvis, ſee Part III. Sect. XV. Art. 1. For repreſentation, ſee Catalogue eighty-nine. See the System, Sect VIII. robas Plate X. Fig. 3. upper diviſion. For the contents of the Female PELICANÚS, in ornitholagy, a genus belonging to the order Pelvis, ſee Part III. Sec. XV. Art 2. For repreſentation, ſee of Anſeres. The bill is ſtraight, without teeth, and crooked at Plate X. upper diviſion. For a further deſcription and repreſen- the point; the face is naked, and the feet are palmated. There tation of the Female Pelvis, ſee the Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, and are eight ſpecies, principally diſtinguiſhed by the ſhape of their Plate I. with the explanation, ogora tails. The moſt remarkable is, the cnocrotalus, or pelican of PENANCE, pænitentia, is properly the exerciſe of penitence; Alia, Africa, and America ; though Linnæus thinks that the pe and may be defined a puniſhment, either voluntary, or impoſed by lican of America may poſſibly be a diſtinct variety. This crea: legal authority, for the faults a perſon las committed. The Ro- ture in Africa, is much larger in the body than a ſwan, and maniſts defined penitence,a ſacrament wherein a perſon, who has fomewhat of the fame ſhape and colour. the requiſite diſpoſitions, receives abſolution at the hand of the The pelicari was once alſo known in Europe, particularly in prieſt, of all fins committed ſince baptiſm. To a legitimate pen- Ruſſia ; but it ſeems to have deſerted our coaſts. This is the bird ance they require three things, contrition, abſolution, and ſatis- of which ſo many fabulous accounts have been propagated; ſuch as faction. Their prieſts receive a power of adminiſtering the ſa- its feeding its young with its own blood, and its carrying a proviſion crament of crament of penance, when they receive the prieſthood ; but to ex- of water for them in its great reſervoir in the deſart. But the ab erciſe this power, it is required they have the juriſdiction of an furdity of the firſt account anſwers itſelf; and as for the latter, the ordinary, i.e. that they have a benefice, either original or delegat- pelican uſes its bag for very different purpofes than that of filling ed; with the approbation of the biſhop to hear confeſſions. See it with water. Its amazing pouch may be conſidered as analogous Popery. to the crop in other birds ; with this difference, that as their's lie 1. Penance is particularly uſed in the Romiſh church, for the at the bottom of the gullet, ſo this is placed at the top. Thus, penalty which a confeffor impoſes for the ſatisfaction of the fins as pigeons and other birds macerate their food for their young in whereof a perſon is abfolved. The ancient diſcipline, Du-Pirr their crops, and then ſupply them ; ſo the pelican ſupplies its obferves, was very ſevere on the head of penance: forgreat crimes, young by a more ready contrivance, and macerates their food in its people were excluded the communion of the church, expelled the bill, or ſtores it for its own particular ſuſtenance. The ancients aſſemblies of the faithful, obliged to faſt, and to mortify them- were particularly fond of giving this bird admirable qualities and felves publicly, even at the church door, cut their hair, go always parental affections : ſtruck, perhaps, with its extraordinary figure, on foot, &c. He adds, that thoſe who had done public penance, they were willing to ſupply it with as extraordinary appetites ; were never admitted into the clergy; and that public penance and having found it with a large reſervoir, they were pleaſed with was never granted more than once. Thoſe, who fell a ſecond turning it to the moſt tender and parental uſes, time, were never to be reconciled to the church, and were to look They are torpid and inactive to the laſt degree, ſo that nothing for pardon only at the hands of God. can exceed their indolence but their gluttony ; it is only from the PENANCE, in our canon law, is an eccleſiaſtical punishment, ſtimulations of hunger that they are excited to labour ; for other-chiefly adjudged to the ſin of fornication. The puniſhment is wiſe they would continue always in fixed repoſe. When they thus deſcribed by the canons: the delinquent is to ſtand in the have raiſed themfelves about 30 or 40 feet above the ſurface of church-porch on ſome Sunday, bare-head, and bare-foot, in a the ſea, they turn their heads with one eye downwards, and con white ſheet, with a white wand in his hand; here bewailing him- tinue to fly in that poſture. As ſoon as they perceive a fish fuffi- felf, and begging every one to pray for him ; then to enter the church Ρ Ε Ν Ρ Ε Ν very ܪ means church falling down, and kiſſing the ground; and at laſt, to be thunder, we number 10 ſeconds; then, becauſe found pafics placed on an eminence in the middle of the church, againſt the through 1142 feet in one ſecond, we have the diſtance of the miniſter, to declare the foulneſs of his crime, odious to God, and cloud equal to 1 1420 feet. Again, the height of any room, or fcandalous to the congregation. If the crime be not notorious, other object, may be meaſured by a pendulum vibrating from the the canons allow the puniſhment to be commuted at the parties top thereof. Thus, fuppofe a pendulum from the height of a requeſt, for a pecuniary muld, for the benefit of the poor, &c. room vibrates once in three ſeconds; then fay, as r is to the ſquare PENATES, in the ancient mythology, a term applied to all the of 3, viz. 9, fo is 39.2 to 352.8 feet, the height required. Are domeſtic gods, whom the ancients adored in theirhouſes, whence When pendulums were firſt applied to clocks, they were made they are ordinarily confounded with the LARES. See LARES. very ſhort : and, the arches of the circle being large, the time of PENCIL of Rays, in optics, is a double cone, or pyramid of vibration through different arches could not in that cafe be equal; rays, joined together at the bafe. to effect which, the pendulum was contrived to vibrate in the arch PENDANT, in hearaldry, a term applied to the parts hang- of a cycloid, the property of which curve is, that a body vibrating ing down from the label, to the number of three, four, five, or in it will deſcribe all its arches, great or ſmall, in equal times. ſix at moſt. Theſe muſt be ſpecified in blazoning, when there In what has been obſerved before, the power of gravity has been are more than three. They reſemble the drops at the bottom of ſuppoſed conſtantly the fame. But if the faid power varies, the PENDULOUS, hanging down ; a name which botaniſts give brate in equal times. The greateſt inconvenience attending this to thoſe heads of flowers which hang downwards ; the ſtalk not moſt uſeful inſtrument is, that it is conſtantly liable to an altera being able to ſuſtain them upright. tion of its length, from the effects of heat and cold, which PENDULUM, in mechanics denotes any heavy body, ſo ſenſibly expand and contract all metalline bodies. To remedy ſuſpended as that it may vibrate or ſwing, backwards or forwards, this inconvenience, the common method is by applying the bob about ſome fixed point, by the force of gravity. The vibrations of the pendulum with a ſcrew ; ſo that it may be at any time made of a pendulum are called its oſcillations. longer or ſhorter, according as the bob is ſcrewed downwards or The Doctrine of Pendulums, from principles of motion and upwards, and thereby the time of its vibrations kept always the gravitation, mathematicians have demonſtrated the following fame. Again, if a glaſs or metalline tube, uniform throughout , properties concerning the vibration, &c. of pendulums. *** filled with quickſilver, and 58.8 inches long, were applied to á 1. That if a pendulum vibrates in a ſmall arc of a circle, the clock, it would vibrate ſeconds for 39:2=} of 58.8 : and ſuch a time of one vibration is to the time of a body's falling perpendi- pendulum admits of a two-fold expanſion and contraction, viz. cularly through half the length of the pendulum, as the circum one of the metal and the other of the mercury ; and theſe will be ference of a circle to its diameter, viz. as 3.1416 toʻI nearly. - at the ſame time contrary, and therefore will correct each other. 2. In a ſmall are the time of deſcending through the chord, is For by what we have ſhewn, the metal will extend in length with to the time of deſcending through the arch; as the diameter to heat, and ſo the pendulum will vibrate nower on that account. the circumference.—3. Åll vibrations of the ſame pendulum, in The mercury alſo will expand with heat; and ſince by this ex- arches not very large, are performed nearly in the ſame time.- panſion it muſt extend the length of the column upward, and 4. The lengths of pendulums deſcribing ſimilar arcs, are as the conſequently raiſe the centre of oſcillation; ſo that by this ſquares of the times of vibration.-5. The times of vibration of its diſtance from the point of ſuſpenſion will be ſhortened, and pendulums in ſmall circular arcs, are as the ſquare ronts of the therefore the pendulum on this account will vibrate quicker: lengths of the pendulums.-6. The velocity of a pendulum at wherefore, if the circumſtances of the tube and mercury are ſkil- its loweſt point, is as the chord of the arc through which it def- fully adjuſted, the time of the clock might by this means, for a cends.—7. Pendulums of the fame length, vibrate in the ſame long courſe of time, continue the fame, without tany ſenſible gain time, whether they be heavy or light.-8. The lengths of pen or loſs. This is the invention of the late ingenious Mr. Gra- dulums vibrating in the ſame time, in different places of the ham, in the year 1721, who made a clock of this fort, and com- world, will be as the forces of gravity.-9. The times wherein pared it with one of the beſt of the common fort for three years pendulums of the ſame length will vibrate by different forces of together, and found the errors of the former but about one-eighth gravity, are reciprocally as the ſquare roots of the forces.—10. part of the latter ; of which the reader may ſee a farther account The lengths of pendulums in different places, are as the forces in Phil. Tranf. No. 393. It is what is now called Mr. Grun of gravity, and the ſquares of the times of vibration.-11. The han's quickſilver pendulum. (0 times wherein pendulum of any length perform their oſcillations, Mr. John Harriſon of Barrow, in Lincolnſhire, famous for his are as the ſquare roots of their lengths directly, and the ſquare invention of a clock to find the difference of longitude at ſea, roots of the gravitating forces reciprocally.–12. The forces of without having the leaſt knowledge of what Mr. Graham had gravity in different places are as the lengths of pendulums di done before him, made ſeveral experiments upon wires of differ- the ſquares of the times of vibration reciprocally.- ent metals, in order to find their different degrees of expanſion and 13. As the ſquare of the number of vibrations made in any given contraction. He thought, that by a proper combination of wires time, is to the ſquare of that time (taken in feconds) ſo is 39.2 of two different metals, differing conſiderably in their expanſion inches, to the length of the vibrating pendulum.--14. As the and contraction, he might be enabled to keep the centre of oſcilla- length of a pendulum is to 39.2 inches, fo is the ſquare of the tion of a pendulum always at the fame diſtance from the point of time (taken in ſeconds) to the ſquare of the number of vibrations ſuſpenſion. In conſequence of theſe experiments, he made a made in that time. 150 moto pendulum conſiſting of one ſteel-wire, at the end of which is the Remark. The two laft proportions are applications of the bob or weight ; and on each ſide of this wire, four wires, alter- preceding properties, and are adapted to the ſituation of London, nately braſs and ſteel, fo diſpoſed and contrived as to raiſe the pen- or any other place of the ſame latitude where the length of a dulum by the fame quantity that it is lengthened by heat, and to pendulum vibrating ſeconds is 39.2 inches long. But the propor let down the pendulum in the ſame proportion as it is raiſed by cold. tions will ſerve for any latitude, by firſt finding the length of a Mr. Harriſon, in his firſt machine for meaſuring time at ſea, pendulum vibrating ſeconds in the propoſed latitude, and ſubſtitu likewiſe applied this combination of wires of braſs and ſteel, to ting it in lieu of 39.2 inches. Now the lengths of pendulums prevent any alterations by heat and cold. And in the two ma- vibrating ſeconds in different latitudes, are as the forces of gravity, chines or clocks he has ſince made for the ſame purpoſe, a like and theſe are as the diſtances from the earth's centre ; ſo that if method of guarding againſt the irregularities ariſing from this the earth was a perfect ſphere, there would be no difference in cauſe is uſed. so baichewa the lengths of pendulums vibrating ſeconds in any part of the Mr. Graham alſo made a pendulum conſiſting of three bars, earth. But the equatorial diameter is to the earth's axis from one of ſteel between two of braſs ; and the ſteel bar acted upon a pole to pole, in the ratio of about 230, to 229, according to Sir lever, ſo as to raiſe the pendulum, when lengthened by heat, and Iſaac Newton, and as the figure of the earth is that of a ſpheroid, to let it down, when ſhortened by cold ; but he found this clock therefore, from the properties of the elipfis, as laid down in our liable to ſudden ſtarts and jerks in its motion.com treatiſe of Conic Sections, contained in thc ſyſtem of Geometry: But beſides the irregularities ariſing from heat and cold, pen- the proportional diſtance from the centre anſwering toany aſſigned dulum clocks are liable to others from friction and foulneſs ; to places may be readily found, and from thence the lengths of pen obviate which, Mr. Harriſon has ſeveral excellent contrivances, dulums vibrating ſeconds there. Or the different lengths may whereby his clocks are almoſt entirely free from friction, and be found extremely near from the following confiderations, viz. never need to be cleaned.com The lengths of ſuch pendulums increaſe from the equator to the PENETRATION, penetratio, the act whereby one thing poles, nearly in the proportion of the verſed ſigns of double the enters another, or takes up the place already poſſeſſed by another. latitudes, or as the ſquares of the right fines of the latitudes, and The ſchoolmen define penetration the co-exiſtence of two or more the exceſs of the force of gravity at the pole, to the force of gra bodies, ſo that one is preſent, or has its extention in the ſame vity at the equator, is as i to 229. place as the other. Philoſophers hold the penetration of bodies From theſe properties of the pendulum, we may diſcern its uſe abſurd; i. e. that two bodies ſhould be, at the ſame time, in the as an univerſal chronometer, or regulator of time, as it is uſed in ſame place; and accordingly, impenetrability is laid down as one clocks, and ſuch like machines. By this inſtrument alſo we can of the effential properties of MATTER. What we properly call meaſure the diſtance of a ſhip, by meaſuring the interval of time penetration only amounts to the matter of one body's being ad- between the fire and the found of the gun ; alſo the diſtance of a mitted into the vacuity of another. Such is the penetration of cloud, by numbering the ſeconds or half-ſeconds between the water through the ſubſtance of GOLD. lightning and thunder. Thus, fuppoſe between the lightning and PENGUIN, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the Genus rectly, and it called Ρ Ε Ν PEN was called by naturaliſts Diomedea and Phaton. For deſcription of | beautiful fiivery white, elegantly ftriated on each of the feather- the Genus, fee Diomedea, for repreſentation fee Plate V. like proceſſes with lines or ſtreaks of the deepeſt black. It is Genus 93 very rare, and is a native of the Indian feas. There is a very PENINSULA, in geography, a portion or extent of Land, fine ſpecimen of this ſpecies in the Britiſh Muſeum. , joining to the continent by a narrow neck of iſthmus, the reſt be PENNY, or PENY, in Commerce, an ancient Engliſh coin, ing encompaſſed with water. See the System, under the article which had formerly conſiderable courſe. The ancient Engliſh Natural Diviſions of the Earth. penny, penig, or pening; was the firſt filver coin ſtruck in Eny- PENIS, in anatomy, a part of the body, called, by way of land ; nay, and the only one current among our Saxon anceſtors; eminence, the member, or virile member, as being one of the asis agreed by Camden, Spelman, Dr. Hicks ,&e: Some writers principal organs of generation in the male kind. For deſcrip- affirm, that the Saxons had likewiſe a half-penny and farthing, tion ſee the SYSTEM, Part III. Sect. I. both of them probably of filver. Clark on Coins, p. 248. PENITENCE, is ſometimes uſed for å ſtate of repentance, The penny, which in Ethelred's time was the 20th part of the and ſometimes for the act of repenting. It is alſo uſed for a dif- Troy ounce, was equal in weight to our three-pence ; five of cipline, or puniſhment attending repentance; more uſually called them made one ſhilling, or ſchilling Saxon ; and thirty a mark penance. It alſo gives title to ſeveral religious orders, conſiſting or mancuſe, equal to our 7s.6d. It was the largeſt filver coin in either of converted debauchees, and reformed proſtitutes; or of England, and retained this value till the reign of Edward III. perſons who devote themſelves to the office of reclaiming them. Till the time of king Edward I. the penny was ftruck with a Of this latter kind is the ca croſs ſo deeply indented in it, that it might be eaſily broke, and Order of PeniteNCE of St. Magdalen, eſtabliſhed about the parted on occaſion, into two parts; thence called half-pennies ; year 1272, by one Bernard, a citizen of Marſeilles, who devoted or into four, thence called four-things or farthings. But that himſelf to the work of converting the courtezans of that city.prince coined it without indenture, in lieu of which he firſt Bernard was ſeconded by ſeveral others, who, forming a kind of ftruck round half-pence and farthings. Stow, in his annals, po ſociety, were at length erected into a religious order, by Pope 200, obſerves, that half pennies were firſt coined round, A. D. Nicholas III. under the rule of St. Auguſtine. F. Geſnay ſays, 1279, in the reign of Edward I. But hiſtorians have ſince dif- that they alſo made a religious order of the penitents, or women covered, that half-pennies of this kind were coined by Henry I. they converted, giving them the ſame rules and obſervances which and that though the uſual way in the reign of the two firſt Wil- they themſelves kept. liams was to cut the penny into two for making of half-pennies, Congregation of PENITENCE of St. Magdalen at Paris, owed &c. yet it has been ſuppoſed that ſome few half-pennies might its riſe to the preaching of F. Tiſſeran, a Franciſcan, who con even then be coined round. Some few pieces of this kind are verted a vaſt number of courtezans, about the year 1492. Louis preſerved in the cabinets of the curious. See Mr. Pegge's re- duke of Orleans gave them his houſe for a monaſtery ; or ra marks on this ſubject in Gent. Mag. vol. xxviii. p. 64, &c. ther, as appears by their conſtitutions, Charles Vill. gave PENSIONARY, or Pensioner, a perſon who has an ap- them the hotel called Bochaigno, whence they were removed to pointment or yearly fum, payable during life, by way of ac- St. George's chapel, in 1572. By virtue of a brief of Pope knowledgment, charged on the eſtate of a prince, company, or Alexander, Simon biſhop of Paris, in 1497, drew them up a particular perſon. 1 body of ſtatutes, and gave them the rule of St. Auguſtine. It Grand PENSIONARY, an appellation given to the firſt miniſ- was neceſſary, before a woman could be admitted, that ſhe had ter of the States of Holland. The grand penſionary, prior to firſt committed the fin of the fleſh. None were admitted who the conqueſt of Holland by the French, was chairman in the aſa were above 35 years of age. Till the beginning of the laſt cen ſemblies of the ſtates of that province: he propoſed the matters tury, none but penitents were admitted; but ſince its reforma to be conſulted on; collected the votes ; formed and pronounced tion by Mary Alvequin, in 1616, none have been admitted but the reſolutions of the ſtates ; opened letters ; conferred with fo- maids, who, however, afterwards retained the ancient name reign miniſters, &c. His buſineſs was alſo to inſpect the penitents.soh finances, to maintain the authority of the ſtates, and to ſee that PENITENTS, an appellation given to certain fraternities the laws were obſerved ; and he was perpetual deputy of the of penitents diſtinguiſhed by the different ſhape and colour of ſtates general of the United Provinces. His commiſſion their habits. Theſe are fecular focieties, who have their rules, however, given him only for five years ; after which it was dea Statutes, and churches, and make public proceſſions under their liberated whether or not it ſhould be renewed ; but there was no particular croſſes or banners. Of theſe there are more than a inſtance of its being revoked ; therefore death only put an end to hundred, the moſt conſiderable of which are as follow: the the functions of this important miniſter. toiset ing story white penitents, of which there are ſeveral different forts at PENSIONARY, was alſo the firſt miniſter of the regency of Rome, the moſt ancient of which was conſtituted in 1264 ; the each city in Holland. His office was to give his advice in af- brethren of this fraternity every year give portions to a certain fairs relating to the government, either of the ſtate in general, number of young girls, in order to their being married : their or of the city in particular ; and in aſſemblies of the ſtates of habit is a kind of white fackcloth, and on the ſhoulder is a cir- the province, he was ſpeaker in behalf of his city. The func- cle, in the middle of which is a red and white croſs. Black pe- tion, however, of theſe penſionaries was not every where alike; nitents, the moſt conſiderable of which are the brethren of in ſome cities they only gave their advice, and were never found mercy, inſtituted in 1488, by fome Florentines, in order to aſ in aſſemblies of the magiſtrates, except when expreſsly called fift criminals during their impriſonment, and at the time of their thither : in others they attended conſtantly; and in others th they death: on the day of execution, they walk in proceſſion before made the propofitions on the part of the burgomaſters, drew up them, ſinging the ſeven penitential pſalms and the litanies ; and their concluſions, &c. They were called penſionaries, becauſe after they are dead, they take them down from the gibbet and they received an appointment or penſion. bury them, their habit is black fackcloth. There are others PENSIONER, in general, denotes a perſon who receives a whoſe buſineſs it is to bury ſuch perſons as are found dead in the penſion, yearly falary, or allowance. Hence The Band of ſtreets: theſe wear a death's head on one ſide of their habit. - Gentlemen PENSIONERS, the nobleſt fort of guard to the king's There are alſo blue, grey, red, green, and violet penitents; all perſon, conſiſts of 40 gentlemen, who receive a yearly penfion which are remarkable for little elſe befides the different colours of 100l. This honourable band was firſt inſtituted by King of their habits. Mabillon tells us, that at Turin there are a Henry VIII. and their office is to attend the king's perſon, with ſet of penitents kept in pay to walk through the ſtreets in pro their battle-axes, to and from his chapel-royal, and to receive ceffion, and cut their ſhoulders with whips, &c. him in the preſence-chamber, or coming out of his privy lodg- PENNATULA, or SEA-pen, in Vermeology, a Genus of ings ; they are alſo to attend at all great folemnities, as coro- Zoophyte, which, though it ſwims about freely in the ſea, ap- nations, St. George's feaſt, public audiences of ambaſſadors, at proaches near to the Gorgonia. This genus hath a bone along the ſovereign's going to parliament, &c. 900 the middle of the inſide, which is its chief ſupport ; and this They are each obliged to keep three double horſes, and a ſer- bone receives the ſupply of its oſſeous matter by the ſame polype vant, and fo are properly a troop of horſe. They wait half at mouths that furniſh it with nouriſhment. Linnæus reckons fe a time quarterly ; but on Chriſtmas-day, Eaſter-day, Whitſun- ven ſpecies. day, &c. and on extraordinary occafions, they are all obliged to Dr. Shaw, in the Hiſtory of Algiers, ſays, that theſe animals give their attendance. They have likewiſe the honour to carry are fo luminous in the water, that in the night the fiſhermen dif- up the fovereign's dinner on the coronation-day and St. George's cover fiſhes ſwimming about in various depths of the ſea by the feaſt ; at which times the king or queen uſually confer the ho- light they give : From this extraordinary quality Linnæus calls nour of knighthood on two fuch gentlemen of the band as their this ſpecies of the ſea-pen, pennatula phoſphorea, and remarks, captain preſents. after giving the ſynonems of other authors, Habitat in oceano Their arms are gilt battle-axes; and their weapons on horſe fundum illuminans. back, in time of war, are curaſſiers-arms, with ſword and piſ- There are other kinds of ſea-pens, or ſpecies of this animal, tols. Their ſtandard in time of war is, argent, a croſs gnies. which have not a reſemblance to a pen. There is a kidney fha- Their captain is always a nobleman, who has under him a lieu- ped ſea-pen, the feather of the peacock fiſh, the pennatula filofa tenant, a ſtandard-bearer, a clerk of the check, fecretary, páy- of Linnæus, his pennatula ſagita, his pennatula mirabilis, and maſter, and harbinger. the finger-ſhaped ſea-pen. Of all the pennatulæ yet known the PENTAGON, from Mertayovos, quinquangulus, compound- feather-ſhaped one, or as it is called the ſilver ſea-pen, is the ed of devta, five, and ywna, angle, in geometry, a figure of five largeſt as well as the moſt ſpecious in its appearance. It is of a fides and five angles. See the System, Part Í. Sect. I. No. 126. PENTAN . Рp Ρ Ε Ν PER was PENTANDRIA, formed of devle, five, and avap, male, in ſeaſon; wherein, as Tertullian, St. Jerom, &c. obferve, Halle botany, the fifth claſs of plants, which have hermaphrodite lujah was ſung every where, the office celebrated ſtanding, no flowers, with five ſtamina or male parts in each. Of this claſs Of this claſs faſting allowed, &c. The Jews likewiſe had a feaſt they called of plants, which comprehends fix orders, diftinguiſhed by the Pentecoft, or. Quinquagefimus; folemnized in memory of the number of ſtiles, are the primrofe, willow-herb, bindweed, &c. law's being given to Mofes, fifty days after their departure out See the Syſtem, Sect. IV. Eor repreſentation of the different of Egypt. This was the ſecond of the three grand feſtivals in orders, fee Plate I V. and the Explanation. the eccleſiaſtical year, at which all the males were to appear be PENTATEUCH, in the ſacred learning, the five books of fore the Lord at the national altar. fore the Lord at the national altar. It is called by ſeveral names Mofes at the head of the Old Teſtament : viz. Geneſis, Exodus, in the Old Teſtament; as the Feaſt of Weeks, becauſe it was Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The word is formed eelebrated ſeven weeks, or a week of weeks, after the Paſſover , from devlalevyos, which ſignifies the ſame; compounded of devle, or rather, after the firſt day of the feaſt of unleavened bread; the five, and Teuxos, volume. Some modern critics have diſputed feaſt of Harveſt, according to Mede and Bochart, becauſe , as Moſes's right to the Pentateuch. Bapa the harveſt began at the Parfover, it ended at Pentecoſt: or, ac Pere Simon, in his Hiſt. Crit. du V. Teft. produces a great cording to others, becaufe at this feaſt they offered the firſt fruits number of paſſages to prove, that Mofes was not wholly the au of the wheat harveſt, which was then completed: beſides which thor of the Pentateuch, as we now have it. Indeed, thofe ap- they preſented at the temple ſeven lambs of that year, one calf. parent interpolations at the end are ſufficient to determine that and two rams, for a burnt offering ; two lambs for a peace offer point; it being abſurd to ſuppoſe Moſes the author of the ac ing ; and a goat for a ſin offering (Levit. xxiii. 15, 16. Exod. count of his own death and burial, and of the compariſon be xxxiv. 22. and Deut. xvi. 9, 10.) The feaſt of the pentecoſt tween him and the ſucceeding prophets in Iſrael. Theſe inter inſtituted among the Ifraelites, firſt to oblige them to repair to polated paſſages are uſually attributed to Efdras; who, on his the temple of the Lord, there to acknowledge his abſolute domi- return from the Babyloniſh captivity, is ſuppoſed to have pub- nion over the whole country, and to offer him the firſt-fruits of liſhed the Old Teſtament, or at leaſt a part of it, corrected and their harveſt ; and, ſecondly, that they might call to mind, and enlarged. It is obſerved alſo in the text of the pentateuch, that give thanks to God, for the law which he had given them from there are fome places that are defective; for example, in mount Sinai, on the 50th day after their coming out of Egypt. Exodus (xii. 8.), we ſee Mofes fpeaking to Pharaoh, where the The modern Jews celebrate the pentecoſt for two days. They author omits the beginning of his diſcourſe. The Samaritan in deck the ſynagogue and their own houſes with garlands of ſerts in the ſame place what is wanting in the Hebrew. In flowers. They hear a ſermon or oration in praiſe of the law, other places, the fame Samaritan copy adds what is deficient in which they fuppoſe to have been delivered on this day. The the Hebrew text; and what it contains more than the Hebrew Jews of Germany make a very thick cake, conſiſting of ſeven ſeems ſo well connected with the reſt of the diſcourſe, that it layers of paſte, whrch they call Sinai. l. The feven layers repre- would be diffieult to ſeparate them. Laſtly, they believe that fent the ſeven heavens, which they think God was obliged to they obſerve certain ſtrokes in the pentateuch which can hardly re-aſcend from the top of this mountain. See Leo of Modena et agree with Mofes, who was born and bred in Egypt ; as what | Buxtorf's Synag. Jud. ni fogs at he ſays of the earthly paradiſe, of the rivers that watered it, and It was on the feaſt of pentecost that the Holy Ghoſt miracu- ran through it; of the cities of Babylon, Erech, Reſen, and louſly deſcended on the apoſtles of our Lord, who were affem- Calneh ; of the gold of Pifon, of the Bdellium, of the ſtone of bled together after his aſcenſion in a houſe at Jerufalem (Acts ii.) Sohem, or onyx-ſtone, which was to be found in that country. PENUMBRA, in aſtronomy, a faint or partial ſhade, obſerva Theſe particulars, obſerved with ſuch curioſity, feem to prove, ed between the perfect ſhadow and the full light in an eclipſe. that the author of the pentateuch lived beyond the Euphrates, The penumbra ariſes from the magnitude of the ſun's body; were Add what he ſays concerning the ark of Noah, of its conſtruc he only a luminous point, the ſhadow would be all perfect; but tion, of the place where it reſted, of the wood wherewith it was by reaſon of the diameter of the ſun, it happens that a place which built, of the bitumen of Babylon, &c. But in anſwer to all is not illuminated by the whole body of the ſun, does yet receive theſe objections, we may obſerve in general, from an eminent rays from a part thereof. ignoitaliangas writer of our own country, that theſe books are by the moſt an PEPPER, PIPER, in natural hiſtory, an aromatic berry of cient writers afcribed to Mofes ; and it is confirmed by the au a hot dry quality, chiefly uſed in ſeaſoning. We have three thority of heathen writers themſelves, that they are of his kinds of pepper at preſent ufed in the ſhops, the black, the white, writing: beſides this, we have the unanimous teſtimony of the and the long pepper. Black pepper is the fruit of the piper, and whole Jewiſh nation, ever ſince Moſes's time, from the firſt is brought from the Dutch ſettlements in the Eaſt Indies. See writing of them. Divers texts of the pentateuch imply that it Pipar.com to 2301019 guide was written by Moſes, and the book of Joſhua, and other a. The common white pepper is factitious, being prepared from parts of ſcripture, import as much ; and though ſome paſſages the black in the following manner: they ſteep this in fea-water, have been thought to imply the contrary, yet this is but a late expoſed to the heat of the fun for ſeveral days, till the rind of opinion, and has been ſufficiently confuted by ſeveral learned outer bark looſens ; they then take it out, and, when it is half men. The Samaritane receive no other ſcriptures but the pen dry, rub it till the rind falls off ; then they dry the white fruit, tateuch, rejecting all the other books which are ſtill in the and the remains of the rind blow away like chaff A great deal Jewiſh canon. 349989 Bangsi otto automat of the heat of pepper is taken off by this proceſs, ſo that the There are two famous Pentateuchs, or editions of the Penta- white kind is more fit for many purpoſes than the black. How- teuch, which have a long time diſputed the preference, both as ever, there is a fort of native white pepper produced on a ſpecies to antiquity and as to character: viz. that of the Jewiſh or He of the ſame plant; which is much better than the factitious, and brew Pentateuch, written in the Chaldeanor Affyrian character; indeed little inferior to the black. and that of the Samaritans, written in the Samaritan or Phe 2 The long pepper is a dried fruit, of an inch or an inch and an nician character. Each is maintained to be the ancient He half in length, and about the thickneſs of a large gooſe quill: it brew e though the generality of the critics give it in behalf of the is of a browniſh grey colour, cylindrical in figure, and ſaid to be latter. vlasy B SOSrow orbito produced on a plant of the ſame genus. Archbiſhop Uſher takes the Samaritan Pentateuch to have been Pepper is principally uſed by us in food, to aſſiſt digeſtion compiled by Dofitheus, a Samaritan, mentioned by Origen to but the people in the Eaſt Indies eſteem it as a ftomachic, and have adulterated the Pentateuch. Dupin ſuppoſes it the work of drink a ſtrong infuſion of it in water by way of giving them an ſome modern Samaritan, whom he imagines to have compiled appetite: they have alſo a way of making a fiery ſpirit of fer? it chiefly out of the different copies of the Paleſtinian and Baby-mented freſh pepper with water, which they uſe for the ſame lonian Jews, and the Septuagint, becauſe it fometimes agrees purpoſeso. They have alſo a way of preſerving the common with one, and ſometimes with another. The Jews read the and long pepper in vinegar, and eating them afterwards at whole Pentateuch every year; and for this purpoſe they divide it meals. si doua Nairobi orto into paragraphs or ſections, which they diſtinguiſh into great and PERAMBULATOR, in ſurveying, an inſtrument for the ſmall. The great are thoſe which they read in a week, of which meaſuring of diſtances; called alſo pedometer, way-wiſer, and there are fifty-four ; and the ſmall regard particular matters. Surveying wheel. Its advantages are its handineſs and expedi- Each greater ſection, which is denominated by the word with tion: its contrivance is ſuch, that it may be fitted to the wheel which it begins, is divided into ſeven parts, becauſe they are of a coach ; in which ſtate it performs its office, and meaſures read by ſo many different perſons: the prieſt begins, a Levite the road without trouble. proceeds ; and in the choice of the other readers, reſpect is paid PERCA, the Perch; in ichthyology, a Genus of fiſhes be- to the rank of the people. After the text of Moſes, they read a After the text of Moſes, they read a longing to the order of Thoracici. The head is furniſhed with paragraph of the PARAPHRASE of Onkelos. The books of the ſcaly and ferrated opercula ; there are ſeven rays in the mem- prophets are alſo divided in the ſame manner. See the article brane of the gills; and the fins on the back are prickly. There Bible. PENTECOST, Ievrnuos, Whitſuntide ; a folemn feaſt of back fin. The moſt remarkable is, the fluviatilis, or common are 38 fpecies, principally diſtinguiſhed by peculiarities in the the Chriſtian church, held in commemoration of the defcent of perch. animator the Holy Ghoſt on the Apoſtles; as deſcribed in the Aets. on The perch was much eſteemed as food by the Romans, nor is It has its name from the Greek, mevtrX9505, q. d. quinquage- it leſs admired at preſent as a firm and delicate fish ; and the fimus, fiftieth, becauſe held on the fiftieth day after Eaſter. In Dutch are particularly ford of it when made into a diſh called the ancient church, Pentecoſt finished the Pafchal time, or Eaſter water-fouchy. It is a gregarious fiſh, and loves deep holes and 7 gentia PER PE R one. gentle ſtreams ; is exceedingly voracious, and an eager biter ; if, of which one was to be offered to the Lord upon the golden altai the angler meets with a ſhoal of them, he is ſure of taking every which was in the holy place; and the other was appointed for the It is a common notion that the pike will not attack this anointing of the high prieſt and his fons (ibid. 34, &e.) as alſo fiſh, on account of the ſpiny fins which the perch erects on its of the tabernacle, and all the veſſels that were uſed in divine approach. This may be true of large fiſh ; but it is well known ſervice. that ſmall perches are the moſt tempting bait which can be laid The Hebrews had alſo perfumes which they made uſe of in for a pike. The perch is very tenacious of life, and has been embalming their dead. The compoſition is not known, but it is known to ſurvive a journey of 60 miles in dry ſtraw. It ſeldom certain that they generally made uſe of myrrh, aloes, and other grows to a large ſize, though Mr. Pennant mentions one that ſtrong and aftringent drugs, proper to prevent putrefaction (John weighed nine pounds; but this he tells us, is very uncommon. xix. 49.) See the Article EMBALMING: For the moſt approved methods of angling for this fiſh, ſee the Beſides the perfumes for theſe purpoſes, the ſcripture mentions Article ANGLING. other occaſions whereon the Hebrews uſed perfumes. The PERCEPTION, is a word which is ſo well underſtood, that ſpouſe in the Canticles (i. 3.) commends the fcent of the per: it is difficult for the lexicographer to give any explanation of it. fumes of her lover; and her lover in return fays, that the ſcent It has been called the firſt and moſt ſimple act of the mind by of the perfumes of his ſpouſe; ſurpaſſes the moſt excellent odours which it is conſcious of its own ideas. This definition, how- ' (ib. iv. 10-14.) He names particularly the ſpikenard, the ca- ever, is improper, as it confounds perception with conſciouſneſs; , lamus, the cinnamon, the myrrh, and the aloes, as making a although the objects of the former faculty are things without us, part of theſe perfumes. The voluptuous woman deſcribed by thoſe of the latter are the energies of our own minds. Percep- | Solomon (Prob. vii. 17.) ſays, that ſhe had perfumed her bed tion is that power or faculty by which, through the medium of with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon. The epicures in the book the ſenſes, we have the cognizance of objects diſtinct and apart of Wiſdom (ii. 7.) encourage one another to the luxuriant uſe of from ourſelves, and learn that we are but a ſmall part in the ſy- odours and coſtly perfumes. Item of nature. By what proceſs the ſenſes gives us this infor Iſaiah (lvii. 9.) reproaches Judea, whom he deſcribes as a mation, we have endeavoured to thew in the Syſtem of Logic, ſpouſe faithleſs to God, with being painted and perfumed to Part I. and we ſhould not again introduce the ſubject, but to pleaſe ſtrangers, « Thou wenteſt to the king with ointment, and notice a ſingular opinion of a very able writer, whoſe work has didft increaſe thy perfumes.” Ezekiel (xxiii . 41.) ſeems to ac- been given to the public ſince our article alluded to had iſſued cuſe the Jews with having profaned the odours and perfumes, the from the preſs. uſe of which was reſerved to ſacred things, by applying them to Dr. Sayers, who is an ornament to that ſchool in which we their own ufe. are ſtrongly inclined to enliſt ourſelves, has endeavoured to prove They came afterwards to be very common among the Greeks that no man can perceive two objects, or be conſcious of two and Romans, eſpecially thoſe compoſed of muſk, ambergris, and ideas at the ſame inſtant. If this be true, not only our theory of civet, civet. The nardus and malobathrum were held in much eſtima- time is groſsly abſurd, but even memory itſelf ſeems to be an tion, and were imported from Syria. The unguentum nardinum imaginary faculty. If a man be 'not conſcious of his preſent ex was variouſly prepared, and contained many ingredients. Ma- iſtence, at the very inftant when he thinks of a paſt event, or re lobathrum was an Indian plant. Perfumes were alſo uſed at views a ſeries of paſt tranſactions, it is difficult, to us indeed facrifices to regale the gods; at feaſts, to increaſe the pleaſures of impoſſible, to conceive what idea he can have of time, or what he ſenſation ; at funerals, to overpower cadaverous ſmells, and pleaſe can mean when he ſays that he remembers a thing. the manes of the dead; and in the theatres to prevent the offenſive PERCOLATION. See FILTRATION. Many have at effluvia, proceeding from a crowd, from being perceived. tempted the condenſing of wines by percolation, or ſeparating from Since people are become ſenſible of the harm they do to the them that fuperfluous moiſture or water, which dilutes them be- head, perfumes are generally diſuſed among us; however, they low the true ſtandard of vinous liquors, in order to make them are ſtill common in Spain and Italy. richer and fitter for keeping, but it does not appear that ſuch at PERICARDIUM, περικαρδιον, formed from περι, about, and tempts have as yet ſucceeded. tapdia, heart, in anatomy, a membraneous capſule, or pouch, PERCUSSION, in mechanics, the impreſſion a body makes which includes the heart. The pericardium conſiſts of three in falling or ſtriking upon another; or the ſhock or colliſion of the laminæ; the inner ariſing from the coats of the veſſels of the heart; two moving bodies; which meeting, alter each other's motion. the outer from the mediaſtinum; and the middle, which is the See Motion. 150 m chief, is compoſed of very fine tendinous filaments, cloſely inter- PERDIX, in Ornithology, a ſpecies of the Genus Tetrao. woven and croſſing each other in different directions. For deſcription of the Genus and ſeveral ſpecies, ſee Tetrao. reſembles that of the heart, being conoidal; and it embraces the PERENNIAL, in Botany, is applied to thoſe plants whoſe heart laxly, allowing room for its pulſation. See the Syſtem, roots will endure many years. Perennials are of two kinds : Part V. Sect. II. the one retain their leaves all the winter called evergreens. The PERICARPIUM, formed of degi, about, and rapto, fruit, other caſt their leaves in winter, called deciduous, or perdefols. in botany, a pellicle, membrane, or other ſubſtance, encompaſſing See the SYSTEM, Sect. II. the fruit or ſeed of a plant. It is the germen of the piſtil enlarged; PERFECTION, the ſtate or quality of a thing Perfect. or, as Linnæus defines it, it is an entrail of the plant big with Perfection is divided, according to Clauvinus, into phyſical, feed, which it diſcharges when ripe. There are no leſs than nine moral, and metaphyſical. Phyſical or natural perfection, is that ſpecies of pericarpia. 1. A capſule . 2. A conceptaculum. 3. whereby a thing has all its powers and faculties, and thoſe too in A pod. 4. A legume. 5. A nut. 6. A drupe. 7. An apple full vigour ; and all its parts both principal and ſecondary, and or pomum. 8. A berry. 9. A ſtrobilus. See the Syſtem, thoſe in their due proportion, conſtitution, &c. in which fenſe Sect. II. IN man is ſaid to be perfect when he has a found mindin a ſound body. PERICRANIUM, Izgrzpzvioy, formed from sepi, about, This perfection is by the ſchools frequently termed svepyntiin, and xqavity, head, or ſkull, in anatomy, a thick, folid coat, or becauſe a thing is enabled thereby to perform all its operations. membrane, covering the outſide of the cranium or ſkull. See the Moral perfection is an eminent degree of virtue or moral goodneſs, Syſtem, Part VI. Sect . I. to which men arrive by repeated acts of piety, berieficence, &c. PERIGÆUM, Perigee, formed of tepi and y, earth, in This is uſually ſubdivided into abſolute or inherent, which is ac aſtronomy, that point of the ſun's or moon's orbit, wherein they tually in him to whom we attribute it: into imputative, which are at their leaſt diſtance from the earth. In which ſenſe perigee exiſts in ſome other, and not in him it is attributed to. Meta ſtands oppoſed to APOGEE. See the Syſtem, Section VII. Phyſical, tranſcendental, or eſſential perfection, is the poſſeſſion Article XII. of all the eſſential attributes, or of all the parts neceſſary to the PERIGORD Stone, an ore of manganeſe, of a dark grey integrity of a ſubſtance: or it is that whereby a thing has or is colour, like the baſaltes or trapp. It may be fcraped with a provided of every thing belonging to its nature. - This is either This is either knife, but is extremely difficult to be broken. It is found of abſolute, where all imperfection is excluded, fuch is the perfec no regular figure, is very compact, heavy, and as black as char- tion of God; or ſecundum quid, and in its kind. coal. Its appearance is glittering and ſtriated, like the ore of PERFUME, denotes either the volatile effluvia from any antimony ; its particles being diſpoſed in the form of needles, body affecting the organ of ſmelling, or the ſubſtance emitting croſſing one another without any agglutination, infomuch that thoſe effluvia ; in which lait ſenſe the word is moſt commonly ſome are looſe as iron-filings when ſtuck to a loadſtone ; reſem- uſed. The generality of perfumes are made up of muſk, amber bling the ſcoria from a blackſmith's furnace. By calcination it gris, civet, roſe and cedar woods, orange-flowers, jeffamines, becomes harder and of a reddiſh brown colour, but is not attracted jonquils, tuberoſes, and other odoriferous flowers. Thoſe drugs by the magnet. It has a conſiderable ſpecific gravity, does not commonly called aromatics, ſuch as ſtorax, frankincenſe, benzoin, melt per fe, but with borax runs into a glaſs of the colour of an cloves, mace, &c. enter the compoſition of a perfume ; fome are amethyſt. It is ſcarcely affected by the nitrous acid without the alſo compoſed of aromatic herbs or leaves, as lavender, marjo- addition of ſugar. It ſeems alſo to contain ſome argil and iron. ram, ſage, thyme, hyſſop, &c. It is met with in Gaſcony and Dauphiny in France, and in ſome The uſe of perfumes was frequent among the Hebrews, and parts of England. It is employed by the French potters and the orientals in general, before it was known to the Greeks enamellers in the glaſfy varniſh of their earthen wares. See the and Romans. In the time of Mofes perfumes muſt have been Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. I. Sect. VI..on known in Egypt, fince he ſpeaks of the art of the perfumer, and PERIHELIUM, formed from Depi, and Tinlos, fun, in af gives the compoſition of two kinds of perfumes (Exod. xxx. 25.) tronomy, that point of the orbit of a planet, or comer, where- Its figure among in P E R PER 12 20 30 365 100000 16 in it is at its leaſt diſtance from the ſun. Perihelium ſtands op- eloſe of the fifth century, it roſe into conſiderable credit; the Plas poſed to APHELIUM. See the Syſtem, Sect. VII. Art. II. tonicsinterpreting, in their ſchools, ſome of the writings of Ariſtotle PERINÆUM, or PERINEUM, Teqvzıow , or dégiveov, formed particularly his dialectics, andrecommending them to young perſons of wagi, and vaiely, to inhabit, in anatomy, the ſpace between This ſeems to have been the firſt ſtep to that univerſal dominion; the pudendum and the fundament ; properly the ligamentous which Ariſtotle afterwards obtained in the republic of letters ſeam which connects thoſe two parts, called by the Latins, inter which was alſo very much promoted by the controverſies which fæmineum. See the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XV. Art. 2. The Origen had occaſioned; he was zealouſly attached to the Platonic part is ſubject to laceration in a difficult birth : and in this part {yſtem; and, therefore, after his condemnation, many, to avoid the an operation is performed, called the puncture of the perineum. imputation of his errors, and to prevent their being counted as But the principal diſorders to which this part is ſubject, are ab mong the number of his followers, openly adopted the philoſophy of ceſſes and fiftulas. Ariſtotle. Nor was any philoſopher fo proper for furniſhing PERIOD, in aſtronomy, the time taken up by a ſtar or pla- thoſe weapons of ſubtle diſtinctions and captious ſophiſms, which net in making a revolution round the ſun; or the duration of its were uſed in the Neſtorian, Arian, and Eutychian controverſies. courſe till it return to the ſame part of its orbit. See PLANET. About the cloſe of the fixth century, the Ariſtotelian philoſophy, The different periods and mean diſtances of the ſeveral planets as well as ſcience in general, was almoſt univerſally decried ; and are as follow : it was chiefly owing to Boethius, who explained and recom: mended it, that it obtained a higher degree of credit among the Days. h. mean Dift. Latins than it had hitherto enjoyed. Towards the end of the Saturn 10579 6 36 26 | 953800 ſeventh century, the Greeks abandoning Plato to the monks, Jupiter 4332 35 520110 gave themſelves up entirely to the direction of Ariſtotle, and in Mars686 23 27 152309 the ſucceeding century, the Peripatetic philoſophy was taught every Earth 6 Ó 9 30 where in their public ſchools, and propagated in all places with Venus 224 49 24 72333 conſiderable ſucceſs. John Damaſcenus very much contributed Mercury 87 23 15 53 36710 to its credit and influence, by compoſing a conciſe, plain, and There is a wonderful harmony between the diſtance of the comprehenfive view of the doctrines of the Stagirite, for the ini planets from the fun ; and their periods round him; the great ftruction of the more ignorant, and in a manner adapted to com law whereof is, that the ſquares of the periodical times of the mon capacities. Under the patronage of Photius, and the pro- primary planet, are to each other as the cubes of their diſtances tection of Bardas, the ſtudy of philofophy, having for ſome time from the ſun: and likewiſe, the ſquares of the periodical times declined, revived again about the end of the ninth century. About of the ſecondaries of any planet are to each other as the cubes of the year 1050, a revolution in philoſophy commenced in France, their diſtances from that primary. This harmony among the when ſeveral eminent logicians, who followed Ariſtotle as their planets is one of the greateſt confirmations of the Copernican guide, took nevertheleſs the liberty of illuſtrating and modelling hypotheſis. See the Syſtem, Sect. VII. and VIII. anew his philoſophy, and extending it far beyond its ancient limits. PERIOD, in medicine, is applied to certain diſeaſes which In the twelfth century, three methods of teaching philofo- have intervals, and returns, to denote an entire courſe or circle, phy were practiſed by different doctors; the firſt was the ancient of ſuch diſeaſe; or its progreſs from any ſtate through all the reſt and plain method, which confined its reſearches to the philofo- till it return to the ſame again. Galen deſcribes period as a time phical notions of Porphyry, and the dialectic ſyſtem, commonly compoſed of an intenſion and remiffion; whence it is uſually di attributed to St. Auguſtine, and in which was laid down this ge- vided into two parts, the paroxyſm or exacerbation, and remiſ neral rule, that philoſophical inquiries were to be limited to a fion. In intermitting fevers, the periods are uſually ſtated and ſmall number of ſubjects, leſt, by their becoming too extenſive, regular ; in other diſeaſes, as the epilepſy, gout, &c. they are religion might ſuffer by a profane mixture of human ſubtilty with vague or irregular. its divine wiſdom. The ſecond method was called the Ariſto- PERIODICAL Diſeaſes, are ſuch as decline and riſe again telian, becauſe it conſiſted in explications of the works of that with ſimilar ſymptoms alternately. In the Philoſophical Tranſ- philoſopher. ſeveral of whoſe books, being tranſlated into Latin, actions, Dr. Muſgrave gives us an inſtance of periodic pally; s us an inſtance of periodic palfy; were almoſt every where in the hands of the learned. The third and Dr. Cole an inſtance of a periodical convulſion. was termed the free method, employed by ſuch as were bold PERICECI, I Izpolxus, formed from wsp, about, and osxem, enough to ſearch after truth, in the manner the moſt adapted to I inhabit, in geography, ſuch inhabitants of the globe as have render their inquiries ſucceſsful, without rejecting the ſuccours the fame latitudes, but oppoſite longitudes; or live under the of Ariſtotle and Plato. A reformed ſyſtem of Peripateticiſm was ſame parallel, and the ſame meridian, but in different ſemicir firſt introduced into the ſchools in the univerſity of Paris, from cles of that meridian or oppoſite points of the parallel. Theſe whence it ſoon ſpread throughout Europe ; and has fubfiſted in have the ſame common ſeaſons throughout the year, and the the univerſities to this day, under the name of ſchool philoſophy. ſame phenomena of the heavenly bodies; but their hours, or The foundation hereof is Ariſtotle's doctrine, frequently miſun: times of the day; are oppoſite to each other. When v. gr. with derſtood, and oftener miſapplied : whence the retainers thereto the one it is mid-day, with the other it is mid-night. See the may be denominated Reformed Peripatetics. Out of theſe have Treatiſe on the Globes, Prob. XVI. ſprung at ſeveral times, ſeveral branches, the chief are, the PERIOSTEUM, or PeriOSTIUM, in anatomy, a nervous Thomiſts, Scotiſts, and Nominaliſts. The Peripatetic ſyſtem, vaſcular membrane, endued with a very quick ſenſe, immedi after having prevailed with very great and very extenſive domi- ately ſurrounding, in every part, both the internal and external nion for many centuries, began rapidly to decline towards the furfaces of all the bones in the body, excepting only ſo much of cloſe of the ſeventeenth century, when the diſciples of Ramus the teeth as ſtand above the gums, and the peculiar places on the attacked it on the one hand, and it had ſtill more formidable ad- bones, in which the muſcles are inſerted. It is hence divided verſaries to encounter in Des Cartes, Gaſſendi, and Newton. into the external and internal perioſteum ; and where it externally PERIPHERY, in geometry, the circumference, or bounding- ſurrounds the bones of the ſkull, it is generally called the peri- line, of a circle, ellipſis, parabola, or other regular curvilinear cranium. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. I. figure. PERIPATETICS, II:grateTixi; a ſect of philoſophers, the PERIPNEUMONY, LIEPitiveUploV.C, formed from tagi, about, followers of Ariſtotle, or the maintainers of the Peripatetic phi- and Jusupuwi, lungs, in medicine, an inflammation of ſome part lofophy: called alſo ARISTOTELIANS. Cicero tells us that Cicero tells us that of the thorax, properly of the lungs; attended with an accute fc- Plato left two excellent diſciples, Xenocrates and Ariſtotle, who ver, and a difficulty of breathing. For deſcription, cauſes, prog- founded two feets, which only differed in name; the for nofis, and curv, ſee the Syſtem, Genus XII. basta mer taking the appellation of ACADEMICS, who were thoſe PERISCII, nepo2015, q. d. circumumbres, of heri, about, and who continued to hold their conferences in the Academy, as Gull, ſhadow, in geography, thoſe inhabitants of the earth, whoſe Plato had done before: the others who followed Ariſtotle, were ſhadows do, in one and the ſame day ſucceſſively turn to all the called Peripatetics, from magıtalai, I walk ; becauſe they dif- points of the horizon. Such points of the horizon. Such are the inhabitants of the frozen zones, puted walking in the Lyceum. or thoſe who live within the compaſs of the arctic and antarctic Thegreateſt and beſt part of Ariſtotle's philoſophy, he borrowed circles; for, as the ſun never goes down to them after he is once up, from his maſter Plato : Serranus affirms confidently, and ſays heis but moves but moves always round about, fo do their ſhadows; infomuch able to demonſtrate it, that there is nothing exquiſite in any part that, in the ſame day, they have their ſhadows on all ſides. See of Ariſtotle's philofophy, dialectics, ethics, politics, phyſics, or me the Treatiſe on the GLOBES. tolongan taphyſics, but is found in Plato. And of this opinion are many of PERISTALTIC, TEPISUNTIKOS, formed from, DepE210, and theancient authors, Clemens, Alexandrinus,&c. Gale endeavours literally implying ſomething driven, or preſſed all around, in to Thew, that Ariſtotle borrowed a good deal of his philoſophy, both medicine, a motion proper to the inteſtines, wherein their ſeveral phyſical, about the firſt matter, and metaphyſical about the firſt be- parts are ſucceſſively contracted from above downwards, or from ing, his affections, truth, unity, goodneſs, &c. from the facred the pylorus to the anus ; in a manner fomewhat reſembling the hooks;andadds,fromClearchus,one of his (Ariſtotle's) ſcholars, that creeping of a worm; whence it is called the vermicular motion. he made uſe of a certain Jew, who afliſted him therein. Ariſtotle's The periſtaltic motion is performed by the contraction of the cir- philofophy preſerved itſelf in puris naturalibus for a long time; in cular and longitudinal fibres, whercofthe fleſhy coat of the intel- the earlier ages of Chriſtianity, the Platonic philofophy was more tines is compoſed. It is by means hereof that the chyle is driven generally preferred; but this did not prevent the doctrine of Ariſto- into the orifices of the lacteal veins, and the excrements are preſſed tle from forcing its way into the Chriſtian church. Towards the downwards, and at laſt expelled. When this motion comes to be P E R PER be depraved, and its direction changed, ſo as to proceed from flicts the penalty of perpetual infamy, and a fine of fol. on the below upwards, it produces what we call the iliac paſſion. M. fuborner ; and in default of payment, impriſonment for fix Perault, in an expreſs treatiſe on the periftaltic motion, obſerves months, ard to ſtand with both ears nailed to the pillory. Per that though it is ordinarily only attributed to the inteſtines, yet jury itſelf is thereby puniſhed with fix months impriſonment, it is really an action common to all thoſe parts of the body, which perpetual infamy, and a fine of 201. or to have both ears nailed alter, prepare, and concoct the ſeveral humours and ſpirits, which to the pillory. But the profecution is uſually carried on for the are the matter and inſtruments of animal action. In effect, he offence at common law ; cfpecially as, to the penalties before gives the name to all the motions whereby the cavities of the inflicted, the ſtatute 2 Geo. II. c. 25. fuperadds a power for the body are preſſed, or compreſſed. court to order the offender to be ſent to the houſe of correction PERITONÆUM, or PERITONEUM, degilovcov, or megiloci!), for a term not exceeding ſeven years, or to be tranſported for the derived from the verb cepaliw, I ſketch all round, in anatomy, fame period ; and makes it felony, without benefit of clergy, to a thin foft membrane, adhering to the inner ſurface of the muf- return or eſcape within the time. It has ſometimes been with- culi tranſverſi, covering and containing all the viſcera of the ed that perjury, at leaſt upon capital accuſations, whereby ano- lower belly. See the Syſtem, Part Ill. Sect. I. IH ther's life has been or might have been deſtroyed, was alſo ren- PERJÚRY, in law, is defined by Sir Edward Coke to be a dered capital, upon a principle of retaliation; as it was univer- crime committed when a lawful oath is adminiſtered, in ſome fally by the laws of France. And certainly the odiouſneſs of the judicial proceeding, to a perſon who ſwears wilfully, abſolutely, crime pleads ítrongly in behalf of the French law. But it is to and falſely, in a matter material to the iffue or point in queſtion. be conſidered, that there they admitted witneſſes to be heard only In ancient times it was in ſome places puniſhed with death ; in on the ſide of the proſecution, and ufed the rack to extort a con- others it made the falſe ſwearer liable to the puniſhment due to feſſion from the accuſed. In ſuch a conſtitution, therefore, it the crime he had charged the innocent perſon with; in others a was neceſſary to throw the dread of capital puniſhment into the pecuniary muld was impoſed. But though it eſcaped human, other ſcale, in order to keep in awe the witneſſes for the crown ; vet it was thought, amongſt the ancients in general, that the on whom alone the priſoner's fate depended : ſo naturally does one divine vengeance would moſt certainly overtake it ; and there cruel law beget another. But corporal and pecuniary puniſhments; are many ſevere inflictions from the hand of God upon record, exile, and perpetual infamy, are more ſuited to the genius of the as monuments of the abhorrence in which this atrocious crime Engliſh law ; where the fact is openly diſcuſſed between witneſſes is held by the Deity. The fouls of the deceaſed were ſuppoſed on both ſides, and the evidence for the crown may be contradicted to be employed in puniſhing perjured perfons. Even the inani and diſproved by thoſe of the priſoner. Where indeed the death mate creation was thought to take revenge for this crime. The of an innocent perſon has actually been the conſequence of ſuch Greeks ſuppoſed that no perſon could ſwear falſely by Styx, wilful perjury, it falls within the guilt of deliberate murder, and without ſome remarkable puniſhment ; and that no perſon deſerves an equal puniſhment; which our ancient law in fact in- guilty of perjury could enter the cave of Palæmon, at Corinth, flicted. But the mere attempt to deſtroy life by other means without being made a memorable example of divine juſtice. not being capital, there is no reaſon that an attempt by perjury But although perjury was thus held in general abhorrence, not ſhould; much leſs that this crime fhould, in all judicial caſes, withſtanding the credit which was given to ſuch accounts of di be puniſhed with death. For to mult;ply capital puniſhments vine inflictions, it was ſo much practiſed by the Greeks, that leffens their effect, when applied to crimes of the deepeſt dye ; Græca fides became a proverb. Lovers perjuries, however, and, deteſtable as perjury is, it is not by any means to be compared were ſuppoſed to paſs unnoticed, or to be very ſlightly puniſhed with ſome other offences, for which only death can be inflicted ; with blacknefs of the nails, a decayed tooth, or fome ſmall di and therefore it ſeems already (except perhaps in the inſtance minution of beauty. of deliberate murder by perjury) very properly puniſhed by our The ancient philoſophers, however, were ſo afraid of perjury, preſent law: which has adopted the opinion of Cicero, derived that even an oath before a judge was never admitted but for from the law of the twelve tables, Perjurii pæna divinu, exitium; want of other proof. Plato's precept was, “ Not to adminiſter humana, dedecus. See OATH. vau « an oath wantonly, but on deep grounds, and with the ſtricteſt PERMUTATION, the truck, or exchange, of one thing for caution.” Ulpian gives his opinion thus: “ Some are forward another. See EXCHANGE. an art to take oaths from a contempt of religion : others, from an ex PERORATION, in oratory, the epilogue or laſt part of an traordinary awe of the Divine Majeſty, carry their fear to an oration, wherein what the orator had inſiſted on through his unreaſonable ſuperſtition; ſo make an equitable deciſion of a whole diſcourſe is urged afreſh with greater vehemence and paſſion. judge neceſſary." “ No man will perjure himſelf (ſays Arif- The peroration conſiſts of two parts. 1. Recapitulation; wherein totle) who apprehends vengeance from Heaven and diſgrace the ſubſtance of what was diffuſed throughout the whole ſpeech Clinias was fo very ſcrupulous, that rather than is collected briefly and curſorily, and ſummed up with new force take an oath (though lawfully), he ſuffered the loſs of three ta and weight. 2. The moving the paſſions; which is ſo peculiar lents. Perjury, in the time of Philo Judeus, was abominated to the peroration, that the maſters of the art call this part ſedes and capitally puniſhed among the Jews ; though ſince they have affetuum. See the Treatiſe on ORATORY, Part II. Sect. 6. much degenerated, having been poiſoned with the books of the PERRUKE, PERUKE, or Periwig, was anciently a name Talmud, which ſays, “ He who breaks his promiffory oath, or for a long head of natural hair ; ſuch, particularly, as there was any vows he enters into by the year, if he has a mind ſhould be care taken in the adjuſting and trimming of. Menage derives ineffectual and invalid, let him riſe the laſt day of the year, and the word rather fancifully from the Latin pilus “ hair." It is fay, whatever promiſes, oaths, and vows I may-think fit to derived, according to this critic, thus, pilus, pelus, pelutus, peluti- make in the year following, let them be null, void, and of no cus, pelutica, perutica, peruca, perruque. The Latins call it coma; effect.” Tract. iii. part 3. of the Talmud, in the treatiſe Ned whence part of Gaul took the denomination of Gallia Comata, harim, ch. 4. And the modern Jews uſe the ſame artifice, from the long hair which the inhabitants wore as a ſign of freedom. thinking they may then lawfully deceive the Chriſtians. See Anancient authorſays that Abſalom's perruke weighed 2001hekels. Hieron. ex Dietis Talmud, c. 3. and Magifier Joannes de Con The word is now uſed for a ſet of falſe hair, curled, buckled, cor. Legum. tit. iv. c. 7. and fewed together on a frame or cawl ; anciently called capilla- In our law, no notice is taken of any perjury but ſuch as is mentum or “ falſe perruke." It is doubted whether or not the committed in ſome court of juſtice having power to adminiſter uſe of perrukes of this kind was known among the ancients. It an oath ; er before ſome magiſtrate or proper officer inveſted is true, they uſed falſe hair : Martial and Juvenal make merry with a ſimilar authority, in ſome proceedings relative to a civil with the women of their time, for making themſelves look young fuit or a criminal profecution : for it eſteems all other oaths un with their borrowed hair; with the men who changed their co- neceſſary at leaſt, and therefore will not puniſh the breach of lours according to the ſeaſons; and with the dotards, who hoped them. For which reaſon it is much to be queſtioned, how far to deceive the Deſtinies by their white hair. But theſe ſeem to any magiſtrate is juſtifiable in taking a voluntary affidavit in any have ſcarce had any thing in common with our perrukes; and extrajudicial matter, as is now too frequent upon every petty were at beſt only compoſed of hair painted and glued together. ſince it is more than poſſible that, by ſuch idle oaths, Nothing can be more ridiculous than the deſcription Lampridius a man may frequently, in foro confcientiæ, incur the guilt, and gives of the emperor Commodus's perruke: it was powdered at the ſame time evade the temporal penalties of perjury. The with ſcrapings of gold, and oiled (if we may uſe the expreſſion) perjury muſt alſo be corrupt (that is, committed malo animo), with glutinous perfumes, for the powder to hang by. In effect, wilful, poſitive, and abſolute; not upon ſurpriſe, or the like: it the uſe of perrukes, at leaſt in their preſent mode, is not much alſo muſt be in ſome point material to the queſtion in diſpute ; more than 160 years old; the year 1629 is reckoned the epocha for if it only be in ſome trifling collateral circumſtance, to which of long perrukes, at which time they began to appear in Paris ; no regard is paid, it is no more penal than in the voluntary ex from whence they ſpread by degrees through the reſt of Europe. trajudicial oaths before mentioned. Subornation of perjury is At firſt it was reputed a fcandal for young people to wear them, the offence of procuring another to take ſuch a falſe oath, as becauſe the loſs of their hair at that age was attributed to a dif- conſtitutes perjury in the principal. The puniſhment of perjury eaſe the very name whereof is a reproach ; but at length the and fubornation, at common law, has been various. It wasan mode prevailed over the ſcruple, and perſons of all ages and con- ciently death ; afterwards baniſhment, or cutting out the tongue : ditions have worn them, foregoing without any neceſſity, the then forfeiture of goods; and now it is fine and impriſonment, conveniences of their natural hair. "It was, however, ſome time and never more to be capable of bearing teſtimony. But the before the eccleſiaſtics came into the faſhion: the firſt who af- ftatutc , 5 Elif . c. 9. (if the offender be proſecuted thereon) in- ſumed the perruke were ſome of the French clergy, in the year No. 126. Qq among men." occaſion ; 1660 PER PER perſon. them Of thoſe remarkable for the beauty of their flowers the principal 1660 ; nor is the practice yet well authoriſed. Cardinal Gri- | planted in the gardens, ſome of which are preſerved only for the maldi, in 1684, and the biſhop of Lavaur in 1688; prohibited the heauty of their flowers, but moſt of them for the ſake of the fruit . uſe of the perruke to all prieſts without a diſpenſation or neceſ- fity. M. Thiers has an expreſs treatiſe, to prove the perruke in are, I. The vulgaris, or common peach-tree with double flowers. decent in an eccleſiaſtic, and directly contrary to the decrees and which is a very great ornament in gardens, producing very large double flowers of a beautiful red or purple colour, and grows to a canons of councils. A prieſt's head, embelliſhed with artificial hair curiouſly adjuſted, he eſteems a monſter in the church, nor confiderable ſize. 2. The humilis, or dwarf-almond. 3. The can he conceive any thing ſo fcandalous as an abbot with a florid Africana, or double flowering dwarf almond. Theſe two reach countenance, heightened with a well-curled perruke. not above the height of three or four feet, though their flowers PERRY, the name of a very pleaſant and wholeſome liquor, are of equal beauty with the former. Of the peach-trees culti- extracted from pears, in the ſame manner as cyder is from apples. vated for the ſake of their fruit there is a great number, to deſcribe See the article CYDER. which particularly, would exceed the proper bounds of this article. The beſt pears for perry, or at leaſt the forts which have been For the cultivation of this fruit, ſee the Treatiſe on GARDEN- hitherto deemed the fitteft for making this liquor, are fo excef ING, Article Fruit Garden ; months, January, May, and July. lively tart and harſh, that no mortal can think of eating them as PERSONIFYING, or PERSONALIZING, the giving an fruit'; for even hungry ſwine will not eat them, nay hardly fo inanimate being the figure, ſentiments, and language of a much as ſmell them. Of theſe the Bolbury pear, the Bareland Dr. Blair, in his Lectures on Rhetoric, gives this account of pear, and the horſe pear, are the moſt eſteemed for perry in Wor perſonification. " It is a figure, the uſe of which is very ex- ceſterſhire, and the ſquaſh pear, as it is called, in Glouceſterſhire; tenſive, and its foundation laid deep in human nature. At firit in both which counties, as well as in ſome of the adjacent parts, view, and when conſidered abſtractly, it would appear to be a they are planted in the hedge-rows and moſt common fields.- figure of the utmoſt boldneſs, and to border on the extravagant There is this advantage attending pear-trees, that they will thrive and ridiculous. For what can ſeem more remote from the tract on land where apples will not fo much as live, and that fome of of reaſonable thought, than to ſpeak of ſtones and trees, and fields grow to ſuch a fize, that a ſingle pear-tree, particularly, of and rivers, as if they were living creatures, and to attribute to the Boíbury and the ſquaſh kind, has frequently been known to them thought and ſenſation, affections and actions? One might yield, in one ſeaſon, from one to four hogſheads of perry. The imagine this to be no more than childiſh conceit, which no per- Boſbury pear is thought to yield the moſt laſting and moſt vinous fon of taſte could reliſh. liquor. The John pear, the Harpary pear, the Drake pear, the different. All poetry, even in its moſt gentle and humble forms, Mary pear, the Lullum pear, and ſeveral others of the harſheſt abounds with it. From proſe it is far from being excluded; nay , kinds, are eſteemed the beſt for perry, but the redder or more in common converſation, very frequent approaches are made toit tawney they are, the more they are preferred. Pears, as well as When we ſay, the ground thirſts for rain, or the earth ſmiles with apples, ſhould be full ripe before they are ground. The method plenty ; when we ſpeak of ambition's being reftlefs, or a diſeaſe of preparing perry is perfectly the ſame with that of cyder. Only being deceitful; ſuch expreſſions ſhow the facility with which the note, that the fruit muſt be perfectly ripe. Some mixcrabs with mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to things them to mend the liquor. that are inanimate, or to abſtract conceptions of its own forming. PER SE, of itſelf, in the ſchools, is ſometimes oppoſed to “ Indeed, it is very remarkable, that there is a wonderful per accidens. In which ſenſe, a thing is ſaid to agree with ano proneneſs in human nature to animate all objects. Whether ther per ſe, when the agreement is not owing to any accidental this ariſes from a ſort of aſlimilating principle, from a propenſion event, but is found in the intrinſic principles of things them to ſpread a reſemblance of ourſelves over all other things, or from felves. Philoſophers go ſo far as to conſider the mode of a whatever other cauſe it ariſes, ſoit is, that almoſt every emotion thing exiſting per ſe, or that which conſtitutes its exiſtence ſuch ; which in the leaſt agitates the mind befiows upon its object a which they call perfeity, perfeitas. momentary idea of life. Let a man, by an unwary itep, ſprain PERSECUTION, is any pain or afliction which a perſon his ankle, or hurt his foot upon a ſtone, and in the ruffled dif- deſignedly inflicts upon another; and in a more reſtrained compoſed moment he will ſometimes feel himſelf diſpoſed to {enfe, the ſufferings of Chriſtians on account of their religion. break the ſtone in pieces, or to utter paſſionate expreſſions againſt Hiſtorians uſually reckon ten general perſecutions, the firſt of it, as if it had done him an injury. If one has been long ac- which was under the emperor Nero, 31 years after our Lord's cuſtomed to a certain ſet of objects, which have made a ſtrong aſcenſion ; when that emperor having ſet fire to the city of impreſſion on his imagination; as to a houſe, where he has Rome, threw the odium of that execrable action on the Chrif- paffed many agreeable years; or to fields, and trees, and moun- tians, who under that pretence were wrapped up in the ſkins oftains, among which he has often walked with the greateli de- wild beaſts, and worried and devoured by dogs; others were light; when he is obliged to part with them, eſpecially if he crucified, and others burnt alive. The ſecond was under has no proſpect of ever ſeeing them again, he can ſcarce avoid Domitian, in the year 95. In this perſecution St. John the having ſomewhat of the ſame feeling as when he is leaving old apoſtle was fent to the iſland of Patmos, in order to be employed friends. They ſeem endowed with life. They become objects in digging in the mines. The third began in the third year of of his affection ; and, in the moment of his parting, it ſčarce Trajan, in the year 100, and was carried on with great violence ſeems abſurd to him to give vent to his feeling in words, and to for ſeveral years. The fourth was under Antoninus the philo- take a formal adieu. ſopher, when the Chriſtians were baniſhed from their houſes, “ So ſtrong is that impreſſion of life which is made upon us, forbidden to ſhow their heads, reproached, beaten, hurried from by the more magnificent and ſtriking objects of nature eſpecially, place to place, plundered, impriſoned, and ſtoned. The fifth that I doubt not in the leaſt of this having been one cauſe of the began in the year 197; under the emperor Severus. The fixth multiplication of divinities in the heathen world. The belief began with the reign of the emperor Maximinus in 235. The of dryads and naiads, of the genius of the wood and the god of ſeventh, which was the moſt dreadful perſecution that had ever the river, among men of lively imaginations, in the early ages been known in the church, began in the year 250, in the reign of the world, eaſily aroſe from this turn of mind. When their of the emperor Decius, when the Chriſtians were in all places favourite rural objects had often been animated in their fancy, it driven from their habitations, ſtripped of their eſtates, tormented was an eaſy tranſition to attribute to them ſome real divinity, with racks, &c. The eighth began in the year 257, in the fome unſeen power or genius which inhabited them, or in ſome fourth year of the reign of the emperor Valerian. The ninth peculiar manner belonged to them. Imagination was highly was under the emperor Aurelian, A. D. 274 ; but this was very gratified, by thus gaining ſomewhat to reſt upon with more ſta- inconſiderable: and the tenth began in the 19th year of Dio- bility; and when belief coincided ſo much with imagination, cleſian, A. D. 303. In this dreadful perſecution, which laſted very night cauſes would be fufficient to eſtabliſh it. ten years, houſes filled with Chriſtians were ſet on fire, and "From this deduction may be eaſily ſeen how it comes to whole droves were tied together with ropes and thrown into the paſs that perſonification makes ſo great a figure in all compofi- fea. See TOLERATION. tions where imagination or paſion have any concern. There are The perſecutions of later date are not leſs dreadful than the three different degrees of this figure, which it is neceſſary to re- ten perfecutions under the Roman empire. Thoſe who wiſh to pe mark and diſtinguiſh, in order to determine the propriety of its ruſethem, will find them particularly deſcribed in Southwell's book. uſe. The firſt is, when ſome of the properties or qualities of PERSEUS, in aſtronomy, a conſtellation of the northern he- living creatures are aſcribed to inanimate objects; the ſecond, miſphere ; whoſe ſtars, in Ptolemy's Catalogue, are 29 ; in when thoſe inanimate objects are introduced as acting like ſuch Tycho's as many; in Helvelius's 46 ; and in the Britannic Ca as have life; and the third, when they are repreſented either as talogue 59. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. ſpeaking to us, or as liſtening to what we ſay to them. PERSIAN WHEEL, in Hydroſtatics, a machine for raiſing “ Some of the French writers, particularly Boſſuet and Flechier, a quantity of water ſufficient to overflow lands, bordering on the are worthy of being conſulted for inſtances of this and other orna- tanks of rivers where the ſtream is too low to do it alone. See ments of ſtyle. Indeed the vivacity and ardour of the French ge- the Syſtem, Part II. Art. 7. For repreſentation, fee Plate I. nius is more ſuited to this bold ſpecies oforatory, than the more cor- (fig. 21.) rect but leſs animated genius of the Britiſh, who in their profe PERSICA, the Peach, is by Linnæus referred to the ſame works, very rarely attempt any of the high figures of eloquence." claſs and genus with Amygdalus; however, as they are ſo com PERSPECTIVE, perfpeétus, the ſcience by which things monly reckoned to be different genera, we have thought proper are ranged in painting according to their appearance in their to diſtinguiſh them. There are a great variety of peach-trees per proportions. pro- Place / Principles of Perspective. Se the System Sections o 11 F Fig. 1. P Fig: 12. h S B S H Н Fig.3. Fig. 2 Fig. 4. D 1 [ S B B h Fig.5. Fig. 6. Fig: 7. B В P D D 1 X H BA В. S Fig.8 Fig. 9. P Fig:10. Fig.11. D L F L K В, S I E E Fig: 13. Fig.11. Á Fig.15, Fig: 16. Fig.17. H I L I Н I B A B B E BE B Fig.18. Fig 21. Fig.19. Fig.20. H P D U B B В b BY B В Engraved for HallEncy dopadint & Printed for C. Cooke, 1917, Paternoster Row. D T . SYSTEM OF PERSPECTIVE. SECT. I. tedious progreſs of drawing out plansand elevations forany object HISTORY OF PERSPECTIVE. is rendered entirely uſeleſs, and therefore avoided; for by this me- HE art of perſpective owes its birth to painting, and particu-thod, not only the feweſt lines imaginable are required to produce Jarly to that branch of it which was employed in the decora any perſpective repreſentation, but every figure, thus drawn, will tions of the theatre, where landſeapes were principally introduced, bear the niceſt mathematical examination. Moreover, his ſyſtem and which would have looked unnatural and horrid, if the ſize of is the only one calculated for anſwering every one of thoſe, who the objects had not been pretty nearly proportioned to their dif are practitioners in the art of deſign; becauſe from hence they may tance from the eye. The ancients muſt, therefore, have had be enabled to produce the whole, or only ſo much of an object as conſiderable knowledge of this art; though the only ancient author is wanted, and by fixing it in its proper place, may determine its from whom we can obtain any information, relative to its anti- apparent magnitude in an inſtant. It explains alſo the perſpective quity, is Vitruvius; who, in the proem, to his ſeventh book, in of ſhadows, the reflections of objects from poliſhed planes, and the forms us, that Agatharcus, at Athens, was the firſt who wrote on inverſe practice of perſpective. this ſubject, on occaſion of a play exhibited, by Æſchylus, for His Linear perſpective was firſt publiſhed in 1715; and his new which he prepared a tragic ſcene; and that afterwards the princi- Principles of Linear Perſpective in 1719, which he intended as an ples of the art were more diſtinctly taught in the writings of De-explanation of his firſt treatiſe. In 1738, Mr. Hamilton publiſhed mocritus and Anaxagoras, the diſciples of Agatharcus, which are his Stereography, in 2 vols. fol. after the manner of Dr. Taylor. no longer extant. Dot But the moſt complete ſyſtem of perſpective, both as to theory and The perſpective of Euclid and of Heliodorus Lariſſeus contains practiſe, on the ſame principles, is that of Mr. Kirby, the third only fome general elements of optics, that are by no means adapted edition of which was publiſhed in 1968 fol. We have alſo trea- to any particular practice; though they furniſh fome materials tiſes on this ſubject by the Jeſuit, originally written in French at that might be of ſervice even to the linear perſpective of painters. Paris, tranſlated by Mr. Chambers, and printed at London, in Geminus of Rhodes, who was a celebrated mathematician, in the 1726, Highmore, Ware, Cowley, Prieſtly, Ferguſon, &c. time of Cicero, hath likewiſe written on this ſubject. We may SECT. II. alſo infer, that the Roman artiſts were acquainted with the rules LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. of perſpective, from the account which Pliny, Nat. Hift. lib. Suppoſe a glaſs plane H I, Plate I. fig. 1. raiſed perpendicular xxxv. cap. 4. gives of the repreſentations on the ſcene of thoſe on an horizontal plane: and the ſpectator S, directing his eye 0, plays given by Claudius Pulcher ; by whoſe appearance, he ſays, to the triangle ABC; if now we conceive the rays AO,OB, OC, the crows were ſo deceived that they endeavoured to ſettle on the &c. in their paſſage through the plane, to leave their traces or vef- fictitious roofs. However, of the theory of this art among the tigia in a, b, c, &c. on the plane; there will appear the triangle ancients we know nothing; as none of their writings have eſcap- abc; which as it ſtrikes the eye by the fame rays a 0, 0, 0, ed the general wreck of ancient literature in the dark ages of Eu- | by which the reflected particles of light from the triangle ABC are rope. Perſpective muſt, without doubt, have been loſt, whenpaint- tranſmitted to the ſame; it will exhibit the true appearance of the ing and ſculpture no longer exiſted. Nevertheleſs we have reaſon triangle ABC, though the object ſhould be removed, the ſame to believe, that it was practiſed much later in the Eaſtern empire. diſtance and height of the eye being preſerved. John Tzetzes, who lived in the twelfth century, ſpeaks of it as The buſineſs of perſpective, then, is to Thew by. what certain if he was well acquainted with its importance in painting and ſta rules the points a,b,c, &c. may be found geometrically: and hence tuary: and the Greek painters, who were employed by the Vene- alſo, we have a mechanical method of delineating any object very tians and Florentines, in the thirteenth century, ſeem to have accurately. brought ſome optical knowledge with them into Italy: for the dif Hence it appears, that a b c is the ſection of the plane of the pic- ciples of Giotto are commended for obſerving perſpective more re ture with the rays, which proceed from the original object to the gularly than any of their predeceſſors in the art had done : and eye : and, therefore, when this is parallel to the picture, its repre- they lived in the beginning of the fourteenth century. The Arabi ſentation will not only be parallel to the original, but ſimilar to it, ans were not igriorant of this art ; as we may preſume from the though ſmaller in proportion, as the original object is farther from optical writings of Alhazen, who lived about the year 1100, cited the picture. If the original is brought to coincide with the picture, by Roger Bacon, when treating on this ſubject. the repreſentation will be equal to the original; but as the original Vitellus, a Polander, about the year 1270, wrote largely and is removed farther and farther from the picture, the image of it learnedly on optics. Our own friar Bacon, as well as John Peck will become ſmaller and ſmaller, and alſo riſe higher and higher ham, archbiſhop of Canterbury, treated this ſubject with furpri- in the picture, till at laſt, when the original is ſuppoſed to be at fing accuracy, conſidering thetimes in which they lived. The moſt an infinite diſtance, its image, or repreſentation, will vaniſh into an ancient authors, who profeffedly laid down rules of perſpective, imaginary point, exactly as high above the bottom of the picture as were Bartolomeo Bramantino, of Milan, whoſe book, intitled the eye is above the ground or original plane, upon which the ſpec- Regole di perſpectiva, Miſure delle Antichita di Lombardia, is dat tator, the picture, and the original object, are ſuppoſed to ſtand. ed 1440; and Pietro del Borgo, likewiſe an Italian, who was the This may be familiarly illuſtrated in the following manner : ſup- moſt ancient author met with by Ignatius Danti, and who is ſuppoſe a perſon at a window looks through an upright pane of glaſs poſed to have died in 1443. This laſt writer fuppoſed objects to be at any object beyond it; and, keeping his head ſteady, draws the fi- placed beyond a tranſparent table,and endeavoured to trace the ima gure of the object upon the glaſs with a black-lead pencil, as if the ges, which rays of light emitted from them, would make upon it. point of the pencil touched the object itſelf; he would then have a But his work is not now extant. However, Albert Durer con true repreſentation of the object in perſpective, as it appears to his ſtructed a machine upon the principles of Borgo, by which he eye. In order to this, it is neceſſary, firſt, that the glaſs be laid could trace the perſpective appearance of objects. over with ſtrong gum-water, which, when dry, will be fit for draw- Leon Battiſta Alberti, in 1450, wrote his treatiſe De Pictura, ing upon, and will retain the traces of the pencil; and, ſecondly, in which he treats principally of perſpective. Balthazar Peruzzi, that he looks through a ſmall hole in a thin plate of metal, fixed of Siena, who died in 1536, had diligently ſtudied the writings of about a foot from the glaſs, between it and his eye, and that he Borgo; and his method of perſpective was publiſhed by Serlio, in keeps his eye cloſe to the hole otherwiſe he might íhift the poſition 1540. To him, it is ſaid, we owe the diſcovery of points of dif of his head, and conſequently make a falſe delineation of the ob- tance, to which all lines that make an angle of 45? with the ject. Having traced out the figure of the object, he may go over ground line are drawn. it again, with pen and ink; and when that is dry, put a ſheet of pa- Guido Ubaldi, another Italian, ſoon after diſcovered, that all per upon it, and trace it in this with a pencil; then taking away the lines that are parallel to one another, if they be inclined to the the paper, and laying it on a table, he may finiſh the picture, by ground line, converge to ſome point in the horizontal line; and giving it the colours, lights, and ſhades, as he fees them in the ob- that through this point, alſo, a line, drawn from the eye, parallel ject itſelf; and thus he will have a true reſemblance of the object. to them will paſs. Perſpective is either employed in repreſenting the ichnographies His perſpective was printed at Peſaro in 1600, and contained and ground-plots of objects, as projected on perſpective planes; or the firſt principles of the method afterwards diſcovered by Dr. B. in ſcenographies and repreſentations of the bodies themſelves. Taylor. In 1583, there was publiſhed a book, written by Gia From this general view of perſpective, the neceſſity of it in the como Barozzi, of Vignola, commonly called Vignola, intitled, art of painting is obvious. Accordingly Leonardo de Vinci ob- The two Rules of Perſpective, with a learned Comment, by Ig- ferves that the practice of painting ought always to be built upon natius Danti. In 1615 the work of Marolois was printed, in a rational theory, of which perſpective is the guide and gate; and Latin, at the Hague, and engraved and publiſhed by Hondius. without which it is impoſſible to ſucceed, either in deſigning or And in 1625, Sirigatti publiſhed a treatiſe of perſpective, which in any of the arts depending upon it. is little more than an abſtract of Vignola's. In order to underſtand the practice of perſpective it will be ne- The art of perſpective has been gradually improved by ſubſequent ceffary to premiſe fome definitions, and general principles, upon geometricians, particularly by profeſſor's Graveſande, and, in a which its various operations depend. Several of theſe occur in much greater degree, by Dr. Brook Taylor, whoſe principles are the courſe of this work, but it may be convenient and uſeful to in a conſiderable meaſure new, and far more general than thoſe of give, in this place, a brief and connected view of them. any of his predeceffors. He did not confine his rules, as his prede- SECT. III. ceffors had done, to the horizontal plane only, but made them ge- DEFINITIONS. neral, ſo as to affect every ſpecies of planes and lines, whether they The point of ſight, in perſpective, is that point E (fig. 2,) where were parallel to the horizon or not; and thus his principles were the ſpectator's eyes ſhould be placed to view the picture. The made univerſal. Farther, from the fimplicity of his rules, the whole point of light, in the picture, is the ſame with the centre of the picture PERSPECTIVE. pi&ure, or the point dire&tly oppoſite to the eye, and the neareſt , nifhing print of that line to the point of diſtance on the perpen- itpoint. dicular, If from the point of ſight E, a line, EC, be drawn perpen- SECT. IV. PROPOSITIONS. dicular to the picture O bg I; the point C, where the line inter- fects the picture, is called the centre of the picture; and EC the Having explained the principal terms that occur in perſpective, we ſhall farther premiſe ſome general propoſitions, from which principal ray. The diſtance of the picture is the length of the line EC, which is the common ſection of the vertical and horizontal the practical operations reſult. planes: and if this diſtance be transferred to the horizontal line I. In the repreſentation ab, (fig. 4.) of a line, A Bispart of a line on each ſide of the point C, as is ſometimes the caſe, the extremes SC, which paſſes through the interfe Eting point S, and the vaniſh- are called the points of diſtance : for the points of diſtance are feting point Cy of the original line A B. For the plane BDEN, pal- off from the point of fight, fometimes on the horizontal line, and fing through the eye E and the original line A B, will paſs through ſometimes on the perpendicular E C. the interſecting point S, and the vaniſhing point C, and cut the Asthe beauty of perſpective depends on the point of diſtance, the picture in the line S C.. And fince the viſual rays A E, BE. eye ought never to be placed too near the object, nor too far from drawn from the extremities of the line to the eye, are in the plane it. It thould never be nearer to the objcct than half of its largeſt BDEN, and conſequently their ſections a b, with the picture , dimenſions, for in this ſituation the viſual angle will be 90°; and are in the ſection S C of that plane with the picture a b muſt be this is the largeſt angle which the eye can well diſcover at one caſt. the projections of A B. But B E A is a plane of rays which If it be made leſs than 45°, the object will be too much contracted, form the projection a b of the whole line A B, and as B'E A is in and the viſual angle ſo ſmall, that the returns in buildings would the plane B D E N, the ſection a b muſt be a part of the ſection not be diſtinguiſhed, and the whole would appear confuſed. And, SC, which paſſes through S and C. Hence it follows, that, therefore, when the viſual angle is about 60, or when the diſtance whatever be the ſituation of any original line, its repreſentation of the eye from the extremities of the object is nearly equal to its upon the picture will always be in that line which is drawn longeſt dimenſion, the object will be ſeen with the greateſt advan- through its interſection and vaniſhing point. For let the oblique tage. However, in ſome caſes, ſuch as in painting deceptions, or line A D, (fig. 5.) be in the plane G F EO M, whoſe ſection for pictures with curvilineal objects, the diſtance ſhould be taken with the picture is V O. Continue D A to cut the picture in V, as great as poſſible: and in drawing agreeable perſpective views and draw its parallel E O to cut the picture in O, which will be of ſmall objects, the obferver ſhould be conſidered as viewing the vanithing point of A D. From the extremes of the line A them under an angle not exceeding 30° at moſt. D produce the rays A E, DE, to the eye E, and a d, the image The real object, whoſe repreſentation is fought, whether it be a of A D, is part of the line V O, which paſſes through the in- line, point, or plane figure, is the original obječt and the original terfecting point V, and the vaniſhing point O. plane, called alſo the geometrical plane, is that plane upon which II. If the original plane is parallelto the picture, it can have ne the real object is ſituated: thus the ground or bottom plane K L is vaniſhing line upon it,conſequently the repreſentation will be parallel, the original plane, and A BG D is the original object. The line becauſe a parallel plane, that paſſes through the eye, can never cut O I, in which the ground plane cuts the bottom of the picture, the picture, and conſequently can produce no vaniſhing line upon is called the ſection of the original plane, ground LINE," line of it. Nor can lines parellel to the picture have any vaniſhing points . the baſe, or fundamental line. upon it ; but their images will be parallel to the originals. If the If an original line A B be continued, ſo as to interfect the pic- original is perpendicular to the ground line, as A B, (fig. 4.) then ture, the point of interſection R is called the interſection of that its vaniſhing point will be in C, the centre of the picture, or point original line, or its interfecting point. The horizontal plane, is the of ſight ; becauſe E C is perpendicular to the picture, and, there- plane abgd, which paſſes through the eye, parallel to the horizon, fore, parallel to A B. All lines, which are parallel to each other, and cuts the perſpective plane or picture atright angles; and the ha but not parallel to the picture, will have the ſame vaniſhing point, rizontal line bg is the common interſection of the horizontal plane becauſe a line which paſſes through the eye, being parellel to with the picture. The vertical plane is that which paſſes through one of them, is parallel to all the reſt ; and, therefore, they the eve at right angles to the ground plane, and perpendicular to can have but one vaniſhing point, whatever be their number. the picture, as ECSN; and the vertical line is the common fec III. The image of a line bears a certain proportion to its original. tion of the vertical plane and the picture, as C N. In this propoſition there are three caſes ; for the original line may Theline of ſtation SN is the common ſection of the vertical plane be perpendicular, parallel, or oblique to the plane of the picture. with the ground plane, and perpendicular to the ground line O I. In the firſt caſe, let A B. (fig. 6.) be the original line, conſiſting of The line of the height of the eye is a perpendicular, as ES, let fall three equal parts of which E C contains two; then EC+A B- from the eye on the ground plane. This height, which determines ES-five parts. Divide A C into five equal parts, and the ray that of the horizontal line from the bottom of the picture, ſhould B E will paſs through b; and Ab:AC :: BA: BA+CE= never be ſo great as the diſtance of the eye. In E ASA L-pieces, or BS), i.e. the image is to the diſtance between the vaniſhing point moveable pictures, the height of the eye is left entirely to the dif- C and the interfečting point A, as the original object is to its own cretion of the artiſt; but it is obſerved in general, that low hori- length added to the diſtance of the eye from the picture. See zons have a much better effect than high ones; for which rea Simpſon's Geometry, th. 12. book vii. Hence it follows that fon the height of the horizontal line ſhould never exceed one half AC --Ab=Cb: AB+CE — AB=CE: : AC:A B of the height of the picture; and perhaps the moſt proper height +CE, or © b: AC: CE:: AB+CE, i.e. the diſtance be- would be one third part. However, if the picture be a fixed one, tween the vaniſhing point of a line and any point b in its image is then the height of the horizontal line muſt be exactly level with to the diſtance between the vaniſhing point and the interſecting the ſpectator's eye. The ſize of the picture is to be regulated by point as the diſtance E C is to A B+C E. From a view of the the diſtance and height of the eye. figure it is alſo evident, that Ab: ES:: AB: B S,i.e. the height The vaniſhing line of the original plane, is that line where a of the point b in the picture is to the height of the eye as the dif- plane paſſing through the eye, parallel to that original plane, cuts tance of the objective point from the picture is to the ſum of the picture; thus H g, (fig.3.) is the vaniſhing line of ABG D. the ſame diſtance, and that of the eye from the picture. It is plain that no point in the original plane can have its image in In the ſecond caſe, when the original line is parallel to the plane the picture above the line Hg, as long as the poſition of the picture of the picture, the image a b of a line A B, (fig 7.) parallel to the and eye remains the fame: and that if the original plane A BGD picture is to its original A B, as the diſtance E C of the image is to were infinitely extended beyond the picture, yet its perſpective ap the diſtance E D of the original line. Suppoſe the figure con- pearance, in this caſe, would be a finite fpace, bounded by the va- + ſtructed, and it is plain that the triangles EB D, E Cb, and E Ca, niſhing line Hg. It is alſo plain, from this definition, that if two E D a, are reſpectively equiangular, becauſe a b is parallel to AB: or more planes, A B G D and T, are parallel to cach other, they and, therefore, Cb: DB::EC: DE, and C a :DA::EC: will have the ſame vaniſhing line Hg. DE; conſequently a b: AB::EC: ED. In the third caſe, The vaniſhing point of the original line is that point where a when the original line is oblique to the picture, the image A b of line drawn from the eye, parallel to that original line,interſects the the oblique line A B, (fig. 8. ) is to the diſtance A V between its picture; thus C and g are the vaniſhing points of the line A B, vaniſhing point V, and interſecting point A, as the length of the KI. Hence it follows, that the vaniſhing points C and g of the line A B is to the ſum of A B and E V, the diſtance of the vaniſh- lines A B, KI, in any original plane A BGD, are the vaniſh ing point V from the eye. The lines A Band E V are parallel by ing line of that plane. If from the point of ſight a line be drawn conſtruction; therefore the triangles E V b and A B bare equian- perpendicular to any vaniſhing line, the point where that line gular ; therefore, V b: Ab::EV: A B, i. e. the diſtance be- interſects the vaniſhing line, is called the centre of that vaniſhing tween the vaniſhing point of an oblique line and any point of line : and the diſtance of a vaniſhing line is the length of the line its image is to the remaining part of A V as the diſtance of the which is drawn from the eye, perpendicular to the faid vaniſhing point is to the original line : and Ab : Ab + b V line. A V:: AB: A B + E V. Meaſuring points are points from which anylines in the perſpec- IV.The image of a line may be determined by transferring thelengths tive plane are meaſured, by laying a ruler from them to the diviſi or diſtance of the given line to the interſeEtingline; and the diſtance of ons laid down upon the ground line. The meaſuring point of all the vaniſhing point to the horizontalline; i. e. by bringing both into lines parallel to the ground line is either of the points of diſtance the plane of the picture. Let AB bethe original line, whoſe vaniſhing on the horizontal line, or point of fight. The meaſuring point of point is V, and produce the ground line F A, and the vaniſhing any line perpendicular to the ground line, is in the point of diſtance line H V, and draw A V. From the interſecting point A transfer on the horizontal line; and the meafuring point of a line oblique the line A B to D, and from V transfer E V to L, then draw the to the ground line is found by extending the compaſſes from the va lines B E and D L,which will both paſs through the ſame point b, and Principles of Perspective. Ilu thelystem, llate E Fig. 22. Fig.23. Fig.21. Fig. 25. K H H R D H L LS D B А. WE my ki D C С A B D А G I DE B Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. Fig-29. 610 K L R TIT 1 H I B В A D ΑΙ B G D H G GF Fig.30. lig. 31 V K K. 11 L R •K D A 1 93 PV h T C 5 B 8 11 B Id I F H G H h с 1 Fig 35. Fig.34. X E 4 Fig. 32. LU H Н Fig. 36. Fig.37. U E Fig. 38. D B DE I og I TI П K K M M -B A 3 4 VI D 198 5 4 3 2 N9 4 А Engrared for Halls Encyclopedia, & Printed for cooke, Paternoster Row. PERSPECTIV E. and give A b for the image of A B. See-Simpſon’s Geom. book vii. I draw E L parallel to A D, and E H parallel to BD; then draw il- th. 12. cor. and 2 H interſecting each other in d; and d will be the repreſen- Having premiſed the general principles of perſpective, we ſhall tation of the angular point D. From B draw B i parallel to A 1, now ſubjoin ſome examples of the practice of ichnographic perſpective and L will be its vaniſhing point; therefore draw i L interſecting in the following problems. 2 H in the point b, and b will be the repreſentation of the angular S E C T.. V. point B: and fince A B is parallel to the bottom of the picture, ICHNOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE. from the point b draw ba parallel to the ground line, and the image 1. To find the repreſentation of an objective point A.–From A, of the triangle will be completed: or it may be done by drawing (fig . 9.) draw any line at pleaſure, as A 1, interſecting the bottom A 3 perpendicular to the bottom of the picture, and then 3 C cut- of the picture in I; and from the eye E draw E H parallel to A 1, ting i E in the point a, &c. If this triangle be equilateral, it may interfecting the horizontal line in H; which will be the vaniſhing be eaſily divided into two equal parts, by deſcribing from E, with point of A I; draw H. I, and from A a line to E, interſecting Hi any radius, one arc OP, biſecting it in X, and drawing EC: in a; and a will be the repreſentation of the original point A. from C draw a line through d, interfecting ab in e. This is evi- Otherwiſe, draw A 1, A2, (fig. 11.) at pleaſure, interfecting the dent, becauſe C is the vaniſhing point of ĎF. The triangle may bottom of the picture in 1 and 2 ; and from the eye E draw Ě H, E draw E H, be alſo projected by having only one fide ad (fig. 21.) given: let parallel to A 1, and E L parallel to A 2; then draw H 1 and L 2, this be produced to its vaniſhing point L, and draw LE; then at which will interſect each other in a, the repreſentation of A. L, with the diſtance L E, deſcribe the arc H E, interſecting the There is alſo another method of reſolving this problem, or of horizontal line in H, and H is the vaniſhing point of the other ſide exhibiting the perſpective appearance h, of an objective point Hbd; and by drawing a b parallel to the horizontal line, the repre- (fig. 12.) From the given point draw H I perpendicular to the fun ſentation will be completed. damental line D E. From the fundamental line D E cut off IK This method furniſhes a very uſeful rule for ſhortening the ope- =IH: through the point of fight F draw a horizontal line FP; rations in perſpective. For ſuppoſe a L to be a line given in per- and make FP equal to the diſtance of the eye SL: laſtly, from ſpective (that is to be drawn upon the picture) to any vaniſhing point the point I to the point of fight F, draw FI; and from K to the L; and let it be required to cut off a part a d, of the line a L, to point of diſtance P, the line PK. The interſecting h is the ap- repreſent a given length. From the end a of the line a d, draw a b pearance of the objective point. For O F is parallel to HI, there parallel to the horizontal line H L, and call a b the repreſentation fore F is the vaniſhing point of HI; and ſince the repreſentation of a parallel line upon the picture; then from L the vaniſhing point of H I is in the line IF, and conſequently the image of the point I of a d transfer the diſtance L E to H: from H draw a line to b, is in the ſame line; and ſince OP is parallel to HK, becauſe the interſecting a L in d, then will a d repreſent the length of the line triangles O F P and HI K are iſoſceles and right angled, and con ab. Or, if a d be a line given in perſpective, and it be required to fequently equiangular; and O F being parallel to HI, FOH = find the length of the parallel line ab, the fame proceſs will ſerve; O'HI, therefore POH= O HK; P will be the vaniſhing point for a line, drawn from H through d, will cut off ab to repreſent a of H K, and the image of the point H will be found ſomewhere in length (in perſpective) equal to ad; becauſe the whole figure abd the line KP; conſequently it muſt be exhibited in h, the common being the repreſentation of an equilateral triangle, its fides are all interſection of L F and KP. equal in the original figure; conſequently in either of the above Hence, 1. fince the appearance of the extreme points of a right caſes, ab and a d muſt repreſent lines which are equal to each line being given, the appearance of the whole line is given; the other. ichnographic projection of any rectilinear figure may be had by this VI. To exhibit the perſpective appearance of a ſquare ABDC method. And, 2. fince any number of points of a curve line may (Plate II. fig. 22) féen obliquely, and having one of its fides A B in by this means be projected on the perſpective plane; the projection the fundamental line. The ſquare being viewed obliquely, aſſume of curve lines may likewiſe be effected after the ſame manner. And, the principal point V in the horizontal line HR, in ſuch manner as 3. therefore, this method will ſuffice for mixtilinear figures; and that a perpendicular to the fundamental line may fall without the is conſequently univerſal. ſide of the ſquare AB; at leaſt inay not bifect it; and make V K. II. To find the repreſentation of a line A B (fig. 13.) which is per the diſtance of the eye. Transfer the perpendiculars A C and BD pendicular to the ground line of the picture. The point C, where to the fundamental line DE; and draw the right lines KB, KD, EC interſects the horizontal line, is the vaniſhing point of AB; as alſo AV, VC. Then will A and B be their own appearances; and and, therefore, if A C be drawn, and from B be drawn B E, inter c and d the appearances of the points C and D. Conſequently A. fecting A C in b; A b will be the image of A B. cd B is the appearance of the ſquare ABD C. If the ſquare ACBD Otherwiſe, from B (fig. 14.) draw B I at pleaſure, interſecting ſhould be at a diſtance from the fundamental line DE; which yet the ground line in 1; and from the eye E draw EH parallel to B 1, rarely happens in practice; the diſtance of the angles A and B interſecting the horizontal line in H; then H is the vaniſhing point muſt likewiſe be transferred into the fundamental line: as is evi- of B 1; and therefore, drawing A C and 1 H, the point b of their dent from the preceding problem. And fince, even the oblique interſection will determine the required image Ab. view is not very common; in what follows, we ſhall always fup- III. To determine the image of a line AB parallel to the ground line. poſe the figure to be poſted directly oppoſite to the eye; unleſs Draw A 1, B 2 (fig. 15.) perpendicular to the ground line, and C where the contrary is expreſly mentioned. Thus: let the original will be the vaniſhing point of thofe lines; draw i C, 2 C, and B E ſquare be A BFD (fig. 23.) Draw A C, BC, to the vaniſhing interſecting 2 C in h; then draw ab parallel HL, and it will be point C of the perpendicular ſides A D, BF; from the eye E draw the image of AB. E H and E L parallel to the diagonals B D and A F: then from A Otherwiſe, by two vaniſhing points : draw A 2 (fig. 16.) at plea- and B draw lines to L and H, interfecting AC in d, and B C in f; fure, interſecting the ground line in 2; and draw E H parallel to then df, being drawn, completes the repreſentation. A 2, then H is the vaniſhing point of A 2; draw 2 H interſecting Having found the image of one ſquare, that of any other; i k mini, IC in a; and the parallel line ab will be the image required. may be eaſily found, by ſuppoſing i k to be one ſide of the image, IV. To exhibit the image of a line A B oblique to the picture. and drawing from i and k, iC and k C; then from i draw i H, and Produce A B (fig. 17.) to the picture, and draw E H parallel to it; from k draw k L, which will give the depth of the ſquare. Or one from 1 draw i H, and from the extremities A and B draw lines to diagonal only will be ſufficient. Thus: A L interſects B C in f; E, which will interſect 1 H in a and b and a b is the image of A B. therefore, draw fd parallel to the horizontal line. Otherwiſe; from A B (fig. 18.) draw A 1, B1, parallel to each With reſpect to ſquares thus ſituated we may obſerve, that the other: and from E draw È L parallel to A 1, B 1; then draw 1L, vaniſhing points H and L of their diagonal, are exactly as far from IL interſecting 2 H in a and b; and ab is the repreſentation of the centre of the picture, or point of light, as from the eye. For AB. The problems now laid down will ſerve for determining the HC and L C are each equal to the diſtance CE; and, therefore, ſituation of all objects that are ſuppoſed to lie upon the ground. by ſetting off C H or CL equal to CE, the lines E H and E L may V. To find the perſpective appearance of a triangle A B C, be omitted. (fig. 19.) whoſe baſe AB is parallel to the fundamental line D E. There are other methods of reſolving this problem: thus (in fig. To the fundamental line D E draw a parallel at an interval equal 24.) if only the height A B of the ſquare be given; ſet off AD to the altitude of the eye. Aſſume a fundamental point V, oppo and A i equal to A B; from A and D draw lines to C, and fite to this either directly or obliquely, as the caſe requires. Trans make CLECE; draw 1L interſecting A C in b; then will Ab fer the diſtance of the eye from V to K. From the ſeveral angles be equal to AI; draw b d parallel to the horizontal line, and the of the triangle ACB, let fall perpendiculars, A1, C2, B 3; repreſentation will be completed. Or, if one ſide GI be given, ſet off theſe perpendiculars upon the fundamental line D E oppofite draw lines from G and I to C; make C H=CE; from Hºdraw the point of diſtance K. From 1, 2, 3, draw right lines to the fun HG, interſecting I C in r; and draw the parallel r s. Or, if the damental or principal point V1, V2, V 3. From the points A, B, middle diameter np be given, biſect np in 0; from C draw lines and C, of the fundamental line DE draw other right lines AK, BK, through the extremes n, P; from H produce a line through o, in- CK, to the point of diſtance K. terſecting I C in r, and G C in G; laſtly from r and G draw the Since b and c are the appearances of the points A, B and C; parallels GI, rs, which complete the figure. the right lines ca, ab, bc, being drawn, acb will be the appearance VII. To exhibit the appearance of a ſquare ABCD (fig. 25.) of the triangle ACB. After the ſame manner is a triangle projected whoſe diagonal AC is perpendicular to the fundamental line. Con- on a plane where the vertex C is oppoſed to the eye; all here re tinue the ſides D C and C B till they meet the fundamental line in I quired is, that its fituation on the geometrical plane be changed, and 2. From the principal point V ſet off the diſtance of the eye and the vertex C be turned towards the fundamental line D E. to K and L. From K to A and I draw right lines K A and Ki; Otherwiſe produce DA and D B (fig. 20.) to the ground line, and and from L to A and 2, the right lines LA, L 2. The inter- * Rr ſections a, Nº 127: PERSPECTIVE: geo- I. From the ſeveral ſections of theſe lines will exhibit the appearance of the ſquare | ſecond caſe we uſe a ſquare divided into certain areolæ, and circum ABCD viewed angle-wiſe. ſcribed about the circle; though it be not delineated on the VIII. To exhibit the appearance of a ſquare A BCD, (fig. 26.) metrical plane in the diagrain. wherein another, IMGH, is inſcribed; the fide of the greater, XII. To exhibit the PERSPECTIVE of a regular pentagon, having AB, being in the fundamental line; the diagonal of the leſs, per a broad limb, terminated by lines parallel thereto. pendicular to the fundamental. From the principal point V, ſet angles of the exterior pentagon A, B, C, D, E, (fig. 33.) to the off, each way, on the horizontal line HR, the diſtances V L and fundamental line T S, let fall perpendiculars A. 0, B1, C2, D3, V K; draw VA and V B; and K A and L B; then will AcdB E4; which, as in the former, transfer to the fundamental lines be the appearance of the ſquare ACDB. Produce the ſide of the Connect the points 1, 2, 3, 4, to the principal point V; and the inſcribed ſquare IH, till it meets the fundamental line in 1; and points 1, 2, 3, 4, to the point of diſtance K. Thus will the com. draw the right lines Ki, and KM; then will ihg M be the re mon interſections repreſent the appearance of the exterior pentagon: preſentation of the inſcribed ſquare IHGM. Hence is eaſily 2. If now, from the inner angles G, H, K, L, I, the perpendi- conceived the projection of any figures infcribed in others. culars Go, H 5, K6, 17, L 8, be in the like manner let fall; and IX. To exhibit the Perspective of a pavement, conſiſting of the reſt be done as in the former, we ſhall have the repreſenta- Square ftones, viewed directly. Divide the fide AB, (fig. 27,) trans tion of the inner pentagon. The pentagon ABCDE, therefore , ferred to the fundamental line DE into as many equal parts as there with its limb, is reprefented in perſpective. This problem is added are ſquare ftones in one row. From the ſeveral points of diviſion, for the ſake of an inſtance of the projection of a figure that has a draw right lines to the principal point V; and from A to the point broad limb, or edge. It muſt be here obſerved that if the magni- of diſtance K, draw a right line AK; and from B to the other tude of the ſeveral parts of an object be given in numbers, toge- point of diſtance L, draw another LB. Through the points of ther with the height and diſtance of the eye; its figure is to be the interſections of the correſponding lines, draw right lines on firſt conſtructed by a geometrical fcale; and the fundamental point each fide, to be produced to the right lines AV and B V. Then with the point of diſtance, to be determined by the fame. Nor is will Afg B be the appearance of the pavement AF GB. it always neceſſary, that the object be delineated under the funda- X. To determine the repreſentation of a regular hexagon ABDFGI, mental line; in the projection of ſquares and paveinents it is beſt (fig. 28.) when one of its fides is parallel to the ground line. Produce let alone. But where it is neceſſary, and fpace is wanting, draw it the ſeveral oblique fides to interfect the ground line, and parallel to apart; find the diviſions in it, and transfer them to the fundamental theſe draw E H and EL; then H will be the vaniſhing point of AI line in the plane. Threads being hung in the principal point, and and DF, and L will be the vaniſhing point of BD and IG. Through the point of diſtance, and thence ſtretched to the points of the di- the angular points A, F, B, and G, draw F 1, G2, which being viſions of the fundamental line; the common interſection of the parallel to the ſides BD and AI, will have L and H for their vaniſh threads will give the projection of the ſeveral points without con- ing points: from 1 draw i L, and from 2 draw 2 H, interſecting fuſion; a thing much to be feared from the multiplicity of lines to each other in i, then i will be the repreſentation of the corner I. be drawn. From 1 draw i L, interſecting 2 H in a; and a will be the repre XIII. Having given the center C of the picture (fig. 34.) the fentation of the corner A, and a i that of the ſide Al; then draw vaniſhing line H L and two vaniſhing points, HL, of a ſquare bd of; IL and 2 H, and b will be the repreſentation of B; and ab, being to find the diſtance of the picture. Biſect HL in A; from A with drawn, will be the image of AB, &c. In the ſame manner the the radius A H (or A L) deſcribe the arc LEH; from C draw the image of an octagon may be determined. This method will like perpendicular CE to touch the arc LEH, and E C will be the dif- wiſe ſerve for the repreſentation of a circle; for having found eight tance of the picture. For drawing L E and HE, which will make points in the circumference, they will be ſufficient guides for draw a right angle at E, and EH, EL, are parallel to the originals of ing the figure. This problemn may be reſolved by only having one b il, bf, and conſequently C E is the true diſtance of the eye, &c. fide bd (fig. 29.) in the repreſentation given. Through the corner XIV. Having given the repreſentation of two lines Ba, Df; b draw a line a n parallel to the horizontal line; and produce bd (fig. 35.) to find their originals BA, DF. From the interſecting to its vaniſhing point H; from H draw HE, and make HL= point B, draw B A parallel to CE; from E draw a line through HE; then from L draw a line through d, interſecting an in n; a interfecting A B in A; then B A is the original of Ba. Again, then b n repreſents a line equal to the original of bd; make ab= from the vaniſhing point H, draw E H; and from the interfečting bn and a b is the reprefentation of one parallel fide; from d draw point D, draw DF parallel to EH; then from E, draw FF d L, and from a draw a H, cutting dL in f; then f is another through the point f, which gives DF for the original D f. corner ; df repreſents another ſide. Again, from d draw di pa N. B. Theſe two laſt articles comprehend a part of what Dr. rallel to the horizontal line, and a L cutting it in i; and ¿ is Taylor calls inverſe practice of PERSPECTIVE. another corner, and a i another ſide; laſtly, draw H i and the pa Having in the preceding problems illuſtrated the principles and rallel fg, and the repreſentation is completed. practice of perſpective, as it relates to objects ſituated upon the XI. To exhibit the PERSPECTIve of a circle. If the circle be ground plane, we ſhall now give a brief account of the method of ſmall, circumſcribe a ſquare about it. Draw diagonals and dia repreſenting objects that are perpendicular and oblique to it; ob- meters ha and de (fig: 30) interſecting each other at right angles ; ſerving, in general, that thoſe which are parallel to the ground and draw the right lines fg and bç parallel to the diameter de plane may be drawn by the help of thoſe that are perpendicular to through b and f; as alſo through c and g draw right lines meeting it; and that lines perpendicular to the ground plane muſt be repre- the fundamental line DE in the point 3 and 4. To the principal ſented by lines perpendicular to the ground line, wherever they point V draw right lines VI, V 3, V 4, V 2; and to the points are ſituated. In order to determine the vaniſhing lines and vaniſh- of diſtance of L and K, draw the right lines L 2 and K 1. Laſtly, ing points of planes which are perpendicular to the ground, we may connect the points of interſection, a, b, d, f, h, g, e, c, with arcs ſuppoſe theſe planes to be either perpendicular to the picture, or ab, bd, df, &c. Thus will abdefh gec ay be the appearance oblique to it. Let the ſquare plane B KIF (fig. 36.) be perpen- of the circle. dicular to the picture, ſo that the top and bottom of it vaniſh into If the circle be large, on the middle of the fundamental A B C, its center. Draw the line E V' through C, and perpendicular (fig. 31.) deſcribe a ſemicircle; and from the ſeveral points of the to H L, and E V will be the vaniſhing line of the plane B KIF. periphery, C, F, G, H, I, &c. to the fundamental line, let fall And ſince CH is perpendicular to the vaniſhing line EV, C is the perpendiculars C1, F G 3, H H 4, I 5, &c. From the points centre of that vaniſhing line; and as CHis equal to the diſtance of A, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. draw right lines to the principal point V, alſo the eye, H will be the tranſpoſed place of the eye, and H C the a right line from B to the point of diſtance L; and another from diſtance of the vaniſhing line E V. But if the plane abcd ( fig. 37.) A to the point of diſtance K. Through the common interſections is oblique to the picture, then the top and bottom of it will not draw right lines as in the preceding problem; thus ſhall we have vaniſh into its centre C, but into the point L, on one ſide of the the points c, f, g, h, i, which are the repreſentations of C, F, G, centre. Draw a line through the vaniſhing point L, perpendicular H, I; and theſe being connected as before, give the projection of to the horizontal line; then VU is the vaniſhing line of the plane the circle. abcd. And becauſe CL is perpendicular to the vaniſhing line The eaſieſt and beſt method for putting a circle into perſpective VU, L will be the center of that vaniſhing line. Again draw EL, ſeems to be the following; which admits alſo of univerſal applica and this will be the diſtance of the eye E from the vaniſhing line tion. Let ab (fig. 32.) repreſent the diameter of the given circle: V L; and this diſtance transferred to H, will give H for the tranſ- biſect it in c for the centre; make CH, CL, each equal to UW poſed place of the eye, and H L for the tranſpoſed diſtance of the the breadth of the picture; divide CH, CL, each into five vaniſhing line V U. parts; and make Ch, Cl, each equal to two parts and one four XV. To find the repreſentations of planes, whoſe baſes are perpen- teenth. From H produce a line at pleaſure through the centre c; dicular to the ground line of the pi&ture. E. gr. Let one corner A from h, draw two lines through the extremities a, b, interſecting of the plane ABFD (fig. 38.) be at the bottom of the picture; and H 4 in the points 3 and 4; do the ſame by the line L 5 with the let it be required to draw the repreſentation of a plane ten feet high, point l; then draw a line from C through the centre c; from H and four feet wide. From A, upon the ground line, make a ſcale draw lines through a and b, interſecting Ci in 1 and 2: and having of equal parts, repreſenting feet at plealure; from A draw AD thus obtained eight points in the image of the circumference of a perpendicular to this line, and produce it at pleaſure: upon A D ſet circle, the outlines may be very accurately drawn through theſe ten feet from A upwards, and draw D C to the centre C, and from points. Hence appears, not only how any curvilinear figure may A draw A C; make CH=CE, and draw H 4 interſecting AC be projected on a plane; but alſo how any pavement, conſiſting of in B; then A B=4 feet; therefore from B draw BF parallel to any kind of ſtones, may be delineated in perſpective. Hence alſo AD, and ABFD will be the repreſentation required. Let the appears what uſe the ſquare is of, in perſpective; for even in the plane, whoſe repreſentation efgh is required to be four feet wide, and ز F 29 equal Principles of 3 Perspective. Section ) skystem, Plate . So the 6Fig. 39 Fig: 11. Fig. 40. V b k d D L- bi 께 ​a BIL 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I A L Fig. 42 Fig: 43. 30 20 G F P B E d Fig: 48 D lc S Fig. 44. N M Fig: 45. H D 'H hi В. G b a -6- B С C Fig: 50 s P Fig. 47. R Fig. 46. 1607 1101 В. 7007 1104 TRO 26 1204 Z 1004 80- 60 60 В. 40-1 70 30 20 100 30 TI 52 A 20 40 60 80 100 20 30 40 60 80 200 20 40 60 80 B Η' 280 20 40 60 80 100 120 110 160 280 200 220 240 260 Fig: 52. Fig:53 Fig. 54 73 L PC H D П L Ph. ç PT H B ai Fig: 49. R H Fig. 55. Fig. 56. M с H h. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 7 B ГА 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Fig: 51. Fig. 57. E Fig. 58 H PL C Ph SB C H Pl с I Ph 7 2 7 8 9 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Fig. 60 Fig. 59. m. k R V Fig. 61, 1 h Ph с PL H L PL PA B 7 n Ε E D 9 7 6 5 4 3 beto a 2 2 B g 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Engraved för Halls Encyclopædia & Printed for C. Cooke, N17, Paternoster Row. PERSPECTIVE. Has the HE as nilhing points upon the picture, as well as thoſe which are either and five feet high, and its neareſt corner e be one foot from the Theſe inclined planes have their proper vaniſhing lines and vac bottom of the picture. Draw CN at pleaſure; make CL=CE; and fet off one foot from N to 9, and draw L 9 interſecting CN parallel or perpendicular to the ground. It has been already ſhewn in e; and e will be one foot from the bottom. Take four feet more, (ſee fig. 36.) that V U, continued, is the vaniſhing line of all the as 95, and draw 5 L interſecting CN in f, and ef is equal to 4 lines which can be drawn within the plane a dci; however, let us feet; draw N O perpendicular to the bottom of the picture, and here turn the figure, and call C the centre of the picture, C E. the make it equal to 5 feet; draw eg, fh, parallel to NO, and draw diſtance of the eye, and V U the horizontal line; adci the repre- OC, which will complete the propoſed repreſentation. Otherwiſe : ſentation of a parallelogram, and abi a triangle joined to the end of from e draw e x parallel to NA, interſecting L 5 in x; then e x will it. Let us next ſuppoſe the line fr to be the bottom of the ſquare be 4 feet; make eg to ex as 5 is to four, and draw g C. In the fibr, whoſe vaniſhing point is V, and the vaniſhing points of its fame manner we may determine the image abcd of a plane, 4 feet diagonals are D and F; let cifg repreſent a parallelogram even {quare, removed five feet into the picture, and whoſe lower edge is with the eye, which will complete the repreſentation of a ſolid body, in the line A C. From A where C A interſects the ground line, like the model of a houſe, laid upon that fide, which by workmen fet off 5 feet for its diſtance, as A 5, and 4 feet for its breath, as 59; is called the gable end. If this be a true repreſentation, that is, draw 5 H 9, A C in ; V be the preſentation bc ib , A Q four feet; then draw QC, which completes the figure. any alteration in the perſpective, becauſe V'U and D F will be in- Having B given as one angular point of a ſquare plane, and BM variably the vaniſhing lines of a bic d, b i fr, &c. The planes for its height and breadth upon the picture; thence to determine a bi, b.rfi, are joined by the line ib, the vaniſhing point the repreſentation of the whole plane BFIK (fig. 36.) From the of which is V; and becauſe the original of fr is parallel to the corner B, draw the perpendicular B F; make BF=BM, and draw original of ib, both i b and fr will vaniſh into the fame point V; ML interſecting A C in K; draw K I parallel to BF; then FC or into that point where the vaniſhing lines VU and D F. croſs completes the figure. If the repreſentation be determined, and it each other; for the vaniſhing point V muſt be in the line V U, be required to find the length and breadth of the original. Produce which is the vaniſhing line of the plane adicd, and it muſt be CB to A; at A erect a perpendicular AD; from L produce alſo in the vaniſhing line D F of the inclined plane bf; for the lines through B and K, interſecting the bottom of the picture in line ib is the common ſection of both planes; therefore its vaniſh- N and 2. The ſpace 2 N comprehends eight feet, and therefore ing point muſt be the interſection of the vaniſhing line of thoſe BK repreſents eight feet. For the height BF, produce CF to D, | planes. and the ſpace AD contains eight feet. N. B. The vaniſhing XVIII. To find the vaniſhing line of the inclined plane, bifr; lines of planes perpendicular to the ground are perpendicular to and alſo the centre and diſtance of it. Let EL be the horizontal the horizontal line, and always paſs through the vaniſhing point line; C the centre of the picture, C E its diſtance, adogfi the of thoſe planes: thus the vaniſhing line Ě V paſſes through C; body of a houſe, and U Ý the vaniſhing line of its ſide a dći. and E V is the vaniſhing line of the plane BFI K, as is evident Upon the horizontal line or parallel to it, draw st, then the figure by turning the figure, and conſidering EV as the horizontal line, stomn will be a ſmall module of the perpendicular plane adcib eye, its diſtance, and BFIK as the repreſenta- or, in other words, let om be the inclination of the inclined plane tion of a ſquare lying upon the ground; ſo that in this example we with n m ſuppoſed to be 45°. From the eye E draw E V parallel have the vaniſhing line H L of planes parallel to the ground, and to mo, interſecting the vaniſhing line V U in V; through V draw allo the vaniſhing line E V of planes perpendicular to the ground, DF parallel to the horizontal line E L; then is DF the vaniſhing connected together. line required, V its centre, and E V its diſtance. In order to find XVI. To determine the repreſentations of planes that are parallel to the repreſentation of the plane bifr, ſuppoſing it to be a perfect the picture. E. gr. Let the plane abcd, Plate III. (fig. 39.) five feet ſquare, &c. let i b be the repreſentation of one ſide of the ſquare, wide, and eight feet high, be removed two feet from the bottom of whoſe vaniſhing point is V. Produce the perpendicular CV at the picture. From A and 5, draw A C and 5 C; make CH=CE, pleaſure; make V D, V K, VF, each equal to the diſtance EV and draw 7 H, interſecting 5 C in b; then 5 b repreſents a length of the vaniſhing line DF; then V K the diſtance of E V, tranf- equal to 5 7 or 2 feet; draw ah parallel to the ground line, cutting poſed to K; and becauſe V D, V F, are each equal to V K; AC in a, which will give the length of the lower fide; erect the therefore D and F are the vaniſhing points of the diagonals i r and perpendicular a c, bd; make bd equal to 8 feet, and draw the pa- fb. From the points i and b draw if, br, parallel to the vaniſhing rallel dc. If the plane g bik be 9 feet high, and 3 feet wide, and line DF; from D draw Di cutting br in r; then r b is cut off 6 feet from the bottom of the picture; draw a line at pleaſure from to repreſent another ſide of the ſquare; from V draw a line through C, as C9; take 3 feet, and draw another line from B to C; from r, interſecting i f in f, which completes the perſpective of a ſquare L draw L9, interſecting B C in e; then e B repreſents three feet; in this poſition. This may alſo be done by merely giving the in- from e draw the parallel ef, and from L produce Lf, interſecting clination of the plane; ſuppoſe it 45°; at the eye E make an angle eC in g, which gives eg for a perſpective length repreſenting ef. with the line E C of 45°, and draw E V interſecting U V in V; Now gf and f B are the repreſentations of two ſquares, whoſe fides make V F, V D, each equal to V E; then V is the vaniſhing point are all equal in the original figures; and therefore all the ſides ef, of the ſides i b, fr; and D F the vaniſhing points of the diagonals; eg, &c. repreſent equal lines, and conſequently 9h repreſents the from whence the figure may be completed as before. The vaniſh- depth of 6 feet, and h g the parallel width of 3 feet. Draw the ing line, its centre, and the diſtance of the oppoſite inclined plane, perpendiculars hk, gi; and make g i three times the length of g h ; are determined in the ſame manner. and draw i k parallel to g h. XIX. To find the vaniſhing line of the roof ibrf, &c. (fig. 41.) XVII. To find the repreſentation of planes, that are oblique to the when the gable end abi is parallel to the picture, and to determine ground line or bottom of the picture. Let ab dc (fig. 37.) be eight the whole repreſentation. Having drawn the body of the building feet high, eight feet wide, and two feet from the bottom of the ag, and alſo the gable end abi; obſerving that the inferior part, if, picture; let L be its vaniſhing point, and A L the line in which of the roof vaniſhes into C, the centre of the picture, and conſe- the plane is to ſtand. Draw A B perpendicular to the bottom of quently the upper part br will vaniſh into the ſame point, both the picture; ſet 8 feet upon it, and draw B L, transferring L E to being ſuppoſed parallel in the original figure; draw b C, and from.f H; take A 2=2 feet, and from 2 produce 2 H, interſecting AL the line fr parallel to i b, which completes the ſide of the roof ibri, in A; then A a repreſents a line equal to A 2=2 feet. Again, from without the vaniſhing line propoſed. But ſince the roof i brf has 2 feet ſet off 8 feet, and draw D H interſecting AL in b; then ab an inclination with reſpect to the picture, in order to determine its repreſents the length of 8 feet; draw a c and fd parallel to A B. proper vaniſhing line, through the vaniſhing point C draw FD When the repreſentation is not to be of any particular dimen parallel to ib or rf; then FD is the vaniſhing line of the in- fion, the operation is exceedingly fimple. Let AB (fig. 38.) be clined plane i brf. From C, the centre of the vaniſhing line one ſide given, and A D its height; from A and B draw A Ď, BF, FD, produce CK perpendicular to FD; make CK=C É, the perpendicular to the bottom of the picture; and from C draw CF diſtance of the eye; and C K is the diſtance of the vaniſhing line N. B. The vaniſhing point C of the line A B is the vaniſhing FD, and K the tranſpoſed place of the eye. E. gr. Having point of every line Qd, mk, &c. parallel to AB. For the appli given i b for one ſide of a ſquare root, and found its vaniſhing line cation of theſe operations in determining the perſpective of ſolid FD, and its diſtance CK, to complete the repreſentation of the figures, ſee Sect. VII. roof. Make CF, CD, each equal to the diſtance of the eye CK; As to objects that are inclined to the ground, ſuch as pediments, then F and D are the vaniſhing points of the diagonals of a ſquare: roofs of houſes, &c. it is proper to obſerve, that this of part From i and b produce lines to C; and from the ſame points draw per- Spective was little, if at all, underſtood by any authors before Dr. lines to F and D, interſecting b C, i C, in r and f; draw rf, Taylor; who has ſhewn that inclined objects have their proper va- which will be parallel to i b, and complete the repreſentation re- niſhing lines, and points, as well as thoſe which lie flat upon the quired. ground, or are perpendicular to it; and that the method for deter XX. Having given the vaniſhing line of any inclined plane, and mining the appearance of objects in either caſe is exactly the ſame. one vaniſhing point of that plane, together with the centre and diſtance For the illuſtration of this method, let a dogfi (fig. 40.) repreſent of the picture, pall proceed to determine the vaniſhing line of another the body of a houſe; the ſide cigf being parallel, the other ſide ad plane, making a given angle with the plane, whoſe vaniſhing line įs ci hath its vaniſhing line V U, which paſſes through the centre of VL. Let V L (fig. 42.) be the vaniſhing line of any inclined the picture, and is perpendicular to the horizontal line; and it is plane, V one vaniſhing point; C the centre, C E the diſtance of evident, that the roof is formed by two inclined planes, one leading the picture, and abi the angle of inclination of the two original planes ; towards the eye, the other from it. PERSPECTIV E. ſuch kind planes , if this be a right angle, from V draw a line through C, | definite line ſtanding on the ground plane at C (fig. 45.) and it is as V D; make CI perpendicular to V D, and C=CE; draw | propoſed to cut off a part of it from C, equal, e. gr. to ten divi- VI, and at I make VI=abi, the given angle, and draw Ic fions; find the point y as above; from C, parallel to the ground interfe&ting V D in c; through c draw L U parallel to IC, inter-| lines draw C b, from which cut off, (Art. 21, in this ſection, a lecting V L in L, and UL is the vaniſhing line required. If the part Ca, equal to ten diviſions, and a line joining y and a will cut plane, whoſe vaniſhing line is V U, were inclined at an angle of the given line Cg in ky the point fought. If ſeveral other divi- 60°, and it were required to find its vaniſhing line; through fions in Cg be required, make C h equal to the abſolute length of the centre of the picture draw VD, and find the vaniſhing line ten diviſions, and through k draw b k cutting y produced in d; LU of a plane perpendicular to that plane whoſe vaniſhing line is and d will be a meaſuring point for the line Cg; ſo that the divi VU; produce CD, and make :D=IC, the diſtance of LU; fions themſelves may be ſet upon Cb at once, and lines drawn draw DU, which makes an angle at D of 60°, and draw DP; from thence to d will cut the given line Cg in the deſired points. laſtly draw PV, which is the vaniſhing line required. In order The point d may be found at once by taking gd to : y as the to find the centre and diſtance of the vaniſhing line UL; from C height of the eye is to the perpendicular CL. draw CD perpendicular to UL, and CI perpendicular to CD, In the foregoing explication of the theory and practice of per- and make Ci=CE, and CI is the diſtance of UL; make Spective, regard has been merely had to the appearance of objects cD=c I, which is the diſtance to be uſed for determining the re upon an upright picture, which is generally choſen for perſpective preſentations of any planes that vaniſh into the line UL. Sup- repreſentations; but there are ſome caſes in which the ſituation of pofe L the vaniſhing point of one ſide of a ſquare, draw D U at the picture is parallel or inclined to the ground, ſuch as cielings, tight angles with DL, and U will be the other vaniſhing point of inclined walls, &c. The repreſentation of objects upon the ſaid ſquare. For the further illuſtration and application of of ſurfaces is deducible from the ſame principles, and determined theſe rules, we muſt refer to Mr. Kirby's comprehenfive work, after the ſame manner. The rules for drawing the appearance of entitled, Dr. Brook Taylor's method of Perſpective made eaſy, &c. objects upon the parallel picture are exactly the ſame as thoſe for 3d edit. 1768. drawing the appearance of objects upon the perpendicular picture; XXI. To fix points in perſpective lines, or to divide theſe lines to obſerving that thoſe objects, which in the parallel picture are to be as to intercept any lengths that may be required in them. Lines pa- repreſented as erect, muſt be determined as thoſe which lie flat on rallel to the ground line may be divided, by dividing the ground the ground in the perpendicular picture; thoſe which are parallel line, and either laying a ruler from theſe diviſions to the point of in one picture as thoſe which are parallel in the other; and thoſe diſtance in the horizon, or drawing lines to them from the point which are oblique after the ſame manner: or more generally, how- of fight D. Lines perpendicular to the ground line are divided, ever original planes are ſituated, the vaniſhing lines of thofe planes by ſetting off divifions from the place where they meet the ground muſt always be determined by imagining a plane to paſs through line, and drawing other lines from them to the point of diſtance. the eye parallel to thoſe planes, &c. for by this means all their re- Lines oblique to the ground line may be divided, by ſetting off on preſentations may be completed. The inclined picture is ſeldom the ground line any number of diviſions from the point where the uſed; but thoſe who wiſh to acquaint themſelves with this kind of line to be divided interſects it; as from C to b (fig. 43.) taking the perſpective, may find ample information in Mr. Kirby's elabo- diſtance from the vaniſhing point i of the line to the point of dif rate works. tance E in the perpendicular DE, and ſetting off along the hori- SECT. VI. zontal line to y; and from the point thus determined, drawing a Perspective of BUILDING, &c. line y,b to the point in the ground line bounding the number of di In the practice hereof great regard is had to the height of the viſions; this line will interfect Ci, the repreſentation of the given horizontal line; all above the horizontal being ſeen in the upper oblique line in h, the point required. See Articles XV. XVI. part, and all below it in the under part; whence perſpective becomes and XVII. in this ſection. divided into the high and low fight; both which may be illuſtrated If a fingle point in a given ſituation upon the ground plane be by what follows : required, its place in the perſpective plane may be found by ſup To repreſent a building (e. gr. palace, college, &c.) in Perſpective. poſing it to be the interſection of two lines, the ſituation of which 1. Take the ichnography, or ground-plat of the building; its is given: as by ſuppoſing one of them to be drawn through it per- lengths, breadths, and depths, by actual meaſuring; and take its pendicular to the ground line, and the other to be a line drawn from altitude with a quadrant. 2. Make a ſcale divided into two or three the point of diſtance, and interſecting it at a great diſtance from hundred equal parts; either actually, or ſo as that each diviſion the ground line: or, it might be found by drawing lines making fignify ten parts: by this ſcale lay down the ground-plat; as in any given angle with the perpendicular, and interſecting them at fig. 46. This done, having a long rule, and a ſquare, which by proper diſtances from the ground line. To divide lines not lying fliding on the rule helps you to draw your perpendiculars eaſier, in the ground plane, but perpendicular to it, let a c (fig. 44) be the reduce it into perſpective, in its ſcenographic appearance. Then image of a line perpendicular to the ground plane, and let a num- having drawn a line towards the bottom of the paper for the front ber of diviſions, e. gr. five, be cut off from the point a. Take at or bale line, as F (fig. 47.) divide it into as many equal parts as pleaſure (generally beyond the bounds of the picture) any point d you find the building has in the ichnography, or more, if you in the horizontal line; from thence draw a line de to any point pleaſe; this will ſerve for a ſcale to determine the ſeveral heights, e in the ground line; ſet off five diviſions from e to fin the per &c. and to thoſe diviſions, with a black lead pencil draw lines pendicular e k, and draw the line fd; draw a line from the foot a from the center, when you have choſen it; which choice requires of the object, parallel to the ground line, interſecting de in i, and judgment on two accounts. 3. For if the center be too nigh the raiſing a perpendicular from i to df, find h and the line i h contains front line, then the depth of the whole building will be fore-lhort- the five meaſures required, which are to be ſet off from a to b in ened too much; and if too far off, it will not be fore-ſhortened the given line a c; and thus a b will be equal to fe. The lines enough. This may be illuſtrated thus : ſet an open tankard, or de and ek will ſerve to meaſure any other lines perpendicular to the like on a ſtand, ſo as that it be a little lower than the ground plane, always drawing a line parallel to the ground line you be at a great diſtance from it, you can ſee very little or nothing from the foot of the object to be meaſured to the line d'e, and pro- into it; if you come nigher to it by degrees, you will perceive the ceeding as above. It is evident, that any row of objects of the farther edge ſeem to be raiſed a little higher than that you, ſo fame height, ſtanding upon the ground plane, on a line perpendi- that you may fee a little way into it; if you come very nigh it, cular or oblique to the ground line, muſt appear to diminiſh, till you ſee too deep into it, or more than can be well expreſted in they vaniſh in the horizontal line; conſequently the triangle dfe picture. We ſhall therefore find ſome one place, which we muſt will contain in it perpendicular lines equal to the apparent heights conclude the moſt convenient for the draught, and which may be of all objects that are of the height of fe; and this will be the caſe in general determined to be as far off the front-line, as the front is wherever the point d is taken in the horizontal line; for it will be long: this rule, though it has juſt grounds, yet we ſometimes diſ- invariably i h:ef(::di:de::dm:dl):: Ha:HI. penſe with pro re nata, that we may expreſs things with the better To meaſure a line oblique to the ground plane: let the line be appearance. Cg (fig. 43.) and let eight diviſions be cut off from C. For this 4. Conſider how to place this center with ſuch advantage as purpoſe draw CN parallel to yg, and CN being conſidered as a that you may expreſs thoſe things moſt, which are chiefly deſigned; new ground line, ſet off the given number of diviſions from C to a; for as to the bottom and top lines of the ſides of the building that join a and y with a line interſecting the given line in k; and C k run from us in or nigh the direct lines to the centre, though you will be the part required; or from the vaniſhing point g of the given the upper part very well, yet the ſides that fall between the ground- line C, take gy parallel to the ground line A B, and equal to gy; line and top fall ſo very near one another, that it would be very diffi- on the ground line ſet off the given length from C to a; and a line cult to expreſs particulars in them; ſo that the centre muſt be well joining a and y will cut off the required part C k. In the firſt me choſen in reference to this. Thoſe buildings, therefore, which you thod, the triangles kgy, and k C a are ſimilar ; whence gk: kC | would ſee moſt of, muſt be placed as far off as you think convenient :: gy:Ca; but g y is equal to ga, the diſtance of the eye from from the direct line that runs to the centre: and the farther they the vaniſhing point g, and C a is equal to the given oblique line are, the plainer they will be. Place then thoſe things you would by conſtruction: therefore the extreme point of it will be repre ſee leaſt of, nigheſt the direct line; and ſee whether the others fall ſented by k. See propoſition III. in Section VII. In the ſecond method, ſince g y is drawn parallel to Ca, we have according to your mind; but this muſt be done after you have drawn your diagonal, which is the next thing. g:kC::gy: Ca; but g y and C a are equal to g Ý yand CA, and 5. Having pitched on your centre, and having from it drawn conſequently equal to g a, and the given oblique line reſpectively. lines to every diviſion of the front-line; you are to determine your If the line Ć z does not ſtand upon the ground line, but is an in- diagonal A R, thus : having, with a pair of compaſſes, meaſured your eye; if next ſee the PERSPECTIVE. drawn, if the length of the front line, take your compaſſes and putting one pendicularly on any point of the terreſtrial line DE; and to any foot in the centre, ſee where the other will reach in the horizon point, as V, of the horizontal line HR, draw the right lines VI (on both ſides, if you pleaſe); where it reſts from that point draw a and V H. From the angles d, b, and c, draw ć 1, and d 2, &c. thwart line to the laſt diviſion of the front; and this will be truly parallel to the terreſtrial line D E. 4. From the points 1 and 2, or pretty nigh to the truth. That it is fo, you may conſider raiſe L 1 and M 2, perpendicular to the ſame. Laſtly, fince HI how it falls in reſpect of the two laſt centre lines; for if where the is the height to be raiſed in a, L i in c and b, and M 2 in d; in à next line from the laſt is interfected by the diagonal, you draw a pa- | raiſe the line f a perpendicular to a E raiſe the line f a perpendicular to a E ; in b and c, raiſe bg and ce rallel to the front between them; as at A 10, you will have a rhom perpendicular to bc I ; and, laſtly, raiſe d h perpendicular to d 2, bus ; if then all the ſides be pretty equal, you may be ſure you are and make a f=HI, bg=ec=L 1, and h d=M 2; if, then, the nigh the right; but if the ſides that run towards the centre be too points g, h, e, f, be connected by right lines, the ſcenography will long, then things will not be fore-ſhortened enough; and if the be complete. fides be not long enough, they will be fore-ſhortened too much. Otherwiſe : let A B (fig. 50.) be the breadth of either of the ſix 6. After the front-line is thus divided, the centre fixed, and the equal ſquare fides of the cube AG, O the place of the obſerver, diagonal placed, take the breadth of the chapel AB, which in the almoſt even with the edge CD of the cube, S the point of fight, SP ichnography is ſhewn to be twenty parts: becauſe this line is per the horizon parallel to A D and P (SP being made equal to SO) pendicular, it muſt run toward the centre; therefore reckon twenty the point of diſtance. Make ABCD a true ſquare, draw BS in the diagonal, and the rule laid parallel to the front in that point and CS to the point of light, and B P to the point of diſtance, will give you a point in the centre-line, which will give the breadth interſecting C Sin G; then draw F G parallel to B C, and the up- of the chapel; and conſequently a line drawn from A to B puts it permoſt perſpective ſquare fide BFGC of the cube, will be fi- into the ichnographic perſpective. The length of the chapel being niſhed. Draw D S to the point of ſight, and A P to the point of ſeventy diviſions in the front line, reckon ſeventy from B, parallel diſtance, interſecting DS in I; then draw GI parallel to CD; to the front line, and there you will have a point at C. The depth and, if the cube be opaque, as if wood or metal, all the outlines of of the building from the chapel northward being one hundred and it will be finilhed, and then it may be ſhaded as in the figure. But fifteen from the chapel, I reckon from D (where it cuts the diago you want a perſpective view of a tranſparent glaſs cube, all the nal at ten) onwards in the diagonal; and at one hundred and fif ſides of which will be ſeen; draw A H toward the point of light, teen in the diagonal with my rule, as before, parallel in this place in FH parallel to B A, and H I parallel to AD; then A HID will the front, I have the point Z in the central line. Its breadth being be the ſquare baſe of the cube, perſpectively parallel to the top BF thirty, I reckon three diviſions, and there is the juſt breadth there GC; À BF H will be the ſquare ſide of the cube, parallel to CG and ſo on in every particular part. Having placed the ichnography ID, and F GIH will be the ſquare ſide parallel to A BCD. in perſpective, you may then give every thing its proper height thus: Having the repreſentation of one cube, that will be ſufficient for 7. The height of the chapel being thirty, I reckon thirty on the any number of the fame fize, provided that they all ſtand in the front line; and with this length by a ſquare applied to the front ſame line, or at the ſame diſtance from the bottom of the picture. line, I drop a perpendicular to that height; and ſo where the other If the cube were above the horizontal line, the repreſentation of it ſide of the chapel is placed, having reckoned the height upon a ſup- is found in the ſame manner. poſed parallel, there I draw another line on that height; then joining Again : to exhibit the repreſentation of a cube with the feweſt theſe leveral heights by ſeveral lines, you have the profiles of each poſible lines within the picture. Divide the bottom and one ſide building. To diverſify theſe ſeveral lines, that they confound you of the picture (fig. 51.) into any number of equal parts, which not, make the ichnography, when you lay it into perſpective, in dif may be conſidered as feet; let the propoſed repreſentation be fix continued crooked lines, the heights in pricked lines, and the tops feet from the bottom of the picture, and four feet in diameter; and of each building in continued lines, as the centre lines are in the let CH or CL be half the diſtance of the eye, and C the centre of table. You will likewiſe find the centre, though it is not here ex the picture. From r draw a line to C ; from a produce one to preſſed, as likewiſe the point of diſtance, by continuing the dia H, cutting r C in v, from v draw a parallel line; then a line from gonal up to the ſuppoſed horizon, where it and the eye are placed.p to H, which gives tv for the bottom of the cube. Upon the Having done thus, your art muſt be employed for the particular ex line tv make the ſquare, and biſect the upper fide in e; from x preſſions of things, by drawing and ſhadowing, which is the life produce a line to C; and another from s to H, which gives the of this half-formed figure, which we leave to the painter. It remains corner i; whence the repreſentation may be completed. Mr. Kirby that we ſpeak of the low fight: and here we ſuppoſe the horizontal has propoſed the following univerſal rules for exhibiting the true line juſt the height of the eye, about five feet from the baſis; though perſpective repreſentations of any obječts, and applied them to a it is generally placed higher, even to a third part of the height of variety of elegant drawings in architecture, &c. the building, that the ſide building may be expreſſed the more grace Rule I. To determine the perſpective length of any given line fully. The diagonal is beſt determined by dividing the laſt diviſion a b (fig. 52.) parallel to the horizontal line, and to divide it ſo as of the baſis line into five parts at G, taking four of theſe, ſometimes that it may repreſent any number of equal or unequal parts. Divide the whole five, becauſe we determined before, that the length of the bottom A B of the picture into any given number (e. gr. ten) the front-line was the diſtance of the eye in the horizon from the of equal parts, and let this be a ſcale for adjuſting the proportions point of diſtance; but here we take four, and then make this the of ſuch objects as are to be drawn upon the picture. Let a be one diſtance in the horizon between the eye and the point of diſtance. end of the line propoſed, and from a draw at pleaſure the parallel You may then either graduate the plan at the ſeveral interſections ab. From any point, as i on the ſcale, draw a line through a, to of the diagonal with the centre-lines, or elſe fuppoſe it fo; and then cut the horizontal line in P. Let the ſpace between 1 and 3 be raiſe the buildings as you will find by perſpectives enough of this the real length of the propoſed line on the ſcale, and from 3 draw fort every where to be met with. a line to P. cutting a b in b, and a b will repreſent a length equal to SECT. VII. the ſpace 13. In order to divide a b into any number of equal or SCENOGRAPHY unequal parts, mark on the ſcale the given proportion, and from Is a repreſentation of a body on a perſpective plane, or a de thence draw lines to P, which will interfect ab in the points pro- fcription thereof in all its dimenſions, ſuch as it appears to the eye. poſed. If ab be a perſpective line given, and its length be re-- The ichnography of a building, &c. repreſents the plan, or ground quired: Draw a line from any point of the horizontal line through work of the building; the orthography the front, or one of the the ends of a b to the fcale, and theſe will ſhew its length. Then ſides; and the ſcenography the whole building, front, ſides, height, ab repreſents fix parts, as feet, &c. according to the nature of and all raiſed on the geometrical plan. the deſign. To exhibit the SCENOGRAPHY of any Body. I. Lay down the Rule II. To cut off a part ab (fig. 53.) of the line a C, that baſis, ground-plot, or plan, of the body, in the perſpective ich vaniſhes into the centre of the picture, ſo as to repreſent any given nography, according to the method laid down in Section V. length, and to obtain length, and to obtain any number of perſpective diviſions upon it. 2. Upon the ſeveral points of the plan raiſe the perſpective heights : From C ſet off the width I K of the picture to L, for the diſtance thus will the ſcenography of the body be completed, excepting that From L to any point, as 2 on the fcale, draw L 2 proper ſhade is to be added. The method of raiſing the heights cutting a C in b, and a b will repreſent the length a 2. In the ſame is as follows: manner, lines drawn from any diviſions on the fcale to L, will cut On any point given, as C (fig. 48.) to raiſe a perſpective altitude, a C fo as to give the perſpective of ſuch diviſions. anſwerable to an objective altitude P Q. On the terreſtrial line Rule III. To cut off a part ab (fig. 54.) of the line a H, that raiſe a perpendicular P Q, equal to the given objective altitude. vaniſhes into one of the points of diſtance H; and to divide it. From P and Q, to any point, as T, draw right lines, PT and Divide the diſtance CH or CL into five equal parts, and make the QT. From the given point C, draw a right line CK, parallel to dot at Ph two parts one fourteenth from C. From any diviſion the terreſtrial line D Е, meeting the right line QT, in K. In the on the ſcale, as i, draw a line Ph, cutting a H in b; then will ab point K, upon the line K C, erect a perpendicular I K. This repreſent the length a 1. To divide a b; ſet off the real lengths of IK is the ſcenography altitude required. See Section V. Art. XXI. thoſe parts on the ſcale, and draw lines to Ph, which will cut ab The application of this general method of drawing the ſcenography in the propoſed points. For the line ac which vaniſhes into the of a body is not ſo obvious in every caſe, but that it may be neceſ- point of diſtance L: make the dot at Pl the ſame diſtance from Ç ſary to illuſtrate it a little by a few examples. as P b is from C. From PI draw a line to any point, 2, and a c To exhibit the SCENOGRAPHY of a Cube, viewed by an angle, will be the perſpective of a 2, &c. The firſt of theſe rules is 1. As the baſis of a cube viewed by an angle, ſtanding on a geome- adapted to the ſides of fuch objects or buildings as directly front, trical plane, is a ſquare viewed by an angle: draw a ſquare viewed or are even with the eye; the ſecond to thoſe which run directly angular-wiſe. 2. Raiſe the ſide HI (fig. 49.) of the ſquare per from the eye; and the third to ſuch as are viewed angle-ways, and * Ss in of the eye. a No 127. PERSPECTIV E. in ſuch manner that both ſides have an equal degree of obliquity. It is evident that thoſe lines are to be omitted, both in the plan; Mr. Kirby has added a fourth rule; for which, being only wanted and in the elevation, which are not expoſed to the eye, though they occaſionally, we ſhall refer to his Perſpective of Architecture, &c. are not to be diſregarded from the beginning, as being neceſſary for p. 5. For the application of the firſt and ſecond of the preceding the finding of other lines. E. gr. in the ſcenography of the cute, rules, in drawing the repreſentations of ſquares and circles, fee viewed angle-wiſe, the lines b d and dc (fig. 49.) in the baſe, and SECTION V. Art. VI. and XI. For the farther uſe of theſe dh in the elevation, are hidden from the eye, and are therefore in rules : Let it be required to put a parallel cube of two feet ſquare, the deſcription. But ſince the upper point h is not to be found, and placed at the bottom of the picture, in perſpective. Draw the unleſs the point d be had in the ichnography; nor can the lines gh front ſide ab 1 3 (fig. 55.) and lines from b, a, 3 to C; then from and he be drawn without the height dh; the appearance of the 5 draw a line to H, and from c the perpendicular cd, and from point d is as neceſſary to be determined in the operation, as the d another parallel, as in the figure. Let the ſame figure be placed height h d. at the diſtance of one foot within the picture. A line drawn from Another method. Let the propoſed cylinder, (fig. 60.) be four 6 to L will give the corner f, by Rule II. Draw a line from 5 to feet in diameter, fix feet high, and three feet from the bottom of the C, and the parallel fe; make fg=fe, and draw the front ſide fikg; picture; and let the centre be in the line 3C. Find the point c, a line drawn from e to L gives the point h; from h draw the per by Rule II. above, and the diameter ab by Rule I. With this pendicular h 1, and from 1 another parallel. diameter find the perſpective of a circle. See Sect. V. Art. XI. To exhibit the perſpective of ſeveral cubes placed behind one another. Divide a b into four feet, by Rule I. From c draw the perpendi- Draw the front fide A ab 2 (fig. 56.) from a, b, 2, draw lines to C, cular cm; then take one foot from a b, and from c ſet it fix times and complete the firſt cube as above. Again, draw a line from 4 to m: through m draw the parallel k l and make it equal to the to C, and the parallel cd; then from d draw a line to H, which lower diameter ab; with k l find the perſpective of another circie, gives a ſpace to repreſent the breadth of one cube; from g draw and from the outer part of each oval draw lines, as a l, bk, which the parallel g h, and a line from h to H will give the breadth of will complete the propoſed repreſentation. another cube; from g and n draw perpendiculars cutting b C, and For two cylinders behind one another. Let the centres c and me from theſe interſections draw the parallels for the top. For obtain Plate III. (fig. 61.) of the cylinder be in the line 9 C, and let each ing the ſame number of cubes on the oppoſite ſide: upon 8 B draw be two feet in diameter, and five feet high; let the centre of the firſt the front fide; from 8, and the two upper corners, draw lines to C; cylinder be only one foot from the bottom of the picture, but that of and from the ſeveral real corners of the cubes already drawn, pro the other fix feet. By Rule I. and II. we may obtain the centre С, duce parallels cm, interſecting 8 C from theſe interſections, draw and the diameter ab of the firſt cylinder, and the whole operation is perpendiculars for the ſides and then the parallels for the tops, &c. the ſame as in the laſt caſe. By the ſame rules we find alſo the centre To find the perſpective appearance of an oblique cube two feet ſquare; m, and diameter 1 n of the fartheſt cylinder ; and by drawing a line the neareſt corner being one foot from the bottom of the picture. Find from f to C, we ſhall have the height of it. by Rule II. the corner a (fig. 57.) by the firit, the length ab; by To exhibit the SCENOGRAPHY of a pyramid ſtanding on its baſe. the third, the depth at ac; and draw the parallel cd, which gives Suppoſe, e. gr. it were required to delineate a quadrangular pyra- the other ſide a d. From c, a, d, draw the perpendiculars ca f, a, c, mid, viewed by an angle. 1. Since the baſe of ſuch a pyramid is a dg; and a e=ab; then from e draw lines to H and L; and from f ſquare ſeen by an angle, draw ſuch a ſquare. 2. To find the vertex and g lines to H and L. of the pyramid, i. e. a perpendicular let fall from the vertex to the To exhibit ſeveral oblique cubes behind one another, both to the right baſe, draw diagonals mutually interſecting each other in Plate IV. and left. Draw the firſt from the point 5 (fig. 58.); draw lines (fig. 62.) 3. On any point, as H, of the terreftrial line D Е, raiſe from 5 to H and L; and a line drawn froin 7 to P I gives the fide the altitude of the pyramid HI; and drawing the right lines H V, 5b; draw the parallel bt and the perpendiculars for the upright and I V, to a point of the horizontal line H R, produce the diagonal edges; and make 5 a equal to 57, and draw lines from a to H and db, till it meet the line V H in h. Laſtly, from h draw hi parallel L, and from d to L, and from c to H, which completes one cube. to H I. This, being raiſed on the point e, will give the vertex of Let the ſpaces between the cubes be three feet; draw a line from the pyramid K; conſequently, the lines d K, Ka, and Kb, will be 8 to L, and another from b, and then the parallel bf, of three feet; determined at the ſame time. After the like manner is the ſcenogra- and a line from f to Pl gives bg to repreſent bf, by Rule III. phy of a cone delineated. From 7 draw a line to L and from 8 the parallel g h, which repre Another method. Let AD (fig. 63.) be the breadth of either of fents two feet, or the breadth of one cube; then from h draw a line the four ſides of the pyramid ATCD, as its baſe ABCD, and MT to Pl, which gives the fide gi; and draw a line from g to H, and its perpendicular height. Let O be the place of the obſerver, S from c to L, which will give the other ſide g m. Again, from 89 his point of fight, S E his horizon, parallel to AD, and per- m, i, draw perpendiculars; and then interſections with the lines pendicular to O'S; and let the proper point of diſtance be taken in drawn from the top of the firſt cube to L, will determine the height SE, produced toward the left hand, as far from S as O is from S. of two ſides; and by drawing the other lines to H, as n H, we ſhall Draw A S and D S to the point of fight, and D L to the point of complete another cube; and ſo on. The figures on the right hand diſtance, interſecting A S in the point B. Then from B draw BC fide are found from thoſe which are already drawn by means of pa- parallel to AD, and A B C D ſhall be the perſpective ſquare baſe of rallel lines. the pyramid. Draw the diagonal A C interfecting the other dia- N. B. The repreſentation of the cube prepares the way for the gonal B D at M, and this point of interſection ſhall be the centre of projection of all the regular folids; and we have, therefore, been the ſquare baſe. Draw MT perpendicular to A D, and equal to more diffuſe in illuſtrating the method of doing it. the intended height of the pyramid; then draw the ſtraight lines To exhibit the ScenogRAPHY of a hollow quinquangular priſm. AT, CT, and DT; and the outlines of the pyramid, as viewed 1. Since the baſe of a hollow quinquangular priſm, ſtanding on a from O, will be finiſhed; and the whole may be fo ſhaded as to geometrical plane, is a pentagon, with a limb, or breadth, of a cer- give it the appearance of a ſolid body. If the obſerver had ſtood tain dimenfion, find the appearance of this pentagon on a table, or at o, he could have only ſeen the fide ATD of the pyramid; and plane. two is the greateſt number of ſides that he could ſee from any other 2. On any point, as H, of the terreſtrial line D E (fig. 59.) place of the ground. raiſe a perpendicular H I, equal to the objective altitude; and to To exhibit the SCENOGRAPHY of a truncated pyramid. Suppoſe any point as V, of the horizontal line H R, draw the lines H V the truncated pyramid quinquangular. 1. Then, if from the ſe- and Î V. 3. From the feveral angles, a, b, d, e, cy of the per veral angles of the upper baſe be conceived perpendiculars let fall to ſpective ichnography, both the internal and external ones, draw the lower baſe, we ſhall have a pentagon, with another inſcribed lines as b 2, d 3, &c. parallel to the terreſtrial line; and from the therein, whofe fides are parallel to thoſe of the former; this coin- points 1, 2, 3, raiſe perpendiculars to the ſame, as L 1, M 2, m. 2, cides with a pentagon, furniſhed with a rim, or breadth, &c. and N 3, n 3. If theſe, then, be raiſed in the correſponding points of may, therefore, be delineated in the ſame manner. 2. Raiſing the the ichnography, as in the ſecond article, the ſcenography will be altitude of the truncated pyramid I H (fig. 64.) determine the ſce- complete. nographic altitudes to be raiſed in the points a, b, c, d, e. If, now, Another method of repreſenting a priſm. Let ab (fig. 51.) be the the higher points, f, g, h, i, k, be connected by the right lines, and width of the bottom; from C draw lines through a, b, in order to the lines lk, fm, gn, be drawn, the ſcenography will be complete. obtain the real width of the line ab, viz. five feet; at the point n By drawing two concentric circles in a geometrical plane, and doing erect the perpendicular nm, and make it equal to the real height of every thing elſe as in this problem, the ſcenography of a truncated the priſm, viz. four feet; draw the front fide ab df. Make an cone will be drawn. equilateral triangle A BE, whoſe fides are equal each to a b; biſect To put two equal figures in perſpective, one of which ſhall be direftly this triangle by the line D E, and divide D E into two equal parts over the other, at any given diſtance from it, and both of them parallel in F; bifect alfo f d in c; and draw cC; then take D F, and ſet it to the plane of the horizon. Let ABCD (fig. 65.) be a perſpective from c to l, and draw IL, interſecting c Cine; laſtly, draw ſe, and ſquare on a horizontal plane, S being the point of ſight, and SP de, which complete the figure. the horizon, parallel to AD, and P the point of diſtance. Sup- To exhibit the SceNOGRAPHY of a cylinder. 1. Since the baſe poſe AD, the breadth of the ſquare, to be three feet, and that ſuch of a cylinder, ſtanding on a geometrical plane, is a circle, ſeek the another ſquare, EFGH, is to be placed directly above it, parallel appearance of a circle. In the points a, b, df, g, h, e, c, (fig. 30. to it, and two feet from it. Make A H and D H perpendicular to Plate II) raiſe the apparent altitudes, as in the preceding articles. AD, and two-thirds of its length; draw E H, which will be If, now, their upper lines be connected by curve lines, as in the equal and parallel to A D; then draw E S and HS to the point bafe, a, b, d, f, g, h, ey C, the ſcenography of the cylinder will be of fight S, and E P to the point of diſtance P, interſecting HS in complete. the point G; then draw F G parallel to E H, and you will have two Platel. Pronospies of 3 Perspective. So the lesson' : ) Section of o Pa Fig. 62. Trig 63. Fig. 64. Fig.65 E R 11 L RE F K I NURUT 12 w H اD Ε. H D3 d c Fig. 66 Fig: 68. Fig.67. C D Р Z-ta E T. P 74,1 0 -K R HB H D 3 5 T RM L AB E: Fig. 71. Fig. 70 Fig: 69. Fig.73 130.00 H H B G F a Fig. 75. Fig. 74. Fig.72 Ve h D B 6 Fig: 76 b Fig.78. Fig.80. B A1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1-98765432 M M 0 161 K L N G Z D M C B H Η h 7 m ht n Fig.79. Fig: 77. L Ε E Engraved for Halls Encyclopædia & Printed for C. Cooke, Nº17, Paternoster Row. PERSPECTIV E. two pa- perſpective ſquares, ABCD, and E F G H, equal and no more than applications of the firſt grand or general rule, it will rallel to one another, the latter directly above the former, and two be eaſily perceived what method to take to delineate any other thing, feet diſtant from it. By this method ſhelves may be drawn parallel and at any height from the pavement. Thoſe who wiſh to ſee the to one another, at any diſtance from each other, in proportion to practice of perſpective largely illuſtrated, and applied to a great their length. variety of caſes, may conſult the ſecond book of Kirby's Perſpec- To repreſent a double croſs in perſpective. Let A B C D, and Let ABCD, and tive, fol. 1768, and Kirby's Architecture, fol. 1761. EF G H (fig. 66.) be two perſpective ſquares, equal and parallel Fig. 69, 'fhews the manner in which reflection is found in the to one another, drawn by the laſt operation, whoſe diſtance is equal looking-glaſs of the picture on the eazle. A is the center of the to the given height of the upright part of the croſs; S being the picture, and A B the vaniſhing line of the ground; the diſtance of point of fight, and P the point of diſtance, in the horizon PS, the picture being equal to AB. AC is the vaniſhing line of the taken parallel to A D. Draw A E, DH, and CG; then A EHD, picture on the eazle, and CD the vaniſhing line of the looking- and DHGC, ſhall be the two viſible ſides of the upright part of glaſs. Through a, where the edge b a of the leg of the table cuts the croſs; of which the length A E is here made equal to three the ſurface of it, drawing a e, and through b drawing b d, both times the breadth E H. Divide DH into three equal parts, HI, parallel to AB, 6 d cutting the interſection c d of the ſurface of the IK, and K D. Through theſe points of diviſion, at I and K, picture on the eazle with the ground in d, and then drawing de draw MO and PR parallel to AD; and make the parts MN, parallel to AC, and cutting a e in e, and then drawing A e, is got IO, PQ, K R, each equal HI; then draw M P and OR parallel the projection Ae of the common interſection of the ſurface of to D H. From M and O, draw MS and OS to the point of the table, and of the picture on the eazle. For a e being parallel fight S; and from the point of diſtance P draw PN cutting MS to AB, is the projection of a line in the ſurface of the table parallel in T; from T draw T U parallel to MO, and meeting OS in to the picture, and for the ſame reaſon b d is the projection of a line U; and you will have the uppermoſt furface MTUÕ of one on the ground, and de is the projection of a line in the plane of the of the croſs pieces of the figure. From R draw R S to the point picture on the eazle, both of them parallel to the picture; a b is alſo of fight S; and from U, draw U V parallel to OR; and OUVR the projection of a line parallel to the picture. Therefore a b de ſhall be the perſpective ſquare end next the eye of that croſs part. is the projection of a trapezium parallel to the picture, whoſe angle Draw PM * (as long as you pleaſe) from the point of diſtance P, e is in the common interſection of the ſurface on the table, and of through the corner M; lay a ruler to N and S, and draw XN the picture on the eazle. But A being the common interſection from the line Px: then lay the ruler to I and S, and draw Y Z S. of the vaniſhing lines of thoſe two planes, is the vaniſhing point Draw X Y parallel to MO, and make X W and Y B equal and of their common interſection, and therefore e A is the projection perpendicular to XY; then draw W B parallel to XY, and of that interfection. For the ſame reaſon o being the projection WXY B ihall be the ſquare viſible end of the other croſs part of of the point where the ſurface of the glaſs touches the table, and E the figure. Draw BK toward the point of light S; and from U being the common interſection of the vaniſhing lines AB and CD, draw U P to the point of diſtance P, interſecting Y S in Z; then, o E is the projection of the common interſection of the ſurface of from the interſection Z, draw Z a parallel to MO, and Z 6 pa- the table and the ſurface of the glaſs. Therefore f where o E and rallel to HD, and the whole delineation will be finiſhed. This e A rneet, is the projection of the point where the three planes done, fhade the whole, as in fig. 67, and you will have a true per- meet, of the ſurface of the table, the glaſs, and the picture on the ſpective repreſentation of a double croſs. eazle. Therefore drawing f C, it is the projection of the common To exhibit the ScenogrAPHY of walls, columns, &c. or to raiſe interſection of the pi&ture on the eazle and the looking-glaſs. Hav- them on the pavement. I. Suppoſe a pavement AFHI (fig. 68.) | ing found the vaniſhing point P of lines perpendicular to the plane repreſented in a plan, together with the baſes of the columns, &c. of the looking-glaſs, whoſe vaniſhing line is CD, drawing PA if there be any. 2. Upon the terreſtrial line ſet off the thickneſs through the vaniſhing point A of the line GH, and cutting CD in of the wall BA, and 1,3. 3. Upon A and B, as alſo upon 3 and D, D is the vaniſhing point of the ſeat of GH on the plane of the I, raiſe perpendiculars A D and BC, as alfo 3, 6, and 1, 7, 4. glaſs. Therefore GH cutting C fini, D i is the projection of that Connect the points D and 6 with the principal point V. by the feat. Then drawing GP cutting Diin k, k, is the ſeat of the point right lines DV, and 6 V. 5. Upon F and H raiſe perpendiculars G on the glaſs. Wherefore in GP making kg to repreſent a line FE, and HG. Thus will all the walls be delineated. equal to that repreſented by G k, g is the projection of the reflection Now to raiſe the pillars, &c. there needs nothing but, from their of G, and gi is the reflection of Gi, and drawing PH cutting g i feveral baſes (whether ſquare or circular) projected on the per- in h, g h is the reflection of GH. And in the ſame manner may be {pective plan to raiſe indefinite perpendiculars; and on the funda found any other lines in the reflexion. The reflexion of the picture mental line, where interſected by the radius F A paſſing through on the eazle may alſo be deſcribed by its vaniſhing line, in the faine the baſe, raiſe the true altitude AD; for D V being drawn as manner as the projection of the picture itſelf was deſcribed; for in before, the ſcenographical altitudes will be determined. PAD making a D to repreſent a line equal to that repreſented by To exhibit the ScenOGRAPHY of a door in building. Suppoſe a AD, a is the vaniſhing point of the reflected line gh, and C a is door required to be delineated in a wall DEFA. 1. Upon the fun the vaniſhing line of the reflected picture on the eazle. damental line ſet off its diſtance AN from the angle A, together SECT. VII. SHADOWS. with the breadths of the poſts NI and LM, and the breadth of The appearance of an opake body, and a luminous one, whoſe the door itſelf LI. 2. To the point of diſtance K, from the ſe rays diverge (e. gr. a candle, lamp, &c.) being given; to find the veral points N, I, L, M, draw right lines K N, KI, KL, KM, just appearance of the ſhadow, according to the laws of perſpective. which will determine the breadth of the door li, and the breadths The method is this: from the luminous body, which is here con- of the poſts in and ml. 3. From A to O ſet off the height of the fidered as a point, let fall a perpendicular to the perſpective plane door A 0, and from A to P the height of the poſts A, P. 4. Join or table; i. e. find the appearance of a point upon which a per- O and P with the principal point by the right lines P V and O V. pendicular, drawn from the middle of the luminary, falls on the 5. Then from n; i, l, m, raiſe perpendiculars, the middle ones perſpective plane; and from the ſeveral angles, or raiſed points of whereof are cut by the right line OV in 0, and the extremes by the the body, let fall perpendiculars to the plane. Theſe points where. right line VP in p. Thus will the door be delineated with its poſts. on the perpendiculars fall, connect by right lines, with the point If the door were to have been exhibited in the wall E F G H, upon which the perpendicular let fall from the luminary falls; the method would be nearly the fame. For, 1. Upon the terref- and continue the lines to the ſide oppoſite to the luminary. Laſtly, trial line ſet off the diſtance of the door from the angle , and thence through the raiſed point, draw lines through the center of the alſo the breadth of the door RT. 2. From R and T draw right luminary, interſecting the former; the points of interſection are lines to the principal point V, which give the breadth rt in the the terms or bounds of the padow. perſpective plan. From r and t raiſe indefinite perpendiculars to E. gr. Suppoſe it required to project the appearance of the FH. 4. From A to O fet off the true height Å O. Laſtly, ſhadow of a priſm. A B CF E D (Plate III. fig. 70.) ſcenogra- from O to the principal point V, draw the right line OV, inter- phically delineated : fince AD, BE, and CF, are perpendicular ſecting E F in Z, and make rr and tt equal to Fz. Thus is the to the plane, and LM is likewiſe perpendicular to the fame (for door rr, tt, drawn; and the poſts are eaſily added, as before. the luminary is given, if its altitude LM be given) draw the right To exhibit the SCENOGRAPHY of windows in a wall. When lines GM and HM, through the points D and E. Through the you know how to repreſent doors, you will find no difficulty in raiſed points A and B, draw the right lines GL and HL, interſect- adding windows ; all that is here farther required being to ſet off ing the former in G and H. Since the ſhadow of the right line AD the height of the window from the bottom of the ground. The terminates in G; and the ſhadow of the right line BE in H: and whole operation is as follows: 1. From 1 to 2 ſet off the thickneſs the ſhadows of all other lines, conceived in the given priſm, are of the wall at the window; from 3 to 4 its diſtance from the angle comprehended within theſe terms; GDEH will be the appear- 3; and from 4 to 5 its breadth. 2. From 4 and 5 to the point of ance of the ſhadow projected by the priſm. If the ſhadows of diſtance L, draw the right lines L 5 and L 4, which will give the objects be made by the light of the ſun, the ſituation of that lu- perſpective breadth, 10, 9, of the window. 3. From 10 and 9 minary, with reſpect to the picture, muſt be determined; and this raiſe lines perpendicular to the pavement, i. e. draw indefinite pa is done by the help of the following confiderations. By reaſon of rallels to 6, 3. 4. From 3 to 11 ſet off the diſtance of the win the immenſe diſtance of the ſun, it muſt always be ſuppoſed to be dow from the pavement 3, 11; and from 11 to 12 its height II, in, or over fome point in the horizontal line, in which the ground 12. Laſtly, from 11 and 12, to the principal point V, draw lines plane when extended to an infinite diſtance is conceived to vaniſh; V 11, and V 12: which, interſecting the perpendiculars 10, 13, and the particular point in the horizontal line muſt be determined and 9, 14, in 13 and 14, as alſo in 15 and 16, will exhibit the from the number of degrees by which the ſun is ſituated to the appearance of the window. From theſe examples, which are all right or left hand of the perpendicular that goes through the point of PERSPECTIVE. be ſet to any ſtraight of the open ſpace of ſight; in the ſame manner as the vaniſhing point of a right | This part conſiſts of two arches or portions of circles c lm (CT) line upon the ground plane, that is oblique to the ground line; is M) and d n 1 (D NL) joined together at the top 1 (L) and at bct. found. E. gr. If the fun be thirty degrees to the left hand of it, tom to the croſs bar de (D C) to which one part of each hinge is let the angle DEH (fig. 71.) be equal to 30°, and H will be that | fixed, and the other part to a flat board; half the length of the board point in the horizontal lines over which the ſun may be fuppofed to abef (A BEF) and glued to its uppermoſt fide. The center of be perpendicular; and nothing is wanting to fix its preciſe place the arch e im I is at de and the center of the arch d n l is at c. On above the horizon, but to know its altitude, which is laid down in the outer ſide of the arch dnl is a ſliding piece n (much like the nut the fame manner as the vaniſhing point of a line that is elevated of the quadrant of altitude belonging to a common globe) which above the ground plane. Thus, if the fun, be 35° high, make may be moved to any part of the arch between d and l; and there HI=HE, and, raiſing the perpendicular HK, make the angle is fuch another ſlider o on the arch o ml, which may HIK=35°, and K will be the ſun's place. Let it be required part between c and l: A thread c p n (CPN) is ſtretched tight to draw the fadow of any object made by the ſun in this ſituation ; from the center c (C) to the ſlider n (N), and ſuch another thread and ſuppoſe K to be the place of the candle L, in (fig. 71.) and His ſtretched from the center d (Đ) to the ſlider o (O); the ends of to be M, the point upon the ground plane that is perpendicularly the threads being faſtened to theſe centers and ſliders. Now it is under it; the proceſs will be exactly the ſame as in that example. plain, that by moving theſe ſliders on their reſpective arches, the in Thus, to draw the ſhadow of the folid X (fig. 72.) the place of the terſection p (p) of the threads may be brought to any point of the ſun being at K; draw H a, and interſecting it by K b in c, we open ſpace within the arches. In the groove k (K) is a have the place of the ſhadow of b; and joining a c, we have the fliding bar i (1) which may be drawn farther out or puſhed farther Jhadow of the perpendicular line a b. In like manner find d, the in at pleaſure. To the outer end of this bar I (fig. 77.) is fixed the Jnadow of f, at the top of the line e f; and alſo g, the ſhadow of the upright piece H Z, in which is a groove for receiving the Niding vertex of the line h i. Then joining theſe points, we have the piece Q. In this ſlider is a ſmall hole r for the eye to look through Shadow of the whole object X; for it is evident from the poſition in uſing the machine: and there is a long flit in H Z, to let the hole of it, that the fadow of any other line in the figure muſt fall r be ſeen through when the eye is placed behind it at any height within that of theſe. When, as in this example, the place of the of the hole above the level of the bar I. In delineating a perſpective fun is fixed above the horizontal line, it is evident, that the ſhadow repreſentation, e. gr. of the houſe, q.srp, a great way off, place will be projected as falling towards the ſpectator, and that they will the machine on a ſteady table, with the end E F of the horizontal always be larger than the objects. board A B E F toward the houſe, ſo that when the Gothic like To draw the ſhadows which are made by the fun, having the arch DLC is ſet upright, the middle part fame degree of elevation behind the ſpectator, which will make the (about P) within it may be even with the houſe when you place ſhadows fall nearer the horizontal line, and leſs than the objects; your eye on Z, and look at the houſe through the ſmall hole r. the perpendicular from H (fig. 71.) muſt be let fall to L, and the Then fix the corners of a ſquare piece of paper with four wafers angle HIL muſt be the ſame as HIK, in the former caſe; and on the ſurface of that half of the horizontal board which is neareft then, if the point L be made uſe of inſtead of K; as theſe points the houſe; and all is ready for drawing. Set the arch upright, as are fituated on the contrary ſide of the horizontal line, the ſhadow in the figure; which it will be when it comes to the perpendicular of objects will be repreſented as they would be made by the fun fide t of the upright piece st fixed to the horizontal board behind placed on the back of the ſpectator; and this poſition of ſhadows is D. Then place your eye at Z, and look through the hole r at any generally thought more agreeable in a picture than the other. To point of the houſe, as q, and move the fliders N and C till you bring find, in this manner, the ſhadow of the line ab, in the folid X the interſection of the threads at P directly between your eye and (fig. 73.) draw H a to the foot of it, and L b to the top, interſect the point q: then put down the arch flat upon the paper on the ing each other in c, the place of the ſhadow. Find, in the ſame Find, in the fame board, as at ST, and the interſection of the threads will be at W. manner, where the ſhadow of the line e f, behind the body, would Mark the point W on the paper with a dot of the black lead pen- fall, and join that point and e, by a line which cuts the ſide of the cil, and ſet the arch upright again, as before: then look through figure in d, where only the ſhadow begins to be viſible. Thus, the hole r, and move the ſliders N and O till the interfection of joining agc, and d, the ſhadow of the folid, X, is completed. the threads comes between your eye and any other point of the In both theſe caſes the ſun is ſuppoſed to be ſituated either be- houſe, as p: then put down the arch again to the paper, and make fore or behind the picture. If it be in the plane of the picture, it is a pencil mark thereon at the interſection of the threads, and draw evident that its place muſt be in the horizontal line, at an infinite a line from that mark to the former one at W; which line will be diſtance from the point of fight; conſequently all lines proceeding a true perſpective repreſentation of the corner p q of the houſe. from it may be ſuppoſed parallel to one another. To draw the Proceed in the ſame manner, by bringing the interſection of the Shadow of objects made by the fun in this ſituation, draw lines threads ſucceſſively between your eye and other points of the out- parallel to the horizontal line from the foot of the object, and in lines of the houſe as r, s, &c. and put down the arch to mark the terſect them by lines making angles with the horizontal line equal like points on the paper at the interſection of the threads: then con. to the ſun’s altitude. This practice is very eaſy by means of the nect theſe points by ſtraight lines, which will be the perſpective out- drawing board and fquare. Then, in order to draw the Madow of lines of the houſe. In like manner find points of the corners a ſolid X (fig. 74.) with the ruler of the ſquare parallel to the of the door and windows, top of the houſe, chimnies, &c. and ground line, draw a c; and fixing the moveable tranſverſe of the draw the finiſhing lines from point to point: then ſhade the whole, ruler in the angle of the ſun's elevation, draw the line b which making the lights and ſhades as you ſee them on the houſe itſelf, gives c for the place of the ſhadow of b. In the fame manner alſo and you will have a true perſpective figure of it. Great care mult find d, the place of the ſhadow of e; and joining the points d, c, be taken, during the whole time, that the poſition of the machine we obtain the ſhadow of the whole figure; though it is ſo ſituated, be not ſhifted on the table; and to prevent ſuch an inconvenience, that part of it is hid by the object. If there be ever ſo many lines, the table ſhould be very ſtrong and ſteady, and the machine fixed the ſhadows of which are to be found, once fixing of the ruler ſerves to it, either by ſcrews or clamps. In the ſame way, a landſcape, for them all. It is merely neceſſary to ſlide the ruler along the or any number of objects within the field, of a view through the drawing-board, till it comes to the points, from which the lines are arch, may be delineated, by finding a ſufficient number of per- to be drawn, both for the lines that are parallel to the horizon, and ſpective points on the paper, and connecting them by ſtraight or thoſe that interſect them. curved lines as they appear to the eye. The arch ought to be at To draw the ſhadow of the ſolid Y (fig. 75.) which lies oblique leaſt a foot wide at bottom, that the eye at Z may have a large field both to the horizon and to the ground plane, draw a c from the of view through it; and the eye ſhould then be, at leaſt, 10 inches foot of the line a b, parallel to the horizon; and fixing the move from the interſection of the threads at P when the arch is ſet able tranſverſe of the ruler, ſo as to make an equal angle to the upright. For if it be nearer, the boundaries of view at the fides fun's altitude, draw b c. In the ſame manner find g, the ſhadow of near the foot of the arch will ſubtend an angle at Z of more than f; and drawing & c, and joining c d, the place where the neareſt fixty degrees, which will not only ſtrain the eye, but will alſo cauſe extremity of the ſolid touches the ground, we may complete the the outermoſt parts of the drawing to have a diſagreeable appear- outline of the whole ſhadow ; for the ſhadows of all the other lines To avoid this it will be proper to draw back the ſliding muſt fall within theſe. We may obſerve, that it makes no differ bar I, till Z be 14 inches diſtant from P; and then the whole ence in the fhadow, whatever be the height or ſhape of objects, pro field of view, through the foot wide arch, will not ſubtend an vided their tops, and every part of them, be in the ſame right lines angle to the eye at Z of more than forty five degrees ; which will proceeding from the luminous body. See on the ſubject of this give a more eaſy and pleaſant view, not only of all the objects them- article Prieſtley's Treatiſe on Perſpective, part ii. p. 73, &c. and felves, but alſo of their repreſentations on the paper, whereon they Taylor's Method of Perſpective, by Kirby, book ii. chap. 4. are delineated. So that whatever the width of the arch be, the SEC T. VIII. diſtance of the eye from it ſhould be in this proportion : as I 2 is to INSTRUMENT FOR DRAWING IN PERSPECTIVE. the width of the arch, fo is 14 to the diſtance of the eye (at Z) By the following Machine any perſon may delineate true per from it. If a pane of glaſs laid over with gum water, be fixed ſpective, without the help of the rules of this art. Mr. Ferguſon Mr. Ferguſon into the arch, and ſet upright when dry, a perſon who looks through has deſcribed a machine of this kind, the invention of which he the hole r may delineate the objects upon the glaſs which he ſees at aſcribes to Dr. Bevis. The plan of this inſtrument is exhibited a diſtance through and beyond it, and then transfer the delineation in Plate IV. fig. 76, 77, which repreſents it when made uſe of 10 a paper cut upon the glaſs. Ferguſon's Perſpective, c. 3. in drawing diſtant objects in perſpective. abef (fig. 76.) is an ob The abové Syſtem was compiled from the Works of Brook Taylor, long ſquare board, repreſented by A B E F in fig. 77 ; x and y (x Ferguſon, Prieſtly, and Kirby, by and Y) are two hinges on which the part old(CLD) is moveable. Parliament-ſtreet, Weſtminſter. T. MARQUOIS C ance. PER ΡΕ Τ PERSPICUITY, in oratory, is a principal excellence of ſtyle, teſt of nitrous air. Hence he infers that it is only RESPIRATION: to which all the ornaments and beauties of ſpeech ought to give and not the perſpiration of the body, that injutes commmon air. way; as it is neceſſary to render a diſcourſe intelligible, and forms Exper. and Obf. Vol. V. Sect. X. one of the conſtituent parts of ELEGANCE. See the Syſtem, Part PERUVIAN BARK. See CINCHONA. III. Sect. I. Art. I. PETALA, petals, in botany, the leaves of a flower; ſo called PERSPIRATION, perfpiratio, in medicine, the action of to diſtinguiſh them from the folia, or leaves of the plant. The evacuating the ſuperfluous juices of the body through the pores of word is formed from the Greek met QOV, a leaf; which in that the ſkin. When this evacuation is copious enough to be perceived language ſerves indifferently for the leaves of the plant and thoſe by the ſenſes, as in ſweat, the perſpiration is ſaid to be ſenſible; where of the hower. By flower is properly meant that aſſemblage of parts, it eſcapes the notice of the ſenſes, as is the caſe in the ordinary called petala, famina, apices, piſtil, which ferve for the propaga- ftate of the body, the perſpiration is ſaid to be inſenſible. The word tion of the kind. See the Syſtem, Sect. I. and Plate III. perſpiration, uſed ſimply, and without any adjective, is to be under PETER, or Epiſtles of St. Peter, two canonical books of the food of inſenſible perſpiration. The veſſels through which the New Teſtament, written by the apoſtle St. Peter, and addreſſed to perſpiration is performed, lie obliquely open under the fquamæ or thoſe Jewiſh converts who were ſcattered throughout Pontus and ſcales of the cuticle or ſcarf-ſkin. They are inconceivably ſmall: Galatia, not only upon the perſecution raiſed at Jeruſalem, but from a calculation of Leewenhoeck it appears, that the mouths of upon former diſperſions of the Jews into thoſe places. The firſt of cne hundred and twenty-five thouſand of them may be covered theſe epiſtles is principally deſigned to comfort and confirm them with a common grain of fand. The moſt conſiderable of theſe under thoſe fiery trials they were then ſubject to, and to direct pores are the orifices of the ducts ariſing from the miliary glands. them how to behave in the ſeveral ſtates and relations both in the Through theſe veſſels there is continually tranfuding a ſubtle civil and Chriſtian life. In the ſecond epiftie, the apoſtle proſecutes humour, from every point of the body, and throughout the whole the faine ſubject, to prevent their apoftacy, from the faith, and expanſe of the cuticle. The matter evacuated this way is found guard them againſt the corrupt principle of the Gnoftics, and thoſe by certain experience to be more than equal to that evacuated all who fcoffed at the promiſe of Chriſt's coming. the other ways, i. e. by ſtool, urine, &c. Sanctorius found in Peter-pence, an ancient levy, or tax, of a penny on each houſe Italy, under the circumfances of a moderate diet, middle age, throughout England, paid to the pope. It was called Peter-pence; and eaſy life, that the matter inſenſibly perſpired was of that taken becauſe collected on the day of St. Peter ad vincula; by the Saxons in for food; ſo that there only remained for nutrition, and for it was called Rome-feoh, i. e. the fee of Rome, and alſo Rome-ſcot, the excrements of the noſe, ears, inteſtines, bladder, &c. M. Dodart, and Rome-pennying, becauſe collected and ſent to Rome: and laſtly, from a number of experiments made for thirty-three years fuccef it was called hearth-money, becauſe every dwelling-houſe was lia- fively, affures us, that we perſpire much more in youth than in ble to it, provided there were thirty pence vivæ pecuniæ belonging age." In ſome perſons the perſpiration is ſo copious, that they void to it, nay, and every religious houſe; the abbey of St. Alban's very little of the coarſer excrements, though they eat very heartily. alone excepted. This Peter-pence was at firſt given as a penſion The benefits of inſenſible perſpiration are ſo great, that without it, or alms, by Ina king of the Weſt Saxons, in the year 727, being Borelli fays, animal life could not be preſerved. The general | then in a pilgrimage at Rome; and the like was done by Offa, king cauſe of perſpiration is the circulation and heat of the blood. The of the Mercians, throughout his dominions, in 794: and after- great fubtility, equability, and plenty of matter, thus perſpired, wards by Ethelwulph, through the whole kingdom, in the year its increaſe after ſleep, &c. conſtitute the grand ſymptoms of a 855. It was not intended as a tribute to the pope, but chiefly for perfect ſtate of health; and the chief means of preſerving the fame. the ſupport of the Engliſh ſchool or college at Rome: the popes, On the contrary, the departing from theſe is the firſt fure fign, however, ſhared it with the college; and at length found means and, perhaps, the original caute, of diſeaſes. Perſpiration is per to appropriate it to theinſelves. At firſt it was only an occa- formed, preſerved, and increaſed, by the viſcera, vellels, and fibres; fional contribution; but it became at laſt a ſtanding tax; being eſta- by motion or exerciſe as far as the firſt appearance of ſweat; by bliſhed by three laws of king Canute, Edward the Confeffor, moderate uſe of venery; by ſleep of ſeven or eight hours, the body | the Conqueror, &c. The biſhops who were charged with the well covered, yet not loaded with bed-cloaths ; chearfulneſs; light, collecting it, employed the rural deans and archdeacons therein. fermented, yet ſolid food, not fat; pure, not heavy air, &c. The Edward the Third firſt forbad the payment, but it ſoon after re- contraries of all theſe, as alſo the increaſe of the other excretions, turned, and continued till the time of king Henry VIII. when diminiſh, prevent, and deprave it. Hence we ſee the cauſe, effect, Polydore Virgil reſided here as the pope's receiver-general. It was &c. of this perſpirable matter, its uſe in preſerving the parts foft aboliſhed under that prince, and reſtored again under Philip and and flexible, and in fupplying what is loit, but chiefly in preſerv- Mary; but it was finally prohibited under queen Elizabeth. ing the nervous papillæ moiſt, freſh, lively, and fit to be affected PÉTIOLE in botany, the tender ſtalk that ſupport the leaves of a by objects, and to tranſmit their impreſſions. plant. See the Syſtem, Sect. II. and plate I. with the explanation. Perſpiration is alſo abſolutely neceſſary, in the animal economy, PETITION, petitio, a ſupplication in form, made by an infe- for purifying the maſs of blood, and diſcharging it of a number of rior to his ſuperior; eſpecially to one having had ſome juriſdiction. ufc leſs heterogeneous particles, which might corrupt it. Hence It is uſed for that remedy which the ſubject hath to help a wrong it is, that upon a ſtoppage of the uſual perſpiration there ariſe ſo done by the king, who hath a prerogative not to be ſued by writ: many indiſpofitions, particularly fevers, agues, rheums, &c. Too in which fenfe it is either general . That the king do him right; much perſpiration occaſions weakneſs, ſwoonings, ſudden death; whereupon follows a general indorſement upon the fame, Let right too little, or none at all, occaſions the capillary veſſels to dry, wither, be done the party: or it is ſpecial, when the concluſion and en- and periſh. Hence alſo the larger emunctories come to be ob dorſement are ſpecial, for this or that to be done, &c. ftructed; hence the circulation is diſturbed, ſharp humours re By ſtatute, the foliciting, labouring, or procuring the putting tained; and hence putridity, crudity, fevers, inflammations, and the hands or conſent of above twenty perſons to any petition to impoſthumes. the king or either houſe of parliament, for alterations in church or Perſpiration is influenced by the paſſions of the mind. Thus ftate, unleſs by affent of three or more juſtices of the peace of the anger and joy increaſe, and fear and ſadneſs leſſen, both perſpiration county, or a majority of the grand jury at the afíizes or ſeſſions, and urine. Anger cauſes a ſtrong motion in the membranes of the &c. and repairing to the king or parliament to deliver fuch petition heart, and quickens its contraction and dilatation, and thereby with above the number of ten perſons, is ſubject to a fine of 100l. quickens the contraction and dilatation of the blood-veſiels and and three months impriſonment, being proved by two witneſſes fecerning ducts, and of conſequence increaſes the diſcharges of per within fix months, in the court of B. R. or at the aſſizes, &c. Spiration and urine; and that more or leſs, in proportion to the And if what is required by this ſtatute be obſerved, care muſt ſtrength or continuance of the paſſion. Joy affects and diſcharges be taken that petitions to the king contain nothing which may in like manner as anger. In the paſſions of fear and forrow, per be interpreted to reflect on the adminiſtration; for if they do, ſpiration and urine are leſſened by the depreſſion of the activity of may come under the denomination of a libel: and it is remark- the foul under thoſe paſſions. Dr. Bryan Robinſon of the Food able, that the petition of the city of London for the fitting of a and Diſcharges of Hum. Bodies, p. 77, feq. parliament was deemed libellous, becauſe it fuggeſted that the Some have ſuppoſed that the perſpiration of animal bodies, in a king's diffolving a late parliament was an obſtruction of juſtice; healthy ſtate, has the ſame effect upon air that breathing it has, alſo the petition of the ſeven biſhops, fent to the Tower by James viz. phlogiſticating and making it noxious ; this is an opinion II. was called a libel, &c. To fubſcribe a petition to the king, which Dr. Ingenhouſz has deduced from fome experiments; and to frighten him into a change of his meaſures, intimating, that if it Dr. Macbride, Eſſays, p. 257. informs us, that having collected be denied many thouſands of his ſubjects will be diſcontented, &c. is about two drams of ſweat, and mixed it with fix drams of lime included among the contempts againſt the king's perſon and go- water, he found that the mixture immediately became turbid, and vernment, tending to weaken the ſame, and is puniſhable by fine in a ſhort time depoſited a light ſediment, like that afforded in and impriſonment. fimilar circumſtances by urine, and which efferveſced as violently Petition of Appeal to the houſe of lords is the dernier reſort of when ſpirit of vitriol was added. Whence he concludes, that air any ſubject who thinks himſelf aggrieved by any interlocutory is thrown off from the fluids by perſpiration as well as by urine. order or final determination in the court of chancery. This juriſ- But, Dr. Prieſtley obſerving, that there is nothing we know of in the diction of the houſe of peers is faid to have begun in 18 Jac. I. human frame which would lead any perſon to ſuſpect that air ever and the firſt petition, which appears in the records of parliament, iſſues from the ſkin, from various experiments maintains, that was preſented in that year; and the firſt that was heard and deter perſpirable matter has no ſuch effect upon the air, leaving it as mined was preſented in a few months after ; both levelled againſt wholeſome or as fit for reſpiration as ever, as he concludes froin the the lord keeper Bacon for corruption and other miſbehaviour. It Tt it Nº 127 was PET ΡΕ Τ veftige of CELLARIA. opera- and fill them up. was afterwards warmly controverted by the houſe of commons, , general characters, the fame ſpecific attributes, and the famo in the reign of Charles II. But the diſpute has long ſince ter individual differences. Farther in petrified wood, no ininated. ligneous matter appears to exiſt. We know that common PETREL, the Engliſh name of the genus Procellaria in wood is a body in which the volume of ſolid parts is greatly ex- ORNITHOLOGY. For deſcription of the genus, &c. fee. Proceeded by that of pores. When the wood is buried in certain places, lapidific fluids, extremely divided and fometimes of wood, bones, and other ſubſtances, principally animal and Theſe fluids are afterwards moulded and condenſed. The ſolid vegetable into ftone. The foffile bodies found petrified are prin- part of the wood is decompoſed and reduced into powder , cipally either of vegetable or animal origin; and are more or which is expelled without the maſs by aqueous filtrations. In leis altered from their original ſtate, according to the different this manner, the places which were formerly occupied by the ſubſtances they have lain buried among in the earth; fome of wood are now left empty in the form of pores. This them having ſuffered very little change, and others being ſo tion of nature produces no apparent difference either of the highly impregnated with cryſtalline, ſparry, pyritical, or other fize or of the ſhape; but it occaſions, both at the ſurface and extraneous matter, as to appear mere maſſes of ſtone or lumps in the inſide, a change of ſubſtance, and the ligneous texture of the matter of the common pyrites; but they are generally is inverted; that is to ſay, that which was pore in the natural of the external diinenfions, and retain more or lefs of the inter- wood, becomes ſolid in that which is petrified; and that which nal figure of the bodies into the pores of which this matter has was folid or full in the firſt ſtate, becomes porous in the ſecond. inade its way. The animal ſubſtances thus found petrified are In this way, ſays M. Muſard, petrified wood is much leſs ex- ſea-ſhells; the teeth, bony palates, and bones of fiſh; the tended in pores than ſolid parts, and at the ſame time forms a bones of land animals, &c. Theſe are found varioufly altered, body much more denſe and heavy than the firſt. As the pores by the inſinuation of ſtony and mineral matter into their pores; cominunicate from the circumference to the centre, the petri- and the ſubſtance of ſome of them is now wholly gone, there faction ought to begin at the centre, and end with the circum- being only ſtony, ſparry, or other mineral matter remaining in ference of the organic body ſubjected to the action of the lapi- the ſhape and form. dific fluids. Such is the origin of petrifactions. They are As to the inanner in which petrifaction is accompliſhed, we organized bodies which have undergone changes at the bottom know very little. It has been thought by many philofophers, of the ſea or the furface of the earth, and which have been that this was one of the rare proceſſes of nature; and accord buried by various accidents at different depths under the ground. ingly ſuch places as afforded a view of it have been looked upon In order to underſtand properly the detail of the formation as great curioſities. However, it is now diſcovered, that pe of petrified bodies, it is neceſſary to be well acquainted with all trifaction is exceedingly common; and that every kind of their conſtituent parts. Let us take wood for an example: water carries in it fome earthy particles, which being preci- Wood is partly folid and partly porous. The folid parts conliſt pitated froin it, become ſtone of a greater or leſſer degree of of a ſubſtance, hard, ligneous, and compact, which forms the hardneſs; and this quality is moſt remarkable in thoſe waters ſupport of the vegetable; the porous parts conſiſt of veſſels or which are much impregnated with ſelenitic matter. Of late, interſtices which run vertically and horizontaliy acroſs the liga it has alſo been found by ſome obſervations on a petrifaction in neous fibres, and which ſerve for conducting air, lymph, and Eaſt Lothian in Scotland, that iron contributes greatly to the other fluids. Among thefe veſſels, the trachia which riſe in proceſs; and this it may do by its precipitation of any alumi- fpiral forms, and which contain only air, are eaſily diſtin- nous earth which happens to be diſſolved in the water by means guiſhed. The cylindric veſſels, ſome of which contain lymph, of an acid; for iron has the property of precipitating this earth, and others the ſuccus proprius, are full only during the life of though it cannot precipitate the calcareous kind. The calca the vegetable. After its death they become vacant by the eva- reous kinds of earth, however, by being ſoluble in water with poration and abſence of the fluids with which they were for- out any acid, muſt contribute very much to the proceſs of pe- merly filled. All theſe veſſels, whether aſcending or deſcend- trifaction, as they are capable of a great degree of hardneſs by ing, unite with one another, and form great cavities in the wood means only of being joined with fixed air, on which depends and in the bark. According to Malpighi and Duhamel, the lig- the ſolidity of our common cement or mortar uſed in building neous fibres are themſelves tubular, and afford a paſſage to cer- houſes. See the articles CEMENT and MORTAR. tain liquors; in ſhort, the wood and bark are interſperſed with The name petrifaktion belongs only, as we have ſeen, to utriculi of different ſhapes and ſizes. The augmentation of the bodies of vegetable or animal origin; and in order to determine trunk in thickneſs, according to Malpighi, is accompliſhed by their claſs and genus, or even ſpecies, it is neceſſary that their the annual addition of a new exterior covering of fibres and texture, their primitive form, and in ſome meaſure their or of trachiæ. Others think that a concentric layer of fap-wood ganization, be ſtill diſcernible. Thus we ought not to place is every year hardened, whilſt a new one is forming from the the ſtony kernels, inouldered in the cavity of ſome ſhell, or other bark. But it is on all ſides agreed, that the concentric layers of organized body, in the rank of petrifactions properly ſo called. wood are diſtinct froin one another, becauſe at the point of Petrifactions of the vegetable kingdom are almoſt all either contact betwixt any two of them, the new vefſels, as well as gravelly or filiceous; and are found in gullies, trenches, &c. new fibres, are more apparent and perceptible than they are Thoſe which ſtrike fire with ſteel are principally found in ſandy in any other place. fiſſures; thoſe which efferveſce in acids are generally of animal We have, ſays M. Mongez, four diſtinct epochs in the pro- origin, and are found in the horizontal beds of calcareous ceſs by which nature converts a piece of wood into ſtone, or, earth, and ſometimes in beds of clay or gravel; in which caſe to ſpeak more juſtly, by which the ſubſtitutes a ſtony depoſit the nature of the petrifaction is different. As to the fub- in its place: 1. Perfect vegetable wood, that is to ſay, wood ſtances which are found in gypſum, they ſeldom undergo any compoſed of ſolid and of empty parts, of ligneous fibres, and alteration, either with reſpect to figure or compoſition, and of veſſels. 2. Wood having its veſſels obſtructed and choaked they are very rare. up by an earthy depoſit, while its folid parts remain unaltered. Organized bodies, in a ſtate of petrifaction, generally ac 3. The ſolid parts attacked and decompoſed, forming new ca- quire a degree of folidity of which they were not poſſeſſed vities betwixt the ſtony cylinders, which remain in the ſame before they were buried in the earth, and ſome of them are ſtate, and which ſupport the whole maſs. 4. Theſe new ca- often fully as hard as the ſtones or matrices in which they are vities filled with new depoſits, which incorporate with the enveloped. When the ſtones are broken, the fragments of cylinders, and compoſe nothing elſe but one general earthy petrifactions are eaſily found, and eaſily diſtinguiſhed. There maſs repreſenting exactly the piece of wood. are ſome organized bodies, however, ſo changed by petrifac Among the petrifactions of vegetables called dendrolites, are tion, as to render it impoſſible to diſcover their origin. That found parts of fhrubs, ſtems, roots, portions of the trunk, there is a matter more or leſs agitated, and adapted for pene ſome fruits, &c. We muſt not however, confound the im- trating bodies, which crumbles and ſeparates their parts, draws preſſions of moffes, ferns, and leaves, nor incruſtations, with them along with it, and diſperſes them here and there in the petrifactions. fluid which ſurrounds them, is a fact of which nobody ſeems The beauty and elegance of the petrified ivy of Derbyſhire to entertain any doubt. Indeed we ſee almoſt every ſubſtance, with us has been long famous. In the mountains near Mat- whether ſolid or liquid, infenfibly conſume, diminiſh in bulk, lock-baths, in that country, there are many grottos which and at laſt, in the lapſe of time, vaniſh and diſappear. A petrified ſubſtance, ſtrictly ſpeaking, is nothing more afford great quantities of this petrified ivy, as it is called, and of other incruſtations of the fame kind. The beauty of theſe than the ſkeleton, or perhaps image, of a body which has caverns is ſcarce to be conceived; their roofs are hung with once had life, either animal or vegetable, combined with ſome ſtalactitæ and ſtalagmitæ, in form of cluſters of grapes, and mineral. Thus petrified wood is not in that ſtate wood alone. the incruſted plants are many of them fo delicate and tender One part of the compound or maſs of wood having been that they fall to pieces under the touch. It is It is very common deſtroyed by local cauſes, has been compenſated by earthy and fandy ſubſtances, diluted and extremely minute, which in theſe places to ſee ivy creeping along the rock ; in ſome the waters ſurrounding them had depoſited while they them- parts the fame branch will be found only incruſted in the com- felves evaporated. Theſe earthy ſubſtances, being then inoulded mon way; in other parts the ſtony matter will fo penetrate its pores, that the wood and leaves ſhall appear wholly petri- in the ſkeleton, will be more or leſs indurated, and will appear fied, and in others the fame branch ſhall yet be freſh and ve- to have its figure, its ſtructure, its fize, in a word the fame getating. Nothing PE T P E T away, on any occaſion. Nothing can give a more lively and beautiful idea of the A great many pieces of petrified wood are found in different ryhole buſineſs of petrification than this appearance of the ſeveral counties of France and Savoy. In Cobourg in Saxony, and in Hates or ſtages of it in the ivy, and other vegetables in theſe the mountains of Meſnia, trees of a conſiderable thickneſs have places . It is evident, that in all theſe places not only the water been taken from the earth, which were entirely changed into diſtilling out of the rocks is able to depoſit ftony matter on the a very fine agate, as alſo their branches and their roots. In ſaw- vegetables, &c. in form of incruſtations, but even the ſteams ing them, the annual circles of their growth have been diſtin- and exhalations, being highly fated with theſe ſtony particles, guiſhed. Pieces have been taken up; on which it was diſtinctly are capable of working the ſame effect. This is evidently the ſeen that they had been gnawed by worins; others bear viſible cafe in regard to ſeveral pieces of the incruſtated ivy, which marks of the hatchet. In fine, pieces have been found whichi have never been in the way of water, and yet are as completely were petrified at one end, while the other ſtill remained in the covered with ſtone as the reſt ; and this is the only method ſtate of wood fit for being burned. It appears then that petri- in which the ſtony matter is conveyed into the internal parts fied wood is a great deal leſs rare in nature than is commonly of the plants that are really petrified in theſe places. For ex- imagined. perience thews in regard to theſe, that they are not petrified Cronſtedt has excluded petrifactions froin any place in the firſt , and afterwards incruſted, but it is plain, that the incruf- body of his ſyſtem of mineralogy, but takes notice of them in tation is made firſt, and that afterwards, when in a long ſpace his appendix. He diſtinguiſhes them by the naine of Mineralia of time the vegetable matter within is periſhed and waſted | Larvata, and defines them to be “mineral bodies in the form the cavity that it leaves by this means is filled up with of animals or vegetables.” The moſt remarkable obſervations the ſame ſtony matter. It is evident, that this inner part of concerning them, according to Mr. Kirwan, who differs in the petrifaction was not formed while the vegetable yet exiſted by ſome particulars from Mongez, are as follow. 1. Thoſe of the inſinuation of ſtony matter into its pores, but that it is a mere Thells are found on or near the ſurface of the earth; thoſe of maſs of ſtone added afterwards, ſince it has never any the leaſt fiſh deeper; and thoſe of wood deeper ſtill. Shells in ſubſtance trace of the inner ſtructure of the vegetable: and this ſtony are found in vaſt quantities, and at conſiderable depths. 2. The matter, though uſually much more firm and folid than the ſubſtances moſt ſuſceptible of petrifaction are thoſe which moſt outer-cruſt, muſt in many caſes have been formed inerely by reſiſt the putrefactive proceſs; of which kind are ſhells, the vapours, as it is in places where water is never found to come harder kinds of wood, &c.; while the ſofter parts of animals, which eaſily putrify, are ſeldom met with in a petrified ſtate. Among the petrifactions of animals, we find ſhells, cruſta 3. They are moſt commonly found in ſtrata of marl, chalk, ceous animals, polyparii, ſome worms, the bony part of fiſhes limeſtone, or clay; ſeldom in ſand-ſtone, ſtill more ſeldom in and of amphibious animals, few or no real inſects, rarely birds gypſum; and never in gneiſs, granite, baſaltes, or fchoerl. and quadrupeds, together with the bony portions of the human Sometimes they are found in pyrites, and ores of iron, copper, body. The cornua ammonis are petrified ſerpents; and with and ſilver; conſiſting almoſt always of that kind of earth or regard to figured and accidental bodies, theſe are luſus naturæ. other inineral which ſurrounds them; fometimes of filex, Scilla mentions a foflile lobſter's claw preſerved in his Mu- agate, or cornelian. 4. They are found in climates where fæum, and found in the hills near Meſſina, in which a piece the animals themſelves could not have exiſted: 5. Thoſe of a ſcallop-ſhell was found clenched juſt in the manner in found in flate or clay are compreſſed and flattened. which that animal feizes its prey. Thofe who ſuppoſe theſe On theſe petrifa ctions Cronſtedt obſerves, that ſhells and co- foflils to be really produced in the earth, ſurely cannot ſuppoſe rals are compoſed of limy matter even when ſtill inhabited by that there could be any feminal principle only for the claw of their animals, but they are claſſed among the petrifactions as an animal. Mr. Boyle mentions a kind of ſandy earth, found foon as the calcareous particles have obtained a new arrange- in England, which turns wood into ſtone, though there be no ment; for example, when they have become fparry; filled petrifying ſpring near the place: and this, he ſays, is done in a with calcareous earth either hardened or looſe, or when they better manner than by any water he ever ſaw. See Works lie in the ſtrata of the earth. “Theſe, ſays he, form the Abr. vol. i. p. 161. greateſt part of the foſſile collections which are ſo induſtriouſly Animal petrifactions are alſo found in the ſeveral parts of made, often without any regard to the principal and only uſe the bodies of living creatures. Of theſe the human body they can be of, viz. that of enriching zoology: Mineralogiſts affords many, which are the occaſion of very terrible and ge are ſatisfied with ſeeing the poſſibility of the changes the lime- nerally incurable diſeaſes. The Philoſophical Tranſactions ſtone undergoes in regard to its particles; and alſo with receiv- afford us two very ſingular inſtances of this ſort of petrifactions; ing ſome inſight into the alteration which the earth has been the one in a woman, whoſe whole left kidney was entirely ſubject to from the ſtate of the ſtrata which are now found in petrified, not being filled up in its cavity with a ſtony concre it.” The calcined ſhells, where the petrifactions are of a limy tion, as frequently happens in nephritic caſes, but its whole or chalky nature, anſwer extremely well as a manure; but the fubſtance converted into abfolute ſtone, only covered with a indurated kind ſerve only for making grottoes. Gypſeous pe- thin ſkin. The other inſtance is the caſe of a conſumptive trifactions are extremely rare ; however, Chardin informs us perſon, whoſe lungs were found, on diſſection, full of ulcers, that he had ſeen a lizard incloſed in a ſtone of that kind in and thoſe having, almoſt all of them, more or leſs gravel in Perſia. them; but this was not all, for feveral large pieces of the lungs PETROLEUM, or Rock-OIL; a thick oily ſubſtance ex- were found, as the kidneys in the other inſtance, wholly con uding out of the earth, and collected on the ſurface of wells in ereted into ſtone, only covered with a thin ſkin. Phil. Tranſ. many parts of the world. It is found on ſome in Italy, and in a deſerted mine in the province of Dalame in Sweden. In this In order, ſays M. Bertrand, in his Dictionnaire des Foſſiles, laſt place it collects itſelf in ſmall hollows of limeſtone, like reſin that a body ſhould become petrified, it is neceſſary that it be, in the wood of the pine-tree. It is found trickling from the 1. Capable of preſervation under ground: 2. That it be ſhel rocks, or iſſuing from the earth; in many parts of the duchy tered from the air and running water (the ruins of Herculaneum of Modena, and in various parts of France, Switzerland, Ger- prove that bodies which have no connection with free air, pre- many, and Scotland, as well as in Aha. It is alſo found not ſerve themſelves untouched and entire). 3. That it be ſecured only on the ſurface of wells, as already mentioned, but mixed from corroſive exhalations. 4. That it be in a place where with earth and ſand, from whence it may be ſeparated by infu- there are vapours or liquids, loaded either with metallic or fion in water. It is of a pungent and acrid taſte, and ſmells ſtony particles in a ſtate of diffolution, and which without like the oil of amber, but more agreeable. It is very light and deſtroying the body, penetrate it, impregnate it, and unite very pellucid; but, though equally bright and clear under all with it in proportion as its parts are diffipated by evaporation. circumſtances, it is liable to a very great variety in its colour. When the foundations of the city of Quebec in Canada were It is naturally almoſt colourleſs, and in its appearance greatly dug up, a petrified ſavage was found among the laſt beds to reſembles the moſt pure oil of turpentine; this is called white which they proceeded. Although there was no idea of the petroleum, though it has no inore colour than water. It is ſome- time at which this man had been buried under the ruins, it is times tinged of a browniſh, reddiſh, yellowiſh, or faint green- however true, that his quiver and arrows were ſtill well pre iſh colour; but its moſt frequent colour is a mixture of the ferved. In digging a lead mine in Derbyſhire in 1744, a hu- reddiſh and blackiſh, in ſuch a degree that it looks black when man ſkeleton was found among ſtags horns. It is impoſſible viewed behind the light, but purple when placed between the to ſay how many ages this carcaſe had lain there. In 1695 the eye and a candle or window. It is rendered thinner by diſtil- entire ſkeleton of an elephant was dug up near Tonna in Thu- lation with water, and leaves a reſinous refiduum ; when dif- ringia. Some time before this epoch the petrified ſkeleton of tilled with a volatile alkali, the latter acquires the properties of a crocodile was found in the mines of that country. We ſuccinated ammoniac, and contains the acid of amber. It is might cite another fact equally curious which happened at the the moſt frequent of all the liquid bitumens, and is perhaps the beginning of the laſt century. John Munte, curate of Slægarp, inoſt valuable of them all in medicine. It is to be choſen the in Scania, and ſeveral of his pariſhioners, wiſhing to procure pureſt, lighteſt, and moſt pellucid that can be had, ſuch as is turf from a drained marſhy foil, found, fome feet below of the moſt penetrating ſmell and is moſt inflammable. Monet ground, an entire cart, with the ſkeletons of the horſes and informs us that fome kinds of it are of the denſity of nut-oil, carter. It is preſumed that there had formerly been a lake in It is inſoluble in ſpirit of wine; which, though it be the great that place, and that the carter attempting to paſs over on the diſſolvent of fulphur, has no effect upon petroleum, not even ice, had by that means probably periſhed. with ever fo long a digeſtion. It will not take fire with the dephlegmated N° 71. Ρ Ε Τ PET we are way venormous. dephlegmated acid ſpirits; as oil of cloves and other of the ve to furround the lamprey with its long arms. The latter lips getable eſſential oils do: and in diſtillation, either by balneum away, and the poulpe becomes its prey. The lobſter, mariæ or in ſand, it will neither yield phlegin nor acid ſpirit; told, avenges the poulpe, and deftroys the lamprey in its turn. . but the oil itſelf riſes on its own form, leaving in the retort Rondelet ſays, that the fiſhermen conſider the bite of the only a little matter, thick as honey, and of a browniſh colour. lamprey as venomous and dangerous, and never touch it while The finer kinds reſemble naphtha. Kirwan is of opinion alive but with pinçers. They beat it on the jaws with a ſtick, that naphtha is converted into petroleum by a proceſs ſimilar and cut off its head. to what takes place in eſſential oils when expoſed to the atmo Lampreys are very dextrous in ſaving themſelves ; when ſphere; in which caſe the oil abſorbs not only the pure but alſo taken with a hook, they cut the line with their teeth ; and the phlogiſticated part of the atmoſphere, in conſequence of when they perceive themfelves caught in a net, they attempt which feveral alterations take place in them. to paſs through the meſhes. They fiſh for lampreys only on Mr. Bouldoc made ſeveral experiments with the white pe the pebbly edges of ſea-rocks; ſome of theſe pebbles are drawn troleum of Modena ; an account of which he gave to the Paris together to make a pit as far as the water edge, or perhaps 2 Academy. See the Article MINERALOGY, Claſs III. and the little blood is thrown in, and the lamprey is immediately ob- Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part IV. Sect. 4. ſerved to put forth its head between two rocks. As ſoon It eafily took fire on being brought near a candle, and that as the hook, which is baited with crab or ſome other filh, is without iinmediately touching the flame; and when heated in preſented to it, it ſwallows it greedily, and drags it into its hole. any veſſel, it will attract the flame of a candle, though placed There is then occaſion for great dexterity to pull it out fud- at a great height above the veſſel; and the vapour it fends up denly; for if it is allowed time to attach itſelf by the tail, the taking fire, the flame will be communicated to the veſſel of jaw would be torn away before the fiſh could be taken. This heated liquor, and the whole will be conſumed. It burns in the Thews that its ſtrength reſides in the end of its tail; the reaſon water; and when mixed with any liquor ſwims on the ſurface of which is, that the great bone of this fiſh is reverſed, ſo that of it, even of the higheſt rectified ſpirit of wine, which is th the bones which in all other fiſhes are bent towards the tail, heavier than pure petroleum. It readily mixes with all the effen are here turned in a contrary direction, and aſcend towards tial oils of vegetables, as oil of lavender, turpentine, and the reſt, the head. After the lamprey is taken out of the water, it is and ſeems very much of their nature: nor is this very ſtrange, not killed without a great deal of trouble; the beſt is ſince the alliance between theſe bodies is probably nearer than to cut the end of its tail, or perhaps to cruſh it with repeated is imagined; as the eſſential oils of vegetables may have been blows on the ſpine, in order to prevent it from leaping. This originally mineral ones, and drawn up out of the earth into the fhews that in the lamprey, animal life extends to the end of veiſels of the plants. the ſpinal marrow. The diſtinguiſhing characteriſtic of the petroleum is its M. de Querhoent removes our fears concerning the ſuppoſed thickneſs, reſembling inſpiſſated oil; when pure it is lighter poiſon of the lamprey. This ſpecies of fiſh, he tells us, abounds than ſpirit of wine ; but though ever ſo well rectified, it be on the coaſt of Africa, and at the Antilles Illes; it is found comes in time thick and black as before. Petroleum, when likewiſe on the coaſt of Brazil, at Surinam, and in the Eaſt fhaken, yields a few bubbles, but they ſooner ſubſide than in al Indies. When taken with a hook, we muſt have the precau- moſt any other liquor, and the liquor reſumes its clear ſtate again tion to kill it before we take it off, otherwiſe it darts upon the almoſt iinmediately. This ſeems owing to the air in this fluid fiſher and wounds him ſeverely. Its wounds, however, are not being very equally diſtributed to all its parts, and the li- M. de Querhoent having ſeen ſeveral ſailors, who quor being compoſed of particles very evenly and nicely were bit by it, but experienced no diſagreeable conſequences . arranged. The extenſibility of this oil is alſo very amazing. Å Lampreys are likewiſe found in great abundance at Aſcenſion drop of it will ſpread over ſeveral feet of water, and in this con- Iſland, but particularly in the feas of Italy; their fleſh when dition it gives a great variety of colours; that is, the ſeveral dried is excellent; and boiling gives to the vertebræ the colour parts of which this thin film is compoſed, act as ſo many priſms. of gridelin. The moſt ſevere froſt never congeals petroleum into ice; and The fleſh of the lamprey is white, fat, ſoft, and tender; it paper wetted with it becomes tranſparent as when wetted with is pretty agreeable to the taſte, and almoft as nouriſhing oil; but it does not continue ſo, the paper becoming opaque as that of the eel; thoſe of a large ſize are greatly ſuperior to again in a few minutes as the oil dries away. There are the ſmall ones. We know that the moſt wealthy of the Re- three varieties, according to Mengez; the yellow, the reddiíh, mans kept them in fiſh-ponds at a great expence. Vedius Pol and the heavy black or brown kind. lio, the friend of Auguſtus, who is diſtinguiſhed in hiſtory for PETROMYZON, the LAMPREY, a genus of fiſhes be his favage gluttony, on ſuppoſition that lampreys fed on hu- longing to the claſs of amphibia nantes. It has ſeven ſpiracula man fleſh were more delicate, ordered his ſlaves when accuſed at the ſide of the neck, no gills, a fiſtula on the top of the of the flighteſt faults, to be thrown into his fith-ponds. We head, and no breaſt or belly fins. There are three ſpecies, are no leſs ſurpriſed, in reading the ancient authors, to perceive diſtinguiſhed by peculiarities in their back fins. the extraordinary attachment which the celebrated orators Hor- 1. The marinus, or ſea lamprey, is ſometimes found fo large tenfius and Craffus, men in other reſpects fo grave and ſenſi- as to weigh four or five pounds. It greatly reſembles the ble, had to this animal. One of them ſhed tears at the loſs of eel in ſhape; but its body is larger, and its fnout longer, nar a lamprey; the other improved upon this puerility, and wore rower and fharper, at the termination. The opening of the mourning at the death of his favourite. It is remarkable, that throat is very wide; each jaw is furniſhed with a ſingle row of this fiſh, which is proper to the ſea, and never comes into the very ſmall teeth ; in the middle of the palate are ſituated one rivers, can live and fatten in freſh water. For the advance- or two other teeth, which are longer, ſtronger, and moveable ment of natural hiſtory, it were to be wiſhed, that ſome per- towards the inſide of the throat; the inferior part of the palate ſon who lives near the ſea-ſhore would make obſervations, in preſents moreover a row of very ſmall teeth, which reaches to order to diſcover whether the lamprey is viviparous: its ſcales the bottom of the throat, where we find four long notched are ſo imperceptible, that they have been overlooked by moſt bones; two ſhort fiſtulous proceſſes are obſervable at the ex- ichthyologiſts. tremity of the fnout, and there are two others thicker but ſtill 2. The fluviatilis, or leſſer lamprey, ſometimes grows to the fhorter above the eyes. Willoughby ſuppoſes that the latter length of ten inches. The mouth is formed like that of the are the organ of hearing, and the former the organ of ſmell. preceding.—Theſe are found in the Thames, Severn, and His opinion with regard to the auditory faculty of this fiſh is Dee; are potted with the larger kind; and are by ſome pre- founded on what we read in ancient authors, that the fiſhernien ferred to it as being milder taſted. Vaft quantities are taken attracted the lampreys by whiſtling, and that Craſſus had tamed about Mortlake, and ſold to the Dutch for bait for their cod- one of them to ſuch a degree that it knew his voice and obeyed fiſhery. Above 430,000 have been ſold in a ſeaſon at 40s. per his call. and of late, about 100,000 have been ſent to Harwich The eyes of the lamprey are ſmall, and covered with a tranſ for the ſame purpoſe. It is ſaid that the Dutch have the ſe- parent light blue membrane ; the pupil is bordered with a circle cret of preſerving them till the turbot fiſhery. of a colour reſembling gold; near the gills, which are four in PETROSA OSSA, in anatomy, a name given to the fourth number, there is a round hole on both ſides, through which it dif and fifth bones of the cranium, called alſo offa temporum, and charges water. The lamprey has no fins on his belly or breaſt; oſa Squamoſa; the ſubſtance whereof, as their firſt and laſt on the back we obſerve a fin, which begins pretty near the head, names expreſs, is ſquamoſe and very hard. See the Syſtem, extends to the tail which it turns round, and is afterwards con Part I. Sect. 2. tinued to the anus; this fin is covered by the ſkin of the body, PETROSELINUM (APIUM PETROSELINUM, Lin.) Par- to which it adheres but looſely; the ſkin is ſmooth, of a red ney. This plant is commonly cultivated for culinary purpo- blackiſh colour, and ſtreaked with yellow; the lamprey ad ſes. The feeds have an aromatic flavour, and are occaſionally rances in the water with winding motions like thoſe of a fer uſed as carminatives, &c. The root of parſley is one of the pent, which is common to it, with all the anguilliform fiſhes. five aperient roots, and with this intention is ſometimes made The lamprey lives on fleſh. During the cold it lies concealed an ingredient in apozems and diet drinks; if liberally uſed, it in the crevices of fea rocks, and conſequently is fiſhed for only is apt to occaſion flatulencies; and thus by diſtending the viſ- at certain feaſons. It lives in a ſtate of hoſtility with the poulpe, cera, produces a contrary effect to that intended by it; the a kind of ſea polypus, which ſhuns the combat as long as it taſte of this root is ſomewhat ſweetiſh, with a light degree of can; but when it finds the impoffibility of eſcape, it endeavours warmth and aromatic flavour. os I000; PEWIT, PHA P H A PILLAR. PEWIT, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the ſpecies of PHAGEDÆNA, Qayedevc, formed of Qaysly, to eat, in fur- the Genus Larus. For deſcription of the Genús, &c. fee LARUS. gery, &c. a deep, bloated ulcer, which eats and corrodes the PEWTER, a factitious metal uſed in domeſtic utenſils : its neighbouring parts. bafis is tin, and it conſiſts of three different ſtandards: viz. that PHAGED ÆNIC Medicines, ſuch as are uſed to eat off fungnus which is called plate-metal, of which plates and diſhes are made, or proud fleſh: ſuch are all cauſtics. which is formed of tin and regulus of antimony, in the propor PHAGED ÆNIC Water, in chymiſtry, denotes a water made tion of one hundred and twelve pounds of the former to fix or from quick-lime and ſublimate ; and is very efficacious in pha- feven pounds of the latter : the next metal inferior to this is called gedænic ulcers. To prepare this water, put two pounds of freſh erifing metal, and is lowered one half-penny per pound in worth, quick-lime in a large carthen pan, and pour upon it about ten by alloying it with lead; of this metal ale-houſe pots are made. pounds of rain water: let them ſtand together for two days, ſtir- The lower fort of metal is ſtill farther alloyed by lead, ſo as to ring them frequently: at laſt leave the lime to ſettle well, then reduce the value two-pence in a pound lower than plate metal : pour off the water by inclination, filtrate it, and put it up in a of this, which is called lay-metal, wine-pots are made. See glaſs bottle, adding to it an ounce of corroſive ſublimate in pow- the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. II. Sect. 2. der ; which from white becomes yellow, and ſinks to the bot- Pewter has occafionally ſerved for money. In the Philofophi- tom of the veſſel. tom of the veſſel. The water being ſettled, is fit for uſe in the cal Tranſactions, M. Putland informs us that king James II. cleanſing of wounds and ulcers, and to eat off ſuperfluous fleſh, tarned all the pewter vefſels, &c. of the proteſtants in Ireland he and eſpecially in gangrenes ; in which cafe, may be added to it could ſeize into money; half-crowns were ſomewhat bigger than a third or fourth part of ſpirit of wine. half-pence, and other pieces in proportion. He ordered it to be PHALÆNA, the MOTH, in Entomology, à genus of in- current in all payments: whence, our author obferves, people ſects belonging to the order of Lepidoptera. The feelers are abſconded for fear of being paid their debts : he alſo mentions cetaceous, and taper gradually towards the points; the wings crown-pieces of this metal, with this legend round the rim, are often bent backwards. Barbut divides this genus into eight melioris tellere fati. families, and we are told there are no leſs than 460 ſpecies. PHÆNOMENON, or PHENOMENON, Qaivojevov, formed The chryſalida of phalanæ are generally oblong ovals, not from caivop:ct, I appear, ſtrictly an appearance in phyſics, an ex- angulous as thoſe of butterflies, nor ſo ſoon transformed to per- traordinary appearance in the heavens, or on earth ; either diſ fect infects. They remain a much longer time within the cod, covered by obſervation on the celeſtial bodies, or by phyſical ex the greateſt part not coming forth till the enſuing year. Some periments ; and whoſe cauſe is not obvious. Such are meteors, have been met with that remained in that ſtate during two or comets, uncommon appearances of ſtars and planets, earthquakes, three years ſucceſſively. Heat or cold contributes greatly to for- &c. Such alſo are the effects of the magnet, phoſphorus, &c. ward or put back their final metamorphoſis ; a fact which may The phenomena of comets are inconſiſtent not only with the foli be aſcertained by procuring them a certain degree of moderate dity of the heavens, ſuppoſed in the Ptolemaic hypotheſis, but heat, by which means one may ſee phalænæ brought forth upon equally with the plenitude of the heavens, aſſerted by the Car one's mantle-piece in the depth of winter. For a copious ac- teſians. That hypotheſis is beſt which folves moft phenomena. count of the transformation of the Caterpillar into the Chryſalis, Sir Iſaac Newton ſhews, that all phenomena of the heavenly and the Chryſalis into the Caterpillar, ſee the Article CATER- bodies follow from the attraction of gravity, which intercedes thoſe bodies; and almoſt all the phenomena of the leffer bodies PHALAROPE, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the from the attraction and repulſion between their particles ; ſo Genus Tringa. F Genus Tringa. For deſcription of the Genus, ſee TRINGA; fimple is nature. for repreſentation, ſee the Plates, Genus 77. PHAETON, in ornithology; a genus of birds belonging to the PHANATIC, phanaticus, commonly written fanatic, a vi- order of Anſeres ; the characters of which are: The bill is ſharp, fionary ; one who fancies or thinks he ſees ſpectres, ſpirits, ap- Atraight, and pointed; the noſtrils are oblong, and the hinder paritions, or other imaginary objects, even when awake; and toe is turned forward. There are two ſpecies, viz. takes them to be real. Such are phrenetics, necromancers, hy- 1. The demerfus, or red-footed pinguin, has a thick, arched, pocondriac perſons, lycanthropi, &c. Hence the word is alſo red bill; the head, hind-part of the neck, and the back, of a applied to enthuſiaſts, pretenders to revelation, new lights, pro- duſky purpliſh hue, and breaſt and belly white; brown wings, phecies, &c. phecies, &c. See Fanatic and ENTHUSIASM. with the tip of the feathers white; inſtead of a tail, a few black PHANTASY, or FANCY, the imagination ; the ſecond of briſtles; and red legs. It is found on Pinguin iſle, near the the powers or faculties of the ſenſitive or rational ſoul ; by which Cape of Good Hope, is common all over the South Seas, and is the ſpecies of objects received by the common ſenſe, are retained, about the ſize of a goofe. See Plate V. Genus 93. recalled, father examined, and either compounded, or divided. 2. The ethereus, or tropic bird, is about the ſize of a part-Others define the fantaſy to be that internal ſenſe or power, ridge, and has very long wings. The bill is red, with an angle whereby the ideas of abſent things are formed, and preſented to under the lower mandible. The eyes are encompaſſed with the mind, as if they were preſent. In melancholic and mad black, which ends in a point towards the back of the head. men this faculty is very ſtrong, repreſenting many extravagant Three or four of the larger quill feathers, towards their ends, are and monſtrous things, and framing its images as lively as thoſe black, tipped with white; all the reſt of the bird is white, except of fenſation, whence naturally ariſe the viſions and deceptions the back, which is variegated with curved lines of black. The thoſe perſons are liable to. In poets and painters the ſame fa- legs and feet are of vermilion red. The toes are webbed. The toes are webbed. The culty ought to be the predominant one; to enable them to feign, tail conſiſts of two long ſtraight narrow feathers, almoſt of equal and purſue, and execute, their fictions or fables with more breadth from their quills to their points. See Plate III. Genus 95. ſtrength, conſiſtency, and beauty. In men it is ſuppoſed to be “ The name tropic bird (ſays Latham,) given to this genus, ſubject to reaſon, but in brutes it has no ſuperior ; this being the ariſes from its being chiefly found within the tropic circles ; but ratio brutorum, or what we call reaſon in brutes. The phan- we are not to conclude, that they never ſtray voluntarily, or taſy is free from the ligature, or ſuſpenſion of ſleep ; witneſs are driven beyond them ; for we have met with a few inſtances our dreams, &c. Some philoſophers uſe the word phantaſy in to prove the contrary. It is, however, ſo generally found a more general ſignification, viz. for what we uſually call ſenſus within the tropic limits, that the fight of this bird alone is ſuf communis, the common SENSE. See IMAGINATION. ficient to inform the mariner of a very near approach to, if not PHALANGOSIS, in furgery, is a tumour and relaxatiun his entrance therein. It has alſo been thought to portend the of the eye-lids, often ſo great as to deform the eye, and confi- contiguity of land; but this has often proved fallacious, as derably impede viſion. derably impede viſion. Sometimes the eye-lid when in this ſtate it is not unfrequently found at very great diſtances therefrom. ſubſides or ſinks down, occaſioned perhaps either by a palfy of The flight of this bird is often to a prodigious height; but at the muſcle which ſuſtains and elevates the eye-lid, or elſe from a other times it is ſeen, along with the frigate pelican, booby, and relaxation of the cutis above, from various cauſes. Sometimes other birds, attending the flying fiſhes at their riſe from the wa an edematous or aqueous tumour is formed on the eye-lids, ſo ter, driven from their native element into the air by their watery as almoſt entirely to exclude viſion ; but this laſt cafe ſhould be enemies, the ſhark, porpoiſe, albicore, bonito, and dolphin, diſtinguiſhed from the other, and may be eaſily remedied by the which purſue them beneath, and prey upon them. Theſe birds uſe of internal and topical medicines, ſuch as purges and diure- are ſometimes obſerved to reſt on the ſurface of the water, and tics given inwardly, and a compreſs dipped in warm fpirit of have been now and then ſeen in calm weather upon the backs of wine and lime water. But in the paralytic or relaxed ſtate, the the drowſy tortoiſes, ſupinely floating in the ſea, ſo that they uſe of cordial and nervous medicines muſt be propoſed inter- have been eaſily taken by the long boat manned. On ſhore they On ſhore they nally; and outwardly, balfam of Peru and Hungary water are will perch on trees; and are ſaid to breed in the woods, on the to be employed. If all theſe fail, the remaining method of cure ground beneath them. They have been met with in plenty on is to extirpate a ſufficient quantity of the relaxed cutis; and then, the iſlands of St. Helena, Aſcenſion, Mauritius, New Holland, after healing up the wound, the remainder will be ſufficiently and various places in the South Seas ; but in no place ſo nume ſhortened. rous as at Palmerſton Iſland, where theſe birds as well as the fri PHALLUS, the MOREL, in botany; a genus of the order of gates, were in ſuch plenty, that the trees were abſolutely loaded fungi, belonging to the Cryptogamia claſs of plants. The fun- with them, and ſo tame, that they ſuffered themſelves to be gus is reticulated above and ſmooth below. taken off the boughs with the hand At Otaheite, and in the The eſculentus, or eſculent morel, is a native, of Britain, Friendly iſles, the natives give them the name of haingoo and growing in woods, groves, meadows, paſtures, &c. The ſub- tolnice, ſtance, when recent, is wax like and friable; the colour a whitiſh U u yellow No. 128 P H A PHA com- regards only ſuch bodies in the vegetable, animal, and mineral ſomewhat tuberous at the baſe, and hollow in the middle. kingdoms, as, by their effects on the human frame, tend to The pileus is either round or conical ; at a medium about the preſerve health, or to reſtore it when loit. fize of an egg, often much larger ; hollow within ; its baſe PHARYNX, Qap, in anatomy, the upper opening of the united to the ſtalk ; and its ſurface cellular, or latticed with ir- oefophagus or gullet, ſituated at the bottom of the mouth; called regular ſinuſes. The magnified ſeeds are oval. It is much alſo the fauces. The pharynx is that part more particularly called eſteemed at table both recent and dried, being commonly uſed the gula, or gullet ; in which the action of deglutition as an ingredient to heighten the flavour of ragouts. mences, and where it is chiefly performed. See the Syſtem, PHARISEES, a famous feet of the Jews, who diſtinguiſhed Part III. Sect. IV. themſelves by their zeal for the traditions of the elders, which PHASEOLUS, the KIDNEY-BEAN ; a Genus of the De they derived from the ſame fountain with the written word itſelf; candria order, belonging to the Diadelphia claſs of plants. There pretending that both were delivered to Moſes from Mount Sinai, is only one ſpecies ; but of this there are many varieties. Thoſe and were therefore both of equal authority. From their rigorous principally cultivated for the table are, 1. The common white , obſervance of theſe traditions, they looked upon themſelves as or Dutch kidney-bean. 2. The ſmaller kidney-bean, common- more holy than other men: and therefore ſeparated themſelves ly called the Batterſea kidney-bean. And, 3. The upright fort from thoſe whom they thought ſinners or profane, ſo as not to eat called the tree kidney-bean. or drink with them ; and hence from the Hebrew word pharis, 1. The firſt fort was ſome time ago propagated in England, and which fignifies to ſeparate, they had the name of Phariſees or is ſtill in Holland ; it grows very tall, and requires long ſtakes Separatiſts. Their pretences to extraordinary piety drew after and poles to climb on, and its beans are conſiderably broad: this them the common people, who held them in the higheſt eſteem and makes them leſs faleable in the markets, people ſuppoſing them veneration. They held a reſurrection from the dead, and the to be old becauſe they are broad ; and they are hence grown into exiſtence of angels and ſpirits; but, according to Joſephus, this difuſe, though a much more valuable kind for eating than any was no more than a Pythagorean reſurrection, that is, of the ſoul other. 2. The ſecond fort, or Batterſea bean, is what is more only, by its tranſmigration into another body, and being born univerſally cultivated: it never grows very tall, nor rambles far, anew with it. From this reſurrection they excluded all who were and the air can eaſily paſs between the rows, becauſe of its mo- notoriouſly wicked, being of opinion that the ſouls of ſuch perfons derate growth ; and this makes it bear plentifully, and ripen were tranſmitted into a ſtate of everlaſting puniſhment; but as to well for the table. It is the beſt taſted bean, except the laſt. . léffer crimes, they imagined that they were puniſhed in the The third, or tree kidney-bean, is alſo a plentiful bearer, and bodies which the fouls of thoſe who had committed them were never rambles, but grows up in form of a thrub; but its beans fent into. According to this notion it was, that Chriſt's diſciples are broader than the Batterſea kind, and are not fo well tafted. aſked him concerning the blind man, “ Who did ſin, the man For the methods of cultivation, ſee the Treatiſe on GARDEN- or his parents, that he was born blind?” With the Effenes, they ING, Kitchen Garden, months April, May, and June. held abſolute predeſtination; and with the Sadducees, freewill; but A new ſpecies of phaſeolus, apparently a very uſeful one, has how they reconciled theſe doctrines, we are no where informed. been diſcovered by M. Morancy, “ an inhabitant of Morne PHARMACOPEIA, formed from paguarsy, remedy, and Rouge, dependant on the Cape ;" we ſuppoſe Cape François of TJOLELT, to muke, a diſpenſatory, or a treatiſe deſcribing the pre the iſland of St. Domingo. In his ſearch for plants, ſubſervi- parations of the ſeveral kinds of medicines, with their uſes, man ent to his collection of inſects for the king's cabinet, he was ner of application, &c. We have various pharmacopæias, as overtaken by night, and he paſſed it in a cave, to which he had thoſe of Bauderon, Quercetan, Zwelfer, Charas, Bates, Salmon, recourſe for ſhelter. At its extremity he found beds of follils, Lemery, &c. The lateſt, and moſt in eſteem, are the Edin broken pieces of burnt earthen-ware, ſome tools and other things, burgh, and London Diſpenſatories; but the moſt univerſal is which thewed that this cave had formerly been the habitation of Quincy's Pharmacopeia. the natives. Near it he ſaw a climbing plant attached to fome PHARMACY, is the art of preparing, preſerving, and com trees, with cluſters of dry pods hanging from it. Theſe he 82- pounding, ſubſtances, for the purpoſes of medicine. This art thered, and on his return fowed the feed. Some months after, has been commonly divided into two branches, Galenical and the plants grew tall and ſtrong: they appeared to reſemble á Chymical pharmacy. phaſeolus known at Perpignan by the name of caraquoëla, and Galenical PHARMACY, called alſo ſimple pharmacy, is that in the ſuperb port-folios of the king by that of phaſeolus Indicus derived to us from the ancients ; confiſting in the knowledge and cochleato flore, which produced many roots, not unlike the ma- management of the ſeveral parts of the materia medica, now nioc. On examining the root after the pods were ripe, he found in the hands of the apothecaries. See GALENIC. from three to eight roots of this kind. The force of the vege- Chymical PHARMACY, called alſo ſpagirical and hermetical, tation was wonderful; but dreading the deleterious effects of is that introduced by Paracelſus, who calls it ars diſtillatoria ; recent manioc, he did not taſte them, but fubjected them to a conſiſting in the reſolving of mixed bodies into their component chymical analyſis, which proved nothing. After boiling them parts, in order to ſeparate the uſeleſs and ill, and collect and ex in water a little falted, he ventured to taſte them, and found alt the good. One of the chief obſtacles in the way of the im- | them moiſt, unctuous, and faccharine, not unlike potatoes. He provement of phyfic, is the phyſicians neglecting of pharmacy. I made, after ſome hours trial, very good caſſava with them, with- Simples, vulgar, familiar, eaſily prepared, and readily procured, out being incommoded by the diſagreeable fibres which are met Pliny well obſerves, were the only remedies intended by nature : with in the manioc dụring this operation. Since that time, bil- when fraud was got into the world, and men began to live by cuit and bread have been made from theſe roots by M. Lombart , their wits, ſhops were foon fet up; and life offered every man to counſellor at the Cape. The plant has been found to be very ſale. Soon after this, innumerable compoſitions, and endleſs in common in the woods. It requires no peculiar management: its explicable mixtures, were cried up; the product of Arabia and roots are in feaſon when the pods blacken, and its fibres run in India were crowded into a draught ; and a plaſter for a little every direction, ſearching for nouriſhment through the clefts of ulcer fetched from the Red Sea ; whereas the proper remedies rocks, and receiving the impreſſion of the ſtrata without injury. are thoſe the poor every day meet with. If the principal root is left, the plant Thoots again and flouriſhes But for this diviſion there is no foundation in nature : and as before ; but it is not yet aſcertained whether it puts forth any accordingly proceſſes in one pharmacopeia referred to the head The feeds are not alimentary when dreſſed, as if of Chymical, are in another referred to the head of Galenical. nature deſigned them only for propagating other plants. Every There can be no doubt, that even the moſt ſimple pharmaceu- uſe which a farinaceous plant can ſupply, this new phaſeolus has tical preparations are to a certain extent chymical. Hence this ſucceſsfully anſwered ; and the feeds in the hands of Meſſrs. diviſion, founded on prejudice, and ſupported merely by a ve Heretier and Thouin will probably furniſh a fufficient quantity neration for antiquity, is now baniſhed from almoſt every modern for curioſity as well as uſe. pharmacopæia. PHASES, Daois, formed from Daive!, I appear, in aſtronomy, Pharmacy has alſo been divided into Theoretical and Practi the ſeveral appearances, or quantities of illumination of the moon, cal; the firſt, conſiſting not merely of ſpeculative opinions, but Venus, Mercury, and other planets; or the ſeveral manners of a knowledge of facts and principles, tending to explain the wherein they appear illuminated by the ſun. The variety of rationale of proceſſes; the latter, comprehending the mere ma phaſes in the moon is very remarkable : ſometimes ſhe increaſes, nual labour employed in proceſſes. ſometimes wanes, ſometimes is bent into horns, and again appears The former of theſe may therefore be juſtly ſtyled Scientific like a femicircle; at other times ſhe is gibbous, and preſently Pharmacy. And there can be no doubt that an acquaintance again reſumes a full circular face. For the theory of the lunar with it is eſſentially neceffary to the phyſician as well as the apo- phaſes, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. V. and Plate Ill. fig. 4, and 5. thecary: for without it he muſt often err in the forms of prepa- PHASIANUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order rations and compoſitions which he employs; and muſt be often of Gallinæ, The cheeks are covered with a ſmooth naked ſkin. deceived in the effects reſulting from compofitions, when he infers There are fix ſpecies. their properties from the known powers of the ingredients in 1. The gallus, or common dunghill cock and hen, with a their ſeparate ſtate. The theory of pharmacy 'therefore is the compreſſed caruncle or fleſhy comb on the top of the head, and a fame with that of chymiſtry ; as are alſo the operations. The couple of caruncles or watties under the chin. The cars are objects of pharmacy, however, are much more limited than thoſe naked, and the tail is comprefied and erected. Of all other birds, of chymiſtry; the latter comprehending, in the utmoſt latitude perhaps this ſpecies affords the greateſt number of varieties; there new roots. being PHA PHA being ſearce two to be found that exactly reſemble cach other in mode of hatching chickens in this part of the world, ſee the ar- plumage and form. The tail, which makes ſuch a beautiful fi ticle HATCHING. gure in the generality of theſe birds, is yet found entirely wanting But it is otherwiſe in our colder and unequal climate ; the in others; and not only the tail, but the rump alſo. The toes, little animal may without much difficulty be hatched from the which are uſually four in all animals of the poultry kind, yet in ſhell, but they almoſt all periſh when excluded. To remedy ſpecies of the cock are found to amount to five. The feathers , this, Reaumer has made uſe of a woollen hen, as he calls it'; which lie ſo ſleek and in ſuch beautiful order in moſt of thoſe we which was nothing more than putting the young ones in a warm are acquainted with, are in a peculiar breed all inverted, and baſket, and clapping over them a thick woollen canopy. Aand ſtaring the wrong way. Nay, there is a ſpecies that comes Capons may very eaſily be taught to clutch a freſh brood of from Japan, which inſtead of feathers ſeems to be covered over chickens throughout the year; ſo that when one little colony is with hair. See Plate III. Genus 51. Letter A. thus reared, another may be brought to ſucceed it. Nothing is No animal in the world has greater courage than the cock more common than to ſee capons thus employed; and the manner when oppoſed to one of his own fpecies; and in every part of of teaching them is this : Firſt the capon is made very tame, ſo the world where refinement and poliſhed manners have not en as to feed from one's hand; then, about evening, they pluck tirely taken place, cock-fighting is a principal diverſion. In the feathers off his breaſt, and rub the bare ſkin with nettles ; China, India, the Philippine iſlands, and all over the Eaſt, cock- they then put the chickens to him, which preſently run under his fighting is the ſport and amuſement even of kings and princes, breaſt and belly, and probably rubbing his bare ſkin gen-ly with With us it is declining every day; and it is to be hoped it will their heads, allay the ſtinging pain which the nettles had juſt in time become only the paſtime of the loweſt vulgar. produced. This is repeated for two or three nights, till the His extraordinary courage is thought to proceed from his be animal takes an affection to the chickens that have thus given ing the moſt ſalacious of all other birds whatſoever. A ſingle cock him relief, and continues to give them the protection they ſeek fuffices for ten or a dozen hens; and it is ſaid of him that he is for: perhaps alſo the querulous voice of the chickens may be the only animal whoſe fpirits are not abated by indulgence. But pleaſant to him in miſery, and invite him to ſuccour the diſtreſſed. then he foon grows old; the radical moiſture is exhauſted ; and He from that time brings up a brood of chickens like a hen, in three or four years he becomes utterly unfit for the purpoſe of clutching them, feeding them, clucking, and performing all the impregnation. “ Hens alſo, (to uſe the words of Willoughby) functions of the tendereſt parent. A capon once accuſtomed to as they for the greateſt part of the year daily lay eggs, cannot this ſervice, will not give over ; but when one brood is grown fuffice for ſo many births, but for the moſt part after three years up, he may have another nearly hatched put under him, which become effete and barren: for when they have exhauſted all he will treat with the ſame tenderneſs as he did the former. their ſecd-eggs, of which they had but a certain quantity from Of this fpecies Mr. Latham enumerates no leſs than 13 vari- the beginning, they muſt neceſſarily ceaſe to lay, there being eties, beginning with the wild cock, which is a third leſs in the no new ones generated within." body than the domeſtic cock. This variety he imagines to be The hen feldom clutches a brood of chickens above once a the original ſtock from whence all our domeſtic varieties have feaſon, though inſtances have been known in which they produced ſprung. They appear to be natives of the foreſts of India. €wo. The number of eggs a domeſtic hen will lay in the year are There are but few places, however, as Mr. Latham goes on to ob- above 200, provided ſhe be well fod, and ſupplied with water and ſerve, where the different voyagers have not met with cocks and liberty. It matters not much whether the be trodden by the cock hens, either wild or tame ; and mention has been particularly or no ; ſhe will continue to lay, although the eggs of this kind made of finding them at St. Jago, Pulo Condore, Iſle of Timor, can never by hatching be brought to produce a living animal. Philippine and Molucca Iſles, Sumatra and Java, New Guinea, Nature, almoſt exhauſted by its own fecundity, ſeems to inform Tinian, and moſt of the iſles of the South Seas. Thoſe of Pulo her of the proper time for hatching, which ſhe herſelf teſtifies by Condore are very much like our own, but conſiderably leſs, a clucking note, and by diſcontinuing to lay. If left entirely to being only of the ſize of a crow. The cocks crow like ours, herſelf, the hen would ſeldom lay above 20 eggs in the ſame neſt, but their voices are much more ſmall and Thrill.—Damp. Voy. without attempting to hatch them: but in proportion as the lays, vol. i. p. 392.-Two wild ones were ſhot there by our lait voya- her eggs are removed ; and ſhe continues to lay, vainly hoping to gers.--Ellis's Narr. ii. p. 340. Thoſe of Sumatra and Java are increaſe the number. In the wild ſtate, the hen ſeldom lays above remarkably large, and are called the St. Jago breed. The cock 15 eggs; but then her proviſion is more difficultly obtained, and is fo tall as to peck off a common dining-table. When fatigued ſhe is perhaps ſenſible of the difficulty of maintaining too nume he fits down on the Arſt joint of the leg; and is then taller than nous a family. When the hen begins to fit, nothing can exceed the common fowls. Hift. Sumatr. p. 98. They are found in her perſeverance and patience : ſhe continues for fome days im New Guinea, but not in great plenty.— Forr. Voy. p. 105. The moveable; and when forced away by the importunities of hun fowls which were met with wild at Tinian, “ were run down ger, ſhe quickly returns. Sometimes alſo her eggs become too without much trouble, as they could fcarce fly farther than an hot for her to bear, eſpecially if ſhe be furniſhed with too warm 100 yards at a flight."-—Anſon's Voy. p. 416. Forſter obferves, a neſt within doors, for then ſhe is obliged to leave them to cool that they are plenty at Eaſter, Society, and Friendly Illes : at a little: thus the warmth of the neſt only retards incubation, and the two laſt they are of a prodigious ſize. They are not uncom- often puts the brood a day or two back in the ſhell. While the mon at the Marquefas, Hebrides, and New Caledonia; but the hen fits, ſhe carefully turns her eggs, and even removes them to Low Illes are quite deſtitute of them.—See Obf. p. 193.—Ducks different ſituations; till at length, in about three weeks, the and poultry are numerous in the Sandwich Iſles.- Cook's Journal, young brood begin to give ſigns of a deſire to burſt their confine p. 229. In reſpect to Europe, little need be ſaid, as varieties ment. When, by the repeated efforts of their bill, which ferves without end are every where ſeen, and their manners fully like a pioneer on this occaſion, they have broke themſelves a paf known to every one. It is obſerved, however, that they breed fage through the ſhell, the hen ſtill continues to ſit till all are ex moſt freely in the warmer ſituations. In the very cold regions, cluded. The ſtrongeſt and beſt chickens generally are the firſt though they will live and thrive they ceaſe to multiply. They candidates for liberty ; the weakeſt come behind, and ſome even are not found to breed in the northern parts of Siberia ; and in die in the ſhell. When all are produced, ſhe then leads them Greenland are only kept as rarities.- Faun. Groen. On the forth to provide for themſelves. Her affection and her pride Her affection and her pride whole, it ſeems quite unneceſſary to enlarge further on a ſubject feem then to alter her very nature, and correct her imperfections. well known to every body. They are ſo They are ſo common, that every one No longer voracious or cowardly, ſhe abſtains from all food that who wiſhes to become acquainted with their nature and manners, her young can ſwallow, and lies boldly at every creature that ſhe has the means of ſuch knowledge in his power. Thoſe who thinks is likely to do them miſchief. Whatever the invading wiſh for minuter deſcriptions, we muſt refer to the authors who animal be, the boldly attacks him ; the horſe, the hog, or the have profeffedly written on the fubject ; for the varieties which maſtiff. When marching at the head of her little troop, ſhe acts we have already mentioned, we refer to Mr. Latham. the commander ; and has a variety of notes to call her numerous 2. The motmot, or Guinea pheaſant, is browniſh, fomewhat train to their food, or to warn them of approaching danger. Upon red below, with a wedge-like tail, and wants ſpurs. See Plate one of theſe occaſions, the whole brood have been ſeen to run for III. Genus 51. Letter B. 3. The colchicus is red, with a blue fecurity into the thickeſt part of an hedge, while the hen her head, a wedge-ſhaped tail, and a papillous cheek. It is a native ſelf ventured boldly forth, and faced a fox that came for of Africa and Aſia. 4. The argus is yellowiſh; with black ſpots, plunder. a red face, and a blue creſt on the back part of the head. It is Ten or twelve chickens are the greateſt number that a good hen found in Chineſe Tartary. 5. The pictus has a yellow creſt, can rear and clutch at a time; but as this bears no proportion to a red breaſt, and a wedge-ſhaped tail. It is a native of China. the number of her eggs, ſchemes have been imagined to clutch all 6. The neethemerus is white, with a black creſt and belly, and the eggs of an hen, and thus turn her produce to the greateſt a wedge-ſhaped tail. It is a native of China. Pheaſants were advantage. By theſe contrivances it has been obtained, that a originally brought into Europe from the banks of the Phafis, a hen that ordinarily produces but 12 chickens in the year, is found river of Colchis, in Aſia Minor ; and from whence they ſtill to produce as many chickens as eggs, and conſequently often retain their name. Next to the peacock, they are the moſt above 200. This contrivance is the artificial method of Hatch beautiful of birds, as well for the vivid colour of their plumes ing chickens in ſtoves, as is pra&iſed at Grand Cairo; or in a as for their happy mixtures and variety. It is far beyond the chymical elaboratory properly graduated, as has been effected by power of the pencil to draw any thing ſo gloſſy, fo bright, or points Mr. Reaumur. At Grand Cairo, they thus produce 6000 or ſo finely blending into each other. We are told, that when Cree- 000 chickens at a time. For a very particular account of the fus, king of Lydia, was ſeated on his throne, adorned with royal magnificence PHA PHI magnificence and all the barbarous pomp of Eaſtern ſplendour, I will not ſay how this happens, and whether it may be peculiar he aſked Solon if he had ever beheld any thing fo fine? The to this ſpecies to grow barren (if that be the reaſon) ſooner than Greek philoſopher, no way moved by the objects before him, or any other of the gallinaceous tribe ; but I am affured that ſeves taking a pride in his native fimplicity, replied, That after hav ral of theſe ſpurleſs, cock-like hens, have proved on eating to ing ſeen the beautiful plumage of the pheaſant, he could be aſto be young birds, from their juicineſs and delicacy of flavour." niſhed at no other finery. One of the varieties which our author remarks under this fpe- Theſe birds, though ſo beautiful to the eye, are not leſs delicate cies, he calls the Hybridal pheaſant, which is a mixed breed when ſerved up to the table. Their fleſh is conſidered as the between the pheaſant and cock; one of which is in the Leverian greateſt dainty ; and when the old phyſicians ſpoke of the whole Muſeum. ſomeneſs of any viands, they made their compariſon with the In order to increaſe the breed, and make it ſtill more valua. fleſh of the pheaſant. However, notwithſtanding all thoſe per- ble, Longolius teaches us a method that appears very peculiar. fections to tempt the curioſity or the palate, the pheaſant has mul The pheaſant is a very bold bird when firſt brought into the yard tiplied in its wild ſtate. among other poultry, not ſparing the peacock, nor even fuch A ſpirit of independence ſeems to attend the pheaſant even in young cocks and hens as it can maſter; but after a time it will captivity. In the woods, the hen-pheaſant lays from 18 to 20 eggs live tamely among them, and will at laſt be brought to couple in a ſeaſon; but in a domeſtic ſtate ſhe ſeldom lays above 1o. In with a common hen. The breed thus produced take much the ſame manner when wild, the hatches and leads up her brood ſtronger after the pheaſant than the hen; and in a few ſucceſſions, with patience, vigilance, and courage; but when kept tame, ſhe if they be let to breed with the cock-pheaſant (for the mixture is never fits well, ſo that a hen is generally her ſubſtitute upon fuch not barren), there will be produced a ſpecies more tame, ſtron- occaſions; and as for leading her young to their food, ſhe is ut ger, and more prolific; ſo that he adds, that it is ſtrange why terly ignorant of where it is to be found; and the young bird ſtarves moſt of our pheaſandries are not ſtocked with birds produced in if left folely to her protection. The pheaſant, therefore, on every this manner. account ſeems better left at large in the woods than reclaimed to PHILANTHROPY is compounded of two Greek words, priſtine captivity. Its fecundity when wild is ſufficient to ſtock which fignify the love of mankind. It is therefore nearly of the the foreſt; its beautiful plumage adorns it; and its fleſh retains a fame import with benevolence ; and differs from friendſhip, higher favour from its unlimited freedom. However, it has as this latter affection ſubſiſts only between a few individuals, been the aim of late to take theſe birds once more from the woods, whilſt philanthropy comprehends the whole ſpecies. and to keep them in places fitted for their reception. Like all Whether man has an inſtinctive propenſity to love his ſpecies, others of the poultry kind, they have no great ſagacity, and ſuffer which makes him incapable of happineſs but in the midſt of ſo- themſelves eaſily to be taken. At night they rooſt upon the high- ciety, and impels him to do all the good that he can to others, eſt trees of the wood; and by day they come down into the lower feeling their felicity an addition to his own, is a queſtion that brakes and buſhes, where their food is chiefly found. They ge- has been warmly debated among philoſophers ever ſince meta- nerally make a kind of flapping noiſe when they are with the fe- phyſics was ſtudied as a ſcience. With the opinions of the an- males; and this often appriſes the ſportman of their retreats. At cients we ſhall not, in this detached article, trouble our readers; other times he attacks them in the ſnow, and frequently takes but it would be unpardonable to paſs without notice the different them in ſpringes. But of all birds they are ſhot moft eaſily; as theories which on ſo intereſting a ſubject have divided the mo- they always make a whirring noiſe when they riſe, by which they derns. alarm the gunner, and being a large mark, and flying very flow, Hobbes, who believed, or pretended to believe, that right re- there is ſcarce any miſſing them. ſults from power, and that in ſociety there is no other ſtandard When theſe birds are taken young into keeping, they become of juſtice than the law of the land, or the will of the ſupreme as familiar as chickens: and when they are deſigned for breeding, magiſtrate, built his opinions upon a theory of human nature in they are put together in a yard, five hens to a cock ; for this bird, which philanthropy has no place. According to him, mankind, like all of the poultry kind, is very falacious. In her natural in the original ſtate of nature, were wholly ſelfifh. Each endea- ſtate the female makes her neſt of dry graſs and leaves; the ſame voured to feize, by fraud or force, whatever he thought would muſt be laid for her in the pheaſantry, and ſhe herſelf will fome contribute to his comfort; and as all had nearly the ſame wants, times properly diſpoſe them. If ſhe refuſes to hatch her eggs, the inevitable conſequence of this felhíhneſs was univerſal war. then a common hen muſt be got to ſupply her place, which taſk We are taught indeed by the fame philoſopher, that, in a ſeries ſhe will perform with perſeverance and ſucceſs. The young of ages, mankind diſcovered the miſeries of this ſtate of nature ; ones are very difficult to be reared ; and they muſt be ſupplied and therefore, upon the ſame baſis of univerſal felfiſhneſs, formed with ant’s-eggs, which is the food the old one leads them to ga- focieties, over which they placed ſupreme governors for the pur- ther when wild in the woods. To make theſe go the farther, poſe of protecting the weak againſt the violence of the ſtrong.-- they are to be chopped up with curds or other meat; and the He does not, however, explain how men, whoſe angry and fel- young ones are to be fed with great exactneſs, both as to the fiſh paſſions were thus excited to the utmoſt againſt each other, quantity and the time of their fupply. This food is ſometimes could enter upon this friendly treaty; or, ſuppoſing it formed, alſo to be varied ; and wood-lice, ear-wigs, and other inſects, how the ignorant multitude were induced to pay obedience to the are to make a variety. The place where they are reared muſt more enlightened few. Clogged with this and other inſurmount- be kept extremely clean; their water muſt be changed twice able difficulties, his philoſophy of human nature foon fell into or thrice a-day ; they muſt not be expoſed till the dew is off the merited contempt ; but about the origin of philanthropy thoſe ground in the morning, and they ſhould always be taken in before who united in oppoſition to him ſtill thought very differently from fun-fet. When they become adult, they very well can ſhift for one another. themſelves, but they are particularly fond of oats and barley. The elegant Shafteſbury, who had imbibed much of the fpi- Mr. Latham obſerves, that the common pheaſant is now found rit of Plato, endeavoured, like his maſter, to deduce all the due in a ſtate of nature in almoſt the whole of the Old Continent. ties of man, and almoſt all his actions, from a number of inter- They ſometimes (he ſays) come into farm yards near woods, and nal feelings or inſtincts which he ſuppoſed to be interwoven with produce croſs breeds with common hens. He then ſays, “ M. his conſtitution by the immediate hand of God. This ſyſtem Salerne remarks, that the hen pheaſant, when done laying and appeared ſo honourable to human nature, and at the ſame time fitting, will get the plumage of the male, and after that become was ſo eaſily comprehended, that the noble lord had foon many ſo little reſpected by him, as to be treated with the ſame incivi- followers, and may indeed be conſidered as the founder of a lity as he would ſhow to one of his own ſex. He mentions this ſchool which has produced philoſophers whoſe works do honour as a new obſervation ; but it is far more common than may be to the age and country in which they Aouriſhed. Among theſe generally ſuppoſed, and had been long before mentioned by Ed we muſt reckon Biſhop Butler, Hutchiſon, Lord Kames, Dr. wards, who gave for example one kept in the menagery of the Beattie, and perhaps Dr. Reid. duke of Leeds; and remarks, that this change is moſt likely to According to the ſyſtem of theſe writers, the whole duty of happen when in a confined ſtate. The circumſtance of the hen man reſults from an intuitive principle, to which they have given acquiring the plumage of the cock after a certain time is not con the name of the moral ſenſe ; and with this ſenſe they conceive fined to the pheaſant; the inſtance of the pea-hen belonging to philanthropy to be inſeparably united, or rather perhaps to make Lady Tynte, now in the Leverian Muſeum, evinces the contra an effential part of it. (See MORAL PHILOSOPHY.) If this ry, which, after having many broods, got much of the fine plu- theory be carried to its utmoſt extent, as it has been by ſome of mage of the cock, with the addition even of the fine train feathers. its patrons, it ſeems to follow, that peace and harmony ſhould The female alſo of the rock manakin is ſaid to get the plumage reign among ſavages ; and that a man who had from his infancy of the oppoſite ſex after a number of years ; and perhaps, if ob grown up in ſolitude, would be delighted with the firſt ſight of a ferved hereafter, this may be found to be the caſe with many fellow-creature, and run to him with eagerneſs as to a new fource other ſpecies. A gentleman of my acquaintance (continues our of enjoyment. This concluſion, however, is contrary to ac- author), dead long ſince, who uſed to keep theſe birds for his knowledged facts.' Savages are generally divided into ſmall amuſement, obſerved the ſame to me: and the ingenious tribes or hordes ; and though the attachment of individuals to Mr. J. Hunter has a well drawn up paper in the Philofophi-their own tribe appears indeed to be abundantly ſtrong, the tribes cal Tranſactions to the fame purport; but, in addition to themſelves are frequently at war, and entertain a conſtant jealouſy this, I am well informed, that it does not always require ma of each other. Savages, too, are almoſt univerſally afraid of ture age to give the hen-pheaſant the appearance of the male, as ſtrangers ; and the few folitary individuals, who have been caught ſometimes young birds will be adorned with his fine plumage. I in parts where they had run wild from their infancy, inſtead of being PHÍ PHI may be producing early and deep-rooted habits. being delighted with the appearance of fellow-men, have either and their dogmata or tenets, very contradictory, Helmont, and fed from them with their utmoſt ſpeed, or been fixed to the ſpot fome of the chymiſts, denominate themſelves philoſophers by fire in terror and aſtoniſhment. Theſe are no indications of that in. The alchymiſts , and adepti, are frequently denominated the phi- finctive philanthropy for which ſome writers fo ftrenuouſly plead. lofophers, by way of eminence. They have indeed induced others to deny, that in human nature PHILOSOPHER's Stone, the greateſt object of alchymy, is a there is any inſtinctive principles at all; and to endeavour to ac- I long fought for preparation, which, when found, is to convert count for our ſeveral propenſities by the influence of education all the true mercurial part of metal into pure gold, better than any that is dug out of mines, or perfected by the refiner's art. PHILIPPICS, philippica, DIDATTIKOL 20yo', in literature, a Some Greek writers in the fourth and fifth centuries, ſpeak of name given to the orations of Demoſthenes againſt Philip king this art as being then known; and towards the end of the thir- of Macedon. The Philippics are eſteemed the maſter-pieces of teenth century, when the learning of the eaſt had been brought that great orator : Longinus quotes abundance of inſtances of the hither by the Arabians, the ſame pretenſions began to ſpread fublime from them ; and points out a thouſand latent beauties through Europe. It is fuppoſed that this art, called alchymy, therein. In effect, that pathetic wherein Demoſthenes excelled, was of Egyptian origin; and that, when the ancient Greek phi- the frequent interrogations and apoſtrophes where with he attack- loſophers travelled into Egypt, they brought back fome of the ed the indolence of the Athenians, where could they be better allegoric language of this Egyptian art, ill underſtood, which afa employed ? How much delicacy foever there be in the oration terwards paſſed into their mythology. Alchymy was the earlieſt againſt Lepidus the, Philippics have yet the advantage over it, branch of chymiſtry, conſidered as a philoſophical ſcience : in were it only on account of the ſubject, which gives Demoſthenes the other parts of chymical knowledge, facts preceded reaſoning fo fair a field to diſplay his chief talent, we mean, with Longinus, or ſpeculation ; but alchymy was originally ſpeculative. See that of moving and aſtoniſhing. PHILIPPIC is alſo applied to ALCHYMY. the fourteen orations of Cicero againſt Marc Anthony. It was PHILOSOPHIZING, the act of conſidering ſome object Cicero himſelf that gave them this title in his epiſtle to Brutus; of our knowledge, examining its properties, and the phenomena and poſterity have found it ſo juſt, that it has been perpetuated it exhibits, and enquiring into their cauſes or effects, and the to our times. Cicero's Philippics coſt him his life ; Marc An- laws thereof; the whole conducted according to the nature and thony having been ſo irritated with them, that when he arrived reaſon of things, and directed to the improvement of knowledge. at the triumvirate, he procured Cicero's murder, cut off his See NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY. head, and ſtuck it up on the very place whence the orator had PHILOSOPHY, is a word derived from the Greek, and delivered the Philippics. literally ſignifies the love of wiſdom. In its uſual acceptation, PHILOLOGY, under the term philology fome comprehend however, it denotes a ſcience, or collection of ſciences, of which univerſal literature ; ſo that each one may therein include what the univerſe is the object, and of the term thus employed, many ever he thinks proper; as grammar, rhetoric, poetry, antiquities, definitions have been given, differing from one another, accorda hiſtory, criticiſm, the interpretation of authors, &c. This ſeems ing to the different views of their ſeveral authors. By Pytha- to be not only making an abuſe of words, but creating confuſion goras, philoſophy is defined “ the knowledge of things exiſt- in thoſe matters where too much regularity and preciſion cannot ing ;" by Cicero, after Plato, “ the knowledge of things divine be obſerved. The term philology is compoſed of the Greek and human, with their cauſes;" and by the illuſtrious Bacon, words ciao and hoyos, which imply “ a love or ſtudy of lan “ the interpretation of nature.” It proper here to ob- guages.' It appears, therefore, that philology, in its reſtricted ſerve, that the definition given by Cicero, is better than that of fenſe, imports nothing more than a general knowledge of lan- Pythagoras, becauſe the chief object of the philoſopher is to aſ- guages, of the natural and figurative ſignification of their words certain the cauſes of things, and in this conſiſts the difference and phraſes; and, in ſhort, of all that relates to expreſſion in between his ſtudies, and thoſe of the natural hiſtorian, who the different dialects of nations, as well ancient as modern. merely enumerates phenomena, and arranges them in feparate Philology makes what the French call the belles-lettres. In claſſes. The principal objects of philofophy are God, Nature, the univerſities it is alſo called humanities, or humaniores literæ. and Man. Theſe are not feparate and independant ſciences, Languages in general may be divided into--1. Ancient languages, but as Bacon expreſſes it, branches from the ſame trunk. which are thoſe that have become extinct with the people who The philoſophers among the moſt ancient people of the world ſpoke them, or have been fo altered and disfigured that they no were called ſages or wiſe men, as appears from hiſtory both fa- longer reſemble the languages which were fpoken by thoſe people. cred and profane. Thales and Pythagoras in Greece, were the 2. Oriental languages; the ſtudy of which is neceffary in order to firſt among thoſe that made an open profeſſion of this ſcience who the underſtanding of the text of the holy ſcriptures, eſpecially the thought the title of ſage too faſtidious, and took the more mo- Old Teſtament.--3. Learned languages; which are thoſe that deft name of philofohers, or lovers, or ſtudiers of wiſdom. Thales, are indiſpenfably neceſſary in the ſtudy of erudition, and parti- who was a native of Miletus in Ionia, and the firſt of the fee cularly literature ; which, while there were people in the world ven ſages, was the founder of the Ionic ſect ; his moſt illuſtrious who made them their common language, were called living ; but diſciples were Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and as no nation now makes uſe of them, they are called dead lan- | Archelaus. Anaxagoras employed himſelf entirely in the con- guages, and are therefore to be learned from books, or in ſchools. templation of the ſtars ; and when he was aſked if he had no --4. Modern languages; in which are diſtinguiſhed, firſt, the concern for his country, replied, pointing to heaven with his common languages of the European nations ; and ſecondly, the finger, “ I inceſſantly regard my country. Pythagoras found- languages of the people who inhabit the three other parts of the ed the feet that was called Italic, becauſe it was ſettled in that world. For the general rules which are applicable to all lan- part of Italy which was called Great Greece, and which now guages, ſee the Syſtem of GRAMMAR, Part I, ſee alſo the ar- makes part of the kingdom of Naples. He borrowed from the ticle LANGUAGE. Egyptians a myſterious manner of teaching by numbers; and Though philology, in its original import, denoted only the to that he added a certain harmony, by which he explained ſtudy of words and language, it gradually acquired a much more the perfection in all objects. He believed the world to be ani. extenſive, and at the ſame time a much more uſeful, as well as mated, intelligent, and round. Not knowing what to do with more exalted, ſignification. It comprehended the ſtudy of gram the ſoul after its ſeparation or tranſmigration from the body, he mar, criticiſm, etymology, the interpretation of ancient authors, invented the doctrine of the metempſychoſis. His diſciples of antiquities; and, in a word, every thing relating to ancient greateſt note were Ocellus of Lucania, Archytas of Tarentum, manners, laws, religion, government, language, &c. In this Philolaus of Croton, Parmenides and Zeno, both of Elea, and enlarged ſenſe of the word, philology becomes a ſcience of the Meliſſus of Samos. Zeno was the inventor of the dialectic; greateſt utility ; opens a wide field of intellectual inveſtigation ; the others applied themſelves cloſely to the ſtudy of natural phi- and indeed calls for a more intenfe exertion of induſtry, and mul- loſophy, and to the inveſtigation of its principles. tifarious erudition, than moſt of thoſe departments of literature Socrates followed the career of theſe firſt philoſophers, but which cuſtom hath dignified with more high-ſounding names. turned almoſt all his ſtudies towards morality. His maſter was It is indeed apparent, that, without the aid of philological ſtu Archelaus the Pythagorean. He was the firſt who began to re- dies, it is impoſſible, upon many occaſions, to develope the ori duce the confuſed ideas of thoſe who had gone before him into gin of nations ; to trace their primary frame and conſtitution ; method ; for which reaſon he is called by Cicero, the father of to diſcover their manners, cuſtoms, laws, religion, government, philofophy. His life was a model of frugality, moderation, and language, progreſs in arts and arms; or to learn by what men patience ; and his doctrine abounds with wiſdom. and what meaſures the moſt celebrated ſtates of antiquity roſe Socrates, diſcovering a greater genius in Plato than in any of into grandeur and confideration. The ſtudy of hiſtory, fo emi- his other diſciples, had a particular attachment to him, and his nently uſeful to the legiſlator, the divine, the military man, the labours were not loſt; for, among all the celebrated men who lawyer, the philoſopher, and the private gentleman who wiſhes came out of the ſchool of Socrates, Plato was, doubtleſs, the to employ his learned leiſure in a manner honourable and im- | moſt renowned. moſt renowned. He taught at Athens, and had in a ſhort proving to himſelf, and uſeful to his country, will contribute time many diſciples. He eſtabliſhed his ſchool in the academy, very little towards enlightening the mind without the aid of phi- which was a place without the town, and from thence they were lological reſearches. called Academics. According to Plato, the ſoul of man is only PHILOSOPHER, P.2oo pos, a perſon well verſed in philoſophy; a ray from the Divinity. He believed that this particle, united or who makes profeſſion of, or applies himſelf to the ſtudy of na to its principle, knew all things ; but when united to a body, ture and morality. The fects of philoſophers are very numerous ; it contracted ignorance and impurity by that union. He did not No. 128. entirely PHI PHI diſciple to that furious emulation, which was formed on the doctrine of Ariſtotle, between the nominaliſts and realiſts. The former nothing but words: and the others, who ſupported themſelves by entirely neglect natural philoſophy, like Socrates, but inquired beyond the mark. Towards the end of the 14th century, their into many queſtions which relate to that ſcience. He believed He believed ſpirits were extravagantly heated by logical diſtinctions, relative that all things conſiſted of two principles, Ged and matter.- He likewiſe cultivated aſtronomy. His morality was the ſame The diſciples of Plato had for their chief, Ocham, an Engliſh cordelier, and a in ſubſtance with that of Socrates. formed alſo many new fects. That of which Ariſtotle was the of Scotus. They maintained, that the univerſal natures were founder is doubtleſs the moſt illuſtrious. This philofopher was the firſt who formed, from the ſeveral parts of philoſophy, a the authority of Scotus, maintained, that the fame univerſal na complete ſyſtem. No one before him had treated ſeparately, and tures were beings ſtrictly real. Theſe diſputes divided all the uni. from principles, the different parts of this ſcience. He did not verſities of Europe : philoſophy was no longer employed but in regard logic as a part of philofophy, but as a proper method operationis of the intellect, conceptions, abſtractions, and ſuch like whereby to diſpoſe the underſtanding to diſcover the truths that vain ſubtilties: and became a mere jargon, a confuſed heap of it contains. The morality of Ariſtotle is the moſt perfect of all unintelligible ideas. his works. His phyſics conſiſt of notions and terms that are At length, in the 16th century, philofophy began to deliver vague, and as triling as obſcure. His diſciples and their fol itſelf from the chains of terminology; men accuſtomed themſelves lowers were called the Peripatetics of Lyceum, where he had to philoſophize by reaſon, and not by verbal contention : they fixed his ſchool. began to throw off the yoke, and, without entirely deſpiſing Aril Ariſtotle was not the only diſciple of Plato who deviated from totle, they no longer believed him on his word. Nicholas Co. the ſentiments of that great man: there were others who like pernicus, who was born at Thorn, in 1473, and died in 1543 , wiſe placed themſelves at the heads of different ſects. Arceſilas had already borne the torch of reaſon in the mathematics and was the author of a fect that was called the Middle Acadeny. - aſtronomy : fee COPERNICAN SYSTEM : he had rejected the He declared that there was nothing either certain or true: and ſyſtem of the world that was invented by Ptolemy, and which that the poſitive and negative might be maintained in all ſorts of the Greeks called moſt wiſe, and moſt divine; and had publiſhed ſubjects. Lacydes, who taught in the ſame ſchool as Plato, 56 his book De motu octave ſphere, and his treatiſe De revolu- years after Arceſilas, was the chief of another ſect that was tionibus, in which he eſtabliſhed his ſyſtem of the ſun's being called the New Academy. He acknowledged that there was a immoveable, and of the motion of the earth. Galileo, who was degree of probability, but that we could not aſſuredly know, that born at Florence in 1564, adopted the ſyſtem of Copernicus, con- any thing was abſolutely true. Pyrrho, about the ſame time, firmed it, and approved it by new obſervations. This diſcovery of placed himſelf alſo at the head of a ſect. He improved on the the truth coſt him five or fix years confinement in the priſon of dogma of the Academics ; and maintained that it was impoflible the inquiſition. He introduced a new and excellent method of to comprehend any thing : but Pyrrho could not comprehend reaſoning in philoſophical ſubjects. himſelf. He believed that there was nothing true, nothing but Peter Gaſſendus, profeſſor of mathematics in Paris, alſo prac- what might be ſaid either this or that. His followers were called tiſed, in the beginning of the 17th century, a new method of phi- Pyrrhonians, or more commonly ſceptics, becauſe they ſearched lofophizing, which contributed greatly to the progreſs of that without ever being able to diſcover any thing. About the ſame ſcience. Laſtly, René Deſcartes appeared almoſt at the fame time aroſe two fects, who, with principles diametrically oppo time: and, by a method that had been but very imperfectly un- ſite, rendered themſelves highly celebrated, and divided at first derſtood before, diſcovered more truths in philofophy than all the the wits of Greece, and afterwards thoſe of the reſt of the world ; preceding ages had produced: although, from the weakneſs which and theſe were Zeno and Epicurus. Zeno was of Citium, a is natural to the human underſtanding, he has frequently mixed city in Cyprus. He taught in the porticoes of Athens, from error with truth in his different ſyſtems. He treated on almoſt whence his diſciples were called Stoics. The moſt famous dogma all the parts of philofophy, eſpecially the mathematics, phyfies, of Zeno and the Stoics conſiſted in the principle of morality, and metaphyſics. Every one is acquainted with his famous ſyſ- which was to live in conformity to nature, that is to ſay, ac tem of the plenum and vortices. Before Deſcartes, Francis Ba- cording to the object of our deſires ; on this principle, and on con, baron of Verulam, chancellor of England, had expoſed the divers others, they formed the idea of a philoſophy altogether errors of the philofophy of the ſchools, and the wretched method that extravagant, and inſenſible to all external objects. The phyſics was there purſued. He was one of the greateit men that has ever of Zeno had nothing new but the terms. The other ſect, which appeared upon the earth. It was he who lighted that torch with flouriſhed at the ſame time, was that of Epicurus ; and they which all his fucceffors have illuminated philofophy; and in his were called Epicureans. See EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. writings are to be found the feeds of every new diſcovery, and This philoſopher taught publicly at Athens, his native country, of every new hypotheſis. After this golden Aurora, the philo- at the age of thirty-two years. He rejected all the chicaneries fophic horizon was at once enlightened by two great luminaries, and ſubtilties of logic, and fought the truth by means of the which diſperſed many of thoſe clouds that hid the truth from ſenſes. He attached himſelf greatly to morality, to which like mortal eyes, and diffuſed great lights, at laſt, on many objects wiſe tended all his other ſtudies; and his morality was as con that lay buried in obfcurity. See the Article NEWTONIAN fentaneous to the nature of man, as that of Zeno was contra PHILOSOPHY. dictory ; ſeeing that his firſt principle was, that pleaſure is the From the flight draught here given of the hiſtory of philoſophy, purſuit of man, and that it conſiſts in health of body, and tran we may draw the following conſequences; 1. That philofophers, quillity of mind; and that it is the ſource and end of a happy in their reſearches concerning the cauſes of all things, have found life, &c. Epicurus was alſo engaged, but with leſs ſucceſs, in themſelves obliged to reduce ratiocination into a fyſtem ; to con- the labyrinth of metaphyſics, and in phyſics : he adopted the ſyf fine it to certain rules, and form it into an art, which they have tem of atoms, of which Democritus was the firſt author. In called Logic. 2. That by endeavouring to explain to mankind ſhort, maugre the evil interpretations and calumnies of his ad the nature, the cauſes, and effects of happineſs, the inveſtiga- verſaries, he inculcated by his doctrine, and by his example, tion of theſe objects has produced a ſcience that is called Mo- frugality and fobriety; and, according to him, death is not an RALITY,with which are connected the doctrines of natural theo- object of terror: “ For," ſays he,“ it is nothing ſo long as life logy, the law of nature, ethics, politics, &c. 3. That from their fubfifts; and when it arrives, life is no more; no man has ever endeavours to inveſtigate the nature of thoſe ſenſible and palpable felt his death." It is evident, that theſe ancient ſyſtems of phi- objects which ſurround us, has reſulted a ſcience that is called loſophy are at great variance with each other; and as truth is Physics, or Natural Philoſophy; which in like manner con- conſtantly uniform, it follows, that the greater part of theſe ſiſts of ſeveral branches, that all concur to its perfection, ſuch opinions cannot be true. This conſideration engaged Patomon as OPTICS, CHYMISTRY, HYDRAULICS, MECHANICS, of Alexandria, under the emperor Auguſtus, to ſelect all that and their dependent arts; with many others. See te ſeveral he found moſt rational in the doctrines of all the other philofo- Syſtems. 4. That by advancing ſtill further, and by endeavour- phers, whereof he compoſed a ſyſtem, and founded a feet, and ing to comprehend the nature and properties of ſubjects that are he for that reaſon, gave to his doctrine the name of the eclectic rot diſcernable by the ſenſes, but whoſe exiſtence is the reſult of philoſophy, from a Greek word which ſignifies to ſelect. ſpeculation and of a train of reaſoning, a ſcience has ariſen that The doctrine of Plato was at firſt in greater eſtimation than is called METAPHYSICS ; which has alſo many branches, as any of the others; and there were many celebrated Platoniſts ontology, pſychology, coſmology, pneumatology, &c. 5. That from under the Roman emperors down to Julian the apoſtate, who a deſire to know the extenſion, the figures, the meaſures of all was himſelf one of them. The firſt Chriſtian doctors likewiſe The firſt Chriſtian doctors likewiſe bodies, and their diſtances from each other, &c. they muſt ne- declared for this philoſophy, as Juſtin Martyr, Tatian, Athen-ceſſarily have recourſe to calculation ; from whence reſult the nagoras, Origen, &c. But at length the philoſophy of Ariſtole, mathematical ſciences, whoſe principal branches are, ARITH- perhaps of all others the moſt abſurd, took the lead; and truth METIC, GEOMETRY, ALGEBRA, ASTRONOMY, &c. See was no longer fought for but in the writings of that philoſoper. the ſeveral Syſtems. This violent fondneſs for his reveries began about the 12th cen The eſſence of philoſophy in general conſiſts in the inveſtiga- tury; at which time a philofophy was formed, that is com tion of the cauſes of all things; and the grand principle of this monly called ſcholaſtic, and which is borrowed in great part inquiry conſiſts in that fundamental maxim, that no effect is from the writings of the Arabs, whom the ſcholaſtics, who produced without a cauſe; that nothing is done without a fuffi- were all attached to Ariſtotle, imitated in their ſubtile, ambi cient reaſon. This ſyſtem of the ſufficient reaſon is, therefore, guous, abſtract, and capricious manner of reaſoning, by which the baſis of all philofophy, and without it nothing is philoſophical. they never hit the truth, but conſtantly went on one ſide, or To conſider the outſide of things, is to know them hiſtorically: PHI PHI true, agrees to reſolve them, in order to know their principles and their which is a kind of medium between philoſophical, or ſcientifical; cauſes, is to learn to know them philoſophically, and in this and hiſtorical knowledge. The ingenious author of the Analyſt manner even hiſtory may be philoſophically ſtudied. This ad- has gone ſo far as to ſuggeſt, that mathematicians have no other mirable ſyſtem of the ſufficient reaſon, by diffuſing the ſpirit of conviction of the truth of the doctrine of fluxions. We have philoſophy in the world, has already purged it of numberleſs dan ſaid that philoſophy is the knowledge of the reaſons of things. It gerous fuperftitions: the fables of magicians, forcerers, ſpectres, may be aſked, what are the reaſons of things, or what is the expli- ghoſts , the abſolute ſympathy, and a thouſand like reveries, have cation of phenomena or facts ? An ingenious author tells us, that diſappeared from among men of ſenſe, to the very great advan the explication conſiſts only in ſhewing the conformity any parti- tage of the human race . cular phenomenon hath to the general laws of nature; or, which Philofophy may be again divided into ſpeculative, which in is the ſame thing, in diſcovering the uniformity there is in the cludes the ſubjectsof metaphyſics, morality, &c. and demonſtrative production of natural effects. This he thinks evident to any or experimental, which principally regards phyſics ; ſeeing that, one whoever ſhall attend to the ſeveral inſtances wherein philofo- by the improvement of the human mind by ingenious obſerva- phers pretend to account for appearances. By a diligent obfer- tions and the aſſiſtance of numberleſs admirable inſtruments, vation of the phenomena within our view, we may diſcover the modern philoſophers have diſcovered means of explaining the general laws of nature, and from thence deduce, though not de- principal phenomena of nature by experiments, and of demon monſtrate, other phenomena ; all deductions of this kind de- ſtrating their hypotheſes to the fight and to the touch, which afford pending on a fuperftition that the Author of Nature always ope- proofs much more evident than thoſe of our anceſtors, which were rates uniformly, and in a conſtant obſervation of thoſe rules we drawn merely from logical inferences. take for principles; which we cannot evidently know. The following Rules in Philofophy were eſtabliſhed by Sir Iſaac If we take a view of the ſeveral phenomena, and compare Newton. them together, we may obſerve ſome likneſſes and conformity 1. That no more cauſes of a natural effect be admitted than are between them. For example, in the falling of a ſtone to the and ſuffice to account for the phenomena thereof. This ground, in the riſing of the ſea towards the moon, in coheſion with the ſentiments of moſt philoſophers, who hold that and cryſtalization, there is ſomething alike, namely, an union nature does nothing in vain; and that it were vain to do that by or mutual approach of bodies : ſo that any one of theſe, or the many things, which might be done by fewer. like phenomena, may not ſeem ſtrange or ſurpriſing to a man 2. Natural effects, therefore, of the ſame kind, proceed from who has nicely obſerved and compared the effects of nature ; for the ſame cauſes. Thus, e. gr. the cauſe of reſpiration is one and that only is thought fo which is uncommon, or a thing by it- the fame in man and brute ; the cauſe of a deſcent of a ſtone, the felf, and out of the ordinary courſe of our obſervation. That fame in Europe as in America; the cauſe of light the ſame in bodies ſhould tend towards the centre of the earth is not thought culinary fire, and in the ſun; and the cauſe of reflexion the fame ſtrange, becauſe it is what we perceive every moment of our in the planets as the earth. lives; but that they ſhould have a like gravitation towards the 3. Thoſe qualities of bodies which are not capable of being centre of the moon, may ſeem odd and unaccountable to moſt heightened, and remitted, and which are found in all bodies, where men, becauſe it is diſcerned only in the tides ; but a philoſopher, experiments can be made, muſt be looked on as univerſal qualities whoſe thoughts take in a large compaſs of nature, having obſerv- of all bodies. Thus the extenſion of body is one perceived ed a certain fimilitude of appearances, as well in the heavens by our ſenſes, nor is it perceivable in all bodies: but ſince it is as the earth, that argue innumerable bodies to have mutual ten- found in all that we have perception of, it may be affirmed of all. dency towards each other, which he denotes by the general So we find, that ſeveral bodies are hard, and argue that the hard name attraction, whatever can be reduced to that, he thinks neſs of the whole only ariſes from the hardneſs of the parts ; juſtly accounted for. Thus he explains the tides by the attrac- whence we infer, that the particles, not only of thoſe bodies tion of the terraqueous globe towards the moon, which, to him, which are ſenſible, but of all others, are likewiſe hard. Laſtly, doth not appear odd or anomalous, but only a particular ex- if all the bodies about the earth gravitate towards the earth, and ample of a general rule or law of nature. If, therefore, we this according to the quantity of matter in each ; and if the mcon conſider the difference there is betwixt natural philoſophers and gravitates towards the earth alſo, according to its quantity of mat other men, with regard to their knowledge of the phenomena, ter; and the ſea again gravitates towards the moon; and all the we ſhall find it conſiſt not in an exacter knowledge of the planets and cometsgravitate towards each other: it may be affirm efficient cauſe that produces them, for that can be no other than ed univerſally, that all bodies in the creation gravitate towards the will of a fpirit; but only in a greater extent of comprehen- each other. This rule is the foundation of all natural philoſophy. fion, whereby analogies, harmonies, and agreements are de- Philoſophy in general conſiſts in the knowledge of the reaſon fcribed in the works of nature, and the particular effects explained, of things, in oppoſition to hiſtory, which is the bare knowledge of that is, reduced to general rules, which rules grounded on the facts; or to mathematics, which is the knowledge of the quantity analogy and uniformneſs obſerved in the production of natural of things or their meaſures. Theſe three kinds of knowledge ought effects, are more agreeable, and ſought after by the mind; for to be joined as much as poſſible. Hiſtory furniſhes matter, prin- that they extend our proſpect beyond what is preſent, and ciples, and practical examinations, and mathematics complete the near to us, and enable us to make very probable conjectures, evidence. Philoſophy being the knowledge of the reaſons of touching things that may have happened at very great diſtances things, all arts muſt have their peculiar philoſophy which conſtitutes of time and place, as well as to predict things to come ; which their theory: not only law and phyſic, but the loweſt and moſt ſort of endeavour towards omniſcience is much effected by the abject arts are not deſtitute of their reaſons, which might uſeful mind. Berkley, Princ. of Hum. Knowledge, fect. 104. 105. ly employ the time of the ſtudious. It is true, thoſe who call PHILOSOPHY is a term uſed in various ſignifications among themſelves philoſophers and learned men have as yet done little ancient and modern writers. In its laxer fenfe, it ſignifies the towards forwarding the intelligence of arts: but we ſpeak not of love of truth : thus Plato frequently calls it philalethia. In what is done, but of what ought to be done. One great obſtacle others placesit ſignifies the knowledge of many things; thus Zeno to the progreſs of arts and ſciences has been the neglect of practice calls philoſophy, xatangues, comprehenſion, becauſe comprehend- in ſpeculative men, and the ignorance and contempt of theory in ing all truth. Agreeable to which is Cicero's definition of a phi- mere practical men. What chimeras and abſurdities the neglect loſopher, that he is one who ſtudies to know the natures and of experience and practice has produced, need not be mentioned; cauſes of all things human and divine, and to attend to every the miſchiefs ariſing from a neglect of theory are not ſo obvious: good rule and method of life. Cicero calls philoſophy, ars vité, yet certainly it retards the progreſs of arts. All invention or im and Seneca, lex vitæ : and thus Plutarch. Conſtancy, fidelity, provement muſt be either caſual or rational, including anology and a found mind are the real philoſophy ; all the other parts of or inference from ſimilar caſes, under the term rational. Now, wiſdom, tending any other way, are prettineſſes and curioſities; although the foundations of arts have often been owing to ſome and in this ſenſe it was that philofophy chiefly flouriſhed in the caſual diſcovery, as gunpowder, or the loadſtone, yet is this not ſchool of Socrates, afterwards called the Academic ſchool, and to be truſted to alone. Improvements do not always flow from among the Stoics. this ſource, but rather from the reflexions of artiſts; and, if theſe PHILOSOPHY, again, is frequently uſed by Pythagoras and reflexions were rendered more diſtinct, more communicable, and Plato for metaphyſics, or the knowledge of God: which Plato eaſier to be retained, by the proper uſe of ſigns and other philofo- calls the true philoſophy, others the prima philofophia ; and in phical helps, great advantages might be expected: it being certain reſpect whereof, the Platoniſts call all other philoſophy, noctura that philofophical knowledge is more extenſive, and more furc in nai, vuulepivan Pingoodia. Some have given the following appella- the application ; and, beſides, gives a pleaſure to the mind not to tions to the ancient philoſophy, under its ſeveral ſtages : philo- be expected from that which is merely hiſtorical.. ſophy, ſay they, became impious under Diagoras; vicious under It is to be obſerved, that the bare intelligence and memory of Epicurus; hypocritical under Zeno; impudent under Diogenes; philoſophical propoſitions, without any ability to demonſtrate covetous under Demochares ; voluptuous under Metrodorus ; them, is not philoſophy, but hiſtory only. However, where ſuch fantaſtical under Crates ; fcurrilous under Menippus ; licentious propoſitions are determinate and true, they may be uſefully ap under Pyrrho ; and quarrelſome under Cleanthes. The ſeveral plied in practice, even by thoſe who are ignorant of their demon- dogmata maintained by the ſeveral philoſophers are infinite : ſtrations. Of this we fee daily inſtances in the rules of arithme Cicero makes no fcruple to aver, that there is nothing in the tic, practical geometry, and navigation ; the reaſons of which are world, how abſurd foever, but has been maintained by one phi- often not underſtood by thoſe who practiſe them with ſucceſs. loſopher or other. From the firſt broachers of new opinions, and And this ſucceſs in the application produces a conviction of mind, the firſt founders of ſchools, philoſophy is become divided into innumerable PHL PH L upon it. PHLOGISTON, formed of oyſti, I am inflamed, in chy. innumerable fects; fome ancient, others modern ; ſuch are the Platoniſts, Peripatetics , Epicureans, Stoics, Pyrrhonians, and miſtry, is defined to be the moſt pure and fimple inflammabic Academics ; and ſuch are the Carteſians, Newtonians, &c. Secthe principle . That ſuch a principle exiſts in various degrees, and riſe, doctrines, &c. of each ſect, under PERIPATETICS,EPICU modes of combination, in different bodies, is a fact which has REANS, ST01cs, AcadEMICS, CARTESIAN, NEWTONIAN; been long and generally acknowledged. Some bodies have been &c. Philoſophy may be divided into two branches, or it may be obſerved to be capable, by expoſure to fire with the concurrence of conſidered under two habitudes, theoretical and practical. air, of being kindled, of producing fame, of augınenting the fire, Philoſophy may be divided into three parts; intellectual, mo and of maintaining and ſupporting it; while other bodies, by ex- ral, and phyſical; the intellectual part compriſes logic and meta poſure to fire did, indeed, become hot, red, and luminous, but phyſics ; the moral part contains the laws of nature and nations, were incapable of producing flame, and of maintaining fire. ethics and politics ; and, laſtly, the phyſical part comprehends Hence chymiſts have been always led to diſtinguiſh there two the doctrine of bodies, animate or inanimate: theſe, with their kinds of bodies, calling the former combuſtible, and the latter various ſub-diviſions, will take in the whole of philoſophy, incombuſtible; and they ſuppoſed that the inflammability of com- Practical Philosophy, is that which lays down the rules of buſtible bodies was the effect of a principle, which did not exiſt in a virtuous and happy life ; and excites us to the practice thereof. thoſe that were incombuſtible. However, ſome late writers have Practical philoſophy is properly ethics alone, or the method of controverted this hypotheſis, and the diſtinction founded leading a virtuous and happy life. Yet moſt authors divide it Yet moſt authors divide it Dr.Prieſtley conjectures, that the difference between the ſubſtan- into two kinds, anſwerable to the two ſorts of human actions to ces which are called inflammable, and others which alſo contain be directed thereby; viz. 1. LOGIC, which governs the opera- phlogiſton, may be this, that in the former heat, or the vibration tions of the underſtanding. 2. ETHICS, properly ſo called, which occaſioned by the emiſſion of their own phlogiſton, may be fuffi- direct thoſe of the will. cient to occaſion the emiſſion of more till the whole be exhauſted; PHIMOSIS, Diuwols, properly ſignifying a ligature with pack- that is, till the body be reduced to aſhes. Whereas in bodies thread ; (pl.wous denoting packthread,) in medicine, a diſeaſe of which are not inflammable, the heat occaſioned by the emiſſion the penis, wherein the præputium is by a violent inflammation of their own phlogiſton may not be ſufficient for this purpoſe, but glued, or ſtrongly conſtringed, upon the glands; ſo as not to be an additional heat ab extra may be neceſſary. See the ſyſtem of capable of being drawn back, to uncoverthe glans. Sometimes a Aerology, Sect. IV. phimoſis conceals chancres on or about the glans; and ſometimes Some philoſophers diſlike the term phlogiſton, and call the in- it is ſo violent, as to prevent the flowing out of the matter; whence flammable principle the elementary fire of bodies: but there ſeems it cauſes an inflammation or mortification of the part. When to be no juſt objection againſt giving that or any other name to a the prepuce is detained behind the glans, the caſe is called a real ſomething, the preſence or abſence of which makes ſo remark- PARAPHIMOSIS. For a particular deſcription, and the cauſes able a difference in bodies, as that of metallic calces and metals, and cure, ſee the Syſtem, Genus 76. oil of vitriol and brimſtone, &c. and which may be transferred PHLEGM, preyua, in chymiſtry, an aqueous and infipid from one ſubſtance to another, according to certain known laws; fluid, ſuppoſed to be found in all natural bodies; coinciding with or, as one and the ſame unknown cauſe of certain well known what the other philoſophers call water. Phlegm makes the fourth effects. Whereas the term fire, uſed to denote a conſtituent prin- of the chymical elements, or elementary principles. In the diſtil-ciple of natural bodies, is more ambiguous, becauſe in common lation of vinegar, as alſo of all minerals and inodorous vegetables, acceptation it includes heat, which has no more proper connexion phlegm comes out firſt; in that of wine laft. This phlegm is fup- with phlogiſton than it has with water or any other conſtituent poſed to be the common vehicle and diluter of all ſolid bodies ; part of bodies; and it will be neceſſary to recur perpetually to the and in proportion to its quantity in their mixture are the other diſtinction of fire in a ſtate of action and fire inačtive or quiefcent . parts more languid and diſabled in their attraction : yet, on the It has been controverted among writers on this ſubject, whether chymiſt's ſyſtem, phlegm ſhould be a principle of action, as being phlogiſton be pure elementary fire in its ſtate of combination with neceſſary to the diffolution of the falt in bodies, and without the bodies in which it is found, if in this ſtate it be ſuſceptible which the falt muſt remain inactive. It is much to be queſtion of combining without any intermediate ſubſtance; or whether, ed, whether this phlegm can ever be procured without ſome mix in order to this combination, it be neceſſary that this element ture of other matters ; that, which has the leaſt of them, muſt Thould be previouſly combined with ſome other ſubſtance, and come neareſt to the nature of a principle; and, on that account, conſequently, that it is only a ſecondary principle. In favour of rain-water ſhould afford it moſt. the former opinion it is urged that the inflammable principle of Phlegm, Boerhaave obſerves, drawn by diſtillation from vegeta- bodies cannot be ſeparated and procured from bodies in any other bles, always carries with it ſomewhat of the ſmell of the vegetable, ſtate than that of free and active fire, and that it is deprived of which it derives partly from the oil, and partly from the ſpirit re its activity by the union it contracts with other ſubſtances. If fiding therein. The ſame phlegm, by frequently reiterated diſtilla this be the cafe, phlogiſton has no other property than thoſe which tions, lays aſide moſt of its ſmell, and approaches nearer to pure' ariſe from the union of pure fire with the ſeveral ſubſtances to water ; but it never becomes perfectly fuch. Add, that the which it is united. But it is alledged on the contrary, that when pureſt diſtilled water, if expoſed a few days to the fun, is much phlogiſton is taken from one body by means of another applied changed and rendered turbid. That phlegm is not an elementa to it, it unites with this as foon as it is diſengaged from the for- ry body, Mr. Boyle argues from its different powers and proper mer; and, therefore, the advocates of this opinion maintain, ties: the phlegm of wine, and that of moſt liquors, have qualities that it is not procured pure and alone, becauſe it only quits one that make them differ from mere water, and alſo from each other. combination to enter at the ſame time into another. Senebier Ineffect, the characters which ſerve to denominate afluid, phlegm, maintains, that the phlogiſton, which falls under our obſervation, or water, among the chymiſts, are inſipidity, and volatility ; yet feems to be always united to an acid; and that which appears quickſilver has both theſe, which nobody pretends to be phlegm. to be the moſt generally combined with it is the vitriolic acid, Add, that it appears, from ſeveral experiments, that water itſelf, which, at leaſt, abounds in all combuſtible bodies. But he con- by repeated diſtillations, may be converted into earth: yet water, jectures, that it is not always the ſame vitriolic acid that is united the ſame author obſerves, has a much fairer pretence to an element to phlogiſton ; and that the difference in the effect produced by than any other of the tria prima. Add, that as to the qualities phlogiſton in the bodies. where it is found, proceeds from the which occaſion that name to be given any viſible ſubſtance, viz. different acids with which it is combined in them. Thus, when its being fluid, inſipid, and inodorous, we have never yet ſeen any it is united with the vitriolic acid, it forms ſulphur: when it is of theſe ſeparated ſubſtances, which the chymiſts call phlegm, combined with ſea-ſalt, it produces, as he ſays, phoſphorus ; and which were perfectly deſtitute both of taſte and ſmell. Common joined with nitre, it loſes its qualities and concentrates itſelf in falt, and ſeveral other faline bodies, diſtilled ever ſo dry, will bodies by means of that union. cach yield a large quantity of phlegm ; which can no other way be However the queſtion concerning the nature of phlogiſton be accounted for but from this, that among the various operations of determined, the power which chymiſts have of transferring the the fire on the matter of a concrete, ſeveral particles of that mat inflammable principle from one combination to another, by com- ter are reduced to a ſhape and ſize, requiſite to compoſe ſuch a li buſtion and diffipation, has furniſhed them with the means of quor as the chymiſts call phlegm or water. making many important obſervations on the effects which it pro- PHLEGM, in theanimal economy, is one of the four humours, duces in chymical operations, and of diſcovering the properties whereof the ancients ſuppoſed the maſs of blood to conſiſt. Phlegm which it communicates to the ſeveral ſubſtances with which it is the ſame that is otherwiſe called PITUITA. See that Article. unites. It is obſerved that phlogiſton is not equally diſpoſed to PHLEGMATIC, among phyſicians, an appellation given to unite with all ſubſtances ; that it combines very difficultly with that habit or temperament of body wherein phlegm is predomi- Auid, volatile, and light matters, ſuch as air and water, but it nant: which gives riſe to catarrhs, coughs, &c. See PITUITA. may be eaſily combined with ſolid, fixed, and heavy ſubſtances, PHLEGMON, Qreypucovu., formed from Qaeyelv, to burn, or as earths. And it ſerves as a kind of intermediate ſubſtance for inflame, in furgery, a general name for all hot or inflamed tumours, uniting together bodies that are either incapable of uniting, or formed in the fleſhy or bloody parts of the body. An inflammation that unite with difficulty without it. The combination of phlo- attended with a conſiderable ſwelling of the parts, conſtitutes a giſton with different kinds of air and alſo with water, has been phlegmon. If the blood be good and laudable, and only peccant illuſtrated and evinced by a variety of experiments by Dr. Prieſt- in quality, it is called a true phlegmon. When corrupted and ley: all the kinds of air, he ſays, that appear to be eſſentially adulterated with bile, or pituita, it is called a baſtard phlegmon ; diſtinct from each other, are fixed air, acid, and alkaline ; becauſe in which caſe, it participates of the eryſipelas, cedema, or ſcirrhus. theſe and another principle called phlogiſton, which he has not been P H L PHO been able to exhibit in the form of air, and which has never yet cus of a burning lens on ſome chalk of lead, out of which all air been exhibited by itſelf in any form, ſeem to conſtitute all the had been expelled, when it was confined in infiammable air. kinds of air with which he is acquainted. See on this ſubject a The conſequence was that the air was rapidly abſorbed, lead was Treatiſe on the various kinds of Caſes, by the ingenious author formed, and what remained of the air was juſt as inflammable of the Chymical Dictionary, in the Appendix, c. 17. as at firſt. From about forty ounce meaſures of the air, ob- Dr. Prieſtley has alſo thewn how common air is depraved and tained from iron by oil of vitriol, he got about five penny-weights rendered unfit for the purpoſes of reſpiration, combuſtion, &c. by of lead. uniting with the phlogiſton diſcharged from the lungs of animals, PHOCA, in Mammalia, a Genus of quadrupeds of the order from burning bodies, from calcined metals, from putrifying fub of Feræ. There are ſix parallelfore-teeth in the upper jaw, the ſtances,&c. and in ſome caſes being ſaturated with it, ſo as thereby outermoſt being larger ; and four blunt, parallel, diſtinct, equal to become phlogiſticated. And as a variety of cauſes contribute fore-teeth in the under jaw. There is but one dog-tooth, and to the releaſe and diſcharge of phlogiſton from bodies in which it five or fix three-pointed grinders ; and the hind feet are united is combined, and from which by certain proceſſes it is diſengaged, ſo as to reſemble a ſheep's tail. There is a variety of ſpecies, which by uniting with the air diminiſhes it, precipitates its fixed the principal of which are, air, and renders it noxious, he has diſcovered that vegetating plants 1. The urſina, ſea-bear, or urſine ſeal, has external ears. The purify the air by imbibing its phlogiſton, and that the agitation of male is greatly fuperior in fize to the female . The bodies of each water is alſo conducive to the fame beneficial purpoſe. The union are of a conic form, very thick before, and taper to the tail. The of phlogiſton with the vitriolic acid, in a dry ſtate, is known to length of a large one is eight feet; the greateſt circumference produce fulphur, the inflammability of which is cauſed by the five feet ; near the tail, 20 inches; and the weight is about 800 lb. ph!ogiſton contained in it, and which is decompoſed by the burn The noſe projects like that of a pug-dog, but the head riſes ſud- ing of its phlogiſton. Some have even fuppoſed, that the dif- denly; the teeth lock into one another when the mouth is ſhut : ferent combination of phlogiſton with different acids may be one the tongue is large ; the eyes are large and prominent, and may of the cauſes of the different affinities of bodies to each other. be covered at pleaſure by a fleſhy membrane. The length of the Phlogiſton alſo unites itſelf with alkalis; and this union is ma- fore-legs is 24 inches ; they are like thoſe of other quadrupeds, nifeſt in putrid exhalations. Moreover, volatile alkalis produce not immerſed in the body like thoſe of ſeals; the feet are formed the fame effects that ariſe from the phlogiſton ; they render the with toes like thoſe of other animals, but are covered with a naked blood more fluid, increaſe its circulation, and excite perſpiration ; ſkin, ſo that externally they ſeem to be a Chapeleſs maſs ; the and the odours of both are equally ſuffocating to thoſe who breathe hind-legs are fixed to the body quite behind, like thoſe of common the air that is impregnated with them. ſeals; but are capable of being brought forward, ſo that the ani- Moreover, phlogiſton appears to be intimately combined with mal makes uſe of them to ſcratch its head. See Plate II. Ge- metals ; without it they loſe their metallic properties, and with it nus II. Species 1. be they recover them. This is a truth which has been long known Theſe animals are found in the northern ſeas. They are and demonſtrated. The difference of weight between a metal and found in amazing quantities between Kamtſchatka and America, its calx has been a phenomenon which has much puzzled the but are ſcarcely known to land on the Aſiatic ſhore: nor are they chymiſts and philoſophers. Some, in order to account for this ever taken except in the three Kurilian iſlands, and from thence difference, have aſcribed abfolute levity to phlogiſton, which, by in the Bobrowoie More, or Beaver Sea, as far as the Kronoſki being combined with the calx under the form of metal, diminiſhes headland, off the river Kamtſchatka, which comprehends only its weight. The true cauſe of this difference was firſt ſuggeſted by from 50 to 56 north latitude. 50 to 56 north latitude. It is obfervable that they never Jean Rey, in the beginning of the laſt century, but for many double the ſouthern cape of the peninſula, or are found on the years it was little known or regarded: however, it has been ſuf weſtern ſide of the Penſchinſka ſea : but their great reſort has ficiently aſcertained by the experiments of Haſes, Prieſtley, La been obſerved to be to Bering's Iſlands. They are as regularly voiſier, &c. on fixed air. migratory as birds of paſſage. They firſt appear off the three Many facts have been lately urged to evince the identity of Kurile iſlands and Kamtſchatka in the earlieſt ſpring. There is phlogiſton and the electric matter : they reſemble one another in not one female which does not come pregnant.. Such as are then the light and ſmell they afford, and in the effects they produce in taken are opened, the young taken out and ſkinned. They are animals and vegetables; they both accelerate the circulation of found in Bering's iſland only on the weſtern ſhore, being the part the blood, and of the fap; they augment the fiuidity of both; the oppoſite to Aſia, where they firſt appear on their migration from alike occaſion cutaneous eruptions, remove obſtructions in the the ſouth. According to the Greenlanders, they are found in the veffels, irritate the muſcles, and act upon them when all other ſouthern parts of their country. They call it Auvekæjak; and ſay ſtimulants are ineffectual. They concur in developing the parts that it is very fierce, and tears to pieces whatſoever it meets; of animals and vegetables, in promoting their growth ; animals that it lives on land as well as in water, and is greatly dreaded that are killed by lightning or by the electrical ſpark, ſeem to be by the hunters. effected in the ſame manner with thoſe that are fuffocated by me During the three months of ſummer they lead a moſt indolent phitic or phlogiſtic vapours. The ſame cauſes which diſſipate life: they arrive at the iſlands vaſtly fat; but during that time the electric fuid, ſeem alſo to diſſipate the phlogiſton, and to they are ſcarce ever in motion, confine themſelves for whole weeks occaſion a ſtate of bodily inquietude in perſons who are valetudi to one ſpot, ſleep a great part of the time, eat nothing, and, ex- nary, by depriving them of too large a quantity of phlogiſton ; cept the employment the females have in ſuckling their young, thus, a moiſt and humid air affects both the one and the other in are totally inactive. They live in families : each male has from the ſame manner. The moments preceding thunder-ſtorms are eight to fifty females, whom he guards with the jealouſy of an burthenſome and oppreſſive, becauſe they accumulate on the eaſtern monarch ; and though they lie by thouſands on the ſhores, nerves, too great a quantity of phlogiſton, or electrical fluid.- each family keeps itſelf ſeparate from the reſt, and ſometimes, This; like phlogiſton, melts and calcines metals, and revivifies with the young and unmarried ones, amount to 120. The old their calces. animals which are deſtitute of females, or deferted by them, live Phlogiſton and the electrical fluid are known to promote eva apart, and are exceſſively fplenetic, peeviſh, and quarrelſome : poration; the ele&trical ſpark infects the air, juſt as phlogiſton are exceeding fierce, and ſo attached to their old haunts, that does where it abounds; they both depoſit fixed air, diminiſh they would die fooner than quit them. They are monſtrouſly fat, common air, and form a precipitate in lime-water. From thefe and have a moſt hircine ſmell. If another approaches their ſta- and other ſimilar effects, it is concluded, and not without reaſon, that tion, they are rouſed from their indolence, and inſtantly ſnap at the electric matter either is, or contains phlogiſton. For an ac- it, and a battle enſues ; in the conflict, they perhaps intrude on count of ſeveral curious obfervations and experiments relating to the ſeat of another : this gives new cauſe of offence, ſo in the end phlogiſton, in its connexion with heat, fee HEAT, INFLAM the diſcord becomes univerſal, and is ſpread through the whole MATION, FLAME, &c. ſhore. Modern chymiſts and philoſophers have aſcribed a very exten The other males are alſo very irafcible; the cauſes of their five operation and uſe to phlogiſton, in the whole economy of diſputes are generally theſe. The firſt and moſt terrible is, when See the Articles BLOOD, NUTRITION, PLANT, PU an attempt is made by another to ſeduce one of their miſtreſſes, TREFACTION, VEGETATION, and the Syſtems of BOTANY, or a young female of the family. This infult produces a combat, CHYMISTY, and AEROLOGY. and the conqueror is immediately followed by the whole ſeraglio, A late author, however, in a diſcourſe on phlogiſton, has at who are ſure of deſerting the unhappy vanquiſhed. The ſecond tacked the generally received doctrine concerning phlogiſton; and reaſon of a quarrel is, when one invades the ſeat of another: he concludes with ſaying, that nothing true and certain is known the third ariſes from their interfering in the diſputes of others.--- concerning the nature of this principle. See on the ſubject of Theſe battles are very violent; the wounds they receive are very this article, Chymical Dict. Eng. edit. art. PHLOGISTON. Se- deep, and reſemble the cuts of a fabre. At the end of a fight nebier’s Mem. ſur le Phlogiſtique, &c. publiſhed in the abbé they fling themſelves into the ſea, to waſh away the blood. Rozier's Journal; and Prieſtley's Obſervations, &c. on Air, in The males are very fond of their young, but very tyrannical 5 vols. 8vo. paſſim. The ingenious and indefatigable Dr. towards the females ; if any body attempts to take their cub, the Prieſtley informs the editor, that from ſome late experiments not male ſtands on the defenſive, while the female makes off with the yet publiſhed, he has reaſon to conclude, that phlogiſton is fimply young in her mouth ; ſhould the drop it, the former inſtantly inflammable Air, in a ſtate of combination with any ſubſtance, quits his enemy, falls on her, and beats her againſt the ſtones, just as fixed air is contained in chalk, &c. With a view of till he leaves her for dead. As ſoon as the recovers, the comes aſcertaining the nature and reality of phlogiſten, he threw the fo- in the moſt fuppliant manner to the male, crawls to his feet, No. 128. * nature. Уу and PHO PHO and waſhes them with her tears he, in the mean time, ſtalks ver himſelf at the inſtant the lion was going to gorge him. Had about in the moſt inſulting manner; but in caſe the young one he once ſeized him, the man would infallibly have been loft: is carried off, he melts into the deepeſt aMiction, and ſhows all the animal would have carried him into the water as they uſually ſigns of extreme concern. It is probable that he feels his mis- do their prey, and there feaſted fortunes the more ſenſibly, as the female generally brings but fea this animal ſeized a pinguin, and devoured him inſtantane one at a time, never more than two. ouſly." They ſwim very ſwiftly, at the rate of ſeven miles an hour. Mr. Pennant deſcribes three ſeals of different ſpecies, which If wounded, they will feize on the boat, and carry it along with are called ſea-lions, viz. the phoca leonina, or hooded feal ; the vaſt impetuoſity, and oftentimes ſink it. They can continue a pboca leonina, or bottlenoſe ; and the beftia marina, or leonine long time under water. When they want to climb the rocks, ſeal. He differs in ſome particulars from the author juft quoted; they faſten with the fore-paws, and ſo draw themſelves up. and ſuch of our readers as deſire to know theſe differences, we They are very tenacious of life, and will live for a fortnight after refer to his works. receiving ſuch wounds as would immediately deſtroy any other 3. The vitulina, ſea-calf, or common feal, inhabits the Eu. animal. ropean ocean. It has a ſmooth head without external ears; and The Kamptſchatkans take them by harpooning, for they the common length is from five to fix feet. The fore-legs are never land on their ſhore. To the harpoon is faſtened a long deeply immerſed in the ſkin of the body: the hind legs are placed line, by which they draw the animal to tlie boat after it is ſpent in ſuch a in ſuch a manner as to point directly backwards : every with fatigue ; but in the chaſe; the hunters are very fearful of foot is divided into five toes ; and each of thefe connected too near an approach, left the animal ſhould faften on, and by a ſtrong and broad web, covered on both ſides with ſhort ſink their veffel. hair. The toes are furniſhed with ſtrong claws, well adapteut The uſes of them are not great. The fleſh of the old males to aſſiſt the animal in climbing the rocks it baſks on: the is rank and nauſeous ; that of the females is ſaid to refemble claws on the hind feet are ſlender and ſtraight ; except at the lamb ; of the young ones roaſted, a ſucking pig. The ſkins of ends, which are a little incurvated. The head and nofe are the young, cut out of the bellies of the dams, are eſteemed for broad and flat, like thoſe of the otter; the neck ſhort and thick ; cloathing, and are ſold for about three ſhillings and fourpence the eyes large and black; in lieu of external ears, it has two cach; thoſe of the old, for only four ſhillings. ſmall orifices : the noſtrils are oblong : on each ſide the noſe are 2. The leonina, ſea-lion, or bottlenoſe, is found near the ſeveral long ſtiff hairs; and above each eye are a few of the fame fouth pole. One variety of this ſpecies is deſcribed at ſome kind. The form of the tongue is fo fingular, that were other length by the publiſher of Anſon's voyages. However, accord notes wanting, that alone would diſtinguiſh it from all other qua- ing to others who have written on this ſubject, the name of fea drupeds ; being forked, or ſlit at the end. The cutting teeth are lion belongs not fo properly to this as to another, which has a ſingular in reſpect to their number, being fix in the upper jaw, mane like a true lion. Of theſe we have the following account and only four in the lower. It has two canine teeth above and from Pernety's Hiſtorical Journal. “ The hair that covers the below, and on each ſide of the jaw five grinders ; the total 34. back part of the head, neck, and ſhoulders, is at leaſt as long The whole animal is covered with ſhort hair, very clofely ſet to- as the hair of a goat. It gives this amphibious animal an air of gether. the colour of that on the body is generally duſky, ſpotted reſemblance to the common lion of the foreſt, excepting the dif- irregularly with white; on the belly white: but ſeals vary great- ference of fize. The fea-lions of the kind I ſpeak of are 25 ly in their marks and colours, and ſome have been found entirely feet in length, and from 19 to 20 in their greateſt circumference. white. See Plate II. Genus II. Species 3. In other reſpects they reſemble the common ſea-lions. Thoſe The feal is common on moſt of the rocky ſhores of Great Bri- of the fmall kind have a head reſembling a maſtiff's, with cloſe tain and Ireland, eſpecially on the northern coaſts; in Wales, cropt cars. it frequents the coaſts of Caernarvonſhire and Angleſey. They The teeth of the fea-lions which have manes, are much inhabit all the European ſeas, even to the extreme north; are larger and more folid than thoſe of the reſt. In theſe, all the teeth found far within the arctic circle, in the feas both of Europe and which are inſerted into the jaw-bone are hollow. They have Aſia, and are even continued to thoſe of Kamtſchatka. It preys only four large oncs, two in the lower and two in the upper jaw. entirely on fiſh, and never moleſts the fea-fowl: for numbers of The reſt are not even fo large as thoſe of a horſe. I brought each are often ſeen floating on the waves, as if in company. Seals home one belonging to the true ſea-lion, which is at leaſt three eat their prey beneath the water ; and, in caſe they are devouring inches in diameter, and ſeven in length, though not one of the any very oily fiſh, the place is known by a certain ſmoothneſs of largeſt. We counted 22 of the ſame fort in the jaw-bone of the waves immediately above. The power of oil in ſtilling the one of theſe lions, where five or ſix were wanting. waves excited by a ſtorm is mentioned by Pliny; the moderns “ Theſe fea-lions that have manes are not more miſchievous have made the experiment with ſucceſs; and thereby made one or formidable than the others. They are equally unwieldy and advance towards eradicating the vulgar prejudices againſt that heavy in their motions ; and are rather diſpoſed to avoid than to great and elegant writer. fall upon thoſe who attack them. Both kinds live upon fiſh and Seals are excellent ſwimmers, and ready divers; and are very water-fowl, which they catch by ſurpriſe. They bring forth and bold when in the ſea, ſwimming careleſsly enough about boats : ſuckle their young ones among the corn-flags, where they retire their dens or lodgments are in hollow rocks or caverns near the at night, and continue to give them fuck till they are large fea, but out of the reach of the tide : in the ſummer they will enough to go to ſea. to ſea. In the evening you ſee them aſſembling in come out of the water, to baſk or ſleep in the fun on the top of herds upon the ſhore, and calling their dams in cries fo much large ſtones or ſhivers of rocks; and that is the opportunity our like lambs, calves, and goats, that, unleſs appriſed of it, you countrymen take of ſhooting them: if they chance to eſcape, they would caſily be deceived. The tongue of theſe animals is The tongue of thefe animals is haſten towards their proper element, flinging ſtones and dirt very good eating. But behind them as they ſcramble along ; at the ſame time expreſ- “ It is ſaid that their fleſh is not abſolutely diſagreeable. I ſing their fears by piteous moans : but if they happen to be over- have not tafted it: but the oil which is extracted from their taken, they will make a vigorous defence with their feet and greaſe is of great uſe. teeth till they are killed. They are taken for the ſake of their “ The ſkins of the ſea lions are uſed chiefly in making port- ſkins, and for the oil their fat yields: the former fell for 48. or manteaus, and in covering trunks. When they are tanned, they 45. 6d. a-piece ; which, when dreſſed, are very uſeful in cover- have a grain almoſt like Morocco. They are not ſo fine, but ing trunks, making waiſtcoats, ſhot-pouches, and ſeveral other are leſs liable to tear, and keep freſh a longer time. They make conveniences. We remember fome years ago to have feen a good ſhoes and boots, which, when well ſeaſoned, are water young feal in ſome degree domeſticated. It was taken at a little proof. diſtance from the ſea, and was generally kept in a veſſel full of « One day Mr. Guyot and fome others brought on board ſalt water ; but ſometimes it was allowed to crawl about the five fea-lioneſſes. They were about ſeven feet long, and three houſe, and even to approach the fire. Its natural food was re- and a half in circumference, though their inteſtines were drawn. gularly procured for it, and it was taken to the ſea every day, Theſe gentlemen had landed on a ſmall iſland, where they found and thrown in from a boat. It uſed to ſwim after the boat, and a prodigious number of theſe animals, and killed about one hun always allowed itſelf to be taken back. It lived thus for feve- dred of them with ſticks. No other weapon is neceſſary on theſe ral weeks; and we doubt not would have lived much longer occaſions. A ſingle blow with a bludgeon, three feet or three feet had it not been ſometimes too roughly uſed by the boys who and a half long, almoſt full at the noſe of theſe animals, knocks took it to and from the ſea. them down, and kills them on the ſpot. This is not altogether The fleſh of thefe animals, and even of porpoiſes, formerly the caſe with the males : their fize is prodigious. Our gentlemen found a place at the tables of the great , as appears from the bill encountered two of them for a long time, with the fame wea of fare of that vaſt feaſt that Archbiſhop Neville gave in the pons, without being able to overcome them. They lodged three reign of Edward IV. in which is ſeen that ſeveral were provided balls in the throat of one while he opened his mouth to defend on the occaſion. They couple about April, on large rocks or himſelf, and three muſket ſhot in his body. The blood guſhed fmall iſlands not remote from the ſhore, and bring forth in from his wounds like wine from a tap. However, he crawled thoſe vaſt caverns that are frequent on our coaſts: they com- into the water and diſappeared. A failor attacked the other, monly bring two at a time, which in their infant ſtate arc co- and engaged him for a long time, ſtriking him on the head with vered with a whitiſh down or woolly ſubſtance. The ſeal-hun- a bludgeon, without being able to knock him down : the ſailor ters in Caithneſs ſay, that their growth is ſo ſudden, that in fell down very near his antagoniſt, but had the dexterity to reco nine tides from their birth (108 hours) they will become as ac- PH Ố PHO fowler may kill as many tive as their parents. On the coaſt of that country are immenſe will not riſe at the report of a gun ; nor is it any warning to caverns opening into the ſea, and running ſome hundreds of thoſe who ſurvive, that they fee others killed by their ſide: ſo yards beneath the land. Theſe are the reſort of ſeals in the that, by keeping himſelf out of fight, a fowler breeding time, where they continue till their young are old as he pleaſes. See Plate V. Genus 82. enough to go to ſea, which is in about fix or ſeven weeks. The PHONICS, Quin, derived from pwrn, voice, or ſound, the firſt of theſe caves is near the Ord, the laſt near Thrumfter : doctrine or ſcience of SOUNDS ; otherwiſe called ACOUSTICS. their entrance is ſo narrow as only to admit a boat ; their inſide For a copious explanation of the doctrine of Sounds, ſee the very ſpacious and lofty. In the month of October, or the be- Syſtem of Acoustics throughout. ginning of November, the ſeal-hunters enter the mouth of the PHOSPHAT, is a mineral found in Eſtremadura. It is of caverns about midnight, and rowing up as far as they can, they a whitiſh colour, and of great folidity, though not ſufficiently land; each of them being provided with a bludgeon, and pro hard to ſtrike fire with ſteel. If triturated in an iron mortar in perly ſtationed, they light their torches, and make a great noiſe, the dark, or even if two pieces of it be rubbed together, it be- which brings down the ſeals from the farther end in a confuſed comes luminous ; but when it has once loſt this property, it does body with fearful ſhrieks and cries : at firſt the men are obliged not, like ſome natural phoſphori, receive it again by being ex- to give way for fear of being overborne ; but when the firſt poſed to the rays of the ſun. If reduced to a very fine powder, crowd is paſt, they kill as many as ftraggle behind, chiefly the and laid on coals, it does not decrepitate, but burns with a beau- poung, by ſtriking them on the noſe ; a very ſlight blow on that tiful green light ; though, if the coals be very hot; and the pow- part diſpatches them. The The young feals of fix wecks age yield der coarſe, decrepitation will take place. more oil than their emaciated dams: above eight gallons have The phoſphat of ſoda is obtained by combining the phoſphoric been got from a ſingle whelp, which ſells from 6d. to gd. per acid with the mineral alkali. It has, we are told, been given gallon; the ſkins from 6d. to is. each. with ſucceſs as à purge ; and M. Pelletier thinks it may be ap- The natural hiſtory of this animal may be further elucidated plied to the foldering of metals inſtead of borax: and indeed it by the following extracts from a letter of the reverend Dr. Wil reſembles this ſubſtance ſo much in many of its properties, that liam Borlaſe, dated October the 24th, 1763. ( The feals are it has been ſuppoſed that phoſphoric acid is one of the conſti- feen in the greateſt plenty on the ſhores of Cornwall, in the tuent principles of borax. See the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, months of May, June, and July. They are of different ſizes ; Part I. Chap. 4. ſome as large as a cow, and from that downwards to a ſmall PHOSPHORUS, a name given to certain ſubſtances which calf. They feed on moſt forts of fiſh which they can maſter; ſhine in the dark without emitting heat. By this circumſtance and are ſeen ſearching for their prey near fhore, where the they are diſtinguiſhed from the eyrophori, which though they whiſtling-fiſh, wraws, and polacks reſort. They are very ſwift take fire on being expoſed to the air, are yet entirely deſtitute in their proper depth of water, dive like a ſhot, and in a trice of light before this expoſure. Phoſphori are divided into ſeveral riſe at fifty yards diſtance ; fo that weaker fiſhes cannot avoid kinds, known by the names of Bolognian Phoſphorus, Mr. Can- their tyranny except in ſhallow water. A perſon of the pariſh ton's Phoſphorus, Baldwin's Phoſphorus, Phoſphorus of Urine; of Sennan ſaw a feal in purſuit of a mullet (that ſtrong and ſwift &c. of which the laſt is by far the moſt remarkable both with fiſh); the ſeal turned it to and fro in deep water, as a grey reſpect to the quantity of light which it emits, and its property hound does a hare ; the mullet at laſt found it had no way to of taking fire and burning very fiercely upon being flightly heated eſcape, but by running into ſhoal water : the ſeal purſued, and or rubbed. Beſides thefe, however, it has been found that al- the former, to get more ſurely out of danger, threw itſelf on its moſt all terreſtrial bodies, upon being expoſed to the light, will ap- fide, by which means it darted into ſhoaler water than it could pear luminous for a little time in the dark, metals only excepted. have ſwam in with the depth of its paunch and fins, and ſo ef This points out a general diviſion of the phoſphori into two caped. The ſeal brings her young about the beginning of au claſſes ; namely, ſuch as require to be expoſed to the light either tumn : our fiſhermen have ſeen two ſucking their dam at the of the ſun, or of fome artificial fire, before they become lumi- fame time, as ſhe ſtood in the ſea in a perpendicular poſition.-- nous ; and ſuch as do not. Of the former kind are the Bolog- Their head in ſwimming is always above water, more ſo than nian phoſphorus, Mr. Canton's phoſphorus, the phoſphori from that of a dog. They ſleep on rocks ſurrounded by the ſea, or earths, &c. Of the latter kind are rotten wood, ſkins of fiſhes, on the leſs acceſſible parts of our cliffs left dry by the ebb of the and the phoſphorus of urine. To theſe we may add ſome other tide ; and if diſturbed by any thing, take care to tumble over ſubſtances which become luminous in another way ; viz. the the rocks into the ſea. They are extremely watchful, and ne maſs which remains after the diſtillation of volatile fal ammo. ver ſleep long without moving ; feldom longer than a minute ; niac with chalk, loaf ſugar, and the phoſphorus of urine dif- then raiſe their heads, and if they hear or ſee nothing more than folved in ſpirit of wine. The firſt, which is a compoſition of the ordinary, lie down again, and ſo on, raiſing their heads a little, marine acid of the fal ammoniac with the chalk, after being fuſed and reclining them alternately in about a minute's time. Nature in a crucible, becomes luminous when ſtruck with any hard body; feems to have given them this precaution, as being unprovided white ſugar is luminous, when grated or ſeraped in the dark ; with auricles or external ears; and conſequently not hearing and the ſolution of phoſphorus in ſpirit of wine is luminous only very quick, nor from any great diſtance." when dropped into water, and even then the light is only per- There animals are ſo very uſeful to the inhabitants of Green ceived where the drops fall into the liquid. One part of phof- land and other arctic people, that they may be called their phorus communicates this property to 600,000 parts of ſpirit of flocks. There are ſeveral other ſpecies of this Genus, and a wine. There is a remarkable difference between the light of variety of curious particulars reſpecting them, which our limits rotten wood, fiſhes, and that of phoſphorus of urine, even when permit us not to give. Such of our readers, however, as with it is not in an ignited ſtate ; for this laſt does not ceaſe to be lu- for further information on this ſubject, will find themſelves am minous even when included within an exhauſted receiver, the ply gratified by a careful peruſal of what Mr. Pennant has written contrary of which happens to rotten wood and fiſhes. If air is on the ſubject, from whoſe labours we have extracted much of ſtrongly blown upon this phoſphorus from a pair of bellows, it our article. See his Hiſtory of Quadrupeds, Vol. II. p. 518, will extinguiſh its light for fome time, which is not the caſe with 536. his Aratic Zoology, Vol. I. p. 151-177. and his Britiſh the other kinds. When kept in water, and placed in a warm Zoology, as alſo the ſeveral authors whoſe works he quotes.- air, the phoſphorus of urine diſcharges ſuch large and bright See alſo Bankes's Geography, p. 584. flaſhes into the air above it, as are apt to ſurpriſe and even PHOENIX, Pouve, in aſtronomy, a conſtellation of the frighten thoſe who are unacquainted with it. Theſe corruſea- fouthern hemiſphere; unknown to the ancients, and in viſible tions are contracted in their paſſage through the water, but ex- in our northern parts. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. pand as ſoon as they get above it; however, the experiment can PHOENICOPTERUS, or FLAMINGO, in ornithology, a only be tried to advantage in warm weather, and in a cylindrical Genus of birds belonging to the order of Grallæ. The beak is glaſs not above three quarters filled with water. naked, teethed, and bent as if it was broken ; the noſtrils are The phenomena exhibited by the earthy phoſphori are very linear; the feet are palmated, and four-toed. There is but one curious, both on account of the ſingular circumſtances in which ſpecies ; viz. the Bahamenfis, a native of Africa and America. they exhibit their light, and the varieties obſerved in the light This bird reſembles the heron in ſhape, excepting the bill, which itſelf. All theſe, as has been already mentioned, emit no light is of a very fingular form. It is two years old before it arrives till they have been firſt expoſed to the light of the fun, or ſome at its perfect colour ; and then it is entirely red, excepting the other luminous body After that, they are lumineus in the quill-feathers, which are black. A full grown one is of equal A full grown one is of equal dark for a conſiderable time; but by degrees their light dies weight with a wild-dack; and when it ſtands crect, it is five away, and they emit no more till after another expoſure to the feet high. The feet are webbed. The fleſh is delicate ; and ſun. But if this happens to be too long continued, they are moſt reſembles that of a partridge in taſte. The tongue, above then irrecoverably ſpoiled. The ſame thing will happen from any other part, was in the higheſt eſteem with the luxurious Ro- being too much heated without any expoſure to light. Indeed, Theſe birds make their nefts on hillocks in ſhallow if a phoſphorus, which has juſt ceaſed to be luminous, be heated, water ; on which they fit with their legs extended down, like a it will again emit light without any expoſure to the fun; but man ſitting on a ſtool. They breed on the coaſt of Cuba, and by this its phoſphoric quality is weakened, and will at laſt be the Bahama iſlands in the Weſt-Indies; and frequent ſalt-water deſtroyed. Indeed, theſe phoſphori are fo tender, and impatient only. By reaſon of the particular ſhape of its bill, this bird, in either of light or heat, that the beſt method of rendering them eating, twiſts its neck from fide to ſide, and makes the upper luminous occaſionally is by diſcharging an electric bottle near mandible touch the ground. Theſe birds are very ſtupid, and them. The light of the fath immediately kindles the phof- phorus, mans. PHR PHY NERALOGY, phorous, and it continues luminous for a conſiderable time, after the phrenitis to conſiſt in an inflammation in the meninges of the which it may again be revived by another flaſh, and ſo on. brain; and diſtinguiſh it from the paraphrenitis, which they However, with all the care that can be taken, theſe phoſphori fuppoſe to be an inflammation of the diaphragm. For deſcription are very far from being perpetual ; nor has any method been yet cauſes, prognoſis, and cure, ſee the Syſtem, Genus 10. fallen upon to render them ſo. PHTHIRIASIS, Ofelp!cou, formed from plare, loufe, in me- The fingularities in the light of the phoſphori abovementioned dicine, the morbus pedicularis, or louſy diſeaſe, wherewith chil- are, that they emit light of many different and moſt beautiful co dren, and even ſometimes adults, are afflicted. Its cauſe is in lours. This difference of colours ſeems to be natural to them ; the ſeeds or ova of that vermin laid in the cuticle, which here, for ſome will at firſt emit a green, others a red, others a violet, happening to prove a proper nidus, cheriſhes and foſters, the feed &c. at their formation. However, the beſt kinds agree in this ſo as to hatch it. The linen cloths, uſed by goldſmiths to wipe ſtrange property, that if they are expoſed to a red light, they their veſſels with after gilding, are excellent againſt the phthiri emit à red light in the dark , and the fame of other colours.- aſis, on account of the mercury they contain ; they are to be But this muſt not be underſtood without limitation ; nor is the applied by rubbing the child's head. phoſphoreal light at any time ſo bright as the luminous body, PHTHISIS, a pulmonary conſumption, or a conſumption whatever it was by which it was kindled. Neither are we to ariſing from an ulcer, or other diſorder of the lungs, accompanied imagine, that any particular phoſphorus has a particular kind of with a ſlow hectic fever, which waſtes, extenuates, and con- light appropriated to it; for the ſame phoſphorous which at one ſumes the muſcular fleſh. For a copious deſcription, cauſes, and time emits a purple light, will at another perhaps emit a green, methods of cure, in the different kinds and ſtages of this malady, or a light of ſome other colour. fee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 20, Article PHTHISIS. Many entertaining experiments may be made with the various PHYSETER, or SPERMACETI-FISH, in the Syſtem of kinds of phoſphori, eſpecially with that of urine. This laſt, Mammalia. There are four ſpecies ; the moſt remarkable are, however, is ſometimes dangerous on account of the violence 1. The microps, or black-headed cachalot, with a long fin on the with which it burns. If diffolved in oil of cloves, it loſes this back, and the upper jaw conſiderably longer than the under one. property, but continues to be as luminous as before ; fo that this A fiſh of this kind was caſt aſhore on Cramond ifle, near Edin mixture, called liquid phoſphorus, may be uſed with fafety.- burgh, December 22d, 1769; its length was 54 feet; the penis As on fome occaſions it may be wiſhed to have it in powder, it is ſeven feet and a half long. Linnæus informs us, that this ſpe- proper to obſerve that this may be done with ſafety, by pouring cies purſues and terrifies the porpoiſes to ſuch a degree as often ſome hot water upon the phoſphorous in a glaſs mortar. The to drive them on ſhore. compound melts, and while in a ſoft ftate, is eaſily reducible to 2. The catodon, or round headed cachalot, with a fiſtula in powder of any degree of fineneſs. the fnout, and having no back fin. Of this ſpecies, a hundred Acid of PHOSPHORUS. This acid, called alſo the microcof- and two of different ſizes were caſt aſhore at one time, on one of mic acid, has already been deſcribed, and the properties apper the Orkney Iſles, the largeſt 24 feet in length. For the method taining to it in the ſyſtem of CHYMISTRY. Since that article Since that article of extracting the ſpermaceti from the brain of theſe creatures, ſee was written, however, it has been diſcovered by Mr. Schele, the Article SPERMACETI. that an acid capable of making phoſphorus is producible from PHYSICS, or NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. By the word calcined bones or hartſhorn, and the vitriolic acid. The pro- phyſics, in its moſt extenſive ſenſe, we underſtand The Science of ceſs for procuring this acid recommended by that gentleman the operations of nature, and of its productions. This definition was to diffolve the bones in nitrous acid ; afterwards to precipi- is alone ſufficient to inform us, what are the particular parts of tate the earth by means of the vitriolic acid ; to filter and eva- phyfics, and what are the means it employs to gain its ends.- porate the liquor to dryneſs ; and, after drying off the nitrous Thus NATURAL Hiſtory, or Zoology, BOTANY, and Mi- acid, the phoſphoric acid remains. This proceſs, however, is deſcribe thoſe bodies that nature produces as far expenſive on account of the waſte of nitrous acid ; and is like as they are diſcernible by our fenſes. So CHYMISTRY and wife very inconvenient, becauſe a great deal of the earthy matter EXPERIMENTAL Philoſophy diſcover to us, at leaſt in part, the continues diſſolved, even after the vitriolic acid is poured in, and compoſition of bodies, and the various alterations of which thoſe therefore the phoſphoric acid is never to be obtained pure ; for compoſitions are ſuſceptible. So General and Speculative Phy- which reaſon, the following proceſs is preferable. SICS draw from all theſe preliminary obſervations, from all theſe Take of calcined bones or hartſhorn, one pound; oil of vitriol, matters of fact, juſt conſequences relative to the univerſal laws 14 ounces. Let the bones be reduced to finè powder; then pour of nature, to the properties, forces, action, and eſſential qua- on the acid undiluted, and rub both together till they are as accu lities of bodies. rately mixed as poſſible. Having let them remain for ſome hours The object of phyſics being the examination of the whole in this ſituation, pour on as much water, ſtirring and diffolving frame of nature, ſo far as it is viſible and palpable to man, it is the lumps into which the maſs will now be concreted, till it is eaſily to conceive, that it muſt form the moſt extenſive branch all equally diſtributed through the liquid, and has the conſiſtence of human knowledge, ſeeing that the operations of nature are of thick gruel. Let it remain 24 hours, and then pour it into varied almoſt to infinity. To reduce this immenſe ſubject into a canvas cloth in order to let the liquor drain from it. This is fome order, philoſophers have begun by dividing all the produc- a very tedious operation, as freſh water muſt be continually pouring tions of this globe into three claſſes, which they call kingdoms, on till all the faline matter is waſhed off. When this is done, and diſtinguiſh into the vegetable, the mineral, and animal king- pour into the liquid a quantity of cauſtic volatile alkali, which dom. Natural hiſtory, properly ſo called, teaches therefore all will occaſion a copious precipitation ; for the earth of bones is that is come to the knowledge of man in each of theſe kingdoms. much leſs ſtrongly attracted by acids than even the cauſtic volatile Chymiſtry reſolves all bodies, and conſequently ſhows the manner alkali. The liquid being now filtered a ſecond time, which will in which they are compounded. Philoſophers have likewiſe dif- be done with fufficient eaſe, and afterwards evaporated, there covered that the univerſe is compoſed of elements, of which there remains a maſs compofed of phoſphoric acid, and vitriolic fal am are four, EARTH, Water, Fire, and AIR. Experimentai moniac. By increaſing the fire, the latter is diſſipated in vapour; philoſophy by numberleſs eſſays and obſervations, explains the and if the proceſs has been ſucceſsful, four ounces or more of manner in which theſe elements operate upon each other, and the pure phoſphoric acid will remain. effects that they produce. The knowledge of thoſe heavenly bo- With regard to the properties of this acid, it is not yet aſcer- dies, whoſe various courſes fill the vaſt expanſe of the firmament, tained whether they are exactly the ſame with the microcoſmic and of their properties and courſes either real or apparent, is acid or not. Indeed, as far as yet appears, they ſeem to be dif- compriſed in the ſcience of ASTRONOMY. ferent; and there are very ſtrong reaſons for fuppoſing that the All the ancient oriental nations including the Hebrews and phoſphoric acid thus produced is no other than the vitriolic altered the Egyptians, were mere novices in phyſics : and their igno- by its combination with the earth of bones. rance ſeems to prove the infancy of the world The Greeks, PHRASE, is uſed for a ſhort ſentence, or ſmall fet or circuit men of a ſubtle and inquiſitive genius, went further, and ſome- of words, conſtructed together. In this ſenſe, phraſes are divided times gueſſed right enough, though very rarely. Empedocles, into complete and incomplete. Phraſes are complete where are for example, who is ranked by ſome among the Pythagoreans, a noun and a verb, each in its proper function ; i. e. where the profeſſed the ſyſtem of the four elements in nature, and added noun expreſſes a fubject, and the verb the thing affirmed of it. thereto two principles, which he called principium amicitiæ,and Incomplete phraſes, are thoſe where the noun and the verb toge- principium contentionis. The firſt, according to him, is the ther only do the office of a noun, as conſiſting of ſeveral words, cauſe of the coalition of beings; and the ſecond, that of their without aſſuming any thing, and which might be expreffed in a receſſion or feparation. Was not this derived from the ſame ſingle word. Thus, that which is true, is an incomplete phraſe, origin as the celebrated ſyſtem of the attraction and repulſion of which might be expreſſed in one word, truth; as that which is bodies? Whatever was the cauſe, the progreſs of phyſics has true ſatisfies the mind ; i. e. truth ſatisfies the mind. For an ever been flow; and we are aſtoniſhed when we fee ancient explanation of grammatical reſolution of a ſentence into its differ-writers of the greateſt genius, as Plutarch and a hundred others, ent parts of ſpeech, ſee the cloſe of the Syſtem of GRAMMAR, make uſe of ſuch wretched reaſoning when they mention thoſe under the article PRAXIS. ſubjects that relate to phyfics. PHRENITIS, or PHRENZY, in medicine, a conſtant and Among the Romans, Lucretius and Cicero have indeed written vehement delirium, or diſtraction ; accompanied with an acute on theſe ſubjects : but they have only related the opinions of the fever, raving, waking, &c. It differs from the mania and me Greeks, which were not worthy of great regard. Seneca and lancholy, as theſe are without fevers. Phyſicians generally make | Pliny went further; and we are obliged to the latter for the uſeful obfervations PHY PHY obferrations, which he has made on many parts of this ſcience, It does not appear that the ancients extended the compaſs of although he is frequently too credulous. Pliny, moreover, does phyſiognomy beyond man, or at leaſt animated nature: But the not belong to the claſs of dogmatic authors on phyſics, as he gives ſtudy of that art was revived in the middle ages, when, milled pro- only an hiſtorical account of theſe matters. bably by the comprehenſiveneſs of the etymological meaning of the The firſt ages of Chriſtianity were the ages of darkneſs for all word, or incited by the prevalent taſte for the marvellous, thoſe the ſciences and the arts. It was not till very late, that Bacon baron who treated of the ſubject ſtretched the range of their ſpeculation of Verulam, and ſome of his cotemporaries, produced the firſt far beyond the ancient limits. The extenſion of the ſignification ſparks of thoſe fair lights that have ſince blazed forth by the happy of the term was adopted univerſally by thoſe naturaliſts who ad- labours of their ſucceſſors. Gaſſendus, Deſcartes, Rudiger, mitted the theory of ſignatures, and thus phyſiognomy implied the Newton, Leibnitz, Wolff, and a multitude of other celebrated knowledge of internal properties by external appearances. Boyle philoſophers, have diffuſed theſe lights over philoſophy.; and all admits the ſame ſignification. At preſent phyfiognomy ſeems to theſe great men have at laft eſtabliſhed that method of treating it mean no more than “a knowledge of the moral character and ex- which is alone able to diſcover the truth. This method is perfectly tent of intellectual powers of human beings, from their external fimple. They begin with eſtabliſhing facts by means of expe appearance and manners.” riments and obſervations, and draw from thence conſequences This, at leaſt, we dare ſay, that of all the fanciful arts of the an- relative to their cauſes and principles. For, as ſoon as experience cients, diffuſed among the moderns, there is none has ſo much or the ſenſes have diſcovered what paſſes in nature, the mind en foundation in nature as this. There is an apparent correſpond- deavours to diſcover what cannot be diſtinguiſhed by the ſenſes ; ence between the face and the mind. The features and linea- that is to ſay, what may be the cauſe or the end of each pheno ments of the one are directed by the motions and affections of the menon or operation in nature; and by this means it conſtantly other. There is even a peculiar arrangement of the members of combines the accuracy of obſervation with the fagacity and rigour the face, a peculiar diſpoſition of the countenance, to each parti- of argument. cular affection, perhaps to each particular idea of the mind. It is certain, that a diligent obſervation of the ſubjects of Mine 9 The foundation of phyſiognomy is this : the different objects RALOGY and ZOOLOGY, united with the ſtudy of BOTANY, af that preſent themſelves to the ſenſes, nay, the different ideas that fords every poſible information relative to natural hiſtory in ariſe in the mind, do each make ſome impreſſion on the ſpirits; and general ; that is, we thereby acquire the hiſtorical knowledge of all each an impreſſion correſpondent or adequate to its cauſe; there- the beings of this globe, that nature produces. EXPERIMENTAL fore each a different impreſſion. Now, if by repeated acts, or the Philoſophy, aided by Chemistry, and ſeveral parts of the Mathe frequent entertaining of a favourite paffion, or vice, which natural MATICS, diſcloſe the compoſition of theſe beings, and the ſprings temperament has hurried or cuſtom dragged one to, the face is of by which nature operates in their production, and in making them ten put in that poſture which attends ſuch acts; the animal-fpirits produce, in their turn, the mutual effects of the elements, &c. will make ſuch patent paſſages through the nerves (in which the ASTRONOMY, of which we have in like manner treated, explains eſſence of a habit conſiſts), that the face is ſometimes unalterably the nature of the celeſtial bodies and their courſes : and all theſe ſet in that poſture, or at leaſt falls inſenſibly and mechanically into various ſciences, united, conduct us at laſt, as far as the human that poſture, unleſs ſome preſent object diſtort it therefrom, or diſ- mind is able to proceed, to the determination of the general laws of fimulation hide it. This reaſoning is confirmed by obſervation. nature in the order of the univerſe; from whence refult univerſal Thus we ſee great drinkers with eyes generally ſet to the noſe ; and ſpeculative Phyſics, of which it remains to give a curſory idea. the adducent muſcles being often employed to put them in that This ſcience, which for ſome thouſand years has been juſtly called poſture, in order to view their loved liquor in the glaſs in the time Speculative, ſeeing that it has been founded altogether on vain ſpecu of drinking; when thoſe muſcles are alſo denominated bibitory lations, and fuppofitions merely ideal, is at length ſupported by ex muſcles. Thus alſo laſcivious perſons are remarkable for the ocu- periments and obſervations that bear the ſtamp of manifeſt demon lorum mobilis petulantia, as Petronius calls it. Hence we may ac- ftrations. It now forms no ſyſtem, admits of no hypotheſis, but count for the quakers expecting face waiting the ſpirit, the moſt ſuch whoſe veracity and certainty have been previouſly demon melancholy face of moſt ſectaries, the ſtudious face of men of great ſtrated. For which purpofe it calls to its affiſtance all the ſubor application of mind, &c. In effect, does their need much penetra- dinate ſciences, and makes uſe of their operations in the inveſtiga tion to diſtinguiſh the fierce look of the veteran ſoldier, the con- tion and eſtabliſhment of its principles. tentious look of the practiſed pleader, the folemn look of the minif- As MINERALOGY, BOTANY, Zoology, CHYMISTRY, ANA ter of ſtate, &c.ie TOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, and alınoſt all the other parts of PHYSIC, Within theſe few years, M. Lavater of Zurich has attempted to GEOGRAPHY, EXPERIMENTAL Phyloſophy, all the particular revive the trade of phyſiognomy, and publiſhed a quarto volume on ſciences which are compriſed under the general denomination of the certainty and utility of the art. His reaſons for believing in it, MATHEMATICS; all theſe have relation to general phyſics, and beſides thoſe already given, are to the following purpoſe, “Every each of them concurs more or leſs to furniſh materials for its ſub moment we are acting upon phyſiognomical principles, without line operations. When, by the aſſiſtance of the labours of being aware of it; and not men only, but the brutes alfo, even, theſe, phyſics has eſtabliſhed the veracity of facts, it then applies inſects, both know their moſt convenient food, and their ene- the moſt ſubtile, abſtract, and profound ratiocination, to draw from mies, by the outſide. What are we doing when we chooſe out thence juſt conſequences, and to eſtabliſh general principles, fome fruits as the beſt, or when we prefer one horſe to another, founded on theſe facts, relative to the univerſal laws of nature ; but judging, from the outſide, of the internal qualities? We to the celeſtial bodies, and the true order of the univerſe; to the then certainly act the phyſiognomiſt. That every man is undoubt- elements, and their reciprocal action; to meteors; to bodies that edly a natural phyſiognomiſt, is ſtill more apparent from confider- are both viſible and trangible ; to the reciprocal action of palpable ing the effects which reſult from the firſt ſight of perſons unknown. bodies; to the generation of beings in general, and of man in par We are often much inclined to tell our friends, that we do not like ticular; to every production of nature in all the three kingdoms : the man before us, although we be in no degree acquainted with in a word, it endeavours to account, as far as the weak lights of him. Whoever is an attentive obſerver of what paſſes in his own the human underſtanding are capable of accounting, for all the mind, knows that he no ſooner fees any perſon, than certain at- phenomena of heaven and earth. See all the abovementioned tendant ideas ſucceed the firſt impreſſion, which involve nothing ſciences ſeverally treated as they occur in the Syſtems, and under leſs than a judgment over his diſpoſitions of mind, ſo far that we the ſeveral articles in the order of the alphabet. pronounce him to be of a quite different caſt from ſome others of our PHYSIOGNOMY, the art of knowing the humour, tempera- acquaintance. We cannot, in every caſe, tell exactly why we judge ment, or diſpoſition of a perſon, from obſervation of the lines of thus, whether it be from his figure, from his eyes, or from his noſe. his face, and the characters of its members or features. The word Nor can we always determine, whether the impreſſion be not from is formed from the Greek QUOIS, nature,” and different ideas complicated. This is not to be learned by rule; we know.” Baptiſta Porta and Robert Fludd are the principal mo judge only from a feeling acquired by experience. As phyſiogno- dern authors on phyſiognomy. The ancient ones are the ſophiſts mical practice is general, it cannot be but founded in nature; and Adamantius, and Ariſtotle ; the phyſiognomy of which laſt we have one ſhould think, therefore, that it poſſibly might be the ſubject of tranflated into Latin by De Lacuna.se ſcience. Does not practice always precede theoretical know- This fcience therefore appears to have occupied much of More the attention of ancient philoſophers, and which, ſince the This work gave occaſion to M. Formey's attack upon the revival of learning, has in a great degree been diſregard-ſcience in the Berlin Tranſactions for 1775. Formey ſtrenuouſly ed. Till of late it has ſeldom in modern times been mentioned, controverts the extent aſſigned by Lavater to his favourite except in conjunction with the exploded arts of magic, alchemy, ſcience. and judicial aſtrology. Within the two laſt centuries, no doubt, PHYSIOLOGY, is a Greek word, which, in ſtrict etymo- the bounds of human knowledge have been greatly extended by logy, ſignifies that which diſcourſes of nature: but in its common means of the patient purſuit of fact and experiment, initead of the ufe, it is reſtricted to that branch of phyſical ſcience which treats bafty adoption of conjecture and hypotheſis. We have certainly of the different functions and properties of living bodies; while diſcovered many of the ancient ſyſtems to be merely creatures of by living bodies are meant thoſe which are by a certain organized imagination. Perhaps, however, in ſome inſtances, we have de ſtructure enabled to grow and propagate their kind. By this de- cided too rapidly, and reje&ed real knowledge, which we would finition, phyſiology muſt neceſſarily have for its object the expla- have found it tedious and troubleſome to acquire. Such has been nation of that internal organical economy in plants and animals, the fate of the ſcience of phyſiognomy; which certainly merits to which nature has deviſed for the preſervation of the individual, and be conſidered in a light very different fron alchemy and thoſe other for the continuance and propagation of the ſpecies. It is naturally fanciful ſtudies with which it had accidentally been coupled. divided into two kinds, particular and general. The former treats * CS VivWrua, I ledge?” No. 123, 'Z z of PIK PIL Genus 31. years of of the properties and functions of the individual or ſpecies, as may black ribbon and two ſteal ſeals were found in his ftomach, which, be ſeen in the Syſtem of ANATOMY; the latter treats of thoſe by the maker's name, &c. was found to belong to a perſon who functions and properties which are general or common to all liv had been drowned ſix weeks before. For the moſt approved me- ing bodies, thods of catching this fiſh, the baits, ſeaſons, &c. See the Article ANGLING. To the genuine naturaliſts no ſubject preſents ſuch a field of amuſement and inſtruction. When as complete as the ſtate of co PILCHARD, in Ichthyology, a fiſh which has a general like- temporary ſcience will admit, it will exhibit a general reſult of all neſs to the herring, but differs in ſome few particulars. The emo- luments that accrue to the inhabitants of that country. are great, and thoſe experiments and obſervations that have purpoſely been made or occaſionally contributed to illuſtrate the phenomena of animated are beſt expreſſed in the words of Dr. W. Rorlaſe, in his account matter; and when it ſhall reach that ſummit of perfection to which of the Pilchard Fiſhery. “It employs a great number of men on the efforts of genius may carry it, it may be enabled to diffuſe a the ſea, training them thereby to naval affairs; employs men, light, of which the naturaliſt of the preſent day can have no juſt women, and children, at land, in ſalting, preſfing, waſhing, and or adequate conception: Particularly in phyſic, anatomy, botany, cleaning, in making boats, nets, ropes, caſks, and all the trades de and in natural hiſtory, its happy effects may be numerous and pending on their conſtruction and ſale. The poor is fed with the great. On many occaſions it may there introduce order for con offals of the captures; the land with the refuſe of the fiſh and ſalt; fuſion, certainty for doubt; and may be expected to enthrone ſci the merchant finds the gains of commiſſion and honeit commerce; ence in various places which are now occupied by fancy and con the fiſherman, the gains of the fiſh. Ships are often freighted jecture., hither with ſalt, and into foreign countries with the fiſh, carrying PIA Mater, in Anatomy, called alſo mater tenuis and meninx off at the fame time part of our tin. The numbers that are taken tenuis, a fine coat, or membrane, immediately inveſting the brain, at one ſhooting out of the nets is amazingly great. Mr. Pennant and lying under the DURA mater. It is a fine thin membrane ad fays, that Dr. Borlaſe aſſured him, that on the 5th of October 1767, hering ſo cloſely, and inſinuating itſelf in ſuch a manner, into all there were at one time incloſed in St. Ives's Bay 7000 hogſheads, the folds and anfractuous parts of the brain, that it is ſcarce to be each hogſhead containing 35,000 fith, in all 245,000,000. ſeparated from it. See the Syſtem, Part VI. Sect. I. PILES, in Medicine, a diſeaſe by phyſicians called hæmor- PICA, in Ornithology, a ſpecies of the genus Corvus. For rhoids. For deſcription, cauſes, prognoſis and cure, ſee the Syſtem. deſcription of the Genus, ſee CORVUS. PICÆ, the name of an order of birds, in the Syſtem of Orni PILGRIM, one who travels through foreign countries to viſit thology. For the characteriſtic and general defcription, ſee the holy places, and to pay his devotion to the relics of dead faints. Syſtem. For repreſentation of the ſeveral genera, ſee Plate I. The humour of going on pilgrimage anciently prevailed exceed- PICUS, the WOODPECKER, in Ornithology, a genus belong- ingly; particularly about the time of the croiſades. See the article ing to the order of picæ. The beak is ſtraight, and conſiſts of many CROISADES. Pilgrimages were moſt in vogue after the end of the ſides, and like a wedge at the point. There are 21 fpecies, prin eleventh century, when every one was for viſiting places of de- cipally diſtinguiſhed by their colour. Theſe birds feed entirely on votion, not excepting kings and princes themſelves; and even infects; and their principal action is that of climbing up and down biſhops made no difficulty of being abſent from their churches on the bodies or boughs of trees: for the firſt purpoſe they are pro- the ſame account. The places moſt viſited were Jeruſalem, Rome, vided with a long ſlender tongue, armed with a ſharp bony end, Compoſtella and Tours; but the greateſt number now reſort to barbed on each ſide, which by the means of a curious apparatus Loretto, in order to viſit the chamber of the Bleffed Virgin, in of muſcles they can exert at pleaſure, darting it to a great length which ſhe was born, and brought up her Son Jeſus, till he was into the clifts of the bark, transfixing and drawing out the inſects twelve age. This chamber, it is pretended, was carried by that lurk there. They make their neſts in the hollows of trees: in angels into Dalmatia, about the year 1291, and afterwards in the order therefore to force their way to thoſe cavities, their bills are ſame manner tranſported to Loretto, where a magnificent cathedral formed ſtrong, very hard, and wedgelike at the end. Dr. Derham is built over it. In this chamber is the image of the Bleſſed Virgin, obferves, that a neat ridge runs along the top, as if an artiſt had almoſt covered with pearls and diamonds, and round the itatue deſigned it for ſtrength and beauty; yet it has not power to pene there is a kind of rain-bow, formed of precious ſtones of various trate a found tree: their perforation of any tree is a warning to the colours. Five hundred thouſand pilgrims have fometimes reſorted owner to throw it down. to this houſe in one year, in order to pay their devotions before this Theſe birds make their neſts in the hollows of trees; and lay glorious image. Several of the principal orders of knighthood five or fix eggs, of a beautiful ſemi-tranſparent white. were eſtabliſhed in favour of pilgrims going to the Holy Land, to preſentation, fee Plate II. Genus 21. ſecure them from the violences and inſults of the Saracens and Guinea Pig, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the Genus Mus. Arabs, &c. Such were the orders of the knights Templars, the For deſcription of the Genus, &c. fee the Article Mus. For knights Hoſpitalers, knights of Malta, &c. The MAHOMETANS repreſentation of this ſpecie, fee Plate VII. Genus 21. Spe are commanded in the Koran to perform a pilgrimage to Mecca. cies 1. I Wow This is one of the capital points of their religion, and therefore a PIGEON, the Engliſh name of the Genus Columba, in the prodigious cavalcade of pilgrims annually go thither, in the com- Linnæan fyftem of Ornithology. The characters of which are, pany of thoſe who are ſent with the grand feignior's preſents to the that the tongue is whole and even; the beak ſtraight, and ſcurfy tomb of Mahomet. at the baſe; the noſtrils long, and covered externally with a tumid In every country where popery was eſtabliſhed, pilgrimages membrane. Linnæus enumerates forty ſpecies. Varro obſerves, were common; and in thoſe countries which are ſtill popiſh, they that they derive their Latin name columba from their voice or coo continue. In England, the ſhrine of St. Thomas à Becket was ing. They were and ſtill are in moſt parts of our iſland, in a ſtate the chief reſort of the pious; and in Scotland, St. Andrew's; of nature; they breed in holes of rocks and hollows of trees. where, as tradition informs us, was depoſited a leg of the holy They are gregarious in their nature, lay only two eggs, and breed apoſtle. In Ireland they ſtill continue; for, from the beginning of many times in the year, ſo that it is ſaid, fourteen thouſand ſeven May till the middle of Auguſt every year, crowds of popiſh peni- hundred and fixty may be produced in four years from a ſingle tents from all parts of that country refort to an iſland near the cen- pair; they bill in their courtſhip; the male and female fit by turns tre of Lough-fin, or White Lake, in the county of Donnegal, to and feed their young; they caſt their proviſion out of their craw aw the amount of 3000 or 4000. Theſe are moſtly of the poorer fort, into the young ones mouths; they drink by continual draughts and many of them are proxies for thoſe who are richer; ſome of like quadrupeds, and their notes are mournful or plaintive. which, however, together with ſome of the prieſts and biſhops on Many of them are obſerved to migrate into the ſouth of Eng- occaſion, make their appearance there . When the pilgrim comes land not appearing with us till November, and retiring in the within ſight of the holy lake, he muſt uncover his hands and feetz ſpring. Their ſummer haunts are probably in Sweden. The and thus walk to the water fide, and is taken to the iſland for fix- varieties produced from the domeſtic pigeon are very numerous and pence. Here there are two chapels and 15 other houſes; to which extremely elegant; they are diſtinguiſhed by names expreffive of are added confeſſionals, fo contrived, that the prieſt cannot ſee the their ſeveral properties, ſuch as TUMBLERS, CARRIERS, JACO perſon confeffing, The penance varies according to the circum- BINES, CROPPERS, POWTERS, RUNTS, TURBITS, OWLS, NUNS, ſtances of the penitent; during the continuance of which (which &c. For repreſentation, ſee Plate III. Genus 46. Letter B. is ſometimes three, fix, or nine days) he ſubſiſts on oatmeal, fome- PIKE, in Ichthyology. See Esox. times made into bread. He traverſes ſharp ſtones on his bare The pike never ſwims in ſhoals as moſt other fifh do, but al knees or "feet, and goes through a variety of other forms, paying ways lies alone; and is remarkably bold and ravenous. Of the fixpence at every different confeſſion. When all is over, the prieſt ravenous nature of this filh we ſhall give the following inſtances. bores a gimblet hole through the pilgrims ſtaff near the top, in At Rycott in Oxfordſhire, in the year 1749, in a moat ſurround which he faſtens a croſs peg; gives him as many holy pebbles out ing the Earl of Abingdon's ſeat, there was a jack or pike of ſuch of the lake as he cares to carry away, for amulets to be preſented a monſtrous fize, that it had deſtroyed young ſwans feathers and to his friends, and ſo diſmiſſes him, an object of veneration to all all. And old cobb ſwan having hatched five young, one after other papiſts not thus initiated; who no fooner ſee the pilgrim's another was loft till four were gone. At length an under gardener croſs in his hands, than they kneel down to get his bleſling. ſaw the fiſh feize the fifth. The old one fought him with her There are, however, other parts of Ireland ſacred to extraordi- beak, and with the aſſiſtance of the gardener, releafed it although nary worſhip and pilgrimage; and the number of holy wells, and he had got it under water. In the year 1765 a large pike was miraculous cures, &c. produced by them, is very great. That caught in the river Ouze, which weighed upwards of 28 pounds, fuch things ſhould exiſt in this enlightened age, and in a Proteſtant and was ſold for a guinea. On gutting the fiſh, a watch with a country, is indeed ſtrange; but our wonder ceaſes, when we re- For re- flect PIP PIS. pre- TANY. thea flect that it is among the loweſt, and perhaps the worſt of the peo- thin ſkin, or film, that grows under the tip of the tongue, and ple . They who carry external religion to an extreme, and place hinders their feeding. It uſually ariſes from want of water, or that confidence in ceremony which belongs only to the ſpirit of from the drinking puddle water or eating filthy meat. It is cured it, are ſeldom diſtinguiſhed either for their wiſdom or their virtue. by pulling off the film with the fingers, and rubbing the tongue We do not deny, lowever, that they who carry matters to the with ſalt. Hawks are particularly liable to this diſeaſe, eſpecially other extreme, may be equally deſtitute of real knowledge and from feeding on ſtinking fleſh. genuine morality. PIPER, Pepper; a genus of the trigynia order, belonging to PIMPLE, a ſmall puſtule ariſing on the face. By mixing the diandria claſs of plants. There are 20 ſpecies, of which the equal quantities of the juice of houſe-leek, ſedum minus, paſſed moſt remarkable is the firiboa, with oval, heart-ſhaped, nerved through paper, and of ſpirit of wine rectified by itſelf, a white co leaves, and reflexed ſpikes. This is the plant which produces the agulum of a very volatile nature is formed, which Dr. Bughart pepper ſo much uſed in food. See PEPPER. commends for curing pimples of the face; and ſays, that the thin The pepper exported from Malabar, which was formerly en- liquor ſeparated from it with ſugarcandy is an excellent remedy | tirely in the hands of the Portugueſe, and is at preſent divided for thick vifcid phlegm in the breaſt. between the Dutch, Britiſh, and French, amounts to about PINDARIC, in Poetry, an ode formed in the manner of Pindar. 10,000,000 weight. Betel, or betle, is a ſpecies of this Genus. The Pindaric manner is diſtinguiſhed by the boldneſs and height See Betel, of the flights, the ſuddenneſs and ſurprize of the tranſitions, and the At all times of the day, and even in the night, the Indians chew ſeeming irregularities, wildneſs, and enthuſiaſm of the whole. the leaves of the betel, the bitterneſs of which is corrected by the PINE-TREE, the Engliſh name of the Genus Pinus. For areca that is wrapped up in them. There is conſtantly mixed with deſcription of the Genus, ſee Pinos. it the chinam, a kind of burnt lime made of ſhells. The rich fre- PINE-APPLE, a delicious fruit, the characters of which are quently add perfumes, either to gratify their vanity or their fen- theſe. The flower conſiſts of three oval petals produced from the ſuality protuberance of the pyramidal fruit, which have ſix oval ſhaped It would be thought a breach of politeneſs among the Indians ftamina crowned with ſpear ſhaped ſummits: the germen is fi to take leave for any long time, without preſenting each other with tuated below the flower, which becomes a cell in which are lodged a purſe of betel. It is a pledge of friendſhip that relieves the pain feveral angular ſeeds. The fruit is produced from an herbaceous of abſence. No one dares to ſpeak to a ſuperior unleſs his mouth plant, which has leaves reſembling thoſe of an aloe, and for the is perfumed with betel; it would even be rude to neglect this moſt part ſawd in their edges, but much thinner. The fruit re caution with an equal. The women of gallantry are the moſt la- ſembles the cones of the pine-tree, whence it is ſuppoſed to have viſh in the uſe of betel, as being a powerful incentive to love. Be- its name. For a full account of the culture of pines, ſee the cloſe tel is taken after meals; it is chewed during a viſit; it is offered of the Syſtem of GARDENING. when you meet, and when you ſeparate; in ſhort, nothing is to be PINK, in Botany, the Engliſh name of the Genus Dianthus. See done without betel. If it is prejudicial to the teeth, it aſliſts and DIANTHUS. For the ſeaſon and manner of propagating pinks, ſee ſtrengthens the ſtomach. At leaſt, it is a general faſhion that pre- the Syſtem of GARDENING, months of March, April and May. vails throughout India. PINNATED Leaf, among botaniſts. See the Syſtem of Bo PIPRA, in Ornithology; a genus of birds of the order of paſ- Sect. I. and Plate I. with the explanation. ſeres. Latham gives it the name of manakin, and ſo does Buffon, PINUS, the PINE-TREE; a genus of the monadelphia order, who informs us that it was beſtowed upon them by the Dutch ſet- belonging to the monoecia claſs of plants. There are 14 ſpecies; tlers in Surinam. Latham deſcribes 25 different ſpecies, and five of which the moſt remarkable are, 1. The pinea, pineafter, or varieties. This genus has a conſiderable reſemblance to the genus wild pine, grows naturally on the mountains in Italy and the ſouth parus or titmoufe. of France. 2. The rubra, commonly called the Scots fir or pine. The moſt remarkable ſpecies is the tuneful manakin. Its length is It is common throughout Scotland, whence its name; though it four inches; the bill duſky, the forehead yellow, and the crown and is alſo found in moſt of the other countries of Europe. nape blue; the chin, ſides of the head below the eyes, and the throat, Uſes. From the firſt ſpecies is extracted the common turpen are black; the upper part of the back, the wings, and the tail, are tine, much uſed by farriers, and from which is drawn the oil of duſky black; the tail is very ſhort; the lower part of the back and that name. A decoction of the nuts or ſeeds of this ſpecies in milk, rump, the breaſt , belly, vent, and thighs, are orange coloured; or of the extremities of the branches pulled in ſpring, is faid, with the legs are duſky. For repreſentation, ſee Plate III. Genus 42. a proper regimen, to cure the moſt inveterate ſcurvy. The wood It is a native of St. Domingo, where it has gained the name of of this ſpecies is not valued; but that of the Scots pine is fu organiſte from its note, forming the complete octave in the moſt perior to any of the reſt. It is obſervable of the Scots pine, that agreeable manner, one note ſucceſſively after another. when planted in bogs, or in a moiſt ſoil, though the plants make PIRATE, pyrate, pirata, rover; a perfon, or veſſel, that robs great progreſs, yet the wood is white, ſoft, and little eſteemed; but on the high ſeas, or makes defcents on the coaſts, &c. without the when planted in a dry ſoil , though the growth of the tree is there permiſſion or authority of any prince or ſtate. Alexander re- very flow, yet the wood is proportionably better. Few trees have proaching a pirate with his condition, was anſwered, “If I am a been applied to more uſes than this. The talleſt and ſtraighteſt are pirate, it is becauſe I have only a ſingle veſſel; had I a fleet, I formed by nature for maſts to our navy. The timber is reſinous, ſhould be a mighty conqueror. durable, and applicable to numberleſs domeſtic purpoſes, ſuch as PISCES, in Aſtronomy, the twelfth fign, or conſtellation, of flooring and wainſcotting of rooms, making of beds, cheſts, ta the zodiac. See the Syſtem, Sect. IX. bles, boxes, &c. From the trunk and branches of this, as well as PISMIRES, are a kind of inſects very cornmon in Africa; of moſt others of the pine tribe, tar and pitch is obtained. By inci which there is ſo great a variety, and ſuch innumerable ſwarms, fion, barras, Burgundy pitch, and turpentine, are acquired and that they deſtroy not only the fruits of the ground but even men prepared. The reſinous roots are dug out of the ground in many and beaſts in fo little a time as one ſingle night; and would, with- parts of the Highlands, and, being divided into ſmall ſplinters, are out all doubt, prove more fatally deſtructive to the inhabitants, uſed by the inhabitants to burn inſtead of candles. At Loch were they not ſo happily deſtroyed by a proportionable number of Broom, in Roſsſhire, the fiſhermen make ropes of the inner bark; monkeys, who greėdily ferret and devour them. but hard neceflity has taught the inhabitants of Sweden, Lapland, PISTÍL, among Botaniſts, the female organ of generation in and Kamſchatka, to convert the ſame into bread. To effect this, flowers. It is compoſed of three parts, the germen, the ſtyle, and they, in the ſpring ſeaſon, make choice of the talleſt and faireft the ftigma: the germen ſupplies the place of the uterus in plants; trees; then ſtripping off carefully the outer bark, they collect the its ſhape is various, but it is always ſituated at the bottom of the foft, white, fucculent interior bark, and dry it in the ſhade. piſtil, and contains the embryo ſeeds: the ſtyle is a part of various When they have occaſion to uſe it, they firſt toaſt it at the fire, figures alſo, but is placed on the germen; in ſome it is extremely then grind, and, after ſteeping the flour in warm water to take off ſhort, in others it ſeems entirely wanting: the ſtigma is alſo of va- the reſinous taſte, they make it into thin cakes, which are baked for uſe. On this ſtrange food the poor inhabitants are conſtrained to live for a whole year: and, we are told, through cuſtom, be men. The piſtil is an eſſential part of a flower; and the principal come at laſt even fond of it. Linnæus remarks, that this fame female organ of generation; it being in this that the ſeeds or young bark-bread will fatten ſwine; and humanity obliges us to wiſh plants are formed. It ariſes from the pedicle of the flower, or the that men might never be reduced to the neceſſity of robbing them centre of the calyx; and at length becomes the young fruit,which of ſuch a food. The interior bark, of which the abovementioned is ſometimes hid in the calyx, and ſometimes Itands quite out. bread is made, the Swediſh boys frequently peel off the trees in the See the Syſtem, Sect. II. Nº. I. and Plate III. ſpring, and eat raw with greedy appetite. From the cones of this PISTON, a part or member in ſeveral machines, particularly tree is prepared a diuretic oil, like the oil of turpentine, and a re pumps, air-pumps, ſyringes, &c. called the ſucker. See the Syſtem finous extract, which has fimilar virtues with the balſam of Peru. of HYDRAULICS, Article V. and plate I. Fig. 18. An infuſion or tea of the buds is highly commended as an anti PISUM, PEASE ; a genus of the decandria order, belonging to fcorbutic. The farina, or yellow powder, of the male-flowers, is the diadelphia claſs of plants. There is a great variety of garden ſometimes in the ſpring carried away by the winds, in ſuch quan peaſe now cultivated in Britain, which are diſtinguiſhed by the tities, where the trees abound, as to alarm the ignorant with the gardeners and ſeedſmen, and have their different titles: but as great notion of its raining brimſtone. The tree lives to a great age; part of theſe have been ſeminal variations, ſo if they are not very Linnæus affirms, to 400 years. carefully managed, by taking away all thoſe plants which have a PIP, or Pep, a diſeaſe among poultry, confifting of a white tendency to alter before the ſeeds are formed, they will degenerate into PIT PLA way Sickle pea. into their original ſtate: therefore all thoſe perſons who are curi than is generally conceived ; the ſmalleſt branches and pendicles of ous in the choice of their feeds, look carefully over thoſe which the leaves and Áowers have their ſhare of it, according to the nature they deſign for ſeeds at the time when they begin to flower, and of the tree they belong to ; and even the middle ribs of the leaves , draw out all the plants, which they diſlike, from the other. when examined by the microſcope, are not without it; a tranſverſe This is what they call roguing their peaſe ; meaning hereby, the ſection of one of theſe ribs of the leaf of a pithy tree ſhews a very taking out all the bad plants from the good, that the farina of the beautiful arrangement of veffels, or little bladders, containing a former may not impregnate the latter ; to prevent which, they al quantity of clear liquor, and reſembling in all reſpects thoſe of ways do it before the flowers open. By thus diligently drawing out which the pith in the branches is compoſed. The pith of plants, the bad, reſerving thoſe which come earlieſt to flower, they have in fine, ſeems what the marrow is in animals, a congeries of an greatly improved their peaſe of late years, and are conſtantly en infinite number of viſicles, which ſeem deftined to ſeparate a finer deavouring to get forwarder varieties ; ſo that it would be to little juice than is neceſſary for the nouriſhment of the coarſer parts of purpoſe in this place, to attempt giving a particular account of all the tree. It is obſerved of plants which have a larger than ordinary the varieties now cultivated ; therefore we ſhall only mention their ſhare of pith, that they produce larger quantities of flowers than titles by which they are commonly known'; placing them according others; inſtances of this are ſeen in the roſe, the lilach, and the to their time of coming to the table, or gathering for uſe. common elder: and in the ferulaceous plants, the quantity of flow- The golden hotſpur. Nonpareil ers is not only profuſely large, according to the great quantity of pith The Charlton. Sugar dwarf. in their ſtalks, but the pith ſeems carried up the ſtalks all the The Reading hotſpur. to the ſeeds themſelves; the long ſeeds of the ſweet myrrhis, and Maſter's hotſpur. Marrowfat. other the like plants, while not ripe, being only pith. Mem. Acad. Effex hotſpur. Roſe or crown pea. Scienc. 1709. See alſo the Syſtem of BOTANY, Sect. II. and the The dwarf pea. Rouncival pea. Article MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. Of the ſame fort is the pith The ſugar pea. Gray pea. in the large growing feathers of birds ; being compoſed of veſi- Spaniſh Morotto. Pig pea ; with ſome others. cles that can be diſtended lengthways, but have ſphincters at the The Engliſh ſea-pea is found wild upon the ſhore in Suſſex and ends, to prevent too large a lateral dilatation. Vid. Hales's Veget. ſeveral other counties in England, and is undoubtedly a different Statics, vol. i. p. 337. fpecies from the common pea. For the cultivation of this moſt PITUITA, one of the four humours found in the bodies of ani- uſeful Article, ſee the Syſtem of GARDENING, Article Kitchen mals, on which their temperament is commonly ſuppoſed to de- Garden, Months January, July, and October. pend. The pituita, called phlegm, is properly the moſt viſcid PIT-Coal, or Stone-Coal, in Mineralogy. See that Article. and glutinous part of the blood ſeparated in the largeſt glands, where The coal trade is of infinite importance to Great Britain, which the contortions of the arteries are the greateſt, and give the greateſt never could have arrived at its preſent commercial eminence with retardation to the blood's velocity; as in the glands about the outit ; and this eminence it will be impoſſible to retain if coal mouth and head. Pituita is ſuppoſed to be the prevailing humour ſhould ever become ſcarce. This we truſt, is not likely to be the in cold, heavy, Now people, inclined to ſeriouſneſs and ſtudy. The caſe, though Mr. Williams expreſſes great fears for it, and informs pituita, diſcharged at the noſtrils, is ſeparated in the membrane that us, that at Newcaſtle, and in many parts of Scotland, the mines lines the cavity of the noſe, cheeks, &c. Its uſe is, to keep that near the ſea, are already waſted, the firſt conſequence of which membrane ſoft, and defend it from injuries of extraneous bodies, muſt be an enormous riſe in the price. See his obſervations on eſpecially thoſe of the air, which paſſes this way, in reſpiration, this ſubject in his Natural Hiſtory of the Mineral Kingdom when the mouth is ſhut. p. 156, &c. This author fays, that coal was not diſcovered, till PITUITARY Gland, is a gland in the brain ſomewhat difficult between the middle of the 12th and beginning of the 13th cen to be ſeen without removing it out of its place : and of a ſingular turies : it is therefore, according to him, 400 years ſince it was firſt kind of ſubſtance, which ſeems to be neither medullary nor glan- diſcovered in Britain, but they have not been in common uſe for dular. In figure it is tranſverſely oval or oblong, and in the more than 200 years. The ſame author gives us many pertinent lower part in ſome ſubjects it is divided by a ſmall notch with two obſervations on the appearances and indications of coal, inſtruc- lobes, like a kidney bean. tions about ſearching for it , remarks on falſe and doubtful ſymp PITUITARY Membrane, is that which lines the whole internal toms of coal ; for all which, together with his obſervations on the nares, the cellular convolutions, the couchæ, the ſides of the fep- different kinds of Scots coal, we ſhall refer our readers to the tum narium, and, by an uninterrupted continuation, the inner für- work itſelf; the firſt part of which, occupying the largeſt propor face of the finus frontales and maxillares, and of the ductus lachry- tion of the firſt volume, is upon the strata of coal, and on the males, palatini, and ſphenoidales. It is likewiſe continued down concomitant ſtrata. See alſo the article COAL. from the nares to the pharynx, ſeptum palati, &c. It is ſo called, PITS, Brine, the name given by the people of Worceſterſhire becauſe it ſeparates from the arterial blood a mucilaginous lympha, and Cheſhire, to the wells or pits affording the ſalt water, out of called PETUITA. See the Syſtem, Part VII. Sect III. which they extract the ſalt. In the country near where theſe PLACENTA, in Anatomy, a ſoftiſh roundiſh maſs, foundin brine pits are, the inſtruments uſed in boring, often bring up fine the womb of a pregnant woman; wherein the ancients ſuppoſe and hard ſalt ; ſo that they give proofs of there being rocks of ſalt the blood was purified, and prepared for the nouriſhment of the in many places. The pit at Droitwich, in Worceſterſhire, affords fætus. Hence they alſo call it hepar uterinum, the liver of the no ſand in the boiling, nor any the leaſt ſediment of the ſtony womb, as if it did the office of a liver in preparing the blood. It matter at the bottom of the pan, and the ſalt is the pureſt of all the is called by the moderns placenta, q. d. womb cake, becauſe in others : and by the people of the country, it is eſteemed the moſt form of a cake. See the Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, Sect VI. wholeſome; becauſe of its being without the ſand. This and the PLAGIARY, in philology, author-theft ; or the practiſe of other pits hereabout, all have the ſmell of rotton eggs, eſpecially purloining other people's works, and putting them off for a man's after a little reſt, as on the Monday morning after the Sunday's own. Among the Romans, plagiarius was properly a perſon who reſt. If meat be put to pickle in the brine of theſe pits, inſtead of bought, ſold, or retained a freeman for a ſlave ; ſo called, becauſe being preſerved, it will ſtink in twenty-four hours, ſometimes in the Flavian law condemned ſuch a perſon ad plagus to be whipped. twelve, yet they yield the beſt ſalt of any inland pits in the world. Thomaſius has an expreſs treatiſe de plagio literario; wherein he For particular account, ſee Brine SPRINGS. lays down the laws and meaſures of the right which authors PITCH, a tenacious fort of juice, or gum, drawn from fatty have to one another's writings. Dictionary writers, at leaſt woods, chiefly from pines and furs ; and uſed in ſhipping, in me ſuch as meddle with arts and ſciences, ſeem in this caſe to dicine, and in various other arts. Pitch is properly a juice of the be exempted from the common laws of meum and tuum ; they wild PINE, or pitch-tree; and is conceived to be no other than the do not pretend to ſet up on their own bottom, nor to treat oil thereof inſpiſlated, and turned black, farther than in the balſam. the reader at their own coſt. Their works are ſuppoſed, in The beſt is that brought from Sweden and Norway. Its goodneſs great meaſure, compoſitions of other people; and whatever conſiſts in its being of a gloſſy black colour, dry, and brittle. they take from others, they do it avowedly. In effect, their Burgundy Pitch, is brought to us from Saxony, and is fup quality gives them a title to appropriate every thing that may poſed to be a peparation of the ſame kind with the common be for their purpoſe, wherever they find it, and they do no other- ROSIN of the ſhops, only leſs diveſted of the oil, made by boiling wiſe than as the bee does for the public ſervice. Their occupation the common TURPENTINE till it acquires a due conſiſtence. See is not pillaging, but collecting contributions; and if you aſk them the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part IV. Sect. IV. their authority, they will produce you the practice of their prede- PITH, in vegetation, the ſoft ſpungy ſubſtance contained in ceffors of all ages and nations. the central part of plants and trees. As the ſubſtance of the trunk PLAGUE, PESTILENCE, or Peſtilential Fever, is a very in trees become more woody, the pith is compreſſed and ſtraitened acute, malignant, and contagious diſeaſe; being a putrid fever of to ſuch a degree, that it wholly diſappears. It is plain from this, the worſt kind, and ſeldom failing to prove mortal. Though it is that the office of the pith in vegetation cannot be very great, ſince generally defined a malignant fever, Diemerbroek thinks they it is not of perpetual duration. By its ſpongy ſtructure, it ſeems ought to be diſtinguiſhed, ſince the fever is not the eſſence of the fitted to receive any fuperfluous moiſture that might tranſude thro' diſeaſe, but merely a ſymptom or effect of it. See the Syſtem of the pores of the woody fibres. If by the exceſs of ſuch moiſture, MEDICINE, Genus 6. or from any other cauſe, it happens to rot and periſh, as frequently The plague, as is generally agreed, is never bread or propagated happens in elms, the tree is found to grow full as well without it'; in Britain, but always imported from abroad, eſpecially from the a proof it is of no effential uſe in vegetation. Levant, Leſſer Afia, Egypt, &c. where it is very common. Sy- The pith of trees is continued farther into their minute parts denham has remarked that it rarely infeſts this country oftener than once P L A PL A A longer period. pecially locufts. Juſtinian. once in 40 years, and happily we have been free of it for a much per-berries pounded, ears of wheat, guaiacum-wood pounded, of each fix pounds; common faltpetre pounded, eight pounds; ful- Authors are not as yet agreed concerning the nature of this phur pounded, fix pounds; Smyrna tar, or myrrh, two pounds; dreadful diſtemper. Some think that inſects are the cauſe of it, in mix all the above ingredients together, which will produce a pood the ſame way that they are the cauſe of blights, being brought in of the powder of fumigation of the firſt ſtrength. İN. B. A pood fwarms from other climates by the wind, when they are taken into is 40 pounds Ruſſian, which are equal to 35 pounds and a half or the lungs in reſpiration; the conſequence of which is, that they 36 pounds Engliſh avoirdupoiſe.] mix with the blood and juices, and attack and corrode the viſcera. Powder of the ſecond ſtrength.] Take ſouthern-wood cut into Mr. Boyle, on the other hand, thinks it originates from the ef ſmall pieces, four pounds; juniper-berries pounded, three pounds; Auvia or exhalations breathed into the atmoſphere from noxious common faltpetre pounded, four pounds; ſulphur pounded, two minerals, to which may be added ſtagnant waters and putrid bo pounds and a half; Smyrna tar, or myrrh, one pound and a half: dies of every kind. mix the above together, which will produce half a pood of the Mr. Gibbon thinks that the plague is derived from damp, hot, powder of fumigation of the ſecond ſtrength. and ſtagnating air, and the putrefaction of animal ſubſtances, ef Odoriferous Powder.] Take the root called kalmus cut into See Gibbon's Roman Hiſtory, 4to edit. vol. iv. ſmall pieces, three pounds; leaves of juniper cut into ſmall pieces, p. 327-332, where there is alſo a very particular account of the four pounds; frankincenſe pounded groſsly, one pound; ſtorax plague which depopulated the earth in the time of the Emperor pounded, and roſe-flowers, half a pound; yellow amber pounded, one pound; common faltpetre pounded, one pound and a half; The Mahometans believe that the plague proceeds from certain fulphur, a quarter of a pound: mix all the above together, which {pirits, or goblins, armed with bows and arrows, fent by God to will produce nine pounds and three quarters of the odoriferous puniſh men for their fins: and that when the wounds are given by | powder. fpectres of a black colour, they certainly prove fatal, but not fo If guaiacum cannot be had, the cones of pines or firs may be when the arrows are ſhot by thoſe that appear white. They uſed in its ſtead; likewiſe the common tar of pines and firs may be therefore take no precaution to guard themſelves againſt it. The uſed inſtead of the Smyrna tar, or myrrh, and mugwort may ſupply wiſer profeſſors of this religion, however, at preſent act otherwiſe; the place of ſouthernwood. for we find a receipt recommended by Sidy Mohammed Zerroke, A dreadful plague raged at London in the year 1665, attended one of the moſt celebrated Marabout's, prefaced with theſe re with the moſt deſtructive effects. In 1720 the city of Marſeilles markable words: “The lives of us all are in the hands of God, was viſited with this deſtructive diſeaſe, brought in a ſhip from when it is we muſt die. However, it hath pleaſed him to ſave many the Levant; and in ſeven months, during which time it continued, perſons from the plague, by taking every morning while the in it carried off not leſs than 60,000 people. This deſolation is not fection rages one pill or two of the following compoſition; viz. yet obliterated from the minds of the inhabitants; fome ſurvivors of myrrh two parts, ſaffron one part, of aloes two parts, of fyrup remained alive but a few years ago to tranſmit a traditional ac- of myrtleberries, 9.f. But this remedy is confined to the more count of it to after ages. There are two fine pictures painted by enlightened; for the bigotry of the lower fort is ſo extreme as to Puget repreſenting ſome of the horrid ſcenes of that time. « They make them deſpiſe all precautions which people of other nations are (ſays lady Craven) only too well executed. I ſaw ſeveral dy- uſe. Of this extreme and fooliſh prejudice Dr. Chandler gives | ing figures taking leave of their friends, and looking their laſt an intereſting account when ſpeaking of the plague at Smyrna. anxious, kind, and wiſhful prayers on their fick infants, that made This learned author is of opinion that the diſeaſe ariſes from ani the tears flow down my cheeks. I was told the phyſicians and malcules, which he ſuppoſes to be inviſible. See Chandler's noblemen who were aſſiſting the ſick and dying, were all portraits : Travels in Aſia Minor, p. 279, &c. I can eaſily conceive it; for in ſome faces there is a look of reflec- It is a remarkable fact, that plagues are ſometimes partial, and tion and concern which could only be drawn from the life.” Leta that they only attack particular animals, or a particular deſcription ters, p. 34, 35. This fatal event has cauſed the laws of quaran- of perſons, avoiding others altogether, or attacking them but tine to be very ſtrictly enforced in the Lazaretto here, which is flightly. Thus Fernelius informs us of a plague, or murrain, in an extenſive inſulated building. 1514, which invaded only cats. Dionyſius Halicarnaſſeus men The ravages of this diſeaſe have been dreadful wherever it has tions a plague which attacked none but maids; and that which made its appearance. On the firſt arrival of the Europeans at the raged in the time of Gentilis, killed ſcarce any women, and very iſland of Grand Canaria, it contained 14,000 fighting men, foon few but lufty men. Roterus mentions another plague, which al after which, two thirds of the whole inhabitants fell a ſacrifice to ſaulted none but the younger fort; and we have inſtances of the the plague, which had doubtleſs been introduced by their new fame kind of a later ſtanding. Cardan ſpeaks of a plague at Baſil, viſitors. The deſtruction it has made in Turkey in Europe, and with which the Switzers were infected, and the Italians, Germans, particularly in Conſtantinople, muſt be known to every reader, or French, exempted: and John Utenhovius takes notice of a and its fatal effects have been particularly heightened there by that dreadful one at Copenhagen, which, though it raged among the firm belief which prevails among the people of predeſtination, &c. Danes, ſpared the Germans, Dutch, and Engliſh, who went with as has been already mentioned. It is generally brought into Eu- all freedom, and without the leaſt danger, to the houſes of the in ropean Turkey from Egypt; where it is very frequent, eſpecially fected. During the plague which ravaged Syria in 1760, it was at Grand Cairo. To give even a liſt of all the plagues which obſerved that people of the foundeft conſtitutions were the moſt have deſolated many flouriſhing countries, would extend this arti- liable to it, and that the weak and delicate were either ſpared or cle beyond all bounds, and minutely to deſcribe them all would be eaſily cured. It was moſt fatal to the Moors; and when it at impoſſible. For the plague at Smyrna, we refer to Chandler's tacked them it was generally incurable. Travels as above. Reſpecting that which raged in Syria in 1760, Many methods have been adopted in different countries to pre we refer to the Abbé Mariti's Travels through Cyprus, Syria, vent the importation of this dreadful ſcourge of the human race, and Peleſtine, vol. ift, p. 278-296. This plague was one of the and to ſtop the progreſs of infection after it has been imported. moſt malignant and fatal that Syria ever experienced; for it In England, mayors, bailiffs, head officers of corporations, and ſcarcely made its appearance in any part of the body when it car- juſtices of peace, have power to tax inhabitants, houſes, and lands, ried off the patient. &c. within their precincts, for the relief of perſons infected with PLANE, planum, in Geometry, denotes a plain figure, or a the plague; and juſtices of the county may tax perſons within five ſurface lying evenly between its bounding lines. miles round, on a pariſh's inability; the tax to be levied by diſtreſs Planes are frequently uſed in Aſtronomy, &c. for imaginary and ſale of goods, or in default thereof by impriſonment. In ſurfaces, ſuppoſed to cut, and paſs through, folid bodies, and on fected perſons going abroad, after being commanded to keep houſe this foundation it is, that the whole doctrine of conic ſections, and for avoiding farther infection, may be reſiſted by watchmen, &c. of the ſphere, turns. When a plane cuts a cone parallel to one of and puniſhed as vagrants, if they have no fores upon them; and its fides, it makes a parabola; when it cuts the cone parallel to its if they have infectious fores on them it is felony. Juſtices of baſe, it makes a circle. baſe, it makes a circle. The ſphere is wholly explained by planes, peace, &c. are to appoint ſearchers, examiners, and buriers of the imagined to cut the celeſtial luminaries, and to fill the areas or cir- dead, in places infected, and adminiſter oaths to them for the per- cumferences of the orbits; and they are differently inclined to each formance of their duties, &c. ſtat. 1. Jac. I. cap. 31. See QUA other; and by us the inhabitants of the earth, the plane of whoſe orbit is the plane of the ecliptic, their inclination is eſtimated with The commiſion at Moſcow having, in the year 1770, invented regard to this plane. See the Syſtem, Sect. IX. a fumigation-powder, which, from ſeveral leſſer experiments, had Plane, in Mechanics. A horizontal Plane is a plane level or proved efficacious in preventing the infection of the plague; in parallel to the horizon. The determining how far any given plane, order more fully to aſcertain its virtue in that reſpect, it was de &c. deviates from a horizontal one makes the whole buſineſs of termined, towards the end of the year, that ten malefactors under See the Treatiſe on SURVEYING. fentence of death ſhould, without undergoing any other precau PLANET, planeta, Thevytvs wanderer, in oppoſition to a ſtar tions than the fumigations be confined three weeks in a lazaretto, which remains fixed, in aſtronomy, a celeſtial body revolving be laid upon the beds, and dreſſed in the cloathes, which had been round the fun as a centre, and continually changing its poſition uſed by perſons fick, dying, and even dead, of the plague in the with reſpect to the other ſtars. The planets are uſually diſtin- hoſpital. The experiment was accordingly tried, and none of the guiſhed into primary and ſecondary. For a copious explanation of ten malefactors were then infected, or have been fince ill. The the doctrine of the planets, ſee the Syſtem, Section V. VI. VII. fumigation-powder is prepared as follows. VIII. throughout Powder of the firſt ſtrength.] Take leaves of juniper, juni PLANETARIUM, an aſtronomical machine, made to repre- * ſent RANTINE. LEVELLING. Nº. 129• Ааа P L A P L A or colonies fent the motions of the planets as they really are in nature, or at PLANTATION, in the iſlands and continent of America, a leaſt agreeable to the Copernican fyſtem, and commonly called ſpot of ground which ſome planter, or perſon, arrived in a new an ORRERY. For a particular deſcription of the planetarium, made colony, cultivates and tills for his own uſe. Plantations, by Mr. Adams, together with its uſes, ſee the Syſtem of ASTRO in diftant countries, are either fuch where the lands are claimed by NOMY, Section XVI. For repreſentation, ſee Plate II. fig. I. right of occupancy only, by finding them deſart and uncultivated, PLANIMETRY, planimetria, that part of geometry which and peopling them from the mother country; or where, when conſiders lines and plain figures; without any conſideration of already cultivated, they have been either gained by conqueſt, or heights and depths. Planimetry is particularly reſtrained to the ceded to us by treaties. See Colony. But there is a difference menſuration of planes and ſurfaces ; in oppoſition to flereometry, between theſe two ſpecies of colonies, with reſpect to the laws by or the menſuration of ſolids. See Treatiſe on MENSURATION, Sect. I. which they are bound. For it bath been held (Salk. 411, 666, PLANISPHERE, a projection of a ſphere, and the ſeveral that if the uninhabited country be diſcovered and planted by Eng- circles thereof, on a plane ; as upon paper or the like. In this liſh ſubjects, all the Engliſh laws then in being, which are the ſenſe, maps of the heavens and the earth, wherein are exhibited the birthright of every ſubject, are immediately there in force. But meridians, and other circles of the ſphere are called planiſpheres. this muſt be underſtood with very many and very great reſtrictions, . See the Article Map. Such coloniſts carry with them cnly ſo much of the Engliſh law as PLANT, planta, an organical body conſiſting of a root, and is applicable to their own ſituation and the condition of an infant other parts ; and producing uſually leaves, a ftem, branches, and colony; ſuch, for inſtance, as the general rules of inheritance, and flowers. A plant may be defined in Boerhaave's manner to be an of protection, from perſonal injuries. But in conquered or ceded organical body compoſed of veſſels and juices; to which body be countries, that have already laws of their own, the king may indeed long a root, or a part whereby it adheres to ſome other body, and alter and change thoſe laws; but, if he actually does change them, particularly the earth, from which it derives the matter of its life the ancient laws of the country remain, unleſs ſuch as are against and growth. A plant is diſtinguiſhed from a foffil by its being or the law of God, as in the caſe of an infidel country. 7 Rep. 17. ganical , and conſiſting of vefſels and juices; and from an animal , Calvin's caſe. Show. Parl. cap. 31. The American plantations by its adhering to another body, and deriving its nouriſhment are principally of this latter fort, being obtained in the laſt century therefrom. That plants are organized bodies and endued with life either by right of conqueſt and driving out the natives, or by is evident from many conſiderations : every body that has ſponta treaties. And therefore, the common law of England, as ſuch, neous motion muſt alſo have life ; for proper and internal motion has no allowance or authority there; they being no part of the in every body depends on the ſpontaneous propulſion ofAuids, and mother country, but diſtinct, though, till the late unhappy conteſt, where this manifeſts itſelf there is life. This kind of motion in dependent dominions. Judge Blackſtone obſerves, they were ſub- plants appears in a variety of circumſtances : thus herbs in green- ject, however, to the controul of the parliament : whilft, on the houſes or ſtoves incline or turn towards the light. When ſhut up, other hand it is as ſtrenuouſly contended, that they neither are nor if they find a hole in the wall, Thutters, or frames, there they en could be ſubject to the legiſlative authority of the parliament of deavour to penetrate. Several plants, in the day-time, turn their Great Britain. But the litigation and deciſion of this queſtion was flowers towards the ſun; moſt plants, in a ſerene ſky, expand their unfortunately referred to the iſſue of a war, the wiſhed-for termina- flowers; but before rain ſhut them up, or contract them at the tion of which produces alterations in the ſtate of our american approach of night. The flowers of many plants hang down in the plantations, and their connection with this country. Previous to night, as if the plants were aſleep, leſt rain or the moiſt air ſhould our late conteſt, our colonies, with reſpect to their interior polity, injure the fertilizing duft. The trefoils, &c. ſhut up or double were of three ſorts : viz. Provincial eſtabliſhments, proprietary their leaves before ſtorms and tempeſts, but unfold them in a clear governments, and charter governments. ſky. The tamarind-tree is ſaid by Alpinus and Acofta to enfold PLANTING, in Gardening. For the methods of cultivating within its leaves the flowers or fruit every night, in order to guard plants in general, ſee the reſpective articles under their different them from cold or rain. Some of the ſenſitive plants, and the wood heads in the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE and GARDENING. ſorrel with pinnated leaves, upon being touched roll up their leaves, PLASTER of Paris, is a fiffile ftone, ſerving many purpoſes in and turn downwards or ſhrink, and after a little time expand them building; and uſed likewiſe in ſculpture, to mould and make again, as if they had both life and ſenſation. And it farther ap- ſtatues, baſſo relievos, and other decorations in architecture. It is pears, that motion is no leſs neceſſary to the vigour of plants, than dug out of quarries, in ſeveral parts of the neighbourhood of Paris ; exerciſe to the health and ſtrength of animals. Thus plarits in whence its name. See GYPSUM, and the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, ſtoves and green-houſes, though they have ſufficient heat and nou Part II. Chap I. riſhment, are ſlender, weak, and loſe the colour of their leaves, and PLATALEA, the ſpoon-bill, in Ornithology. For de- ſeem to languiſh for want of motion; and trees, ſurrounded with ſcription of the Genus, &c. For repreſentation, fee Plate IV. high walls or buildings, and confined within narrow bounds, are Genus 60. flender, and grow tall, but not ſtrong: PLATINA, a metalic ſubſtance, analogous to the perfect me Plani is a general name, under which are compriſed all vegetable tals, and eſpecially to gold, many of the properties of which it bodies, as trees, ſhrubs, and herbs. Trees are defined to be poffefſes ; and, in conſequence of modern experiments, is ſuppoſed nial plants, which riſe to a very great height, with a ſimple, woody, to be itſelf a perfect metal. The name platina ſeems to be a dimi- and durable ſtem or trunk : and by theſe characters they are accu nution of plata ſilver, and expreſſes the moſt obvious appearance of rately diſtinguiſhed from herbs, whoſe ſtems are frequently com this body, which is that of ſilver-coloured metal in finall grains. See pound, herbaceous, or ſucculent, and die down to the root every the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. 2. Sect. 8. year. Theſe differences ſuggeſted the very ancient diviſion of vege Soon after the importation of this ſubſtance into England, it was tables into herbs and trees; ſo that from the time of Ariſtotle and found, that the Spaniards, having diſcovered that it ſuſtained all Theophraſtus, this diviſion has obtained a principal place in the ordinary trials of gold, poſſeſſed nearly the ſame ſpecific gra- almoſt every ſyſtem, except that of Linnæus, which mixes vity, and rendered gold much leſs pale than filver ; had a method of herbs, ſhrubs, and trees promiſcuouſly together : and thus is pre adulterating gold with it, which was fo brittle that it could not be ſerved the harmony of his ſyſtem, which is ſolely founded on the refined nor applied to any uſe. And it is ſaid, that in order to pre- fructification of every individual genus and ſpecies. The diſtinction vent frauds of this kind, the king of Spain ordered the mines that into trees and ſhrubs, though of equal antiquity, is neither ſo ob afforded it to be ſtopped up : but there is now no danger of ſuch vious, nor are its limits ſo accurately aſcertained. The learned fraud, ſince modern experiments have diſcovered eaſy means for Dr. Alſton, in his Tyrocinium Botanicum, wiſhes to conſider the diſtinguiſhing with certainty gold debaſed by platina, and for com- diſtinction into trees and ſhrubs, as a true natural diſtinction, and pletely parting the two metals, however they may be blended toge- endeavours to trace its foundation in the internal ſtructure of the ther by accident or by deſign. plants themſelves. All trees, ſays he, whether they bear buds It has ſufficiently appeared from many experiments that platina or not, are covered with two barks, the outer and inner, called by is not only of itſelf refractory in the fire, but obſtinately reſiſts the the botaniſts cortex and liber. Shrubs differ from herbaceous vege additions and managements, by which every other known metallic tables in the duration of their ſtems; from trees, in the nature of body is corroded, diſſolved, or changed into a vitreous ſtate. Nei- their covering, which is not a bark but a cuticle or ſimple ſkin: but ther borax, nor alkali, nor nitre, which calcines all the known me- this fact is not ſufficiently aſcertained. The farther diſtinction into tallic bodies, except gold, ſilver, and mercury, nor common ſalt, ſhrubs and under ſhrubs, which is exceedingly arbitrary and in nor vitriolic ſalts, nor the eſſential falts of urine, nor the phoſpho- determinate, was firſt ſuggeſted by Cluſius, in a work intitled ric acid, nor the black flux, nor ſulphur, nor earthy bodies, nor Rariores & Exoticæ Plantæ, publiſhed in 1576 ; and adopted by vitreous bodies, produce any material alteration in platine. How- Cæſalpinus and others. See Dr. Hunter's edition of Evelyn's ever, Dr. Lewis diſcovered that the liver of ſulphur is capable of Sylva, p. 2, note*. From the obſervations of Malpighi, Dr. diſſolving platina, as it alſo does gold, by fuſion. Copper ſeems Grew, M. Reneaume, Bradley, and others, there appears a great to be moſt improved by being alloyed with platina. When, indeed, fimilitude between the mechaniſm of plants, and that of animals; a large proportion of platina is added to copper, as equal parts or the parts of the former bear a conſtant analogy to thoſe of the lat two-thirds, the alloy is hard, brittle, and coarſe; but when a leſs ter; and the vegetable and animal economy appear both formed quantity of platina is added, as from 5 to 25, or even a leſs, a golden- on the fame model. For a copious deſcription of the ſeveral parts coloured copper is produced, very malleable, harder, ſuſceptibleof properties, &c. of a plant, ſee the Syſtem of Botany, Sect. II. a finer poliſh, ſmoother grained, and much leſs ſubject to calcination throughout and Plate III. For the organization or conſtruction and ruſt than pure copper. The cupellation of platina, was one of of timber, as viewed by the microſcope, ſee explanation of the the most deſirable diſcoveries with regard to this ſubſtance; becauſe Plates on Microſcopic Objects. For repreſentation, ſee Plate III, on the ſucceſs of this operation depended our obtaining compact peren- and PL Á PL E. material, S and inaileable malles of pure platina, in the ſame ſtate, with a metal not all of Shakeſpear's plays, were performed either at the Globe: which has been well fuſed, and of which all ſorts of utenſils might which was an hexagonal building, partly open to the weather, and be male, either by caſting or forging. M. Macquer ſeems to make partly covered with reeds, on the ſouthern ſide of the river Thames, no doubt that platina may be rendered manageable by the work called the Bankfide, and a public theatre, where they always acted men in large quantities, ſo as to furniſh us with burning concaves, by day-light; or at the theatre in Black-friars, which was a private fpecula for teleſcopes, innumerable veſſels and utenſils for chymi play-houſe, and where plays were uſually repreſented by candle-light. cal and culinary uſes, and almoſt all the works of the lockſmith. Both theſe belonged to the fame campany of comedians, viz. his He obſerves, that platina would for theſe purpoſes be an excellent majeſty's ſervants, which title they aſſumed after a licence had been as its vivid and brilliant poliſh is never tarniſhed by any granted to them by king James, in 1603; having before this time kind of ruſt, and as it not only reſiſts the action of air, water, fire, been called the ſervants of the lord chamberlain. The exhibitions acids, and the voracious metals, as well as the pureſt gold does, at the Globe ſeem to have been calculated chiefly for the lower claſs but joins to theſe admirable qualities a property ftill more precious, of people, and thoſe at Black-friars for a more ſelect and judicious which gold wants, viz. the force and hardneſs of iron. From audience. The former was a ſummer, and the latter a winter many circumſtances enumerated by Dr. Lewis, Scheffer, Margraaf , theatre. Many of our ancient dramatic pieces were performed in Macquer, Beaumné, &c. we may infer that platina is a mineral the yards of carrier's inns, in which, in the beginning of queen ſubſtance, whoſe metallic aſpect, great weight, malleability, and Elizabeth's reign, the comedians, who then firſt united them- perfect miſcibility with all the common metallic bodies, are ſuffi ſelves in companies, erected an occaſional ſtage. The form of theſe cient characters of its being a true metal, which abides fixed and temporary play-houſes ſeem to be preſerved in our modern theatre. uncalcined in the ſtrongeſt fires, is no wiſe ſcorified by nature, or Many circumſtances concur to render it probable, that our ancient by lead or biſmuth, nor diſſolved by vitreous bodies, and which is, theatres, in general, were only furniſhed with curtains, which therefore, a perfect metal of the fame claſs with gold and ſilver, opened in the middle, and a ſingle ſcene compoſed of tapeſtry, and, perhaps, more perfect or leſs alterable than they; which, with ſometimes ornamented with pictures. In the year 1605 Inigo Jone the colour of ſilver poſſeſſes the ſpecific weight, and ſeveral other exhibited an entertainment at Oxford, in which moveable ſcene of the moſt diſcriminating properties of gold; reſiſting, equally were uſed; but they were not then uſed in the public theatres with gold, many agents, which diſcolour, corrode, diſſolve, or When Sir William Davenant firſt opened, by virtue of his patent, ſcorify ſilver, and the baſe metals, as air and ſulphureous exhala the duke of York's theatre in Lincoln's Inn fields, in the ſpring of tions, the nitrous, marine, and vitriolic acids; both in their the year 1662, with one of his own plays, the Siege of Rhodes, liquid ſtate, and when reſolved by fire into fume, and ſulphur and then ſcenes made their firſt appearance upon the Engliſh ſtage; and antimony in fuſion. With theſe valuable properties, it adds ſome about the fame time actreſſes were alſo introduced, probably by to gold itſelf, making it both lefs ſoft and leſs fuſible, which no him, in imitation of the foreign theatres ; and Mrs. Betterton is other alloy does ; ſo that hence a due proportion of it bids fair to ſaid to have been the firſt woman that appeared on the Engliſh ſtage. remove thoſe inconveniencies which the enamellers complain of, Before this time, female characters were repreſented by boys or when they work upon plates either of fine gold or of alloyed gold. young men. In the time of Shakeſpeare, plays began at one But, though pletina undoubtedly belongs to the fame genus of bo o'clock in the afternoon, and the exhibition was uſually finiſhed in dies with gold and ſilver, of which genus no more than theſe three two hours ; and fo late as 1667, they commenced at three o'clock. ſpecies have been hitherto diſcovered ; and though it agrees with See Malones's Supplemental Obſervations to Steevens's edition of gold in many of its diſtintive properties, yet there are other im Shakeſpeare. Det portant characters in which it remarkably differs from gold. PLEA, placitum, in law, that which either party alledgeth for The ſciences, commerce, and arts, muſt receive great advan himſelf in court, in a cauſe then depending to be tried. Pleas are tages from the application of a new perfect metal to uſeful pur- either of the crown, or common pleas. poſes, which to the fixity and indeſtructibility of gold, unites a PLEAS of the Crown comprehend all crimes and miſdemeanors hardneſs and folidity almoſt equal to thoſe of iron, which is unal in which the king, on behalf of the public, is the plaintiff. Such terable by the action of water and air ; is not ſubject to ruft ; and are treaſons, felonies, miſpriſions of either, and mayhem. reſiſts, as well as glaſs or earthern veſſels, all ſalts, even aqua Common PLEAS, include all civil actions depending between fortis and other pure acids. It is to be regretted, that, although | ſubject and ſubject. ſubject and ſubject. The former of theſe were the proper object large quantities of it are found in America, it is ſo exceedingly of the juriſdiction of the court of king's-bench ; the latter of the rare here. But ſince the beſt chymiſts of Europe have examined court of common pleas. platina, they have publiſhed certain and eaſy methods by which the Court of, Common PLEAS, called alſo commonbench. See Court (nalleſt quantity of platina mixed with gold may be diſcovered, I of Common Pleas. and by which theſe metals may be ſeparated, in whatever propor PLEADING, placitatio, a diſcourſe ſpoken at the bar, in de- tion they may happen to be united. As a particular detail of theſe fence of the cauſe of a party. From the time of the conqueit, all methods would exceed our bounds, we ſhall here relate only one of pleading was performed in French, till the time of Edward III. the moſt convenient and leaſt troubleſome. It is founded on a pro when it was appointed, that the pleas ſhould be pleaded in Engliſh, perty which gold has, and not platina, of being capable of precipi but that they ihould be entered, or recorded, in Latin. But now tation from aqua regia by martial vitriol: and upon a property | by 4 Geo. II. cap. 26. it is enacted, that all proceedings in courts which platina has, and not gold, of being capable of precipitation of juſtice ſhall be in Engliſh. It is but of late years that elo- from aqua regia by fal ammoniac. When therefore we would quence was admitted to the bar, where it has been much practiſed diſcover if gold be alloyed with platina, let it be diffolved in aqua and encouraged. regia ; and to this ſolution, which will contain both metals, let PLEASURE, the effect of a ſenſation, or perception, agreeable fome fal ammoniac, diffolved in water, be added ; upon which the to the mind, or of the gratification of ſome appetite. Pleaſures platina will be precipitated in form of a brick-coloured ſediment. may be diſtinguiſhed into two kinds. The firſt, thoſe which an- If, on the other ſide, we would know if platina contained any ticipate, or go before the reaſon ; ſuch are all agreeable ſenſa- gold, let this platina be diſſolved in aqua regia, and to the ſolution tions. Theſe are properly called pleaſures of ſenſe, or of the body. add a ſolution of martial vitriol in water; upon which the liquor The ſecond are thoſe which do not precede, or anticipate, either will become turbid, and the gold will form a precipitate which the ſenſes or reaſon. Theſe we call pleaſures of the mind. Such may be ealily ſeparated by decanting and filtrating the liquor. We is the joy ariſing from a clear perception of ſome future good, or may then affirin, that the reaſons which induced the Spaniſh miniſ the confuſed ſenſation of a preſent one. For an inſtance of each: try to interdict the uſe of platina no longer ſubſiſt: and we hope, A man frequently finds pleaſure in eating a fruit he was before un- that, when they are once convinced of this, 'ſociety will no lon acquainted with ; this is anticipating pleaſure, which he feels be- ger be deprived of a ſubſtance which may be ſo advantageous to fore he knows the fruit to be good. On the other hand, a hungry them, and which may be a new ſource of wealth to the crown of hunter expects, or perhaps actually finds victuals; where the joy Spain, the ſole proprietor of this precious treaſure. he conceives is a pleaſure that follows from the knowledge of his PLATONIC, ſomething that relates to Plato, his ſchool, phi- preſent or future good. loſophy, opinions, or the like. Platonic Love denotes a pure fpi Pleaſure and pain ſeem to be no other than engines in nature's ritual affection, fubfiſting between the different ſexes, abſtracted hand, whereby we are directed to conſult our own preſervation, from all carnal appetites, and regarding no other object but the and avoid our ruin. To things that may contribute to the one, as mind, and its beauties; or it is even a ſincere diſintereſted friend food, venery, &c. ſhe has annexed pleaſure; and to thoſe that may thip ſubſiſting between perſons of the ſame ſex, abſtracted from conduce to the other, as hunger, diſeaſes, &c. pain. She durſt not felfiſh views, and regarding no other object but the perſon. leave it to our diſcretion, whether we would preſerve and propagate The term took its riſe from the philoſopher Plato, a ſtrenuous the ſpecies, or not ; but, as it were, conſtrains us to both. Were advocate for each kind. The world has a long time laughed at there no pleaſure in eating, nor pain in hunger, what numbers Plato's notions of love and friendſhip. In effect, they appear ar would be ſtarved, through negligence, forgetfulneſs, or ſlothfulneſs? rant chimeras, contrary to the intentions of nature, and inconſiſtent What is it induces people to the office of generation, but pleaſure? with the great law of ſelf-preſervation; which love and friendſhip Without this, the world had ſcarce ſubfifted to this time. Among are both ultimately reſolvable into. the multiplicity of things to be done, and to be avoided, for the PLAY-HOUSE. SeeTHEATRE, AMPHITHEATRE,&c. The preſervation of animal life, &c. how ſhould we have diſtinguiſhed moft ancient Engliſh play-houſes were the Curtain in Shoreditch. between the one and the other, but for the ſenſation of pleaſure and in the time of Shakeſpear, who commenced a dramatic writer pain? Theſe are not only ſpurs to urge us on, but alſo guides, to about the year 1592, there were no leſs than ten theatres open, four direct us whither we are to go. Wherever nature has fixed a plea- private houſes, and fix that were called public theatres. Moſt, if ſure, we may take it for granted, ſhe there enjoins her duty; and ſomething any I P L E PLO 4. PARAPHRENITIS. ſomething is to be there done, either for the individual, or for the Ipecies. Hence it is, that our pleaſures vary at different ſtages of life; the pleaſures, e. gr. of a child, a youth, a grown man, an old man, &c. all tending to thoſe particular things required by na- ture in that particular itate of life, either for the preſervation, fim- ply, or jointly, for that and propagation, &c. From the different conſtitutions of the body, at different ages, it were very eaſy to ac- count for all the particular taſtes and pleaſures thereof: not by de- ducing the pleaſures mechanically from the diſpoſition of the organs in that ſtate, but by confidering what is neceſſary for the perfection and well-being of the individual in that ſtate, and what is to con- tribute to that of the ſpecies. In a child, e. gr. mere preſervation in the preſent ſtate is not enough, it muſt likewiſe grow: to bring this to paſs, nature has made the returns of hunger, &c. more fre- quent, as well as more acute, and the pleaſures of feeding more ex- quiſite. And that the ſucceſs of aliment, in proportion to the bulk of the body, may be diſpenſed with, ſhe has made one of the great pleaſures of the ſtate to conſiſt in a ſeries of ſportive exercifes; by means whereof the parts of the body come to be opened and ex- panded, and arrive at maturity. This done, the pleaſures that con. duced thereto diſappear; and others, ſuited to the new ſtate, ſucceed. PLEIADES, TIRELDES, in Aſtronomy, an aſſemblage of ſeven ſtars in the neck of the conſtellation Taurus. They are thus called from the Greek Thelv, navigare, a ſail; as being terrible to mari- ners, on account of the rains and ſtorms that frequently riſe with them. PLENITUDE, plenitudo, the quality of a thing that is full, or that fills another. In phyſic, it is chiefly uſed for a redundancy of blood and humours, Phyſicians reckon two kinds of plenitude. The one called ad vires, when the abundance of the blood oppreſſes the patient's ſtrength. The other ad vaſa, when it fills the veſſels too much; ſwelling them to a degree of burſting. PLENUM, in Phyſics, a term uſed to ſignify that ſtate of things, wherein every part of ſpace, or extenſion, is ſuppoſed to be full of inatter. It is uſed in oppoſition to a vacuum, which is a ſpace ſuppoſed devoid of all matter. The Carteſians adhere firmly to the doctrine of an abſolute plenum. This they do on this principle, that the eſſence of matter conſiſts in extenſion; from whence, in- deed, the conſequence is very eaſy, that wherever there is ſpace or extenſion, there is alſo matter. But this principle we have ſhewn to be falſe ; and, therefore, the conſequence drawn from it falls to the ground. PLEONASM, pleonaſmus, formed from WhEOVNOMOS, q. d. fuper- abundance, in rhetoric, a figure of ſpeech, whereby we make uſe of words, ſeemingly needleſs or ſuperfluous, in order to expreſs a thought with the greateſt force and energy. Such is, I ſaw it with my own eyes: or, he heard it with his own ears, &c. The pleonaſm is called by the Latins redundantia. Pleonaſm, by grammarians, is uſually defined a fault in diſcourſe, wherein we ſay more than is ne- ceſſary. M. Vaugelas will not allow the phraſe, I ſaw it with my own eyes, to be a pleonaſm ; inaſmuch as there are no ſuperfluous words in it; none but what are neceſſary to give a ſtronger aſſur- ance of the thing affirmed. It is fufficient that one of the phraſes ſay ſomewhat more than the other, to avoid the imputation of a pleonaſm. PLETHORA, TIAydogo, in Medicine, ſuch an abundance of any good and laudable humour, as proves hurtful to the animal func- tions. Plethora is chiefly underſtood of the blood, though ſome times of the other humours. The Plethora is the conſequence of a good chylification, ſanguification, &c. attended with a too ſparing diſcharge by perſpiration, &c. It is uſually deſcribed either as ad vires, or ad vaſa. The plethora is chiefly produced in a body whoſe organs of digeſtion are ſtrong, blood veſſels lax, diet full of good juice, temperament ſanguine, mind at eaſe and indolent, of a mid- dle age, and in a moiſt air. It renders heat and motion uneaſy; it ſtretches the great veſſels, and compreſſes the ſmaller. And hence ſtiffneſs and heavineſs, and on the leaſt occaſion ruptures in the veſſels, fuffocations, &c. Dr. Friend makes the catarnenia, or MENSES, the mere reſult of a plethora. Medical writers now uſu- ally diſtinguiſh four kinds of a plethora. 1. The ſimple plethora, which is that ſtate of the body to which the blood is too abundant in quantity, but is as yet of no bad quality. 2. The cacochymious plethora, which is that where the blood is abundant in quantity, and at the ſame time is ſubject to a too great thickneſs, or ſome other diſcracy. 3. The plethora ad vaſa, whereby the blood, from its over great quantity, renders the veſſels turgid, without any far- ther ill effect. “And, 4. The plethora ad vires, in which there is joined to too great a plenitude of the veſſels, a laſſitude and torpor, or numbneſs of the limbs. The ſigns of a plethora are, 1. A florid conſtitution of the body. 2. A tolerable uſe of the non-naturals, a good appetite to food, and a ſound ſleep; this is the caſe while the plethora is ſimple and un- moved ; but when any commotion happens from without the ſigns are inquietude at night, dreams of bleeding, and of wounds from ſwords or other weapons, rubicund looks in the face, and a general turgeſcence of the veſſels, a heavineſs of the limbs, an inaptitude to motion, and difficulty of breathing, a vertiginous diſorder of the head, a ſenſe of a pricking or tingling in the Aeih from the flighteſt heat, an eaſy heating of the body from the weather, a moiſture of the eyes, and in hyſteric women a ſenſation as if a piece of cold ice were ſuddenly laid on ſome part of the head. Perfons moſt ſubject to a PLETHORA, are 1. People of ſedentary lives, who live high. 2. The younger rather than perſons more advanced in years. 3. The female ſex rather than the men. All perſons who have been accuſtomed to large evacuations, and have haſtily ſuppreſſed them. And, 5. Thoſe perſons who have ſuddenly changed a life of labour or exerciſe to a ſedentary one, without making the neceſſary changes in the non-naturals. PLEURA, IIaupe, derived from oleupe, which, primarily, fignifies fide, in anatomy, a membrane which lines the infide of the cavity of the breaſt, and incloſes all the parts contained therein, being of the fame figure and extent as the thorax itſelf, and of the ſame fubitance with the PERITON ÆUM. The uſe of the pleura is to defend the inſide of the thorax, and to render it fmooth, that the lungs may not be hurt in their motion. See the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part IV. Sect. II. PLEURISY, pleureſis, pleuritis, a hEURITIS, in Medicine, a violent pain in the ſide, attended with an acute fever, a cough, and a diffi- culty of breathing. The pleurify arifes from an inflammation of fome part of the pleura, to which is frequently joined that of the ex- terior and ſuperficial part of the lungs. This inflammation ſeizes any part of the integuments of the thorax, viz. either of the pleura or mediaſtinum; and, therefore, the pricking pain may be left in any part of the thorax; but the place it moſt ordinarily infeſts is the fide; ſometimes the right, fometimes the left; fometimes higher, ſometimes lower. The plurify ſometimes ſucceeds another fever; occafioned by a precipitation of the febrile matter upon the pleura. When it riſes to an impoſtume, it is called an EMPYEMA. When it happens in the mediaſtinum, or diaphragma, it is called PLEURONECTES, in Ichthyology, a genus belonging to the order of thoracici. 1. The hippogloſſus, or holibut. This is the largeſt of the ge- nus: fome have been taken in our feas weighing from 100 to 300 pounds; but much larger are found in thoſe of Newfoundland, Greenland, and Iceland, where they are taken with a hook and line in very deep water. They are part of the food of the Green- landers, who cut them into large ſlips, and dry them in the ſun. They are common in the London markets, where they are ex- poſed to fale, cut into large pieces. They are very coarſe eating, excepting the part which adheres to the ſide-fins, which is extremely fat and delicious, but ſurfeiting. They are the moſt voracious of all flat fiſh. There have been inſtances of their ſwallowing the lead weight at the end of a line, with which the ſeamen were ſounding the bottom from on board a ſhip. Theſe flat fish ſwiin ſideways; for which reaſon Linnæus hath ſtyled them pleuro- nectes. 2. The plateffa, or plaiſe, is very common on moſt of our coaſts, and ſometimes taken of the weight of 15 pounds; but they ſeldom reach that fize, one of eight or nine pounds being reckoned a large fiſh. The beſt and largeſt are taken off Rye on the coaſt of Suſſex, and alſo off the Dutch coaſts. They ſpawn in the be- ginning of February. 3. The Aeſus, or founder, inhabits every part of the Britiſh fea, and even frequents our rivers at a great diſtance from the ſalt wa- ters; and for this reaſon ſome writers call it the paler fluviatilis. It never grows large in our rivers, but is reckoned fweeter than thoſe that live in the ſea. It is inferior in ſize to the plaiſe, ſeldom or never weighing more than five pounds. It may very eaſily be diſtinguiſhed from the plaiſe, or any other fiſh of this genus, by a row of ſharp ſmall ſpines that ſurround its upper fides, and are placed juſt at the junction of the fins with the body. Another row marks the ſide-line, and runs half way down the back. 4. The limanda, or dab, is found with the other ſpecies: it is in beſt ſeaſon during February, March, and April: they ſpawn in May and June, and become flabby and watery the reſt of ſummer. 5. The folea, or ſole, is found on all our coaſts; but thoſe on the weſtern ſhores are much ſuperior in ſize to thoſe of the north. On the former they are ſometimes taken of the weight of fix or ſeven pounds. The chief filhery for them is at Brixham in Torbay. 6. The maximus, or turbot, grows to a very large ſize; Mr. Pennant has ſeen them of 23 pounds weight, but has heard of ſome that weighed 30. They are taken chiefly off the north coaſt of England, and others of the Dutch coaſt. The large turbots, and ſeveral other kinds of fiat fiſh, are taken by the hook and line, for they lie in deep water: the method of taking them in wares, or ſtaked nets, is too precarious to be depended on for the ſupply of our great markets, becauſe it is by mere accident that the great filia ſtray into them. For the claſfification, ſee the Syſtem. Genus 35. PLEXUS, in Anatomy, a name common to ſeveral parts in the body, conſiſting of bundles of little veſſels, interwoven in form of net-work. The nerves, in their progreſs, form ſeveral plexufes ; eſpecially the par vagum, or eighth pair, the intercoſtals, and the fifth. The par vagum, at its interſection with the intercoſtal nerve, forms the plexus ganglioformis ſuperior and inferior. A branch of this nerve joining near the heart, with others from the intercoſtals, forms the plexus cardiacus fuperior. PLOVER, golden, or green, pluvialis, in Ornithology, a ſpecies of the Genus Charadrius. For deſcription of the Genus, See CHARADRIUS. PNEUMATICS, Plate 3 A View with sections of Princes American Air Promp , which is Superior to Smeatóns, and every other modezn) construction Sa System of Pneumatics. Fig. 5. Fig. 7. K к А. B Fig. 6. Fig. 8. på Fuap K K K 11 Bahan Fig.4. I D B G ΤΗ P I Fig. 4. Section of the American Air Pump L A Q Fig.10.Air Gun. buo a Z Fig.2. Fig.9; The common Air Pump B Fig.3. T B N M N LA A W E. Fig. 2. Side Tiew of the American Air Pump. D R HI Y I Η ML DI R S Fig. 1. OG B В P U P Blake delin Fig.3. Section of the American Air Pump Fig. 1. Front Tiew of the American Alir Pump Published as the Act directo, hr C.Cooke 1917 Paternoster row. Lodge seul SYSTEM OF PNEUMATICS. mean rate. guiſhed. mul particulars. a NEUMATICS, called alſo PNEUMATOLOGY and Pneumato varied by winds and other cauſes. That the quick ſilver is kept up ſophy, ſchoolmen, the doctrine and contemplation of in the tube by the preſſure of the atmoſphere upon that in the baſon, fpirits and ſpiritual ſubſtances, as God, angels, and the human ſoul; is evident; for, if the baſon and tube be put under a glaſs, and the in which ſenſe pneumatics are the ſame with what we otherwiſe call air be then taken out of the glaſs, all the quickſilver in the tube metaphyfics. PNEUMATICs is more commonly uſed among us for will fall down into the baſon; and if the air be let in again, the that branch of natural philoſophy which treats of the weight, quickſilver will riſe to the ſame height as before. Therefore the preſſure, and elaſticity of the Air, and the effects ariſing from it. air's preſſure on the ſurface of the earth is equal to the weight of 29] inches depth of quickſilver all over the earth's ſurface, at a a SECT. I. A ſquare column of quickſilver, 294 inches high, and OF THE PROPERTIES OF AIR. one inch thick, weighs juſt 15 pounds, which is equal to the preſ- fure of air upon every ſquare inch of the earth's ſurface; and 144 The air is that thin tranſparent fluid body in which we live and times as much, or 2160 pounds, upon every ſquare foot; becauſe breathe. It encompaſſes the whole earth to a conſiderable height; a ſquare foot contains 144 ſquare inches. At this rate, a middle- and, together with the clouds and vapours that float in it, is called fized man, whoſe ſurface may be about 14 ſquare feet, fuſtains a the atmoſphere. The air is juſtly reckoned among the number of preſſure of 30240 pounds, when the air is of a mean gravity: a fluids, becauſe it has all the properties by which a fluid is diſtin- preſſure which would be inſupportable, and even fatal to us, were For, it yields to the leaſt force impreſſed, its parts are it not equal on every part, and counterbalanced by the ſpring of the eaſily moved among one another, it preſſes according to its air within us, which is diffuſed through the whole body, and re-acts perpen- dicular height, and its preſſure is every way equal. That the air with an equal force againſt the outward preſſure. Now ſince the is a fluid, conſiſting of ſuch particles as have no coheſion betwixt earth's ſurface contains (in round numbers) 200,000,000 ſquare them, but eaſily glide over one another, and yield to the ſlighteſt miles, and every ſquare mile 27,878,400 ſquare feet, there muſt be impreſſion, appears from that eaſe and freedom with which animals 5,575,680,000,000,000 ſquare feet on the earth's ſurface; which breathe in it, and move through it without any difficulty or ſenſible altiplied by 2160 pounds (the preſſure on each ſquare foot) gives reſiſtance. But it differs from all other fluids in the three following 12,043,468,800,000,000,000 pounds for the preſſure or weight of 1. It can be compreſſed into a much leſs ſpace than the whole atmoſphere. When the end of a pipe is immerſed in that which it naturally poffefſeth. 2. It cannot be congealed or water, and the air is taken out of the pipe, the water will riſe in it fixed, as other fluids may. 3. It is of a different denſity in every to the height of 33 feet above the ſurface of the water in which it part, upward from the earth's ſurface; decreaſing in its weight, is immerſed; but will go no higher : for it is found that a common bulk for bulk, the higher it riſes; and therefore muſt alſo decreafé pump will draw water no higher than 33 feet above the ſurface of in denſity. 4. It is of an elaſtic or ſpungy nature, and the force of the well ; and unleſs the bucket goes within that diſtance from the its ſpring is equal to its weight. That air is a body, is evident from well, the water will never get above it. Now, as it is the preſſure its excluding all other bodies out of the ſpace it poſſeſſes : for if a of the atmoſphere on the ſurface of the water in the well that glaſs jar be plunged, with its mouth downwards, into a veſſel of cauſes the water to aſcend in the pump, and follow the piſton or water, there will but very little water get into the jar, becauſe the bucket, when the air above it is lifted up; it is evident, that a co- air of which it is full keeps the water out. As air is a body, it lumn of water 33 feet high, is equal in weight to a column of quick- muſt needs have gravity or weight : and that it is weighty, is de- ſilver of the fame diameter, 29į inches high; and to as thick a monſtrated by experiment. For, let the air be taken out of a veſſel column of air, reaching from the earth's ſurface to the top of the by means of the air-pump, then having weighed the veffel, let in atmoſphere. In ſerene calm weather, the air has weight enough the air again, and upon weighing it, when re-filled with air, it will to ſupport a column of quickſilver 31 inches high ; but in tem- be found conſiderably heavier. Thus, a bottle that holds peſtuous ſtormy weather, not above 28 inches. The quickſilver wine quart, being emptied of air and weighed, is found to be about thus ſupported in a glaſs tube, is found to be a nice counterbalance 17 grains lighter than when the air is let into it again ; which ſhews to the weight or preſſure of the air, and to thew its alterations at that a quart of air weighs 17 grains. But a quart of water weighs different times. And being now generally uſed to denote the 14,625 grains; thus divided by 17, quotes 860 in round numbers; changes in the weight of the air, and of the weather conſequent which ſhews, that water is 860 times as heavy as air near the fur- upon them, it is called the barometer or weather-glaſs. See BARO- face of the earth. As the air riſes above the earth’s furface, it grows body expoſed to it, the fofteſt bodies ſuſtain this preſſure without The preſſure of the air being equal on all ſides of a rarer, an elaſtic or ſpringy nature, and its lowermoſt parts are preſſed with ſuffering any change in their figure; and ſo do the moſt brittle the weight of all that is above them, it is plain that the air muſt be bodies without being broke. more denſe or compact at the earth's ſurface, than at any height SECT. II. above it; and gradually rarer the higher up. For the denſity of the air is always as the force that compreſſeth it: and therefore the DESCRIPTION OF THE COMMON AIR-PUMP AND ITS USES, air towards the upper parts of the atmoſphere being leſs preſſed The air-pump is one of the moſt uſeful of all philofophical than that which is near the earth, it will expand itſelf, and thereby inſtruments, whoſe actions depend on the properties of the air. become thinner than at the earth's ſurface. Dr. Cotes has de- By the help of this machine, all that has been ſhewn concerning monſtrated, that if altitudes in the air be taken in arithmetical the weight and elaſticity of the air, is demonſtrated in the moſt proportion, the rarity of the air will be in geometrical proportion. fimple and elegant manner. Its conſtruction is as follows: EFGH For inſtance, (fig. 9. Plate III.) is a ſquare table of wood, AA are two ſtrong bar- rels or tubes of braſs, firmly retained in their poſition by the piece Izr 47 TT; which is preſſed on them by ſcrews 00, fixed on the tops of 14 64 the braſs pillars NN. Theſe barrels communicate with a cavity 256 in the lower part D. At the bottom within each barrel is fixed a valve, opening upwards, and in each a piſton works, having a valve 1024 likewiſe opening upwards. The piſtons are moved by a cog-wheel 4096 16384 in the piece TT, turned by the handle B, and whoſe teeth catch 65536 in the racks of the piſtons CC. PQR is a circular braſs-plate, 63 262144 having near its center the orifice K of a concealed pipe, that com- 70 1048576 municates with the cavity; in the piece D at V is a ſcrew that cloſes the orifice of another pipe, for the purpoſe of admitting the 77 4194304 84 16777216 external air when required. LM is a glaſs-receiver, out of which 67108864 the air is to be exhauſted. It is placed on the plate PQR, firſt 268435456 covered with a wet ſheep-ſkin, or ſmeared with wax, to prevent 105 1073741824 the air from infinuating under the edge of the glaſs. When the 4294967296 handle B is turned, one of the piſtons is raiſed, and the other de- 119 17179869184 preffed ; a void ſpace is conſequently left between the raiſed piſton · 68719476736 and the lower valve in the correſpondent barrel : the air contained | 133 in the receiver LM, communicating with the barrel by the orifice 274877906944 (140 1099511627776) K, immediately raiſes the lower valve by its ſpring, and expands into the void ſpace ; and thus a part of the air in the receiver is And hence it is eaſy to prove by calculation, that a cubic inch of extracted. The handle then being turned the contrary way, raiſes ſuch air as we breathe would be ſo much rarefied at the altitude of the other piſton, and performs the ſame act in its correſpondent 500 miles, that it would fill a ſphere equal in diameter to the orbit barrel ; while, in the mean time, the firſt mentioned piſton being of Saturn. The weight or preſſure of the air is exactly determined depreſſed, the air, by its ſpring, cloſes the lower valve, and, raiſing by the following experiment. Take a glaſs tube, about three feet the valve in the piſton, makes its eſcape. The motion of the long, and open at one end; fill it with quickſilver, and, putting handle being again reverſed, the firſt barrel again exhauſts while your finger upon the open end, turn that end downward, and im the ſecond diſcharges the air in its turn: and thus, during the time merſe it into a ſmall veffel of quickſilver, without letting in any the pump is worked, one barrel exhauſts the air from the receiver, air: then take away your finger, and the quickſilver will remain while the other diſcharges it through the valve in its piſton. Hence ſuſpended in the tube 29] inches above its ſurface in the veſſel it is evident, that the vacuum in the receiver of the air-pump can ſometimes more, and at other times leſs, as the weight of the air is never be perfect ; that is, the air can never be entirely exhauſted : ВЪь for No. 129. Vol. III. METER. 3 16 : 21 28 35 42 49 56 At the altitude of Miles above the ſurface of the earth, the air is times thinner and lighter than at the earth's ſurface. 91 98 II2 126 2 P N E UM ATIC S. 2 Several of repre- for it is the ſpring of the air in the receiver that raiſes the valve, gage uſeleſs in great exhauſtions. Thus for example, if the ſhort gage have a tube of one-tenth of an inch in diameter, the mercury and forces air into the barrel, and the barrel at each exfuction can will fall to the level of the baſon when the exhauſtion is 150 times, only take away a certain part of the remaining air, which is in and will ſtand below the level for all greater degrees of rarefaction: proportion to the quantity before the ſtroke, as the capacity of Theſe difficulties may all be removed, by making the ſhort gage the barrel is to that of the barrel and receiver added into one fum. in the form of an inverted fyphon, with one leg open, and the other This, however, is an imperfection that is ſeldom, if ever, of any It muſt be confeſſed, however, that it is conſequence in practice, becauſe all air-pumps, at a certain period | hermetically ſealed. of the exhauſtion, ceaſe to act, on account of their imperfect con not eaſy to boil the mercury in theſe ; and the method of doing it ſtruction. For the valves uſually conſiſt of a piece of oiled bladder, with ſucceſs cannot, with fufficient conciſeneſs, be deſcribed here. tied over a hole, fo that the air is at liberty to paſs, by lifting up the Few air-pumps exhauſt to ſo great a degree as one thouſand times bladder, but cannot return again, and there will unavoidably be a by the barometer gage; but the pear-gage, in ſome circumſtances, ſmall ſpace left between the lower valve and the piſton when down. will indicate an exhauſtion of many thouſand times. Now it will happen, when the air in the receiver is very rare, the uſes of the air-pump have already been mentioned. The weight that its ſpring will not be ſtrong enough to overcome the adheſion of the air is ſhewn by exhauſting it out of a bottle; and its pref- of the bladder forming the lower valve, which, conſequently, will ſure is proved to be the cauſe of the aſcent of the mercury in the remain ſhut, and the exhauſtion cannot proceed. Or, before this barometer, becauſe in the vacuum it is no longer ſuſtained. It period, it may happen, that the air between the valves when the will be proper to ſubjoin a few more inſtances. If a ſquare bottle, piſton is up, may be ſo ſmall as to lie in the ſpace between the two in whoſe neck is fixed a valve, opening outwards, be placed under valves when the piſton is down, without being ſufficiently con the receiver, and the air exhauſted, the bottle will be cruſhed to denſed for its ſpring to overcome the adheſion of the bladder form pieces by the weight of the atmoſphere, when the air is permitted ing the upper valve, and the weight of the atmoſphere that preſſes to return into the receiver. For the air is prevented from entering it: in this caſe the upper valve will remain ſhut, and the exhauſtion the bottle by the valve, which, before the exhauſtion, ſuſtained the cannot proceed. In the beſt air pumps theſe imperfections are in preſſure of the atmoſphere on its external ſurface, by means of the a great degree removed. For the adheſion of the bladders is much fpring of the included air acting equally on the internal ſurface; diminiſhed, and the action of the air upon them increaſed, by ſub but in this experiment, being deprived of its internal air, it is in- ftituting a number of large holes of paſſage, inſtead of one capable of bearing the weight of the atmoſphere which preſſes it ſmaller. By cauſing the rod of the piſton to paſs through a collar on all ſides. If the bottle were round, inſtead of ſquare, it would of leathers, ſcrewed to the upper part of the barrel, and placing ſuſtain the preſſure, notwithſtanding the exhauſtion, by reaſon of another valve for the paſſage of the extruded air, the preſſure of the its arched figure, that would prevent its giving way inwards. atmoſphere is prevented from acting on the piſton, ſo that the Explanation of the Uſe and Conſtruction of Prince's American Air- whole ſpring of the air between the piſton and lower valve is ex- Pump, as repreſented in Plate III. erted in overcoming the reſiſtance afforded by the valve of the Fig. 1. A view of the pump when opened and uncovered for piſton. There are alſo contrivances for opening a communication experiments. Fig. 3. A perpendicular ſection of one of the between the receiver and the barrel, without depending on the barrels, the two ciſterns, condenſing gage, &c. where AB ſpring of the air. One of the beſt of theſe conſiſts in an additional ſents the barrel: CD the ciſtern on which it ſtands; a a a a the piece that lifts the lower valve when a lever is preſſed with the foot: leathered joint ſunk into a ſocket, and buried in oil: EF is the the lever communicates with the interior piece, by means of a rod piſton; the cylindrical rod paffing through a collar of leathers, that paſſes through a collar of leathers at the lower end of the bar GG, in the box HI, K ſhows the place of the valve on the rel. The beſt ſort of air-pumps are uſually made with a ſingle plate KL covered by the croſs piece MM, into which the pipe OO barrel. In meaſuring the exhauſtion there are two methods of is ſoldered, that conveys the air from the valves to the duct, going proceeding. The one ſhews the denſity of the air left in the re under the valve pump, as may be ſeen in fig. 4; o is part of the ſaid ceiver, without regarding ſuch vapours as may aſſume an elaſtic duct; P is the joint funk into a ſocket, in the croſs piece PP, which form in the vacuum : the other exhibits the ſpring of the elaſtic connects the ciſterns, and has a duct through it, leading to them. Into fuid in the receiver, without ſhewing whether it be permanently this duct open the ducts q and r, the firſt leading to the gage in front elaſtic air. The quantity of air is thewn by an inſtrument called of the pump, the other to the cock and receiver. The other barrel is the pear-gage. It conſiſts of a glaſs-veſſel, in the form of a pear, left out of the figure, to ſhow ſome of the parts more diſtinctly; ex- with graduations near its upper end, that denote certain known cept QQ, which is the top of the barrel retained and brought down parts of its bulk. This is included in the receiver, together with a out of its place to ſhow the top plate, that ſhuts up the barrel, ſepa- veſſel of mercury, into which its mouth may be occaſionally plunged. rated from the box which contains the collar of leathers. S ſhows one When the exhauſtion is made, the pear-gage is plunged into the of the holes in the plate over which the valve lies, and which is covered mercury, and the external air admitted into the receiver. The mer by R in the croſs piece. VV is the piſton, ſhowing the valve open cury riſes in the gage, and occupies the whole of its cavity, except on the top, which is to prevent labour when the pump condenſes. a ſpace at top, poſſeſſed by a bubble of air, whoſe magnitude is WX is the ciſtern, in which is more diſtinctly ſeen the ſhoulder known from the graduations, and is in proportion to the whole for the leather which cloſes the joint between this and the barrel, contents of the gage, as the quantity of air in the exhauſted receiver and alſo the ſocket in which the oil lies over the leather. YZ is the is to an equal volume of the common atmoſpherical air. This gage condenſing gage with the orifice of the tube raiſed above the ſurface would be accurate for all purpoſes, if it were not that moſt fluid of the quickſilver; ee is the collar of leathers through which the or moiſt ſubſtances aſſume an elaſtic form when the preſſure of the glaſs tube moves, i is a ſmall pipe coming up through the quick- atmoſphere is removed. For this reaſon it ſeldom indicates the elaf ſilver to make a communication between the valves and the gage. ticity or actual preſſure of the fluid remaining in the receiver. The Fig. 7, is a view of the upper ſurface of the top plate which barometer gage is uſed for this purpoſe. If a barometer be in cloſes the barrel, being ſoldered into it, ſhowing the place of the cluded beneath a receiver, the mercury will ſtand at the ſame height valve over the three ſmall holes, one of which only can be ſeen at as in the open air ; but when the receiver begins to be exhauſted, the mercury will deſcend, and reſt at a height which is in propor- Fig. 4, is a perpendicular ſection of the bottom piece, pipes, tion to its former height, as the ſpring of the remaining air is to its valve pump, cock, &c. at right angles, with the other ſection original ſpring before the exhauſtion. It is uſual to ſay, the air is (fig. 3.) AB is the pipe between the barrels. The button o is as many times rarer than the atmoſphere, as the column it ſuſtains here ſcrewed into the top inſtead of the gage, CD is the valve is leſs than the height the mercury ſtands at in a detached barome pump and its ciſtern, e the place of the valve under the cap. EF ter. On account of the inconvenience of including a barometer in the cock, ſhowing the duct through it leading to the atmoſphere, a receiver, a tube of ſix or eight inches length is filled with mer GH the pipe leading from it to the ſtem of the receiver plate, in cury, and inverted in the ſame manner as the barometer. This which the cock I to ſhut up the duct when the plate is uſed as a being included, anſwers the ſame purpoſe, with no other difference transferer, KK is the plate, L a piece to ſhut up the hole into which than that the mercury does not begin to deſcend till about three tubes, &c. are occaſionally ſcrewed to perform experiments without fourths of the air is exhauſted. It is called the ſhort barometer gage. removing the plate: the pricked line at O ſhows the place of the Others place a tube, of a greater length than the barometer, with ſcrews which preſſes the plate againſt the pipe; PQ the pipe and its lower end in a veffel of mercury, while its upper end communi common gage ſtanding in front of the pump. cates with the receiver. Here the mercury riſes as the exhauſtion Fig. 5, is a horizontal ſection of the cock and pieces, contain- proceeds, and the preſſure of the remaining air is ſhewn by the ing the ducts leading from it to the receiver, the ciſterns and the difference between its height and that of the barometer. This is valves on the tops of the barrels; AB the duct connecting the called the long barometer gage. Theſe gages are not often con ciſterns together, CD the duet leading from the ciſterns to the cock, ſtructed ſo as to anſwer the purpoſe of ſhewing the degree of ex GH the duct leading from the cock through the pipe AB fig. 4. hauſtion to a great degree. For the mercury, though at firſt boiled, to the valves, DE the duct through the cock, which occaſionally to clear it of the air and moiſture that adhere to it, and render it connects the two laßt mentioned ducts with the duct EF, leading ſenſibly lighter, gradually becomes again contaminated by expoſure from the cock to the receiver, I the duct in the cock, leading to to the air in the baſon of either gage. They cannot therefore with the atmoſphere, which, when connected with the duct at D, lets ſtrictneſs be compared with a good barometer, in which this does the air into the ciſterns and barrels for condenſation ; the other not happen. If the tubes of the gages be leſs than half an inch in duct through the cock at the ſame time connecting H and E. This diameter, the mercury will be ſenſibly repelled downwards, ſo as to duct alſo when connected with E reſtores the equilibrium in the require a correction for the long gage when compared with a baro receiver, KL is part of the duct leading from the ciſterns to the meter, whoſe tube is of a different bore, and to render the ſhort gage; the pricked circles (how the places of the pipe and the valve pump, S in fig. 3. Cyfteriments on the Air Pump See System opPreumatics. Section 2.Esperiment si se 5 6 7. B. B 4 В 8 B R 13 I A А 10 12 B A B В LA C C 2 B E 14 177 H 15 16 F B В D B C I A А Sus JS 21 22 20 23 E E PII F El T D. E C с B D. F c D D E 20 25 G 27 E F A II V 28 30 29 E E B ( RITTEE 13 A B 1 BO B В D D D D B. G G Engraved for Halls Ena/clopædia ,and Printed for C.Cooke, 1917, Paternoster Row Aug11795. PNEUMATIC S. pump the pump exhauſts. pump, on the piece, and r the place where the air enters the valve ſhould immerſe it entirely under water; and then open the ſpigot from the duct GH, and is thrown into the atmoſphere when it will be filled with water, becauſe the air is exhauſted; wipe the outſide of it well, without leaving any moiſture on it; weigh it Fig. 6, Shows the under ſurface of the boxes, which contain the again; cloſing the ſpigot to prevent any water from coming out; collars of leather, with the croſs piece which connects them to the difference of weight between this bowl, from which the air is gether, having a duct through it, as repreſented by the pricked exhauſted; and the fame bowl filled with water, will diſcover how line, through which the air paſſes from the valves to the pipe: this much water is heavier than air. figure is deſigned chiefly to ſhow the places in which the valves EXPERIMENT V. FIG. V. play, as at I. Take little bowls of glaſs which have a ſmall neck at one end; Fig. 2, Is a ſide view of the pumps, ſhowing the ſituation of the take alſo the figures of little boys made of glaſs, which are hollow valve pump and handle of the cock, where A is the pump and B within, place them in a high glaſs of water; cover them with a the handle, glaſs bell B, and let this bell reft upon a plate of copper; pump out Fig. 8, Is the top plate, which ſcrews the key of the cock into a little of the air, ſo much as to draw off fome bubbles of air from its ſhell, and keeps it tight; the upper ſurface of it is marked with the little boys and the little bowls; cauſe the air to enter again in- directions to turn the key ſo as to produce the effect deſired ; for to the glaſs bell, and you will perceive that a quantity of water, when the mark on the key agrees with the mark on the plate, the equal to that of the exhauſted air, will enter into the little boys and pump exhauſts, and ſo of the reſt. little bowls, which will render them more heavy; pump out then Mr. Prince has endeavoured to remedy the defects of former air ſo much air till the water which occupies the place cauſes them to pumps, and to form one more perfect, upon very ſimple principles. link to the bottom of the glaſs A, then pump the air again from the Mr. Smeaton had already done much to facilitate the opening of glaſs bell, and you will perceive that the elaſtic force of the air will the valves, at the bottom of the barrel, and in the piſton, by which cauſe the little boys and little bowls to loſe ſo much water, and will means he carried the degree of rarefaction much further than it by that means render them ſo light that they will Aoat on the water; could be carried by the common pump. Mr. Prince, therefore, but if you cauſe the air to enter again into the glaſs bell, they will juſtly ſuppoſed, that if thoſe valves were entirely removed, the air ſink immediately to the bottom as before, and will again mount to in the barrel would be more perfectly expelled, and the rarefaction the top every time that the air is exhauſted. carried ſtill further. It is upon this principle that Mr. Prince has EXPERIMENT VI. FIG. VI. conſtructed his pump, removing the lower valve, and opening the The ſame experiment may be tried in the caſe of a bladder, bottom of the barrel into a ciſtern on which it is placed, and which which, being but half full of air, and cloſe ſtopped, becomes ſo heavy, has a free communication with the receiver; for the valve on the by means of a weight ſuſpended, that it links to the bottom of the plate at the top of the barrel renders it unneceffary that there ihould water; for as ſoon as a little air is pumped out of the glaſs bell, un- be any at the bottom, in order to rarefy the air in the receiver. The der which the glaſs of water and the bladder have been placed, the next advantage obtained by Mr. Prince, is that of expelling the air bladder ſwells and floats on the water, falling afterwards to the bot- more perfectly out of the barrel than can be done on Mr.Smeaton's tom as often as the air is permitted to enter. conſtruction ; and this he effects by forming a better vacuum be- EXPERIMENT VII. FIG. VII. tween the piſton and the top-plate; but this, as well as other pe The power of elaſtic air may be perceived from this circum- culiarities, will be plain to every intelligent workman, from the de ſtance: take a box of wood B, upon which place a covering of lead, fcription we have given of this machine. with a pin of copper A; this covering enters into the box B at the VARIOUS EXPERIMENTS ON THE AIR PUMP, TO PROVE THE depth of an inch. Place in the box a bladder bound, hard and cloſe EXPANSION OR ELASTIC FORCE OF AIR. ſtopped; having previouſly exhauſted the greateſt part of the air from the bladder. Place upon the covering ſome pieces of lead of a to EXPERIMENT I. FIG. I. flat round figure, CC, with a hole in the middle. Place all theſe Take a bladder, exhauſt the air to a degree that but a very ſmall under a glaſs bell, narrow but high; pump out the air, and you will quantity ſhall remain ; then tie it in ſuch a manner that no more perceive that the bladder by ſwelling will raiſe the covering of lead, of the air which remains can evaporate; to effect this with the and the weight which has been placed on it. greater eafe, moiſten the neck of the bladder, and tie it very hard ExpeRIMENT VIII. FIG. VIII. below the neck. Suſpend the bladder to the hook which is annexed When it is delired to deprive fiſh of air, the way is to place them to the button of the receiver of the glaſs A. Pump the air of the in a large glaſs full of water, B, which ought then to be placed on receiver, and then the elaſtic force of the air will cauſe the bladder a circular piece of wood, C, which would be fixed on the plate of to extend to ſuch a degree that it will be in danger of burſting; the copper, in the middle of the circular piece of wood let there be made cauſe of which is, that the bladder is no longer prefixed by exter a hole, through which let there paſs the little piece X; join this nal reſiſtance, as it was before, when it was ſuſpended in the air, piece to the plate of copper, to hinder water from entering into or before it was ſhut up in the receiver. There is nothing more the pump, otherwiſe the fiſh, beginning to move and founder, neceffary than to introduce the air again into the receiver, and the would throw the water out of the glaſs B ; cover B with the glaſs bladder will reſume its original figure ; the internal air which it bell A, and you will perceive that as ſoon as the air is pumped out, contains being then compreſſed by the exterior air. the fiſh will begin to float on the water, and will not be able to Experiment II. Fig. II. ſink again without difficulty, becauſe there is, within their bodies, By this experiment we proceed to prove that air can expand it a ſmall bladder full of air; which, dilating itſelf, ſwells them up, ſelf in an extraordinary manner. Take a phial with a long neck, fill and renders them lighter. · As foon as air comes again into the it with water, leaving in it only a very ſmall bubble of air; turn it glaſs they ſink ſpontaneouſly, particularly if they have thrown up upſide down, and immerge the nozzle in a high glaſs of water ; fome bubbles of air in the courſe of pumping. place afterwards the glaſs B above it; pump the air, and you will EXPERIMENT IX. FIG. IX. fee the little bubble expand itſelf, and drive the water out of the Take a little glaſs A ; put ſome new beer, wine, or brandy, into bowl. If we compare the firſt ſize of this bubble of air with that it it; cover it with the glaſs bell B; pump out the air ; and then the forms after it is expanded, a judgment may be formed how much air which is contained in the beer, or the other liquors, will diſco- the air is expanded; the beſt way on this occaſion is to take the ver itſelf and expand: the beer will change entirely to froth; but water from which the air has been exhauſted, either by boiling it, this froth will diſappear as ſoon as air ſhall be admitted into the or by putting it under a receiver to exhauſt the air. In the courſe glaſs bell; the wine and brandy will appear to bubble up; and of pumping no bubble of air remains in the water, which could en large bubbles of air will be ſeen to iſſue from them; if theſe liquors creaſe the lize of the firſt bubble, and by this means render the cal- áre taſted, after they have continued a little time in vacuo, on com- culation of the different ſizes uncertain. paring them with other freſh liquors of the ſame kind, it will be EXPERIMENT III. FIG. III. found that they have à vapid flavour. EXPERIMENT X. FIG. X. Take a new-laid hen's egg, cut off about a third part of it at the ſmall end, turn it upſide down, take out the yolk, and you will find Take a little braſs cup A; place a little piece of glaſs, not too a little bubble of air concealed between the ſhell and the ſkin"; thick, upon the top of the cup A, where there is a ledge; then cloſe place the egg in a little hollow glafs A, and cover it with the lit it up with wax, and place a little glaſs at top; when you come to tle glaſs bell A, which reſts upon the plate of copper; you then pump the air, the piece of glaſs will burſt within, with a great noiſe, pump out the air you will ſee this little bubble expand againſt the it will be proper to place upon the plate a large round piece of ſhell, and diſtend 'the ſkin in ſuch a manner that it will fill all the leather, or a piece of lead, with a little hole in the middle, that you fhell, and will appear as one whole egg: may be able to take away the little piece of glaſs at once, and pre- EXPERIMENT IV. FIG. IV. vent the plate's being damaged, when the glaſs comes to burſt Take a glaſs bowl, furniſhed with copper, as A, to which may within. be joined a ſpigot B, by means of a ſcrew, weigh this bowl full of EXPERIMENT XI. FIG. XI. air, in a very exact pair of ſcales, and join it afterwards to the pump, Take a glaſs bell of a moderate height A, clean it well, and by means of a little piece X; when you have carefully pumped the make it very dry. Place it upon a plate of copper, and pump out air out of the bowl, weigh it again, and you will find that it has a little air : hold a lighted candle B on the ſide of the glaſs bell op- become much lighter; if you afterwards' draw only the ſpigot B, poſite to that where the eye C is placed, and the eye will perceive and cauſe the air to enter again into the bowl, it will be found of in the glaſs bell, a ring or coloured circle, which will not appear the fame weight as at firſt. but at the beginning of the pumping ; for, when a large quantity of SECOND PART OF EXPERIMENTIV. FIG. IV. air has been pumped out, all the colours will diſappear, and they If, after weighing the foregoing bowl, A, when exhauſted, you will re-appear as the air is permitted to enter; the ſame thing will invariably if PNEUMATICS. gage Steel invariably happen every time that you chuſe to repeat the fame ex when there is no air, freezes quicker or lower than common periment. water. EXPERIMENT XII. FIG. XII. EXPERIMENT XIX. Fig. XIX. If a phial is placed in a glaſs filled with water, and a fillet to cover Take the flint glaſs bottle with the braſs-head, and put a little it, and a glaſs C above it, the glaſs will burſt in pieces, when the Mercury in the bottom, then take the tube which is made for that air is pumped out, and the ſhock will even be fo violent as to ſhake purpoſe and ſcrew it into the hole: ſo that the end may almoſt the touch the bottom of the bottle; then ſetting the receiver, with the pump. EXPERIMENT XIII. FIG. XIII. large tube to cover the ſmall one over bottle and tube, as you ex- Take a glaſs A, cover it with a lid B, and the button C; hang hauſt it you will ſee the Mercury riſe in the tube, according to the to it the little balance D; annex to one of the arms of this balance expanſion of the air in the bottle; which, when the receiver is quite a ſmall piece of wax E, and at the other arm a ſmall piece of lead F; exhauſted, will ſtand at the height of the Mercury in the common which in open air are of the ſame weight; pump the air from A, barometer. and you will perceive that the piece of wax preponderates and be N. B. If you compare the height of the Mercury in the comes the heavieſt. under the pump, with the height of the Mercury in the tube of the EXPERIMENT XIV. FIG. XIV... bottle, they will appear to be of the ſame height; which ſhews that Take a gun-lock A, annexed to a piece of wood furniſhed with the ſpring of the air is juſt equal to the preſſure of the atmoſphere. a ſcrew, to aſſiſt which it may be placed on a plate of copper ; the ExperIMENT XX. FIG. XX. piece B, is annexed to the little piece of ſteel X, and to a wire Sound cannot expand itſelf in vacuo ; for, take a finall piece of thread d; the end of which is ſhaped into a circular form; when lead A, whoſe two pillars ſupport a little bell by the affiſtance of a this wire thread is raiſed, after having faſtened the lock of the gun, ſtring; place this lead ſtring; place this lead upon a plate of copper, but place between the lock looſens itſelf, ſnaps, and gives fire, as in ordinary caſes ; the two a little cuſhion filled with wool A; place over them the put ſome powder then in the pan; faſten the lock, and place above glaſs open at top, and covered with the lid D; to which may be it a large glaſs C, open at top; place upon this glaſs the lid D, fixed the little box B, filled with ſmall pieces of leather moiſtened with the box F, of which we have ſpoken before; turn E, make T with oil, acroſs which paſs a braſs wire, which becomes by that enter into the circumference of D, ſtop the little piece H, at the means moveable; but, however, in ſuch a manner, that the air can- height where it ought to be; pump the air out of the glaſs bell ; not evaporate acroſs the leather, along the wire; then affix to the then draw up the wire thread E, ſo as to make the lock ſnap ; when lower part of the wire E, a little arm G; by means of which, in the flint ſtrikes againſt the hammer it will not give fire, nor light turning the wire E, we can move the little curved arm I, and make the powder, for want of air. the little bell ſound, before the exhauſting, move the bell; its found Head EXPERIMENT XV. Fig. XV. will then be diſtinctly heard ; then exhauſt the air carefully, and on Pump the air out of theſe two half circles, and having joined them moving the bell it will no longer return any found; on the upper together, and placed a wet leather between them, hang them in a part of the wire may be ſeen a little piece of copper H, which may glaſs A, and cover them with the top B; then put on the plate a be raiſed, lowered, or checked at any interval; the uſe of it is to wooden ring C, and the half circles will diſunite, on pumping out prevent the air, which preſſes the wire E, from ſinking entirely in the air contained in the glaſs. The ring C ſerves to receive the half pumping; it is alſo of uſe to keep this wire at ſuch a height as we circle that falls, and prevents its being damaged. pleaſe on turning. The little box F has at top a ſmall lid, which EXPERIMENT XVI. FIG. XVI. is put on when it is neceſſary to turn this lid : it is alſo proper to Take a glaſs A, cover it with a lid which has a cock annexed to bind the wire E, in order to prevent it from moving too eaſily; by it, and to which has been affixed a long pipe. Pump the air out of this means the little pieces of leather ſurround and embrace the A, open the cock of the lid and cauſe the air to enter very ſlowly wire more firmly, and entirely cloſe the paſſage by which the air into the glaſs A, but however in ſuch a manner that it may be obliged could evaporate: it is alſo proper to pour a little oil upon this lid, firſt to paſs over fome wood cinders which are lighted and glowing, as well to repel the air as to render the wire E more eaſy to beremoved. or to paſs over a fire of turf in which the end of the pipe B reſts: EXPERIMENT XXI. FIG. XXI. when the glaſs is filled with this air, then raiſe the lid; inſtantly To blend one or more liquids with any other thing in a glaſs ; put a ſmall live animal into the glaſs ; immediately after cover the let the phial A be made uſe of, which is ſuſpended by means of glaſs again, and you will perceive that this air is poiſoned, and that the curved piece of copper B; under this, place the little glaſs D, it will cauſe the little animal to die very ſhortly. If you put a in which may be placed ſome liquid, or any other thing upon which lighted candle or a bougie into the glaſs which is filled with this we may pour out the liquid of the phial A ; place above it the top F; poiſoned air, it will inſtantly be extinguiſhed, but it will purify the lower E until the little arm G turns the phial A upſide down, and air to that depth it is funk to, and where it continues to burn. In till the liquid pours upon that which is in the little gials D; by this this manner one may light the bougie a number of times over again, means the whole proceſs may be diſcovered, if the blending excites and cauſe it to deſcend deeper before it is extinguiſhed, till all the any great agitation; and then, whether this agitation be more or air contained in the glaſs is purified. leſs great, than if the experiment had taken place in the EXPERIMENT XVII. FIG. XVII. If on this occaſion a thermometer is placed in the little glaſs D, One or two powders may be made to blend in vacuo, with a li we can at the ſame time diſcover if this blending excites heat or quid in the manner following, faſten upon the plate of copper of cold, and what degree of it, it produces. If we wiſh to blend two the pump, the little rod to which is annexed the little plate A, and liquids together, pouring them out drop by drop, it would then be for this purpoſe make uſe of the ſcrew; this little plate A, which neceſſary to fix two of theſe phials, one joining to the other, or is of the ſhape of a quarter of a circle, is pierced in the middle with directly oppoſite to each other, and to make a ſlight alteration in a hole, and has in its circumference a deep channelling, where you the diſpoſition of the pieces ; we may alſo, in place of the little may place the powder that you wiſh to blend; cover all this glaſs D, uſe in the ſame manner a hot iron on which the liquid may apparatus with the glaſs furniſhed with its lid, and with its little box be dropped. F, the wire E, ought to have a little arm G, which has annexed to EXPERIMENT XXII. Fig. XXII. it a little round leaf; this may be joined as the foregoing arm upon This experiment has for its object to prove, that Mercury does the wire E, a little farther from the end, in order that the extremity not remain ſuſpended in a tube, but from the circumſtance of its of the wire may project a little, and may be able to paſs through the being preſſed by the weight of the atmoſphere. Place the tube C, hole which is in the centre of the plate A, the conſequence of which filled with Mercury, under the glaſs D, exhauſt the air from D; the is, that when you turn E, it reſts exactly in its place; let H be a Mercury of the pipe C will immediately fink, and will fall almoſt little glaſs in which the liquid is placed, with which as low as the Mercury of the little glaſs E; let the air in again, and to blend the powder, after having pumped out the air, turn E, and you will immediately ſee the Mercury mount again to the ſame by means of G, take off the powder which is in the groove A, as height where it was before. Do not neglect to fix the little tube X much as you wiſh; cauſe this powder to fall into the glaſs H; in on the plate of copper of the pump, to prevent the Mercury from this manner one may cauſe either all the powder to fall out at one falling into the pump. time, or as little as you pleaſe. EXPERIMENT XXIII. Fig. XXIII. EXPERIMENT XVIII. FIG. XVIII. Take a high cylindrical glaſs A, or place two, one upon the If you wiſh to ſhut up a bottle in a glaſs, from which the air other, in order to make the greater height; place A, upon a has been exhauſted, the following is the manner of performing it: plate of copper ; annex to the lid the little box F, and join to the take a little bottle as A, which has a ſtopple of glaſs, which fits other ſide of the lid a ſpring made of copper, D; pafs into the box exa Aly the mouth of A ; fix, by means of a ſcrew, the ſtopple in F the little rod E, until it enters into the inner part of the ſpring D; the opening of the little piece C; faften this piece to the little rod then annex a ſmall oval plate C; place a guinea and a feather in the E; cover A, with the glaſs D, furniſhed with its lid, and the box F; ſpringD; place the lid, with everything annexed to it upon the glaſs by this means you may, after having exhauſted the air, cauſe the A ; exhauſt the air carefully, and turn the rod, and you will then ſtopple B, to enter into A, by preſſing down E, without the en ſee that the longeſt diameter of the oval plate will remove the two trance of air, and afterwards you may remove the little bottle B, to branches of the ſpring, that the feather and guinea will diſengage lay it by. It is in this manner, that by putting a ſmall quantity of themſelves, that they will fall together, and will come pure mercury in a bottle A, very clean; and by ſtopping the bottle ground at the ſame time. after the air is exhauſted, that you may make mercurial phoſphorus, EXPERIMENT XXIV. FIG. XXIV. or luminous Mercury, on ſhaking the bottle. One may alſo ſhut Tomake a ſhower of luminous Mercury, take a high cylindrical up in the ſame manner, a little bottle filled with water, when the glaſs A; place within it another narrow glaſs B, cloſed at top, air is exhauſted, for the purpoſe of ſeeing by that means, if water and which at its baſe reſts on a piece of wood C ; take a large open air. you are deſirous to the 4 Preumational Apamatu, fer awraining Cisperiments on Trinid, lir ano Aher Horstie Stuid, Plate 1 See the end of Section 2. Experiment 31. System of Pneumatis , L 10 K d 6 IC с B 2 B E E a E 7 A D D 6 G 19 B C C с F 13 A A 3 fe F А E D С С DO E I F GH B 10 20 A B 5 B В 20 30 40 50 00 70 80 00 gol 80 70 60W A 504 E 40 D 30 8 . 209 10 17 G I K D H BTC C С 14 D 22 B F BI F I H B G G A B A A 23 I C B 100 15 90- 26 80- 24 R 25 E 30 А 70- M 601 B 100 90 80 70 60 50 18 C r 30 20 M M 27 30- 10 m 20- 9 28 G E 10 D H A h S z 7 E KA F d d 29. Rb 72 2/ B Ε T D D b d С B v B F B V T С S Engraved for Halls Eruyclopædia,& Printed for C.Cooke NO27 Paternoster Row. PNEUM A TICS. و falls from lid D, annex a cock to it, in which you may put a little pipe by this happening, till the weight outweighs the preſſure of the ex- and join D to the plate of the pump; place upon D the wood C, terior air. and the two glaſſes A and B: take another lid E, place it at top EXPERIMENT XXIX. FIG. XXIX. upon A, annex to it a little tunnel of the glaſs F, furniſhed with If a ſmall light weight is ſuſpended to the pump A, and the copper, and in which has been fixed a very ſmall pipe, whoſe upper opening is ſtopped with a ſcrew b, and the pump is ſuf- opening is ſtopped by means of a ſtopple made in form of the pin pended in the glaſs B, to the hook of the lid ; if the air be after- G; fill F with mercury, which is dry and clean ; exhauſt the air wards exhauſted from the glafs, the weight will ſink with the pump, from the veſſel A, then raiſe the ſtoppel G, of the tunnel, to and the fucker will be as it were drawn from the pump; cauſe the leave room for the mercury to enter into A, and to fall upon the air to enter again, and you will immediately ſee the weight mount glaſs B, in the ſhape of a fountain ; the drops of mercury will again by means of the preſſure of the external air that enters. ſpread in vacuo, a great light whilſt falling ; but it is neceſſary that EXPERIMENT XXX. FIG. XXX. the weather ſhould be very dry, and the glaſſes very clean, for with Take a little ſpringing ſtream of the glaſs B, turn it upſide out it, this experiment will very likely fail of ſucceſs. It is ne down, and place it with its pipe in a ſmall glaſs of water; place a ceffary to move all this apparatus with great care; you muſt begin glaſs bell over it, then pump out a ſmall portion of air, ſo that one by taking off the lid D, with great precaution, leſt ſome of the may ſee ſome bubbles of air from the fountain iſſue forth ; then mercury ſhould enter into the pump, or fall upon the plate. The cauſe the air to enter again into the bell and ſtop the ſtream of the wood C ſerves to receive the mercury, and the uſe of the little fountain, and place it as it is repreſented under a high glaſs bell A; pipe b, is to prevent the mercury from flowing out whilſt taking off immediately exhauſt the air from the bell, a ſmall Itream of water will begin to ſpring from B, which will rarify the air in the fountain EXPERIMENT XXV. FIG. XXV. DESCRIPTION OF PNEUMATICAL APPARATUS, WITH VARI- Take a pump A, annex to the pump the little pipe of the glaſs OUS USEFUL AND ENTERTAINING EXPERIMENTS, C; and afterwards the pump to the lid E. Place this lid upon a veſſel B that fits it, which is high and narrow; and place in this As repreſented in PLATE I. fame veſſel a ſmall glaſs of water D in ſuch a manner, that the We ſhall firſt proceed to deſcribe the apparatus neceſſary to make experiments relative to the nature and properties of permanently lower end of the little pipe C, may reach as far as the bottom of the water ; when you raiſe the ſucker of the pump, the water will elaſtic fluids. They chiefly conſiſt of glaſs bottles with bent tubes, which are nicely ground into their necks, as repreſented in fig. 1. flow at firſt by the aſſiſtance of the preſſure of the air; but if the to it. in Plate I. air has been well exhauſted from the veſſel B, there will riſe but a A (fig. 1.) is the fimpleſt and moſt uſeful fort; its capacity be- ſmall quantity of the water of D, in the pipe C, although you raiſe the ſucker of the pump. To ſucceed well in this experiment, we can- ing of about four ounces meaſure, and the bottom being round and moderately thin, ſo as to admit the flame of a candle being applied not do better than to cover with wax the two edges of the veſſel B, as well the upper as the lower ; when this experiment is making, ſame ſhape, only fomewhat longer. C (fig. 3.) has two necks, under it without much fear of cracking it. B (fig. 2 ) is of the too much precaution cannot be taken to prevent the air from en- viz. one in which the bent tube is fitted, and another having a glaſs tering into the veſſel B; it is alſo neceſſary to pour a little water ſtopple, which is occaſionally removed, and then fomething may on the top of the ſucker of the pump. be introduced into the phial while the proceſs is going on. E (fig. 5.) EXPERIMENT XXVI. Fig. XXVI. has a ſtraight tube, whoſe extremities only are bent, nearly at right Place a high glaſs bell A, upon the plate of an air pump, fix to angies. This phial is uſeful, when the receiver wherein the pro- the cock B, a ſmall narrow pipe C, and to the other end of B, the duced elaſtic fluid is to be introduced, is far from that part of the long pipe D, in ſuch a manner that the cock and the pipe may edge of the tube, where the phial with the efferveſcing mixture, come together below, in the hole of the plate of copper M; fix allo &c. may be conveniently ſituated. D (fig. 4.) is a common glaſs in the little hole of the plate of copper the long pipe E, then ex bottle with a ground glaſs ſtopple, through which many capillary hauſt the air from A, after having cloſed the cock B ; place the holes are perforated. Sometimes the bent glafs tube may be ap- end of D in a ciſtern ; open B, and then the preſſure of the air plied to the phial by means of a cork : the phials whoſe tube is will cauſe a copious ſtream of water to mount in the glaſs A ; ground into their necks, are by far the more preferable, becauſe the which will continue to play till the glaſs is filled as high as the cork is ſubject to be corroded by the acids employed, and beſides, upper end of the little pipe E. the tubes can ſeldom be fitted in them fo nicely as effectually to EXPERIMENT XXVII. Fig. XXVII. exclude the paſſage of any elaſtic fluid. To cauſe the gunpowder in a glafs, from which the air has been The bottles of elaſtic gum, or India rubber, are exceedingly uſe- exhauſted, to take fire; chuſe ſuch a glaſs as A, which has to the ful for experiments of this fort. They anſwer both the purpoſe of neck, next to A, a box made of cork-tree wood, the bottom of retaining elaſtic fluids, like bladders or receivers, for which uſe which is pierced with a hole, through which may be paſſed a ſquare they are preferable to bladders, and of holding the materials which wire of copper B, which has at the end B, an oblong groove, like muſt produce the elaſtic fluids, but only when no heat is required to that which is at the end of a needle ; when the wire has been for the proceſs. Any bent tube may be eafily applied to them, and paſſed into the bottom of the box, let it be filled with powder, which there is no fear of their breaking like glaſs bottles. may be poured in from the top ; let the little box be then fitted When concentrated nitrous acid has been put many repeated with a moveable wire E, and the wire be fixed in the pin B.; fix times into thoſe bottles of elaſtic gum, commonly called India F at ſuch a height ſo as to be able to make the wire E deſcend rubber, they loſe in part their elaſticity; ſo that the inſide becomes fufficiently low; becauſe the groove which paffes through the brittle, as if partly corroded, and then they are eaſily broken; bottom of the box projects a good deal beyond: when every thing however they may be uſed a long time before they come to that is adjuſted in this manner and the pin B, in A, has been raiſed as ſtate ; but vitriolic acid, which is uſed in the common proceſſes high as poſſible, then place a piece of hot iron D, upon the ſtone for making fixed inflammable air, ſeems not to affect them. When G, which reſts upon the round plate of copper; or rather place D theſe bottles are required to be uſed inſtead of bladders, they ſhould in a little ſtone pot that has been varniſhed; which will prevent be as- large as can be got, and ſhould be rather thin, ſo as to be the heat of the iron from ſpreading to every thing about it, and eaſily compreſſed, in order to expel from the common air they from communicating itſelf too ſoon to the glaſs ; then place the contain, previous to their being filled with any particular ſort of glaſs A, over it, after having firſt made it moderately warm, that permanently elaſtic fluid. the ſudden heat of the iron may not injure the glaſs ; exhauſt the Theſe are the phials more commonly uſed, when the elaſtic air flowly, and carefully; lower the wire E, and you will ſee ſome fluid that is extricated from ſeveral ſubſtances is required to paſs grains of powder fall upon the iron, which will diffolve, create a immediately into the receiver inverted in water or quickſilver ; but ſmoke, and will cauſe the mercury to ſink conſiderably in the ſometimes it is neceſſary to let thoſe elaſtic iluids paſs through ſome elaterometre; which is fixed to the pump, but when the glaſs is other particular Auid or mixture, previous to their, entering into exhauſted of all the air contains, the grains of powder will not the inverted receiver. In this caſe the glaſs inſtrument K and L, blaze at all, or if the iron continues very hot, the grains will take fig. 10 or 11, muſt be uſed. The conſtruction of K may fire one after another; when air is again permitted to enter, it will underſtood by inſpecting the figure: it conſiſts of a phial a, with a be neceſſary to do it very ſlowly, left the glaſs ſhould cool too round bottom, into which the materials that muſt yield the elaſtic quick. When the powder has been made to fall on the iron a num fluid are put. To the neck of this phial a tube is fitted, whoſe ber of times repeatedly, it will be neceſſary to continue the pump- other leg fits a hole made at the bottom of the phial b, and its ex- ing at the ſame time, for the powder, in catching fire, produces a tremity e comes as far as the neck of the phial, but not quite ſo great deal of air ; ſhould this bé neglected, the reinainder of the near as to touch it. The phial b, has a glaſs ſtopple, ground into powder would catch fire, and the glaſs would run the riſk of being its neck, and at the bottom has another hole, into which a bent broken in pieces. tube, like thoſe of the phials, fig. 1, 2, 3, is fitted. Now, when the EXFERIMENT XXVIII. Fig. XXVIII. elaſtic Auid, that is yielded by the materials in a, muſt be let Take a pump A, manage it fo that the fucker ſhall play eaſy, through ſome fluid or mixture, as for inſtance, through lime water, and may move without much friction ; to effect this, greaſe the previous to its being received into the inverted receiver or blad- ſucker well with oil, and fill the pump two or three different times der; the lime water is put into the phial b, ſo as to fill it to about with water, then ſtop the former opening with a ſcrew B, ſuſpend cd; in which caſe it is plain, that the elaſtic fluid coming out of to ita weight G, of about 6 or 7 pounds, and the preſſure of the the orifice e of the tube, muſt neceſſarily go through the lime water, air will hinder the fucker from looſening itſelf from the bottom of before its reaching the tube f, through which it is conveyed into the pump that way; one may even increaſe the weight without the receiver. The inſtruinent L is uſeful, when the elaſtic fluid is Сcc required be clearly No. 130. PN E U M A TI C S. is up- may torts. required to be ſent through various mixtures, as lime water, ſpirit put together to work in the manner exhibited in this figure: of wine, oil, &c. which fluids are put into the phials b, c, d, and Now as the fixed air is produced from the materials in V, it palles then the elaſtic fluid produced by the materials in a, muſt paſs through through the valve into the veſſel T, and neceſſarily goes to the them all before its going through the laſt tube e into the receiver. per part of it; and becauſe this veffel is filled with water, the fixed In various experiments, the materials which are to yield the air preſſing upon the water will force it into the empty veſſel s. elaſtic fluid, require a ſtronger degree of heat than that of the flame In this manner the water that remains in the veſſel T, being in ofa candle ; in this caſe ſeveral things muſt be minded, viz. that contact with the fixed air, which paſſes continually through it , by the application of ſtrong heat, as a charcoal fire, the phials are becomes gradually impregnated with that elaſtic fluid, and it eaſily broke, that part of the materials ſtick faſt to the glaſs ſo as to be drawn out through the aperture b, in which cafe the water forced render the phial unfit for further uſe; and that the tube becomes into the veffel S returns backwards into the veſſel T. This impreg- very hot even at a good diſtance from the phial ; and as its extre nation may be much accelerated by ſhaking the apparatus ; for then mity is immerſed in cold water, it is in great danger of breaking : the fixed air is made to touch a greater ſurface of water. Theim- from which obſervation it follows, that the phials for theſe experi- pregnation of water with fixed air in this apparatus is facilitated ments ſhould be as cheap as can poſſibly be contrived, and ſhould alſo by the preſſure of the column of water (for preſſure facilitates have a very long neck or tube. The bottles with ground tubes for it conſiderably) raiſed in the veſſel S ; which preſſure might be theſe experiments are very ſubject to break, and are very expenſive. ſtill more increaſed by adapting a ſafety-valve (like thoſe uſed for Mr. FONTANA, uſed to have ſeveral balls blown at the extremi fire-engines) to the neck f of the veſſel S, inſtead of the glaſs ſtop- ties of glaſs tubes, as F, G, (fig. 6 and 7.) which were of various ple. To the aperture b of the middle veſſel, ſometimes a glaſs ſtop- fizes between one and four inches in diameter, and alſo ſeveral cock is fitted inſtead of the ſtopple. The aperture a of the lowelt tubes bent in the manner repreſented by T (fig.9); into one of veſſel is uſeful to introduce any materials into the veſſel, or to ſtir its thoſe glaſs balls he uſed to put the materials that were to yield contents whilſt the proceſs is going on. Before the invention of the elaſtic fluid; and by means of the flame of a lamp and a blow this apparatus, the fixed air was made to paſs through a bladder into pipe, he uſed to faſten the tube T upon it, viz. a upon b; which al a phial partly filled with water ; but repeated experiments have together formed the long-necked phial H. After performing the ſhewn, that the bladder always imparts a diſagreeable taſte to the experiment, if the phial appeared to be uſeful for other experiments, water, which is not at all the caſe with the above-deſcribed glaſs the tube was broke with a file, about the place where it had been apparatus. joined, and the materials being poured out , the phial was kept for M. Fontana, towards the latter end of the year 1979, coin- farther uſe. Sometimes the balls of thoſe phials were coated with municated a method of determining the ſpecific gravities of clay, or that lute which chymiſts uſe to put round their glafs re different elaſtic fluids, which he had very lately uſed, and which is This coat is neceſſary in order to let the glaſs ſuſtain a certainly ſuperior to any other practiſed before. This method is as greater degree of heat than it is capable of without it. follows: H (fig. 14.) of Plate I. is a globular glaſs veffel, of about Several experiments require a very ſtrong red or white heat, four inches in diameter, to whoſe neck a metal ftop-cock is which is much greater than that which the abovementioned phials cemented. The The aperture, which, through the ſtop-cock, com- can bare, even when guarded with a coat of clay. In this caſe municates with the inſide of the vefſel, is very fmall, as about one earthern retorts or earthern phials are the only vefſels that can be fortieth of an inch, or rather leſs, and the whole is made very light. uſed ; but theſe cannot be ſafely uſed more than once, becauſe in DF is a glaſs veſſel, to the open top of which another ſtop-cock is cooling they generally crack, and the fiffures are ſometimes imper-fitted, to which the veſſel H is adapted by a ſcrew. The aperture ceptible. Small phials made of tobacco-pipe clay do not crack through the ſtop-cock D, of the receiver DF, is alſo very narrow. very eaſily in cooling, and conſequently are more ufeful than thoſe Now ſuppoſe that a given elaſtic fluid is required to be weighed made with the clay uſed for chymical retorts. with this inſtrument, for inſtance fixed air. Firſt, the receiver DF, When the materials to be uſed are in ſmall quantity, and require having the ſtop-cock D cloſed, is filled with mercury, and inverted only a ſtrong red heat, then Mr. Bergman's method may be in a baſon containing alſo mercury; then the fixed air is introduced ſafely uſed. This excellent chymiſt uſed to put the materials into into it after the uſual manner, which, occupying the upper part of a ſmall oblong phial, nearly in the ſhape of B (fig. 2.) of green glaſs, the receiver, will depreſs the quickſilver as at F. The quantity which phial is furniſhed with a bent tube, &c. This phial he puts of elaſtic fluid thrown into this receiver ſhould be more than that into a tall crucible, and fills the interſtices between the crucible which is fufficient to fill the veſſel H. This done, the veſſel H and the phial with powdered chalk, which, when heated, forms a muſt be ſcrewed to a good air pump, and the air muſt be exhauſted ſtrong incruſtation, and defends the glaſs exceedingly well. Thus from it; after which the ſtop-cock is to be cloſed, and the exhauſted the crucible with the phial in it is ſurrounded with coals, in a por veſſel being removed from the air-pump, muſt be ſcrewed to the table furnace, and may ſuſtain a ſtrong fire. Could platina be ſtop-cock D, in the ſituation repreſented by AB. Now both the fhaped into any required form, a retort or phial of this metal would ſtop-cocks C and D being opened, the fixed air contained in the be a very valuable acquiſition to an experimental philoſopher, be receiver DF will ruſh into the veſſel A. cauſe it could ſuſtain a prodigious heat, and would not be ſubject In order to avoid the error, which might ariſe from the pillar to break, like glaſs or earthern retorts, or to yield any effluvia, of mercury in the veſſel D F, this veſſel ſhould now be lowered ſo like heated iron. far into the quickſilver of the baſon G, that the ſurface of the The ſtand (fig. 21.) is uſeful to ſuſtain a lamp under a phial, quickſilver F might coincide with the ſurface of the quickſilver in like A, B, C, fig. 1, 2, 3, in order to let its contents yield the elaſtic the tub; then the ſtop-cock C being cloſed, the veſſel A is un- fluid. The arm E, which holds the lamp, is made like a pair of ſcrewed from the veſſel DF, and is weighed in a nice pair of ſcales. tongs, which are open more or leſs by means of a ſcrew, and it It is plain, that if from this weight, the weight the veſſel A ſlides up and down the pillar A B, ſo that by the ſcrew e it may be weighed when exhauſted of air, be ſubtracted, the remainder will faſtened at any required diſtance, between C and D from the floor. be the weight of the fixed air; which being divided by the num- Fig. 12. repreſents the apparatus neceſſary for impregnating ber of cubic inches, to which the capacity of the veſſel is equal, water, and other elaſtic fluids with fixed air. This elegant inſtru the quotient is the weight of one cubic inch of fixed air. ment was firſt invented by Dr. Nooth, and a deſcription of it was Thus M. Fontana tried the weight of all the known elaſtic publiſhed in the Philofophical Tranſactions, for the year 1775, and Auids, and found, that air phlogiſticated by ſaturation with nitrous afterwards received ſome improvements, in which ſtate it is repre air, is ſpecifically lighter than common air; for, according to his ſented in the plate: it conſiſts of three glaſs veſſels S, T, V, fitted obſervations, a cubic inch of the former weighed 1376 of a into one another by grinding. The lower veſſel V, beſides the grain; whereas a cubic inch of the latter weighed 1386 of a large neck, into which the bottom of the ſecond veſſel is ground, grain. Theſe experiments were made when the barometer was at has another ſmall apperture a, to which a glaſs ſtopple is fitted. a mean height, and the thermometer ſtood at temperate. This The ſecond veſſel T has three apertures, viz. the upper and larger accurate method, therefore, feems to put it out of all doubt, that one, which receives the under part of the veſſel S; the lateral aper phlogiſticated air is lighter than common air. Probably the ſpecific ture b, to which a glaſs ſtopple is fitted; and the under aperture, gravity of phlogiſticated air is different, according to the various by which this veſſel communicates with the veſſel V; but this cauſes that phlogiſticate the air, but this has not yet been aſcertained. aperture is furniſhed with a valve, whoſe parts are diſtinctly ſhewn Fig. 16. Plate I. repreſents an eudiometer, A B being the glaſs by c, d, e, upon a larger ſcale. This piece c is a perforated cy tube, to the upper or cloſed end of which a loop, AEC, ſhould linder ground into the extremity of the veſſel T. The piece e is be faſtened, which is made of waxed filk lace, and has ſeveral croſs a like cylinder, perforated with many capillary holes, which is threads CC, DD, EE, &c. The uſe of this loop is to ſuſpend fitted by grinding into the ſame extremity, but above the piece c; the inſtrument to a hook AB, fig. 15, Plate I. which ſhould be a ſmall ſpace remaining between thoſe two cylinders, in which a either faſtened continually to that ſide of the tube which is oppoſite plano-convex lens d can freely move. to the ſhelf, or ſo conſtructed as to be eaſily removed and fixed The plane ſurface of this lens is downwards, fo as to cover the again, as occaſion requires. It is formed of a thick braſs wire, hole of the piece c. In this manner it may be eaſily conceived, the lower extremity of which fits a hole made in the ſide of the that a fluid can paſs from the veſſel V into T, but cannot go back tub. The braſs piece with the ſcale, which flides upon the eudi- wards from T into V. The third veſſel S terminates in a long bent ometer, is formed of two braſs ſlips, F G, H I,joined by two braſs tube, which goes into the veſſel T. Its other aperture, at the top, rings FH, GI, to which they are ſoldered. Upon one of thoſe has a glaſs ſtopple, which is very acutely conical, ſo that a very braſs ſlips are marked one hundred diviſions, beginning from the ſmall force from within the veſſel can riſe it up. In the lowermolt upper edge of the lower ring GI, and all together are equal to the veſſel of this apparatus the chalk and diluted oil of vitriol is put; ſpace contained between two of the marks or meaſures made upon the ſecond veſſel is filled with water, and thę whole apparatus the glaſs tube ; lo that they ſhew the parts of a meaſure. Upon 4 the PNE U MATICS. is very 1 the other braſs flip H I are likewiſe marked one hundred diviſions, otherwiſe it will be eaſily cracked. In this manner the red-lead but they begin from the lower edge of the upper ring FH. will yield a good quantity of elaſtic fluid, the greateſt part of which N. B. Theſe diviſions muſt be made after the diviſions are marked is dephlogiſticated air, but not the whole quantity of it, for a good upon the tube; and are to be made in the following manner: portion of fixed air comes out with it. In this operation, the flame When the tube AB fig. 1. is filled with water, a meaſure of air ſhould of the candle, when once applied; muſt be kept continually near be thrown into it; then the tube muſt be ſuſpended to the hook by it; and when the mixture does not produce any more elaſtic fluid, the loop, as fhewn in fig. 15. Plate I. ſo high that the ſurface of or the operation is required to be intermitted, care ſhould be taken the water within the tube may be very near the ſurface of the wa- to remove the extremity of the bent tube from the water firſt, and ter in the tub, as for inſtance, about two inches above it; then, then to take off the flame of the candle from under the bottle; other- looking horizontally through the tube, a mark ſhould be made, by wiſe, if the flame of the candle be firſt removed, the materials ſticking a bit of ſoft wax upon the tube, juſt coinciding with the within the bottle condenſing by cold, the water immediately enters, lower part of the ſurface of the water within it, in which place, which in an inſtant fills the bottle, and generally breaks it. In afterwards, a circular mark ſhould be made with the edge of a order to ſeparate the fixed from the dephlogiſticated air, the inverted fiint, or with a piece of agate, or a diamond, but not ſo deep as bottle, when filled with the compound of both, as it is emitted to endanger the breaking of the tube. Thus the firſt meaſure is from the red-lead, muſt be ſhook in the baſon; by which means marked upon the tube, and in a ſimilar manner are the other mea the water will abſorb the whole quantity of fixed air, and leave the fures alſo marked, viz. by throwing two meaſures of air into the dephlogiſticated air by itſelf. tube, ſuſpending it, and marking it as before; then throwing in When a bottle is thus entirely, or in good part, filled with dephlo. three meaſures, &c. The poliſh of the inſide ſurface of the tube giſticated air, ſtop it with your thumb, or any ſtopper; take it out A B, ſhould be taken off by rubbing it with fine emery. The of the water of the baſon; turn it with the mouth upwards; then operation, however, is laborious, At leaſt the meaſure light a bit of wax taper, faſtened to the extremity of a wire, in the ſhould be done ſo. manner Mewn in letter I, (fig. 17.) and removing the ſtopper from With this apparatus the degree of the air's purity muſt be tried the bottle, let the lighted taper down intoit, and it will be found that in the following manner: Firſt, fill the eudiometer-tube with water, as ſoon as it comes into contact with the dephlogiſticated air, its taking care that no bubbles of air remain in it, and inverting it with flame is increaſed to a prodigious degree. It burns with a kind of the mouth downwards, leave it in the water, againſt the ſide of the violence or deflagration, and an increaſed light; that is very tub. Secondly, fill the meaſure with that reſpirable elaſtic fluid beautiful to behold: but in proportion as the dephlogiſticated air that is required to be examined. Thirdly, put the eudiometer becomes contaminated, the flame gradually leſſens, and at laſt is tube upon the ſhelf of the tub; keeping it perpendicular, and with extinguiſhed, in the ſame manner as if it were put into common the mouth exactly upon one of the holes of the ſaid ſhelf, and air. Chips of wood, with only a red coal at their extremities, throw the meaſure of air into it. Fourthly, fill the meaſure again when let down into a jar, containing dephlogiſticated air, will in- with the ſame air, and throw it likewiſe into the tube. Fifthly, ftantly flame, and burn very rapidly, till the dephlogiſticated air fill the meaſure with nitrous air, and throw it alſo into the tube; becomes contaminated. If a quantity of inflammable be mixed but immediately after this operation the tube muſt be ſhook, by with an equal quantity of dephlogiſticated air, and the mixture moving it alternately up and down in the water of the tub for about be fired, the exploſion is incomparably greater than if com- a quarter of a minute; then it is left a ſhort while at reſt, after mon air had been mixed with the inflammable gas. By plac- which it is ſuſpended to the hook BB, (fig. 15. Plate I.) ſo that ing an animal in a receiver filled with this elaſtic fluid, and the ſurface of the water within it may be about two inches above another like animal in an equal receiver filled with common the water in the tub, and the braſs ſcale is ſlided upon it, till the air, it will be found that the former will live much longer than the upper edge of the lower ring coincides with the middlemoſt part of latter; all which clearly ſhews, that this ſort of elaſtic fluid, called the ſurface of the water within the tube, and then is obſerved dephlogiſticated air, is much more fit to aſſiſt reſpiration and com- what diviſion of the ſcale coincides with any of the diviſions on the buſtion than common air is; and accordingly, if a meaſure of it, tube, by which means the quantity of elaſtic fluid remaining in with a meaſure of nitrous air, be put into an eudiometer, the di- the tube, may be clearly ſeen, to the hundredth part of a meaſure. minution will be found to be much more conſiderable than if a This quantity, which ſhews the firſt diminution, is then ſet down. meaſure of common air, and another meaſure of nitrous air, were in the following clear manner, viz. Firſt, the two meaſures of air mixed together. introduced firſt into the tube are expreſſed by a Roman number, Fig. 18, 19, 20, Plate I. repreſent the apparatus which Mr. after which the one meaſure of nitrous air is expreſſed by another Cavendiſh uſed in his experiments on the nature of air. The Roman number, and the meaſures, with the parts of a meaſure, air, through which the electric ſpark was intended to be remaining in the tube after the diminution, are expreſſed by com paſſed, was confined in a glaſs tube M, bent to an angle, as in mon numbers with decimals; thus ſuppoſe, that after introducing fig. 18, which, after being filled with quickſilver, was inverted two meaſures of common air and one of nitrous air, and after into glaſſes of the ſame Auid, as in the figure. The air to be tried, ſhaking, &c. in the manner above directed, the quantity of elaſtic was then introduced by means of a ſmall tube, ſuch as is uſed for fluid remaining in the eudiometer is ſuch, that when the upper thermometers, bent in the manner repreſented by ABC, fig. 19, edge of the lower ring of the ſcale-piece coincides with the the bent end of which, after being previouſly filled with quick- lower point of the ſurface of the water in the tube, the 56th ſilver, was introduced, as in the figure, under the glaſs DEF, in- diviſion or the ſcale falls againſt the ſecond circular diviſion on verted into water, and filled with the proper kind of air, the end the tube, then this diminution is marked thus, II, I, 2,56, which C of the tube being kept ſtopped by the finger; then, on remov- fignify, that two meaſures of common air, and one meaſure of ing the finger from C, the quickſilver in the tube deſcended in the nitrous air, after being diminiſhed by their mixing together, were leg BC, and its place was ſupplied with air from the glaſs DEF. reduced to two meaſures and fifty fix hundredth parts of a meaſure. Having thus proper quantity of air into the tube ABC, it Laſtly, after marking the firſt diminution, throw a ſecond meaſure was held with the end C uppermoft, and ſtopped with the finger; of nitrous air into the tube, ſhake the inſtrument, and after a little and the end A, made ſmaller for that purpoſe, being introduced reſt, as before, obſerve this ſecond diminution, which (ſuppoſing into one end of the bent tube M. fig. 18, the air, on removing the to have reduced the whole quantity of elaſtic fluid to three mea finger from C, was forced into that tube by the preſſure of the ſures, more than ſeven hundredth parts of a meaſure) is marked quickſilver in the leg BC. By theſe means he was enabled to in- down in the memorandum-book, thus, H, H, 3,07. troduce the exact quantity he pleaſed of any kind of air into the Sometimes one, or two, or three more meaſures of nitrous air tube M, and by the ſame means, could let up any quantity of muſt ſtill be added, in order to obſerve the diminution of ſome very ſoap-lees, or any other liquor which he wanted to be in contact with pure ſpecies of reſpirable elaſtic fluid. the air. In one caſe, however, in which he wanted to introduce air The diviſions, which begin from the upper ring of the ſcale into the tube many times in the ſame experiment, he ufed the ap- piece of the eudiometer, are uſeful, when the quantity of elaſtic paratus repreſented in fig. 20, conſiſting of a tube AB of a ſmall fluid contained in it is ſo ſmall that the edge of the lower braſs bore, a ball C, and a tube DE of a larger bore. This apparatus ring cannot be raiſed ſo high as to coincide with the ſurface of the was firſt filled with quickſilver; and the ball C, and the tube AB, water within the tube, on account of the filk loop, in which caſe, were filled with air, by introducing the end A under a glaſs in- the under edge of the upper ring is brought to that point, and then verted into water, which contained the proper kind of air, and muſt be obſerved which of thoſe inverted diviſions coincides with drawing out the quickſilver from the leg ED by a fyphon. After the firſt circular divifion upon the tube. . being thus furniſhed with air, the apparatus was weighed, and the To make dephlogiſticated Air. The eaſieſt method to procure ſome end A introduced into one end of the tube M, fig. 18, and kept dephlogiſticated air, is to put ſome red-lead into the bottle, toge there during the experiment; the way of forcing air out of this ap- ther with ſome good ſtrong oil of vitriol, but without any water. paratus into the tube, being by thruſting down the tube E D, fig. Let the red-lead fill about a quarter of the bottle, and the vitriolic 20, a wooden cylinder, of ſuch a ſize as almoſt to fill up the whole acid be about the ſame quantity, or very little leſs; then apply the bore, and by occaſionally pouring quickſilver into the ſame tube, bent tube to the bottle. to ſupply the place of that puſhed into the ball C. After the expe- But it muſt be remarked, that without heat this mixture of red-lead riment was finiſhed, the apparatus was weighed again, which and vitriolic acid will not give any dephlogiſticated air, or it yields ſhewed exactly how much air had been forced into the tube M, an inconſiderable quantity of it, for which reaſon the flame of during the whole experiment; it being equal in bulk to a quan- candle (that of a wax taper is fufficient) muſt be applied under the tity of quickſilver, whoſe weight was equal to the increaſe of bottom of the bottle, which for this purpoſe muſt be rather thin, weight of the apparatus, The got the P N E UM À TIC S. open may be put ſhut the The bore of the tube M uſed in moſt of the following experi- ther with bladders between, it is to be ſet on the Shelf of the tub (Plate I. fig. 15.) in order to fill the veſſel A, with inflammable ments, was about one tenth of an inch; and the length of the co- lumn of air, occupying the upper part of the tube, was in general air , but it muſt be firſt filled with water, to expel the atinoſpheric from i to of an inch. air, which can only be done by keeping the cock B ihut, and leav- Fig. 21. Plate I. repreſents a ſtand, uſeful in pneumatical expe- ing the cocks D, and !, open; the former in order to permit the riments. It is about eighteen inches in height, ſtrongly fixed upon water,which is poured into the vaſe E, to run in proper quantity in- a foot (B), well loaded with lead at the bottom. Upon the ſhaft to the veſſel A, through the pipe f g; and the latter to leave room there are two ſliders, lined with cloth, (flit behind, and have a for the air to eſcape which the water takes place of; having thus ſpring to tighten them :) one of them C, ſupports an arm which expelled the air from the veſſel A, by means of the water, the cocks holds a fort of platter, or iron plate D, upon which we can put a Dand l, muſt be ſhut, and the cock E opened. The quantity of chaffing diſh, when we have occaſion for fire; the other E carries air confined under the foot C, being bathed in the water of the tub, two branches b, and c, which opens with an hinge like a compaſs, will mount up into the veſſel A, and the two bodies of water will and terminates in an iron ring or collar; the ſize of which is in unite. We muſt then again ſhut the cock B, and likewiſe creaſed, or diminiſhed by the help of a ſcrew d, ſo contrived as to them at D, and l, and compleat the filling of the veſſel A. Laſtly, receive and ſecure the necks of the different glaſs veſſels, which we ſhut again, for the ſecond time, the upper cocks, D and I, and put upon the chaffing diſh, when laid upon the platter D; open the lower one B, and proceed to produce and diſengage in- the two ſliders C and E can be at any time faſtened tight to the ſtand flammable air in the manner before directed, taking care not to by means of the ſcrews a, and e, on the hinder part. Such is the con receive that fluid into the veſſel A, until we are certain of its being ſtruction of this apparatus, the extent of whoſe various ufes will very pure. When it is nearly or quite filled, we may be ſeen in the experiments we ſhall next deſcribe. cock B, and carry the one apparatus wherever we think proper to Fig. 22. Plate I. repreſents an apparatus, by which, through fix it, with the electrophorus S T, which is to furnith the electrical means of inflammable air, ſome very diverting fireworks may be ſpark, to fire the inflammable air. made, ſuch as gerbes, fixed or vertical ſuns, &c. We have no- This laſt apparatus has the advantage of retaining for months thing more to do than to force the fixed air to paſs through metal together, the electricity which we may give it, by rubbing, or, tubes, properly bored and placed conveniently; to do this, we make which is far better, by beating with a fox's bruſh well dried, the uſe of the bladder A, which is to be filled with the electrical fluid, rofined plane S. for a few ſeconds. and fitted to the tubes by the neck and cock R, upon which it is to Fig. 27. and 28. in Plate I. repreſent two eudiometers conſtructed be faſtened very nicely: on preſſing the bladder, the inflammable by Monſieur Fontana. The largeſt, (fig. 27.) is a glafs or chryſtal air will eſcape; it comes through every aperture made in the tubes, tube AB, from 15 to 18 inches in length, and fix times at leaſt in and will take fire at the flame of a candle, which is to be held to it diameter, not reckoning its thickneſs. This tube, inſtead of a fợot at the inſtant of preſſing the bladder. By this means we may have baſe or pedeſtal, is cemented into a braſs ferule b, to which is fol- a ſun with its luminous rays darting every way; if upon the brafs dered a little metal plate open to the whole diameter of the tube. tube CD, inſtead of the appendage a, we fix a round hollow ball This ferves for a foot when we want to place it upon the ſhelf or platform of the tub. the ball may be about an inch and a half diameter. The ſmall figure G, (fig. 28. Plate I.) is alſo a cylindrical Fig. 23. Plate I. repreſents a mercurial apparatus, well jointed tube of chryſtal, the diameter of which is nearly equal to the and put together, of cloſe grained wood, about 7 inches long, by largeſt or great tube A B. Its capacity anſwers exa&ly to each di- 3 and { wide, and 4 inches in depth. inches in depth. The inſide of this caſe or vifion in the former, or which is the ſame thing, it contains only box is leſſened by two flips of wood glued lengthways, the cavity the quantity of air neceffary to fill up three inches in the great tube. of which is repreſented in fig. 24. The diameter or inward ſpace is reduced by theſe means to 16 lines near the bottom, but this ſpace Fig. 29. Plate I. repreſents De Volta's Eudiometer. A is a funnel is ſufficient for the reception of the veſſels which are to be plunged of braſs about five inches diameter, mounted with a cock B, which in it. Theſe two flips or cheeks go floping from bottom to top, opens and ſhuts as may be required; the communication between and do not exceed the half of the depth of the box: they end at the cavity in the funnel and the little cylindric veſſel of chryſtal C b, where they form a little groove on each ſide of the box: at above it. This vefſel is the meaſure uſed for the mixture of the d, you obſerve a little bracket on each ſide; they are to receive the inflammable air, of which we wiſh to know the goodneſs and tablet AB (fig. 25.) beforementioned, and which ſlides eaſily upon quality. It is finiſhed with a cock D, by means of which it com- it, when it is neceſſary to uſe it. This tabiet, which goes acroſs municates at pleaſure with the ſpherical chryſtal veſſel E, whoſe the whole width of the box, has but two inches of its other dimen contents ought to be three or four times longer than that of the fion; a hole is made through it four lines in diameter, open at meaſure G. This globe E, is embraced by three hoops of braſs, bottom, and throughout the thickneſs of the wood in the ſhape of bent to the ſhape of its convexity, which keeps up a communica- a funnel, which is glued above and ſcrewed in a little piece of tion between the two cemented ferules above and below the two wood that projects, pierced through, and one line above the ſurface necks of the globe. We may obſerve near to the middle and on of the ſhelf. the outward part of the ferule a, a little knob of metal b; this knob Fig. 26. Plate I. repreſents a lamp of inflammable air. A is terminates the extremity, a wire of the ſame materials cemented and the principal part of this machine, which is a chryſtal veſſel near inſulated in a glaſs tube inſerted in a little metal pipe foldered to the 10 or 1 inches in its leaſt diameter, open at top and bottom, and ferule a, ſo that the extremity of the wire may croſs the inward very nicely cemented in with two ferules of braſs. Theſe ferules part of the ferule, and finiſh at two lines at moſt at the oppoſite are furniſhed with two cocks, by which we can open a commu inward ſide a. We may obſerve alſo near the baſe of the ferule ca nication between the veſſel A, and the hollow braſs foot C, by in which is cemented the lower neck of the globe, a little hook, to means of the cock B, and by the other cock D, with the conic which is faſtened a chain d, terminated by a braſs ball. Above the chryſtal vaſe E, which is leſs than the veſſel A, and of which the ferule a, is a cock F, crowned by a thick hemiſphere of braſs pipe fg, may be looked upon as a prolongation. This pipe is of pierced at the bottom. The cock F ſupports at its upper extre- braſs, and ſoldered to the baſe of the cock B, and opened at its ex mity a, an inward ſcrew, by which we can raiſe at pleaſure the tremities. hi is another pipe foldered to the upper ferule of the glaſs tube H which finiſhes at the top with a ball of blown glaſs I. veſſel A, and communicating with it: this pipe, which is crooked This tube ought to be perfectly cylindrical, and contain a little and rather larger than the firſt, receives, by means of a ſcrew, the more than the meaſure C, and the capacity of the ball I, ought to cock l, with a croſs piece of braſs between the two; from one of be of ſuch dimenſion, as, joined to that of the tube, ſhould make the extremities of that croſs piece which has three horizontal branches, the complement of a ſecond meaſure, that is to ſay, that the ball forming a double ſquare, riſes a ſmall ſolid chryſtal trunk or ſhaft and the tube taken together ſhould contain juſt twice the quantity m, whoſe foot, which is braſs, is kept in its place by a groove, with of liquor neceſſary to fill the meaſure C. a ſcrew button; the fhaft n, which is ſet up in the ſame manner in Lengthways of the tube H, are fitted and applied two brazen the oppoſite extremity of the crofs piece, is of braſs, as are the plates divided into one hundred equal parts, counting from bottom other two ſhafts o, p, which the firſt-mentioned ones ſupport, and to top, from the place where the length of the tube, up to the be- which are terminated by knobs on the ſide of the cock l, beyond ginning of the ball I, repreſents the capacity of the cylindric veſſel which they extend a few lines: the third branch of the croſs piece C. Such is the conſtruction of the eudiometer of Mr. Volta. ferves for the baſe or ſupport of a ſmall braſs cannon q, in which Fig. 30. Plate I. is a chryſtal flaggon or bottle A, containing is fixed a ſmall bougie r, which, by being bent or twiſted at plea about two pints, that it may ſerve for ſeveral experiments ; upon fure, its extremity may be brought above the fixture on the cock l, its neck which is cemented into a ferule of braſs, is fitted the and the two knobs belonging to the ſhafts or bars marked 0, P: we cock B, and above the cock a focket with an inward ſcrew, by muſt remeinber to light the bougie beforehand. which means it can admit the cock B in the apparatus before de- In ſhort, S is an Electrophorus, with its conductor T upon it, from ſcribed : let us ſuppoſe this bottle full of inflammable air; laying the center of which riſes a ſolid pillar of chryſtal v, topped with a aſide then the funnel A, (fig. 30.) belonging to the eudiometer. ferule and brazen ball, which we lay hold of when it is neceſſary This figure it may be mounted upon, and it is obvious that if we to take up the conductor T, and place it in contact with the hemif open both the cocks, the meaſure C will fill itſelf with inflammable phere y, which is of metal, and hung by a chain upon a wire , of air. In the ſame manner we may proceed to ſend up into that the farne metal, which is hooked upon the little rod 0, which is meaſure whatever fort of air we wilh to try, and with which the ſupported by that of chryſtal m. All the pieces which compoſe bottle will immediately be filled ; and this means we may work the lamp we have been deſcribing, being very exactly joined toge without the affiſtance of the tub. a, POE PO E a POD, among botaniſts, a ſpecies of pericarpium, conſiſting of tereſting ſentiments to every thing that he makes ſpeak, and where two valves, which open from the baſe to the point, and are ſeparated he makes ſpeak by ſenſible figures all thoſe objects which would by a membranaceous partition, from which the feeds hang by a affect the mind but weakly when cloathed in a ſimple proſaic ſtyle, kind of funiculus umbilicalis. It is in plain language the ihell or ſuch a work is a poem. While that, though it be in verſe, which huſk of any kind of pulſe. See the Syſtem, Sect. III. Art. V. is of a didactic, dogmatic, or moral nature, and where the objects PODAGRA, woodzyce, thus called from vas, foot, and aſpa, cap are preſented in a manner quite ſimple, without fiction, without tura, ſeizure, in medicine, the gout in the feet. For deſcrip- For deſcrip- | images or ornaments, cannot be called poetry, but merely a work tion, cauſes, and cures of the ſeveral kinds of gout, ſee the Syſtem, in verfe ; for the art of reducing thoughts, maxims, and periods, Genus 24. into rhyme or metre, is very different from the art of poetry. PODURA, in entomology, a genus of the aptera infects. For An ingenious fable, a lively and intereſting romance, a comedy, deſcription and claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, Order VII. the ſublime narrative of the actidns of a hero, ſuch as the Telema- POEM, poema, momple, a compoſition in verſe, of a due length chus of M. Fenelon, though written in profe, but in meaſured and meaſure. proſe, is therefore a work of poetry; becauſe the foundation and POETICAL, COLYTIMOS, ſomething that relates to poetry or the ſuperſtructure are the productions of genius, as the whole pro- poets. In this fenfe we ſay, a poetical genius, a poetical phraſe, ceeds from fiction ; and truth itſelf appears to have employed an poetical licence, poetical fury, 8tc. Moſt languages have their poe innocent and agreeable deception to inſtruct with efficacy. This tical words, which are never uſed on other occaſions. Theſe prove is ſo true, that the pencil alſo, in order to pleaſe and affect, has of great advantage to the poets, who are hereby enabled to raiſe the recourſe to fiction; and this part of painting is called the poetic com- ſtyle and diction into the poetical character, with the greater eaſe. poſition of a picture. It is therefore by the aid of fiction that poetry, The French often lament the want of a ſet of ſuch words in their ſo to ſpeak, paints its expreſſion, that it gives a body and a mind language; for want whereof, their poetry appears in two familiar to its thoughts, that it animates and exalts that which would other- garb, not ſufficiently diſtinguiſhed from the common language. wife have remained arid and inſenſible. Every work, therefore, It is too reſerved, not being allowed any boldneſs or flights, but where the thoughts are expreſſed by fictions or images, is poetic ; what might paſs in proſe. To this, in good meaſure, is attributed and every work where they are expreſſed naturally, fimply, and the little ſucceſs their authors have met with in the epic way. without ornament, although it be in verſe, is proſaic. Verſe, POETRY, poeſy, the art of compoſing poems, or pieces in verſe. however, is not to be regarded as foreign or ſuperfluous to poetry. The word is formed from the Greek worlgc., of Dolew, facio, I make. To reduce thoſe images, thoſe fictions, into verſe, is one of the Amidſt thoſe thick clouds which envelope the firſt ages of the greateſt merits in a poem: and for theſe reaſons, the cadence, the world, reaſon and hiſtory throw ſome lights on the origin and pri- harmony of ſounds, particularly that of rhyme, delight the ear to a mitive employment of this divine art. Reaſon fuggeſts, that before high degree, and the mind inſenſibly repeats them while the eye reads the invention of letters, all the people of the earth had no other them. There reſults therefore a pleaſure to the mind, and a ſtrong method of tranſmitting to their deſcendants the principles of their attachment to theſe ornaments: but this pleaſure would be frivolous, worſhip, their religious ceremonies, their laws, and the renowned and even childiſh, if it were not attended by a real utility. Verſes actions of their fages and heroes, than by poetry; which included were invented in the firſt ages of the world, merely to aid and to all theſe objects in a kind of hymns that fathers ſung to their chil- ſtrengthen the memory; for cadence, dren, in order to engrave them with indelible ſtrokes in their hearts. rhyme, afford the greateſt aſſiſtance to the memory that art can Hiſtory not only informs us, that Mofes and Miriam, the firſt au invent; and the images, or poetic fictions, that ſtrike our ſenſes, thors that are known to mankind, ſung, on the borders of the Red aſſiſt in graving them with ſuch deep traces in our minds, as even Sea, a ſong of divine praiſe, to celebrate the deliverance which the time itſelf frequently cannot efface. How many excellent apoph- Almighty had vouchſafed to the people of Iſrael, by opening a pal thegms, fentences, maxims, and precepts, would have been buried fage to them through the waters ; but it has alſo tranſmitted to us in the abyſs of oblivion, if poetry had not preſerved them by its the ſong itſelf, which is at once the moſt ancient monument and harmony ? To give more efficacy to this lively impreſſion, the firſt a maſter-piece of poetic compoſition. poets ſung their verſes, and the words and phraſes muſt neceſſarily The Greeks, a people the moſt ingenious, the moſt animated, have been reduced, at leaſt in cadence, or they could not have been and in every ſenſe the moſt accompliſhed, that the world ever pro ſuſceptible of muſical expreſſion. One of the great excellencies, duced—ſtrove to raviſh from the Hebrews the precious gift of poetry, therefore, though not a neceſſary conſtituent, of poetry, confifts in which was vouchſafed them by the Supreme Author of all nature, its being expreſſed in verſe. that they might aſcribe it to their falſe deities. According to their If a verſe be conſidered as a mere ſeries of juſt fix feet follow. ingenious fictions, Apollo became the god of poetry, and dwelton ing one after another in the ſame line, poetry and verſification will the hills of Phocis, Parnaſſus, and Helicon, whoſe feet were waſhed appear two very different things; but Boſſu, in his idea of verſe, by the waters of Hyppocrene, of which each mortal that ever drank includes cadences, peculiar conſtructions, arrangements, and ex- was ſeized with a ſacred delirium, The immortal ſwans floated preſſions unknown in common diſcourſe ; and above all, a certain on its waves. Apollo was accompanied by the Muſes-thoſe nine noble, bold, elevated, and metaphorical turn and manner of diction. learned fiſters-the daughters of Memory: and he was conſtantly | Theſe, he obſerves, are ſo eſſential to poetry, that without them the attended by the Graces. Pegaſus, his winged courſer, tranſported moſt exact arrangement of long and ſhort fyllables make little elſe him with a rapid flight into all the regions of the univerſe. Happy but a kind of meaſured proſe; whereas theſe, in a diſcourſe that emblems ! by which we at this day embelliſh our poetry, as no one has no poetical feet or meaſures, do yet give it the poetical charac- has ever yet been able to invent more brilliant images. ter, and make it a kind of unmeaſured poetry. The rules of poetry The literary annals of all nations afford veſtiges of poetry, from and verfifying are taught by art, and acquired by ſtudy; but this the remoteſt ages. They are found among the moſt ſavage of the force and elevation of thought, which Horace calls, fomething divine, ancient barbarians, and the moſt defolate of all the Americans. and which alone makes the poetry of any valve, muſt be derived Nature afferts her rights in every country, and every age. Tacitus from nature; or, according to Ariſtotle, from ſome happy tranſ- mentions the verſes and the hymns of the Germans, at the time ports, to which that author gives the name of madneſs : EUQUEOGY when that rough people yet inhabited the woods, and while their σοιητικη εειν ε μανικ8. But there muſt be conceived a juſt ſolid manners were ſtill favage. The firſt inhabitants of Runnia, and judgment, to direct and govern this fury of the poet's imagination. the other northern countries, thoſe of Gaul, Albion, Iberia, Au Hence the critic concludes, that the end of poetry is to pleaſe; fonia, and other nations of Europe, had their poetry, as well as the its cauſe, either the excellence of the poet's genius, or a poetical ancient people of Aſia, and of the known borders of Africa. But fury, and tranſport of the ſoul, manageable by the judgment; its the fimple productions of nature have conſtantly ſomething un matter, long and ſhort fyllables, and feet compoſed hereof, with formed, rough, and ſavage. The Divine Wiſdom appears to have words furniſhed by gramınar ; and its form, the arrangement of placed the ingenious and poliſhed part of mankind on the earth, in all theſe things injuft and agreeable verſe, expreſſing the thoughts order to refine that which comes from her boſom rude and imper and ſentiments of the author after the manner already mentioned. fect: and thus art has poliſhed poetry, which iſſued quite naked But, after all, how narrow are theſe bounds, if we conſider poetry and favage from the brains of the firſt of mankind. in the light wherein the works of Homer and Virgil have ſet ito But what is poetry ? It would be to abridge the limits of the What is here laid down pretends to no praiſe, which a mere tran- pætic empire, to contract the ſphere of this divine art, ſhould we ſlator may not riſe to, and which the war of Catiline might not fay, in imitation of all the dictionaries and other treatiſes on verſi merit, if turned out of the proſe of Salluſt. It is with reaſon, there- fication, That poetry is the art of making verſes, of lines or periods fore, that we diſtinguiſh the low and ſimple from the greater poetry; that are in rhyme or metre. This is rather a grammatical explana by giving the former the title of verſification ; and that we make tion of the word, than a real definition of the thing, and it would be poetry and verſification two diſtinct arts : in effect, there is not to degrade poetry thus to define it. The juſteſt definition ſeems to more difference between grammar and rhetoric, than between the be that given by Baron Bielfield. That poetry is the art of expreſs art of making verſes, and that of inventing poems. The greater ing our thoughts by fiction. In fazt, it is after this manner (if we re poetry, then, conſiſts principally in fiction, or the invention of fa- Hect with attention) that all the metaphors and allegories, all the va bles; in the expreſſing of things by allegories and metaphors; and rious kinds of fiction, form the firſt materials of a poetic edifice: it in the inventing of actions, under which the truths which the poet is thus that all images , all compariſons, illuſions, and figures, eſpe- has to teach may be agreeably diſguiſed. cially thoſe which perſonify moral ſubje&ts, as virtues and vices, In this view, ſcarce any poems retain the nature and eſſence of concur to the decorating of ſuch a ſtructure. A work, therefore, the grand poetry, but the epopæia, tragedy, and comedy; the reſt, that is filled with invention, that inceſtantly preſents images which be they elegies, ſatires, fongs, or what they will, come under the render the reader attentive and affected, where the author gives in name of yerſification. The ancient eloquence, it is obſerved, was Ddd full No 130. POI POI frequent The mineral full of myſteries and allegories. The truth was by them usually squares, "Sometimes to the number of 9, fometimes to 15; fome POINTS, in Heraldry, are diviſions of the eſcutcheon into ſeveral diſguiſed under thoſe ingenious inyentions, called uvãos, fables, q. d. words; as if there were as much difference between theſe fabulous whereof are of one colour or metal, the others of another; called diſcourſes of the learned, and the common language, as between the alſo equipollent points. There is alſo another, and that more ſpeech peculiar to man and the voice of brutes. diviſion of the eſchutcheon into points, which have ſeveral names At firſt fables were chiefly uſed in treating of the divine nature, and values, according to their ſeveral places. There are nine after the manner they then conceived of it; this occaſioned the firſt principal points in an eſcutcheon. See the Syſtem, Sect. I. poets to be called divines, and poetry the language of the gods. Point, in Optics, is that wherein converging rays meet; ge- The divine attributes they ſeparated into a number of perſons; be nerally called the focus. See the Syſtem, Part . I. Sect. I. cauſe the weakneſs of the human mind could not conceive ſo much Point, in Perſpective, a term uſed for various places with re- power, and ſo much action, in a ſimplicity ſo ſtrict and indiviſible gard to the perſpective plane. See the Syſtem, Sect. III. as that of God. Nor could they fpeak of the operation of this al POISON, any ſubſtance which proves deſtructive to the life of mighty cauſe, without ſpeaking likewiſe of its effect. They there animals in a ſmall quantity, either taken by the mouth, mixed with fore added phyſics to their theology, handling both after the ſame blood, or applied to the nerves. Of poiſons there are many differ- manner, without quitting their veils or allegories. ent kinds, and theſe are various in their operations. Now man being the moſt conſiderable of all the works of the poiſons, as arſenic and corroſive mercury, ſeem to attack the folid Deity, and there being nothing ſo proper for poets, or of ſuch parts of the ſtomach, and to produce death by eroding its ſubſtance: general uſe to mankind as ſuch a ſubject, they therefore added the antimonials ſeem rather to attack the nerves, and to kill by ethics to the former, and treated the doctrine of manners in the throwing the whole ſyſtem into convulſions; and in this manner ſame way as they had done divinity and phyſiology: and hence alſo moſt of the vegetable poiſons ſeem to operate. All of theſe, aroſe the epopoeia or epic poem. The epic poets have done with however, appear to be inferior in ſtrength to the poiſon of ſome regard to morality, juſt the contrary of what the divine poets did of the more deadly kinds of ferpents, which operate fo ſuddenly for their theology. As the two great diverſity of divine actions and that the animal bit by them would be dead before another that had perfections, ſo little proportioned to our underſtanding, occaſioned ſwallowed arſenic would be affected. Some poiſons attack equally the latter to divide the ſingle idea of the ſimple eſſence of God into all the parts; ſome only a particular one. Thus, the lepus mari- ſeveral perſons under different names, as Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, nus is an enemy to the lungs, cantharides to the bladder, &c. Some &c. fo on the contrary, the nature of moral philofophy, which things, again, which prove poiſon to man, ſerve for food to other never gives any rules for particular things, occaſioned the epic animals. Thus, mandragora and henbane feed hogs, though they poets to unite in one ſingle idea, in the ſame perſon, and even in a kill man: and thus that deadly poiſon hemlock is wholeſome for ſingle action, whatever of the like kind occurs in different perſons goats. The caffivi plant, fir Hans Sloane tell us, poiſons unprea and different actions. pared; but prepared, is the common bread of the Weſt-Indies, Thus, ſays Ariſtotle, poetry teaches moral philoſophy, not by particularly in Jamaica, and the hotter parts; and is uſed to vic- reciting hiſtorically what Alcibiades has done or ſuffered, but pro- tual ſhips. Nay, what is more, ſome poiſons are not only food, poſing what ſuch a perſon, whom the poet calls by any name he but even phyſic to other animals. In the Philoſ. Tranſact. we pleaſes, would neceſſarily or probably have done or faid on the like have an inſtance of a horſe troubled with a farcy, which could not occaſion. It is in this manner that poetry repreſents either the un be cured by the moſt famed remedies, which yet cured himſelf in happy conſequences of deſigns ill concerted, of wicked actions, a ſhort time, by feeding greedily on hemlock. Fontanus alſo tells &c. or the reward of good actions, and pleaſure reaped from a us of a woman, who eat hemlock for ſome time, to procure fleep, deſign laid in virtue, and conducted by prudence. Thus, according and with very good effect, though repeated doſes of opium had no to our critic, the poetical actions and perſons are all feigned, alle operation. gorical, and univerſal, and hiſtorical, and fingular. This is like Much has been written concerning a poiſon made uſe of by the wiſe the ſentiment of Horace; who adds, that poets teach morality African negroes, by the Americans, and by the Eaſt Indies. This as well as philoſophy; but the preference herein he gives to Homer. poiſon, which ſeems to be of a very ſubtile and dangerous nature, is This advantage of the poets over mere philoſophers ariſes hence, extracted by fire from divers plants, eſpecially from thoſe which that all poetry is an imitation. Now imitation is a thing extremely the French call lianes. To this, very ſtrange effects have been natural; and hence this manner of propofing things becomes better aſcribed. It has been ſaid that by this poiſon a man might be killed fitted to engage the auditors. Again, imitation is an inſtruction at any certain time; as, for inſtance, after the interval of a day, a given by examples; and examples are the more proper to perſuade, week, a month, a year, or even ſeveral years. Thefe wonderful becauſe they prove the thing poſſible . In effect, imitation is ſo effects, however, do not ſeems worthy of credit; as the abbe Fon- much the nature of poetry, that, Ariſtotle tells us, it is to this the tana has given a particular account of an American poiſon called art owes its riſe. But the poets, by becoming philoſophers, did ticunas, which in all probability is the ſame with that uſed in Africa not ceaſe to be divines ; on the contrary, the morality they taught and the Eaſt-Indies; and from this account it is extremely impro- obliged them frequently to introduce the Deity in their works; and bable that any ſuch effects could be produced with certainty. a With this poiſon the Abbe was furniſhed by Dr. Heberden. It make it grand, important, and conducted by the perſons of kings was cloſed and ſealed up in an earthen pot incloſed in a tin caſe. and princes. Add to this that it likewiſe obliged the poet to think Within the tin caſe was a note containing the following words: and ſpeak after a manner elevated above the common pitch of men, “ Indian poiſon, brought from the banks of the river of the Ama- and to uſe phraſes equal, in ſome meaſure, to the divine perſons zons by Don Pedro Maldonado. It is one of the forts mentioned he introduced; and to this purpoſe ſerved the poetical, figurative in the Philoſophical Tranſactions, vol. xlvii. number 12." In language, and the majeſty of heroic verſe. To convey their truths the volume of the Philoſophical Tranſactions here quoted, mention to the beſt advantage , and adapt them to the particular purpoſes is made of two poiſons little different in their activity; the one they were intended for, poets found out various forms. Hence the called the poiſon of Lamas, and the other of Ticunas. The poiſon epopæia and drama. Epic poetry is more for the habits and nian in the earthern veſſel uſed by the Abbe Fontana was that of the Ti- ners than the paſſions; theſe laſt riſe all at once, and their violence cunas; but he was alſo furniſhed with a number of American ar- is but of a ſhort duration; but the habitudes are cooler and more rows dipped in poiſon, but whether that of the Lamas or Ticunas gentle, and riſe and fall more ſlowly. The epic action, therefore, he could not tell. Our author begins his account of the nature of could not be reſtrained to a day or two, as that of the drama; a this poiſon with detecting ſome of the miſtakes which had been longer and a juſter ſpace was required for this than for tragedy, propagated concerning it. It had been aſſerted that the Ticunas which is only for the paſſions. And hence aroſe a ſtill greater poiſon proves noxious by the mere elluvia, but much more by the difference between tragedy and the epopoeia. For the tragic Iteam which exhales from it in boiling or burning: that, among violence required a ſtronger and more lively repreſentation than the the Indians, it is prepared only by women condemned to die; and epic; and accordingly it conſiſts wholly in the action, the poet that the mark of its being ſufficiently prepared is when the at- never ſpeaking, as he does in the epopeia, where there are no actors. tendant is killed by its ſteam. All theſe aſſertions are by the Abbe POINT, in Geography and Aſtronomy, a point marked in the refuted in the cleareſt manner. He expoſed a young pigeon to globes, and diſtinguilhed by its peculiarity. See Treatiſe on the the ſmell of the poiſon when the veſſel was opened, to the ſteam of Globes, it when boiling, and to the vapour of it when burning to the ſides Points, in Electricity, are thoſe acute terminations of bodies of the veſſel, without the animal's being the leaſt injured; on which facilitate the paſſage of the electrical fluid from or to ſuch which, concluding that the vapours of this poiſon were not to be bodies. For experiments on the influence of points, ſee the Syſtem. dreaded, he expoſed himſelf to them without any fear. Sect. II. ART. V. The moſt fatal operation of this poiſon is when mixed with the Point, in Geometry, according to Euclid, is a quantity which blood. The ſmalleſt quantity, injected into the jugular vein, killed has no parts, or which is indiviſible. See the Syſtem, Part I. the animal as if by a ſtroke of lightning. When applied to wounds Sect. I. in ſuch a manner that the flowing of the blood could not waſh it Point, in Grammar, is a character uſed to mark the diviſions of away, the animal fell into convulſions and a train of fatal nervous diſcourſe. The point proper is what we otherwiſe call a full ſtop, or ſymptoms, which put an end to its life in a few minutes. Yet, period, and ſerves to denote the ſenſe complete, and the period notwithſtanding theſe ſeeming affections of the nerves, the poiſon ended. Two points uſually mark the middle of a period, and ſhew proved harmleſs when applied to the naked nerves themſelves, or a conſtruction complete, and the ſenſe to be perfect; yet intimating even to the medullary ſubſtance of them ſlit open. The ſtrength ſomething to come after it: this we call a COLON. See the Sył of this poiſon ſeems to be diminiſhed and even deſtroyed by mine- tem, Part II. Chap. IV. ART. PUNCTUATION, ral acids, but not at all by alkalies or ardent ſpirits; but if the freſh , poet to POI POI negroes uſe freſh poiſon was applied to a wound, the application of mineral very tenacious blood, coagulated, and ſticking to the great valve, acids immediately after could not remove the pernicious effects. including the tendons of it, and a little reſembling a polypus. No So far, indeed, was this from being the caſe, that the application mercury could be found in this ventricle by the moſt diligent of nitrous acid to the wounded muſcle of a pigeon killed the animal ſearch; whence it appears, that the mercury had paſſed no farther in a ſhort time without any poiſon at all. The effects of the ar than the extremities of the pulmonary artery, where it had ſtuck, rows were equally fatal with thoſe of the poiſon itſelf. The In and occaſioned fatal obſtructions. In another dog, which had mer- dians in various places of South America prepare this poiſon, and cury injected into the jugular, it appears to have paſſed the pulmo- make uſe of it for the killing of wild beaſts, in this manner. Thoſe nary artery, as part of it was found in the cavity of the abdomen, ſavages are very dextrous at making long trunks, which are the and part alſo in ſome other cavities of the body. All the glandules moſt common weapon uſed by them in hunting. To theſe trunks were very turgid and full of liquor, eſpecially in the ventricles of or tubes they fit little arrows, made of palm-tree, on which they the brain, and all round there was a great quantity of ſerum. put a little roll of cotton exactly fitting the bore of the tube. They In like manner, oil ofolives proves certainly fatal when injected Thoot theſe with their breath, and ſeldom miſs their mark. They into the blood. Half an ounce of this, injected into the crural vein dip the points of theſe little arrows, as well as of thoſe of their of a dog, produced no effect in half a quarter of an hour: but after bows, in this poiſon; which is ſo active, that in leſs than a minute, that, the animal barked, cried, looked dejected, and fell into a deep eſpecially when freſh, it kills certain animals from which the ar apoplexy; ſo that his limbs were deprived of all ſenſe and motion, row has drawn blood. and were flexible any way at pleaſure. His reſpiration continued Though a very ſmall drop of this poiſon, conveyed into the blood very ſtrong, with a ſnorting and wheezing, and a thick humour by puncture, is ſometimes fufficient to kill a man, or at leaſt to ſometimes mixed with blood flowing out of his mouth. He loft caufe great diſturbance in the animal economy, it is quite other all external ſenſe: the eyes, though they continued open, were not wife when taken in at the mouth; for then it does no ſort of mil ſenſible of any objects that were put to them ; and even the corner chief. See Phil. Tranſ. loc. cit. The a poiſon of an could be touched and rubbed, without his being in the leaſt ſenſible extraordinary nature. The doſe is very ſmall, and it hath no ill of it: his eye-lids, however, had a convullive motion. The taſte; fo that, mixed with meat or drink, it is not perceivable. hearing was quite loſt; and in a ſhort time the feeling became ſo The poiſon of the vipour is analogous in its effects to that of ti dull, that his claws and ears could be bored with red hot-pincers cunas, but inferior in ſtrength; the latter killing more inftan without his expreſſing the leaſt pain. Sometimes he was ſeized taneouſly when injected into a vein, than even the poiſon of the with a convulſive motion of the diaphragm and muſcles ſubſervient moſt venomous rattle-ſnake. to reſpiration ; upon which he would bark ſtrongly, as if he had In the philofophical tranſactions, No. 335, we have a number been awake : but this waking was only in appearance ; for all the of experiments which ſhow the effects of many different poiſons time of this barking, he continued as inſenſible as ever. In three upon animals ; from whence it appears, that many ſubſtances hours he died; and on opening his body, the bronchiæ were filled which are not at all accounted poiſonous, yet prove as certainly fatal with a thick froth. An ounce of oil of olives injected into the when mixed with the blood as even the poiſon of rattle-ſnakes, or jugular of another dog, killed him in a moment; but a third lived the ticunas itſelf. A dram and a half of fal ammoniac diſſolved an hour after it. He was ſeized with great ſleepineſs, ſnorting, and in an ounce and an half of water, and injected into the jugular wheezing, but did not bark like the firſt . In all of them a great vein of a dog, killed him with convulſions almoſt inſtantly. The quantity of thick froth was found in the lungs. The poiſons fame effect followed from injecting a dram of falt of tartar dif which prove mortal when taken by the mouth, are principally of folved in an ounce of warm water ; but a dram and an half of arſenic, corroſive mercury, glaſs of antimony, and lead. The common falt injected into the jugular produced little other bad effects of opium, when injected into the veins, ſeem to be ſimilar conſequence than a temporary thirſt. A dram of purified white to its effects when taken by the mouth. The pernicious effects of vitriol, injected into the crural vein of a dog, killed him im laural water is confirmed by the late experiments of the Abbe mediately. Diluted aqua fortis injected into the jugular and Fontana ; who tells us, that it not only kills in a ſhort time when crural vein of a dog killed him immediately by coagulating the taken by the mouth, but that, when given in ſmall doſes, the animal blood. Oil of fulphur, (containing ſome quantity of the volatile writhes ſo that the head joins the tail, and the vertebræ arch out in vitriolic acid) did not kill a dog, after repeated trials. On the con ſuch a manner as to ſtrike with horror every one who ſees it. trary, as ſoon as he was let go, he ran into all the corners of the We ought now to give ſome account of the proper antidotes for rooin ſearching for meat ; and having found ſome bones, he fell a each kind of poiſon ; but from what has been related concerning gnawing them with ſtrange avidity, as if the acid, by injection into the extreme activity of ſome of them, it is evident that in many the veins, had given him a better appetite. Another dog who had caſes there can be but very little hope. People are moſt commonly oil of tartar injected into his veins, ſwelled and died, after ſuffering bit by ſerpents in the legs or hands; and as the poiſon, from the great torment. His blood was found forid, and not coagulated. Abbé Fontana's experiments, appears to act only in conſequence A dram and a half of ſpirit of falt diluted with water, and injected of being abſorbed into the blood, it is plain that to prevent this into the jugular vein of a dog, killed him immediately. abſorption is the chief indication of cure. Various methods have Theſe are the reſults of the experiments where faline ſubſtances been recommended for this purpoſe; but the Abbe Fontana pro- were injected into the veins. Many acrids proved equally fatal, poſes a method, namely a ligature. This, if properly applied a deſcription of two drams of white hellebore injected into the ju- between the wounded part and the heart, muſt certainly prevent the gular vein killed like a ſtroke of lightning. Another dog was killed bad effects of the poiſon: but then it tends to produce a diſeaſe in a moment by an injection ofan ounce of all rectified ſpirit of wine almoſt equally fatal ; namely, a gangrene of the part; and our in which a dram of camphor was diſſolved. Two drams of highly author gives inſtances of animals being thus deſtroyed, after the rectified ſpirit of wine injected to the crural vein of a dog, killed effects of the poiſon were prevented; for which reaſon he prefers him in a very ſhort time: he died quietly, and licking his jaws with amputation. But the good effects of either of theſe methods, it is his tongue, as if with pleaſure. In the vena cava and right ven evident, muſt depend greatly on the nature of the part wounded, tricle of the heart the blood was coagulated into a great many clots. and the time when the ligature is applied or the amputation per- An ounce of ſtrong decoction of tobacco injected into a vein, killed formed. If the teeth of the ſerpent, or the poiſoned arrow, happens a dog in a very ſhort time in terrible convulſions. Ten drops of to ſtrike a large vein, the only poſſibility of eſcaping inſtant death oil of fage rubbed with half a dram of ſugar, and thus diſſolved in is to compreſs the trunk of the vein above the wounded place, and water, did no harm by being injected into the blood. to enlarge the wound, that the blood may flow freely and in large Mercury, though ſeemingly void of all acrimony, proves alſo quantity, in order to waſh away the poiſon, and diſcharge the in- fatal when injected into the blood. Soon after the injection of fected parts of the blood itſelf. If this is neglected, and the perſon half an ounce of this mineral into the jugular vein of a dog, he was falls into the agonies of death, perhaps ſtrongly ſtimulating me- feized with a dry ſhort cough which came by intervals. About dicines given in large doſes, and continued for a length of time, two days after, he was troubled with a great difficulty of breathing, may enable nature to counteract the virulence of the poiſon. For and made a noiſe like that of a broken-winded horſe. There was this purpoſe volatile alkalies ſeem moſt proper, as acting ſooneſt; no tumour about the root of the tongue or the parotid glands, nor and perhaps a combination of them with either might be advantage- any appearance of a falivation. In four days he died; having been ous, as by the volatility of that medicine the activity of the alkali for two days before ſo much troubled with an orthopnæa, that he would probably be increaſed. In the Philoſophical Tranſactions, could not ſeep only when he leaned his head againſt ſomething. we have an account of the recovery of a dog ſeemingly by means When opened, about a pint of bloody ſerum was found in the tho of the volatile alkali, when probably he was in a dying condition. rax, and the outſide of the lungs in moſt places was bliſtered. This dog indeed, ſeems to have had a remarkable ſtrength of con- Some of the bliſters were larger and others ſmaller than a pea, but ſtitution. The poor creature had firſt got two ounces of the juice moſt of them contained mercurial globules. Several of them were of nightſhade, which he bore without any inconvenience. An broken; and upon being preſſed a little, the mercury ran out with equal quantity of the juice of hemlock was then given him without a mixture of a little fanies ; but upon ſtronger preſſure, a conſider- effect . He then got a large doſe of the root of wolfſbane, with able quantity of ſanies iſſued out. In the right ventricle of the heart the ſame ſucceſs. Two drachms of white hellebore root were next fome particles of quickſilver were found in the very middle of the given. Theſe cauſed violent vomitings and purgings, but ſtill he coagulated blood lodged there, and the ſame thing alſo was obſerved outlived the operation. He was then made to ſwallow five rocts in the pulmonary artery. Some blood alſo was found coagulated of the colchicum, or meadow-faffron, of the colchicum, or meadow-faffron, dug freſh out of the earth. in a very ſtrange and unuſual manner between the columnæ The effect of theſe was ſimilar to that of the white hellebore, but of the right ventricle of the heart, and in this a greater quantity of ſtill he did not die. Laſtly, he got two drachms of opium; and he quickſilver than any where elſe. In the left ventricle was found a outlived this dofe. He was firſt caſt into a deep ſleep by it; but foon POI POI very foon awaked, and was ſeized with violent vomitings and purgings, and the precipitates of mercury, and the very fatal common arſenic: which carried off the effect of the opium. Seeing then that the To theſe are added many others, and among them fome which act animal had refifted the moſt violent poiſons, it was reſolved to try merely mechanically, by their numerous ſharp points and edges the effects of the bite of a viper; and he was accordingly bit three Of the temporaneous poiſons many are taken under the common or four times on the belly a little below the navel by an enraged denominations of food and drink, and ſeem at firſt to be of no in viper. The immediate conſequence of this was an incipient gan jury; but by degrees they impair the conſtitution, and bring on grene in the parts adjoining to the wound, as appeared by the diſeaſes and death. Coffee, tea, and all the ſpirituous liquors are riſing of little black bladders filled with a fanious matter, and a accounted of this kind. livid colour which propagated itſelf all around. The motion of the Animal Poisons, which are thoſe drawn from animals by the heart became very faint and irregular, and the animal lay without bite or ſting: as, the viper, ſcorpion, lepus marinus, &c. 'The ſtrength or ſenſation, as if he had been ſeized with a lethargy or theory of the effects, operations, &c. of animal poiſons, is apoplexy. In this condition his wound was cupped and ſcarified, accurately and mechanically delivered by Dr. Mead, in thoſe re. and Venice treacle (a famous antidote) applied to it. In two hours markable caſes, the bites of a viper, tarantula, and mad dog. See after this all the ſymptoms were increaſed, and he ſeemed to be near his doctrine under TARANTULA, VIPER, and HYDROPHOBIA. death: upon which half a drachm of volatile falt of hartſhorn Vegetable Poisons, as aconite, cicuta or hemlock, hellebore, na- mixed with a little broth was poured down his throat; and the pellus, &c. which are generally of a narcotic or ftupefying quality, confequence was, that in a ſhort time he was able to ſtand on his With regard to the operation of vegetable poiſons, it is obſerved feet and walk. Another doſe entirely diſpelled his lethargy, that, beſides heat and pain, they commonly occaſion fome degree and the heart began to recover its ſtrength. However, he con of giddineſs, and often a kind of ſtupidity or folly. See OPIATE tinued very weak; and though he eat no folid meat for three days, and OPIUM. yet at the end of that time his ſtrength was evidently increaſed. It has been a general complaint, and indeed too juſt a one, that The firſt day he drank water plentifully and greedily, and on the the qualities of plants are much leſs ſtudied than their external ap- ſecond day he drank ſome broth. On the third day he began to pearances; and the beſt modern authors have contented themſelves eat ſolid meat, and ſeemed out of danger; only ſome large and with nicely characteriſing plants according to their flowers and feeds, foul ulcers remained on that part of the belly which was bit, and and aſcertaining the proper names to each, without at all enquiring before theſe were healed he was killed by another dog. how they might be beneficial or hurtful to mankind, or diſtin- From comparing this with ſome other obſervations, indeed, it guiſhing whether they were ſafe medicines or deſtructive poiſons. would ſeem that volatile alkali is the beſt antidote againſt all poi Nor, indeed, is the inveſtigating the virtue of plants, yet untried ſons which ſuddenly kill by a mixture with the blood, and even of as medicines, an eaſy taſk; ſince neither chymical analyſes nor ex- fome others. Thus, on the teſtimony of Dr. Mead, it counteracts periments on brutes nor even the taſte and ſmell, and other fenfi- the deadly effects of the laurel water. Here we ſee that it cured ble qualities of plants, can ever certainly aſſure us what effects they the bite of a viper; and from Dr. Wolfe's experiments on hydro will have on the human body. Chymical analyſes alter the ſub- phobous patients, it may even claim fome merit there. Still, how ſtance too much to give any certain knowledge; and the effects ever, there is another method of attempting a cure in ſuch deplo- things have on one animal are no aſſurance of what they will do to rable caſes; and that is, by injecting into the veins any thing which another, as is familiar to us in a thouſand inſtances. Bitter alınonds, will not deſtroy life, but will deſtroy the effects of the poiſon. It and many other things, wholly harmleſs to us, kill birds; and goats is much to be regretted, that in thoſe cruel experiments which we will eat the tithymals, to give them an appetite when they want it, have already related, the intention ſeems almoſt always to have been while thoſe very plants are fatal to fiſhes, and very dangerous to to kill the animal at all events; whereas, it ought to have been to man. The ſenſible qualities as often deceive us, of which we might preſerve him alive, and to aſcertain what medicines could be ſafely give many inſtances; and what ſome have obſerved of the botani- injected into the blood, and what could not, with the effects which cal characters of plants, telling us their virtues, or that all of the followed the injection of different quantities, none of which were ſame claſs poſſeſs the ſame qualities, is the moſt erroneous, and if fufficient to deſtroy life. But in the way they were managed, , truſted to, might prove the moſt fatal of all opinions; ſince the ſcarce any concluſion can be drawn from them. Thus, when it known poiſons, hemlock, phellandrium, and water-drop wort with was found that half an ounce of olive oil, injected into the jugular the poiſonous juice, are all umbelliferous plants, and conſequently vein, killed a dog in a ſhort time, to what purpoſe, except to gratify of the ſame family with fennel and angelica. mere wanton cruelty, was it to inject a whole ounce into the jugu Nothing can, indeed, affure us with any degree of certainty of lar of another dog? Certainly, inſtead of this quantity, only a few the virtues of plants, but experiments made on ourſelves; but few drops ought to have been tried, which might have acted medici are to be found who wiſh ſo well to the public, as to venture their nally, or at worſt brought on a diſorder that would have been cu own lives for its ſervice: and perhaps the honeſt Geſner is the only rable. A quantity of diluted aquafortis, we are told, coagulated all man who ever carried theſe attempts to any degree, and he unhap- the blood in the veſſels; but this effect might eaſily have been pily died a martyr to them, periſhing by the doſe he took of the fcor- gueſſed à priori, from its effect on the blood taken out of the body. pion-rooted deronicum: the very root which has of late with us Ought it not then to have been tried in ſuch ſmall quantity, and ſo been ſo fatal, by being accidentally mixed with our gentian. much diluted, that its coagulating power would not have deſtroyed What we learn of the vegetable poiſons muſt therefore be either by life? However, even as they ſtand, the experiments are uſeful ; the conſequences of the rafh preſcriptions or miſtakes of ignorant becauſe they ſhow that ſome medicinal liquors may be injected into pretenders to medicine, or by the misfortune of thoſe who have un- the veins of animals without deſtroying life ; that thus they pro- warily eaten them. duce powerful effects, and therefore may remove diſeaſes. They We have accounts in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences deſerve therefore to be well conſidered, and often repeated, but in of Paris, of many things of this kind. An apothecary, a very a more merciful manner. As to the performance of ſuch operations honeſt man, but of no knowledge in botany, had made his extract on the human body, it is by no means to be encouraged. What of black hellebore from the roots of chriſtophoriana, or bane-ber- we have ſaid concerning a poſſibility of curing poiſons by this me ries, a plant always accounted a poiſon, and a berry of which is ca- thod, is to be looked upon as merely ſpeculative, and thrown out as pable of killing ſeveral animals; yet ſo far had the fire diveíted the a hint for further experiments. Beſides all this, there remains roots of their poiſonous qualities, that twelve grains of this given as another method of cure in deſperate caſes, when there is a certainty an extract of hellebore, proved of no ill effect. Mem. Acad. that the whole maſs of blood is infected: and that is, by the bold Scienc. Par. 1739. Another apothecary having learned, that her- attempt of changing the whole diſeaſed fluid for the blood of a found modactyls were the roots of a ſpecies of colchicum, dried the roots animal. Experiments of this kind have alſo been tried; and the of the common colchicum and fold them in its place; yet there method of making them, together with the conſequences of ſuch is no knowledge of any ill effects from them. The enquiry into as are recorded in the Philoſophical Tranſactions, and ſuch are re things of this kind has its uſe, which is very important; ſince poi- lated under the article TRANSFUSION. fons often differ only in doſe from medicines, and many of the vege- Poiſons are diſtinguiſhed by ſome authors by ſeveral names, ac tables eſteemed poiſonous, may perhaps be found uſeful remedies, cording to the different time and manner of their taking effect. with proper management, and in proper quantities. Some are called venena terminata. Theſe are ſuch poiſons as per The laurel-leaves are well known to afford a poiſonous water in form their fatal office, according to the opinion of the world, at diſtillation, yet it is well known that they have been long uſed in certain ſtated or determinate periods of time; thus, according to cookery, to give a taſte like that of bitter almonds, to cream, the quantity given, or the nature of the ſpecies of poiſon, a man and that without any ill effect. The roſe-bay, or oleander; is well muſt be killed by it at the pleaſure of the giver. Others are called known to be a poiſon to goats, yet is taken by countrymen of ſtrong delibutoria venena. Theſe are ſuch as kill without being taken in and robuſt habits as a purge, and that with very good ſucceſs. Nay, ternally, and are ſurely fatal if rubbed upon the ſkin, put into gloves, opium, one of the greatelt of all medicines, if it had firſt been diſ- or the like. Of the number of poiſons which take a long time to covered by perſons taking over-doſes of it, and dying by it, as they kill, and that different, according to their doſe and the habit of the naturally muſt have done, might very naturally have been recorded perſon, are the venom of the toad and of the mad dog, whether the faliva be communicated immediately to the blood by a wound, or to us as a very fatal poiſon. The plumbago, or dentillaria of Ron- deletius, is ſo violent a cauſtic, that a poor girl who once anointed ſwallowed with food or with the ſpittle. The poiſon of the taran herſelf with it, to cure her of the itch, was fead alive by it; yet this tula is alſo of this number. The poiſon of the French pox, lucs ve properly managed, and infuſed in oils, has proved one of the greateſt nerea, is alſo of this kind, and is eſteemed highly acrid and alkaline. of all remedies for cancers. The ſhrub uſed in dying, and called The poiſon of cantharides, the acid ones of nitre, ſalt, vitriol, ſul by the French redoul, by fome authors coriaria, and by others the phur; the ſolutions or cryſtals of gold, filver, and the other metals; mayrtle leaved rhus, is generally known to the world only as a drug, 4 &c. uſeful POI POL young the young uſeful in the dreſſing of leather; but Pliny and ſome other old for ſome time after the ſymptoms diſappear. A little wood-afhes, writers, have given it the character of an uſeful external medicine, mixed with boiling water, ſuffered to ſtand, and pouring off the and a remedy againſt poiſon, yet with all this inattention of the mo water, or filtering it through linen, will anſwer the ſame purpoſe. dernis, and all the praiſes of the ancients, this plant is truly a very The general remedies againſt poiſons are known by the name of terrible poiſon. The grown cattle refuſe to feed upon it, but the antidotes alexipharmics, and aleziterials. The following rules ſhould lambs and kids often eat of it in thoſe parts of Europe where be ſtrictly obſerved with regard to every kind of poiſon; that when it is common; and if they eat the full grown leaves they are killed any poiſonous ſubſtance has been taken into the ſtomach, it ought by it; if the young ſhoots only, which is more uſually the caſe, as ſoon as poſible to be diſcharged by vomits, clyfters, and purges; they are then only affected with ſpaſms and a fort of drunkenneſs, and when poiſon has been received into the body by a wound, that of which, after a few hours, they recover. Nor is this fingular to it be expelled by medicines, which promote the different ſecretions, this poiſonous plant, ſince it is well known, that many plants, eſpecially thoſe of ſweat, urine, and inſenſible perſpiration; to of very improper kinds for food, are yet eaten in their young foots ; which may be joined antiſpaſmodics, or ſuch medicines as take off and Linnæus has recorded it of the Laplanders, that they even eat tenſion and irritation, the chief of which are opium, muſk, cam- ſhoots of the poiſonous blue aconite, or wolf's-bane; and phor, and aſſa fætida. even in France they eat the firſt ſhoots of the clematitis, or flam- Poison of Copper. This metal, though when in an undiffolved mula repens, the full grown leaves of which are of fo acrid a nature, ſtate it produces no ſenſible effects, becomes exceedingly active that they ſerve the beggars to eat ulcers in their arms and legs, to when diſſolved; and ſuch is the facility with which the ſolution is give them a pretended title to charity. effected, that it becomes a matter of ſome conſequence to prevent Mineral Poisons, as arſenic, curroſive ſublimate, ceruſſe, orpi the metal from being taken into the human body even in its proper ment, realgal, &c. which are commonly of an acrid or corroſive form. It doth not, however, appear that the poiſon of copper is quality. As to mineral poiſons, they all bear ſo much analogy to equally pernicious with thoſe of the arſenic or lead; much leſs that made of quickſilver in the common ſublimate, that their ope with ſome others treated of in the laſt article. The reaſon of this ration will be eaſily conceived, from what is laid down under the is, that it excites vomiting fo ſpeedily as to be expelled, even though Article MERCURY. taken in conſiderable quantity, before it has time to corrode the They are all more or leſs dangerous, as their falts receive a ſtomach. Roman vitriol, which is a ſolution of copper in the vi- greater or leſs force from the metallic particles: and hence, as the triolic acid, has been uſed as a medicine in fome diſeaſes with great molt virulent may be mitigated, by breaking the points of the fa ſucceſs. Verdigreaſe alſo, which is another very active preparation line cryſtals, fo the moſt innocent minerals may become corroſive, of the metal, has been by ſome phyſicians preſcribed as an emetic, by combining them with ſalts, as is ſeen in the preparations of fil eſpecially in caſes whers other poiſons had been ſwallowed, in order ver, antimony, iron, &c. As to the effect of arſenic, to which to procure the moſt ſpeedy evacuation of them by vomit. Where that of every other ſpecies of corroſive poiſon is ſimilar, it is obſery copper is not uſed with this view, it has been employed as a tonic ed, that the perſon who has taken it , ſoon perceives a burning heat, and antiſpaſmodic, with which it has been admitted into the laſt and a violent pricking pain in his ſtomach and bowels, with an in edition of the Edinburgh Diſpenſary under the title of Cuprum tolerable thirſt, and an inclination to vomit. The tongue and throat Ammoniacale. The effects of metal, however, when taken in a feel rough and dry, and, without proper help, the patient is ſoon pretty large quantity, and in a diffolved ſtate, or when the ſtomach feized with great anxiety, hiccupping, faintings, and coldneſs of abounds with acid juices ſufficient to diſſolve it, are very diſagreeable the extreinities. Theſe are ſucceeded by black vomits, fætid ſtools, and even dangerous; as it occaſions violent vomitings, pains in the with a mortification of the ſtomach and inteſtines, which are the ſtomach, faintneſs, and ſometimes convulſions and death. The immediate fore runners of death. only cure for theſe ſymptoms is to expel the poiſon by vomiting as When theſe ſymptoms firſt appear, the patient ſhould drink large foon as poſſible, and to obtund its acrimony; for which purpoſe quantities of new milk and falled oil, till he vomits, or warm drinking warm milk will probably be found the moſt efficacious water with oil; or fat broths; or freſh butter melted or mixed with remedy. In order to prevent the entrance of the poiſon into the the milk or water: theſe are to be drank, as long as the inclination body, no copper veſſels ſhould be uſed in preparing food but ſuch to vomit continues; nor is it ſafe to leave off drinking as long as as are either well tinned or kept exceedingly clean. The practice one particle of the poiſon remains in the ſtomach. If theſe liquids of giving a fine blue or green colour to pickles, by preparing them do not produce vomiting, half a dram or two ſcruples of the pow in copper veſſels, ought not to be tolerated; for Dr. Falconer, in a der of ipecacuanha may be given, or a few ſpoonfuls of the oyxmel , treatiſe on this ſubject, aſſures us, that theſe are ſometimes ſo or vinegar of ſquills, may be mixed with the water which is drank. ſtrongly impregnated by this method of preparing them, that a Or if other methods fail, half a dram of white vitriol, or five or fix ſmall quantity of them will produce a ſlight nauſea. Mortars of grains of emetic tartar, muſt be adminiſtered. If tormenting pains braſs or bell-metal ought for the ſame to be avoided, as by this are felt in the lower belly, and there be reaſon to apprehend, that means a conſiderable quantity of the pernicious metal may be mixed the poiſon has got down to the inteſtines, clyſters of milk and oil with our food, or with medicines. In other caſes, an equal cau- muſt be thrown up; and the patient muſt drink emollient decoc tion ought to be uſed. The cuſtoms of keeping pins in the mouth, tions of barley, oatmeal, marſhmallows, and ſuch like. He muſt of giving copper halfpence to children to play with, &c. ought to likewife take an infuſion of ſenna and manna, a ſolution of Glau be avoided; as thus a quantity of metal may be inſenſibly taken ber's falts, or ſome other purgative. After the poiſon has been into the body, after which its effects muſt be uncertain. It is pro- evacuated, the diet for ſome time ſhould be cooling and healing, per to obſerve, however, that copper is much more eaſily diffolved ſuch as milk, broth, gruel, light puddings, and ſpoon. meats of eaſy when cold than when hot; and therefore the greateſt care ſhould digeſtion, and the drink ſhould be barley-water, linfeed-tea, or in be taken never to let any thing deſigned for food, even common fuſions of any of the mild mucilaginous vegetables; but all fleſh, water, remain long in copper veſſels when cold: for it is obſerved, and ſtrong liquors, ſhould be avoided. Ruchan's Dom. Med. p. that though the confectioners can ſafely prepare the moſt acid fy- 515. ed. 5th. rups in clean copper veſſels without their receiving any detriment Liver of ſulphur Mr. Navier recommends as an antidote againſt whilſt hot, yet if the ſame ſyrups are allowed to remain in the vel- metallic poiſons. This has been long and ſucceſsfully applied by ſels till quite cold, they become pregnated with the pernicious qua- others; and in the ſixth volume of the Edinburgh Medical Com lities of the metal. mentaries, there is a paper, in which alkaline falts are recom POLAR, ſomething that relates to the poles of the world. In mended on the fame principle. Dr. Houlſton obſerves, that in all this ſenſe we ſay, polar virtue, polar tendency, &c. See POLARITY. caſes of poiſon, it is prudent immediately to give a ſolution of an POLARITY, the quality of a thing conſidered as having poles. alkali, followed by a vomit. If the poiſon be corroſive ſublimate, By heating an iron bar, and letting it cool in a vertical potture, it an aikali either fixed or volatile, will decompoſe it, and precipitate requires a polarity. The lower end becomes the north pole, the the metal in a form nearly inoffenſive. It will have a ſimilar effect upper the ſouth. Iron bars acquire a polarity, by being kept a on the ſugar of lead, emetic tartar, or any metallic falt. If the long time in an erect pofture, even without heating. Thus, the poiſon be arſenic, Neumann obſerves, that alkalis will very plen bars of windows, &c. are frequently found to have poles. Nay a tifully diffolve it: and therefore the vomit will ſucceed the better to rod of iron acquires a polarity, by the mere holding it erect; the diſcharge it. If the poiſon be of the vegetable claſs, an alkali can lower end, in that caſe, attracting the ſouth end of a magnetic be of no diſſervice, nor interfere with the other means of remedying needle, and the upper, the north end. But theſe poles are mutable, by evacuation, nor by the ſubſequent uſe of acids, ſo much infifted and ſhift with the ſituation of the rod. See MAGNET. Some mo- upon by Tiſlot, as counteracting the effects of narcotics; becauſe dern writers, particularly Dr. Higgins, in his Philoſophical Eſſay acids adminiſtered with alkaline ſalts, are pronounced by Dr. concerning Light, have maintained the polarity of the parts of Mead and others, to be attended with great ſucceſs in this caſe. matter, or that their fimple attractions are more forcible in one di- The writer, therefore, directs, when ſymptoms of poiſon appear, to rection, or axis of each atom, than in mix a tea-ſpoonful of any of the following ingredients: ſalt of POLE, Polus, Ilonos, formed from mohaw, to turn, in Aſtro- tartar, ſalt of wormwood, pearl-aſh, pot-aſh, ſpirit of hartſhorn, nomy, one of the extremities of the axis, whereon the ſphere re- or fal volatile, with half a point of water; and of this let one half volves. Theſe two points, each go degrees diſtant from the equa- be given to the patient immediately, and the other ſoon after. It tor, are called by way of eminence, the poles of the world. See the will ſometimes give relief, and the vomiting will ſoon ceaſe. The Syſtem, Sect. IX. vomiting, however, is to he promoted by warm water, ipecacuanha, Pole, in Geography, is the extremity of the earth's axis, or one &c. and after each vomiting, a doſe of this ſolution of ſalt of tartar of the points on the ſurface of our globe, through which the axis ſhould be given, and repeated every two or three hours, if the pain paſſes. See Treatiſe on the Globes. of the ſtomach returns. It ſhould be continued too, in ſmall doſes, Poles, in Magnetics, are two points in a loadſtone, correſpond- * Еее ing any other. No. 130. POL POL any ing to the poles of the world; the one pointing to the north, the the evening ofice, to be preſerved from nocturnal pollutions: other to the ſouth. See MAGNET. POLLUX, in Aſtronomy, the hind twin, or the poſterior part of the conſtellation GEMINI. POLE-Cat, the Engliſh name of the Putorius, å ſpecies of the POLLUX is alſo a fixed ſtar of the ſecond magnitude, in the genus Muſtela in the Syſtem of Mammalia. For the deſcription of the Genus, ſee MUSTELA. For repreſentation, fee Plate V. conſtellation GEMINI, or the Twins. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. Genus 15. POLYADELPHIA, in Botany, the eighteenth clafs of plants, whoſe ſtamina are formed into three or more ſeparate bodies, com- POLICY, or POLITY, Thorstelu, the laws, orders, and regu- lations, preſcribed for the conduct and government of fates and prehending four orders, viz. pentandria, dodecandria, icoſandria, communities. The word is of Greek original, being derived from and polyandria, having reſpectively, five, twelve, and twenty, and the Greek tonis, civitas, city, or ſtate. In the general, policy is many in each ſet or body. For repreſentation of the ſeveral or- uſed in oppoſition to barbariſm. Different ſtates have different ders, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. IV. and Plate V. kinds of policy: thus the policy of Athens differed from that of POLYANDRIA, in Botany, the thirteenth claſs of plants, Sparta. Loyſeau obſerves, that policy properly ſignifies the courſe with hermaphrodite flowers, and a large number of ſtamina, or and adminiſtration of juſtice in a city. The direction of the policy male parts, in each; comprehending ſeven orders, viz. monogynia, of London is in the hands of the lord mayor. Some divide policy digynia, trigynia, tetragynia, pentagynia, hexagynia, and polygynia , into two parts, agoranomy, that relating to affairs of merchandize; diftinguiſhed by having one, and three ſtyles . For repreſentation and aſtynomy, that concerning the civil and judiciary government of the ſeveral Orders, ſee the Syſtein, Sect. IV. and Plate V. of the citizens. Soine add a third branch, viz. what relates to the POLYGAMY, IIoautapuid, formed from morus, mulius, and ECCLESIASTICAL government. In much the ſame ſenſe is uſed the yepen, uxor, wife; a plurality of wives, or huſbands, held by the modern term police, or public oeconomy, to denote the due regula fame man, or woman, at the ſame time. Polygamy is prohibited tion and domeſtic order of the kingdom ; whereby the individuals among Chriſtians: but it was allowed among the Jews; as it is of the ſtate, like members of a well governed family, are bound to ſtill among the Mahometans; and under all the religions that have conform their general behaviour to the rules of propriety, good obtained in Alia. In the kingdoms of Boutan and Thibet, poly- neighbourhood, and good manners ; and to be decent, induſtrious, gramy is at this time almoſt general; one wife frequently ſerving and inoffenſive, in their reſpective ſtations. See GOVERNMENT. all the males of a whole family, without being the cauſe of POLITICAL Arithmetic is the application of arithmetical cal uncommon diſunion or jealouſy among them. culations to political uſes and ſubjects; as the public revenues, Dr. Percival, Phil. Tranf. vol. lxvi . part i. p. 163, has very number of people, extent and value of lands, taxes, trade, com juſtly obſerved that the practice is brutal, deſtructive to friendſhip merce, manufactures, or whatever relates to the power, ſtrength, and moral ſentiment, inconſiſtent with one great end of marriage; riches, &c. of any nation or commonwealth ; or, as Davenant con the education of children, and ſubverſive of the natural rights of ciſely defines it, the art of reaſoning by figures, upon things rela more than half of the ſpecies: beſides, it is injurious to population, ting to government. See the Articles CHANCE, MORTALITY, and, therefore, can never be countenanced or allowed in a weli and the Syſtem of ANNUITIES. regulated ſtate; for, though the number of females in the world, POLITICS, politice, tohitiun, from wohis, civitas, ſtate, the may conſiderably exceed the number of males, yet there are more firſt part of economy, or ethics, conſiſting of the governing and men capable of propagating their ſpecies than women capable of regulating of ſtates, for the maintenance of the public ſafety, order, bearing children: and it is a well known fact that Armenia, in tranquility, and good morals. Lord Bacon divides politics into which a plurality of wives is not allowed, abounds more with in- three parts, with regard to the three grand ends thereof, or the habitants than any other province of the Turkiſh empire. three offices incumbent on thoſe who have the adminiſtration ; viz. Yet Seldon has proved in his Uxor Hebraica, that plurality of the preſervation of the ſtate ; the happineſs and flouriſhing of the wives was allowed of, not only among the Hebrews, but alſo among ſtate, and the enlargement of its bounds. The two firſt parts, he all other nations, and in all ages. It is true, the ancient Romans obferves, are well handled by ſeveral authors; but about the third were more ſevere in their morals, and never practiſed it, though it there is a deep ſilence. He ranks this, therefore, among the number was not forbid among them: and Mark Antony is mentioned as the of the deſiderata, and gives us a ſpecimen of an eſſay to ſupply it. firſt who took the liberty of having two wives. From that time it POLLEN, the fecundating or fertilizing duſt contained within became pretty frequent in the empire, till the reigns of Theodoſius, the antheræ or tops of the ſtamina, and diſperſed upon the female Honorius, and Arcadius, who firſt prohibited it by exprefs law in organ when ripe, for the purpoſes of impregnation, ſee the Syſtem 393 After this the emperor Valentinian, by an ediêt, permitted of BOTANY, Sect. IV. Art. I. all the ſubjects of the empire, if they pleaſed, to inarry ſeveral This duft, correſponding to the ſeminal fluid in animals, is com wives: nor does it appear, from the eccleſiaſtical hiſtory of thoſe monly of a yellow colour; and is very conſpicuous in the ſummits times, that the biſhops made any oppoſition to this introduction of of ſome flowers, as the tulip and lily. Its particles are very mi polygamy. In effect there are ſome even among the Chriſtian nute, and of extreme hardneſs. Examined by the microſcope, caſuiſts, who do not look on polygamy as in itſelf criminal. Jurieu they are generally found to aſſume fome determinate form, which obſerves, that the prohibition of polygamy is a poſitive law; but often predominates, not only through all the ſpecies of a particular from which a man may be exempted by ſovereign neceſſity. Baillet genus, but alſo through the genera of a natural family or order. adds, that the example of the patriarchs is a very powerful argu- The powder in queſtion being triturated, and otherwiſe prepared ment in favour of polygamy. in the ſtomach of bees, by whom great quantities are collected in It has been much diſputed among the doctors of the civil law, hairy bruſhes with which their legs are covered, is ſuppoſed by whether polygamy be adultery. In the Roman law it is called fome authors to produce the ſubſtance known by the name of wax; STUPRUM, and puniſhed as ſuch, that is, in ſome caſes, capitally. a fpecies of vegetable oil, rendered concrete by the preſence of an But a ſmaller puniſhment is more conſiſtent with the Jewiſh law, acid, which muſt be removed before the ſubſtance can be ren wherein the prohibition of adultery is perpetual, but that of poly- dered fluid. gamy temporary only. See Selden, lib. i. cap. 9. de Uxore POLL-MONEY, or capitation, a tax formerly impoſed by au Hebraica. In Germany, Holland, and Spain, this offence is diffe- thority of Parliament, on the perfon, or head, either on all indif rently puniſhed. By a conſtitution of Charles V. it was a capital ferently, or according to ſome known mark of diſtinction ; as crime. By the laws of ancient and modern Sweden, it is puniſhed quality, calling, &c. Thus, by the ſtatute 18 Car. II. every ſub with death. In Scotland it is puniſhed as perjury. ject in the kingdom was aſſeſſed by the head, or poll, according to In England it is enacted by ſtatute i ſac. I. cap. II. that, if his degree; every duke 100l, marquis 80l. baronet 301. knight 20!. any perſon, being married, do afterwards marry again, the former eſquire rol. &c. and every ſingle private perſon 12d. This was no huſband or wife being alive, it is felony, but within the benefit of new tax, as appears by former acts of parliament; particularly that clergy. The firſt wife in this caſe ſhall not be admitted as an evi- anno 1380, where, quilibet tam conjugatus quam folutus utriuſque dence againſt her huſband, becauſe ſhe is the true wife; but the fexus, pro capite fuo folure cogebatur. Walfing. Camden, in his fecond may, for ſhe is indeed no wife at all; and ſo vice verfâ, of Remains of Coins, ſays, there was anciently a perſonal tribute a ſecond huſband. This act makes an exception to five caſes, in called capitatio, or poll-filver, impoſed on the poll , or perſon, of every which ſuch ſecond marriage, though in the three firſt it is void, is, one ; on women from the age of twelve years, and on men from 14. however, no felony. I. Where either party hath been continually POLLUTION, or Self-POLLUTION, is uſed for the abu abroad for ſeven years, whether the party in England had notice fing or defiling of one's own body, by means of laſcivious frictions of the other's being living or no. 2. Where either of the parties and titillations, raiſed by art, to produce emiſſion. We read hath been abſent from the other ſeven years, within this kingdom, in Scripture, that Onan, and, as ſome critics alſo think, Er, and the remaining party hath had no notice of the other's being were feverely puniſhed for having polluted themſelves by ſpilling alive within that time. 3. Where there is a divorce or ſeparation, their feed on the ground; whence the crime has been denominated, a menſa et thoro, by fentence in the eccleſiaſtical court. 4. Where by fome, ONANIA, which ſee. Of pollutions, fome are voluntary, the firſt marriage is declared abſolutely void by any ſuch ſentence, others involuntary, and noflurnal. and the parties looſed a vinculo. Or, 5, Where either of the POLLUTION, pollutio nocturna, in medicine, the name of a diſeaſe, ties was under the age of conſent at the time of the firſt marriage; which conſiſts in an involuntary emiſſion of the feed in the night, for in ſuch caſe the firſt marriage was voidable by the diſagreement in time of ſleep. This, in different perſons, is very different in de of either party, which this ſecond marriage very clearly amounts gree; fome being affected with it only once a week, a fortnight, But if at the age of conſent the parties had agreed to the mar- three weeks, or even a month, and others being ſubject to it almoſt riage, which completes the contract, and is, indeed, the real mar- every night. The Romiſh church puts up prayers in the cloſe of riage, and afterwards one of them ſhould marry again, judge Black- ſtons to. POL POL fone apprehends that ſuch fecond marriage would be within the vides againſt ſome of its more unjuſt and pernicious conſequences ; reaſon and penalties of the act. Comment. book iv. p. 164. ſuch as tend to affect the rights and privileges of heirſhip. Laws Bernardus Ochinus, general of the order of Capuchins, and af enacted to regulate it cannot be fairly urged in proof of its lawful- terwards a proteſtant, publiſhed, about the middle of the ſixteenth neſs on the author's own hypotheſis ; becauſe laws were alſo made century, Dialogues in favour of polygamy, which were anſwered to regulate divorce, which Mr. Madan condemns as abſolutely by Theodore Beza. And about the concluſion of the laſt century unlawful, except in caſes of adultery. Beſides, it is more probable we had at London an artful treatiſe publiſhed in behalf of a plura that the Chated wife” had been diſmiſſed by a bill of divorcement, lity of wives, under the title of Polygamia Triumphatrix : the au than that ſhe was retained by her huſband : and moreover, it is not thor whereof affumes the name of Theophilus Alethens ; but his certain that the two wives, fo far from living with the fame huf- true name was Lyferus : he was a native of Saxony. It has been band at the fame time, might not be dead; for the words may be anſwered by ſeveral. rendered thus « if there ſhould have been to a man two wives, &c.' In the year 1780, the Rev. Mr. Madan publiſhed a treatiſe, art The words expreſſing the original inſtitution of marriage, Gen. fully vindicating and ſtrongly recommending polygamy, under the ii. 24. compared with Matt. xix. 4, 5, 8, afford inſuperable objec- title of Thelypthora; or a Treatiſe on Female Ruin, in its Cauſes, tions againſt Mr. Madan's doctrine of polygamy. See alſo Lev. Effects, Conſequences, Prevention, and Remedy, &c. Marriage, xvii. 18. I Cor. vii. 2, &c. according to this writer, ſimply and wholly conſiſts in the act of If we appeal on this fubject, from the authority of fcripture to perfonal union or aflus coitus. Adultery, he fays, is never uſed in the writings of ſome of the earlieſt fathers of the Chriſtian church, the ſacred writings but to denote the deſilement of a betrothed or there is not to be found the fainteſt trace of any thing reſembling a married woman, and to this ſenſe he reſtricts the uſe of the term, teftimony to the lawfulneſs of polygamy; on the contrary, many ſo that a married man, in his opinion, is no adulterer, if his com paſſages occur, in which the practice of it is ſtrongly and explicitly merce with the fex be confined to ſingle women, who are under condemned. See Juſtin Martyr's Dial, with Trypho the Jew, no obligations by eſpouſals or marriage to other men : but, on the Greek edit. by Thyrlby, fol. p. 336, 423, 372. Clemens Alex- other hand, the woman who ſhould dare to have even but once an andrin, Stromata, lib. iv. p. 312, 335, 336, edit. Heinſii, &c. Lug. intrigue with any other man beſides her huſband, (let him have as Bat. fol. 1616. many wives as Solomon) would, ipfo fa&to, be an adultreſs, and We fhall cloſe this article with the words of an excellent anony- ought, together with her gallant, to be puniſhed with immediate mous writer, to whoſe critique on Mr. Madan's work we are in- death. This, he boldly ſays, is the law of God; and on this foun debted for the above remarks; in a word, when we reflect, that the dation he limits the privilege of polygamy to the man ; in ſupport primitive inſtitution of marriage limited it to one man and one wo- of which he refers to the polygamous connections of the patriarchs man : that this inſtitution was adhered to by Noah and his ſons, and faints of the Old Teſtament, and infers the lawfulneſs of their amidſt the degeneracy of the age in which they lived, and in ſpite practice from the bleſlings which attended it, and the laws which of the examples of polygamy, which the accurſed race of Cain had were inſtituted to regulate and fuperintend it. He contends for introduced ; when we conſider how very few, (comparatively the lawfulneſs of Chriſtians having, like the ancient Jews, more ſpeaking) the examples of this practice were among the faithful; wives than one; and labours much to reconcile the genius of the how much it brought its own puniſhment with it; and how dubi- evangelical diſpenſation to an arrangement of this fort. With this ous and equivocal thoſe paſſages are in which it appears to have the view he aſſerts, that there is not one text in the New Teſtament ſanction of divine approbation; when to theſe reflections we add that even hints at the criminality of a polygamous connection ; and another, reſpecting the limited views and temporary nature of the he would infer from St. Paul's direction, that biſhops and deacons more ancient diſpenſations and inſtitutions of religion-how often fhould have but one wife, that it was lawful for laymen to have the imperfections, and even vices of the patriarchs, and people of more. Chriſt, he ſays, was not the giver of a new law: but the God, in old time are recorded, without any expreſs notification of buſineſs of marriage, polygamy, &c. had been ſettled before his their criminalty-how much is ſaid to be commanded, which our appearance in the world, by an authority which could not be re reverence for the holineſs of God and his law, will only ſuffer us voked. Beſides, this writer not only thinks polygamy lawful in a to fuppoſe, were, for wiſe ends, permitted—how frequently the religious, but advantageous in a civil light, and highly politic in a meffengers of God adapted themſelves to the genius of the people domeſtic view. to whom they were fent, and the circumſtances of the times in In defence of his notion of marriage, which, according to his which they lived ; above all, when we conſider the purity, equity, account of it, conſiſts in the union of man and woman as one body, and benevolence of the Chriſtian law; the explicit declarations of the effects of which in the fight of God no outward forms or cere our Lord, and his apoſtle St. Paul, reſpecting the inſtitution of monies of man’s invention can add to or detract from ; he grounds marriage, its deſign and limitation; when we reflect too, on the his principal argument on the Hebrew words made uſe of in Gen. teſtimony of the moſt ancient fathers, who could not poſſibly be ig- ii. 24, to expreſs the primitive inftitution of marriage, viz. 77Xopby norant of the general and common practice of the apoſtolic church; rendered by the LΧΧ προσκολλμθυσίαι προς την γυναικα αυτά, and, finally, when to theſe conſiderations we add thoſe which are which tranſlation is adopted by the evangelift (Matt . xix. 5.) with founded on juſtice to the female ſex, and all the regulations of do- the omiſſion only of the ſuperfluous propoſition (popos) after the verb. meſtic ceconomy and national policy, we muſt wholly condemn the Our tranſlation, he ſays-“ ſhall cleave to his wife," doth not con revival of polygamy; and thus bear our honeſt teſtimony againſt vey the idea of the Hebrew, which is literally, as Montanus ren the leading defign of this dangerous and ill-adviſed publication. ders the words, “hall be joined or cemented in his woman, and Monthly Review, vol. Ixiii. p. 338. they ſhall become (i.e by this union) one fleſh.” But on this cri POLYGAMIA in Botany, a claſs of plants which have beſides ticiſm, it is well remarked, that both the Hebrew and Greek terms hermaphrodite flowers, others either male or female on the fame mean ſimply and literally attachment or adherence ; and are evi Plant. See the Syſtem, Sect. IV. Clafs 23, and Plate VI. dently made uſe of in the ſacred writings to expreſs the whole ſcope POLYGON, Πολυγωνος, formed from πολυς, many, and γωνια, of conjugal fidelity and duty, though he would reſtrain them to the angle, in Geometry, a multilateral figure, or a figure whoſe peria groffer part of it. See Deut. iv. 4. Joſhua xxiii. 8. Acts v. 36. meter confiſts of more than four ſides and angles, ſee the Syſtem, With reſpect to the Moſaic law, for which Mr. Madan is a warm Part I. Sect. VI. advocate, it was certainly a local and temporary inſtitution, adapted POLYGRAPHY, POLYGRAPHIA, or polygraphia, the art of to the ends for which it was appointed, and admirably calculated, writing in various unuſual manners or cyphers; as alſo of decypher- in its relation to marriage, to maintain and perpetuate the ſepara- ing the fame. ing the ſame. The word is formed from the Greek, Tolu, multur, tion of the Jewiſh people from the Gentiles. In attempting to de and ypezpikfcriptura, “ writing.” The ancients ſeem to have preciate the outward forms of marriage, this writer would make been very little acquainted with this art; nor is there any mark of his readers believe, that becauſe none are explicitly deſcribed, their having gone beyond the Lacedæmonian fcytala. therefore none exiſted: and, conſequently, that they are the ſuper POLYGYNIA, in Botany, the fifth order in the ſixth claſs fluous ordinances of human policy. But it is evident, from com (Hexandria.). See the Syſtem, Claſs VI. Plate IV. paring Ruth iv. 10, 13, with Tobit vii. 13, 14. and from the caſe POLYMATHY, POLYMATHIA, ΓΙολυμαθια, from πολυ, mul- of Dinah, related Gen. ch. xxxiv. that fonie forms were deemed tum, and wavdave', diſco, I learn, the knowledge of many arts and eſſential to an honourable alliance by the patriarchs and ſaints under ſciences; or an acquaintance with a great number of different fub- the Old Teſtament, excluſive of the carnal knowledge of each jects. Polymathy is frequently little more than a confuſed heap of other's perſons. It is alſo evident in the caſe of the woman of Sa uſeleſs erudition, occaſionally detailed, either pertinently or imper- maria, whoſe connection with a man not her huſband, is mentioned tinently, for parade. The genuine polymathy is an extenſive erudi- in John iv. that ſomething befides cohabitation is neceſſary to con tion, or a knowledge of a great number of things, well digeſted, ſtitute marriage in the light of God. and applied to the purpofe, and never but where they are ne- Having ſtated this notion of marriage, he urges in defence of ceſſary. polygamy, that notwithſtanding the ſeventh commandment, it was POLYPE, or POLYPUS, in Vermeology, a ſmall freſh-water in- allowed by God himſelf, who made laws for the regulation of it, fect, belonging to the genus Hydra, which, when cut into a num, wrought miracles in ſupport of it by making the barren woman ber of ſeparate pieces, becomes in a day or two ſo many diſtinct and fruitful, and declared the iſſue legitimate to all intents and purpoſes. | ſeparate animals; each piece having the ſurpriſing property of pro- God's allowance of polygamy is argued from Exod. xxi. 10, and ducing a head and tail, and the other organs neceſſary for life, and particularly from Deut. xxi. 15, which, he ſays, amounts to a de all the animal functions. For a particular account of the fecundity monitration. This paſſage, however, at the utmoſt, only preſup and reproduction of theſe extraordinary animals, ſee the Article poſes that the practice might have exiſtence among ſo hard MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. For repreſentation of their ſeveral kearted and fickle a people as the Jews; and therefore wiſely pro ſpecies in different poſitions, fee Plate I. POLYPUS, POP POP appears, ز pre- au- POLYPUS, TONU Tag, or mohumla, in ſurgery, a fleſhy tumor or gofy, contained in a famous piece, entitled Dictatus popa, that excreſcence ariſing from the inſide of the noſtrils, prejudicial to re there is no name in the world but his, i. e. as ſome underitand it, ſpiration and ſpeech ; called alſo by way of diſtinction, polypus he alone is to be ſtyled pope ; and F. Paul obſerves, that the name narium. of pope, formerly common to all biſhops, was appropriated by Gre- POLYTHEISM, from wołu, much, and deG, deus, the doc gory VII. to the Roman pontif . In the council in the Lateran, trine or belief of a plurality of gods. See God, IDOLATRY, and held under Innocent III. the pope was declared ordinary of ordina- JUPITER. ries. The power of the pope has advanced by flow degrees to that POMEGRANATE Tree, in Botany, the Engliſh name of the plentitude in which it has been exerciſed in later times. It genus Punica. For deſcription of the Genus, ſee PunicA. that towards the end of the third century, the biſhop of Rome, in POMEIS, in Heraldry, are green roundles ; ſo called by the common with thoſe of Antioch and Alexandria, had a kind of Engliſh heralds, who expreſs different coloured roundles by dif eminence over all others, becauſe they were conſidered as rulers of tinct names. primitive and apoſtolic churches. However, this pre-eminence POMME, or POMMETTE', in Heraldry. A croſs pommé, or implied no ſuperior power and authority, infringing on the rights pommetté, called alſo trophe, is a croſs with a ball or knob, like an and liberties of other biſhops, but merely a power of convening apple at each end. councils, of preſiding in them, of collecting voices, and ſuch other POMONA, in Mythology, an amiable nymph, for whoſe favour things as were eſſential to the order of thoſe aſſemblies. the deities of the fields were competitors. The name was origin The law of Valentinian in 372, which empowered the biſhop ally appropriated to ſome perſon who had merited divine honours of Rome to examine and judge other biſhops, that religious diſ- by the culture of fruit-trees, and eſpecially of apple-trees. This putes might not be decided by profane and ſecular judges, approved nymph is repreſented as ſitting on a large baſket full of fruit, hold and confirmed in a council in Rome in 378, proved very favour- ing a number of apples in her left hand, and in the right, a noſegay able to the ambition and advancement of the Roman pontiff; and of Aowers. At Rome ſhe had a temple and altars. Her prieſt his votaries have likewiſe laid great ſtreſs on the fourth canon of was called flamen Pomonale, and ſacrifices were offered to her for the council held at Sardis, in 347, which prohibited the election the preſervation of the fruits of the earth. of a ſucceſſor to a biſhop depoſed by neighbouring prelates, before POMUM, an APPLE; a ſpecies of ſeed-veſſel, compoſed of the biſhop of Rome had examined the cauſe, and pronounced ſen- a ſucculent fleſhy pulp; in the middle of which is generally found tence : but the authority of this council has been generally conſi- a membranous capſule, with a number of cells, or cavities, for con dered as extremely dubious, and its decrees have been regarded by taining the ſeeds. Seed veſſels of this kind have no external open many as altogether fietitious and ſpurious. In the fifth century a ing, or valve. At the end oppoſite to the foot-ſtalk is frequently variety of circumſtances united in augmenting the power and au- a ſmall cavity, called by the gardeners the eye of the fruit, and by thority of the biſhop of Rome; though he had not, as yet, aſſumed botaniſts umbilicus, the “navel,” from its fancied reſemblance to the dignity or ſupreme law-giver and judge of the whole Cliriſtian the navel in animals. Gourd, cucumber, melon, pomegranate, church. The biſhops of Alexandria and Antioch, unable to make pear, and apple, furniſh inſtances of the fruit or ſeed-veſſel in queſtion, head againſt the lordly prelate of Conſtantinople, Aled often to the ſee the Syítem of BOTANY, Sect. II. and Plate III. Roman pontif for ſuccour; and the inferior order of biſhops uſed PONTIF, high-prieſt, a perſon who has the ſuperintendance the ſame method, when their rights were invaded by thoſe prelates, and direction of divine worſhip. The Romans had a college of pontifs, The protection afforded them by the Roman pontif was the means and over thoſe a ſovereign pontif, or pontifex maximus, inſtituted by of extending his dominion in the Eaſt, and of imperceptibly eſta- Numa ; whoſe function it was to preſcribe the ceremonies with bliſhing its ſupremacy. In the Weſt its increaſe was owing to which each god was to be worſhipped, compoſe the rituals, direct other cauſes : the declining power, and the ſupine indolence of the the Veſtals, regulate the calendar, and ſettle the ſeveral games, and emperors, left the authority of the biſhop who preſided in their aflift at them; and for a good while to perform the buſineſs of imperial city almoſt without controul. The incurſions, moreover, gury; till on ſome fuperftitious occaſions he was prohibited inter and triumphs of the barbarians contributed to its advancement ; for meddling therewith. He conſecrated the ſtatutes of the gods, be the kings, who penetrated into the empire, when they perceived fore they were put up in the temples ; conducted the dedications the ſubjection of the multitude to the biſhops, and the dependence of the temples ; offered ſacrifices; bleſſed the figures of ſome of of the biſhops upon the Roman pontif, reſolved to reconcile this Jove's thunderbolts to preſerve the people from harms; and com ghoſtly ruler to their intereſts, by loading him with various kinds piled their ſtatutes. The Jews too had their pontif or high-prieſt; of honours and benefits. However, the Africans could not be pre- and among the Romaniſts, the pope is ſtill ſtyled the ſovereign pontif. vailed upon, by threats and promiſes, to ſubmit the deciſion of their POOR, pauper. A poor perſon, in a legal ſenſe, is one who is controverſies, and the determination of their cauſes, to the Ro- a burden to and charge upon a pariſh. Formerly, the maintenance man tribunal. of the poor was chiefly an eccleſiaſtical concern; and a fourth part Although the Roman pontifs artfully availed themſelves of every of the tythes in every pariſh was ſet apart for that purpoſe. Af circumſtance that could contribute to their obtaining univerſal do- terwards, when the tythes of many pariſhes were appropriated to minion, yet it is certain, that towards the cloſe of the ſixth cen- the monaſteries, theſe ſocieties were the principal reſource of the emperors and the nations in general were far from being poor, who were farther relieved by voluntary contribution. Judge diſpoſed to bear with patience the yoke of ſervitude, which the fee Blackſtone obſerves, that till 26 Hen. VIII. cap. 26. he finds no of Rome was arrogantly impoſing upon the Chriſtian church. The compulſory method of providing for the poor ; but upon the total Gothic princes ſet bounds to the power of the biſhop of Rome in diffolution of the monaſteries, abundance of ſtatutes were made in Italy, permitted none to be raiſed to the pontificate without their the reign of King Henry VIII. Edw. VI. and Elizabeth, for this approbation, and reſerved to themſelves the right of judging con- . purpoſe. At length, by ſtat. 43 Eliz. cap. 2. OVERSEERS of the cerning the legality of every new election. They enacted ſpiritual Poor were appointed in every pariſh. laws, called the religious orders before their tribunals, and ſum- Poor Rate. By the 14 Eliz. cap. 5. was given to the juſtices moned councils by their regal authority. to lay a general aſſeſſinent; and this hath continued ever ſince. In the beginning of the ſeventh century, or about the year 606, For by 43 Eliz. cap. 2. churchwardens and overſeers of the poor Boniface III. as Barronius relates, engaged the emperor Phocas to of every pariſh, or the greater part of them (with the conſent of take from the biſhop of Conſtantinople the title of æcumenical or two juſtices, one of whom is of the quorum, dwelling in or near univerſal biſhop, and to confer it upon the Roman pontifs; and the pariſh) are empowered to raiſe weekly, or otherwiſe, by tax thus, as it is ſaid, introduced the papal ſupremacy. But the am- ation of every inhabitant, parfon, vicar, and other, and of every bitious views of the biſhops of Rome were ſtill vigoroully oppoſed, occupier of lands, houſes, &c. materials for employing the poor, not only by ſeveral emperors and princes, but alſo by whole na- and competent ſums for their relief. Notice ſhall be given in tions; and the civil magiſtrate retained his inAuence in religious church of every ſuch rate the next Sunday after it is allowed, which matters, and the Roman pontifs were obliged to acknowledge their may be inſpected by every inhabitant, paying 1s. and copies of it ſubordination to the regal authority. No event ſeems to have been granted on demand, 6d: being paid for every twenty-four names; more favourable to their ambitious views than the part they took and a churchwarden or overſeer refuſing, ſhall forfeit 201. to the in the eighth century, in promoting the advancement of the traitor party aggrieved. The rate is to be levied by diſtreſs on thoſe who Pepin to the throne of Childeric III. in anointing and crowning refuſe to pay it; and appeals againſt it are allowed. 17 Geo. II. him as king of France. This proved an abundant ſource of opu- lib. 2, cap. 38. See OVERSEERS. lence and credit to the church, and to its aſpiring miniſters; for POPE, papa i. e. univerſal father, the biſhop of Rome; being Pepin, having obtained twº victories over Ailtulphus, king of the the head or patriarch of the Roman catholic church. Father le Lombards, in 754 and 755, compelled him to deliver up to the Cointe, in his Annals, obſerves, from St. Jerom, St. Cyprian, fee of Rome, the exarchate of Ravenna, Pentapolis, and all the St. Gregory, St. Auguſtine, and Sidonius Apollinaris, that the title cities, caſtles, and territories, which he had ſeized in the Roman pope was anciently given to all biſhops. Accordingly we find, that dukedom. And thus the biſhop of Rome was raiſed to the rank of in the eighth general council held at Conftantinople, in the year a temporal prince. The grant of Pepin was afterwards confirmed 869, which was compoſed of three hundred biſhops, all the patri by his ſon Charlemagne, who alſo ceded to the Roman pontifs archs were there called popes. Biſhops were alſo addreſſed under ſeveral cities and provinces in Italy, which were not contained in the term holinefs, and beatitude; and their churches were called apoftolical fees. He adds, that it was only in the eleventh century, his father's grant; reſerving to himſelf the ſupreme dominion. It that Gregory VII. firſt appointed, in a ſynod held at Rome, that is ſaid that a pretended grant of Conſtantine the Great was made uſe of both by Adrian I. and Leo III. in order to perſuade Char- the title pope ſhould be reſtrained to the bilhop of Rome, as a par lemagne to this donation. ticular diſtinction and prerogative. Itis one of the maxims of Gre At this time the power of the pope was ſubordinate to that of the tury, the POP POP neceſſary the emperors, and confined within very narrow limits. The right Innocent III. and Nicholas IV. the poſſeſſions and revenues of of election was veſted in the emperor, and his approbation was the Roman ſee received very conſiderable augmentation, partly by to the confecration of the biſhops of Rome. However, the events of war, and partly by the munificence of kings and their authority and amuence greatly increaſed from the time of emperors ; and arrived at that high degree of grandeur and opulence, Lewis the Meek, and more eſpecially from the acceſſion of Charles which it has maintained within this century. The former of theſe the Bald to the imperial throne. Their power was augmented in pontifs followed the ſteps of Gregory VIÍ. and not only uſurped a very conſiderable degree by the diviſions and troubles that aroſe the deſpotic government of the church, but claimed alſo the empire in the empire towards the cloſe of the ninth century; the empe of the world, and of nothing leſs than ſubjecting the kings and rors were diveſted of their eccleſiaſtical authority, the power of the princes of the earth to his lordly ſceptre. In Aſia and Europe he biſhops was greatly diminiſhed, and even the authority of both pro- diſpoſed of crowns and ſceptres with the moſt wanton ambition. vincial and general councils began to decline. The Roman pontifs | The Roman pontifs derived great advantages in the exerciſe of their availed themſelves of various circumſtances that occurred at this dominion from the attachment and zeal of the ſeveral orders of time to promote an opinion that the biſhop of Rome was conſtituted Mendicants. In the fourteenth century the papal authority di- by Jeſus Chriſt fupreme legiſlator and judge of the church univer miniſhed, by reaſon of the continued reſidence of the popes in fal, and that, therefore, the biſhops derived all their authority from France : and in the fifteenth century, by the ſchiſm which hap- the Roman pontif, and that the councils could not determine any pened in the papacy, the dawnings of the reformation, and a variety thing without his permiſſion and conſent. They had alſo recourſe of other concurring cauſes. In the councils of Conſtance, held in to forged memorials, acts of councils, and epiſtles, in order to 1414, and of Baſil, opened in 1431, the power of the Roman eſtabliſh their claims to fupremacy. The moſt notorious forgeries pontifs was declared to be inferior and ſubordinate to that of ge- of this kind were the DECRETAL epiſtles compiled by an obſcure neral councils, and the papal impoſitions, called expectatives, reſer- writer, but aſcribed, in order to give them credit, to Iſidore, biſhop vations and proviſions, were entirely annulled. The revival of of Seville. In the tenth century, a novel doétrine was propagated learning, and the progreſs of the reformation, in the ſucceeding by ſome mercenary and intereſted prelates, who publickly main century, contributed very much to the abridgment of the papal au- tained, that the Roman pontifs were not only biſhops of Rome, thority ; not only by withdrawing ſeveral provinces from the yoke but of the whole world; and that their authority, though divine in of papal tyranny, but by producing a change in the ſentiments of its origin, was conveyed to them by St. Peter, the prince of the many kings and princes, and ſovereign ſtates, who adhered to the apoſtles. The Cruſades of the eleventh century very much con religion of Rome. tributed to the augmentation of the influence and authority of the It is well known, that when the authority of the pope declined Roman pontifs; ſo that towards the cloſe of this century they ſeem in Europe, he fought to extend the limits of his ſpiritual dominion to have attained the zenith of their dominion. From the time of to other parts of the globe, and for this purpoſe deputed miſſiona- Leo IX. the Popes employed every method, which the moſt art ries to gain profelytes. And a new order was formed, that became ful ambition could ſuggeſt, to render their dominion both deſpotic afterwards fo famous, under the appellation of Jeſuits, in order to and univerſal. They not only aſpired to the character of ſupreme preſerve thoſe parts of the papal dominions that remained yet en- legiſlators in the church, to an unlimited juriſdiction over all fy- tire, and augment them by new acceſſions. The fate of this nods and councils, whether general or provincial, to the ſole dif- fraternity is well known; and many circumſtances ſeem to concur tribution of all eccleſiaſtical honours and benefices, as divinely au in different countries, hitherto devoted to the fee of Rome, that are thoriſed and appointed for that purpoſe; but they carried their in- likely to reduce within very narrow limits the ſpiritual juriſdiction ſolent pretenſions ſo far as to give themſelves out for lords of the and dominion of the pope. The pope is choſen by the cardinals univerſe, arbiters of the fate of kingdoms and empires, and ſu out of their own body. In the firſt ages of the church, the people, preme rulers over the kings and princes of the earth. Gregory VII. and the prieſts, and ſometimes only the prieſts, elected the pope, feems to have exceeded all his predeceſſors in the luft of dominion, according to the plurality of voices. The emperors afterwards as well as in the ſucceſs which attended his endeavours to obtain it. claimed the right of confirming the election. In the eighth century, He conſidered the Roman pontif, under the character of Chriſt's pope Adrian I. in a council of biſhops, aſſembled at Rome, con- vicegerent, as the king of kings, and the whole univerſe as his ferred upon Charlemagne and his ſucceſſors the right of election; rightful domain. Accordingly, with an arrogance hardly to be and they reſerved to themſelves the privilege of approving the per- paralleled, he claimed tribute from France, Saxony, Spain, Eng-. ſon that was elected by the prieſt and people; nor was the conſe- land, the moſt powerful of the German princes, Hungary, Den cration of the elected pontif valid, unleſs performed in the preſence mark, Poland, &c. foliciting them to do homage to the Roman of the emperor's ambaſſadors. The election, however, after under- ſee, to make a ſolemn grant of their kingdoms and territories to going many revolutions as to the form of it, is now referred to the the prince of the apoſtles, and to hold them under the juriſdi&ion CARDINALS in CONCLAVE. The fee of the pope is at Rome, of the vicar at Rome, as fiefs of the apoſtolic ſee. If the ſucceſs whence he iſſues out his orders, called briefs and bulls, throughout of this pontif had been anſwerable to the extent of his inſolent the catholic world. views, all the kingdoms of Europe would have been this day tri POPERY, in ecclefiaftical hiſtory, comprehends the religious butary to the Roman ſee, and its princes the foldiers or vaſſals of doctrines and practices adopted and maintained by the church of St. Peter, in the perſon of his pretended vicar upon earth. Many Rome. The following ſummary, extracted chiefly from the de- of his attempts, however, were crowned with a favourable iſſue; crees of the council of Trent, continued under Paul III. Julius III. and from the time of his pontificate the face of Europe underwent and Pius IV. from the year 1545 to 1563, by ſucceſſive ſeſſions, conſiderable change, and the prerogatives of the emperors, and and the creed of pope Pius IV. fubjoined to it, and bearing date other ſovereign princes, were neceſſarily diminiſhed. In Italy his November 1564, may not be unacceptable to the reader. One of ſucceſs was the moſt remarkable; for he prevailed upon Matilda, the fundamental tenets, ſtrenuouſly maintained by popiſh writers, the daughter of Boniface, duke of Tuſcany, to ſettle all her poſ is the infallibility of the church of Rome; though they are not ſeſſions in Italy and elſewhere upon the church of Rome; and agreed, whether this privilege belongs to the pope, or a general though the Roman pontifs have not been able to preſerve the council, or to both united; but they pretend that an infallible living whole inheritance, thus granted to them, they ſtill remain in the judge is abſolutely neceſſary to determine controverſies, and to poſſeſſion of a conſiderable part of it. | ſecure peace in the Chriſtian church. However proteſtants alledge, The monſtrous power of erecting new kingdoms, which had that the claim of infallibility in any church is not juſtified by been claimed by the pontifs from the time of Gregory VII. was the authority of Scripture; much leſs does it pertain to the church not only aſſumed, but exerciſed alſo by Alexander III. in a re of Rome; and that it is inconſiſtent with the nature of religion, and markable inſtance; for in the year 1179 he conferred the title of the perſonal obligations of its profeſſors; and that it has proved king, with the enſigns of royalty, upon Alphonſo I. duke of Por ineffectual to the end for which it is ſuppoſed to be granted, ſince tugal, who under the pontificate of Lucius II. had rendered his popes and councils have diſagreed in matters of importance, and province tributary to the Roman ſee. In the thirteenth century they have been incapable, with the advantage of this pretended the ſame ambitious ſpirit governed the councils and proceedings of infallibility, of maintaining union and peace. See INFALLIBLE. fucceeding pontifs ; and they were induſtrious in inculcating the Another eſſential article of the popiſh creed is the ſupremacy of the maxim, that the biſhop of Rome is the fupreme lord of the univerſe, pope, or his ſovereign power over the univerſal church. On this and that neither princes nor biſhops, civil governors nor eccleſiaſti ſubject it is maintained, that every chriſtian, under pain of damna- cal rulers, have any lawful power in church or ſtate, that is not de tion, is bound to be ſubject to the pope: and that no appeals may rived from them. In conſequence of this arrogant pretenſion, be made from him; and that he alone is the ſupreme judge of all they not only claimed the right of diſpoſing of ecclefiaftical bene perſons, in all eccleſiaſtical cauſes, but that he himſelf can be fices, but of conferring civil dominion, and of dethroning kings and judged by no man. emperors, according to their good pleaſure. They alſo allumed This exorbitant power hath been challenged by the pope for to themſelves the power of diſpoſing of the various offices of the many ſucceſſive ages, and in ſeveral inſtances actually exerciſed. church, and of creating and depoſing biſhops, abbots, and canons, Thus Gregory VII. excommunicated the emperor Henry IV. according to their fancy. Inſtances of theſe practices occur in the and gave away his kingdoms to Rudolphus, duke of Sweden. pontificates of Innocent III. Honorius III. Gregory IX. and of Gregory IX. excommunicated the emperor Frederick II. and ſeveral of their ſucceſſors. And Boniface VIII. maintained in abſolved his ſubjects from their cath of allegiance. Pope Paul III. the moſt expreſs and arrogant terms, that the univerſal church excommunicated and depoſed Henry VIII. king of England, and was under the dominion of the pontifs, and that princes and lay commanded all his ſubjects, under a curſe, to withdraw their patrons, councils and chapters, had no more power in ſpiritual obedience from him. Pope Pius V. and Gregory XIII. damned things than what they derived from Chriſt's vicar upon earth. Under and depoſed queen Elizabeth, and abſolved her ſubjects from their Fff allegiance. N° 131. POP POR ap- allegiance. And this practice has been warranted by the decree of the council of I rent decreed, that all biſhops and paſtors, who the third Lateran council under pope Alexander III. and by the have the cure of ſouls, do diligently inſtruct their flocks, that it is fourth Lateran council under pope Innocent III. though it is con- good and profitable humbly to pray unto the ſaints, and to have trary to the expreſs language of Scripture, to the doctrine and con recourſe to their prayers, help, and aid; for which practice no duct of the apoſtles and primitive fathers, and to the confeſſions ſcripture command or example, nor any teſtimony within the firſt and practice of the ancient biſhops of Rome, and altogether in three hundred years after Chriſt, can be pleaded; the worſhip of conliſtent with the rights of government and the welfare of ſociety: ſacred Relics, by which they underſtand not only the bodies and Farther, the doctrine of the ſeven facraments is a peculiar and parts of the bodies of the ſaints, but any of thoſe things that diſtinguiſhing doctrine of the church of Rome : theſe are baptiſm, pertained to them, and which they touched; and the celebration of confirmation, the euchariſt, penance, extreme unction, orders, and divine ſervice in an unknown tongue, to which purpoſe the council matrimony. The council of Trent; (feff. 7, can. 1) pronounces of Trent hath denounced an anathema on any one who ſhall ſay, an anathema on thoſe who ſay, that the ſacraments are more or that maſs ought to be celebrated only in the vulgar tongue. Self . fewer than ſeven, or that any one of the above number is not truly 25. and feff. 22. can. 9. Though the council of Lateran under and properly a facrament. And yet it does not appear that they | Innocent III. in 1215. (can. 9.) had expreſsly decreed, that, be. amounted to this number before the twelfth century, when Hugo cauſe in many parts, within the ſame city and dioceſe, there are de St. Victore and Peter Lombard, about the year 1144, taught, many people of different manners and rights mixed together, but that there were ſeven facraments. The conncil of Florence, held of one faith, the biſhops of ſuch cities or dioceſe ſhould provide in 1438, was the firſt council that determined this number. Theſe fit men for celebrating divine offices, according to the diverſity of ſacraments confer graces, according to the decree of the council of tongues and rites, and for adminiſtering the facraments. We Trent (ſect. 7. can. 8.) ex opere operato, or by the mere admini ſhall only add, that the church of Rome maintains, that unwritten ftration of them; three of them, viz. baptiſm, confirmation, and traditions ought to be added to the holy ſcriptures, in order to ſup- orders, are ſaid (can. 9.) to impreſs an indelible character, fo that ply their defect, and regarded as of equal authority; that the books they cannot be repeated without facrilege ; and the efficacy of every of the APOCRYPHA are canonical fcripture; that the Vulgate ſacrament depends on the intention of the prieſt by whom it is edition of the Bible is to be deemed as authentic ; and that the adminiſtered (can. 11.) Pope Pius expreſsly enjoins, that all theſe Scriptures are to be received and interpreted according to that fenfe ſacraments ſhould be adminiſtered according to the received and which the holy mother church, to whom it belongs to judge of approved rites of the catholic church. With regard to the euchariſt the true ſenſe, hath held, and doth hold, and according to the in particular, we may here obſerve, that the church of Rome holds unanimous conſent of the fathers. Seff. 4. the doctrine of TRANSUBSTANTIATION; the neceſſity of paying Such are the principal and diſtinguiſhing do&trines of popery, divine worſhip to the conſecrated bread, or host; the propitia- | moſt of which have received the ſanction of the council of Trent; tory facrifice of the mass, according to the ideas of which Chriſt and that of the creed of pope Pius IV. which is received, pro- is truly and properly put to death as a ſacrifice, as often as the prieſt feffed, and ſworn to by every one, who enters into holy orders in ſays maſs; and folitary MASS, in which the prieſt alone, who con the church of Rome; and at the cloſe of this creed, we are told, fecrates, communicates, and allows COMMUNION only in one that the faith contained in it is fo abſolutely and indiſpenſably kind, viz. the bread, to the laity. Seſl. 14. The doctrine of neceſſary, that no man can be faved without it. Hardouin's Coun- Merits is another diſtinguiſhing tenet of popery; with regard to cil. tom. x. p. I-211. which the council of Trent has expreſly decreed (feff. 6. can. 32.) POPULATION, the ſtate of a country with reſpect to the that the good works of juſtified perſons are truly meritorious ; de number of people. See on this ſubject the Syſtem of Annuities, ferving not only an increaſe of grace, but eternal life, and an in and the articles MARRIAGE and MORTALITY. creaſe of glory, and it has anathematized all who deny this doc PORCELAIN, a fine kind of earthen ware, chiefly manu- trine. Of the ſame kind is the doctrine of ſatisfactions ; which factured in China, and thence called China-ware. All earthen fuppoſes that penitents may truly ſatisfy, by the afflictions they wares which are white and ſemi-tranfparent are generally called endure under the diſpenſations of providence, or by voluntary porcelains · but among theſe, ſo great differences may be obſerved, penances to which they ſubmit, for the temporal penalties of ſin, that, notwithſtanding the ſimilarity of their external appearance, to which they are ſubject, even after the remiſſion of their eternal they cannot be conſidered as matters of the ſame kind. Theſe puniſhment. Sell. 6. can. 30. and feff. 14, can. 8 & 9. In this In this differences are fo evident, that even perſons who are not con- connection we may mention the popiſh diſtinction of venial and noiſſeurs in this way much prefer the porcelain of ſome countries mortal fins: the greateſt evils arifing from the former are the tem to that of others. The art of making porcelain is one of thoſe in porary pains of purgatory; but no man, it is ſaid, can obtain the which Europe has been excelled by oriental nations. The firſt pardon of the latter without confeffion to a prieſt, and performing porcelain that was ſeen in Europe was brought from Japan and the penances which he impoſes. China. The whiteneſs, tranſparency, fineneſs, neatneſs, elegance, The council of Trent (feff. 14. can. 1.) has expreſsly decreed, and even the magnificence of this pottery, which ſoon became the that every one is accurſed who ſhall affirm, that peNANCE is not ornament of ſumptuous tables, did not fail to excite the admiration truly and properly a ſacrament inſtituted by Chriſt in the univerſal and induſtry of Europeans; and their attempts have ſucceeded ſo church, for reconciling thoſe Chriſtians to the divine majeſty, who well, that in different parts of Europe, earthen wares have been made have fallen into ſin after baptiſm : and this facrament, it is declared, ſo like the oriental, that they have acquired the name of porcelain. conſiſts of two parts, the matter and the form : the matter is the The firſt European porcelains were made in Saxony and in France; act of the penitent, including contrition, confeſſion, and ſatisfac- and afterwards in England, Germany, and Italy: but as all theſe tion; the form of it is the act of abſolution on the part of the prieſt. were different from the Japaneſe, ſo each of them had its peculiar Accordingly, it is enjoined, that it is the duty of every man, who character. The illuſtrious Reaumur firſt attended to the manu- hath fallen after baptiſm, to confeſs his fins, once a year at leaſt, facture of porcelain as a ſcience, and communicated his reſearches to a prieſt ; that this confeſſion is to be ſecret; for public confeſſion in two memoirs before the Academy of Sciences in 1727 and 1729. is neither commanded nor expedient; and that it muſt be exact He did not ſatisfy himſelf with conſidering the external appearance, and particular, including every kind and act of fin, with all the the painting and gilding, which are only ornaments not eſſential to circumſtances attending it. When the penitent has ſo done, the the porcelain, but he endeavoured to examine it internally: and prieſt pronounces an abſolution, which is not conditional or decla- having broken pieces of the Japaneſe, Saxon, and French rative only, but abſolute and judicial. This ſecret, or auricular lains, he examined the difference of their grains (which name is confeffion, was firſt decreed and eſtabliſhed in the fourth council given to their internal ſtructure). The grain of the Japaneſe of Lateran, under Innocent III. in 1215, (cap. 21.) And the de porcelain appeared to him to be fine, cloſe, compact, moderately cree of this council was afterwards confirmed and enlarged in the ſmooth, and ſomewhat ſhining. The grain of the Saxon porce- council of Florence, and in that of Trent, which ordains, that lain was found to be ſtill more compact, not granulous, ſmooth, confeſſion was inſtituted by Chriſt; that by the law of God it is ſhining like enamel. Laſtly, the porcelain of St. Cloud had a neceſſary to ſalvation; and that it has been always practiſed in the grain much leſs cloſe and fine than that of Japan; not, or but litle Chriſtian church. As for the penances impoſed on the penitent, ihining; and reſembling the grain of ſugar. Although, ſince by way of ſatisfaction, they have been commonly the repetition of Mr. Reaumur, no ſcientific perſon has written concerning porce- certain forms of devotion, as PATER-NOSTERS, or A VE-MARIAS, lain, many have attempted to make it. Manufactories have been the payment of ſtipulated fums, pilgrimages, faſts, or various fpe-eſtabliſhed in almoſt all the ſtates of Europe. Beſides that of Saxony, eies of corporal diſcipline. But the moſt formidable penance in the which has been long eſtabliſhed, porcelain is alſo made at Vienna, eſtimation of many, who have belonged to the Romiſh communion, at Frankendal, and lately in the neighbourhood of Berlin. All theſe has been the temporary pains of PURGATORY. But under all the But under all the German porcelains are ſimilar to the Saxon; and are made of penalties which are inflicted or threatened in the Romiſh church, materials of the ſame kind, although they differ ſomewhat from it has provided relief by its INDULGENCES, and prayers or maſſes each other. England and Italy alſo have their porcelains, the chief for the dead; performed profeſſedly for relieving and reſcuing the of which are thoſe of Worceſter, and of Naples. Mr. de la Con- fouls that are detained in purgatory. Seff. 25. Another article damine, in his laſt journey into Italy, viſited a manufacture of that has been long authoritatively enjoined and obſerved by the porcelain eſtabliſhed at Florence by the marquis de la Ginori, then church of Rome, is the celibacy of her clergy. governor of Leghorn, Mr. de la Condamine obſerved particularly To the doctrines and practices above recited may be farther added the large ſize of ſome pieces of this porcelain. He ſays he law the worſhip of IMAGES: to juſtify which, the papiſts often leave ftatues and groupes half as large as nature, modelled from ſome of the ſecond commandment out of their catechiſms (ſee DECA the fineſt antiques. The furnaces in which the porcelain was LOGUE): the invocation of faints and angels, with reſpect to which baked were conſtructed with much art, and lined with bricks made porce- of POR POR nace. of the porcelain materials. The paſte of this porcelain is very | by artiſts a fritt; which is nothing elſe than a mixture of ſand or beautiful; and from the grain of broken pieces it appears to have of powdered flints, with ſalts capable of diſpoſing them to fuſion, all the qualities of the belt Chineſe porcelain. A whiter glazing and of giving them a great whiteneſs by means of a ſufficient heat. would be deſirable, which they might probably attain, if the This fritt is to be then mixed with as much, and no more, of a Marquis Ginori was not determined to uſe thoſe materials only white tenaceous earth of an argillaceous or marly nature, than is which were found in that country. But in no ſtate of Europe ſufficient to make it capable of being worked upon the wheel. The have fuch attempts been made to diſcover porcelain, or ſo many whole mixture is to be well ground together in a mill, and made manufactories of it been eſtabliſhed, as in France. Before even into a palte, which is to be formed, either upon the wheel or in Mr. Reaumur had publiſhed on this ſubject, porcelain was made moulds, into pieces of ſuch forms as are required. at St. Cloud, and in the ſuburb of St. Antoine at Paris, which Each of theſe pieces when dry, is to be put into a caſe made of was of the vitreous and fuſible kind, but conſiderably beautiful. earthen ware; the caſes are called by Engliſh potters ſeggars. Since that time, conſiderable manufactories of it have been eſta They are generally formed of coarſer clays, but which muſt be bliſhed at Chantilly, at Villeroi, and at Orleans ; the porcelains alſo capable of fuſtaining the heat required without fuſion. By of which have a diſtinguiſhed merit. But the porcelain produced means of theſe caſes, the contained porcelain is preſerved from in the late king's manufacture at Sevres holds at preſent the firſt the ſmoke of the burning fuel. The whiteneſs of the porcelain de- rank, from its Thining white, its beautiful glazing, and coloured pends much on their compactneſs of texture by which the ſmoke grounds, in which no porcelain has ever equalled it. The magni is excluded, and on the purity of the clay of which they are made. ficence of the gilding, the regularity and elegance of its forms, ſur The caſes are to be ranged in piles one upon another, in a fur- paſs every thing of the kind. nace or kiln, which is to be filled with theſe to the roof. The We ſhall now ſhew what thoſe qualities are which conſtitute furnaces are chambers or cavities of various forms and ſizes; and the perfection of porcelain. We muſt firſt carefully diſtinguiſh are fo diſpoſed, that their fire-place is placed on the outſide oppo- the qualities which only contribute to the beauty and external ap ſite to one or more openings, which communicate within the fur- pearance, from the intrinſic and eſſential properties in which the The flame of the fuel is drawn within the furnace, the air goodneſs and ſolidity of porcelain confift. All perſons who have of which rarefying, determines a current of air from without in- made experiments in this way have ſoon diſcovered the poſſibility wards, as in all furnaces. At firſt a very little fire is made, that of making compounds very white, beautifully ſemi-tranſparent, the furnace may be heated gradually, and is to be increaſed more and covered with a ſhining glazing; but which cannot be worked and more till the porcelain is baked, that is, till it has acquiredits for want of tenacity, are not ſufficiently compact, are eſſentially proper hardneſs and tranſparency: which is known by taking out fuſible, are ſubject to break by ſudden application of heat and cold; of the furnace from time to time, and examining ſmall pieces of and laſtly, the glazing of which cracks, becomes rough, and con porcelain, placed for that purpoſe in caſes which have lateral open- fequently loſes its luſtre by uſe, becauſe it is too ſoft. On the other ings. When theſe pieces ſhew that the porcelain is ſufficiently fide, we ſhall alſo find it not difficult to compoſe very tenacious baked, the firſt is no longer to be ſupplied with fuel, the furnace is paſtes, which ſhall be capable of being eaſily worked and well to be cooled, and the porcelain taken out, which in this ſtate re- baked, which in the baking ſhall acquire the deſirable hardneſs ſembles white marble, not having a ſhining ſurface, which is after- and denſity: which are infuſible, and capable of ſuſtaining very wards to be given by covering them with a vitreous compofition well the ſudden change of heat and cold; and, in a word, which called the glazing. ſhall have all the qualities of the moſt excellent porcelain, ex The porcelain when baked and not glazed is called biſcuit, cepting whiteneſs and beauty. We ſhall ſoon ſee that the ma which is more or leſs beautiful according to the nature of the por- terials fit for the compoſition of ſuch porcelains may be found celain. The manufacture of Sevres excels all others in this re- abundantly in every country. The only difficulty, then, in this ſpect, and it is therefore the only one which can produce very fine inquiry concerning porcelain, is, to unite beauty and goodneſs in ſpecies of ſculpture; that is, in which all the fineneſs of the work. one compoſition; and indeed nature ſeems to be very ſparing of manthip is preſerved, and which are preferable in ſmoothneſs and materials fit for this purpoſe, and therefore perfect percelain will whiteneſs to the fineſt marble of Italy. As no piece of ſculpture always be a dear and valuable commodity. Thoſe potteries which of this kind can preſerve all the delicacy of its workmanſhip when we callſtone-ware are not of modern invention, and have all the covered with a glazing; and as ſculptors avoid poliſhing their mar- eſſential qualities of the beſt Japaneſe. For if we except whiteneſs, ble figures, becauſe the luſtre of the poliſh is diſadvantageous ; on which alone the ſemi-tranſparency depends, and compare all therefore, in the manufactures at Sevres, all figures, or little ſta- the properties of Japaneſe porcelain with thoſe of our ſtone-ware, tues, and even ſome ornamental vaſes, are left in the ſtate of bil- no difference can be found betwixt them. The ſame grain appears cuit. The other pieces of porcelain are to be glazed in the follow- internally in both, the ſame ſound is produced by ſtriking them ing manner. A glaſs is firſt to be compoſed ſuited to the nature of when properly ſuſpended; the ſame denſity, the ſame hardneſs by the porcelain to which it is to be applied; for every glaſs is not which they ſtrike fire with ſteel, the ſame faculty of ſuſtaining the fit for this purpoſe. We frequently find that a glaſs which makes heat of boiling liquors without breaking, and the ſame unfuſibility a fine glazing for one porcelain thall make a very bad glazing for in fire, are obſervable. Laſtly, if the earths of which ſtone-ware another porcelain ; ſhall crack in many places, ſhall have no luf- is made were free from heterogeneous colouring matters, which tre, or ſhall contain bubbles. The glazing then muſt be appro- prevent their whiteneſs and ſemi-tranſparency; if veſſels were care priated to each porcelain, that is, to the hardneſs and denſity of the fully formed; if all the proper attentions were given: and if theſe ware, and to the ingredients of its compoſition, &c. veſſels were covered over with a fine glazing; they would be as Theſe glazings are prepared by previouſly fuſing together all the perfect porcelain as that of Japan. The moſt perfect porcelain, ſubſtances of which they conſiſt, ſo as to form vitreous maſſes. therefore, is nothing elſe than a fine white ſtone-ware. Earths of Theſe maſſes are to be ground very finely in a mill. This vitre- this kind are probably more rare in Europe than in Japan, and ous powder is to be mixed with a ſufficient quantity of water, or China. And probably alſo the want of theſe earths was the cauſe other proper liquor, ſo that the mixture ſhall have the conſiſtence that the firſt makers of porcelain in this country confined them of cream of milk. The pieces of porcelain are to be covered with felves to an external imitation, by employing nothing but vitrifiable a thin ſtratum of this matter : and when very dry they are to be matters with fuſible ſalts and a ſmall quantity of white earth, from again put into the furnace in the ſame manner as before for the which fuſible and vitreous porcelains were compoſed, which might forming of the biſcuit, and to be continued there till the glazing be called falſe porcelains. But things are much changed ſince theſe be well fuſed. The neceſſary degree of fire for fuſing the glazing firſt attempts. Beſides the diſcoveries of the count de Lauraguais is much leſs than that for baking the paſte. The pieces of porce- and of Mr. Guettard, genuine white porcelains have been made a lain which are intended to rernain white are now finiſhed; but long time ago in Germany, eſpecially in Saxony and at Frankendal. thoſe which are to be painted and gilded muſt undergo further Theſe porcelains are not inferior in any reſpect to the oriental; operations. The colours to be applied are the ſame as thoſe uſed they are even much ſuperior in beauty and whiteneſs to the modern for enamel painting. They all conſiſt of metallic calxes, bruiſed oriental porcelain, which has much degenerated in theſe reſpects; and incorporated with a very fuſible glaſs. Crocus of iron fur- they ſeein even to excel the oriental in the moſt valuable quality of niſhes a red colour; gold precipitated by tin makes the purple and porcelain, namely, the property of ſuſtaining the ſudden change of violet; copper calcined by acids and precipitated by an alkali gives heat and cold. We cannot judge of the quality of porcelain by a green; zaffre makes the blue; earths ſlightly feruginous light trial: for ſo many circumſtances concur to make a piece of produce a yellow; and, laſtly, brown and black colours are pro- porcelain capable or incapable of ſuſtaining the ſudden application duced by calcined iron, together with a deep blue of zaffre. Theſe of heat and of cold, that if at the ſame time boiling water be colours being ground with gum-water, or with oil of ſpike, are to poured into two veſſels, one of which is good porcelain and the be employed for the painting of the porcelain with deſigns of other bad, the former may poſſibly break and the latter remain flowers and other figures. For gilding, a powder or calx of gold entire. The only true method of diſcovering good porcelain in is to be applied in the ſame manner as the coloured enamels. The this reſpect is, to examine ſeveral pieces of it which are daily uſed; painted and gilded porcelains are to be then expoſed to a fire capa: for inſtance, a ſet of coffee cups. But it has been obſerved, that ble of fuſing the glaſs, with which the metallic colours are mixed. in many ſuch pieces of oriental porcelain, which have been long Thus the colours are made to adhere, and at the ſame time acquire and daily uſed, cracks in the direction of their height may be always a glofs equal to that of the glazing. The gold alone has not then perceived, which are never ſeen in the good European porcelains. a ſhining appearance, which muſt be afterwards given to it by We ſhall finiſh this article by giving a ſhort deſcription of the burniſhing with a blood-ſtone. method of manufacturing porcelain. The baſis of the porcelains The operations for the unfuſible porcelains, and alſo for ſuch as which we have called fuſible, vitreous, or falſe porcelains, is called are of the nature of ſtone-ware, are ſomewhat more ſimple. The ſands a fine POR POR fands and ſtones which enter into their compoſition are to be of the hand with a moderate glaſs, after waſhing it well, we per- ground in a mill; the earths or clays are to be waſhed; the mate ceive innumerable little ridges of equal ſize and diſtance running rials are to be well mixed, and formed into a paſte; the pieces are parallel to each other, eſpecially on the tips and joints of the fingers, firſt rudely formed upon a porter's wheel; and when dry, or half &c. where they are regularly diſpoſed into ſpherical triangles, and dry, they are turned again upon the wheel, and their form is made ellipſes. On theſe ridges ſtand the pores, in even rows, big enough more perfeet; they are then placed in the furnace, not to bake to be ſeen by a good eye without a glaſs; but with one, every pore them, but only to apply a ſufficient heat to give them ſuch a ſolidity looks like a little fountain ; and the ſweat may be ſeen to ſtand that they may be handled without breaking, and may receive the therein, clear as rock-water; and as often as it is wiped off, it glazing. As the pieces of porcelain after this Night heat are very ſprings up again. ſprings up again. The pores are placed on the ridges, not in the dry, they imbibe water readily. This diſpoſition affifts the appli- furrows between them; that they might be leſs liable to be ſtopped cation of the glazing. The vitrifiable or vitrified matter of this by compreſſion: for the ſame reaſon, the pores of the hands and glazing, which has been previouſly ground in a mill, is to be mixed feet are larger than the reft, thoſe parts being more uſed, and with ſuch a quantity of water, that the liquor ſhall have the confift- | preſſed than the reſt ; and hence, again, there are no ridges on ence of milk. The pieces of porcelain are haſtily dipt in this li other parts. Theſe pores ſerve as a convenient outlet for the more quor, the water of which they imbibe, and thus on their ſurface is noxious parts of the blood, which, by the continual uſe of the left an uniform covering of the glazing materials. This covering, hands and feet are plentifully brought into them: whence in hy- which ought to be very thin, will ſoon become ſo dry, that it can pochondriac and hyſteric people, there is a continual burning in the not ſtick to the fingers when the pieces are handled. The pieces of palms and ſoles. In the ſtoppage, or conſtriction of the pores of this porcelain are then put into the furnace to be perfectly baked. the ſkin, that diſeaſe which we popularly call a cold, is commonly The heat is to be raiſed to ſuch a height, that all within the fur- ſuppoſed to conſiſt; though Dr. Keill maintains a quite contrary nace thall be white, and the caſes ſhall be undiſtinguiſhable from opinion, in a differtation at the end of his Medicina Statica Bri- the flame. When, by taking out ſmall pieces, the porcelain is tannica. See PERSPIRATION. known to be ſufficiently baked, the fire is diſcontinued, and the fur PORK, the fleſh of ſwine killed for the purpoſes of food. See nace cooled. If the baking has been well performed, the pieces Sus, The hog is the only domeſtic animal that we know of no uſe of porcelain will be found by this ſingle operation to be rendered to man when alive, and therefore ſeems properly deſigned for food. compact, ſonorous, cloſe-grained, moderately gloſſy, and covered Beſides, as loathſome and ugly to every human eye, it is killed externally with a fine glazing. The painting and gilding of this por without reluctance. The Pythagoreans, whether to preſerve health, celain are to be executed in a manner ſimilar to that already deſcribed. or on account of compaſſion, generally forbade the uſe of animal PORCH, in architecture, a kind of veſtibule ſupported by co food; and yet it is alledged that Pythagoras reſerved the uſe of lumns; much uſed at the entrance of the ancient temples, halls, hog's fleſh for himſelf. The Jews, the Egyptians, &c. and others churches, &c. A porch, in the ancient architecture, was a veſti. in the warm countries, and all the Mahometans at preſent, reject bule, or a diſpoſition of inſulated columns uſually crowned with a the uſe of pork. It is difficult to find out the reaſon of this, or of pediment, forming a covert place before the principal door of a the precept given to ſome of them, though commonly ſuch as are temple or court of juſtice. Such is that before the door of St. Paul's, not given without a particular one. The Greeks gave great com- Covent Garden, the work of Inigo Jones. When a porch had mendations to this food; and Galen, though indeed that is ſuf- four columns in front, it was called tetraſtyle ; when fix, hexaſtyle ; pected to be from a particular fondneſs, is every where full of it. when eight, oftoſtyle, &c. The Romans conſidered it as one of their delicacies; and if fome PORCUPINE, in mainmalia, the Engliſh name of the ge- of the inhabitants of the northern climates have taken an averſion nus hyſtrix. For deſcription of the Genus fee Hystrix. For to it, that probably aroſe from the uncultivated ſtate of their coun- repreſentation, ſee Plate VI. Genus 21. try not being able to rear it. Pork is of a very tender ſtructure; in- PORE, formed from topos, aperture or duet, a little interſtice, creaſed perhaps from a peculiarity in its economy, viz. taking on between the particles of matter which conſtitute bodies either empty, fat more readily than any other animal. Pork is a white meat even or filled with ſome inſenſible medium. Condenſation and rarefac in its adult ſtate, and then gives out a jelly in very great quantity. tion are only performed by cloſing and opening the pores. The On account of its little perſpirability and tenderneſs, it is very nu- tranſparency of bodies is uſually ſuppoſed to ariſe from their pores tritious, and was given for that intention to the athletz. With re- being directly oppoſite to one another . The matter of inſenſible gard to its alkaleſcency, no proper experiments have yet been made; perſpiration is conveyed through the pores of the cutis. Sir Iſaac but as it is of a gelatinous and ſucculent nature, it is probably leſs Newton ſhews, that bodies are much more rare and porous than is ſo than many others. Upon the whole, it appears to be a very commonly believed: water, e. gr. is nineteen times lighter, and valuable nutriment, and the reaſon is not very obvious why it was conſequently rarer, than gold: and gold itſelf is ſo rare, as very in ſome countries forbid. It is ſaid that this animal is apt to be dif- readily, and without the leaſt oppoſition, to tranſmit magnetic efflu eaſed; but why were not inconveniencies felt on that account in via, and eaſily to admit quickſilver into its pores, and to let even Greece? Again it has been alledged, that as Paleſtine would not water paſs through it: for a concave ſphere of gold hath, when filled rear theſe animals, and as the Jews had learned the uſe of them in with water, and ſoldered up, upon preſfing with a great force, let the Egypt, it was neceſſary they ſhould have a precept to avoid them. water ſqueeze through it, and ſtand all over its outſide in multitudes But the Egyptians themſelves did not uſe this meat; and this reli- of ſmall drops like dew, without burſting or cracking the gold. gious precept, indeed, as well as many others, ſeems to have been Whence it may be concluded, that gold has more pores than fo borrowed from them. Poſlibly, as pork is not very perſpirable, lid parts; and, by conſequence, that water hath above forty times it might increaſe the leproſy, which was ſaid to be epidemic in more pores than parts. The MAGNET tranſmits its virtues with- Paleſtine; though this is far from being certain. out any diminution or alteration, through all cold bodies that are PORPESSE, an Engliſh name of the Phocæna, a ſpecies of not magnetic: as gold, ſilver, braſs, glaſs, water, &c. The rays the Delphinus. See DELPHINUS. of light, let them be either bodies actually coming to us from the PORTA, or Vena PortÆ, in anatomy, a very conſiderable fun, or only motions or impreſſions upon the medium, move in vein employed in bringing the blood from ſeveral parts, by an in- right lines, and are hardly ever, unleſs by great chance, reflected finite number of branches, which it is divided into, to the liver, back again in the ſame line, after their impingence upon objects: through the whole ſubſtance whereof it is diſſeminated. See the and yet we ſee, that light is tranſmitted to the greateſt diſtances Syſtem, Part IV. Sect. II. through pellucid bodies, and that in right lines. PORTATE, in heraldry. A croſs PORTATe is a croſs which Now how bodies ſhould have pores ſufficient for theſe effects, does not ſtand upright, as croſſes generally do, but lies athwart the may be difficult to conceive, but not impoſſible; for Sir Iſaac ſhews eſcutcheon, in bend, as if it were carried on a man's ſhoulder. that the colours of all bodies ariſe from their particles being of ſuch PORT-GREVE, or PortGRAVE, was anciently the princi- a determinate fize or magnitude. Wherefore, if we conceive pal magiſtrate in ports and other maritime towns. The word is thoſe particles to be ſo diſpoſed, as that there is as much poroſity formed from the Saxon port, a port, or other town, and geref, a go- as there is of matter; and, in like manner, thoſe particles to be vernor. It is ſometimes alſo written port-reve. Camden obſerves, compoſed of others much leſs, and that have as much interſperſed that the chief magiſtrate of London was anciently called port-greve; vacuity, or ſpace, as their quantity of matter amounts to; and ſo inſtead of whom Richard I. ordered two bailiffs; and ſoon after- on, till we come to folid particles without pores: then, if in any wards king John granted them a Mayor for their yearly magiſ- body there be (for inſtance) three of theſe fizes of particles, and trate. The charter of William the Conqueror to the city of Lon- that the laſt be of the ſolid, or leaſt ſort; that body will have ſeven don runs thus: “ William king, grete William biſhop, and Gud- times as much vacuity as ſolid matter: if four ſuch degrees and the frey port greve, and all the burgels within London, French and laſt be leaſt, and ſolid, that body will have fifteen times as much Engliſh. I grant you, that I will that ye be all your law-worth poroſity as folidity; if five ſuch degrees, it will have thirty-one that ye were in Edward's day the king. And I will that each child times as much ſpace as folidity; and if ſix degrees, then it will have be his father's eyer, and I will not ſuffer that ony man you any fixty-three times as much vacuity as folid matter . And perhaps, wrongs breed, and God you keepe.” in the wonderful conformation and fabric of natural bodies, there PORTICO, in architecture, a kind of gallery on the ground; may be other proportions of ſpace to matter, which are to us wholly or a piazza encompaſſed with arches ſupported by columns, where unknown: whence it is poſlible there may be yet farther great people walk under covert. See the Syſtem on the principles of quantities of interſperſed vacuity. the art. Among the modern porticos, the moſt celebrated is the Pores, in anatomy, are certain permeable ſpaces, between the piazza of St. Peter of the Vatican. That of Covent-Garden, parts of the ſkin; whereby we ſweat or perſpire, &c. The pores London, the work of Inigo Jones, is alſo much admired. are moſt remarkable in the hands and feet. By viewing the palm POR- Рот PO W regarded. argument PORTRAIT, POURTRAIT, or POURTRAITURE, in paint | alkaline ſalt, of that kind called the vegetable alkali, obtained from ing, the repreſentation of a perſon, and eſpecially of a face, done moſt vegetables by burning or incineration. The art of reducing from the life. In this ſenſe we ſay, portrait-painting, in Oppo vegetables to this ſtate is a very valuable one ; the ſoap-maker, fition to hiſtory-painting, where all relemblance of perſon is diſ fuller, ſcourer, dyer, and glaſs-man, as well as the chymiſt and apothecary, depending greatly on it in many particulars. The au- POSITION, in aſtronomy. The poſition of the ſphere is either thors who are farther to be conſulted in this caſe, are Glauber, in right, parallel, or oblique; whence ariſe the inequality of our days, his Proſperity of Germany; but the chymical foundation of the difference of ſeaſons, &c. See the Syſtem, Sect. IV. whole appears in Boerhaave's Chymiſtry, and the papers of Stahl Position, in arithmetic. For definitions, rules, and queſtions, on this ſubject. See the Syſtem, Chap. 26. throughout. POTATOE, in botany. Theſe roots came firſt from Ireland POSITIVE Degree, in grammar, is the adjective in its ſimple into Lancaſhire where they are ſtill very much cultivated. It was, fignification, without any compariſon. Thus, good, bonus, fair, however, 40 years after their introduction before they were much pulcher, &c. are in the poſitive degree; better, fairer, &c. in the cultivated about London ; and then they were conſidered as rari- comparative. See the Syitem, Part III. Chap. III. Art. IV. ties, without any conception of the utility that might ariſe from POSSESSION, in law, is either actual , where a perſon actually bringing them into common uſe. enters into lands or tenements deſcended or conveyed to him; or guiſhed from the Spaniſh by the name of Virginia potatoes, or where lands are deſcended to a perſon, and he has not yet entered battatas, which is the Indian name of the Spaniſh fort, into them. A long poſſeſſion is much favoured by the law, as an At a meeting of the Royal Society, March 18th, 1662-3, a letter of right, even though no deed can be ſhown, and it is was read from Mr. Buckland, a Somerſet gentleman, recom- regarded than an ancient deed without poffeffion. If he that mending the planting of potatoes in all parts of the kingdom to is out of poſſeſſion of land brings an action, he muſt prove an un prevent famine. This was referred to a committee ; and, in con- deniable title to it; and when a perſon would recover any thing of fequence of their report, Mr. Buckland had the thanks of the fo- another, it is not fufficient to deſtroy the title of the perſon in pof- ciety; ſuch members as had lands were intreated to plant them, feſſion, without he can prove that his own right is better than his. and Mr. Evelyn was deſired to mention the propoſals at the cloſe In order to make poffeſlion lawful upon an entry, the former poſ of his Sylva. Since that time the plant has been ſo univerſally feffor and his ſervants are to be removed from off the premiſes en cultivated, that it has become a conſiderable part of our food; and tered on: but a perſon by leafe and releaſe, is in poſſeſſion without attempts have even been made to ſubſtitute the potatoe inſtead of making any entry upon the lands. bread, or to make bread from it. See the article BREAD. POSSESSIVÉ Pronouns, in grammar. See the Syſtem, Part I. A correſpondent has favoured us with the following obſervations Chap. I. Sect. II. and Part II. Chap. III. Art. III. on feeding hogs with potatoes. “From an accurate experiment I POSTERIOR, a terın of relation, implying ſomething behind, made lately, I can venture to recommend baked potatoes as an ex- or that comes after another. In which ſenſe it is uſed in oppoſition cellent food for hogs. The pork produced by this food, was equal to prior and anterior. to that from barley and beans: but at preſent I cannot exactly POSTHUMUS, or PosTHUMOUS, compoſed of poft, and aſcertain the comparative experiment with regard to experice; humus, ground, a child born after the death of his father, or taken however, I am of opinion, that roaſted potatoes, conſidering the out of the body of a dead mother. By 10 and 11 Will. III. cap. improvement of the hogs, is as cheap a food, if not cheaper, than 16. it is enacted, that poſthumous children ſhall be capable of can be given them. I roaſted my potatoes upon a kiln, fimilar to taking in REMAINDER, in the ſame manner as if they had been what is uſed by oat-meal ſhellers for drying their oats. The diffe- in their father's life time; that is, the remainder is allowed to veſt rence in expence between boiling and roaiting the potatoes is pro- in them while yet in their mother's womb. digious, both with regard to the labour and fuel. A kiln that will POSTULATE, in mathematics, &c. is deſcribed to be ſuch an coſt 31. will roaſt potatoes fufficient for the maintenance of more eaſy and ſelf-evident ſuppoſition, as needs no explication or illuſ than 20 hogs; and one man will beſtow all the neceffary attendance tration to render it intelligible ; as that a right line may be drawn upon them, and do other work beſides. The action of the fire, from one point to another. by diſſipating the crude juices that are contained in raw potatoes, POSTURE, in painting and ſculpture, the ſituation of a figure reduces them into a ſtate highly wholeſome and nutritious. Boiling with regard to the eye, and of the ſeveral principal members thereof does this in part, but not ſo effectually. A potatoe roaſted in the with regard to one another, whereby its action is expreſſed. A manner above deſcribed, partakes much of the nature of a chefnut, conſiderable part of the art of a painter, conſiſts in adjuſting the and perhaps is not greatly inferior to it. There is one remarkable poſtures ; in giving the moſt agreeable ones to his figures, in ac property of a potatoe, that when planted in water, it ſhoots out commodating them to the characters of the reſpective figures and a great number of fine white roots like threads into the water; the part each has in the action, and in conducting and purſuing but on none of them is there to be found the leaſt appearance of a them throughout. Poſtures are either natural or artificial. Na bulb; while on the other hand, the potatoes in that cafe always tural poſtures are ſuch as nature ſeems to have had a view to in the grow on the top." For the neweſt and moſt approved methods mechaniſm in the body, or rather ſuch as the ordinary actions and of cultivating potatoes, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE; occaſions of life lead us to exhibit while young, and while the joints, Sect. XIII. muſcles, ligaments, &c. are flexible. Artificial poſtures are thoſe POTENT, or POTENCE, in heraldy, a term for a kind of a which ſome extraordinary views, or ſtudies, occaſion us to learn ; croſs, whoſe ends all terminate like the head of a crutch. as thoſe of dancing, fencing, &c. Such alſo are thoſe of our ba POTENTIAL, in grammar, gives the denomination to one of lance and poſture-maſters. the moods of verbs. The potential mood is the fame, in form, A painter would be ſtrangely puzzled with the figure of Clark (a with the ſubjunctive ; but differs from it in this, that it hath al- late famous poſture-maſter in London) in a hiſtory-piece. This ways implied in it, either poſum, volo, or debeo ; as roget, that is, man we are told in the Phil. Tranſ, had ſuch an abſolute command rogare poteſt, the man may aſk. See the Syſtem, Part II. Chap. III. of his muſcles, &c. that he could disjoint almoſt his whole body; Art, V. ſo that he impoſed on the great ſurgeon Mullens, who looked upon POTTERY, the art of making earthen pots and veſſels; or him in ſuch a miſerable condition, he would not undertake his the manufacture of earthen ware. All kinds of pottery in general cure. Though a well-made man, he would appear with all the are made of clays or argillaceous earths; becauſe thele earths are deformities imaginable; hunch-backed, pot-bellied, ſharp-breaſted, capable of being kneaded, of eaſily receiving any forms, and of ac- &c. He disjointed his arms, ſhoulders, legs, and thighs; and quiring much folidity and hardneſs by expoſure to the fire. rendered himſelf ſuch an object of pity, that he has frequently ex POWDER, in pharmacy, a dry medicine well broken, either torted money, in quality of a cripple, from the ſame company in in a mortar by grinding, or by ſome chymical operation. which he had the minute before been in quality of a comrade. Gun-Powder. See Gun-Powder. He would make his hips ſtand a conſiderable way out from his POWER, potentia, in phyſics, a natural faculty of doing or Joins, and ſo high as to invade the place of his back. Yet his ſuffering any thing. Mr. Locke explains the origin of our idea of face was the moſt changeable part about him, and ſhewed more power to the following effect; the mind being daily informed, by poſtures than all the reſt. Of himſelf he could exhibit all the un the ſenſe of the alterations of the ſimple ideas of things without, couth faces of a Quaker's meeting, and reflecting on what paſſes within itſelf, and obſerving a con- POT-ASHES are properly the lixivious aſhes of certain vegeta ſtant change of its ideas, ſometimes by the impreſſions of outward tables, uſed in the making of glaſs and ſoap. Such are the aſhes of objects upon the ſenſes, and ſometimes by the determinations of its the herb kali, called alſo ſalt-wort, glaſs weed, &c. from its great own choice; and concluding, from what it has fo conſtantly oba uſe in glaſs making. Pot-aſhes are alſo called cineres clavellati, ſerved to have been, that the like changes will for the future be and make the baſis of ſalt of tartar, and moſt of the lixivial ſalts, made in the ſame things, by the ſame agents, and by the like ways; as our chymiſts ſometimes manage them for cheapneſs. The Eng- conſiders, in one thing, the poſſibility of having any of its ſimple lih and Dutch make a conſiderable commerce of pat-aſhes, which ideas changed; and in another, the poſſibility of making that they bring from about the Black Sea; uſing great quantities thereof change; and ſo comes by that idea which we call power. Thus in the preparation of their cloths, &c. thoſe alhes being found we ſay, fire has a power to melt gold, and make it fluid; and gold excellent for ſcouring. has a power to be melted. Power, thus confidered, is twofold; POT-ASHES is alſo a denomination popularly applied to all kinds viz, as able to make, or able to receive, any change; the one may of wood aſhes bought in all parts of the country, and mixed toge- be called active, the other paſive power. Of paljive power, all ther, for the making of green glaſs: or more generally denotes an ſenſible things abundantly furniſh us with ideas; nor have we of Ggg active N° 131. PRA. PRE PREBEND. active power fewer inſtances; ſince whatever change is obſerved, in words. Ejaculatory, which is a ſhort, ſudden flight, without the mind muſt ſuppoſe a power ſomewhere able to make that ſtudy, order, or method, Myſtic divines, again, diſtinguiſh prayer, change. into active and PASSIVE. Among us, prayer is moſt frequently Power, in mechanics, denotes a force, which being applied to conſidered under the diviſions of preconceived and extemporary. a machine, tends to produce motion; whether it does actually pro Under the firſt come all ſet forms, whether public or private, by duce it or noi. See the Syſtem, Sect. III. which the mind is directed in the order, manner, expreſſion, &c. POX, in medicine, a diſeaſe, under which name there are ſe of its petitions. The ſecond is that where the mind is left to itſelf, veral kinds; as ſmall-pox, French-pox, chicken-pox, ſwine-pex,&c. its own conduct, both as to matter, manner, words, &e. The Small Pox, variola, is a contagious diſeaſe appearing on the Romaniſts alſo prefer prayers to faints; the Virgin, the angel Ga- ſurface of the ſkin, which it covers with puſtules, or ulcerous briel, &c. See SAINT. eruptions, that leave eſchars behind them. Or, it is a general PREBEND, præbenda, the portion which a prebendary receives eruption of particular puſtules tending to ſuppuration, and attend for his maintenance out of the eſtate of a cathedral, or collegiate ed with a fever. For deſcription, cauſes, prognoſis and cure, fee church. The term prebend is uſually confounded with canonicaie, the Syſtem, Genus 26. or canonica; yet there is a real difference. A prebend is properly a Chicken Pox, a cutaneous diſeaſe frequent in children, wherein right which an eccleſiaſtic has in a cathedral or collegiate church, the ſkin is covered with puſtules, like thoſe of the ſmall-pox, as where he officiates, to receive certain ecclefiaftical revenues, and to figure and magnitude; and only diſtinguiſhable therefrom, in to enjoy certain dues, either in money or in kind. that thoſe of the ſmall pox appear with a redneſs and inflammation, Prebends, are either ſimple, or with dignity. The latter are ſuch and thoſe of the chicken pox whiter, reſembling veſiculæ full of a as, beſide their prebends, have ſome juriſdiction annexed to them. ferous humour; which, in three days time, burſt, and dry away No perſon may hold more than one prebend in the ſame church; without any danger, and uſually without any fever. See the Syl and if a prebendary accepteth of a deanry, his prebend is void by tem of MEDICINE, Genus 27. ceſſion, the acceptance of a deanry being underſtood to be in the French Pox, a contagious diſeaſe, contracted by a poiſonous hu fame church. So if he is made a biſhop, the king preſents to his mour, uſually in coition: and manifeſting itſelf in ulcers and pains. prebend. For deſcription, prognoſis and cure, ſee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, PREBENDARY, præbendarius, an ecclefiaftic who enjoys a The difference between a prebendary and a canon PRACTICE, in arithmetic, PRACTICA Italica, or Italian is, that the former receives his portion or prebend in conſideration , uſages, certain compendious ways of working the rule of propor of his officiating and ſerving in the church; but the latter without uon, or golden rule; eſpecially where the firſt term is 1, or unity. any ſuch conſideration, merely by his being received into the They were thus called from their expediting of practice, and cathedral or college. buſineſs; and becauſe firſt introduced by the merchants and nego PRECEDENCE, PrecedENCY, or PrÆCEDENCY, a place tiants of Italy. For a full account of the different methods uſed of honour which a perſon is entitled to. With regard to the order in this branch, ſee the Syſtem, under the Article Rule of of precedency, it may be obſerved in general, that perſons of every PRACTICE. degree of honour or dignity take place according to the ſeniority PRAGMATIC Sanktion, in the civil law, is defined, by Hot of their creation and not of years, unleſs they are deſcended of the toman, a refcript or anſwer of the ſovereign ; delivered, by advice royal blood; in which caſe they have place of all others of the of his council, to ſome college, order, or body of people, upon fame degree. Precedency is either of courteſy, or de jure, of right. their conſulting him in ſome caſe of their community. The word The former is that which is due to age, or eſtate, &c. which is is formed from the Greek w porylice, negotium, buſineſs. It is ſome regulated by cuſtom and civility. For further particulars, ſee the times called abſolutely, pragmatic, to APARTinov. The like anſwer cloſe of the ſyſtem of PEERAGE. given to any particular perſon is called ſimply reſcript, re PRECIPITANT, præcipitans, in chymiſtry, a term applied to fcriptum. The term pragmatic fanction is chiefly uſed among the any liquor, which, being poured on a diffolution, feparates what modern writers, for that famous ordonnance of Charles VII. of is there diffolved, and makes it precipitate, i. e. fall to the bottom France, drawn up at Bourges, with the conſent of the moſt emi of the veſſel. Thus oil of tartar, and the volatile ſpirit of ſal am- nent prelates and grandees of the nation aſſembled at that place, moniac, are precipitants with regard to the diſſolution of gold in and publiſhed in 1438, containing a regulation of ecclefiaftical aqua regalis; and common water is a precipitant with regard to the diſcipline, conformable to the canons of the council by Baſil; and diffolution of jalap in ſpirit of wine. ſince uſed by the Gallican church, as a barrier againſt the enter PRECIPITANT is alſo uſed in medicine for a remedy which ſe- prizes and encroachments of the church of Rome. parates and precipitates any heterogeneous matter contained in the The ſcope of the pragmatic ſanction, which conſiſted of twenty maſs of blood; and by this means abates any irregular fermenta- three articles, was to regulate the forın of elections made by the tions, efferveſcences, or the like diſorders, which the matter has clergy, to reſtore to every church its privilege of chuſing its biſhop, excited. Among the number of precipitants are ranked hartſhorn, and to every monaſtery that of electing its abbot or crier; to declare crabs eyes, ivory, bezoard, barks of oak and guaiacum, iron, quin- the collations to belong to ordinaries, the prevention alone reſerved quina, chalk, &c. to eſtabliſh prebends; to aſſign a third of the benefices to gradu PRECIPITATION, præcipitatio, a proceſs in chymiſtry,which ates; and to aboliſh reſervations, annates, and other like grie- in its moſt extenſive ſenſe, is applicable to all chymical decompo- vances. The pragmatic of St. Lewis in 1268, conſiſting of ſix ar fitions made by an intermediate ſubſtance; or, to all operations in ticles, was ſimilar to this in its chief deſign. The edict of Bourges which two bodies are diſunited by employing a third body, which in 1438, was drawn up in concert with the fathers of the coun has the property of uniting with one of theſe, and thereby of ſepa- cil of Bafil, and the articles it contains were taken from the decrees rating the other; ſo that every precipitation is effected by means of of that council; though they were admitted by the Gallican church the AFFINITY of a precipitant, much ſtronger than that of a pre- with certain modifications, which the nature of the times and the cipitate with the ſubſtance from which it is ſeparated. In a more manners of the nation rendered expedient. See this edict publiſhed confined ſenſe, precipitation is a kind of ſeparation, whereby a body, at large in Hard. Concil. tom. viii. p. 1949. diſſolved and ſuſpended in any menſtruous liquor, is detached there- Pope Pius II. obtained an abrogation of this ſanction from Louis from, and falls down to the bottom of the veſſel. Precipitation is XI. on which occaſion the court of Rome, tranſported with joy, either ſpontaneous or artificial. dragged the pragmatic through the ſtreets, whipping it all the way, PRECIPITATION, in aſſaying, is the ſeparation of any part of as Xerxes anciently did the Helleſpont: and the king obtained for a compound body, while melting in the fire, or when cooling from himſelf and his ſucceſſors the title of Moft-Chriſtian. But the par- fuſion, from the reſt of the maſs, in ſuch manner that it finks to liament oppoſed this abrogation with a great deal of vigour, and the bottom, while the remainder continues at top and makes the refuſed its conſent to the laſt. Lewis alſo perceiving that he had ſurface. The heavy part thus precipitated from the reſt, is called been deluded into this meaſure by the treacherous inſinuations of the regulus of that body. Geoffroy, biſhop of Arras, whom the pope had bribed with a car PRECISION, in oratory, denotes ſuch a brevity as conſiſts in dinal's сар, , and large promiſes of a lucrative kind, took no ſort of faying nothing fuperfluous, and omitting nothing that is neceſſary. pains to have it executed, but publiſhed, on the contrary, new In this fenfe it is oppoſed to a tedious prolixity on the one hand, ediets againſt the pecuniary pretenſions and extortions of the court and an obſcure conciſeneſs on the other. See the Syſtem, Part III. of Rome. So that, in ſpite of all the efforts of Rome, the ſanction Sect. II. Art. IV. ſtil held in force, till the concordat held between pope Leo X. PREDESTINARIAN, a perſon who adheres to the doctrine and Francis I. in 1517, when the pragmatic fanciion was aboliſhed, of abfolute predeſtination. St. Auguſtin is looked on as the founder and the king was inveſted with the privilege of nominating to of the feet of Predeftinarians, he being the firſt of the fathers that biſhoprics and vacant benefices. The parliament of Paris again ſeems to have aſſerted the doctrine in ſuch expreſs terms; though oppoſed the innovation, and refufed to confirm the concordat; the JANSENISTs and other fees are ſtill greatly divided about the real and was not brought to give its conſent at laſt, till after repeated doctrine of St. Auguſtin, in this article, each interpreting him con- orders of the king; together with a ſecret reſolution taken always fiftently with their own ſcheme. Father Sirmond contends for an to judge conformably to the tenor of the pragmatic faction. ancient feet of Predeſtinarians, contemporary with St. Auguſtin PRAYER, in theology, a petition put up to God, either for the himſelf, and who had their riſe in Africa, in the monaſtery of Ad- obtaining ſome future favour, or the returning of thanks for a paſt rumetum, from a miſunderſtanding of St. Auguſtin's doctrine, one. Divines diſtinguiſh three kinds of prayer: Vocal, which is Hence they were led into a notion, that God not only predeſtinated clothed in words and ſounds to be uttered with the mouth. Mental the wicked to eternal puniſhment, but alſo to the guilt and tranſ- which is only formed or conceived, in the mind, and not delivered greffion for which they are puniſhed: and that thus both the good and PRE PRE and bad actions of all men were determined from eternity by a di- | preach it down as a moſt dangerous doctrine; the Janſeniſts affert vine decree, and fixed by an inevitable neceſſity. It is added, that it as an article of faith; the Arminians, Remonſtrants, and Pela- the opinion ſpread thence throughout the Gauls, where one of them, | gians are all avowed enemies of predeſtination. Thoſe ftrenuous a prieſt named Lucidus, was condemned by Fauſtus, biſhop of patrons of Janſeniſm the Portroyaliſts, teach, that God predeſtinates Rheggio, and his ſentence was confirmed by two councils. How thoſe who he foreſees will co-operate with his grace to the end. ever, the exiſtence of this Predeſtinarian ſect has been denied by Du Pin adds, that men do not fall into ſin becauſe not predeſti- many learned men, particularly the preſident Mauguin, and con nated; but they are not predeſtinated, becauſe God foreſaw their fidered as an invention of the SEMIPELAGIANS, deſigned to decry ſins. See ELECTION and REPROBATION. the followers of Auguſtin, by attributing to him unjuſtly this dan PREDESTINATION is alſo uſed for a concatenation of ſecond gerous and pernicious error. Nor does it appear, though there cauſes appointed by Providence; in virtue whereof things are might have been perſons who embraced the Predeſtinarian opinion, brought to paſs by a fatal neceffity, contrary to all appearances, that the abettors of them ever formed themſelves into a ſect. The and in ſpite of all oppoſition. See Fate and Necessity. The doctrine was again broached in the ninth century, by Godeſchal. | Turks are great Predeftinarians; they eſteem the ſlighteſt accident cus, a Benedictine; who, as Hincmar, in a letter to pope Nicolas, predetermined, and on this account are much more daring in battle, ſays, maintained with the ancient Predeſtinarians, who had been and run greater riſks of their lives than they would otherwiſe do. already anathematized, that God predeſtinated ſome to eternal life, PREDESTINATION, in general ſignifies a decree of God, where- and others to eternal death; that God did not will all people to be by, from all eternity, he ordained ſuch a concatenation of cauſes faved; that Jeſus Chriſt did not die for all, but only the elect, or as muſt produce every event by a kind of fatal neceſſity, and mau. thoſe that are ſaved, &c. This doctrine was again condemned in gre all oppoſition. a fynod held at Mentz, A. D. 848, and by a council at Quiercy, The Scotifts urge that all natural cauſes are of their own nature A. D. 849, in conſequence of which Godeſchalcus was treated determined to a certain action; whence it ſhould ſeem needleſs to with the utmoſt barbarity, and compelled to burn with his own call in a new predetermination of God, e. gr. to fire, to make it hands the juſtification of his opinion, which he had preſented to warm the hand. For if an object be, by the courſe of divine Pro- the council at Mentz. He was then caſt into priſon, where he vidence, applied to fire; what need a ſecond application of the fire died in the year 868 or 869, maintaining with his laſt breath the to make it warm the object applied thereto ? ſince beings are not doctrine for which he had ſuffered. to be multiplied unneceſſarily. And ſuch predetermination fomë The controverſy was revived in the fixteenth century by Calvin, philoſophers hold ſtill leſs requiſite to produce the acts of the will; who maintained that the everlaſting condition of mankind in a fu at leaſt, ſay they, the human mind muſt be allowed the common ture world, was determined from all eternity; and that God, in power and privilege of a ſecond cauſe, and therefore be entitled to predeſtinating from all eternity one part of mankind to everlaſting produce its own acts, as well as other ftrictly natural agents. happineſs, and another to endleſs miſery, was led to make that PREDICATE, prædicatum, in logic, that part of a propoſition diflinction by no other motive than his own good pleaſure and free which affirms or denies ſomething of the ſubject. Thus, in God will. This opinion was, in a very ſhort time, propagated through made the world; made the world is the predicate, and God is the all the reformed churches, by the writings of Calvin, and by the ſubject. See the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. II. miniſtry of his diſciples, and, in ſome places, was inſerted in the PREDICTION, predictio, divination, prophecy or foretelling national creeds and confeſſions; and thus made a public article of what is to come, either by divine revelation, by art and human in- faith. The unhappy controverſy, which took its riſe from this vention, or by conjecture. See DIVINATION and PROPHECY. doctrine, was opened at Straſburgh, in the year 1560, by Jerome PRE-EXISTENCE, a priority of being, or the being of one Zanchius, an Italian eccleſiaſtic, who was particularly attached thing before another. Thus a cauſe, if not in time, is yet in na- to the ſentiments of Calvin, and carried on in a manner that con ture pre-exiſtent to its effect. Thus God is pre-exiſtent to the tributed very much to exaſperate the paſſions and foment the diſ univerſe. Thus a human father is pre-exiſtent to his ſon. The cord of the contending parties. The Predeſtinarian opinions have Peripatetics, though they maintained the eternity of the world, been maintained by conſiderable numbers, both in popiſh and pro were likewiſe dogmatical in their opinion, that the univerſe was teſtant countries : and in our own country in particular, they have produced, actuated, and governed, by a ſovereign intelligence. Em- had many zealous advocates. We ſhall here obſerve, that they barraſſed, however, with the difficulty, that cauſation ſeemed to have undergone a kind of relaxation by thoſe who have been de- imply previous exiſtence, as no being could operate either produc- nominated Baxterians, from the famous non-conformiſt miniſter, tion or change upon another till its own exiſtence and powers of Mr. Richard Baxter, of the laſt century. The Baxterians have operation had firſt been realized, theſe profound and accurate phi- endeavoured to ſtrike into a middle path between Calviniſm and loſophers exerted all their ſubtilty and learning to obviate an objec- Arminianiſm, and to unite both theſe ſchemes. They profeſs to tion ſo formidable. Thus, in order to extricate their fyftem, they believe in the doctrines of election, effectual calling, and other te had recourſe to a diſtinction which equally thewed the extent of nets of Calviniſm; and conſequently ſuppoſe that a certain num their genius and the depth of their erudition. They diſtinguiſhed ber determined upon in the divine counſels, will infallibly be ſaved. between priority in nature and priority in time. It is impoſſible, This they think neceſſary to ſecure the ends of Chriſt's interpofi- ſay they, to conceive the exiſtence of the ſun, for one indiviſible tion. But then, on the other hand, they reject the doctrine of re inſtant prior to his emiſſion of rays. When a ſeal is ſtamped upon probation, and admit, that our bleſſed Lord, in a certain ſenſe, wax, the impreſſion muſt be ftrily and coexiſtent with the im- died for all; and that ſuch a portion of grace is allotted to every pulſe; thus the emanent act or exertion of Deity in producing, man, as renders it his own fault if he doth not attain to eternal moving, and ſuperintending the univerſe, muſt be one continued happineſs. If he improves the common grace given to all man and unſucceſſive energy. It is unneceſſary to enter into the depth kind, this will be followed by that ſpecial grace which will end in or minutiæ of this controverſy, ſince we are aſſured by the beſt of his final acceptance and ſalvation. Whether the Baxterians are of all authorities, that the world was created in time, from whence opinion, that any, beſides the ele&, will actually make ſuch a it follows, that even in the courſe of duration the exiſtence of God right uſe of common grace, as to obtain the other, and, at length, muſt have been anterior to that of his works. The difficulty come to heaven, we cannot aſſuredly ſay. There may poſſibly be urged by them, and by other ſceptical philoſophers, that at what- a difference of ſentiment upon the ſubject, according as they ap- ever period of duration creative power began to be exerted, it muſt proach nearer to Calviniſm or Arminianiſm. Kippis's Ed. of the have paſſed an eternity prior to that point in ſupine indolence and Biog. Brit. art. Baxter. inactivity ; though not to be ſolved by human reaſon, is yet leſs PREDESTINATION, predeſtinatio, in theology, a judgment, fortnidable, becauſe more eaſily conceivable, than the eternal or decree of God, whereby he has reſolved, from all eternity, to ſave coexiſtence of an effect with its cauſe. Previous to that diltin. a certain number of perſons, hence called elect or chofen. Others guiſhed æra in endleſs duration, when nature at the Almighty fiat define predeſtination, a decree to give faith in Jefus Chriſt to a cer emerged from nothing, we are entirely ignorant of the motives (if tain number of men, and to leave the reſt to their own malice and may be ſo expreſſed) which might prediſpoſe infinite wiſdom, hardneſs of heart, who being left in a ſtate of impenitence, are power, and goodneſs, then, and not till then, to exert themſelves ſaid to be reprobated. According to the Calviniſtical ſcheme, the in creating. But ſince, from all that we ſee of the divine energy reaſon of God's predeſtinating ſome to everlaſting life is not founded and adminiſtration, nothing appears to be done without a ſufficient in a foreſight of their faith and obedience, conſidered as independ- reaſon, we have the beſt grounds to conclude that the ſame conduct ent upon any communication of grace from him, but it is to be re- prevails in thoſe divine exertions, whoſe nature, manner, and ad- ferred to his ſovereign mercy and free grace; nevertheleſs it is alſo juncts are abſolutely incomprehenſible by our limited powers, maintained on this ſcheme, that the means are decreed as well as It is evident, that the Divine Nature, rich in its eternal and in- the end, and that God purpoſes to fave none but ſuch as by his dependent all-ſufficiency, could never feel any neceſſity which might grace he ſhall prepare for ſalvation by ſanctification. be redreſſed or gratified by the exiſtence or homage of external na- The Remonftrants define predeſtination more laxly, and generally, ture. The univerſe therefore muſt be formed for itſelf alone, and the decree of ſaving believers, and damning unbelievers. Some re- could only be the glorious reſult of unconitrained wiſdom and vo- preſent the election and predeſtination ſpoken of in Scripture, as re luntary goodneſs. Beſides there is no ſeries of deductions more lative only to nations, and not to particular perſons. The greateſt natural and congenial to the human mind, than to conclude, that difficulties wherewith the modern theology is clogged, turn on the what is eternal muſt be unproduced: That if it was produced, there article of predeſtination: nothing has occaſioned more diſputes than muſt have been a period when it did not exiſt : if it was not pro- this thorny ſubject, both the Romiſh and reformed churches are duced it muſt be independent: if independent it muſt be ſelf-ex- divided about it; the Lutherans ſpeak of it with horror; the Cal- iſtent; and if ſelf-exiſtent, it muſt be from eternity to eternity in- viniſts contend' for it with the greateſt zeal; the Moliniſts veſted with powers fufficient for the maintenance and regulation of it PRE PRE of its own exiſtence : ſo that not caly the neceſſiry, but perhaps tion, ſhould admit gratuitous or conſequential evil, ſeems to us its even the poſſibility of a fupreme Agent and wife Superintendant, reconcileable with the attributes and conduct of a wiſe and juſt acting upon nature, and animating or controlling her operations, is legiflator. Conſequential evil taken as ſuch, is miſery fuſtained upon this hypotheſis entirely ſuperſeded. But from the beauty, fym without demerit ; and cannot reſult from the procedure of wiſdom, metry, and order, of nature, and from the number of final cauſes benignity and juſtice; but muſt flow from neceſſity, from igno- purſued in her progreſs and accompliſhed in its reſults, Ariſtotle and rance, from cruelty, or from caprice, as its only poflible ſources. his followers were too wiſe not to perceive, and too ingenuous, not But even upon the ſuppofition of thoſe who pretend that man was to acknowledge, the facred veftiges, the confpicuous interpoſitions, mature in all his faculties before the commiſſion of original fin, of infinite wiſdom, power, and goodneſs; hence his notion of an the objections againſt it will ſtill remain in full force. For it is ad eternal world, though generally admitted among the ſages of anti mitted by all, except the Samian ſage, that the conſciouſneſs of quity, was an incompatible or ſelf-deſtructive opinion. The ob perſonal identity which was felt in pre-exiſtence, is obliterated in jections which have already been mentioned againſt a temporary a ſubſequent ſtate of being, creation might perhaps be obviated, if not annihilated, were it our Now it may be demanded, whether agents thus reſuſcited for preſent buſineſs to enter deeply into the nature of ſpace and time, puniſhment have not the ſame right to murmur and complain ag But this diſquiſition requires a boldneſs and abſtraction of thought, if they had been perfectly innocent, and only created for that in which we might probably be followed by few, and reliſhed by dreadful cataſtrophe? It is upon this principle alone that the fewer readers. Such, however, as have courage, fagacity, and per effects of puniſhment can be either exemplary, or diſciplinary; feverance to penetrate and purſue their intricacies to their uitimate for how is it poſſible, that the puniſhment of beings unconſcious of concluſions, will find their inveſtigation cheered and enlightened a crime, ſhould ever be reconciled either to the juſtice or benefi- by the philoſophical eſſays of Dr. Iſaac Watts, and by the cheva cence of that intention with which their ſufferings are inflicted? lier Ramſay's principles of natural and revealed religion. Veracity or how can others be ſuppoſed to become wife and virtuous by likewiſe obliges us to add, that the ſpeculations of Mr. Hume on the example of thoſe who are neither acquainted with the origin this abftrufe and arduous ſubject, had a greater tendency to diffi nor the tendency of their miſeries, but have every reaſon to think pate its gloom than that philoſopher himſelf could imagine. The themſelves afflicted merely for the ſake of afflicting. To us it pre-exiſtence of the human ſoul to its corporeal vehicle had been ſeems clear, that the nature and rationale of original ſin lie inſcru- from time immemorial a prevailing opinion among the Aſiatic tibly retired in the boſom of Providence; nor can we, without fages, and from them was perhaps transferred by Pythagoras to the unpardonable preſumption and arrogance, form the moſt ſimple philoſophy of the Greeks; but his metempſichoſis, or tranſmigra- concluſion, or attempt the minuteſt diſcovery, either different from tion of fouls, is too trivial to be ſeriouſly propoſed or refuted. Ne or extraneous to the clear and obvious ſenſe of revelation. This vertheleſs, from the ſentiments of Socrates concerning the immor. ſenſe indeed may with propriety be extracted from the whole, or tality of the ſoul, delivered in his laſt interview with his friends, it from one paſſage collated with another ; but independent of it, as is obvious that the tenet of pre-exiſtence was a doctrine of the Pla reaſon has no premiſſes, ſhe can form no deductions. The bold- tonic ſchool. If at any period of life, ſay theſe philoſophers, you neſs and temerity of philofophy, not ſatisfied with contemplating ſhould examine a boy; of how many ideas, of what a number of pre-exiſtence as merely relative to human nature, has dared to try principles, of what an extent of knowledge, will you find him how far it was compatible with the glorious Perſons of the facred poſſeſſed! theſe, without doubt, could neither be ſelf-derived nor Trinity. The Arians, who allowed the ſubordinate divinity of recently acquired. With what avidity and promptitude does he our Saviour, believed him pre-exiſtent to all time, and before all attain the knowledge of arts and ſciences, which appear entirely worlds; but the Socinians, who eſteemed his nature as well as his new to him! theſe rapid and ſucceſsful advances in knowledge perſon merely human, inſiſted that before his incarnation he was can only be the effects of reminiſcence, or of a fainter and more in- only pre-exiſtent in the divine idea, not in nature or perſon. But diſtinct fpecies of recollection. But in all the other operations of when it is conſidered, that children do not begin to deduce ir. memory, we find retroſpective impreſſions attending every object ſtructions from nature and experience, at a period ſo late as we are or idea which emerges to her view; nor does ſhe ever ſuggeſt any apt to imagine; when it is admitted, that their progreſs, though thought, word, or action, without informing us, in a manner inſenſible, may be much more rapid than we apprehend; when equally clear and evident, that thoſe impreſſions have been made the opportunities of ſenſe, the ardour of curioſity, the avidity of upon our ſenſes, mind, or intellect, on ſome former occaſion. memory, and the activity of underſtanding, are remarked; we Whoever contemplates her progreſs, will eaſily diſcover, that aſſo need not have recourſe to a pre-exiſted ſtate for our account of the ciation is her molt faithful and efficacious auxiliary; and that by knowledge which young minds diſcover. It may likewiſe be added, joining impreſſion with impreſſion, idea with idea, circumſtance that moral agents can only be improved and cultivated by moral with circumſtance, in the order of time, of place, of ſimilarity or diſcipline. Such effects therefore of any ſtate, whether happy or diffimilarity, ſhe is capacited to accumulate her treaſures and en miſerable, as merely mechanical, may be noxious or falutary to large her province even to an indefinite extent. But when intui the patient, but can never enter into any moral economy as parts tive principles, or ſimple concluſions, are elicited from the puerile of its own adminiftration. Pre-exiſtence, therefore, whether re- underſtanding, by a train of eaſy queſtions properly arranged; warded or puniſhed without the continued impreſſion of perſonal where is the retroſpective act of memory, by which the boy recog- identity, affords no folution of original fin. niſes thoſe truths as have formerly been perceived in his mind ? PRÉFACE, præfacio, formed from pre and fari; q. d. to ſpeak where are the crowds of concomitant, antecedent, or ſubſequent before, an advertiſement in the beginning of a book, to inform the ideas, with which thoſe recollections ought naturally to have been reader of the deſign, order, method, &c. obſerved therein ; of what attended ? In a word, where is the ſenſe of perſonal identity, is neceſſary to receive its full effect, and facilitate the underſtand- which ſeems abſolutely infeparable from every act of memory? ing thereof. There is no part of writing that requires more art and This hypotheſis, therefore, will not ſupport pre-exiſtence. After addreſs, or that fewer authors ſucceed in, than prefaces. Prefacing the Chriſtian religion had been conſiderably diffuſed, and warmly is, in effect, a particular ſpecies of writing, and has its peculiar combated by its philoſophical antagoniſts, the ſame doctrine was character and taſte to diſtinguiſh it from all others. It is neither reſumed and taught at Alexandria by Platonic profelytes, not only argumentation, diſcourſe, narration, nor apology. as a topic conſtituent of their maſter's philoſophy, but as an anſwer PREGNANCY, the ſtate of a woman when the has conceived, to thoſe formidable objections which had been deduced from the or is with child. The ſame ſtate with a view to the bearing of the doctrine of original ſin, and from the vices which ſtain, and from child in the womb, is called geſtation. For a particular account of the the calamities which diſturb, human life: hence they ſtrenuouſly diſorders incidental to pregnant women, and the methods of treating aſſerted, that all the human race were either introduced to being them, ſee Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, Part II. Sect. I. II. and III. prior to Adam, or pre-exiſtent in his perſon; that they were not PREJUDICE, præjudicium, a falſe notion or opinion of any therefore repreſented by our firſt parents, but actually concurred thing conceived without a due previous examination thereof. Pre- in their crime, and participated their ruin. judice, q. d. pre-judgment, does not import a judgment merely as The followers of Origen, and ſuch as entertained the notion of prior to another in reſpect of time, but as being prior thereto in pre-Adamites, might argue from the doctrine of pre-exiſtence reſpect to knowledge, or of ſufficient attention to the thing; the with ſome degree of plauſibility. For the human beings introduced prepoſition pre expreſſing an anticipation, not ſo much of time, by them to the theatre of probation, had already attained the capa as of knowledge and due attention. city or dignity of moral agents; as their crime therefore was volun PRELATĚ, from prælatus, of præ, before, and fero, I bear, carry, tary, their puniſhment might be juſt. But thoſe who believe the an eccleſiaſtical ſuperior, raiſed to ſome eminent and ſuperior dig. whole human race created in Adam to be only pre-exiſtent in nity of the church. Patriarchs, primates, archbiſhops, biſhops, gene- their germs or ſtamina, were even deprived of this miſerable ſub rals of religious orders, certain crofiered and mitred abbots, and even terfuge; for in theſe homunculi we can neither ſuppoſe the moral deans and archdeacons, are ranked among the number of prelates. nor rational conſtitution unfolded. Since, therefore, their degene PRELATE of the Garter, is the firſt officer of that noble order, racy was not ſpontaneous, neither could their ſufferings be equi and is as ancient as the inſtitution itſelf. William de Edynton, table. Should it be ſaid that the evil of original fin was penal, as then biſhop of Wincheſter, was the firſt prelate at the erection of extended to our firſt parents alone, and merely confequential as the order; and it has been continued in that ſee ever ſince. It is felt by their pofterity, it will be admitted that the diſtinction be an office of great honour, but has neither ſalary nor fees; only a tween penal and conſequential evil may be intelligible in human convenient lodging allowed in Windſor-caſtle; and as oft as the affairs, where other laws, affortments, and combinations than thoſe prelate comes thither (by the fovereign's command), he is to have which are ſimply and purely moral, take place. But that a moral court-livery allowed for himſelf and ſervants. See KNIGHTS of government, at one of the moſt cardinal periods of its adminiſtra the GARTER. PRE, PRE PRE part old Syſtem, Part III. Sect. IV. PRELIMINARY, or PRÆLIMINARY, formed from præ, be of ſpeech or diſcourſe. The prepoſition is an undeclinable particle, fore, and limen, threſhold, ſomething to be examined, diſpatched or which yet ſerves to govern the nouns that follow it. Such are, per, determined, before an affair can be treated of thoroughly, and to pro, propter, in, with, through, from, by, &c. They are called pre- purpoſe. Preliminaries of peace generally take up the greateſt poſitions, becauſe præpoſite, placed before the nouns they govern. of treaties. They conſiſt in examining of powers, qualities See the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. IV. Sect. IV. of princes, ranks of ambaſſors, &c. PREPUCE, PRÆPUTIUM, in anatomy, the foreſkin; a pro. PREMISES, Premisses, præmiſſe, in logic, the two firſt pro- longation of the cutis of the penis, covering the glans or extremity poſitions of a ſyllogiſm. When a fyllogiſm is in form, the two of the yard. See the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. IV. premiſes being granted, the concluſion cannot be denied. See the Dr. Drake obſerves, that nature does not ſeem more various in any part of her works than in the prepuce ; for the figure and pro- PREMIUM, or PRÆMIUM, literally denotes a reward or re portion whereof there does not ſeem any ſtandard. Hence, probably, compence. Among merchants it is taken for that ſum of money ; aroſe the neceſſity of circumciſion, ſo generally practiſed through- viz. 8 or 10 per cent. &c. which is given to an inſurer, for inſuring out the oriental parts of the world: not out of a view to religion, the ſafe return of any ſhip or merchandize. but to cleanlineſs, and to prevent diſeaſes, which a detention of the PREMIUM is alſo uſed in the money and paper-trade for what mucus of the ſubpreputiul glans might breed in thoſe hot countries. is given for a thing above par. Thus, lottery-tickets, &c. are ſaid For even here, the ſame author adds, he has known ſome, who to bear ſo much, e. gr. 10 or 20s. premium, when they are ſold having large prepuces, called filbert-prepuces, have been frightened for ſo much beyond the prime coſt, at which the government iſſued at the appearance of a mucus ouſing out upon a mere plenitude them. from between the prepuce and the glans; which, it is probable, PREPARATION, in chymiſtry and pharmacy, is applied to the great legiſlator of the Jews might have a view to in the firſt the ſeveral manners of managing the materia medica, and of dif inſtitution of circumciſion. The ſkin of the prepuce is double; at poſing it to ſerve the ſeveral purpoſes. There are various prepa- the connection of the internal ſkin, to the other part, are ſeveral Fations of mercury, antimony, and other drugs, to purify them, oval and roundiſh glandules placed irregularly about the joining of fublime, calcine, edulcorate, &c. the glans to the corpora cavernoſa, and on the glans itſelf. Their PREPARATIONS, in anatomy, the parts of animal bodies pre uſe is to ſeparate a liquor to render the agitation of the prepuce on pared and preſerved for anatomical uſes. The manner of preſerving the glans eaſy. When this liquor becomes rancid, as upon anatomical preparations, is either by drying them thoroughly in the age, or venereal contra&ts, it excoriates the glans and prepuce; and air, or putting them into a proper liquor. In drying parts which even ſometimes contracts the latter, and renders it neceſſary to be are thick, when the weather is warm, care muſt be taken to pre divided, to afford a paſſage to the glans. See PHIMOSIS, and vent putrefaction, fly-blows, inſects, &c. This is eaſily done by PARAPHIMOSIS. the uſe of a ſolution of corroſive ſublimate in ſpirit of wine, in PREROGATIVE, prærogativa, a privilege, or pre-eminence, the proportion of two drams of ſublimate to a pound of ſpirit: which one perſon has over another. the part ſhould be moiſtened with this liquor as it dries, and by this Royal PREROGATIVE, that ſpecial pre-eminence which the method the body of a child may be kept ſafe even in ſummer. king hath over and above all other perſons, and out of the ordinary Dried preparations are apt to crack and moulder away in keeping; courſe of the common law, in right of his regal dignity. It figni- to prevent this their ſurface ſhould be covered with a thick varniſh; fies in its etymology (from pre and rogo) fomething that is required repeated as often as occaſion requires. Though ſeveral parts pre or demarded before, or in preference to all others. And hence it pared dry are uſeful, yet others muſt be ſo managed as to be always follows, that it muſt be in its nature ſingular and eccentrical; that flexible, and nearer a natural ſtate. The difficulty has been to find it can only be applied to thoſe rights and capacities which the king a proper liquor for this purpoſe. Dr. Monro ſays, the beſt he enjoys alone in contradiſtinction to others, and not to thoſe which knows is a well rectified colourleſs fpirit of wine, to which is added he enjoys in common with any of his ſubjects: for if once any one a ſmall quantity of the ſpirit of vitriol or nitre. When theſe are prerogative of the crown could be held in common with the ſub- properly mixed, they neither change their colour nor the conſift-ject, it would ceaſe to be a prerogative any longer. And therefore ence of the parts, except where there are ferous or mucous liquors Finch lays it down as a maxim, that the prerogative is that law in contained in them. The brain, even of a young child, in this caſe of the king, which is law in no caſe of the ſubject. 0 mixture, grows ſo firm as to admit of gentle handling, as do alſo the Prerogatives are either direct or incidental. The dire&t are ſuch vitreous and cryſtalline humours of the eye. The liquor of the poſitive ſubſtantial parts of the royal character and authority, as are febaceous glands and the ſemen are coagulated by this fpirituous rooted in, and ſpring from, the king's political perſon, conſidered mixture; and it heightens the red colour of the injection of the merely by itſelf, without reference to any other extrinſic circum- blood veſſels, ſo that after the part has been in it a little time, ſe ſtance; as, the right of ſending ambaſſadors, of creating peers, veral veſſels appear which were before inviſible. If you will com and of making war or peace. But ſuch prerogatives as are incidental pare theſe effects with what Ruyſch has ſaid of his balſam, you bear always a relation to ſomething elſe, diſtinct from the king's will find the liquor above-mentioned to come very near to it. perſon ; and are indeed only exceptions, in favour of the crown, The proportion of the ſpirits muſt be changed according to the to thoſe general rules that are eſtabliſhed for the reſt of the commu- part prepared. For the brain and humours of the eye, you muſt nity: ſuch as that no coſts ſhall be recovered againſt the king; that put two drams of ſpirit of nitre to one pound of ſpirit of wine. In the king can never be a joint-tenant; and that his debt ſhall be preſerving other parts which are harder, 30 or 40 drops of the acid preferred before a debt of any of his ſubjects. will be ſufficient; a larger quantity will make bones flexible, and Theſe ſubſtantive or direct prerogatives may again be divided even diſſolve them. The part thus preſerved ſhould be always into three kinds: being ſuch as regard, firſt , the king's royal cha- kept covered with the liquor: therefore great care ſhould be taken rafter or dignity; ſecondly, his royal authority or power; and, to ſtop the mouth of the glaſs with a waxed cork and a bladder tied laſtly, his royal income. Theſe are neceſſary, to ſecure reverence over it, to prevent the evaporation of the ſpirit; ſome of which not to his perſon, obedience to his commands, and an afiluent ſupply withſtanding all this care, will fly off; therefore freſh muſt be added for the ordinary expences of government; without all of which as there is occaſion. When the ſpirits change to a dark tincture, it is impoſſible to maintain the executive power in due indepen- which will ſometimes happen, they ſhould be poured off, and freſh dence and vigour. Yet, in every branch of this large and exten- put in their room; but with ſomewhat leſs acid than at firſt. The ſive dominion, our free conſtitution has interpoſed ſuch ſeaſonable glaſſes which contain the preparations ſhould be of the fineſt fort, checks and reſtrictions, as may curb it from trampling on thoſe and pretty thick; for through ſuch the parts may be ſeen very diſ liberties, which it was meant to ſecure and eſtablish. The enor- tinctly, and of a true colour, and the object will be ſo magnified mous weight of prerogative, if left to itſelf (as in arbitrary govern- as to ſhew veſſels in the glaſs which out of it were not to be ſeen. ments it is), ſpreads havoc and deſtruction among all the inferior As the glaſs when filled with the liquor has a certain focus, it is m movements : but, when balanced and bridled (as with us) by its neceſſary to keep the preparation at a proper diſtance from the ſides proper counterpoife timely and judiciouſly applied, its operations of it, which is eaſily done by little ſticks fuitably placed, or by ſuf are then equable and regular; it invigorates the whole machine, pending it by a thread in a proper ſituation. The operator ſhould and enables every part to anſwer the end of its conſtruction. be cautious of putting his fingers in this liquor oftener than is abſo I. Of the royal dignity. Under every monarchical eſtabliſhment, lutely neceſſary; becauſe it brings on a numbneſs on the ſkin, it is neceſſary to diſtinguiſh the prince from his ſubjects, not only which makes the fingers unfit for any nice operation. The beſt by the outward pomp and decorations of majeſty, but alſo by aſcrib- remedy for this is to waſh them in water, mixed with a few drops ing to him certain qualities as inherent in his royal capacity, diſ- of oil of tartar per deliquium.com olisi tinct from and ſuperior to thoſe of any other individual in the na- Dr. Chriſt. Jac. Trew prefers the rectified ſpirit of grain for tion. For though a philoſophical mind will (ſays Sir William preſerving anatomical preparations to fpirit of wine, or to compoſi- Blackſtone) conſider the royal perſon merely as one man appointed tions of alcohol, amber, camphor, &c. becauſe theſe foon change by mutual conſent to preſide over many others, and will pay him into a brown colour, whereas the ſpirit from malt preſerves its that reverence and duty which the principles of ſociety demand; yet limpid appearance. When any part is to be preſerved wet, waſh it the maſs of mankind will be apt to grow inſolent and refractory, with water till it be no more tinctured. The water is next to be if taught to conſider their prince as a man of no greater perfection waſhed with ſpirits, and then the preparation is to be away to be put than themſelves. The law therefore aſcribes to the king, in among ſpirits in a glaſs, the mouth of which is to be cloſely co his high political character, not only large powers and emolu- vered with a glaſs head, over which a wet bladder and leaf-tin are ments, which form his prerogative and revenue, but likewiſe cer- to be tied. Com. Lit. Norimb. 1731, Someft. 1. ſpecim. 9. tain attributes of a great and tranſcendent nature ; by which the PREPOSITION, PRÆPOSITIO, in grammar, one of the parts people are led to conſider him in the light of a ſuperior being, and Hhh N° 131. to PRE PRE to pay him that awful reſpect which may enable him with greater | ment agree with experience, with fact, with precedent, and with eaſe to carry on the buſineſs of government. This is what we Sir William Blackſtone himſelf. And here it is a matter of moſt underſtand by the royal dignity; the ſeveral branches of which we curious ſpeculation, to obſerve a maxim laid down, and which is will now proceed to enumerate. intended for a rule of government, not only without a ſingle caſe 1. And; firſt, the law aſcribes to the king the attribute of fo- in ſupport of it, but with a ſtring of caſes, that may be carried vereignty, or pre-eminency: See SOVEREIGN. back to Egbert the firſt monarch of England, in direct oppoſition 2. “ The law alſo, faccording to Sir William Blackſtone) to the doctrine. Who is the man, that; reading the paſt hiſtory afcribes to the king, in his political capacity, abſolute perfeétion. of this country, will thew us any king that has done no wrong? « The king can do no wrong. Which ancient and furidamental Who is the reader that will not find that all the wrongs and inju- maxim (ſays he) is not to be underſtood as if every thing tranſacted ties which the free conſtitution of the country has hitherto ſuffered, by the government was of courſe juſt and lawful; but means only have been ſolely derived from the arbitrary meaſures of our kings? two things. Firſt, that whatever is exceptionable in the conduct And yet the maſs of mankind are to look upon the king as a ſupe- of public affairs is not to be imputed to the king, nor is he anſwer- rior being; and the maxim, that the king can do no wrong," able for it perſonally to his people: for this doctrine would totally is to remain as an article of belief. But without puſhing this in- deſtroy that conſtitutional independence of the crown which is ne quiry any further, let us ſee what encouragement Sir William ceſſary for the balance of power, in our free and active, and there: Blackſtone himfelf has given us for credulitý. After ſtating the fore compounded, conſtitution. And; fecondly, it means that the maxim, and prefenting us with the moſt lively picture, of our prerogative of the crown extends not to do any injury; it is created fovereign lord thus all perfeet and immortal, what does he make for the benefit of the people, and therefore cannot be exerted to this all perfection and immortality in the end to coine to? His their prejudice.-“ The king, moreover, (he obſerves), is not only words are theſe: “For when king Charles's deluded brother at- incapable of doing wrong, but even of thinking wrong: he can never tempted to enſlave the nation (no wrong this, to be ſure he found mean to do an improper thing: in him is no folly or weakneſs. it was beyond his power: the people both could, and did reſiſt And therefore, if the crown ſhould be induced to grant any fran- him; and in conſequence of ſuch reſiſtance obliged him to quit chiſe or privilege to a ſubject contrary to reaſon, or in any wiſe his enterprize and his throne together." prejudicial to the commonwealth or a private perſon, the law will The ſum of all is this: That the Crown of England and the not ſuppoſe the king to have meant either an unwiſe or an injurious King of England are diſtinguiſhable, and not fynonimous terms: action, but declares that the king was deceived in his grant; and that allegiance is due to the crown, and through the crown to the thereupon ſuch grant is rendered void, merely upon the foundation king: that the attributes of the crown are ſovereignty, perfection, of fraud and deception, either by or upon thoſe agents whom the and perpetuity; but that it does not therefore follow, that the king crown has thought proper to employ. For the law will not caſt an can do no wrong. It is indeed to be admitted, that in high reſpect imputation on that magiſtrate whom it entruſts with the executive for the crown, high reſpect is alſo due to the wearer of that crown; power, as if he was capable of intentionally diſregarding his truſt: that is, to the king: but the crown is to be preferred to the king, but attributes to mere impoſition (to which the moſt perfect of ſub for the firſt veneration is due to the conſtitution, It is likewiſe to lunary beings muſt ſtill continue liable) thoſe little inadvertencies, be ſuppoſed, that the king will do no wrong, and as, to prevent this, which, if charged on the will of the prince, might leſſen him in the a privy council is appointed by the conſtitution to aſſiſt the king eyes of his ſubjects.” in the execution of the government; ſo if any wrong be done, But this doctrine has been expoſed as ridiculous and abſurd, by theſe men,' as Monteſquieu expreſſes it may be examined and Lord. Abingdon, in his late Dedication to the collective body of the puniſhed. Except the parliament, which is the great council of people of England. “ Let us ſee (ſays he) how theſe maxims and the nation, the judges and the peers, who being the hereditary coun- their comments agree with the conſtitution, with nature, with rea ſellors of the crown, have not only a right, but are bound in foro fon, with common ſenſe, with experience, with fact, with pre-confcientia, to adviſe the king for the public good, the conſtitution cedent, and with Sir William Blackſtone himſelf; and whether, knows of no other counſel than the privy council. Any other by the application of theſe rules of evidence thereto, it will not be council, like Clifford, Arlington, Buckinghamn, Aſhley, Lauder- found, that (from the want of attention to that inportant line of dale, is, as the initial letters of theſe names expreſs, a CABAL, diſtinction which the conſtitution has drawn between the king of and as ſuch ſhould be ſuppreſſed. Nat. Bacon, ſpeaking of the loſs England and the crown of England) what was attributed to the of power in the grand council of lords, ſays, “ The ſenſe of ſtate monarchy has not been given to the monarch, what meant for the once contracted into a privy council, is foon recontracted into a kingſhip conveyed to the king, what deſigned for the thing trans cabinet-council, and laſt of all into a favourite or two; which ferred to the perſon, what intended for theory applied to practice; many times brings damage to the public, and both themſelves and and ſo in conſequence, that whilſt the premiſes (of the perfection kings into extreme precipices; partly for want of maturity, but prin- of the monarchy) be true, the concluſion (that the king can do no cipally through the providence of God over-ruling irregular courſes wrong) be not falſe. to the hurt of ſuch as walk in them.” Pol. Diſc. part 2. page 201. « And firſt, in reference to the conſtitution : to which if this « But if any future king ſhall think to ſcreen theſe evil counſel- matter be applied (meaning what it expreſſes, and if it do not, it lors from the juſt vengeance of the people by becoming his own is unworthy of notice) it is ſubverſive of a principle in the conſti- | miniſter; and, in ſo doing, ſhall take for his fanction the attribute tution, upon which the preſervation of the conſtitution depends ; I of perfection, ſhall truſt to the deception of his being a ſuperior being, mean the principle of reſiſtance: a principle which, whilſt no man and cloak himſelf under the maxim that the king can do no wrong; will now venture to gainſay, Sir William Blackſtone himſelf ad- I ſay, in ſuch a caſe, let the appeal already made to the conſtitution, mits, “ is juſtifiable to the perſon of the prince, when the being of to nature, to reaſon, to common ſenſe, to experience, to fact, to the ſtate is endangered, and the public voice proclaims ſuch reſiſt precedent, and to Sir William Blackſtone himſelf, ſuffice; and ance neceſſary; and thus, by ſuch admiſſion, both diſproves the preclude the neceſſity of any further remarks from me.” For ex- maxim, and overſets his own comment thereupon: for to ſay that perience, fact, and precedent, ſee the reigns of king John, Henry " the king can do no wrong,” and that “ he is incapable even of III. Edward II. Richard II. Char. I. and James II. See alſo thinking wrong,” and then to admit that « reſiſtance to his perfon Mirror of Juſtices; where it is ſaid, “ that this grand aſſembly is juſtifiable,” are ſuch jarring contradictions in themſelves, that (meaning the now parliament, or then Wittena-gemotte) is to until reconciled, the neceſſity of argument is ſuſpended. confer on the government of God's people, how they may be kept « With reſpect then, in the next place, to the agreement of this from fin, live in quiet, and have right done them, according to maxim, and its comment, with nature, with reaſon, and with the cuſtoms and laws; and more eſpecially of wrong done by the king, common ſenfe, I ſhould have thought myſelf ſufficiently juſtified in queen, or their children:" to which Nat. Bacon adds this note; appealing to every man's own reflection for decition, if I had not “At this time the king might do wrong, &c. and ſo fay Bracton been made to underſtand that nature, reaſon, and common ſenſe, and Fleta of the kings in their time.” Diſc. part 1. page 37. had had nothing to do with either. Sir William Blackſtone ſays, Lond. 1739. That though a philoſophical mind will confider the royal perſon To proceed now to other particulars: Blackſtone obſerves, the merely as one man appointed by mutual conſent to preſide over law determines, that in the king can be no negligence, or laches ; others, and will pay him that reverence and duty which the princi- and therefore no delay will bar his right. Nullum tempus occurrit ples of ſociety demand, yet the maſs of mankind will be apt to regi, is the ſtanding maxim upon all occafions : for the law intends grow inſolent and refractory if taught to conſider their prince as a that the king is always bufied for the public good, and therefore man of no greater perfection than themſelves; and therefore the has not leiſure to affert his right within the times limited to ſubjects. law aſcribes to the king, in his high political character, certain at In the king alſo can be no ſtain or corruption of blood: for if the tributes of a great and tranſcendent nature, by which the people are heir to the crown were attainted of treaſon or felony, and after- led to conſider him in the light of a ſuperior being, and to pay him wards the crown fhould deſcend to him, this would purge the at- that awful reſpect which may enable him with greater eaſe to carry tainder ipſo facto. And therefore, when Henry VII. who as earl on the buſineſs of government.' So that, in order to govern with of Richmond ſtood attainted, came to the crown, it was not thought greater eaſe, (which by the bye is mere aſſertion without any proof) neceſſary to paſs an act of parliament to reverſe this attainder; be- it is neceſſary to deceive the maſs of mankind, by making them caufe, as lord Bacon in his hiſtory of that prince informs us, it believe, not only what a philoſophical mind cannot believe, but was agreed that the affumption of the crown had at once purged all what it is impoſſible for any mind to believe; and therefore, in the attainders. Neither can the king in judgment of law, as king, inveſtigation of this ſubject, according to Sir William, neither ever be a minor or under age; and therefore his royal grants and nature, reaſon, nor common ſenſe, can have any concern. aſſents to acts of parliament are good, though he has not in his na- 66 It remains to examine in how much this maxim and its com tural capacity attained the legal age of 21. By a ſtatute indeed, 28 Hen. PRE PRE tive part Hen. VIII. c. 17. power was given to future kings to reſcind and į forms of the conſtitution. And yet, forms of the conſtitution. And yet, if the conſequence of that revoke all acts of parliament that ſhould be made while they were exertion be manifeſtly to the grievance or diſhonour of the king- under the age of : 24: but this was repealed by the ſtatute i Edw. dom, the parliament will call his adviſers to a juſt and ſevere ac- VI. C. II. ſo far as related to that prince, and both ſtatutes are count. For prerogative conſiſting (as Mr. Locke has well defined declared to be determined by 24 Geo. II. c. 24. It hath alſo been it) in the diſcretionary power of acting for the public good where uſually thought prudent, when the heir apparent has been very the poſitive laws are filent, if that diſcretionary power be abuſed to young, to appoint a protector, guardian, or regent, for a limited the public detriment, ſuch prerogative is exerted in an unconſtitu- time; but the very neceſſity of ſuch extraordinary proviſion is fuffi tional manner. Thus a king may make a treaty with a foreign cient to demonſtrate the truth of that maxim of common law, that ſtate, which ſhall irrevocably bind the nation; and yet, when ſuch in the king is no minority; and therefore he has no legal guardian. treaties have been judged pernicious, impeachments have purſued See REGENT. thoſe miniſters by whoſe agency or advice they were concluded. 3. A third attribute of the king's majeſty is his perpetuity. The The prerogatives of the crown (in the ſenſe under which we are law aſcribes to him, in his political capacity, an abſolute immorta now conſidering them) reſpect either this nation's intercourſe with lity. The king never dies. Henry, Edward, or George, may die: foreign nations, or its own domeſtic government and civil polity. but the king ſurvives them all. For immediately upon the deceaſe With regard to foreign concerns, the king is the delegate or repre- of the reigning prince in his natural capacity, his kingſhip or im ſentative of his people. It is impoſſible that the individuals of a perial dignity, by act of law, without any interregnum or interval, is ftate, in their collective capacity, can tranſact their affairs of that veſted at once in his heir; who is, eo inſtanti, king to all intents ſtate with another community equally numerous as themſelves. and purpoſes. And ſo tender is the law of ſuppoſing even a poſſibi- | Unanimity muſt be wanting to their meaſures, and ſtrength to the lity of his death, that his natural diſſolution is generally called his execution of their counſels. In the king therefore, as in a centre, demiſe ; dimifio regis vel coronce : an expreſſion which fignifies merely all the rays of his people are united, and form by that union a con- a transfer of property; for, as is obſerved in Plowden, when we ſay ſiſtency, ſplendor, and power, that make him feared and reſpected the demiſe of the crown, we mean only, that, in conſequence of by foreign potentates; who would ſcruple to enter into any engage- the diſunion of the king's body-natural from his body-politic, the ment, that muſt afterwards be reviſed and ratified by a popular al- kingdom is transferred or demiſed to his ſucceſſor, and ſo the royal ſembly. What is done by the royal authority, with regard to fo- dignity remains perpetual. Thus too, when Edward the fourth, reign powers, is the act of the whole nation: what is done without in the tenth year of his reign, was driven from his throne for a few the king's concurrence, is the act only of private men. And fo months by the houſe of Lancaſter, this temporary transfer of his far is this point carried by our law, that it hath been held, that ſhould dignity was denominated his demiſe; and all proceſs was held to be all the ſubjects of England make war with a king in league with diſcontinued, as upon a natural death of the king. the king of England, without the royal aſſent, ſuch war is no breach il. We are next to conſider thoſe branches of the royal prero of the league. And, by the ſtatute 2 Hen. V. c. 6. any ſubject gative, which inveſt this our ſovereign lord with a number of au committing acts of hoftility upon any nation in league with the thorities and powers; in the exertion whereof conſiſts the execu king was declared to be guilty of high treaſon: and though that act of government. This is wiſely placed in a ſingle hand by was repealed by the ſtatute 20 Hen VI. c. 11. fo far as relates to the Britiſh conſtitution, for the ſake of unanimity, ſtrength, and the making this offence high treaſon, yet ſtill it remains a very great diſpatch. Were it placed in many hands, it would be ſubject to offence againſt the law of nations, and puniſhable by our laws, many wills: many wills, if diſunited and drawing different ways, either capitally or otherwiſe, according to the circumſtances of create weakneſs in a government; and to unite thoſe ſeveral wills, the caſe. and reduce them to one, is a work of more time and delay than the 1. The king therefore, conſidered as the repreſentative of his exigencies of ſtate will afford. The king of England is therefore people, has the fole power of ſending ambaſſadors to foreign ſtates, not only the chief, but properly the fole, magiſtrate of the nation; and receiving ambaſſadors at home. 2. It is alſo the king's prero- all others acting by commiſſion from, and in due ſubordination to, gative to make treaties, leagues, and alliances, with foreign ſtates him: in like manner, as upon the great revolution in the Roman and princes. For it is, by the law of nations, eſſential to the good- ftate, all the powers of the ancient magiſtracy of the common neſs of a league, that it be made by the ſovereign power; and then wealth were concentred in the new emperor; ſo that, as Gravina it is binding upon the whole community: and in Britain the fove- expreſſes it, in ejus unius perſona veteris rei publicæ vis atque ma reign power quoad hoc, is veſted in the perſon of the king. What- jeſtas per cumulatas magiſtratuum poteftates exprimebatur. ever contracts therefore he engages in, no other power in the king- In the exertion of lawful prerogative the king is held to be abſo dom can legally delay, refift, or annul. And yet, left this plenitude lute; that is, ſo far abſolute, that there is no legal authority that of authority ſhould be abuſed to the detriment of the public, the can either delay or reſiſt him. He may reject what bills, may conftitution (as was hinted before) hath here interpoſed a check, by make what treaties, may coin what money, may create what peers, the means of parliamentary impeachment, for the puniſhment of may pardon what offences, he pleales: unleſs where the conſtitu ſuch miniſters as, from criminal motives, adviſe or conclude any tion hath expreſsly, or by evident conſequence, laid down ſome treaty, which ſhall afterwards be judged to derogate from the honour exception or boundary; declaring that thus far the prerogative ſhall and intereſt of the nation. 3. Upon the ſame principle the king has go and no farther. For otherwiſe the power of the crown would alſo the ſole prerogative of making war and peace. For it is held indeed be but a name and a ſhadow, inſufficient for the ends of by all the writers on the law of nature and nations, that the right government, if, where its juriſdiction is clearly eſtabliſhed and of making war, which by nature fubfifted in every individual, is allowed, any man or body of men were permitted to diſobey it, in given up by all private perſons that enter into ſociety, and is veſted the ordinary courſe of law: we do not now ſpeak of thoſe extraor in the ſovereign power: and this right is given up, not only by dinary recourſes to the firſt principles, which are neceſſary when individuals, but even by the entire body of people that are under the the contracts of ſociety are in danger of diffolution, and the law dominion of a ſovereign. And wherever the right reſides of begin- proves too weak a defence againſt the violence of fraud or oppref- ning a national war, there alſo muſt reſide the right of ending it, fion. And yet the want of attending to this obvious diſtinction or the power of making peace. And the ſame check of parliamen- has occafioned theſe doctrines, of abſolute power in the prince and tary impeachment, for improper or inglorious conduct, in begin- of national reſiſtance by the people, to be much miſunderſtood and ning, conducting, or concluding a national war, is in general perverted, by the advocates for ſlavery on the one hand, and the fufficient to reſtrain the miniſters of the crown from a wanton or demagogues of faction on the other. The former obſerving the The former obſerving the injurious exertion of this great prerogative. abſolute ſovereignty and tranfcendant dominion of the crown laid Theſe are the principal prerogatives of the king reſpecting this down (as it certainly is) moſt ſtrongly and emphatically in our law nation's intercourſe with foreign nations; in all of which he is con- books as well as our homilies, have denied that any caſe can be ex ſidered as the delegate or repreſentative of his people. But in do- cepted from ſo general and polítive a rule ; forgetting how impoſſible meſtic affairs, he is conſidered in a great variety of characters, and it is, in any practical ſyſtem of laws, to point out beforehand thoſe from thence there ariſes an abundant number of other prerogatives. eccentrical remedies, which the ſudden emergencies of national diſ 1°. He is a conſtituent part of the ſupreme legiſlative power ; treſs may dictate, and which that alone can juſtify. On the other and as ſuch, has the prerogative of rejecting ſuch proviſions in par- hand, over-zealous republicans, feeling the abſurdity of unlimited liament, as he judges improper to be paſſed. The expediency of paſſive obedience, have fancifully (or ſometimes factiouſly) gone over which conftitution has before been evinced at large under the article to the other extreme; and, becauſe reſiſtance is juſtifiable to the PARLIAMENT. 2. The king is conſidered, in the next place, as perſon of the prince when the being of the ſtate is endangered, and the generaliſſimo, or the firſt in military command, within the the public voice proclaims ſuch reſiſtance neceſſary, they have there- kingdom. The great end of fociety is to protect the weakneſs of fore allowed to every individual the right of determining this expe individuals by the united ſtrength of the community; and the prin- dience, and of employing private force to reſiſt even private oppref: cipal uſe of government is to direct that united ſtrength in the beſt fion. A doctrine productive of anarchy, and (in conſequence) and moſt effectual manner, to anſwer the end propoſed. Monarchical equally fatal to civil liberty as tyranny itſelf . For civil liberty, government is allowed to be the beſt of any for this purpoſe: it fol- fightly underſtood, confifts in protecting the rights of individuals lows therefore, from the very end of its inſtitution, that in a mo- by the united force of ſociety: fociety cannot be maintained, and of narchy the military power muſt be truſted in the hands of the prince. courſe can exert no protection, without obedience to ſome ſovereign In this capacity, therefore, of general of the kingdom, the king has power ; and obedience is an empty name, if every individual has a the ſole power of raiſing and regulating fleets and armies. The right to decide how far he himſelf ſhall obey. manner in which they are raiſed and regulated, is explained under In the exertion, therefore, of thoſe prerogatives which the law the article treatiſe on Military Affairs. We are now only to con- has given him, the king is irreſiſtible and abſolute, according to the fider the prerogative of enliſting and of governing them : which in- deed PRE PRE every nue. prero- deed was diſputed and claimed, contrary to all reaſon and precedent, chapter therein, reſembles the houſe of commons with its knights by the long parliament of king Charles I. ; but upon the reſtoration of the ſhire and burgeffes. This conſtitution is faid to be owing of his ſon, was folemnly declared by the ſtatute 13 Car. II. c. 6. to the policy of Edward I. who thereby at one and the ſame time to be in the king alone: for that the fole fupreme government and let in the inferior clergy to the privileges of forming eccleſiaſtical command of the militia within all his majeſty's realms and domi canons, (which before they had not), and alſo introduced a me- nions, and of all forces by ſea and land, and of all forts and places thod of taxing eccleſiaſtical benefices, by conſent of convocation. of ſtrength, ever was and is the undoubted right of his Majeſty, and From this prerogative alſo of being the head of the church, ariſes his royal predeceffors, kings and queens of England; and that both the king's right of nomination to vacant biſhoprics, and certain or either houfe of parliament cannot, nor ought to, pretend to other ecclefiaftical preferments. As head of the church, the king the fame. is likewiſe the dernier reſort in all ecclefiaftical cauſes ; an appeal This ſtatute, it is obvious to obſerve, extends not only to fleets lying ultimately to him in chancery from the ſentence of and armies, but alſo to forts and other places within the realm ; the ecclefiaftical judge; which right was reſtored to the crown by fta- fole prerogative, as well of erecting, as manning and governing of tute 25 Hen. Vill. c. 19. which, belongs to the king in his capacity of general of the king III. The king's fiſcal prerogatives, or ſuch as regard his reves dom: and all lands were formerly ſubject to a tax, for building of See the Article REVENUE. caſtles wherever the king thought proper. This was one of the PREROGATIVE Court, an Engliſh court eſtabliſhed for the trial three things, from contributing to the performance of which no of all teſtamentary cauſes, where the deceaſed hath left bona notabilia lands were exempted, and therefore called by the Anglo-Saxons within two different dioceſes. In which caſe the probate of wills the trinoda neceſſitas : ſc. pontis reparatio, arcis conſtructio, et expedi- belongs to the archbiſhop of the province, by way of ſpecial prero- tio contra hoftem. And this they were called upon to do ſo often, gative. And all cauſes relating to the wills, adminiſtrations, or that, as Sir Edward Coke from M. Paris affures us, there were legacies of ſuch perfons, are originally cognizable herein, before in the time of Henry II. 1115 caſtles ſubſiſting in England. The a judge appointed by the archbiſhop, called the judge of the inconveniencies of which, when granted out to private ſubjects, gative court; from whom an appeal lies by ſtatute 25 Hen. VIII. the lordly barons of thoſe times, were ſeverely felt by the whole C. 19. to the king in chancery, inſtead of the pope as forinerly. kingdom; for, as William of Newburgh remarks in the reign of PRESAGE, præfagium, an augury, or ſign of ſomething to king Stephen, erant in Anglia quodammodo tot reges, vel potius ty come. The Romans judged of future events by certain ſigns which ranni, quot domini caftellorum: but it was felt by none more ſen their ſuperſtition, or the artifice of their prieſts had invented. ſibly than by two ſucceeding princes, king John and king Henry | Their moſt celebrated preſages were founded on the flight of birds, III. And therefore the greateſt part of them being demoliſhed in or the entrails of victims. All night-birds paſſed for birds of the barons' wars, the kings of after times have been very cautious ill-preſage. See AUGURY. of ſuffering them to be rebuilt in a fortified manner: and Sir Ed. PRESBYTÆ, perſons whoſe eyes are too flat to refract the rays ward Coke lays it down, that no ſubject can build a caſtle, or houſe ſufficiently, ſo that unleſs the object is at fome diſtance, the rays com- of ſtrength imbattled, or other fortreſs defenſible, without the li- | ing from it will paſs through the retina before their union, conſe- cence of the king; for the danger which might enſue, if every man quently viſion is confuſed: old people are uſually the ſubjects of this at his pleaſure might do it. It is partly upon the ſame, and partly diſeaſe. In order to remedy, or at leaſt to palliate this defect, the upon a fiſcal foundation, to ſecure his marine revenue, that the perſon ſhould firſt uſe glaſſes which do not magnify, and from them king has the prerogative of appointing ports and havens, or ſuch paſs gradually to more convex ſpectacles, which ſhorten the focus. places only, for perſons and merchandiſe to paſs into and out of PŘESBYTER, in the primitive Chriſtian church, an elder, the realm, as he in his wiſdom ſees proper. one of the ſecond order of ecclefiaftics; the other two being biſhops But though the king had a power of granting the franchiſe of and deacons. See the articles Bishop and DEACON. havens and ports, yet he had not the power of reſumption, or of Preſbyter, or elder, is a word borrowed from the Greek tranſla- narrowing and confining their limits when once eſtabliſhed; but tion of the old teſtament, where it commonly fignifies ruler or any perſon had a right to load or diſcharge his merchandiſe in any governor; it being a note of office and dignity, not of age, and in part of the haven : whereby the revenue of the cuſtom was much this fenfe biſhops are fometimes called preſbyters in the New Tel- impaired and diminiſhed, by fraudulent landings in obſcure and The preſbyters might baptize, preach, confecrate, and private corners, This occafioned the ſtatutes of i Eliz. C. II. adminiſter the euchariſt in the biſhop's abſence, or in his preſence, and 13 and 14 Car. II. c. 11. § 14. which enable the crown by if he authoriſed and deputed them: and the biſhops did ſcarce any commiſſion, to aſcertain the limits of all ports, and to aſſign pro thing in the government of the church without their advice, con- per wharfs and quays in each ports, for the excluſive landing and fent, and amicable concurrence. The grand diſpute between the loading of merchandiſe. followers of the Geneva and Roman diſcipline, is about the fame- 3º. Another capacity in which the king is conſidered in domef neſs and difference of preſbyters and bifhops at the time of the tic affairs, is as the fountain of juſtice and general conſervator of apofles. the peace of the kingdom. See the article Justice. PRESBYTERIANS, a denomination comprehending a very 4º. The king is likewiſe the fountain of honour, of office, and conſiderable number of perſons in Great Britain ; but very differ- of privilege: and this in a different ſenſe from that wherein he is ently applied in England and Scotland. The Engliſh preſbyterians ſtiled the fountain of juſtice; for here he is really the parent of them. do not materially differ from the independents with regard to church- See the articles Justice. government and diſcipline, and mode of worſhip; but they gene- 5º. Another light in which the laws of England conſider the rally allow a greater latitude of religious ſentiments, and commu- king with regard to domeſtic concerns, is as the arbiter of commerce. nion in their churches. The appellation, in this reſtricted uſe of 6º. The king is, laftly, conſidered by the laws of England as it, implies no attachment to the authority of fynods, preſbyteries, the head and ſupreme governor of the national church. To enter or eccleſiaſtical aſſemblies compoſed of deputies from different into the reaſons upon which this prerogative is founded is matter churches, any more than to epiſcopacy and the ecclefiaftical hie- rather of divinity than of law. We ſhall therefore only obſerve, rarchy; and, therefore, according to its original uſe, it is impro- that by ſtatute 26 Hen.VIII. c. 1. (reciting that the king's majeſty perly applied to many who are now diſtinguiſhed by it, and who juſtly and rightfully is and ought to be the ſupreme head of the form a very reſpectable claſs of NONCONFORMISTS or proteſtant church of England; and ſo had been recogniſed by the clergy of DISSENTERS in this kingdom. See INDEPENDENTS. But the that kingdom in their convocation) it is enacted, that the king ſhall preſbyterians, properly ſo called, and with whom the former agree be reputed the only ſupreme head in earth of the church of England; in ſome particulars, admit, in general, and allowing for that lati- and ſhall have, annexed to the imperial crown of this realm, as well tude of ſentiment, which will ever be the reſult of unreſtrained the title and ſtile thereof, as all juriſdictions, authorities, and com and liberal enquiry, the doctrinal articles of the church of England: modities to the ſaid dignity of ſupreme head of the church apper- their chief difference lies in the point of diſcipline, viz. who Mall taining. And another ſtatute to the ſame purport was made, appoint the governors of the church, and what fubordination there I Eliz. C. I. In virtue of this authority the king convenes, pro ſhall, or ſhall not be between them. The preſbyterians allow of rogues, reſtrains, regulates, and diffolves all eccleſiaſtical ſynods or no hierarchy, no ſubordination in the perſons of their miniſters; convocations. This was an inherent prerogative of the crown long biſhops and prieſts they maintain, in the times of the apoſtles, were before the time of Henry VIII. as appears by the ſtatute 8 Hen. VI. the fame; and therefore though they allow epiſcopacy, as now fet- c 1. and the many authors, both lawyers and hiſtorians, vouched tled in the church of England, to be very ancient, yet they deny it by Sir Edward Coke. So that the ſtatute 25 Hen. VIII. C. 19. to be jure divino. In lieu of a ſeries of miniſters one over ano- which reſtrains the convocation from making or putting in execu ther, in quality of prieſts, biſhops, and archbiſhops, their polity tion any canons repugnant to the king's prerogative, or the laws, conſiſts in a ſeries of aſſemblies or fynods. Thus every miniſter cuſtoms, and ſtatutes of the realm, was merely declaratory of the is to be obedient to the claſſis under which he lives; and that claſs old common law; that part of it only being new, which makes the to a fynod, provincial, claſſical, or æcumenical. king's royal aſſent actually neceſſary to the validity of every canon. The power of ordination with them reſides in a claſſis; and The convocation or eccleſiaſtical ſynod, in England, differs conſi none are admitted to adminiſter the facrament but thoſe ordained derably in its conſtitution from the fynods of other Chriſtian king by the impoſition of hands of other miniſters. They make uſe doms: thoſe conſiſting wholly of biſhops; whereas in England the of deacons to take care of their poor ; and, in the government of convocation is the miniature of a parliament, wherein the arch the church, they call in lay-elders; whence their name; from the biſhop preſides with regal ſtate; the upper houſe of biſhops re- preſents the houſe of lords; and the lower houſe, compoſed of repre- Greek peoGutepos, fignifying ſenior elder. See PRESBYTERY. ſentatives of the ſeveral dioceſes at large, and of each particular This is now the eſtabliſhed diſcipline of the church of Scotland, where it was introduced as ſoon as it began to aſſume a regular form, tainent. PRE PRE parts of In the ſame year form, about the year 1560. Calvin, whoſe deciſions were received church diſcipline. The kirk, or church, of Scotland, is divided unong the proteſtants of that age with incredible ſubmiſſion, was into ſixty-nine preſbyteries, each conſiſting of a number of pariſhes, the patron and reſtorer of this ſcheme of ecclefiaftical policy. The not exceeding twenty-four, nor leſs than twelve. The miniſters church of Geneva, formed under his eye, and by his direction, was of the pariſhes, with one ruling elder, choſen half-yearly, out of eſteemed the moſt perfect model of government; and Knox, who, every Kirk-feſion, conſtitute a preſbytery; who, meeting in the during his reſidence in that city, had ſtudied and admired it, warmly chief town, whence the preſbytery is denominated, chooſe a mode- recommended it to the imitation of his countrymen. But on the rator, or, more properly, a prolocutor, who muſt be a miniſter, firſt introduction of this ſyſtem, he did not think it expedient to de- half-yearly. They determine all appeals from kirk-ſeſſion, i. e. from part altogether from the ancient form; inſtead of biſhops he pro the ſeveral parochial aſſemblies; but can try nothing at the firſt in- poſed to eſtablish ten or twelve ſuperintendants in different ſtance cognizable before a kirk-ſeſſion. They compoſe all differ- the kingdom, who were empowered to inſpect the life and doctrine ences between miniſters and people; for which end, they hold of the other clergy, to preſide in the inferior judicatories of the preſbyterial viſitations in each pariſh, where they examine the re- church, and to perform ſeveral other parts of epiſcopal function; giſters of the kirk-ſeſſions, &c. They enquire into repairs of their juriſdiction, however, extended to facred things only; they churches; ſee that the glebe, &c. fuffer no dilapidations; appoint claimed no ſeat in parliament, and pretended no right to the dig- ſchools in the pariſhes; and ſee that the funds be not miſapplied. nity or revenues of the former biſhops. The number of the infe- They alone can exclude from the communion; licenſe probati- rior clergy was, at this time, very ſmall; and in a few places only oners; ſuſpend, diſpoſe, and, in effect, determine all ecclefiaftical were formed into regular claſſes or ſocieties. In order to give matters within their diſtrict. From the preſbytery there lies an greater ſtrength and conſiſtence to the preſbyterian plan, Knox, 1 appeal, in all caſes, to provincial Synods. with the aſſiſtance of his brethren, compoſed, in 1551, the firſt book PRESCIENCE, in Theology, previſion, or foreknowledge; of diſcipline, which contains the model or platform of the intended that knowledge which God has of things to come. The doctrine policy. However, though the general aſſembly in the year 1566 of predeſtination is founded on the preſcience of God, and on the had approved of the Geneva diſcipline, the parliament did not con ſuppoſition of all futurity's being preſent to him. Human reaſon firm the votes of the aſſembly, nor formally deprive the biſhops of can ſcarce reconcile che preſcience of God with the free-agency their power; but all church affairs from that time were managed of man; hence fome have been led to deny the divine preſcience, by preſbyteries, and general aſſemblies. In the year 1574, they and others to maintain the doctrine of NECESSITY. voted the biſhops to be only paſtors of one pariſh; in 1577 they PRESCRIPTION, præſcriptio, in Law, a right or title acquired ordained that all biſhops ſhould be called by their own names; and by uſe and time. Preſcription is a ſort of title introduced for in- in the next year they voted the name of a biſhop to be a grievance. furing the property of effects in favour of perſons who have pof- In 1580 the general aſſembly, with one voice, declared dioceſan ſeſſed thein a certain time; and to keep off any who would dif- epiſcopacy to be unſcriptural and unlawful. quiet them, or recover the thing poſſeſſed, after the term fixed by King James, with his family, and the whole nation, ſubſcribed a the laws. In effect, however, the law of preſcription does not confeffion of faith, with a ſolemn league and covenant annexed, puniſh the indolence of proprietors, but only interprets their ſilence obliging themſelves to maintain and defend the proteſtant doctrine for their conſent; preſuming, that a man who neglects to aſſert and preſbyterian government. In the year 1584 the biſhops were his right for a long ſeries of years, gives it up. : reſtored by parliament to ſome parts of their ancient dignity. In PRESCRIPTION, in Medicine, the act or art of aſſigning a pro- 1587, the king conſented to an act to take away biſhops lands, and per and adequate remedy to a diſeaſe, from an examination of the annex them to the crown; and in 1590 it was ordained, that all ſyimptoms thereof and an acquaintance with the virtues and effects who bore office in the kirk, or ſhould hereafter do ſo, ſhould ſub of the materia medica. To preſcribe with judgment, elegance, &c. fcribe to the book of diſcipline. In 1592, all acts of parliament in a competent knowledge of pharmacy, i. e. with the forms and pre- favour of popery and epiſcopacy were annulled; and an act paffed parations of medicine, is required. The merits of a bill, or pre- for eſtabliſhing the preſbyterian government, its general aſſemblies, fcription, conſiſts in its being conciſe, pertinent, efficacious, and provincial fynods, preſbyteries, and kirk ſeſſions, with all the differ agreeable: in the beſt and moſt ſuitable materials being choſen; thoſe ent branches of their diſcipline and juriſdiction, in the moſt ample allembled in the moſt judicious proportions, made up in the beſt manner. This act was again confirmed in 1593 and 1594. King and moſt convenient form, and applied in the juſteſt doſe; a due James, during the latter years of his adminiſtration in Scotland, regard being ſtill had to the non-naturals, regimen, intervals of ap- revived the name and office of biſhops; but they poſſeſſed no ec- plication, etc. Sydenham particularly excelled in preſcription. cleſiaſtical juriſdiction or pre-eminence; their revenues were in PRESENCE, præfentia, a term of relation, uſed in oppoſition conſiderable, and they were ſcarce diſtinguiſhed by any thing but by to abſence, and ſignifying the exiſtence of a perſon in a certain place their ſeat in parliament, and by being the object of the clergy's jea or the ſtate of a perſon conſidered as co-exiſting with another. In louſy, and the people's hatred. The king, delighted with the this ſenſe, an obligation is ſaid to be paſſed in preſence of a notary fplendour and authority which the Engliſh biſhops enjoyed, and and witneſſes; at the breaking open a ſeal of a minor, or an abſent eager to effect an union in eccleſiaſtical policy, reſolved to bring perſon, the preſence of a ſubſtitute is neceſſary: The Roman ca- both churches to an exact conformity with each other. Three tholics believe the real preſence of Jeſus Chriſt in the euchariſt, Scotſmen were conſecrated biſhops at London, from whom their both in body and ſoul. See TRANSUBSTANTIATION. brethren were commanded to receive orders. Ceremonies unknown PRESENT, preſens, in Grammar, the firſt tenſe, or inflexion in Scotland were impoſed; and though the clergy, leſs obfequious of verbs; expreſſing the preſent, or that which now is. See the than the nobles, boldly oppoſed theſe innovations, James, long prac Syſtem, Part . II. Chap. III. Art. V. tiſed and well ſkilled in the arts of managing them, obtained at PRESENTATION, præſentatio, in the canon Law, the act length their compliance. But Charles I. a ſuperſtitious prince, of a patron, nominating and offering his clerk to the biſhop or col- unacquainted with the genius of the Scots, imprudent and precipi- Jator, to be inſtituted in a benefice of his gift, which is void. . See tate in all the meaſures he purſued in that kingdom, preſſing too PATRONAGE. eagerly the reception of the Engliſh liturgy, and indiſcreetly attempt- PRESERVATIVE, PRÆSERVATIVE, in Medicine, a remedy ing a reſumption of church-lands, kindled the flames of civil war; taken by way of precaution, or to ſecure a man from a diſeaſe that and the people being left at liberty to indulge their own wiſhes, the threatens himn. The principal preſervatives, according to Boer- epiſcopal church was overturned, and the preſbyterian government haave, are abſtinence, quiet, drinking of warm water; and, after and diſcipline were re-eſtabliſhed with new vigour. Together with this, a gentle and continued motion till the firſt appearance of ſweat; monarchy, epiſcopacy was reſtored in Scotland. The averſion of then a profuſe ſleeping, the body well covered. By ſuch means, the nation, however, was inſurmountable, and it ſubfifted with dif crafs humours are diluted, the veſſels are relaxed, and noxious mat- ficulty. At the Revolution, the inclinations of the people were ter excreted. He adds, that the beſt defence againſt the force of thought worthy the attention of the legiſlature, the preſbyterian go- external cold is to leſſen the winter's cloathing late in the ſpring, vernment was again eſtabliſhed (ſee CONVENTION,) and being and to increaſe the ſummer's cloathing ſoon in autumn. In time ratified by the Union, is ſtill maintained in that kingdom. of plague, preſervatives are very neceſſary againſt the contagion of In the year 1648, an ordinance for more effectually ſettling the the air, &c. For the various means of prevention, ſee the Syſtem preſbyterian government, without limitation of time, received the of MEDICINE, Genus 25. fanction of both houſes, under the title of a form of church govern PRESIDENT, præfes, an officer created, or elected, to preſide ment, to be uſed in the churches of England and Ireland. Under over a company, or afleinbly; ſo called in contradiſtinction to the the commonwealth, in 1649, the preſbyterian government was de other members, who are termed reſidents. Lord Preſident of the clared by the houſe to be the eſtabliſhed government: it continued, Council is a great officer of the crown, who has precedence next though at a low ebb, under the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, after the lord chancellor or lord treaſurer; as ancient as the time who was more fayourably inclined to the independents, and to the of king John, when he was ſtyled conſiliarius capitalis. His office Reſtoration of Charles II. an event in which the preſbyterians and is, to attend on the king, to propoſe buſineſs at the council-table, army, under the direction of general Monk, concurred. At this and to report to the king the ſeveral tranſactions there. See period epiſcopacy was re-eſtabliſhed; the imprudent zeal of the COUNCIL preſbyterians was forgotten, and they ſuffered in common with PRESS, prelum, in the mechanic arts, a machine made of iron others who diſapproved the hierarchy, and who fcrupled conformity or wood, ſerving to ſqueeze or compreſs any body very cloſe. to the eſtabliſhed articles of doctrine and diſcipline, till they were Printing-Press. See PrintING. in ſome meaſure relieved by the act of Toleration. Liberty of the Press. See LIPERTY. PRESBYTERY, preſbyterium, wpEGEUTeglov, an aſſembly of the PRESSURE of the Air. Moſt of the effects anciently aſcribed prder of preſbyters, or prieſts, with lay-elders, for the exerciſe of to the fuga vacui, are now accounted for from the weight and preſ- Iii fure Nº. 132. PRI PRI pays fat. 8. v. 3. fure of the air. The preſſure of the air on the ſurface of the earth | Thus alſo, the diviſion of England into two provinces, Canterbury is balanced by a column of water of the ſame baſe, and about thirty- and York, in 1152; gave occaſion to the introduction of primaries five feet high; or of one of mercury, of about twenty-nine inches. among us; Canterbury, which was the metropolis before, thence The preſſure of the air on every ſquare inch on the ſurface of the giving the title of primate of all England to its prelate, though the earth, is computed to be about fifteen pounds avoirdupois. See archbiſhop of York Aill claims that of primate of England. And, the Syſtem of AEROLOGY, Definition I. accordingly, the firſt has fome juriſdiction over all England, re- PRETER, or PRETERITAET, præteritus, paſt, in Grammar, lating to adminiſtrations, &c. which the latter has only in his own an inflection of verbs, expreſſing the tenſe, or time paſſed. See province. the Syſtem, Part II. Chap. III. Art. V. PRIMATES, in the Linnæan Syſtem, the firſt order of animals PRIAPISM, IIp.CTlopLoc, in Medicine, a continual and painful belonging to the claſs of Mammalia: the characters of which are erection or tenfion of the virile member. The term is derived that they are furniſhed with fore-teeth, or cutting-teeth, four above from Priapus, a heathen god, whom the poets and painters repreſent and parallel; and that they have two pectoral teats. To this or- in a ſtate of erection. As fatyrs are uſually painted after the der pertain four genera, viz. homo, or man, fimia, or ape, lemur, or fame manner, the diſeaſe is alſo called ſatyriaſis, or ſatyriaſmus. maucuaco, and veſpertilio, or bat. Some, however, diſtinguiſh between the ſatyriaſis and priapiſmus, Article SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT. in that the latter is without any effuſion, or deſire of coition; but PRIMITIVE, in Grammar, a root; or a word in a language, the former attended with both. The immediate cauſe of a pria which is neither derived from any other language, nor compounded piſm is the heat, pungency, or acrimony of the femen, accompanied from any other words of the fame. Thus God is a primitive; with a convulſion of the muſcles of the part, which, compreſſing | Godly, a derivative; God-like, a compound. the veins and cavernous bodies, prevent the return of the blood. PRINCE, princeps, in Politics, a perſon inveſted with the fu- The more remote cauſes are too hot, ſharp, ſtimulating foods: can preme command of a ſtate or country, independent of any fupe- tharides are alſo found to produce the ſame effect, but with much rior. more violence. There are inſtances of people, eſpecially old men, PRINCE is alſo uſed for a perſon who is ſovereign in his own who, making uſe of cantharides to enable them to ſatisfy their paf- territory; yet holds of ſome other, as his ſuperior or lord, and fions the better, have been ſeized with a priapiſm, which has been homage or tribute to him. Thus all the princes of Germany are followed with univerſal convulſions, and even death. With regard feudatories of the emperor; they are as abſolute in their reſpeciive to the priapiſm, chordee, and other diſtortions of the penis in the principalities as the emperor himſelf; yet are all bound in certain venereal diſeaſe, their treatment is the ſame with that of the gonor ſervices to him. OR rhoea, When they prove very troubleſome, the patient may take PRINCE is alſo a title given to the iſſue of princes, or thoſe of the a few drops of laudanum at night, eſpecially after the operation of royal family. In which ſenſe they were called, formerly in a purgative through the day. France, princes of the blood; as partaking of the blood to which the PRIAPUS, Tipetos, a term ſometimes applied to the genital ſovereignty is appropriated: and not by any hereditary right, but as parts of men; viz. the penis and teſtes. The name took its riſe a patrimony ſubſtituted to all the royal race. In England, the from Priapus, a fabulous deity, particularly adored at Lampſacus, king's children are called fons and daughters of England; the eldeſt the place of his birth: he was uſually repreſented naked, with a ſon is created prince of Wales. The cadets, or younger, are created ſtern countenance, matted hair, and held a ſickle in his hand, with dukes or earls, with what title the king pleaſes. They have no ap- a monſtrous privity, for which he was exceedingly revered by the pendages, as once in France; but only what the good pleaſure of women; inſomuch that the ſcripture ſeems to tell us, king Afa de the king beſtows on them. The fons are all by birth counſellors throned his mother Maachah, becauſe ſhe had conſecrated a grove of ſtate: and the daughters are ſtyled princeſſes; to violate the eldeſt to Priapus, and preſided at his facrifices. The Roman poets in of which, unmarried, is at this day high treaſon. To all the king's general ſeem to have looked on Priapus as a ridiculous god, and children belongs the title of royal highneſs. All ſubjects are to kneel are all ready enough, either to deſpiſe or abuſe him. Hor. lib. i. when admitted to kiſs their hand; and at table, out of the king's preſence, they are ſerved on the knee. The youngeſt fons and PRIEST, facerdos, a perſon ſet apart for the performance of fa daughters of the king, who are not in the line of ſucceſſion, have, crifice, and other offices and ceremonies of religion. Thus the precedence before all peers and public officers, as well ecclefiaftical falſe gods and goddeſſes of the heathens had their prieſts; prieſts of as temporal. 31. Hen. VIII. cap. 10. Mars, of Bacchus, of Hercules, of Iſis; and ſome of them their PRINCE of Wales, the eldeſt ſon of England. He is born duke prieſteſſes. See Pontifex, &c. The Jews had three orders, viz. of Cornwall; and immediately intitled to all the rights, revenues, prieſti, LEVITES, and NETHINIMS, who ſerved in the temple; &c. belonging thereto; as being deemed in law at full age on his over whom the high-prieſt was chief. birth-day. He is afterwards created prince of Wales, and earl of Priest, preſbyter, in the Chriſtian Church, is a perſon inveſted Cheſter; the inveſtiture whereof is performed by impoſition of a with holy orders; in virtue whereof he has a power to preach, pray, cap of ſtate, and a coronet, a verge of gold, and a ring. He holds adminiſter the facraments, &c. and, in the Romiſh church alſo, to the principality by patent granted him and his heirs, by the kings bleſs, abfolve, &c. By the canons, can. 34. a man muſt be twenty of England. The title and principality were firſt given by king four years of age before he can be admitted to the prieſthood: an Edw. I. to his eldeſt ſon: till that time the eldeſt ſon of England ciently thirty years were required. And by 13 Eliz. cap. 12. was called lord prince. While Normandy remained to the king of none ſhall be made miniſter, i. e. prieſt, being under the age of four England, the eldeſt fon was always ſtyled duke of Normandy: and twenty years; and in this caſe, there is no diſpenſation, as there ſince the union, his title is Magnee Britannie Princeps. He is is in that of a deacon: and unleſs he firſt bring to the biſhop of the reputed, in law, the ſame perſon with the king: to imagine his dioceſe a teſtimonial both of his honeſt life, and of his profeſſing death, or to violate his wife, is high-treaſon by itat. 25 Edw. III. the doctrine expreſſed in the thirty-nine articles: nor unleſs he be His revenues, as duke of Cornwall, are computed at 14,000l. per able to anſwer, and render to the ordinary an account of his faith annum. The revenues of the principality were eſtimated, three in Latin, according to the faid articles, or have ſpecial gift or abi hundred and fifty years ago, at 4680l. per annum. lity to be a preacher. And by the canon juſt cited, it is required, PRINCIPAL, in Law, is either the actor or abſolute perpetrator that he ſhall have taken ſome degree of ſchool in either of the two of the crime, who is called a principal in the firſt degree; or he univerſities, or at leaſt be able to give an account of his faith in La who is preſent, aiding and abetting the fact to be done, who is de- tin, according to the thirty-nine articles; and alſo that he exhibit nominated a principal in the ſecond degree. The preſence of a letters teſtimonial of his good life and converſation, under the ſeal principal need not always be an actual immediate ſtanding by, of ſome college of Cambridge or Oxford, where before he re within fight or hearing of the fact; but there may be alſo a con- mained, or of three or four grave miniſters, together with the ſub ſtructive preſence, as when one commits a robbery or murder, and ſcription and teſtimony of other credible perſons, who have known another keeps watch or guard at ſome convenient diſtance. And his life and behaviour for the ſpace of three years next before. Nor this rule has alſo other exceptions; for, in caſe of murder by poi- ſhall any biſhop admit any perſon into ſacred orders, who is not ſoning, a man may be a principal felon, by preparing and laying the of his own dioceſe, except he be either of one of the univerſities poiſon, or giving it to another, (who is ignorant of its poiſonous of this realm, or except he ſhall bring letters diſmiſſory from the quality) for that purpoſe; and yet not adminiſter it himſelf, nor be biſhop of whoſe dioceſe he is. preſent when the very deed of poiſoning is committed. And the PRIMÆ VIÆ, the firſt paſſages of the chyle; including the ſame reaſoning will hold, with regard to other murders committed cſophagus, ftomach, inteſtines, and their appendices. See Syſtem in the abſence of the murderer, by means which he had prepared of ANATOMY, Part III. Sect. I. o VI. before-hand, and which probably could not fail of their miſchievous PRIMARY Planet, a planet which revolves round the fun as effect. As by laying a trap or pit-fall for another, whereby he is Such as Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus, and killed; letting out a wild beaſt, with an intent to do miſchief; or Mercury; thus called in oppoſition to ſecondary planets, or fatel exciting a madman to commit murder, ſo that death thereupon lites. See the Syſtem of ASTRONOMY, Sect. VIII. enſues: in every one of theſe caſes the party offending is guilty PRIMATE, PRIMAs, an Archbiſhop, inveſted with a jurif of murder as a principal in the firſt degree. For he cannot be diction over other biſhops. Thoſe who are advocates for a ſtrict called an ACCESSORY, that neceſſarily pre-fuppofing, a principal; eccleſiaſtical hierarchy, maintain a primate to be a dignitary who and the poiſon, the pit-fall, the beaſt, or the madınan cannot be has ſeveral metropolitans under him; as a patriarch has ſeveral pri- held principals , being only the inftruments of death. As therefore Yet, it is pretty evident from hiſtory, that primates were, he muſt be certainly guilty, either as principal or acceſſory, and can- at firſt, confounded with patriarchs: thus Socrates, enumerating ten not be ſo as acceſſory, it follows that he muſt be guilty as principali patriarchs, does not make any diſtinction thereof from primates. and if principal, then in the firſt degree; for there is no other cri- a centre. mates. minal, PRI PRI minal, much leſs a ſuperior in the guilt, whom he could aid, abet, or affiit, Blackft. Com. book iv. cap. 3. PRINCIPLE, principium, a term frequently uſed for the cauſe, ſource, or origin of any thing. In which ſenſe we ſay, the princi- ples of thinking, of willing, &c. In phyſics, we muſt ever have re- courſe to a firſt principle, which is God. PRINCIPLE, in general, is uſed for the cauſe, fource, or origin of any thing. PRINCIPLE, in human nature. See DISPOSITION. Inflammable PR: NCIPLE. See PHLOGISTON. PRINCIPLES, in Chymiſtry, are the firſt and fimpleſt parts whereof natural bodies are compounded, and into which they are again reſolvable by fire, &c. Theſe are more properly, as well as more commonly, called ELEMENTS. See the Art. ELEMENT, and the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part I. throughout. PRINCIPLES, in Phyſics, are often confounded with elements, or the firſt and fimpleſt parts whereof natural bodies are com- pounded, and into which they are again reſolvable by the force of fire. PRINTER, a perſon who compoſes and takes impreſſions from moveable characters ranged in order, by means of ink, and a preſs. PRINTING, the art of taking impreſſions from characters or figures moveable or immoveable, 0:1 paper, linen, ſilk, &c. There are three kinds of printing : the one from moveable letters, for books ; another from-copper plates, for pictures; and the laſt from blocks, in which the repreſentation of birds, flowers, &c. are cut, for printing calicoes, linen, &c. The firſt is called common or letter-preſs printing; the ſecond, rolling-preſs printing ; and the laſt, calico, &c. printing. The principal difference between the three conſiſts in this, that the firſt is caſt in relievo, in diſtinct pieces ; the ſecond engraven in creux ; and the third cut in relievo, and generally itamped, by placing the block upon the materials to be printed, and ſtriking upon the back of it. LETTER PRESS PRINTING. Of the above branches, this is the moſt curious, and deſerves the moſt particular notice : for to it are owing chiefly our deliverance from ignorance and error, the progreſs of learning, the revival of the ſciences, and number- leſs improvements in arts, which, without this noble invention would have been either loſt to mankind, or confined to the know- ledge of a few. Hiſtory of PRINTING. Some writers have aſcribed the origin of this art to the Eaſt, and affixed a very early period to its inven- tion; particularly P. Jovius, (Hiſt . lib. xiv. p. 226. ed. Florent. 1550, from whom Oſorius and many others have embraced the fame opinion. But theſe have evidentiy confounded the European mode of printing, with the engraved tablets, which to this day are uſed in China. The invention of theſe tablets has been aſcribed by many writers even to an earlier period than the commencement of the Chriſtian æra; but is with more probability afligned, by the very accurate Phil. Couplet, to the year 930. The Hiſtoria Simenſis of Abdalla, written in Perſic in 1317, ſpeaks of it as an art in very common uſe. MEERMAN, vol. 1. p. 16. 218, 219. vol. ii. p. 186. N. The honour of having given riſe to the European me- thod has been claimed by the cities of Haerleim, Mentz, and Straſburg; And to each of theſe it may be aſcribed in a qualified ſenſe, as they made improvements upon one another. The firſt teſtimony of the inventor is that recorded by Hadrian Junius, in his Batavia, page 253, ed. Lugd. Bat. 1588; which, though it has been rejected by many, is of undoubted authority. Junius had the relation from two reputable men ; Nicolaus Galius, who was his ſchoolmaſter; and Quitinus Taleſius, his intimate and correſpondent. He aſcribes to Laurentius, the ſon of John, (Ædituus or Cultos, of the cathedral at Harleim, at that time a reſpectable office) upon the teſtimony of Cornelius, fome time a ſervant to Laurentius, and afterwards bookbinder to the cathedral, an office which had before been performed by Franciſcan friars . His narrative was thus : “ That walking in a wood near the city (as the citizens of opulence uſe to do ), he began firſt to cut ſome letters upon the rind of a beach-tree; which, for fancy fake, being impreſſed on paper, he printed one or two lines, as a ſpeci- men for his grand-children (the fons of his daughter) to follow. This having happily ſucceeded, he meditated greater things, as he was a man of ingenuity and judgment); and firſt of all with his ſon in law, Thomas Peter who, by the way, left three ſons, who all attained the conſular dignity), invented a more glutinous wri- ting-ink, becauſe he found the common ink ſunk and ſpread ; and then formed whole pages of wood, with letters cut upon them, A new invention never fails to engage curioſity. And when a commodity never before ſeen excited purchaſers, to the advantage of the inventor ; the admiration of the art increaſed, dependents were enlarged, and workmen multiplied, the firſt calamitous inci- dent! Among theſe was one John, whether, as we fufpect, he had ominouſly the name of Fauftus, unfaithfuland unlucky to his maſter, or whether it was really a perſon of that name, we ſhall not much inquire; being unwilling to moleft the ſilent ſhades, who ſuffer from a conſciouſneſs of their paſt actions in this life. This man, bound by oath to keep the ſecret of printing, when he thought he had learned the art of joining the letters, the method of caſting the types, and other things of that nature, taking the moſt convenient time that was poſſible, on Chriſtmas-eve, when everyone was cuſtomarily employed in luftral ſacrifices, ſeizes the collection of types, and all the implements his maſter had got together, and, with one accom- plice, marches off to Amſterdam, thence to Cologn, and at laſt ſer- tled at Mentz, as at an afylum of ſecurity, where he might go to work with the tools he had ſtolen. It is certain, that in a year's time, viz. in 1442, the Do&trinale of Alexander Gallus, which was a grammar much uſed at that time, together with the Tracts of Peter of Spain, came forth there, from the ſame types as Laurentius had made uſe of at Harleim.” Some authors relate that Fauftus having printed off a conſiderable number of copies of the Bible, to imitate thoſe which were com- monly fold in MS, Fuft undertook the ſale of them at Paris, where the art of printing was then unknown. As he fold his printed co- pies for 60 crowns, while the fcribes demanded 500, this created univerſal aſtoniſhment; but when he produced copies as faſt as they were wanted, and lowered the price to 30 crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity of the copies increaſed the wonder; in- formations were given into the police againſt him as a magician; his lodgings were ſearched; and a great number of copies being found, they were ſeized: the red ink with which they were em- belliſhed was ſaid to be his blood; it was ſeriouſly adjudged that he was in league with the devil; and if he had not Aled, moſt pro- bably he would have ſhared the fate of thoſe, whom ignorant and ſuperſtitious judges condemned, in thoſe days, for witchcraft; from thence aroſe the origin of the ſtory of the Devil and Dr. Fauſtus. The letters were at firſt wooden, and are ſaid to be afterwards ex- changed for metal types; from which the wine-pots were formed, remaining in the time of Junius. According to tradition, printing was carried on in the ſame houſe long after the time of Laurentius; thoſe pots might therefore be formed from the waſte metal of the printing-houſe, after the uſe of fuſile types became univerſal. But Laurentius ſeems to have carried the art no farther than ſeparate wooden types. What is a remarkable confirmation of this, Henry Spiechel, who wrote, in the 16th century, a Dutch poein intituled Hertſpiegel, expreſſes himſelf thus: “ Thou firſt, Laurentius, to ſupply the defect of wooden tablets, adaptedſt wooden types, and af- terwards didſt connect them with a thread, to imitate writing. A treacherous ſervant ſurreptitiouſly obtained the honour of the diſco- very. But truth itſelf, though deftitute of common and wide ſpread fame; Truth, I ſay, ſtill remains. No mention in the poem of metal types; a circumſtance which, had he been robbed of ſuch, as well as of wooden ones, would ſcarcely have been paſſed over in ſilence. When Laurentius firſt adviſed his rough ſpecimen of the art, can only be gueſſed at. He died in 1440, after having publiſhed the Speculum Belgicum, and two editions of Donatus, all with different wooden types; which it is probable (conſidering the difficulties he had to encounter, and the many artiſts whom he muſt neceſſarily have had occaſion to conſult) coſt him ſome years to exe- cute; ſo that the firſt eſſay might be about 1430, which nearly agree with Petrus Scriverius, who ſays the invention was about 10 or 12 years before 1440. Some of Laurentius's types were ſtolen from him by one of his ſervants, John GEINSFLEICH, ſenior; who Aed therewith to MENTŽ. Having introduced the art from Harleim into this his native city, he ſet with all diligence to carry it on; and publiſhed in 1442, ALEXANDRI GALLI Do&trinale, and PETRI HISPANI Tractatus; two works, which, being ſmall, beſt ſuited his circum- ſtances; and for which, being much uſed in the ſchools, he might reaſonably expect a profitable ſale. They were executed with wooden types; cut after the model of thoſe he had ſtolen. In 1443 he hired the houſe Zum Jungen; and was aſſiſted with money by Fust, a wealthy perſon, who in return had a ſhare of the buſineſs; and about the ſame time Fohn Meidenbachus was admitted a partner, as were ſome others whoſe names are not tranſmitted to our times; and in 144.4. they were joined by GUTENBERG, who for that pur- poſe quitted Straſburg. Wooden types being found not fufficiently durable, and not anſwering expectation in other reſpects, the two brothers firſt invented cut metal types. But while theſe were prepar- ing, which muſt have been a work of time, ſeveral works were printed, both on wooden ſeparate types and on woolen blocks; which were well adapted to finall books of frequent uſe, ſuch as the Ta- bula Alphabetica, the Catholicon, Donati Grammatica, and the Con- Seſionalia. From the abovementioned printers in conjunction, after many ſmaller eſſays, the Bible was publiſhed in 1450, with large cut metal types. And it is no wonder, conſidering the immenſe labour this work coſt, thắt it ſhould be ſeven or eight years in completing, Gutenberg, by the pecuniary aſſiſtance of Conrad Humery ſyndic of Mentz, and others, opened another office in the ſame city; whence appeared, in 1460, without the printer's name, the Catholicon 70. de Fanua, with a pompous colophon in praiſe of its beauty, and afcrib- ing the honour of the invention to the city of Mentz. It was a very handſome book, though inferior to the Pſalter which had been publiſhed in 1457, by Fuit and Schoeffer. Both the Pfalter and Catholicon were printed on cut metal types. It may not be improper to obſerve here, that as the Pſalter is the earlieſt book which is known to have a genuine date, it became a common practice after. that publication, for printers to claim their own performances, by adding their names to them. The progreſs of the art has been thus traced through its ſecond period, the invention of cut metal types. Buc 4 PRI PRI The only But the honour of completing the diſcovery is due to PETER ſeſſed, of being the author of printing to this kingdom ; and Ox- SCHOEFFER de Gernſheim. ford ever ſince carried the honour of the firſt preſs. An ample teſtimony in favour of Schoeffer is given by Jo. difficulty was, to account for the filence of hiſtory in an event to Frid. Fauſtus of Aſchaffenburg, from papers preſerved in his fa memorable, and the want of any memorial in the univerſity itſelf mily: “Peter Schoeffer of Gernſheim, perceiving his maſter Fuſt's concerning the eſtabliſhment of a new art amongſt them of ſuch deſign, and being himſelf ardently deſirous to improve the art, uſe and benefit to learning. But this likewiſe has been cleared up found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting by the diſcovery of a record, which had lain obfcure and unknown (incidendi) the characters in a matrix, that the letters might eaſily at Lambeth-houſe, in the Regiſter of the See of Canterbury ; and be fingly caft, inſtead of being cut. He privately cut matrices for gives a narrative of the whole tranfaction, drawn up at the very the whole alphabet; and when he ſhowed his maſter the letters caſt time. An account of this record was firſt publiſhed in a thin quarto from theſe matrices, Fuſt was ſo pleaſed with the contrivance, that volume, in Engliſh; with this title: “The Original and Growth he promiſed Peter to give him his only daughter, Chriſtina, in of Printing, collected out of Hiſtory and the Records of this King- marriage, a promiſe which he ſoon after performed. But there dom: wherein is alſo demonſtrated, that Printing appertaineth were as many difficulties at firſt with theſe letters, as there had to the Prerogative Royal, and is a Flower of the Crown of Eng- been before with wooden ones; the metal being too ſoft to ſup land. By Richard Atkyns, efq. Whitehall, April the 25, 1664. port the force of the impreſion : but this defect was foon remedied, By order and appointment of the right honourable Mr. Secretary by mixing the metal with a ſubſtance which ſufficiently hardened Morrice, let this be printed. Tho. Rycaut. London : Printed it.” Fuſtand Schoeffer concealed this new improvement, by ad by John Streater, for the Author. 1664.” 4to. miniſtering an oath of ſecrecy to all whom they intruſted, till the It ſets forth in ſhort, “That as foon as the art of printing made year 1462 ; when, by the diſperſion of their ſervants into different ſome noiſe in Europe, Thomas Beurchier, archbiſhop of Canter- countries, at the facking of Mentz by the archbiſhop Adolphus, bury, moved the then king (Henry VI.) to uſe all poſſible means the invention was publicly divulged. for procuring a printing-mould (for ſo it was there called) to be The firſt book printed with theſe improved types was Durandi brought into this kingdom. The king (a good man, and much Rationale, in 1459; at which time, however, they ſeem to have given to works of this nature) readily hearkened to the motion ; had only one fize of caft letters, all the larger characters which and taking private advice how to effect his deſign, concluded it occur being cut types, as appears plainly by an inſpection of the could not be brought about without great ſecrecy, and a conſidera- book. From this time to 1466, Fuit and Schoeffer continued to ble ſum of money given to ſuch perſon or perſons as would draw off print a conſiderable number of books ; particularly two famous ſome of the workmen of Harleim in Holland, where John Guten- editions of Tully's Offices. In their earlieſt books, they printed In their earlieſt books, they printed berg had newly invented it, and was himſelf perfonally at work. more copies on velluin than on paper, which was the caſe both of It was reſolved, that leſs than 1000 merks would not produce the their Bibles and Tully's Offices. This, however, was foon in deſired effect; towards which fum the ſaid archbiſhop preſented verted ; and paper introduced for the greateſt part of their impreſ the king 300 merks. The money being now prepared, the ma- fions: a few only being printed on vellum, for curioſities, and nagement of the deſign was committed to Mr. Robert Tur- for the purpoſe of being illuminated. nour, who was then maſter of the robes to the king, and a per- With regard to the claim of STRASBURG : It has been al. ſon moſt in favour with him of any of his condition. Mr. ready mentioned, that Gutenburg was engaged in that city in dif Turnour took to his aſiiitance Mr. Caxton, a citizen of good abi- ferent employments; and, among others, in endeavouring to attain lities, who traded much into Holland which was a creditable pre- the art of printing. That theſe endeavours were unſucceſsful, is tence, as well for his going, as ſtay in the Low Countries. Mr. plain from an authentic judicial decree of the ſenate of Straſburg Turnour was in diſguiſe (his beard and hair ſhaven quite off); but in 1439, after the death of Andrew Drizehen. But there are Mr. Caxton appeared known and public. They, having received many other proofs that Gutenberg and his partners were never able the faid fum of 1000 merks, went firſt to Amſterdam, then to to bring the art to perfection. As to the cities, Harleim and Leyden, not daring to enter Harleim itſelf; for the town was very Mentz, the diſputes between them ſeemn eaſily cleared up from jealous, having impriſoned and apprehended divers perſons who the two-fold invention of printing above-mentioned : the firſt came from other parts for the ſame purpoſe. They ſtaid till they with ſeparate wooden types at Harleim, by Laurentius, about 1430, had ſpent the whole thouſand merks in gifts and expences; ſo as and after continued by his family ; the other with metal types, firſt the king was fain to ſend 500 merks more, Mr. Turnour having cut, and afterwards caſt, which were invented at Mentz, but not written to the king that he had almoſt done his work ; a bargain uſed in Holland till brought thither by Theodoric Martens at Aloft (as he ſaid) being ſtruck betwixt him and two Hollanders, for about 1472. From this period printing made a rapid progreſs in bringing-off one of the under-workmen, whoſe name was Fre- moſt of the principal towns of Europe. In 1490, it reached Con derick Corfells (or rather Corſellis), who late one night 'ſtole from ftantinople ; and, according to Mr. Palmer, p. 281, &c. it was ex his fellows in diſguiſe into a veſſel prepared before for that pur- tended by the middle of the next century, to Africa and America. poſe ; and ſo, the wind favouring the deſign, brought him ſafe to It was introduced into Ruſſia about 1560 : but, from motives either London. It was not thought ſo prudent to ſet him on work at of policy or ſuperſtition, it was ſpeedily fuppreſſed by the ruling London : but, by the archbiſhop's means (who had been vice- powers; and, even under the preſent enlightened empreſs, has chancellor and afterwards chancellor of the univerſity of Oxon) ſcarcely emerged froin its obſcurity. That it was early practiſed Corſellis was carried with a guard to Oxon; which guard con- in the inhoſpitable regions of Iceland, we have the reſpéciable au ftantly watched to prevent Corſellis from any poſlible eſcape, till he thority of Mr. Bryant : “ Arngrim Jonas was born amidſt the had made good his promiſe in teaching them how to print. So that ſnows of Iceland ; yet as much prejudiced in favour of his coun at Oxford printing was firſt ſet up in England, which was be- try as thoſe who are natives of an happier climate. This is viſible fore there was any printing-preſs or printer in France, Spain, in his Crymogæa; but more particularly in his Anatome Blefkiniana, Italy, or Germany (except the city of Mentz), which claims I have in my poſſeſſion this curious little treatiſe, written in Latin ſeniority, as to printing, even of Harleim itſelf, calling her by him in his own country, and printed Typis Holenfibus in Ifandid city, Urbem Moguntinam artis typographicæ inventricem primam, Boreali , anno 1612. Hola is placed in fome maps within the Arc though it is known to be otherwiſe ; that city gaining the art tic circle, and is certainly not far removed from it. I believe, it by the brother of one of the workmen of Harleim, who had is the fartheſt north of any place, where arts and ſciences have learnt it at home of his brother, and after ſet up for himſelf at ever reſided.” Obſervations and Inquiries relating to various parts Mentz. This preſs at Oxon was at leaſt ten years before there of Ancient Hiſtory, 1767, p. 277: was any printing in Europe, except at Harleim and Mentz, Introduction of Printing into Britain. It was a conſtant where it was but new-born. This preſs at Oxford was afterwards opinion, delivered down by our hiſtorians, as hath been obſerved found inconvenient to be the ſole printing-place of England ; by Dr. Middleton, that the Art of Printing was introduced and firſt being too far from London and the fea, Wherefore the king fee practiſed in England by William Caxton, a mercer and citizen of up a preſs at St. Alban’s, and another in the city of Weſtminſter, London; who, by his travels abroad, and a reſidence of many where they printed ſeveral books of divinity and phyſic: for the king years in Holland, Flanders, and Germany, in the affairs of trade, (for reaſons beſt known to himſelf and council) permitted then no had an opportunity of informing himſelf of the whole method and law-books to be printed ; nor did any printer exerciſe this art, but proceſs of the art; and by the encouragement of the great, and only ſuch as were the king's ſworn ſervants; the king himſelf hav- particularly of the abbot of Weſtminſter, firſt ſet up a preſs in that ing the price and emolument for printing books.-By this means the abbey, and began to print books ſoon after the year 1471. This art grew fo famous, that anno primo Rich. III. c. 9. when an act was the tradition of our writers; till a book, which had ſcarce of parliament was made for reſtraint of aliens for uſing any handi- been obſerved before the Reſtoration, was then taken notice of by crafts here (except as fervants to natives), a ſpecial proviſo was in- the curious, with a date of its impreſſion, from Oxford, anno 1468, ſerted, that ſtrangers might bring in printed or written books to fell and was conſidered immediately as a clear proof and monument of at their pleaſure, and exerciſe the art of printing here, notwith- the exerciſe of printing in that univerſity ſeveral years before Cax ſtanding that act : fo that in that ſpace of 40 or 50 years, by the ton began to deal in it. indulgence of Edward IV. Edward V. Richard III. Henry VII. This book, which is in the public library at Cambridge, is a and Henry VIII. the Engliſh proved ſo good proficients ia print- ſmall volume of 41 leaves in 4to, with this title: Expoſitio Sancti ing, and grew ſo numerous, as to furniſh the kingdom with books; Jeronimi in Simbolum Apoſtolorum ad Papam Laurentium: and at and ſo ſkilful, as to print them as well as any beyond the feas; as apa the end, Explicita expoſitio, &c. Impreſa Oxonie, & finita Anno pears by the act 25 Hen. VIII. c. 15. which abrogates the ſaid Domini M.CCCC.LXVIII. XVII die Decembris. The appearance proviſo for that reaſon. And as it was further enacted in the ſaid of this book has robbed Caxton of a glory that he had long por ſtatute, that if any perſon bought foreign books bound, he ſhould Y I pay PRI PRI pay 6s. Od. per book. And it was further provided and enacted, duces the rebel John Cade, thus upbraiding Lord Treaſurer Say: that in caſe the ſaid printers or ſellers of books were unreaſonable « Thou haſt moſt traiterouſly corrupted the youth of the realm, in in their prices, they ihould be moderated by the lord chancellor, creating a grammar-ſchool : and whereas, before, our forefathers lord treaſurer, the two lords chief juſtices, or any two of them : had no other book but the ſcore and the tally, thou haſt cauſed who alſo had power to fine them 35. 4.d. for every book whoſe price printing to be uſed ; and, contrary to the king, his crown, and dig- ſhould be enhanced. But when they were by charter incorporated nity, thou haſt built a paper-mill.” Whence now had Shakeſpeare with bookbinders, bookſellers, and founders of letters, 3 & 4 Philip this accuſation againſt lord Say? We are told in the Poetical Re- and Mary, and called The Company of Stationers--they reſiſted gifter, vol. ii: p. 231. ed. Lond. 1724, that it was from Fabian, the power that gave them life, &c.- Queen Elizabeth, the firſt Pol. Vergel, Hall, Hollingſhed, Grafton, Stow, Speed, &c. But year of her reign, grants by patent the privilege of fole printing all not one of theſe aſcribes printing to the reign of Henry VI. On books thut touch or concern the common laws of England, to Tottel a the contrary, Stow, in his Annals, printed at London 1560, p. 686, fervant to her majeſty, who kept it entire to his death; after him, gives it expreſsly to William Caxton, 1471. « The noble ſcience to one Yeſt Weirt, another ſervant to her majeſty; after him, to of Printing was about this time found in Germany at Magunce, Weight and Norton; and after them, king James grants the fame by one John Guthumburgus, a knight. One Conradus an Al- privilege to More, one of the fignet; which grant continues to maine brought it into Rome; William Caxton, of London, this day, &c.' mercer, brought it into England about the year 1471, and firſt prac- From the authority of this record, all our later writers declare tiſed the fame in the Abbie of St. Peter at Weſtminſter ; after Corſellis to be the firſt printer in England; as Mr. Anthony Wood, which time it was likewiſe practiſed in the Abbies of St. Auguſ- the learned Mr. Maittaire, Palmer, and one John Bagford, an in tine at Canterburie, Saint Albans, and other monaſteries of Eng- duſtrious man, who had publiſhed propoſals for an Hiſtory of Print land.” What then ſhall we fay, that the above is an anachroniſm ing, (Phil. Tranſ. for April, 1707). But Dr. Middleton has called arbitrarily put into the mouth of an ignorant fellow out of Shakeſ- in queſtion the authenticity of this account, and has urged ſeveral peare's head? We might believe fo, but that we have the record objections to it, with the view of ſupporting Caxton's title to the of Mr. Atkins confirming the ſame in King Charles II.'s. time. precedency with reſpect to the introduction of the art into this Shall we ſay, that Mr. Atkins borrowed the ſtory from Shakel- country. Atkins, who by his manner of writing ſeems to have peare, and publiſhed it with ſome improvements of money laid out been a bold and vain man, might poſſibly be the inventor: for he had by Henry VI. from whence it might be received by Charles II. as an intereſt in impoſing it upon the world, in order to confirm the ar a prerogative of the crown ? But this is improbable, fince Shaker- gument of his book, that printing was of the prerogative royal; in peare makes Lord Treaſurer Say the inſtrument of importing it, oppoſition to the company of ſtationers, with whom he was engaged of whom Mr. Atkins mentions not a word. Another difference in an expenſive fuit of law, in defence of the king's patents, under there will be between Shakeſpeare and the Lambeth MS ; the which he claimed ſome excluſive powers of printing. For he tells us, poet placing it before 14.49, in which year Lord Say was beheaded; p. 3. “That, upon conſiderating the thing, he could not but think the MS. between 1454 and 1459, when Bourchier was archbiſhop. that a public perfon, more eminent than a mercer, and a public We muſt ſay then, that lord Say firſt laid the ſcheme, and ſent ſome purſe, muſt needs be concerned in ſo public a good: and the more one to Harleim, though without ſucceſs; but after ſome years it he conſidered, the more inquiſitive he was to find out the truth. was attempted happily by Bourchier. And we muſt conclude, that So that he had formed his hypotheſis before he had found his record; as the generality of writers have overlooked the invention of print- which he publiſhed, he ſays, as a friend to truth; not to ſuffer one ing at Harleim with wooden types, and have aſcribed it to Mentz, man to be entitled to the worthy atchievements of another; and as where metal types were firſt made uſe of; fo in England they have a friend to himſelf, not to loſe one of his beſt arguments of entitling paſſed by Corſellis , (or the firſt Oxford Printer, whoever he was, the king to this art.” But, if Atkins was not himſelf the contriver, who printed with wooden types at Oxford, and only mentioned Cax- he was impoſed upon at leaſt by ſome more crafty; who imagined ton as the original artiſt whoprinted with metal types at Weſtmin- that his intereſt in the cauſe, and the warmth that he had ſhewed ſter. [See MEERMAN, vol. ii. 7, 8.] It is ſtrange, that the in proſecuting it, would induce him to ſwallow for genuine what learned commentators on our great dramatic poet, who are ſo mi- ever was offered of the kind.” nutely particular upon leſs important occaſions, ſhould every one It may be aſked by way of reply, is it likely that Mr. Atkins of thein, Dr. Johnſon excepted, paſs by this curious paffage, leaving would dare to forge a record, to be laid before the king and coun it entirely unnoticed. And how has Dr. Johnſon trifled, by ſlightly cil, and which his adverſaries, with whom he was at law, could dif remarking, that Shakeſpeare is a little too early with this accura- approve? –He ſays, he received this hiſtory from a perſon of ho tion !” The great critic had undertaken to decipher obſolete words, nour, who was ſome time keeper of the Lambeth Library. It was and inveſtigate unintelligible phraſes ; but never, perhaps, beſtowed eaſy to have confuted this evidence, if it was falſe, when he pub a thought on Caxton or Corſellis, on Mr. Atkins or the authen- liſhed it. April 25, 1664. John Bagford (who was born in Eng ticity of the Lambeth Record. But, independent of the record altoge- land, 1651, and might know Mr. Atkins, who died in 1677), in ther, the book ſtands firm as a monument of the exerciſe of printing his Hiſtory of Printing at Oxford, blames thoſe who doubted of the in Oxford, fix years older than any book of Caxton's with a date. authenticity of the Lambeth MS. ; and tells us that he knew Sir Our firſt printers, in thoſe days of ignorance, met with but ſmall John Birkenhead had an authentic copy of it, when in 1665[which encouragement ; they printed but few books, and but few copies Bagford by ſome miſtake calls 1664, and is followed in it by Meer of thoſe books. In after-times, when the ſame books were re- man] he was appointed by the houſe of commons to draw up a printed more correctly, thoſe firſt editions, which were not as yet bill relating to the exerciſe of that art. This is confirmed by the become curioſities, were put to common uſes. This is the reaſon Journals of that houſe, Friday October 27, 1665, Vol. VIII. that we have ſo few remains of our firſt printers. We have only p. 622. where it is ordered that this Sir John Birkenhead ſhould four books of Theodoric Rood, who ſeems by his own verſes to carry the bill on that head to the houſe of lords, for their conſent. have been a very celebrated printer. Of John Lettou-William de The act was agreed to in the upper houſe on Tueſday October 31. Machlinia, and the ſchoolmaſter of St. Alban's, we have ſcarce and received the royal afſent on the ſame day: immediately after any remains. If this be conſidered, it will not appear impoffible which, the parliament was prorogued. See Journals of the Houſe that our printer fhould have followed his buſineſs from 1468 to of Lords, Vol . XI. p. 700. It is probable then, that, after Mr. 1479, and yet Time have deſtroyed his intermediate works. But, Atkins had publiſhed his book in April, 1664, the parliament 2dly, We may account ſtill another way for this diſtance of time, thought proper, the next year to inquire into the right of the king's without altering the date. The Civil wars broke out in 1469: this prerogative ; and that Sir John Birkenhead took care to inſpect the might probably oblige our Oxford printer to ſhut up his preſs; original, then in the cuſtody of archbiſhop Sheldon ; and, finding and both himſelf and his readers be otherwiſe engaged. If this it not ſufficient to prove what Mr. Atkins had cited for, made no were the caſe, he might not return to his work again till 1479; and report of the MS. to the houſe; but only moved, that the former the next year, not meeting with that encouragement he deſerved, law ſhould be renewed. The MS. was probably never returned he might remove to ſome other country with his types. to the proper keeper of it; but was afterwards burnt in the fire of Dr. Middleton concludes with apologizing for his “ſpending ſo London, September 13, 1666. That printing was practiſed at Ox much pains on an argument ſo inconſiderable, to which he was led ford, was a prevailing opinion long before Atkins. Bryan Twyne, by his zeal to do a piece of juſtice to the memory of our worthy in his Apologia pro Antiquitate Academic Oxonienſis, publiſhed 1608, countryman William Caxton; nor ſuffer him to be robbed of the tells us, it is ſo delivered down in ancient writings; having heard, glory, ſo clearly due to him, of having firſt imported into this king- probably, of this Lambeth MS. And king Charles I. in his letters dom an art of great uſe and benefit to mankind : a kind of merit, patent to the Univerſity of Oxford, March 5, in the eleventh of that, in the ſenſe of all nations, gives the beſt title to true praiſe, his reign, 1635, mentions printing as brought to Oxford from and the beſt claim to be commemorated with honour to poſterity.” abroad. As to what is objected, that it is not likely that the preſs The fact, however, againſt which he contends, but which it ſeems fhould undergo a ten or eleven years ſleep, viz. from 1468 to 1479,"? impoſſible to overturn, does by no means derogate from the honour it is probably urged without a foundation. Corſellis might print of Caxton, who, as has been ſhown, was the firſt perſon in Eng- ſeveral books without date or name of the place, as Ulric Zell did land that practiſed the art of printing fuſile types, and conſequently at Cologn, from 1407 to 1473, and from that time to 1494. Cor the firſt who brought it to perfection ; whereas Corſellis printed ſellis's name, it may be ſaid, appears not in any of his publications ; with ſeparate cut types in wood, being the only method which he but neither does that of Joannes Peterſhemius. . See MEERMAN, had learned at Harleim. Into this detail, therefore we have been Vol. I. p. 34; Vol. II, p. 21–27, &c. led, not ſo much by the importance of the queſtion, as on account Further, the famous Shakeſpeare, who was born in 1564, and of ſeveral anecdotes connected with it, which ſeemed equally cal- died 1616, in the Second Part of Henry VI. act iv. ſc..7. intro culated to ſatisfy curioſity and afford entertainment, Caxton had * Kkk been SE 200 N° 132 PRI PRI been bred very reputably in the way of trade, and ſerved an appren character, without accents or ſpirits, and with very few abbrevia- ticeſhip to one Robert Large, a mercer ; who, after having been tions. The firſt whole book that is yet known is the Greek Gram- ſheriff and lord mayor of London, died in the year 1441, and left, mar of Conſtantine Laſcaris, in quarto, reviſed by Demetrius by will, as may be ſeen in the prerogative office, xxIIII merks to Cretenfis, and printed by Dionyſius Palaviſinus, at Milan, 1476. his apprentice William Caxton: a conſiderable legacy in thoſe In 7481, the Greek Pſalter was printed here, with a Latin days, and an early teſtimonial of his good character and integrity. tranſlation, in folio; as was Æfop's Fables in quarto. Venice foon From the time of his maſter's death, he ſpent the following thirty followed the example of Milan; and in 1486 were publiſhed in years beyond ſea, in the buſineſs of merchandiſe : where, in the that city the Greek Pſalter and the Batra chomyomachia, the for- year 1464, we find him employed by Edward IV. in a public and mer by Alexander, and latter by Laonicus, both natives of Crete. honourable negotiation, jointly with one Richard Whitehill , efq; They were printed in a very uncommon character ; the latter of to tranſact and conclude a treaty of commerce between the king them with accents and ſpirits, and alſo with fcholia. In 1488, and his brother-in-law the duke of Burgundy, to whom Flanders however, all former publications in this language were eclipſed by belonged. The commiſſion ſtyles them, ambafiatores, procurato a fine edition of Homer's Works at Florence, in folio, printed by res, nuncios, & deputatos Speciales ; and gives to both or either of Demetrius, a native of Crete. Thus printing (ſays Mr. Maittaire, them full powers to treat, &c. p. 185.) ſeems to have attained its ærum of perfection, after having Whoever turns over his printed works, muſt contract a reſpect exhibited moſt beautiful ſpecimens of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. for him, and be convinced that he preſerved the ſame character In 1493, a fine edition of Iſocrates was printed at Milan, in folio, through life, of an honeſt, modeſt man ; greatly induſtrious to do by Henry German and Sebaſtian ex Pantremulo. All the above good to his country, to the beſt of his abilities, by ſpreading among works are prior in time to thoſe of Aldus, who has been errone- the people ſuch books as he thought uſeful to religion and good ouſly ſuppoſed to be the firſt Greek printer: the beauty, however, manners, which were chiefly tranſlated from the French. The correctneſs, and number of his editions, place him in a much novelty and uſefulneſs of his art recommended him to the ſpecial higher rank than his predeceſſors ; and his characters in general notice and favour of the great; under whoſe protection, and at were more elegant than any before uſed. He was born in 1445, whoſe expence, the greateſt part of his works were publiſhed. and died in 1515. Though the noble Greek books of Aldus had Some of them are addreſſed to king Edward IV. his brother the raiſed an univerſal deſire of reviving that tongue, the French were duke of Clarence, and their ſiſter the dutcheſs of Burgundy ; in backward in introducing it. The only pieces printed by them were whoſe ſervice and pay he lived many years before he began to print, ſome quotations, fo wretchedly performed, that they were rather to as he often acknowledges with great gratitude. He printed like be gueſſed at than read ; in a character very rude and uncouth, and wiſe for the uſe, and by the expreſs order, of Henry VII. his ſon without accents. But Francis Tiffard introduced the ſtudy of this prince Arthur, and many of the principal nobility and gentry of that language at Paris, by his Bibros y yuwayupirn, in 1507; and that age. It has been generally aſſerted and believed, that all his books branch of printing was afterwards ſucceſsfully practiſed by Henry, were printed in the abbey of Weſtminſter; yet we have no aſſur Robert, and Henry Stephens. ance of it from himſelf, nor any mention of the place before the The earlieſt edition of the whole Bible was, ſtrictly ſpeaking, the year 1477: ſo that he had been printing ſeveral years, without tel Complutenſian Polyglott of cardinal Ximenes; but as that edition, ling us where. There is no clear account left of Caxton's age : but though finiſhed in 1517, was not publiſhed till 1522, the Venetian he was certainly very old, and probably above four-ſcore at the Septuagint of 1518 may properly be called the firſt edition of the time of his death. In the year 1471 he complained of the infirmi whole Greek Bible ; Eraſinus having publiſhed the New Teſta- ties of age creeping upon him, and feebling his body; yet he lived ment only, at Bafil, in 1516. 23 years after, and purſued his buſineſs, with extraordinary dili Of the firſt HEBREW PRINTING. A very ſatisfactory account gence, in the abbey of Weſtminſter, till the year 1494, in which of this branch of printing is thus given by Dr. Kennicott, in his he died ; not in the year following, as all who write of him affirm. Annual Accounts of the Collation of Hebrew MSS. p. 112. “ The This appears from ſome verſes at the end of a book, called, “ Hil method which ſeems to have been originally obſerved, in printing ton's Scale of Perfection,” printed in the ſame year : the Hebrew Bible, was juſt what might have been expected: 1. The Infynite laud with thankynges many folde Pentateuch, in 1482. 2. The Prior Prophets, in 1484. 3. The I yield to God me ſocouryng with his grace Poſterior Prophets, in 1486. 4. The Hagiographia, in 1487. And, This boke to finyſhe which that ye beholde after the four great parts had been thus printed ſeparately (each Scale of Perfection calde in every place with a cornment), the whole text (without a comment) was printed Whereof th'auctor Walter Hilton was in one volume in 1488 : and the text continued to be printed, as And Wynkyn de Worde this hath fett in print in theſe firſt editions, fo in ſeveral others for 20 or 30 years, with- In William Caxſtons hows ſo fyll the caſe, out marginal Keri or Mafora, and with greater arguments to the God reſt his foule. In joy ther mot it ſtynt. more ancient Mff. till, about the year 1520, fome of the Jews Impreſſus anno falutis MCCCCLxxxxin. adopted later Mfl . and the Mafora ; which abſurd preference has Though he had printed for the uſe of Edward IV. and Henry obtained ever ſince.” Thus much for the ancient editions given by VII. yet there appears no ground for the notion which Palmer takes Jews. In 1642, a Hebrew Bible was printed at Mantua, under up, that the firſt printers, and particularly Caxton, were ſworn the care of the moſt learned Jews in Italy. This Bible had not ſervants and printers to the crown; for Caxton, as far as can be been heard of among the Chriſtians in this country, nor perhaps in obſerved, gives not the leaſt hint of any ſuch character or title : any other; though the nature of it is very extraordinary. The though it ſeems to have been inſtituted not long after his death : text indeed is nearly the ſame with that in other modern editions ; for of his two principal workmen, Richard Pynſon and Wynkyn but at the bottom of each page are various readings, amounting in de Worde, the one was made printer to the king, the other to the the whole to above 2000, and many of them of great conſequence, king's mother the Lady Magaret. collected from manuſcripts, printed editions, copies of the Talmud, Different CHARACTERs when firſt uſed in PRINTING. Before and the works of the moſt renowned Rabbies. And in one of the 1465, the uniform character was the old Gothic, or German; notes is this remark:-" That in ſeveral paſſages of the Hebrew whence our Black was afterwards formed. But in that year an Bible the differences are ſo many and ſo great, that they know not edition of Lactantius was printed in a kind of Semi-Gothic, of which to fix upon as the true readings. We cannot quit this great elegance, and approaching nearly to the preſent Roman type ; ſubject without obſerving, on Dr. Kennicott's authority, that as which laſt was firſt uſed at Rome in 1467, and ſoon after brought the firſt printed Bibles are more correct than the later ones ; fo to great perfection in Italy, particularly by Jenſon. Towards the the variations between the firſt edition, printed in 1488, and the end of the 5th century, Aldus invented the Italic character which edition of Vander Hooght, in 1705, at Amſterdam, in 2 vols. 8vo. is now in uſe, called, from his name, Aldine, or Curſivus. This amount, upon the whole, to above 1200. The method of print- ſort of letter he contrived, to prevent the great number of abbre- | ing is very complex, nor could the reader form an adequate idea viations that were then in uſe. of it but by ſeeing the workmen engaged in their ſeveral departments. Of the firſt GREEK PRINTING. The firſt eſſays in Greek that Chineſe PRINTING. There are three opinions as to the anti- be diſcovered are a few fentences which occur in the edition of quity of the Chineſe printing ; one fixing it three hundred years Tulley's Offices, 1465, at Mentz ; but theſe were miſerably incor before Chriſt; another nine hundred years after him; and a third rect and barbarous, if we may judge from the ſpecimens Mr. Mait carrying it ſtill farther back, and making it coeval with that mighty taire has given us, of which the following is one : empire ; though, it muſt be allowed, the laſt is much the leaſt pro- Отiсатаахаетрахата кал татотюха. Во bable of the three. The manner of printing we have already li- In the ſame year, 1465, was publiſhed an edition of Lacian mited to be very different from that which now obtains among the tius's Inſtitutes, printed in monaſterio Sublacenſi, in the kingdom of Europeans; it is true, it has ſome advantage over our's in correct- Naples, in which the quotations from the Greek authors are printed nefs, and the beauty of the character ; but, in other reſpects, it in a very neat Greek letter. They ſeem to have had but a very comes far fhort, the ſingle advantage of moveable characters mak- ſmall quantity of Greek types in the monaſtery; for, in the first in the monaſtery; for, in the first ing more than amends for all that is urged againſt us by ſome zea- part of the work, whenever a long ſentence occurred, a blank was lous advocates for this oriental printing. left, that it might be written in with a pen; after the middle of the Books are printed in China from'wooden planks, or blocks, cut work, however, all the Greek that occurs is printed. like thoſe uſed in printing of callico, paper, cards, &c. among us. The firſt printers who ſettled at Rome were Conrad Sweynheirn As to their paper it is inferior to our's; it is made of the inner bark and Arnold Pannartz, who introduced the preſent Roman type, in or rind of a kind of ruſhes, beat up with water into a pulp or paſte, 1466, in Cicero's Epiſtola Familiares: in 1469 they printed a beau and formed in moulds, much like our's. The advantages of the tiful edition of Aulus Gellius, with the Greek quotations in a fair Chineſe printing conſiſt in this, that they are not obliged to take can I off PRI P R O out. of the whole edition at once, but print their books as they need manders of ihips, &c. who take pay; who are under a marine dif- them; that the blocks are eaſily retouched, and made to ſerve cipline; and if they do not obey their orders, may be puniſhed with afreſh, and that their needs no corrector of the preſs. Its diſad death: and the wars in later ages have given occaſion to princes to vantages are, that a large room will ſcarce hold all the blocks of a iſſue theſe commiffions, to annoy the enemies in their commerce, moderate volume; that the colour of the ink eaſily fades; and and hinder ſuch ſupplies as might ſtrengthen them or lengthen out that the paper is apt to tear, and is ſubject to worms: whence it the war; and likewiſe to prevent the ſeparation of ſhips of greater is, that fo few ancient books are ſeen in China. force from their fleets or ſquadrons. Ships taken by privateers, Rolling-preſs PRINTING, is employed in taking off prints or im were to be divided into five parts: four parts whereof to go to the preſſions from copper-plates engraved or etched. It differs, as we perſons intereſted in the privateer, and the fifth to his Majeſty: and have before obſerved, from letter printing, in that the marks and as a farther encouragement, privateers, &c. deſtroying any French characters, whoſe impreſſions are to be taken, in the former caſe, are man of war or privateer, ſhall receive, for every piece of ordnance indented, or cut inwards; and in the latter are in relievo, or ſtand in the ſhip fo taken, £. 10 reward, &c. By a particular ſtatute This art is ſaid to be as ancient as the year 1460, and to owe lately made, the lord admiral, or commiſſioners of the adıniralty, its origin to Finiguerra, a Florentine goldſmith; who, caſting a may grant commiſſions to commanders of privateers, for taking piece of engraven plate in melted brimſtone, found the exact print ſhips, &c. which being adjudged prize, and the tenth part paid to of the engraving left in the cold brimſtone, marked with black licked the admiral, &c. wholly belong to the owners of the privateers and out of the ſtrokes by the liquid ſulphur. Some years after, the in the captors, in proportions agreed on between themſelves. vention of etching was diſcovered, which was ſoon after made uſe PRIVATIVE, in Grammar, a particle, which, prefixed to a of by Parmeggiano. Mr. Walpole obſerves, that it was not till word, changes it into a contrary ſenſe. Thus, among the Greeks, Raphael had formed Marc Antonio, that engraving placed itſelf the a. is uſed as a privative; as in otecs, atheiſts, acephalus, &c. The with dignity by the fide of painting. See ENGRAVING and Latins have their privative in: as incorrigibilis, indeclinabilis, &c. ETCHING. wilt The Engliſh, French, &c. on occaſion, borrow both the Latin When the art reached England does not certainly appear. _ Mr. and Greek privatives. Chambers, on the authority of Mr. Bagford, (ſee Phil. Tranſ. PRIVILEGE, in Law, ſome peculiar benefit granted to certain N° 310, p. 2397, or Abr. vol. v. part ii. p. 20.) erroneouſly ſaid, perſons or places, contrary to the uſual courſe of the law. Privi- that it was first brought from Antwerp by Speed, in the reign of leges are ſaid to be perſonal or real. Perſonal privileges are ſuch James I. whereas we had it in ſome degree almoſt as ſoon as print as are extended to peers, ambaſſadors, members of parliament, and ing; the printers themſelves uſing ſmall plates for their devices and of the convocation, &c. See AMBASSADOR, PARLIAMENT, rebuſes. Caxton's Golden Legend, printed in 1413, has in the be ARREST. A real privilege is that granted to ſome particular place; ginning a group of ſaints, and many other cuts diſpoſed through the as the king's palace, the courts at Weſtminſter, the univerſities, &c. body of the work. The ſecond edition of his Game of Cheſs, and Privy Council, called by way of eminence, the COUNCIL, a Le Morte de Arthur, had alſo cuts. Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton's council of ſtate, held by the king with his counſellors, to concert fucceffor, prefixed to his title of the Statutes, in the ſeventh year of matters for the public ſervice, and for the honour and ſafety of the Henry VII. or 1491, a plate with the king's arms, crelts, &c. a realm. See COUNCIL. copy of which is given in the Life of Wynkyn, by Mr. Ames, in Privy Seal, a ſeal which the king uſes, previouſly to ſuch grants, his Typographical Antiquities, p. 79. The ſame printer exhibited &c. as are afterwards to paſs the great ſeal. Yet the privy ſeal is feveral books adorned with cuts, ſome of which are particularly ſometimes uſed in matters of leſs conſequence, which do not require deſcribed by his biographer, p. 87, 88, 89, &c. Gal the great SEAL. See the Article LORD PRIVY Seal. The ſubſequent printers continued to ornament their books with PROBABILITY of an Event, in the Doctrine of Chances, is wooden cuts. One conſiderable work, publiſhed by John Raftell, greater or leſs according to the number of chances by which it may called the Paſtyme of the People, and Raſtell's Chronicle, was dif happen compared with the whole number of chances by which it tinguiſhed by prints of ſuch uncommon merit for that age, as to may either happen or fail. See EXPECTATION, GAMING, and have been aſcribed to Holbein. Grafton's Chronicle, printed in the Syſtem of ANNUITIES. 1569, contained many heads, as of William the Conqueror, PROBABILITY, in Reaſoning, veriſimilitude; or an appearance Henry VIII. queen Elizabeth, &c. and many more are recorded of truth. To define it philoſophically, probability is the appear- by Ames. But though portraits were uſed in books, Mr. Walpole ance of the agreement or diſagreement of two things by the inter- obferves, that he can find no trace of ſingle prints being wrought off vention of proofs, whoſe connection is not conſtant and immu- in that age. Thoſe which compoſed part of the collection of table, or is not perceived to be ſo; but is, or appears, for the moſt Henry VIII. were probably the productions of foreign artiſts. part, to be ſo; ſo as to ſuffice to induce the mind to judge the pro- The firſt book that appeared with cuts from copper-plates, or at poſition to be true or falſe, rather than the contrary. That propo- leaſt the firſt that Mr. Ames had obſerved, was the Birth of Man ſition, then, is probable, for which there are arguments and proofs kind, otherwiſe called the Woman's Book, dedicated to queen Ca to make it paſs, or be received for true. The entertainment the tharine, and publiſhed by Thomas Raynalde in 1540, with many mind gives to this ſort of propoſitions, is called belief, aſſent, or finall copper cuts, without any name. See Ames, ubi fupra, p. 35, opinion. Probability, then, being to ſupply the defect of our 46, 60, and 219. Wolpole's Catalogue of Engravers, &c. 4to. knowledge is always converſant about propoſitions whereof we PRISE, in marine affairs, a veſſel taken at ſea from the enemies have no certainty, but only ſome inducements to receive them for of a ſtate, or from pirates; and that either by a man of war, a pri true; and this probability relates either to matter of fact, which vateer, &c. having a commiſſion for that purpoſe. Veſſels are falling under obſervation, are capable of human teſtimony, or to looked on as a prize, if they fight under any other ſtandard than things which, being beyond the diſcovery of our ſenſes, are not that of the ſtate from which they have their commiffion; if they capable of any ſuch teſtimony; called matters of ſpeculation. have no charter-party, invoice, or bill of lading abroad; if loaded PROBABILITY, in Poetry, denotes the appearance of truth in with effects belonging to the king's enemies, or with contraband the fable or action of a poem. There are four kinds of actions: goods. In ſhips of war, the prizes are to be divided among the for a thing may be either only true or only probable; or true and officers, ſeamen, &c. as his Majeſty ſhall appoint by proclamation; probable at the ſame time; or neither the one, nor the other. but among privateers, the diviſion is according to the agreement Theſe four kinds of actions are ſhared between four arts: hiſtory between the owners. By ftat. 13 Geo. II. C. 4.; judges and offi takes the firſt, ſtill keeping to truth, without regard to probability, cers, failing of their duty in reſpect to the condemnation of prizes, Epic and dramatic poetry have the ſecond, and ſtill prefer proba- forfeit £. 500, with full coſts of ſuit; one moiety to the king, and bility, though falſe, to an improbability, though true. Thus the the other to the informer. death of Dido, who killed herfelf on her being deſerted by Eneas, PRISM, in Dioptrics, is a glaſs in form of a triangular priſm, though falſe in itſelf, is a fitter ſubject for a poem, than the action much uſed in experiments about the nature of light and colours. of Sampſon, or the Maid of Orleans. The phenomena and uſe of the priſm ariſe from its ſeparating the PROBATE of a Will or Teftament, in Law, is the exhibiting rays of light in their paſſage through it. and proving a will and teſtament, before the eccleſiaſtical judges PRIVATEERS, are a kind of private men of the perſons delegated by the biſhop, who is ordinary of the place where the concerned wherein adminiſter at their own coſts a part of a war, by a war, by party dies. fitting out theſe ſhips of force, and providing them with all military PROBLEM, TIpocrypc, in Logic, a doubtful queſtion; or a ſtores; and they have inſtead of pay, leave to keep what they take propoſition that neither appears abſolutely true, nor falſe; but from the enemy, allowing the admiral his ſhare, &c. Privateers which is probable on both ſides, and may be aſſerted either in the may not attempt any thing againſt the laws of nations; as to aſſault negative or affirmative, with equal evidence. Thus, that the moon an enemy in a port or haven, under the protection of any prince or and planets are inhabited by animals in ſome reſpect like us, is a republic, whether he be friend, ally, or neuter; for the peace of problem: that the fixed ſtars are all funs, and each the centre of a fuch places muſt be inviolably kept; therefore, by a treaty made ſeveral ſyſtem of planets and comets, is a problem. by king William and the States of Holland, before a commiſſion PROBLEM is alſo a propoſition expreſſing fome natural effect, fhall be granted to any privateer, the commander is to give fecurity, propoſed in order to a diſcovery of its apparent cauſe. Such are if the ſhip be not above 150 tons, in £. 1500, and if the ſhips ex the problems of Ariſtotle. A logical or dialectical problem, ſay the ceeds that burden, in £. 3000, that they will make ſatisfaction for learned, conſiſts of two parts; a ſubječt, or ſubject-matter, about all damages which they ſhall commit in their courſes at fea, con which the doubt is raiſed: and a predicate or attribute, which is See trary to the treaties with that ſtate, on pain of forfeiting their com the thing doubted whether it be true of the ſubject or not. miftions; and the ſhip is made liable. Beſides theſe private com the Syſtem of Logic. Part II. Sect. II. miffions, that are ſpecial commiſſions for privateers, granted to com PROBLEM, in Geometry, denotes a propoſition wherein fome operation war, PRO PRO operation, or conſtruction, is required; as to divide a line, to make bleſling on the fruits of the earth. Of which cuſtom there ftill an angle, to draw a circle through three points not in a right line, remains a ſhadow in that annual perambulation, ſtill called procef- &c. See the Syſtem, Sect. V. fioning; though the order and devotion of the ancient proceſſions be alınoft loft. PROBLEM, in Algebra, is a queſtion or propoſition which requires fome unknown truth to be inveſtigated or diſcovered; and the PROCLAMATION, PROCLAMATIO, an inſtrument dif- truth of the diſcovery demonſtrated. In this ſenſe it is a problem, patched by the king, with the advice of his privy-council , whereby to find a theorem. Algebra is defined to be the art of reſolving all the people are advertiſed of ſomething which his majeſty thinks fit problems that are reſolvable. See the Syſtem, Set VII. for them to know; and whereby they are ſometimes required to do, PROBOSCIS, Tpoßornis, is Natural Hiſtory, the trunk or ſnout or not to do, certain things. By the ſtatute 31 Hen. VIII. cap. 8. of an elephant, and of ſome other animals. The proboſcis is a it was enacted, that the king's proclamations ihould have the force member iſſuing out of the middle of the forehead, ſerving inſtead of acts of parliament, a ſtatute, ſays judge Blackſtone, which was of a hand; and having a little appendix faſtened to the hand calculated to introduce the moſt deſpotic tyranny, and which muſt thereof, in form of a finger. By the proboſcis the fhe elephant, it have proved fatal to the liberties of this kingdom, had it not been is ſaid, ſucks herſelf; and by the fame conveys the milk to her happily repealed in the minority of his ſucceſſor. Stat. 1. Edw.VI. young All quadrupeds have the length of their neck equal to that cap. 12. Comm. book i. p. 271. of their feet, the elephant alone excepted; in which the ſhortneſs PROCTORS in the Commons, are perſons ſkilled in the civil of the neck is compenſated by the length of the proboſcis. The and eccleſiaſtical laws, who exhibit their proxies, and make them- microſcope ſhews us a little trunk or proboſcis in flies and gnats, ſelves parties for their clients, to draw up acts and pleadings, pro- by means whereof they ſuck the blood of animals, or liquors, for duce witneſſes, prepare cauſes for ſentences, and attend the advo- their food. cates with the proceedings. They are about fifty in number; are PROCELLARIA, in Ornithology; a genus of birds, belonging admitted by the archbiſhop's fiat: and wear black robes, and hoods to the order of Anſeres. The beak is ſomewhat compreſſed, and lined with white furs. without teeth; the mandibles are equal, the ſuperior one being Proctors in the Univerſity, are two officers choſen from among crooked at the point; the feet are palmated, the hind claw being the ſtudents, to ſee good orders and exerciſes daily performed there. ſeſfile, without any toe. There are fix fpecies, the principal of PRODIGALITY, is a term, the meaning and application of which are the following: 1. The cinerea, or fulmar. The ſize of which are well known. We ſhall , therefore, under this head, only this bird is rather ſuperior to that of the common gull. Theſe take occaſion to obſerve, that, by the Roman law, if a man by no- birds feed on the blubber or fat of whales, &c. which, being ſoon torious prodigality was in danger of waſting his eſtate, he was convertible into oil, ſupplies them conſtantly with means of defence, looked upon as non compos, and committed to the care of curators, as well as proviſion for their young, which they caſt up into their or tutors, by the prætor. And by the laws of Sulon, ſuch prodigals mouths. They are likewiſe ſaid to feed on forrel, which they uſe were branded with perpetual infamy. to qualify the unctuous diet they live on. This ſpecies inhabits the PRODUCT, in Arithmetic and Geometry, the factum of two iſle of St. Kilda ; makes its appearance there in November, and numbers, or the quantity ariſing from, or produced by, the multi- continues the whole year, except September and O&tober; it lays a plication of two or more numbers, lines, &c. into one another. . large, white, and very brittle egg; and the young are hatched the Thus, if 6 be multiplied by 8, the product is 48. See the Syſtems. middle of June. No bird is of ſuch uſe to the iſlanders as this: PRODUCTION. See GENERATION, and PROPAGATION. the fulmar fupplies them with oil for their lamps, down for their PROFANE, a term applied, in general, to all perſons who beds, a delicacy for their tables, a balm for their wounds, and a have not the ſacred character; and all things which do not belong medicine for their diſtempers. The fulmar is alſo a certain prog- to the ſervice of religion. In this ſenſe, Xenophon, Seneca, &c. noſticator of the change of the wind; if it comes to land, no welt are profane authors. The heathen prieſts, pontiffs, &c. alſo paſs wind is expected for ſome time; and the contrary when it returns with us for profane. and keeps the ſea. The whole genus of petrels bave a peculiar PROFANENESS denotes a diſreſpect paid to the name of faculty of ſpouting from their bills, to a conſiderable diſtance, a God, and to things and perſons conſecrated to him. By the laſt large quantity of pure oil; which they do, by way of defence, into ſtatute againſt profane and common fwearing and curfing, 19 the face of any that attempts to take them: fo that they are, for the Geo. II. cap. 21. which repeals all former ones, every labourer, ſake of this panacæa, ſeized by ſurpriſe; as this oil is ſubſervient ſailor, or foldier, ſhall forfeit is. for every profane oath or curſe; to the abovementioned medical uſes. Martin tell us, it has been every other perſon under the degree of a gentleman 2s. and every uſed in London and Edinburgh with fucceſs in rheumatic caſes. gentleman, or perſon of ſuperior rank, 5s. to the poor of the parish; Frederic Martens, who had opportunity of ſeeing vaſt numbers of and on a ſecond conviction, double; and for every ſubſequent con- theſe birds at Spitzbergen, obſerves, that they are very bold, and viction, treble the fum firſt forfeited, with all charges of conviction; reſort after the whale-fiſhers in great flocks, and that, when a and in default of payment ſhall be ſent to the houſe of correction whale is taken, they will, in ſpite of all endeavours, light on it and for ten days. Any juſtice of the peace may convict upon his own pick out large lumps of fat, even when the animal is alive: That hearing, or the teſtimony of one witneſs; and any conſtable or the whales are often diſcovered at fea by the multitudes of malle peace officer, upon his own hearing, may ſecure any offender, and mukes flying; and that when one of the former are wounded, pro carry him before a juſtice, and there convict him. If the juſtice digious multitudes immediately follow its bloody track. He adds, omits his duty, he forfeits 5l. and the conſtable 40s. And the act that it is a moſt gluttonous bird, eating till it is forced to diſgorge is to be read in all pariſh churches and public chapels, the Sunday itſelf. 2. The puſfinus, or ſhear water, is 15 inches in length; the after every quarter day, on pain of 52. to be levied by warrant from breadth 31; the weight 17 ounces. Theſe birds are found in the any juſtice. Iſle of Man; and, as Mr. Ray ſuppoſes, in the Scilly iſles: PROFESSOR, in the Univerſities, a perſon who teaches or lec- great numbers are killed by the perſon who farms the iſle: they tures, publicly, fome art or ſcience, in a chair eſtabliſhed for that are ſalted and barrelled; and when they are boiled, are eaten with purpoſe. The profeſors, in foreign univerſities teach the arts, and potatoes. During the day they keep at ſea, fiſhing; and towards have their claſſes of pupils; thoſe in our univerſities only read pub- evening return to their young; whom they feed, by diſcharging the lic lectures in term-time. Of profeſſors we have a great number, contents of their ſtomachs into their mouths; which by that time fome denominated from the arts they profeſs, as caſuiſtical profeſſor, is turned into oil: by reaſon of the backward ſituation of their legs, Hebrew profeſſor, phyſic profeſſor, divinity profeſjor, &c. Others, they ſit quite erect. They quit the iſle in the latter end of Auguſt, from thoſe who founded the profeſorſhip, or aſſigned a revenue for or beginning of September; and, from accounts lately received the ſupport of the profeſjor. from navigators, we have reaſon to imagine, that, like the ſtorm PROFILE, in Architecture, the figure or draught of a building, finch, they are diſperſed over the whole Atlantic ocean. This fortification, or the like; wherein are expreffed the ſeveral heights, ſpecies inhabits alſo the Orkney ifles, where it makes its neſt in widths, and thickneſſes, ſuch as they would appear were the build- holes on the earth near the ſhelves of the rocks and headlands: it ing cut down perpendicularly from the roof to the foundation. is called there the lyre; and is much valued, both on account of its Whence the profile is alſo called the ſection, fometimes the orthogro- being a food, and for its feathers. The inhabitants take and falt phical ſection : and, by Vitruvius, alſo the ſciagraphy. Profile , in them in Auguſt for winter proviſions, when they boil them with this ſenſe, amounts to the fame with elevation; and ſtands oppoſed cabbage. They alſo take the old ones in March; but they are to a plan, or ichnography. See the Syſtem of PERSPECTIVE. then poor, and not ſo well taſted as the young. For repreſentation PROFILE, in Sculpture and Painting. A head, a portrait, &c. fee Plate V. Genus go. are ſaid to be in profile, when they are repreſented ſideways, or in a PROCESSION denotes a ceremony in the Romiſh church, ſide-view. As, when in portrait, there is but one ſide of the face, conſiſting in a formal march of the clergy in their robes, and the one eye, one cheek, and nothing of the other. people after them, putting up prayers, finging hymns, &c. and in PROGNOSTÍC, prognoſis, in Medicine, a judgment of the this manner making a viſit to ſome church or other holy place. event either of health, or of a diſeaſe; as, whether it ſhall end in There are general proceſſions of all the people in jubilees, and the life or death; be long or ſhort; mild or malignant, &c. taken from fame often in public calamities. The proceſſions of the holy fa certain ſymptoms thereof. For the prognoſis of difeafes moſt com- crament are very ſolemn. They have alſo proceſſions, frequently monly incidental to the human ſpecies, fee the Syſtem of MEDI- around the church, at the ſalutations, &c. in the maſs. Anciently, CINE throughout among us, there were, in each pariſh, cuſtomary proceſſions of the PROJECTILES, are ſuch bodies as, being put in a violent pariſh-prieſt , the patron of the church, with the chief Alag, or holy motion by any great force, are then caſt off or let go from the place banner, attended by the other pariſhoners, each Aſcenſion week'; where they received their quantity of motion; as a ſtone thrown to take a circuit round the limits of the pariſh, and pray for a from a ſling, an arrow from a bow, a bullet fron a gun, &c. 4 TREATISE ON PROJECTILES. T! HE doctrine of projectiles is either theoretical, or praétical. on account of its intricacy, to ſolve the different caſes by means of The former explains upon mathematical, mechanical, and an hyperbola, and as the calculations derived from the parabola are philoſophical principles, the laws and properties of bodies in mo on the contrary ſo exceeding eaſy; the parabolic method is there- tion. The latter conſiſts chiefly in experiments ; and is uſually fore the only one that has been brought into general uſe, except ſtyled gunnery. To this belongs the art of charging, directing, ſuch particular corrections as different artiſts have found neceſſary and exploding fire arms, as cannons, mortars, muſquets, &c. to the to introduce along with it from their own experience. I ſhall there- beſt advantage. fore, in what follows, give the rules of calculation according to the The theory, therefore, more properly belongs to this part of our parabolic theory ; and thew how accurate tables may be con- work ; but that we may be as fyftematic as poſible, we have choſen ſtructed from experiments, to ſolve every caſe with correctneſs and to treat of each in this treatiſe, beginning with the theoretical part. expedition. PART I. PROBLEMI. The random or horizontal projection at any ele- THEORY OF PROJECTILES. vation being given to find the random at any other elevation. It is uſually taken for granted, by writers on projectiles, that the THEOREM. The horizontal randoms made with the ſame ve- force of gravity near the earth's ſurface is every where the ſame, locity at different elevations, are as the fines of the double angle and afts in parallel directions; and that the effect of the air's refift of elevation. ance upon very heavy bodies, ſuch as bombs and cannon-balls, is too EXAMÐLE. Suppoſe the random at 20 degrees elevation be ſmall to be taken into conſideration. It is obvious, that the error found by experiment to be 3058-feet, required the random at 62 ariſing from the ſuppoſition of gravity's acting uniformly, and in degrees elevation? The proportion will be as fine of 40°.: 3058 :: parallel lines, muſt be exceeding ſmall; becauſe even the greateſt fine (124° or) 56° : 3944. feet, the anſwer. diſtance of a projectile above the ſurface of the earth, is inconfi Cor. The greateſt random is at the elevation of 45', and is derable in compariſon of the diſtance from the centre to which the equal to the latus rectum of the parabola. gravitation tends. But then, on the other hand, it is certain, that SCHOLIUM. It is obſerved however, that the greateſt random is the reſiſtance of the air to very ſwift motions, is much greater than not at quite 45°. elevation in the air, but on account of reſiſtance it has been commonly reprefented. Nevertheleſs, (in the application is diminiſhed to about 44° 1. of this doctrine to gunnery), if the amplitude of the projection, an PROBLEM II. The greateſt random being given to find the ran- fwering to one given elevation, be firſt found by experiment, the dom at any given elevation. amplitudes in all other cafes, where the elevations and velocities EXAMPLE. Let the greateſt random be 5080 feet, required the do not very much differ from the firſt, may be determined, to a ſuf random at the elevation of 25°? cient degree of exactneſs, from the foregoing hypotheſis: becauſe, SOLUTION. As fine of 90° (double elevation at the greateſt in all ſuch caſes, the effects of the reſiſtance will be nearly as the random) is to 5080, ſo is fine of 50°, (double of 25°) to 3892, amplitudes themſelves; and were they accurately ſo, the propor- the anſwer. tions of the amplitudes, at different elevations, would then be the PROB. III. Having the random and elevation of the piece given very ſame as in vacuo. Now, in order to form a clear idea of the to find the elevation proper for hitting a mark at a given diſtance. fubject here propoſed, the path of every projectile is to be conſidered EXAMPLE. Suppoſe the random 4900 feet, and elevation 42°, as depending on two different forces: that is to ſay, on the impel- | required the elevation with the fame charge of powder to hit a mark lant force, whereby the motion is firſt begun, (and would be conti at the diſtance of 3320 feet? nued in a right line,) and on the force of gravity, by which the pro SOLUTION. As 4900 is to fine of 84° (double 42°) ſo is 3520, jectile, during the whole time ofits flight, is continually urged down to fine of 45° 36' or 134', 24' ; the half is 22º. 48', or 97°, 12'; wards, and made to deviate more and more from its firſt direction. at either of which elevations the mark will be hit. But before we enter further into this ſubject it will be neceſſary N. B. The two laſt problems are but the converſe of the firſt, to explain the terms uſed in this art; the chief of which are con the folutions being deduced from the ſame theorem. tained in the following DEFINITIONS: PROB. IV. Having the greateſt random on any horizontal 1. Random, or Amplitude, is the diſtance to which a ball is ſhot plane, to find the greateſt random on an inclined plane. from a mortar or gun, and is meafured upon the plane of projection. THEOREM II. The projections or randoms made on different 2. Elevation is the angle to which the axis of the gun is raiſed planes with the ſame velocity, are in the complicate ratio of the above the plane of projection. fines of the angles which the lines of direction make with the plane 3. Altitude is the height a ball acquires above the plane of pro- and zenith ; and the ſquares of the cofines of the planes elevations jection, or the higheſt point of its tract. reciprocally. And the greateſt randoms on different planes are as 4. Plane of Projection is a plane paffing between the cannon or the verſed fines of angles between the plane and zenith directly, muſquet, and the object to be fired at; or it is a plane on which and the verſed fines of double theſe angles reciprocally, either for both the cannon and object are ſuppoſed to be fituated. aſcents or deſcents : or rather thus, the randoms are reciprocally 5. Charge is the quantity of powder and ball proper for any gun. as the verſed fines of the ſupplements of the angles between the PROPOSITION, the motion of a projectile (abſtracting from the plane and zenith. air's reſiſtance, and ſuppoſing the force of gravity to be uniform) is in the curve of a parabola. For let the line GRF, Example. Suppoſe the greateſt horizontal random 3990 feet, what is the greateſt random on a plane elevated, or depreſſed 9 (fig. 50, in the Plate of Miſcellaneous Mathematics,) be the degrees ? line in which the projectile is directed, and in which, by the laws of motion, it would perpetually move equal ſpaces in equal times, 1. For the aſcent. Here ver. fine go! =į, and therefore as ver. fine 180° were it not deflected downwards by the force of gravity. Let GB ver, fine 8,0 2 X ver. Gne, 819 X 3990 be the horizontal line, and GC a perpendicular thereto: then the ver. fine 162ulo is 3990 to = 3450 feet, ver. fine 162 line GRF being divided into equal parts, anſwering to equal ſpaces the anſwer when the plane is elevated; or as vers. 99°: 3990 :: ra- of time, let the defcents of the projectile be laid down in lines pa- dius: 3450, fame as before. rallel to GC, proportioned as the ſquares of the lines GS, GR, 2 X ver. fine 999X3990 GL, GF; or as the ſquares of the times from S to T, from R to V, 2. For the deſcent. The random ſought will be ver. line 198" from L to X, and from F to B; and draw the lines TH, VD, =4730, the anſwer, when the plane is depreſſed; or as verſed ſine XY, BC, parallel to GF; then will the points T, V, X, B, be in 82° is to 3990, ſo is radius to 4730, ſame as above. the curve deſcribed by the projectile, which is a parabola ; for the Cor. The greateſt random on an inclined plane, is when the parts of the deſcent GH, GD, GY, GC (= ST, RV, LX, FB, line of direction biſects the angle between the zenith and the plane, reſpectively) being as the ſquares of the times, that is, as the ſquares and the randoms are equal which are made at equal diſtances above of the ordinates HT, DV, XY, BC = GS, GR, GL, GF, the and below this line. ſpaces meaſured in thoſe times, and there being no other curve but Prob. V. Having the greateſt horizontal random, to find the the parabola, whoſe parts of the diameter are as the ſquares of the elevation to hit an object with the leaſt force, the height and diſ- ordinates; it follows, that the curve deſcribed by a projectile is a tance being given. parabola and no other : and ſaying as RV, the deſcent in any time : RULE. The angle of elevation is found thus: as diſtance is to GR or VD the direct motion in the ſame time : : VD: a third radius, fo is the altitude of the object to the tangent of its elevation. proportional called the parameter of the parabola to the diameter But this elevation may more eaſily be had by obſervation. GC, which is always the ſame in projectiles caſt with the ſame ve- Cor. To hit an object with the leaſt force, the line of direc- locity; and the velocity being defined by the number of feet caft in tion muſt biſect the angle between the zenith and the object. a ſecond of time, the parameter will be found by dividing the ſquare PROB. VI. The velocity in feet, and the elevation being given of the velocity by 16 2 feet, the fall of a body in the fame time. to find the horizontal random. In order to ſolve this, let f=16. For the more eaſy comprehending of this demonſtration, our I feet; A=ſine of double the angle of elevation, v=the velo- readers are referred to what has been delivered under the article Motion, and in the treatiſe of Conic Sections given in the Syle city , r=-radius, or fine of 90°:— Then the horizontal random will be equal to or as 2 fx rad. : 02 :: A to the horizontal tem of GEOMETRY. 2 fx rad. Hence, by means of the parabola, the ſeveral requiſites in the art random. of gunnery are readily computed, except inſomuch as the ſame are EXAMPLE. Let the elevation be 30', and the velocity=350 affected by the air's reſiſtance, which cauſes the ball to move in a feet, per ſecond. curve of the hyperbolic kind, whereof one of the affymptotes is pa Then as 32. 2 x rad. : 3592 :: ſine 60° : 3295 feet, the anſwer, rallel to the line of projection, and the other is perpendicular to the Cor. The elevations being the ſame, the horizontal randoms horizon; but as it is wholly impracticable, if not almoſt impoſſible, åre as the ſquares of the velocities. * L11 PROB, is to Nº I32. PROJECTILE S. on, guns, Prog. VII. Having the random made with a certain charge of fire it off, and meaſure the random, which fet down; then elevate powder at a given elevation, to find the charge of powder for any it to 10º, 15", 20°, 25°, &c. as far as go, and find the random to each elevation. One ſhot, however, for each cannot be relied other random with the ſame elevation. but feveral ſhould be made, at each degree of elevation, and a mean THEOREM III. The charges of powder will be nearly as the randoms. random taken ; and this muſt not only be done for one fort of EXAMPLE. If 81b. of powder throw a ball 4010 feet, how much but the fame muſt be done for guns of all ſizes ; and their reſpective powder will throw it 5700 feet? fizes with the ſeveral degrees of elevation, and randoms muſt be in As 4010 ft. : 81b. :: 5700 ft. : 11.3 lb. the anſwer, which will ferted in tables for uſe, and then all the common caſes in gunnery be pretty exact, ſuppofing all the powder not to fire inſtantaneouſly, may be reſolved from the tables by inſpection, or at leaſt by help but in a gradual manner, ſo as to be all fired when the ball is at the of a ſhort proportion, in a more accurate manner than from the mouth of the gun; but if all the charge is ſuppoſed to be fired in theory, ſeeing that the tables are made from actual experiments, ſtantaneouſly, the anſwer when greater than the given charge will they include the air's reſiſtance, and every other conſideration of allowance. be ſomething too little, and when leſs than the given charge will be ſomething too great. PART II. PROB. VIII. The height of the perpendicular projection being PRACTICAL PROJECTILES. given, to find the height of the ſhot at any other elevation. THEOREM IV. The altitudes of projections are as the verfed The practical part of this treatiſe, termed Gunnery, conſiſts fines of the double angles of elevation, when the velocities are the chiefly in directing the piece, in ſuch a manner as always to fame, and as the ſquares of the velocities when the elevations are hit the object, againſt which it is directed, and muſt be attained by the ſame; viz. in the compound ratio of both. a train of actual experience. It is however ſuppoſed the following EXAMP. Let the height of the perpendicular projection be maxims from Mr. Benjamin Robins, who was employed a long 3420 feet, what is the height when the elevation is 35º ? Here, time in this arts may be worthy of inſertion. as verſ. 180° : 3420 :: verf. 70: 1125, the altitude required. 1. In any piece of artillery, the greater the quantity of powder Cor. The perpendicular projection is the greateſt altitude. it is charged with, the greater will be the velocity of the bullet. PROB. IX. Given the height of the perpendicular projection, 2. If two pieces of the ſame bore, but of different lengths, are and the elevation, to find the random. fired with the ſame charge of powder, the longer will impel the Rule, as radius, is to the height of the perpendicular projec bullet with a greater celerity than the ſhorter. tion, ſo is the fine of twice the elevation to half the random. 3. If two pieces of artillery, different in weight, and formed of EXAMP. Let the perpendicular projection be 3420 feet, and different metals, have yet their cylinders of equal bores and equal the elevation 35° required the random? As rad. : 3420 :: fine lengths ; then, with like charges of powder and like bullets, they 70° : 3214 =the random, which doubled gives 6428 the ran will each of them diſcharge their ſhot with nearly the ſame degree dom fought. of celerity. Cor. The perpendicular projection is half the greateſt random, 4. The ranges of pieces at a given elevation are no juſt meaſures but owing to the reſiſtance of the air, it is found to be ſomething of the velocity of the ſhot ; for the ſame piece fired ſucceſſively at more than half the greateſt random. an invariable elevation, with the powder, bullet, and every other Prob. X. The random and elevation being given to find the circumſtance, as nearly the fame as poſſible, will yet range to very height of the ſhot. different diſtances. RULE. As radius is to the tangent of the elevation, ſo is the 5. The greateſt part of that uncertainty in the ranges of pieces random to the height of the projection. which is deſcribed in the preceding maxim, can only ariſe from EXAMP. Let the random be 6428, and elevation 35°; then the reſiſtance of the air. as radius : tangent 359 :: rand. 1607 to 1125, the height re 6. The reſiſtance of the air acts upon projectiles in a twofold quired. manner : for it oppoſes their motion, and by that means continually PROB. XI. The random and height of the ſhot being given to diminiſhes their celerity ; and it beſides diverts them from the re- find the height of the perpendicular projection. gular tract they would otherwiſe follow ; whence ariſe thoſe devi- RULE, Let d=the random, h= height of the projection, ations and inflections already treated of. ad then h+ 7. That action of the air by which it retards the motion of = height of the perpendicular projection. b projectiles, though much neglected by writers on artillery, is yet, EXAMP. Suppoſe the random to be 6428, height 1125: then in many inſtances, of an immenſe force; and hence the motion of theſe refifted bodies is totally different from what it would other- 1607) by the above rule + 1125= 3420, the height of the per- wiſe be. II25 8. This retarding force of the air acts with different degrees of pendicular projection required. violence, according as the projectile moves with greater or leſſer PROB. XII. Given the elevation, and random to find the time velocity; and the reſiſtances obſerve this law, That to a velocity of flight. which is double another, the reſiſtance within certain limits is four- RULE. The times of flight are as the fines of the angles of ele fold; to a triple velocity, ninefold; and ſo on. vation; or thus, as radius : tangent elevation :: random to Q; 9. But this proportion between the reſiſtances to two different velocities, does not hold, if one of the velocities be leſs than that of and =time in ſeconds, f being = 16.1 feet. 1200 feet in a ſecond, and the other greater; for in that caſe the reſiſtance to the greater velocity is near three times as much as it Beſides the arithmetical calculations here given, the ſeveral pro would coine out by a compariſon with the ſmaller, according to the blems may be ſolved geometrically after this manner. Let AB law explained in the laſt maxim. (fig. 51.) the perpendicular projection. About AB deſcribe 10. To the extraordinary power exerted by the reſiſtance of the the ſemicircle ACD. Make AK-2 AB, which will be the air it is owing, that when two pieces, of different bores, are dif- greateſt random. Let AH, be any other random, and make charged at the fame elevation, the piece of the largeſt bore uſually AE=Å AH, and erect ECc perpendicular to AH to cut the ſe- ranges fartheſt, provided they are both fired with fit bullets, and mi-circle in Cc; and draw ACD Acd. Make AF ={ AH, and raiſe FDd perpendicular to AH. Biſect FD, Fd, in G and g, the cuſtomary allotment of powder. which will be the vertices of two parabolas palling through AH, II. The greateſt part of military projectiles will, at the time of and touching the lines AD and Ad, whoſe parameters are 4BL, rubbing again the inſide of their reſpective pieces; and this whirl- their diſcharge, acquire a whirling motion round their axis, by and 4B1. Therefore, if EAC, E Ac, be two elevations, ſo that ing motion will cauſe them to ſtrike the air very differently from CR=cR, the projections made in theſe two directions will what they would do had they no other than a progreſſive motion. deſcribe theſe parabolas, and both paſs through H:, and if By this means it will happen, that the reſiſtance of the air will not AI = I AK, and IR touch the circle in R, A R will be 90°, always be directly oppoſed to their flight; but will frequently act and the projection made along AR will paſs through the point K. So then AGH, Ag H, will be the paths of the projectiles in in a line oblique to their courſe, and will thereby force them to de- direction AC or Ac, and whoſe velocity is that required of falling viate from the regular tract they would otherwiſe deſcribe ; and this through BA. And the angle ACB or Ac B is always a right an- is the true cauſe of the irregularities deſcribed in maxim 4. 12. From the ſudden trebling the quantity of the air’s reſiſtance, gle. Alſo the height of the parabolas will be FG =EC or AL, and Fg = Ec or Al, being the verſed ſines of twice the elevation. when the projectile moves ſwifter than at the rate of 1200 feet in And the time of aſcent and deſcent in AB, to the time in the a ſecond (as hath been explained in maxim 9), it follows, that pa- rabola AGH (or A g H) is as AB to AC or (Ac). Likewiſe CL whatever be the regular range of a bullet diſcharged with this laſt (!) is the fine of twice the elevation = \ of the random. Theſe mentioned velocity, that range will be but little increaſed how much ſoever the velocity of the bullet may be ſtill farther augmented by geometrical conſtructions, with a knowledge of the laws of motion and conic ſections, alſo furniſh means for demonſtrating the ſeveral greater charges of powder. theorems and rules uſed in calculation. I3 If the ſame piece of cannon be ſucceſſively fired, at an inva- riable elevation, but with various charges of powder, the greateſt The Method for conſtructing Tables for ſolving accurately the Com- charge being the whole weight of the bullet in powder, and the mon Problems of Gunnery by Inſpection. leaſt not leſs than the fifth part of that weight; then, if the elevation In order to this there muſt be a competent number of experi- be not leſs than eight or ten degrees, it will be found, that ſome cf ments made with all forts of guns at all elevations. Thus take the ranges, with the leaſt charge, will exceed ſome of thoſe with any gun of which you know the proper charge and elevate it to 5º, the greateſt. 2 PROJECTIL E S. charge of appear 9 14. If two pieces of cannon of the ſame bore, but of different with a known degree of velocity, and ſtriking it in a given points lengths, are fucceflively fired at the ſame elevation with the ſame that is, if the pendulum be ſuppoſed at reſt before the percuffion, it powder; then it will frequently happen, that fome of will be known what vibration it ought to make in conſequence of the ranges with the ſhorter piece will exceed fome of thoſe with ſuch a blow; and if the pendulum being at reſt is ſtruck by a body the longer. of a known weight, and the vibration which the body makes after 15. In diſtant cannonadings, the advantages ariſing from long the blow is known, the velocity of the ſtriking body may from pieces and large charges of powder are but of little moment. thence be determined. 16. In firing againſt troops with grape fhot, it will be found, Now the extent of the vibration made by the pendulum may be that charges of powder much leſs than thoſe generally uſed are the meaſured by the ribbon : for if the preſſure of the ſteel edges on moſt advantageous. the ribbon be regulated by the ſcrew, ſo as to be free and eaſy, 17. The principal operations in which large charges of powder though with a minute reſiſtance to prevent its flipping of itſelf, then to be more efficacious than ſmall ones, are the ruining of ſetting the pendulum at reſt, let the ſetting the pendulum at reſt, let the part of the ribbon between parapets, the diſmounting of batteries covered by ſtout merlons, or the pendulum and the ſteel edges be drawn ſtraight, but not ſtrain- battering in breach ; for, in all theſe caſes, if the object be but lit ed; and fixing a pin in the part of the ribbon contiguous to the tle removed from the piece, every increaſe of velocity will increaſe edges, the pendulum ſwinging back by the impulſe of the ball, will the penetration of the bullet. draw out the ribbon to the juſt extent of its vibration, which will 18. Whatever operations are to be performed by artillery, the be determined by the interval on the ribbon between the edges and leaſt charges of powder, with which they can be effected, are the place of the pin. The computation by which the velocity of always to be preferred. the ball is determined from the vibration of the pendulum after the 19. Hence, then, the proper charge of any piece of artillery is ſtroke, is founded on this principle of mechanics : that if a body in not that allotment of powder which will communicate the greateſt motion ſtrikes on another at reſt, and they are not ſeparated after velocity to the bullet (as moſt practitioners formerly maintained); the ſtroke, but move on with one common motion, then that com- nor is it to be determined by an invariable proportion of its weight mon motion is equal to the motion which the firſt body to the weight of the ball : but, on the contrary, it is ſuch a quan moved before the ſtroke ; whence if that common motion, and the tity of powder as will produce the leaſt velocity for the purpoſe in maſſes of the two bodies are known, the motion of the firſt body hand; and, inſtead of bearing always a fixed ratio to the weight before the ſtroke is thence determined. On this principle it fol- of the ball, it muſt be different according to the different buſineſs lows that the velocity of a bullet may be diminiſhed in any given which is to be performed. ratio by its being made to impinge on a body of weight properly 20. No field piece ought at any time to be loaded with more proportioned to it; and hereby the moſt violent motions, which than , or at the utmoſt 5, of the weight of its bullet in powder; would otherwiſe eſcape our examination, are eaſily determined by nor fhould the charge of any battering piece exceeds of the weight the retarded motions which have a given relation to them. of its bullet. It is to be obſerved that the length to which the ribbon is drawn ART. I. Deſcription and Uſe of rifled Barrels. is always near the chord of the arch deſcribed by the aſcent ; it being ſo placed as to differ inſenſibly from thoſe chords which moſt The greateſt irregularities in the motion of bullets are, owing to frequently occur, and theſe chords are known to be in the propora the whirling motion on their axis, acquired by the friction againſt tion of the velocities of the pendulum acquired from the ſtrokes. the ſides of the piece. The beſt method hitherto known of pre Hence it follows that the proportions between the lengths of rib- venting thefe is by the uſe of pieces with rifled barrels. Theſe bon, drawn out at different times, will be the ſame with that of the pieces have the inſides of their cylinders cut with a number of velocities or the impinging bullets. Now from Mr. Robins's ſpiral channels: ſo that it is in reality a female ſcrew, varying from computations, the velocity of a bullet whoſe weight was ik of a the common ſcrews only in this, that its threads or rifles are leſs pound, was 1641 feet in a ſecond of time, when the chord of the deflected, and approach more to a right line ; it being uſual for arch deſcribed by the aſcent of the pendulum was 17 inches the threads with which the rifled barrel is indented, to take little therefore, by the proportion of any other lengths of ribbon drawn more than one turn in its whole length. The numbers of theſe out by a percuſſion to 17), the proportion of the velocity with threads are different in each barrel, according to the ſize of the piece which the bullets impinge, to the known velocity of 1641 feet in and the fancy of the workman ; and in like manner the depth to I ſecond, will be determined. Verdi which they are cut is not regulated by any invariable rule. Art. III. Of the Reſiſtance of the Air to the Motion of the Bullets. The uſual method of charging theſe pieces is this: When the “With regard to the reſiſtance of the air, which fo remarkably proper quantity of powder is put down, a leaden bullet is taken, a affects all military projectiles, it is neceſſary to premiſe, that the ſmall matter larger than the bore of the piece was before the rifles greateſt part of authors have eſtabliſhed it as a certain rule, that, were cut: and this bullet being laid on the mouth of the piece, and while the ſame body moves in the fame medium, it is always re- conſequently too large to go down of itſelf, it is forced by a ſtrong fiſted in the duplicate proportion of its velocity; that is, if the re- rammer, impelled by a mallet, and by repeated blows is driven home fiſted body move in one part of its tract with three times the velo- to the powder ; and the foftneſs of the lead giving way to the vio- city with which it moved in fome other part, then its reſiſtance to lence with which the bullet is impelled, that zone of the bullet, the great velocity will be nine times the reſiſtance to the lefſer. which is contiguous to the piece, varies its arcular form, and takes If the velocity in one place be four times greater than in another, the ſhape of the inſide of the barrel ; ſo that it becomes part of a the reſiſtance of the fluid will be 16 times greater in the firſt, than male ſcrew, exactly anſwering to the indents of the rifle. in the ſecond, &c. This rule, however, though pretty near the “ It muſt be obſerved, however, that though the bullet impelled truth when the velocities are confined within certain limits, is ex- fron a rife-barrelled piece keeps for a time to its regular track ceffively erroneous when applied to military projectiles, where ſuch with fufficient nicety; yet if its flight be ſo far extended that the reſiſtances often occur as could ſcarcely be effected, on the com- track becomes conſiderably incurvated, it will then undergo con monly received principles, even by a triple augmentation of its fiderable deflections.' "The beſt remedy for this defect, is the denſity. denſity. By means of the machine already deſcribed, (ſays Mr. making uſe of bullets of an egg-like form inítead of ſpherical ones. Robins) I have it in my power to determine the velocity with Art. II. Of Mr. Robin's Method of determining by Experiments which a ball moves in any part of its track, provided I can direct the piece in ſuch a manner, as to cauſe the bullet to impinge on the the Velocity whi hany Ball moves with at any Diſtance of the Piece pendulum place in that part: and therefore, charging a muſket- it is diſcharged from. barrel three times ſucceſſively with a leaden ball of an inch in This he effects by means of an iron pendulum, having a broad diameter, and about half its weight of powder; and taking ſuch part at the bottom, covered with a thick piece of wood faſtened to precautions in weighing of the powder, and placing it, that I was the iron by ſcrews : then having three poles joined together by their aſſured, by many previous trials, that the velocity of the ball could tops, and ſpreading at bottom, ſuch as are commonly uſed in not differ by 20 feet in a ſecond from its medium quantity ; I fired weighing and lifting heavy bodies, and called by workmen triangles, it againſt the pendulum placed at 25, 75, and 125 feet diſtance on two of theſe poles, towards their tops, are ſcrewed on ſockets, on from the mouth of the piece reſpectively; and I found that it im- which the pendulum is hung by means of a croſs piece, which pinged againſt the pendulum, in the firſt caſe, with a velocity of becomes its axis of ſuſpenſion, and on which it ought to vibrate 1670 feet in a ſecond; in the ſecond caſe, with a velocity of 1550 with great freedom. Something lower than the bottom of the feet in a ſecond ; and in the third caſe, with a velocity of 1425 feet pendulum there ſhould be a brace, joining the two poles to which in a ſecond; ſo that, in paſſing through 50 feet of air, the bullet the pendulum is fufpended, and to this brace there is faſtened a loſt a velocity of 120 or 125 feet in a ſecond ; and the time of its contrivance, made with two edges of ſteel, ſomething in the man paſſing through that ſpace being about id and jöth of a ſecond, ner of a drawing pen ; the ſtrength with which theſe edges preſs on the medium quantity of reſiſtance muſt, in theſe inſtances, have each other, being diminiſhed or increaſed at pleaſure by means of been about 120 times the weight of a ball; which (as the ball was a ſcrew. To the bottom of the pendulum ſhould be faſtened a nearly fath of a pound) amounts to about rolb. avoirdupoiſe. narrow ribbon, which, paffing between the ſteel edge, may hang “Now, if a computation be made, according to the method laid Isofely down, by means of an opening cut in the lower piece of ſteel. down for compreſſed Auids in the 38th propofition of Newton's The inſtrument being thus fitted, if the weight of the pendulum, Principia, ſuppoſing the weight of water to that of air as 850 to 1, the reſpective diſtances of its centre of gravity, and of its centre of it will be found, that the reſiſtance to a globe of of an inch dia- oſcillation from its axis of ſuſpenſion be known, it may from meter, moving with a velocity of about 1600 feet in a ſecond, will thence be found what motion will be communicated to this pen not, on theſe principles, amount to any more than 4-lb. avoirdu- dulum, by the percuſſion of a body of a known weight, moving poiſe ; whence, as we know that the rules contained in that pro- poſition 7 PROJECTILE S. 24 lb 12 lb 9 16 3 lb 4 12 ос I 200 Ιοοο 3 26 4 30 2 O 2 2 2 ΙΟ 2 2 20 2 I I I I I I I I I 22 1 NAG w I - Сл T 200 232 IOO poſition are very accurate with regard to flow motions, we may the ſhot were not retarded by the reſiſtance of the air, the range hence conclude, that the reſiſtance of the air in ſlow motions is correſponding to one degree of this piece might be reckoned 450 leſs than that in ſwift motions, in the ratio of 45 to 10; a propor yards, to two degrees goo, to three degrees 1350, &c. fince, inde- tion between that of 1 to 2, and I to 3, pendently of the air's reſiſtance, the ranges at different elevations Again, I charged the ſame piece a number of times with equal would be nearly in proportion to theſe angles, at leaſt as far as quantities of powder, and balls of the ſame weight, taking all poſ eight or ten degrees. But the reſiſtance of the air will occaſion a ſible care to give to every ſhot an equal velocity; and, firing three conſiderable alteration ; becauſe, by diminiſhing the velocity of the times againſt the pendulum placed only 25 feet from the mouth of bullet, it will render its tract more incurvated than it would other- the piece, the medium of the velocities with which the ball im wiſe be, and diminiſh its range: and the ſmaller the ſhot, the greater pinged was nearly that of 1690 feet in a ſecond : then removing would be the diminution. The following table will ſerve to thew the piece 175 feet from the pendulum, I found, taking the medium the angles of elevation correſponding in different pieces to different of five ſhots, that the velocity with which the ball impinged at this diſtances, and will ſave the labour of computation. diſtance, was 1300 feet in a ſecond; whence the ball, in paſſing Actual Range Angle of Elevation. through 150 feet of air, loft a velocity of about 390 feet in a ſe- in Yards 6 lb cond; and the reſiſtance computed from theſe numbers, comes out ſomething more than in the preceding inſtance, it amounting here to between 11 and 12 pounds avoirdupoiſe ; whence, according to 1400 4 30 4 45 5 5 57 theſe experiments, the reſiſting power of the air to ſwift motions 3 40 3 50 4 is greater than to flow ones, in a ratio, which approaches nearer 45 54 3 3 7. 3 30 800 ó to that of 3 to i than in the preceding experiments. 13 30 600 “ Having thus examined the reſiſtance to a velocity of 1700 30 32 34 36 44 500 feet in a ſecond, I next examined the reliſtance to ſmaller velocities: 13 15 17 19 and for this purpoſe, I charged the fame barrel with balls of the 400 58 587 59 o 3 ſame diameter, but with leſs powder, and placing the pendulum at 300 43 43 43 44 43 25 feet diſtant from the piece, I fired againſt it five times with an 27 281 28 ) 291 equal charge each time: the medium velocity with which the ball 14 14 14: 143 15 impinged, was that of 1180 feet in a ſecond ; then, removing the By this table, when the diſtance of the object is known, the an- pendulum to the diſtance of 250 feet, the medium velocity of five gle, by which the axis of the piece ought to be elevated above the ſhots, made at this diſtance, was that of 950 feet in a ſecond : uſual line, will be readily determined; and when this angle is whence the ball, in paſſing through 225 feet of air, loſt a velocity known, the piece may be directed or pointed, by meaſuring the of 230 feet in a ſecond ; and as it paſſed through that interval in length of it from the middle of the baſe-ring to the middle of the about th of a ſecond, the reſiſtance to the middle velocity will muzzle-ring, and computing the tangent of the given angle of ele- come out to be near 337 times the gravity of the ball, or 2 lb. 10 vation to that radius, which may be readily done by a table of oz, avoirdupoiſe. Now, the reſiſtance to the ſame velocity, ac- tangents. cording to thelaws obſerved in flower motions, amounts to of the ſame quantity ; whence, in a velocity of 1065 feet in a ſecond, Art: V. To determine the Lengths of Guns anſwering to any the reliſting power of the air is augmented in no greater a propor- given Charge. tion than that of 7 to Il; whereas we have ſeen in the former ex- From ſome experiments with fix 24 pounders, nearly of the fame periments, that to ſtill greater degrees of velocity the augmenta- weight, whoſe lengths were 10.5, 10, 9, 5.9, 8.5, and 8 feet, tion approached very near the ratio of one to three. charged alike, and elevated to 7, made by general Armſtrong at “ But farther, I fired three ſhot, of the ſame ſize and weight Woolwich, in 1736, it has been inferred, that 9.5 was the beſt with thoſe already mentioned, over a large piece of water ; ſo that length for a 24 pounder: but it does not appear what the charge their dropping into the water being very diſcernable, both the diſ- was ; and beſides, if the charge, ſuppoſed to be half the weight of tance and time of their flight might be accurately aſcertained. the bullet, had been more or leſs, the lengths which carried the Each ſhot was diſcharged with a velocity of 400 feet in a ſecond; Thot fartheſt would likewiſe have been more or leſs : ſo that allow- and I had ſatisfied myſelf by many previous trials of the ſame ing this length to be the beſt for that charge, it does not follow, charge with the pendulum, that I could rely on this velocity to ten that it will remain ſo when the charge is either increaſed or dimi- feet in a ſecond. The firſt ſhot flew 313 yards in four ſeconds and niſhed, or when the weight of the metal is changed. But ſince a quarter, the ſecond flew 319 yards in four ſeconds, and the third theſe experiments were made, it has been found that eight pounds 373 yards in five ſeconds and an half. According to the theory of of powder are ſufficient for a 24 pounder, when it is to make a reſiſtance eſtabliſhed for ſlow motions, the firſt ſhot ought to have breach ; and therefore it remains to be determined, what is the ſpent no more than 3.2 ſeconds in its fight, the ſecond 3.28, and beſt length for that charge. the third 4 ſeconds : whence it is evident that every ſhot was re- tarded confiderably more than it ought to have been, had that theory lowing table , in which the numbers at the top expreſs the lengths With a view to this ſubject, Mr. Muller has calculated the fol- taken place in its motion ; confequently the reſiſtance of the air is of the pieces in diameters of their ſhot; the firſt vertical column very ſenſibly increaſed, even in ſuch a ſmall velocity as that of 400 feet in a ſecond. expreſſes the charges in reſpect to the weight of the ſhots; and the “ From the computations and experiments already mentioned, other numbers in the ſame horizontal lines, expreſs the diſtances it plainly appears, that a leaden ball of of an inch diameter, and in feet moved over, by the velocities of the ſhot uniformly conti- nued in a ſecond of time. weighing nearly 1 oz. avoirdupoiſe, if it be fired from a barrel of 45 inches in length, with half its weight of powder, will iſſue from TABLE OF VELOCITIES. that piece with a velocity which, if it were uniformly continued, 15 18 24 would carry it near 1700 feet in a ſecond. If, inſtead of a leaden 27 30 36 ball, an iron one, of an equal diameter, was placed in the ſame ſituation in the ſame piece, and was impelled by an equal quantity I 1043 | 1052 1058 1063 | 1066 1068 1071 1074 of powder, the velocity of ſuch an iron bullet would be greater than 1/2 that of the leaden one in the fubduplicate ratio of the ſpecific 1186 들 ​1217 1224 | 1229 | 1234 gravities of lead and iron; and ſuppoſing that ratio to be as three to two, and computing on the principles already laid down, it will - 1406 | 1434 | 1452 1465 1475 | 1482 1488 1497 appear, that an iron bullet of 241b. weight, ſhot from a piece of ten feet in length, with 16 lb. of powder, will acquire from the explo- 1568 | 1613 | 1641 | 1692 | 1677 | 1688 1692 | 1677 | 1688 | 1698 | 1711 fion a velocity which, if uniformly continued, would carry it nearly N. B. The diameter of a nine-pound ſhot, which is four inches, 1650 feet in a ſecond. and expreſſes the height of the charge when it is a quarter of the Art. IV. The Method of pointing Guns ſo as to frike diſtant Objects weight of the ſhot, &c. was uſed in the calculation of this table. From this table it is inferred, 1. That if the charge is but a quar- This depends on two things, viz. 1. Tracing on the outſide of ter of the ſhot's weight, the difference between the velocities, when a piece, a viſual line parallel to the axis, which is called diſparting, the length is 12 and 15 diaineters, is only nine feet in a ſecond; and is performed by taking half the difference of the diameters of and the differences between the other velocities decreaſe, as the the muzzle and baſe-ring, and ſetting it perpendicularly on the length increaſes; and, therefore, as the difference between the ve- muzzle-ring directly over the centre ; for then a line, which paſſes locities, when the piece is 15 and 36 diameters, is only twenty-two from that point in the baſe-ring, which is directly over the centre feet in a ſecond, it follows, that when the pieces are charged with of the piece, to the extremity of the diſtance thus placed on the one quarter of the Mot's weight, the length from 12 to 15 is the inuzzle-ring, will, when the piece is truly bored, be parallel to its beſt in that caſe. 2. When the charge is one third of the thot's axis. 2. The other operation is the determining the allowance to weight, it appears in the ſame manner, that the length from 15 to be made in diſtant ſhot for the incurvation of the flight of the bullet: 18 diameters is the beſt. And, 3. When the charge is one half this is greater or leſs (cæteris paribus) according to the different of the ſhot's weight, the length ought to be from 18 to 21 diame- charges of powder made uſe of. Mr. Robins has determined, that ters; and when the charge is two third of the ſhot's weight, the ſuch a charge as produces a velocity between 1100 and 1200 feet length ſhould be from 21 to 24 diameters : and theſe lengths, ſays in a ſecond, is in many caſes the moſt eligible : ſuppoſing, there Mr. Muller, are conformable to practice ; for the preſent light fore, that the piece is loaded with ſuch a charge ; in this caſe, if field-pieces are ſome 12, and others 15 diameters long, and their 4 charge I 2 21 I 200 I 210 I 222 PRO J E CTIL E S. Pounders. Length. O 6 52 0 o 4.21 3.48 O Heavy BRASS GUNS. Light. Medi, IŻ 6 3.66 3:48 4.63 3.48 3 6 s24 290 6 | 27 2 IRON GUNS. 3.66 3.48 303.48 3.48 od 3.48 67 charge is one fourth of the phot's weight; and the heavy twenty piece of wood ; and it paſſes through the fieve whileit is working. four pounders are commonly from 21 to 24 diameters long, and The next fieve which is ſmaller retains the corns, but lets the dulc their proper charge is eſteemed to be two thirds of the ſhot's weight. go through: the corns paſſed through this ſecond ſieve, are retained The following tables exhibit the dimenſions of all ſorts of braſs at the 3d. fieve, with ſtill ſmaller holes: the powder which only goes and iron guns, as eſtabliſhed by the board of Ordinance. through one fieve is uſed by great guns, and called cannon powder. TABLE I. The ſmaller fort which paſſes through two fieves is uſed by ſmall Diameter guns, and named piſtol powder : to glaze the powder or make it Calibre of Nature. Weight. of the ſhine, they ſhake it in a caſk that has had black-lead in it. The the Gun. Shot. ſudden firing of gunpowder is owing to the nitre; and the vehe- mnent exploſion ariſes from the great quantity of air which it con- tains. The force of fired gunpowder is the elaſticity or preſſure of Ft. In. C. qr. 1b. Inches. Inches. the fluid produced by firing it; and is the ſame as the elaſtic force 42 9 661 0 07.3 6.68 of ſo much air compreſſed into the ſame ſpace with the gunpowder. 24 9 5.83 5.54 Mr. Robins, from experiments related in his new principles of 12 9 0 29 0 4.63 4.4 gunnery, having concluded, that the force of fired gunpowder, at 9 9 0 26 O 4.0 the inſtant of its exploſion, is the fame as that of an elaſtic fluid of 6 0 19 0 3.66 a thouſand times the denſity of the common air, and that the elaf- 3 7 II 2 2.91 2.77 ticity of this Auid, like that of air, is proportionable to its denſity, 5 2 2.31 2.2 propoſes the following problem. 24 8 0 40 1 21 5.83 5.54 sio The dimenſions of any piece of artillery, the denſity of its ball, 12 6 6.21 0 14 4.63 4.4 and the quantity of its charge being given, to determine the velocity 6 5 O 10 I o which the ball will acquire from the exploſion, ſuppoſing the elaf- 24 5 6 16 I 12 5.83 5.54 ticity or force of the powder at the firſt inſtant of its firing to be. 12 5 0 8 3 18 4.4 given. In the ſolution of this problem he aſſumes the two follow- 61 4 6 4 3 14 3.66 ing principles : 1. That the action of the powder on the bullet 3 2 3 41 2.91 2.77 ceaſes as ſoon as the bullet is got out of the piece. 2. That all the TABLE II. powder of the charge is fired, and converted into an elaſtic Auid, before the bullet is ſenſibly moved from its place. Theſe aſſump- 429 61 65 0 7:31 6.68 tions, and the concluſions before mentioned, make the action of 3296 55 O o 6.42 6.1 fired gunpowder to be entirely ſimilar to that of air condenſed a 249 6 49 O 5.83 5.54 124 thouſand times ; and from thence it will not be difficult to deter- 24 19 6 47 2 5.83 5.54 mine the velocity of the ball ariſing from the explofion: for the 189 O 40 O O 5.29 5.3 force of the fired powder diminiſhing in proportion to its 12 9 32 2 4.63 expan- 4.4 12 | 8 6 31 2 fion, and ceaſing when the ball is out of the piece, the total action O 4.63 4.4 of the powder may be repreſented by the area of the curve, the baſe 12 7 6 29 I o 4.63 4.4. of which repreſents the ſpace through which the ball is accelerated ; 99 O 4.21 4 and the ordinates to which, repreſent the force of the powder at 9 8 O 4.21 4 169 8 every point of that ſpace : and theſe ordinates being in reciprocal O 26 2 O 4.21 4 proportion to their diſtance from the breech of the gun, becauſe 3917 9 1 7 6 24 2 o 4.21 4.214 when the ſpaces occupied by the fired powder are as 1,2,3,4, &c. 9 1 7 0 23 0 0 4.21 4 6 the force of the powder, or the ordinates repreſenting it, will be as 9 O 24 O I, i j , &c. it appears that the curve will a common hyper- 6 8 6230 O 3.66 68 bola, and that the area intercepted between it, its afyınptote, and 22 O o 3.66 the two ordinates repreſenting the force of the powder at the firſt 6 7 6 1 20 2 3.66 exploſion and at the muzzle of the piece, will repreſent the total 7 o 19 O o 3.66 3.48 action of the powder on the ball: but if the ball were urged through 6 6 618 o +3.48 616 the ſame ſpace, by an uniform force equal to its gravity, the total 3.66 action of this force would be repreſented by a rectangle, the baſe of 46 01 12 1 03 21 3.4 which would be the baſe of the curve or intercepted portion of the 415 6 III o 3.21 3.4 aſymptote before mentioned, and the height of which would repre- 7 I 2.21 2.77 ſent the uniform force of gravity. Hence the ſquare of the velocity 13 O 7 I 25 1 1.58 of the ball, reſulting from the action of the gunpowder, will be to The requiſite charges for all the different pieces on all occaſions the ſquare of the velocity, reſulting from the action of gravity, as both in garriſon and in field, appear from the following Table. the area of the hyperbolic ſpace is to the area of the rectangle : but TABLE IUI. the velocity of the ball reſulting from gravity is given, being the Proof Service Salu-Rico. Diameter of length of cart velocity it would acquire from a height equal to the ſpace through which the powder accelerates it; and the proportion between the Braſs Iron Braſs Iron ting. chet | Guns. Shot Proof Service hyperbolic ſpace and the rectangle is alſo given from the analogy pds Ib. oz. Ib.oz lb. oz. 16.0z|lb.oz Ib.oz in. pts.fin. pts. in pts in pts. of hyperbolic ſpaces and logarithms; therefore the velocity of the ball ariſing from the action of the fired gunpowder will be given. 142 31 8 25 14 IO 414 7 7 018 6 684 26 9417 79 ART. VII. Dr. Hutton's Experiments on the Velocity of Cannon Balls. 32 26 12 21 8 10 10 9 4 8 12 12 12 12 6 4 10 6 105/26 3 16 25 In the 68th volume of the Phil. Tranſ. Dr. Hutton hath reci- ted a number of experiments made on cannon carrying balls from 8 6 5 8241 5 547 25 58 14 78 one to three pounds weight. His machine for diſcovering the ve- locities of theſe balls was the ſame with that of Mr. Robins, only 18 18 15 6 4 8 1 12 5 292 5 040 2 492 13 46 of a larger ſize. His charges of powder were two, four, and eight ounces ; and the reſults of 15 experiments which ſeem to have 6 4 623 4 40323 24 11 72 been the moſt accurate, are as follow : Velocity with Velocity with Velocity with 3 3 4 4 200 4 038 2 1 26 10 63 2 SI two ounces. four ounces. sy eight ounces. 616 " 6 8 2 82 668 702 feet in 1" 1068 feet in 1 3 3 40818 7 9 35 682 1020 GIBS1352 6 44 I 8 12 695 3 204 3 00316 43 812 948 1443 703 973 1360 31 33 2 913 2 775 14 84 7 42 725 957 1412 IŻ 8 I 8 8 6 4 2 031 2 02011765 88 5)4966 5)6986 ---- 5 5 4' 211 2 019 1 923! 8 351 3.18 Mean velocities 701 993 1397 Art. VI. Of the Nature, Compoſition, and Force of Gunpowder. In another courſe, the mean velocities, with the ſame charges Gunpowder is a mixture of charcoal, brimſtone, and nitre. The of powder, were 613, 873, 1162. « The mean velocities of the proportion of theſe is different in different authors: powder made balls in the firſt courſe of experiments, ſays Dr. Hutton, with for government is compoſed of ten pounds of brimſtone, fifteen two, four, andeight ounces of powder, are as the numbers 1, 1.414, pounds of charcoal, and ſeventy-five pounds of nitre. Powder made and 1.993 ; but the fubduplicate ratio of the weights (two, four, for the uſe of merchants has lefs nitre, and more charcoal. At firſt and eight) give the numbers 1, 1.414, and 2, to which the others gunpowder was made like fine flour, but afterwards made into are ſufficiently near. It is obvious, however, that the greateſt dif- corns, which was found to fire quicker than the flour powder. To ference lies in the laſt number, which anſwers to the greateſt ve- corn it, it muſt be put through two or three ſieves ; the powder locity. It will ſtill be a little more in defect if we make the allow- muſt be firſt moiſtened and reduced to a ſort of pafte, and put into ance for the weights of the balls ; for the mean weights of the balls the firſt fieve which has large holes : it is broke in pieces by a with the two and four ounces is 18 ounces, but of the eight ounces M m m it 3.66 6 0 16 2 3.48 3 4 6 1.52 Nat. I 2 101 18 8 24 21 8 12 112 12 4 4 3. 1 91 9 9 1419 feet in 1" 2 I 4 I I 4 I I I 2 8 I 8 5)3507 I No. 133 * PROJECTIL Ē S. 2. it is 183; diminiſhing therefore the number 1.993 in the recipro ance from the air's elaſticity will then be quadrupled, or amount to cal ſubduplicate ratio of 183 to 183, it becomes 1.985, which falls 50 pounds on the ſquare inch of ſurface; which added to the other Thort of the number 2 by .015, or the 133d part of itſelf. A fi cauſes, produces a reſiſtance of 105 pounds upon the ſquare inch; milar defect was obſerved in the other courſe of experiments; and and thus would the reſiſtance from the elaſticity of the air go on both are owing to three evident cauſes, viz. I. The leſs length of continually increaſing, till at laſt the motion of the projectile cylinder through which the ball was impelled; for with the eight would be as effectually ſtopped as if it was fired againſt a wall. This obſtacle therefore we are to conſider as really inſuperable by ounce charge, it lay three or four inches nearer to the muzzle of the piece than with the others. 2. The greater quantity of elaf any art whatever, and therefore it is not adviſeable to uſe larger tic Auid which eſcaped in this caſe than in the others by the wind charges of powder than what will project the ſhot with a velocity of 1200 feet in a ſecond. age. This happens from its moving with a greater velocity; in conſequence of which, a greater quantity eſcapes by the vent and Mr. Robins having advanced theſe grounds, he ſays, that if the windage than in ſmaller velocities. 3. The greater quantity of motion of a projectile on the hypotheſis of a reſiſtance in the dupli- powder blown out unfired in this caſe than in that of the leſſer ve cate ratio of the velocity, be truly and generally aſſigned, the actual locities; for the ball which was impelled with the greater velocity, motions of reſiſted bodies may be thereby determined, notwithſtand- would be ſooner out of the piece than the others, and the more ſo ing the increaſed reſiſtances in the great velocities. Mr. Robins as it had a leſs length of the bore to move through; and if powder then proceeds as follows: fire in time, which cannot be denied, though indeed that time is “The diſtance to which any projectile would range in vacuum manifeſtly very ſhort, a greater quantity of it muſt remain unfired on the horizontal plane at 45° elevation, I call the potential random when the ball with the greater velocity iſſues from the piece, than of that projectile; the diſtance to which the projeělile would range when that which has the leſs velocity goes out, and ſtill the more in vacuo on the horizontal plane at any angle different from 45°, I ſo as the bulk of powder which was at firſt to be inflamed in the call the potential range of the projectile at that angle; and the dif- one caſe ſo much exceeded that in the others. tance to which a projectile really ranges, I ſhall call its actual range. « Let us now compare the correſponding velocities in both “ If the velocity with which a projectile begins to move is caſes. In the one they are, 701, 993, 1397; in the other, 613, known, its potential random and its potential range at any given 873, 1162. Now the ratio of the firſt two numbers, or the velo angle are eaſily determined from the common theory of projectiles; cities with two ounces of powder, is that of 1 to 1.1436, the ratio or more generally, if either its original velocity, its potential ran- of the next two is that of 1 to 1.1375, and the ratio of the laſt is dom, or its potential range, at a given angle, are known, the other that of I to 12022. But the mean weight of the ſhot for two two are eaſily found out. To facilitate the computation of reſiſted and four ounces of powder, was 28 ounces in the firſt courſe, and bodies, it is neceſſary, in the confideration of each reſiſted body, to 18 in this; and for eight ounces of powder, it was 28ş in the aſſign a certain quantity, which I ſhall denominate F, adapted to firſt, and 18} in this. Taking therefore the reciprocal ſubdupli- the reſiſtance of that particular projectile. To find this quantity cate ratios of theſe weights of ſhot, we obtain the ratio of I to F to any projectile given, we may proceed thus: firit find with 1.224 for that of the balls which were fired with two ounces and what velocity the projectile muſt move, ſo that its reſiſtance may four ounces of powder, and the ratio of 1 to 1.241 for the balls be equal to its gravity. Then the height, from whence a body which were fired with eight ounces. But the real ratios above muſt deſcend in a vacuum to acquire this velocity, is the magnitude found are not greatly different from theſe; and the variation of the of F fought. But the concifeft way of finding this quantity F to actual velocities from this law of the weights of ſhot, inclines the any ſhell or bullet is this: If it be of ſolid iron, multiply its dia- ſame way in both courſes of experiments. We may now collect meter meaſured in inches by 300, the product will be the magni. into one view the principal inferences that have reſulted from theſe tude of F expreſſed in yards. If, inſtead of a ſolid iron bullet, it experiments. is a ſhell or a bullet of ſome other ſubſtance; then, As the ſpecific 1. “It is evident from them, that powder fires almoſt inſtanta-gravity of iron is to the ſpecific gravity of the ſhell or bullet given, neouſly. ſo is the F correſponding to an iron bullet of the fame diameter, “ The velocities communicated to balls or ſhot of the ſame to the proper F for the ſhell or bullet given. The quantity F weight with different quantities of powder, are nearly in the ſub being thus aſſigned, the neceſſary computations of theſe reſiſted duplicate ratio of theſe quantities; a very ſmall variation in defect motions may be diſpatched by the three following propofitions, taking place when the quantities of powder become great. always remembering that theſe propofitions proceed on the hypo- 3. “When ſhot of different weights are fired with the ſame theſis of the reſiſtance being in the duplicate propoſition of the quantity of powder, the velocities communicated to them are nearly velocity of the reſiſted body. How to apply this principle , when in the reciprocal ſubduplicate ratio of their weights. the velocity is ſo great as to have its reſiſtance augmented beyond 4. “ Shot which are of different weights, and impelled by dif this rate, ſhall be ſhown in a corollary to be annexed to the firſt ferent quantities of powder, acquire velocities which are directly propoſition.” as the ſquare roots of the quantities of powder, and inverſely as the Correſpond. Actual | Correſpond Actual Correlpond- ſquare roots of the weights of the ſhot nearly.”. The velocities of ranges ing potential ranges ing potential ing potential bullets being thus found, the ranges may be determined by the rules expreſ ranges ex exprefl ranges ex expreff- ranges ex- laid down in the following article. ed in F. preſſed in F. ed in F. preſſed in F. preſſed in F. ART. VIII. Mr. Robins's Method of finding the Ranges of Bullets. 0,01 0,0100 1,5 2,6422 3,25 13,2556 1. Till the velocity of the projectile ſurpaſſes that of 1100 feet 0,02 0,0201 1,55 2,7890 3,3 13,8258 in a ſecond, the reſiſtance may be reckoned according to Sir Iſaac 0,04 0,0405 2,9413 3,35 1434195 Newton's theory, in the duplicate proportion of the velocity, and 0,06 0,0612 1,65 3,0994 3,4 15,0377 its mean quantity may be reckoned about half an ounce avoirdu- 0,08 0,0822 1.7 3,2635 3,45 15,6814 poiſe on a 121b. ſhot, moving with a velocity of about 25 or 26 feet O, I 0,1034 1,75 3,4338 16,3517 in a ſecond, but if the velocity be greater than that of 1100 or 1200 0,12 0,1249 1,8 3,6107 17,0497 feet in a ſecond, the reſiſtance becomes affected by another cauſe, 0,14 0,1468 1,85 3,7944 17,7768 not noticed by former writers, and that is the airs elaſticity, which 0,15 0,1578 1,9 3,9851 18,5341 takes place when the velocity of the moving body becomes conſi- 0,2 0,2140 1,95 4,1833 3,7 19,3229 derably greater than that by which the air preſſes into the vacuum. 0,25 0,2722 2, 4,3890 3,75 20,1446 Having therefore firſt aſcertained this velocity, which we ſhall ſup- 0,3 0,3324 2,05 4,6028 21,0006 poſe to be 1200 feet in a ſecond, it is plain, that if a body moves 0,35 0,3947 2,1 4,8249 21,8925 with a velocity of 1800 feet in a ſecond, it muſt compreſs the air 0,4591 2,15 5,0557 3,9 22,8218 before it; becauſe the fluid hath neither time to expand itſelf in 0,45 0,5258 2,2 5,2955 3,95 23,7901 order to fill the vacuum left behind the moving body, nor to ruſh 0,5 0,5949 2,25 5,5446 2427991 in by its gravity. This compreſſion it will refiſt by its elaſtic 0,55 0,6664 2,3 5,8036 25,8506 power, which thus becomes a new ſource of reſiſtance increaſing, 0,6 0,7404 2,35 6,0728 26,9465 without any limit, in proportion to the velocity of the moving body. 0,65 2,4 6,3526 28,0887 If now we ſuppoſe the moving body to ſet out with a velocity of 0,8964 2,45 29,2792 2400 feet in a ſecond, it is plain, that there is not only a vacuum 0,9787 2,5 6,9460 30,5202 left behind the body, but the air before it is compreſſed into half its 0,8 1,0638 2,55 7,2605 31,8138 natural ſpace. The loſs of motion in the projectile therefore is 1,1521 2,6 7,5875 now very conſiderable. It firſt loſes 15 pounds on every ſquare 1,2436 2,65 7,9276 inch of ſurface on account of the deficiency of the moving power 4,4 1,3383 2,7 8,2813 of the air behind it; then it loſes 15 pounds more on account of 4345 36,0346 1,0 1,4366 2,75 8,6492 the reſiſtance of the air before it; again it loſes 15 pounds on ac- 37,5632 1,05 1,5384 9,0319 count of the elaſticity of the compreſſed air; and laſtly another 15 39,1571 1,1 1,6439 2, 85 9,4300 4,6 40,8193 pounds on account of the vacuum behind, which takes off the weight 1,15 1,7534 2,9 9,8442 4294527 of the atmoſphere, that would have been equivalent to one half of the 1,8669 2,95 10,2752 elaſticity of the air before it. The whole reſiſtance thereof upon 44,3605 1,25 1,5845 3,0 10,7237 46,2460 every ſquare inch of ſurface moving with this velocity is 6o pounds, 1,3 2,1066 3,05 II,1904 beſides that which ariſes from the power tending to preſerve the ge- 48,2127 1,35 2,2332 3,1 11,6761 4,85 50,2641 neral ſtate of the atmoſphere, and which increaſes in the duplicate 12,1816 49 52,4040 proportion of the velocity as already mentioned. If the body is ſup- 1945 poſed to move with a velocity of 4800 feet in a ſecond, the reſiſt- 4,95 2,5008 54,6363 12,7078 5,0 56,9653 Actual ranges ed in F. 1,6 3,5 3,55 3,6 3,65 3,8 3,85 094 430 4,05 401 0,8170 0,7 0,75 6,6435 4315 432 4325 433 4035 0,85 0,9 0,95 33,1625 34,5686 2,8 435 4355 4,65 1,2 427 4375 4,8 1,4 2,3646 3,15 3,2 PROJECTILE S. of . 3 15 Prop. I. Given the actual range of a given ſhell or bullet at yards. This, diminiſhed in the ratio of the radius to the cofine of any ſmall angle not exceeding 89 or 10°, to determine its potential å of the angle of elevation, becomes 2544. The quota of the po- range, and conſequently its potential random and original velocity. tential range by this diminiſhed F is 1,384; which ſought in the " Sol. Let the actual range given be divided by the F corref firſt column of the preceding table gives 2,280 for the correſpond- ponding to the given projectile, and find the quota in the firſt ing number in the ſecond column; and this multiplied into the re- column of the preceding Table. Then the correſponding number duced F, produces 5800 yards for the potential range ſought, in the ſecond column multiplied into F, will be the potential range which, as the angle of elevation was 45°, is alſo the potential ran- fought ; and thence, by the methods already explained, the poten dom : and hence the original velocity of this fhell appears to be tial random and the original velocity of the projectile is given. that of about 748 feet in a ſecond. « EXAM. An 18 pounder, the diameter of whoſe ſhot is about « COR. The converſe of this propoſition, that is, the deter- 5 inches, when loaded with 2lb. of powder, ranged at an elevation mination of the actual range from the potential range given, is ea- of 3° 30', to the diſtance of 975 yards. fily deduced from hence by means of the quota of the potential « The F correſponding to this bullet is 1500 yards, and the range divided by the reduced F; for this quota ſearched out in the quota of the actual range by this number is 65; correſponding to ſecond column will give a correſponding number in the firſt co- which, in the ſecond column, is ,817; whence, 817 F, or 1225 lumn, which multiplied into the reduced F, will be the actual yards, is the potential range fought; and this augmented in the range fought. Alſo, if the potential random of a projectile be ratio of the fine of twice the angle of elevation to the radius, gives given, or its actual range at a given angle of elevation ; its actual 10050 yards for the potential random ; whence it will be found, range at any other angle of elevation, not greater than 45° may that the velocity of this projectile was that of 984 feet in a ſecond, hence be known. For the potential random will aſſign the poten- which is found by multiplying the feet in the potential random, by tial range at any given angle : and thence, by the method of this 32 feet, and extracting the ſquare root. corollary, the actual range may be found. « EXAM. A fit muſquet-bullet fired from a piece of the ſtand- is, if the potential range in a ſmall angle be given, and thence the ard dimenſions, with of its weight in good powder, acquires a ve- actual range be fought ; this may be ſolved with the ſame facility by locity of near 900 feet in a ſecond ; that is, it has a potential ran- the ſame table. For if the given potential range be divided by its dom of near 8400 yards. If now the actual range of this bullet at correſpondent F, then oppoſite to the quota ſought in the ſecond co 15° was ſought, we muſt proceed thus : lumn, there will be found in the firſt column a number, which mul « From the given potential random it follows, that the poten- tiplied into F will give the actual range required. And from hence tial range at 15° is 4200 yards; the diameter of the bullet is of it follows, that, if the actual range be given at one angle, it may be an inch; and thence, as it is of lead, its proper F is 337,5 yards, found at every other angle not exceeding 8° or 10°. 2 « Cor. II. If the actual range at a given ſmall angle be becomes 351 yards. The quote of 4200 by this number is 12,7 given, and another actual range be given, to which the angle is nearly ; which, being fought in the ſecond column, gives 3,2 fought, this will be determined by finding the potential ranges cor nearly for the correſponding number in the firſt column; and this reſponding to the two given actual ranges; then the angle correſ multiplied into 331 yards, (the reduced F) makes 1059 yards for ponding to one of theſe potential ranges being known, the angle the actual range fought. correſponding to the other will be found by the common theory " EXAM. II. The ſame bullet, fired with its whole weight in of projectiles. powder, acquires a velocity of about 2100 feet in a ſecond, to «COR. III. If the potential random deduced from the actual range which there correſponds a potential random of about 45700 yards., by this propoſition exceeds 1 3000 yards ; then the original velocity But this number greatly exceeding 13,000 yards, it muſt be reduced of the proje ile was ſo great as to be affected by the treble re by the method deſcribed in the third corollary of the firſt propo- liſtance deſcribed above; and conſequently the real potential ran ſition, when it becomes 19700 yards. If now the actual range dom will be greater than what is here deterinined. However, in this bullet 150 was required, we ſhall from hence find, that the this caſe, the true potential random may be thus nearly aſſigned. potential range at 15° is 9850 yards ; which, divided by the re- Take a 4th continued proportional to 13000 yards, and the poten- duced F of the laſt example, gives for a quota 2975; and thence tial random found by this propoſition, and the 4th proportional thus following the ſteps preſcribed above, the actual range of this bullet be aſſumed for the true potential random ſought. In comes out 1396 yards exceeding the former range by no more than like manner, when the true potential random is given greater than 337 yards; whereas the difference between the two potential ranges 13000 yards, we muſt take two mean proportionals between 13000 is above ten miles. Of ſuch prodigious efficacy is the reſiſt- and this random (the operations directed in this corollary are beſt ance of the air, which hath been hitherto treated as two inſignificant perforined by the table of logarithms:) and the firſt of theſe mean a power to be attended to in laying down the theory of projectiles. proportionals muſt be affumed inſtead of the random given, in « Schol. I muſt here obſerve, that as the denſity of the at- every operation deſcribed in theſe propofitions and corollaries. And moſphere perpetually varies, increaſing and diminiſhing often by this method will nearly allow for the increaſed reſiſtance in large so part, and ſometimes more, in a few hours; for that reaſon I velocities, the difference only amounting to a few minutes in the have not been over rigorous in forming theſe rules, but have con- angle of direction of the projected body, which, provided that angle fidered them as ſufficiently exact when the errors of the approxima- exceeds two or three degrees, is uſually ſcarce worth attending to. tion do not exceed the inequalities which would take place by a Of this proceſs take the following example. change of jó part in the denſity of the atmoſphere. With this re- « A 24 pounder fired with 12 pounds of powder, when elevated ſtriction, the rules of this propoſition may be ſafely applied in all at 7° 15', ranged about 2500 yards. Here the F being near 1700 poſſible caſes of practice. That is to ſay, they will exhibit the yards, the quota to be fought in the firſt column is 147, to which true motions of all kinds of ſhells and cannon-ſhot, as far as 45° of the number correſponding in the ſecond column is 2,556 ; whence elevation, and of all muſket-bullets fired with their largeſt cuſtom- the potential range is near 4350 yards, and the potential random ary charges, if not elevated more than 30°. Indeed, if experiments thence reſulting 17400. But this being more than 13,000, we are made with extraordinary quantities of powder, producing poten- muſt, to get the true potential random, take a 4th continued pro tial randoms greatly ſurpaſſing the uſual rate ; then in large angles portional to 13000 and 17400; and this 4th proportional, which ſome farther modifications may be neceſſary. And though, as theſe is about 13000 yards, is to be eſteemed the true potential random caſes are beyond the limits of all practice, it may be thought unne- fought; whence the velocity is nearly that of 1730 feet in a fecond. ceſſary to conſider them; yet, to enable thoſe who are ſo diſpoſed to " SCHOLIUM. This propoſition is confined to ſmall angles, examine theſe uncommon caſes, I ſhall here inſert a propofition, not exceeding 8° or 10°. In all poſſible caſes of practice, this which will determine the actual motion of a projectile at 45°, how ap- proximation, thus limited, will not differ from the most rigorous enormous foever its original velocity may be. But as this propo- ſolution by ſo much as what will often intervene from the varia- ſition will rather relate to ſpeculative than practical caſes, inſtead tion of the denſity of the atmoſphere in a few hours time; ſo that of fuppoſing the actual range known, thence to aſſign the potential the errors of the approximation are much ſhort of other inevitable random, I ſhall now ſuppoſe the potential random given, and the errors, which ariſe from the nature of this ſubject. actual range to be thence inveſtigated. “Prof. II. Given the actual range of a given ſhell or bullet, “ PROP. III. Given the potential random of a given ſhell or at any angle not exceeding 45°, to determine its potential range at bullet, to determine its actual range at 45°: the ſame angle; and thence its potential random and original ve- Sol. Divide the given potential random by the F correſponding locity to the ſhell or bullet given, and call the quotient q, and let l be “ Sol. Diminiſh the F correſponding to the ſhell or bullet the difference between the tabular logarithms of 25 and of given in the proportion of the radius to the cofine of of the an logarithm of 10 being ſuppoſed unity; thence the actual range ſought gle of elevation. Then, by means of the preceding table, ope- rate with this reduced F in the ſame manner as is preſcribed in the is 3,4 FF 21F-TOF, where the double ſine of 21F is to be thus ſolution of the laſt propoſition, and the reſult will be the potential underſtood ; that if q be leſs than 25, it muſt be 2/F; if it be range fought; whence the potential random, and the original ve greater, then it muſt be + 21F. In this ſolution, q may be any locity, are eaſily determined. number not leſs than 3, nor more than 2500. “EXAMP. A mortar for ſea-ſervice, charged with golb. of ART. IX. Inſtruments uſed in leading Cannon. powder, has ſometimes thrown its ſhell, of 12 inches diameter, There are feveral inſtruments employed in the loading of can- and of 23ilb. weight, to the diſtance of 2 miles, or 5450 yards. non. The names of theſe are as follow : This at an elevation of 45°. 1. The lantern or ladle, which ſerves to carry the powder into “The F to this ſhell, if it were ſolid, is 3825 yards ; but as the the piece, and which conſiſts of two parts, viz. of a wooden box, fhell is only of a ſolid globe, the true F is no more than 3060 | appropriated to the caliber of the piece for which it is intended, and found may 9, the 12 4 PROJECT IL E S. bullets, and of a caliber and a half in length with its vent; and of a piece the piece. The two firſt take care to ram and ſpunge the piece, of copper nailed to the box, at the height of half a caliber. This each on his ſide. The rammer and ſpunge are placed on the left, lantern muſt have three calibers and a half in length, and two calibers and the lantern or ladle on the right. After having rammed well in breadth, being rounded at the end to load the ordinary pieces. the wad put over the powder, and that put over the bullet, they then 2. The rammer is a round piece of wood, commonly called a take each a handſpike, which they paſs between the foremoſt ſpokes box, faſtened to a ſlick 12 foot long, for the pieces from 12 to 33 of the wheel, the ends whereof will paſs under the head of the car- pounders; and 10 for the 8 and 4 pounders; which ſerve to drive riage, to make the wheel turn round, leaning on the other end of home the powder and ball to the breach. the handſpike, towards the embraſure. 3. The ſpunge is a long ſtaff or rammer, with a piece of ſheep It is the office of the fecond ſoldier on the right, to provide wad, or lamb-ſkin wound about its end, to ſerve for ſcouring the cannon and to put it into the piece, as well over the powder as over the when diſcharged, before it be charged with freſh powder, to pre bullet; and that of his comrade on the left, to provide 50 vent any ſpark of fire from remaining in her, which would en and, every time the piece is to be charged, to fetch one of them danger the life of him who ſhould load her again, and put it into the piece after the powder has been rammed. Then 4. Wad-ſcrew, conſiſts of two points of iron turned ſerpent- they both take each an handſpike, which they paſs under the hind wiſe, to extract the wad out of the pieces when one wants to un part of the wheel, to puth it in battery. load them, or the dirt which had chanced to enter into it. The officer of artillery muſt take care to have the piece diligently 5. The botefeux are ſticks two or three feet long, and an inch ſerved. thick, ſplit at one end, to hold an end of the match twiſted round In the night he muſt employ the gunners and ſoldiers, who ſhall it, to fire the cannon. relieve thoſe who have ſerved 24 hours to repair the embraſures. 6. The priming-iron is a pointed iron rod, to clear the touch If there be no water near the battery, care muſt be taken to have hole of the pieces of powder or dirt; and alſo to pierce the car- a caſk filled with it, in which to dip the ſpunges and cool the tridge, that it may ſooner take fire. pieces every 10 or 12 rounds. 7. The primer, which muſt contain a pound of powder at leaſt, The carriage for a mortar of 12 inches of diameter muſt be 6 to prime the pieces. feet long, the flaſks 12 inches long and 10 thick. "The trunnions 8. The quoin of mire, which are pieces of wood with a notch are placed in the middle of the carriage. on the ſide to put the fingers on, to draw them back or puſh them The carriage of an 18 inch mortar muſt be 4 feet long; and the forward when the gunner points his piece. They are placed on flaſks in inches high, and 6 thick. the ſole of the carriage. To mount the mortars of new invention, they uſe carriages of 9. Leaden-plates, which are uſed to cover the touch-hole, when caſt iron. the piece is charged, left ſome dirt ſhould enter it and ſtop it. Art. X. Method of managing Mortars. Before charging the piece, it is well ſpunged, to clean it of all In Germany, to mount mortars from 8 10 9 inches, and carry filth and dirt within-fide; then the proper weight of gun-powder is them into the field, and execute horizontally as a piece of cannori , put in and rammed down; care being taken that the powder be they make uſe of a piece of wood 8 feet 2 inches long, with a hole not bruiſed in ramming, which weakens its effects; it is then run in the middle to lodge the body of the mortar and its trunnions over by a little quantity of paper, hay, or the like; and laſtly, the as far as half their diameter, and mounted on two wheels four feet ball is thrown in. the high, to which they join a vantrain proportioned to it; and made To point, level, or direct the piece, ſo as to play againſt any like thoſe which ſerve to the carriages of cannons. certain point, is done by the help of a quadrant with a plummet: Having mounted the mortar on its carriage, the next thing is to which quadrant confifts of two branches made of brafs or wood; caliber the bomb, by means of a great caliber, the two branches one about a foot long, eight lines abroad, and one line in thick whereof embrace the whole circumference of the bomb; theſe two nefs; the other four inches long, and the ſame thickneſs and branches are brought on a rule where the different calibers are breadth as the former. Between theſe branches is a quadrant, marked, among which that of the bomb is found. divided into go degrees, beginning from the ſhorter branch, and If no defect be found in the bomb, its cavity is filled by means furniſhed with thread and plummet. of a funnel, with whole gun-powder : a little ſpace or liberty is The longeſt branch of this inſtrument is placed in the cannon's left, that when a fufee or wooden tube, of the figure of a truncated mouth, and elevated or lowered till the thread cuts the degree ne cone, is driven through the aperture, (with a wooden mallet, not ceſſary to hit the propoſed object. Which done the cannon is an iron one, for fear of accident), and faſtened with a cement primed, and then ſet fire to. The method by the ſector bowever, made of quick-lime, aſhes, brick-duſt, and ſteel filings worked propoſed by Dr. Lind, is certainly in all caſes to be preferred. on together in a glutinous water, or of four parts of pitch, two of co- A 24 pounder may very well fire go or 100 ſhots, every day in lophony, one of turpentine, and one of wax, the powder may not fummer: and 60 or 75 in winter. In caſe of neceſſity, it be bruiſed. This tube is filled with a combuſtible matter, made may fire more. And fome French officers of artillery affure, that they of two ounces of nitre, one of ſulphur, and three or more of gun- have cauſed ſuch a piece to fire every day 150 ſhots in a fiege. powder duft well rammed. A 16 and a 12 pounder fire a little more, becauſe they are eaſier This fuſee ſet on fire, burns ſlowly till it reaches the gun-pow- ſerved. There have been fome occaſions, where 200 fhots have der; which goes off at once, burſting the Thell to pieces with increa been fired from theſe pieces in the ſpace of nine hours, and 138 in dible violence. Special care, however, muſt be taken, that the the ſpace of five. In quick firing, tubes are made uſe of. They fufee be fo proportioned, as that the gun-powder do not take fire are made of tin, and their diameter is two tenths of an inch, be ere the fzell arrives at the deſtined place; to prevent which, the ing juſt fufficient to enter into the vent of the piece. They are fuſee is frequently wound round with a wet clammy thread, about fix inches long, with a cap above, and cut ſlanting below, To ſerve expeditiouſly a mortar in battery, there are required, in the forın of a pen; the point is ſtrengthened with ſome folder, five ſtrong handſpikes; a dame or rammer, of the caliber of the that it may pierce the cartridge without bending. Through this conic chamber, to ram the wad and the earth ; a wooden knife a tube is drawn a quick match, the cap being fitted with mealed foot long, to place the earth round the bomb ; an iron ſcraper two powder moiſtened with ſpirits of wine. To prevent the mealed feet long, one end whereof muſt be four inches broad and round- powder froin falling out by carriage, a cap of paper or flannel wiſe, to clean the bore and the chamber of the mortar, and the ſteeped in ſpirits of wine is tied over it. To range pieces in a other end made in form of a ſpoon to clean the little chamber ; a battery, care muſt be taken to reconnoitre well the ground where it kind of brancard to carry the bomb, a ſhovel, and pick-ax. The is to be placed, and the avenues to it. The pieces muſt be armed officer who is to mind the ſervice of the mortar, muſt have a qua- each with two lanterns or ladles, a rammar, a ſpunge, and two drant to give the degrees of elevation. priming irons. The battery muſt alſo be provided with carriages, , It muſt be obſerved, that in this art it isimpoſible we fhould ever and other implements, neceſſary to remount the pieces which the arrive at abſolute perfection; that is, it can never be expected that enemy ſhould chance to diſmount. To ſerve expeditiouſly and a gunner, by any method of calculation whatever, could be enabled fafely a piece in a battery, it is neceſſary to have to each a fáck of to point his guris in ſuch a manner, that the hot would hit the leather, large enough to contain about 20 pounds of powder to mark if placed any where within its range. Aberrations, wbich charge the lanterns or ladles, without carrying them to the maga can by no means be either foreſeen or prevented, will take place zine; and to avoid thereby making thoſe trains of powder in bring from a great number of different cauſes. A variation in the denſity ing back the lantern from the magazine, and the accidents which of the atmoſphere, in the dampneſs of the powder, or in the figure frequently happen thereby. told to our of the ſhot, will cauſe variations in the range of the bullet, which A battery of three pieces muſt have 30 gabions, becauſe fix are cannot by any means be reduced to rules, and conſequently muſt employed on each of the two ſides or epaulments, which make 12, render the event of each ſhot very precarious. The reſiſtance of and nine for each of the two merlons. the atmoſphere ſimply conſidered, without any of thoſe anomalies There ought to be two gunners and fix ſoldiers to each piece, ariſing from its denlity at different times, is a problem which, not- and four officers of artillery. withſtanding the labours of Mr. Robins and others, hath not been The gunner, poſted on the right of the piece, muſt take care to completely ſolved : and indeed, if we conſider the matter in a have always a pouch-full of powder, and two priming irons; his phyſical light, we ſhall find, that without ſome other data than thoſe office is to prime the piece, and load it with powder. The gun which are yet obtained, an exact folution of it is impoflible. ner on the left fetches the powder from the little magazine, and fills the lantern or ladle which his comrade holds; after which, he The Principal Authors which have been conſulted in this Treatiſe takes care that the match be very well lighted, and ready to ſet fire are Emerſon, Simpſon, Hutton, Muller, Gray, Robins, &c. to the piece at the firſt command of the officer. PARLIAMENT STREET, There are three ſoldiers on the right, and three on the left of T. MARQUOIS. WESTMINSTER. PRO PRO a appear to the و PROJECTION, in Mechanics, the action of giving a projectile | lapſed parts are inflamed, diſcutient fomentations and cataplaſms its motion. If the direction of the force whereby the projectile is ſhould be applied externally, and recourſe ſhould be had to internal put in motion, be perpendicular to the horizon, the projection is medicines and bleeding ; and after reducing the inflammation, the faid to be perpendicular ; if parallel to the apparent horizon, it is parts may be ſafely returned without danger of inortification. faid to be an horizontal projection ; if it makes an oblique angle PROLAPSUs Veficæ Urianariæ, or the diſplacing of the bladder, ac- with the horizon, the projection is oblique. companies the inverſion of the uterus; in which caſe, the bulb of PROJECTION, in Perſpective, denotes the appearance, or repre the bladder being forced down, is no longer ſubject to the prellure fentation of an object on the perſpective plane. The projection, of the abdominal muſcles, and the patient can never diſcharge wa- e. gr. of a point, as A, Plate I. Fig. I. is a point a, through which ter without ſqueezing the bladder. sto the optic ray OA paſſes from the objective point through the plane PROLAPSUS Uteri, the deſcent; or falling down of the womb, to the eye ; or it is the point wherein the plane cuts the optic ray. cauſed by a relaxation of the ligaments which ſhould hold it in its And hence is eaſily conceived what is meant by the projection of place. If the uterus fall to the middle of the vagina, or even with a line or a plane. See the Syſtem, Sect. II. the meatus urinarius, it is called a bearing down of the womb. If PROJECTION of the Sphere in Plano, is a repreſentation of the it fall quite down, ſo as to hang pendulous without the labia, but ſo feveral points or places of the ſurface of the ſphere, and of the cir as that no more of the inſide than the orifice is ſeen, it is called a cles deſcribed thereon, or of any aſſigned parts thereof, ſuch as they prolapſus, or procidentia. Some diſtinguiſh between the procidentia eye fituate at a given diſtance, upon a tranſparent and prolapſus, confining the former term to the deſcent of the ute- plane placed between the eye and the ſphere. rus to the labia pudendi, and applying the latter to its deſcent through To project the ſphere upon the plane of the ſolſtitial colour, or the labia. If falling thus low, it be turned inſide out, and hang upon the meridian of any place (thoſe planes being ſuppoſed to co likea fleſhy bag, with a rugged unequal ſurface, it is called a per- incide) ſee the Syſtem of ASTRONOMY, Sect. IX. Problem I. verſio or inverſio uteri. There is alſo another caſe of this diſorder Plate IV. Fig. II. called the retroverſio uteri. Theſe diſorders may proceed from To project the ſphere upon the plane of the equator, ſee ſaid Syſ violent motions, vehement coughing, ſneezing, and the fluor albus. tem, Sect. IX. Problem II. and Plate IV. Fig. II. They appear moſt frequent in women with child, from the weight For the projection of the ſphere upon the plane of the equator, preſſing and bearing hard upon the uterus ; but eſpecially if the fee- fee the Syſtem of ASTRONOMY, Sect. IX. Problem III. and tus be dead, lie in a wrong poſture, or be violently extracted. Plate IV. Fig. III. After replacing the part, reſtringents, both inwardly and by injec- For the projection of the ſphere upon the plane of the ecliptic, tions are here uſed; ſuch as obtain in diarrhæas, hæmorrhoids, the fee the Syſtem, Sect. IX. Problem IV. and Plate IV. Fig. IV. gonorrhæa ſimplex, &c. The firſt ſtep towards a cure of the pro- The principal uſe of projection of the ſphere is in the con cidentia uteri, or falling down of the womb, is to reduce it to its ſtruction of the planiſpheres, and, particularly, maps and charts ; natural ſituation, and to keep it there by means of peſſaries. But which are ſaid to be of this or that projection, according to the ſe as ſome diſadvantages attend the uſe of the common peffaries, Dr. veral fituations of the eye, and the perſpective plane, with regard Thomas Simpſon has contrived one, and given us the deſcription to the meridians, parallels, and other points and places to be repre and figure of it in the Medical Eſſays of Edinburgh, vol. iii. art. 18. fented. The moſt ufual projection of maps of the world is that on PROLIFIC, in Medicine, fomething that has the qualities the plane of the meridian, which exhibits a right ſphere; the firſt neceſſary for generating. See FECUNDITY. meridian being the horizon : the next is that on the plane of the PROLOCUTOR of the Convocation, the ſpeaker or chairman equator, wherein the pole is in the centre, and the meridians the of that aſſembly. The archbiſhop of Canterbury is, by his office, radii of a circle, &c. . This repreſents a parallel ſphere. The pro- preſident or chairman of the upper houſe of convocation. The jection of the ſphere is uſually divided into orthographic and ſtereo prolocutor of the lower is an officer choſen by the members the graphic ; to which may be added gnomonic. firſt day of their meeting, and is to be approved of by the higher. Orthographic PROJECTION, is that wherein the ſuperficies of the It is by the prolocutor their affairs, debates, &c. are to be directed; fphere is drawn on a plane, cutting it in the middle; the eye being and their reſolutions, meſſages, &c. delivered to the higher houſe : placed at an infinite diſtance vertically to one of the hemiſpheres. by him all things propounded to the houſe are read, ſuffrages are Stereographic PROJECTION, is that wherein the ſurface and circles collected, &c. See CONVOCATION. to be of the ſphere are drawn upon a plane of a great circle, the eye be PROLOGUE, PROLOGUS, in Dramatic Poetry, a diſcourſe ing in the pole of that circle. addreſſed to the audience before the drama or play begins. The Gnomonic PROJECTION of the Sphere. See the Treatiſe on original intention of the prologue was to advertiſe the audience of DIALLING. the ſubject of the piece, and to prepare them to enter more readily Mercator's PROJECTION. See the Syſtem of NAVIGATION, into the action; and ſometimes to make an apology for the poet, Sect. I. N° 13, and the Plate of Mercator's Chart. The prologue is of a much more ancient ſtanding than the epilo- PROJECTION of Shadows. See the Syſtem of PERSPECTIVE, gue. The French have left off the uſe of prologues, except in Sect. VII. their operas; thoſe few they now and then make having nothing PROJECTIVE Dialling, a manner of drawing, by a method in them of the genuine prologue, as bearing no relation to the ſub- of projection, the true hour lines, furniture of dials, &c. on any kind ject, but being mere flouriſhes or harangues in praiſe of the king, of ſurface whatſoever, without any regard to the ſituation of thoſe &c. In the ancient theatre, the prologus was properly the actor furfaces, either as to declination, reclination, or inclination. See who rehearſed the prologue : the prologue was eſteemed cne of Treatiſe on DIALLING, Sect. II. the dramatis perſonæ, and never appeared in the piece in any other PROLAPSUS Ani, in Surgery, is when upon a diſcharge by ftool character ; ſo that the learned are ſurpriſed to find Mercury, in the inteſtinum rectum is protruded ſo far, as that it cannot be drawn Plantus's Amphitryo, ſpeaking the prologue, and yet acting a back again into the body; or, when drawn back, falls out again. in the play afterwards. The prologue, there- This is ſometimes a chronic diſeaſe, eſpecially when it ariſes from fore, among them, was a part of the piece ; indeed, not an eſſen- a pally: its cauſes are a relaxation of the fibres of the rectum, or tial, but an acceſſary part. With us the prologue is no part at all; of the ſphincter muſcle ; either from the adſtriction of the alvus, or but ſomething entirely diftinet and ſeparate : with them the drama from a diarrhæa, dyſentery, or teneſmus. It is very difficultly was opened with the appearance of the prologue; with us it is cured when attended with hæmorrhoids : the principal cure is by not opened till after the prologue is retired; with us therefore the aſtringents. External aſſiſtance is alſo required to reduce the fallen curtain is kept down till after the prologue; with them it muſt gut, which, if it be not foon done, is apt to tumefy and mortify, have been withdrawn before. Hence proceeds a ftill more con- by the contact of the air. It is ſubject to relapſe after reduction ſiderable difference in the practice of the prologue ; for with us in children, eſpecially upon violent crying; and is difficult to keep the prologue ſpeaks in his real or perſonal character : with them, up, in caſe of a diarrhoea. the prologue ſpoke in his dramatic character. With us, he al- PROLAPSUS Vagine, is a deſcent of the vagina, ſo as to appear ways directs his ſpeech to the audience, conſidered as in a play- wholly or in part without the labia pudendi : when the whole va houſe; to pit, box, and gallery ; with them, he ought, in propriety, gina is prolapſed, it appears like a ſwelled, bloody ring of fleih, in to have ſpoken as to a chorus of by-ſtanders, or perſons to be pre- which caſe, if the prolapſed part be much inflamed, a circumſtance ſent at the real action; but this being in good meaſure inconſiſtent that ſometimes proceeds from difficult labour, there is danger of a with the deſign of the prologue, their perſons ſpoke in the drama- mortification : but if none of theſe ſymptoms appear, there is no tic capacity to the audience in its principal capacity ; which was an danger. A partial prolapſus of the vagina is often miſtaken for an irregularity that either the good fortune, or the good ſenſe of the excreſcence, ficus, or ſarcoma ; and danger attends the treatment moderns, have freed them from. of it, either by ligatures or the knife. In order to diſtinguiſh a pro PROMONTORY, in Geography, a high point of land, or lapfus uteri from that of the vagina, and both from an excreſcence, rock, projecting out into the ſea. The extremity of which to it is to be obſerved, that the firſt never happens with an inverſion, the ſea-ward is uſually called a cape, or head-land. See the Syſtem, except immediately after labour ; whereas the vagina may ſublide under the article Natural Diviſions of the Earth. and appear externally at any time, either within or without the PRONATOR, radii quadratus, brevis, five tranſverſus, in Ana- time of geſtation : but it moſt frequently attends a difficult labour. tomy, a ſmall Aeſhy muſcle nearly as broad as it is long, lying In this diſorder, if the prolapſed parts be uninflamed, they ſhould be tranſverſely on the inſide of the lower extremity of the fore-arm. immediately replaced, and the patient reſt in bed for ſome days, See the Syſtein, Part II. table of Muſcles. Art 22. uſing an injection of warır . vinegar and water, or red wine and wa PRONATOR Teres five Obliquus, a ſmall muſcle, broader than it ter: but if theſe fail, the T bandage muſt be applied. If the pro is thick, ſituated on the upper part of the ulns, oppoſite to the fu- * Nnn pinator N° 133. PRO PRO one. pinator brevis, with which it forms an angle like the letter V. nion which one man claims and exerciſes over the external things See the Syſtem Part II. Table of Muſcles, Art 22. Plate II. fig. 1. of the world, in total excluſion of the right of any other individual letter d; being the firſt of MYOLOGY. in the univerſe. And yet there are very few that will give them- PRONOUN, PRONOMEN, in Grammar, a part of ſpeech uſed felves the trouble to conſider the original and foundation of this inſtead of a noun, or name, as its ſubſtitute or repreſentative. right. Pleaſed as we are with the poffeftion, we feem afraid to Whence the denomination ; from pro, and nomen ; q. d. for noun. look back to the means by which it was acquired, as if fearful of or name. See the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. I. Sect. II. and Part II, ſome defect in our title; or at beit we reſt ſatisfied with deciſion of Chap. III. Art. III. the laws in our favour, without examining the reaſon or authority PRONUNCIATION, in Grammar, the manner of articulating upon which thoſe laws have been built. We think it enough that or founding the words of a language. Pronunciation makes the our title is derived by the grant of the former proprietor, by de- moſt difficult part of written grammar; in regard that a book ex ſcent from our anceſtors, or by the laſt will and teſtament of the preffing itſelf to the eyes, in a matter that wholly concerns the ears, dying owner ; not caring to reflect, that (accurately and ſtrictly feems next akin to that of teaching the blind to diſtinguiſh colours : ſpeaking) there is no foundation in nature or in natural law, why hence it is that there is no part fo defective in grammar as that of a ſet of words upon parchment ſhould convey the dominion of pronunciation, as the writer has frequently no term whereby to land ; why the fon ſhould have a right to exclude his fellow-crea- give the reader an idea of the found he would expreſs; for want of tures from a determinate fpot of ground, becauſe his father bad done a proper term, therefore, he ſubſtitutes a vicious and precarious fo before him ;or why the occupier of a particular field or of a jewel, To give a juft idea of the pronunciation of a language, it when lying on his death-bed and no longer able to maintain poffef: feems neceſſary to fix as nearly as poſſible all the ſeveral ſounds em fion, ſhould be entitled to tell the reſt of the world which of them ployed in the pronunciation of that language. Cicero tells us, that ſhould enjoy it after him. Theſe inquiries, it muſt be owned, would the pronunciation underwent ſeveral changes among the Romans, be uſeleſs and even troubleſome in common life. It is well if the and indeed it is more precarious in the living languages, being, as maſs of mankind will obey the laws when made, without ſcruti- Du Bos tells us, fubfervient to faſhion in theſe. The French lan nizing too nicely the laws into the reafons of making them. But guage is clogged with a difficulty in pronunciation from which moſt when law is to be conſidered not only as a matter of practice, but others are free; and it confifts in this, that moſt of their words have alſo as a rational ſcience, it cannot be improper or uſeleſs to ex- two different pronunciations, the one in common profe, the other amine more deeply the rudiments and grounds of theſe poſitive in verſe. It is not enough to know the juſt pronunciation of ſingle conſtitutions of fociety. letters, but alſo of words : in order to which, the accenting of In the beginning of the world, we are informed by holy writ, words ought to be well underſtood ; ſince nothing is more harſh the all-bountiful Creator gave to man“ dominion over all the and diſagreeable to the ear, than to hear a perſon ſpeak or read with “ earth ; and over the fiſh of the ſea, and over the fowl of the air, wrong accents. And, indeed, in Engliſh, the ſame word is often C and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.” This both a noun and a verb, diſtinguiſhed only by the accent, which is is the only true and folid foundation of man's dominion over ex- on the firſt fyllable of the noun, and on the laſt of the verb ; as ternal things, whatever airy metaphyfical notions may have been Férment and ferment, record and record, &c. We are to obſerve ſtarted by fanciful writers upon this fubject. The earth, therefore, alſo, that in order to a juſt expreſſion of words, fome require only a and all things therein, are the general property of all mankind, ex- fingle accent on the ſyllable, as in torment, &c. ; but in others it clufive of other beings, from the immediate gift of the Creator. ihould be marked double, as in animal, becauſe it is pronounced as And, while the earth continued bare of inhabitants, it is reafonable if the letter was wrote double, viz. animal. See the article Proſody, to ſuppoſe, that all was in common among them, and that every in the Syſtem of GRAMMAR, Part II. Chap. II. one took from the public flock to his own uſe ſuch things as his PRONUNCIATION, is alſo uſed for the fourth and laſt part of ora- immediate neceffities required. tory, which conſiſts in regulating and varying the voice and geſture Theſe general notions of property were then fufficient to anſwer agrecable to the matter and words ; ſo as more effectually to perſuade all the purpoſes of human life; and might perhaps ſtill have an- and touch the hearers. See the Syſtem, Part IV. throughout. ſwered them, had it been poffible for mankind to have remained in PROOF, PROBATIO, in Arithmetic, an operation whereby a ítate of primæval fimplicity ; as may be collected from the man- the truth and juſtneſs of a calculation is examined and aſcer ners of many American nations, when firſt diſcovered by Euro- tained. The proper proof is always by the contrary rule : thus peans ; and from the ancient method of living among the firſt Eu- fubtraction is the proof of addition, and multiplication of diviſion : ropeans themſelves, if we may credit either the memorials of them and vice verſa. The proof of multiplication by 9 or by 7 is pre preſerved in the golden age of the poets, or the uniform accounts given carious. See the Syſtem Articles 2,3,4 and 5. There would by hiſtorians of thoſe times wherein erant omnia communia et indi- need no proofs in arithmetic were it not that a man is liable to viſa omnibus, veluti unum cunctis patrimonium effet. Not that this make miſtakes ; for all the rules and operations being built on communion of goods ſeems ever to have been applicable, even in demonſtration, it is thence we are aſſured of their truth and cer earlieſt ages, to aught but the ſubſtance of the thing ; nor could it titude. The proof, then, does not confirm the rule, but only be extended to the uſe of it. For, by the law of nature and reaſon, fhews us whether or no we have applied it right. he who firſt began to uſe it, acquired therein a kind of tranſient pro- PROOF, in Logic, &c. denotes the mediums or arguments uſed perty, that laſted ſo long as he was uſing it, and no longer : or, to to evince the truth of any thing See the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. V. ſpeak with greater preciſion, the right of poſſeflion continued for Proof, in Artillery. See the Article GUN-POWDER, and the the ſame time only that the act of poffeflion laſted. Thus the Treatiſe on PROJECTILES. ground was in common, and no part of it was the permanent pro- PROPAGATION, propagatio, the act of multiplying the kind, perty of any man in particular ; yet whoever was in the occupation or of producing the like in the way of natural generation. See of any determinate ſpot of it, for reſt, for ſhade, or the like, ac- GENERATION, PROPAGATION in Acoustics. For explanation quired for the time a fort of ownerſhip, from which it would have of this term as it relates to the doctrine of Sounds, ſee the Syſtem, been unjuſt, and contrary to the law of nature, to have driven him Se&. II. and III. by force; but the inſtant that he quitted the uſe or occupation of PROPER, proprium, ſomething naturally and eſſentially be it, another might ſeize it without injuſtice. Thus alſo a vine or longing to any being. other tree might be ſaid to be in common, as all were equally enr- Proper, in reſpect of words, denotes their immediate and pe titled to its produce ; and yet any private individual might gain the culiar fignification, or that directly and peculiarly attached to ſole property of the fruit, which he had gathered for his own repaſt. them. In which ſenſe the word ſtands oppoſed to figurative and A doctrine well illuſtrated by Cicero, who compares the world to a metaphorical. great theatre, which is common to the public, and yet the place PROPER is alſo uſed in a moral ſenſe, to denote ſomething that is which any man has taken is for a time his own. uſually found in things; as their particular, or ſpecific virtues, &c. But when mankind increaſed in number, craft, and ambition, In which fenſe we fay, magnanimity is the proper virtue of heroes. . it became neceſſary to entertain conceptions of inore permanent PROPER is alſo uſed for the natural qualities neceſſary to fuc dominion ; and to appropriate to individuals, not the immediate ceed in a thing. In which ſenſe we fay, people of a hot vigo uſe only, but the very ſubſtance of the thing to be uſed. Other- rous temperament are proper for the army; the cold and phleg wiſe innumerable tumults muſt have ariſen, and the good order of matic are proper for ſtudy . The Romans became lefs proper for the world been continually broken and diſturbed, while a variety of war, in proportion as they grew more learned and polite. perſons were itriving who ſhould get the firſt occupation of the ſame PROPER, in Grammar, is alſo applied to nouns or names, which thing, or diſputing which of them had actually gained it. As hu- are diſtinguiſhed into proper and appellative. Man is the appella man life alſo grew more and more refined, abundance of conveni- tive, Peter the proper name. The proper name among Chriſtians ences were deviſed to render it more eaſy, commodious, and a- is that impofed at baptifin. See the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. I. Sect. I. greeable; as habitations for ſhelter and ſafety, and raiment for PROPERTY, in a general ſenſe, that which conſtitutes or de warmth and decency. But no man would be at the trouble to pro- nominates a thing proper; or is a particular virtue or quality vide either, ſo long as he had only an unfructuary property in them, which nature has beſtowed on ſome things excluſive of all others : which was to ceaſe the inſtant that he quitted poffeffion; if, as thus, colour is a property of light; extenſion, figure, diviſibility, foon as he walked out of his tent, or pulled off his garment, the and impenetrability, are properties of body. next ſtranger who came by would have a right to inhabit the one, PROPERTY, in Law, is deſcribed to be the higheſt right which a and to wear the other. In the caſe of habitations in particular, it perſon has or can have to any thing. There is nothing which ſo was natural to obſerve, that even the brute creation, to whom every generally ſtrikes the imagination, and engages the affections of thing elſe was in common, maintained a permanent property in mankind, as the right of property; or that fole and deſpotic domi their dwellings, eſpecially for the protection of their young; that 4 the PRO PRO ture. the birds of the air had neſts, and the beaſts of the field had caverns, ply or fucceffion. It therefore became neceſſary to purſue fome the invaſion of which they eſteemed a very flagrant injuſtice, and regular method of providing a conſtant ſubſiſtence; and this necef- would facrifice their lives to preſerve them. Hence a property was fity produced, or at leaſt promoted and encouraged, the art of agri- foon eſtabliſhed in every man's houſe and home-ſtall; which ſeem culture; and the art of agriculture, by a regular connection and to have been originally mere temporary huts or moveable cabins, conſequence, introduced and eſtabliſhed the idea of a more perma- ſuited to the deſign of Providence for more ſpeedily peopling the nent property in the ſoil than had hitherto been received and earth, and ſuited to the wandering life of their owners, before any adopted. It was clear that the earth would not produce her fruits extenſive property in the ſoil or ground was eſtabliſhed. And in fufficient quantities, without the aſſiſtance of tillage: but who there can be no doubt, but that moveables of every kind became would be at the pains of tilling it, if another might watch an op- fooner appropriated than the permanent ſubſtantial ſoil: partly be portunity to ſeize upon and enjoy the product of his induſtry, art, cauſe they were more ſuſceptible of a long occupancy, which might and labour? Hád not therefore a ſeparate property in lands, as be continued for months together without any fenfible interruption, well as moveables, been veſted in fome individuals, the world muſt and at length by uſage ripen into an eſtabliſhed right; but princi have continued a foreſt, and men have been mere animals of prey; pally becauſe few of them could be fit for uſe, till improved and which, according to ſome philofophers, is the genuine ſtate of na- meliorated by the bodily labour of the occupant; which bodily la Whereas now (fo graciouſly has Providence interwoven our bour, beſtowed upon any ſubject which before lay in common to duty and our happineſs together) the reſult of this very neceffity has all men, is univerſally allowed to give the faireſt and moſt reaſon been the ennobling of the human ſpecies, by giving it opportuni- able title to an excluſive property therein. . ties of improving its rational faculties, as well as of exerting its na- The article of food was a more immediate call, and therefore a tural. Neceſſity begat property: and in order to inſure that pro- more early confideration. Such as were not contented with the perty, recourſe was had to civil ſociety, which brought along with ſpontaneous product of the earth, fought for a more ſolid refreſh it a long train of inſeparable concomitants; ſtates, governments, ment in the fleſh of beafts, which they obtained by hunting. But laws, puniſhments, and the public exerciſe of religious duties. the frequent diſappointments incident to that method of proviſion, Thus connected together, it was found that a part only of fociety induced them to gather together ſuch animals as were of a more was ſufficient to provide, by their manual labour, for the neceſſary tame and fequacious nature; and to eſtabliſh a permanent property ſubſiſtence of all; and leiſure was given to others to cultivate the in their flocks and herds, in order to ſuſtain themſelves in a leſs pre human mind, to invent uſeful arts, and to lay the foundations of carious manner, partly by the milk of their dams, and partly by the ſcience, fleſh of the young. The ſupport of theſe their cattle made the The only queſtion remaining is, How this property became article of water alſo a very important point. And therefore the actually veſted; or what it is that gave a man an excluſive right to book of Geneſis, the moſt venerable monument of antiquity, con retain in a permanent manner that ſpecific land, which before be- fidered merely with a view to hiſtory, will furniſh us with frequent longed generally to every body, but particularly to nobody? And as inſtances of violent contentions concerning wells; the excluſive we before obſerved, that occupancy gave the right to the temporary property of which appears to have been eſtabliſhed in the firſt dig uſe of the ſoil; ſo it is agreed upon all hands, that occupancy gave ger or occupant, even in ſuch places where the ground or herbage alſo the original right to the permanent property in the ſubſtance remained yet in common. Thus we find Abraham, who was but of the earth itſelf; which excludes every one elſe, but the owner, a fojourner, aſſerting his right to a well in the country of Abime from the uſe of it. There is indeed ſome difference among the lech, and exacting an oath for his ſecurity, “ becauſe he had dig writers on natural law, concerning the reaſon why occupancy ged that well.” And Ifaac, about 20 years afterwards, reclaimed ſhould convey this right, and invett one with this abſolute property: this his father's property; and, after much contention with the Grotius and Puffendorf infiſting, that this right of occupancy is Philiſtines, was ſuffered to enjoy it in peace. founded upon a tacit and implied aſſent of all mankind, that the All this while the foil and paſture of the earth remained ſtill in firſt occupant ſhould become the owner; and Barbeyric, Titius, common as before, and open to every occupant: except perhaps in Mr. Locke, and others, holding, that there is no ſuch implied af- the neighbourhood of towns, where the neceſſity of a ſole and ex fent, neither is it neceſſary that there ſhould be; for that the very cluſive property in lands (for the fake of agriculture) was earlier act of occupancy, alone, being a degree of bodily labour, is from a felt, and therefore more readily complied with. Otherwiſe, when principle of natural juſtice, without any conſent or compact, fuffi- the multitude of men and cattle had conſumed every convenience cient of itſelf to gain a title. A diſpute that favours too much of on one ſpot of ground, it was deemed a natural right to ſeize upon nice and ſcholaſtic refinement. However, both ſides agree in this, and occupy ſuch other lands as would more eaſily ſupply their ne that occupancy is the thing by which the title was in fact originally ceſſities. This practice is ſtill retained among the wild and un gained; every man ſeizing to his own continued uſe ſuch ſpots of cultivated nations that have never been formed into civil ftates, like ground as he found moſt agreeable to his own convenience, pro- the Tartars and others in the eaſt; where the climate itſelf, and the vided he found them unoccupied by any one elſe. boundleſs extent of their territory, conſpire to retain them ſtill in Property, both in lands and moveables, being thus originally ac- the fame ſavage ſtate of vagrant liberty, which was univerſal in the quired by the firſt taker, which taking amounts to a declaration earlieſt ages, and which Tacitus informs us continued among the that he intends to appropriate the thing to his own uſe, it remains Germans till the decline of the Roman empire. We have alſo a in him, by the principle of univerſal law, till ſuch time as he does ſtriking example of the ſame kind in the hiſtory of Abraham and ſome other act which ſhews an intention to abandon it; for then it his nephew Lot. When their joint ſubſtance became ſo great, becomes, naturally ſpeaking, publici juris once more, and is liable that paſture and other conveniences grew ſcarce, the natural con to be again appropriated by the next occupant. So if one is por- ſequence was, that a ſtrife aroſe between their ſervants; ſo that it feffed of a jewel, and caſts it into the ſea or a public highway, this was no longer practicable to dwell together. This contention is ſuch an expreſs dereliction, that a property will be veſted in the Abraham endeavoured to compoſe: “Let there be no ſtrife, I pray firſt fortunate finder that will ſeize it to his own uſe. But if he thee, between thee and me. Is not the whole land before thee? hides it privately in the earth, or other ſecret place, and it is diſ- Separate thyſelf, I pray thee, from me; If thou wilt take the left covered, the finder acquires no property therein; for the owner hand, then I will go to the right; or if thou depart to the right hath not by this act declared any intention to abandon it, but ra- hand, then I will go to the left.” This plainly implies an acknow ther the contrary: and if he loſes or drops it by accident, it cannot ledged right, in either, to occupy whatever ground he pleaſed, that be collected from thence that he deſigned to quit the poſſeſſion ; and was not pre-occupied by other tribes. « And Lot lifted up his therefore in ſuch caſe the property ſtill remains in the loſer, who eyes, and beheld all the plain of Jordan, that it was well watered may claim it again of the finder. And this, we may remember, is every where, even as the garden of the Lord. Then Lot choſe the doctrine of our law with relation to TREASURE-Trove. him all the plain of Jordon, and journeyed eaft; and Abraham But this method, of one man's abandoning his property, and a- dwelt in the land of Canaan.” nother ſeizing the vacant poſſeſſion, however well founded in Upon the ſame principle was founded the right of migration, or theory, could not long ſubfift in fact. It was calculated merely for ſending colonies to find out new habitations, when the inother the rudiments of civil ſociety, and neceſſarily ceaſed among the country was overcharged with inhabitants; which was practiſed as complicated intereſts and artificial refinements of polite and eſta- well by the Phoenicians and Greeks, as the Germans, Scythians, bliſhed governments. In theſe it was found, that what became in- and other northern people. And, ſo long as it was confined to the convenient or uſeleſs to one man, was highly convenient and uſe- ſtocking and cultivation of deſart uninhabited countries, it kept ful to another; who was ready to give in exchange for it ſome ítrictly within the limits of the law of nature. But how far the equivalent that was equally deſirable to the former proprietor. ſeizing on countries already peopled, and driving out or maſſacreing This mutual convenience introduced commercial traffic, and the the innocent and defenceleſs natives, merely becauſe they differed reciprocal transfer of property by ſalė, grant, or conveyance ; from their invaders in language, in religion, in cuſtoms, in govern which may be conſidered either as a continuance of the original ment, or in colour; how far ſuch a conduct was conſonant to na poffeffion which the firſt occupant had ; or as an abandoning of ture, to reafon, or to Chriſtianity, deſerved well to be conſidered, the thing by the preſent owner, and an immediate fucceffive occu- by thoſe who have rendered their names immortal by thus civilizing pancy of the ſame by the new proprietor. The voluntary derelic- mankind. tion of the owner, and delivering the poſſeſſion to another indivi- As the world by degrees grew more populous, it daily became dual, amount to a transfer of the property; the proprietor declaring more difficult to find out new ſpots to inhabit, without encroaching his intention no longer to occupy the thing himſelf, but that his upon former occupants; and, by conſtantly occupying the ſame own right of occupancy ſhall be veſted in the new acquirer. Or, individual ſpot, the fruits of the earth were conſumed, and its ſpon taken in the other light, If I agree to part with an acre of my land taneous produce deſtroyed, without any proviſion for a future fup to Titius, the deed of conveyance is an evidence of my intending to PRO PRO young- many per- to abandon the property; and Titius, being the only or firſt man the ſucceſſion to property, and how futile every claim muſt be that acquainted with ſuch my intention, immediately ſteps in and ſeizes has not its foundation in the poſitive rules of the ſtate. In perſonal the vacant poffeffion: thus the conſent expreſſed by the convey ftates, the father may fucceed to his children; in landed property, he never can be their immediate heir, by any the remoteſt pombi- ance, gives Titius a good right againſt me; and poſſeſſion, or oc- cupancy, confirms that right againſt all the world beſides. lity: in general, only the eldeſt ſon, in ſome places only the The inoſt univerſal and effectual way of abandoning property, eit, in others all the fons together, have a right to ſucceed to the inheritance: In real eſtates, males are preferred to females, and by the death of the occupant: when, both the actual poſſeſſion and intention of keeping poſſeffion ceaſing, the property, which is the eldeſt male will uſually exclude the reſt; in the diviſion of per- founded upon ſuch poſſeſſion and intention, ought alſo to ceaſe of ſonal eſtates, the females of equal degree are admitted together courſe. For, naturally ſpeaking, the inſtant a man ceaſes to be, with the males, and no right of primogeniture is allowed. he ceaſes to have any dominion: elſe, if he had a right to diſpoſe of This one confideration may help to remove the ſcruples of his acquiſitions one moment beyond his life, he would alſo have a well-meaning perſons, who ſet up a miſtaken conſcience in oppofi- right to direct their diſpoſal for a million of ages after him; which tion to the rules of law. If a man diſinherits his ſon, by a will duly would be highly abſurd and inconvenient. All property muſt executed, and leaves his eſtate to a ſtranger, there are many who therefore ceaſe upon death, conſidering men as abſolute individuals, conſider this proceeding as contrary to natural juſtice; while others and unconnected with civil ſociety: for then, by the principles ſo ſcrupulouſly adhere to the ſuppoſed intention of the dead, that if before eſtabliſhed, the next immediate occupant would acquire a a will of lands be atteſted by only two witneſſes inſtead of three, right in all that the deceaſed poſſeſſed. But as, under civilized which the law requires, they are apt to imagine that the heir is governments, which are calculated for the peace of mankind, ſuch a bound in conſcience to relinquiſh his title to the deviſee. But both conſtitution would be productive of endleſs diſturbances, the uni of them certainly proceed upon very erroneous principles: as if, on verſal law of almoſt every nation (which is a kind of ſecondary law the one hand, the ſon had by nature a right to ſucceed to his father's of nature) has either given the dying perfon a power of continuing lands; or as if, on the other hand, the owner was by nature enti- his property, by diſpoſing of his poſſeſſions by will; or, in caſe he tled to direct the ſucceſſion of his property after his own deceaſe. neglects to diſpoſe of it, or is not permitted to make any diſpoſition Whereas the law of nature ſuggeſts, that on the death of the poffef- at all, the municipal law of the country then ſteps in, and declares for the eſtate ſhould again become common, and be open to the next who ſhall be the ſucceſſor, repreſentative, or heir of the deceaſed; occupant, unleſs otherwiſe ordered, for the ſake of civil peace, by that is, who alone ſhall have a right to enter upon this vacant pof the poſitive law of ſociety. The poſitive law of ſociety, which is ſeſſion, in order to avoid that confuſion which its becoming again with us the municipal law of England, directs it to veſt in ſuch common would occaſion. And farther, in caſe no teftament be ſon as the laſt proprietor ſhall by will, attended with certain requi- permitted by the law, or none be made, and no heir can be found fites, appoint; and, in defect of ſuch appointment, to go to ſome ſo qualified as the law requires, ſtill, to prevent the robuſt title of particular perſon, who, from the reſult of certain local conſtitutions, occupancy from again taking place, the doctrine of eſcheats is appears to be the heir at law. Hence it follows, that, where the adopted in almoſt every country; whereby the ſovereign of the appointment is regularly made, there cannot be a ſhadow of right ſtate, and thoſe who claim under his authority, are the ultimate in any one but the perſon appointed; and, where the neceſſary re- heirs, and ſucceed to thoſe inheritances to which no other title can quiſites are omitted, the right of the heir is equally ſtrong, and be formed. built upon as folid a foundation, as the right of the deviſee would The right of inheritance, or deſcent to the children and relations have been, ſuppoſing ſuch requiſites were obſerved. of the deceaſed, ſeems to have been allowed much earlier than the But, after all, there are ſome few things, which notwithſtanding right of deviſing by teſtament. We are apt to conceive at the firſt the general introduction and continuance of property, muſt ſtill view that it has nature on its ſide; yet we often miſtake for nature unayoidably remain in common: being ſuch wherein nothing but what we find eſtabliſhed by long and inveterate cuſtom. It is cer an uſufructuary property is capable of being had: and therefore tainly a wiſe and effexual , but clearly a political, eſtabliſhment; they ſtill belong to the firſt occupant, during the time he holds pof- ſince the permanent right of property, veſted in the anceſtor him feffion of them, and no longer. Such (among others) are the ele- ſelf, was no natural, but merely a civil, right. It is true, that the ments of light, air, and water; which a man may occupy by means tranſmiſſions of one's poſſeſſions to poſterity has an evident ten- of his windows, his gardens, his mills, and other conveniences: dency to make a man a good citizen and an uſeful member of ſo ſuch alſo are the generality of thoſe animals which are faid to be ciety: it ſets the paſſions on the ſide of duty, and prompts a manferæ nature, or of a wild and untameable diſpoſition; which any to deſerve well of the public, when he is ſure that the reward of man may ſeize upon and keep for his own uſe , or pleaſure. All his ſervices will not die with himſelf, but be tranſmitted to thoſe theſe things, ſo long as they remain in poſſeſſion, every man has a with whom he is connected by the deareſt and moſt tender affec right to enjoy without diſturbance; but if once they eſcape from his tions. Yet, reaſonable as this foundation of the right of inheritance cuſtody, or he voluntarily abandons the uſe of them, they return to may ſeem, it is probable that its immediate original aroſe not the common ſtock, and any man elſe has an equal right to ſeize and from ſpeculations altogether ſo delicate and refined, and, if not enjoy them afterwards. from fortuitous circumſtances, at leaſt from a plainer, and more Again, there are other things in which a permanent property fimple principle. A man's children or neareſt relations are uſually may ſubfift, not only as to the temporary uſe, but alſo the folid about him on his death-bed, and are the earlieſt witneſſes of his ſubſtance; and which yet would be frequently found without a deceaſe. They became therefore generally the next immediate proprietor, had not the wiſdom of the law provided a remedy to ob- occupants, till at length in proceſs of time this frequent uſage viate this inconvenience. Such are foreſts and other waſte grounds ripened into general law. And therefore alſo in the earlieſt ages, which were omitted to be appropriated in the general diſtribution on failure of children, a man's ſervants, born under his roof, were of lands: ſuch alſo are wrecks, eſtrays, and that ſpecies of wild ani- allowed to be his heirs; being immediately on the ſpot when he mals, which the arbitrary conſtitutions of poſitive law have diſtin- died. For we find the old patriarch Abraham, expreſsly declaring, guiſhed from the reſt by the well-known appellation of game. that “ ſince God had given him no feed, his ſteward Eliezar, one With regard to theſe and ſome others, as diſturbances and quarrels born in his houſe, was his heir." would frequently ariſe among individuals contending about the ac- While property continued only for life, teſtaments were uſeleſs quiſition of this ſpecies of property by firſt occupancy, the law has and unknown; and when it became inheritable; the inheritance was therefore wiſely cut up the root of diflenſion, by veſting the things long indefeaſible, and the children or heirs at law were incapable of themſelves in the ſovereign of the ſtate; or elſe in his repreſentatives excluſion by will. Till at length it was found, that ſo ſtrict a rule appointed and authorized by him, being uſually the lords of manors. of inheritance made heirs diſobedient and headſtrong, defrauded cre The laws of England are, therefore, in point of honour, and juf- ditors of their juſt debts, and prevented many provident fathers from tice, extremely watchful in aſcertaining and protecting the right dividing or charging their eſtates as the exigence of their families of property. Upon this principle the great charter has declared, required. This introduced pretty generally the right of diſpoſing that no freeman ſhall be diffeiſed or diveſted of his freehold, or his of one's property, or a part of it, by teſtament; that is, by written liberties, or free cuſtoms, but by the judgment of his peers, or by the or oral inſtructions properly witneſſed and authenticated, according law of the land. And by a variety of ancient ſtatutes, viz. to the pleaſure of the deceaſed; which we therefore emphatically 5 Edw. III. cap. 9. 25 Edw. III. ſtat. 5. cap. 4. 28 Edw. III. ſtyle his will. This was eſtabliſhed in ſome countries much later cap. 3. it is enacted, that no man's lands or goods ſhall be ſeiſed than in others. With us in England, till modern times, a man into the king's hands againſt the great charter, and the law of the could only diſpoſe of one-third of his moveables from his wife and land; and that no man ſhall be diſinherited nor put out of his children; and, in general, no will was permitted of lands till the franchiſes or freehold, unleſs he be duly brought to anſwer, and be reign of Henry VIII. and then only of a certain portion: for it forejudged by courſe of law; and if any thing be done to the con- was not till after the reſtoration that the power of deviſing real pro trary, it ſhall be redreſſed, and holden for none, So great is the perty became ſo univerſal as at preſent. regard of the law for private property, that it will not authorize the Wills, therefore, and teſtaments, rights of inheritance, and ſuc leaſt violation of it; no, not even for the general good of the ceſſions, are all of them creatures of the civil or municipal laws, whole community. and accordingly are in all reſpects regulated by them; every diſtinct The objects of dominion or property are things, as contradif- country having different ceremonies and requiſites to make a tefta tinguiſhed from perſons; and things are by the law of England ment completely valid; neither does any thing vary more than the diſtributed into two kinds, viz. things real, and things perſonal . right of inheritance under different national eſtabliſhments. In Things real are ſuch as are permanent, fixed and immoveable, England particularly, this diverſity is carried to ſuch a length, as if which cannot be carried out of their place, as lands, tenements, it had been meant to point out the power of the laws in regulating and hereditaments of all kinds; things perſonal are goods, money, 1 I and PRO PRO ment. and all other moveables which may attend the owner's perſon and truly from the Septuagint verſion, which in their time was in wherever he thinks proper to go. Hence property is divided into vulgar uſe, and exactly agreed with the Hebrew original; and that perſonal and real. And thus our legiſlature has univerſally promo as they made exact quotations, ſo they argued juſtly and logically ted the grand ends of civil ſociety, the peace and ſecurity of indivi from the obvious and literal ſenſe of the ſaid quotations, as they duals, by ſteadily purſuing that wiſe and orderly maxim, of aſſigning then ſtood in the Old Teſtament; but that, ſince their times, both to every thing capable of ownerſhip a legal and determinate owner. the Hebrew and Septuagint copies of the Old Teſtament have Literary PROPERTY See LITERARY. been ſo greatly corrupted, and ſo many apparent diſorders and PROPHECY, Ilgonteld, a prediction, made by divine infpi diſlocations introduced therein, as to occaſion many remarkable dif- ration. One of the ſtrongeſt evidences for the truth of revealed ferences and inconſiſtencies between the Old and New Teſtament, religion is that ſeries of prophecies which is preſerved in the Old in reſpect to the words and ſenſe of thoſe quotations. and New Teſtament; and a greater ſervice, ſays an excellent As to the manner wherein theſe corruptions were introduced, he writer, could not be done to Chriſtianity than to lay together the ſays, the Jews, in the ſecond century, greatly corrupted and altered ſeveral predictions of ſcripture, with their completions, to ſhew both the Hebrew and Septuagint, eſpecially in the prophecies cited how particular things have been foretold, and how exactly by the apoſtles, to make their reaſoning appear inconcluſive; that, fulfilled. A work of this kind was deſired by lord Bacon in the third century, they put into Origen's hand one of theſe (vide de Augmentis Scientiarum, lib. ii. cap. 11.) and he entitles corrupted copies of the Septuagint; which Origen miſtaking for it the Hiſtory of Prophecy, in which he propoſes, that every pro genuine, inſerted in his Hexapla, and thus brought into the church phecy of the ſcripture be ſorted with the event fulfilling the ſame, a corrupted copy of the Septuagint; and that, in the end of the throughout the ages of the world, both for the better confirma fourth century, the Jews put into the hands of the Chriſtians, who, tion of faith, and for the better illumination of the church, touch till then, had been almoſt univerſally ignorant of the Hebrew, a ing thoſe parts of prophecies which are yet unfulfilled; allowing, corrupted copy of the Hebrew Old Teſtament. The diſagreement, nevertheleſs, that latitude which is agreeable and familiar unto di then, between the Old and New Teſtament, in reſpect to the faid vine prophecies, being of the nature of the author with whom a quotations, he contends, has no place between the genuine text of thouſand years are but as one day, and therefore they are not ful the Old Teſtament (now no where exiſting,) but only between the filled punétually at once, but have ſpringing and germinant accom preſent corrupted text of the Old and New Teſtament; and there- pliſhment throughout many ages, though the height or fulneſs of fore, to juſtify the reaſonings of the apoſtles, he propoſes to reſtore them may refer to ſome one age. A work of this kind has been the text of the Old Teſtament, as it ſtood before the days of Origen, actually executed by the learned biſhop Newton, in his Diſſertation and as it ſtood in the days of the apoſtles; from which text, thus on the Prophecies. reſtored, he doubts not, it will evidently appear, that the apoſtles With regard to the credibility of prophecy, it may be obſerved cited exactly, and argued juſtly and logically from the Old Teſta- in general, that it is not at all incredible that God ſhould upon ſpe- But this fcheme of accompliſhing prophecies labours under cial occaſions foretel future events; and, if he affords an extraor difficulties at leaſt as great as the allegorical ſcheme. Its founda- dinary revelation of his will to mankind, that he ſhould atteſt its tion is incredible, and its ſuperſtructure, from firſt to laſt, preca- divine original by this kind of evidence; an evidence, which, if rious. In effect, it is inconceivable, that the Old Teſtament the prophecies point to the events, and the events correſpond with ſhould be ſo corrupted; and it may be even made appear, that the the prophecies, is in the higheſt degree concluſive and convincing. Hebrew and Septuagint diſagreed in the times of the apoſtles: add No previous conjecture nor accidental coincidence are ſufficient to to this, that the means whereby he propoſes to reſtore the true text, counteract and invalidate this kind of evidence. will never anſwer that end; nor has he himſelf, from all the means As to moſt of the ſcripture prophecies, they comprehend ſuch a he is yet poſſeſſed of, been able to reſtore one prophetical citation, variety of particulars; they fo minutely deſcribe diſtant events, to ſo as to make that ſeem literally, which before only ſeemed allego- be accompliſhed in circumſtances which no human ſagacity could rically applied. foreſee or conceive likely to occur; and they accord ſo exactly with PROPHET, in General, a perſon who foretels future events; the facts to which they refer, that there is no way of evading the but is particularly applied to ſuch inſpired perſons among the Jews concluſion, but by either denying the premiſes that ſuch prophecies as were commiſſioned by God to declare his will and purpoſes to where ever delivered and recorded, againſt which fact and hiſtory that people. Among the canonical books are thoſe of fixteen pro- militate, or by pretending that what we call predictions are only phets; four of which are denominated the greater prophets, viz. hiſtories written after the events had happened, in a prophetic ſtyle Iſaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel; ſo called from the length and manner. But it is alledged in anſwer to this abſurb plea, that or extent of their writings, which exceed thoſe of the others; viz. there are all the proofs and authorities, which can be had in caſes Hoſea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, of this nature, that the prophets propheſied in one age, and that the Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi; who are called the lefſer pro- events happened in another and ſubſequent age: and we have as phets, from the ſhortneſs of their writings. The writings of the much reaſon to believe theſe, as we have to believe any ancient prophets form one of the three diviſions of the Canon of the Old matter of fact whatever; and by the ſame rule which leads us to Teſtament; and to thoſe already enumerated, called the books of deny theſe, we may as well controvert and contradict the credibility the latter prophets, are added thoſe of the former prophets; viz. of all ancient hiſtory: but, beſides, Chriſtian writers undertake to Joſhua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. The Jews only reckon three prove the truth of prophecy, and conſequently the truth of revela greater prophets : Daniel they exclude as no more to be ranked tion, not by an induction of particulars long ago foretold and long among the prophets than David: not but that both the one and ago fulfilled, the predictions of which may be ſuppoſed to have the other foretold many important things, but becauſe their manner been written after the hiſtories; but by inſtances of things which of life differed from that of the other prophets; David being a have confeſſedly many ages ago been foretold, and have in theſe king and Daniel a peer. In the Greek church, the leffer prophets latter ages been fulfilled, or are fulfilling at this very time; ſo that are placed in order before the great ones; apparently becauſe many there is no pretence for aſſerting ſuch prophecies to have been of the leſſer prophets are more ancient than the greater. Among written after the events: but it muſt be acknowledged that the the Greeks, too, Daniel is ranked among the leſſer prophets. In events many ages after correſpond exactly with the predictions the forty-eighth chapter of Eccleſiaſticus, Iſaiah is particularly many ages before. called the great prophet; both on account of the great things he Dr. Stanhope laments the loſs of the Jewiſh traditions or rules foretold, and the magnificent manner wherein he did it. Spinoza for interpreting Scripture received among the rabbins, and followed ſays, the ſeveral prophets propheſied according to their reſpective by the apoſtles. But this loſs, Surenhuſius, Hebrew profeſſor at humours: Jeremiah, e. gr. melancholy and dejected with the Amſterdam, thinks he has retrieved from the Jewiſh Talmud, and miferies of life, propheſied nothing but misfortunes. Dacier ob- she ancient ſewiſh commentaries; and has accordingly publiſhed ſerves that among the ancients, the name poet is ſometimes given to lie world the rules whereby the apoſtles quoted the Old Teſta to prophets; as that of prophet is, at other times, given to poets. ment. But theſe rules are too precarious, ftrained, and unnatural, PROPITIATION, in Religion, a ſacrifice offered to God to to gain much credit. aſſuage his wrath, and render him propitious. Among the Jews Mr. Whilon condemns all allegorical explanations of the pro- there were both ordinary and public ſacrifices; as holocauſts, &c. phecies of the Old Teſtament cited in the New, as weak, enthuſi offered by way of thankſgiving; and extraordinary ones offered by aſtic, &c. and adds, that if a double ſenſe of the prophecies be al particular perſons guilty of any crime, by way of propitiation. lowed, and there be no other method of fhewing their completion The Romiſh church believe the maſs to be a facrifice of propitia- than by applying them ſecondarily and typically to our Lord, after tion, for the living and the dead. The reformed churches allow having been in the firſt and primary intention long ago fulfilled in of no propitiation, but that one offered by Jeſus Chriſt on the croſs. the times of the Old Teſtament, we loſe all the real advantages of PROPITIATION alſo gives the name to a ſolemn feaſt among the the ancient prophecies, as to the proofs of Chriſtianity. He there Jews, celebrated on the tenth of the month Tiſri, which is their fore ſets up a new ſcheme in oppoſition thereto: he owns, that feventh month, and anſwers to our September. It was inſtituted taking the preſent text in the Old Teſtament for genuine, it is im to preſerve the memory of the pardon proclaimed to their fore- poſlible to expound the apoſtles citations of the prophecies of the fathers by Moſes on the part of God; who thereby remitted the Old Teſtament on any other than the allegorical foundation; and puniſhment due for their worſhip of the golden calf. therefore, to ſolve the difficulty, he is forced to have recourſe to a PROPITIATORY, among the Jews, was the cover or lid ſuppoſition, contrary to the ſenſe of all Chriſtian writers before of the ark of the covenant; which was lined both within and with- him, viz. that the text of the Old Teſtament has been greatly cor outſide with plates of gold; inſomuch that there was no wood to be rupted ſince the apoftolic age by the Jews. His hypotheſis is, that ſeen. Some even take it to have been one piece of maſſive gold. the apoſtles made their quotations out of the Old Teſtament rightly The cherubims ſpread their wings over the propitiatory, This * Ooo propitiatory No. 133. PRO PRO is 2.. Propitiatory was a type or figure of Chriſt, whom St. Paul calls the propitiatory ordained from all ages. See Ark of the covenant, PROPOLIS, Tponsoris, a thick yellow odorous ſubſtance, Imel- ling like ſtorax, nearly a kin to wax, but more tenacious; wherewith the bees ſtop up the holes and crannies of their hives, to keep out the cold air, &c. Theſe wary animals not only ſtop up in this man- ner all the cracks they can find, but even examine all the weak places of the hive, and will eat away a rotten or too weak part, and make up the deficiency with this propolis. This was elegantly ſeen in the caſe of ſome of Mr. Reaumur's glaſs hives, which were framed of wood, and had ſquares of glaſs in the proper places: theſe ſquares of glaſs were faſtened in with ſlips of pafted paper. The bees finding this a much weaker part of the hive than any other, and capable of being eaten through by their enemies, foon gnawed to pieces all the paper and paſte, and covered thoſe parts with the propolis in the place of that matter. PROPORTION, proportio, in Arithinetic, the identity or ſimi. litude of two ratios. Proportion is frequently confounded with ratio; yet have two, in reality, very different ideas, which ought by all means to be diſtinguiſhed. Ratio is, properly, that relation or habitude of two things, which determines the quantity of one from the quantity of another, without the intervention of any third; thus we ſay, the ratio of 5 and 10 is 2; the ratio of 12 and 24 Proportion is the ſameneſs or likeneſs of two ſuch relations; thus the relations between 5 and 10, and 12 and 24, being the ſame, or equal, the four terms are ſaid to be in proportion. Hence ratio exiſts between two numbers; but proportion requires at the leaſt three. See the Syſtem, Chap. VIII. Arithmetical PROPORTION, is the equality of difference between three or more ſeveral quantities.ee Geometrical PROPORTION, is the equality of two geometrical ratios, or compariſons of two couples of quantities. Thus, 4:8:: 12:24, are in geometrical proportion; the ratio of 4 and 8 being equal to that of 12 and 24; i. e. 4 is contained as often in 8, as 12 is in 24. Again, 9, 3, 1, are in geometrical proportion, 9 being 3, as 3 is of 1. A ſeries or progreſſion of more than four geometrical proportionals is called a geometrical progreſſion. See the Syſtem, Art, XXI. Harmonical or Mufical PROPORTION, is a third kind of propor- tion formed out of the other two, thus; of three numbers, if the firſt be to the third as the difference of the firſt and ſecond to the difference of the ſecond and third; the three numbers are in har- monical proportion. Thus, 2, 3, 6 are harmonical, becauſe 2:6 ::1: 3. So alſo four numbers are harmonical, when the firſt is to the fourth as the difference of the firſt and ſecond to the difference of the third and fourth. See the Syſtem of ARITHMETIC, Chap. XIX. PROPORTION, in Architecture, denotes the juſt magnitude of the members of each part of a building, and the relation of the ſeveral parts to the whole; e. gr. of the dimenſions of a column, &c. with regard to the ordonance of the whole building. See the Syſtem, on the Orders of ARCHITECTURE in general. PROPORTION, in Drawing, is the juſt magnitude of the ſeveral members of a figure, a groupe, &c. with regard to one another, to the whole figure, the groupe and the entire piece. Proportion makes one of the moſt important articles in the art of drawing. For an ample deſcription of which, ſee the Treatiſe on DRAW- ING, Sect. III. and the three Plates which Illuſtrate it. as Rule of PROPORTION, in Arithmetic, a rule whereby we find a fourth proportional to three numbers given. This is popularly called the golden rule, and ſometimes the rule of three. See the Syſtem, Chap. VIII. PROPORTIONALS, in Geometry, are quantities, either li- near or numeral, which bear the ſame ratio, or relation to each other. See the Syſtem, Sect. IV. altera very PROPOSITION, PROPOSITI0, in Logic, part of an argument, wherein ſome quality, either negative or poſitive, is attributed to a ſubject. See the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. II. III. and IV. PROPOSITION, in Mathematics, is either ſome truth advanced and ſhewn to be ſuch by demonſtration; or ſome operation pro- poſed, and its ſolution ſhewn. If the propoſition be deduced from ſeveral theoretical definitions compared together, as this: a paralle- logram is double of a triangle, ſtanding on the ſame baſe, and of the fame altitude; it is called a theorem. If it be deduced from a praxis or ſeries of operations, it is called a problem;, as to find a third proportional to two given quantities. PROPOSITION, in Oratory, is that part of a juſt and regular diſ- courſe, in which the ſpeaker lays down or propoſes the ſubject upon which he deſigns to treat, in a diſtinct and expreſs manner. See the Article NARRATION, and the Treatiſe on Oratory, Part II. Sect. II. PROPRIETY,in Grammar, is where the direct and immediate ſignification of a word agrees to the thing it is applied to. In which ſenſe propriety is uſed in oppoſition to a figurative or re- mote ſignification. See the Treatiſe, Sect I. throughout. PROROGATION, prorogatio, the act of prolonging, ad- journing, or putting off to another time. PROROGATION of Parliament. See PARLIAMENT. PROSE, profa, the natural language of mankind, looſe, and unconfined by poetical meaſures, rhymes, &c. In which fenſe it ſtands oppoſed to verſe. Though profe had its connexions, which ſuſtain it, and a ſtructure which renders it numerous, it ought ſtill to appear free; its character conſiſts in running eaſy, and unre- ſtrained. Poets very rarely have the talent of proſe: the habit of wearing chains Gts faſt upon them, even when the chains are off. St. Evremond compares proſe writers to foot-travellers, who walk with leſs noiſe, but more ſecurity, than the cavaliers, PROSELYTE, profelytus, a new convert to the faith. The term was much uſed in the primitive church. The Jews too had their profelytes, who, from being Gentiles, embraced Judaiſm. PROSERPINE, in Mythology, the daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, wife of Pluto, ſtolen by him out of Sicily, and carried to his ſubterranean dominion, where Îne was the partner of his em- pire. The poets and painters repreſent her with a dark complexion and a melancholy air in her face. Statius Theb. 8. v. 11. affigns her the employment of keeping a regiſter of the dead, and marking down all that ſhould be added to that number. He alſo ſays, lib. 5. Sylv, 1. V. 257. that when any woman dies, who has been a re- markable good wife in this world, Proſerpine prepares the ſpirits of the beſt woman in the other to make a proceſſion to welcome her into Elyſium with joy, and to ſtrew all the way with flowers, where ſhe is to paſs. PROSODY, proſodia, that part of Grammar, which teaches and directs the pronunciation and manner of rehearſal ; marks the accents; and diſtinguiſhes the long and fort ſyllables. The Eng- lith profody turns chiefly on two things; numbers, that is, a cer- tain number of feet or ſyllables; and rhyme, or a fimilitude of found between the laſt fyliables of words. See the Articles, NUMBERS, and RHYME. PROSOPOPOEIA, TÍDOC WITOWO!!, formed from upoowmov, per- ſon, and worsw, I make, or feign, in rhetoric, a figure, whereby we make perſons that are abſent, or dead; or even things which are inanimate, as cities, &c. to ſpeak. The poets, in their fictions, make frequent uſe of the proſopopæia; as alſo do the orators in their painting of violent paſſions, which ſeem to tranſport, and make them forget themſelves. PROSTATE, aposutei, in Anatomy, two white ſpongy, glan- dulous bodies, ſituate at the root of the penis, or juſt below the neck of the bladder, and about the ſize of walnuts. See the Syſ- tem, Part III. Sect. XV. and for repreſentation Plate X. fig. 1. Letter E. PROTECTOR, a perſon who undertakes to ſmelter and defend the weak, helpleſs, or diſtreſſed. God, and the magiſtrate, are the protectors of the widow and orphan. Among the heathens, Minerva was eſteemed the protectreſs of arts. Every catholic nation, and every religious order, has a protector reſiding at the court of Rome, who is cardinal, and is called the cardinal protector. PROTECTOR, is ſometimes alſo uſed for a regent of a kingdom, made choice of to govern it during the minority of a prince. Cromwell aſſumed the title and quality of lord protector of the com- monwealth of England. PROTEST, in Law, is uſed for a caution, or call of witneſs, or an open affirmation, that a perſon does, either not at all, or but con- ditionally, yield his conſent to any act; or to the proceeding of any judge in a court, wherein his juriſdi&tion is doubtful: or to anſwer upon his oath farther than by law he is bound. Any of the lords in parliament have a right to proteit their diſſent to any bill paſſed by a majority; which proteſt is entered in form. This privilege is ſaid not to be very ancient: the commons have no right to proteſt. DUOTOS Protest, in Commerce, is a ſummons made by a notary public to a merchant, banker, or the like, to accept or diſcharge a bill of exchange drawn on him; after his having refuſed either to accept the ſame. It is called a proteſt, becauſe it contains a proteſ- tation, that the party will return the bill, and even take up money at intereſt; and charge all coſts, damages, carriage, and recarriage, on the refuſer. There are two kinds of proteſts, the one for want of acceptance, and the other for want of payment. The firſt is to be made by the bearer of the bill, at the time of preſenting it, in caſe the perſon on whom it is drawn refuſes to accept it for the time, a the ſum there expreſſed. The latter is made as the bill fallsdue, whether it has been accepted or not. The bearers of bills of ex- change that have been accepted, or which become payable at a cer- tain day, are obliged to have them either paid or proteſted within three days after due, on the penalty of anſwering for the omiffion. And it muſt be obſerved, that if the third day happen to be a holi- day, the proteſt is to be made on the eye thereof. PROTESTANT, a name firſt given in Germany to thoſe who adhered to the doctrine of Luther; becauſe, in 1529, they proteſted againſt a decree of the emperor Charles V. and the diet of Spires; and declared, that they appealed to a general council. The name has been ſince alſo given to thoſe who adhere to the ſentiments of Calvin; and is now become a common denomination applied indif- criminately to all the ſects, of whatever denomination, which have revolted from the Roman fee. PROTESTANT Diſenters. See DISSENTERS, NONCONFOR- MISTS, and PURITANS. DOCTORS PROTHONOTARY, PROTHONOTARIUS, PROTONOTARY, a term properly ſignifying firſt notary; and which was anciently the title of the principal notaries of the emperors of Conſtantinople. or pay With PRO PRO With us prothonotary, called alſo preignotary, is uſed for an officer PROXIMITY, proximitas, denotes the relation or nearneſs, in the court of king's bench and common pleas; the latter where either in reſpect of place, blood, or alliance. of has three, the former one. PROXY, procurator, a deputy, or perſon who officiates in the PROTHONOTARY of the King's Bench, records all actions civil, room of another. Princes are uſually married by proxies, or re- ſued in that court; as the clerk of the crown-office doth in all cri preſentatives. Peers are allowed to give their votes by proxies. minal cauſes. Proxy, procuracy, among civilians, alſo denotes a commiſſion PROTHONOTARIES of the Common Pleas, enter and inroll all given to a proctor, by a client, to raanage a cauſe in his behalf. declarations, pleadings, aflizes, judgments, and actions : they alſo PRUNES, pruna, are plums, dried or baked in an oven, or in make out all judicial writs, as the venire facias, after iſſue joined ; the ſun. Three forts of this fruit are ranked among the articles except habeas corpus, and diſtringas jurator; for which there is a of the materia medica : The French prunes and damfons are the feparate office : writs of execution and ſeiſin, of ſuperſedeas, of pri- moſt emollient, lubricative, and laxative ; they are taken by them- vilege, &re. theyinroll all recognizances acknowledged in that court, ſelves for gently looſening the belly in coftive habits, and where all common recoveries, make exemplifications of records, &c. there is a tendency to inflammation; decoctions of them afford an PROTRACTOR, a name of an inſtrument uſed in ſurgery, uſeful baſis for laxative or purging mixtures, and the pulp in ſub- to draw out any foreign or diſagreeable bodies from a wound or ſtance for electuaries. ulcer, in like manner as the forceps. PRUNING, in Gardening, and Agriculture, the operation of PROTRACTOR, is alſo an inſtrument uſed in ſurveying, where lopping or cutting off the ſuperfluous branches of trees; either to by the angles taken in the field with a theodolite, circumferentor, diſpoſe them to bear better, to grow higher, or to appear more re- or the like, are plotted, or laid down, on paper. gular. Pruning is one of the moſt important branches of the gar- PROVERB, according to Camden, is a conciſe, witty, and wiſe dener's province, and that whereon the thriving or barrenneſs of ſpeech, grounded upon experience, and for the moſt part contain his fruit-trees, as well as the form and regularity of his garden, in ing ſome uſeful inſtructions. a great meaſure depends. For the moſt approved methods of pru- Book of Proverbs, a canonical book of the Old Teſtament, ning the different fruit-trees, ſee the Syſtem of GARDENING, under containing a part of the proverbs of Solomon the ſon of David king the article FRUIT GARDEN, months of January, March, May of Ifrael. The firſt 24 chapters are acknowledged to be the genuine and July. work of that prince ; the next five chapters are a collection of ſe PŘURITUS, a painful, and yet pleaſurable kind of fenfation veral of his proverbs, made by order of king Hezekiah ; and the two of the ſkin, popularly called itching ; which is ſuppoſed to ariſe laſt ſeem to have been added, though belonging to different and un hence, that the extremities of the capillary veins being obſtructed, known authors, Agur the ſon of Jakeh, and king Lemuel. In this cannot take up the redundant blood of the limbs, to carry it back excellent book are contained rules for the conduct of all conditions again to the heart; whence, as there is a freſh itock of blood con- of life ; for kings, courtiers, maſters, ſervants, fathers, mothers, tinually ſent into the part by the inceffant pulſation of the heart, children, &c. the fibres become preternaturally ſtretched or diſtended, and hence PROVIDENCE, providentia, the conduct and direction of the the uſually titillating ſenſe of itching. ſeveral parts of the univerſe, by a ſuperior intelligent Being. The PSEUDO, a term or particle, uſed in the compoſition of di- notion of a providence is very ancient, even in the heathen theolo vers Latin and Engliſh words; in the ſenſe of falſe or ipurious. gy; we find Thales mentions it. It is founded on this ſuppoſition, The word is formed from Leuda, lie, falſhood, of beudce, I deceive. that the Creator has not ſo fixed and aſcertained the laws of nature, We ſay a pſeudo-martyr, q. d. a falſe witneſs, pſeudo-prophet, pſeudo- nor fo connected the chain of ſecond cauſes, as to leave the world to apoſtle, pſeudo chrift, &c. itſelf: but that he ſtill preſerves the reins in his own hands, and PSITTACUS, in Ornithology, a genus belonging to the order occaſionally intervenes, alters, reſirains, enforces, ſuſpends, &c. of picæ. The beak is hooked, the ſuperior mandible being fur- thoſe laws, by a particular providence. Some uſe the word provi niihed with a moveable wax; the noſtrils are placed at the baſe of dence in a more general ſenſe, fignifying by it that power or action the beak; the tongue is Aeſhy, blunt, and entire; and the feet are whereby the ſeveral parts of the creation are ordinarily directed. fitted for climbing. There are 45 fpecies, diſtinguiſhed by their The Epicureans deny any divine providence, as thinking it in colour and the length of their tails. This genus includes the par- conſiſtent with the eaſe and repoſe of the divine nature, to meddle rot kind, which are all natives of warm Jinates. The parrot is at all with human affairs. Others deny the exiſtence of a providence, a well known bird, of which there are ſeveral very beautiful kinds, from the ſeemingly unjuſt diſtribution of good and evil ; which ap Its head is large, and beak and ſkull extremely hard and ſtrong. pear to fall indiſcriminately on the juſt and unjuſt. Simplicius ar It might ſeem a wonder why nature has deſtined to this, which is gues thus for a providence : if God does not look to the affairs of not naturally a hied of prey, but feeds on fruit and vegetable fub- the world, it is either becauſe he cannot, or will not ; but the firſt ſtances, the crooked beak allotted to the hawk and other carnivo- is abſurd, ſince, to govern cannot be difficult where to create was Lrds : but the reaſon ſeems to be, that the parrot being a eaſy; and the latter is both abſurd and blaſphemous. See God. beavy bird, and its legs not very fit for ſervice, it climbs up and The ſentiments of Cicero are likewiſe very preciſe and pertinai! e and pertinait down trees by the help of this tharp and hooked bill, with which to this purpoſe. He thinks it impoſſible for one who dul confi it lays holds of any thing, and ſecures itſelf before it ſtirs a foot and beſides this, it helps itſelf forward very much, by pulling its ders the innumerable objects of the univerſe, and this invariable body on with this hold. order and beauty, to entertain the leaſt doub, but that there is fome efficient cauſe who preſides over and directs the mighty fa Of all animals, the parrot and crocodile are the only ones which bric; Nay, he lays it down as a fundamental principle of all focie move the upper jaw ; all creatures elſe moving the lower only. As ties, that there is a divine puuvidence which directs all events, ob ſome particular animals beſide are fond of particular foods, ſo the ferves the actions of maskind, whether good or bad, diſcerns the parrot loves nothing ſo much as the ſeeds of the carthamus, or very intentions of the heart, and will certainly make a difference baſtard-fafron; and eats them without any hurt, though they between good men and the wicked. are a purge when given to other creatures. The parrots are com PROVINCE, a canton, or diviſion, of a kingdom or common mon both in the Eaſt and Weſt Indies; they are a briſk and lively wealthy comprehending ſeveral cities, towns, &c. all under the ſame bird in the warmer countries; but with us loſe much of their vi- government; and uſually diſtinguiſhed by the extent either of the gour. They lay two or three eggs in the hollow of a tree. In civil or ecclefiaftical juriſdiction. The provinces were anciently all the known parrots the noſtrils are round, and placed very high duchies, counties, &c. which have been ſince all re-united under upon the beak; and very near one another. the ſame chief. The church diſtinguiſhes its provinces by arch Parrots are divided into three kinds : 1. The larger, which are biſhopricks, each containing a certain number of biſhopricks. In as big as a moderate fowl, called macaos, and cockatoos; theſe have this ſenſe England is divided into two provinces, Canterbury and 2. The middle-fized ones, commonly called par- York. The United provinces are the ſeven northern provinces of rots, which have ſhort tails, and are a little larger than a pigeons the Low Countries; which, revolting from the Spaniſh dominion, And, 3. The ſmall ones, which are called paroquets, and have long made a firm and perpetual alliance, offenſive and defenſive, at tails, and are not larger than a lark or blackbird. For repreſenta- Utretcht, in the year 1579. tion, ſee Plate I. Genus 5. PROVINCIÁL, provincialis, ſomething relating to a province. PSOAS magnus, or lumbaris, in Anatomy, a round, hard, fleſhy Thus we ſay a provincial council or fynod, &c. See Synod. muſcle, which ariſes from the internal ſide of the tranſverſe pro- PROVOCATIVE, in Phyſic, a medicine which ſtrengthens ceſſes of the vertebræ of the loins, within the abdomen, and deſcend- rature, and ſtimulates or incites to venery. Such are cantharides, ing upon part of the internal ſide of the ilium, is inſerted in the lower fatyrian, &c. part of the little trochanter. For the origin, inſertion, and uſe, PROVOST, is the chief municipal magiſtrate in ſeveral con ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. II. Table of Muſcles, Art. XIX. ſiderable trading cities ; particularly Edinburgh, Paris, and Lyons, Psoas Parvus, ariſes feſhy from the inſide of the upper verte- which is much the ſame with the mayor in other places. The bræ of the loins, and hath a thin and broad tendon which embraces provoſt preſides at the city-courts, and, together with the ſheriffs, the pſoas magnus; and which is inſerted into the os innominatum, or bailiffs, decides all differences relating to trade and merchan where the os pubis and ilium join together. This, though ordina- dize : he takes cognizance of the affairs of officers of policy of the rily reckoned among the muſcles of the thigh, properly belongs to city with regard to their functions ; of the delinquencies of mer- the lower venter. For origin, inſertion, and uſe, ſee the Syſtem, chants, commiffioners, and factors; inſpects the ports, rivers, du as above directed. ties, impofts, &c. The provoſt of Edinburgh has the title of lord; PSΟROPHTHALMIA, Ψωροφθαλμια, formed from ψωριά, itch, the bailiffs are his deputies. He calls conventions of the boroughs and opodados eye, a ſcurſy eruption of the eye-brows, attended with by his own miſlives. a pruritus, or itching of the party.or an inflammation and ulceration of rous very long tails. PUB PUL an genus PRO- CELLARIA. of the edges of the eye-lids. Mr. Ware, in his Remarks on the who looked upon them to be the inſtruments of their ſubjection to Ophthalmy, Pforophthalmy, and Purulent Eye, 1780, propoſes for the Roman emperors ; to which they generally held it finful for them to ſubmit. So that paying tribute to the Roman emperor, the cure of this diſorder the unguentum citrinum of the Edinburgh diſpenſatory, applied to the parts, either with the finger or a ſmall they looked upon to be a virtual acknowledgement of his fove- bruſh of camel's hair. He has exemplified the utility of this appli- reignty. This was, therefore, a peculiar grievance, and created averſion to the collectors, as the inſtruments of illegal oppreſſion, cation by the relation of ſeveral caſes. PSYCHOLOGY, Lugoroylu, formed from Luxem, ſoul, and apart from all conſideration of their rapacious practices. More- 2oy@u, diſcourſe, the doctrine of the ſoul. Anthropology, or the over, the Jews, who accepted the office of publicans, were on that ſcience which conſiders man, conſiſts of two parts; the firſt treat account hated of their own nation equally with heathens; and ac- ing of the body, and the parts belonging thereto, called anatomy; cording to the rabbies it was a maxim ; a religious man, who be- and the ſecond of the ſoul, called pſychology. comes a publican, is to be driven out of the ſociety of religion. PTERYGOIDÆUS Major, or Internus, in Anatomy, is a PUBLICATION, publicatio, the act of promulgating, or mak- muſcle that lies on the inſide of the lower jaw, almoſt in the ſame ing a thing known to the world. By the canons, publication is to manner that the maſſeter does on the outſide, and is of the ſame be made of the banns of marriage three times before the ceremony figure with that muſcle, only ſmaller and narrower. For origin, can be ſolemnized; without eſpecial licence to the contrary. See MARRIAGE. inſertion, and uſe, ſee the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XI. PTERYGOIDÆUS Minor, or Externus, an oblong ſmall fleſhy PUCERON, the Engliſh name given by naturaliſts to the Aphis, muſcle, ſituated almoſt horizontally between the outſide of the apo- a ſmall infect of a peculiar nature, frequently found on the young phyſis pterygoides, and the condyloide apophyſis of the lower jaw, branches of trees and plants, often in ſuch cluſters as wholly to co- the ſubject being conſidered in an erect poſture. For origin, &c. ver them. ſee the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XI. The puceron is a ſmall animal, but very numerous in the ſeveral PTERYGOPHARYNGÆI, a pair of muſcles ariſing from genera and ſpecies ; inſomuch that Reaumur has obſerved that the proceſſus peterygiodes, where the tendon of the pterygoftaphyli- there is ſcarce a vegetable to be found, either in the fields or nus is reflected. Some fleſhy fibres of them do likewiſe ariſe from gardens, that has not its peculiar ſpecies of puceron to feed on its the upper jaw-bone, behind the fartheſt grinder, and ſome from the juices. M. de la Hire, of the Paris Academy, has left many curious ſides of the tongue, and os hyoides. For origin, inſertion, and uſe, particulars in regard to theſe animals in the memoirs of the year ſee the Syſtem, Sect. XI. 1703 ; and Mr. Leewenhock, and others fince, have given figures PTINUS, in the Syſtem of Entomology, a genus of inſects of and deſcriptions of ſeveral of the ſpecies. See the article Aphis, the coleopetra order. For deſcription and claſſification, ſee the and the Syſtem of ENTOMOLOGY, Order II. Genus 39. Syſtem, Order I. Genus 4. PUDENDUM, denotes a thing to be aíhamed. Hence, pu- PTISAN, PTISANA, WTIOAVY, in Medicine, a cooling potion, dendum virile, and pudendum muliebre. See the Syſtem of ANA- uſually made of barley boiled in water, and ſweetened with liquo- TOMY, Part III. Sect. II. Part V. Sect. XII. and Plate 1o. rice, &c. To theſe are ſometimes added the roots of quick-graſs, It is remarkable, that among the fiſh-tribe, all that are oviparous and ſometimes ſena, to render it laxative. Moſt of the decoctions have no pudenda, properly ſpeaking ; that is they have no penis or of phyſicians are called ptiſans. Feveriſh patients are prohibited Feveriſh patients are prohibited vulva, unleſs the ovaria of the females, and the viſiculæ ſeminales wine, &c. and reduced to ptiſans. of the males, may be called by that name. The viviparous fiſh, PTYALISM, PTYALISIMUS, Iluvenou Q, formed from on the other hand, as the cetaceous fiſh in particular, and many BTUW, Įpuo, exſpuo, I ſpit, in Medicine, a ſpitting, or a diſcharge of kinds of the cartilaginous, have the penis and vulva, diſtinctly faliva by the glands of the mouth : whether it amount to an abſo- fo called. lute ſalivation, or not. PUFFIN, in Ornithology, the Engliſh name of the PUBERTY, Pupertas, in the Civil Law, a natural majority, See PROCELLARIA. or the age wherein a perſon is allowed to contract marriage. Boys PULEX, in Entomology, a genus of inſects. For deſcription arrive at puberty at fourteen years of age, maids at twelve. Full and claflification, ſee the Syſtem, Order VII. Genus 77. puberty is accounted at eighteen. PULLEY, in Mechanics, one of the five mechanical powers : Dr. Kramur obfervos, that all boys at the time of puberty, be conſiſting of a little wheel or rundle, having a channel around it, tween twelve and fourteen years of age, complain of uneaſineſs at and turning on an axis, ſerving by means of a rope which ſlides in their breaſts, which are ſwelled and itchy, the nipples and areola its channel, for the railing of weights. For a full deſcription of round them inflaming with pain, and lometimes excoriation and the conſtruction and uſes of this mechanical power, ſee the Syſtem, exulceration of ſome of the lactiferous ducts. The beſt remedy for Sect. III. For repreſentation, ſee Plate II. Fig. 3, 7, 5, 1, and which, he ſays, is to preſs out the white ferum then contained in Plate III. Fig. 4. them, after which they cure with a bit of plaſter. By the law of PULMONARY Veſſels, in Anatomy, are thoſe which carry the Scotland, perſons under puberty, or under the years of diſcretion, blood from the heart to the lungs, and back again from the lungs to are capable of committing the higher crimes, which being contrary, the heart. Theſe are two in number ; viz. the pulmonary artery to the law of nature, are obvious. But they are not chargeable The pulmonary artery which the ancients called vena with ſmaller offences ariſing from poſitive law or ſtatute. arteriola, he arterial vein, is, in reality, an artery, and is com- PUBES, à term uſed for the external parts of the pudenda, or poſed like the it, of ſeveral tunics. It ariſes from the right ven- parts of generation in both ſexes. This, from the age of puberty, tricle of the heart, and divides into two large branches ; which, is ſuppoſed to be covered, more or leſs; with hair; whence the ſubdividing into ſeveral lionller, diffuſe themſelves throughout the whole ſubſtance of the lungs. Pulmonary vein, which the ancients PUBIS Os, or Os Pectinis, in Anatomy, a bone of the hips, called arteria venoſa, the veinous artery, cialiſts of four membranes, ſituate in the fore and middle part of the trunk, and making the like the other veins. It ariſes in the lungs from an infinity of little lower and inner part of the os innominatum. See the Syſtem, branches ; which, uniting in one trunk, open Ilice, the left ventricle Part. II. Sect. II. and Plate I. Fig. 1. Letter h. of the heart. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. III. Pat IV. Sect. I. PUBLICAN, publicanus, among the Romans, a perſon who and Part V. Sect. XVIII. For the office of theſe veliJs, ſee the farmed the impoſts, taxes, and public revenues. Theſe publicans Article Blood. are diſtinguiſhed by Sigonius into three ſorts or degrees, the farmers PULMONARY Conſumption, or conſumption of the lungs, is what of the revenues, their partners, and their ſecurities : in which he we properly call a PHTHISIS. See the Syſtem of MEDICINE, follows Polybius. Theſe are called the Mancipes, Socii, and Genus 30 Prædes, who were all under the Quæſtores Ærarii, that prcfided PULSATION, pulſatio, in Medicine, the motion of the pulſe, over the finances at Rome. But there were properly only two forts or the beating of an artery. of publicans, the Mancipes and the Socii. The former called by PULSE, in the Animal Economy, denotes the beating or throb. the Greeks apXITENWVel, were much ſuperior to the common pub- | bing of the heart and arteries. No doctrine has been involved in licans in dignity, being moſtly of the equeſtrian order : ſo they more difficulties than that of pulſes ; fince, in giving a phyſiological were generally in their moral character. Cicero mentions them account of them, phyſicians have eſpouſed quite oppoſite ſenti- with great reſpect and honour ; flos, ſays he, equitum Romanorum, ments; whilſt ſome doubt whether the pulſe is owing to the ſyſtole ornamentum civitatis, firmamentum reipublicæ, publicanorum ordine or diaſtole : as alſo, whether the motion of the heart and arteries, is continetur. Orat. pro Plancio, apud Opera, vol. v. fect. g. p. 544. one and the ſame, for a moment of time. The pulſe is that reci- Olivet edit. He likewiſe calls them ordinem mihi commendatiſimum. procal motion of the heart and arteries, whereby the warm blood, Epiſt. Fam. lib. xiii. epiſt. 10 Oper. vol. vii. p. 442. epift. 9. and thrown out of the left ventricle of the heart, is ſo impelled into the epiſt. ad Attic. lib. i. ep. 17. vol. viii. P. 8o. arteries, to be by them diſtributed throughout the body, as to be per- But as for the common publicans, the collectors or receivers, as ceivable by the finger. The pulſation of the arteries ariſes from many of the Socii were, they are ſpoken of with great contempt, that of the heart ; and has, like it, a ſyſtole and a diaſtole; the by Heathens as well as Jews: and particularly by Theocritus, who ſyſtole of the one correſponding to the diaſtole of the other. Galen faid, that among the beaſts of the wilderneſs, hears and lions are tells us, that Hippocrates was the firſt who obſerved the motion of the moſt cruel ; among the beaſts of the city, the publican and pa the pulſe. The pulſe is thus accounted for. When the left ven- rafite. The reaſon of this general hatred was, without doubt, their tricle of the heart contracts, and throws its blood into the great rapine and extortion. For having a ſhare in the farm of the tri artery, the blood in that artery is not only thruſt forwards towards bute, at a certain rate, they were apt to oppreſs the people with the extremities, but the channel of the artery is likewife dilated; illegal exactions, to raiſe as large a fortune as they could for them becauſe fuids, when they are preſſed, preſs, again towards all ſides, ſelves. Beſides, publicans were particularly odious to the Jews, and their preſſure is always perpendicular to the fides of the containing anu voin. name. 4 PUL PUN in anger, containing veſſels; but the coats of the artery, by any ſmall impe nant humours; in the gout it is free and expedite ; in the plague, tus, may be diſtended; therefore, upon the contraction of the as in the aſthma, it is mightily oppreſſed, unleſs freed by the hot fit. heart, the blood from the left ventricle will not only preſs the blood In general, any variation of the pulſecertainly denotes fome altera- in the artery forwards, but both together will diſtend the ſides of tion in the habit of the body. But nothing produces a greater the artery: and thus is a motion of dilatation effected. And when change in the pulſe than affections of the mind ; in terror, it is un- the impetus of the blood againſt the ſides of the artery ceaſes, thatis, equal, ſmall, and contracted ; in joy, frequent and great, ; in when the left ventricle ceaſes to contract, then the ſpiral fibres of quick and hard ; in ſadneſs, ſlow, ſmall, deep, and weak ; and in the artery, by their natural elaſticity, return again to their former intenſe ſtudy, languid and weak. With regard to the air, when, ſtate, and contract the channel ofthe artery, till it is again dilated by after the predominance of a weſt or ſouth wind, it becomes north the ſyſtole of the heart: ſo that here is a motion of dilatation and con or eaſt, the pulſe is ítronger and larger ; as alſo when the quickſilver traction effected. The diaſtole or dilatation of the artery is called its riſes in the barometer. But when the atmoſphere is denſe, humid, pulſe, and the time of the ſpiral fibres returning to their natural ſtate rainy, with a long ſouth wind; as alſo where the life is ſedentary, is the diſtance betweentwo pulſes. This pulſe is in all the arteries the ſleep long, and the feafon autumnal, the pulſe is languid and of the body at the fame time ; for while the blood is thruſt out of ſmall, and the perſpiration decreaſed. In May it is great, and the heart into the aorta, that artery being full, the blood muſt be ſometimes violent ; in the middle of ſummer, quick but weak ; propelled in all the arteries at the ſame time ; and becauſe the arte in the autumn, ſlow, ſoft, and weak ; in the winter, hard and great. ries are conical, and the blood moves from the baſis of the cone to A draſtic purge and an emetic render the pulſe hard, quick, and the apex, therefore the blood is continually preſſing againſt the ſides weak ; with loſs of ſtrength ; chalybeates, and the bark, render it of the vefſels; and conſequently every point of the artery muſt be great and robuſt, and the complexion lively ; volatiles amplifyand dilated, at the ſame time that the blood is thrown out of the left ven increaſe the pulſe; acids and nitrous remedies refrigerate the body, tricle of the heart; and as ſoon as the elaſticity of the ſpiral fibres and appeaſe the pulſe ; opiates, and the like, render it ſmall and can overcome the impetus of the blood, the arteries are again con weak, and decreaſe the elaſticity of the folids; and poiſons render tracted. Thus, two caufes, operating alternately, the heart and fi it ſmall, contracted, and hard. When the quantity of the blood bres of the arteries, keep the blood ina continual motion. Theob is too great, bleeding raiſes the pulſe. fervation of the pulſe has been deemed of the utmoſt importance to Dr. Heberden (Lond. Med. Tranſ. vol. ii. p. 18, &e.) hasgiven a phyſician ; both as it diſcovers the ſtate of the heart, the firſt us ſome obſervations on the pulſe, which ſhew how little it is to be mover in the animal frame ; and as it ſhews the nature, quantity, depended upon, without the concurrence of other fymptoms ; in and motion of the blood, that univerſal humour, whereon allthe reſt how few cafes an attention to the pulſe is of real importance"; and depend ; and alſo asit indicates the condition of the artery, the pri how groundleſs are the various diſtinctions of pulſes. Thoſe moſt mary veſſel of the whole body. However Celſus calls the pulſe, res to be regarded, are the quick and ſlow pulſes. To this writer we fallaciſſima: and as the variety of pulſes with regard to their being are indebted for the following obſervations on this ſubject. The quick or flow, is owing to the different degrees of irritability in diffe- pulſe of a child under two years old ſhould be felt while it is aſleep, rent conſtitutions, every accident that happens to the body, and every becauſe it is ſo eaſily quickened by every new ſenſation. The pulſe affection of the mind have an influence upon them, ſo that the con of a healthy infant on the day of its birth, and when it is aſleep, is cluſions deduced from the ſtate of the pulſe, ſeparately conſidered, between 120 and 150 in a minute ; the mean rate during the firſt are often very inſufficient and erroneous. It is certain that the cli month is 120, and rarely, if ever, below 108. During the firſt mate will alter the pulſe of perſons, and on this is founded the ob year, the limits may be from 108 to 120 : the ſecond year, at 90 fervation of pulfes being naturally various in people of different na and 108; the third year at 8o and 108; the fourth, fifth, and tions. The pulſes of Frenchmen are ſaid to be more equal and fixth, nearly the ſame as the third ; the ſeventh year it is ſome- quick, and thoſe of the Britiſh, Dutch, and Germans, more irregu- | times at 72, but generally more ; twelfth, about 70. In adults lar and uncertain ; and this is to be jointly attributed to the air of it is uſually from a little below 60 to a little above 80. the country, and to the manner of living. With regard to motion,PUMP, in hydraulics, a machine formed on the model of a the pulſes are reckoned only four ; great and little, quick and ſlow. fyringe, for raiſing of water. Vitruvius aſcribes the firſt inven- When quickneſs and greatneſs are joined together, it becomes vio tion of pumps to Cteſebes the Athenian ; whence the Latins call lent; and when it is little and flow, it is called a weak pulſe. They it machina Ctefcbi. Pumps are diſtinguiſhed into ſeveral kinds, are alſo ſaid to be frequent and rare, equal and unequal; but theſe with regard to the ſeveral manners of their acting. are not the eſſential affections of motion. Frequency and quickneſs For a full explanation of the conſtruction of ſeveral kinds of are often confounded with each other. A pulſe is ſaid to be hard pumps, ſee the Syſtem of HYDROSTATICS and HYDRAULICS, or ſoft, with regard to the artery, according as it is tenſe, renitent, Part II. Art. V. and VI. For repreſentation, ſee Plate I. fig.18, and hard, or faccid, ſoft and lax; for the diſpoſition of the arteries 19, and 20. For the naval chain pump, ſee the Treatiſe on contributes greatly to the change of the pulſe ; wherefore it fome NAVAL AFFAIRS, Sect. II. Plate III. fig. 6. For the deſcrip- times happens, that the pulſe in both arms is not alike, which is tion of the common air pump, and its uſes, ſee the Syſtem of Pneu- very common in a hemiplexy. Add to theſe a convulſive pulſe, MATICS, Sect. II. and Plate III. fig. 9. For the conſtruction which does not proceed from the blood, but from the ſtate of the and uſe of Prince's American air pump, ſee Sect. II. and Plare artery; and is known by a tremulous fubfultory motion, and the ar III. See alſo various experiments under that article, with refer- tery ſeems to be drawn upwards; this, in acute fevers, is the ſign ences to the ſeveral figures on the plate which illuſtrates them. of death; and is ſaid to be the pulſe in dying perſons, which is PUN, or Punn, a luſus verborum, the wit whereof depends likewiſe generally unequal and intermitting. A great pulſe ſhews on a reſemblance between the ſounds or ſyllables of two words, a more copious afflux of the blood to the heart, and from thence into which have different, and perhaps contrary ſignifications. Puns, the arteries ; a little pulſe, the contrary. But of all others the wan when they come eaſily, and are very ingenious, poignant, and ap- dering pulſe is the moſt terrible and fatal; this is felt ſometimes poſite, are allowed of in converſation, letters, epigrams, madigrals, in one part of the artery, and ſometimes in no part at all. This and the like compoſitions ; but they are abſolutely baniſhed out of is a certain forerunner of death, and that uſually very ſpeedily fol the grave, ſerious, and ſublime, becauſe they weaken its force, and lowing: and if great power in nature gives a ſhort reprieve after diminſh its beauty, which conſiſts in ſomething great and elevated. this, it is only a very ſhort relief. The pulſe has been obſerved The Greeks and Romans, it is true, ſometimes indulged themſelves to beat faſter in perſons electrified. Phil. Tranſ. No. 478. p. 59. in the practice, and uſed puns as ornaments in the moſt ſerious diſ- In general, the higher and nearer the ſun is, the quicker is the courſes : but the more ſevere and philofophical genius of our age is, pulſe ; and the lower and farther off, the flower. In rainy ſeaſons, by no means ſatisfied with ſuch an outſide of wit . Devices, ſym- the pulſe is more free and quick, becauſe of the ſmaller preſſure of bols, rebuſſes, mottoes, &c. are their proper ſphere, where they the atmoſphere. It is more impetuous in the ſpring ; more equal ſhine to moſt advantage. Ariſtotle deſcribes two or three kinds of after a quiet ſleep ; weak and uncertain in men very intent upon puns among the beauties of good writing, and produces inſtances buſineſs. Melancholy renders the pulfe extremely inconſtant pro- of them out of ſome of the greateſt authors in the Greek tongue. bably through the great thoughtfulneſs of ſuch men ; in bilious Cicero has ſprinkled ſeveral of his works with puns ; and, in tempers it is high and ſtrong ; in ſanguine more equal and regular that work where he lays down the rules of Oratory, quotes abun- than in any : in the phlegmatic, equal enough, but more flow; in dance of ſayings, which he calls pieces of wit, that upon exami- children, eſpecially infants, the pulſe is very ſmall; and inold men nation prove perfect puns. it is extremely uncertain ; in gluttonous people it is dull and flow, PUNCH, a fort of compound drink frequent in England, and unleſs by drinking it is made ſtumbling and vertiginous: this fort about the maritime parts thereof. Its baſis is ſpring water, which of pulſe alſo frequently foretels ſudden death. By too ſparing a being rendered cooler, briſker, and more acid with lemon-juice, diet it becomes ſmall and flow, and always abates upon faſting, and ſweetened again to the palate with fine ſugar, makes what they Labour, motion, and exerciſe of the body, increaſe the circulation of call ſherbet ; to which a proper quantity of a ſpirituous liquor, as the blood, the excretions, and particularly reſpirarion ; reſt renders brandy, rum, or arrack, being ſuperadded, the liquor commences the circulation flow and weak; intenſe ſpeaking increaſes the cir punch. Several authors condemn the uſe of punch, as prejudicial culation, and conſequently renders the pulſe large and quick. In to the brain, and nervous ſyſtem. Dr. Cheyne inſiſts, that there is watching, the pulſe is more evident; in ſleep, more flow and lan but one wholeſome ingredient in it, viz. the mere water. The guid. After drinking hot things, ſuch as coffee and tea, or hot proportions of the ingredients are various: fome, inſtead of lemon- bath-waters, as well as after meals, the pulſe vibrates more quick. juice, uſe lime-jaice, which makes what they call punch-royal : In fevers the pulſe is varied according to the beginning, height, and this is found leſs liable to affect the head, as well as more grateful declination. In ſcorbutic and hyſteric perſons, it is very uncertain; to the ſtomach. Some alſo make milk punch, by adding near as in hydropical perfons, it is much ſtopped and interrupted by ſtag much milk to the ſherbet as there is water, which tempers the acri- mony 'No. 134 PPP PUR PUR DLEMAS. comma. mony of the lemon. Others prefer tea punch, made of green tea though, according to the fathers, exempt from the terms of the law, inſtead of water, and drank hot. yet complied there with, and, at the time preſcribed, went to the PUNCTUATION, in grammar, the art of pointing; or di- temple, and accompliſhed the law; in commemoration whereof, viding a diſcourſe into periods, and members of periods, by points the church yearly folemnizes the feaſt of the Purification of the expreſſing the pauſes to be made in the reading thereof; and ne Virgin, on the ſecond of February; called alſo the feaſt of CAN- ceſſary both for underſtanding and pronouncing it. The points uſed herein are four; viz. the period, colon, ſemicolon, and PURITANS, in eccleſiaſtical hiſtory, a term formerly uſed for See the particular uſe of each under its proper article in the Calviniſts of Great Britain, from their profeſſing to follow the the Syſtem, Part II. Chap. IV. pure word of God, in oppoſition to all traditions, human conſtitu- PUNCTUM Saliens, in anatomy, the firſt rudiments of the tions, and other authorities. The feparation, whence this diſtin heart, in the formation of the fætus, where a throbbing motion is guiſhing appellation took its riſe, commenced on the following oc- perceived. This is eaſily obſerved with a microſcope in a brood-egg, cafion. Upon the acceſſion of queen Mary, it is well known that wherein, after conception, we ſee a little ſpeck or cloud; the popery revived in this kingdom ; the ſtatutes of king Edward were middle whereof is a ſpot that appears to beat, or leap, a confi- repealed, and the penal laws againſt heretics were put in execution derable time before the fætus be formed for hatching. againſt the reformers. Many ſuffered at home; and others eſcaped Punctum Lachrymale, in anatomy, a little hole in the edge of the fury of perſecution by ſeeking refuge in foreign countries. Some each eye-lid, opened into a bag called glandula lachrymalis. See went into France and Flanders; fonie to Geneva, and others inito the Syſtem, Part VI. Sect. XI. thoſe parts of Germany and Switzerland, where the reformation PUNCTURE, punétura, in furgery, &c. any wound made had taken place, and where the magiſtrates received them with great by a pointed inſtrument. humanity, and allowed them places for public worſhip. The PUNISHMENT, a penalty impoſed upon the commiſſion of exiles were moſt numerous at Frankfort; and there that conteſt fome crime or offence againſt the laws. It is eſſential to the na and diviſion began, which gave riſe to the Puritans, and to that ſe- ture of a law, that it import or decree a puniſhment to the tranf- paration from the church of England, which continues to this day. greſſors thereof. The forms and manners of puniſhment are vari In the year 1556, Dr. Cox, afterwards biſhop of Ely, came to ſet- ous in various countries and ages, and for various crimes: as treaſon, tle at Frankfort with ſeveral of his friends; and obtaining leave of felony, adultery, parricide, &c. Among us the principal civil the magiſtrates for the free uſe of king Edward's ſervice book, per- puniſhments are fines, impriſonments, the ſtocks, pillory, burning formed divine worſhip according to the rites that had been autho- in the hand, whipping, ducking-ſtool, hanging, beheading, quarter riſed by that prince; while others who preferred the Genevan me- ing, burning, tranſportation, &c. The eccleſiaſtical puniſhments thod of worfhip, as more pure and ſimple, left the city of Frank- are cenfurcs, ſuſpenſions, deprivations, degradations, excommuni- fort, and removed to Baſil and Geneva. Thus commenced the diſ- cations, anathemas, penances, &c. The military puniſhments tinction of Puritans and Conformiſts, by which the two parties are, being ſhot, running the gantelope, riding the wooden horſe, were afterwards known. The former were called Conformiſts, on the bilboes, &c. Among the Turks, &c. impaling, baſtinadoes account of their compliance with the eccleſiaſtical laws enacted by on the foles of the feet, &c. prevail. Edward VI.and the denomination of Nonconformiſts and Puritans PUPIL, pupilla, in anatomy, denotes a little aperture in the were given to the latter, from their inſiſting upon a form of worſhip, middle of the uvea and iris of the eye, through which the rays of more exempt from fuperſtition, and of a purer kind than the liturgy light paſs to the cryſtalline, in order to be painted on the retina, of Edward ſeemed to them to be. They were firſt called Puritans and cauſe viſion. See the Syſtem, Part VII. Sect. V. and Plate in the beginning of the reignof queen Elizabeth, from their attempt- XI. Fig. 13, Letter K. ing a purer form of worſhip and diſcipline than had yet been eſta- PURCHASE, in law, in its largeſt and moſt extenſive ſenſe, bliſhed ; and whoſe ſentiments in many points were agreeable to is defined by Littleton to be the poſſeſſion of lands and tenements, thoſe maintained by John Wickliffe, the firſt reformer. For trey which a man hath by his own act or agreement, and not by deſcent agreed with him in opinion, that in the facrament of orders there from any of his anceſtors or kindred. In this ſenſe it is contra ought to be but two degrees, preſbyters or biſhops, and deacons diſtinguiſhed from acquiſition by right of blood, and includes every that all human traditions are fuperfluous and finful; that we muſt other method of coming to an eſtate, but merely that by inheritance: practice and teach only the laws of Chriſt; that myſtical and ſigni- wherein the title is veſted in a perſon, not by his own act or agree ficant ceremonies in religious worſhip are unlawful ; and that to ment, but by the ſingle operation of law. Purchaſe, in its vulgar reſtrain men to a preſcribed form of prayer is contrary to the liberty and confined acceptation, is applied only to the acquiſition of granted them by God. The old feſtivals, with their eves and the goods, lands, tenements, or the like, by means of money, or ſome popiſh habits, were continued as they were in the ſecond year of other valuable conſideration.it king Edward VI. In 1558 the act of fupremacy was paffed, in PURFLEW, a term in heraldry, expreſſing ermines, peans, which there is a remarkable clauſe, that gave riſe to the court of or any of the furs, when they compoſe a border round a coat of high commiſſion, which proved afterwards ſo oppreſſive; and in Thus they ſay, he beareth gules a border, purple, or vairy; 1559 was paſied an act for the uniformity of common prayer, and meaning, that the border is vairy. MA ſervice in the church, and adminiſtration of the facraments. The PURGATION, the art of purging, ſcouring, or purifying a Puritans remonſtrated againſt theſe proceedings, and complained, thing, by ſeparating, or carrying off any impurities found therein. that the grofs ſuperſtition of popery, which they had looked upon as Thus, in pharmacy, purgation is the cleanſing of a medicine by re abrogated and aboliſhed, were now revived, and even impoſed by trenching its ſuperfluities. In chymiſtry, it is uſed for the ſeveral authority. preparations of metals and minerals intended to clear them of their The Conformiſts and Puritans maintained that the holy ſcrip- impurities, more uſually called purification and refining. See RE tures were a perfect rule of faith ; the biſhops and court reformers FINING. In medicine, purgation is an excretory motion ariſing did not allow them to be the ſtandard of diſcipline or church go- from a quick and orderly contraction of the fleſhy fibres of the ſto vernment, affirming that our Saviour and his apoſtles left it to the mach and inteſtines, whereby the chyle, corrupted humours, and diſcretion of the civil magiſtrate, in thoſe places where chriſtianity excrements lodged therein, are protruded further and further, and ſhould obtain, to accommodate the government of the church to the at length quite excluded the body by ſtool. See CATHARTICS. policy of the ſtate. But the Puritans apprehended the holy ſcrip- For the menſtrual purgation of women, ſee the Syſtem of ME tures to be a ſtandard of church diſcipline as well as of doctrine; DICINE, Genns 46, and 126. at leaſt that nothing ſhould be impoſed as neceſſary but what was PURIFICATION, in matters of religion, a ceremony which expreſsly contained in, or derived from them by neceſſary confe- conſiſts in cleanſing any thing from a ſuppoſed pollution or defile quence, and, beſides, they maintained that the diſcretionary power ment. The Pagans, before they ſacrificed, uſually bathed or waſhed was not lodged with the civil magiſtrate, but with the ſpiritual offi- themſelves in water ; and they were particularly careful to waſh cers of the church. Farther, the court reformers maintained, that their hands, becauſe with theſe they were to touch the victims con the practice of the primitive church for the firſt four or five centu- ſecrated to the gods. It was alſo cuſtomary to waſh the veſſel ries was a proper ſtandard of church governmentand diſcipline, and with which they made their libations. The Mahometans uſe pu in ſome reſpects a better than that of the apoſtles, which (according rifications as previous to the duty of prayer; theſe alſo are of two to them) was only accommodated to the infant ſtate of the church kinds, either bathing, or only waſhing the face, hands, and feet. while it was under perſecution, whereas their's was ſuited to the The firſt is required only in extraordinary caſes, as after having lain grandeur of a national eſtabliſhment. Whereas the Puritans were with a woman, touched a dead body, &c. But left fo neceffary a for adhering to the Bible in the main principles of church govern- preparation for their devotions ſhould be omitted, either where ment, and for admitting no church officers or ordinances, but ſuch water cannot be had, or when it may be of prejudice to a perſon's as are herein mentioned; and they apprehended, that the apoſtles health, they are allowed in ſuch caſes to make uſe of fine ſand, or in eſtabliſhing the firſt Chriſtian church on the ariſtocratical plan duft inſtead of it: and then they perform this duty by clapping then obſerved in the Jewiſh ſanhedrim, deſigned it as an unchange- hands on the fand, and paſſing them over the parts, in able model to be followed in all times and places. The court re- the ſame manner as if they were dipped in water. There were formers alſo maintained, that things indifferent in their own na- alſo many legal purifications among the Hebrews. When a wo ture, which are neither forbidden nor commanded in the holy ſcrip- man was brought to bed of a male child, ſhe was eſteemed impure tures, ſuch as rites, ceremonies, habits, &c. might be ſettled, deter- for 40 days; and when of a female, for 60; at the end of which time ſhe carried a lamb to the door of the temple to be offered for mined, and made neceſſary by the command of the civil magiſtrate, and that in ſuch cafes it was the indiſpenſible duty of all ſubjects ta burnt-offering, and a young pigeon or turtle for a ſin-offering; and obſerve them. But the Puritans inſiſted, that thoſe thir.gs which by this ceremony ſhe was cleanſed or purified. The holy Virgin Chriſt had left indifferent, ought not to be made ncceffary by any human arms. their open a PUR PU T human laws, and that ſuch rites and ceremonies as had been abuſed RIANS, INDEPENDENTS, ANABAPTISTS,and QUAKERS. See to idolatry, and had a manifeſt tendency to lead them back to po the reſpective Articles. At this time a public law, called the A EZ pery and ſuperſtition, were no longer indifferent, but to be rejected of Uniformity, was enacted, by which all who refuſed to obſerve as unlawful. Nevertheleſs, both parties agreed too well in aſſert the rites, and ſubſcribe to the doctrines of the church of England, ing the neceſſity of an uniformity of public worſhip, and of calling were entirely excluded from its communion. From this period in the ſword of the magiſtrate for the ſupport and defence of their ſe until the reign of king William II1. the Non-conformiſts were in veral principles; which they made an ill uſe of in their turns, as a precarious and changing ſituation, ſometimes involved in cala- they could graſp the power into their hands. The ſtandard of uni- mity and trouble, and at other times enjoying fome intervals of formity, according to the biſhops, was the queen's ſupremacy, and tranquillity and certain gleams of hope, according to the varying the law of the land ; according to the Puritans, the decrees of pro- | fpirit of the court and miniſtry, but never entirely free from per- vincial and national fynods, allowed and enforced by the civil ma plexities and fears. . But in the year. 1689, their affairs took a fa- giſtrate ; but neither party was for admitting that liberty of conſci vourable turn, when a bill for the toleration of all proteſtant diffen- ence, and freedom of profeſſion, which is every man's right, as far ters from the church of England, except the Socinians, paſſed in as is conſiſtent with the peace of the government under which he parliament,almoſt without oppofition, and delivered them from the lives. In the year 1564, upon a report that the habits, enjoined on penal laws to which they had been ſubjected by the act of unifor- the clergy, were generally neglected, and alſo of inattention to other mity, and other acts paſſed under the houſe of Stuart. For the impoſed forms, the queen directed the ecclefiaftical commiſſi- preſent ſtate of the toleration, fee Toleration. oners to conſult fome proper methods to reduce them to an exact PURITY, in oratory, is one of the conſtituent parts of ele- uniformity ; and accordingly iſſued out a proclamation in 1565, | gance, and denotes the choice of ſuch words and phraſes as are peremptorily requiring uniformity in the habits, upon pain of pro ſuited and agreeable to the uſe of the language in which we ſpeak. hibition from preaching, and deprivation. Parker, the archbiſhop See the Treatiſe, Part III. Sect. XI. Art. I. of Canterbury, was violent and unrelenting ; and by various me PURPLE, purpura, cogquga, a red colour, bordering on violet ; thods of ſeverity, harraſſed, ſilenced, and deprived many of thoſe now dyed chiefly with cochineal. For the method of dyeing pur- who ſcrupled the uſe of the habits. The Puritanical miniſters find ple, ſee the Treatiſe, Sect. II. ing that renewed applications to the queen and her commiſſioners PURPURE, POURPRE, or PURPLE, in heraldry, according were ineffectual, publiſhed, in 1566, a ſmall treatiſe in vindication to ſome, is one of the five colours of armories, mixed or com- of their conduct; in which they alledge, that neither the prophets of pounded of gules and azure, bordering on violet; and, according the Old Teſtament, nor the apoſtles in the New, were diſtinguiſhed to others, of a little black and much red colour, See the Syſtem, by their garments; that a diſtinction of garments in the Chriſtian Sect. III. and Plate II. church did not generally obtain till long after the riſing of antichriſt; PURULENT, purulentus, in medicine, ſomething mixed with, that they were an offence to weak Chriſtians, an encouragement to or partaking of, pus or matter. Phthifical people frequently ſpit a ignorant and obſtinate papiſts, and the uſe of them an affectation of purulent matter. In a dyſentery, the ſtools are purulent; when returning to their communion ; that at beſt they were only hu there is an ulcer in the reins or bladder, the urine is purulent. The man appointments. purulent eye is a diſorder to which new-born children are ſubject ; In 1566, they came to a reſolution, alleding it to be their duty for the cure of which Mr. Ware recommends the application of in their preſent circumſtances, to break offfrom the public churches, aſtringents, on a conviction that the diſcharge is not real pus, but and to aſſemble, as they had opportunity, in private houſes; and as merely mucus, increaſed in quantity, and altered in colour, by they were cut off from the church of England, they reſolved to ſet ſome irritating cauſe. The remedy which he has found to be up the pureſt and beſt form of worſhip, moſt conſonant to the holy highly uſeful in this diſorder, is the aqua camphorata of Bate's ſcriptures, and to the practice of the foreign reformers. They com Diſpenſatory, much diluted with water,and injected with a fyringe. plained of the biſhops affecting to be thought a ſuperior order to Ware’s Remarks on the Opthalmy, &c. 8vo. 1780. preſbyters, and claiming the ſole right of ordination, and the uſe of PUS, formed of the Greek TuoĘ, in medicine, a putrid matter, the keys; and aſſuming, in connexion with their offices, temporal white and thick, formed of blood corrupted in a wound or ulcer, dignities, titles, and employments. As long, however, as the En and iſſuing out of the lips thereof. Wounds are always to be kept gliſh biſhops pretended to derive their dignityand authority from no open while they ſuppurate, i. e. while they generate pus. A very other ſource than the laws of their country, and pleaded a right, ſmall portion of pus, abſorbed into the blood veſſels, raiſes a putrid merely human, to the rank they held in the church and ſtate, the fever as certainly as yeaſt does a fermentation in wort. This fever controverſy was carried on without exceſſive animoſity and zeal ; is not owing to its ſtimulating the ſolids to quicker and greater vi- but the flame broke out with redoubled fury in the year 1588,when brations, but to its increaſing the inteſtine motion ,and accelerating Bancroft, afterwards archbiſhop of Canterbury, ventured to aſſert the animal proceſs,haſtening the changes of the juicesto that ſubtile that the order of biſhops were ſuperior to the body of preſbyters, acrid ſtate, which renders them unfit to be retained in the body, and human inftitution, but jure divino, or diſpoſes them to run off in colliquative evacuations, ſuch as ſweating by the expreſs appointment of God himſelf. Farther, the Puritans and purging, which conſtantly attend theſe putrid or hectic fevers, excepted againſt the titles and offices of archdeacons, deans, chap or riſing to internal ulcers. Med. Ef. Edinb. vol, v. art. 77. ters, and other officials, belonging to cathedrals, as having no foun PUTORIUS, the name of a ſpecies of the Genus Muſtela ,in the dation in Scripture, or primitive antiquity, and intrenching upon Syſtem of Mammalia. For deſcription of theGenus.SeeMUSTELA. the privileges of the preſbyters in the ſeveral dioceſos. They com PUTREFACTION,one of the natural proceſſes, directly op- plained of the exorbitant power and juriſdiction of the biſhops and poſite to the life of animals and vegetables, by which organized their chancellors in their ſpiritual courts,as derived from the canon bodies are diffolved,and reduced to what maybe called theiroriginal law of the pope, and not from the word of God, or the ſtatute law elements. Putrefaction differs from chymical ſolution ; becauſe, in of the land. They diſapproved of ſeveral of the church feſtivals or the latter, the diſſolved bodies are kept in their ſtate of ſolution by holidays, as having no foundation in Scripture, or primitive anti- being combined with a certain agent from which they cannot ea- quity; and they diſallowed the cathedral mode of worſhip. In fily be ſeparated ; but in putrefaction, the agent which diffolves point of doctrine there was, at this time,no difference between the the body appears not to combine with it in any manner of way, but Puritans and Conformiſts; and if we add one article more to the merely to ſeparate the parts from each other. It differs alſo from preceding, we ſhall have the principal headsof controverſy between the reſolution of bodies by diſtillation with violent fire; becauſe, in the church of England and the proteſtant diſſenters at this day; diſtillation new and permanent compounds are formed, but by pu- viz. the natural right which every man has to judge for himſelf, trefaction every thing ſeems to be reſolved into ſubſtances much and make profeſſion of that religion which he apprehends moſt more ſimple and indeſtructible than thoſe which are the reſult of agreeable to truth, as far as it does not affect the peace and ſafety any chymical proceſs. The bodies moſt liable to putrefaction are of the government under which he lives ; without being deter thoſe of animals and vegetables, eſpecially when full of juices. mined by the prejudices of education, the laws of the civil ma Stones, though by the action of the weather they will moulder into giſtrate, or the decrees of councils, churches, or ſynods. duſt, yet feem not to be ſubject to any thing like a real putrefac- Queen Elizabeth was violent in her oppoſition to the Puritans tion, as they are not reſolved into any other ſubſtance than fand, through the whole courſe of her reign ; and beſides the ordinary or ſmall duſt, which ſtill preſerves its lapideous nature. In like courts of the biſhops, ſhe erected, as we have already obſerved, a manner, vegetables of any kind, when deprived of their juices by new tribunal, called the court of high commiſſion, which ſuſpend drying, may be preſerved for many ages without being ſubjected ed, and deprived men of their livings, not by the verdict of twelve to any thing like a putrefactive proceſs. The ſame holds good with men upon oath, but by the folemn determination of three com- reſpect to animals, the parts of which, by ſimple drying, may be miſſioners of her own nomination, founded not upon the ſtatute preſerved in a found ſtate for a much longer time than they could law of the realm, but upon the canon law; and inſtead of pro be without the previous exhalation of their juices. ducing witneſſes in open court to prove the charge, they aſſumed Putrefaction is one of the inſtruments in nature by which many a power of adminiſtering an oath ex officio, whereby the priſoner great changes are brought about. In the proceſs of vegetable putre- was obliged to anſwer all queſtions the court ſhould put to him, faction, if we throw together any of the tender, green, and ſuccu- though ever ſo prejudicial to his own defence. If he refuſed to lent parts of recent vegetables, whether acid or alkaline, in a fwear, he was impriſoned for contempt ; and if he took the oath, large heap, in the warm open air, and preſs them down with an ad- he was convicted upon his own confeffion. ditional weight, if their own be inconſiderable ; the middle part of After the reſtoration of Charles II.in the year 1662, the name the heap will, in a little time, ſpontaneouſly conceive a ſmall degree of Puritans, ſays biſhop Burnet, was changed into that of Proteft- of heat, and paſs ſucceſſively through the other degrees, till it ar- ant Non-CONFORMISTS, who were ſubdivided intoPresBYTE rive at a ſtate of ebullition, and be perfectly putrefied. In the ſpace PUT PU T to the human frame, but that of putrefying ſubſtances is exceed- ſpace of three days, from the firſt putting them together, they will yield a hcat, perceivable by the hand, equal to that of a human ingly ſo; and, excepting in the caſe of urine, the generation of vo- for latile alkali in putrid ſubſtances is very equivocal. This ſubſtance body in a healthy ſtate ; by the fifth, the heat will be too great the hand to bear without pain ; and, laſtly, by the fixth, feventh, which produces more alkali than any other, is much leſs offenſive or eighth day, the juices will generally appear ready to boil; and by its putrid fætor than others; and all animal ſubſtances produce a ſometimes the matter will even flame, and burn away. By this volatile alkali on being expoſed to the action of fire, of quick-lime, fpontaneous operation, the vegetable acquires an abominably putrid, or of alkaline falts. In theſe caſes the volatile alkali is not ſup- ſtercoraceous, or cadaverous, taſte and odour; and turns entirely poſed to be produced by the quick-lime or fixed ſalt, but only to be into one ſoft, fimilar, pulpy maſs, or craffamentum, greatly re extricated from a kind of ammoniacal falt pre-exiſting in the ani- ſembling fætid human excrements in the ſcent, and putrefied fleſh mal matters ; the probability is the ſame in the other caſe, viz. that volatile alkali is not produced, but only extricated from in the taſte. Experiments have been made in the coldeſt and moſt ſucculent, theſe fubſtances by putrefaction. or watery plants; ſuch as purſlane, forrel, &c. as well as with the The only thing in which the putrefactive fermentation agrees hotteſt or moſt acrimonious, ſuch as the ſpurges, &c. and it was al with the other kinds is, that in all the three there is an extrication ways found to fuccced; but that the ſooner, as the vegetable em of fixed air. In the putrefactive proceſs, it has been thought that ployed contained the greater quantity of oil , though with the ſame this eſcape of the fixed air deprives the body of its coheſion; and phenomena. It willlikewiſe ſucceed with dry vegetables, provided Dr. Macbride has wrote a treatiſe in which he endeavours to prove, they be moiſtened with water before they are thrown into heaps; that fixed air is the very power of coheſion itſelf, and that all bodies and thus we ſometimes ſee, that ſtacks of hay will ſpontaneouſly when deprived of their fixed air entirely loſe their eoheſion. Ac take fire, and burn away; eſpecially if the hay was not well dried cording to this, the cauſe of putrefaction is the eſcape of fixed air: in the making. It is ſurpriſing to conſider, that, by this means, but it is impoſſible to give a reaſon why fixed air, after having fu the difference betwixt vegetables may be intirely taken away, and long remained in a body, and preſerved its coheſion, ſhould of a the whole kingdom thereof reduced to the ſame common nature; fudden begin to fly off without being acted upon by fomething that wormwood and tanſy, for inſtance, or forrel and fcurvy- elſe. To a ſimilar objection the hypotheſis of thoſe is liable, graſs, ſhall appear as one and the ſame thing; and this thing ap who ſuppoſe putrefaction to be occaſioned by the eſcape of phlo- pears no otherwiſe than like putrefied fleſh. Though forrel be giſton ; for phlogiſton will not fly off without ſomething to famed for its power of preſerving the animal fluids uncorrupted carry it off, any more than fixed air. It whilſt they are circulating in the body, and ſcordium, for its em- appears from the experiments of Dr. Prieſtley, that fixed air balming virtue, as continuing them in a ſtate of incorruption after corrects and renders wholeſome, air tainted with reſpiration or pu- death ; yet even theſe plants are themſelves thus eaſily corrupted | trefaction. Hence he infers, that lime-kilns which diſcharge great and changed into ſuch a kind of putrefied fleſh, as it is their virtue quantities of this air may be wholeſome in the neighbourhood of to prevent. This Boerhaave conſiders as a general law of nature, populous towns, the atmoſphere of which muſtabound with putrid wiſely eſtabliſhed to produce wonderful changes in the world, and efluvia. Sir William Lee, in a hot ſeaſon, contrived by impreg- to prevent the inaction and decreaſe of matter in our globe; this nating water with fixed air, and waſhing meat with it two or active principle, or medium, giving an eaſy and reciprocal tranſi three times a-day, not only to preſerve it as perfectly ſweetand good tion of vegetable into animal ſubſtances, and of animal into vege to the extent of ten days, as at the firſt killing, but alſo to recover table. This operation may let us a little into the nature of animal fome meat that had begun to change. And it is farther well digeſtion, or the change which the aliment ſuffers in the human known, that fixed air has been lately introduced into the materia body. For the change our vegetable foods undergo in the body, medica, and adminiſtered with ſucceſs in a variety of putrid caſes. being ſuch as brings them to be of the ſame nature, and to afford Putrefying and fermenting ſubſtances have been found, by the ex- the fame principles, with the change induced by putrefaction, is a periments of Mr. Cavendiſh, Dr. Prieſtley, &c. to yield not only preſumption, that digeſtion is nothing elſe. Beſides, as we know fixed but inflammable air. From an experiment of Dr. Prieſtley, that neither animal nor vegetable ſubſtances can become aliment, intended to determine the proportion of each of the kinds of air, in without undergoing ſome degree of putrefaction, many diſtempers the different ſtages of the putrefactive proceſs, it appears that a muſt proceed from a deficiency of this action ; the criſis of fevers piece of mutton weighing four penny-weights ſix grains, yielded in fecins to depend upon it, and even animal heat, according to Dr. all 21. meaſures of air, of which zón was fixed, and the reſt in- Stevenſon, does the fame. flammable; and that all the inflammable part was exhauſteda.con- Now, that the concoction of the humours is nothing elſe but pu ſiderable time before the fixed air. The fame ingenious writer trefaction, ſeems probable from hence, that whenever they are in has obſerved, that the diminution of common air, by means ofpy- that ſtate, they are always more fluid, and fitter to paſs through the trefaction, amounts to a complete fourth part of the whole, not- ſmaller veſſels, where they ſtagnated before. Again, the offenſive- withſtanding the production of ſome permanent air from the putre- neſs of the ſweats, or other exeretions conſequent on a criſis, is fying ſubſtance, and has, in all reſpects, the appearance of being likewiſe a fure ſign of a high degree of corruption. The time of produced ſolely by the precipitation of fixed air. It muſt occur to reſolution or putrefaction depends on the degree of heat, the habit every reader, in any way acquainted with this ſubject, that if in- of the patient, and on the part obſtructed. flammable air be the ſame with phlogiſton, as Dr. Prieſtly ſeems Putrefaction is generally allowed to be a kind of fermentation, lately to have diſcovered, many of the phenomena of putrefaction, or rather to be the laſt ſtage of that proceſs; which, beginning with depending on this principle, ſuch as the ſmell, colour, light, &c. the vinous fermentation, goes on through the acetous, to the ſtage will probably from hence admit of an eaſy explication. of putridity, where it ſtops. It is argued, however, and ſeemingly Animalcules have been thought to be the cauſe of putrefaction; not without a great deal of reaſon, that if putrefaction is a fermen- but if animal ſubſtances are covered ſo as to exclude the acceſs of tation, it muſt neceſſarily be a kind, diſtinct from either the vinous flies or otherinſects, noſuch animalcules are to be diſcovered though or acetous ; ſince we frequently obſerve, that it takes place where putrefaction has taken place; and indeed it requires little proof to neither the vinous nor the acetous ſtages have gone before; of con convince us, that animals are produced in corrupted bodies only ſequence it muſt be, in ſome caſes at leaſt, entirely independent of becauſe ſubſtances prove a proper nidus for the eggs of the parent and unconnected with them. In feveral other refpects it differs ſo inſects. It is well known, that bodies are preſerved from putre- much from theſe proceſſes, that it ſeems in ſome degree doubtful | faction by covering them with wax, ſuet, &c. and Mr. Boyle relates, whether it can with propriety be called a fermentation or not. Both that he has preſerved lemons, oranges,and other fruits from putrefac- the vinous and acetous fermentations are attended with a conſider tion during ſeveral years, by including them in an exhauſted receiver. able degree of heat: but in the putrefaction of animal matters eſpe- Experiments of the ſame kind have been made by Mr. Eller of Bir- cially, the heat is for the moſt part ſo ſmall, that we cannot be lin, which ſhew that ſubſtances, even of the moſt putreſcent na- certain whether there is any degree of it or not produced by the ture (ſuch as blood) may be kept found in vacuo for many years. proceſs. In caſes, indeed, where the quantity of corrupting ani That putreſcent ſubſtances emit light, is an unqueſtionable fact ; mal matter is very great, ſome heat may be perceived; and ac and on this principle philoſophers account for the luminouſneſs of cordingly Dr. Monro tells us, that he was ſenſible of heat on the ſea, the ignus fatuus, &c. To this purpofe M. Ant. Martin, thruſting his hand into the fleſh of a dead and corrupting whale. (Swed. Abhad. vol. xxiii. p. 225, cited by Dr. Prieſtley, in his But the moſt remarkable difference between the putrefactive fer- Hiſtory of Light, &c. p. 576.) obſerves, that human bodies have mentation and that of the vinous and acetous kinds is, that the end ſometimes emitted light about the time they begin to putrefy; and of both theſe proceſſes is to produce a new and permanent com that the walls and roof of a place in which dead bodies had often pound ; but that of the putrefactive proceſs is not to produce any been expoſed, had a kind of dew or clammineſs upon them, which new form, but to deſtroy, and reſolve one which already exiſts, into was ſometimes luminous. And he imagines that the lights which the original principles, from which all things ſeem to proceed. Thus, the vinouş fermentation produces ardent ſpirits; the acetous are ſaid to be ſeen in burying grounds, may be owing to this cauſe. It has been obſerved, that heat extinguiſhes the light of putreſcent vinegar : but putrefaction produces nothing but earth, and ſome ſubſtances; Mr. Canton, attending to this circumſtance in ſome effluvia, which, though moſt diſagreeable and even poiſonous to the experiments for aſcertaining the cauſe of the luminouſneſs of the human body, yet, being imbibed by the earth and vegetable crea- tion, give life to a new race of beings. It is commonly ſuppoſed, ſea, remarks, that though the greateſt ſummer-heat is well known indeed, that volatile alkali is a production of the putrefactive pro- to promote putrefaction, yet twenty degrees more than that of the ceſs: but this ſeems liable to diſpute. The vapour of pure volatile human blood ſeems to hinder it; for putting a ſmall piece of lumi- alkali is a production of the putrefactive proceſs: but this feems nous fiſh into a thin glaſs ball, he found that water of the heat of liable to diſpute The vapour of pure volatile alkali is not hurtful one hundred and eighteen degrees would extinguish its light in leſs than half a minute ; but that on taking it out of the water, it would PUT PUT would begin to recover its light in about ten ſeconds : but it was evident from the property which all evaporations have of producing never afterwards fo bright as before. See LIGHT, cold; and it is well known that a briſk current of air promotes To underſtand the true cauſe of putrefaction, we muſt take evaporation to a great degree. Hence alſo the reaſon is evident notice of the circumſtances in which the proceſs goes on moit rapidly. why bodies are preſerved uncorrupted by cold ; for thus the action Theſe are heat, a little moiſture, and confined air. However, it of the expanſive principle is totally overcome and ſuſpended, ſo is obſerved by Sir John Pringle, that the putrefaction of meat and that none of its effects can be perceived. other ſubſtances, advances quicker in a confined than free air; for Thus we may fee, that one reaſon why an animal body does not as the moſt putrid parts are alſo the moſt fugitive, they inceſſantly putrefy while alive, is its ventilation, as we may call it, by refpi- iffue from a corruptible ſubſtance, and diſperſe with the wind; but ration; and another is, the continual acceſſion of new particles, in a ſtagnation of air they remain about the body, and in the nature leſs diſpoſed to putrefy than itſelf, by the food and drink which of a ferment, excite its corruption. Extreme cold prevents putre are conſtantly taken in. But if either of theſe ways of preventing faction, as well as perfect dryneſs; and a free circulation of air the commencement of this proceſs are omitted, then putrefaction earries off the putrid effluvia, a ſtagnation of which ſeems to be ne will take place as well in a living as in a dead body. Of the truth ceſſary for carrying on the proceſs. It ſeems alſo to hold pretty ge of this laſt fact we have innumerable inſtances. When air is in- nerally,that putrefying bodies fwell and become ſpecifically lighter; fected with the putrid effluvia of marſhes, and thus the natural for which reaſon the carcaſes of dead animals, after having funk in effluvia are not carried off from the human body, but on the con- water, riſe to the top and float. This laſt phenomenon, as has trary, fome enter into it which are not natural to it, the moſt pll- been obſerved under the article BLOOD, ſhews thşat theſe bodies trid diſeaſes are produced. The ſame thing happens from the have received a certain quantity of an elaſtic principle from the putrid effluvia of dead bodies. air, which thus ſwells them up to ſuch a ſize. It may be ſaid in Of this we have a remarkable inſtance in the fever which took deed, that this increaſe of ſize in putrefying bodies is owing only place in Germany, in the war of 1755: one reaſon of which is faid to the extrication of air within themſelves : but this amounts to the to have been an infection of the air by the vaſt numbers of people fame thing ; for the air which exiſts internally in the body of any killed in battle, to which was added a calm in the atmoſphere for animal, is entirely diveſted of elaſticity while it remains there, a long time ; the putrid effluvia being by this prevented from fly- and only ſhews its elaſtic properties upon being extricated. The ing off. When Mr. Holwell with 145 others were impriſoned claſtic principle which combines with the air fixed in the animal in the black-hole at Calcutta, after paffing a night in that diſ- fubftance, therefore, muſt come from the external atmoſphere ; mal habitation, he found himſelf in a high putrid fever. When and conſequently the agent in putrefaction muſt be the elaſtic prin- | failors in long voyages are obliged to feed upon putrid aliments ; ciple of the atmoſphere itſelf, probably the ſame with elementary when through formy weather they are much expoſed to wet ; in fire. But, granting this to be true, it is difficult to fhew why pu the one caſe the putreſcent effluvia being kept from flying off, trefaction ſhould not take place in a living body as well as a dead and in the other a greater quantity being thrown into the body one ; ſeeing the one is as much expoſed to the action of the air as than what it naturally contains, the ſcurvy, malignant fevers, &c. the other. This difficulty, however, is not peculiar to the preſent make their appearance. Neither can theſe diſeaſes be removed hypotheſis ; but will equally occur whatever we may ſuppoſe the without removing every one of the cauſes juſt now mentioned: cauſe of putrefaction to be. The difficulty ſeems to be a little for as putrid diſeaſes will be the conſequence of confined air, naſti- cleared up by Dr. Prieſtley, who thews, that by means of reſpira- | neſs, &c. though the proviſions be ever ſo good ; ſo, on the other tion the body is freed from many noxious effluvia which would un hand, if the proviſions be bad, the beſt air, and moſt exact cleanli- doubtedly deſtroy it, and by the retention of which, he thinks, a neſs, nay, the beſt medicines in the world, will be of no ſervice; living body would putrefy as ſoon as a dead one. The way in as hath been often obſerved in the fcurvy. See the Syſtem of which reſpiration prevents the putrefaction of the body,is evidently MEDICINE, Genus 6o. the ſame with that in which the wind prevents fith or fieſh hung From this account of the nature, cauſe, and method of pre- up in it from becoming putrid. The conſtant inſpiration of the venting putrcfaction by means of a current of air, we may eaſily air is like a ſtream of that element continually blown, upon the ſee the reaſon why it does not take place in ſome other caſes alſo. body, and that not only upon its furface, but into it, by which Bodies will not putrify in vacuo, becauſe there the atmoſphere has means putrefaction is prevented in thoſe parts that are moſt liable not acceſs to impart its elaſtic principle; and though in the va- to become putrid. On the other hand, the elaſtic principle re cuum itſelf the principle we ſpeak of does undoubtedly exiſt, yet its ceived from the air by blood, by invigorating the powers of life, action there is by far too weak to decompoſe the ſtructure of an quickening the circulation, and increaſing perſpiration, enables animal body. In extreme cold, the reaſon why putrefaction does the body to expel noxious particles from other parts of the body not take place has been already ſhewn. If the heat is extremely which cannot conveniently be expelled by the lungs. great, the proceſs of ignition or burning takes place inſtead of pu- This leads us to conſider the reaſon why a free expoſure to the trefaction. If the body is very dry, putrefaction cannot take place, air prevents the coming on of putrefaction, or why the confining becauſe the texture is too firm to be decompoſed by the weak ac- of the putrid effluvia ſhould be ſo neceſſary to this proceſs. Here tion of the elaſtic principle. Putrefaction may alſo be prevented it will be proper to recollect, that putrefaction is a ſimple reſolu by the addition of certain ſubſtances; but they are all of them ſuch tion of the body into earth, air, &c. of which it ſeems originally to as either harden the texture of the body, and thus render it proof have been compoſed. This reſolution is evidently performed by againſt the action of the elaſtic fluid, or, by diffolving its texture an expanſive power feemingly ſituated in every particle of the body. entirely, bring it into a ſtate fimilar to what it would be brought In conſequence of this principle, the body first ſwells, then burſts, by the utmoſt power of putrefaction, ſo that the proceſs cannot Hies off in vapour, and its particles fall affunder from each other. then take place. Thus, various kinds of ſalts and acids harden the The action of the putrefactive proceſs, then, is analogous to that texture of animal ſubſtances, and thus are ſucceſsfully uſed as an- of fire, ſince theſe are the very properties of fire, and the very ef tiſepties. The ſame thing may be faid of ardent ſpirits ; while oils fects which follow the action of fire upon any combuſtible body. and gums of various kinds prove antiſeptic by a total excluſion of It is therefore exceedingly probable, that the agent in the air which air, which is neceſſary in ſome degree for carrying on the proceſs we have all along conſidered as the cauſe of putrefaction, is no of putrefaction. Many vegetables, by the aſtringent qualities they other than fire itſelf; that is, the etherial fluid expanding itſelf poſſeſs, harden the texture of animal ſubſtances, and thus prove cvery where, as from a centre to a circumference. The force of powerfully antiſeptic; while on the other hand, fixed alkaline falts, the Áuid, indeed, is much leſs in putrefaction than in actual igni- quicklime, and cauſtic volatile alkali, though they prevent putre- tion; and therefore the effects alſo take place in a much ſmaller faction, yet they do it by diffolving the ſubſtances in ſuch a man- degree, and require a much longer time: nevertheleſs, the famecir ner that putrefaction could do no more though it had exerted its cumſtances that are neceſſary for keeping up the action of fire, are utmoſt force. There is only one other antiſeptic ſubſtance whole alſo neceſſary for keeping up the putrefactive proceſs. One of theſe effects deſerve to be conſidered, and that is fugar. This, though is a free acceſs of air, yet without too violent a blaft; for as fire can noither acid nor alkaline, is yet one of the moſt effectual means of not burn without air, neither can it endure too much of it; thus a preventing putrefaction : and this ſeems to be owing to its great candle goes out if put under a receiver, and the air exhauſted; and tendency to run into the vinous fermentation, which is totally in- it will do the ſame if we blow violently upon it. In like manner, conſiſtent with that of putrefaction ; and this tendency is ſo great, putrefaction requires a certain quantity of air, much leſs indeed that it can ſcarce be counteracted by the tendency of animal ſub- than fire: and as it requires leſs to ſupport it, ſo it can alſo endure ſtances to putrefy in any circumſtances whatever. much leſs air than fire ; for a ſtream of air which would not put Some kinds of air are remarkably antiſeptic, though this ſubject out a fire, will effectually prevent putrefaction. The cauſe of this has not been ſo fully inquired into as could be wiſhed. The moſt in both is the ſame. Fire cannot burn becauſe the vapour is car- powerful of them in this reſpect is the nitrous air ; next to it, is ried off too faft; and thus the latent heat which ought to ſupport fixed air : but the powers of dephlogiſticated and inflammable air the flame is entirely diſſipated. In like manner putrefaction is as are not ſo well known. It is probable that the antiſeptic proper- certainly attended with an emiſſion of phlogiſtic vapours, as fire ties of fixed and nitrous air, are owing to their quality of extin- is with an emiſſion of flame. Theſe vapours contain a great quan- guiſhing fire, or at leaſt that the principle is the ſame ; but, till tity of latent heat, or of the expanſive principle already mentioned; the nature of theſe two kinds of air are better known, little can and if theſe are carried off with greater rapidity than the heat of the be ſaid with certainty on the ſubject. atmoſphere can produce them, the conſequence muſt be, that an Lord Bacon obſerves that an inquiry into the means of prevent- oppoſite principle to that which produces putrefaction, namely, a ing and ſtaying putrefaction, is of moſt important uſe in medicine; principle of cold, or condenſation, inſtead of expanfion, muſt take and Sir John Pringle has made experiments to determine the pow place, and the body cannot putrefy. That this muſt be the caſe i ers of certain ſubſtances to promote or to prevent putrefaction, Q99 From No. 134. PUT PY Ř I . 2 2 2 I 2 20 CUS. From theſe experiments he has formed the following Table, few the putrefaction of the animal and vegetable ſubſtances at firſt con ing the relative antiſeptic powers of the faline ſubſtances mention tained in the water, being, after a while, entirely diffipated, leaves ed. Having found that two drams of beef put into a phial with the remainder without any diſagreeable ſmell. two ounces of water, and placed in a heat equal to 90° of Fahren A method of preſerving water free from putrefaction was fome heit's thermometer, became putrid in 14 hours, and that bo grains years ſince propofed by Dr. Alſton. It conſiſted in adding a quan- of ſea-ſalt preſerved a ſimilar mixture of beef and water more than tity of lime to every całk of water; and as lime is known to have 30 hours, he made the antiſeptic power of the ſea ſalt a ſtandard, to a ſtrong antifeptic property, water, as long as it retains the impreg. which he compared the powers of the other falts. The algebraic nation of lime, never putrefies. In order to free the water at the character + ſignifies, that the ſubſtance to which it is annexed had time of uſing it from the lime, Dr. Alſton propoſes the precipita- a greater antiſeptic power than is expreſſed by the numbers. tion of the latter by throwing in a quantity of magnefia alba, on this Sea-falt, or the ſtandard Saline mixture 3 principle, that as lime-ſtone is rendered ſoluble in water by the de- Sal-gem it Nitre. 4+ privation of its fixed air, and has a greater affinity with that air Vitriolated tartar Salt of hartſhorn 4+ than magneſia has, the particles of quicklime diffolved in the water Spiritus Mindereri Salt of wormwood. 4+ would attract the air from the magneſia, and thereby becoming na Soluble tartar Borax longer ſoluble, would fall to the bottom, and leave the water taſte- Sal diureticus 2+ Salt of amber lefs and fit for economical uſes. Crude fal ammoniac 3 Alum 30 The expence, however, attending this proceſs prevented the exe- N. B. The quantities of fpiritus Mindereri and of the ſaline cution of the propoſal. Mr. Henry has lately ſuggeſted a cheap and mixture were ſuch, that each of them contained as much alkaline eaſily practicable method of precipitating the lime, and thus of re- ſalt as the other neutral falts. ſtoring the water to its original taſte. The following is a ſhort Myrrh, aloes, aſafetida, and terra Japonica, were found to have ſketch of the author's proceſs. To preſerve the water from putre- an antiſeptic power 30 times greater than the ſtandard. Gum am faction, two pounds of good quicklime are directed to be added to moniacum and ſagepenum ſhowed little antiſeptic power. Of all each caſk of water of a hundred and twenty gallons. To free the reſinous ſubſtances, camphor was found to reſiſt putrefaction moſt water afterwards from the lime with which it has beenimpregnated, powerfully. Sir John Pringle believes that its antiſeptic power is it is to be drawn off into a ſtrong caſk, containing about fixty gal- 300? greater than that of ſea-ſalt. Chamomile flowers, Virginian lons, with an aperture at one end large enough to admit a veſſel, ſnake-root, pepper, ginger, faffron, contrayerva-root,and galls, were which is to be let down into it by means of ſtrings, and which con- found to be 12 times more antiſeptic than ſea-falt. Infuſions of tains a proper quantity of cfferveſcent materials, that is, of marble large quantities of mint, angelica, ground-ivy, green tea, red-roſes, or chalk, and vitriolic acid. Eight ounces of mild calcareous common wormwood, muſtard, and horſe-radifh, andalſo decoctions carth, and fix ounces of ſtrong vitriolic acid, will be ſufficient for of poppy-heads, were more antiſeptic than fea-falt. Decoctions of fixty gallons of lime water. The mouth of this laſt veffel is to be wheat, barley, and other farinaceous grains, checked the putre- ſtopped with a tubulated ſtopper, through which the fixed air, let faction by becoming four. Chalk, and other abſorbent powders, looſe from the marble, paſſes up through the body of the water. accelerated the putrefaction, and reſolves meat into a perfect mu Thelime is thus rendered inſoluble, and is foon precipitated in the The ſame powders prevented an infuſion of farinaceous form of an impalpable powder of chalk; the water being thus re- grains from becoming mucilaginous and four. One dram of fea ſtored to the ſame ſtate of purity as when it was firſt ſhipped on ſalt was found to preſerve two drams of freſh beef in two ounces of board; or, as Mr. Henry believes, to a ſtate of ſtill greater purity; water, above 30 hours uncorrupted, in a heat equal to that of the feveral hard waters having, in conſequence of this proceſs, beer human body, or above 20 hours longer than meat is preſerved in rendered as ſoft as rain-water, and freed from different impregna- water without ſalt: but half a dram of ſalt did not preſerve it more tions. For farther particulars, and the deſcription and drawing of than two hours longer than pure water. Twenty-five grains of falt an apparatus for this operation, fee Henry's Account of a Method had little or no antiſeptic quality. Twenty grains, 15 grains, but of preſerving Water at Sea, &c. p. 10, &c. 1781. eſpecially 10 grains only of ſea-falt were found to accelerate and PUTRIĎ, putridus, ſomething rotten or putrefied. See Putre- heighten the putrefaction of two drams of fleſh. Theſe ſmall FACTION. Thus we ſay, putrid fleſh; a putrid humour; putrid quantities of ſea-ſalt did alſo foften the fleíh more than pure water. limbs, i. e. mortified ones, are to be cut off. The ſame learned and ingenious phyfician made experiments to diſ Putrid Fever. For deſcription, cauſes, prognoſis, prevention, cover the effects of mixing vegetable with animal matters. and cure, ſee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 6. Dr. Macbride's experiments confirm many of thoſe above related, PYLORUS, in anatomy, the right and lower orifice of the ſto- eſpecially thoſe which ſhow that the fermentation of vegetable mach, whereby it diſcharges itſelf into the inteſtines. The pylorus ſubſtances is increaſed by a mixture of animal or putreſcent mat is ſituate on the right ſide of the ſtomach, and paſſes by an oblique ter; that the putreſcency of the latter is corrected by the fermenta- aſcent, to the duodenum, to prevent the too precipitate paſſage of tive quality of the former; and that the putrefaction and fermen the alimentout of the ſtomach. See the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. III. tation of mixtures of animal and vegetable ſubſtances were accele PYRAMID, wuqaruis, in geometry, a ſolid ſtanding on a ſquare, rated by additions of abſorbent earths and of Peruvian bark. He triangular, or polygonal baſis, and terminating at top in a point; alſo found, that although unburnt calcareous earths were feptic, or a body whoſe baſe is a regular rectilinear figure, and whoſe fides quick-lime and lime-water prevented putrefaction, but that they are plain triangles; their ſeveral vertices meeting together in one deſtroyed or diſſolved the texture of fleſh. point. Euclid defines it a folid figure, conſiſting of ſeveral trian- Theexperiments of the author of the Eſai pour ſervir à l'Hiſtoire gles whoſe baſes are all in the ſame plane, and have one common de la Putrefaction, ſhow that metallic falts, reſinous powders, ex- tracts of bark, ard opium, are very powerfully antiſeptic, and that PYRAMID, in architecture, denotes a ſolid, maſſive edifice; ſalts with earthy baſes are leſs antiſeptic than any other ſalts. which, from a ſquare, triangular, or other baſe, riſes diminiſhing Sir John Pringle has made many curious experiments, with a to a point, or vertex. When they are very narrow at bottom, i.e. view of determining the power of certain ſubſtances to promote or their baſe very ſmall, they are called obeliſks, and needles. Pyra- to prevent putrefaction, together with remarks on this ſubject, mids are ſometimes erected to preſerve the memory offingular events, which are publiſhed in the Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvi. p. 480, 525, 550, and, ſometimes, to tranſmit to poſterity the glory and magnifi- and by way of appendix to his Obſervations on the Diſeaſes of the cence of princes; but, as they are the fymbol of immortality, they Army. From the experiments of this learned and judicious phy are more commonly uſed as funeral monuments. Such is that of ſician, it appears, that falts of every kind, whether acid, alkaline, Ceſtius at Rome, the mauſoleum of this diſtinguiſhed Roman, who or neutral, fixed or volatile, as well as the aſtringent and gummy was one of the ſeven officers called epulones, and is ſaid to have lived refinous part of vegetables, all of them reſiſt and moſt of them cor under Auguſtus, repaired in 1673, by Alexander VII. and thoſe rect putrefaction, and he purſued this branch of his inquiry ſo faras other celebrated ones of Egypt, as famous for their ſize as their an- to enable him to form a table fhewing the comparative antiſeptic tiquity. The pyramids of Egypt, comprehending the great and power of the ſeveral ſubſtances, that of ſea-falt being the ſtandard. ſmall, are very numerous; of theſe there are about twenty of the PUTREFACTION of Water. It is ſaid to be the peculiar quality largeſt ſize. The moſt remarkable are the three pyramids of Mem- of the Thames water, that it will ſtink and yet be wholeſome; and phis, or, as they are now called, of Gheiſa or Gize. The dimen- after this will recover itſelf again. Many failors have been obliged fions of the greateſt of theſe have been differently ſtated both by an- to drink it ſtinking, fo that they held their noſes while they poured cient and modern writers. Herodotus (lib. ii.) makes the baſe of it down their throats, yet no ſickneſs enſued from it. It generates it to be 800 feet long; Diodorus (lib. i.) 700; Strabo (lib. xvii.) a ſort of ſpirit alſo in this ſtinking ſtate, which will take fire at the leſs than 600; and Pliny (lib. xxxvi. cap. 12.) 883 feet. Among approach of a lighted candle, as if ſpirit of wine were touched by the moderns, Sandys found it to Le 300 paces; Bellonius 324 ; the ſame. Greaves 693 Engliſh feet; and Le Brun 770 feet. In order to re- It appears from the preceding article, that, though a volatile al concile theſe differences, Dr. Shaw obſerves, that none of the ſides kali may be obtained from putrid ſubſtances by diſtillation, ſuch of this pyramid are exactly upon a level; ſo that it is difficult to find ſubſtances muſt not be ſuffered to remain too long before they are a true horizontal baſe; beſides it is impoſſible to ſay how much diſtilled, unleſs they are kept in cloſe veſſels; becauſe the volatile the drifts of ſand, to which it is expoſed, may have been accumu- alkali, which is the offspring of putrefaction, is diſſipated as faſt as lated above the foundation of it; and, therefore, all calculations, it is generated, inſomuch that, at length, nothing is left behind but | depending upon the times and circumſtances of the ſituation, when an inſipid water, or a ſolid matter, being an earth ſimilar to common mould. It is in this way, ſays Dr. Macbride, that ſtinking water, they were made, muſt be extremely precarious. For a particular after ſome time, becomes ſweet: the volatile alkali, generated by | Bankes's Geography, pages 386 and 387. and copious account of theſe curious remains of antiquity, fee PYRA- Vertex. P Y R Ρ Υ Τ pear and PYRAMIDALES Abdominis, in anatomy, denote ſmall mul- ; ftitutions. It is laid to poſſeſs the general virtues of the Spa water; cles in the abdomen. For their origin, inſertion, and uſe, ſee and at the fountain it is more ſpirituous, as well as a ſtronger chaly- the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. I. Table of Muſcles, Art. 15. beate. Elliot's Med. Virtues, &c. of Mineral Waters, 1781.2,181. PYRIFORMIS called alſo pyramidalis, in anatomy, a ſmall Near the famous well at Pyrmont, is a ſtone quarry under ground, oblong muſcle of the thigh, receiving its name from its figure, from ſome parts in which a ſulphureous fteam comes out, which which reſembles that of a pear. It is alſo called iliacus externus, commonly riſes to a ſmall height. Animals held in this ſteam are from its ſituation. For its origin, infertion, and uſe, ſee Part II. foon fuffocated, but recover if quickly taken out. When a man Table of Muſcles, Art. 24. ſtands in this ſteam, but with his head over it, it proves an excellent PYRMONT Water, in phyſiology and medicine, a verk briſk, fudorific. Dr. Seip propoſes to perform cures in ſeveral diſeaſes ſpirituous chalybeate, abounding in fixed air, and which, when with it. See Phil. Tranſ. No. 448, ſect. 4. and Miſc. Berolin. taken up from the fountain at Pyrmont in Weſtphalia, in Ger tom. v. part 2. ſect. 4. many, whence its name, ſparkles like the briſkeſt Champaign wine. PYROTECHNY, Tugotovid, formed from oup, fire, and It has a pleaſant, vinous taſte, and ſomewhat ſulphureous ſmell. TEXyr, art, the art of fire, or a ſcience which teaches the manage- It is perfectly clear, and bears carriage better than the ſpa water. ment and application of fire in ſeveral operations. Pyrotechny is The hiſtory of theſe waters is accurately given by Hoffman in his of two kinds, military and chymical. obſervations on them, both in their natural ſtate and in mixture Military PYROTECHNY, is the doctrine of artificial fire-works, with other bodies. He obſerves, that they contain a volatile and and fire-arms, teaching the ſtructure and uſe both of thoſe uſed in fubtile principle, much more penetrating and ſtrong, as well as in war for the attacking of fortifications, &c. as gunpowder, cannons, larger quantity, than any other mineral water: but that this is not bombs, granadoes, carcaſſes, mines, fufees, &c. and of thoſe made to be expected in them any where but upon the ſpot, for thoſe who for amuſement, as rockets, ſtars, ſerpents, &c. Some call pyro- tranſport them to other places are conſtrained to let a part of this fly | techny, by the name artillery; though that word is uſually confined off, to preſerve the reſt. If either glaſs or earthen veſſel be filled to the inſtruments uſed in war. Others chooſe to call it pyrobology, at the ſpring, and immediately corked and faſtened down, the con or rather pyroballogy, q. d. the art of miſſile fires, from the Greck fequence is, that they will burſt on the firſt motion or heat of the Tue, fire, and BARDEL), to caſt, or throw. Wolfius has reduced weather. They are, therefore, forced to fill them only in part at pyrotechnia into a kind of mixt mathematical art: indeed it will firſt, and let them ſtand awhile for this ſubtile ſpirit to exhale, and not allow of geometrical demonſtrations: but he brings it to tolera- then a while after the filling them to cork and fit them for carri- ble rules and reaſons : whereas before it had uſed to be treated by age. If they are drank upon the ſpot in a morning on an empty authors at random, and without any regard to reaſon at all. See ſtomach, they affect the noſe with a pungent tingling, and diſturb the elements of military pyrotechny, under the ſeveral inſtruments the head for many hours afterwards. If they are taken at the and operations, CANNON, BOMB, ROCKET, GUNPOWDER,&c. fpring, they purge but very little ; but if taken in another place, Chymical PYROTECHNY, is the art of managing and applying after tranſportation, they purge conſiderably more, and render the fire in diſtillations, calcinations, and other operations of chymiſtry. ftools black. It is obſervable alſo, that, if they are left in an open Some reckon a third kind of pyrotechnia, viz. the art of fuſing, re- veſſel a few days, their virtue wholly exhales, and they no longer fining, and preparing metals. purge nor render the ſtools black. PYRUS, the pear-tree; a Genus of the Pentagynia order, be- If a quantity of Pyrmont water be expoſed twenty-four hours to longing to the Icoſandria claſs of plants. To this genus Linnæus the open air in a baſon, it will at the end be found to have loſt all has joined the apple and quince. For the culture of its virtues, taſting wholly inſipid, and being turbid, inſtead of the apple trees, ſee Treatiſe on GARDENING, article Fruit Garden, fine clearneſs it had before, and a yellow ochreous earth is precipi- months January and February. tated to the bottom; after this the liquor will no longer ſhew any PYTHAGOREANS, a ſéct of ancient philoſophers, who ad- of thoſe qualities which were before its diſtinguiſhing character, it hered to the doctrine of Pythagoras. Pythagoras, the founder of will no longer ferment with acids, nor turn black with galls, nor this ſect, was of Samos, the ſon of a lapidary, and a pupil of green with fyrup of violets. Pherecydes, and flouriſhed, ſays Bayle, about five hundred years It appears from the whole, that the Pyrmont waters poſſeſs a before Chriſt, in the time of Tarquin, the laſt king of Rome, and pure, extremely penetrating, and elaſtic mineral ſpirit, and that in not in Numa's time, as many authors have ſuppoſed. See Cicero a very large proportion; and to this their virtues are principally to Tufcul. Queſt. lib iv. cap. i. This fect was alſo called the Italic be attributed. This mineral ſpirit, while it remains engaged in a feet, or Italic ſchool, becauſe Pythagoras, after travelling into Egypt, calcareous earth, emulates the properties of an alkaline ſubſtance; Chaldea, and even into the Indies, to inform his underſtanding, and when joined with a ſubtile martial earth, it emulates the pro- returning home to his own country, and there unable to bear the perties of vitriol, giving the ſtools a black colour, and turning a tyranny of Polycrates, of Sylofon, retired into the eaſtern part of tincture of galls into ink: and while this remains in the water in Italy, then called the Greater Greece, and there taught and in- theſe forms of an alkaline or vitriolic principle of ſo great ſubtilty, formed his fect. Pythagoras made his ſcholars undergo a ſevere it cannot but give them very great virtues in ſtrengthening the tone noviciate of filence for at leaſt two years; and it is ſaid, that, where of the viſcera, opening obſtructions, and ſtimulating in a proper he diſcerned too great an itch for talking, he extended it to five: manner the excretory ducts, ſo as to make them duly perform their his diſciples were there fore divided into two claſſes, of which the office; but as ſoon as by the ſtanding of the water open, or by any firſt were ſimple hearers, and the laſt ſuch as were allowed to pro- other accident, this ſubtile element is evaporated, all the virtúcs of poſe their difficulties, and learn the reaſons of all that was taught the water muſt be gone with it. The great quantity of this pow there. The Pythagoreans, it is ſaid, on their riſing from bed, rouſed erful ſpirit contained in the waters, makes them more fit for the the mind with the ſound of the lyre, in order to make them more robuſt and ſtrong conſtitutions, when depraved by illneſs, than for fit for the actions of the day; and at night reſumed the lyre, in order the weak and tender ones ; but even the tendereft people may take to prepare themſelves for ſleep, by calming all their tumultuous them, only obſerving to take but a ſmall doſe, or to dilute them thoughts. The figurative manner in which hegave hisinſtructions, with an equal quantity of common water immediately before the was borrowed from the Hebrews, Egyptians, and other orientals, taking them. Hoffman alſo recommends the Pyrmont water mixed Some think he derived his philoſophy from the books of Moſes,and with equal quantities of milk, on his own experience, in fcorbutic that he converſed with Ezekiel and Daniel at Babylon : but this is and gouty cafes. Hoffm. Opera. tom. v. p. 143. feq. Pyrmont mere conjecture. He was the firſt who aſſumed the modeſt title water, and other mineral waters of a ſimilar nature, owe their aci- | philofopheror lover of wiſdom; thoſe who excelled in the knowledge dulous taſte and peculiar virtues to the fixed air which they contain. of nature and made themſelves conſpicuous by an exemplary life, We ſhall here add fome farther remarks on the effects and medi till his time having borne the arrogant appellation goQol, ſages. His cal uſes of this water. Perſons who drink it at the well are affected ſchool in Italy was at Crotona, where he is ſaid to have been at- with a kind of giddineſs or intoxication, which is probably owing tended by no leſs than ſix hundred ſcholars. His houſe was called to the great quantity of fixed air with which the water abounds. the temple of Ceres, and the ſtreet where it ſtood, the Muſeum. The common operation of this water is by urine ; but it is alſo a Out of this ſchool proceeded the greateſt philoſophers and legiſlators gentle ſudorific; and if taken in large quantity proves laxative. Zaleucus, Charondas, Archytas. Porphyry ſays, as ſoon as he ar- However, in order to this effect, it is uſual to mix fome falts with rived in Italy, he had an auditory of two thouſand people, to whom, the firſt glaſſes. It is drank by glaſ-fuls in the morning to the he explained the laws of nature, reaſon, and juſtice. His ſchool quantity of from one to five or fix pints, according to circum- became ſo popular, that whole cities, and people committed their ſtances; thoſe who drink it, walking about between each glaſs. republics to the government of his ſcholars. At length, Porphyry This water is recommended in caſes where the conſtitution is re-adds, envy ſtirring up fedition againſt them, they were oppreſſed; laxed : in want of appetite and digeſtion; weakneſs of the ſtomach, and, in time, their learning, which they ever kept ſecret, was loſt; and heart-burn'; the green-fickneſs; female obſtructions and bar- except ſome difficult things learnt by rote by the crowd of hearers ; renneſs; the feurvy and cutaneous diſeaſes ; and in the gout, eſpe- for Pythagoras never committed any thing to writing. His max- cially, as Hoffman obferves, when mixed with milk: in colics; ims of morality were admirable ; for he was for having the ſtudy of bloody fluxes ; diſorders of the breaſt and lungs ; in which caſe it philoſophy ſolely tend to elevate man to a reſemblance of the Deity. is beſt taken lukewarm : in nervous hyſteric, and hypochondriacal | He believed that God is a foul diffuſed through all nature, and that diſorders ; in apoplexies and pallies : in the gravel and urinary ob- from him human ſouls are derived; that they areimmortal,and that ſtructions ; in foulneſs of the blood ; and in obſtructions of the men need only take pains to purge themſelves of their vices, in order Bner vefſels. It amends the lax texture of the bood; exhilarates to be united to the Deity. He made unity the principle of allthings; the fpirits without inflaming, as vinous liquors are apt to do; and and believed, that between God and man there are various orders is reckoned among the beſt reſtoratives in decayed and broken con- of ſpiritual beings, who are the miniſters of the Supreme Being. He PY T P Y T . He condemned all images of the Deity, and would have him wor to ſpeak truth, and to do good offices; thoſe two things, ſaid he, ſhipped with as few ceremonies as poſſible. His diſciples brought reſemble the works of God. reſemble the works of God. The circumſtances of his death are all their goods into a common ſtock, contemned the pleaſures of variouſly related. Some ſay, that he was burnt at Milo's houſe at ſenſe, abſtained from ſwearing, eat nothing that had life, and be Crotona, together with his diſciples. Others ſay, that he eſcaped lieved in the doctrine of a metempſychoſis. See the article ME from the flames; and, being purſued out of the city, ſtopped in a TEMPSYCHOSIS. field of beans, and choſe rather to be killed than open his mouth, It is ſaid, that Pythagoras, conſidering God as the mover of the Dicæarchus fays, that he fled to the temple of the Muſes at Meta. univerſe, and the foul of the world, affirmed, that our ſouls are por pontus, where he died of hunger. . Others aſſert, that he was tions of God. Cicero De Nat. Deorum, lib. i. cap. II. Py- killed, with all his diſciples, by the Agrigentines. Arnobius thagoras alſo aſſerted a metempſychoſis, or tranſmigration of fouls; affirms, that he was burnt alive in a temple, &c. Juſtin ſeems to and therefore the immortality of the foul. He alſo taught, that inſinuate, that after his having lived 20 years at Crotona he died in virtue is harmony, health, and every good thing; and that God, peace in a very advanced age at Metapontum, to which city he had and therefore all things, conſiſt of harmony. With reſpect to the retired. His memory was held in ſuch veneration, that his houſe end of our actions and ſtudies, he taught, that the ſtudy of philofo was converted into a temple, and he was honoured as a god. Some phy ſhould tend to make men like God; and that the acquiſition of authors ſay, that he left nothing in writing ; but Laërtius and truth was the only way to attain to the likeneſs of God; but that others attribute ſeveral treatiſes to him. His golden verſes, attri- truth cannot be known, unleſs it be inquired after with a purified buted by ſome to one of his diſciples, are allowed to be an exact foul, and ſuch as have overcome the paſſions of the body. The beſt copy of the ſentiments of that divine philoſopher, from whoſe ſchool preſents which heaven gave to men, according to Pythagoras, are proceeded the greateſt philoſophers and legiflators. OUA Q. QUA Q TUAGESIMA. or q, the 16th letter and 12th conſonant of our alphabet; / cription of Hadley's quadrant, as conſtructed in the beſt manner 9 but is not to be found either in the Greek, old Latin, or by Mr. Adams, together with directions for its management and Saxon alphabets; and indeed ſome would entirely exclude it, pre feveral uſes in the practical part of navigation, ſee the Syſtem of tending that k ought to be uſed wherever this occurs. However, However, NAVIGATION, Part III. Sect. IV. For repreſentation, ſee the as it is formed in the voice in a different manner, it is undoubtedly Plate, Fig. 14. a diſtinct letter. The q is never founded alone, but in conjuction Other quadrants have been contrived ſince, by ſome ingenious with u, as in quality, queſtion, quite, quote, &c. and never ends artiſts, all of which have their merit; but the particulars of their any Engliſh word. conſtructions are too many for this place; and perhaps, on the QUACK, in medicine. See EMPIRIC. whole, nothing preferable to Mr. Hadley's invention has yet been QUADRAGESIMA, a term fometimes uſed for the time of found. LENT ; becauſe conſiſting of forty days. Quadragefima Sunday, QUADRANT, in gunnery, called alſo the gunner's Square, is an is the firſt Sunday in Lent; ſo called becauſe it is about the fortieth inſtrument ſerving to elevate or point cannons, mortars, &c. ac- day before Eaſter. On the ſame account, the three preceding Sun- cording to the places they are to be levelled or directed to. For its days are called QUINQUAGESIMA, SexAGESIMA, and Sep- deſcription and management, ſee the treatiſe on PROJECTILES, Part II. Art. IX. QUADRANGLE, in geometry, a quadrangular, or quadri QUADRANT of Altitude, is an appendage of the artificial globe; lateral figure: or e figure which has four fides, or four angles. To conſiſting of a lamina or flip of braſs, the length of a quadrant of the claſs quadrangles, or quadrangular figures, belong the ſquare, one of the great circles of the globe; and divided into ninety de- parallelogram, trapezium, rhombus, and rhomboides. See the grees. See Treatiſe on the GLOBES, under the Article Deſcription Syſtem Part I. Sect. I. of the Globes. For repreſentation, ſee the Plate, Fig. 3, Let- QUADRANT,quadrans, in geometry,an arch of a circle, con ters Z A. taining 90 degrees, or one-fourth of the entire periphery. Some QUADRATRIX, in geometry, a mechanical line, by means times, alſo, the ſpace or area, included between this arch and two whereof we would find right lines equal to the circumference of radii, drawn from the centre to each extremity thereof, is called a circles, or other curves, and of the ſeveral parts thereof. For its quadrant, or, more properly, a quadrantal ſpace; as being a quarter full definition and peculiar properties, ſee the Syſtem, Part III. of the entire circle. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. III. Article Conic SECTIONS, Sect. IV. For repreſentation, ſee QUADRANT alſo denotes a mathematical inſtrument, of great Plate II. Fig. 52. uſe in navigation, and aſtronomy, for the taking of altitudes, an QUADRATURE, quadratura, in geometry, the act of ſquar- gles, &c. See the reſpective Syſtems. ing; or of reducing a figure to a ſquare; or finding a ſquare equal The quadrant is variouſly contrived, and furniſhed with different to ſome other figure propoſed. Thus the finding of a ſquare con- apparatus, according to the ſeveral uſes for which it is intended ; taining juſt as much ſurface or area as a circle, anellipſis, a triangle, but they have all this in common, that they conſiſt of a quadrant,or or other figure, is called the quadrature of a circle, of an ellipſis, quarter of a circle, whoſe limb is divided into go degs, and that a triangle, or the like. See the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. X. they have a plumbet ſuſpended from the centre ; and are furniſhed QUADRATURE, in aſtronomy, that aſpect or ſituation of the with pinnulæ or SIGHTS, through which to look. The principal, moon, when ſhe is ninety degrees diſtant from the ſun. See the moſt uſual, and uſeful quadrants, are, the common or ſurveying qua- Syſtem, Sect. VII. Article DEFINITIONS. drant,the aſtronomical quadrant, Adams's quadrant, Bird'squadrant, QUADRATUS, in anatomy, a name applied to ſeveral Mural quadrant, Davis's quadrant,and Hadley's quadrantimproved. muſcles, in reſpect of their ſquare figure; as, Quadratus Femoris, The common or ſurveying quadrant is made of braſs, wood, or ſee the Syſtem, Part II. under the ſeveral articles to which they other matter, uſually twelve or fifteen inches radius. Its circular reſpectively appertain. limb is divided into 90?, and each of thoſe ſubdivided into as many QUADRILATERAL, in geometry, a figure whoſe perimeter equal parts as the ſpace will allow, either diagonally or other conſiſts of four right lines, making four angles ; whence it is alſo wife. For its conſtruction and uſes ſee the Syſtem. called a quadrangular figure. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. I. TheafironomicalQUADRANT,is a quadrant uſually made of braſs QUADRILLE, a well known game at cards; and which has or iron bars, having its limb curiouſly divided, diagonally,or other been, in ſeveral caſes, the object of mathematical computations. wiſe, into degrees and minutes, and even ſeconds, if poſſible; with See Mr. De Moivre’s Doctrine of Chances, 3d edit. p. 97, &c. plain fights fixed on one ſide of it; or, inſtead thereof, a teleſcope, QUADRUPED, in zoology. The effential character of qua- and an index moving about the centre, carrying either plain fights, drupeds is, that they have a hairy body and four feet, and that the or a teleſcope. For the conſtruction and uſes of Adams's aſtro females are viviparous, and give fuck to their young. Quadrupeds nomical quadrant, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. XVI. For the repreſen are diſtinguiſhed, by the number of their feet, from other animals, tation, fee Plate V. Fig. I. which have only two feet, as birds; from thoſe which have no feet, Bird's Twelve Inch QUADRANT. For the conſtruction and as fithes and reptiles; and from thoſe which have more than two method of adopting it, ſee the Syſtem of ASTRONOMY, Sect. feet, as inſects. Linnæus brings theſe animals into the firſt king- XVI. For repreſentation, ſee Plate V. Fig. 2. dom of nature, called zoology, and makes them of the firſt claſs of Mural QUADRANT. For its conſtruction and uſes, ſee the this kingdom, in which claſification he differs from many preceding Syſtem of ASTRONOMY, Sect. XVI. For repreſentation, ſee and following authors, by introducing cetaceous fiſh in the fame Plate V. Fig. 3. claſs.. His reaſon for which is, that they give ſuck; therefore he Davis's QUADRANT. For its deſcription and uſes, ſee the makes this the line of diſcrimination, and calls them by one general Syſtem of NAVIGATION, Part III. Sect. I. For repreſenta- term, Mammalia, meaning all animals that give ſuck. For deſcrip- tion, ſee the Plate, Fig. II. tion of their claſſical characters, their ſyſtematic arrangement; Hadley's QUADRANT, the common name for the juſtly eſteemed characteriſtic deſcription of the ſeveral orders, and claſſification of quadrant, invented by the late John Hadley, eſq. This quadrant, their generic characters, ſee the Syſtem of MAMMALIA, under which at firſt ſhared the fate of many other ingenious inventions, to their reſpective heads. For deſcription of the ſeveral genera, with be neglected by ignorant and obftinate men, even though highly their moſt remarkble ſpecies, ſee the order of the alphabet as they uſeful to them in their profeſſion, has at laſt made its way, in ſpite reſpectively occur. For repreſentation, ſee the Plates annexed to of habit and prejudice, and is now generally uſed. For a full de the Syſtem of MAMMALIA. QUAIL, QUA QUA QUAL, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the Genus Tetrao, their native country, during the reign of Charles II. to look about in the Syſtem of ORNITHOLOGY. See TetRAO. for fome diſtant ſettlements, where they might ſhelter themſelves QUAKERS, in ecclefiaftical hiſtory, a religious fect, who made from the ſtorm; and with this view they began to diſſeminate their their appearance in England about the middle of the ſeventeenth religious principles in various countries. Attempts of this nature century. George Fox, an illiterate perſon, born at Drayton, in were made in Germany, Pruſſia, France, Italy, Greece, Holland, Leiceſterſhire, in the year 1624, by trade a ſhoe-maker, was the and Holdſtein, but with little ſucceſs. The Dutch, however, were firſt who publicly preached the doctrine of this ſect. He propoſed at length perſuaded to allow a certain number of them to ſettle in but few articles of faith, dwelt moſtly on morality, and preached Holland, where they ſtill continue to reſide. Multitudes of them mutual charity and the love of God, and a deep attention to the alſo went over to America, and formed ſettlements there, not long inward motions of the ſpirit. He would have a religion and worſhip after the firſt riſe of their ſect ; and it afterwards happened, by a fimple, and without ceremonies; making it a principal point to ſingular concurrence of events, that this new world became the wait in profound filence, for the influce and directions of the chief ſeat of their proſperity and freedom. William Penn ſon of Holy Spirit. the famous vice-admiral of that name, who embraced Quakeriſm The name of Quaker was affixed to this people early, by way in 1668, received in 1680, from Charles II. and from the Engliſh of reproach. In their aſſemblies it ſometimes happened, that ſome parliament, the grant of an ample, fertile, but uncultivated province were fo far ſtruck with remembrance of their paſt follies and in America, as a reward for the eminent ſervices of his father. This forgetfulneſs of their condition, others ſo deeply affected with a illuſtrious quaker carried over with him into his new dominions a fenfc of God's mercies to them, that they actually trembled and conſiderable colony of his friends and brethren, and founded a re- quaked. The nickname fo fuited the vulgar taſte, that it immedi public ; whoſe form, laws, and inſtitutions, reſemble no other ately became general. Friends, or The friends of truth, was the known ſyſtems of goverment ; whoſe pacific principles and com- name they were commonly known by to one another; but the mercial ſpirit, have long bleft it with tranquillity and opulence, epithet above mentioned was ſtamped upon them by their adver and which, till the eruption of the late unhappy conteſt, continued faries, and perhaps indelibly. BASTA in a proſperous and flouriſhing ſtate. The Quakers predominate This denomination is likewiſe ſaid to be partly owing to an ex in this colony, both by their influence and their numbers; but all hortation addreſſed to Gervas Bennet, eſq. a juſtice of peace in thoſe who acknowledge the exiſtence and providence of one Su- Derbyſhire, by Fox and his companions, who, when they were preme Being and ſhew their reſpect to that being, either by exter- called before him in the year 1650, deſired him, with a loud voice, nal worſhip, or at leaſt by the regularity of their conduct, are ad- and a vehement emotion of body, to tremble at the word of the mitted to the rights and privileges of citizens in this happy repub- Lord; but, as a term of mutual love, which ought to ſubfift lic. The large province, that conſtitutes its territory, was called amongſt Chriſtians, they called themſelves Friends. An eager zeal Penſylvania, from the name of its proprietor; and its capital city at firſt led ſome of them who were off their guard, into ſeveral ex was named Philadelphia, from the ſpirit of union and fraternal love travagances; and one of them, viz. James Naylor, is ſaid to have that reigned at firſt, and is ſtill ſuppoſed to prevail, more or lefs, had the impiety to fuffer himſelf to be called the fon of God, ſon of among its inhabitants. more Juſtice, and King of Iſrael,by a few deluded followers, who ſtrewed The following abſtract from the propoſitions of our countryman, garments before him, and hailed him,at his entry into Briſtol, with the eminent Barclay, will perhaps exhibit as clear a ſummary of Hoſanna, ſon of David! He had his trial for the ſame, and was their opinions as can well be compriſed within the limits allowed whipped and otherwiſe ſeverely puniſhed, for blafphemy; and ſo to this article. 1. The height of all happineſs is placed in the far from being countenanced in theſe proceedings by his brethren, true knowledge of God. 2. The true knowledge of God is alone he was, in the early part of his deluſion, admoniſhed, and at length to be obtained by the revelation of the Spirit of God. 3. The excommunicated by them, and he afterwards condemned publicly revelation of the ſpirit of God to the ſaints has produced the ſcrip- his own conduct. The doctrines of the Quakers being in many tures of truth. 4. From whence it appears, that mankind in ge- reſpects different from thoſe generally held, together with their dif neral is fallen and degenerated. 5. That God, out of his infinite uſing the cuſtomary compliment of the hat, and the uſual faluta love, hath offered univerſal redemption by Chriſt, who taſted death tions, ſubjected them to grievous ſufferings, ſuch as impriſonment, for every man. 6. That there is an evangelical and ſaving light whipping, fines, and premunire, in this kingdom; and four of and grace in all. 7. That as many as refift not this light, but re- them were hanged in New England. Their refuſing to pay tythes ceive the ſame, in them are produced holineſs, righteouſneſs, purity, &c. and to frequent the eſtabliſhed worſhip, and their holding pub and the fruits which are acceptable to God. 8. Even ſo as to lic meetings of their own (at that time contrary to law,) were the arrive at a ſtate of freedom from actual finning and tranſgreſſing chief crimes laid to their charge ; and when theſe failed, their per the law of God. 9. Yet with a poſſibility of finning. 10. That ſecutors were ſure to find occaſion againſt them by tendering to them as all true knowledge in things ſpiritual is received by the Spirit the oath of allegiance, which, in common with all others, their of God, ſo by it every true miniſter of the goſpel is ordained and principles would not admit of their taking. Beſides thefe penal- prepared for the miniſtry ; and as they have freely received, fo are ties they were ridiculed in writing, and expoſed on the ſtage; but they freely to give. 11. That the true worſhip of God is in fpirit they deſpiſed both the preſs and the priſon, and, notwithſtanding all and in truth ; not limited to place or time, or ſubject to the inter- oppoſition, they became a regular body, with ſtated laws and polity, vention of any perſon ; but is to be performed under the moving which they retain, with great oeconomy, to this day. At length of the Holy Spirit in our hearts, yet without derogating from the the peaccable demeanour of this people induced the legiſlature to neceſſity and utility of public united worſhip, (in which their fuf- grant them relief. They had ſhared, with other diffenters, the be- ferings and conſtancy have been moſt remarkable). 12. That nefit of the proclamation for liberty of conſcience, and of the act baptiſm is a pure and ſpiritual thing, the baptiſm of the ſpirit and of toleration. The profeſſion of belief enjoined upon the Quakers fire. 13. That the communion of the body and blood of Chriſt by this act is as follows: “ I, A. B. profeſs faith in God the is inward and ſpiritual. 14. That it is not lawful for any human au- Father, and in Jeſus Chriſt his eternal Son, the true God, and in thority to force the conſciences of others on account of difference in a the Holy Spirit, one God bleffed for evermore; and do acknow- worſhip or opinion, except ſuch opinions tend to the prejudice of “ ledge the Holy Scripture of the Old and New Teſtament to be his neighbour in his life or eſtate, or are inconſiſtent with human given by divine inſpiration.” But they were particularly eaſed ſociety. 15. That as the end of religion is to redeem man from the by an act of : W. & M. cap. 18. which allowed to their affirma- ſpirit of this world, and to lead him into inward communion with tion (except in a few caſes) the validity of an oath. This indul God; therefore, all vain cuſtoms and habits are to be rejected, gence was confirmed by ſubſequent acts; thus in 1695, they ob which tend to divert the mind from a ſenſe of the fear of God, and tained, by a temporary act, that their ſolemn affirmation ſhould be that evangelical ſpirit wherewith Chriſtians ought to be leavened. accepted in all caſes, where the oath is required by law; except in Such are the ſentiments of this people as propoſed to the public by criminal caſes, upon juries, and in places of profit and truſt under their apologiſt, who has largely commented on theſe topics in a the goverment in this form : « I, A. B. do declare, in the pre work that has paſſed through many editions in Engliſh, and has “ fence of Almighty God, the witneſs of the truth of what I ſay," been printed in moſt of the modern languages. &c. This act was afterwards continued, and at laſt made perpetual. As to diſcipline and polity, the affairs of the community are ma- But this form not being ſuch as was deſired, and having, in reality, naged by rules eſtabliſhed with common conſent, and this princi- all the eſſentials of an oath, they applied to parliament for an al pally at their meetings, whereof they have many kinds; as monthly, teration, which they obtained, anno 1721; when the following form quarterly, yearly, meetings for ſufferings, and meetings of mini- was ſettled to their general ſatisfaction ; viz. “I, A. B. do fin fters and elders. The monthly meetings are, in general, compoſed “ cerely, ſolemnly, and truly declare and affirm.” Which is the of ſeveral ſingle congregations, or particular meetings. The buſineſs form uſed, in the ſame manner, and under the fame limitation of the monthly meetings compriſes the care of the poor (the quakers with the former. 8 Geo. 6. cap. 6. 22 Geo. II. cap. 46. Any per every where maintaining their own) ; allowing and recording mar- fon depoſing, upon his folemn affirmation, a known falfhood, incurs riages ; recording births, burials, and ſufferings ; granting certifi- the penalty of wilful and corrupt perjury. 8 Geo. cap. 6. By the cates of unity to thoſe who travel as miniſters, and of memberſhip fame act, Quakers are allowed, inſtead of the oaths of allegiance to all who change their place of reſidence. Here alſo notice is and ſupremacy, to make a declaration of fidelity. In confequence taken of diſorderly conduct, appointments are made to viſit the de- of theſe ſtatutes, &c. proviſion being alſo made for the cafy recovery linquents, who, if unreclaimed by the endeavours of their brethren, of tythes, and other eccleſiaſtical demands, from them, they are at are by theſe meetings diſunited from the ſociety. Here appoint- preſent generally unmoleſted in the exerciſe of their profeffion. ments are alſo made to confer with ſuch perſons as incline to join However, long before this happy change in their condition, they them. From theſe meetings, anſwers to certain queries are ſent, in were conſtrained, by the vexations and perſecutions they ſuffered in writing, to the quarterly meetings. The ſubjects of inquiry are, the No. 134. Rrr QUA QUA the education of youth ; the adherence of the members to the prin- ciety ñow exiſting, where principle has a greater influence in pro- ciples of their profeſſion ; juſtice in dealing: clearneſs from pay- | moting the ends of their inſtitution. ing tythes, or receiving impropriate ones; from defrauding the king It is remarkable; that all the ſettlements of the Europeans in of his revenue, or bearing arms, or being concerned in privateers America, except the Quaker ſettlement of Penſilvania, were made or armed veſſels, or dealing in prize goods, as ſuch; the attendance by force of arms, with very little regard to any prior title in the of their religious meetings; and the general care to maintain good natives. The kings of Spain, Portugal, France, and Britain, to- order. The quarterly meeting for each county conſiſts of repre-gether with the States of Holland, then the only maritime powers, ſentatives from the monthly meetings therein. Its buſineſs is to gave grants of ſuch parts of America as their people could lay hold digeſt the accounts received from the monthly meetings, and to on, ſtudying only to avoid interference with their European neigh- prepare a general account to be ſent to the yearly meeting in the bours. But Mr. Penn, being a Quaker, did not think his powers like form of anſwers to queries. To this meeting any perſon from king Cha. II. a ſufficient title to the country, ſince called thinking himfelf aggrieved by the judgement of the monthly meet Penſilvania : he therefore affembled the fachems or princes then ing, may appeal for redrefs. It is proper to remark, that theſe in that country, and purchaſed from them the extent of land that people do not ſuffer their members to go to law with each other ; he wanted. The government of this province is moſtly in the but enjoin that all differences among themſelves be ſettled by ar hands of the Quakers, who never have any quarrels with the bitration. natives. When they deſire to extend their ſettlements they pur- The yearly meeting is held in London. It conſiſts of repre- chafe new lands of the fachems, never taking any thing from them fentatives from the ſeveral quarterly meetings, approved miniſters, by force. How unlike is this conduct to that of the Spaniards, elders; and the members of the meeting for ſufferings. This af who murdered millions of the natives of Mexico, Terra Firma, ſembly makes rules for the government of the ſociety; orders col Peru, Chili, &c. lections for general ſervice ; hears appeals from the judgment of The editor is indebted for the compilation of this article (very quarterly meetings, and finally confirms or reverfes them; gives ad- few additions excepted) to a gentleman of the profeſſion deſcribed vice and directions to the inferior meetings, and the body at large. in it; whoſe judgment and liberality every reader muſt, he is pera The yearly meeting is held in that called Whitfun-week; not, ſay ſuaded approve, and commend. they, from any ſuperſtitious regard to that time, but becauſe it is QUALIFICATION for killing Game. See Game. the moſt convenient ſeafon that can be fixed upon. The meeting QUALITY, qualitas, that affection of a thing, whence it is for ſufferings conſiſts of correſpondents, appointed by the ſeveral denominated ſuch; or that which occaſions a thing to affect our places correſponding with the yearly meeting. In this meeting alſo ſenſes in this or that manner, and gives it this or that denomination. approved miniſters have a feat. Its original inſtitution was to Accordingly quality is ſaid to be an attribute, from which no ſub- provide for the numerous exigences of the times of perſecution ; ſtance is exempt. Thus, that power in fire, whatever it be, and it now adminiſters advice to thoſe who are proſecuted for non- | whereby it excites in us the ſenſation of heat, ſince it is that payment of tythes, &c. and ſolicits their relief from proſecution. whence the fire is denominated hot, is called the quality of fire. This meeting is held weekly in London, and hath the general QUALITY, is alſo uſed for a kind of title, or degree of eminence care of the fociety's affairs during the intervals of the yearly meet- given to certain perſons, in regard to their territories, ſignories, or ing; keeps the ſociety's ſtock, and hath the care of the expendi- other pretenſions. Thus the king of Great Britain takes the qua- ture thereof; which is for publiſhing books to give away, wages lity of king of France ; the king of Poland that of king of Sweden; of a clerk, and defraying the expence of the paſſage of minifters the king of Sardinia that of king of Cyprus and Jeruſalem ; the who viſit their brethren beyond ſea. czars of Rulfa, and kings of Spain, have whole pages of qualities. Beſides the meetings already mentioned, there are ſelect meetings The emperor of China aſſumes the quality of ſon of the ſun. of miniſters and elders. The care of reviſing manuſcripts in. QUANTITY, quantitas, any thing capable of eſtimation or tended to be publiſhed, on behalf of the ſociety, is committed to menſuration; or, which being compared with another thing of the the meeting of miniſters and elders, which meets every week in ſame kind, may be ſaid to be greater or leſs than it; equal, or un- London. The women have diſtinct monthly and quarterly meet- equal, to it. Mathematics is the ſcience or doctrine of quantity. ings, in which they attend to the wants of the poor of their own Phyſical or Natural QUANTITY, is of two kinds : 1. That fex. The quakers have always been peaceable and inoffenſive fub- which nature furniſhes us with in matter, and its extenſion. And, jects of the governments under which they live, which their prin- . 2. In the powers and properties of natural bodies; as gravity, ciples forbid them to reſiſt; neverthelefs they think it lawful to motion, light, heat, cold, rarity, denſity, &c. remonſtrate whenever their civil or religious liberties are invaded. QUANTITIES, in algebra, are intermediate numbers, or things They hold ſlavery to be incompatible with the doctrines of Chriſ-referred to unity in general. Sec Number. Quantities are pro- tianity, and accordingly are not concerned in the Nave-trade, and perly the ſubject of algebra ; which is wholly converſant in have aboliſhed amongſt them the practice of keeping ſlaves. the computation of ſuch quantitics. See the System, Sect. I. The doctrines of the quakers are laid down in a well written throughout. apology, addreſſed to king Charles II. by Robert Barclay, before Poſitive or Affirmative QUANTITIES, are thoſe which are greater mentioned ; and are alſo explained in the numerous writings of than nothing; and which are affected with the ſign + prefixed; William Penn, Iſaac Pennington, and others of their ſect. Wil or ſuppoſed to be ſo. See the Syſtem under Article DEFINITIONS. liam Sewell, a Dutchman, publiſhed in 1717, the hiſtory of this Negative or Privative QUANTITIES, for the rules for the addi- people. Hewasone of their perſuaſion,a manof learning, and known tion, ſubtraction, multiplication, and diviſion of quantities in to the public by his Dictionary of the Dutch and Engliſh langua- | algebra, fue the System, Sect. II. ges. He had acceſs to all their records, correſponded with the moſt Multiplication and Diviſion of QUANTITIEȘ. See Multi- eminent, lived at the time when the facts he recorded were recent, and we have not heard that any part of his hiſtory has been con QUANTITY, in grammar, denotes the meaſure and magnitude troverted; and as we are informed that it has been publiſhed by of the ſyllables; or that which determines them to be called long, the approbation of the quakers, we may therefore conſider it as an or ſhort; or it is the meaſure of time requiſite for the diſtinct pro- authentic hiſtory of their riſe, progreſs, and principal opinions. A nunciation of a fyllable. This quantity is the object of Prosody; hiſtory of this people was alſo publiſhed by Gerard Croeſe, anno and it is the regard to this that diſtinguiſhes verſe from proſe. See 1695 ; but that author is by them accuſed of having miſrepre- the SYSTEM, Part II. Chap. II. fented facts, and in many reſpects done them injuſtice. They alſo QUARANTAIN,or QUARENTINE, is more particularly uſed complain that the learned Dr. Moſheim, in his Eccleſiaſtical Hif- for the term of forty days, which veſſels, coming from places ſuf- tory, has not ſhewn his uſual accuracy and candour in the account pected of contagion, are obliged to wait in certain places appointed he has given of them ; having, as they alledge, greatly miſrepre to air themſelves before they come into port. By the ſtat. 20. ſented their principles and practices; in which he has been fol Geo. II. cap. 6. explained and amended by 29 Geo. II. сар. . lowed by Dr. Formey, and by John Weſley, in a late extract of the method of performing quarentine, or forty days probation, b;' that celebrated work. fhips coming from foreign countries, is put in a much more regu- Perhaps this is the only fociety in the world that have allowed lar and effectual order than formerly; and maſters of ſhips coming any ſhare in the management of their affairs to the female ſex ; from infected places, and diſobeying the directions there given, or which they do upon the principle that the male and female are having the plague on board, and concealing it, are guilty of felony one in Chrift . Accordingly we find them in every department of without the benefit of clergy. The ſame penalty alſo attends per- their inſtitution. They have women-preachers, for whom the fons eſcaping from the LAZARETTOS, and officers and watchmen celebrated Locke made an excellent apology. When we reflect neglecting their duty, and perſons conveying goods or letters from what a number of individuals of both ſexes are kept in good order ſhips performing quarentine. by the police of this fociety, how few of them are brought into the QUARTAN, in medicine, the name of a ſpecies of intermitting courts of juſtice as delinquents, how peaceable their behaviour, and fever, which returns fever, which returns upon the patient every fourth day, including how exemplary their conduct, we cannot but think their principles the days of both the paroxyſms, with a cold fit ſucceeded by a hot deſerve a more accurate examination than has hitherto been at- tempted, owing perhaps to the vulgar prejudices circulated againſt Genus 2. one. For deſcription, prognofis, cauſes, and cure, ſee the System, them. We ſhall cloſe this article with obſerving, that, according to the beſt of our information, neither their miniſters, nor thoſe QUARTER, the fourth part of a whole, or integer divided into four equal portions. In working of fractions, the quarter is ex- who have the principal care of the fociety, enjoy any pecuniary preffed by ; three quarters by 2. See the Syſtem of Arithme- emolument or advantages. A few clerks only receive ſalaries for TIC, Article XI. keeping their records ; fo that perhaps there is not a religious ſo QUARTER, in aſtronomy, the moon's period, or lunation, the fourth PLICATION. 8. QUE QUE fourth part of which is divided into four ſtages, or quarters ; con way of courteſy, to her that is married to the king; called; by way taining each from ſeven to eight days. The firſt quarter is from of diſtinction, queen confort. In reſpect whereof the former is the new moon to the quadrature; the ſecond thence to the full called queen regnant; or regent. The widow of a king is alſo called moon, &c. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. queen, but with the addition of dowager. In the firſt fenſe, queen QUARTER, in heraldry, is ſometimes uſed for an eſcutcheon, is, in all conſtruction, the fame with king; and has the ſame or coat of arms. See the Syſtem, Sect. -11. and Plate II. power and prerogative, in all reſpects, that the king has. The QUARTER is alſo applied to the parts or members of the firſt queen confort is inferior, and a perſon diſtinct from; and a ſubject diviſion of a coat that is quartered, or divided into four quarters. of, the king. In England, though ſhe be a femme covert, yet may See the Syſtem, Sect. II. and Plate II. The ſue, and be ſued, in her own name ; and may make leaſes, and Franc QUARTER, is a quarter fingle, or alone ; which is to grants, &c. as a femme fole. She has ſeveral other prerogatives. poffefs one fourth part of the field. This makes one of the ho- | Though an alien, ſhe may purchaſe lands in fee-ſimple, without nourable ordinaries of a coat. See the Syſtem, Sect. VI. Art. II. either naturalization, or denization ; ſhe may preſent to a benefice; and Plate IV. nor is plenarty a bar againſt her more than againſt the king. She QUARTER of a Ship, is that part of the Tip's ſide which lies is alſo capable of taking a grant from the king, which no other towards the ſtern; or which is comprehended between the aftmoſt wife can do from her huſband; and ſhe may have a ſeparate pro- end of the main chains, and the ſides of the ſtern, where it is ter perty in goods as well as lands, and has a right to diſpoſe of them minated by the quarter .pieces. See Treatiſe on NAVAL AF- by will. She pays no toll, and ſhall not be amerced, if ſhe be non- FAIRS, Sect. IV. and the repreſentation of a firſt rate at anchor. fuited in any action; and may not be impleaded till firſt petitioned: QUARTER, in war, the place allotted to certain forces to live, To conſpire her death, or violate her chaſtity, is high treaſon.- lodge, and encamp upon, during a ſiege, or the like. See CAMP. She has an ancient peculiar revenue, called queen-gold; beſides a QUARTER-DECK of a ſhip is that aloft the ſteerage, reaching very large dower, with a royal court, and officers, apart. to the round-houſe. See the Treatiſe on NAVAL AFFAIRS, The queen dowager, as the widow of the king, enjoys moſt of according to the above reference. the privileges belonging to her as queen confort. But it is not high QUARTERING the Men, in ſea-language, the diſpoſing of the treaſon to conſpire her death, or to violate her chaſtity, becauſe ſhip's company at the time of an engagement in ſuch a manner, the ſucceſſion to the crown is not thereby endangered. Yet ſtill, that each may readily know where his ſtation is, and what he is to pro dignitate regali, no man can marry a queen dowager without do. See Treatiſe on NAVAL AFFAIRS, Sect. III. eſpecial licence from the king, on pain of forfeiting his lands and QUARTERING, in heraldry, the act of dividing a coat into four goods. She has alſo this particular, that ſhe loſes not her dignity, or more quarters, or quarterings, by parting, couping, &c. i. e. by though ſhe marry a private gentleman. Thus Queen Catherine, perpendicular and horizontal lines, &c. See QUARTER. The widow of Henry V. being married to Owen ap Tudor, eſq. main- king of Great Britain quarters with Great Britain, France, Ire- tained her action as queen of England. Much leſs does a queen land, Brunſwick, &c. See Syſtem of PEERAGE, Plate I. regnant follow her huſband's condition,or is ſubject to other queens ; QUARTERLY, in heraldry. A perſon is ſaid to bear quar but ſhe is ſovereign to her own huſband, as Queen Mary was to terly, when he bears arms quartered. The king of Great Britain King Philip, and Queen Anne to Prince George of Denmark ; bears quarterly of four ; in the firſt quarter gules, &c. Great Bri unleſs it be otherwiſe appointed by parliament. tain ; in the ſecond azure, &c. Ireland, &c. QUERCUS, the OAK-TREE, a Genus of the Polyandria or- General QUARTER-SESSIONS of the Peace, a court that muſt der, belonging to the Monoecia claſs of plants. The moſt uſeful ſpe- be held in every county, once in every quarter of a year; which by cies of this genus are, 1. The ſuber, or cork tree, grows 30 or 40 ſtat. 2. Hen. V. c. 4. is appointed to be in the firſt week after Mi- feet high, having a thick, rough, fungous, cleft bark, and oblong- chaelmas day; the firſt week after the Epiphany; the firſt week oval undivided ſerrated leaves, downy oval undivided ſerrated leaves, downy underneath. This ſpecies after the cloſe of Eaſter; and on the 7th of July. This court is furniſhes that uſeful material cork; it being the bark of the tree, held before two or more juſtices of the peace, one of whom muſt which becoming of a thick fungous nature, under which, at the be of the quorum. See Quorum. The juriſdiction of this court ſame time, is formed a new bark, and the old being detached for by 34 Ed. III.c. 1. extends to the trying and determining of all uſe, the tree ſtill lives, and the ſucceeding young bark becomes alſo felonies and treſpaſſes whatſoever ; though they ſeldom, if ever, try of the ſame thick ſpongy nature in ſix or ſeven years, fit for bark- any greater offence than ſmall felonies within the benefit of clergy; | ing, having likewiſe another freſh bark forming under it, becoming their commiſſion providing, that if any caſe of difficulty ariſes, they cork like the others in the like period of time, and in this manner ſhould not proceed to judgment, but in the preſence of one of the theſe trees wonderfully furniſh the cork for our uſe, and of which juſtices of the court of king's bench or common pleas, or one of the is made the corks for bottles, bungs for barrels, and numerous judges of aſſize. And, therefore, murders, and other capital felo- other uſeful articles. The tree grows in great plenty in Spain and nies, are uſually remitted, for a more ſolemn trial, to the aſſizes. Portugal, and from which countries we receive the cork. They cannot alſo try any new-created offence, without expreſs robur, or common Engliſh oak, grows from about 60 or 70 to 100 power given them by the ſtatute which creates it. But there are But there are feet high, with a prodigious large trunk, and monſtrous ſpreading many offences, and particular matters, which, by particular ſtatutes head; oblong leaves, broadeſt towards the top, the edges acutely finu- belong properly to this juriſdiction, and ought to be proſecuted in ated, having the angles obtuſe. This ſpecies claims precedence as a this court: as, the ſmaller miſdemeanours againſt the public or timber-tree, for its prodigious height and bulk and ſuperior worth of common-wealth, not amounting to felony; and eſpecially offences its wood. Every poffeffor of confiderable eſtates ought therefore to relating to the games, highways, alehouſes, baſtard children, the be particularly aſſiduous in raiſing woods of them, which is effected ſettlement and proviſion for the poor, vagrants, ſervants wages, and by fowing the acorns either in a nurſery and the plants tranſplanted apprentices. Some of theſe are proceeded upon by indictment, and where they are to remain, or ſowed at once in the places where they others in a ſummary way by motion and order thereupon ; which are always to ſtand. All the forts will proſper in any middling foil , for the moſt part, unleſs guarded againſt by particular and open ſituation, tho' in a loamy foil they are generally more prof- statutes, be removed into the court of king's bench, by writ of perous : however, there are but few ſoils in which oaks will not Certiorari facias, and be there either quaſhed or confirmed. The grow; they will even thrive tolerably in gravelly, ſandy, and clayey records or rolls of the ſeſſions are committed to the cuſtody of a ſpe- land, as may be obſerved in many parts of this country of the com- cial officer denominated the cuſtos rotulorum. In moſt corporation The propagation of the ſtripe-leaved varieties of the towns there are quarter-ſeſſions kept before juſtices of their own, common oak, and any particular variety of the other ſpecies, muſt within their reſpective limits ; which have exactly the ſame au be effected by grafting, as they will not continue the ſame from thority as the general quarter-feſſions of the county, except in very feed; the grafting may be performed upon any kind of oakling- few inſtances : one of the moſt conſiderable of which is, the mat ſtocks raiſed from the acorns, and train them for ſtandards like ter of appeals from orders of removal of the poor, which, though the others. The oak is remarkable for its nowneſs of growth,bulk, they be from the orders of corporation juſtices, muſt be to the fef- and longevity. It has been remarked that the trunk has attained fions of the county, by 8 and 9 W.III. c. 30. In both corpo- to the ſize of 14 inches in diameter, and ſome to 20, in the ſpace rations and counties at large, there is fometimes kept a ſpecial or petty ſeſſion, by a few juſtices, for diſpatching ſmaller buſineſs in As to bulk, we have an account of an oak belonging to Lord the neighbourhood, between the times of the general ſeſſions; as Powis, growing in Broomfield wood, near Ludlow in Shropſhire, for licencing alehouſes, paſſing the accounts of pariſh officers, and in the year 1764, the trunk of which meaſured 68 feet in girth, the like. Blackſt. Com. b. iv. p. 268, &c. 23 in length, and which, reckoning 90 feet for the larger branches, QUAVER, in muſic, a meaſure of time, equal to one half of contained in the whole 1455 feet of timber round meaſure, or 29 the crotchet, or one eighth of the femi-breve. loads and five feet, at 50 feet to a load. And, with reſpect to longevity, Linnæusgives account of an oak 260 years old; but we The quaver is marked by the character have had ſome traditions of ſome in England (how far to be de- pended upon we know not) that have attained to more than double The Engliſh quaver makes what the French call crochue, that age. Beſides the grand purpoſes to which the timber is applied crotchet, becauſe of the hook at bottom. See CROTCHET. in navigation and architecture, and the bark in tanning of leather, The quaver is divided into two ſemiquavers, noted » there are other uſes of leſs conſequence, to which the different parts of this tree have been referred. The Highlanders uſe the bark to and four demiſemi-quavers, marked dye their yarn of a brown colour, or mixed with copperas, of a QUEEN, regina, a woman who holds the crown of a realm, black colour. They call the oak the king of all the trees in tbe fingly, and by right of blood. The name queen is alſo given, by foreft ; and the herdſman would think himſelf and his flock unfor- 2. The order may, mon oak. of 80 years. eesta tunate QUE QUO The tion conſiſting of the eſſential oil of ſome vegetable ſubſtance mixed ſtances whereof h tonate if he had not a ſtaff of it. The faw-duft from the timber, of the Chriſtian religion, frankly owns; that the evangeliſts fome. and even the leaves of the tree, have been found capable of tanning, times apply to the Meffiah paſſages of the Old Teſtament, which, as they lie in our preſent copies, plainly relate to ſome other per- though much inferior to the bark for that purpoſe. The bark, alſo, after being uſed for tanning, is employed in gardening for making fon, or thing. That is evident, e. gr. in the paſſage, Matthewili bark-beds, forming the moſt eligible kind of hot beds for the culture 55. Out of Egypt have I called my fon; which is quoted from Hofea ix. where it is plainly underſtood of the coming of the Iſraelites of the pine-apple and all other tender exotics of the hot houſe tem- So great is the aſtringency of the bark, that in a larger out of Egypt. This proves to many a heavy obſtacle in the way ague. of Chriſtianity, which the divines, commentators, critics,&c. have doſe, like the Peruvian kind, it has been known to cure the long laboured to remove, though by very different means. The expreſſed juice of the galls or oak-apples (excreſcences occa- fioned by a ſmall infe&t called cynipſis) mixed with vitriol and gum- generality ehufe, therefore, to have recourſe to an allegorical , typi- arabic, will make ink. The leaves of the oak are very ſubject to be cal, or ſpiritual meaning in the prophecies, &c. and ſuppoſe them to have been thus underſtood among the Jews, thus fulfilled in our covered with a ſweet viſcous juice called honey-dew, which bees and other inſects are very fond of. The acorns are a good food to fatten Saviour, and thus applied by the apoſtles. In effect, the Jewish ſwine and turkies ; and, after the ſevere winter of the year 1709, rabbins, it is allowed, took great liberty in quoting and interpret- the poor people in France were conſtrained to eat them themſelves. ing Scripture ; and it is fuppofed the apoſtles might follow thefe There are, however, acorns produced from another ſpecies of oak, rules in their quotations. which are eaten to this day in Spain and Greece, with as much Accordingly, M. Surenhufius, Hebrew profeſſor at Amſterdam, pleaſure as cheſnuts, without the dreadful compulſion of hunger. has endeavoured to retrieve theſe rules, long ſince loft, in an ex: QUEUE, in heraldry, the tail of a beaſt. If a lion has a If a lion has a preſs treatiſe on this ſubject, publiſhed in 1713. This author ob- forked tail, he is blazoned by double-queued. fervesa great deal of difference applied in thedifferent forms of quot- QUICK Lime. See Lime. ing uſed by the ſacred writers : as, It has been ſaid; it is written, QUICKSILVER, a very ponderous fluid mineral, by the that it might be fulfilled which was ſpoken by the prophets; theScrip- chymiſts called mercury. For the method of gaining, preparing it, ture ſays ; ſee what is ſaid; the Scripture foreſeeing; it is written, &c. He adds that the books of the Old Teſtament having been &c. with its properties, uſes, &c. fee MERCURY. See alſo the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Chap. II. Sect V. diſpoſed in a different order at different times, and having had dif- QUINDECAGON, in geometry, a plain figure which has ferent names, it is thence, that one book or writer is ſometimes fifteen ſides and fifteen angles. See the Syſtem Part I. Sect. I. confounded with another. For the rules of quoting and interpret- ing practiſed among the rabbins, he gives us ten; recovered with QUINTESSENCE, quinta eflentia, in chymiſtry, a prepara- much ſtudy from the Talmud, and the ancient Jewiſh doctors: in- ſtances whereof he gives us in the writings of the apoſtles; and by and incorporated with ſpirit of wine. Thus, on a proper quantity, thoſe rules he endeavours to explain and juſtify all the quotations. e. gr. of eſſential oil of fennel, pouring twelve times the quatity made from the Old Teſtament in the New. The rules are,1.Read of pure alcohol prepared per ſe, they inſtantly unite into one fimi- ing the words not according to the points placed under them, but lar liquor, which is the quinteſſence of that plant. according to others - fubſtituted in their ſtead, as is done by St. QUINTESSENCE of Wine, a term uſed by Glauber to expreſs Peter, Acts iii. 23. by Stephen, Acts vii. 43. and by Paul, 1 Cor. an eſſential oil of wine, which he directs to be made by a careful xv. 54. 2 Cor. viii. 15, &c. The ſecond is by changing the let- diſtillation ; and which he is very fond of, as having a power to ters ; as is done by Paul, Rom. ix. 33. I Cor. xi. 9 Heb. viii. 9. meliorate, improve, and even to ſpecificate the poorer wines into and x. 5. and by Stephen, Acts vii. 43. The third is by changing the nature of thoſe from which it was to be obtained. This is one both letters and points; as is done by Paul, Acts viii.41.and 2 Cor. of the ſchemes of Glauber, generally eſteemed an impracticable viii. 15. The fourth is by adding ſome letters, and taking away one, though very plauſible in theory: but though in general there others. The fifth is by tranſpofing words and letters. The ſixth is a diſagreeable flavour in the quinteſſence drawn after his method, is by dividing one word into two. The ſeventh, adding other which is different from the true flavour of the wine, and ſpoils the words to make the ſenſe more clear. The eighth, changing the liquor it is added to ; yet, by proper care, there is a poſſibility of order of the words. The ninth, changing the order of the words ſucceeding ſo far as to render this extraneous flavour almoſt imper- and adding other words. Both of which are done by the apoſtles. ceptible, and produce an oil that will mend poor wines extremely, Laſtly, changing the order of words, adding words, and retrench- and give a true vinous flavour to ſuch as are in themſelves taſteleſs. ing words, which is a method often uſed by St. Paul. But whatever may be done by this method, may alſo be done with Some authors, as biſhop Kidder, M. Le Clerc, Mr. Sykes, &c. much more certainty, and much leſs trouble, by the concentration folve the difficulty another way. That uſual form of quotation of wines by freezing. This may be eaſily practiſed in the wine among the evangeliſts, “ That it might be fulfilled which was countries; and by this means Burgundy, Champagne, and other ſpoken by the prophets,” according to theſe authors, means no the moſt valuable wines, may be reduced into thick extracts and more than an accommodation of the prophet's words to the caſe in robs, by the means of which wines may be made in England; a hand. The word ohniqw6r., fulfilled, does not neceſſarily determine very ſmall quantity of theſe concentrated wines being ſufficient to us to ſuch a ſenſe, as if the evangeliſts deſigned to ſpeak of a pre- convert the whole of any of the poor taſteleſs and inſipid wines, diction of future events accompliſhed ; but may barely expreſs an which are of themſelves of little or no value, into the very wine accommodation of borrowed words. In effect, fays biſhop Kidder, from which the rob was made ; and that in ſuch perfection, that a Scripture may be ſaid to be fulfilled two ways ; properly, as when the niceſt judge cannot findout the difference. Theſe robs of wine, that which was foretold comes to paſs; and improperly, by way made and preſerved upon the ſpot, would alſo be of infinite uſe in of accommodation, as when an event happens to any place or the wine countries, as they might be kept to improve the wines of people like to what fell out ſome time before. And thus it is bad years. Stahl, De Concentr. Vin. Shaw's Chem. Ef. that St. Matthew ſays, on occafion of the murder of the inno- QUINZY,cr QUENSEY, a diſeaſe which ſtops the freedom of cents, that “ then was fulfilled what was ſpoken by the prophet reſpiration and deglutition. For deſcription,cauſes, prognoſis, and Jeremy, In Rama wus a voice heard." &c. cure, ſee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 11. This interpretation is confirmed by M. Le Clerc, who obferves QUORUM, a term frequently mentioned in our ſtatutes, and that the Jews, in their language, uſed to ſay, that a paſſage of Scrip- often uſed in commiſſions, both of peace and others. It is thus ture was fulfilled, as often as any thing happened which it might be called from the words in the commiſſion. Quorum A. B. unum effe applied to : ſo that the evangeliſt Matthew, who was a Hebrew, volumus. For an example: Where a commiſſion is directed to and wrote, as is commonly ſuppoſed, in that language,intended no ſeven perſons, or to any three of them, whereof A. B. and C. D more in the paſſage juſt cited, but that a thing happened, to which are to be two; there A. B. and C. D. are ſaid to be of the quorum, one might apply what Jeremy had formerly ſaid on another occa- becauſe the reſt cannot proceed without them. So a juſtice of the fion. Accordingly, ſays Mr. Sykes, the evangeliſts, in citing peace and quorum is one without whom the reſt of the juſtices, in that paſſage of Iſaiah, Behold, a virgin ſhall be with child. &c. only uſe it as words of that prophet remarkably agreeing to the QUOTATION, in literature, a citation; ora paſſage rehearfed miraculous birth of Jeſus, and not as a prophecy of his birth. It expreſsly in one author from another. Quotations are uſed to be may be added that this way of ſpeaking was not unknown among diſtinguiſhed by inverted commas. The manner of quoting by the heathen writers. Thus in Ælian, Diogenes Sinopenſis uſed book, and chapter, or ſection, is chiefly affected by men of erudi- continually to ſay of himſelf, that he fulfilled and underwent all tion ; but it is abuſed: this method ought only to obtain where the the curſes of tragedy. whole chapter or ſection is expreſsly on the ſubject. On other oc QUOTIDIAN,quotidiana,in medicine,an intermitting fever, caſions, quoting by page is more commodious; except in claſſics, and other ancient writings, whereof there are many editions in or ague, the acceſs whereof returns every day. For deſcription and cauſes, ſee the Syſtem, Genus 3. For prognoſis and cauſe, different forms; where this method is of little uſe, unleſs the edi- fee Genus I and 2. tion be alſo ſpecified. The quotations from the Old Teſtament, QUOTIENT, quotiens formed from the Latin quoties, 9.d. found in the New, have occaſioned infinite doubt, difpute, and cri- | how often is ſuch an how often is ſuch a number contained in ſuch another, in arithmetic, ticiſm. The apoſtles are frequently referring to the OidTeſtament, the number reſulting from the di viſion of a greater number by a and quoting paſſages and prophecies thence, as fulfilled in our Sa- ſmaller; and which ſhews how often the ſmaller is contained in the viour ; yet theſe paſſages, thus quoted, are frequently either not greater, or how often the diviſor is contained in the dividerid. In found in the Old Teſtament at all, or they are not urged in the diviſion, as the diviſor is to the dividend, fo is unity to the quo- New, according to the literal and obvious ſenſe they ſeem to bear tient. Thus the quotient of 12 divided by 3 is 4; which is thus in the Old. A late ingenious author, in an Eflay upon the Truth | diſpoſed, 3) 12 (4 quotient. See the Syſtem, Chap. II. Sect. V. R A C R A R, or r, a liquid conſonant, being the 17th letter of our al ture, whether the phraſe of bearing the bell, which implies being phabet. In Greek words it is frequently aſpirated with comparatively the beſt or moſt excellent, and correſponds with the an h after it, as in rhapſody, rhetoric, &c. otherwiſe it is always expreſſion of bearing the palm among the ancients, as a reward followed by a vowel at the beginning of words and ſyllables. In the decreed to the ſwifteſt horſe in a race, is not more aptly deduced preſcriptions of phyſicians, Ror R ſtands for recipe, i.e. “ take.” from this cuſtom than from the method of tying a bell round the RABBI, or RABBIN, a doctor of the Jewiſh law. The word neck of a ſheep, which leads the flock; and is, therefore, counted its original in fignifies maſter. The word rabbi and rabbin have the beſt. About the latter end of the reign of Charles II. it was the ſame fignification; yet is there ſome difference in their uſe. cuſtomary to have races performed in Hyde Park. See the comedy When we ſpeak abſolutely, and without applying the term to any of the Merry Beggars, or Jovial Crew, written in 1641, in Dod- proper name, we ſay rabbin not rabbi. Thus, we ſay, it would lley's collection of old plays. fley's collection of old plays. Racing was much encouraged by be unjuſt to attribute to the ancient rabbins all the notions of the Charles II. after his reſtoration: he gave public rewards and modern ones. On the other hand, when we prefix the term to the prizes, and appointed races for his own amuſement at Datchet proper name of ſome Jewiſh doctor, we ſay rabbi not rabbin; Mead, when he reſided at Windſor. But the moſt diſtinguiſhed rabbi Solomon Jarchi is of this opinion. Yet rabbi having no ſpot for theſe exerciſes was Newmarket, which was at firſt fre- plural, we ſay, the rabbins Juda Ching, and Juda ben Chabin, are quented for the purpoſe of hunting, and ſeems not to have been the authors of two ancient Hebrew grammars. The title rabbi is deſtined to be a horſe-courſe till ſome time before the troubles of faid to have been firſt affumed, as a diſtinguiſhing title of honour, the reign of Charles I. when races were diſcontinued; but they by men of learning, about the time of the birth of Chriſt; though it were revived ſoon after the Reſtoration. The king attended in had been anciently given to ſeveral magiſtrates and officers of ſtate, perſon, and eſtabliſhed a houſe for his accommodation, and kept and to thoſe who were of ſuperior rank and condition in life. See and entered horſes in his own name. Inſtead of bells, a ſilver Eſther, i. 8. Jer. xli. 1. Job, xxxii. 9. It has been diſputed, bowl or cup, of the value of a hundred guineas, was allotted for a chiefly between Vitringa and Selden, whether our Lord had taken prize; and upon this royal gift the exploits of the ſucceſsful horſe, the degree and title of rabbi in the Jewiſh ſchools; Vitringa main and his pedigree were generally engraved. The ſum of a hundred tains the affirmative, and Selden the negative. See Jennings's guineas is now given in lieu of the ſilver bowl. When William III, Jewiſh Ant. vol. i. p. 400, &c. The modern rabbins are entitled was advanced to the throne, he not only added to the plates given to a conſiderable reſpect among the Jews; they have the firſt places to different places in the kingdom, but founded an academy for in the ſynagogues; they determine all matters and controverſies of riding. Queen Anne continued the bounty of her predeceſſors, religion, and very frequently pronounce upon civil affairs. They civil affairs. They with the addition of ſeveral plates. George I. towards the end of have even a power to excommunicate the diſobedient. They re his reign, diſcontinued the plates, and gave the ſum of a hundred. tain a vaſt number of ſuperſtitious traditions, from the writings of guineas in their room. We ſhall here add, that at Newmarket their predeceſſors; which they obſerve as ſcrupulouſly as they do there are two courſes, the long and the round: the firſt is exactly the law of Moſes. The ancient rabbins were infinite dealers in four miles, and about three hundred eighty yards, i. e. feven thou- allegories. Their writings are almoſt wholly allegorical, particu ſand four hundred and twenty yards. The ſecond is fix thouſand larly their comments and interpretations of the ſcripture. They fix hundred and forty yards.' Childers, the ſwifteſt horſe ever had a great number of rules, and forms of interpreting and quoting, known, has run the firſt courſe in ſeven minutes and a half, and which ſome modern writers ſuppoſe to have been followed by the the ſecond in fix minutes forty ſeconds; which is at the rate of apoſtles, in their interpretation and quotation of the prophecies of more than forty-nine feet in a ſecond. But all other horſes take the Old Teſtament, in the New. See QUOTATION. up at leaſt ſeven minutes and fifty feconds in completing the firſt RABBIT, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the genus Lepus, and longeſt courſe, and ſeven minutes only in the ſhorteſt, which in the ſyſtem of MAMMALIA. For deſcription, fee LEPUS. For is at the rate of more than forty-ſeven feet in a ſecond, and it is claſſification, ſee the Syſtem. For repreſentation, ſee Plate VII. commonly ſuppoſed, that theſe courſers cover, at every bound, a Genus XXII. Species 2. ſpace of ground in length about twenty-four Engliſh feet. RACE, in general, ſignifies running with others, in order to RACK, an engine of torture, furniſhed with cords, &c. for obtain a prize, either on foot, or by riding on horſeback, in cha extorting confeſſion from criminals. The duke of Exeter, riots, &c. Racing was one of the exerciſes among the ancient conſtable of the Tower under Henry VI. with the duke of Suffolk, Grecian games, which was performed in a courſe, containing one and others, having a deſign to introduce the civil law into England; hundred and twenty-five paces; and thoſe who contended in theſe for a beginning, the rack, or break, allowed in many caſes by the foot-races were frequently cloathed in armour. Chariot and horſe civil law, was firſt brought to the Tower, where it is ſtill pre- races alſo made a part of theſe ancient GAMES. ſerved; in thoſe days the rack was called the duke of Exeter's RACE, in genealogy, a lineage, or extraction, continued from daughter. It was occaſionally uſed as an engine of ſtate, not of father to ſon. The word is French, formed from the Latin radix, law, more than once in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. But when root; as intimating the root of the genealogical tree. In ſeveral upon the aſſaſſination of Villiers duke of Buckingham, by Felton, orders of knighthood, as in that of Malta, &c. the candidates muſt it was propoſed in the privy council to put the allaflin to the rack, prove a nobility of four races or deſcents. In ſome republics the in order to diſcover his accomplices; the judges being conſulted, magiſtrates are to prove themſelves of plebeian race, to be qualified. declared unanimouſly, to their own honour, and the honour of the The French reckon their kings by races ; as, the firſt race, the Engliſh law, that no fuch proceeding was allowable by the laws of fecond race, the third race. We alſo ſay the race of the Otto- England. mans, the Arſacidæ, the Ptolemies, &c. RACKOON, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the genus urſus RACING, the riding heats for a plate or other premium. in the ſyſtem of MAMMALIA. For deſcription fee URSUS; for Horſes for this uſe ſhould be as light as poſſible, large, long, and repreſentation, ſee Plate VI. Genus XVI. Species 3. well-Shaped, nervous, of great mettle, and good wind, with ſmall RADIALIS Internus, a long muſcle, very like in ſhape to the legs, and neat ſmall ſhaped feet. ulnaris externus, but ſituated more obliguely. See Flexor carpi Horſe-races were a ſpecies of amuſement known in England in radialis in the Syſtem of ANATOMY. For its origin, inſertion and very early times. Fitz-Stephen, who wrote in the days of Henry uſe, ſee Part II. Table of Muſcles, Art. 22. II. records the great delight which the citizens of London took in RADIANT Point, or RADIATING Point, is any point of a the diverſion. Races appear likewiſe to have been in vogue in the viſible object, whence rays proceed. Every radiant point diffuſes reign of queen Elizabeth, and to have been carried to ſuch exceſs innumerable rays all round; but only thoſe radiants are viſible, as to have injured the fortunes of the nobility. Lord Herbert of from which right lines may be drawn to the pupil; becauſe the Cherbury, (ſee his life by Mr. Walpole, p. 51.) enumerates theſe rays are all right lines. All the rays proceeding from the ſame ra- among the ſports which he thought unworthy of a man of honour. diant continually diverge; the cryſtalline collects or reunites them " The exerciſe (ſays he) I do not approve of is running of horſes, again. again. Every ray is ſuppoſed to carry with it a ſpecies or image there being much cheating in that kind; neither do I ſee why a of the radiant. See the Syſtem of Optics, Part II. Sect. 1. brave man ſhould delight in a creature whoſe chief uſe is to help RADIATED Leaf, among botaniſts. See the Syſtem, Sect. IV. him to run away.” Jarvis Markham, who wrote on the manage Plate I. The word is alſo uſed in ſpeaking of medals, and in he- See ment of horſes in 1599, mentions running horſes; but at this time raldry, where the ancient crowns are called radiated crowns. there were only private matches made between gentlemen, who the Syſtem of HERALDRY, Sect. VII. Art. I. Plate VI. were their own jockies, and rode their own horſes. However, in RADIATION, in phyſics, the action of a body diffuſing rays the following reign of James l. public races were eſtabliſhed; of light as from a centre. Every viſible body is a radiating body ; and Garterly, in Yorkſhire, Croydon, near London, and ſometimes it being only by means of its rays that it affects the eye. The ſur- Theobald's near Enfield-chace, where the king reſided, were the face of a radiating body may be conceived as conſiſting of radiant courſes in which they were performed. The horſes at this time points. were prepared for running by the diſcipline of food, phyſic, airing, RADICAL, radicalis, in phyſic, &c. ſomething ſerving as a and ſweats and cloathing, which compoſe the preſent ſyſtem. The bafis or foundation; or which, like a root, is the ſource or prin- weight alſo which each horſe was to carry was rigidly adjuſted ; ciple whence ciple whence any thing ariſes. In grammar we uſe the term, radi- the uſual weight of the riders being ſtated at ten ſtone; who were eal words, for roots and primitives; in oppoſition to compounds put into fcales, and weighed before they ſtarted. Moſt of the ce and derivatives. lebrated races in the kingdom were called bell-courſes, the prize RADICAL Sign, in algebra, the ſign or character of the root of and reward of the conquering horſes being a bell. To this purpoſe a quantity, v'is the character of radicality, and expreſſes the Camden fays, that in 1607 there were races near York, and the ſquare; the cube root, &c. See the Syſtem, Sect. I. Def. 10. prize was a little golden bell. Upon this Berenger offers a conjec RADICATION, in phyſics, the action whereby plants take Sfs root, N° 135. RAJ Ř A I næus. toot, or ſhoot out roots. The French Royal Academy of Sciences under the head. The moſt remarkable ſpecies are. 1. The batis, have made a great number of curious obſervations on the germina or ſkate; this ſpecies is the thinneſt in proportion to its bulk of tion and radication of plants. any of the genus, and alſo the largeſt, ſome weighing near 200 RADICLE, radicula, little root, in botany, denotes that part of pounds. 2. The oxyrinchus, or harp-noſed ray; in length near the ſeed of a plant, which, upon its vegetation, becomes a little root, feven feet, and breadth five feet two inches; when juſt brought on by which the tender plant at firſt receives its nouriſhment before ſhore, it makes a remarkable fnorting noiſe. 3. The torpedo, the after-root is formed. This is that part of the feed which, in cramp-fiſh, or electric ray, is frequently in Torbay; has been once making malt, Thoots forth, and is called the come or comb. caught off Pembroke, and ſometimes near Waterford in Ireland. RADII Pinnarum, in ichthyology, the little ſlender bones fup It is generally taken, like other flat fiſh, with the trawl; but there porting the membrane, forming the fins in fiſhes, and running is an inſtance of its taking the bait. For its particular deſcription from the baſe to the fummit in form of rays. See the Syſtem, and electrical properties, ſee Syſtem of ELECTRICITY, the conclu- Sect. IV. five part. 4. The clavata, or thornback, is eaſily diſtinguiſhed from RADISH, the Engliſh name of the genus raphanus, in botany, the others by the rows of ſtrong ſharp ſpines diſpoſed along the back a genus of the tetradynamia ſiliquoſa claſs. See RAPHANUS. and tail. The thornback begins to be in ſeaſon in November, and Radiſhes are opening, attenuating, and antiſcorbutic, and are continues fo later than the ſkate, but the young of both are good much eaten in the ſpring; but afford little nouriſhment, and are at all times of the year. 5. The paſtinaca or ſting-ray, does not , very windy. They provoke urine, and are good for the ſtone and grow to the bulk of the others. The weapon with which nature gravel. They are but feldom ufed in the ſhops. The parts uſeful has armed this fiſh, hath ſupplied the ancients with many tremen- in medicine are the roots and feed, which have been employed in dous fables relating to it. Pliny, Ælian, and Opian, have given waſting and expelling the ſtone; in provoking urine and the menſes; it a venom that affects even the inanimate creation. But in reſpect and in opening obſtructions of the liver and ſpleen. For the culti to its venomous qualities, there is not the leaſt credit to be given to vation of radiſhes, ſee the Treatiſe on GARDENING, Article the opinion, though it was believed (as far as it affected the animal Kitchen GARDEN, months of January, February, March, May, world) by Rondeletius, Aldrovand, and others, and even to this day July; and Auguft. by the fiſhermen in ſeveral parts of the kingdom. It is in fact the Horſe-Radiſh impregnates both water and ſpirit by infuſion and weapon of offence belonging to the fiſh, capable of giving a very diſtillation, very richly with its active matter; in dištillation with bad wound, and which is attended with dangerous fymptoms when water it yields a ſmall quantity of eſſential oil, exceedingly pene it falls on a tendinous part, or on a perſon in a bad habit of body. trating and pungent. As a medicine, horſe-radiſh is moderately As to any fiſh having a ſpine charged with actual poiſon, it ſeems ſtimulating, aperient, and antiſeptic: it ſenſibly promotes perſpi very dubious, though the report is ſanctified by the name of Lin- ration, urine, and the expectoration of viſcid phlegm, and excites He inſtances the paſtinaca, the torpedo, and the tetrodon appetite when the ſtomach is relaxed, without being ſo liable to lineatus. The firſt is incapable of conveying a greater injury than produce immoderate heat, or inflammatory ſymptoms, as the ſti what reſults from the mere wound; the ſecond from its electric mulants of the aromatic kind. It is principally uſed in paralytic effuvia; and the third, by imparting a pungent pain like the ſting and rheumatic complaints, in ſcurvies and ſcorbutic impurities of of nettles, occafioned by the minute ſpines on its abdomen. For the the humours, in cachectic diſorders, and in dropſies, particularly claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, Order II. Genus II. in thoſe which follow intermitting fevers. In conſiderable quan RAIL, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the genus Rallus, tities it proinotes vomiting. Lewis. fee RALLUS. RADIUS, Ray, in geometry, the ſemidiameter of a circle; or RAIN, a very frequent and uſeful meteor, deſcending from above a right line drawn from the centre to the circumference. See the in form of drops of water. Rain is, apparently, a precipitated Syſtem, Part I. Sect. I. cloud; as clouds are nothing but vapours raiſed from moiſture, Radius, in anatomy, is a long ſlender bone of the arm defcend waters, &c. And vapours are demonftratively nothing elſe but lit- ing along with the ulna from the elbow to the wriſt. See the Syſ tle bubbles or veſiculæ detached from the waters by the power of tem, Part I. Sect. IV. Plate I. fig. 1. letter f. the ſolar or ſubterraneous heat, or both. Theſe veſiculæ being RAFFLING, a fort of game with three dice, wherein he who ſpecifically lighter than the atmoſphere, are buoyed up thereby. throws the greateſt pair or pair royal, in three caſts, wins the prize until they arrive at a region where the air is in a juſt balance with or ſtake. The word probably comes from the baſe Latin, rieftare, them; and here they Aoat, till by ſome new agent they are to rifle, plunder, take all away. The raffle is properly the doub converted into clouds, and thence either into rain, ſnow, hail, let or triplet; a raffle of aces or duces carries it againſt mere miſt, or the like. points. It is univerſally agreed, that rain is produced by the water pre- RAFFLING is alſo uſed when a company of perſons club to the viouſly abſorbed by the heat of the ſun, or otherwiſe from the ter- purchaſe of a commodity; and he that throws the higheſt on three raqueous globe, into the atmoſphere; but very great difficulties dice takes it. occur, when we begin to explain why the water once ſo cloſely RAGS. In ſome counties of England, particularly in Oxford united with the atmoſphere, begins to ſeparate from it. We cannot ſhire, it is a common thing to uſe old woollen rags by way of ma aſcribe this ſeparation to cold, ſince rain often takes place in very nure upon land. Taylor's ſhreds anſwer this purpoſe in ſome de warm weather. For ſome time the ſuppoſitions concerning the gree; but the old rags of cloaths, which have been worn by men cauſe of rain were exceedingly inſufficient and unſatisfactory. It and women, are much better, which is owing to the falts they have was imagined, that when various congeries of clouds were driven imbibed from the perfpiration of the body they uſed to cover. See together by the agitation of the winds, they mixed, and run into one the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. II. body, by which means they were condenſed into water. The cold- RÁGOUT, or Ragoo, a fauce, or ſeaſoning, intended to raiſe neſs of the upper parts of the air alſo was thought to be a great or recover the appetite when languiſhing, or loft. The term is means of collecting and condenſing the clouds into water; which, French, but naturalized. It is alſo uſed for any high-ſeaſoned diſh, being heavier than the air, muſt neceſſarily fall down through it in prepared of fleſh, fiſh, greens, or the like, by ſtewing them with the the form of rain. The reaſon why it falls in drops, and not in addition of bacon, ſalt, pepper, cloves, and the like high-flavoured large quantities, was ſaid to be the reſiſtance of the air; whereby ingredients. We have ragoos of beef, of cray-fiſh, of giblets, of being broken, and divided into ſmaller and ſmaller parts, it at laſt aſparagus, of endive, of cocks-combs, of gammon, of celery, &c. arrives to us in ſmall drops. But this hypotheſis is entirely contrary RAGULED, or RAGGED, in heraldry, is applied to an ordi to almoſt all the phenomena; for the weather, when coldeſt, that is, nary, e. g; a croſs whoſe out-lines are jagged or knotted. He in the time of ſevere froſt, is generally the moſt ſerene; the moſt beareth fable, a croſs raguled, or, by the name of Sloway. violent rains alſo happen where there is little or no wind to condenſe RAJAH, denoting king, an appellation given in Hindoftan or the the clouds; and the drops of rain inſtead of being divided into empire of the Mogul, to princes deſcended from thoſe that ruled ſmaller and ſmaller ones as they approach the earth, are plainly in- there before the conqueſt of the Moguls; who exerciſe all rights creaſed in ſize as they deſcend. of ſovereignty, only paying a tribute to the Great Mogul, and Mr. Derham accounted for the precipitation of the drops of obſerving the treaties by which their anceſtors recognized his rain from the veſiculæ being full of air, and meeting with an air fuperiority. colder than they contained, the air they contained was of conſe- There are fome rajahs who ſtill retain a more independent fo quence contracted into a ſmaller ſpace; and conſequently the wa- vereignty in the mountains; the Indians call them rai; the Perſi tery ſhell rendered thicker, and thus ſpecifically heavier, than the ans plurally, raian: our travellers rajahs, or ragias. Theſe have common atmoſphere. But, under the article EVAPORATION it under their command ſoldiers, called rajah-poots, or perſons de has been ſhown, that the veſiculæ, if ſuch they are, of vapour, are fcended from rajahs, who are a robuſt and brave people, and who not filled with air, but with fire, or heat; and conſequently, till enter into the ſervice of thoſe who will pay them. The Great they part with this latent heat, the vapour cannot be condenſed, Mogul has ſeveral of theſe rajahs in his ſervice. The chief lords Now cold is not always ſuficient to effect this, ſince in the moſt of the Moguls, viz. the vice-roys, governors of provinces, and ſevere froſts the air is very often ſerene, and parts with little or none chief miniſters of ſtate, F. Catrow obſerves, are called ombras; of its vapour for a very conſiderable time. `Neither can we admit and the idolatrous rajahs, or Indian lords, who governed petty the winds to have any conſiderable agency in this matter, ſince we ftates before the conqueſt of their country, hold the ſame rank at find that blowing upon vapour is ſo far from condenſing it, that it court with the ombras. RAJA, the Ray-Fiſh, in ichthyology; a genus belonging to unites it more cloſely with the air, and wind is found to be a great the order of amphibia nantes. There are five ſpiracula below to- promoter of evaporation. According to Rohault, the great cauſe of rain is the heat of the air; which, after continuing for ſome time wards the peak; the body compreſſed; and the mouth is ſituated near the earth, is raiſed on high by a wind, and there thawing the ſnowy RAI RAI ſnowy villi or flocks of half-frozen veſiculæ, reduces them to drops ; | degrees, all over his body, till it came to the other hand that com- which, coaleſcing, deſcend. Here, however, we ought to be in municated with the rubber. The lower ſurface of this ſmoke was formed by what means theſe veſiculæ are ſuſpended in their half every where parallel to his cloaths, and the upper furface was frozen ſtate; ſince the thawing of them can make but little diffe ſwelled and arched like clouds replete with thunder and rain. In rence in their ſpecific gravity, and it is certain that they aſcended this manner, he ſuppoſes, the clouds that bring rain diffuſe them- through the air not in a frozen but in an aqueous ſtate. Dr. Clarke felves from over thoſe parts of the earth which abound with electric and others aſcribe this deſcent of the rain rather to an alteration of fire, to thoſe parts which are exhauſted of it; and by letting fall their the atmoſphere than of the veſiculæ; and ſuppoſe it to ariſe from a rain, reſtore the equilibrium between them. Signior Beccaria alſo diminution of the elaſtic force of the air. This elaſticity, which, thought, that the electricity communicated to the air, which both they fay, depends chiefly or wholly upon terrene exhalations, being receives and parts with it flowly, would account for the retention weakened, the atmoſphere ſinks under its burden, and the clouds of vapours in a clear ſky; for ſmall disjointed clouds not diſperſed fall. Now the little veſicles being once upon the deſcent will con into rain; for the ſmaller and lighter clouds in the higher regions tinue therein, notwithſtanding the increaſe of reſiſtance they every of the air, which are but little affected by electricity; and alſo for moment meet with. For, as they all tend to the centre of the earth, the darker, heavy, and fluggiſh clouds in the lower regions, which the farther they fall, the more coalitions they will make; and the retain more of it. He even imagined, that ſome alteration in the more coalition, the more matter will there be under the ſame ſur weight of the air might be made by this electricity of it: the phe- face; the ſurface increaſing only as the ſquares, but the folidity as nomena of rain, he thought favoured the ſuppoſition, that the electric the cubes; and the more matter under the ſame ſurface, the leſs re matter in the air did, in ſome meaſure, leſſen its preſſure; for when fiſtance will there be to the ſame matter. the electric matter is actually in the air, collecting and condenſing Thus if the cold, wind, &c. act early enough to precipitate the af- the vapours, the barometer is loweſt. When the communication is cending veſicles before they are arrived at any conſiderable height, made between the earth and the clouds by the rain, the quick-ſilver the coalitions being but few, the drops will be proportionably ſmall; begins to riſe: the electric matter which ſupported part of the pref- and thus is formed a dew. If the vapours be more copious, and fure, being diſcharged. Lettere dell Elettriciſmo. Prieſtley's riſe a little higher, we have a miſt or fog. A little higher ſtill, and Hift. &c. of Electricity, vol. i. p. 427, &c. 8vo. they produce a ſinall rain; if they neither meet with cold nor wind, As to the uſe of rain, we may obſerve, that it moiſtens and they form a heavy thick dark ſky. This hypotheſis is equally un ſoftens the earth, and thus fits it for affording nouriſhment to plants ; fatisfactory with the others; for, granting that the deſcent and con by falling on high mountains, it carries down with it many parti- denſation of the vapours are owing to a diminution of the atmo cles of looſe earth, which ſerve to fertilize the ſurrounding valleys, fphere's elaſticity, by what is this diminution occaſioned? To ſay and purifies the air from noxious exhalations, which tend in their that it is owing to terrene exhalations, is only folving one difficulty return to the earth to meliorate the ſoil; it moderates the heat of by another; fince we are totally unacquainted both with the nature the air; and is one means of ſupplying fountains, and rivers. and operation of theſe exhalations. Beſides, let us ſuppoſe the cauſe However, vehement rains in many countries are found to be attended to be what it will, if it acts equally and at once upon all the vapour with barrenneſs and poorneſs of the lands, and miſcarriage of the in the air, then all the vapour muſt be precipitated at once; and crops in the ſucceeding year: and the reaſon is plain ; for theſe ex- thus, inſtead of gentle ſhowers continuing for a conſiderable length ceffive ſtorms waſh away the fine mould into the rivers, which carry of time, we ſhould have the moſt violent water-ſpouts, continuing it into the ſea, and it is a long time before the land recovers itſelf only for a few minutes, or perhaps ſeconds, which, inſtead of re again. The remedy to the famine, which ſome countries are ſub- freſhing the earth, would drown and lay waſte every thing before ject to from this fort of miſchief, is the planting large orchards and them. groves of ſuch trees, as bear eſculent fruit; for it is an old obſer- Since philoſophers have admitted the electric fluid to ſuch a large vation, that in years, when grain ſucceeds worſt, the trees produce ſhare in the operations of nature, almoſt all the natural phenomena moſt fruit of all . It may partly be owing to the thorough moiſten- have been accounted for by the action of that fluid; and rain, among ing of the earth, as deep as their roots go, by theſe rains, and partly others, has been reckoned an effect of electricity. But this word, to their trunks ſtopping part of the light mould carried down by the unleſs it is explained, makes us no wiſer than we were before; the rains, and by this means furniſhing themſelves with a coat of new phenomena of artificial electricity having been explained on prin- earth. Phil. Tranſ. Nº go. ciples which could ſcarce apply in any degree to the electricity of RAINBOW, iris, or, fimply, the bow, a meteor in form of a nature: and therefore all the folution we can obtain of the natural party-coloured arch, or femicircle, exhibited in a rainy ſky, oppoſite appearances of which we ſpeak, comes to this, that rain is occafioned to the ſun, by the refraction of his rays in the drops of falling rain. by a moderate electrification, hail and ſnow by one more violent, There is alſo a ſecondary, or fainter bow, uſually teen inveſting and thunder by the moſt violent of all; but in what manner this the former at ſome diſtance. Among naturaliſts, we alſo read of electrification is occafioned, hath not yet been explained. lunar rainbows, marine rainbows, &c. The rainbow, Sir Iſaac Other writers, in the progreſs of this part of philoſophical ſci- Newton obferves, never appears but where it rains in the ſun-ſhine; ence, have confidered rain as an electrical phenomenon; or at leaſt and it may be repreſented artificially, by contriving water to fall they have ſuppoſed, that the powers of electricity may concur with in little drops, like rain, through which the ſun ſhining, exhibits a other cauſes in producing it. See EVAPORATION. Signior Becca- bow to a ſpectator placed between the ſun and the drops; eſpecially ria, whoſe obſervations on the general ſtate of electricity in the at if a dark body, e. gr. a black cloth, be diſpoſed beyond the drops. moſphere have been more extenſive and accurate than thoſe of any For the magnitude, poſition, and colours of the rainbow, ſee the other perſon, reckons rain, hail, and ſnow among the effects of a Syſtem of Optics, Part III. Sect. II. Plate II. fig. 74. moderate electricity in the atmoſphere. Clouds that bring rain, RAISINS, grapes prepared by ſuffering them to remain on the he thought, were produced in the ſame manner as thunder-clouds, vine till they are perfe&tly ripe, and then drying them in the fun, only by a moderate electricity. He deſcribes them at large, and or by the heat of an oven. The difference between raiſins dried the reſemblance which all their phenomena bear to thoſe of thunder in the fun, and thoſe dried in ovens, is very obvious: the former clouds is very ſtriking. He notes ſeveral circumſtances attending are ſweet and pleaſant; but the latter have a latent acidity with the rain without lightning, which render it probable, that it is produced ſweetneſs, that renders them much leſs agreeable. The raiſins of by the ſame cauſe as when it is accompanied with lightning. Light the fun, and jar-raiſins, are all dried by the heat of the fun; and has been ſeen among the clouds by night in rainy weather; and theſe are the forts uſed in medicine. even by day rainy clouds are ſometimes ſeen to have a brightneſs much the ſame virtues: they are all nutritive and balſamic; they evidently independent of the fun. The uniforinity with which the are allowed to be attenuant, are faid to be good in nephritic com- clouds are ſpread, and with which the rain falls, he thought were plaints, and are an ingredient in pectoral decoctions ; in which cafes, evidences of an uniform cauſe like that of electricity. The intenſity as alſo in all others where aftringency is not required of them, they alſo of electricity in his apparatus generally correſponded very nearly ſhould have the ſtones carefully taken out. to the quantity of rain that fell in the ſame time. Sometimes all RAISIN-Brandy, a name given by our diſtillers to a very clean the phenomena of thunder, lightning, hail, rain, ſnow, and wind and pure ſpirit, procured from raiſins fermented only with water. have been obſerved at one time; which ſhews the connection they Thus treated, they yield a ſpirit fcarce at all diſtinguiſhable from all have with ſome common cauſe. Signior Beccaria, therefore ſome of the wine ſpirits ; for there are as many kinds of wine-fpirits fuppoſes, that, previous to rain, a quantity of electric matter as there are of grapes. The coarſer the operation of diſtilling is eſcapes out of the earth, in ſome place where there was a redun- performed in this caſe, the nearer will be the reſemblance of the dancy of it; and in its aſcent to the higher regions of the air, wine fpirit; that is, there will be moſt of this flavour in the ſpirit, collects and conducts into its path a great quantity of vapours. when as much as can be of the oil is thrown up with a galloping The fame cauſe that collects, will condenſe them more and more; heat. The diſtillers are very fond of the wine-ſpirit, with which till, in the places of the neareſt intervals, they come almoſt into they hide and diſguiſe the taſte of their nauſeous malt, and other contact, ſo as to form ſmall drops; which, uniting with others as ſpirits; and in defect of that fpirit, this of raiſins, made in this they fall, come down in rain. The rain will be heavier in pro coarfe manner, will go almoſt as far. It is indeed ſurpriſing how portion as the electricity is more vigorous, and the cloud approaches extenſive the uſe of theſe flavouring ſpirits is, ten gallons of raiſin, more nearly to a thunder-cloud. He imitated the appearance of ſpirit, or ſomewhat leſs of the wine-ſpirit, being often fufficient for clouds that bring rain by inſulating himſelf between the rubber and a whole pipe of malt-fpirit, to take off its native flavour, and give conductor of his electrical machine; and with one hand dropping it an agreeable vinoſity. It is no wonder, therefore, that the dif- colophonia into a ſpoon faſtened to the conductor, and holding a tillers, and ordinary rectifiers, are fo fond of this, as it is a good burning coal, while his other hand communicated with the rubber. cloak for their defects, and the imperfection of their proceſſes. In theſe circumſtances, the ſmoke ſpread along his arm, and, by When raiſin-brandy is intended for common uſe, the fire ſhould be RAN RAN eaten. any be kept flower and more regular in the diſtillation; and the ſpirit, | fame agility as the mole. 2. The eſculenta, or edible frog, differs though it hath leſs of the high flavour of the grape, will be more from the former, in having a high protuberance in the middle of pleaſant and more pure. the back, forming a very ſharp angle. Its colours are alſo more RAKE of a Ship, is ſo much of her hull as over-hangs at both vivid, and its marks more diſtinct; the ground colour being a pale ends of her keel. That part of it which was before, is called the or yellowiſh green, marked with rows of black ſpots from the head rake forward on; and that part which is at the ſetting on of the to the rump. This, and (Mr. Pennant thinks) the former, are He has ſeen in the markets at Paris whole hampers full , ſtern poſt, is called her rake-aft, or afterward-on. See the Treatiſe on NAVAL AFFAIRS, Article Horizontal Plane. Part II. Sect. I. which the venders were preparing for the table, by ſkinning and and Plate II. fig. 3. cutting off the fore-parts, the loins and legs only being kept; but RAMADAN, a fort of lent obſerved by the Mahometans, in his ſtrong diſlike to theſe reptiles, prevented a cloſe examination obedience to the expreſs command of the Koran. See the article into the ſpecies. 3. In the country of Penſylvania, and ſome other MAHOMETANS. parts of North America, there is a very large ſpecies of frogs called RAMIFICATIONS, in anatomy, are the diviſions of the ar the bull-frog. Theſe inake a monſtrous roaring noiſe like a bull , teries, veins, and nerves, ariſing from fome common trunk. For only ſomewhat more hoarſe. Their fize is ſuperior to that of the reſpective branches of the Arteries, ſee the Syſtem, Part IV. other of the genus, and they can ſpring forward three yards at a Sect. I. For thoſe of the Veins, ſee Part IV. Sect. II. For thoſe leap. By this means they will equal in fpeed a very good horſe in of the Nerves, ſee the Article NERVES, and the Syſtem, Part VI. its ſwifteſt courſe. Their places of abode are ponds, or bogs with Sect. VI. For repreſentation, ſee the plates under the reſpective ſtagnant water; but they never frequent ſtreams. When many of heads, with their ſeveral explanationis. them are together, they make ſuch a horrid noiſe, that two people RAMPANT, in heraldry, is applied to a lion, bear, leopard or cannot underſtand each other's ſpeech. They croak all together, other beaſt, in climbing, or ftanding upright upon his hind-legs, and then ſtop for a little and begin again. It ſeems as if they had and rearing up his fore-feet; ſhewing only half his face, as one eye, a captain among thein; for when he begins to croak, all the others and one ear. See the Syſtem, Sect. VI. Art. III. and Plate V. follow; and when he ſtops, they all become ſilent. When this RAMPART, or RAMPIER, in fortification, a maffy bank, or captain gives the fignal for ſtopping, you hear a note like poop elevation of earth about the body of a place, to cover it from the coming from him. In the day-time they ſeldom make any great direct fire of the enemy. See the Syſtem, article DEFINITIONS, noiſe unleſs the ſky is covered; but in the night-time they may be and Plate II. Fig. 1. Letters y, x. heard at the diſtance of a mile and an half. When they croak, RAMPHASTOS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the they are commonly near the ſurface of the water, under the buſhes, order of picæ. The bill is very large, convex, and ſerrated out and have their heads out of the water. By going ſlowly, therefore, wardly; the noſtrils are ſituated behind the baſe of the beak; the one may get up almoſt quite cloſe to them before they go away. feet in moit ſpecies are toed. There are eight fpecies; of which As ſoon as they are quite under water, they think thernſelves ſafe, the moſt remarkable is the toucan, whoſe bill is almoſt as large as though it be ever ſo thallow. Theſe creatures kill and eat young the reſt of its body. There are four or five varieties, but we ſhall ducklings and goſlings, and ſometimes carry off chickens that come only deſcribe that which has a red beak. This is about the ſize of too near the water; when beaten, they cry out almoſt like little a jack-daw, and ſhaped like that bird, with a large head to ſupport children. As ſoon as the air begins to grow a little cool in au- its monſtrous bill. It is reported by travellers, that this bird, tumn, they hide themſelves under the mud in the bottom of ſtag- though furniſhed with ſo formidable a beak, is harmleſs and gentle, nant waters, and lie there torpid during the winter. As ſoon as being ſo eaſily made taine, as to ſit and hatch its young in houſes. the weather grows mild towards ſummer, they begin to get out of It feeds chiefly upon pepper, which it devours very greedily, gorging their holes and croak. 4. The bufo, or toad, is the moſt deformed itſelf in ſuch a manner, that it voids it crude and unconcocted. and hideous of all animals. The body is broad; the back fiat, and This, however, is no objection to the natives from uſing it again : covered with a pimply duſky hide; the belly large, ſwagging, and they even prefer it before that pepper which is freſh gathered from ſwelling out; the legs ſhort, and its pace laboured and crawling; the tree; and ſeem perſuaded that the ſtrength and heat of the its retreat gloomy and filthy: in ſhort, its general appearance is pepper is qualified by the bird, and that all its noxious qualities ſuch as to ſtrike one with diſguſt and horror. Yet it is ſaid by thoſe are thus exhauſted. There is no bird ſecures its young who have reſolution to view it with attention, that its eyes are fine: from external injury than the toucan. It has not only birds, men, to this it ſeems that Shakeſpeare alludes, when he makes his Juliet and ſerpents, to guard againſt; but a numerous tribe of monkeys, remark, , ftill more prying, miſchievous, and hungry, than all the reſt. Some ſay the lark and loathed toad change eyes : The toucan, however, ſcoops out its neſt into the hollow of ſome As if they would have been better beſtowed on ſo charming a ſongſter tree, leaving only a hole large enough to go in and out at. There than on this rancorous reptile. But the hideous appearance of the it fits, with its great beak, guarding the entrance; and, if the mon toad is ſuch as to make this one advantageous feature overlooked, key ventures to offer a viſit of curioſity, the toucan gives him ſuch a and to have rendered it in all ages an object of horror, and the welcome, that he preſently thinks proper to pack off, and is glad origin of moſt tremenduous inventions. Ælian makes its venom to eſcape with ſafety. This bird is only found in the warm cli- ſo potent, that baſiliſk-like, it conveyed death by its very look and mates of South America, where it is in great requeſt, both for the breath; but Juvenal is content with making the Roman ladies who delicacy of its fleſh, which is tender and nouriſhing, and for the were weary of their huſbands, form a potion from its entrails, in beauty of its plumage, particularly the feathers of the breaſt. The order to get rid of the good man. This opinion begat others of a ſkin cf this part the Indians pluck off, and, when dry, glue to more dreadful nature; for in after-times ſuperſtition gave it preter- their cheeks; and this they conſider as an irreſiſtible addition to natural powers, and made it a principal ingredient in the incanta- their beauty. tions of nocturnal hags. RANA, the FROG, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order As to the notion of its being a poiſonous animal, it is probable, of amphibia reptilia. The body is naked, furniſhed with four feet, that its exceſſive deformity, joined to the faculty it has of emitting and without any tail. There are 17 fpecies. The moſt remark a juice from its pimples, and a duſky liquid from its hind parts, is able are, 1. The temporaria, or common frog. This is an animal the foundation of the report. That it has any noxious qualities ſo well known, that it needs no deſcription; but ſome of its pro there ſeem to have been no proofs in the ſmalleſt degree ſatisfactory, perties are very ſingular. While in a tadpole ftate, it is entirely though we have heard many ſtrange relations on that point. On a water animal; the work of generation is performed in that ele the contrary, there have been many who have taken them in their ment, as may be feen in every pond during ſpring, when the female naked hands, and held them long without receiving the leaſt injury: remains oppreſſed by the male for a number of days. The work it is alſo well known that quacks have eaten them, and have beſides of propagation is extremely ſingular, it being certain that the frog ſqueezed their juices into a glaſs and drank them with impunity. has not a penis intrans. There appears a ſtrong analogy in this We may fay alſo, that theſe reptiles are a common food to many cafe between a certain claſs of the vegetable kingdom and thoſe animals; to buzzards, owls, Norfolk plovers, ducks, and ſnakes, animals; for it is well known, that when the female frog depoſits who would not touch them were they in any degree noxious. So its ſpawn, the male inſtantaneouſly impregnates it with what we far from having venomous qualities, they have of late been conſi- may call a farina fæcundans, in the ſame manner as the palm tree dered as if they had beneficent ones; particularly in the cure of the conveys fructification to the flowers of the female, which would moſt terrible diſeaſes, the cancer, by ſuction. But, from all circum- otherwiſe be barren. As ſoon as the frogs are releaſed from their ſtances, they ſeem only to have rendered a horrible complaint more tadpole ftate, they immediately take to land; and if the weather loathſome. has been hot, and there fall any refreſhing ſhowers, you may ſee The moſt full information concerning the nature and qualities of the ground for a conſiderable ſpace perfectly blackened by myriads this animal is contained in the following letters from Mr. Arſcott of theſe animalcules, ſeeking for ſome ſecure lurking places. Some and Mr. Pittfield to Dr. Milles. “It would give me great pleaſure philoſophers, not giving themſelves time to examine into this phe (fays Mr. Arſcott) to be able to inform you of any particulars wor- nomenon, imagined them to have been generated in the clouds, thy Mr. Pennant's notice, concerning the toad who lived ſo many and ſhowered on the earth; but had they, like our Derham, but years with us, and was ſo great a favourite. The greateſt curioſity traced them to the next pool, they would have found a better folu in it was its becoming ſo remarkable tame. It had frequented ſome tion of the difficulty. The croaking of frogs is well known; and ſteps before the hall-door ſome years before my acquaintance com- from that in fenny countries they are diſtinguiſhed by ludicrous menced with it, and had been admired by my father for its fize titles: thus they are ſtiled Dutch nightingales, and Boſton waites. (which was of the largeſt I ever met with), who conſtantly paid it During winter, frogs and toads remain in a torpid ftate; the laſt of viſit every evening. I knew it myſelf above 30 years; and by con- which will dig into the earth, and cover themſelves with almoſt the ſtantly feeding it, brought to be ſo tame, that it always came to the better a R A N R A P upon the candle, and looked up as if expecting to be taken up and brought line, where the parricide, in ſpeaking to Rome, ſays, I'd plow up the table, where I always fed it with infects of all forts; it rocks ſteep as the Alps in duft; and lave the Tyrrhene waters into was fondeft of fleſh maggots which I kept in bran. clouds, but I would reach thy head. You may imagine, that a toad, generally deteſted, (although RANUNCULUS, CROW Foot, in botany, a genus of the poly- one of the moſt inoffenſive of all animals) ſo much taken notice of gamia order, belonging to the polyandria claſs of plants. For the and befriended, excited the curioſity of all comers to the houſe, cultivation and preſervation of Ranunculuſes, ſee the treatiſe on who all deſired to ſee it fed; ſo that even ladies ſo far conquered GARDENING ; months, January, March, June, and September. the horrors inſtilled into them by nurſes, as to deſire to ſee it. RAPACIOUS Animals, in the general, are ſuch as live upon 06 I once from my parlour window obſerved a large toad I had prey. Some naturaliſts, as Pennant, Latham, and others, divide in the bank of a bowling-green, about twelve at noon, a very birds into rapacious, carnivorous, and fugivorous. Rapacious birds hot day, very buſy and active upon the graſs: ſo uncommon an ap have a membranous ftomach; and not a muſculous one, or a giz- pearance made me go out to ſee what it was, when I found an :-- zard, ſuch as birds have which live on grain. They are very ſharp- numerable ſwarm of winged ants had dropped round his hole, fighted, and gather not in flocks; but generally ſpeaking, are ſolitary; which temptation was as irreſiſtible as a turtle would be to a lux though vultures will fly fifty or fixty in a company. See the Syſtem urious alderman. There are 30 males to one female, 12 or 14 of of COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, Chap. II. Sect. II. and III. whom I have ſeen clinging round a female: I have often diſen RAPE, in law, the carnal knowledge of a woman forcibly and gaged her, and put her to a ſolitary male, to fee with what eagerneſs againſt her will. The civil law puniſhes the crime of raviſhment he would ſeize her. They impregnate the ſpawn as it is drawn out with death and confiſcation of goods; under which it includes both in long ſtrings, like a necklace, many yards long, not in a large the offence of forcible abduction, or taking away a woman from her quantity of jelly, like frogs ſpawn. Had it not been for a tame friends: and alſo the preſent offence of forcibly diſhonouring her: raven, I make no doubt but it would have been now living; who either of which, without the other, is in that law ſufficient to con- one day ſeeing it at the mouth of its hole, pulled it out, and although ſtitute a capital crime. Rape was puniſhed by the Saxon laws, I reſcued it, pulled out one eye, and hurt it ſo, that notwithſtanding particularly thoſe of king Athelſtan, with death ; which was alſo its living a twelvemonth it never enjoyed itſelf, and had a difficulty agreeable to the old Gothic or Scandinavian conſtitution. But this of taking its food, milling the mark for want of its eye; before was afterwards thought too hard, and in its ſtead another ſevere, that accident, it had all the appearance of perfect health. but not capital punilhment was inflicted by William the Con- Mr. Demours, in the memoirs of the French Academy, as tran queror, viz. caftration and loſs of eyes; which continued till after flated by Dr. Templeman, vol. i. p. 371, has been very particular Bracton wrote, in the reign of Henry the Third. in reſpect to the male toad as acting the part of an accoucheur; his In the 3 Edward I. by the ſtatute Weſtm. 1. c. 13. the puniſh- account is curious, and claims a place here. “ In the evening of ment of rape was much mitigated : the offence itſelf of raviſhing one of the long days in ſummer, Mr. Demours being in the king's a damſel within age, that is, twelve years old) either with her con- garden, perceived two toads coupled together at the edge of an fent or without, or of any other woman againſt her will, being re- hole, which was formed in part by a great ſtone at the top. Curi duced to a treſpaſs, if not proſecuted by appeal within forty days, ' oſity drew him to ſee what was the occaſion of the motions he ob and ſubjecting the offender only to two years impriſonment, and a ferved, when two facts equally new ſurprized him. The firſt was fine at the king's will. But, this lenity being productive of the meſt the extreme difficulty the female had in laying her eggs, inſomuch terrible conſequences, it was, in ten years afterwards, 13 Edward that ſhe did not ſeem capable of being delivered of them without I. found neceſſary to make the offence of forcible rape felony by fta- fome alliſtance. The ſecond was, that the male was mounted on tute Weſtm. 2. c. 34. And by ſtatute 18 Eliz. c. 7. it is made fe- the back of the female, and exerted all his ſtrength with his hinder lony without benefit of clergy: as is alſo the abominable wicked- feet in pulling out the eggs, whilſt his fore feet embraced her neſs of carnally knowing or abuſing any woman child under the age breaft. In order to apprehend the manner of his working in the of ten years; in which caſe the conſent or non-confent is immate- delivery of the female, the reader muſt obſerve, that the paws of rial, as by reaſon of her tender years ſhe is incapable of judgment theſe animals, as well thoſe of the fore feet as of the hinder, are and diſcretion, Sir Matthew Hale is indeed of opinion, that ſuch divided into ſeveral toes, which can perform the office of fingers. profligate actions committed on an infant under the age of twelve It muſt be remarked likewiſe, that the eggs of this ſpecies of toads age of female diſcretion by the common law, either with are included each in a membranous coat that is very firm, in which or without conſent, amount to rape and felony; as well ſince as is contained the embryo; and that theſe eggs, which are oblong before the ſtatute of queen Elizabeth. and about two lines in length, being faſtened one to another by A male infant, under the age of fourteen years, is preſumed by a fhort but very ſtrong cord, form a kind of chaplet, the beads of law incapable to commit a rape, and therefore it ſeems cannot be which are diſtant from each other about the half of their length. found guilty of it. For though in other felonies “malitia fupplet It is by drawing this cord with his paw that the male performs the ætatem;" yet, as to this particular ſpecies of felony, the law ſuppoſes functions of a midwife, and acquits himſelf in it with a dexterity an imbecility of body as well as mind. The civil law ſeems to fup- that one would not expect from fo lumpiſh an animal. poſe a proſtitute or common harlot incapable of any injuries of this · The preſence of the obſerver did not a little diſcompoſe the kind: not allowing any puniſhment for violating the chaſtity of male: for ſome time he ſtopped ſhort, and threw on the curious im her, who hath indeed no chaſtity at all, or at leaſt hath no regard pertinent, a fixed look that marked his diſquietneſs and fear: but to it. But the law of England does not judge ſo hardly of offenders, he foon returned to his work with more precipitation than before, as to cut off all opportunity of retreat even from common ítrum- and a moment after he appeared undetermined, whether he ſhould pets, and to treat them as never capable of amendment. It there- continue it or not. The female likewiſe diſcovered her uneaſineſs fore holds it to be felony to force even a concubine or harlot; be- at the ſight of the ſtranger, by motions that interrupted ſometimes cauſe the woman may have forſaken that unlawful courſe of life; the male in his operation. At length, whether the filence and for, as Bracton well obſerves, “licet meretrix fuerit antea, certe fieady poſture of the ſpectator had diſſipated their fear, or that the tunc temporis non fuit, cum reclamando nequitiæ ejus conſentire caſe was urgent, the male reſumed his work with the ſame vigour, noluit.” As to the material facts requiſite to be given in evidence and ſucceſsfully performed his function." and proved upon an indictment of rape, they are of ſuch a nature, RANDOM-Shot, a ſhot made when the muzzle of a gun that though neceſſary to be known and ſettled, for the conviction raiſed above the horizontal line, and is not deſigned to ſhoot di of the guilty and preſervation of the innocent, and therefore are to rectly or point-blank. See the Treatiſe on PROJECTILES, Part be found in ſuch criminal treatiſes as diſcourſe of theſe matters in I. Problem I. &c. detail, yet they are highly improper to be publicly diſcuſſed, except RANGE, in gunnery, the path of a bullet, or the line it de- only in a court of juſtice. only in a court of juſtice. We ſhall therefore merely add upon ſcribes from the mouth of the piece to the point where it lodges. this bead a few remarks from Sir Matthew Hale, with regard to the See the Treatiſe on PROJECTILES, Part II. Article VIII. competency and credibility of witneſſes ; which may, ſalvo pudore, RANK, in military diſcipline, denotes a ſeries or row of fol be conſidered. diers placed Gide by ſide; a number of which ranks form the depth And, firſt, the party raviſhed may give evidence upon oath, and of the ſquadron or battalion, as a number of files does the width. is in law a competent witneſs; but the credibility of her teſtimony, See the Treatiſe on MILITARY AFFAIRS, Sect. III. and how far forth ſhe is to be believed, muſt be left to the jury upon RANK, in the army and navy, is uſed for the order of prece the circumſtances of fact that concur in that teſtimony. For dence: thus, the admiral or commander in chief of his majeſty's inſtance; if the witneſs be of good fame; if the preſently diſco- fleet has the rank of a field marſhal; admirals with the flags on the vered the offence, and made ſearch for the offender; if the party top-maft-head, rank with generals of horſe and foot; vice-admi accuſed fled for it; theſe and the like are concurring circumſtances, rals with lieutenant-generals: rear-admirals, as major-generals ; which give greater probability to her evidence. But, on the other commodores with broad pendants, as brigadier-generals; captains ſide, if ſhe be of evil fame, and ſtand unſupported by others; if the of poſt-ihips, after three years from the date of their firſt commiſ concealed the injury for any conſiderable time after ſhe had oppor- fion, as colonels; other captains commanding poſt-thips, as lieu. tunity to complain; if the place where the fact was alledged to be tenant-colonels : captains not taking poſt, as majors; and lieute committed, was where it was poſſible ſhe might have been heard, and nants, as captains. ſhe made no outcry; theſe and the like circumſtances carry a RANT, in the drama, an extravagant flight of paſſion, overſhoot itrong, but not concluſive preſumption that her teſtimony is falfe ing nature and probability. Lee's tragedies abound with rants : yet or feigned. There may be in many caſes of this nature, witneſſes the wildeſt of them, it is obſerved, frequently meet with applauſe who are competent, that is, who may be admitted to be heard; on the ſtage. We had inſtances of rants, even in our ſevereſt and yet, after being heard, may prove not to be credible, or ſuch poets. Such, e. gr. is that in the beginning of Ben Jonſon's Cati as the jury is bound to believe. For one excellence of the trial by Tit jury years, the is N° 135. RAT R E A the eye. Vus. jury is, that the jury aré triers of the credit of the witneſſes, as well divides the globe into two equal portions, or hemiſpheres. See as of the truth of the fact. Horizon, and Treatiſe on the GLOBES. It is called the rati. “ It is true, (ſays this learned judge), that rape is a moſt deteſta onal horizon, becauſe only conceived by the underſtanding, in ble crime, and therefore ought feverely and impartially to be pu- oppoſition to the ſenſible or apparent horizon, which is viſible to niſhed with death; but it muſt be remembered, that it is an accu- fation eaſy to be made, hard to be proved, but harder to be defended RATIONAL Integer, or whole number, is that whereof unity is by the party accuſed, though innocent.” He then relates two very an aliquot part. extraordinary caſes of malicious proſecution for this crime, that RATIONAL mixt number, in algebra, is that conſiſting of an had happened within his own obſervation; and concludes thus : integer and a fraction; or of unity, and a broken number. See "I mention theſe inſtances, that we may be the more cautious upon the Syſtem, Sect I. DEFINITION XXII. trials of offences of this nature, wherein the court and jury may RÁVELIN, in fortification, was antiently a flat baſtion, placed with ſo much eaſe be impoſed upon, without great care and vigi- | in the middle of a curtin. Ravelin is now a detached work, com- lance; the heinouſneſs of the offence many times tranſporting the poſed only of two faces, which make a ſaliant angle, without and judge and jury with ſo much indignation, that they are overhaftily ſometimes with flanks; and raiſed before the curtin on the coun. carried to the conviction of the perſon accuſed thereof, by the con terſcarp of the place; ſerving to cover it and the joining flanks fident teſtimony of ſometimes falſe and malicious witneſſes." from the direct fire of an enemy. For the conſtruction of Rave. RAPE, a well known plant, from the feed of which oil is ex lins, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. 1. N° 2. and Plate I. FIG. I. preſſed. For a further account, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, RAVEN, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the Genus Cor- Sec. XI. See Corvus. RARE, in phyſics, denotes a body that is very porous, whoſe RAY, in optics, a beam or line of light, propagated from a ra- parts are at a great diſtance from one another, and which contains diant point, through any medium. For a copious deſeription and but little matter under a great deal of bulk. In this ſenſe rare explanation of the reſpective rays in optics, fee the Syſtem ſtands oppoſed to denſe. throughout. RAREFACTION, rarefačtio, in phyſics, the act whereby a READING, the art of delivering written language, with pro- body is rendered rare; that is, is brought to poſſeſs more room, priety, force and elegance. or appear under a large bulk, without acceſſion of any new matter. READINGS, in criticiſm. Various READINGS, varia lectio- Rarefaction is oppoſed to condenſation. Our more accurate wri nes, are the different manners of reading the text of authors in an. ters reftrain rarefaction to that expanſion of a maſs into a larger cient manuſcripts: where a diverſity has ariſen from the corruption bulk, which is effected by means of heat. All expanſions from of time, or the ignorance of copyiſts. A great part of the buſineſs other cauſes they call dilatation. It is by rarefaction that gunpow- of the critics lies in ſettling the readings by confronting the various der has its effect; and to the ſame principle alſo we owe our æoli readings of the ſeveral manuſcripts, and conſidering the agreement piles, thermometers, &c. The degree to which the air is rarefiable of the words and ſenſe. The various readings in the bible, and in exceeds all imagination; Merſennus, long ago, by means of an in the claffic authors are almoſt innumerable. tenſe heat, found that air might be rarefied ſo as to poſſeſs more REASON, a faculty or power of the foul, whereby it diſtin- than 70 times its former ſpace. Mr. Boyle afterwards found, that guiſhes good from evil, and truth from fallhood. Or, reaſon is air, by its own elaſticity, and without the help of any heat, would that principle, whereby, comparing ſeveral ideas together, we draw dilate itſelf ſo as to take up nine times its former ſpace; then 31 conſequences from the relations they are found to have. Some of times; then 60; then 150: at length, by many degrees, he found the latter ſchool-philoſophers define reaſon to be the comprehenſion it would réach to 8000 times, then 10,000, and finally to 13,679. of many principles which the mind ſucceſſively can conceive, and Such is the rarefaction of common air, from its own principle of from which concluſions may be drawn. Others conceive reaſon elaſticity, and without any previous condenſation; but if it be com as no other than the underſtanding itſelf, conſidered as it dir- preſſed, the ſame author found its greateſt ſpace when moſt rarefied, courſes. Reaſon, Mr. Locke obſerves, comprehends two diſtinct is to its leaſt when moſt condenſed, as 55,000 to 1. Such an im faculties of the mind; viz. fagacity, whereby it finds intermediate menſe rarefaction, Sir Iſaac Newton ſhews is inconceivable on any ideas; and illation, whereby it fo orders and diſpoſes of them, as other principle than that of a repelling force inherent in the air, to diſcover what connection there is in each link of the chain, whereby its particles mutually fly from one another. This repel- whereby the extremes are held together; and thereby, as it were, ling force, he obſerves, is much more conſiderable in air than in draws into view the truth fought for. Illation, or inference, con- other bodies, as being generated from the moſt fixed bodies, and ſiſts in nothing but the perception of the connection there is be- that with much difficulty, and ſcarce without fermentation ; thoſe tween the ideas in each ſtep of the deduction, whereby the mind particles being always found to fly each other with the moſt force, comes to ſee either the certain agreement or diſagreement of any which, when in contact, cohere the moſt firmly. See Air. two ideas; as in demonſtration, in which it arrives at knowledge; RAT, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the genus Mus in the or other probable connection; on which it gives or with-holds its Syſtem of MAMMALIA. See Mus. aſſent; as in opinion. Senſe and intuition reach but a little way: RATE, a ſtandard or proportion, by which either the quantity the greateſt part of our knowledge depends upon deductions, and or value of a thing is adjuſted. intermediate ideas. In thoſe caſes, where we muſt take propofi- RATE of a Ship of war, is, its order, degree, or diſtinction as to tions for true, without being certain of their being ſo, we have need magnitude, burden, force, &c. The Britiſh fleet is accordingly diſ to find out, examine, and compare, the grounds of their proba- tributed into fix rates, excluſive of the inferior veffels that uſually bility: in both caſes, the faculty which finds out the means, and attend on naval armaments; as floops of war, armed fhips, bomb-rightly applies them to diſcover certainty in the one, and proba- ketches, fire-thips, and cutters or ſchooners, commanded by lieu-bility in the other, is that which we call reaſon. tenants. Ships of the firſt rate mount a hundred cannon, and ſome Hence we may be able to form an idea of that ordinary diſtinc- more, having forty-two pounders on the lower deck, twenty-fourtion of things, into ſuch as are according to, thoſe that are above, pounders on the middle deck, twelve pounders on the upper deck, and thoſe contrary to reaſon. Thoſe according to reaſon are fuch and ſix pounders on the quarter deck and forecaſtle. They are propoſitions, whoſe truth we can diſcover by examining and tracing manned with eight hundred and fifty men, including their officers, thoſe ideas we have from ſenſation and reflection, and by natural ſeamen, marines, and ſervants. For repreſentation of a firſt rate deduction find to be true or probable. Thoſe above reaſon are fhip of war with all her appurtenances, ſee the Treatiſe on NA- ſuch propoſitions, whoſe truth or probability we cannot by reaſon VAL AFFAIRS, and the Plate annexed, fig. 2. For a ſection of a derive from thoſe principles. Thoſe contrary to reaſon are ſuch firſt rate ſhip of war, from item to ſtern, ſee fg. I. For explana- propoſitions as are inconſiſtent with, or irreconcilable to, our clear tion of each repreſentation, ſee the Treatiſe, Sect. IV. and diſtinct ideas. Thus, the exiſtence of one God is according RATIFICATION, an act, approving of, and confirming to reaſon; the exiſtence of more than one God is contrary to rea- fomething done by another in our name. A treaty of peace is is fon; and the reſurrection of the body after death, above reaſon. never ſecure till the princes have ratified it. All procuratation im Above reaſon may alſo be taken in a double ſenſe; viz. above ports a promiſe of ratifying and approving what is done by the probability, or above certainty. They who diſpute moſt againſt proxy, or procurator; after treating with a procurator, agent, the power and privileges of human reaſon, do it becauſe their own factor, &c. a ratification is frequently neceſſary on the part of his reaſon perſuades them to that belief; and fo, whether the vi&tory principal. be on their or our ſide, they are equally defeated. They ſeek RATIFICATION, is particularly uſed in our laws, for the con to terrify us with the example of many great wits, who, by fol- firmation of a clerk in a benefice, prebend, &c. formerly given lowing this ignis fatuus (ſo they call the only pole-ſtar God has him by the biſhop, &c. where the right of patronage is doubted to given us to direct our courſe by) have fallen into wild and ridicu- be in the king lous opinions, and increaſed the catalogue of hereſies to ſo great a RATIFICATION, is alſo uſed for an act confirming fomething number; but theſe men either followed not their reaſon, but make we ourſelves have done in our own name. An execution by a it follow their will; or elſe they firſt hoodwinked it by intereſt and major, of an act paſſed in his minority, is equivalent to a ratification. I prejudice, and then bad it ſhew them the way; or were wanting RATIO, in geometry, that relation of homogeneous things in thoſe neceſſary diligences required for ſo doubtful a paſſage: or which determines the quantity of one from the quantity of another, if, without any of theſe, the weakneſs of their underſtanding had without the intervention of any third. See the Syſtem, Part I. deceived them, the error is neither hurtful to themſelves, nor would Sect. IV. be to others, if this doctrine of governing ourſelves by our own RATIONAL, or true Hurizon, is that whoſe plane is con reaſon, and not by authority and example, were generally eſta- ceived to paſs through the centre of the earth; and which therefore bliſhed. It is not the uſe of ſuch liberty, but the appropriating it to R E C R E C to ourſelves, that is the cauſe of all the diforders charged thereon ; , equally on the breech and on the ball; ſo that if the piece and ball for thoſe who lay a reſtraint on other men's reaſon, have firſt made were of equal weight, and other circumſtances the fame, the piece uſe of their own to ſettle them, and then make uſe of it in this would recoil with the ſame velocity as that with which the ball is very reſtraining of others, diſcharged; but the heavier any body is, the leſs will its velocity be, REASON, in matters of religion, is uſed in oppoſition to faith. when the force impelling it continues the ſame: This uſe of the word, Mr. Locke takes to be in itſelf very impro RECOLLECTION, a mode of thinking, whereby thoſe ideas, per; for faith is nothing but a firm aſſent of the mind; which, if ſought after by the mind, are with pain and endeavour found, and it be regulated, as it is our duty, cannot be afforded to any thing but brought again to view. See Memory and IMAGINATION. upon good reaſon, and ſo cannot be oppoſite to it. He that believes RECORD, in law, an authentic teſtimony of any thing in writing, without having any reaſon for believing, may be in love with his contained in rolls of parchment, and preſerved in a court of record. own fancies; but he neither ſeeks truth as he ought, nor pays the RECORDER, recordator, a perſon whom the mayor, or other proper obedience due to his Maker, who would have him uſe thoſe chief magiſtrate of any city, or town corporate, having juriſdiction, diſcerning faculties he has given him, to keep him out of miſtake and a court of record, within their precinets, does affociate with and error. But ſince reaſon and faith are by ſome men oppoſed, him, for his better direction, in matters of juſtice, and proceedings it may be neceſſary to conſider them together. Reaſon, as contra according to law. He is uſually a counſellor, or other perſon, diſtinguiſhed to faith, is the diſcovery of the certainty or proba- verſed and experienced in the law. In ſome towns, which have bility of ſuch propoſitions, or truths, which it has got by the uſe their particular aſlizes within themſelves, and no mayor, the re- of its natural faculties: viz. by ſenſation, or reflection. Faith, corder is the judge. The recorder of London is one of the juſtices on the other hand, is the affent to any propoſition upon the credit of oyer and terminer, and a juſtice of peace of the quorum, for put- of the propoſer, as coming immediately from God; which we call ting the laws in execution for preſerving the peace and government revelation. of the city; and being the mouth of the city, he delivers the ſen- REASONING, ratiocination, the exerciſe of that faculty of the tences and judgements of the courts therein, and alſo certifies and mind called reaſon: or it is reaſon deduced into diſcourſe. For an records the city-cuſtoms, &c. He is choſen by the lord mayor and accurate definition of reaſoning in general, and the ſeveral parts of aldermen, and attends the buſineſs of the city, on any warning by which it conſiſts, together with the benefit of Logic to reaſoning, the lord mayor, &c. fee the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. I. II. III. IV. and V. RECOVERY, in a legal ſenſe, an obtaining of any thing by REBUS, an ænigmatical repreſentation of ſome name, &c. by judgment, or trial at law. uſing figures or pictures inſtead of words or parts of words. Camden RECTANGLE, in geometry, called alſo oblong, and long mentions an inſtance of this abſurd kind of wit in a gallant who ex ſquare, a quadrilateral rectangular figure. See the Syſtem, Part 1. preſſed his love to a woman named Roſe Hill, by painting in the Sect. I. border of his gown a roſe, a hill, an eye, a loaf, and a well; which RECTANGLED, RIGHT-ANGLED, triangle, is a triangle, in the ſtyle of the rebus, reads, “ Roſe Hill I love well.” This one of whoſe angles is right, or equal to 90°. See the Syſtem. kind of wit was long practiſed by the great, who took the pains to Part I. Sect. I. find devices for their names. It was, however, happily ridiculed RECTIFICATION, compounded of rečius, right, direct, and, by Ben Johnſon, in the humorous deſcription of Abel Drugger's fio, I become, the act of rectifying, i. e. of correcting, remedying, device in the Alchemiſt; by the Spectator, in the device of Jack or redreſſing, ſome defect or error, in reſpect cither of nature, art, of Newbery; at which time the rebus, being raiſed to ſign-poſts, or morality. was grown out of faſhion at court. RECTIFICATION, in chymiſtry, is the repeating of a diſtillation RECAPITULATION, in oratory, &c. a part of the perora of ſublimation ſeveral times, in order to render the ſubſtance purer, tion or concluſion. Recapitulation is a ſummary of the preceding finer, and freer from aqueous and earthy parts. Rectification is a diſcourſe; or a conciſe, tranſient enumeration of the principal reiterated depuration of a diſtilled matter, e. gr. brandy, ſpirits, or things inſiſted on at large therein; whereby the memory of the oils, by diſtilling them over again, to render them more fubtile, and hearers is refreſhed, and the force of the whole collected into one exalt their virtues. See the Treatiſe on DistillATION, Article view. See the Treatiſe, Part II. Sect. VI. RECTIFICATION. RECEIVER of an Air-pump, in pneumatics, is part of its ap RECTIFYING of the Globe or Sphere, is a previous adjuſting paratus; being a glaſs veffel placed on the top of the plate, out of of the globe or ſphere, to prepare it for the ſolution of problems. which the air is to be exhauſted. To an air-pump belong various For the method of doing it, fee Treatiſe on the GLOPES; for the receivers, of various forıms and ſizes, and ſerving for various pur- terreſtrial, Problem X. under that article; for the celeſtial, fee poſes. See the Syſtem, Sect. II. and Plate III. Fig. 9. Problem I. under that article. RECEPTACULUM Chyli, RECEPTACULUM Commune, or RECTILINEAR, right-lined, in geometry, is applied to ciſterna chyli, in anatomy, a reſervoir or cavity near the left kidney, figures whoſe perimeter conſiſts of right-lines. See the Syſtem, into which the lacteal veſſels all diſcharge their contents. See the Part I. Sect. I. Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XIV. RECTITUDE, in matters of philoſophy, refers either to the RECEP IACULUM Seminum, or RECEPTACLE of the Seed, in act of judging, or of willing; and therefore, whatever comes under botany, the name given by naturaliſts to the baſe of the flower and the denomination of rectitude is either what is true, or what is fruit of plants, which connects the other fix parts of fructification. good; theſe being the objects about which the mind exerciſes its See the Syſtem, Sect. II. two faculties of judging and willing. Reciitude of the mind, confi- RECIPROCAL, reciprocus, ſomething that is mutual, or which dered as it judges, i, e, rectitude of the faculty of judgment, conſiſts is returned equally on both ſides, or affects both parties alike. The in its agreement and conformity to the nature and reaſon of things, end of human ſociety is to afford each other reciprocal aid: there and in its determining and deciding about them according to what are reciprocal duties between the prince and his ſubjects, the huſ their conſtitutions, properties, uſes, &c. really are. Rectitude of the band and wife, &c. There is a reciprocal action between the mind, conſidered as it wills, called alſo moral rectitude, or uprightneſs, agent and patient. The lex talionis eſtabliſhes a kind of recipro- conſiſts in the chooſing and purſuing of thoſe things which the mind, cation of juſtice. upon due inquiry and attention, clearly perceives to be good; and RECIPROCAL, in grammar, is applied to certain verbs and is applied to certain verbs and pro- avoiding thoſe that are evil. nouns in ſome of the modern languages; in regard of their turning RECTOR of a Pariſh, the parſon, or he who has the charge or reflecting the noun, or perſon, upon himſelf. See the Syſtem, or cure of a pariſh church. or cure of a pariſh church. If the predial tythes of the pariſh be Part II. Chap. III. Part III. and V. impropriated, or appropriated, i. e. either in lay hands, or in thoſe RecipROCAL Figures, in geometry, are ſuch as have the ante of ſome eccleſiaſtical community, then inſtead of rector, the parſon cedents and conſequents of the ſame ratio in both figures. See the is called vicar. In England are reckoned 3485 rectories. Syſtem, Sect. IV. RECTORY, or RectORATE, rectoria, a pariſh church, par- Reciprocal Proportion, is when in four numbers the fourth fonage, or fpiritual living, with all its rights, glebes, and tythes. is leſs than the ſecond, by ſo much as the third is greater than the RECTUM, in anatomy, denotes the third and laſt of the large firſt, and vice verſa. See the Syſtem of Geometry, Sect. IV. inteſtines, or guts. It is thus called, becauſe it paſſes ſtraight from Great uſe is made of this reciprocal proportion, by Sir Iſaac the os ſacrum to the anus; without making any turns or circum- Newton, and others, in demonſtrating the laws of motion. volutions, as all the other guts do. See the Syſtem, Part V. Sect. RECKONING, in navigation, the act of eſtimating the quan VI. Plate III. fig. 4. letter S. tity of a ſhip's way; or of the diſtance run between one place and RECTUS, in anatomy, a name common to ſeveral muſcles, on another. For copious rules for correcting a ſhip's reckoning, ſee account of the ſtraightneſs of the courſe of their fibres, from their the Syſtem, Sect. V. origin to their inſertion ; having particular denominations from the RECLINATION of a Plane, in dialling, is the angle which it parts to which they miniſter; ſuch are the rectus abdominis, rečius makes with a vertical plane. See the Treatiſe, Part II. Sect. III. femoris, re&tus capitis lateralis, major externus, minor externus, major RECLINER, or RECLINING Dial, is a dial whoſe plane re internus, minor internus, and re&tus palpebre. For the origin, in- clines from the perpendicular; i. e. leans from you when you ſtand fertion, and uſes of theſe ſeveral muſcles, ſee the ſyſtem of Ana- before it. When this reclination is equal to the height of the pole, TOMY, Part II. Table of Muſcles under the ſeveral articles to the dial is ſaid to be equinoctial. See the Treatile, Sect. VII. which the names of thoſe parts they belong to are affixed. For Art. XIII. repreſentation, ſee the Plate of MYOLOGY. RECOIL, the reſilition of a body, chiefly a fire-arm; or the RECURVIROSTRA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to motion whereby, upon exploſion, it ſtarts or flies backwards; the the order of gralla. The beak is fubulated, bent back, ſharp and cauſe of which is the impelling force of the powder, which acts flexible at the point; the feet are webbed, and furniſhed with three toes, REF REF toes. There is but one ſpecies, viz. the avocetta; a native of expenſive, and imperfect: but a much ſhorter and more advan- the fouthern parts of Europe. For repreſentation, ſee the plates, tageous method has been diſcovered. This method conſiſts in Genus 8o. adding to the allayed gold and ſilver a certain quantity of lead, RECUSANTS, ſuch perſons as acknowledge the pope to be and in expoſing afterwards this mixture to the action of the fire, the ſupreme head of the church, and refuſe to acknowledge the Lead is one of the metals which loſes moſt quickly and eaſily a king's ſupremacy; who are hence called popiſh recuſants. ſufficient quantity of its inflammable principle to ceaſe to be in a RED, one of the colours called ſimple or primary; being one metallic ſtate; but at the ſame time, this metal has the remarkable of the ſhades into which the light naturally divides itſelf when property of retaining, notwithſtanding the action of the fire, enough refracted through a priſm. See Syſtem of Optics, Part I. Sect. I. of this ſame inflammable principle to be very eaſily melted into a Prop. VIII. vitrified and powerfully vitrifying matter, called litharge. Red, in dying, is one of the five ſimple or mother colours of The lead then which is to be added to the gold and ſilver to be the dyers. See the Treatiſe, Sect. II. refined, or which happens naturally to be mixed with theſe metals, RED, in heraldry. See GULES. produces in their refining the following advantages : 1. By increaſ- RED Lead. See MINIUM and LEAD. ing the proportion of imperfect metals, it prevents them from REDOUBT, or ReDOUTE, in fortification, a ſmall ſquare fort, being ſo well covered and protected by the perfect metals. 2. By without any defence but in front, uſed in trenches, lines of circum uniting with theſe imperfect metals, it communicates to them a pro- vallation, contravallation, and approach; as alſo for the lodging of perty it has of loſing very eaſily a great part of its inflammable prin- corps de garde, and to defend paſſages. See the Syſtem, Sect. I, ciple. 3. By its vitrifying and fuſing property which it exerciſes No. 10. and Plate I. Fig. 9. Letter B. with all its force upon the calcined and naturally refractory parts of REDUCTION, in arithmetic, is the converting of moneys, the other metals, it facilitates and accelerates the fuſion, the ſcorifi- weights, or meaſures, into the fame value in other denominations; cation, and the ſeparation of theſe metals. Theſe are the advantages e. gr. pounds into ſhillings and pence; or ſhillings and pence into procured by lead in the refining of gold and ſilver. The lead, which pounds. See the Syſtem, Chap. II. Sect. V. in this operation is ſcorified, and ſcorifies along with it the imper- REDUCTION of Equations, in algebra, is the clearing them from fect metals, ſeparates from the metallic maſs, with which it is then all fuperfluous quantities, bringing down the quantities to their incapable of remaining united. It floats upon the ſurface of the loweſt terms, and ſeparating the known quantities from the un melted maſs; becauſe by loſing part of its phlogiſton, it loſes alſo known ones, till at length only the unknown quantity is found on one part of its ſpecific gravity, and laſtly it vitrifies. Theſe vitrified and fide, and known ones on the other. See the Syſtem, Sect. VI. melted matters accumulating more and more upon the ſurface of throughout. the metal while the operation advances, would protect this ſurface REDUNDANCY, or REDUNDANCE, a fault in diſcourſe, from the contact of air which is ſo abſolutely neceſſary for the ico- conſiſting in the uſe of a ſuperfluity of words. Words perfectly Words perfectly rification of the reſt, and would thus ſtop the progreſs of the ope- ſynonimous are redundant, and ought to be retrenched. Redun ration, which could never be finiſhed, if a method had not been dancy neceſſarily makes the ſtyle weak and languid. contrived for their removal. This removal of the vitrified matter REDUNDANT Interval, in muſic, is uſed for an interval ex is procured either by the nature of the veſſel in which the melted ceeding the truth by a comma. Some apply redundant to an in matter is contained; and which being porous, abſorbs and imbibes terval exceeding a diatonic interval by a ſemitone minor; but this the ſcorified matter as faſt as it is formed; or by a channel cut in is more uſually called a fuperfluous interval. See the Syſtem, under the edge of the veſſel through which the maiter Hows out. the Article DEFINITIONS, &c. The veſſel in which the refining is performed is flat and ſhallow, RE-EXCHANGE, in cominerce, a ſecond payınent of the that the matter which it contains may preſent to the air the greateſt price of exchange, or rather the price of a new exchange, due upon ſurface poſſible. This form reſembles that of a cup, and hence it à bill of exchange that comes to be proteſted; and to be refunded has been called cupel. The furnace ought to be vaulted, that the the bearer, by the drawer or indorſer. See ExCHANGE. heat may be applied upon the furface of the metal during the whole REFERENCE, in writing, &c. a mark relative to another time of the operation. Upon this ſurface a cruſt of dark-coloured fimilar one in the margin, or at the bottom of the page, where pellicle is continually forming. In the inſtant when all the imper- fomething, omitted in the text, is added; and which is to be in fect metal is deſtroyed, and conſequently the ſcorification ceaſes, ſerted either in reading or copying. A copyiſt muſt be very expert the ſurface of the perfect metals is ſeen, and appears clean and at taking references. References are alſo uſed in books, where brilliant. This forms a kind of fulguration or coruſcation. By this things being but imperfectly handled, the reader is directed to ſome inark the metal is known to be refined. If the operation be fo con- other part or place where they are more amply explained. Dic ducted that the metal only ſuſtains the preciſe degree of heat necef- tionaries are full of references denoted by fee or vide. By means ſary to keep it fuſed before it be perfectly refined, we may obſerve of theſe references the dictionary-writer ſettles a correſpondence that it fixes or becomes folid all at once in the very inſtant of the between the ſeveral parts of his work, and may give his dićtionary coruſcation; becauſe a greater heat is required to keep ſilver or gold moſt of the advantages of a continued treatiſe. in fuſion, when they are pure, than when allayed with lead. The REFINING, the art or act of purifying a thing; or of render- operation of refining may be performed in ſmall or in large quanti- ing it finer, clearer, and purer. Refining is chiefly uſed in ſpeak- ties, upon the ſame principles, but only with fome differences in the ing of metals, ſugar, and ſalt. management. As the refining of ſmall quantities of perfect metals The REFINING of Gold is performed three ways; either with is performed in the ſame manner as theſe metals are aſſayed, the aſſay antimony, with ſublimate, or with aqua fortis; which laſt method, being only a very accurate refining, we refer to the article Assay. much the moſt uſual and leaſt dangerous of the three, is called de- | Large quantities of ſilver are thus purified, after the operations by parting or parting. Gold and ſilver may be refined by ſeveral me which that metal is obtained from its ores. This ſilver, being always thods, which are all founded on the eſſential properties of theſe me much allayed, is to be mixed with a ſufficient quantity of lead to tals, and acquire different names according to their kinds. Thus, complete its purification, unleſs lead has been added in its firſt fuſion for inſtance, gold, having the property which no other metal, not from the ore, or unleſs it has been extracted from an ore which alſo even ſilver, has, of reſiſting the action of ſulphur, of antimony, of contains lead; in which latter caſe, it is allayed naturally with a nitrous acid, of marine acid, may be purified by theſe agents from ſufficient quantity, or more than ſufficient, for the refining of it. all other metallic ſubſtances, and conſequently may be refined. REFLECTING, or REFLECTIVE Dial, is a ſort of dial, Theſe operations are diſtinguiſhed by proper names, as purification which ſhews the hour by means of a thin piece of looking-glaſs of gold by antimony, parting, concentrated parting, dry parting. In plate, duly placed to cait the ſun's rays to the top of a ceiling, on a ſimilar manner, as ſilver has the property, which the imperfect which the hour-lines are drawn. See the Treatiſe on DIALLING. metals have not, of reſiſting the action of nitre, it may be refined by Sect. VII. Article XXV. this falt; but the term refining is chiefly applied to the purification REFLECTION, or REELEXION, in mechanics, the return, or of gold and ſilver by lead in the cupel. This is performed by the regreſſive motion of a moveable, occaſioned by the reſiſtance of a deſtruction, vitrification, and ſcorification, of all the extraneous body, which hindered its purſuing its former direction. See the and deſtructible metallic ſubſtances with which they are all allayed. Article MOTION. As none but the perfect metals can reſiſt the combined action of REFLECTION of the Rays of Light, in optics, is a motion of the air and fire, without loſing their infiammable principle, and being rays, whereby, after impinging on the folid parts of bodies or rather changed into earthy or vitreous matters, incapable of remaining after a very near approach thereto, they recede, or are driven there- any longer united with ſubſtances in a metallic ſtate, there is then from. See the Syſtem, Part II. throughout. a poflibility of purifying gold and ſilver from all allay of imperfect Reflection is alſo uſed figuratively for an operation of the metals merely by the action of fire and air; only by keeping them mind, whereby, turning as it were back upon itſelf, it makes itſelf, fuſed till all the allay be deſtroyed: but this purification would be and its own operation, its object; and conſiders or contemplates very expenſive, from the great conſumption of fuel, and would be the manner, order and laws which it obſerves in perceiving, reaſon, exceedingly tedious. Silver allayed with copper, has been expoſed ing, willing, judging, doubting, believing, &c. and framnes itſelf. longer than 60 hours to a glaſs-houſe fire, without being perfe&tly new ideas of the relation diſcovered therein. refined: the reaſon of which is, that when a ſmall quantity only REFORMATION, in general, an act of reforming or cor- of imperfect metal remains united with gold or ſilver, it is covered recting an error or abuſe in religion, diſcipline, or the like. By and protected from the action of the air, which is neceſſary for the way of eminence the word is uſed for that great alteration and re- combuſtion of the imperfect metals, as of all combuſtible matters. formation in the corrupted ſyſtem of Chriſtianity, begun by Luther, This refining of gold and ſilver merely by the action of fire, which in the city of Wirtemberg in Saxony, in the year 1517. The va- was the only method anciently known, was very long, diſficult, rioys corruptions in religion, the oppreſlions and uſurpations of the clergy, REF R E F fels any upon clergy, and the extreme inſolence of the popes, are fully recorded the duties of their office, and indulged themſelves, without reſerve, in the annals of hiſtory. in all the vices to which great wealth and idleneſs naturally give It is fufficient therefore to obferve, that before the period of the birth: and groſs ignorance and low debauchery rendered the infe- reformation, the pope had in the moſt audacious manner declared ferior clergy as contemptible as the others were odious. So that we himſelf the ſovereign of the whole world. The parts of it which were find, long before the ſixteenth century, that many authors of repu- inhabited by thoſe who were not chriſtians, he accounted to be in tation give ſuch deſcription of the diſſolute morals of the clergy, as habited by favages: and if chriſtians took it into their heads to poſ- ſeems almoſt incredible in the preſent age. The ſcandal of theſe of thoſe countries, he gave them full liberty to make war crimes, which very generally prevailed, was greatly increaſed by the the inhabitants without any provocation, and to treat them facility, with which ſuch as committed them obtained pardon. The with no more humanity than they would have treated wild beaſts. exorbitant wealth of the church, the vaſt perſonal iinmunities of The countries, if conquered, were to be parcelled out according eccleſiaſtics, and their encroachments on the juriſdiction of the laity, to the pope's pleaſure; and dreadful was the ſituation of that prince and their various devices to ſecure their uſurpations, created much who refuſed to obey the will of the holy pontiff, of which many diſfatisfaction among the people, and diſpoſed them to pay particu- inſtances will occur to the reader in the various parts of this work. lar attention to the invectives of Luther. Beſides theſe cauſes of his In conſequence of this extraordinary authority which the pope had rapid progreſs, we may rapid progreſs, we may alſo reckon the invention of the art of print- aſſumed, he at laſt granted to the king of Portugal all the countries ing, about half a century before his time, the revival of learning to the eaſtward of Cape Non in Africa, and to the king of Spain all at the ſame period, and the bold ſpirit of inquiry which it excited in the countries to the weſtward of it. In this, according to the Europe; fo that many were prepared to embrace his doctrines, who opinions of ſome, was completed in his perſon the character of did not really wiſh ſucceſs to his undertaking. In the writings of Antichriſt ſitting in the temple of God, and ſhewing himſelf as God. Reuchlin, Hutter, and the other revivers of learning in Germany, He had long before, ſay they, aſſumed the Supremacy belonging to the corruptions of the church of Rome are cenſured with an acri- the Deity himſelf in ſpiritual matters; and now he aſſumed the mony of ſtyle little inferior to that of Luther himſelf. The raillery fame ſupremacy in worldly matters alſo, giving the extreme regions and oblique cenſures of Eraſmus, in particular, upon the errors of of the earth to whom he pleaſed. The reformation, therefore, the church, as well as upon the ignorance and vices of the clergy, they conſider as the immediate effect of divine power, taking ven prepared the way for Luther's invectives and more direct attacks. geance on this and all other deviations from the ſyſtem of truth; To all which we may add, that the theological doctrines of popery while others conſider it merely as an effect of natural cauſes, and were fo repugnant to the ſpirit of Chriſtianity, and ſo deftituie of which might have been foreſeen and prevented, without abridging any foundation in reaſon, in the word of God, or in the practice the papal power in any conſiderable degree. of the church, that this circumſtance combined in favouring the Be this as it will, the abovementioned partition was the laſt in progreſs of Luther's opinions, and in weakening the reſiſtance of ftance of infolence which the pope ever had, or in all probability his adverſaries. The riſe of the reformation in Switzerland was at ever will have in his power to exerciſe, in the way of parcelling leaft as early as in Germany; for Ulric Zuinglius had, in the year out the globe to his adherents. Every thing was quiet, every heretic 1516, begun to explain the ſcriptures to the people, and to cenlure, exterminated, and the whole Chriſtian world ſupinely acquieſced though with great prudence and moderation, the errors of a corrupt in the enormous abſurdities which were inculcated upon them; church. He had very noble and extenſive ideas of a general refor- when, in 1517, the empire of ſuperſtition began to decline, and mation, at the time when Luther retained almoſt the whole ſyſtem has continued to do ever ſince. The perſon who made the firſt at of popery, indulgences excepted, and he had actually called in tack on the extravagant ſuperſtitions then prevailing was Martin queſtion the authority and ſupremacy of the pope, before the name Luther. of Luther was known in that country. By ſome it is pretended, that the only motive which Luther In Germany, Luther made great advances, without being in had in beginning the reformation was his enmity to the Domi the leaſt intimidated by the eccleſiaſtical cenſures which were thun- nican friars, who had excluded his order (the Auguſtins) from dered againſt him from all quarters, he being continually protected all ſhare in the gainful traffic of indulgences. But this does not by the German princes, and particularly the elector of Saxony, ſeem at all probable, if we conſider that ſuch a motive would not either from religious or political motives, ſo that his adverſaries naturally have led him to deny the virtue of indulgences, as ſuch could not accompliſh his deſtruction as they had done that of others. conduct could not but exclude him for ever from any chance of a Many other men of eminence alſo forwarded the work of Lu- ſhare in the traffic, which otherwiſe perhaps he might have obtained. ther; and in all probability the Popiſh hierarchy would have foon Beſides, the extreme contrariety of this traffic to the common prin come to an end, in the northern parts of Europe at leaſt, had ciples of reaſon and honeſty was ſo great, that we cannot wonder not the emperor Charles V. given a ſevere check to the progreſs at finding one man in the world who had ſenſe enough to diſcern of reformation in Germany. In order to purſue the ſchemes it, and virtue enough to oppoſe ſuch an infamous practice. In dictated by his ambition, he thought it neceſſary to ingratiate all probability, however, the inſignificancy of the firſt reformer himſelf with the pope; and the moſt effectual method of doing was the reaſon why he was not perſecuted and exterminated at his this was by deſtroying Luther. The pope's legates inſiſted that Lu- firſt beginning, as others had been before him. Another reaſon ther ought to be condemned by the diet of Worms without either probably might be, that he did not at once attack the whole errors trial or hearing; as being a moſt notorious, avowed, and incorri- of popery, but brought about his reformation gradually, probably gible heretic. However, this appeared unjuſt to the members of as it occurred to himſelf. the diet, and he was ſummoned to appear; which he accord- There are many other circumſtances which concurred at this ingly did without heſitation. There is not the leaſt doubt that time to bring about that happy reformation in religion, which re his appearance there had been his laſt in this world, had not the ſcued one part of Europe from the papal yoke, mitigated its rigour aſtoniſhing reſpect that was paid him, and the crowds who came in the other, and produced a revolution in the ſentiments of man daily to ſee him, deterred his judges from delivering the church kind, the greateſt as well as the moſt beneficial that has happened from the author of ſuch a peſtilent hereſy: which they were ſince the publication of Chriſtianity. We ſhall here obſerve, ſtrongly ſolicited by the pope's party to do. He was therefore per- that the fame corruptions in the church of Rome which Luther mitted to depart with a ſafe conduct for a certain time; after condemned, had been attacked long before his appearance, and which he was in the ſtate of a proſcribed criminal, to whom it the ſame opinions which he propagated, had been publiſhed in was unlawful to perform any of the offices of humanity. different places, and ſupported by the ſame arguments. Waldus During the confinement of Luther in a caſtle near Warburg, in the 12th century, Wickliff in the 14th, and Huſs in the 15th, the reformation advanced rapidly; almoſt every city in Saxony had inveighed againſt the errors of popery with great boldneſs, and embracing the Lutheran opinions. At this time an alteration in confuted them with more ingenuity and learning than could have the eſtabliſhed forms of worſhip was firſt ventured upon at Wit- been expected in thoſe illiterate ages in which they flouriſhed. temberg, by aboliſhing the celebration of private maſſes, and by But all theſe premature attempts towards a reformation proved giving the cup as well as the bread to the laity in the Lord's ſup- abortive. per. In a ſhort time, however, the new opinions were condemned Many powerful cauſes contributed to facilitate Luther's progreſs, by the univerſity of Paris, and a refutation of them was attempted which either did not exiſt, or did not operate with full force in their by Henry VIII. of England. But Luther was not to be thus inti- days; the principal of theſe we ſhall here enumerate. The long and midated. He publiſhed his animadverſions on the opinions of the ſcandalous ſchiſm which divided the church, during the latter part univerſity of Paris, and other learned bodies, with as much acrimony of the fourteenth, and the beginning of the afteenth centuries, had as if he had been refuting the meaneſt adverſary; and a controverſy a great effect in diminiſhing the veneration with which the world managed by ſuch capital antagoniſts drew a general attention, had been accuſtomed to view the papal dignity. The proceedings and the reformers daily gained new converts both in France and of the councils of Conſtance and Baſil ſpread this diſreſpect for the England. Romiſh ſee ſtill wider, and by their bold exertion of authority in To inteſtine diviſions on account of religion, were added the depofing and electing popes, taught the world that there was in the horrors of a civil war, occaſioned by oppreſſion on the one hand, church a juriſdiction ſuperior even to the papal power, which they and enthuſiaſm on the other. In 1525, a great number of ſediti- had long believed to be ſupreme. The wound given on that occa ous fanatics aroſe on a ſudden in different parts of Germany, took fion to the papal authority was ſcarcely healed, when the pon- arms, united their forces, and made war againſt the empire, laying tificate of Alexander VI. and Julius II. both able princes, but de- waſte the country with fire and ſword, and committing every where teſtable eccleſiaſtics, raiſed new ſcandal in Chriſtendom. Beſides, the greateſt cruelties. the greateſt cruelties. The greateſt part of this furious mob was many of the dignified clergy, ſecular as well as regular, neglected compoſed of peaſants and vallals, who groaned under heavy bur- dens, N° 135. U 11 u R E F REF dens, and declared that they were no longer able to bear the deſpotic | empire who entered this proteſt were, John, Elector of Saxony; government of their chiefs; and hence this fedition had the name of George, elector of Brandenburgh; Erneſt and Francis dukes of the ruſtic war, or the war of the peaſants. Lunenburgh; the landgrave of Heſſe; and the prince of Anhalt. In the mean time Frederic ſurnamed the Wiſe, elector of Saxony, Theſe were ſeconded by 13 imperial towns, viz. Straſburg, Ulm, and Luther's great patron, departed this life, and was ſucceeded Nuremberg, Conſtance, Rottingen, Windſeim, Memmingen, by his brother John. Frederic, though he had protected and en Nortlingen, Lindaw, Kempten, Heilbron, Wifíemburg, and couraged Luther, yet was at no pains to introduce the reformed St. Gall. religion into his dominions. But with his ſucceſſor it was otherwiſe; Hitherto indeed it was not eaſy for the emperor to form a clear for he, convinced that Luther's doctrine muſt foon be totally de idea of the matters in debate, ſince there was no regular ſyſtem as ſtroyed and ſuppreſſed unleſs it received a ſpeedy and effectual fup- yet compoſed, by which it might be known with certainty what port, ordered Luther and Melanchon to draw up a body of laws were the true cauſes of Luther's oppoſition to the pope. The relating to the form of ecclefiaftic government, the method of public elector of Saxony, therefore, ordered Luther, and other eminent worſhip, &c. which was to be proclaimed by heralds throughout his divines, to commit to writing the chief articles of their religious dominions. This example was followed by all the princes and ſtates fyſtem, and the principal points in which they differed froin the of Germany who renounced the papal ſupremacy; and a like form church of Rome. Luther, in compliance with this order, delivered of worſhip, diſcipline, and government, was thus introduced into to the elector at Torgaw, 17 articles which had been agreed upon all the churches which diſſented from that of Rome. This open in a conference at Sultzbach in 1529; from whence theſe received renunciation of the Romiſh juriſdiction ſoon changed the face of af the name of the articles of Torgaw. But though theſe were deemed fairs; and the patrons of Popery ſoon intimated, in a manner not by Luther a ſufficient declaration of the ſentiments of the reformers, at all ambiguous, that they intended to make war on the Lutheran yet it was judged proper to enlarge them, in order to give perſpi- party: which would certainly have been put into execution, had not cuity to their arguments, and ſtrength to their cauſe. In this work the troubles that took place in Europe diſconcerted their meaſures. Melanchon was employed, in which he ſhewed a proper deference On the other hand, the Lutherans, apprized of theſe hoſtile inten to the counſels of Luther, and expreſſed his ſentiments and doctrine tions, began alſo to deliberate on a proper plan of defence againſt with the greateſt elegance and perfpicuity; and thus came forth to that ſuperſtitious violence with which they were in danger of being view the famous confeßion of Augſburg. aſſailed. The diet of the empire aſſembled at Spire, in the year On the 15th of June 1530, Charles arrived at Augſburg, and 1526; where the emperor's ambaſſadors were deſired to uſe their the diet was opened five days after. The Proteſtants received a utmoſt endeavours to ſuppreſs all diſputes about religion, and to inſiſt formal permiſſion to preſent an account of their tenets to the diet on upon the rigorous execution of the ſentence which had been pro the 25th of the ſame month; in conſequence of which, at the time nounced againſt Luther and his followers. The greateſt part of appointed, Chriſtian Bayer, chancellor of Saxony, read, in the Ger- the German princes oppoſed this motion with the utmoſt reſolution, man language, before the emperor and the princes aſſembled, the declaring that they could not execute that ſentence, nor come to any confeſſion of Augſburg above mentioned. It contained 28 chapters, determination with regard to the doctrines by which it had been of which 21 were employed in repreſenting the religious opinions occafioned, before the whole matter was ſubmitted to the deciſion of of the Proteſtants, and the other feven in pointing out the errors a council lawfully aſſembled; alleging farther, that the deciſion of and ſuperſtitions of the church of Rome. The princes heard it controverſies of this nature belonged properly to it, and to it alone. with the deepeſt attention and recollection of mind: it confirmed This opinion, after long and very warm debates, was adopted by ſome in the principles they had embraced; ſurpriſed others; and a great majority, and at length conſented to by the whole aflembly; many, who before this time had little or no idea of the religious for it was unanimouſly agreed to preſent a ſolemn addreſs to the ſentiments of Luther, were now not only convinced of their inno- emperor, intreating him to aſſemble, without delay, a free and cence, but delighted with their purity and fimplicity. The copies general council; while in the mean time it was alſo agreed, that of this confeffion, which after being read, were delivered to the the princes of the empire ſhould, in their reſpective dominions, be emperor, were ſigned by John elector of Saxony, George marquis at liberty to manage ecclefiaftical affairs in the manner they ſhould of Brandenburg, Erneſt duke of Lunenburg, Philip landgrave of think moſt proper; yet ſo as to be able to give to God and the em Heffe, Wolfgang prince of Anhalt, and by the imperial cities of peror a proper account of their adminiſtraton when it ſhould be Nuremberg and Reutlingen. required of them. Matters now began to draw towards a criſis. There were only Theſe reſolutions proved extremely favourable to the cauſe of three ways of bringing to a concluſion theſe religious differences. reformation, neither had the emperor any leiſure for ſome time to 1. To grant the Proteſtants a toleration, and privilege of ſerving give diſturbance to the reformed. The war which at this time en God as they thought proper. 2. To compel them to return to the ſued between him and the pope, gave the greateſt advantage to the church of Rome by the violent methods of perſecution: or, 3. That friends of the reformed, and conſiderably augmented their number. a reconciliation ſhould be made, upon fair, candid, and equitable Several princes, whom the fear of perſecution and puniſhment had terms, by engaging each of the parties to temper their zeal with hitherto prevented from lending their aſſiſtance; publickly renounced moderation, to abate reciprocally the rigour of their pretenfions, the Romiſh ſuperſtition, and introduced among their ſubjects the and remit ſomething of their reſpective claims. The third expe- ſame forms of religious worſhip, and the ſame lyſtem of doctrine, dient was moſt generally approved of, being peculiarly agreeable to that had been received in Saxony. Others, though placed in ſuch all who had at heart the welfare of the empire; nor did the pope circumſtances as diſcouraged them from acting in an open manner ſeem to look upon it either with averſion or contempt. Various againſt the intereſts of the Roman pontiff, were, however, far from conferences therefore were held between perſons eminent for piety diſcovering the ſmalleſt oppofition to thoſe who withdrew the peo and learning on both ſides; and nothing was omitted that might ple from his deſpotic yoke; nor did they moleft the private aſſem have the leaſt tendency to calm the animofities, and heal the divi- blies of thoſe who had ſeparated themſelves from the church of fions which reigned between the contending parties. But the dif- Rome. And in general, all the Germans, who, before theſe reſo ferences were too great to admit of a reconciliation: and therefore lutions of the diet of Spire had rejected the papal diſcipline and doc the votaries of Rome had recourſe to the powerful arguments of trine, were now, in conſequence of the liberty they enjoyed, wholly | imperial edicts, and the force of the ſecular arm. employed in bringing their ſchemes and plans to a certain degree of In the year 1530 and 1531 the elector of Saxony and confede- conſequence, and in adding vigour and firmneſs to the cauſe in rate princes met at Smalcald; and afterwards at Francfort, where which they were engaged. But this tranquillity and liberty was of they formed a folemn alliance and confederacy, with the intention no long duration. In 1529, a new diet was aſſembled at the ſame of defending vigorouſly their religion and liberties againſt the dan- place by the emperor, after he had quieted the troubles in various gers and encroachments with which they were threatened by the parts of his dominions, and concluded a peace with the pope. The edict of Augſburg, without attempting, however, any thing of- power which had been granted to princes of managing eccleſiaſtical fenſive againſt the votaries of Rome; and into this confederacy affairs till the nieeting of a general council, was now revoked by they invited the kings of England, France, Denmark, 8rc. leaving a majority of votes; and every change declared unlawful that ſhould no means unemployed that might corroborate and cement this im- be introduced into the doctrine, diſcipline, or worſhip of the eſta portant alliance. This confederacy was at firſt oppoſed by Luther, bliſhed religion, before the determination of the approaching council from an apprehenſion of the calamities and troubles which it might was known. This decree was conſidered as iniquitous and intole- produce: but, at laſt, perceiving the neceſlity of it, he conſented; rable by the elector of Saxony, the landgrave of Heſſe, and other though he uncharitably, as well as imprudently, refuſed to com- members of the diet, who were perſuaded of the neceſſity of a re prehend in it the followers of Zuinglius among the Swiſs, together formation. The promiſe of ſpeedily aſſembling a general council, with the German ſtates and cities who had adopted the ſentiments they looked upon to be an artifice of the church of Rome; well and confeſſion of Bucer. In conſequence of an addreſs to H. VIII. knowing, that a free and lawful council would be the laſt thing to of England, whom the confederate princes were willing to declare which the pope would conſent. When, therefore, they found that the head and protector of their league; the king deſired that they all their arguments and remonſtrances made no impreſſion upon would ſend over two learned men to confer with him, in order to Ferdinand the emperor's brother, who preſided in the diet, Charles promote a religious union between him and the confederates. How- himſelf being then at Barcelona, they entered a folemn proteſt ever, he declared himſelf of their opinion with regard to the meet- againſt this decree on the 19th of April, and appealed to the emperoring of a free general council, and promiſed to join with them in all and a future council. Hence aroſe the denomination of Protef ſuch councils for the defence of the true doctrine; but thought the tants, which from this period has been given to thoſe who ſeparate regulation of the ceremonial part of religion, being a matter of in- from the communion of the church of Rome. The princes of the difference, ought to be left to the choice of each fovereign for his own REF REF by the terms. own dominions. After this the king gave him a ſecond anſwer In the year 1549, the pope (Paul III.) died; and was ſucceeded more full and ſatisfactory; but after the execution of queen Anne, by Julius III. who, at the repeated felicitations of the emperor this negociation came to nothing. On the one hand, the king Charles conſented to the re-aſſembling of a council at Trent. A grew cold when he perceived that the confederates were no longer diet was again held at Augſburg, under the cannon of an imperial of uſe to him in ſupporting the validity of his marriage; and, on army, and Charles laid the matter before the princes of the empire. the other hand, the German princes became ſenſible that they could Moſt of thoſe preſent gave their conſent to it, and, among the reſt, never ſucceed with Henry unleſs they allowed him an abſolute dic Maurice, elector of Saxony; who conſented on the following con- tatorſhip in matters of religion. ditions. 1. That the points of doctrine which had already been Many ſchemes of accommodation were afterwards propoſed both decided there, ſhould be re-examined. 2. That this examination emperor and the Proteſtants; but, by the artifices of the ſhould be made in preſence of the Proteſtant divines. 3. That the church of Rome, all of them came to nothing. The pope ordered Saxon Proteſtants ſhould have a liberty of voting as well as of deli- his legate to declare to the diet of Spire, aſſembled in 1542, that he berating in the council. 4. That the pope ſhould not pretend to would, according to the promiſe he had already made, aſſemble a preſide in that aſſembly, either in perſon or by his legates. This general council, and that Trent ſhould be the place of its meeting, declaration of Maurice was read in the diet, and his deputies infifted if the diet had no objection to that city. Ferdinand, and the upon its bring entered into the regiſters, which the archbiſhop of princes who adhered to the cauſe of the pope, gave their conſent to Mentz obſtinately refuſed. The diet was concluded in the year this propoſal; but it was vehemently objected to by the Proteſtants, 1551; and, at its breaking up, the emperor deſired the aſſembled both becauſe the council was ſummoned by the authority of the princes and ſtates to prepare all things for the approaching council, pope only, and alſo becauſe the place was within the juriſdiction of and promiſed to uſe his utmoſt endeavours to procure moderation the pope; whereas they deſired a free council, which ſhould not be and harmony, impartiality, and charity, in the tranſactions of that biaſed by the dictates, nor awed by all proximity, of the pontiff. aſſembly. zo But this proteſtation produced no effect. Paul III. perſiſted in his On the breaking up of the diet the Proteſtants took ſuch ſteps as purpoſe, and iffued out his circular letters for the convocation of they thought moſt proper for their own ſafety; and the elector, the council, with the approbation of the emperor. In juſtice to perceiving that Charles the emperor had formed deſigns againſt the this pontiff, however, it muſt be obſerved, that he ſhewed himſelf liberties of the German princes, reſolved to take the moſt effectual not to be averſe to every reformation. He appointed four cardi meaſures for cruſhing his ambition once. He therefore entered nals, and three other perſons eminent for their learning, to draw with the utmoſt ſecrecy and expedition into an alliance with the up a plan for the reformation of the church in general, and of the king of France, and ſeveral of the German princes, for the ſecurity church of Rome in particular. The reformation propoſed in this of the rights and liberties of the empire; after which, aſſembling plan was indeed extremely fuperficial and partial : yet it contained a powerful army in 1552, he marched againſt the emperor, who fome particulars which could ſcarcely have been expected from lay with a handful of troops at Inſpruck, and did not expect an thoſe who compoſed it. They complained of the pride and igno- attack. By this ſudden and unforeſeen accident Charles was ſo rance of the biſhops, and propoſed that none ſhould receive orders much diſpirited; that he was willing to make peace almoſt on any but learned and pious men; and that therefore care ſhould be taken The conſequence of this was, that he concluded a treaty to have proper maſters for the inſtruction of youth. They con at Paſſau, which by the Proteſtants is conſidered as the baſis of demned tranſlations from one benefice to another, grants of reſerva their religious liberty. By the firſt three articles of this treaty it tion, non-reſidence, and pluralities. They propoſed that ſome con was agreed, that Maurice and the confederates ſhould lay down vents ſhould be aboliſhed; that the liberty of the preſs ſhould be re their arms, and lend their troops to Ferdinand to aſſiſt him againſt ſtrained and limited; that the colloquies of Eraſmus ſhould be the Turks; and that the landgrave of Heſſe ſhould be ſet at liberty, fuppreſſed; that no ecclefiaftic ſhould enjoy a benefice out of his By the fourth it was agreed, that the Rule of Faith, called the In- own country; that no cardinal ſhould have a biſhopric; that the terim, ſhould be conſidered as null and void; that the contending queſtors of St. Anthony and ſeveral other ſaints ſhould be aboliſhed; | parties ſhould enjoy the free and undiſturbed exerciſe of their reli- and, which was the beſt of all their propoſals, that the effects and gion, until a diet ſhould be aſſembled to determine amicably the perſonal eſtates of ecclefiaftics ſhould be given to the poor. They preſent diſputes, which diet was to meet in the ſpace of ſix months, concluded with complaining of the prodigious number of indigent and that this religious liberty ſhould continue always, in caſe it and ragged prieſts who frequented St. Peter's church; and declared, ſhould be found impoſſible to come to an uniformity in doctrine and that it was a great ſcandal to ſee the whores lodged ſo magnificently worſhip. It was alſo determined, that all thoſe who had ſuffered at Rome, and riding through the ſtreets on fine mules, while the baniſhment, or any other calamity, on account of their having cardinals and other eccleſiaſtics accompanied them in the moſt cour been concerned in the league of war of Smalcald, ſhould be rein- teous manner. This plan of reformation was turned into ridicule ſtated in their privileges, poſſeſſions, and employments; that the by Luther and Sturmius; and indeed it left unredreſſed the moſt Imperial chamber at Spire ſhould be open to the Proteſtants as well intolerable grievances of which the Proteſtants complained. The as to the Catholics; and that there ſhould always be a certain emperor had long been labouring to perſuade the Proteſtants to number of Lutherans in that high court. To this peace Albert, conſent to an accommodation on a plan propoſed by the pope, at marquis of Brandenburg, refuſed to ſubſcribe; and continued the the council of Trent; but, when he found them fixed in their op- war againſt the Roman Catholics, committing ſuch ravages in the poſition to this meaſure, he began to liſten to the fanguinary mea empire, that a confederacy was at laſt formed againſt him. At fures of the pope, and reſolved to terminate the diſputes by force of the head of this confederacy was Maurice elector of Saxony, who arms. But, before the horrors of war commenced, the great re died of a wound he received in a battle fought on the occaſion former Luther died in peace at Ayſelben, the place of his nativity, in 1553. in 1546. The emperor and the pope had mutually reſolved on the The aſſembling of the diet, proiniſed by Charles, was prevented deſtruction of all who ſhould dare to oppoſe the council of Trent. by various incidents; however, it met at Augſburg in 1555, where The meeting of it was to ſerve as a ſignal for taking up arms, and was opened by Ferdinand, his brother, in name of the emperor; accordingly its deliberations were ſcarcely begun in 1546, when and terminated thoſe deplorable calamities which had ſo long deſo- the Proteſtants perceived undoubted ſigns of the approaching ſtorm, lated the empire. After various debates, the following acts were and of a formidable union betwixt the emperor and pope, which paſſed on the 25th of September: that the Proteſtants who followed threatened to cruſh and overwhelm them at once. Og the Confeffion of Augſburg ſhould be for the future conſidered as The two armies met near Muhlberg on the Elbe, on the 24th entirely free from the juriſdiction of the Roman pontiff, and from of April 1547; and after a bloody action, the elector was entirely the authority and ſuperintendance of the biſhops; that they were defeated, and himſelf taken priſoner. Maurice, who had fo bafely left at perfect liberty to enact laws for themſelves, relating to their betrayed him, was now declared elector of Saxony; and by his in- religious ſentiments, diſcipline, and worſhip; that all the inhabitants treaties, Philip landgrave of Heſſe, the other chief of the Proteſtants, of the German empire ſhould be allowed to judge for themſelves in was perſuaded to throw himſelf on the mercy of the emperor, and religious matters, and to join themſelves to that church whoſe doc- to implore his pardon. To this he conſented, relying on the pro trine and worſhip they thought the moſt pure and conſonant to the miſe of Charles for obtaining forgiveneſs and being reſtored to ſpirit of true Chriſtianity'; and that all thoſe who ſhould injure or liberty; but, notwithſtanding theſe expectations, he was unjuſtly perſecute any perſon under religious pretences, and on account of detained priſoner by a ſcandalous violation of the moſt folemn con their opinions, ſhould be declared and proceeded againſt as public vention. enemies of the empire, invaders of its liberty, and diſturbers of its The affairs of the Proteſtants now ſeemed to be deſperate. In the diet of Augſburg, which was ſoon after called, the emperor re Thus was the Reformation eſtabliſhed in many parts of the quired the Proteſtants to leave the deciſion of theſe religious diſputes German empire, where it continues to this day; nor have the to the wiſdom of the council which was to meet at Trent. The efforts of the Popiſh powers at any time been able to ſuppreſs it, greateſt part of the members conſented to this propoſal, being con or even to prevent it from gaining ground; and thus terminated vinced by the powerful argument of an imperial army which was at thoſe deplorable ſcenes of bloodſhed, deſolation and difcord, that hand to diſpel the darkneſs from the eyes of ſuch as might otherwiſe had ſo long afflicted both church and ſtate by that religious peace, have been blind to the force of the emperor's reaſoning. However, as it is commonly called, which ſecured to the Proteſtants the free this general fubmiffion did not produce the effect which was ex exerciſe of their religion, and eſtabliſhed this ineſtimable liberty pected from it. During this interval, therefore, the emperor judged upon the firmeſt foundations. it neceſſary to fall upon ſome method of accomniodating the religi During theſe tranſactions in Germany, the dawn of truth aroſe ous differences, and maintaining peace, until the council, ſo long upon other nations. The light of the reformation ſpread itſelf far expected, ſhould be finally obtained. and wide; and almoſt all the European ſtates welcomed its falutary beams, e received in a battle more peace. REF R E F In the beams, exulted in the proſpect of an approaching deliverance Sir Thomas Audley, of theſe reflections thrown out againſt them; from the yoke of ſuperſtition and ſpiritual deſpotiſm. Some of the and the biſhop was obliged to retract his words. moſt conſiderable provinces of Europe had already broke their Though Henry had not the leaſt idea of rejecting any, even of chains, and openly withdrawn themſelves from the diſcipline of the moſt abſurd Romiſh ſuperſtitions, yet as the oppreſſions of the Rome and the juriſdiction of its pontiff. The reformed religion was clergy fuited very ill with the violence of his own temper, he was propagated in Sweden foon after Luther's rupture with Rome, pleaſed with every opportunity of lefſening their power. by Olaus Petri, one of his diſciples, who was countenanced and parliament of 1531, he ſhewed his deſign of humbling the clergy in the moſt effectual manner. An obſolete ſtatute was revived, encouraged by the valiant and public ſpirited prince Guftavus Vaſa Ericſon, to whoſe firmneſs and magnanimity it was owing, that from which it was pretended that it was criminal to ſubmit to the from the year 1527 the papal empire in Sweden was entirely over legantine power which had been exerciſed by cardinal Wolſey. By turned, and Guſtavus declared head of the church. The light of the this ſtroke the whole body of clergy were declared guilty at once. reformation was alſo received in Denmark fo early as the year They were too well acquainted with Henry's difpofition, however, 1521, in conſequence of the ardent deſire diſcovered by Chriſtian to reply, that their ruin would have been the certain conſequence or Chriſtiern 11. for purpoſes of mere ambition, of having his dif of their not fubmitting to Wolſey's commiſſion, which had been ciples inſtructed in the doctrines of Luther. His fucceffor Fre given by royal authority. Inſtead of making any defence of this deric duke of Holſtein and Sileſia, contributed greatly to the pro kind, they choſe to throw themſelves on the mercy of their fove- preſs of the reformation, by his ſucceſsful attempts in favour of re reign; which, however, it coſt them 118,8401. to procure. A con- ligious liberty, at the aſſembly of ſtates that was held at Odenſee, feffion was likewiſe extorted from them, that the king was protec- in the year 1527, when he procured the publication of the famous tor and fupreme head of the church of England; though fome of edict which declared every ſubject of Denmark free, either to ad them had the dexterity to get a clauſe inſerted, which invalidated here to the tenets of the church of Rome, or to embrace the doc the whole ſubmiſſion, viz. in ſo far as is permitted by the law of trine of Luther; that no perſon ſhould be moleſted on account of Chriſt. The king, having thus begun to reduce the power of the his religion ; that a royal protection ſhould be granted to the Lu-clergy, kept no bounds with them afterwards. He did not indeed therans, and that eccleſiaſtics of every order ſhould be allowed to attempt any reformation in religious matters; nay, he proſecuted marry. But the honour of accompliſhing this glorious work was moſt violently ſuch as did attempt this in the leaſt. Indeed, the teſerved for Chriſtiern III. a prince equally diſtinguiſhed by his moſt effential article of his creed ſeems to have been his own fu.. piety and prudence. The religious doctrine, diſcipline, and wor premacy; for, whoever denied this, was ſure to fuffer the moſt ſhip of this kingdom, were ſettled according to a plan laid down by ſevere penalties, whether Proteſtant or Papift. Burgenhagius. And the aſſembly of the ſtates at Odenſee, in Having ſued for a divorce from Catharine of Arragon, his bro- 1539, gave a ſolemn ſanction to all theſe tranſactions: and thus ther's widow, at the court of Rome, for almoſt fix years, during the work of reformation was brought to perfection in Denmark. which period Clement VII. negociated, promifed, retracted, and In France, the auſpicious patronage of Margaret, queen of Navarre, concluded nothing; he determined to apply to another tribunal for fiſter to Francis I. encouraged ſeveral pious and learned men, whoſe that decree which he had unſucceſsfully ſolicited at Rome. Cran- religious ſentiments were the ſame with her own, to propagate the mer, archbiſhop of Canterbury, by a ſentence founded on the au- principles of the reformation, and even to erect ſeveral Proteftant thority of univerſities, and doctors, who had been conſulted with churches in that kingdom. It appears, that, ſo early as the year reſpect to the point, annulled the king's marriage with Catharine ; 1523, there are many, and even perſons of rank, and ſome of the and Anna Boleyn, whoſe charms had captivated the king, was ac- epiſcopal order, who had conceived the utmoſt averſion both againſt knowledged as queen of England. Clement, apprehenſive left the doctrine and tyranny of Rome. But the wavering and incon England ſhould revolt from the holy fee, determined to give Henry ſiſtent conduct of Francis I. rendered the ſituation of the Proteſtants ſuch ſatisfaction as might ſtill retain him within the bofom of the in this country always precarious, often diſtreſſed. The French church. But the violence of the cardinals precipitated him, in 1534, Proteſtants were called Huguenots, by their adverſaries, by way of to iffue a bull reſcinding Cranmer's fentence, confirming Henry's contempt. Their fate was very ſevere, being proſecuted with marriage with Catharine, and declaring him excommunicated, 'if, unparalleled fury; and though many princes of the blood, and of within a time ſpecified, he did not abandon the wife he had taken, the firſt nobility, had embraced their ſentiments, yet in no part of and return to her whom he had deſerted. Enraged at this unex- the world did the reformers ſuffer ſo much. At laſt all commotionspected decree, Henry kept no longer any meaſures with the court were quelled by the fortitude and magnanimity of Henry IV.who in of Rome; his ſubjects ſeconded his reſentment; an act of par- the year 1598 granted all his ſubjects full liberty of conſcience by liament was paſſed, aboliſhing the papal power and juriſdiction in the famous edict of Nantz, and ſeemed to have thoroughly eſta England; by another the king was declared ſupreme head of the bliſhed the reformation throughout his dominions. During the church, and all the authority of which the popes were deprived minority of Louis XIV. however, this edict was revoked by car was veſted in him; the Monaſteries were ſuppreſſed, and their re- dinal Mazarine, ſince which time the Proteſtants have often been venues applied to other purpoſes. Henry, however, with a caprice cruelly perſecuted; nor was the profeſſion of the reformed religion peculiar to his character, continued to defend the doctrines of the in France by any means fo ſafe as in moſt other countries of Eu. Romiſh church as fiercely as he attacked their juriſdiction. He rope, but ſince the Revolution an univerſal toleration has taken alternately perſecuted the Proteſtants for rejecting the former, place. Upon the whole, we may obſerve, that before the diet of and the Catholics for acknowledging the latter. Nevertheleſs his Augſburg, the do&trine of Luther had made a conſiderable, though ſubjects having been encouraged by his example, to break fome of perhaps a ſecret progreſs in Spain, Hungary, Bohemia, Poland, their fetters, were ſo impatient to ſhake off all that remained, that and the Netherlands, and had in all theſe countries, many friends, in the following reign, under his fon Edward VI. with the gene- of whom ſeveral repaired to Wirtemberg, to improve their know ral applauſe of the nation, a total ſeparation was made from the ledge, and enlarge their views under ſuch an eminent maſter. church of Rome in articles of doctrine as well as in matter of dif- In England the principles of the reformation began to be adopted cipline and juriſdiction. In 1553 his death retarded the progreſs as ſoon as an account of Luther's doctrines could be conveyed thi of the reformation; and his ſiſter Mary, who ſucceeded him, im- ther. In that kingdom there were ſtill great remains of the ſect poſed a-new the arbitrary laws and tyrannical yoke of Rome upon called Lollards, whoſe doctrine reſembled that of Luther : and the people of England. But the execution of a great number of among whom, of conſequence, the ſentiments of our reformer perſons, who were burnt for the Proteſtant faith in the five years of gained great credit. Henry VIII. king of England at that time, her perſecuting and bloody reign, ſo alienated the people from po- was a violent partiſan of the church of Rome, and had a particular pery, that queen Elizabeth, her filter, found it no hard matter to veneration for the writings of Thomas Aquinas. Being informed deliver her ſubjects from the bondage of Rome, and to eſtabliſh that that Luther ſpoke of his favourite author with contempt, he con form of a religious doctrine and eccleſiaſtical government, which ceived a violent prejudice againſt the reformer, and even wrote ſtill fubfiſts in England. againſt him. Luther did not heſitate at writing againſt his The ſeeds of the reformation were very early fown in Scotland majeſty, overcame him in argument, and treated him with by ſeveral noblemen of that nation, who had reſided in Germany very little ceremony. The firſt ſtep towards public reforma- during the religious diſputes that divided the empire. The firſt and tion, however, was not taken till the year 1529. Great com moſt eminent oppoſer of the papal juriſdiction was John Knox, a plaints had been made in England, and of a very ancient date, diſciple of Calvin, who ſet out from Geneva for Scotland in 1559, of the uſurpations of the clergy; and by the prevalence of the and in a little while prevailed with the greateſt part of the Scotch Lutheran opinions, theſe complaints were now become more ge nation entirely to abandon the ſuperſtitions of Rome, and to aim neral than before. The Houſe of Commons finding the occaſion at nothing leſs than the total extirpation of popery. From that favourable, paſſed ſeveral bills, reſtraining the impoſitions of the period to the preſent times, the form of doctrine, worſhip, and clergy; but what threatened the eccleſiaſtical order with the greateſt diſcipline, that had been eſtabliſhed at Geneva by the miniſtry of danger were the ſevere reproaches thrown out almoſt without op Calvin, has been maintained in Scotland with invincible obſtinacy poſition in the houſe, againſt the diffolute lives, ambition, and ava and zeal, and every attempt to introduce, into that kingdom, the rice of the prieſts, and their continual encroachments on the rites and ceremonies of the church of England, has proved im- privileges of the laity. The bills for regulating the clergy met potent and unſucceſsful. See PRESBYTERIANS. with oppoſition in the Houſe of Lords; and biſhop Fiſher imputed The cauſe of the reformation in Ireland underwent the ſame vi- them to want of faith in the Commons, and to a formed deſign pro ciſſitudes that had attended it in England. When Henry VIII. after ceeding from heretical and Lutheran principles of robbing the the abolition of the papal authority, was declared ſupreme head of church of her patrimony, and overturning the national religion. the church of England, George Brown, a native of England, and a The Commons, however, complained to the king, by their ſpeaker | monk of the Auguſtin order, whom that monarch had created, in the R E G R EL 2 sana the year 1535, archbiſhop of Dublin, began to act with the utmoſt lege, who has a ſet of pupils under his care ; but here regent is gê- vigour in conſequence of this change in the hierarchy. He purged nerally reſtrained to the lower claſſes, as, regent of rhetoric, regent the churches of his dioceſe from ſuperſtition in all its forms, pulled of logic, &c. thoſe of philoſophy are rather called profeſjors. down images, deſtroyed relics, aboliſhed abſurd and idolatrous REGICIDE, or King-killer. The term is alſo uſed for the act rites, and by the influence as well as authority he had in Ireland itſelf of murdering a king; of rex, king, cædo, I ſay: cauſed the king's ſupremacy to be acknowledged in that nation. REGIMEN, the regulation of diet, and, in a more general Henry ſhewed ſoon after that this ſupremacy was not a vain title, ſenſe, of all the non-naturals, with a view to preſerve or reſtore for he baniſhed the monks out of that kingdom, confiſcated their health. See ABSTINENCE, ALIMENT, Food, DIET, DRINK revenues, and deſtroyed their convents. In the reign of Edward VI. and MEDICINE. farther progreſs was made in the reformation, but the acceſſion of The viciſlitude of exerciſe and reſt forms alſo a neceſſary part Mary retarded it, in conſequence of which Brown and other Pro- of reginen. See. EXERCISE. It is beneficial to be at reſt now teſtant biſhops were deprived of their dignities in the church. and then, but more ſo frequently to uſe exerciſe; becauſe inaction When Elizabeth aſcended the throne, the Iriſh were again obliged renders the body weak and lifleſs, and labour ſtrengthens it. But to ſubmit to the form of worſhip and diſcipline eſtabliſhed in Eng- a medium is to be obſerved in all things, and too much fatigue to land. The reformation had not been long eſtabliſhed in Britain, be avoided : for frequent and violent exerciſe overpowers the na- when the Belgic provinces, united by a reſpectable confederacy, tural ſtrength, and waſtes the body; but moderate exerciſe ought which ſtill ſubſiſts, withdrew from their ſpiritual allegiance to the always to be uſed before meals. Now, of all kinds of exerciſe, Roman pontiff. The means which Philip II. king of Spain, uſed riding on horſeback is the moſt convenient : or if the perſon be to obſtruct the reformation, promoted it: the nobility formed them- too weak to bear it, riding in a coach, or at leaſt in a litter: next who, under the heroic conduct of William of Naſſau, prince of of the inconveniences of old age, that there is ſeldom ſufficient Orange, ſeconded by the ſuccours of England and France, deli- ſtrength for uſing bodily exerciſe, though it be extremely requi- vered this fate from the Spaniſh yoke: in conſequence of which ſite for health: wherefore frictions with the fleſh-bruſh are necef- the reformed religion, as it was profelled in Switzerland, was eſta- fary at this time of life, which ſhould be performed by the perſon bliſhed in the United Provinces; and, at the ſame time, an univer- himſelf, if poſſible; if not by his ſervants. See this further ex- fal toleration granted to thoſe whoſe religious ſentiments were of plained at the concluſion of the Syſtem of Medicine, on the me- a different nature, whether they retained the faith of Rome, or thod of preſerving HEALTH. embraced the reformation in any other forin, provided that they REGIMEN, or Government, in grammar, is that part of ſyntax made no attempts againſt the authority of the government, or the or conſtruction, which regulates the dependency of words, and the tranquillity of the public. on the ſubject of this article, alterations which one occaſions in another. See the Syſtem, Part II. Robertſon's Hiſt. of Charles V. vol. ij. p. 113, &c. vol. iii. p. 44. Chap. IV. &c. Moſheim's Eccl. Hift. Eng. ed. 8vo. vol. iii. p. 284, &c. REGIMENT, in war, a body conſiſting of ſeveral troops of Burnet's Hiſt, of the Reformation, paſſim. horſe, or companies of foot, commanded by a colonel, lieutenant- REFRACTION of Light, in Optics, is an inflection or deviation of colonel, and major. See the Treatiſe on MILITARY AFFAIRS, the rays from their rectilinear courſe upon falling obliquely out of one Sect. III. and IV. medium into another,of a different denſity. See the Syſtem throughout. REGION, in phyſiology. Authors divide the atmoſphere into REGALIA, in law, the royal rights or prerogatives of a king, three ſtages, called the upper, middle, and lower regions. The lower See PREROGATIVES. region is that wherein we breathe, and is bounded by the reflexion * REGARDANT, in heraldry, is underſtood of a lion, or other of the ſun's rays, that is, by the height to which they rebound beaſt of prey, borne in the poſture of looking behind him, with his face from the earth. The middle region is that wherein the clouds re- towards his tail. See the Syſtem, Sect. VI. Art. III. and Plate V. fide, where meteors are formed, &c. extending from the extre- REGENERATION, in theology, the act of being born again mity of the loweſt, to the tops of the higheſt mountains. The by a ſpiritual birth, or becoming a child of God: or it is that upper region commences from the tops of the mountains, and change experienced by a perſon who forſakes a courſe of vice and reaches to the utmoſt limits of the atmoſphere. In this reigns a ſincerely embraces a life of piety and virtue. perpetual, equable calmveſs, clearneſs, and ſerenity. REGENT, one who governs a kingdom during the minority or REGION, in anatomy, a diviſion of the human body, otherwiſe abſence of the king. In France, prior to the revolution, the queen- called cavity, of which anatomiſts reckon three, viz. the upper re- mother had the regency during the minority of the king, under the gion, or that of the head; the middle region, that of the thorax or title of queen-regent. In England, the methods of appointing this breaſt; and the lower the abdomen, or belly. For deſcription of guardian or regent have been to various, and the duration of his power the ſeveral parts ſee the Syſtem; for repreſentation ſee the Plates. ſo uncertain, that froin hence alone it may be collected that his REGISTER of a pariſh church, is a book wherein the yearly office is unknown to the common law; and therefore (as Sir E. Coke baptiſms, marriages, and burials, of each pariſh, are orderly re- ſays, 4 Inſt. 58.) the ſureſt way is to have him made by authority giſtered. See MARRIAGE. This practice was laudably inſtituted, of the great council in parliament. The earl of Pembroke by his by that great but unfortunate perſon Thomas Cromwell, earl of own authority aſſumed in very troubleſome times the regency of Eſſex, anno 1538, while he was vicar general to king Henry VIII. Henry III. who was then only nine years old; but was declared Thefe pariſh regiſters are to be ſubſcribed by the miniſter and. of full age by the pope at 17, confirmed the great charter at 18, and church-wardens; and the names of the perſons thall be tranſmitted took upon him the adminiſtration of the government at 20. A yearly to the bilhop: and it has been enforced by canon 70, and guardian and councils of regency were named by Edward III. by by ſtatute, &c. the parliament, which depofed his father; the young king being REGULUS, in chymiſtry, denotes the fineſt and pureſt part then 15, and not aſſuming the government till three years after. metal or mineral, which ſinks or precipitates to the bottom of the When Richard II. ſucceeded at the age of 11, the duke of Lan- crucible, or furnace, in melting the mineral or ore. caſter took upon him the management of the kingdom, till par- REINS, in anatomy, the kidneys; or that part of an animal. liament met, which appointed a nominal council to affift him. whereby the urine is ſeparated from the blood. See the Syſtem, Henry V. on his death-bed named a regent and a guardian for his Part IIÍ. Sect. XI. infant ſon Henry VI. then nine months old: but the parliament RELATION, in philoſophy, the mutual reſpect of two things; altered his diſpoſition, and appointed a protector and council, with or what each is with regard to the other. The idea of relation we a ſpecial limited authority. Both theſe princes remained in a ſtate acquire, when the mind fo conſiders any thing, that it doth, as it of pupilage till the age of 23. Edward V. at the age of 13, was were, bring it to, and ſet it by, another, and carry its view from recommended by his father to the care of the duke of Gloceſter ; the one to the other. Hence the denominations given to things who was declared protector by the privy council. The ſtatutes intimating this reſpect, are called relatives; and the things to 25 Hen. VIII. c. 12, and 28 Hen. VIII. c. 7, provided, that the brought together, are ſaid to be related. ſaid to be related. Any of our ideas, Mr. fucceffor, if a male and under 18, or if a female and urder 16, Locke obſerves, may be the foundation of relation. Though, ſhould be till ſuch age, in the governance of his or her natural mo- where languages have failed to give correlative names, the relation ther, (if approved by the king) and ſuch other counſellors as his is ilot eaſily taken notice of; as in concubine, which is a relative majeſty ſhould by will or otherwiſe appoint: and he accordingly name, as well as wife. appointed his 16 executors to have the government of his ſon Ed RELATIVE, in grammar, is a word or term which in the ward VI. and the kingdom, which executors elected the earl of conſtruction anſwers to foine word foregoing, called the antecedent. Hertford protector. The ſtatutes 24 Geo. II. c. 24, in caſe the | All relatives are ſaid to reciprocate, or mutually infer each other; crown ſhould defcend to any of the children of Frederic late prince and, therefore, they are often expreſſed by the genitive caſe. See of Wales under the age of 18, appointed the princeſs dowager ;- the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. I. Sect. II. and that of 5 Geo Ill. c. 27, in caſe of a like deſcent to any of RELAXATION, relaxatio, in medicine, &c. the act of loofen- his preſent majeſty's children, empowers the king to name either the ing or ſlackening the tone or tenſion of the fibres, nerves, muſcles, queen or princeſs dowager, or any deſcendant of king George II. &c. reſiding in this kingdom ;-to be guardian and regent, till the RELICS, reliquiæ, in the Romiſh church, certain remains of ſucceſſor attains ſuch age, affiſted by a council of regency; the the body or cloathes of ſome faint or martyr, devoutly preſerved in powers of them all being exprefly defined and ſet down in the honour of his memory, carried at proceſſions, kiſſed, revered, &c. ſeveral acts. The Romaniſts alledge antiquity in behalf of their relics. In- REGENT alſo ſignifies a profeſſor of arts and ſciences in a col- deed, folly and ſuperſtition got into religion but too early. This practice of a No. 136. XXX R E L R E P G practice of honouring the relics of ſaints, on which the church of of our exiſtence, to expreſs our veneration and love by a devout re- Rome, in ſucceeding ages, founded her ſuperſtitious and lucrative cognition of his perfections, and to evidence our gratitude by cele uſe of them, as objects of devotion, as a kind of charms or amulets, brating his goodneſs, and thankfully acknowledging all his benefits; and as inſtruments of pretended miracles ſeems to have originated by proper exerciſes of ſorrow and humiliation to confeſs our ingra- in a very ancient cuſtom, that prevailed among Chriſtians, of af- titude and folly, to ſignify our dependence on God, our confidence fembling at the cæmiteries or burying-places of the martyrs, for in his goodneſs, and our reſignation to the diſpoſals of his provi- the purpoſe of commemorating them, and of performing divine dence; and this not only in private, but in public worſhip, where worship. When the profeſſion of Chriſtianity obtained the pro- the preſence of our fellow-creatures, and the powerful contagion of tection of the civil government under Conſtantine the Great, the ſocial affections, conſpire to kindle and ſpread the devout flame ftately churches were erected over their ſepulchres, and their names with greater warmth and energy. and memories were treated with every poſſible token of affection Religion is divided into natural and revealed. By natural religion and reſpect. In proceſs of time, this reverence of the martyrs ex- | is meant that knowledge, veneration, and love of God, and the ceeded all reaſonable bounds; and thoſe prayers and religious ſer- practice of thoſe duties to him, our fellow-creatures, and ourſelves, vices were thought to have a peculiar ſanctity and virtue, which which are diſcoverable by the right exerciſe of our rational facul were performed over their tombs. Hence probably proceeded the ties, from conſidering the nature and perfections of God, and our practice, which obtained in the fourth century, of depoſiting relics relation to him and to one another. (See Moral Philoſophy. ) of the faints and martyrs under the altars in all their churches. And by revealed religion is meant, natural religion explained, en- This practice, however, was then thought of ſuch importance, forced, and enlarged, from the expreſs declarations of God himſelt that St. Ambroſe would not confecrate a church, becauſe it had from the mouths or pens of his prophets, &c. no relics; and the council of Conſtantinople in Trullo ordained, Religion, in a more contracted ſenſe, is uſed for that ſyſtem of that thoļe altars ſhould be demoliſhed, under which there were faith and worſhip, which obtains in ſeveral countries of the world; found no relics. The rage of procuring relics for this and other (lee CHRISTIANITY, MAHOMETANISM, Jews, MYTHOLOGY:) purpoſes of a fimilar nature became fo exceſſive, that, in 386, the And even for the varicus fects into which religion is divided; (ſee emperor Theodofius the Great was obliged to paſs a law, forbid-ROMAN-CATHOLICS, LUTHERANS, CALVINISTS, &c.) ding the people to dig up the bodies of the martyrs, and to traffic RELIGIOUS, in a general ſenſe, ſomething that relates to re- in their relics. Such was the commencement of that reſpect for ligion. We ſay, a religious life, religious fociety, &c. Churches ſacred relics, which, in after ages, was perverted into a formal and church-yards are religious places. A religious war is alſo called worſhip of them, and became the occaſion of innumerable proceſ- a croiſade. See CROISADE. fions, pilgrimages, and miracles, from which the church of Rome RELIGIOUS is alſo uſed ſubſtantially for a perſon engaged by hath derived incredible advantage. Beſides the arguments from folemn vows to the monaſtic life; or a perſon ſhut up in a monal- antiquity to which the Papiſts refer, in vindication of their worſhip tery to lead a life of devotion and auſterity, under ſome rule or in- of relics; Beliarmine appeals to feripture in ſupport of it, and ſtitution. The male religious we popularly call monks and friars ; cites the following paſſages, viz. Exod. xiii. 19. Deut. xxxiv. 6. the female, nuns and canoneſes. 2 Kings xiji. 21. 2 Kings xxiii. 16, 17, 18. Iſaiah xi. 10. Mat REMEMBRANCE, is when the idea of ſomething formerly thew xi. 20, 21, 22. Acts v. 12. 15. Acts xix. 11, 12. See Popery. known recurs again to the mind, without the operation of a like ob- RELIGION, that worſhip and homage which is due to God, ject on the external ſenſory. See MEMORY, REMEMBRANCE, conſidered as our creator, preſerver, and moſt bountiful benefactor. and RECOLLECTION. As our affections depend on our opinions of their objects, it ſeems REMINISCENCE, reminiſcentia, is that power of the human to be among the firſt duties we owe to the Author of our being, to mind, whereby it recollects itſelf, or calls again to its remembrance form the leaſt imperfect, fince we cannot form perfect, conceptions ſuch ideas and notions as it had really forgot: in which it differs of his character and adminiftration ; for ſuch conceptions will render from memory, which is a treaſuring up of things in the mind, and our religion rational, and our diſpoſitions refined. If our opinions keeping them there, without forgetting them. Hence memory may are diminutive and diſtorted, our religion will be ſuperſtitious, and be coniidered as a continual remembrance ; and reminiſcence, as an our temper abject. Thus, if we aſcribe to the deity that falſe ma- interrupted memory. How near a-kin ſoever the two faculties may jeſty which conſiſts in the unbenevolent and fullen exerciſe of mere ſeem, yet they are generally found ſeparated ; ſo that they who ex- will or power, or ſuppoſe hiin to delight in the proſtrations of ſer- i cel in the one, are generally defective in the other. vile fear, or as ſervile praiſe, he will be worſhipped with mean adu RENCOUNTŘE, or RENCONTRE, in heraldry, is applied lation and a profuſion of compliments. If he be looked upon as to animals when they ſhew the head in front, with both a ſtern and implacable being, delighting in vengeance, he will be or when the face ſtands right forward, as if they came to meet the adored with poinpous offerings, or whatever elſe may be thought perſon before them. proper to ſoothe and mollify him. But if we believe perfect good RENITENCY, that force in ſolid bodies, whereby they reſiſt nefs to be the character of the Supreme Being, and that he loves the impulſe of other bodies, or re-act as much as they are acted on. thoſe who reſemble him moſt in this the moſt amiable of his attri- See Motion. butes, the worſhip paid him will be rational and ſublime, and his RENVERSE', inverted, in heraldry, is when any thing is ſet worſhippers will ſeek to pleaſe him by imitating that goodneſs with the head downward or contrary to its natural way of ſtanding: which they adore. Indeed, wherever right conceptions of the deity, thus, a chevron renverſe, is a chevron with the point downwards. and his providence, prevail, when he is conſidered as the inexhauſted RENUNCIATION, the act of renouncing, abdicating, or re- ſource of light, and love, and joy, as acting in the joint character of linquiſhing any right, real or pretended. Renunciations are ſome- a father and governor, what veneration and gratitude muſt ſuch times expreſs, as by contracts, &c. ſometimes tacit, as by con- conceptions, thoroughly believed, excite in the mind? how natural trary acts. and delightful it muſt be, to one whoſe heart is open to the percep REPARTEE, a ready, ſmart reply: eſpecially in matters of tion of truth, and of every thing fair, great, and wonderful in na- wit, humour, or raillery.. The word in the original French, rem ture, to engage in the exerciſes of religion, and to contemplate and partie, has the ſame fignification. It is juſtly obſerved, that there adore him, who is the firſt fair, firſt great, and firſt wonderful; in is a great difference between a free, ſprightly repartce, and an offen- whom wiſdom, power, and goodneſs dwell vitally, eſſentially, and five Jurcaſm. act in perfect concert? what grandeur is here, to fill the inoſt en REPPELLENT, repellens, in medicine, a remedy which repels larged capacity, what beauty to engage the moſt ardent love, what or drives back a morbid humour into the maſs of blood, from which a nafs of wonders, in ſuch exuberance of perfection, to aſtoniſh it was unduly ſecreted. Repellents are medicines which prevent and delight the human mind; through an unfailing duration ! ſuch an influx of the fluids to any particular part, as might raiſe it When we conſider the unſullied purity and abſolute perfection of into a tumour, drive them back when they are collected. the divine nature, and reflect on the imperfection and various ble REPELLING Power, in phyſics, is a certain power or fa- miſhes of our own, and the ungrateful returns we have made to his culty reſiding in the minute particles of natural bodies, whereby goodneſs, we muſt ſink, or be convinced we ought to ſink, into the under certain circumſtances, they mutually fly from each other. deeepeſt humility and proftration of ſoul before him, and be conſci- This power is the reverſe of the attractive power. Sir lfaac ous that it is our duty to repent of a temper and conduct fo unworthy Newton, having eſtabliſhed the attractive power of matter from of our nature, and ſo unbecoming our obligations to its author; obſervation and experiment, argues, that, as in algebra, where po- and to reſolve to act a wiſer and better part for the future. And if ſitive quantities ceaſe, there negative ones commence; ſo in phyſics the deity is conſidered as the father of mercies, who loves his crea- where the attractive force ceaſes, there a repelling force muſt begin; tures with infinite tenderneſs, and, in a particular manner, all good and adds, that there is ſuch a force, does likewiſe appear from ob- inen; nay, who delights in goodneſs even in its moft imperfect de- fervation. As the repelling power ſeems to ariſe from the ſame grees; what reſignation, what dependence, what generous confi- principle as the attractive, only exerciſed under different circum- dence, what hope in God, and his all-wiſe providence, muſt ariſe ſtances, it is governed by the ſame laws: now the attractive, we in the foul that is poſſeſſed of ſuch amiable views of him! We find, is ſtronger in ſmall bodies than in greatones, in proportion to muſt farther obſerve, that all thoſe affections which regard the the maſſes; therefore the repelling is ſo too. But the rays of light deity as their immediate and primary object, are vital energies of are of all others the moſt minute bodies we know of; therefore, of the ſoul, and confequently exert themſelves into act, and, like all all others, their repelling force muſt be the greateſt. other energies, gain ſtrength or greater activity by that exertion; Sir Iſaac Newton computes, that the attractive force of the rays it is therefore our duty, as well as higheſt intereſt, often, at Nated of light is above-roc0000000000000 times as ſtrong as the force times, and by decent and folemn acts, to adore the great original of gravity on the ſurface of the carth: hence ariſes that inconceiv- able eyes, &c. REP R E P BISS muy a s tot 3 en able velocity wherewith light muſt move, to reach from the fun to tree, or the like, is cut off ſhort, it reproduces an infinity of young our earth in ſeven minutes. For the rays emitted from the body of ſhoots. By reproduction is uſually underſtood the reſtoration of a the ſun by the vibrating motion of its parts are no ſooner got with thing before exiſting, and ſince deſtroyed. out the ſphere of attračtion of the fun than they come within the It is very well known, that trees and plants are to be raiſed from action of the repelling power. The elaſticity or ſpringineſs of bo- flips and cuttings; and ſome late obſervations have ſhewn, that there dies, or that property whereby, after having their figure altered by are ſome animals which have the ſame property. The polype was an external force, they return to their former figure, follows from the firſt inſtance we had of this. See Microscopic OBJECTS. the repelling power. Amongſt the plants which may be raiſed from cuttings, there REPENTANCE, in theology, is a change of ſentiments fol- | are ſoine which ſeem to poſſeſs this quality in ſo eminent a degree, lowed by a change of conduct, or repentance denotes ſuch a con- that the ſmalleſt portion of them will become a complete tree again. viction of the evil and danger of a ſinful courſe, as is ſufficient to REPTILES, in natural hiſtory, a kind of animals ſo denomi- produce ſhame and ſorrow in the review of it, and effectual refo- nated from their creeping or advancing on the belly, Or, reptiles lutions of amendinent. are diſtinály a genus of animals and inſects, which, inſtead of REPLETION, in medicine, a plenitude or plethora. Re- feet, reft on one part of the body, while they advance forward pletion of blood is more dangerous than inanition, Bleeding and with the reſt. Such are earth-worms, ſnakes, &c. Indeed many diet are the great reſources when a perſon is incommoded with a of the ordinary claſs of reptiles have feet, only thoſe very ſmall, repletion. REPLETION is ſometimes alſo uſed where the ſtomach and the legs ſhort in proportion to the bulk of the body. Natu- is overloaded with too much eating or drinking. The phyſicians raliſts obſerve great contrivance for the motion of reptiles. Thus, hold all repletion prejudicial; but that of bread is of all others particularly in the earth-worm, Dr. Willis tells us, the whole the worſt. body is only a chain of annular muſcles; or, as Dr. Derham ſays, REPORT, in law, is a public relation, or bringing to memory it is only one continued ſpiral muſcle, the orbicular fibres whereof, of caſes judicially argued, debated, reſolved, or adjudged, in any by being contracted, render each ring narrower and longer than of the the king's courts of juſtice, with the cauſe and reaſon of the before ; by which means it is enabled, like the worm of an augre, lame delivered by the judges. When the chancery, or any other to bore its paſſage into the earth. Its reptile motion, may alſo be court, refers the ſtating of ſome caſe, or comparing an account, explained by a wire wound on a cylinder, which when ſtripped &c. to a maſter in chancery, or other referee, his certificate there- off, and one end extenderl, and held faſt, will bring the other in is alſo called a report. nearer it. So the earth-worm having ſhot out or extended its body REPOSITORY, a ſtore houſe or place where things are laid (which is formed with a wreathing) it takes hold by thoſe ſmall up, and kept. In which tenſe we ſay, the repofitory of the Royal feet it hath, and ſo contracts the hinder part of its body. Dr. Ty- Society, &c. See MUSEUM. ſon adds, that when the fore part of the body is ſtretched out and REPRESENTATION, in the drama, the exhibition of a applied to a plane at a diſtance, the hind part, relaxing and ſhort- theatrical piece; including the ſcenes, machines, recitation, &c. ening, is eaſily drawn toward it as a center. The little feet of Sir Richard Steele’s principle is, that the deſign of a play is not this creature are diſpoſed in a quadruple row the whole length of to te read but repreſented; ſo that it is on the ſtage, not in the the worm ; with which, as with fo inany hooks, it faſtens down preſs, it is to be judged of; and that the pit, not the public, are ſometimes this, and ſometimes that, part of the body to the plane, the proper judges. and at the ſaine time ſtretches out, or drags after it, another. The REPRESENTATIVE, one that perſonates or ſupplies the creeping of ſerpents is effected after a ſomewhat different manner, place of another; and is inveſted with his right and authority. The there being a difference in their ſtructure; in that theſe la&t have word repreſentative is equivalent to procurator or proxy. The a compages of bones articulated together. commons are the people's repreſentatives in parliament. There The body here is not drawn together, but, as it were, compli is this defect in the conſtitution of our parliament; that as all who cated, part of it being applied on the rough ground, and the reſt have not conſiderable eſtates ought not to be taxed without their own ejaculated and ſhot from it; which, being ſet on the ground in its confent in parliament by themſelves, or their repreſentatives ; co- turn, brings the other after it. The ſpine of the back, yariouſly pyholders, ſome of whom have a thouſand pounds a year, have no wreathed in theſe creatures has the ſame effect in leaping, as the voice in the election of knights of the fhire. See PARLIAMENT. I joints of the feet in other animals; they making their leaps by REPRIEVE, in criminal law, (from reprendre, “to to take back,") means of muſcles that extend the plicæ, or folds. is the withdrawing of a ſentence for an interval of time; whereby REPUBLIC, reſpublica, commonwealih, a popular ſtate or go- the execution is fufpended. This may be, firſt, ex arbitrio judicis, vernment; or a nation where the body, or only a part of the people either before or after judgment. Theſe arbitrary reprieves may be have the government in their own hands. When the body of the granted or taken off by the juſtices of goal-delivery, although their people is poffeffed of the ſupreme power, this is called a democracy. ſeſſion be finiſhed, and their commiſſion expired: but this rather When the ſupreme power is lodged in the hands of a part of the by common uſage than of ſtrict right; as, where the judge is not people, it is then an ariſtocracy. See GovernmENT, fatisfied with the verdict, or the evidence is ſuſpicious, or the in- The celebrated republics of antiquity are thoſe of Athens, Sparta, any ſuch thing . . able circumſtances appear in the criminal's character, in order to tians and Genoeſe call their flates republics; but their government give room to apply to the crown for either an abſolute or conditiis apparently oligarchic. The Dutch come the neareſt to the cha- onal pardon. racter of a republic; vèt they are very defective, at leaſt in the Reprieves may alſo be ex neceſſitate legis: as where a woman is ſenſe and ſeverity wherewith Rome, Carthage, &c. were republics. capitally convicted, and pleads her pregnancy. Though this is no See STATES-general. cauſe to ſtay judgment, yet it is to reſpite the execution till ſhe be It is a remark of M. St. Evremont, that, if the Dutch love the re- delivered. This is a mercy dictated by the law of nature, in favor publican form, it is more for the ſake of their trade than their li. rem prolis; and therefore no part of the bloody proceedings in the berty. Holland, which is compoſed of about fifty republics all reign of queen Mary hath been inore juſtly deteſted than the cruelty different from one another, may be congidered as a confederate re- that was exerciſed in the iſland of Guernſey, of burning a woman public; which is a convention by which ſeveral petty ſtates agree big with child; and, when through the violence of the flames the to become members of a larger one, which they intend to eſtabliſh. infant ſprang forth at the ſtake, and was preſerved by the bye- In this view, Germany, which conſiſts of free cities, and of petty ſtanders, after ſome deliberations of the prieſts who aſſiſted at the ſtates, ſubject to different princes, and the Swiſs cantons, are con- facrifice, they caſt it into the fire as a young heretic. A barbarity fidered in Europe as perpetual republics. which they never learned from the laws of ancient Rome; which REPUBLIC of Letters, is a phraſe uſed in ſpeaking collectively direct, with the ſame humanity as our own, quoad prægnatis mu- of the whole body of the people of ſtudy and learning. There is a lieris damnatæ fæna differatur, quoad puriat; which doctrine has journal, begun in Holland, by M. Bayle, and continued by M, alſo prevailed in England, as early as the firſt memorials of our law Bernard, conſiſting of extracts of books, printed in the courſe of will reach, the year, called Nouvelles de la republique des Lettres, News from REPRISALS, or REPRIZALS, in the civil law, a right which the Republique of Letters. princes have to retake from their enemies ſuch things as they un REPULSION, in phyſics, that property of bodies whereby they juſly detain from them ; or other things equivalent thereto, recede from each other, and, on certain occaſions, mutually avoid REPROBATION, in theology, a decree or reſolve, which God coming into contact. has taken from all eternity to puniſh ſinners, who ſhall die in im REPULSION, as well as attraction, has of late been conſidered as penitence. Reprobation ſtands in direct oppoſition to election. one of the primary qualities of all matter, and has been much uſed Poſitive REPROBATION, is that whereby God is ſuppoſed to in explaining the phenomena of nature : thus the particles of air, create men with a polițive and abſolute reſolution to damn them fire, ſteam, electric fluid, &c. are faid to have a repulſive power eternally.. This opinion of reprobation is countenanced by St. with reſpect to one another. That this is the caſe with the air, Auguſtine, and others of the fathers; and is ſtrongly maintained and vapour of all kinds, is certain; becauſe when they are com- by Calvin, and moſt of his followers . Something like it is alſo preſſed into a finall ſpace, they expand with great force; but as to found in the thirty-nine articles of the church of England; but it fire, light, and electricity, our experiments fail; nay, the fuppofi- is now generally exploded, as injurious to the juſtice of God. tion of a repulſive power among the particles of the electric fluid REPRODUCTION, the act whereby a thing is produced a- is inconſiſtent with the phenomena. Even in thoſe fluids, air and new, or grows a ſecond time. When the ſtock of an oak, a fruit- ſteam, where a repulſive power moſt manifeſtly exiſts, it is demon- ſtrable ZI RES R E S 915 ſtrable that the repulfion cannot be à primary quality, ſince it can And that it was great pity, ſo it was, be increaſed to a great degree by heat, and diminiſhed by cold; but This villanous falt petre ſhould be digg'd it is impoſſible that a primary quality of matter can be increaſed or Out of the bowels of the harinleſs earth, diminiſhed by any external circumſtances whatever ; for whatever Which many a good, tail fellow had deſtroy'd property depends upon external circumſtances, is not a primary but So cowardly: and but for thefe vile guns, a ſecondary one. The expulſion of electrified bodies is explained He would himſelf have been a foldier.. 135 under the article ELECTRICITY, ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. I. Firſt Part, Henry IV. af 1. ſc. 46 that of others is leſs ſubject to inveſtigation ; and the moſt that can Paſſions and emotions are alſo enfiained by compariſon. A be ſaid concerning it is, that in many caſes it ſeems to be the con man of high rank humbles the bye-ſtanders even to annihilate themi fequence of a modification of fire, and in others of electricity. in their own opinion: Cæfar, beholding the ſtatue of Alexander, REQUEST, in law, a ſupplication or petition preferred to a was greatly mortified, that now at the age of 32, wheni Alexander prince, or court of juſtice, begging refief, in ſome conſcionable died, he had not performed one memorable action. Our opinions caſes, where the common law grants no immediate redreſs. The alſo are much influenced by comparifon. A man whoſe opulence term requeſt is now, ſince the inſtitution of chancery, much dif- exceeds the ordinary ſtandard, is reputed richer than he is in reality; uſed; together with the court of requeſts, where requeſts were and wiſdom or weakneſs, if at all remarkable in an individaal, is cognizable. generally carried beyond the truth. Court of Requests. See Court of Conſcience. The opinion a man forms of his preſent diſtreſs is heightened by REQUIEM, a maſs ſung in the Romiſh church for the reſt of contraſting it with his foriner happinefs : the foul of a perſon deceaſed. Could I forget os diw Dobson 3 RESEMBLANCE, and DissimiliTUDE, the relations of what I have been, 1 might the better bearisol blon , likeneſs and difference among objects. The connection that man What I am deſtin'd lo. I'm not the firſt hath with the beings around him, requires fome acquaintance with That have been wretclred: but to think how much their nature, their powers, and their qualities, for regnilating his I have been happier. conduct . For acquiring a branch of knowledge fo effential to our So ooo ooo rior Southern's Innocent Adultciy, afl 2. well-being, motives alone of reaſon and intereſt are not ſufficient: The diſtrefs of a long journey makes even an indifferent int nature hath providentially fuperadded curiofity, á vigorous propen- agreeable: and, in travelling, when the road is good and the horſe- fity, which never is at reſt. This propenſity áłone attaches us to man well covered, a bad day may be agreeable, by making him every new object. [See NOVELTY ;) and incites us to compare ob- ſenſible how fnug he is. The fame effect is equally remarkable, jects, in order to difcover their differences and refemblances. when a man oppoſes his condition to that of others. A fhip toſſed about Reſemblance among objects of the ſame kind, and diffimilitude in a form, makes the fpectator reflect upon his own eafe aird ſcurity, among objects of different kinds, are too obvious and familiar to and puts thefe in the ſtrongeſt light. A man in grief cannot bear gratify our curiofity in any degree : its gratification lies i:a diſco- mirth; it gives him a more lively notion of his unhappineſs, and of vering differences among things where reſemblance prevails, and courſe makes him more unhappy. Satan, contemplating the reſemblances where difference prevails. Thus a difference in in- beauties of the terreſtrial paradiſe, has the following exclamation: dividuals of the ſame kind of plants or animals, is deemed a diſco With what delight could I have walk'd thee round, very, while the many particulars in which they agree are neglected; If I could joy in ought, fweet interchange and in different kinds, any reſemblance is greedily remarked, with Of hill and valley, rivers, woods, and plains, out attending to the many particulars in which they differ. i Now land, now fea, and ſhores with foreſt crown’d, , The poets, ſuch of them as have a juſt taſte, draw all their fimi- Rocks, dens, and caves ! but I in none of theſe lies from things that in the main differ widely from the principal Find place of refuge ; and the more I fee ev ſubject; and they never attempt a contraft, but where the things Pleafures about me, ſo much more I feel have a cominon genus, and a reſemblance in the capital circum Torment within me, as from the hateful fiege ſtances : place together a large and a ſmall-ſized animal of the fame "Of contraries: all good to me becomes fpecies, the one will appear greater, the other leſs, than when Bane, and in heav'nı much worſe would be my ſtate. viewed feparately: when we oppoſe beauty to deformity, each Paradiſe Loft, book 9. l. makes a greater figure by the comparifon. We compare the dreſs RESERVATION, refervatio, in law, an action or claufe of different nations with curioſity, but without furpriſe ; becauſe whereby ſomething is referved, i. e. is retained, kept, or ſecured to they have no fuch reſemblance in the capital parts as to pleaſe us by one's felf. Thus when a man lets his land, he reſerves a rent to contraſting the ſmaller ports. But a new cut of a fleeve, or of a be paid to himſelf for his maintenance, &c. pocket, enchants by its novelty; and, in oppofītion to the former Mental RESERVATION, is a propoſition which, ftri&tly taken, faſhion, raiſes fome degree of ſurprife. and according to the natural import of the terms, is falſe; but if That reſemblance and diſſimilitude have an enlivening effect qualified with ſomething reſerved or concealed in the mind, becomes upon objects of light, is made fufficiently evident; and that they true. Mental reſervations are the great refuge of rełigious hypocrites, have the ſame effect upon objects of the other ſenſes, is alſo certain. who uſe them to accommodate their confciences with their intereſts. Nor is that law confined to the external fenfes; for characters con- | The Jeſuits are zealous advocates for mental reſervations ; yet are traſted make a greater figure by the oppoſition ; lago, in the they itri&tly all real lies, as including an intention to deceive. tragedy of Othello, ſays, RESERVE, in law, the ſame with reſervation. Benefices are He hath a daily beauty in his life, ſometimes reſigned with reſerve of a penfion. By the canon law, That makes me ugly. no perſon may reſerve to himſelf a penfion out of a benefice, un- The character of a fop, and of a rough warrior, are no where leſs he hath ſerved it ten years. more ſucceſsfully contraſted than in Shakeſpeare ; RESIDENT, a public miniſter, who manages the affairs of a Hotſpur. My liege, I did deny no prifoners : king in the court of a prince, or petty ſtate; or the affairs of a But I remember, when the fight was done, prince, or petty ſtate, in the court of a king or prince. Thus the When I was dry with rage, and extreme toil, king of England has reſidents in the courts of the electors, and other Breathleſs and faint, leaning upon my fword; princes of Germany and Italy; at the republics of Genoa and Came there a certain lord, neat, trinly dreſs’d, and they, reciprocally, have refidents in the court of Great Freſh as a bridegroom; and his chin, new-reap'd; Britain. Show'd like a ſtubble-land at harveſt-home. RESIDUUM of a Charge, in electricity, firſt diſcovered by Mr. He was perfumed like a milliner ; Gralath, in Germany, in 1746, is that part of the charge that lay And 'twixt his finger and his thumb he held on the uncoated part of a LEYDEN phial, which doth not let go A pouncet-box, which ever and anon all its electricity at once; ſo that it is afterwards gradually diffuſed He gave his noſe:-and ſtill he finițd and talk'd to the coating. And as the foldiers bare dead bodies by, RESIDUUM, in law. See EXECUTOR. He call'd them untaught knaves, unmannerly, RESIN, reſina, a fat, viſcid, ſulphureous juice, ouſing either To bring a ffovenly, unhandfome corſe ſpontaneouſly, or by inciſion, from ſeveral kinds of trees, particu- Betwixt the wind and his nobility. larly the pine, fir, &c. Refins are employed for many purpoſes, With many holiday and lady terms The cheapeſt kinds are uſed for torches, and to cover the outſides He queſtioned me: among the reſt, demanded of ſhips and boats. The fine tranſparent refins, compoſe varniſhes. My pris'ners, in your majeſty's behalf. Many of them are employed medicinally: ſuch are thoſe which I then, all ſmarting with my wounds; being galld enter into the compoſition of ointments and plaiſters; or internally, To be ſo peſter'd with a popinjay, as the refins of fcammonv, jelap, and turpeth, which are purgative. Out of my grief, and my impatience, Other refins, the ſmell of which is agreeable, as benjamin and Anſwer’d, neglectingly, I know not what : ſtorax, are employed as perfumes. He ſhould, or ſhould not; for he made me mad, RESISTANCE, or RESISTING Force, in phyſics, any power To ſee him ſhine ſo briſk, and fmell fo ſweet, which acts contrarily to another, ſo as to deſtroy or diminish its And talk fo like a waiting gentlewoman, effects. Of reſiſtance there are various kinds, ariſing from the va- Of guns, and drums, and wounds, (God ſave the mark !) rious natures and properties of the reſiſting bodies, and governed by And telling me the fovereign'ft thing on earth various laws: as, the reſiſtance of ſolids, the reſiſtance of fluids, Was parmacity, for an inward bruiſe ; the refiftane of the air, &c. The doctrine of each whereof mav be ſeen 114. Lucca; RES R E S MATICS, &c. pacy. -e en under the Syſtems of MECHANICS, HYDROSTÁTICS, PNEUſpiration. In drowning, the circulation feeins to be ſtopped upon this principle; and in hanging, the preſſure made on the jugular RESOLUTION, refolutio, or ſolutio, in phyſics, the reduction veins may co-operate with the ſtoppage of reſpiration in bringing of a body into its original or natural ſtate, by a diffolution or the on death. feparation of its aggregated parts. Thus ſnow and ice are ſaid to Dr. Prieſtly (Experiments and Obf. vol. v. p. 117 ) by a more be reſolved into water; and a compound is reſolved into its ingre- accurate method of inveſtigation found, that the quantity of air, dients, &c. water reſolves into vapour by heat; and vapour is which he could completely phlogiſticate by the reſpiration of two again resolved into water by cold. Some of the modern philoſo- minutes, amounted to about a quart in a minute; whereas it is phers, particularly Mr. Boyle, Mr. Marriotte, Boerhaave, &c. generally ſuppoſed, that we phlogiſticate, or as it has uſually been maintain that the natural ſtate of water is to be congealed, or intermed, that we conſume a gallon of air in a minute: and if by ice; inaſmuch as a certain degree of heat, which is a foreign and conſuming he meant reducing the air to a ſtate in which a candie violent agent, is required to make it fluid, ſo that near the pole, will not burn in it, the eſtimates will be pretty near the truth. With where this foreign force is wanting, it cunſtantly retains its fixed regard to the quantity of moiſture carried off by reſpiration, Dr. or icy ſtate. On this principle, the reſolution of ice into water Hales, by an experiment on wood-aihes, eſtimates it to be equal to muſt be allowed an improper expreffion. 17 grains in go expirations; and this he takes to be nearly the RESOLUTION, in chymiſtry, is the reduction of a maſs, or quantity of moiſture with which 522 cubic inches of the air are im- mixed body into its component parts, or firſt principles, by a pro- pregnated, when it becomes unfit for refpiration; ſince we breathe per analyſis. The reſolution of bodies is performed variouſly; by 50 times in 24 minutes. And ſince a quantity of moiſture, equal diſtillation, ſublimation, diſſolution, fermentation, &c. to 17 grains, was breathed off in so expirations, he concludes, RESOLUTION, in ethics, is that paffion which encounters dif- that there will be proportionably 408 grains evaporated in the 1200 ficulties and dangers; but when it has to do more peculiarly with expirations of an hour, and in 24 hours 9792 grains, or 1.39 pound; dangers, it is called boldneſs, Deſire, joy, and ſorrow, enter which, fuppoſing the ſurface of the lungs to be 41635 inches, will into its conſtitution, but joy is by much the principal ingredient give the quantity evaporated from that ſurface part of an When reſolution degenerates into a concern to maintain our mif- inch depth. Hales's Stat. Eff. vol. i. p. 262, &c. vol.ii. p. 322, &c. takes, humours, or vices, it is more properly denominated obſti Dr. Prieſtley has ſhewn, that one of the great uſes of reſpiration. See PASSIONS. is to carry off the phlogiſtic or putrid particles from animal bodies, RESOLUTION, in logic, is a branch of what is called METHOD. by which they are prevented from putrefying while alive, to which, The buſineſs of reſolution is to inveſtigate or examine the truth or without reſpiration, they would be as liable as though they were falſehood of a propoſition, by afcending from ſome particular known dead. See the Syſtem of AEROLOGY, and the articles Blood and truth, as a principle, by a chain of confequences, to another more PUTREFACTION. generalone in queſtion. See that Article, Part IV.in the Syſtem. RESPIRATION of Fiſhes, ſee the Syſtem of COMPARATIVE RESOLUTION, or SOLUTION, in mathematics, is an orderly ANATOMY, Chap. III. enumeration of ſeveral things to be done, to obtain what is required RESTITUTION, in phyſics, the returning of elaſtic bodies in a problem. Wolfius makes a problem to conſiſt of three parts.forcibly bent to their natural ſtate, by ſome called the motion of ref- The propoſition (which is what we properly call the problem) the titution. See ELASTICITY. reſolution and the demonſtration. The general tenor of all pro RESTORATIVE, in medicine, a remedy proper for reſtoring blems is, that thoſe being done which are enjoined by the reſolu- and retrieving the ſtrength and vigour both of the body and animal tion, the thing is done which was to be done. As ſoon as a problem ſpirits. All under this claſs, ſays Quincy, are rather nutrimental is demonſtrated, it is converted into a theorem ; whereof the reſolu-than medicinal; and are more adminiſtered to repair ilie waſtes of tion is the hypotheſis; and the proportion the theſis. the conſtitution, than to alter and rectify its diſorders. RESPIRATION, reſpiratio, the act of reſpiring, or breathing RESURRECTION, in theologý, riſing again from the dead; the air. Reſpiration is an involuntary motion of the breaſt, where- or a perſon's returning to a ſecond life, with new bodily organs by the air is alternately taken in and thrown out: it therefore in- adapted to the ſtate of its new exiſtence. One of the greateſt argu- cludes two contrary motions, the one called inſpiration, whereby ments for the truth of Chriſtianity is drawn from the reſurrection the fluid is received into the cavity of the lungs; the other, expira- of our Saviour; the circumſtances of which are handed down to tion, whereby it is again expelled. The principal organs of reſpi- us in ſo plain and diſtinct a manner, by the Evangeliſts, as make ration are the lungs, trachea, larnyx, &c. See the Syſtem of the evidence of this important truth amount to a demonſtration. ANATOMY, Part I. Sect. I. and Plate IV, V, VI, and VII. Chriſtians generally believe, that at the day of judgment the very identical body they have now, with the ſame fleſh, blood, and bones, Reſpiration conſtitutes one of thoſe functions which are properly will be raiſed from the dead. But, in oppoſition to this opinion, termed vital, as being eſſential to life; for to live and to breathe many texts of Scripture have been urged, particularly the account are in fact ſynonimous terms. It conſiſts in an alternate contrac- given of this important event by St Paul: beſides ſeveral philofo- tion and dilatation of the thorax, by firſt inſpiring air into the phical objections, the principal of which are theſe : That the ſame lungs, and then expelling it from them in exſpiration. It will ſubſtance may happen to be a part of two or more bodies: thus perhaps be eaſy to diſtinguiſh and point out the ſeveral phenomena a fiſh feeding on a man, and another man afterwards feeding on the of reſpiration; but to explain their phyſical cauſe will be attended fiſh, part of the body of the firſt man becomes incorporated with the with difficulty: for it will naturally be inquired, how the lungs, fiſh, and afterwards with the body of the laſt man. Again, in- when emptied of their air, and contracted by exfpiration, become ſtances have been known of one man's immediately feeding on the again inflated, they themſelves being perfectly paflive? How the body of another: and among the cannibals in the Weſt Indies, ribs are elevated in oppoſition to their own natural ſituation? and who devour their enemies, the practice is frequent. Now it is al- why the diaphragm is contracted downwards, towards the abdomen ? ledged, where the ſubſtance of one is thus converted into the ſub- Were we to affert, that the air, by forcing its way into the cavity ſtance of another, each cannot ariſe with his whole body; to which of the lungs, dilated them, and conſequently elevated the ribs and then ſhall the common part be allotted? To this objection ſome preſſed down the diaphragm, we ſhould ſpeak erroneouſly. What anſwer, That as all matter is not capable of being aſſimilated to induces the firſt inſpiration it is not eaſy to aſcertain; but after an the body, and incorporated with it, human fleſh may very probably animal has once reſpired, it would ſeem likely that the blood, after be of this kind: and therefore what is thus eaten, may be again ex- exſpiration, finding its paſſage through the lungs obſtructed, becreted and carried off. comes a ſtimulus, which induces the intercoſtal muſcles and the But Mr. Leibnitz obferves, that all that is eſſential to the hody, diaphragm to contract, and enlarge the cavity of the thorax, in is the original ſtainen, which exiſted in the ſemen of the father : conſequence perhaps of a certain nervous influence, which we ſhall that this may be conceived as the moſt ininute point imaginable, not here attempt to cxplain. The air then ruſhes into the lungs; and therefore not to be ſeparated, nor any part of it united to the ſta- every branch of the bronchial tubes, and all the cellular ſpaces into men of any other man: that all this bulk we ſee in the body, is only which they open, become fully dilated; and the pulmonary veſſels an accretion to this original ſtamen; and therefore there is no reci- being equally diftended, the blood flows through them with eaſe. procation of the proper matter of the human body. Another objec- But as the ſtimulus which firſt occafioned this dilatation ceaſes to tion is, that we know, by the late diſcoveries in the animal deco- operate, the muſcles gradually contract, the diaphragm riſes up- nomy, that the human body is continually changing, and that a man wards again, and diminiſhes the cavity of the cheſt, the ribs return has not entirely the ſame body to day as he had yeſterday; and it to their former ſtate, and as the air paſſes out in exſpiration, the is even computed, that in leſs than ſeven years time the whole body lungs gradually collapſe, and a reſiſtance to the paſſage of the blood undergoes a change. Which of thoſe inany bodies, then, which again takes place. But the heart continuing to receive and expel the ſame perſon has in the courſe of his life, is it that ſhall riſe? or the blood, the pulmonary artery begins again to be diſtended, the does all the matter that has ever belonged to him riſe again? or does ſtimulus is renewed, and the ſame proceſs is repeated, and conti- only fome particular ſyſtem thereof? the body, for example he had nues to be repeated, in a regular ſucceſſion during life: for though at 20, at 40, or at 60 years old ? If only this or that body ariſe, the muſcles of reſpiration, having a mixed motion, are (unlike the how ſhall it be rewarded or puniſhed for what was done by the heart) in ſome meaſure dependent on the will, yet no human being, other? and with what juſtice does one one perſon ſuffer for after having once reſpired, can live many moments without it. In another? an attempt to hold one's breath, the blood ſoon begins to diſtend the To this it has been anſwered, on the principles of Leibnitz, that veins, which are unable to empty their contents into the heart, and notwithſtanding theſe fucceffive changes, this ſtamen which is the we are able only during a very little time to reſiſt the ſtimulus to in- only eſſential part of the body, has always remained the ſame; and that Fig. 5 Nº 1 36. Хуу R E T R E V pregnancy, that, on Mr. Locke's principles, perſonal identity, or the fameneſs, contrary to the order of the ſigns; compleating its retrograde circu. of a rational being, conſiſts in ſelf-conſciouſneſs, in the power of lation in the compafs of about nineteen years: after which time, either conlidering itſelf the ſame thing in different times and places. By of the nodes, having receded from any point of the ecliptic, returns this, every one is to himſelf what he calls ſelf; without conſidering to the ſame again. to the ſame again. See the Syſtem of AsTRONOMY, Sect. VII. whether that ſelf be continued in the ſame, or in ſeveral ſubſtances. RETROVERSIO Uteri, or Retroverſion of the UTERUS, in It is the ſame ſelf now it was then ; and it was by the faine felt midwifery, a diſorder to which pregnant women are occaſionally which now refle&ts on an action, that that action was performed. | ſubject, and commonly occurring in the early ſtages of Now it is this perſonal identity that is the object of rewards and feldom fo late as the fourth month; and conſiſting, as the term puniſhments, which it is obſerved may exiſt in different ſucceſſions imports, in a diſtorted and unnatural poſition of the uterus. of inatter; ſo that to render the rewards and punishments juft and REVELATION, the act of revealing, or making a thing pertinent, we need only to riſe again with fuch a body, as that we public, which before was a fecrct, or unknown. retain the conſciouſneſs of our paſt actions. REVELATION is more particularly uſed for the diſcovery which RETARDATION, in mechanics, the act of retarding; that is, God has made to the world, by the mouths of his prophets , of of delaying the motion or progreſs of a body, or of diminiſhing its certain points of faith and duty, which they could not learn from velocity. The retardation of moving bodies ariſes from two great natural reaſon. Religion is divided into natural religion and reve- cauſes, the reſiſtance of the medium, and the force of gravity. lation, or revealed religion. The Chriſtian revelation is that made See the Syſtem, Sect. I. See alſo the Article MOTION. by Chriſt and his apoſtles, in the New Teftament. The Jewilh RETÉNTION, retentio, a faculty of the human inind, where revelation is that made by Moſes and the prophets, in the Old Tel- by, in order to a farther progreſs in knowledge, it keeps or retains tament. See CHRISTIAN Religion, and JudAISM. thoſe fimple ideas, which it before received by ſenſation or reflec The general foundation of all revelation is this, that God is pleaſed tion. This is done two ways. Firft, by keeping the idea which man ſhould know ſomething relating to himſelf, his own nature, is brought into the mind for ſome time actually in view. This is This is difpenfation, &c. which the natural faculties with which he was called contemplation. Secondly, by reviving thoſe ideas in our pleaſed to create bim could not attain to; and that he requires miods, which have diſappeared and have been, as it were, laid out fome duty or ſervice at our hands more than what neceſſarily fol- of fight. This is memory, which is, as it were, the repoſitory of lows from the relation we are under to him as our creator, pre- our ideas See CONTEMPLATION, and MEMORY. ſerver, &c. This is alſo urged by deiſts, to the diſcredit of all par- RETENTION is alſo uſed, in medicine, &c. for the ſtate of con- ticular revelations, as derogating from the perfections of God; ſuch traction in the ſolids, or vaſcular parts of the body, which makes ſupplementary informations and inſtructions arguing, according to them hold faſt their proper contents. In this ſenſe, retention them, a prior deficiency in the eſtabliſhed ceconomy of nature, of ſtands oppoſed to evacuation and excretion. Retention and excre- which he is the author. But many able anſwers have been given tion make two of the non-naturals. to ſuch cavils. The principal teſts of the truth of any revelation RETENTION is alſo frequently conſidered as a diſorder, and de- are, its being worthy of God, and conſiſtent with his known attri- fined the act of retaining the excrements, humours, &c. fo as they butes, its being agreeable to the clear dictates of unprejudiced reaſon, cannot be voided out of the body. It is the retention of peccant and its having a tendency to refine, purify, and exalt the mind of humours which cauſes ſuch a diſeaſe. A retention of urine is very man to an imitation of the Deity in his moral perfections. painful and dangerous. See the Syſtem of Medicine Genus 79. Particular or occaſional revelations have their particular geniuſes, RETICULAR Body, corpus reticulare, in anatoiny, a very fine characteriſtics, and deſigns. That made by Mofes and the pro- membrane, perforated, in the manner of a net, with a multitude of phets chiefly related to the nation of the Jews, conſidered as the foramina. It it placed immediately under the cuticle; and when deſcendants of Abraham ; its deſign feems to bave been to reſcue that is ſeparated from the cutis, whether by art or accident, this that people from their ſlavery ; to ſettle them in a new plantation; adheres firmly to it, and is fcarce poſſible to be parted from it, ſeem to give them a ſet of laws; to new form their manners; to fup- ing rather to be its inner ſuperficies than a diſtinct ſubſtance. In port them under difficulties and dangers of their enemies, from an regard to this, we are to obſerve, firſt, the places in which it is opinion of their being under the immediate direction and appoint- found, being all thoſe in which the ſenſe of feeling is moſt accute, ment of God; to keep them from intermixing again with their as in the palms of the hands, the extremities of the fingers, and on neighbours, from an opinion of their being a choſen people, and the foles of the feet. The tongue, however, is the part where it of a Meſſiah to be born among them; and thus to preſerve and is moſt accurately to be obſerved; it is more eaſily diſtinguiſhable tranſinit the knowledge and hope of the Meſſiah, till the period of there than any where elfe, and its nature and ſtructure are moſt his appearance arrived. To fome other of theſe ends do all the evidently ſeen there. Its colour in the Europeans is white; but in Old Teſtament prophecies ſeem to tend, the negroes, and other black nations, it is black; in the tawny it is The Chriſtian revelation is founded on a part of the Jewiſh, yellowiſh; the ſkin itſelf in both is white; and the blackneſs and The Meſſiah promiſed in the one is revealed in the other. All the yellowneſs depend altogether on the colour of this membrane. reſt of the Jewiſh revelation which related peculiarly to the Jewiſh The uſes of the corpus reticulare are to preſerve the ſtructure of people, is here ſet aſide; and only that part of it in which the the other parts of the integuments and keep them in their determi- world in general was intereſted, and that relating to the advent, nate form and fituation. Its apertures give paſſage to the hairs, and offices, and character of the Meſſiah, is retained. Indeed, it muit ſet through the papillæ and excretory ducts of the ſkin; it retains be owned, the Jews ever looked on this to be as peculiar to them- theſe in a certain and determinate order , that they cannot be removed felves as any of the reſt; the Meſſiah was promiſed to them; he out of their places, and has fome ſhare in preſerving the ſoftneſs was to be their deliverer, their reſtorer, &c. and under this charac- of the papillæ, which renders them fit for the ſenſe of feeling. ter he actually appeared. But, upon taking place of this new re- RETINA, in anatomy and optics, one of the tunics of the eye; velation, a new ſcene was opened, different from what many of ſee the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part VII. Sect. V. and the Syſtem them apprehended, becauſe they miſinterpreted the prophecies re- of OPTICS, Part I. Sect. I. and Plate II. Fig. I. lating to the Meffiah. The ceremonial part of their inſtitution, RETORT, in chymiſtry, a kind of crooked mattraſs, or a local and temporary in its eſtabliſhment and uſe, was aboliſhed; found-bellied veſſel, either of earth or glaſs, with a ſlender crooked and the Meffiah appeared, not as they erroneouſly imagined, to be beack or neck, to which the recipient is to be faſtened. See the the reſtorer of their civil ſovereignty and liberties, which were now Syſtem under the Article Chymical Apparatus, and the Plate an- | fallen into the hands of the Romans; but to reſtore and re-eſtabliſh nexed, Fig. 4. Letter B. mankind in general, who had loſt their original righteouſneſs, and RETREAT, in war, the retiring or moving back again of an were become flaves of fin; to preach repentance and remiffion ; army, or part thereof. We ſay, to found a retreat, to ſecure a re- and at laſt to ſuffer death, that all who believed in him inight not What they call a retreat in the armies, is really a die, but have everlaſting life. flight; only a flight made by deſign, and with conduct. The skill Such is the tenor and deſign of the Chriſtian revelation, which, and ability of the general is known by his retreats more than his in the event, was ſo far from being what it had been apprehended engagements. The retreat of the ten thouſand Greeks under the to be by the people to whom it was firſt promiſed, that it proved command of Xenophon, has been admired in all antiquity. the very reverſe; and, inſtead of re-eſtabliſhing and confirming the RETRENCHMENT, in war, denotes any kind of work caft other branches of their revelation, it ſuperſeded, and ſet them all up to ſtrengthen or defend a poſt againſt the enemy. Such are aſide: The pale was now broken down, and the being of the ditches with parapets, gabions, faſcines, &c. or a covering, &c. feed of Abraham ceaſed to be a privilege, all the world being in- See the Syſtem of FORTIFICATION, Sect. I. vited on the ſame terms with the Jews. The conſequence was, RETROGRADATION, or RETROGRESSION, the act or that the Jews, denying this to be the Meffiah that had been pro- effect of a thing moving backwards. miſed to them, becauſe their pride and prejudice prevented their RETROGRADATION, in aſtronomy, is an apparent motion of diſcerning the accomplishment of their ancient prophecies in him, the planets, wherein they ſeem to go backwards in the ecliptic, were generally excluded from the privileges of that miffion which and to move contrary to the order or fucceffion of the ſigns. The they had vainly ſuppoſed to be not only primarily, but wholly in- fun and moon always appear direct. Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, tended for themſelves; and had their ruin completed from the very Venus, and Mercury, are ſometimes direct, fometimes ſtationary, means whence they expected their redemption: becauſe they ex: ſometimes retrograde. See the Syſtem, Sect. V. and Plate 3. Fig. 6. pected redemption, different in its nature, from that which their RETROGRADATION of the Nodes, is a motion of the line of the own prophecies, fairly interpreted, propoſed. nodes, whereby it continually ſhifts its ſituation from eaſt to weſt, Mr. Locke, in laying down the difinat provinces of reaſon and treat, &c. faith, R E V REV ho- At pre- faith, obferves, 1. That the ſame truths may be diſcovered by re- , property, or ſuch as came to it afterwards by forfeitures or other velation which are diſcoverable to us by reaſon. 2. That no reve- means, and were formerly very extenſive, but are now contracted fation can be admitted againſt the clear evidence of reaſon. ž. That within a very narrow compaſs, having been almoſt entirely granted there are many things of which we have but imperfect notions, or away to private ſubjects. none at all; and others, of whoſe paſt, preſent, or future exiſtence, 5. The next branch of the king's ordinary revenue (which as by the natural uſe of our faculties we cannot have the leaſt know- well as the ſubſequent branches, is of a lay or temporal nature) ledge ; and theſe, being beyond the diſcovery of our faculties, and conſiſts in the rents and profits of the demeſne lands of the crown. above l'eafon, when revealed, become the proper object of our faith. Theſe demeſne lands teriæ dominicales regis, being either the ſhare He then adds, that our reaſon is not injured or diſturbed, but affiſted reſerved to the crown at the original diſtribution of landed property, and improved, by new diſcoveries of truth coming from the foun- or ſuch as came to it afterwards by forfeitures or other means, were tain of knowledge. Whatever God has revealed is certainly true ; anciently very large and extenſive; compriſing divers manors, but whether it be a divine revelation or no, reaſon muſt judge, nours, and lordſhips ; the tenants of which had very peculiar privi- which can never permit the mind to reject a greater evidence to leges, when we ſpeak of the tenure in ancient demelne. At embrace what is leſs evident. There can be no evidence that any ſent they are contracted within a very narrow compaſs, having traditional revelation is of divine original, in the words we receive been almoſt entirely granted away to private ſubjects . This has it, and the ſenſe we underſtand it, ſo clear and ſo certain as that of occaſioned the parliament frequently to interpoſe ; and particularly the principles of reaſon : and; therefore, nothing that is contrary to after king William III. had greatly impoveriſhed the crown, an the clear and ſelf-evident dictates of reaſon has a right to be urged act paſſed, whereby all future grants or leaſes from the crown for or aſſented to as a matter of faith, wherein reaſon has nothing to do. any longer term than 31 years or three lives, are declared to be void. REVELATION of St. John. See APOCALYPSE. The misfortune is, that this act was made too late, after almoſt REVELS, entertainments of dancing, maſking, acting comedies, every valuable poſſeſſion of the crown had been granted away for farces, &c. anciently very frequent in the iuns of court and in noble- ever, or elſe upon very long leaſes; but may be of benefit to pol- mens houſes, but now much diſuſed. The officer who has the di- terity, when thoſe leaſes come to expire. rection of the revels at court is called the Mafier of the Revels. 6. Military Tenures, The advantages which were uſed to ariſe REVENUE, the annual income a perſon receives from the to the king froin the profits of his military tenures, to which moſt rent of his lands, houſes, intereſt of money in the ſtocks, &c. lands in the kingdom were ſubject, till the ſtatute 12 Car. II. Royal REVENUE is that which the Britiſh conſtitution hath veſted c. 24. were then in a great meaſure aboliſhed. Hither alſo might in the royal perſon, in order to ſupport his dignity and maintain have been preferred the profitable prerogative of purveyance and his power; being a portion which each ſubject contributes of his pre-emption : which was a right enjoyed by the crown in buying property, in order to ſecure the remainder. up proviſions and other neceffaries, by the intervention of the king's The revenues of the Engliſh ciergy were firſt fixed by king purveyors, for the uſe of his royal houſehold, at an appraiſed valua- Ethelwulph, anno 853, who granted them for ever the tithe of all tion, in preference to all others, and even without conſent of the goods, and the tenth part of all the lands of England, free from all owner: and alſo of forcibly impreſſing the carriages and horſes of iecular ſervice, taxes, impoſitions, &c. Though Rapin obferves, the ſubject, to do the king's buſineſs on the public roads, in the that tithes were ſettled on the clergy by the laws of Ina and Offa. conveyance of timber, baggage, and the like, however inconvenient But theſe laws were probably not obſerved, or perhaps Ethelwulph to the proprietor, upon paying him a ſettled price. A prerogative extended the law of Tithes all over England. The certain reve- which prevailed pretty generally throughout Europe during the nues of the king of England were anciently greater than thoſe of ſcarcity of gold and ſilver, and the high valuation of money conſe- any king in Europe ; and till the time of the civil wars they en- quent thereupon. In thoſe early times the king's houſehold (as joyed in domains and fee-farm-rents almoſt enough to diſcharge all well as thoſe of inferior lords) were fupported by ſpecific renders the ordinary expences of the crown, without any tax or impoſition of corn, and other victuals, from the tenants of the reſpective de- on the ſubject. This revenue is either ordinary or extraordinary. meſues; and there was alſo a continual market kept at the palace- The king's ordinary revenue is ſuch as has either ſubſiſted time gate to furniſh viands for the royal uſe. And this anſwered all out of mind in the crown; or elſe has been granted by parliament, purpoſes, in thoſe ages of ſimplicity, ſo long as the king's court by way of purchaſe or exchange for ſuch of the king's inherent he continued in any certain place. But when it removed from one reditary revenues, as were found inconvenient to the ſubject. In fay- part of the kingdom to another, (as was formerly very frequently ing that the revenue has ſubſiſted timeout of mind in the crown, we done), it was found neceſſary to fend purveyors beforehand, to get do not mean that the king is at preſent in the actual poſſeſſion of together a ſufficient quantity of proviſions and other neceſſaries for the whole of his revenue. Much (nay the greateſt part of it is at this the houſehold: and, left the unuſual demand ſhould raiſe them to day in the hands of ſubjects; to whom it has been granted out from an exorbitant price, the powers beforementioned were veſted in time to time by the kings of England: which has rendered the theſe purveyors; who in proceſs of time very greatly abuſed their crown in ſome meaſure dependant on the people for its ordinary authority, and became a great oppreſſion to the ſubject, though of ſupport and ſubſiſtence. So that we muſt be obliged to recount, as little advantage to the crown; ready money in open market (when part of the royal revenue, what lords of manors and other ſubjects the royal reſidence was more permanent, and ſpecie began to be frequently look upon to be their own abſolute rights; becauſe they plenty) being found upon experience to be the beſt proveditor of any. are and have been veſted in them and their anceſtors for ages, though | Wherefore, by degrees, the powers of purveyance have declined, in reality originally derived from the grants of our ancient princes. in foreign countries as well as our own : and particularly were abo- Of the king's ordinary revenues there are four, which are of an liſhed in Sweden by Guſtavus Adolphus, towards the beginning of eccleſiaſtical kind. 1. The cuſtody of the temporalites of biſhops, the laſt century. And, with us in England, having fallen into dif- or all the lay revenues, lands, and tenements in which is conclud-uſe, during the ſuſpenſion of monarchy, king Charles at his reſto- ed his barony), which belong to an arch-biſhop's or biſhop's fee, ration, conſented, by the ſame ſtatute, to reſign entirely thoſe which, upon the vacancy of the biſhoprick, revert immediately to branches of his revenue and power : and the parliament, in part the king, as his right, during the vacancy. This branch of the recompence, ſettled on him, his heirs, and ſucceſſors, for ever, the royal revenue was formerly very conſiderable, but is now, by cuf- hereditary exciſe of 150 per barrel on all beer and ale fold in the tomary indulgence, reduced almoſt to nothing; for, at preſent, as kingdom, and a proportionable fum for certain other liquors. So ſoon as the new biſhop is conſecrated and confirmed, he uſually that this hereditary exciſe, now forms the ſixth branch of his ma- receives the reſtitution of his temporalites, entire and untouched, jeſty's ordinary revenue. from the king, and then, but not ſooner, he has a fee-ſimple in 7. A ſeventh branch might alſo be computed to have ariſen from his biſhoprick, and may maintain an action for the profits. wine-licenſes; or the rents payable to the crown by ſuch perſons 2. The king alſo is entitled to a corody, as the law calls it, out of as are licenſed to ſell wine by retail throughout Britain, except in every biſhopric; that is, to ſend one of his chaplains to be main a few privileged places. Theſe were firſt ſettled on the crown by tained by the biſhop, or to have a penſion allowed him till the biſhop the ſtatute 12 Car. II. c. 25. and, together with the hereditary ex- promotes him to a benefice. This is alſo in the nature of an ac- ciſe, made up the equivalent in value for the loſs ſuſtained by the knowledgment to the king, as founder of the fee, ſince he had prerogative in the abolition of the military tenures, and the right of formerly the ſame corody or penſion from every abbey or priory of pre-emption and purveyance: but this revenue was aboliſhed by royal foundation. It is ſuppoſed to be now fallen into total difuſe; the ſtatute 30 Geo. II.C 19, and an annual ſum of upwards of though Sir Matthew Hale ſays, that it is due of common right, and 7000l. per annum, iſſuing out of the new ſtamp-duties impoſed on that no preſcription will diſcharge it. wine-licences, was ſettled on the crown in its ſtead. 3. The king alſo is intitled to all the tithes ariſing in extra-pa 8. An eighth branch of the king's ordinary revenue is uſually rochial places: though perhaps it may be doubted how far this ar- reckoned to conſiſt in the profits ariſing from his foreſts. See ticle, as well as the lait, can be properly reckoned a part of the king's Forests. Theſe conſiſt principaily in the amercements or fines own royal revenue; ſince a corody ſupports only his chaplains, and levied for offences againſt the foreft-laws. But as few, if any, theſe extra-parochial tithes are held under an implied truſt, that the courts of this kind for levying amercements have been held ſince king will diſtribute them for the good of the clergy in general. 1632, 8 Car. 1. and as, from the accounts given of the proceedings 4. The firſt fruits and tenths of all ſpiritual preferments in the in that court by our hiſtories and law-books, nobody would with kingdom. The following branches of the king's ordinary revenue to ſee them again revived; it is needleſs to purſue this inquiry any are of a lay or temporal nature. The firſt of theſe conſiſts in the farther. rents and profits of the demeſne lands of the crown, which are either The profits ariſing from the king's ordinary courts of juſtice the fare reſerved to the crown at the original diſtribution of landed make a ninth branch of his revenue. And theſe conſiſt not only in of 9. R E V REV in fines impoſed upon offenders, forfeitures of recognizances, and which, though it may perhaps fall harder upon ſome individuals amercements levied upon defaulters; but alſo in certain fees due whoſe anceſtors have had no thare in the general plunder, than to the crown in a variety of legal matters, as, for ſetting the great upon others, yet, taking the nation throughout, it amounts to neatly ſeal to charters, original writs, and other forenſic proceedings, and the ſame provided the gain by the extraordinary ſhould appear to for permitting fines to be levied of lands in order to bar entails, or be no greater than the loſs by the ordinary revenue. And perhaps, otherwiſe to inſure their title. As none of theſe can be done with if every gentleman in the kingdom was to be ſtripped of fuch of out the immediate intervention of the king, by himſelf or his offi- his lands as were formerly the property of the crown, was to be cers, the law allows him certain perquiſites and profits, as a recom- again ſubject to the inconveniences of purveyance and pre-emption, pence for the trouble he undertakes for the public. Theſe, in pro- the oppreflion of foreſt-laws, and the ſlavery of fædal tenures; and ceſs of time, have been almoſt all granted out to private perſons, or was to reſign into the king's hands all his royal franchiſes of waifs, elſe appropriated to certain particular uſes : ſo that though our law. wrecks, eftrays, treaſure-trove, mines, deodands, forfeitures, and proceedings are ſtill loaded with their payment, very little of them the like; be would find himſelf a greater lofer than by paying his is now returned into the king's exchequer; for a part of whoſe quota to ſuch taxes as are neceſſary to the ſupport of government. royal maintenance they were originally intended. All future grants. The thing, therefore to be wiſhed and aimed at in a land of liber- of them, however, by the ſtatute i Ann ft. 2. c. 7. are to endure ty, is by no means the total abolition of taxes, which would draw for no longer time than the prince's life who grants them. after it very pernicious conſequences, and the very ſuppoſition of 10. A tenth branch of the king's ordinary revenue, ſaid to be which is the height of political abſurdity. For as the true idea of grounded on the confideration of his guarding and protecting the government and magiſtracy will be found to conſiſt in this, that ſeas from pirates and robbers, is the right to royal fiſh, which are fome few men are deputed by many others to preſide over public whale and ſturgeon: and theſe, when either thrown afhore, or affairs, ſo that individuals inay the better be enabled to attend their caught near the coaſts, are the property of the king, on account of private concerns; it is neceſſary that thoſe individuals ſhould be their ſuperior excellence. Indeed, our anceſtors ſeem to have enter- bound to contribute a portion of their private gains, in order to tained a very high notion of the importance of this right; it being the ſupport that gover ſupport that government, and reward that magiſtracy, which pro- prerogative of the king's of Denmark and the dukes of Normandy ; tects them in the enjoyment of their reſpective properties. But and from one of theſe it was probably derived to our princes. the things to be aimed at are wiſdoin and moderation, not only in 11. The revenue ariſing from ſhip-wrecks, which is frequently granting, but alſo in the method of raiſing, the neceſſary ſupplies; granted out to lords of manors, as a royal franchiſe. by contriving to do both in ſuch a manner as may be moſt conducive 12. A twelfth branch of the royal revenue, the right to mines, has to the national welfare, and at the ſame time moſt conſiſtent with its original from the king's prerogative of coinage, in order to fup- ceconomy and the liberty of the ſubject; who, when properly taxed, ply him with materials; and therefore thoſe mines which are pro- contributes only, as was before obſerved, ſome part of his property perly royal, and to which the king is entitled when found, are only in order to enjoy the reſt. Theſe extraordinary grants are uſually thoſe of ſilver and gold. called by the ſynonimous names of aids, ſubſidies, and ſupplies; and 13. Treaſure Trove, is where any money or coin, gold, filver, are granted by the Commons of Great Britain, in parliament affen- plate or bullion is found hidden in the earth or other private places, bled. See PARLIAMENT and Tax. The clear neat produce of the owner thereof being unknown, in which caſe the treaſure be- the feveral branches of the revenue, after all charges of collecting longs to the king. But if he that hid it be known, or afterwards and management paid, amounts at preſent annually to about ten found out, the owner and not the king is entitled to it. millions and a quarter ſterling; beſides more than two millions and 14. Waifs are goods ſtolen and waived, or thrown away by the a quarter raiſed by the land and malt-tax. How theſe immenſe thief in his flight for fear of being apprehended. Theſe are given fums are appropriated, is next to be conſidered. And this is, firſt to the king by the law, as a puniſhment upon the owner for not and principally, to the payment of the intereſt of the national debt. himſelf purſuing the felon, and taking away his goods from him ; See NATIONAL Debt, and FUNDS. The reſpective produces of and therefore if the party robbed follows and apprehends the thief the ſeveral taxes were originally ſeparate and diſtinct funds ; being and cớnvicts him, he fall have his goods again. ſecurities for the ſums advanced on each ſeveral tax; and for them 15. Eſtray imports any tame beaſt, as ſheep, oxen, ſwine, horſe, only. But at laſt it became neceſſary, in order to avoid confuſion, found within a lordfhip and not owned by any man; after being cried | as they multiplied yearly, to reduce the number of theſe ſeparate in the church and two market towns adjacent, if not claimed by the funds, by uniting and blending them together ; fuperadding the owner within a year and a day, it becomes the property of the king. faith of parliament for the general ſecurity of the whole. So that 16. The next branch of the king's ordinary revenue conſiſts in there are now only three capital funds of any account, the aggregate forfeitures of lands and goods for offences. The true reaſon and fund, and the general fund, ſo called from ſuch union and addition ; only ſubſtantial ground of any forfeitnre for crimes, conſiſt in this: and the South-Sea fund, being the produce of the taxes appropriated that all property is derived from fociety, being one of thoſe civil to pay the intereſt of ſuch part of the national debt as was advanced rights which are conferred upon individuals, in exchange for that by that company and its annuitants. Whereby the ſeparate funds, slegree of natural freedom which every man muſt ſacrifice when he which were thus united, are become mutual ſecurities for each enters into ſocial communities. If therefore, a member of any other; and the whole produce of them, thus aggregated, liable to national community violates the fundamental contract of his affoci- pay ſuch intereſt or annuities as were formerly charged upon each ation, by tranſgrefling the municipal law, he forfeits his right to diſtinct fund: the faith of the legiſlature being moreover engaged fuch privileges as he claims by that contract; and the ſtate may to ſupply any caſual deficiencies. very juſtly reſume that portion of property, or any part of it, which The cuſtoms, exciſes, and other taxes, which are to ſupport theſe the laws have before affigned him. Hence, in every offence of an funds, depending upon contingencies, upon exports, imports and atrocious kind, the laws of England have exacted a total confiſca- conſumptions, muſt neceſſarily be of a very uncertain amount; but tion of the moveables or perſonal eſtate; and, in many caſes a they have always been conſiderably more than was ſufficient to an- perpetual, in others only a temporary, loſs of the offender's immovea- ſwer the charge upon them. The ſurpluffes, therefore, of the three bles or landed property and have veſted them both in the king, great national funds, the aggregate, general, and South-Sea funds, who is the perſon ſuppoſed to be offended, being the one viſible over and above the intereſt and annuities charged upon them, are magiſtrate in whom the majeſty of the public reſides. directed by ſtatute 3 Geo. I. c. 7. to be carried together, and to 17. Another branch of the king's ordinary revenue ariſes from attend the diſpoſition of parliament; and are uſually denominated efcheats of lands, which happen upon the defect of heirs to ſucceed the ſinking fund, becauſe originally deſtined to ſink and lower the to the inheritance; whereupon they in general revert to and veſt in national debt. To this have been fince added many other entire the king, who is eſteemed, in the eye of the law, the original pro- duties, granted in ſubſequent years; and the annual intereſt of the prietor of all lands in the kingdom. fums borrowed on their reſpective credits is charged on, and paya- 18. The laſt branch of the king's ordinary revenue, conſiſts in ble out of, the produce of the ſinking fund. However, the neat ſur- the cuſtody of idiots, from whence we fall naturally be led to con- plaſſes and ſavings, after all deductions paid, amount annually to ſider alſo the cuſtody of lunatics. See IDIOT and LUNATIC, a very conſiderable fum. For as the intereſt on the national debe This may ſuffice for a ſhort view of the king's ordinary revenue, has been at ſeveral times reduced, (by the conſent of the proprie- or the proper patrimony of the crown; which was very large tors, who had their option either to lower their intereſt or be paid formerly, and capable of being increaſed to a magnitude truly their principal), the ſavings from the appropriated revenues muſt formidable: for there are very few eſtates in the kingdom that needs be extremely large. This finking fund is the laſt reſort of have not at fome period or other ſince the Norman conqueſt, been the nation; its only domeſtic reſource, on which muſt chiefly de- veſted in the hands of the king, by forfeiture, eſcheat, or otherwiſe. pend all the hopes we can entertain of ever diſcharging or mode- But, fortunately for the liberty of the ſubject, this hereditary land- rating our incumbrances. And therefore the prudent and ſteady ed revenue, by a ſeries of improvident management, is ſunk almoſt application of the large ſums, now arifing from this fund, is a point 10 nothing; and the caſual profits, ariſing from the other branches of the utmoſt importance, and well worthy the ſerious attention of of the cenſus regalis, are likewiſe almoſt all of them alienated from parliament; which was thereby enabled in the year 1965, to re- the crown. In order to ſupply the deficiences of which, we are duce above two millions ſterling of the public debt; and ſeveral now obliged to have recourſe to new methods of raiſing inoney, additional millions in feveral ſucceeding years. But, before any unknown to our early anceſtors; which methods conſtitute, part of the aggregate fund (the furpluffeś whereof are one of the The king's extraordinary revenue. For, the public patrimony chief ingredients that form the ſinking fund) can be applied to di- being got into the hands of private ſubjects, it is but reaſon- minish the principal of the public debt, it Itands mortgaged by par- able that private contributions ſhould ſupply the public ſervice. liament to raiſe an annual fum for the maintenance of the king's houſehold R E V R E V houſehold and the civil liſt. For this purpoſe, in the late reigns, flame from the top of the furnace back to the bottom, chiefly uſed the produce of certain branches of the exciſe and cuſtoms, the poſt- in calcination. office, the duty on wine-licences, the revenues of the remaining REVERBERATORY, or REVERBERATING Furnace, is a crown-lands, the profits ariſing from courts of juſtice, (which arti-chymical furnace built cloſe all round, and covered at the top with cles include all the hereditary revenues of the crown), and alſo a a capital of brick or tiles, ſo as not to give any vent to the heat or clear annuity of 120,000l, in money, were ſettled on the king for flame, but to determine it to reverberate or turn back from the life, for the ſupport of his majeſty's houſehold, and the honour and brick-work with new force, upon the matters placed at bottom. dignity of the crown. And, as the amount of theſe ſeveral branches For plan of a wind furnace, when deſigned for a reverberatory, fee was uncertain, (though in the laſt reign they were computed to the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Article Chymical Apparatus, and have fonetimes raiſed almoſt a million), if they did not ariſe annu- Plate, fig. 4. ally to 800,000l. the parliament engaged to make up the deficiency. REVEREND, reverendus, a title of reſpect given to eccleſiaſ- But his preſent majeſty having, ſoon after his acceſſion, ſpontane-tics. The religious abroad are called reverend fathers; and ab- cully ſignified his conſent that his own hereditary revenues might befles, prioreffes, &c. are called reverend mothers. With us, biſhops be lo diſpoſed of as might beſt conduce to the utility and ſatisfac- are right reverend; and archbiſhops moſt reverend. In France, their tion of the public, and having graciouſly accepted the limited fum biſhops, archbiſhops, and abbots, are all alike reverendiſſimes, moſt of 800,cool. per annum, for the ſupport of his civil liſt (charged reverend. alſo with three life annuities, to the princeſs of Wales, the duke of REVERIE, a term purely French, frequently uſed of late in Cumberland, and the princeſs Amelia, to the amount of 77,0001.) Engliſh, to ſignify a delirium, raviog, or diſtraction. It is an ill the ſaid hereditary and other revenues are now carried into, and ſign in fevers when the patient falls into a reverie. Hence alſo re- made a part of, the aggregate fund; and the aggregate fund is verie comes to be uſed for any ridiculous, extravagant imagination, charged with the payment of the whole annuity to the crown of action, or propoſition, a chimera or viſion. Thus we ſay, authors eight hundred thouſand pounds per annum. The expences them- obtrude abundance of their reveries upon us for folid truths. But felves, being put under the ſame care and management as the the moſt ordinary uſe of the word reverie, among Engliſh writers, other branches of the public patrimony, produce more, and are is for a deep diſorderly muſing or meditation, equivalent to what better collected than heretofore. The civil liſt, thus liquidated, we popularly call a brown ſtudy. together with the four millions and an half intereſt of the national REVERSED, in heraldry, a thing turned backwards, or up- debt, and the two millions produced from the ſinking fund, make fide down. up the ſeven millions and a quarter per annuin, neat money, which REVERSION, in the law of England, has two ſignifications ; were before ſtated to be the annual produce of our perpetual taxes; the one of which is an eſtate left, which continues during a particu- beſides the immenſe, though uncertain, ſums ariſing from the an- lar eſtate in being; and the other is the returning of the land, &c. nual taxes on land and malt, but which, at an average, may be cal- after the particular eſtate is ended; and it is further ſaid, to be an culated at more than two millions and a quarter; and, added to the intereſt in lands, when the poſſeffion of it fails, or where the eſtate preceding ſum, make the clear produce of the taxes, excluſive of which was for a time parted with, returns to the grantors, or their the charge of collecting, which are raiſed yearly on the people of heirs. But, according to the uſual definition of a reverſion, it is the this country, amount to near ten millions ſterling. reſidue of an eſtate left in the grantor, after a particular eſtate granted The expences defrayed by the civil liſt are thoſe that in any away, ceaſes, continuing in the grantor of ſuch an eſtate. The dif- ſhape relate to civil government; as, the expences of the houſehold; ference between a remainder and a reverſion conſiſts in this, that the all ſalaries to officers of ſtate, to the judges, and every one of the reinainder may belong to any man except the grantor; whereas the king's ſervants; the appointments to foreign ambaſſadors; the reverſion returns to him who conveyed the lands, &c. For the me- maintenance of the queen and royal family; the king's private thod of finding the values of reverſions or eſtates in reverſion, with expences, or privy-puiſe; and other very numerous outgoings, as tables explanatory of the ſubject. See the Syſtem of ANNUITIES. ſecret ſervice money, penſions, and other bounties: which fome REVERSION of Series, in algebra, is a method of finding a na- times have ſo far exceeded the revenues appointed for that purpoſe, tural number from its logarithms given; or the fine from its arch; that application has been made to parliament to diſcharge the debts or the ordinate of an ellipſis from an area given to be cut off from contracted on the civil lift; as particularly in 1724, when one mil- any point in the axis. See the Syſtem of ALGEBRA, FLUXIONS, lion was granted for that purpoſe by the ſtatute 11 George I. c. 17. and the Article Logarithnis. and in 1769, when half a million was appropriated to the like uſes REVIVICATION, or REDUCTION, in chymiſtry, the art of by the ſtatute 9 George III. c. 34. The civil lift is indeed properly reſtoring a mixed body to its firſt ſtate, after it had been altered and the whole of the king's revenue in his own diſtinct capacity; the diſguiſed by diſſolution, calcination or the like. This term, in reſt being rather the revenue of the public, or its creditors, though its more confined ſenſe, is uſually applied to thoſe operations by collected and diſtributed again in the name and by the officers of which metals are reſtored to their metallic ſtate, after they have the crown: it now ſtanding in the ſame place as the hereditary been deprived of this ſtate, either by the loſs of their phlogiſton, or income did formerly: and as that has gradually diminiſhed, the by the union of ſome heterogeneous matters which diſguiſe them, parliamentary appointments have increaſed. The whole revenue as fulminating gold, luna cornea, cinnabar, and other ſuch of queen Elizabeth did not amount to more than 600,000l. a year: compounds. that of king Charles I. was 8c0,000l, and the revenue voted for REVOLUTION, in politics, denotes a grand turn or change king Charles II. was 1,200,000/ though complaints were made of government. There are no ſtates in the world but have under- (in the firſt years at leaſt), that it did not amount to ſo much. But gone frequent revolutions. The abbot de Vertot has furniſhed us it muſt be obſerved, that under theſe ſums were included all man- with two or three good hiſtories of the revolutions of Sweden, the ner of public expences; among which lord Clarendon, in lois ſpeech revolutions of Rome, &c. to the parliament, computed that the charge of the navy and land The REVOLUTION uſed with us by way of eminence, denotes forces a mounted annually to 8co,ocol. which was ten times more the great turn of affairs in England in 1688, when king James II. than before the former troubles. The ſame revenue, fubjeĉ to the abdicating, the prince and princeſs of Orange were declared king fame charges, was ſettled on king James II. but by the increaſe of and queen of England, &c. The true ground and principle upon trade, and more frugal management, it amounted on an average to which that memorable event proceeded, was an entire new caſe in 1,500,000l. per annum, (beſides other additional cuſtoms granted politics, which had never before happened in our hiſtory; the ab- by parliament, which produced an annual revenue of 400,000l.) dication of the reigning monarch, and the vacancy of the throne cut of which his feet and army were maintained at the yearly ex- thereupon. Accordingly, in a full aſſembly of the lords and com- pence of 1,100,000l. After the revolution, when the parliament mons, met in convention on occaſion of this vacancy, both houſes took into its own hands the annual ſupport of the forces both ma came to this reſolution : “ That king James the Second, having ritime and military, a civil-liſt revenue was ſettled on the new king endeavoured to ſubvert the conſtitution of the kingdom, by breaking and queen), amounting, with the hereditary duties, to 700,000l. per the original contract between king and people; and, by the advice amium; and the ſame was continued to queen Anne and king of Jeſuits, and other wicked perſons, having violated the funda- George I. That of king George II. was nominally augmented to mental laws; and having withdrawn himfelf out of this kingdom, 800,000l. and in fact was conſiderably more: but that of his pre- has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby va- ſent majeſty is expreſlly limited to that ſum; though 100,000l. has cant. " The lords and commons having determined this funda- been ſince added, And upon the whole, it is doubtleſs much bet- mental article, that there was a vacancy of the throne, proceeded ter for the crown, and alſo for the people, to have the revenue fet- to fill up that vacancy in ſuch manner as they judged moſt proper. tled upon the modern footing rather than the ancient. For the And this was done by their declaration of 12 February, 1688, in crown; becauſe it is more certain, and collected with greater eaſe: the following manner : “ That William and Mary, prince and for the people ; becauſe they are now delivered from the dreadful princeſs of Orange, be, and be declared king and queen, to hold the feodal hardſhips, and other odious branches of the prerogative. crown and royal dignity during their lives, and the life of the ſur- REVERBERATION, in phyſics, the act of a body repelling vivor of them; and that the ſole and full exerciſe of the regal or reflecting another, after its impinging thereon. In the glaſs- power be only in, and executed by, the ſaid prince of Orange, in men's furnace the flame reverberates or bends back again to burn the names of the ſaid prince and princeſs, during their joint lives: the matter on all ſides. Echoes are occaſioned by the reverbera- after their deceaſes the ſaid crown and royal dignity to be to, tion of founds from arched obſtacles. the heirs of the body of the ſaid princeſs; and for default of ſuch REVERBERATION, in chymiſtry, denotes a kind of circulation ifſue to the princeſs Anne of Denmark, and the heirs of her body; of the flame, by means of a reverberatory; or the return of the and in default of ſuch iſſue to the heir of the body of the ſaid prince No. 136. Z z z RH I RH 1 adverſary. 2 prince of Orange.” This tranſaction, founded in equity, and ceeded by the Elephant, and in ſtrength and power is inferior to no ſtrictly agreeable to the ſpirit of our conſtitution, and the rights of other animal. Bontius ſays, that in the bulk of its body it equals the human nature, formed a new æra in the hiſtory of our country, in Elephant, but is lower only on account of the ſhortneſs of its legs. which the bounds of prerogative and liberty have been better de The length of this animal, from the extremity of the muzzle to fined, the principles of government more thoroughly examined and the inſertion of the tail, is uſually twelve feet; and the circumference underſtood, and the rights of the ſubject more explicity guarded of its body nearly equal to its length : Its noſe is armed with a by legal proviſions, than in any other period of the Engliſh hiſtory, formidable weapon, peculiar to this creature, being a very hard The moſt remarkable and happy revolution, that has taken place and ſolid horn, with which it defends itſelf from every this laſt century, is that of Poland, which was effected with very The tiger will rather attack the elephant, whoſe trunk it can little tumult and without any bloodſhed, the equilibrium of power lay hold of, than the rhinoceros, which it cannot face, without between king and people being adjuſted to the ſatisfaction of all danger of having its bowels torn out. The body and limbs of the parties, and the reſtoration of perfect tranquillity; and happy would rhinoceros are covered with a ſkin ſo hard and impenetrable, that it have been, if the revolution in France could have been effected he fears neither the claws of the tiger, nor the more formidable by ſimilar means. probocis of the elephant; it will turn the ege of a ſcimitar, and REVOLUTION, in geometry. The motion of any figure quite even reſiſt the force of a muſket-ball . The ſkin, which is of sound a fixed line, as an axis, is called the revolution of that figure; blackiſh colour, forins itſelf into large folds at the neck, the and the figure ſo moving is ſaid to revolve. Thus, a right-angled thoulders, and the crupper, by which the motion of the head and triangle, revolving round one of its legs, as an axis, generates, by limbs is facilitated; round the neck, which is very ſhort, are ewo that revolution, a cone. large folds, there is a fold from the ſhoulders, which hangs down REVOLUTION, in aſtronomy, denotes the period of a ſtar, planet, upon the fore legs; and another from the hind part of the back to comet, or other phænomenon; or its courſe from any point of its the thighs. The body is every-where covered with ſmall tuberoſities orbit, till it return to the ſame. The planets have a twofold revo or knots, which are finall on the neck and back, but larger on lution. The one about their own axis, uſually called their diurnal the ſides. The thighs, legs, and even the feet, are full of theſe rotation, which conſtitutes what we call their day. The other incruſtrations, which have been miſtaken for ſcales by fome authors: about the ſun, ealled their annual revolution or period, conſtituting They are, however, only ſimple indurations of the ſkin, without their year. See the Syſtem, Sect. VII. any uniformity in their figure, or regularity in their poſitions. RÉVULSION, revulfio, in medicine, the turning a flux of Between the folds, the ſkin is penetrable and delicate, as ſoft to humours from one part of the body to another, either neighbouring the touch as filk, and of a lighrt fieth-colour; the ſkin of the belly or oppoſite part. In very dangerous wounds, where the loſs of is nearly of the ſame colour and conſiſtency. The body of the blood is great, and the ſtopping it ſpeedily enough is impracticable, rhinoceros is long and thick; its belly is large, and bangs near it is uſual to open a vein in ſome remote part, to cauſe a revulfion; the ground; its legs ſhort, round and very flrong; and its hoofs that is, to turn the courſe of the blood from the former part to that are divided into three parts, each pointing forward. The head of where the aperture is made. Revulſions are alſo cauſed by cup- this animal is large; its ears long and erect; and its eyes ſmall , ping, friction, &c. ſunk, and without vivacity; the upper lip is long, cverhangs the REVULSION is alſo uſed for the ſpontaneous turn or reflux of lower, and is capable of great extenſion; it is ſo pliable that the humours in the body. Sudden diſeaſes are occafioned by great re- rhinoceros can move it from ſide to ſide, twiſt it round a ſtick, col- vulſions of humours, which fall all at once on certain parts, lect its food, or ſeize with it any thing it would carry to its mouth. RHAPSODY, jafwdice, in antiquity, a diſcourſe in verſe, ſung The rhinoceros, without being ferocious, carnivorous, or even or rehearſed by a rhapſodiſt, Others will have rhapſody properly extremely wild, is, however, totally untractable and rude. It is to ſignify a collection of verſes, eſpecially thoſe of Homer ; which, ſubject to paroxyſms of fury, which nothing can appeaſe. Like having been long time diſperſed in pieces and fragments, were at the hog, this animal is fond of wallowing in the mire. It is a length, by Pififtratus's orders, digeſted into books, called rhapſodies. folitary animal, loves moiſt and marſhy grounds, and ſeldom quits RHENISH Wine, that produced on the hills about Rheims. the banks of rivers. It is found in Bengal, Siam, China, and This wine is much uſed in medicine as a ſolvent of iron, for which other countries of Aſia; in the iſles of Java, Sumatra, Ceylon, it is well calculated on account of its acidity. Dr. Percival ob- &c.; in Ethiopia, and the country as low as the Cape of Good ferves, that it is the beſt ſolvent of the Peruvian bark; in which, | Hope: but in general, the ſpecies is not numerous, and is much however, he thinks its acidity has no ſhare, becauſe an addition of leſs diffuſed than that of the elephant. vinegar to water does not augment its ſolvent power. The female produces but one at a time, and at conſiderable RHETORIC, the art of ſpeaking copiouſly on any ſubject, intervals. During the firſt month, the young rhinoceros exceeds with all the advantages of beauty and force. For explanation of not the ſize of a large dog. At the age of two years, the horn is the import and uſes of the principal tropes appertaining to this art, not more than an inch long; at ſix years old, it is nine or ten fee the Treatiſe on ORATORY, Part III. Sect. I. Article III. inches long; and grows to the length of three feet and a half, and RHEUM, Rhubarb; a genus of the monogynia order, belong- ſometimes four feet. monogynia order, belong- ſometimes four feet . The rhinoceros feeds on the groffeſt herbs, ing to the enneandria claſs of plants. There are five ſpecies. and prefers thiſtles and ſhrubs to ſoft or delicate paſturage. It is Two ſorts of rhubarb are met with in the ſhops. The firſt is im- fond of the ſugar-cane, and eats all kinds of grain. Dr. Parſons ported from Turkey and Ruſſia, in roundiſh pieces freed from the remarks, that this animal has an acute and very attentive ear: It bark, with a hole through the middle of each : they are externally will liſten with a deep and long continued attention to any kind of of a yellowiſh colour, and on cutting appear variegated with lively noiſe; and, though it be eating, lying down, or obeying any preſſing reddiſh ſtreaks. demands of nature, it will raiſe its head, and liſten till the noile Rhubarb is a mild cathartic, which operates without violence ceaſe. From the peculiar conſtruction of his eyes, the rhinoceros or irritation, and may be given with ſafety even to pregnant wo can only ſee what is immediately before him. When he purſues men, and children. Beſides its purgative quality, it is celebrated any object, he proceeds always in a direct line, overturning every for an aſtringent one, by which it ftrengthens the tone of the ſto- obſtruction. With the horn on his noſe, he tears up ſmall trees, mach and inteſtines, and proves uſeful in diarrhrceas and diſorders raiſes ſtones and throws them behind him to a conſiderable diſtance. proceeding from a laxity of the fibres. Rhubarb in ſubſtance ope- His ſenſe of iinelling is ſo exquiſite, that the hunters are obliged to rates more powerfully as a cathartic than any of the preparations avoid being to windward of him. They follow him at a diſtance, of it. Watry tin&tures purge more than the ſpirituous ones; and watch till he lies down to ſleep: they then approach him with whilſt the latter contain in greater perfection the aromatic, aſtrin- great precaution, and diſcharge their muſkets all at once in the lower gent, and corroborating virtues of the rhubarb. The dofe, when part of his belly. The rhinoceros is ſuppoſed to be the Unicorn intended as a purgative, is from a ſcruple to a drachm or more. The of holy writ, and poſſeſſes all the properties aſcribed to that animal, Turkey rhubarb is, among us, univerſally preferred to the Eaſt In- rage, untameableneſs, great ſwiftneſs, and immenſe ſtrength. It dia ſort, though this laſt is for ſome purpoſes at leaſt equal to the was known to the Romans in very early times, and is handed down other; it is manifeſtly more aſtringent, but has ſomewhat leſs of to us in ſome of the works of that celebrated people. Auguftus in- an aromatic flavour. Tinctures drawn from both with rectified troduced one into the ſhows, on his triumph over Cleopatra. Its fleſh ſpirit, have nearly the ſame taſte; on diſtilling off the menftruum, is eaten, and is much reliſhed by the natives of India and Africa. the extract left from the tincture of the Eaſt India rhubarb proved 2. Bicornis, or the two-horned Rhinoceros We have given conſiderably the ſtrongeſt. Of late, rhubarb has been cultivated in the figure of this animal from Mr. Sparrman, whoſe authenticity this country with tolerable ſucceſs, and is found not to be inferior there is every reaſon to depend upon, and who has given a moſt for medical purpoſes to the foreign. exact anatomical deſcription of this bitherto undeſcribed animal. RHEUMATISM, in medicine, a painful diſorder, affecting Of two that were ſhot, he only mentions the ſize of the ſmaller the intermediate ſpaces between the joints and muſcles in different of them, which was eleven feet and a half long, ſeven feet high, parts of the body, and occaſionally the viſcera, and ſometimes at- and twelve in circumference. It was without any folds on the tended with inflammation and ſwelling. For deſcription, cauſes, ſkin, which was of an aſh colour, excepting about the groin, where and cure, ſee the Syſtem, Genus 21 and 22. it was of a fleſh colour. The ſurface of the ſkin was ſcabrous and RHINOCEROS, in the Syſtem of MAMMALIA, a genus be- knotty, of a cloſe texture, and, when dry, extremely hard. There longing to the order of Bellue. There are two ſpecies. were no hairs on any part of the body, except the edges of the ears 1. Unicornis, or one-horned Rhinoceros. We are indebted to the and the tip of the tail, which were furniſhed with a few dark briſtly labours of many learned and ingenious naturaliſts for accurate hairs, about an inch long. defcriptions of this wonderful creature, which in ſize is only ex The horns of this animal are placed one behind the other, in a line RIC R I D line with the noſe: the foremoſt of them meaſures about eighteen be produced in theſe Northern countries, without the aſſiſtance of inches in length, and is always the larger of the two. It is re- artificial heat; but from ſome feeds, which were fent to South Ca- markable, that this ſpecies of the rhinoceros makes uſe of the ſhorter rolina, about the year 1697, there have been great quantities pro- horn only for the purpoſe of digging up roots, which compoſe great duced, and it is found to ſucceed as well there as in its native coun- part of its food ; it being endued with the power of turning the try, which is a very great improvement tö- the American ſettle- larger horn on one ſide out of the way. The ſhape of the horns ments. Among the common kinds of grain, tice is accounted the is conical, with the tips inclining a little backwards; the texture mildeſt and moft nutritious, and is ſuppoſed to be particularly ſer- of the lower part is rough, and ſeems as if it conſiſted of horny viceable in dyſenteries and diarthæas. It is leſs viſcous than wheat, fibres; the upper part is finooth and plain, like thoſe of an ox. or of leſs tenacity when boiled with water. The Northern nations The feet are round and do not ſpread much: They have three hoofs | eat their fowls and other meats with rice and faffron. The on each of them, which project but little; the middle one is the Chineſe make a wine of rice, which is of an amber colour, and longeſt. In other reſpects it reſembles the firſt fpecies. from the account of its inteſtines, given us by the fame ingenious In ſome parts of Europe they alſo draw a very ſtrong brandy, or taſtes like Spaniſh wine, and ſerves thein for their common drink. author, we ſhall juft inention the following, which will enable our fpirit from rice readers to form a more perfect idea of its enormous bulk: the ſto RICKETS, rhachitis, in phyſic, a diſorder affecting the bones mach was four feet in length, and two in diameter ; to which was of children, and cauſing a conſiderable protuberance, incurvation, annexed a tube or canal, twenty-eight feet long, and ſix inches dia- or diſtortion thereof; generally attacks children betwixt the age of ineter; the kidnies were a foot and a half in breadth; the heart was vine months and two years . a foot a halt long, and nearly the ſame in breadth; the liver, when meafured from right to left, was found to be three feet and a half children. Any diſorder that weakens the conſtitution, or relaxes Cauſes of the RICKETS. Diſeaſed parents often produce rickety in breadth, and two feet and a half deep, as it hangs in the animals the habit of children, as the ſmall-pox, nieafles, teething, the body when it is in a ſtanding poſition; it had no gall-bladder, in hooping-cough, &c. diſpoſes them to this diſeaſe: but the chief which it reſembles the horſe. Upon opening the ſtomach, the con- cauſe is bad nurſing. It ſometimes ariſes from a fault in ſwathing tents of it were found toconſiſt of roots and ſmall branches of trees the child, rolling it too tight in ſome place, and too looſe in others ; maſticated, fome of which were as big as the end of a man's finger; placing it in an inconvenient, or too often in the ſame poſture; in the maſs there appeared a great quantity of the ſucculent plants, or ſuffering it to be long wet. It is likewiſe attributed to the want as well as ſome that were harſh and prickly: the effluvium ariſing of proper inotion, for a healthy child ſhould be always in motion, from this maſs was ſo far from being offenſive, that it diffuled unleſs when afleep; and if it be ſuffered to lie or ſit, inſtead of around a very ſtrong and not diſagreeable aromatic odour. We ſhall being toffed or dandled about, it will not thrive. It is likewiſe oc- conclude our account of this animal by obſerving, that the cavity cafioned by uſing the child to be borne in one arm only; whence which contained the brains was finall, being barely fix inches long, the legs and knees remain too long in the ſame incurvated ſituation. and four high, and of an oval ſhape. Being filled with peaſe, it was The want of free air is alſo very pernicious to children. When a tound to contain barely one quart; a human ſkull, meaſured at the nurſe lives in a cloſe ſmall houſe, where the air is damp and con- fame time, did not require much leſs than three pints to fill it. For fined, and is too indolent to carry her child abroad in the open air, reprefentation of the two ſpecies of this wonderful animal, ſee the it will hardly eſcape this diſeaſe. Plates in the Syſtem of MAMMALIA, Order 6. Genus 36. Symptoms of the RICKETS. At the beginning of this diſeaſe, the RHOMBOIDES, in anatomy, a muſcle thus called from its part which it affects grows lax, flaccid, and weak; and, if it be figure. It is a thin, broad, and obliquely ſquare fleſhy plane, and the legs, they become unable to ſupport the body. All the parts may be divided into two portions, one luperior, the other inferior, ſubſervient to voluntary motion are likewiſe debilitated and en- which fometimes appear feparate. For its origin, inſertion, and feebled; and the child becomes unuſually grave, pale, fickly, ſloth- ufe, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. XII. ful, and cannot ſit erect. His head generally becomes too large for RHOMBUS, in geometry, an oblique-angular parallelogram ; , the trunk, and cannot be ſupported or managed by the muſcles of or a quadrilateral figure, whoſe fides are equal and parallel, but the the neck, which gradually wear away. Swellings, and knotty ex- angles unequal; two of the oppoſite ones being obtuſe, and the creſcences, appear in the wriſts, ancles, and tips of the ribs; and other two accute. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. I. the bones of the legs and thighs grow bowed or crooked. The like RHUBARB, in botany, the Engliſh naine of the genus rheums. I diſorder ſometimes alſo ſeizes the bones of the arms. If the ſymp- See RHEUM. toms continue long, the thorax becomes ſtrait; a difficulty of reſpi- RHUMB, Rume, or Rum, in navigation, a vertical circle of ration enſues, as alſo a cough, and a hectic fever: the abdomen any given place; or the interſection of a part of ſuch a circle with ſwells, the face appears full, and the complexion florid; the pulſe the horizon. Rhumbs, therefore, coincide with points of the grows weak and languid; the appetite and digeſtion fail; the teeth world, or of the horizon. come ſlowly and with difficulty, and often rot and fall out; and RHUMB-LINE, in navigation, is a line prolonged from any the ſymptoms increaſing, at length prove mortal. point of the compaſs in a nautical chart, except the four cardinal Method of Cure. The chief aim for this purpoſe, muſt be to points: or it is the line which a fhip, keeping in the ſame collateral brace the folids, and to promote digeſtion and the due proportion of point, or rhumb, deſcribes throughout its whole courſe. See the the fluids. Theſe ends will be beſt anſwered by wholeſome nou- Syſtem, Sect. I. ang rithing diet, open dry air, and ſufficient exerciſe. In a cold fea- RHYME, or RHIME, in poetry, the ſimilar found or cadence, fon, the child ſhould be kept warm, and in hot whether it ought and termination of two words which end two verſes, &c. Or, to be kept cool; the limbs ſhould be frequently rubbed with a rhyme is a fimilitude of found between the laſt fyllable or fyllables warm hand, and the child kept as cheerful as poſſible, This dif- of one verfe, and the laſt ſyllable or fyllables of a verſe fucceeding eaſe is more likely to be cured by the nurſe than by the phyſician. either immediately, or at the diſtance of two or three lines. See However, if the childran are of groſs habits, gentle vomits, and POETRY. repeated purges of rhubarb may ſometimes be of uſe. Ifſues have Since the reſtoration of learning in the fixteenth century, at- been ſometimes found beneficial in this diſeaſe, eſpecially if the tempts have made to baniſh rhyme cut of the modern poetry, and children abound with grofs humours. An infuſion of the Peruvian tu fettle the Engliſh and French verſes on the footing of the bark in wine or ale is likewiſe of uſe. Buchan. ancient Greek and Latin ones, by fixing the quantities of the ſyl When the diſorder is taken early, it may be remedied by proper lables, and truſting wholly to thoſe, and to the numbers or meaſure, bolſters and bandages, ſuited to the parts affected; but when the bones This Milton has done, with great fuccefs, in his Paradiſe Loſt, and are grown rigid and inflexible, other mechanical contrivances, as pad- other pieces; and after him Philips, Addiſon, and fome others. ding, ſtrait boots, and ſeveral ſorts of machines, or engines, made Verſes of this kind we call blank verſes. To ſucceed in ſuch kind of paſteboard, whalebone, tin, &c. are made uſe of, to reſtore the of verſes, there muſt be a liberty of varying the order of the words, diſtorted bones to their natural ſtraitneſs. Cold bathing is alla or of changing their ſituation, as may beſt ſuit the occaſions of the found of ſervice in the rickets, before the diſtemper comes to be too poet; of making the ſubſtantive either go before or follow after the much confirmed. This is beſt done during May and June, con- verb, as the verſe requires, &c. Now none of the modern tougues tinuing the child in the water two or three feconds at each plunge, will admit of ſuch an arbitrary ſituation of the words, equally with and rubbing it well with a dry cloth, after he comes out; but, if the ancients; yet none will allow this to be more than the Engliſh, cold bathing is found to weaken the child, it ſhould be diſcontinued. nor leſs than the French. RIDGES, in agriculture, are long pieces of riſing foil, between RIBBAND, or RIBBOND, in heraldry, is the eighth part of a two furrows. For directions concerning the method, and the ad- bend. See the Syſtem, Sect. VI. Art. 1. and Plate 1. vantages and diſadvantages of ploughing land up into ridges, ſee the RIBS, Cofiæ, in anatomy, certain long arched bones, ſerving Syſtem, Sect. XXIX. to form or ſuſtain the inner ſides of the thorax or breaſt. For RIDICULE, in ethics, is commonly uſed in the ſame fenſe deſcription, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. III. For repreſentation, with irrifion; and has for its objects the abſurdities and misfor- fee Plate I. Fig. 1. Jetters a a, b, co tunes of mankind. The latter, however, are very improperly obs RICE, oryza, in botany, a genus of the hexandria digynia jects of ridicule, whoſe province ſhould extend only to the care- claſs. There is but one ſpecies of this plant. This grain is leffneſs and inconſtancy, humour, affectation, impertinence, and, greatly cultivated in moſt of the Eaſtern countries, where it is the in ſhort, all the leſſer follies and imperfections of mankind. Such chief ſupport of the inhabitants; and great quantities of it are are generally the ſubjects of Horace's Satires; and Dr. More ob- brought into England, and other European countries, every year, ferves, that irrifion, which is the parent of ridicule, was the ori- where it is in great eſteem for puddings, &c. It is too tender to ginal of ſatire. RIDING, and up in RIG R I G RIDING, a diſtrict viſited by an officer. Yorkſhire is divided in- , may make anſwer according to Jaw. By 16 Car. I. c. 10. if any to three ridings, viz. the eaſt, weſt, and north ridings. In all indiet-perſon be reſtrained of his liberty by order or decree of any illegal onents in that country, both the town and riding muſt be expreſſed. court, or by command of the king's majeſty in perfon; or by war- RIDING, as connected with gardening, and ſuſceptible of em rant of the council-board, or of any of the privy-council; he ſhall, belliſhment. See the Treatiſe, Part I. Art. II. Sect. II. upon demand of his council, have a writ of habeas corpus, to bring RIFLE Guns, in the military art, are thoſe whoſe barrels, in- his body before the court of king's bench or common pleas; who Acad of being ſmooth on the inſide, like our common pieces, are | Thall determine whether the cauſe of his commitment be juſt, and formed with a number of ſpiral channels reſembling female ſcrews, thereupon do as to juſtice ſhall appertain. And by 31 Car. II. except that the threads or rifles are leſs deflected, and approach c. 2. commonly called the habeas corpus act, the methods of obtain. more to a right line: the threads, with which the rifled barrel is ing this writ are ſo plainly pointed out and enforced, that, ſo long indented, taking uſually a little more than one turn in its whole as this ſtatute remains unimpeached, no ſubject of England can be length. See the Syſtem of PROJECTILES, Part II. Art. I. long detained in priſon, except in thoſe caſes in which the law re- RIGHT Angled, is underſtood of a figure, when its fides are at quires and juſtifies ſuch detainer. And, left this act ſhould be right angles, or ſtand perpendicularly one upon another. This evaded by demanding uureaſonable bail, or fureties for the pri- lometimes holds in all the angles of the figure, as in ſquares and foner's appearance, it was declared by 1 W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2. that rectangles; ſometimes only in part, as in right-angled triangles. exceſſive bail ought not to be required. See the Syſtem of GEOMETRY, Part I. Sect. I. Of great importance to the public is the preſervation of this per- Right Circle , in the Stereographical Projection of the Sphere, is fonal liberty: for if once it were left in the power of any, the higheſt a circle at right angles to the plane of projection, or that which magiſtrate to impriſon arbitrarily whomever he or his officers thought paſſes through the eye. See PROJECTION. proper, (as.was daily practiſed in France before the revolution), there RIGHT, in law, not only denotes property, for which a writ of would ſoon be an end of all other rights and immunities. Some have right lies; but alſo any title or claim, either by virtue of a condi- thought, that unjuſt attacks, even upon life or property, at the ar- tion, mortgage, &c. for which no action is given by law, but an bitrary will of the magiſtrate, are leſs dangerous to the common- entry only. wealth, than ſuch as are made upon the perſonal liberty of the ſubject. Right is alſo a title conferred, 1. Upon all biſhops. 2. To- To bereave a man of life, or by violence to conhícate his eſtate, gether with Honourable, upon earls , viſcounts, and barons 3. By without accuſation or trial, would be ſo grofs and notorious an act courteſy, together with Honourable, upon the fons of dukes, mar- of deſpotiſm, as muſt at once convey the alarm of tyranny through- quiſes, and the eldeſt ſons of earls. 4. Together with Honourable, out the whole kingdom. But confinement of the perſon, by ſecretly to the ſpeaker of the houſe of commons: but to no commoner ex- hurrying him to gaol, where his fufferings are unknown or forgotten, cepting thoſe who are members of his majeſty's moſt honourable is a leſs public, a leſs Ariking, and therefore a more dangerous en privy-council; and the three lord mayors of London, York, and gine of arbitrary government. And yet ſometiines when the ſtate is Publin, and the lord provoſt of Edinburgh, during their office. in real danger, even this may be a neceſſary meaſure. But the hap- Hereditary RIGHT. See HEREDITARY.sobi pineſs of our conſtitution is, that it is not left to the executive power Rights and Liberties. See the article LIBERTY. Our rights, to determine when the danger of the ſtate is ſo great, as to render it was there obſerved in general, may be reduced to theſe principal this meaſure expedieat. Forthe parliament only, or legiſlative power, articles; the right of perſonal ſecurity, the right of perſonal liberty, whenever it ſees proper, can authorize the crown, by fuſpending the and the right of private property; the confideration of which was habeas corpus cet for a ſhort and limited time, to impriſon fuſpected referred to this place. I. The right of perſonal ſecurity conſiſts in perſons without giving any reaſon for ſo doing. In like manner this a perſon's legal and uninterrupted enjoyment of his life, his limbs, experiment ought only to be tried in caſes of extreme emergency; his body, his health, and his reputation. Life is the immediate gift and in theſe the nation parts with its liberty for a while, in order to of God, a right inherent by nature in every individual; and it be preſerve it for ever. A natural and regular conſequence of this per- gins; in contemplation of law, as ſoon as an infant is able to ſtir in fonal liberty, is, that every Briton may claim a right to abide in his the mother's womb. For if a woman is quick with child, ard by own country ſo long as he pleaſes ; and not to be driven from it un- a potion or otherwiſe killeth it in her womb; or if any one beat her, leſs by the ſentence of the law. The king indeed, by his royal pre- whereby the child dieth in her body, and ſhe is delivered of a dead rogative, may iſſue ont his ne excat regnum, and prohibits any of his child ; this , though not murder, was by the ancient law homicide, ſubjects from going into foreign parts without licence. This may or mandaughter. But Sir Edward Coke dues not look upon this be neceſſary for the public ſafeguard of the commonwealth. But no offence in quite ſo atrocious a light, but merely as a heinous mil- power on earth, except the authority of parliament, can ſend any demeanor. oiko ſubject out of the land againſt his will; not even a criminal. For 2. A man's limbs are alſo the gift of the wiſe Creator, to enable exile, cr tranſportation, is a puniſhment unknown to the common man to prote&t himſelf from external injuries in a ſtate of nature. law; and, wherever it is now inflicted, it is either by the choice of To thete, therefore, he has a natural inherent right; and they can- the criminal himſelf to eſcape a capital puniſhment, or elſe by the not be, wantonly deſtroyed or diſabled without a manifeſt breach of expreſs direction of ſome modern act of parliament. civil liberty. The natural life being, as was before obſerved, the To this purpoſe the great charter declares, that no freeman ſhall immediate donation of the great Creator, cannot legally be diſpoſed be baniſhed, unleſs by the judgment of his peers, or by the law of of or deſtroyed by any individual, neither by the perſon himſelf nor the land. And by the habeas corpus act, 31 Car. II. c. 2. (that ſe- by any other of his fellow-creatures, merely upon their own autho- cond magna carta, and ftable bulwark of ourliberties) it is enacted, rity. Yet nevertheleſs it may, by the divine permiſſion, be fre- that no ſubject of this realm, who is an inhabitant of England, quently forfeited for the breach of thoſe laws of ſociety, which are Wales, or Berwick, ſhall be ſent priſoner into Scotland, Ireland, enforced by the fanction of capital puniſhment. Jerſey, Guernſey, or places beyond the ſeas, where they cannot 3. Beſides thoſe limbs and members that may be neceſſary to a man, have the protection of the common law. The law is in this re- in order to defend himſelf or annoy his enemy, the reſt of his per- ſpect fo benignly and liberally confructed for the benefit of the fon or body is alſo entitled, by the faine natural right, to ſecurity ſubject, that though within the realm the king may command the from the corporal inſults of menaces, aſfaults, beating and wound attendance and ſervice of all his liegemen, yet he cannot ſend any ing; though ſuch inſults amount not to deſtruction of life or member. man out of the realm, even upon the public ſervice; excepting fail. 4. The preſervation of a man's health from ſuch practices as ors and ſoldiers, the nature of whoſe employment neceffarily implies. inay prejudice or annoy it. an exception ; he cannot even conſtitute a man lord deputy or lieu- 5. The ſecurity of his reputation or good name from the arts of tenant of Ireland againſt his will, nor make him a foreign ambaſſa- detraction and Hander, are rights to which every man is entitled, dor. For this might in reality be no more than an honourable exile. by reaſon and natural juſtice; ſince without theſe it is impoſſible 111. The third abſolute right inherent in every Briton, is that of to have the perfect enjoyment of every other advantage or right. property: which conſiſts in the free uſe, enjoyment, and diſpoſal of II. Next to perſonal ſecurity, the law of England regards, af- all acquiſitions, without any controul or diminution, ſave only by ſerts, and preſerves the perſonal liberty of individuals. This per- the laws of the land. The original of private property is probably ſonal liberty conſiſts in the power of loco-motion, of changing ſitua- founded in nature, as is more fully explained under the article tion, or removing one's perſon to whatſoever place one's own in- PROPERTY: but certainly the modifications under which we at clination may direct ; without impriſonment or reſtraint, unleſs by preſent find it, the method of conferving it in the preſent owner, the courſe of law. Concerning which we may make the ſame ob- and of tranſlating it from man to man, are entirely derived fronı ſo- ſervations as upon the preceding article ; that it is a right ſtriály ciety; and are ſome of thoſe civil advantages, in exchange for which natural; that the laws of England have never abridged it without every individual has reſigned a part of his natural liberty. The fufficient cauſe; and that in this kingdom it cannot ever be laws of England are therefore, in point of honour and juſtice, ex- abridged at the mere diſcretion of the magiſtrate, without the ex- tremely watchful in aſcertaining and protecting this right. Upon plicit permiſſion of the laws. Here again the language of the charter this principle the great charter has declared that 110 freeman ſhall is, that no freeman ſhall be taken or impriſoned, but by the lawful be diſſeiſed, or diveſted of his freehold, or of his liberties, or free judgment of his equals, or by the law of the land. And many ſub-cuſtoms, but by the judgment of his peers, or by the law of the ſequent old ſtatutes expreſſly direct, that no man ſhall be taken or land. And by a variety of ancient ſtatutes it is enacted, that no impriſoned by ſuggeſtion or petition to the king or his council, un- man's lands or goods ſhall be feiſed into the king's hands, againſt leſs it be by legal indictment, or the proceſs of the common law. the great charter, and the law of the land ; and that no man ſhall By the petition of right, 3 Car.-I. it is exacted, that no freeman be difinherited, nor put out of his franchiſes or freehold, unleſs he fhall be impriſoned or detained without cauſe ſhown, to which he be duly brought to anſwer, and be forejudged by courſe of law; and RIN R IS and if any thing be done to the contrary, it ſhall be redreſſed; | bows, as he calls them, with very vivid colours. Boyle's Works and holden for none. by Shaw, vol. ii. p. 70. So great, moreover, is the regard of the law for private property, RIOT, in law, the forcibly doing of an unlawful thing, of a that it will not authorize the leaſt violation of it; not even for the private nature, by three or more perſons affembled together for general good of the whole community. If a new road, for in that purpoſe ; either with or without a common caufe or quarrel : ſtance, were to be made through the grounds of a private perſon; as if they beat a man ; or hunt and kill game in another's park, it might perhaps be extenſively beneficial to the public; but the law chaſe, warren, or liberty ; or do any other unlawful act with force permits no man, or ſet of men, to do this without conſent of the and violence ; or even do a lawful act, as removing a nuiſance, in owner of the land. In vain may it be urged, that the good of the a violent and tumultuous manner. The puniſhments of riots and individual ought to yield to that of the community ; for it would routs, where a number of perſons from three to eleven are concern- be dangerous to allow any private man, or even any public tribu ed, is, by the common law, fine and impriſonment only; to which, nal, to be judge of this common good, and to decide whether it in very enormous caſes, the pillory has been ſometimes ſuperadded. be expedient or no. Beſides, the public good is in nothing more And by the ſtat. 13 Hen. IV. cap. 7. any two juſtices, together eſſentially intereſted, than in the protection of every individual's with the ſheriff or under-1heriff of the county; may come with the private rights as modelled by the municipal law. In this and fi Posse commitatus,if need be,and ſuppreſs any ſuch riot; aſſembly, milar caſes the legiſlature alone can, and indeed frequently does in or rout, and arreſt the rioters, and record upon the ſpot the nature terpoſe, and compel the individual to acquiefce. But how does it and circumſtances of the whole tranſaction, which record alone interpoſe and compel ? Not by abſolutely ſtripping the ſubject of ſhall be a ſufficient conviction of the offenders ; and it is held that his property in an arbitrary manner ; but by giving him a full in any battery, wounding, or killing the rioters, that may happen in demnification and equivalent for the injury thereby ſuſtained. The ſuppreſſing the riot, is juſtifiable. The riotous aſſembling of public is now conſidered as an individual treating with an indivi twelve perſons or more, and not diſperſing upon proclamation, was dual for an exchange. All that the legiſlature does is to oblige the firſt made high treaſon by ſtat. 3 & 4 Edw.VI. cap. 5, but repealed owner to alienate his poffeffions for a reaſonable price ; and even by ſtat. 1 Mar. cap 1. Nevertheleſs the offence was made a ſin- this is an exertion of power which the legiſlature indulges with cau gle felony by 1 Mar. ſtat 2. cap. 12. and by 1. Eliz. c 16. with tion, and which nothing but the legiſlature can perform. Nor is whom the law expired. However, it was revived, in order to ſup- this the only inſtance in which the law of the land has poſtponed port the execution of the act of ſettlement, and made perpetual by even public neceſſity to the ſacred and inviolable rights of private i Geo. I. cap. 5. which enacts, that if any twelve perſons are un- property. For no ſubject of Britain can be conſtrained to pay any lawfully aſſembled to the diſturbance of the peace, and any one aids ortaxes, even for the defence of the realm or the ſupport of go- juſtice of peace, ſheriff, under-ſheriff, or mayor of a town, ſhall vernment, but ſuch as are impoſed by his own conſent, or that of think proper tu command them by proclamation to diſperſe, if they his repreſentatives in parliament. By the ſtatute 25 Edward I. c.5. contemn his orders, and continue together for one hour afterwards, and 6. it is provided, that the king ſhall not take any aids or taxes, ſuch contempt ſhall be felony without benefit of clergy. And far- but by the common afſent of the realm. And what that common ther, if the reading of the proclamation be by force oppoſed, or in affent is,is more fully explained by 34 Edward I. ft. 4. C. I. which any manner wilfully hindered, ſuch oppofersandhinderers are felons enacts, that no talliage or aid ſhall be taken without the affent of without benefit of clergy ; and all perſons concerned, knowing of the archbiſhops, biſhops,earls, barons,knights, burgeſſes, and other ſuch hindrance, and not diſperſing, are felons, without benefit of freemen of the land ; and again, by 14 Edward III. ſt . 2.C. 1. the clergy. And the act indemnifies the peace officers, and their aſſiſta prelates, earls, barons, and commons, citizens, burgeſſes, and mer ants if they kill any of the mob in endeavouring to diſperſe them. chants, ſhall not be charged to make any aid, if it be not by the Moreover, if any perſons, fo riotouſly aſſembled, begin, even be- common affent of the great men and commons in parliament. fore proclamation, to pull down any church, chapel, meeting- And as this fundamental law had been ſhamefully evaded under houſe, dwelling-houſe, or out-houſes, they ſhall be felons, with- many ſucceeding princes, by compulſive loans, and benevolences out benefit of clergy. Blackſ. Comm. book iv. chap. xi. extorted without a real and voluntary conſent, it was made an arti RISIBLE, any thing capable of exciting laughter. Ludicrous cle in the petition of right 3 Car. I. that no man ſhall be compelled is a general term, fignifying, as may appear from its derivation, to yield any gift, loan or benevolence, tax or ſuch like charge, what is playſome, ſportive, or jocular. Ludicrous therefore ſeems without common conſent by act of parliament. And, laſtly, by the genus, of which riſible is a ſpecies, limited as above to what the ſtatute i W. & M. ſt. 2. c. 2. it is declared, that levying money makes us laugh. However eaſy it may be, concerningany particu- for or to the uſe of the crown, by pretence of prerogative, without lar object, to ſay whether it be riſible or not, it ſeems difficult, if at grant of parliament, or for longer time or in other manner than the all practicable, to eſtabliſh any general character, by which objects fame is or ſhall be granted, is illegal. of that kind may be diſtinguiſhed from others. Were we to at- Bill of Rights, in law, is a declaration, delivered by the lords tempt general rules for ranging objects under different claſſes ac- and commons to the Prince and Princeſs of Orange, 13 February, cording to theſe qualities, we ſhould be much puzzled. All men 1688 ; and afterwards enacted in Parliament, when they became are not equally affected by riſible objects, nor the ſame man at all king and queen. , This declaration ſets forth, that king James II. | times ; for in high ſpirits a thing will make him laugh outright, did, by the aſſiſtance of divers evil counſellors, endeavour to ſubvert which will ſcarce provoke a ſmile in a grave mood. Riſible objects the laws and liberties of this kingdom, by exerciſing a power of however are circumſcribed within certain limits. No object is ri. diſpenſing with and ſuſpending of laws; by levying money for the ſible but what appears ſlight, little, or trivial ; for we laugh at no- uſe of the crown, by pretence of prerogative, without conſent of thing that is of importance to our own intereſt, or to that of others. parliament; by proſecuting thoſe who petitioned the king, and dif A real diſtreſs raiſes pity, and therefore cannot be riſible ; but a couraging petitions: by raiſing and keeping a ſtanding army, in flight or imaginary diſtreſs, which moves not pity, is riſible. The time of peace, by violating the freedom of election of members to adventure of the fulling-mills in Don Quixote is extremely riſible; ſerve in parliament ; by violent proſecutions in the court of king's ſo is the ſcene where Sancho, in a dark night, tumbling into a pit, bench; and cauſing partial and corrupt jurors to be returned on and attaching himſelf to the ſide by hand and foot, hangs there in trials; exceſſive bail to be taken, exceſſive fines to be impoſed, and terrible diſmay till the morning, when he diſcovers himſelf to be cruel puniſhments inflicted ; all which were declared to be illegal. within a foot of the bottom. A noſe remarkably long or ſhort, is And the declaration concludes in theſe remarkable words, “ And riſible; but to want it altogether, ſo far from provoking laughter, they do claim, demand, and inſiſt upon, all and ſingular the pre raiſes horror in the ſpectator. With reſpect to works both of And the act of miſes, as their undoubted rights and liberties.” nature and of art, none of them are riſible but what are out ofrule, parliament itſelf ( 1 W. & M. ſtat. 2. cap. 2.) recognizes “ all and and have ſome remarkable defect or exceſs ; a very long viſage, fingular the rights and liberties aſſerted and claimed in the faid de for example, or a very ſhort one. Hence nothing juſt, proper, claration to be true, ancient, and indubitable rights of the peo- decent, beautiful, proportioned, or grand, is riſible. ple of this kingdom." Two emotions of contempt and of laughter unite intimately in RIGIDITY, among philofophers, a brittle hardneſs; or that the mind, and produce externally what is termed a laugh of deri- kind of hardneſs ſuppoſed to ariſe from the mutual indentation of fion or of ſcorn. Hence objects that cauſe laughter may be diſtin . the component particles within one another. Rigidity is oppoſed guiſhed into two kinds ; they are either riſible or ridiculous. A riſi- to ductility, malleability, &c. ble object is mirthful only: a ridiculous object is both mirthful RING in aſtronomy. The ring of Saturn is a thin, broad, and contemptible. The firſt raiſes an emotion of laughter that opake, circular arch, encompaſſing the body of that planet, like the is altogether pleaſant; the pleaſant emotions of laughter raiſed by horizon of an artificial globe, without touching it, and appearing the other, is blended with the painful emotion of contempt; and double, when ſeen through a good teleſcope. See the Syſtem, the mixed emotion is termed the emotion of ridicule. The pain a Sect. VIII. ridiculous object gives is reſented and puniſhed by a laugh of de- Rings of Colours, in optics,a phenomenon firſt obſerved in thin riſion. A riſible object, on the other hand, gives no pain ; it is plates of various fubſtances, by Mr. Boyle, and Dr. Hook, but altogether pleaſant by a certain ſort of titillation, which is ex- afterwards more fully explained by fir Ifaac Newton. Mr. Boyle preſſed externally by mirthful laughter ; ſee RIDICULE. Riſible having exhibited a variety of colours in colourleſs liquors, by objects are ſo common, and ſo well underſtood, that it is unnecef- ſhaking them till they roſe into bubbles, as well as in bubbles of ſoap fary to conſume paper or time upon them. Take the few follow- and water, and alſo in turpentine, procured glaſs blown ſo thin asing examples. Falſtaff “ I do remember him at Clement's-inn, like a man to exhibit ſimilar colours ; and he obſerves, that a feather of a pro- per ſhape and ſize, and alſo a black ribband held at a proper dif made after ſupper of a cheeſe-paring. When he was naked, he tance between his eye and the ſun, ſhewed a variety of little rain was for all the world like a forked raddiſh, with a head fantaſtically carved 4 A No 137 RIV R I V up, earved upon it with a knife. Second part, Henry IV. act. 3. fc.5. | which Ricciolus affirms to be larger than the Nile, the Ganges The foregoing is of diſproportion. The following examples and the Euphrates, put together; its mouth being ninety miles wide, are of flight or imaginary misfortunes. and running with that violence into the ſea, that it makes it freſh Falſtaff: “Go fetch me a quart of fack, put a toaſt in’t. Have for two hundred miles together. Theſe, and the other rivers of I liv'd to be carried in a baſket, like a barrow of butcher's offal, and the ſeveral parts of the globe, upon a very moderate calculation, to be thrown into the Thames! Well, if I be ſerved fuch another diſcharge at leaſt five hundred times as much water into the fea, as trick, I'll have my brains ta'en out and butter'd, and give them to a falls upon the whole ſurface of the earth, in rains, miſts, dews, dog for a new year's gift. The rogues ſlighted me into the river ſnows, &c. in a like ſpace of time. As it is cvident, therefore, with as little remorſe as they would have drown'da bitch's blindpup that theſe cannot be ſupplied by rains, ſo neither is it poſſible that pies, fifteen i'th’litter; and you may know by my fize, that I have the ſeveral hot ſprings and the falt ſprings can be fupplied that way; a kind of alacrity in finking: if the bottom were as deep as hell, the origin of ſprings alfo in places where there falls little or no rain, I ſhould down. I had been drown'd, but that the ſhore was ſhelvy and where the conſervatories muſt needs be too ſmall to contain a and ſhallow: a death that I abhor: for the water ſwells a man ; ſupply, are great proofs that rain and miſts are not the origin of and what a thing ſhould I have been when I had been ſweiled; I ſprings, at leaſt not in all places. The iſles of Mago, Rotunda, ſhould have been a mountain of mummy." and the Strophades, and the rock whereon the Maiden Tower Merry Wives of Windſor, a&t. 3.ſc. 15. ſtands in the Thracian Bofphorus, cannot be ſupplied with, or re- Falſtaff. “Nay, you ſhall hear, Maſter Brook, what I have ſuf tain a fufficiency of rain water to ſupply conſtant ſprings, yet ſuch fered to bring this woman to evil for your good. Being thus crammid are always found running there. in the baſket, a couple of Ford's knaves, his hinds, were callid It cannot be otherwiſe but that there are ſubterraneancommuni- forth, by their miſtreſs, to carry me in the name of foul cloaths to cations between the ſea and the ſources of fountains, rivers, and the Datchet-lane. They took me on their ſhoulders, met the jealous larger ſprings, by which theſe are ſupplied ; and there are certainly knave their maſter at the door, who aſked them once or twiee what charybdes which ſwallow the ſea for theſe purpoſes; and when they had in their baſket. I quak'd for fear, left the lunatic knave theſe happen to be ſtopped, the largeſt rivers have been dried would have ſearch'd it; but Fate, ordaining he fhould be a and wholly ceaſed to run for a conſiderable time ; this we have ac- cuckold, held his hand. Well, on he went for a fearch, and away counts in hiſtory has happened to the Thames, the Trent, and went I for foul cloaths. But mark the ſequel, Maſter Brook. I Medway, in England; the Elve, the Motalt, and Gulſpang, in fuffered the pangs of three egregious deaths: firſt , an intolerable Sweden, and other riversin other countries. If, on the other hand, fright, to be detected by a jealous rotten bell-weather; next, to be theſe charybdes happen to be too open, freſh-water ſprings de compaſs'd like a good bilbo, in the circumference of a peck, hilt to pending upon them will become ſalt. This we have inſtances of point, heel to head; and then to be ſtopt in, like a ſtrong diſtillation, in hiſtory alſo ; and even fo old a writer as Pliny has ſaid, that this with ſtinking cloaths that fretted in their own greaſe. Think of once happened in Caria near Neptune's Temple Plot. de Orig. that, a man of my kidney; think of that, that am as ſubject to heat Font. Rivers are found ſubject to great alterations, at different ſea- as butter; a man of continual diſſolution and thaw; it was a mi fons of the year, day, &c. from frequent rains, and melted ſnow. racle to 'ſcape fuffocation. And in the height of this bath, when Thus in Peru and Chili many of the rivers are almoſt infenſible in I was more than half ſtew'd in greaſe, like a Dutch diſh, to be the night-time, and only flow by day, as being then augmented by thrown into the Thames, and cool'd glowing hot, in that ſurge, the diffolution of the fnow on the mountains Andes. Thus the like a horſe-ſhoe ; think of that ; hiſſing hot; think of that Volga abounds in water in May and June, ſo as to cover the ſand- Maſter Brook. Merry Wives of Windſor, act. 3. fc. 17. banks, &c. which all the reſt of the year lie bare, fo as ſcarce to RISING, in aſtronomy, the appearance of the ſun, a lar, or allow a paſſage to the loaden ſhips. Thus alſo the Nile, Gan- other luminary, above the horizon, which before was hid beneath ges, Indus, &c. are frequently ſo increaſed as to overflow. Some it. By reaſon of the REFRACTION of the atmoſphere, the hea rivers bury themſelves under ground in the middle of their courſe, venly bodies always riſe before their time; i. e. they are ſeen above and break out again in other places, like new rivers. Thus the the horizon while they are really below it. To find the riſing, &c. Niger, mecting the mountains of Nubia, is hidden under them, of the ſun and fars by the globe, fee GLOBE. See the Treatiſe on and riſes again on the weſtern ſide of thoſe mountains. Thus the Globes under the article, T-he Uſe ofthe CelesTIAL GLOBE. alſo the Tigris is loſt in mountain Taurus, &c. RITE, denotes the particular manner or form of celebrating The waters of moſt rivers carries with it particles of metals, mi- or performing the religious ceremonies, which obtain in this or nerals, ſands, or oily and fat bodies, &c. Thus, ſome rivers bring that place. The eaſtern people, Armenians, &c. celebrate divine fand intermixed with grains of gold; of which kind is, 1. A river ſervice according to the Greek rite. The weſtern world follow in Japan. 2. Another in the iſland Lequeo, near Javon. 3. A the Latin rite; or that of the Roman church. The Engliſh ob rivulet in Africa, called Arroe, flowing from the mountains of the ferve the rite of the church of England, preſcribed in the Book moon, wherein there are gold mines. 4. A river in Guinea, of Common Prayer. &c. where the Negroes ſeparate the gold-duft from the fand, and fell RIVER, in geography, a ſtream or current of freſh water, flow it to the Europeans, who traffic thither for that very purpoſe. 5. In ing in a bed or channel, from a ſource or ſpring, into the ſea. Some fome rivulets near the city of Mexico, there are grains of gold will have none to be properly rivers, except thoſe which bear the taken up, eſpecially after rain ; which is alſo to be underſtood of fame name from their ſource to their mouth. Others, none but all the other rivers, none of which yield any thing conſiderable, thoſe which empty themſelves immediately into the ſea; and not except in rainy ſeaſons. 6. In Peru, Sumatra, Cuba, Hiſpaniola, into any other river. Rivulets have their riſe ſometimes from and Guinea. Laſtly, there are ſeveral brooks in the countries great rains, or great quantities of thawed ſnow; eſpecially in moun about the Alps, eſpecially Tirol, out of the ſediment of whoſe wa- tainous places; asin the long ridges in Africa, India, Sumatra, &c. ters gold is drawn, though there be no grains conſpicuous therein. But the generality of rivulets ariſe from ſprings. Rivers themſelves Add to this, that the Rhine alſo, in many places, affords a golden all ariſe either from the confluence of ſeveral rivulets,or from lakes; mud. As to rivers that bring grains or partieles of ſilver, iron, nor is there any great river, ſuch as the Rhine, Elbe, &c. known copper, lead, &c. we find no mention of them in authors, though, to flow from a lingle ſpring. The Volga, e. gr. conſiſts of above doubtleſs, there are great numbers of each ; and many of the me- two hundred rivulets, all flowing into it, before it reaches the Caf dicinal effects of mineral waters muſt be owing to particles of pian; and the Danube receives as many. The Rhine and the Po this kind. De receive each above a hundred others, great and ſmall; and the ri * We muſt not here omit a water in Germany, whichisordinarily ver of the Amazons receives into its large beda prodigious number, ſuppoſed to change iron into copper. The fact is, that the cu- ſome of which are five er fix hundred leagues in length, and very prine and vitriolic particles in the water corrode the iron ; and de- deep and broad. The Rhine, Rhone, Danube, Boryſthenes, &c. taching parts thereof by means of the motion of the water, coppery ariſe originally from ſprings in the mountains ; and the Nile, the particles ſucceed in their room. From this variety in the mixture Volga, the great river of St. Lawrence, &c. from lakes. It has of river water reſult various qualities, different ſpecific gravities, been held by many, that all ſprings and rivers owe their origin to different colours, &c. Some rivers, at certain feaſons of the year, rains and dews ; but there are ſome ſprings which cannot be ac ſwell ſo as to overflow their banks, and drown the neighbouring counted for on this principle. The intermitting ſprings, which lands. Of theſe the moſt eminent is the Nile, which riſes ſo as Aow violently in rainy ſeaſons, and are dry in ſummer, are proba to cover all Egypt, except the hills; and the cities which are all bly owing to rains ; but there are fome ſprings which diſcharge built on hills, appear as ſo many iſlands. To theſe inundations more water annually than all that falls in rains and dews in the Egypt owes its fertility; the heavens there affording little or no neighbouring country. Such are the perennial ſpring at Willow rain. Hence as the inundation is great or ſmall, Egypt, for that brig in Staffordſhire, and that of the Sorgne in France, which, year, is fruitful or barren. is fruitful or barren. The ancient Greeks, &c. were much according to Gaffendus, is navigable to its fource. perplexed in aſſigning the cauſe of this inundation. From the mo- But if ſuch ſprings as theſe diſcharge too great a quantity of wa dern Engliſh and Portugueſe traders into Congo, Angola, Mono- ter for the ſupply of rains and dews; how is it poſſible, that ſuch motapa, &c. we learn, that the ſource of the Nile is in a large lake fmall ſupplies of water as theſe can afford the conſtant currents of called Zaire, round which are the mountains of the moon ; which the larger rivers? The Volga alone, according to Ricciolus, pours being about 10° to the ſouth of the equator, inſtead of being covered forth much water in a year's time into the Caſpian fea, as would with ſnow in their winter, have rain every day, at leaſt two hours fuffice to drown the ſurface of the whole earth. The river of St. before, and two hours after noon. So that their tops are always Laurence in America pours forth nearly as much as this. If fuch covered with clouds; and the rains are, at the proper ſeaſons, al- be the caſe with theſe rivers ſingly, how are all the reſt to be ſup moſt continual. Hence torrents are conſtantly defcending from the plied by rains ; and where is left the ſupply of the Rio de la Plata; | mountains into the lake of Zaire: whence they flow into the chan- as ne) ROC ROM ges, nel of the Nile, and other rivers ariſing from the fame lake; and to the great impoveriſhment of the country, and the diſtreſs of a hence the inundation of the Nile. numerous poor; for whom it would find conſtant employment.- Mr. Bruce is the firſt perſon who, in his travels to diſcover the Since the value of land has greatly increaſed, agriculture has been fource of the Nile, has deſcribed, from his own obfervation, the cultivated and promoted by the firſt characters in this kingdom ; ſpot in which he apprehends that the Nile ſprings. Tracing one and it is a happy circumſtance to reflect, that this laudable example of the ſtreams that run into the lake Tzana to a ſwamp in the lith has been followed in the northern parts of Britain under the moſt degree of N. lat. he there marks the head of the Nile, as our mo reſpectable patronage, and has now attained to a conſiderable de- dern map-makers had actually done before he viſited this dreary re- gion. Whether his guide deſerved credit, and whether he could gree of perfection. It is not yet known whether many of the moſt valuable plants, for medicinal and mechanic uſes, will not proſper juſtly infer that this rivulet was the Nile from the reſpect paid to as well there as where there are immenſe ſums made by the raiſing it by the barbarous natives, it is not neceſſary particularly to inquire. of them : and the owners of lands would do well in this ſcheme The rivers moſt celebrated for their length, brcadth, ſwiftneſs to try this effect of liquorice, madder, woad, and the like plants, on of current, &c. are the Nile, which runs almoſt in a ſtraight their grounds. Wherever the ground is deep enough, it is pretty cer- courſe two thouſand five hundred and twenty geographical miles; tain that madder and liquorice would flouriſh, and the laſt of theſe the Niger, which runs two thouſand four hundred miles; the Gan needs fo little culture that if once planted, it may almoſt be left to twelve hundred miles; the Ob, fixtcen hundred miles; the itſelf. The rocky bottoms of lands not too bleak, may alſo ſucceed Jeniſcea, in Aſia, about the ſame length with the Oh; the river very well with ſaffron, which is one of the moſt profitable plants that Orellana, in America, fixty miles broad at its mouth, and five can be cultivated. There are various ways of breaking rocks with thouſand miles long ; the Rio de la Plata, eighty miles broad at wood, gunpowder, &c. We have roads, grottos, labyrinths, &c. the mouth; the Omarannon, another river of Brafil; and the great dug through rocks. For deſcription of the effects of rocks in river of St. Laurence, near two thouſand five hundred miles long. Landſcapes, ſee the Treatiſe on GARDENING, Part I. Sect. IV. ROB, in pharmacy, the infpiflated juice of any ſubſtance,uſually ROMANCE, is a diſcourſe invented with art, to pleaſe and boiled up to the conſiſtence of honey. There are robs made of quin- improve the mind, and to form or mend the manners, by ces, floes, cherries, mulberries, elderberries, barberries, goofberries, inſtructions, diſguiſed under the allegory of an action, or ſeries and other fruits, for various diſeaſes. The juice of grapes, thus of actions, related in proſe, in a delightful and probable, yet prepared, is more particularly called rob, or ſapa ſimplex ; this is ſurpriſing manner. almoſt of the conſiſtence of honey. When only one third of the The true nature and genuine characteriſtics of this ſpecies of humidity is boiled away, it is called defrutum ; and when only writing, with which the preſent generation feems more particu- boiled to the conſiſtence of a ſoft electuary, a reſin. larly delighted, are ſuch as exhibit life in its true ſtate, diverſified ROBBERY, in law, a felonious and forcible taking away ano only by the accidents that daily happen in the world, and influ- ther man's goods or money, from his perſon, preſence, or eſtate, enced by thoſe paſſions and qualities which are really to be found by putting him in fear, &c. A mere attempt to rob was held to in converſing with mankind. he felony fo late as Henry the Fourth's time; and afterwards it This kind of writing may be termed not improperly the comedy was only a miſdemeanour, and puniſhable with fine and impriſon- of romance, and is to be connected nearly by the rules of comic ment, till the ſtat. 7 Geo. II. cap. 21. which makes it a felony poetry. Its province is to bring about natural events by eaſy tranſportable for ſeven years. If the thief, having once taken a means, and to keep up curioſity without the help of wonder : it purſe, returns it, ſtill it is a robbery. The previous putting in fear is therefore precluded from the machines and expedients of the is the criterion that diftinguiſhes robbery from other larcenies; and heroic romance, and can neither employ giants to ſnatch away a yet this putting in fear does not imply any great degree of terror or lady from the nuptial rites, nor knights to bring her back from affright in the party robbed; it is ſufficient, that ſo much force, captivity; it can neither bewilder its perſonages in defarts, nor or threatening by word or geſture, be uſed, as might create an lodge them in imaginary caſtles. apprehenſion of danger, or oblige a man to part with his property Scaliger, upon Pontanus, remarks, that all his writings are without or againſt his conſent. This is ſometimes alſo called vio filled with images; and that if you take from him his lilies and lent theft, and its puniſhment, be the value of the thing taken his roſes, his fatyrs and his dryads, he will have nothing left that ever ſo ſmall, is death. The word is ſaid to have taken its riſe can be called poetry. In like manner, almoſt all the fictions of hence, that anciently, robbers only took away the robes or cloaths the laſt age will vaniſh, if you deprive them of a hermit and a from travellers. Though lord Coke, in the third of his inſtitutes, wood, a battle and a ſhipwreck. takes the name to have had its riſe from Robin Hood, who lived Why this wild ſtrain of imagination found reception ſo long, under Richard I. in the borders of England and Scotland, by in polite and learned ages, it is not eaſy to conceive: but we robbery, burning houſes, rape, and ſpoil. cannot wonder, that, while readers could be procured, the authors ROCK, rupes, a large maſs or block of hard ſtone, firmly fixed were willing to continue it; for when a man had, by practice, in the ground. Rocks are generally ſuppoſed great enemies to ve gained ſome fluency of language, he had no farther care than to getation, and the people of Scotland have been diverted from cul retire to his cloſet, to let looſe his inyention, and heat his mind tivating many of their beſt lands, from the obſervation that they with incredibilities; and a book was produced without fear of had a rocky bottom. This is, however, but a vulgar error among criticiſm, without the toil of ſtudy, without knowledge of nature, them, for rocks of a proper kind and properly diſpoſed, as very or acquaintance with life. many of theirs are, fertilize and are beneficial to the land, not The taſk of our preſent writers is very different ; it requires hurtful. In many parts of England, we ſee gardens, the moſt together with that learning which is to be gained from books, that beautiful that can be imagined, both in regard to flowers and ex experience which can never be attained by ſolitary diligence, but cellent plants, on a foil where the bottom is a hard rock, and the muſt ariſe from general converſe, and accurate obſervation of the earthy covering no more that a root or thereabouts in depth. In living world. Their performances have, as Horace expreſſes it, ſome of theſe, all the diſadvantages the Scots complain of take plus oneris quantum veniæ minus, little indulgence, and therefore place, and yet the gardens are fruitful, many of them having lofty more difficulty. They are engaged in portraits of which every hills on the ſouth ſide, the declivity due north, and the rock per one knows the original, and can therefore detect any deviation fectly bare next the walls on the north fide. The north fides from exactneſs of reſemblance. Other writings are ſafe, except of theſe hills in this very aſpect, only with the rocks covered with from the malice of learning ; but theſe are in danger from every two or three feet of earth, make very good hop-gardens, pro common reader; as the flipper was cenſured by a ſhoemaker, who ducing a vaſt quantity of a very valuable commodity, at a ſmall ex- 'happened to ſtop in his way at the Venus of Apelles. pence; and it is remarkable, that thoſe gardens, which ſtand in But the danger of not being approved as juſt copiers of human this expoſure, inſtead of being ſubject to particular evils, often manners, is not the moſt important apprehenſion that an author eſcape thoſe blaſts, and other miſchiefs, which affect the planta- of this ſort ought to have before him. of this ſort ought to have before him. Theſe books are written tions, of the ſame kind, on the ſouth ſide of the hills. It might It might chiefly to the young, the ignorant, and the idle, to whom they be a very valuable article of trade, if the bleak hills of Scotland, ſerve as lectures of conduct, and introductions into life. They or thoſe of fome of our northern plantations in America, could be are the entertainment of minds unfurniſhed with ideas, and made thus fruitful in ſo uſeful a commodity, and there ſeems only therefore eaſily fufceptible of impreſſions; not fixed by principles, the want of a proper trial. and therefore eaſily following the current of fancy ; not informed Another extremely valuable plant, that might be raiſed on theſe by experience, and conſequently open to every falſe ſuggeſtion and barrenrockyplaces, as they are generally ſuppoſed to be, is flax, in partial account. places where the deſcent is too ſteep for ploughing in the common When an adventurer is levelled with the reſt of the world, and way. It has been proved, that a hand plough with a ſtem of aſh acts in ſuch ſcenes of the univerſal drama as may be the lot of of about ſeven feet long, and a plate on each ſide near the end to any other man, young ſpectators fix their eyes upon him with turn the turf, a coulter to be let out ſhorter or longer to four or five cloſer attention, and hope, by obſerving his behaviour and ſucceſs, inches depth, to cut the earth up, as deep as it lies upon the rock, to regulate their own practices when they ſhall be engaged in the and an iron wheel, may be managed with eaſe and conveniency by like part. For this reaſon, theſe familiar hiſtories may perhaps be two people, and will prepare ground for producing large crops of made of greater uſe than the ſolemnities of profeſſed morality, and the fineſt flax. The beſt fort of flax-ſeed, of Flanders, ſown on convey the knowledge of vice and virtue with more accuracy than this ſort of ground, ſucceeds ſo well, that if brought into general axioms and definitions. But, if the power of example is ſo great uſe, it might give the only advantage that is at preſent wanting to as to take poſſeſſion of the memory by a kind of violence, and the Scotch holland manufactory, and make it excel that of all the produce effects almoſt without the intervention of the will, care world beſide. Agriculture, in Scotland, was too much neglected, ought to be taken, that, when the choice is unreſtrained, the beſt examples ROS R O T many examples only ſhould be exhibited: and that which is likely to and this is the very ſubject that will be diffipated and loſt when operate ſo ſtrongly, ſhould not be miſchievous or uncertain in its the flowers are gathered and thrown in a heap together, as they are effects. fucculent, and very quickly heat in lying together. To avoid all The chief advantages which theſe fictions have over real life is, diffipation and waſte of this choice eilence, the roſes ſhould be that their authors are at liberty, though not to invent, yet to ſelect thrown into the ſtill as ſoon as gathered, and diſtilled with very objects, and to cull from the maſs of mankind thoſe individuals little water, and that in a balneum Mariæ; then the fire is to be upon which the attention ought moſt to be employed; as a diamond, continued ſo long as the powers float ſeparate about in the water ; though it cannot be made, may be poliſhed by art, and placed in but as ſoon as ever they form themſelves into a cake, and ſtick to ſuch a ſituation as to diſplay that luſtre which before was buried the bottom, the diſtillation ſhould be finiſhed, as they then yield no more effence. With all theſe precautions, however, it is with among common ſtones. Amidſt the gloom of ſuperſtition, in an age of the groffeſt great difficulty we can procure any efſence of roſes. What we ob- ignorance and credulity, a taſte for the wonders of oriental fiction tain by this diſtillation being chiefly a very odoriferous and fra- was introduced by the Arabians into Europe, many countries of grant water. In the warmer countries the ſame caution affords a which were already ſeaſoned to a reception of its extravagancies, larger quantity of oil, which may be ſeparated and preſerved un- by means of the poetry of the Gothic ſcalds, who, perhaps, originally der the name of the effence. In Italy, they make ſome quantity derived their ideas from the ſame fruitful region of invention of it, but there it is very dear; a vaſt quantity of the flowers yield- Theſe fictions,coinciding withithereigning manners,and perpetually ing only a very little effence, and that being thick and troubleſome kept up and improved in the tales of troubadours and minſtrels, in the procuring, as it every where ſticks to the vefiels. feem to have centred, about the eleventh century, in the ideal ROSARY, in the Romiſh church, a chaplet conſiſting of five hiſtories of Turpin and Geoffrey of Monmouth, which record the or fifteen decads of beads, to direct the recitation of fo fuppoſititious achievements of Charlemagne and king Arthur, Ave Maria's, in honour of the Virgin. where they formed the ground-work of that ſpecies of fabulous ROSARY alſo denotes a particular maſs or form of devotion ad- narrative called romance. And from theſe beginnings, or cauſes, dreſſed to the Virgin, to which the chaplet of that name is accom- afterwards enlarged and enriched by kindred fancies, fetched from modated. It conſiſts of fifteen repetitions of the Lord's prayer, and the Cruſades, that ſingular and capricious mode of imagination an hundred and fifty falutations of the bleſſed Virgin; which con- aroſe, which at length compoſed the marvellous machineries of the fiſt of fix or ſeven repetitions of the Lord's prayer, and ſix or ſe- more ſublime Italian poets, and of their diſciple Spencer. ven times ten ſalutations or Ave Maria's. The French, above all other nations, have applied themſelves Factions of the Red and White ROSE are famous in our Engliſh to this kind of writing ; whether it be owing to the natural taſte hiſtories. They had their riſe in 1454, under Henry VI. between and genius of the people, or to the freedom, &c. wherewith they the houſes of York and Lancaſter, and ended in Henry VII. who converſe with the women. They began chiefly with romances of united the two branches. The houſe of Lancaſter had for its chivalry: hence their Amadis, in twenty-four volumes; Palmerin badge a red roje; that of York, a white one. D'Oliva, and of England; king Arthur, &c. whereof we have an Roses, in heraldry, is a difference denoting the ſeventh ſon of agreeable critique in Don Quixote. a family. See the Syſtem, Sect. V. and Plate I. The later romances are much more polite; the beſt of which are ROSTRUM literally denotes the beak or bill of a bird. For the Aſtrea of D'Urfe; the Cyrus and Clelie of Mademoiſelle de its deſcription and uſes, ſee the Syſtem of ORNITHOLOGY, Sect. Scuderi; the Caliendre and Cleopatre of La Caiprenede; Ariane, I. Art. I. Francion; and the Adventures of Telemachus, by the late ROT, a diſeaſe which, in moiſt years, is incident to ſheep, in archbiſhop of Cambray, worth all the reft. the ſame ground where, in dryer years, they are free from it; 2 The Germans too have their romances; eſpecially Hercules and which yet ariſes, not only from the moiſture, but from a certain Herculiſcus, the Aramena, Otavia, Arminius Otbert, &c. principle of putrefaction, both in the air and the graſs. The true The Italians have their Eromena, by Biondi; the works of cauſe of this diſorder is very imperfectly underſtood, if not alto- Loredano, Marino, &c. The Spaniards, their Diana, and Don gether unknown. Many have ſatisfied themſelves with attribut- Quixote. The Engliſh, their Arcadia, &e. and in modern times, ing it to moiſture in general ; others have aſcribed it to the quick the number has been ſo great, that our circulating libraries are full growth of graſs and herbs in wet places; a late writer conſiders it of them. as an indubitable fact, that the inſects which are ſometimes found ROOK, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the in the livers, &c. of iheep, and which he deſcribes as reſembling Genus Corvus. See CORVUS. the flat fiſh called the plaiſe, are the cauſe of the rot; another ROOT, radix, in botany, that part of a plant which immedi writer conjectures that it is a diſorder of the liver, occaſioned by ately imbibes the juices of the earth, and tranſmits them to the obſtructed and inſpiſſated bile ; but amidſt this variety of opinion, other parts, for their nutrition, fee the Article PLANT, and the nothing more can be inferred than that this is probably a putrid Syſtem of BOTANY, Sect. II. throughout, and Plate II. diſeaſe. It is well known, that it is the greateſt of all the incon- Roots, in medicine. The principal roots ufed in the practice veniences that attend the keeping of theſe uſcful animals. It is a of phyſic,are rhubarb, rhaponticum,farſaparilla, ipecacuanha, jalap, very hard thing to prevent the rot, if the year prove very wet, ef- zedoary, galangal, caflumenar, gentian, turmeric, liquorice, mad-pecially in May or June. Salt marſhes and lands where broom der, &c. grows are the beſt places of preſervation for them. Sheep are Root, in algebra, for definition, fee the Syſtem, Sect. I. Ar ſometimes all cleared of the rot when not too far gone with it, ticle DEFINITIONS, No. 10. For exemplification, ſee Sect. II. only by removing them into broom-fields. Scurvy-grafs, muf- Article VII. tard, parſley, marſh-trefoil, and thyme, are alſo good for the pre- Root, in arithmetic, for definitions, rules and examples reſpec- vention of it. ting this branch of ſcience, ſee the Syſtem, Chap. II. throughout. Some propoſe the giving ſheep half a handful of bay-ſalt, every ROOTA, Baga, or Swediſh turnip, a root much cultivated in month or oftener. A farmer is ſaid to have cured his whole flock ſome parts of England. For account of its qualities, uſes, &c. of the rot, by giving each ſheep a handful of Spaniſh ſalt, five or fee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. XV. fix mornings ſucceſiively; and there is great probability that this ROSA, the roſe, a Genus of the Polygamia order, belonging to may be of ſervice : but the rational way of attacking all diſorders the Icofandria claſs of plants. The forts of roſes are very nume in cattle, is by conſidering what are the cauſes of them. It will rous; and the botaniſts find it very difficult to determine with ac appear, upon inquiry, that wet ſeaſons are the general occaſions of curacy, which are ſpecies and which are varieties, as well as which the rot in ſheep, and therefore it would be adviſeable for the are varieties of the reſpective ſpecies: on this account Linneus, owners, when ſuch feaſons come on, to remove the animals into and fome other eminent authors, are inclined to think that there the drieſt paſtures they can, and then to feed them principally is only one real ſpecies of roſe, which is the roſa canina, or“ dog- with dry ſweet hay, oats, bran, and the like, this would prevent roſe of the hedges," &c. and that all the other forts are accidental the occaſion; and if they were already a little infected, fome ſalt, varieties of it. given with their dry food, would be a happy means of curing them. The red and white rofes are ufed in medicine. The former dif- | The two following receipts have been much recommended by tilled with water yields a ſmall portion of butyraceous oil, whoſe thoſe who have tried them with ſucceſs. Steep ſome regulus of flavour exactly reſembles that of the roſes themſelves. This oil antimony in ale, adding to it ſome grains of paradiſe, and a little and the diſtilled water, are very uſeful and agreeable cordials. ſugar to ſweeten it. Of this infuſion, two or three dofes, each Theſe roſes alſo, beſides the cordial and aromatic virtues which doſe being ſomewhat leſs than a gill, are to be given to the in- refide in their volatile parts, have a mild purgative one, which re fected ſheep, at the interval of two days. mains entire in the decoction left after diſtillation. The red roſe, Or, ſteep a handful of rue in a pail of water all night, and in on the contrary, has an aſtringent and gratefully corroborating the morning put in as much falt as will make it bear an egg, virtue. Let half a pint of this liquor be given to each ſheep, and Effence of Roses. There is ſcarce a more valuable perfume thrice, every other morning. A farmer, who kept four hundred repeated in the world, than the eſſence of damaſk roſes, and ſcarce any thing ſheep, tried this remedy, in a general rot, and loft none; though is obtained from its ſubject with more difficulty and in leſs quan- | his neighbours loſt almoſt all theirs. Of twenty, to which this tity. All eſſences or effential oils are, while in the plant, con- liquor was not adminiſtered, for the ſake of experiment, many tained in certain veſicles lodged in different parts, and of different ſtructure: theſe veſicles are in the roſe particularly ſmall and ten ROTATED, in botany, the name of a ſort of flowers, ſo called der, and are placed very fuperficially; the conſequence of this is, from their ſhape, ſomewhat reſembling a wheel. Theſe are of the that there is originally but a very little of this effence in the flower, monopetalous kind. See the Syſtem, Sect. II. and Plate I. ROTATION, were rotten. ROY ROY or generated. ܪ POTENTISSIMI REGIS words, Le ROTATION, in geometry, the circumvolution of a ſurface | is built quadrangular, with walks around, wherein the merchants round an immovable line, called the axis of rotation. By ſuch of the reſpective countries aſſociate themſelves. In the middle of rotation of planes, the figures of certain regular folids are formed, the area, or court, is a fine marble ſtatue of king Charles II. in the habit of a Roman Cæſar, erected by the ſociety of merchant- ROUP, in poultry, is a filthy boil or ſwelling upon their rumps, adventurers ; the workmanſhip of Grinlin Gibbons. Around known by the ſtaring, or turning back of the feathers. The roup, are ranged the ſtatues of the ſeveral kings ſince the Norman if not ſoon remedied, will corrupt the whole body ; to prevent | Conqueſt. which, the feathers are to be pulled away, the ſwelling laid open, Royal Oak, was a fair-ſpreading tree at Bofcobel, in the pa- and the matter preſſed out ; after which the part is to be waſhed riſh of Donnington, in Stafforſhire, the boughs whereof were all with ſalt and water or brine. covered with ivy ; in the thick of which king Charles II. ſat in ROWEL, among farriers, a kind of iſſue, made by drawing a the day-time with Colonel Careleſs, and in the night lodged at ikain of ſilk, thread, hair, or the like, through the nape of the neck, Bofcobel-houſe ; ſo that they are miſtaken who ſpeak of it as an or other part of a horſc; anſwering to what in ſurgery is called a old hollow oak; it being then a gay Houriſhing tree, ſurrounded Jeton. For the mode of operation, and the uſes and abuſes of the with many more. The poor remains hereof are now fenced in Practice of Rowelling in Farriery, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. under with a handſome wall, with this inſcription over the gate, in the Article of General Directions for the Management of Horſes. golden letters FELICIMUM ARBOREM, QUAM IN ASYLEM ROYAL, ſomething belonging to a king: thus we ſay, royal CAROLI II. DEUS OP. MAX. PER family, royal aſſent, royal exchange, &c. QUEM REGES REGNANT, HIC CRESCERE VOLUIT, &c. Phil. ROYAL Aſſent, is that affent or approbation which the king gives Tranf. No. 310. to a thing done by others; as the election of a biſhop by dean and ROYAL Oak, Robur Carolinum, or Charles's Oak, in aſtro- chapter, or to a bill paſſed in both houſes of parliament. The nomy,one of the new ſouthern conſtellations. See the Syſtem, Sect. royal afſent in paliament being given, the bill is indorſed with theſe VIII. Article Southern Conſtellations. roy le veut ; that is, it pleaſes the king. If he refuſes ROYAL Society of England, is an academy, or body, of perſons it, thus, Le roy s'aviſera, q. d. the king will ad viſe upon it. See of eminent learning ; inſtituted by king Charles II. for the pro- PARLIAMENT. moting of natural knowledge. ROYAL Family. The firſt and moſt conſiderable branch of the This illuſtrious body had its original in an aſſembiy of ingenious king's royal family, regarded by the laws of England, is the queen. men, reſiding in London, who, being inquiſitive into natural, and The queen of England is either queen regent, queen confort, or the new and experimental philoſophy, agreed, about the year 1645, queen dowager. The queen regent, regnant, or ſovereign, is ſhe to meet weekly on a certain day, to diſcourſe upon ſuch ſubjects. who holds the crown in her own right; as the firſt (and perhaps | Theſe meetings, it is ſaid, where ſuggeſted by Mr. Theodore Haak, the ſecond) queen Mary, queen Elizabeth, and queen Anne; and a native of the Palitinate in Germany. About the year 1659, the ſuch a one has the ſame powers, prerogatives, rights, dignities, and ſociety met once or twice a week in term-time, at Greſham Col- duties, as if ſhe had been a king. This is expreſsly declared by lege, till they were diſperſed by the public diſtractions of that year, ſtatute I Mar. I. ſt. 3. c. 1. But the queen confort is the wife of and the place of their meeting was made a quarter for foldiers. the reigning king; and the by virtue of her marriage is participant Upon the Reſtoration, in 1660, their meetings were revived, and of divers prerogatives above other women. attended with a larger concourſe of perſons, eminent for their A queen dowager is the widow of the king, and as ſuch enjoys character and learning. moſt of the privileges belonging to her as queen confort. But it They were at length taken notice of by the king, who was is not high treaſon to conſpire her death, or to violate her chaſtity; pleaſed to grant them an ample charter, dated the twenty-ſecond for the ſame reaſon as was before alledged, becauſe the ſucceſſion of April, 1663, whereby they were erected into a corporation, con- to the crown is not thereby endangered. See Queen. fiſting of a preſident, council, and fellows, for promoting natural The prince of Wales, or heir apparent to the crown, and alſo knowledge. Their manner of electing fellows is by balloting. his royal confort, and the princeſs royal, or eldeſt daughter of the Their council are in number twenty-one, including the preſi- king, are likewiſe peculiarly regarded by the laws. For by ſtatute dent, vice-preſident, treaſurer , and two fecretaries eleven of 25 Edw. III. to compaſs or conſpire the death of the former, or to which are continued for the next year, and ten more added to violate the chaſtity of either of the latter, are as much high treaſon them; all choſen on St. Andrew's day. Each member, at his as to conſpire the death of the king, or violate the chaſtity of the admiſſion, ſubſcribes an engagement, that he will endeavour to queen. And this upon the ſame reaſon as was before given; be promote the good of the ſociety; from which he may be freed cauſe the prince of Wales is next in ſucceſſion to the crown, and at any time, by ſignifying to the preſident, that he deſires to to violate his wife muſt taint the blood-royal with baſtardy: and withdraw. the eldeſt daughter of the king is alſo alone inheritable to the The charges are five guineas paid to the treaſurer at admiſſion; crown on failure of iſſue male, and, therefore, more reſpected by and 135. per quarter ſo long as the perſon continues a member : the laws than any of her younger ſiſters ; inſomuch, that upon or, in lieu of the annual ſubſcription, a compoſition of twenty-fix this, united with other (feodal) principles, while our military guineas in one payment. Their deſign is « to make faithful re- tenures were in force, the king might levy an aid for marrying his cords of all the works of nature or art, which come within their eldeſt daughter, and her only. The heir apparent to the crownis reach ; ſo that the preſent, as well as after ages, may be enabled to uſually made prince of Wales and earl of Cheſter, by ſpecial crea put a mark on errors which have been ſtrengthened by long pre- tion and inveſtiture, but being the king's eldeſt ſon, he is by in ſcription ; to to reſtore truths that have been neglected ; to puſh thoſe heritance duke of Cornwall, without any new creation. already known to more various uſes; to make the way more paſ- The reſt of the royal family may be conſidered in two different fable to what remains unrevealed." &c. lights, according to the different ſenſes in which the term royal To this purpoſe they have made a great number of experiments family is uſed. The larger ſenſe, includes all thoſe, who are by any and obſervations on moſt of the works of nature; eclipſes, comets, poflibility inheritable to the crown. Such, before the revolution, meteors, mines, plants, earthquakes, inundations, ſprings, damps, were all the deſcendants of William the Conqueror ; who had ſubterraneous fires, tides, currents, the magnet, &c. &c. Alſo num- branched into an amazing extent, by inter-marriages with the bers of ſhort hiſtories of nature ; arts, manufactures, uſeful en- ancient nobility. Since the revolution and act of ſettlement, it gines, contrivances, &c. The ſervices they have been of to the means the Proteſtant iſſue of the princeſs Sophia ; now compa public are very great. They have improved naval, civil, and ratively few in number, but which in proceſs of time may poſſibly military architecture ; advanced the ſecurity and perfection of na- be as largely diffuſed. vigation ; improved agriculture; and put not only this kingdom, The younger fons and daughters of the king, and other branches but alſo Ireland, the plantations, &c. upon planting. They have re- of the royal family who are not in the immediate line of ſucceſſion, giſtered experiments, hiſtories, relations, obſervations, &c. and re- were therefore little farther regarded by the ancient law, than to duced them into one common ſtock; and have, from time to give them a certain degree of precedence before all peers and pub time, publiſhed fome of the moſt immediate uſe, under the title lic officers, as well eccleſiaſtical as temporal. of Philoſophical Tranſactions, &c. and laid the reſt up in public Royal Exchange, the burſe or meeting place of the merchants regiſters, to be nakedly tranſmitted to poſterity, as a ſolid ground- of London. It was firſt built in 1566, at the charge of ſir Thomas work for future ſyſtems. Greſham ; and in a ſolemn manner, by herald with ſound of They have a library adapted to their inſtitution ; towards which trumpet, in preſence of queen Elizabeth, proclaimed the Royal Mr. Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, contributed the Exchange. Till that time the merchants met in Lombard ſtreet. Norfolcian library, and which is, at this time, greatly increaſed by It was built of brick; yet then eſteemed the moſt ſplendid burſe a continual ſeries of benefactions. The muſeum, or repoſitory, in Europe. An hundred years after its building, at the great fire, it of natural and artificial rarities, given them by Daniel Colwal, was burnt down ; but it was ſoon raiſed again in a ftill more eſq. and ſince enriched by many others, is now removed to the magnificent manner; the expence thereof amounted to 50,000l. Britiſh Muſeum, and makes a part of that great repoſitory. Their One half of this ſum was diſburſed by the chamber of London, the motto is, Nullius in verba ; and their place of aſſembling is So- other by the company of mereers; who, to reimburſe themſelves, merſet-place in the Strand. Sir Godfrey Copley, bart. Teft five let to hire a hundred and ninety ſhops above ſtairs, at twenty guineas to be given anually to the perſon who ſhall write the beſt pounds each; which, with other ſhops, &c. on the ground, yielded paper in the year, under the head of experimental philofophy. a yearly rent of above four thouſand pounds; yet the ground it This reward, which is now changed to a gold medal, is the ſtands on does not exceed three fourths of an acre ; whence it is higheſt honour the Society can beſtow. It is conferred on St. obſerved to be much the richeſt ſpot of ground in the world. It Andrew's day. ** The No. 137 4 B R UC RUM ܪ The Tranſactions of the Royal Society, are called Philoſophical RUINS, a term particularly uſed for magnificent buildirgs fal- Tranſactions, and are a kind of journal of the principal things len to decay by length of time, and whereof there only remains a that come before the Royal Society of London. They contain confuſed heap of materials. Such are the ruins of the tower of Ba- the ſeveral diſcoveries and hiſtories of nature and art, made by the bel, of the tower of Belus, two days journey from Bagdad, in Syria, members of the ſociety, or communicated by them from their cor on the banks of the Euphrates, which are now no more than a reſpondents, with the ſeveral experiments, obſervations, &c. made heap of bricks, cemented by bitumen ; and whereof we only per- by them, or tranſmitted to them, &c. They were firſt fet on foot ceive the plan to have been ſquare. Such alſo are the ruins of a fa- in 1565, by Mr. Oldenburg, ſecretary of the fociety, and were mous temple, or palace, near Schiras, in Perſia, which the anti- continued by him till the year 1677. Upon his death they were quiaries will have to have been built by Ahaſuerus, and which the diſcontinued till January 1678, when Dr Grew reſumed the pub- | Perſians now call Tchelminar, or Chelminar ; q. d. the forty co- lication of them, and continued it for the months of December lumns ; becauſe there are ſo many columns remaining pretty en- 1678, and January and February 1679, after which they were tire, with the traces of others ; a great quantity of baffo relievos, intermitted till January 1683. During this laſt interval they were and unknown characters fufficient to ſhew the magnificence of the fupplied in fome meaſure by Dr. Hooke's Philoſophical Collec- antique architecture. The ruins of PALMYRA may be reckoned tions. They were alſo interrupted for three years, from Decem- in the claſs of famous ruins. in the claſs of famous ruins. See PALMYRENE RUINS. ber 1687, to January 1691, beſides other ſmaller interruptions, RULE, in arithmetic, denotes a certain operation with figures amounting to near one year and a half more, before October to find ſums or numbers unknown, and to facilitate computations, 1695, fince which time the tranſactions have been regularly mercantile, aſtronomical, &c. Each rule in arithmetic has its carried on. particular name, according to the uſe for which it is intended They were for many years publiſhed in numbers, and the print- The four firſt, which ſerve as the foundation of the whole art, ing of them was always, from time to time, the ſingle act of the are called addition, ſubtraction, multiplication, and diviſion. For reſpective ſecretaries, till the year 1752, when the fociety thought a full exemplification of theſe ſeveral rules, ſee the Syſtem, under fit that a committee ſhould be appointed to re-conſider the papers their reſpective heads to which they belong. read before them, and to ſelect out of them ſuch as they ſhould Rule of Three, or of Proportion, commonly called the golden judge moſt proper for publication in the future tranſactions . The rule, is a rule which teaches how to find a fourth proportional members of the council conſtitute a ſtanding committee for this number to three others given. See the Syſtem, under the article purpoſe. They meet on the firſt Tueſday of every month, and RULE of Three. no leſs than ſeven of the members of the committee (of which Rules of Court, in law, are certain orders made, from time number the preſident, or in his abſence, a vice-preſident is always to time, in the courts of law, which attorneys are bound to obſerve, to be one) are allowed to be a quorum, capable of acting in rela in order to avoid confuſion ; and both the plaintiff and defendant tion to ſuch papers. The queſtion with regard to the publication are at their peril alſo bound to pay obedience to rules made in of any paper is always decided by the majority of votes taken by court relating to the caufe depending between them. A rule of ballor. court is granted every day the courts of Weſtminſter fit, to pri- They are publiſhed annually in two parts at the expence of the ſoners of the king's bench, or Fleet priſons, to go at large about ſociety, and each fellow is entitled to receive one copy gratis of copy gratis of their private affairs. every volume publiſhed after his admiſſion into the ſociety. RUM, a ſpecies of brandy, or vinous fpirit, drawn by diftilla- The Philoſophical Tranſactions to the end of the year 1700, tion from ſugar-canes. The word rum is the name it bears among were abridged in three volumes by Mr. John Lowthorp: thoſe the native Americans. Rum is very hot and inflammable, and is from the year 1700 to 1720, were abridged in two volumes by in the fame uſe among the natives of the ſugar-countries, as brandy Mr. Henry Jones : thoſe from 1719 to 1733, were abridged in two among the French. Rum differs from what we fimply call ſugar- volumes by Mr. John Eames and Mr. John Martyn; Mr. Mar- ſpirit, in that it contains more of the natural flavour or effential tyn continued the abridgment of thoſe from 1732 to 1744, in two oil of the ſugar-cane ; a great deal of raw juice and parts of the volumes: and of thoſe from 1743 to 16750, in two volumes. cane itfelf being often fermented in the liquor or folution of which RUBY, in natural hiſtory, a fpecies of gems, being a beautiful the rum is the rum is prepared. The unctuous or oily flavour of rum is of- gem of a red colour with an admixture of This, in its ten ſuppoſed to proceed from the large quantity of fat uſed in boil- moſt perfect and beſt coloured ſtate, is a gem of prodigious beauty ing the ſugar; which fat, indeed, of courſe, will uſually give a and extreme value; it is often found perfectly pure and free from ſtinking flavour to the ſpirit in our diſtillations of the ſugar liquor, blemiſhes or foulneſs, but much more frequently debaſed greatly or waſh, from our refining ſugar-houſes ; but this is nothing like in its value by them, eſpecially in the larger fpecimens. It is the flavour of the rum, which is really the effect of the natural of very great hardneſs, equal to that of the fapphire, and ſecond flavour of the cane. only to the diamond. It is various in fize ; but leſs ſubject to The method of making rum is this: When a fufficient ſtock variations in its ſhape than moſt of the other gems. It is uſually of the materials is got together, they add water to them, and fer- found very ſmall, its moſt common ſize being equal to that of ment them in the common method, though the fermentation is the head of the largeſt ſort of pins ; but it is found of four, always carried on very flowly at firſt; becauſe at the beginning of eight, or ten carats ; and ſometimes, though very rarely, up to the ſeaſon for making rum in the iſlands, they want yeaſt or ſome 20, 30, or 40. It is never found of an angular or cryftalliform other ferment, to make it work ; but by degrees, after this, they ſhape, but always of a pebble-like figure, often roundiſh, fome- procure a ſufficient quantity of the ferment, which riſes up as a times oblong, and much larger at one end than the other, and in head to the liquor in the operation, and thus they are able after- a ar, and is uſually flatted on one ſide. wards to ferment and make their rum with a great deal of expe- It commonly is naturally ſo bright and pure on the ſurface, as to dition, and in large quantities. need no poliſhing; and when its figure will admit of being fet When the waſh is fully fermented, or to a due degree of acidity, without cutting, it is often worn in its rough ſtate, and with no the diſtillation is carried on in the common way, and the ſpirit is other than its native poliíh. We have the true ruby only from from made up proof; though ſometimes it is reduced to a much greater the Eaſt Indies; and the principal mines of it are in the kingdom ſtrength, nearly approaching to that of alcohol or ſpirit of wine, of Pegu and the ifland of Ceylon. and is then called double diſtilled rum. It might be eaſy to rec- As rubies are frequently found in gold mines, it is very probable tify the ſpirit, and bring it to much greater purity than we uſually that they receive their colour from that metal. The ruby is formed find it to be of; for it brings over in the diſtillation a very large in a ſony ſubſtance, or bed, of a rofe colour, called mother of quantity of the oil; and this is often ſo diſagreeable, that the rum ruby; it has not all its colour and luſtre at once, but comes to it muſt be ſuffered to lie by a long time to mellow before it can be by degrees. At firſt it is whitiſh; and, as it approaches to matu uſed ; whereas, if well rectified, it would grow mellow much rity, becomes red. Hence we have white rubies, others half white, fooner, and would have a much leſs potent flavour. The beſt ſtate half red, and others blue and red, called ſapphire rubies. When to keep rum in, both for exportation and other uſes, is doubtleſs a ruby exceeds twenty carats, it may be called a carbuncle; the that of alcohol, or rectified fpirit. In this manner it would be name of an imaginary ſtone, whereof the ancients and moderns tranſparent in one half the bulk it uſually is, and might be let have given us fo many defcriptions. Fruetiere aſſures us very down to the common proof ſtrength with water when neceſſary. poſitively, that there have been rubies in France of two hundred For the common uſe of making punch, it would likewiſe ſerve and forty carats. Tavernier tells us, he ſaw one in the Indies of much better in the ſtate of alcohol ; as the taſte would be cleaner fifty carats, which he had a mind to have bought. He adds, that and the ſtrength might always be regulated to a much greater ex- the king of France has finer and larger rubies than any in the pof- actneſs than in the ordinary way. feſſion of the Great Mogul. The only uſe to which it would not ſerve ſo well in this ſtate, RUBY, in heraldry, denotes the red colour wherewith the arms would be the common practice of adulteration among our diſtillers ; of noblemen are blazoned, being the fame which in the arms of for when they want to mix a large portion of cheaper fpirit with others, not noble, is called gules. See the Syſtem, Sect. III. the rum, their buſineſs is to have it of the proof ſtrength, indas full RUCTATION, belching, a ventoſity ariſing from indigeſtion, of the flavouring oil as they can, that it may drown the flavour of and diſcharging itſelf at the mouth, with a diſagreeable noiſe.— the ſpirits they mix with it, and extend its own. If the buſineſs of There are belches owing to repletion, and others to inanition, or rectifying rum was more nicely managed, it ſeemsa very practicable emptineſs. Quincy ſays, hypochondriac and hyſteric people are ſcheme to throw out ſo much of the oil as to have it in the fine light particularly liable to this diſorder. They are rather to be cured ſtate of a clear ſpirit, but lightly impregnated with it; in this caſe with proper ſtomachics than carminatives and hot liquors. Burnet it would very nearly reſemble arrac, as is proved by the mixing a recommends the illiac pills of Rhafis againſt ructation. very ſmall quantity of it with the taſteleſs fpirit, in which caſe the whole purple. R UP R Y E of lead converted into ruft by vinegar. whole bears a very near reſemblance to arrac in Mavour. Rum is and heatit till it becomesa liitle foft, the preſſure of the atmoſphere uſually very much adulterated in England; fome are fo barefaced will compreſs it together, and fill up all thoſe vacuums, when 10 as to do it with malt-fpirit; but when it is done with molaffes-fpi will be a common clear bit of glaſs, and will not break in the rit; the taſtes of both are ſo nearly allied that it is not eaſily diſco manner it would before heating. If you, with a blow pipe and vered. The beſt method of judging of it is by ſetting fire to a little candle, heat it ſo as to make it a little ſoft about an inch from the of it; and, when it has burnt away all the inflammable part, exa fmall end, then afterwards break a little of it off, and it will fly mining the phlegm both by the taſte and ſmell. Shaw's Effay on aſunder as far as it was heated only; but if you afterwards Diſtillery. break it off a little below the part that was heated, it will all, RUMB, in navigation. See RHUMB-Line in the Syitem, Part fly afunder. 1. Sect. I. RUPTURE, in medicine, called alſo hernia, and popularly RUMEN, the firſt ſtomach of animals which chew the cud, and burfienneſs, is when the rim; thin film, or caul, which holds up the which are hence called ruminants. The food is tranſmitted into the inteſtines, is broken, or over-ſtrained, or ſtretched, ſo as that the rumen without any other alteration in the mouth than being a little guts fall down either into the groin, ſcrotum, or elſewhere. See rolled and wrapped up together. The rumen, or paunch, is much HERNIA. the largeſt of all the ſtomachs, as being to contain both the drink, RURAL, or Rustic, formed of rus, ruris, country, fome- and the whole crude maſs of aliment, which there lie and macerate thing that relates to the country, For the manner in which rural together, to be thence remitted to the mouth, to be re-chewed and ſcenes are beſt contraſted, ſee the Treatiſe on GARDENING, comminuted, in order to their farther digeſtion in the other ventri Part I. cles. See ABOMASUS, and the Syſtem of Comparative Anatomy, RUST of Corn, or Blight, in huſbandry, the name given by our Chap. I. Sect. I. In the rumen, or firſt ventricles of camels, are farmers to a diſeaſe in corn and other vegetables, in which their found divers faculi, which contain a conſiderable quantity of water ; ſtalks and leaves ſeemn burnt up, and appear of a ſort of ruft-colour. an admirable contrivance for the neceſſities of that animal, which For a copious defcription of its effects, and the means of preven- living in dry countries, and feeding on dry hard food, would be in tion, ſee the article Blight. danger of periſhing but for theſe reſervoirs of liquor. Rust of a Metal, the flowers or calx thereof, procured by cor- RUMINANT, ruminans, in natural hiſtory, an animal which roding and diffolving its ſuperficial parts by ſome menſtruous fluid; chews over again what it has eat before: this is popularly called or the earth of the metal decompoſed by the action of a proper chewing the cud. Ruminants are all quadrupedal, hairy, and vivi menſtruum. Water is the great inſtrument or agent in producing parous; ſome with hollow and perpetual horns, others with deci- ruſt; the air apparently ruſts bodies, but it is only in virtue of the duous ones. See the Syſtem of Comparative Anatomy, water it contains. Hence in a dry air, metals remain a long time Chap. I. Sect. I. without contracting ruſt, and hence oils, and other fatty bodies, RUNNET, or RENNET, an acid juice, found in the ſtomachs ſecure metals from ruft; water being no menſtruum to oil, &c. of calves that have fed on nothing but milk, and are killed before and therefore not able to make its way through it. See the the digeſtion be perfected. It alſo ſignifies the liquor made by Article FRON. ſteeping the ſtomach of a calf in hot water. It is this runnet that All metals are liable to ruſt; even gold itſelf, though generally held is chiefly uſed to curdle or turn milk for cheeſe. Its proper place incapable thereof, grows ruſty, if expoſed to the fumes of ſea-falt. is the abomaſus. See COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, Chap. I. The reaſon why gold is ſo rarely found to ruft, is, that ſea-ſalt, The like matter is alſo ſaid to be found in goats and hares. The which is the only ſalt that will prey upon it, is of a very fixed na- longer the runnet is kept, the better it is. Though it readily coa ture; and therefore little of its effluvia, or exhalations, are found gulates milk; yet, if put into it when already coagulated, it dif- floating in the air. Ruſt is uſually ſuppoſed to be a corruption of ſolves it. If ſalt be put in the milk before the runnet be applied, the metal, but without much foundation: it is the very metal itſelf, it prevents its coagulation ; but if the falt be put in afterwards, it only under another form; and accordingly we find, that ruſt of hardens the coagulum. copper may again be turned into copper; the ruſt of copper, RUNNING-Thruſh, or fruſh, in farriery, denotes an impoft- called ærugo, makes what we call verdigris. Cerufs is made hume, that ſometimes gathers in a horſe's frog; or a ſcabby and ulcerous diſpoſition which fometimes cauſes it to fall off. When wholly into ruſt, unleſs preſerved from the air by paint or varniſh. this diſcharge is natural, the feet Thould be kept merely clean. RUT, in hunting, &c. a term uſed for the venery or copulation When an impofthume appears, the ſafeſt courſe is to pare out the of deer. For the terms which obtain in reſpect of this and other hard part of the frog, or that which appears rotten, and to waſh beaſts of game, with the noiſe they make during the acts, ſee the bottom of the foot three times a day with old chamber-ley. HUNTING. For a particular deſcription of the ſymptoms and methods of treat The rutting time with the hart begins about the middle ment, ſee the Syſtem, Claſs II. Sect. VI. of September : and holds two months : the older they are, RUPEE, a coin very current in the territories of the Great Mo the better, and the more beloved they are by the hinds, and the gul, and ſeveral other parts of the Eaft Indies. Rupees are ſtruck earlier they go to rut. At this time they will turn head, and both of gold and ſilver, and both the one and the other have their furiouſly make at any living creature, It is eaſy killing them at diminutions, as half-rupees, quarter-rupees, &c. this time; their whole buſineſs being to fcent and purſue the track The gold rupee is worth is. 6d. ſterling. The filver rupee is of the females ; ſcarce feeding at all. The young herd are forced ſtruck in the Mogul's mints, with an inſcription of his name and to fly with great precipitancy when the hart comes in ſight of his titles, the year of his reign, and the place it was ſtruck at. It mate. If there be any other of bulk, they will diſpute it very weighs from 7 dwt. 101 gr. to 7 dwt. II gr. and has from 1 to 2 hotly with their horns. As the ſeaſon expires, they withdraw, parts in 100 allay. 100,000 is one lack, 100 lacks are one and dig themfelves holes wherein to lie to aſſuage the ſtrong fer- crore, and ioo crores are one anib. The value of the ſilver vour of their luft: when become a little ſweet, they return to their rupee is various, according to its quality, and the place where it paſture, and live in herds. The rutting or tourning time of the is coined. roe-buck begins in October, and laſts only twelve or fifteen days. RUPERT's Drops, lachrymæ Batavice, or ſnappers, a fort of When this is paſt, he caſts his horns. After the hind is filled, ſhe glaſs drops with long and ſlender tails, which burſt to pieces, on the keeps no more company with the male till ſhe be delivered. But breaking off thoſe tails in any parts, ſaid to have been invented by the doe always accompanies her paramour till her time approaches, prince Rupert, and therefore called after his name. They were when the retires, for the ſafety of her young, which he would firſt brought into England by prince Rupert, out of Germany, and otherwiſe kill. Thewn to king Charles II. who communicated them to the Royal Book of RUTH, a canonical book of the old Teſtament ; Society, at Greſham College; and a committee, appointed on this being a kind of appendix to the book of Judges, and an introduction occaſion by the ſociety. to thofe of Samuel ; and having its title from the perſon whoſe The following account of the methods of making, breaking, ſtory is here principally related. In this ſtory are obſervable the &c. Prince Rupert's Drops, or Snappers, was communicated to us ancients rights of kindred and redemption; and the manner of buy- by Mr. T. BARNETT, Optical, Philoſophical, and Mathematical ing the inheritance of the deceaſed, with other particulars of CURS great Inſtrument maker, a Subſcriber to this work. note and antiquity. They are made with common green glaſs, ſuch as common wine RYE, in botany, a Genus of the Triandria Dyginia claſs. We bottles, in the following manner, viz. a little of the glaſs is taken have but one diſtinct ſpecies of this genus which is cultivated in out of the melting pot, with an iron rod, and dropped while in a England, though it is often ſuppoſed the two varieties diſtinguiſhed fluid ſtate, in a ſolid piece into cold water, which immediately chills, by the farmers under the name of winter and ſpring rye, are effentially and fixes its external parts; while its internal parts remain red hot different. The general uſe of rye is for bread, either alone or for ſome time, and cool gradually in the water. While cooling, mixed with wheat. And there is another very effential uſe to the its internal parts are continually contracting till cold, which cauſes farmer made of rye. April is the ſeaſon of the year when food is an infinite number of vacuums therein, by reaſon of its external of all others the ſcarceft for cattle, eſpecially for ſheep and lambs ; parts being chilled, and fixed immediately as it is dropped into the on this account fome ſplit the ridges of the wheat-ſtubble, and fow After it is cool, if you at any time while in or out of them with rye; they harrow this in, allowing about a buſhel to an water, break off the ſmall end, it will inſtantly fly afunder, with a acre; they feed the ſheep with this in April, and in May they plow great noiſe, by reaſon of the air or water, (which ever medium it is it up for fallow. When this is intended, the rye ſhould be fown broken in) ruſhing inſtantly into its pores or vacuums. If you exa early in autumn, that it may have ſtrength to furniſh early feed. mine one of thoſe ſnappers or drops you will ſee in the largeſt part For the cultivation of Rye, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, many large vacuums. If you put it into fire on ſomething ſmooth, Sect. VII. for that of Rye-graſs, ſee Sect. VIII. water. S A C S A G S, À conſonant, and the eighteenth letter of the alphabet, the catholics own feven facraments ; viz. baptiſm, confirmation; the ſound of which is formed by driving the breath through a euchariſt, pennance, extreme unction, ordination, and marriage. narrow paſſage between the palate and the tongue elevated near it, Sce Popery. The proteſtants admit of only two; viz. baptiſm together with a motion of the lower jaw and teeth towards the up and the euchariſt, or Lord's ſupper. the lips being a little way open, with ſuch a configuration of per; SACRIFICE, a ſolemn act of religious worſhip, which con- every part of the mouth and larynx, as renders the voice fome ſiſted in dedicating or offering up ſomething animate or inanimate what hiſſing. S. is, therefore, accounted one of the three hiſſing on an altar, by the hands of the prieſt, either as an expreſſion of conſonants; the other two being z and j. It is alſo held a ſemi their gratitude to the Deity for ſome ſignal mercy, or to acknow- vowel, as forming a kind of imperfect ſound, without the aſſiſt-ledge their dependance on him, or to conciliate his favour. The ance of any of the vowels. origin of ſacrifices is by fome aſcribed to the Phænicians, but It is the peculiar quality of s; that it may be founded before all Porphyry aſcribes it to the Egyptians, who firſt offered the firſt- conſonants, except x and ź, in which s is comprized, x being only fruits of their grounds to the gods, burning them upon an altar of ks, and z a hard or groſs s. This s is, therefore, termed by gram- turf; thus in the moſt ancient ſacrifices there were neither living marians, ſua poteftatis litera. In the beginning of words it has in creatures, nor any thing coſtly or magnificent, and no myrrh or variably its natural and genuine ſound; in the middle it is ſome frankincenſe. At length they began to burn perfumes; and after- times uttered with a ſtrong appulſe of the tongue to the palate; wards men, leaving their ancient diet of herbs and roots, and begin- like Z, as riſe, buſy, &c. and ſometimes it keeps its natural found, ning to uſe living creatures for food, began alſo to change their fa- as looſe, deſignation, &c. In the end of monoſyllables, it is fome crifices. The ſcriptures, however, furniſh us with a different ac- times s, as this; and ſometimes 2, as as, and generally in verbs count; for Noah, it is ſaid, ſacrificed animals at his coming out of where es ſtands for eth, as gives. A ſingle s ſeldom ends any words the ark; and even Abel himſelf ſacrificed the beſt and fatteſt of his except the third perſon of verbs, as loves, the plural of nouns, fock ; but Grotius thinks it more probable that he contented him- as trees, the pronouns this, his, ours, yours, us, the adverb thus, ſelf with making a mere oblation of his lambs, &c. without ſlay- and words derived from the Latin, as rebus : the cloſe being either ing them. For a copious account of the ceremonies of human fa- in Je, as houſe, or ſs, as graſs. It ſounds like z before ion, if a crifices as practiſed by the inhabitants of Otaheite, one of the new vowel goes before, as intruſion; and like s, if it follows a conſo difcovered iſlands in the South Seas, ſee the article EATOOAS. nant, as converſion. It ſounds like z before e mute, as refuſe, and SADLER's-Wells, a well known place for entertainment in the before y final, as roſy. Johnſon. neighbourhood of London. It derives its name from Mr. Sadler, S, in Books of Navigation, &c. ſignifies fouth ; S.E. fouth-eaſt; who erected a muſic ſhop near the ſpot, which was much frequented, S. W. ſouth-weſt, S. S. E. ſouth-ſouth-eaſt, &c. See the Syſtem before the Reformation, on account of the famous well, to the wa- of NAVIGATION, Sect. I. No. 6, and the Plate, Fig 2 and 3. ters of which many extraordinary cures were aſcribed, and which SABBATH, or the day of reſt, a folemn feſtival of the Jews, on was, therefore, deemed ſacred, and called holy well. The prieſts the ſeventh day of the week, or Saturday, beginning from fun-ſet belonging to the priory of Clerkenwell uſed to attend there, and on Friday to ſun-ſet on Saturday. The obſervation of the Sabbath hence the people were led to believe, that the virtues of the water began with the world : for God having employed fix days in its proceeded from the efficacy of their prayers. Upon the Reforma- creation, appointed the ſeventh as a day of reſt to be obſerved by tion the well was ſtopped up, on account of the ſuperſtitious uſe man, in commemoration of that great event. On this day the Jews that was made of it; till, in 1683, Mr. Sadler found it covered were commanded to abſtain from all labour, and to give reſt to with a carved arch ſtone. Theſe wells are now called New Tun- their cattle. They were not allowed to go out of the city farther bridge Wells, and thei bridge Wells, and their waters are deemed very ſalutary in va- than two hundred cubits, or a mile; a cuſtom which was founded rious diſorders. After the deceaſe of Mr. Sadler, one Francis on the diſtance of the ark from the tent of the Iſraelites, in the Forcer, a muſician, became occupier of the wells and muſic houſe. wilderneſs, after their leaving Egypt ; for being permitted to go, His ſon ſucceeded him, and firſt exhibited in this place the diver- even on the Sabbath-day, to the tabernacle to pray, they from ſions of rope-dancing, tumbling, &c. thence inferred, that the taking a journey of no great length, SADDUCES, or SADDUCEES, Sadducæi, a ſect among the though on a different account, could not be a breach of the ſabba ancient Jews, conſiſting of perſons of the greateſt quality and opu- tical reſt. As the ſeventh day was a day of reſt to the people, ſo lence, eſteemed as deiſts, or free-thinkers, rather than real Jews : was the ſeventh year to the land : it being unlawful in this year to though they aſſiſted at all the ceremonies of the worſhip in the plough or fow, and whatever the earth produced belonged to the Temple. poor; this was called the ſabbatical year. The Jews, therefore, SAFFRON, crocus, in botany, a Genus of the Triandria Mo- were obliged, during the lix years, and more eſpecially the laſt, to nog;nia claſs. The beſt ſaffron in Europe is that of England, and lay up a fufficient ſtore for the fabbatical year. The modern as may be diſtinguiſhed from the forts brought from abroad by its blades well as the ancient Jews are very ſuperſtitious in the obſervance of being broader : that brought from Spain is good for nothing ; be- the Sabbath: they carry neither arms, nor gold, nor ſilver, abou cauſe of the oil the Spaniards mix with it to make it keep. them, and are permitted neither to touch theſe, nor a candle, nor It ſhould be choſen freſh, not above a year old, in cloſe cakes nei- any thing belonging to the fire; on which account they light up ther dry nor yet very moiſt, tough and firm in tearing, of a high lamps on Friday, which burn till the end of the Sabbath. fiery colour, ſtaining the hands on rubbing it, and of the ſame colour The Chriſtians alſo apply the word Sabbath, by extenſion, to the within, as on the outſide. Saffron is uſed, both in food and medi- firſt day of the week, popularly called Sunday, or the Lord's day; cine, to cheer, fortify, and reſolve. It is the greateſt cordial in me- as inſtituted by the apoſtles to take place of the Jewiſh Sabbath, dicine, ſo as when taken too freely, to occaſion immoderate mirth: and by us obſerved in remembrance not of the creation, but of the and a fure promoter of a diaphoreſis: and is ſuppoſed to be parti- work of redemption's being completed by our Saviour's reſurrection cularly ſerviceable in diſorders of the breaſt, in female obſtructions, on that day. Thoſe who diſpute the divine appointment of a Chrif and hyſteric depreſſions. It tinges the urine of a high colour; the tian Sabbath, yet allow the moral neceſſity thereof, as a wiſe de doſe is commonly from two or three grains to ten or twelve ; Geof- ſignation of time for the recruiting of our bodies, and at the ſame froy ſays, it may be ſafely extended to a ſcruple and more. Saf. time keeping up a fenfe of the great benefits we have received from fron gives out the whole of its virtưe and colour to rectified fpirit, God, and a ſpiritual temper of mind. By allowing fix days to la- proof ſpirit, wine, vinegar, and water. The officinal preparations bour, the poor man has time to earn his bread, and the man of are, the ſyrup and tincture of SAFFRON. buſineſs has time to diſpatch his affairs. Had more time been Syrup of SAFFRON. This medicine is thus made :- take fine allotted to labour and buſineſs, and none to reſt ; our bodies would ſaffron an ounce, cut it ſmall, and put it to infuſe in a pint of have been too much fatiguedand waſted, and our minds too long en-mountain-wine ; let it ſtand three days without heat, then ſtrain gaged about worldly matters, ſo as to have forgotten divine things. off the wine ; to which, after filtration, add twenty-five ounces of Avaricious people, without ſuch an injunction, would ſcarce have double-refined ſugar, melt the ſugar over a gentle heat, and then Spared their own bodies, much leſs their ſervants, ſlaves, cattle,&c. ſet it by for uſe. SABLE, in heraldry, the black colour in the arms of gentle Tincture of Saffron, a preparation made as follows: take men. The name is borrowed from the little animal called ſable, ſaffron an ounce, cut it ſmall, and pour on it in a matraſs a pint of which is of a black colour. It is expreſſed in engraving by per- proof-ſpirit ; let them ſtand together three days without heat, often pendicular and horizontal hatches drawn acroſs each other. See ſhaking the veſſel, then filter off the tincture for uſe. Its doſe is the Syſtem, Sect. III. and Plate II. from thirty drops to a drachm or more. It is good in all caſes SABLE, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the genus Muſtela, in where the faffron in ſubſtance is. If the ſame quantity of wing the ſyſtem of Mammalia. For deſcription, ſee MUSTELA. For be uſed inſtead of ſpirit, it is called vinum crotacun ſaffron-wine. repreſentation, ſee the Plate, 2. Order III. Genus 15. SAGE, ſalvia, in botany, a Genus of the Diandria Monogynia SACCHARUM Saturni, in pharmacy. For the method of claſs. Miller enumerates twelve ſpecies, including ſeveral varie- preparing it, fee EXTRACT of LEAD, under the article LEAD. ties; and Linnæus reckons thirty-nine ſpecies. The common SACRAMENT, facramentum, in thegeneral, denotes a ſign of broad-leaved fage ; or, as we uſually call it, from the colour of the a holy or ſacred thing. In this ſenſe the word includes both the leaves, red-fage, is a ſudorific and diuretic; it promotes the menſes, facrament of the law of nature, as found morality, the manner of and is good in palſies, vertigoes, tremors, and catarrhs; and mixed offerirg the bread and wine practiſed by Melchiſedek, &c. and with honey, it is ſaid to be one of the beſt known cures for the aph- thoſe of the law of Moſes, as the circumciſion, the paſchal lamb, thæ and eroſions of the mouths of children. This alone is uſed in purifications, order of prieſthood, &c. Sacrament, with regard to the ſhops. It makes an excellent gargariſm for fore throats, when the Chriſtian church, is defined, an outward and viſible ſign of an mixed with honey, and ſharpened with vinegar or any acid. Its inward and ſpiritual grace annexed to the uſe thereof. Roman | decoction is very grateful and cooling, with the addition of a little lemon-juice SAL S A M p. 67. Puas lemon-juice. It is both detergent and abſorbent, and as ſuch, finds, like; theſe being fo many mixtures of ſalt and earth; and all ſalts place in diet-drinks, and medicated ales, intended for ſweeteners | appearing to them, indeed, on a rigorous examination, to be only and cleanſers of the blood. The Dutch dry and prepare this fage earths of different natures, which, when reduced to a certain degree like other teas, and carry it to the Indics as a very precious thing. of ſubtilty or fineneſs of parts, ſo as permanently to diffolve in wa- They there find a good market for it ; the Chineſe preferring it to ter, are then emphatically demonſtrated ſalts. Shaw's Lectures the beſt of their Indian teas; and for every pound of fage give in See the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part. II. exchange four pounds of their tea, which they ſell again very dear SALIVA, is that fluid by which the mouth and tongue are con- in Europe. Of both kinds the flowers are weaker and more grate- tinually moiſtened in their natural ſtate ; and is ſupplied by glands ful than the leaves ; and the cup of the flower ſtronger, and obvi which form it, that are called ſalivaryglands. This humour is thin ouſly more refinous than any other part. The leaves of fage give ard pellucid, incapable of being concreted by the fire, almoſt with- out their virtue both to water and rectified fpirit, molt perfectly to out taſte or ſmell. By chewing, it is expreſſed from the glands, the latter. To the former they impart a browniſh, to the latter a which ſeparate it from the blood, and is intimately mixed with our dark green tincture. The broad-leaved fawed fage, called by the food, the digeſtion of which it greatly promotes. In hungry perſons gardeners balſamic fage, is preferred to all the others for making it is acrid, and copiouſly diſcharged ; and in thoſe who have fafted tea. The ſchool of Salernum recommends fage as a remedy in all long it is highly acrid, penetrating, and reſolvent. A too copious diſeaſes: hence the verſe, evacuation of it produces thirſt, loſs of appetite, bad degeftion, and Cur moriatur homo, cui ſalvia creſcit in horto? an atrophy. “ Why ſhould a man die, while he has ſage in his garden?” SALIVAL, or SALIVARY Duets, in anatomy, certain little Sage when viewed with a microſcope, often appears covered all lymphatic canals; whereby the ſaliva falls into the mouth. For a over with little ſpiders, which are ſeen moving about. It yields, by particular deſcription of this branch of Anatomy, ſee the Syſtem, diſtillation, a very agreeable, aromatic eſſential oil, of ſome uſe in Part IV. Sect. XIII. Article Digeſtion. the ſhops. For the cultivation of fage, ſee the Treatiſe on GAR SALIVATION, ſalivatio, in medicine, a promoting of the DENING, article Kitchen Garden ; months, March and April. Aux of ſaliva, by means of medicines ; chiefly by mercury. The SAGITTA, in aſtronomy, the arrow or dart, a conſtellation of chief uſe of ſalivation is in diſeaſes belonging to the glands, and the the northern hemiſphere near the Eagle. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. membrana adi pofa, and principally in the cure of the venereal dif- SAGITTARIUS, in aſtronomy, the archer, one of the ſigns of eaſe; though it is ſometimes alſo uſed in epidemic caſes. The the zodiac ; the ninth in order. See the Syſtem, Sect. IX. body is prepared for ſalivation by a copious and continued uſe of SAIL, in navigation. For the names, deſcriptions and uſes of attenuating, diluting, ſoftening decoction: as of ſcabious, pellutory, the ſeveral fails of a ſhip, ſee the Treatiſe on NAVAL Affairs, china, ſarſaparilla, ſaſſafras, and ſanders. Salivation is either par- Sect IV. For repreſentation of a ſhip with three maſts in full fail, tial or univerſal. By the firſt, only the humours of ſome part of ſee the Plate annexed. For a repreſentation of the principal ſails, the body are to be diſcharged ; as in catarrhs, tooth-ach, &c. By fee the fame Plate. in the ſecond, the whole maſs of blood is to be purged. SAILING, in a general ſenſe denotes the movement by which SALT, fal, in chymiſtry, a ſimple ſubſtance which enters the a vefſel is wafted along the ſurface of the water, by the action of the compoſition of all bodies, and is held one of the five principles or wind upon her fails. elements thereof; and may always be extracted by fire. Salt is SAILING, in a particular ſenſe, is uſed for the art, or act, of na an ingredient in all animal, vegetable, and mineral bodies, except- vigating ; or of determining all the caſes of a ſhip’s motion, by ing perhaps ſome metals and ſtones. In vegetables and animal means of ſea-charts. And as theſe charts are conſtructed either on bodies, that have undergone a fermentation, the ſalt riſes firſt in the ſuppoſition that the carth is a large extended flat ſurface, the alembic, then the phlegm: if the mixt have not undergone whence we obtain thoſe that are called plain charts, or on the fup a fermentation, the ſalt riſes after the phlegm. Salts are diſtin- poſition that the earth is a ſphere, whence we derive globular charts ; guiſhed with regard to the manner of extracting them, &c. into failing may be diſtinguiſhed into two general kinds, viz plane, or volatile, fixed, and eſſential. For a deſcription of the different plain and globular ſailing. For full and accurate deſcriptions, kinds of ſalts with their reſpective characters, qualities and pro- plain rules and copious directions, relative to the theory and prac- perties, ſee the Syſtem, Part 1. Chap. V. throughout. For the tice of navigation in general, with deſcriptions and the modes of uſe of ſalt as a manure, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, adjuſting the ſeveral inſtruments appertaining to the art, ſee the Sect. II. Syſtem throughout ; for repreſentation of the inſtruments, ſee SALTs microſcopically examined. Mr. Leewenhoeck has opened the Plate annexed to the Syſtem of NAVIGATION. a very extenſive field for microſcopic obſervations, in the evapora- SAINT, in the Romiſh church, a holy perſon deceaſed, and tion of certain fluids, in which ſalts of various plants, and other ſub- fince his deceaſe canonized by the pope, after ſeveral informations ſtances of the like kind, had been diſſolved. The moſt agreeable and ceremonies. See the articles CANONIZATION, &c. One of way of examining theſe falts, is by the ſolar microſcope ; but the the points wherein the Roman Catholics and Proteſtants differ is, moſt accurate and fitreft for making deductions from, is that by the that the former addreſs, invoke, and ſupplicate faints, &c. to in common double microſcope. The way is to diſſolve a ſmall quantity tercede for them; whereas the latter hold it ſufficient to propoſe of ſalt, of any kind, in water, and add to this about one fourth part their good examples for our imitation. The number of ſaints, of ſpirit of wine ; this renders the whole a much leſs fit menſtruum allowed as ſuch in the Romiſh church, is prodigious. for keeping the ſalt in ſolution, and conſequently it much more rea- SAINT-Foin, in botany, a plant of great utility in agriculture. dily concretes from among it. A large drop of this liquor is to be For its cultivation, &c. ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, laid on the ſurface of a thin and clear piece of glaſs, ſuch as may Sect. XI. conveniently be laid upon the ſtand for receiving objects in this SALIC, or SALIQUE, law lex ſolica, an ancient and funda- microſcope: then this glaſs is to be held till gently heated over a mental lawof France while underkingly gavenment,in virtue where clear fire, and when it begins to evaporate, the glaſs. is to be placed of males only were to inherit. This law had not particular regard under the microſcope, and about a third magnifier uſed to examine to the crown of France : itonly imported, in the general, that in Sa it. The falts will ſoon be ſeen beginning to ſhoot, and will form lic land no part of the inheritance ſhould fall to any female, but the themſelves under the eye into very beautiful figures ; ſome reſem- whole to the male fex. De terra Salica nulla portio hæreditatis bling branches of trees, others ruins and fortifications, and the like: mulieri veniat ; ſed ad virilem ſexum tota terræ hariditatas per but what are moſt to be depended upon, as eſſential to the ſalt, are veniat. So that it is a popular error to ſuppoſe, that the falic law was certain little ſingle ſhoots reſembling cryſtals; theſe are determi- eſtabliſhed purely on account of the ſucceſſion of the crown ; ſince it nate in their figure, the others more vague and uncertain. Theſe extended to private perſons as much as thoſe of the royal family. will always be produced the ſame from the ſame falt, the others SALIENT, or SALIANT, in heraldry is applied to a lion, or ſcarce twice alike in all reſpects, from even the different drops of other beaſt, when its four-legs are raiſed in a leaping poſture. See the fame ſolution. Phil. Tranſ. Nº 172, p. 1075. See Mi- the Syſtem, Sect. VI. Art. III. CROSCOPIC Objeets. SALINE, a name given to a preparation of ſea-ſalt, procured SALTIER, in heraldry, an honourable ordinary, in form of from the froth of the ſea, hardened by the ſun in hot countries. It St. Andrew's croſs. See the Syſtem, Sect. VI. Ait. I. Plate IV. is called by ſome authors pilatro de Levant, and is uſed in glaſs SALTPETRE. See Nitre, and the Syſtem of Chymiſtry, making; and in the making the fine purple colour from cochineal, Part I. Chap. V. Sect. III. Art. I. by boiling it in a ſmall quantity, with the bran and foenugreek, of SALUTATION, the actor ceremony of faluting, greeting, or which the magiſtery is made for that purpoſe. Saline is alſo the paying reſpect or reverence to any one. For the Sword Salute name given by authors to fprings of falt-water, called by us falt- in the army, ſee the Treatiſe on Military Affairs, at the cloſe; wells, falt-ſprings, and brinc-pits. Moſt parts of the world are for the figures of repreſentation, ſee Plate IV. The principal found to have theſe ; but thoſe of Franche Compté, in France, regulations with regard to falutes in the Royal Navy may be ſeen ſeem to be the moſt remarkable. in Falconer's Naval Dictionary. SALINE Principle, a term uſed by the chymical writers, to ex SAMARITANS, an ancient fectamong the Jews; ſtill fubfiſt. preſs a conſtituent part of ſeveral mixed bodies, on which their ex- ing in ſome parts of the Levant, under the ſame name. Its origin iſtence in that form depends ; and which, though always exiſtent was in the time of Rehoboam ; under whoſe reign a diviſion was in them, and always ſeparable by art, is yet not perceivable in many made of the people of Iſrael into two diſtinct kingdoms. One of of them in the comples. See SALT. theſe kingdoms, called Judah, conſiſted of ſuch as adhered to Re- SALINE Earths. The chymiſts under this, as a general head, hoboam, and the houſe of David; the other retained the ancient reckon all thoſe faline and earthy ſubſtances, which are calcined name of Iſraelites, under the command of Jeroboam ; the capital er burnin the fire ; as all the kinds of lime, pot-aſhes, foot, and the of the ſtate of theſe latter was Samaria ; and hence it was that 4 с they No 137, S AP S A T they " He ſaved or moon. Of all the ways that wiſeſt men could find they were denominated Samaritans. The Samaritans rejected all ſtal brightneſs and water, without the leaſt tinge of colour, but with the ſacred writings except the five books of Moſes. a luſtre much ſuperior to the cryſtal. They are diſtinguiſhed into SAMUEL, an eminent prophet , under the Moſaic diſpenſation. four forts, viz. the blue ſapphire, the white fapphire, the water Books of SAMUEL, two canonical books of the Old Teſtament, ſapphire, and the milk ſapphire. as being uſually aſcribed to the prophet Samuel. The books of SARCASM, in rhetoric, a keen bitter expreſſion which has the Samuel, and the books of Kings, are a continued hiſtory of the true point of ſatire, by which the orator ſcoffs and inſults his reigns of the king of Iſrael and Judah ; for which reaſon the enemy; ſuch as that of the Jews to our Saviour ; books of Samuel are likewiſe ſtyled the firſt and ſecond books of others, himſelf he cannot ſave.' Kings. Since the firſt 24 chapters contain all that relates to the SARCOCELE, in furgery, a ſpurious rupture, or hernia, hiſtory of Samuel, and the latter part of the firſt book and all the wherein the teſticle is conſiderably tumefied or indurated like a ſcirá ſecond include the relation of events that happened after the death rhus, or much enlarged by a fleſhy excreſcence, which is frequently of that prophet; it has been ſuppoſed that Samuel was author only attended with acute pains, ſo as to degenerate at laſt into a cancer- of the firſt 24 chapters, and that the prophets Gad and Nathan ous diſpoſition. See HERNIA. finiſhed the work. The firſt book of Samuel comprehends the SARDONYX, in natural hiſtory, a genus of ſemi-pellucid tranſactions under the government of Eli and Samuel, and under gems, of the onyx ſtructure, zoned or tubulated, and compoſed of Saul the firſt king; and alſo the acts of David while he lived under the matter of the onyx variegated with that of the red or yellow Saul; and is ſuppoſed to contain the ſpace of 100 years. The ſc Cornelian. See CORNELIAN and Onyx. cond book contains the hiſtory of about 40 years, and is wholly SARSAPARILLA, in botany. See SMILAX. ſpent in relating the tranſactions of David's reign. SARTORIUS, in anatomy, a muſcle of the thigh. For the SANCTIFICATION, the act of ſanctifying, or rendering a origin, inſertion, and uſe, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Table of Mur- thing holy. The reformed divines define fanctification to be an cles, Art. 25. act of God's grace, by which a perſon's deſires and affections are SASAFRAS. See LAURUS. alienated from the world; and by which he is made to die to fin, SATELLITE, in aſtronomy, the ſame with a ſecondary planet and to live to righteouſneſs; or in other words, to feel an abhor, See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. rence of all vice, and a love of religion and virtue. Sre SATIRE, in literature, a diſcourſe or poem, expoſing the vices SANCTION, ſanctio, the authority given to a judicial act; and follies of mankind. Satire, may be diſtinguiſhed into two. or that, whereby it becomes legal and authentic. kinds, the jocoſe, or that which makes ſport with vice and folly, SANCTUARY, among the Jews, was the holieſt and moſt and ſets them up to ridicule; and the ſerious, or that which deals retired part of the temple of Jeruſalem ; wherein was preſerved the in aſperity, and is ſevere and acrimonious.. Horace is a perfect ark of the covenant; and into which nobody was allowed to enter maſter of the firſt, and Juvenal much admired for the laſt. The but the high-prieſt, and that only once a year, to intercede for the one is facetious, and ſmiles: the other is angry, and ſtorms. The people. The ſanctuary, called alſo fancium fanétorum, or holy of foibles of mankind are the object of one; but crimes of a deeper holies, is ſuppoſed to be a type or figure of heaven and of Jeſus dye have engaged the other. They both agree, however, in being Chriſt the true high-prieſt, who is aſcended thither to make in pungent and biting; and from a due conſideration of the writings terceſſion for us. of theſe authors, who are our maſters in this art, we may define SANDS, arenæ, a genus of foſſils, the characters of which are, ſatire to be, a free and often jocoſe, witty, and ſharp poem, wherein that they are found in minute concretions, forming together the follies and vices of men are laſhed and ridiculed in order to a kind of powder, the genuine particles of which are all of a their reformation. Its ſubject is whatever deſerves our contempt tendency to one determinate ſhape, and appear regular, though or abhorrence, (including every thing that is ridiculous and abſurd, more or leſs complete concretions ; not to be diffolved or diſ or fcandalous and repugnant to the golden precepts of religion and united by water, or formed into a coherent maſs by means of it, virtue.) Its manner is inve&tive; and its end, fame. So that ſa- but retaining their figure in it; tranſparent, vitrifiable by extreme tire may be looked upon as the phyſician of a diſtempered mind, heat, and not diſſoluble in, nor effervefcing with acids. In agri- which it endeavours to cure by bitter and unſavoury, or by pleaſant culture, it ſeems to be the office of ſand to make unctuous earths and falutary applications. Puig fertile, and fit to ſupport vegetables, &c. For earth alone, we In writing ſatire, care ſhould be taken that it be true and general; find, is liable to coaleſce, and gather into a hard coherent maſs, as that is, levelled at abuſes in which numbers are concerned, for the appears in clay; and being thus embodied, as it were glued toge- perſonal kind of ſatire, or lampoon, which expoſes particular cha- ther, is no way diſpoſed to nouriſh vegetables. But if ſuch earth be racters, and affects the reputation of thoſe at whom it is pointed, is mixed with ſand, its pores are thereby kept open, and the earth it ſcarce to be diſtinguiſhed from ſcandal and defamation. The ſtyle ſelf looſe, ſo as thus to give room for the juices to aſcend, and for proper for ſatire is ſometimes grave and animated, inveighing plants to be nouriſhed thereby. A vegetable planted only in ſand, againſt vice with warmth and earneſtneſs; but that which is plea- or in a fat glebe, or in earth, receives little growth or increaſe; but fant, ſportive, and, with beco ſant, ſportive, and, with becoming raillery, banters men out of their a mixture of both renders the maſs fertile. In effect, earth is in bad diſpoſitions, has generally the beſt effect, as it ſeems only to fome meaſure made organical by means of ſand; pores and ſpaces, play with their follies, though it omits no opportunity of making ſomething analogous to vefſels, being thereby maintained, by which them feel the laſh. The verſes ſhould be ſmooth and flowing, and the juices may be conveyed, prepared, digeſted, circulated, and at the language manly, juſt, and decent. length diſcharged. Common fand is, therefore, a very good addi Of well-choſe words fome take not care enough, tion, by way of manure, to all ſorts of clay-lands; it warms them, And think they ſhould be as the ſubject rough: and makes them more open and looſe. For the properties of fand, But ſatire muſt be more exactly made, as a manure, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. II. Tina And Tharpeſt thoughts in ſmootheſt words convey'd. SANGUIFICATION, in the animal economy, the action the Duke of Buck's ESSAY. whereby the chyle is converted into blood. See the article BLOOD. As to thoſe ſatires of the ſerious kind, for which Juvenal is ſo Sanguification ſucceeds CHYLIFICATION, and is followed by much diſtinguiſhed, the characteriſtic properties of which are, mo- NUTRITION : fed thofe Articles. rality, dignity, and ſeverity; a better example cannot be mentioned SANHEDRIM, or SANHEDRIN, among the Jews, the great than a poem entitled London, written in imitation of the third ſatire council of the nation, conſiſting of 70 ſenators, taken partly from by Juvenal, by the late Dr. Samuel Johnſon, who has kept up to among the prieſts and levites, and partly out of the inferior judges, the ſpirit and force of the original. Nor muſt we omit to mention who formed what was called the leſſer ſanhedrim. The room they Dr. Young's Love of Fame the Univerſal Paſſion, in ſeven ſatires; met in was a rotunda, half of which was built without the temple, which, though characteriſtical, abound with morality and good and half within. The naſi, or preſident of the fanhedrim, ſat upon fenfe The characters are well ſelected, the ridicule is high, and a throne, with his deputy on his right-hand, his ſub-deputy on his the ſatire well pointed and to the purpoſe. Perfonal ſatire ap- left, and the other ſenators ranged in order on each ſide. The au proaches too near defamation, to deſerve any countenance or encou- thority of this council was very extenſive; for they decided ſuch ragement. Dryden's Mack Flecknoe is for this reaſon exceptiona- cauſes as were brought before them by way of appeal from the infe-ble, but as a compoſition it is inimitable. We have ſaid thus much rior courts; and the king, the high-prieſt, and prophets, wereunder on the preſent ſubject, becauſe there is reaſon to apprehend, that the juriſdiction of this tribunal. They had the right of judging in the benefits ariſing from well conducted ſatire have not been ſuffici- capital caſes, and ſentence of death might not be pronounced in any ently conſidered. ently conſidered. A ſatire may often do more ſervice to the cauſe other place ; for which reaſon the Jews were forced to quit this of religion and virtue, than a fermon; ſince it gives pleaſure, at hall, when the power of life and death was taken out of their hands, the ſame time that it creates fear or indignation, and conveys its 40 years before the deſtruction of the temple, and three years be ſentiments in a manner the moſt likely to captivate the mind. fore the death of Chriſt. There were ſeveral inferior fanhedrims in Paleſtine, cach of which conſiſted of 23 perſons ; all theſe de To mend the age and mortify mankind, pended on the great ſanhedrim of Jeruſalem. Satire well writ has moſt ſucceſsful proy'd, SAP, a juice furniſhed by the earth, and changed into the fub ya And cures, becauſe the remedy is lov’d. ſtance of plants. See CIRCULATION and PLANT. Duke of Buck's ESSAY. SAPPHIRE, a pellucid gem, which, in its fineſt ſtate, is ex But to produce the deſired effect, it muſt be jocoſe, free, and im- tremely beautiful and valuable, and ſecond only to the diamond in partial, though ſevere. The ſatiriſt ſhould always preſerve good- luftre, hardneſs, and price. Its proper colour is a pure blue; in humour : and, however keen he cuts, ſhould cut with kindneſs. the fineſt ſpecimens it is of the deepeſt azure, and in others varies When he loſes temper, his weapons will be inverted, and the ridi- into paleneſs in ſhades of all degrees between that and a pure cry cule he threw at others will retort with contempt upon himſelf : for SCA SC A for the reader will perceive that he is angry and hurt, and conſider | denotes to us their age. Mr. Leewenhoeck took ſome ſcales from his fatire as the effect of malice, not of judgment; and that it is an exceeding large carp, forty-two inches and a half long, Rhine- intended rather to wound perſons than to reform manners. land meaſure, which were as broad as a dollar, theſe he macerated Rage you muſt hide, and prejudice lay down: in water, to make them cut the eaſier, and then cutting obliquely. A ſatyr's ſmile is ſharper than his frown. through one of them, beginning with the firſt formed, or very Burleſque poetry, which is chiefly uſed by way of drollery and little thell in the centre, he by his microſcope plainly diſtinguiſhed ridicule, falls properly to be ſpoken of under the head of fatire. forty lamellæ, or ſcales, glewed, as it were, to one another, whence An excellent example of this kind is a poem in blank verſe en he concluded the fiſh to be forty years old. titled The Splendid Shilling, written by Mr. John Philips, which, SCALENUS, in anatomy, the name of a muſele. For its in the opinion of one of the beſt judges of the age, is the fineſt origin, inſertion and uſe; ſee the Syſtem, Table of Muſcles, Art.18. burleſque in the Engliſh language. In this poem the author has SCALLOP, the Engliſh name of the ſpecies Peeter, belong- handled a low ſubject in the lofty ſtyle and numbers of Milton; / ing to the Genus Oſtrea. See OsTREA, and the Syſtem of Con- in which way of writing Mr. Philips has been imitated by ſeveral,CHOLOGY, Order II. Genus 14, but none have come up to the humour and happy turn of the ori In the highlands of Scotland the great ſcallop ſhell is made uſe ginal. When we read it, we are betrayed into a pleaſure that we of for the ſkimming of milk. In old times it had a more ho- could not expect : though, at the ſame time, the ſublimity of the nourable place; being admitted into the halls of heroes, and was ſtyle, and gravity of the phraſe, ſeem to chaſtiſe that laughter the cup of their feſtivity when the tribe aſſembled in the hall of which they provoke. their chieftain. There is another ſort of verſe and ſtyle, which is moſt fre SCANNING, formed of ſcandere, to climb, in poetry, the mea- quently made uſe of in treating any ſubject in a ludicrous manner, ſuring of a verſe, to ſee what number of feet and ſyllables it con- viz. that which is generally called Hudibraſtic, from Butler's ad- tains, and whether or no the quantities, that is, the long and ſhort mirable poem entitled Hudibras. Almoſt every one knows, that fyllables be duly obſerved. The term is chiefly uſed with regard this poem is a ſatire upon the authors of our civil diſſentions in to Greek and Latin verſes ; the quantities not being well fettled the reign of Charles I. wherein the poet has, with abundance of and obſerved in the verſes of the modern languages. Hexameters wit and humour, expoſed and ridiculed the hypocriſy or blind are ſcanned one way, iambics another, fapphics another. zeal of thoſe unhappy times. In ſhort, it is a kind of burleſque SCAPULA, in anatomy, omoplata, or ſhoulder-blade ; a large epic poem, which, for the oddity of the rhymes, the quaintneſs broad bone, repreſenting a fealenous triangle, ſituated on each of the fimilies, the novelty of the thoughts, and that fine raillery lide of the upper and back part of the thorax, from about the firſt which runs through the whole performance, is not to be para rib down to the ſeventh. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. IV. Art. lelled. The chief ſatyriſts among the ancients are, Horace, Ju- | 1. and Plate I. Fig. 1. Letter a. venal, and Perſius ; thoſe among the moderns are, Regnier, and SCARABÆUS, the beetle, in entomology. For the generic Boileau, in French ; and Dryden, Oldham, Rocheſter, Buck- and ſpecific characters, and the claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, ingham, Pope, Young, &c. among the Engliſh. Order I. Genus I. SATURN, in aſtronomy, one of the planets of our ſolar fyſ- SCARBOROUGH Water. The water ofthis medicinal ſpring tem, revolving at the diſtance of more than 900 millions of miles has been the ſubjects of great conteſts and diſputes among phyſical from the ſun. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. people, all allowing it conſiderable virtues, but fome attributing SATYRIASIS, in medicine, is a violent deſire of venery, at them to one ingredient, others to another. Dr. Witty alledges tended with a tenſion and rigidity of the pudendum, occaſioned by that its material principles are allum, nitre, and vitriol of iron ; a morbous diſpoſition of the body. It takes its name, as ſome will but though this author declares that theſe principles are all to be have it, from the relation it bears to ſatyrs, who, according to ſeparated out of it, Dr. Tonſtall, on the other hand, affirms, that ancient fable, are a kind of demons, extremely addicted to wine it has no vitriol of iron in it, but a ſtone powder and a clay, leav- and venery: or, as others ſay, from the herb Satyrion which ing ſand at the bottom of the veſſel ; and therefore that it is apt to has an extraordinary power of exciting venereal deſires. Antece- breed the ſtone, and is bad in the gout, jaundice, and all other diſ- dent cauſes of this diſorder are medicines taken as provocatives to eaſes, where indurations of the parts, or ftony concretions in the venery; which are acrimonious, incentive, or prejudicial to the body, are the cauſe; and this author ſeems to ſpeak very experi- Or the diſeaſe may be occaſioned by an intemperate and mentally, when he alledges that he never had any fymptoms of unſeaſonable indulgence in venery. It is an affection common to the ſtone till he drank the Scarborough water, but acquired that both ſexes. See PRIAPISM. For the methods of treatment, diſeaſe during the courſe of it. See the Syſtem, Genus 68 and 69. Allum-ftone diffolved in water is always found to yield a purple SAVIOUR, an appellation peculiarly given to Jeſus Chriſt, as tincture with galls, and therefore the colouring an infuſion of this being the Meſſịah and Saviour of the world. See JESUS CHRIST. or other vegetable ſubſtances by the Scarborough water, which Order of St. Saviour, in Romiſh church. By the conſtitutions of is by all allowed to contain this ſtone, is no proof of any vitriol of this order, it is principally appointed for women, who are to pay a iron being contained in it, other than ſuch a ſmall quantity of it particular honour and ſervice to the Virgin. The monks are only as is always found in this allum-ſtone. All waters which have to afford them the fpiritual aſſiſtances they may need, to adminif diffolved iron, will yield vitriol as a falt from that metal, on eva- ter them the ſacraments, &c. The number of nuns is fixed to poration. The cliffs about Scarborough yield abundance of ſalt (ixty in each monaſtery, and that of monks to thirteen, according in ſhoots and efferveſences, plainly owing to the waters of the ſpring; to the number of apoſtles, whereof St. Paul makes the thirteenth. yet all theſe are nitro-aluminous, none of them at all vitriolic.- Four of them are to be deacons, to repreſent the four doctors of If the Scarborough water is ſet by ſome days, after it is taken the church, and eight converts; the whole number making ſeventy freſh from the ſpring, it precipitates a ſediment; which being ex- two, the number of the diſciples of our Saviour, amined, is found not to be of a feruginous nature, but a mere SCALA, in anatomy, the cochlea, or inner cavity of the ear, glebe of allum. Upon the whole, the virtues of allum and vi- is divided by a ſeptum into two canals, called ſcala ; whereof the triol are ſo far different, that it muſt be eaſy to ſee which of the one, looking towards the tympanum, is called the ſcala tympani ; two falts the water partakes moſt of, by its virtues ; but as to the the other, having a communication with the veſtibulum, is called ſtony matter, which one of theſe diſputants calls an inſipid clay, the ſcala veſtibuli. See the Syſtem, Part VII. Sect. IV. and the other a ſandy ftone, it is no other than ſpar, which is con- SCALE, a mathematical inſtrument, conſiſting of one or more tained in all water; and which has been in general ſo far from lines drawn on wood, metal, or other matter, divided into equal being accuſed of breeding the ſtone in the bladder, that the gene. or unequal parts, of great uſe in laying down diſtances in propor ral conſent of mankind has ſeemed to eſteem it a cure for that diſ- tion, or in meaſuring diſtances already laid down. There are order. The ſpar, in the form of the lapis Judaicus and oftracites, ſcales of ſeveral kinds, accommodated to the ſeveral uſes ; the prin- and the very waters which are ſo impregnated with it as to encruſt cipal are, the plain ſcale, the diagonal ſcale, Gunter's ſcale, and every thing with it that is put into them, are given for the cure the plotting ſcale, Woo of this diſeaſe. Phil. Tranf. N° 85. SCALE, in muſic, ſometimes denominated a gamut, a diagram, The waters of Scarborough are chalybeate and purging. Of a ſeries, an order, a diapaſon. It conſiſts of the regular gradations theſe there are two wells, both impregnated with the ſame princi- of found, by which a compofer or performer, whether in riſing or ples, in different proportions; though the purging well is the moſt deſcending, may paſs from any given tone to another. See the celebrated, and the water of this is uſually called the Scarborough Syſtem, Definition 1. For repreſentation of the ſcales of the re water. When theſe waters are poured out of one glaſs into another, ſpective inſtruments, fee Plate II. they throw up a number of air-bubbles; and if they are ſhook Scales of fiſhes make a ſet of very curious objects for the mi- for ſome time in a phial cloſe ſtopped, and the phial be ſuddenly croſcope; they are formed with a ſurpriſing beauty and regularity, opened before the commotion ceaſes, they diſplode an elaſtic vapour, and in the different kinds exhibit almoſt an endleſs variety in their with an audible noiſe, which ſhews that they abound in fixed air. figure and contexture. Theſe ſcales are not ſuppoſed to be thed Atthe fountain they have abriſk, pungent, chalybeate taſte, but the every year, nor during the whole life of the fiſh, but to have an an purging water taſtes bitteriſh, which is not uſually the caſe with the nual addition of a new ſcale growing over and extending every way chalybeate one. They loſe their chalybeate virtues by expoſure, beyond the edges of the former, in proportion to the fiſh's growth, and by keeping ; but the purging water the fooneſt. They both fomewhat in the manner that the wood of trees increaſes annually, putrify by keeping ; but in time recover their ſweetneſs. Four or. by the addition of a new circle next the bark. And as the age of five half pints of the purging water drank within an hour, give two a tree may be known by the number of ringlets its trunk is made or three eaſy motions, and raiſe the ſpirits. The like quantity of up of, fo in fiſhes, the number of plates compoſing their ſcales the chalybeate purges leſs, but exhilirates more, and paſſes off chiefly nerves. SCH SCI chieifly by urine. Theſe waters have been found beneficial in feſſion of Chriſtianity is proved to be fincere by a regular and virtu- hectic fevers, weakneſs of the ſtomach, and indigeſtion ; in re ous life. However numerous the differences that fubfiſt among laxations of the ſyſtem; in riervous, hyſteric, and hypochondriacal Chriſtians, as long as mutual charity is preſerved, there cannot be diſorders; in the green-ſickneſs, fcurvy, rheumatiſm, andaſthmatic the guilt of ſchifm. Alienations of affections, and a turbulent ex- complaints; in gleets, the fluor albus, and other preternatural eva communicating fpirit, are the eſſence of fchifm, and not mere dif- cuations, and in habitual coltiveneſs. Elliot on Mineral Waters, Elliot on Mineral Waters, ference of opinion ; not the uſe of different ceremonies, or of no p. 187. ceremonies at all; or joining ourſelves to any particular religious SCARLET, in dyeing, one of the ſix kinds of good reds. See communion: for, according to St. Paul, who in ſeveral paſſages, the Treatiſe, Sect. II. blames the Corinthians for diviſions, or ſchiſms, among themſelves SCARLET Fever. For deſcription, prognoſis, and cure, fee in the ſame community, this crime may be committed where there the Syſtem of MedICINE, Genus 29. is no ſeparation from a particular church ; and, conſequently, they SCENE, in its primary fenſe, denoted a theatre, or the place that differ uncharitably, whether they belong all to one, or to where dramatic pieces and other public ſhows were exhibited ; for diſtinct worſhipping aſſemblies (and they alone) are ſchiſmatics. it does not appear that the ancient poets were at all acquainted SCHOLASTIC, xonasizos, ſomething belonging to the ſchools, with the modern way of changing the ſcenes in the different parts or that is taught in ſchools. See School. Scholaſtic, Scholaſti- of the play, in order to raiſe the idea of the perſons repreſented by cus, was a long time a title of honour, at firſt only given to ſuch as the actors being in different places. The original ſcene for acting diitinguiſhed themſelves by their eloquence in declaiming, &c. of plays was as ſimple as the repreſentations themſelves; it con SCHOOL, ſchola,a public place, wherein the languages, huma- liſted only of a plain fplot of ground proper for the occaſion, which nities, or other arts and ſciences, are taught. Thus we ſay gram- was in fome degree ſhaded by the neighbouring trees, whoſe mar-ſchool, a writing-ſchool, a ſchool of natural philoſophy, &c. branches were made to meet together, and their vacancies ſupplied School is alſo uſed for a whole faculty or ſect, as Plato's ſchool, with boards, ſticks, and the like; and to complete the ſhelter, the ſchool of Epicurus, &c. theſe were ſometimes covered with ſkins, and ſometimes with only In painting, it is uſed as a term to diſtinguiſh the different the branches of other trees newly cut down, and full of leaves. manner of places and perſons. Thus, we ſay, the Roman Afterwards more artificial ſcenes, or fcenical repreſentations were ſchool, the Venetian ſchool, the Flemiſh ſchool, &c. Raphael's introduced, and paintings uſed inſtead of the objects themſelves. ſchool, Titian's ſchool, Da Vinci's ſchool, &c. meaning their dif- SCENOGRAPHY, (from the Greek, ounun scene, and ypaon ciples, pupils, &c. deſcription, in perſpective, a repreſentation of a body on a per SCIATICA, in medicine, the gout, or rather rheumatiſm in ſpective plane; or a deſcription thereof in all its dimenſions, ſuch the hip and thigh. For deſcription, cauſes, prognoſis, and me- as it appeared to the eye. See the Syſtem, Sect. VII. thods of treatment, ſee the Syſtem, Genus 21 and 22. SCEPTICISM, the doctrine and opinions of the ſceptics'; SCIENCE, in philoſophy, denotes any doctrine, deduced from called alſo Pyrrhoniſm, from the name of its author. The term ſelf-evident principles. Sciences may be properly divided as fol- fceptic, in its original Greek, suerlixos, properly ſignifics confider- lows: 1. The knowledge of things, their conſtitutions, properties, ative, and inquiſitive ; or a man, who is ever weighing the reaſons and operations : this, in a little more enlarged ſenſe of the word, on one ſide and the other, without ever deciding between them. may be called ououur, or natural philofophy; the end of which is The ancient ſcepticiſm conſiſted in doubting of every thing, in ſpeculative truth. See Physics. 2. The ſkill of rightly apply- affirming nothing at all, and in keeping the judgment in ſuſpenſe ing theſe powers, apariliun. The moſt conſiderable under this on every ſubject. Sextus Empiricus makes ſcepticiſm to conſiſt in head is ethics, which is the ſeeking out thoſe rules and meaſures of a faculty of oppoſing all appearances, of making all, even contrary human actions that lead to happineſs, and the means to practiſe things, equally probable, and of proceeding, firſt to an emoxin, or them, (ſee MORAL PHILOSOPHY) and the next is mechanics, or ſuſpenſe of mind, and then to entire undiſturbedneſs or tranquillity. the application of the powers of natural agents to the uſes of life, Plato refutes the great principle of the ſceptics thus : when you (fee MECHANICS.) (ſee MECHANICS.) 3. The doctrine of ſigns, onueloutien ; the ſay, that all things are incomprehenſible, do you comprehend or moſt uſual of which being words, it is aptly enough termed logic. conceive that they are thus incomprehenſible, or do you not? if See Logic. This, ſays Mr. Locke, ſeems to be the moſt general, you do, then ſomething is comprehenſible; if you do not, there is as well as natural, diviſions of the objects of our underſtanding. no reaſon we ſhould believe you, ſince you do not comprehend your For a man can employ his thoughts about nothing but the con- own aſſertion. go templation of things themſelves for the diſcovery of truth: or SCEPTICS, a ſect of ancient philoſophers, founded by Pyrrho, about things in his own power, which are his actions, for the at- whoſe diſtinguiſhing tenet was, That all things are uncertain and tainment of his own ends; or the ſigns the mind makes uſe of both incomprehenſible; that contraries are equally true; and that the in the one and the other, and the right ordering of them for its mind is never to affent to any thing, but to keep up an abſolute he clearer information. All which three, viz. things as they are in fitancy or indifference. See SCEPTICISM.—The term ſceptic, in themſelves knowable, actions as they depend on us in order to hap- its original Greek, CAETTINQ, properly ſignifies, conſiderative, and pineſs, and the right uſe of ſigns in order to knowledge, being toto inquiſitive; or, a man who is ever weighing reaſons on one fide cælo different, they ſeem to be the three great provinces of the in- and the other, without ever deciding between them: it is formed tellectual world, wholly ſeparated and diſtinct one from another. from the verb sxemlouai, I conſider, look about, deliberate. Science is alſo uſed for a former ſyſtem of any branch of SCHIRRUS, in medicine and ſurgery, a hard, indolent tum , knowledge, comprehending the doctrine,reafon, and theory, of the formed gradually in the foft, glandulous part of the body ; ſome thing, without thing, without any immediate application thereof to any uſes or times internal, and ſometimes external. When a ſchirrhous tu offices of life. In this ſenſe, the word is uſed in oppoſition to art. mor is accompanied with all, or moſt of theſe appearances, the See the Articles Art and DicTIONARY. SOR diſeaſe is then called a CANCER. See CANCER. Academy of SCIENCE. See ACADEMY. Bodom 0 SCHISM,(from the Greek,5X1oua, clift, filure,) in the general SCIENTIFIC, or SCIENTIFICAL, ſomething relating to the fignifies diviſion or ſeparation; but is chiefly uſed in ſpeaking of fe pure, ſublimer ſciences; or that abounds in ſcience or knowledge. parations happening, through diverſity of opinions, among people of A work, a method, &c. is ſaid to be fcientifical, when it is founded the ſame religion and faith. Thus we ſay the ſchiſm of the ten on the pure reaſon of things, or conducted wholly on the princi- tribes of Judah and Benjamin, the ſchiſm of the Perſians from the ples thereof. In which ſenſe the word ſtands oppoſed to narra- Turks and other Mahometans, &c. Among eccleſiaſtical authors, tive, arbitrary, opinionative, poſitive, tentative, &c. the great ſchiſm of the Weſt, is that which happened in the times SCIURUS, the Squirrel; in the Syſtem of Mammalia,a Genus of Clement VII. and Urlan VI. which divided the church for 40 belonging to the order of Glires. It has two fore-teeth in each jaw, or 50 years, and was at length ended by the election of Martin V.at the ſuperior ones ſhaped like wedges, and the inferior ones com- the council of Conſtance. The Romaniſts number 34 ſchiſms in preſſed. There are 11 ſpecies ; of which the moſt remarkable are, their church. They beſtow the name Engliſh ſchiſm on the refor The vulgaris, or common ſquirrel, with ears terminated with long mation of religion in this kingdom. Thoſe of the church of tufts of hair; larger, lively, black eyes ; head, body, legs, and tail, England again apply the term ſchiſm to the ſeparation of the non of a bright reddiſh brown ; breaſt and belly white ; hair on each conformiſts, viz. the preſbeterians, independents, and anabaptiſts, fide the tail lies flat. In Sweden and Lapland, it changes in win- for a further reformation. Horodencorers ter into grey. In Ruſſia, it is ſometimes found black. In many The word ſchiſm is uſed, in Scripture, in an indifferent ſenſe ; parts of England there is a beautiful variety, with milk-white tails. and, therefore, the lawfulneſs or unlawfulneſs of it is entirely to be It is a neat, lively, active animal ; lives always in woods : in the determined by circumſtances. In our own language, indeed, com ſpring, the female is ſeen purſued from tree to tree by the males, mon ufe has affixed to the term an idea of guilt and reproach: but feigning an eſcape from their embraces. The ſtriatus, or ground in this ſenſe there can be no ſuch thing as fchiſm, except in caſes ſquirrel, with plain ears ; ridge of the back marked with a black where there is an obligation to unity and communion ; ſo that in ſtreak ; each ſide with a pale yellow ſtripe, bounded above and be- order to define the nature of it juſtly, we muſt find out ſome centre low with a line of black; head, body, and tail, of a reddiſh brown: of union, which is common to all Chriſtians. This muſt be ei- the tail the darkeſt: breaſt and belly white ; noſe and feet pale-red; ther uniformity of ſentiment in matters of ſpeculative belief, or in eyes full. Inhabits the north of Aſia, but found in the greateſt external modes of worſhip and diſcipline, which, in the nature of abundance in the foreſts of North America. They never run up things, is impoſſible": or, if it be unreaſonable to expect either of trees except they are purſued and find no other means of eſcaping ; theſe, the only centre of unity that remains is charity and mutual they burrow,and form their habitations under ground, with two en- forbearance, notwithſtanding lefſer differences, where there is an trances, that they may get acceſs to the one in caſe the other is aflent to all the neceſſary principles of Chriſtian faith, and the pro- ſtopped up. Their retreats are formed with great ſkill, in form of a long SCO S OU . For a and 25. vided into ſeven little rings; from the loweſt of which is continued lophony; ſome add turpentine,and melt it together with oilofolives, a long gallery, with branches on each ſide, each of which termi ture can reclaim ; it is even aſſerted, that, when driven to an ex, nates in an enlarged chamber, as a magazine to ſtore their winter tremity, the ſcorpion will often deſtroy itſelf. The experiment proviſion in ; in one they lodge their acorns, in another the maize, was ineffectually tried by Maupertius ; “ But,” ſays Mr. Gold. in a third the hickery nuts, and in the laſt their favourite food the ſmith, “ I am ſo well aſſured of it by my eye-witneſs, who have chinquapin cheſnut. They very ſeldom ſtir out during the winter, at ſeen it both in Italy and America, that I have no doubt remaining leaſt as long as their proviſions laſt . The volans, or Äying ſquirrel, of its varacity. A ſcorpion, newly caught, is placed in the midſt with round naked ears, full black eyes, and a lateral membrane of a circle of burning charcoal, and thus an egreſs prevented on from the fore to the hind legs. It leaps from bough to bough ſome- every ſide : the ſcorpion, as I am aſſured, runs for about a minute times at the diſtance of ten yards : this action has improperly been round the circle in hopes of eſcaping: but finding that impoſſible, called Aying, for the animal cannot go in any other direction than it ſtings itſelf on the back of the head : and in this manner the un- forward ; and even then cannot keep an even line, but ſinks conſi daunted ſuicide inſtantly expires." derably before it can reach the place it aims at. For repreſentation Scorpio, in aſtronomy, the eight ſign of the zodiac, denoted of theſe ſeveral fpecies, ſee Plate VII. Order IV. Genus 25. by the character m. See the Syſtem, Sect. IX. SCLEROTICA, in anatomy, one of the common membranes SCOTIA, one of the regular mouldings in Architecture uſed of the eye, ſituate between the adnata and the uvea ; it is very firm to ſeparate and diſtinguiſh other mouldings. See the Syſtem, and opaque behind, but traſparent before. Though, in ſtrictneſs, Plate VI. Fig. 3. it is only the hind part that is called ſclerotica, the fore-part being SCOURINGS, among farriers, ſuch gentle purges as pre- properly called the cornea. The ſclerotica is a ſegment of a larger ſerve horſes from noxious humours : ſee the Syſtem, Clafs ix. fpheroid than the cornea. See the Syſtem, Part VII. Sect. IV. Sect. XXVII. SCOLOPAX, in ornithology, a Genus belonging to the order of SCREW, in mechanics, one of the fix mechanical powers : Gralla. The back is cylindrical, obtuſe, and longer than the chiefly uſed in preſſing or ſqueezing bodies cloſe, though ſometimes head; the noftils are linear ; the face is covered, and the feet have alſo in raiſing weights. It is not a ſimple machine, becauſe it is four toes. There are 18 fpecies; of which the two following are the never uſed without the aſſiſtance of other powers, and then it be- principal. The arquata, or curlew, frequents our ſea-coaſts and comes a compound engine of great force in effecting the purpoſes marſhes in the winter time in large flocks, walking on the open for which it is conſtructed. By the combination of theſe powers ſands, feeding on ſhells, frogs, crabs, and other marine infects. all great weights are raiſed to a conſiderable height. In ſummer they retire to the mountainous and unfrequented parts particular deſcription of its conſtruction and uſes, ſee the Syſtem, of the country, where they pair and breed. For claſſification, For claſſification, Sect. III. N° 6. For repreſentation, ſee Plate III. fig. 14,15,16. fee the Syſtem ; for repreſentation, ſee Plate VI. Genus 67. Archimedes's SCREW, or the Spiral Pump, is a machine for the The ruſticola, or woodcock, during the ſummer inhabits the Alps raiſing of water, firſt invented by Archimedes. For its ſtructure of Norway, Sweden, Poliſh Pruſſia, the marſh of Brandenbourg, and uſe, ſee the ſyſtem of HYDRAULICS, Article IX. For re- and the northern parts of Europe ; they all retire from thoſe coun preſentation and the mode of operation, ſee the Plate, fig.23, 24, tries the beginning of winter, as ſoon as the froſts commence ; is doo which force them into milder climates, where the ground is open, SCROLL, in heraldry, is the ornament placed under the eſcut- and adapted to their manner of feeding. They live on worms and cheon, containing a motto or ſhort ſentence, alluding ſometimes to inſects, which they ſearch for with their long bills in ſoft ground the bearings, or the bearer's name ; ſometimes expreſſing fomc- and moiſt woods. Woodcocks generally arrive here in flocks, tak what divine or heroic; fometimes enigmatical. See the Syſtem, ing advantage of the night or a miſt; they foon ſeparate ; but be Article IX. fore they return to their native haunts, pair. They feed and fly by SCROPHULA, in medicine, fcirrhous tumours, arriſing uſually night ; beginning their flight in the evening, and return the fame about the neck, and ſometimes on other glandulous parts. For way or through the ſame glades to their day retreat. They leave deſcripſion, cauſes, prognoſis, &c. ſee the Syſtem, Genus 58. England the latter end of February, or beginning of March ; not SCROTUM, in anatomy, the common capſula or membrane but they have been known to continue here accidentally. wherein the teſticles are contained ; thus called from its reſembling, SCOLOPENDRA, in entomology, a Genus belonging to the a pouch or purſe of leather, called by the ancients ſcortea. See order of Aptera. For claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, Order VII. the Syſtem. Part III. Sect XV. Art I. SCOMBER, in ichthyology, is a diſtinct Genus of the Thora SCULPTURE, ſculptura, the art of cutting or carving, wood, cic order. The ſcomber, or common mackarel, is a fiſh of paſſage ſtone, or other matter, and forming various figures and repreſenta- that viſits our ſhores in vaſt ſhoals in the months of May and June. tions therein ; as alſo of faſhioning wax, earth, plaſter, &c. to It is leſs uſeful than other ſpecies of gregarious fiſh, being very ſerve as models, or moulds, for the caſting of metalline figures. tender and unfit for carriage ; not but that it may be preſerved by Sculpture, in its latitude, includes both the art of working en creux, pickling and ſalting, a method, we believe, practiſed only in Corn properly called ENGRAVING ; and of working in relievo, which wall, where it proves a great relief to the poor during winter. For is what we more ſtrictly call ſculpture. The antiquity of this art the generic and ſpecific characters, and the claſſification, ſee the is paſt doubt; as the ſacred writings, the moſt ancient and authen- Syſtem, Order IV. tic monuments we have of the earlieſt ages mention it in ſeveral SCORPIO, in entomology, a Genus of inſects belonging to the places ; witneſs Laban's idols ſtolen away by Rachael, and the order of Aptera. For deſcription and claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, golden calf which the Ifraelites ſet up in the deſart, &c. But it is Order VII. Genus 85. very difficult to fix the original of the art, and the firſt artiſts, Of all the clafs of noxious inſects the ſcorpion is the moſt terrible, from profane authors ; what we read thereof being greatly inter- whoſe ſhape is hideous, whoſe fize among the inſects is enormous, mixed with fables, after the manner and taſte of thoſe ages. The and whoſe ſting is generally fatal. Happy for Britain, the ſcor- firſt works in ſculpture with clay, not only in making ſtatues, but pion is entirely a ſtranger among us! In ſeveral parts of the con in forming models ; and to this day a ſculptor never undertakes tinent of Europe it is but too well known, though it feldom grows any thing conſiderable, without forming a model either in clay or above four inches long ; but in the warm tropical climates, it is wax. In making figures of theſe materials, they begin and finiſh feen a foot in length, and in every reſpect as large as a lobſter, their work with their hands, uſing only three or four pieces of which it fomewhat reſembles in ſhape. There have been enume wond, which are roundiſh at one end, and at the other flat, with a rated nine different kinds of this dangerous infect, including ſpecies fort of claws and teeth, which are to ſmooth and ſcratch the work. and varieties, chiefly diſtinguiſhed by their colour. The belly is di-For waxen models, for every pound of wax add half a pound of co- a tail compoſed of fix joints, which are briſtly and formed like lit more or leſs of the latter being uſed as they would have the matter tle globes, the laſt being armed with a crooked ſting. This is that harder or ſofter ; ſome alſo add a little vermillion to give it a co- fatal inſtrument which renders this infect fo formidable ; it it long, lour; this is wrought and moulded with the fingers like clay. pointed, hard, and hollow ; it is pierced near the baſe by two ſmall Although the arts had lain dead for many centuries, they no holes, through which, when the animal ſtings, it ejects a drop of ſooner felt the genial warmth of protection in the generoſity of poiſon, which is white, cauſtic, and fatal. Some experiments were Lorenzo de Medicis, Leo X. Coſmo, grand duke of Tuſcany, &c. tried upon a dog, and even with aggravated cruelty ; yet the dog than they ſtarted into being, like a man awoke from ſeep, and ſeemed no way affected by the wounds; but howling a little when appeared in their maturity, as it were, inſtantaneouſly. The truth he received them, continued alert and well after them ; and ſoon of this remark will appear in an enumeration of ſome of the chief after was ſet at liberty, without ſhowing the ſmalleſt ſymtoms of productions of ſeveral eminent modern artiſts. Lorenzo Ghiberti pain; ſo far was this poor creature from being terrified at the produced the fine gates of St. John the Baptiſt at Florence; Dona- experiment, that he left his own maſter's houſe, to come to that of telli executed the groupe of Judith and Holofernes in the great the philoſopher, where he had received more plentiful entertain-ſquare of that city, and a bas-relief in the church of St. Croee; Experiments where tried by freſh ſcorpions upon ſeven Michael Angelo formed the ſtatue of Moſes in St. Peter's de Vin- dogs, and upon three hens ; but not the ſmalleſt deadly ſymp- culis, at Rome, a Bacchus in the gallery of Florence, and ſome tom was ſeen to enſue, From hence it appears, that many circum- figures on the monuments of the ſepulchral chapel in that place ; ſtances, which are utterly unknown, muſt contribute to give effi- John of Bologna produced the rape of the Sabines in the great cacy to the ſcorpion. The ſucceſs of this experiment may ſquare at Florence, the large fountain in the great ſquare at ſerve to ſhow, that many of thoſe boaſted antidotes which are given Bologna, and the fine horſe at the Pont Neuf, at Paris ; Rof- for the cure of the ſcorpion's ſting, owe their ſucceſs rather to acci-coni and Algardi formed many ſtatues and monuments of Popes, dent than their own efficacy : ſuch is the terrible and unrelenting &c. in St. Peter's, and the latter executed a large bas-relief in the nature of this infect, which neither the bonds of ſociety nor of na- fame church, repreſenting Leo I. going out to meet king Attila, whereby . ment. No 138. SC U SCU that there is a formal marriage every va whereby he ſaved the city of Rome from deſtruction, about the It may be obſerved, that the ancients have chiefly confined them- ſelves to the fublime and beautiful ; and whenever a pathetic ſub- year 450 ; to Bernini we are indebted for the chair of St. Peter, ſupported by the four fathers of the church ; the monuments of the ject has come before them, they have facrificed expreſſion to beauty. Popes Urban VIII. and Alexander VII. and the large fountain in The famous group of Niobe is one inftance of this kind; and, the Piazza Navona ; and to Francis Queſnoy, furnamed the Fle therefore, however great our partiality to the ancients may be, miſh, for a beautiful ſtatue of Chriſt, another of Suſanna, and a none can heſitate to affirm, that, whenever the moderns fhall unite fine one of St. Andrew, in St. Peter's; the reputation of this artiſt great expreſſion with great beauty, they will wreſt the palm out of their hands. for boys is unparalleled both among the ancients and moderns. In France, the principal artiſts in ſeulpture have been Jean Gou SCURVY, in medicine, a diſorder of the putrid kind. For join, contemporary with Michael Angelo, who formed the foun- defcription, cauſes, prevention and cure, ſee the Syſtem, Genus 6o. tain in the Rue St. Denis, at Paris, ſome fine caryatides in the SCURVY-GRASS, in botany. The officinalis, or common of- Louvre, and the ſculptures at the gate of St. Anthony ; Puget, ficial fcurvy-grafs, grows upon rocks on the ſea coaſt, and on the celebrated on account of the fculptures at the gate of the town Highland mountains, abundantly. It has an acrid, bitter, and houſe at Marſeilles, the ſtatue of St. Sebaſtian, at Genoa, and that acid taſte, and is highly recommended for the fcurvy. There are of Milo, at Verſailles; and Giradon, for the monument of cardinal inſtances of a whole ſhip’s crew having being cured of that diſtem- Richlieu, at the Sorbonne; the equeſtrian ſtatue of Louis XIV.at per by it; and as it abounds with acid fakts, there can be no doubt Paris, and the rape of Proſerpine, at Verſailles. For theſe laſt but that it is a great reſiſter of putrefaction. The beſt way of ſculptors we are indebted to the munificence of Louis XIV. taking it is raw in a falad. It is alſo diuretic, and ufeful in drop- We are not without ſome excellent ſpecimens of ſculpture in fies, The Highlanders eſteem it as a good ſtomachic. England. The ſtatues of Phrenzy and Melancholy on the piers SEA, is frequently uſed for that vaſt tract of water encompaffing before Bethlem-hofpital, deſerve to be ranked amongſt the firſt the whole earth, more properly called ocean. What proportion performances in this art: they were executed, in the reign of the fuperficies of the ſea bears to that of the land, is not preciſely Charles II. by Cibber, the father of the poet-laureat of that known, though it is faid to be ſomewhat more than two thirds. name. There is alfo a moſt elegant ſtatue of King Edward VI. As the waters of the earth muſt neceſſarily riſe to the ſurface there- in bronze, which ſtands in one of the courts of St. Thomas's hof- of, as being ſpecifically lighter than the earth, it was neceſſary there pital, in Southwark, by Sckeemaker ; and one of fir Ifaac New ſhould be large cavities therein for receptacles to contain them; ton, at Cambridge, by Roubiliac. Weſtminſter abby is the moſt otherwiſe they would have overſpread all the fuperficies of the famous repoſitory of ſculpture in England ; but the figures that are earth, and ſo have rendered it uninhabitable for terreſtrial animals; here preſerved lofe much of their effect, by being crowded toge for thecentre of the earth being the common centre of gravity, and ther, without any orderly arrangement; the monument of the duke the nature of Auids being ſuch that they equally yield to equal of Argyle, and of Mrs. Nightingale, both by Roubiliac, and Dr. powers, and the power of attraction being every where equal at Chamberlain's, by Sckeemaker; ſeem to ſtand higheſt in the pub- equal diſtances from the centre, it follows, that the ſuperficial parts lic opinion. It is probable that fculpture is more ancient than of the water will every where conform themſelves to an equidiſtant painting ; and if we examine the ſtyle of ancient painting there is ſituation from the centre, and conſequently will form the ſurface reaſon to conclude, that ſculpture ſtood firſt in the public eſteem: of a ſphere fo far as they extend. With regard to the depth or as the ancient painters have evidently imitated the ſtatuaries, even profundity of the ſea, Varenius affirms, that it is in ſome places to their diſadvantage ; ſince their works have not that freedom of unfathomable, and in others very various, being in certain places ſtyle, more eſpecially with reſpect to their compoſition and drapery, zo, 25, 146, 110, 41 Engliſh miles, in other places deeper, and which the pencil might caſily acquire to a greater degree than that much leſs in bays than in oceans. In general, the depths of the of the chiſſel ; but as this is univerſally the caſe, it cannot be attri fea bear a great analogy to the height of mountains on the land, ſo buted to any thing elſe beſides the higher eſtimation of the works far as is hitherto diſcovered. It is a general rule among ſailors, on which they formed themſelves. Which is the moſt difficult and is found to hold true in a great many inſtances, that the more art has been a queſtion often agitated. Painting has the greateſt the ſhores of any place are ſteep and high, forming perpendicular number of requiſites, but at the ſame time her expedients are the cliffs, the more deep the ſea is below; and that on the contrary, le- moſt numerous; and, therefore, we may venture to affirm, that, vel ſhores denote ſhallow ſeas. Thus the deepeſt part of the Me- whenever ſculpture pleaſes equally with a painting, the ſculptor is diterranean is generally allowed to be under the height of Malta, certainly the greateſt artiſt. Sculpture has indeed had the honour The obſervation of the ſtrata of earth, and other foſſils, on and near of giving law to all the ſchools of deſign, both ancient and modern, the ſhores, may ferve to form a very good judgment as to the ma- with reſpect to purity of form. The reaſon, perhaps, is, that being terials which are found in its bottom. The ſubterranean rivers, diveſted of thoſe meritricious ornaments, by which painting is ena and current of water, make great changes in what would be the bled to ſeduce its admirers, it is happily forced to ſeek for its effect natural furface of the bottom of the ſea, where they ariſe, each in the higher excellencies of the art ; hence elevation in the idea, as having a peculiar baſon of its own. We are informed by nume- well as purity and grandeur in the forms, is found in greater per: rous inſtances of fubterranean currents, and as we ſee them break fection in ſculpture than in painting. Beſides, whatever may be out in rivers on the ſurface of the earth in fome parts, fo in others the original principles which direct our feelings in the approbation we may be well aſſured that they break up the bottom of the ſea, of intrinſic beauty, they are, without doubt, very much under the and empty their freſh waters into the ſalt maſs.--There are two influence of aſſociation. Cuſtom and habit will neceſſarily give a principal reaſons why the ſea dotă not increaſe by means of rivers, falſe bias to our judgment: it is, therefore, natural, and in ſome &c. falling every where into it. The firſt is, becauſe waters return meaſure reaſonable, that thoſe arts which are temporaneous, ſhould from the ſea by ſubterraneous cavitics and aqueducts, through vari- adapt themſelves to the changes of faſhion, &c. But ſculpture, by ous parts of the earth. Secondly, becauſe the quantity of vapours its durability, and conſequent application to works of perpetuity, is raiſed from the fea, and falling on the land, only cauſe a circulation, obliged to acquire and maintain the effential principles of beauty but no increaſe, of water, It hath been found by calculation, and grandeur, that its effect on the mind may be preſerved through that in a ſummer's day there may be raiſed in vapours, from the the various changes of mental taſte. It is conceived, that it will Mediterranean fea, 5280000000 tuns of water ; and yet this ſea ſcarcely admit of a queſtion, whether the ancients or moderns have receiveth not, from all its nine fine rivers, above 1827000000 moſt excelled in this art ; the palm having been ſo univerſally ad tuns per day,which is but a third part of what is exhauſted in vapours. judged to the former. To determine in what proportion they are | Sea, is more properly uſed for a particular part or diviſion of ſuperior is too difficult an attempt. Wherever there is a real ſu the ocean ; denominated from the countries it waſhes, or from other periority in any art or ſeience, it will in time be diſcovered; but circumſtances. Thus we ſay, the Iriſh ſea, the Mediterranean ſea, the world ever fond of exceſs, never ſtops at the point of true the Baltic ſea, the Red fea, &c. Till the time of the emperor judgment, but dreſſes out its favourite object with the ornaments Juſtinian, the fea was common and open to all men: whence it is of fancy, ſo that even every blemiſh becomes a beauty. This it that the Roman laws grant an action againſt a perſon who shall has done by ancient ſculpture to ſuch a degree as not to form its prevent another in the free navigation or fiſhing therein. The em- judgment of that br any rules, but to form an opinion of rules by peror Leo, in his 56th novel, firſt allowed ſuch as were in poſſeſ- the example. As long as this is the caſe, modern art can never fion of the land the ſole privilege of fiſhing before their reſpective have a fair compariſon with the ancient. This partiality to the territories, excluſive of all others : he even gave a particular com- ancients is ſo ſtrong as to prevent almoſt all diferimination ; and is miſſion to certain perſons to divide the Thracian Boſphorus among the ſole reaſon, why many antiques, that now ſtand as patterns of them. From that time, the ſovereign princes have been endeavour- beauty in the judgment of moſt connoiſſeurs, are not diſcovered to ing to appropriate the fea, and to withdraw it from public uſe. be copies. This is not more important than it is caſy to be per- ceived by a judicious eye ; for wherever there is a grandeur or ele- The republic of Venice pretends to be fo far miſtreſs in her gulf, gance to an eminent degree in the idea and general compoſition of and the Adriatic. In theſe laft ages, the Britiſh have particularly a ftatue, and when the execution of the parts (called by artiſts the claimed the empire of the ſea in the channel ; and even that of all treating of the parts) betrays a want of taſte and feeling, there is the greateſt reafon to conclude, that the ſtatue is a copy, though we the feas encompaſſing the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland ; and that as far as the fhores of the neighbouring were ever ſo certain of its antiquity. And ſurely if evidence of a ftates. In confequence of which pretenſion it is, that children picture's being a copy proportionably diminiſhes its value, the ſame born on theſe feas are declared natural Britons, as much as if born rule of judgment may be no leſs properly applied to a ſtatue. Mo- dern and ancient art can never, therefore, be fairly compared, till on Britiſh ground. The juftice of this pretenſion is ſtrenuouſly both are made to ſubmit to the determination of reaſon and nature. argued between Grotius and Selden, in the Mare Liberun, and Mare Claufum. General Ś E A S E A General Motion of the Sea. Dr. Daſſie of Paris, in a work cauſes, ſay the abettors of this doctrine, in a long ſeries of ages, publiſhed about eighty years ago, has been at great pains to prove alter the face of our globe entirely, or rather have reduced the that the ſea has a general motion, independent of winds and tides, earth into its preſent form, by creating rocks at the bottom of the and of more conſequence in navigation than is uſually ſuppoſed. ſea, and then leaving them in dry land, where they turn into in- He affirms that this motion is from eaſt to weſt, inclining toward land mountains. This ſeems to be the method which nature ob- the north, when the ſun has paſſed the equinoctial northward, and ſerves: for all along our coaſts there are limeſtone rocks, and ſome that during the time the ſun is in the northern ſigns; but the con of them within low-water-mark, which have the very ſame incli- trary way, after the fun has paſſed the ſaid equinoctial ſouth-nation, and the ſame mixture of petrified ſea-bodies, as in the ward ; adding, that when this general motion is changed, the di quarry we have deſcribed ; but ſince we ſee rocks of this kind urnal flux is changed alſo; whence it happens, that in ſeveral ariſing out of the ſea, we muſt of neceſſity aſcribe the ſame origin to places the tides come in during one part of the year, and go out ſuch as are more remote from the ſhore, and left up in the country. during the other, as on the coaſts of Norway, in the Indies, at All rocks, therefore, where ſuch extraneous bodies are found, Goa, Cochinchina, &c. where, while the ſun is in the ſummer ſeem to be formed from the common ſediment of the ſea, as ſigns, the ſea runs on the ſhore ; when in the winter ſigns, from it. ſands of ſeveral kinds, with the bones of fiſhes, ſtalks of ſea-weed, On the moſt fouthern coaſts of Tonquin and China, for the ſix and empty ſhells, which are all rolled into beds by the agitation of ſummer months, the diurnal courſe runs from the north with the the waters. Theſe different bodies, thus blended together, are, by ocean ; but the fun having re-paſſed the line towards the fouth, the violence of the Aux and reflux, banked up towards the ſhore : the courſe declines alſo fouthward. which is the cauſe of the inclination or dipping of the rock. No Encroachmients by the Sea on the Dry Land. It has been matter ſooner is one ſtratum laid, than, by a continual acceſſion of the of diſpute whether the land or the water are gaining upon each other ſame matter, a ſecond is ſuperinduced ; and ſo on ſucceſſively, till in this terraqueous globe, and it is a diſpute which ſeems not to be the maſs has reached a certain height in water. Theſe looſe mate- capable of an eaſy ſolution : in many places, it is certain that the rials, as ſoon as the vegetation commences, are faſtened by a very ſea has gained very conſiderably, and very recently too. In Bri- ſtrong cement, and begin to aſſume the conſiſtency of ſtone. For the tain ſeveral conſiderable encroachments have been remarked. In petrific matter fills up all the interſtices, pervades the pores of the the reign of Auguſtus, the iſle of Wight made part of the iſland of moſt folid bodies, and lodges every where the particles that enter Britain, ſo that at low water the Britons croſſed over towards it into its own compoſition ; which ſeems to be a fixed ſalt, or very with cart loads of tin; but now the connexion is cut off, and the powerful aſtringent, together with a mixture of mineral juices or iſle of Wight is conſtantly ſeparated from Britain by a channel metallic ores, which run in ſmall veins, like wire, in ſeveral places half a mile wide. And in other places the ſame encroachments of the rock. The ſhells, being of a cloſe and compact texture, are perceptible. In general, on the eaſtern coaſt, the fea has and therefore refuſing admiſſion to the groſſer parts, ſeem to have gained ground; while on the ſouthern and weſtern, it has gained received only the finer parts of the mixture, which has converted in ſome places and loſt in others. It has gained conſiderably on them into a tranſparent ſubſtance, fomewhat reſembling cryſtal. the coaſt of Yorkſhire, Norfolk, Suffolk,Effex,and the eaſtern ſhore The ſea-weeds, of a more porous and ſpungy nature, have imbibed of Kent; as alſothat of Suſſex, Hampſhire, Dorſetſhire, and Corn the whole lapidific matter ; which has changed them into a fine wall. Within this laſt half century alſo the ſea has made large en white marble, capable of a very high poliſh. The like may be croachments upon the iſle of Scilly, and from May 1766 to May faid of all the other bodies, as they are more rare or denſe in their 1767 was obſerved to encroach conſiderably. It has alſo encroached texture, and fitted to receive more or leſs of the petrific matter. upon the coaſts of north Devonſhire, Pembrokeſhire,and Cardigan- The only difficulty in this hypotheſis, and what we muſt endea- fhire. But on the other hand, in the ſouthern parts of Kent, in vour to ſurmount, is, that we muſt conceive the ſea to be ſo high Lincolnſhire, and Lancaſhire, the land has gained upon the ſea. In as to cover all the hills where ſuch ſea-bodies are to be found. So, Kent, it has retreated from the beach of Sandwich, funk the ſmall in the preſent caſe, we muſt ſuppoſe it to have been above 200 feet æftuary of Solinus intoan inſignificant current,and converted a fine higher than it is at preſent. Now, though neither hiſtory nor tradi- harbour, called by the Romans Rhutupa, where their feet were tion could aſſiſt us in the inquiry, yet ſtill the fact may be aſcertained regularly laid up, into a valley watered by a river. In Lincolnſhire from indelible monuments, and more to be depended on than any it has added a conſiderable quantity of ground to the coaſt, and human teſtimony whatever. For fince our inland hills have the left many thouſand acres betwixt the old bank of its waters, and very ſame inclination, and the ſame mixture of ſhells, &c. as the the preſent margin of its fhore. And in Lancaſhire, the ſands rocks have which ſtand within low-water-mark ; -what can we which originally formed the beach of the ſea, and were covered think, but that the former once ſtood where the latter ſtands now? every tide with its waters, are now regularly inhabited. They ſtill why may we not conclude for certain that, according to their dif- retain the name given them by the Britons, viz. Meales, or looſe tances, they have all ſucceſſively ariſen from the ſea, as the only quaggy lands; though looſe and quaggy as they once were, they are proper matrix for ſuch productions, and the only place, too, where now cultivated, and a parochial church and village erected upon the materials that enter into their compoſition can be found ? In them. From conſidering theſe facts, we may doubt whether the ſhort, by means of theſe petrified fea-bodies, we trace the waters ſea in fact has gained on the land, or the land on the ſea; as what which drowned the old world, like an enemy who leaves his ſpoils is gained by either on one ſide, may perhaps be loſt on the other. behind him in his retreat, from the tops of our higheſt inland hills Buffon imagines that the ſea is perpetually gaining upon the land, down to the ſhore; and there ſee them all confined within the li- and will at laſt cover the tops of the higheſt mountains, leaving its mits of our preſent ſea, which ſeems ſtill to be making the proper preſent bed quite dry ; but his notions concerning the gradual mo diſpoſitions for leaving us. Hiſtorians, when all our helps fail, tion of the waters from one place to another have been ſo fully produce medals and gold coins, as an authentic evidence of cer- refuted, that it is needlefs to mention any thing concerning them tain facts ; in like manner, we may look upon ſea-rocks, turned in this place. Others there are who argue ftrenuouſly for the con into inland hills, to be an undeniable proof that our earth hath tinual increaſe of dry land, and decreaſe of the ſea. Their prin- ariſen, inch by inch, from the ſea. cipal argument is drawn from a ſuppoſition of the vegetation of The age of man bears ſo ſmall a proportion to the age of the ftone, and a petrifying quality inherent in ſea-water. world, that the inſenſible changes made on the face of nature paſs A gentleman, who was at Boulogne in the ſummer 1780, has unobſerved. We fee ſo few alterations in our own times, that we favoured us with a remarkable inſtance of this petrifying quality conclude, too haſtily, that there are none at all ; or, when the in ſea-water. He obſerved that the Britiſh channel, which waſhes land makes any encroachments in one place, the fea, we imagine, the bottom of a hill near that place, (commonly called Caſar's takes her revenge by inundations in another, and that in this man- Fort, from a Roman encampment ſtill viſible on it, ſaid to have ner their limits are pretty well ſecured. But this is undoubtedly a been conſtructed by Julius Cæſar when he invaded Britain), had very lame account of the matter. For inundations ſeldom happen, worn in through a great part of the hill, which conſiſts moſtly of and are but partial; whereas the receſs of the waters is univerſal, mixed fand, with about three or four feet of a ſtrong bluiſh clay and, like the other great laws of nature, act inceſſantly at all foil above. As the fandy part is waſhed away, the clay falls down times. An earthquake in one place, the waſhing of looſe ſands in large maſſes, and, as the inhabitants there affirm, is petrified by and earths in another, may lay ſome particular ſpot under water; the ſalt water. In fact, one ſees, about 40 or 50 yards within the but theſe will by no means balance the encroachments of the land, preſent high-water mark, a large ſtratum of rocks, much reſem remarkable more or leſs all over the globe. We will give but bling the black rocks at Leith ; and between theſe and the hill two or three inſtances out of many which with equal facility might many huge maſſes of rock, though there appears nothing rocky on be produced. the bare fide of the hill next the channel. And the inhabitants of The iſland Pharos, according to Homer, who perhaps ſpoke Boulogne arc every day ſeen blowing up theſe rocky mafies with from experience, ſtood a day's failing with a fair wind from the gunpowder, burning the ſtones in lime, and uſing them alſo as continent. That iſland, however, was joined to the land, in very ſtones for their buildings. This gentleman, walking one day on ancient times, by a cauſeway of 900 paces, and makes now a the fands, ſaw a large lump of clay fallen from the hill, and ſo part of the city of Alexandria. The city of Tyre, before the lying to be waſhed by the tide. He impreſſed a mark on it with time of Alexander the Great, and for ſome ages after, was fur- his ſtick, which, being ſoft, it then eaſily received. But paſſing rounded with a very deep ſea of four ſtades over; and yet we know the ſame way about three weeks afterwards, he could not force for certain, it has been joined to the continent upwards of 1000 his ſtick into the ſame lump. years. Æneas landed at Lavinium, if we can believe Virgil; but From fome lime-ſtone quarries alſo in the neighbourhood of Lavinium ſtands now above 12 miles from the fea, and as rich Kirkcaldy in Fife ; it is inferred that ſtones vegetate, and that the vineyards and corn-fields as are in Italy muſt for ever go by the waters of the fea have retreated ever ſince the deluge. Theſe two name of the Lavinian fhores. Oftia too has undergone the ſame fate SE A S E A fate, and become an inland town. Nothing but the expreſs au to be 200 or 300 feet higher than it is at preſent, demonſtrate, thority of hiſtorians, and its own ſtately ruins, could convince us that our iſland is larger, by a third at leaſt, than it was at that time. that it was the celebrated Oftia built at the mouth of the Tiber. Such has been the ſtate of our iſland; in a very remote period of The fame obſervations may be extended to all the maritime towns time, no doubt; though perhaps not in the ages immediately fuc- famous in ancient hiſtory: their old harbours are now all choaked ceeding the deluge; on the contrary, it may be preſumed, that as up, buried under ground, or deſerted by the ſea, and left far up in many ages muſt have paſſed from the deluge to the period we are the country. Nor is there much weight in an objection that may ſpeaking of as from thence to our own times. For we have all the be ſtarted in this place, namely, That there are ſeveral ſea-port reaſon in the world to believe, that, ever ſince the old world was towns, famous in the ancient world, which have the ſame character drowned, the waters have fallen equally in equal times, and not faſter in our own times. So London, under the emperor Nero, was, as it at one time than at another, as is commonly imagined. The bare fill.is , a rendezvous of merchants, and a place of great foreign trade. rocks on our higheſt hills Thew fufficiently both the place where But are we ſure that theſetowns, though they have the ſame names, they have vegetated, and that for many ages they have borne the vio- occupy alſo the ſame ſpots of ground with the old ones? Is it not lence of that dreadful element ; for it is impoſſible to conceive, more probable, that the inhabitants, not out of choice, but abſolute that they could have come out of nature's hands in the miſerable neceſſity, and for the conveniency of ſhipping, draw gradually and ruinous condition in which they appear. Their ragged tops, down towards the ſea, as the rivers choak up towards their ſources? tattered ſurfaces, and rifted fides, are the wounds they have received This we know has happened to fome, and we have great reaſon from an obftinate foe; who, though vanquiſhed at laſt, has made to believe the ſame of all. many furious attacks, and diſputed every inch of ground, before he We may produce ſeveral very ſtrong circumſtances, which, has retreated. Theſe are ſome of the ſtrongeſt arguments which taken all together, will amount to the force of a direct proof that the have been advanced for the continual increaſe of the dry-land, and land has gained very conſiderably on our coaſts. Whoever views decreaſe of the ſea. How far they appear concluſive, we leave to the Carſe of Falkirk from Stirling caſtle in Scotland, will think the judgment of the reader. it extremely probable, that all that champaign country, as the an Luminouſneſs of the Sea, is a phenomenon that has been taken cients believe of the Lower Egypt, has been gained from the ſea, notice of by many nautical and philoſophical writers. Mr. Boyle, by the vaſt quantity of ſand and mud brought down the river. To after reciting ſeveral circumſtances attending this appearance, confirm this conjecture, whenever the ground is digged in ſeveral aſcribes it to ſome coſmical law, or cuſtom of the terreſtrial globe, places thereabouts, they meet with vaſt collections of ſhells and or at leaſt of the planetary vortex. The Abbé Nollet was of opi- other ſpoils of the ſea. A ſhip's anchor was found, ſome time nion, that the light of the ſea proceeded from electricity, and others ſince, in the ſame country, buried under ground, at two miles dif- have had recourſe to the ſame hypotheſis. Mr. Bayon, in his me- tance from the Forth. Theſe two circumſtances put it out of all moirs pur fervir à l'Hiſtoire de Cayenne, &c. Paris 1778, informs doubt, nor need we any further proof of the matter. We have us, that, having made a great number of experiments, in different. nothing but the name to inform us, that ever Burnt-iſland was ſur ſeaſons, in order to find out the true cauſe of this phenomenon, he rounded with the fea; but whoever views the ſituation of that always found, that the luminous points in the furface of the ſea place, will be convinced, that, not many centuries ago, it has were produced merely by friction. However, there have been two been joined to Fife by a narrow and flat neck of land to the north. hypotheſes, which have moſt generally been received, for the folu- The inhabitants of Kirkcaldy, even thoſe of a middle age, re tion of this phenomenon; one of which afcribes it to the ſhining of member to have ſeen the tides flow a great deal higher than they luminous infects or animalcules, and the other to the light pro- do at preſent. The truth of it is, our Thores are inſenſibly riſing, ceeding from the putrefaction of animal ſubſtances. The Abbé not only from the huge fand-banks, but from a vigorous vegeta- | Nollet, who at firſt conſidered the luminouſneſs of the ſea as an tion of ſtone, which prevails, among all our coaſts, at the bottom electrical phenomenon, having had an opportunity of aſcertaining of the ſea. For nature is as hard at work now as ever; and it is the circumſtances of it, when he was at Venice in 1749, relin- not improbable, but that theſe rocks, where there is ſuch a mixture quiſhed his former opinion, and concluded that it was occaſioned of ſea-bodies, which but juſt ſhow their heads above water, will either by the luminous aſpect, or by ſome liquor or effluvia of an occaſioni as much ſpeculation to future ages as their elder brothers inſect which he particularly deſcribes; but does not altogether in the inland places of the country do to us. exclude other cauſes, and eſpecially the ſpawn or fry of fiſh. The encroachments of the land in the frith of Tay are more re Mr. Forſter in his account of a voyage round the world with markable, and ſeem to be of a more recent date. The whole Carſe captain Cook, in the years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775, de- of Gowrie has been, we may ſay, but a late acquiſition from the ſcribing this phenomenon as a kind of blaze of the ſea, and have ſea; as the flat face of the country, and names of the towns, fuffi- ing attentively examined ſome of the illumined water, expreſſes ciently evince. Moſt of their towns begin or end with inſe, that his conviction, that the appearance was occaſioned by innumerable is, ijiand; as Meg-inſe, Inſe-tower, &c. probably the very names minute animals of a round ſhape, moving through the water in all they went by when they were ſand-banks, or iſlands ſurrounded by directions. One of theſe luminous ſparks which ſtuck to his fin- the ſea. Some old written inſtruments mention Errol as a place ger while he was ſtirring the water with his hand, was examined ſtanding to the ſouth of Tay, though it ſtands a long mile to the by the common magnifier of Mr. Ramſden's improved microſcope, north of the river at preſent. The inhabitants of the country have and was found to be globular, tranſparent like a gelatinous ſub- a tradition, that the courſe of Tay, in former ages, was by the foot ſtance, and ſomewhat browniſh; by means of the greateſt magni- of the hills to the north of Errol, and to this day they ſhew the very fier, the orifice of a little tube was diſcovered, which entered the holes in rocks to which the ſhips cables were faſtened. But if the body of the animal; within which were four or five inteſtinal bags Tay ran ſo far to the north, as there is great reaſon to believe, all connected with the tube. He imagines that theſe animalcules the lower grounds to the ſouth of Errol would be drowned, and may be the young fry of ſome ſpecies of meduſa, or blubber, and that frith would be twice, if not thrice, as broad as it is in our time. conſiders them as poſſeſſed of the power of thining, or of with- The inhabitants of Perth remember to have heard their fathers ſay, holding their light at pleaſure. that, in the high hill of Kinnoul, they have ſeen the remains of M. le Roi, after giving much attention to this phenomenon, ſtaples and rings, with other conveniences for ſhipping, as in a har concludes that it is not occafioned by any ſhining inſects, eſpecially bour. At a village two miles above Perth, and far from the Tay, as, after carefully examining with a microſcope ſome of the lumi- fome workmen draining a peat-maſh, found the ring, ſtock, and nous points, he found them to have no appearance of any animal; ſhaft of an anchor, with a great log of wood ſtanding erect in the and he alſo found, that the mixture of a little ſpirit of wine with earth, to which it was conjectured the ſhips cables were fixed. water juſt drawn from the ſea, would give the appearance of a The children of the workmen were lately alive to atteſt this fact. great number of little ſparks, which would continue viſible longer Theſe circumſtances make it probable, that the land is continu than thoſe in the ocean: the fame effect was produced by all the ally ufurping upon the ſea, and may alſo reconcile us to what fol acids, and various other liquors. M. le Roi is far from afferting Jows : for if the lime-ſtone quarry in the neighbourhood of that there are no luminous infects in the ſea ; for he allows that Kirkcaldy was a fea-rock, as it undoubtedly was, our frith the Abbé Nollet and M. Vianelli had found them; but he is ſatis- muſt have covered twice the extent of ground that it does at pre fied that the ſea is chiefly luminous on ſome other acccount, though fent. All the lower part of Fife, for ſome miles up the country, he does not ſo much as offer a conjecture with reſpect to the true except fome iſlands here and there, and which are now hills or high cauſe. Other writers, equally diſſatisfied with the hypotheſis of lands, would be laid under water. The Lothians muſt have ſhared luminous inſects, for explaining the phenomenon, which is the the ſame fate with Fife: for the very ſpot on which Edinburgh ſubject of this article, have aſcribed it to ſome ſubſtance of the ſtands, would be covered with water ; the Caſtle-rock, Calton-phoſphorus kind, ariſing from putrefaction. The correſpond- hill, and Saliſbury Craig, would be ſea-rocks; Arthur's feat would ent of Dr. Franklin, obſerves, that ſeveral gentlemen have be diminiſhed almoſt to its head; and, with reſpect to the coaſt been of opinion, that the ſeparated particles of putrid, animal, and then, might appear what Infe Keith does to us. Northumberland other bodies, floating on the ſurface of the ſea, might cauſe this ap- and the Merſe muſt have been in the ſame ſituation with the coun pearance, for putrid fiſh, &c. will cauſe it ; and the ſea animals ties bordering on the Forth. The lower part of theſe two counties which have died, and other bodies putrified therein fince the crea- would be deluged with a great ſea, whoſe ſhores would be five or tion might afford a ſufficient quantity of theſe particles to cover a fix miles weſtward from Berwick. The Tweed muſt have been lo conſiderable portion of the ſurface of the ſea ; which particles being great a frith, that the largeſt ſhip in the preſent navy of England differently diſperſed, might accouut for the different degrees of light might have gone up the river, as far as Kelſo, if not farther. We in this appearance; but he adds, this account ſeems liable to an ob- call places by their names which then had none. In this manner vious objection, viz. that as putrid fiſh, &c. make a luminous ap- we might make the tour of Great Britain, and, by imagining the ſea pearance without being moved or diſturbed, it might be expected that S E A SE C } that the ſuppofed putrid particles on the ſurface of the fea ſhould al- joints, if they are not ſuppurated, or become fcirrhous or cances ways appear luminous, when there is not a greater light, and, con rous, and have not carious bones for their cauſe. 5. Recent dea fequently, that the whole furface of the ſea covered with thoſe par fluctions upon the glands of the eye-lids. 6. All defædations of ticles, ſhould always, in dark nights, appearluminous, without be the ſkin, from an eryſipelas to a lepra. 7. Diſeaſes of the glands ing diſturbed, which, he fays, is contrary to fact. Franklin's Ex of the noſe, with their uſual companion a thickneſs of the lip. periments and obſervations, p. 274, &c. This difficulty is, in a 8. Obſtructions of the kidneys, where there is no inflammation, great meaſure, removed by the experiments of Mr. Canton, recited and the ſtone not large. 9. In recent obſtructions of the liver, this in the Philoſophical Tranſactions, vol.lix. p.446,&c. which have method will be proper, where it prevents conſtipations of the belly, the advantage of being eaſily made, and leave no room for doubt and affifts other medicines directed in icterie cafes, The fame re- that the luminouſneſs of the ſea is principally owing to putrefaction.medy is ſaid to be of ſignal ſervice in the bronchocele ; and is like- Having put a freſh whiting into a gallon of ſea-water, neither the wiſe recommended for the prevention of thoſe bilious colics that whiting, nor the water when agitated, gave any light; Fahrenheit's ſo frequently affect our mariners. thermometer, placed in the cellar where the pan was placed, ſtand Freſhening SEA-Water. The method of making fea-water freih, ing at 54°; the following evening, that part of the fiſh which was an advantage long wanted for the benefit of navigation, is now even with the ſurface of the water was luminous, but the water it found to be eaſily performed by the ſimple proceſs of diftillation in felf was dark ; however, on drawing through it the end of a ſtick, a common ſtill. This method was publiſhed by Dr. Lind fome the water appeared luminous behind the ſtick all the way, but gave time ago, and cannot by any means be improved, as the proceſs light only where it was diſturbed; when all the water was ſtirred, is already reduced to its utmoſt fimplicity. A pretended improve- the whole became luminous, and appeared like milk, yielding a con ment was afterwards propoſed by Dr. Irvine ; for which he had ſiderable degree of light to the ſides of the pan, which it continued the dexterity not only to get the merit of Dr. Lind's diſcovery, to do for ſome time after it was at reſt. The water was moſt lumi but a premium of 5oool. The improvement, if fuch it may be nous when the fiſh had been in it about twenty-eight hours, but called, conſiſts only in having a very large tube inſtead of the worm would give no light by being ſtirred after it had been in three days. of the common ftill, and a perſon to wet the tube conſtantly with He then put a gallon of freſh water into one pan, and an equal a mop, inſtead of uſing a worm-tub. quantity of fea water into another, and into each pan he put a freſh SEAL ſigillum, a puncheon, or piece of metal, or other matter, herring, of about three ounces; the next night the whole ſurface uſually either roundoroval, whereonare engraved the arms, device, of the fea-water was luminous without being ſtirred, but much more &c. of ſome prince, ſtate, community, magiſtrate,or private perſon, fo when put in motion, and the upper part of the herring, which often with a legend or infcription ; the impreſſion whereof in wax was conſiderably below the ſurface of the water, was alſo very ferves to make acts, inſtruments, &c. authentic. The king's great bright: while at the fame time, the freſh water, and the fiſh that feal, is that whereby all patents, commiſſions, warrants, &c. com- was in it, was quite dark. There were ſeveral very bright lumi- | ing from the king are ſealed; this conſiſts of two impreſſions, one nous ſpots on different parts of the ſurface of the ſea water, and being the feal itſelf, with the effigies of the king ſtamped upon it; the whole, when viewed by the light of a candle, ſeemed covered the other has an impreſſion of the king's arms in the figure of a with a greaſy ſcum. The third night the light of the ſea water, target, for matters of ſmaller moment, as certificates &c. that are while at reſt, was very little, if at all, leſs than before : but when uſually pleaded fub pede ſigilli. The keeping hereof is in the hands ſtirred, its light was ſo great as to diſcover the time by a watch, and of the lord chancellor, who is hence alſo denominated lord-keeper. the fiſh in it appeared as a dark ſubſtance. After this its light was This office of lord CHANCELLOR,or lord KEEPER,whoſe autho- evidently decreaſing, but was not quite gone before the ſeventh rity by 5 Eliz.c. 18. is declared to be exactly the ſame, is with us night: the freſh water and the fish in it were perfectly dark during at this day created by the mere delivery of the king's great ſeal into the whole time. his cuſtody, without writ or patent. The king's PRIVY-Seal is a SEA-Bear. See PHOCA. feal uſually firſt fet to grants that are to paſs the great feal. The SE A-Calf. uſe of ſeals is very ancient, an inſtance of which occurs in Daniel, SEA-Cow. See TRICHECUS. chap. vi. 17. but feals are ſtill older than this ; for Jezebel, in SEA-Crow, MIRE-Crow, or Pewit. See LARUS. I Kings, chap. xxi. ſeals the orders ſhe fent for Naboth's death SEA-Horſe. See PHOCA. with the king's ring. See alſo Jerem. xxxii. 10. &c. SEA-Lion. In England, the firſt ſealed charter we find extant, is that of SEA-Water, that briny bitteriſh fluid which conſtitutes the ſea. Edward the Confeffor, upon his founding of Weſtminſter Abbey; The faltneſs of this water is very rationally judged to ariſe from yet, we read of ſeals in the MS. hiſtory of king Offa. Before the great multitudes both of mines and mountains of falt, diſperſed time of William the Conqueror, the Engliſh did not ſeal with wax, here and there in the depths of the ſea. Dr. Halley ſuppoſes that but only made a golden croſs on the parchment, and ſometimes an it is probable the greateſt part of the ſea-ſalt and of all falt lakes, impreſſion on a piece of lead, which hung to the grant with a filken as the Caſpian Sea, the Dead Sea, the Lake of Mexico, and the Ti- ftring, and was deemed an abundant authorizing of the grant it- ticaca in Peru, is derived from the water of the rivers they receive; ſelf, without either ſigning or witneffes. This practice of affixing and ſince this ſort of lakes has no exit or diſcharge but by the ex- the ſign of the croſs proceeded from their inability to write ; which halation of vapours; and alſo ſince theſe vapours are entirely freſh, is honeſtly avowed by Caedwalla, a Saxon king, at the end of one or devoid of ſuch particles; it is certain the ſaltneſs of the ſea and of his charters: propria manu pro ignorantia literarum fignum ſuch lakes muſt from time to time increaſe, and therefore the ſalt- fan&tæ crucis expreſji et ſubfcripfi. The ſame circumſtance is re- neſs at this time is greater than at any time heretofore. He fur-lated concerning the emperor Juſtin in the Eaſt, and Theodoric, ther adds, that if, by experiments made in different ages, we could king of the Goths in Italy. find the different quantity of ſalt which the fame quantity of water SEASON. For an explanation of the cauſes of the different (taken up in the ſame place, and in allother the ſame circumſtances) | feaſons of the year, ſee the Syſtem of AstRONOMY, Sect. IV, would afford, it would be eaſy from thence, by rules of proportion, Plate III. fig. 3. to find the age of the world very nearly, or the time wherein it has SECANT, in geometry, is a line that cuts another, or divides been acquiring its preſent ſaltneſs. it into two parts. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. I. With regard to the uſe of this falt property of ſea-water, it is SECOND, in geometry, chronology, &c. the both part of a obſerved, that the ſaltneſs of the ſea preſerves its waters pure and prime or minute, whether of a degree or of an hour. Second, in ſweet, which otherwiſe would corrupt and ſtink like a filthy lake, muſic, one of the muſical intervals ; being only the difference be- and conſequently that none of the myriads of creatures which now tween any ſound and the next neareſt found, whether above or be- live therein could then have a being. From thence alſo the fea- low it. See the Syſtem, Sect. II. and III. water becomes much heavier, and therefore ſhips of greater ſize SECRETION, in the animal economy, the feparation of ſome and quantity may be uſed thereon. Salt water alfo doth not freeze fuid mixed with the blood by means of the glands. In the bodies ſo ſoon as freſh water, whence the ſeas are more free for naviga- of animals we obſerve a great number of juices of different na- tion. We have a differtation, by Dr. Ruſſel, concerning the me tures, viz. the blood, lympha, ſaliva, ſtomach-liquor, inteſtinal dical uſes of ſea-water in diſeaſes of the glands, &c. wherein the juices, pancreatic juice, bile, urine, &c. and the blood is the ge- author premiſes fome obſervations upon the nature of ſea-water, neral ſource of all. See the articles Blood, LYMPH, SALIVA, conſidered as impregnated with particles of all the bodies it paſſes &c. See the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part IV. Sect. V. over, ſuch as ſubmarine plants, fiſh, falts, minerals, &c. and SECT, a collective term, comprehending all ſuch as follow the ſaturated with their ſeveral effluvia, to enrich it, and keep it from doctrines and opinions of ſome famous divine, philoſopher, &c. putrefaction : whence this fluid is ſuppoſed to contract a ſoapineſs; The fects of philofophersamongſt the ancients particularlyinGreece, and the whole collection, being pervaded by thefulphureous ſtreams were numerous, as the Pyrrhonians, Platoniſts, Stoics, Peripatetics, paſſing through it, to conſtitute what we call ſea-water, the con Academics, &c. See them under their proper articles. At preſent feffed diſtinguiſhed characteriſtics of which are faltneſs, bitterneſs, the ſects of philofophy are chiefly reducible to three, viz. the Car- nitroſity, and unctuoſity : whence the author concludes, that it tefians, Peripatetics, and Newtonians. teſians, Peripatetics, and Newtonians. In theology the fects are may be juſtly expected to contribute ſignally to the improvement much more numerous, the principal now exiſting are the Luthe- of phyfic. The caſes in which our author informs us we are to rans, Calviniſts, Anabaptiſts, Arians, Socinians, and Arminians , ſee expect advantages from the ſea water,are, 1. In all recent obſtruc them under their reſpective names, in the order of the alphabet. tions of the glands of the inteſtines and meſentery. 2. All recent SECTION, in geometry, denotes a fide or ſurface appearing obſtructions of the pulmonary glands, and thoſe of the viſcera, of a body or figure cut by another; or the place where lines, which frequently produce conſumptions. 3. All recent glandular planes, &c. cut each other. ſwellings of the neck, or other parts. 4. Recent tumours of the SECTOR, in geometry, is a part of a circle, comprehended 4 € between : } No. 138 SEG S EN 2 the glands, between two radii and the arch; or it is a mixed triangle formed by contained between a chord and an arch of the ſame circle. See two radii and the arch of a circle. See the Syſtem, Sect. III. the Syſtem, Part 1. Sect. III. adga Sector, is alſo a mathematical inſtrument of great uſe in find SEGREANT, is the herald's word for a griffin when drawn ing the proportion between quantities of the ſame kind, as between in a leaping poſture, and diſplaying his wing's as if ready to fly. lines and lines, ſurfaces and ſurfaces, &c. for which reaſon the SELTZER-water, the name of a mineral water of Germany, which ariſes near Neider Seitzer, or Lower Seltzer, about ten French call it the compaſs of proportion. The great advantage of the ſector above common ſcales, &c. is that it is adapted to all ra miles from Franckfort on the Mayne, and which is now uſed in dii, and all ſcales. For by it the line of chords, fines, tangents, &c. | England and many other countries. This water iſſues forth at the is adapted to any radius betwixt the length and breadth of the ſector, ſpring with great rapidity, is remarkably clear and bright, and on when opened. The ſector is founded on the fourth propoſition of pouring it from one bottle into another, diſcharges abundance of the ſixth book of Euclid, where it is demonſtrated, that ſimilar air bubbles. That which is imported to London is brought over triangles have their homologous fides proportional. in ſtone-bottles, cloſely corked and cemented, containing about SECULAR, ſomething which is temporal ; in which ſenſe the three Engliſh pints each, by which means this water, as long as word ſtands oppoſed to eccleſiaſtical: thus we ſay, ſecular power, the common air is excluded, will retain many of its excellent qua- fecular juriſdiction, &c. Secular is more peculiarly uſed for a per lities for ſeveral months ; but this caution is ſo neceſſary, that if ſon who lives at liberty in the world, not ſhut up in a monaſtery, too large an empty ſpace is left even in the neck of the bottle, it nor bound by vows, or ſubjected to the particular rules of any reli foon loſes in a great degree that briſk, ſmart, pungent taſte, which gious community : in which ſenſe it ſtands oppoſed to regular. principally characteriſes its excellence, and is more liable to be in- The Romiſh clergy are divided into ſecular and regular. jured by keeping than any other mineral water. SECUNDINES, in anatomy, the ſeveral coats or membranes The operation of this water, as Hoffman obſerves, is chiefly by wherein the fætus is wrapped up in the mother's womb; as the urine, for it has no purgative virtues. It corrects acidities, renders chorion and amnios, with the placenta, &c. For directions re- the blood and juices more fluid, and promotes a briſk and free cir- {pecting this article, as it relates to Midwifery, ſcc the Syſtem, culation ; and, therefore, it is good in obſtructions Part VIII. Sect. III. and againſt groſs and viſcid humours. It is of great uſe in the gravel SEDITION, among civilians, is uſed for an irregular com and ſtone, and other diſorders of the kidneys and bladder. It is motion of the people, or an aſſembly of a number of citizens with alſo excellent in gouty and rheumatic complaints, eſpecially when out law, tending to diſturb the peace and order of ſociety. This mixed with milk, or improved by the addition of Rhenith wine offence is of different kinds ; ſome feditions more immediately and a little ſugar. It is drank with great ſucceſs in fcorbutic, threatening the ſupreme power, and the ſubverſion of the preſent cutaneous, and putrid diſorders. It relieves the heart-burn, and is conſtitution of the ſtate, others tending only towards the redreſs of an excellent ſtomachic. On account of its diuretic quality, it is private grievances. ſerviceable in dropſical complaints; and mixed with affes milk, it The ſame diſtinction holds in the law of England and Scotland. is much recommended in conſumptive caſes, and in diſorders of Some kinds of ſedition in England amount to high treaſon, and the lungs : with or without milk, it is in great eſteem in nervous come within the ſtatue 25 Edward III. as levying war againſt the diſorders ; and alſo in hypochondriacal and hyſteric complaints, king: and ſeveral ſeditions are mentioned in the Scotch acts of and in obſtructions of the menſes, accompanying the uſe of it with parliament as treaſonable. proper exerciſe. exerciſe. It is alſo adminiſtered with ſucceſs in purging The law of Scotland makes riotous and tumultuous aſſemblies and fluxes ariſing from acidity in the bowels ; and if drank by a ſpecies of fedition. But the law there, as well as in England, nurſes, it renders their milk more wholeſome and nouriſhing, is now chiefly regulated by the riot act, under i Geo. I. only it is and prevents it from turning four on the ſtomachs of children. - to be obſerved, that the proper officers in Scotland, to make the See on the ſubject of this article, Hoffman. Oper. vol. v. p. 144. proclamation thereby enacted, are ſheriffs, ſtewards, and bailies London Med. Obſerv. vol. 4. p, 7, &c. Elliot's account of the of regalities, or their deputies, magiſtrates of royal boroughs, and Principal Mineral Waters, p. 194, &c. all other officers of the peace in any county, ſtewarty, city, or SEMEN, in botany, the feed; the eſſence of the fruit of every town ; and in that part of the iſland, the puniſhment of the of vegetable ; defined by Linnæus to be a deciduous part of the fence is death and confiſcation of moveables. See Riot. plant, containing the rudiments of a vegetable, and fertilized by SEDUCTION, the act of feducing, corrupting, or drawing the aſperſion or ſprinkling of the male-duſt. The parts of a feed, aſide. Seduction of women-children. By 4 and 5 of Ph. and Mary, properly ſo called, enumerated by Linnæus, may be ſeen in the c. 8. if any perſon, above the age of fourteen, unlawfully ſhall Syſtem, Sect. III. convey or take away any women-child unmarried ( which is held to SEMEN Maſculinum, in the animal economy, is a white li- extend to baſtards as well as to legitimate children) within the age quid matter or humour, the thickeſt of any in the body, ſeparated of 16 years, from the poffeffion and againſt the will of her father, from the blood in the teſticles, and reſerved in proper veſſels to &c. he ſhall be impriſoned two years, or fined at the diſcretion of be the means of generation. By chymical analyſis it is found to the juſtices. See the ſtatute, and Blackſt. Comment. vol. iv. p. conſiſt almoſt entirely of oil and volatile ſalts, blended together by the mediation of a little phlegm. SEED, in pyhſiology, a ſubſtance prepared by nature for the SEMI-BREVE, in muſic, a note or meaſure of time, compre- reproduction and conſervation of the ſpecies both in animals and hending the ſpace of two minims, or four crotchets, or half a breve. plants. See GENERATION, PLANTS, SEMEN, and the Syſtem For repreſentation, ſee the Syſtem, Plate I. of BOTANY, Sect. II. For an account of the different kinds of SEMICIRCLE, in geometry, a figure comprehended between ſeed uſed in Huſbandry, with the methods of fowing them, ſee the the diameter of a circle, and half the circumference. Two ſemi- Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sec. XXVII. circles can only cut each other in one point. See the Syſtem, Seeds, in gardening, and agriculture ; it is obſerved, that the Sect. III. ſeeds of plants, though exceeding good, will degenerate from the mo SEMICOLON, in grammar, one of the points or ſtops uſed ther plant, if they be fown on the ſame ground whence they were to diſtinguiſh the feveral members of a ſentence from each other. gathered ; ſo that there is a great neceſſity for a yearly change of The mark or character of the ſemicolon is (:). It has its name, feeds of foreſt trees, as acorns, maſts, &c. If the place be too as having a ſomewhat leſs effect than a colon, or as demanding a cold to fow them when gathered in Auguſt, they may be kept bar ſhorter pauſe. See the Syſtem. Part II. Chap. IV. Article relled or potted up in moiſt fand or earth, layer upon layer, during PUNCTUATION. the winter, at the end of which time they are found ſprouted, and SEMIDIAMETER, a right line drawn from the centre of a if gently fown, will be as forward as if ſown in autumn be circle or ſphere, to its circumference ; the ſame with what we ſides their miſſing the vermin. otherwiſe call a radius. See the Syſtem of GEOMETRY, Part I. It is ſurpriſing how many ſorts of ſeed will keep good for Sect. I. ſeveral years and retain their growing faculty ; whereas many SEMINARY, in its primary ſenſe, the ground where any others will not grow when they are more than one year old. This thing is to be ſown, to be afterwards tranſplanted. Seminary, in is ſuppoſed to be owing in a great meaſure to their abounding more a figurative ſenſe, is frequently applied to places of education, or lels with oil, as alſo to the nature of the oil, whether it is of a whence ſcholars are tranſplanted into life. In Catholic countries cold or hot quality, and the texture of their outer covering, e. gr. it is particularly uſed for a kind of college or ſchool, where youth the feeds of cucumbers, melons and gourds, will continue good are inſtructed in the ceremonies, &c. of the ſacred miniſtry. Of eight or ten years ; thoſe of radiſh, turnip, rape, &c. for three or theſe are great numbers; it being ordained by the council of four years ; but thoſe of parſley, carrot, parſnep, and moſt other Trent, that there be a ſeminary to each cathedral, under the di- umbelliferous plants loſe their growing faculty often in one year rection of the biſhop. and feldom remain good longer than two years. All ſorts of feeds SEMITONE, in muſic, one of the degrees, cr concinnous are beſt preſerved in their pods or huſks, eſpecially if they are not intervals of concord. See the Syſtem, under the article DEFI- ſeparated from their placentæ, at which they are faſtened by an NITIONS, No. 2. For repreſentation, fee Plate I. umbilical cord, through which they receive their nouriſhment in SENA, the leaf of the Caſſia ſena of Linnæus, a very common their embryo ſtate. and uſeful purgative. It is produced from a ſhrub about a foot SEEING, the art of perceiving objects by the organ of fight; high, growing naturally in Egypt and ſeveral parts of the Levant. or it is the ſenſe we have of external objects by means of the eye. The fineſt is that from Alexandria, called by the Turks palte, See the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part VII. Sect. V. and the Syſtem which pays a conſiderable tribute to the grand fignior. Sena is a of Optics, Part I. Sect. III. very uſeful cathartic, operating mildly, and yet effectually; and, SEGMENT of a circle, in geometry, is that part of the circle if judiciouſly doſed and managed, rarely cccafioning the ill con- ſequences 108, 209. S EN SEN equences which too frequently follow the exhibition of the ſtronger of the fibres terminating in it. Theſe things premiſed, it will purges. The only inconveniences complained of in this drug are, not be difficult to explain how ſenſation is performed, the manner its being apt to gripe, and its nauſeous flavour. The griping qua whereof may be conceived from what follows; when the point of lity depends upon a reſinous ſubſtance, which, like the other bo a needle, for inſtance, is thruſt againſt the hand, that point ſtirs dies of this claſs, is naturally diſpoſed to adhere to the coats of the and ſeparates the fibres of the fleſh; which fibres are extended from inteſtines; the more this reſin is divided by ſuch matters as take off that place to the brain, ant, when we are awake, are in ſuch a de- its tenacity, the leſs adheſive, and conſequently the leſs irritating gree of tenſion, as that they cannot be ſtirred without ſhaking alſo and griping it will prove; and the leſs it is divided the more grip- the fibres of the brain. If then the motion of the fibres of the ing: hence ſena given by itſelf, or infuſions made in a very ſmall hand be gentle, that of the fibres of the brain will be ſo too; and quantity of fluid, gripe ſeverely, and purge leſs than when diluted if the firſt be violent enough to break any thing in the hand, the by a large portion of ſuitable menftruum, or divided by mixing the laſt will be ſtronger and more violent in proportion. This is what infuſion with oily emulſions. The ill flavour of this drug is ſaid befals the body, when objects ſtrike upon it. We are now to to be abated by the greater water fig-wort; but we cannot con conſider how the mind is affected. ceive that this plant, whoſe ſmell is manifeſtly fætid, and its taſte The mind, we have obſerved, reſides principally, if we may be nauſeous and bitter, can at all improve thoſe of ſena: others re allowed to ſay ſo, in that part of the brain, where all the fibres of commend bohea tea, though neither has this any conſiderablc ef the nerves terminate. It attends here, as its fenfory, or office, to fect. The ſmell of fena reſides in its more volatile parts, and may look to the preſervation of all the parts of the body, and, of conſe- be diſcharged by lightly boiling infuſions of it made in water ; the quence, it muſt be here advertiſed of all the changes that happen, liquor thus freed from the peculiar flavour of the fena, may be ea and muſt be able to diſtinguiſh between thoſe agreeable to the con- fily rendered grateful to the taſte, by the addition of any proper ſtitution of the body, and thoſe hurtful; the motion which occaſions aromatic tincture or diſtilled water. The colleges both of Lon-pain, being violent, it is capable of breaking ſome of the fibres of don and Edinburgh, have given ſeveral very elegant infuſions of the body ; wherefore it is neceſſary the foul be advertiſed hercof this drug. The doſe of fena in ſubſtance is from a fcruple to a by fome diſagreeable ſenſation, that it may provide againſt it. dram ; in infuſion from one to three or four drams. It has been SENSE, a faculty of the foul, whereby it perceives external ob- cuſtomary to reject the pedicles of the leaves of ſena as of little or jects, by means of ſome action or impreſſion made on certain parts no uſe ; Geoffrey, however, obferves, that they are not much in of the body, called organs of ſenſe, and propagated by them to the ferior in efficacy to the leaves themſelves. The pods, or ſeed-vef- fenſory. Some uſe the word ſenſe in a greater latitude: and define fels, met with among the ſena brought to us, are by the college of it a faculty whereby the ſoul perceives ideas or images of objects, Bruſſels preferred to the leaves; they are leſs apt to gripe, but pro either conveyed to it from without, by the impreſſion of objects portionally leſs purgative.tv themſelves, or excited within by fome effort of the ſoul on the ſen- SENATE, in general, is an aſſembly or council of fenators ; fory itſelf. Under this notion, ſenſe becomes diſtinguiſhable into that is, of the principal inhabitants of a ſtate, who have a ſhare two kinds, external and internal: correſponding to the two ſeveral in the government.abarani manners wherein the images of the objects perceived are occaſioned, The ſenate of ancient Rome is, of all others, the moſt celebrated. and preſented to the mind, viz. either immediately from without, It exerciſed no contentious juriſdiction; but appointed judges, either or from within; that is, either by what we commonly call the five from among the ſenators or knights, to determine proceſſes; it external ſenſes, hearing, ſeeing, &c. or by the internal ones, imagi- alſo appointed governors of provinces, and diſpoſed of the reve nation, memory, and attention; to which ſome alſo add hunger nues of the commonwealth, &c. Yet did not the whole ſovereign and thirſt. But as theſe internal ſenſes are e not ordinarily conſidered Power reſide in the ſenate, ſince it could not eleet magiſtrates, in the notion of fenfes, nor implied under the word ſenſe, but are make laws, or decide of war and peace; in all which caſes thc fe thus only denominated by analogy; we ſhall wave them, to be far- nate was obliged to conſult the people. According to Dr. Mid ther conſidered under their reſpective articles, IMAGINATION, dleton, the conſtant and regular ſupply of the ſenate was from the MEMORY, &c.rr och ge annual magiftrates; who, by virtue of their ſeveral offices acquired External Senses, or ſimply, the Senses, in their general lig- a right to ſit and vote in that aſſembly: the uſual gradation of theſe nification, are the means whereby the ſoul apprehends, or takes cog- offices being that of quæſtor, tribune of the people, ædile, prætor, nizance of, external objects; the means, we mean, both on the and conſul. But though theſe offices gave both an immediate part of the mind, and on that of the body. Hence thoſe ſeveral right, and actual entrance into the ſenate ; yet the ſenatorial cha organs of ſenſe, called eye, ear, noſe, palate, and the univerſal one racter was not eſteemed complete, till the new ſenators had been cutis ; each of which is ſo diſpoſed as to give ſome repreſentation enrolled by the cenſors, at the next general luftrum, or review of and report to the mind, of the ſtate of external things, the nearneſs, all the orders of the people. The ſenate always met of courſe on convenience, hurtfulneſs, and other habitudes; and each of them a the iſt of January, for the inauguration of the new conſuls; and different one, according to the degree and immediateneſs, &c. of in all months, univerſally, there were three days, viz. the kalends, the danger, or conveniency. And hence the ſeveral exerciſes of nones, and ides, on which it regularly met: but it always met on thoſe organs, hearing, feeing, ſmelling, taſting, and feeling. extraordinary occaſions, when called together by conſul, tribune, External SENSES, are powers of perceiving ideas, upon the pre- or dictator. Foranaccount of the Britiſh Senate,fee PARLIAMENT. ſence of external objects. On ſuch occaſions, we find the mind is SENATOR, in general, denotes a member of ſome fenate. merely paſſive, and has not power directly to prevent the perception, Among us, fenator is a member of parliament. or idea, or to vary it at its reception; as long as the body is conti- SENSATION, the act of perceiving external objects, by means nued in a ſtate fit to be acted upon by the external object. All the of the organs of fenſe. For a copious deſcription, ſee the Syſtem of ſeveral ſenſes ſeem to have their diſtinct organs, except feeling, ANATOMY, Part VII. throughout. For repreſentation of the which is, in ſome degree, diffuſed over the whole body. In- ſeveral Organs, ſee Plate XI. quiry into the Origin of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue, To conceive the manner wherein ſenſation is affected; obſerve, p. 2. 8vo. 1726. that all the organs conſiſt of little filaments, or nerves, which have Internal SENSEs, are powers or determinations of the mind to their origin in the middle of the brain, are diffuſed thence through- be pleaſed with certain forms and ideas, which occur to our obfer- out all the members which have any ſenſe, and terminate in the vation, in objects perceived by the exteral ſenſes. Of theſe there exterior parts of the body, that when we are in health, and awake, are two different ſpecies, diſtinguiſhed by the different objects of one end of theſe nerves cannot beagitated or ſhaken, without ſhaking pleafure, viz. pleaſurable or beautiful forms of natural things, and the other; becauſe they are always a little ſtretched; as is the caſe pleaſurable or beautiful actions, or characters of rational agents; of an extended chord, one part of which cannot be ſtirred without a whence the internal ſenſes become diviſible into natural and moral; like motion of all the reſt. Obſerve, farther, that theſe nerves though what ſome call the internal natural ſenſe, our author calls may be agitated two ways ; either at the end out of the brain, or fimply, and by way of eminence, the internal ſenſe. In reflecting at that in the brain. If they be agitated from without, by the ac on our external ſenfes, we plainly ſee, that our perceptions of plea- tion of objects, and their agitation be not communicated as far ſure and pain do not depend directly on our will . Objects do not the brain, as frequently happens in ſleep, when the nerves are in pleaſe us according as we incline they ſhould; the preſence of ſome a ſtate of relaxation; the ſoul does not then receive any new ſenſa- objects neceſſarily pleaſes us, and the preſence of others as neceffa- tion. But if the nerves happen to be agitated on the brain, by the rily diſpleaſes us ; nor can we, by our will, any otherwiſe procure flux of the animal ſpirits, or any other cauſe ; the ſoul perceives pleaſure, or avoid pain, but by procuring the former kind of ob- ſomething, though the parts of thoſe nerves, that are out of the jects, and avoiding the latter. By the very frame of our nature, the brain, diffuſed through the ſeveral parts of the body, remain at one is made the occaſion of delight, and the other of diffatisfaction. perfect reſt; as likewiſe is frequently the caſe in ſleep. Laſtly, Laſtly, In effect, our ſenſitive perceptions are pleaſant, and painful, imme- obſerve, that experience tell us, we may ſometimes feel pain, as diately, and without any knowledge of the cauſe of this pleaſure parts of the body that have been entirely cut off; by reaſon and pain, or of the manner how they excite it, or are occaſions of it, the fibres in the brain, correſponding to them, being agitated in or without our feeing to what farther advantage, or detriment, the the ſame manner as if they were really hurt, the ſoul feels a real uſeof ſuch objects might tend. Nor would the moſt accurate know- pain in thoſe imaginary parts. All theſe things ſeem to ſhew, that ledge of theſe things vary either the pleaſure, or the pain, of the the foul reſides immediately in that part of the brain wherein the perception; however it might give a rational pleaſure, diſtinct from nerves of all the organs of fenſe terminate : we mean, that it is the ſenſible; or might raiſe a diſtinct joy, from proſpect of farther there it perceives all the changes that happen with regard to the advantage in the object, or another averfion, from apprehenſion of objects that cauſe them, or that have been uſed to cauſe them; and evil. There is ſcarce any object which our minds are employed that it only perceives what paſſes out of this part, by the mediation about, but is conſtituted the neceſſary occaſion of ſome pleaſure or pair as if in S EN S EN pain. Thus, we ſhall find ourfelves pleaſed with a regular form, the deductions of reaſon, and the refinements of ſcience. All a piece of architecture, or painting, a compoſition of notes, a found reaſoning, it is faid, muſt ultimately reſt on the principles theorem, an action, an affection, a character ; and we are con of common ſenſe ; that is on principles intuitively certain, or in- ſcious that this pleaſure naturally ariſes from the contemplation tuitively probable ; and, conſequently, common ſenſe is the ulti- of the idea then preſent to the mind, with all its circumſtances, mate judge of truth, to which reaſon muſt continually act in fubor- though ſome of thoſe ideas have nothing of what we call ſenſible dination. Thus the advocates for this faculty, as an original and perception in them ; and in thoſe which have, the pleaſure ariſes diſtinct power of the human mind, aſſign to it a very extenſive em- from ſome uniformity, order, arrangement, and imitation; and not pire, and an authority that is ſupreme and abſolute. And they from the ſimple ideas of colour, or ſound, or mode of extenſion, have proceeded fo far, as to ſubſtitute in the room of Mr. Locke's ſeparately conſidered. It ſeems hence to follow, that when in ABSTRACTION, this faculty, as the characteriſtic of rationality. ſtruction, education, or prejudice of any kind, raiſe any defire or To this they refer the evidence of mathematical truth, of external averſion towards an object: this deſire, or averſion, is founded on and internal fenfe, of memory, of reaſoning from the effect to the an opinion of ſome perfection, or deficiency, in thoſe qualities, for cauſe, of probable or experimental reaſoning, of analogical reafon- perception whereof we have the proper ſenſes. Thus, if beauty ing, of faith in teſtimony, and indeed of all primary truths. To be deſired by one who has not the ſenſe of ſight; the deſire muſt common ſenſe, therefore, all truth muſt be conformable: this, they be raiſed by ſome apprehended regularity of figure, ſweetneſs of fay, is its fixed and invariable ſtandard. And whatever contra- voice, ſmoothneſs, ſoftneſs, and ſome other quality perceivable by dicts common ſenſe, or is inconſiſtent with that ſtandard, though the other ſenſes, without relation to the ideas of colour. fupported by arguments that are deemed unanſwerable, and by For the general manner wherein our ſenſes act, or more properly | names that are celebrated by all the critics, academies, and poten- the manner wherein we become ſenſible, that is, perceive exter tates on earth, is not truth, but falſhood. In a word, the dictates nal objects, ſee SENSATION. For the particular ſenſes, or, of common ſenſe are, in reſpect to human knowledge, in general, more properly, the particular manner wherein we become ſenſible, what the axioms of geometry are in reſpect to mathematics : on by particular organs of ſenſe, ſee HEARING, SEEING, SMELL the ſuppoſition that theſe axioms are falſe or dubious, all mathe- ING, &c. For the ſeveral organs of fenfe, miniſtering to the matical reaſoning falls to the ground, and on the ſuppoſition that ſeveral man ners of ſenſation, fee EYE, EAR, NOSE, &c. in the the dictates of common ſenſe are erroneous or deceitful, all truth, Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part VII. and Plate XI. virtue, and ſcience are vain. And hence it appears, that, accord In the Philoſophical Tranſactions, No. 312, we have an account | ing to this ſyſtem, common ſenſe is not only the teſt of truth, but of Dan. Fraſer, who continued deaf and dumb from his birth to the the ſtandard of moral obligation. feventeenth year of his age ; when, upon recovering from a fever, Dr. Prieſtley, in his attack upon this ſyſtem, has charged the he perceived an uneaſy motion in his brain, after which he began abettors of it with an unneceſſary innovation in the received uſe to hear, and, by degrees, to ſpeak. O of a term ; as no perſon ever denied that there are ſelf-evident Moral Sense, is a determination of the mind to be pleaſed truths, and that theſe muſt be aſſumed as the foundation of all with the contemplation of thoſe affections, actions, or characters, reaſoning. But they alſo recommend particular poſitions as axi- of rational agents, which we call good or virtuous. This moral oms, not as being founded on the perception of the agreement or ſenſe of beauty in actions and affections, may appear ſtrange at firſt diſagreement of any ideas, which is the great doctrine of Mr. Locke, view : fome of our moraliſts themſelves are offended at it in lord and which makes truth to depend upon the neceffary nature of Shafteſbury, as being accuſtomed to deduce every approbation, or things, to be abſolute, unchangeable, and everlaſting ; but merely averſion, from rational views of intereſts. Our gentlemen of good fome unaccountable inſtinctive perſuaſions, depending upon the taſte can tell us of a great many ſenſes, taſtes, and reliſhes, for arbitrary conftitution of our nature, which makes all truth to be a beauty, harmony, imitation in painting and poetry; and may we thing that is relative to ourſelves only, and conſequently to be not find, too, in mankind a reliſh for a beauty in characters, in infinitely vague and precarious. This ſyſtem, he fays, admits of manners ? The truth is, human nature does not ſeem to have no appeal to reaſon, properly confidered, which any perfon might been left quite indifferent in the affair of virtue, to form to itſelf be at liberty to examine and diſcuſs; but, on the contrary, every obſervations concerning the advantage or diſadvantage of actions, man is taught to think himſelf authoriſed to pronounce deciſively and accordingly to regulate its conduct. The weakneſs of our rea upon every queſtion, according to his preſent feeling and perſua- fon, and the avocations ariſing from the infirmities and neceſſi- fion ; under the notion of its being ſomething original, inſtinctive, ties of our nature, are fo great, that very few of mankind could ultimate, and uncontrovertible ; though, if ſtrictly analyſed, ić have framed thoſe long deductions of reaſon, which may ſhew ſome might appear to be a mere prejudice, the offspring of mittake. actions to be, in the whole, advantageous, and their contraries per Some of the maxims which they have adopted as ſelf-evidene nicious. The author of nature has much better furniſhed us for truths, and which they have multiplied without neceffity, are ſo far a virtuous conduct, than our moraliſts ſeem to imagine ; by almoſt from being ſelf-evident, that, in the judgment of many candid en- as quick and powerful inſtructions, as we have for the preſervation quirers after truth, they are not true, but capable of a ſatisfactory of our bodies : he has made virtue a lovely form, to excite our refutation. At the ſame time, ſince no man can pretend to any purſuit of it; and has given us ſtrong affections, to be the ſprings natural right to fix the principles of faith for another, they teach of each virtuous action. unbelievers, and by their example authorize them, to reject the Public Sense is defined by the ſame author to be our determi- principles of religion by the ſame fummary and fuperficial proceſs, nation to be pleaſed with the happineſs of others, and to be un- as what appear to them to be, at firſt ſight, too abſurd and ridi- eaſy at their miſery. This, he ſays, is found in ſome degree in culous to be admitted as true and divine. all men, and was ſometimes called xolvovonuoouun, or fenfus commu Dr. Prieſtley apprehends, that the inconveniences abovemen- nis, by ſome of the ancients. Sargoby a tioned, may attend even the calling of that faculty by which we dif- Common Sense, is a term that has been variouſly uſed both by cern truth by the name of ſenſe. By this term philoſophers in gene- ancient and modern writers. With ſome it has been fynonymous ral have denominated thoſe faculties, in conſequence of which we with public ſenſe; with others it has denoted prudence; in certain are liable to feelings relative to ourſelves only, and from which they inſtances it has been confounded with ſome of the powers of taſte; have not pretended to draw any concluſions concerning the nature and accordingly, thoſe who commit egregious blunders with regard of things : whereas truth is a thing not relative, but abfolute and to decorum, ſaying and doing what is offenſive to their company, real, independent of any relation to this or that particular being, or and inconſiſtent with their own character, have been charged with this or that order of beings. Beſides, if the determinations of this a defect in common ſenſe. Some men are diſtinguiſhed by an un new principle of common ſenſe be ſo inſtantaneous, irreſiſtible, and common acuteneſs in diſcovering the characters of others; and this infallible, as Dr. Reid, Dr. Beattie, and Dr. Oſwald repreſent, talent has been ſometimes called common ſenſe : ſimilar to which how can we account for all the error there is in the world ? Not to is that uſe of the term, which makes it to ſignify that experience add, that this ſyſtem, in its practical influence, tends to prevent the and knowledge of life which is acquired by living in ſociety. t exerciſe of free and unreſtricted enquiry, with regard either to truth But the term common ſenſe hath in modern times been uſed to or duty; and to promote, in many caſes, the extravagancies of fignify that power of the mind which perceives truth, or commands credulity, enthuſiaſm, and myſticiſm. Dr. Prieſtley alſo obſerves, belief, not by progreſſive argumentation, but by an inſtantaneous, that Dr. Price, in his Review of the Principal Queſtions and Diffi- inſtinctive, and irreſiſtible impulſe; derived neither from educa-culties in Morals, 8vo. though unnoticed by the writers above cited, tion nor from habit, but from nature, acting independently of our by maintaining that the underſtanding is the ſource of many of our will, whenever its object is preſented, according to an eſtabliſhed moſt important ſimple ideas (fee IDEA), has ſecured all the flatter- law, and therefore called ſenſe; and acting in a ſimilar manner upon ing advantages of the new doctrine of common ſenſe, without the all, or at leaſt upon a great majority of mankind, and therefore capital inconveniences attending it. Like this ſyſtem, his ſcheme called common ſenſe. The firſt among the moderns who took cuts off, if it be admitted, all objections to primary moral truths, notice of this principle, as one of the ſprings of our knowledge, reſiſting them on a ſimple appeal to the faculty of intuition ; and was Buffier, a French philoſopher of the preſent century, in a refuſing to reaſon upon a ſubject, which is maintained to be as book entitled Traité des Premières Veritez; and this doctrine hath evident as the truth of the geometrical axiom, that if equal things lately, in our own country, been illuſtrated and maintained by be taken from equal things, the remainder will be equal. If the Dr. Reid, Beattie, Oſwald, and Campbell. It is impoſſible to ideas of moral right and wrong, &c. be perceived-by a ſenſe, it de- teach common ſenſe to one who wants it ; though this, like other pends upon our arbitrary conſtitution, that we conceive of them as inſtincts, may languiſh for want of exerciſe ; and that a diſtinc- we do, or whether we perceive them at all; and we have no method tion, ſimilar to that which is here maintained, is acknowledged by whatever of inveſtigating, whether they have any foundation in the the vulgar, who ſpeak of natural wit, as ſomething different from abſolute nature of things: whereas, by making moral ideas the object po SEN SEN object of the underſtanding,asſuch, the principles of morality become , tion ſignifies the act by which we become conſcious of external part of the ſyſtem of neceſſary, eternal, and unalterable truth, per objects. It differs from conſciouſneſs of an internal action, ſuch ceived by the divine Being, as by ourſelves, but altogether indepen- asthinking, fufpending thought, inclining, reſolving, willing, &c. dent of his will, as well as of all other beings and things whatſo And it differs from the conception of a relation among objects ; a ever; as much ſo as the truth of the axiom before mentioned, or of conception of that kind being termed opinion. the propoſition that two and two make four. It is added, that SENTIMENT, in poetry. To talk in the language of muſic, theſe writers ſeem to have borrowed their language, as well as their each paſſion hatha certain tone, to which every ſentiment proceed- ideas from Dr. Price, who alſo uſes the term common ſenſe, though ing from it ought to be turned with the greateſt accuracy: which is applied in a different manner. Reid's Enquiry into the Human no eaſy work, eſpecially where ſuch harmony ought to be ſupported Mind, on the Principles of Common Senſe. 8vo. ed. 2. 1765. during the courſe of a long theatrical repreſentation. In order to Beattie's Eſſay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth. 8vo.ed. reach ſuch delicacy of execution, it is neceſſary that a writer affume 2. 1771. Oſwald's Appeal to Common Senſe in behalf of Reli- the preciſe character and paſſion of the perſonage repreſented; gion. 8vo. ed. 2. 1768. Campbell's Philoſophy of Rhetoric. 8vo. which requires an uncommon genius. But it is the only difficul- 1776. vol. 1. p. 109, &c. Prieſtley's Examination of Reid, Beattie, ty ; for the writer, who, annihilating himſelf, can thus become a- and Oſwald, &c. 8vo, 1774. For a further account of this ſyſtem, nother perſon, need be in no pain about the ſentiments that belong fee ABSTRACTION and IDEA. to the aſſumed character: there will flow without the leaſt ſtudy, SENSITIVE PLANT. The ſenſitive and humble plants are or even preconception ; and will frequently be as delightfully new arranged by Linnæus under the fame Genus with the acacias. Theſe to himſelf as to his reader. But if a lively picture even of a ſingle are well known to poſſeſs a kind of muſcular motion, by which the emotion, require an effort of genius, how much more the effort to leaves and ſtalks are contracted, and fall down upon being ſlightly compoſe a paſſionate dialogue with as many different tones of paf- touched, or ſhaken with ſome degree of violence. The ſenſibility fion as there are ſpeakers? With what ductility of feeling muſt oftheſe plants is lodged in the young branches, in the common foot- that writer be endued, who approaches perfection in ſuch a work ; ſtalk of the winged leaves and in the nerve or middle rib to which when it is neceſſary to aſſume different and even oppoſite charac- the robes or leſier leaves are attached. Theſe different motions, ters and paſſions, in the quickeſt ſucceſſion? Yet this work, diffi- which ſeem to be totally independent of each other, may be aptly cult as it is, yields to that of compofing a dialogue in genteel come- enough compared, hy analogy, with the irritability of certain parts dy, exhibiting characters without paſſion. The reaſon is, that the in animals. The ſenſitive plant has two kinds of motion : the one different tones of character are more delicate, and leſs in fight than natural, occaſioned by the action of warm nouriſhing vapours ; the thoſe of paſſion: and, accordingly, many writers who have no genius other artificial, in conſequence of being touched or ſhaken. With for drawing characters, repreſent, tolerably well, an ordinary paf- whatever body the ſenſitive plant is touched or irritated, it is re- fion in its ſimple movements. But of all works of this kind, what markable that the ſenſibility reſides particularly in the articulation is truly the moſt difficult, is a characteriſtical dialogue upon anyphi- or joining either of the branches of the common foot-ſtalk,or of the loſophical ſubject : to interweave characters with reaſoning, by fuit- particular foot-ſtalk, of each wing. The time which a branch re ing to the character ofeach ſpeaker a peculiarity not only of thought quires to recover itſelf after being touched, varies according to the but of expreſſion, requires the perfection of genius, taſte, and vigour of the plant, the hour of the day, the ſeaſon of the year, or judgment. The truth is, ſuch execution is too delicate for an or- the heat and other circumſtances of the atmoſphere. The order in dinary genius; and for that reaſon the bulk of writers, inſtead of which the parts recover themſelves varies in like manner : fome- expreſſing a paſſion as one who feels it, content themſelves with times it is the common foot-ſtalk ; ſometimes the rib to which the deſcribing it in a lifeleſs inanimate manner. lobes are attached ; and ſometimes the lobes themſelves are expand To awake paſſion by an internal effort merely, without any ex- ed, before the other parts have made any attempt to be reinſtated ternal cauſe, requires great fenfibility; and yet that operation is in their former poſition. If, without ſhaking the other ſmaller neceffary, not leſs to the writer than to the actor : becauſe none leaves, we cut off the half of a lobe belonging to the laſt pair,at the but thoſe who actually feel a paſſion can repreſent it to the life. extremity or ſummit of a wing, the leaf cut, and its antagoniſt, The writer's part is the more complicated: he muſt add compofi- that is to ſay, the firſt pair, begin to approach each other; then tion to paffion; and, muſt, in the quickeſt ſucceſſion, adopt every the ſecond; and ſo on ſucceſſively, till all the leſſer leaves, or different character. lobes of that wing, have collapſed in like manner. Unhappy is the player of genius who acts a part in what may Different from allkinds of ſenſitive plants hitherto known, is the be termed a deſcriptive tragedy; after aſſuming the very paſſion dionæ a muſcipula, or Venus's mouſe-trap, a plant lately diſcovered that it is to be repreſented, how is he cramped in action, when he in the ſwamps of North America. The Negroes in Senegal call a muſt utter, not the ſentiments of the paſſion he feels, but a cold large ſpecies of ſenſitive plant which grows in that country,guerac deſcription in the language of a byſtander? It is that imperfection kiao, that is, “ good morrow ;” becauſe, ſay they, when you touch undoubtedly, in the bulk of our plays, which confines our ſtage it, or draw near to ſpeak to it, the plant immediately inclines its almoſt entirely to Shakeſpeare, notwithſtanding his many irregu- leaves, to wiſh you, as it were, good morning, and to ſhew yoularities. In our modern Engliſh tragedies, we ſometimes find fen- that it is ſenſible of the politeneſs done it. In the ſame country is timents tolerably well adapted to a plain paſfion : but we muſt not produced a ſmall fenfitive plant, that is rampant, not ſpinous, and in any of them expect a ſentiment expreſſive of character; and which Mr. Adanſon affirms to be infinitely more delicate and ſenfi- upon that very account, our late performances of the dramatic ble than all the other ſpecies. The cauſe of this and the other mo kind are for the moſt part intolerably inſipid. But it may be pro- tions of plants is merely external. The motions themſelves, there- per to illuſtrate this ſubject by examples. The inſtances are chiefly fore, are not ſpontaneous as in perfect animals, which have that borrowed from Shakeſpeare, who for genius in dramatic compoſi- cauſe dependent on their choice and will. How mary imperfect tion ſtands uppermoſt in the rolls of fame. The following fenti- animals, however, are there, ſuch as thoſe in animal and vegetable ments, dictated by a violent and perturbed paſſion, are: infuſions, the polypes and animalcules in ſeed, whoſe certain mo Lear. Filial ingratitude! tions, like thofe of the plants in queſtion, are perhaps to be attribu Is it not as if this mouth ſhould tear this hand ted to heat, light, and other external cauſes? and again, how many, For lifting food to’t ?-But I'll puniſh home; as the gall infects, the oyſter, and other ſhell-fiſh, have not a mo No, I will weep no more. In ſuch a night, tion ſo preceptible nor rapid as that of Venus's mouſe-trap and To ſhut me out ! Pour on, I will endure. the fenſitive plant ! In ſuch a night as this ! O Regan, Gonerill, SENSORY, SENSORIUM Commune, the ſeat of the common Your old kind father, whoſe frank heart gave all fenſe, or that part or place where the ſenſible foul is ſuppoſed more O! that way madneſs lies; let me fhun that; immediately to reſide. The ſenſory is ſuppoſed to be that part of Kent. Good, my lord, enter here. the brain wherein the nerves, from all the organs of ſenſe, termi Lear. Pr’ythee, go in thyſelf, feek thine own eafe, nate ; which is generally allowed to be about the beginning of the This tempeſt will not give me leave to ponder medulla oblongata: Deſcartes will have it in the cenarion or pineal On things would hurt me more :--but Ill go gland. Sir Iſaac Newton deſcribes the ſenſory of animals as the In boy, go firſt, You houſeleſs poverty place to which the ſenſible ſpecies of things are carried through the Nay, get thee in; I'll pray, and then I'll ſleep- nerves and brain, that they may be there perceived by their imme Poor naked wretches, wherefoe'er you are, diate preſence to the ſoul. The organs of ſenſe are not intended That bide the pelting of this pitile's ſtorm! for enabling the ſoul to perceive the ſpecies of things in its ſenſory; How ſhall your houſeleſs heads, and unfed fides, but only for conveying them thither. The ſame great author con Your loop'd and window'd raggedneſs defend you ſiders the univerſe as the ſenſory of the godhead. From ſeaſons ſuch as theſe ;-----O I have ta'en SENTENCE, in law, Doom; a judgment paſſed in court by the Too little care of this ! take phyfie, Pomp ; judge, upon ſome proceſs either civil or criminal. See JUDGMENT. Expoſe thyſelf to feel what wretches feel, SENTENCE, in grammar, denotes a period, or a ſet of words That thou may'ſt ſhake the fuperflux to them, comprehending ſome perfect ſenſe or ſentiment of the mind. And thew the heavens more juſt. King Lear, acl 3. ſc.5. Every ſentence compr hends at leaſt two words. The buſineſs of The next is an example of the fame kind, expreſſing ſenti- pointing it to diſtinguiſh the ſeveral parts and members of fenten ments ariſing from remorſe and deſpair : ces, ſo as to render the ſenſe thereof the cleareſt, apteſt, and fulleſt Othello. Lo! I have a weapon : poſſible. See PUNCTUATION, in the Syſtem, Chap. IV. A better never did itſelf ſuſtain SENTIMENT, is a term appropriated to ſuch thoughts as are Upon a foldier's thigh. I've ſeen the day, prompted by paſſion. It differs from a perception : for a percep That with this little arm, and this good ſword, I've in; No. 138. SE A S E A A & 2. fc. . j I've made my way through more impediments What thou ſhould be : the occaſion ſpeaks thee, and Than twenty times your ſtop. But, oh vain boaſt! My ſtrong imagination fees a crown Who can control his fate ? 'tis not ſo now. Dropping upon thy head. Be not afraid, though you do ſee me weapon'd, There cannot be a finer picture of this kind, than that of king Here is my journey's end, here is my butt, John foliciting Hubert to murder the young prince Arthur : The very ſea-mark of my utmoſt fail. K. John. Come heither, Hubert. O my gentle Hubert, Do you go back diſmay'd 'tis a loft fear. We owe thee much'; within this wall of fieſh Man but a ruſh againſt Othello's breaſt, There is a foul counts thee her creditor. And he retires. Where ſhould Othello go And with advantage means to pay thy love. Now-how doſt thou look now! Oh ill-ſtarr'd wench ! And, my good friend, thy voluntary oath Pale as thy ſmock! when we ſhall meet at compt, Lives in this boſom, dearly cheriſhed. This look of thine will hurl my ſoul from heav'n Give me thy hand, I had a thing to ſay And fiends will ſnach at it. Cold, cold, my girl ; But I will fit it with ſome better time. Ev'n like thy chaſtity. O curſed ſlave ! By heav'n, Hubert, I'm almoſt aſham'd Whip me, ye devils, To ſay what good reſpect I have of thee. From the poſſeſſion of this heav'nly fight : Hubert. I am much bounden to your majeſty. Blow me about in winds, roaſt me in fulphur, K. John. Good friend, thou haſt no cauſe to ſay ſo yet Waſh me in ſteep-down gulfs of livid fire But thou ſhall have—and creep time ne'er ſo Now, Oh, Deſdemona ! Deſdemona ! dead! dead! oh! oh! Yet it ſhall come for me to do thee good. Othello act 5. ſc. 9. I had a thing to ſay—but, let it go : The ſun is in the heav'n, and the proud day, The ſentiments here diſplayed flow fo natural from the paſſions Attended with the pleaſures of the world, repreſented, that we cannot conceive any imitation more perfect. Is all too wanton and too full of gawds Paſſions ſeldom continue uniform any conſiderable time : they ge- To give me audience. If the midnight-bell nerally fluctuate, ſwelling and ſubſiding by turns, often in a quick Did with its iron-tongue and brazen mouth ſucceſſion ; and the ſentiments cannot be juſt unleſs they corref- Sound one into the drowſy race of night'; pond to ſuch fluctuation. Accordingly, a climax never ſhows If this ſame were a church-yard where we ſtand, better than in expreſſing a ſwelling paſſion : the following paſſages And thou pofſeffed of a thouſand wrongs ; may ſuffice for an illuſtration. Or if that ſurly ſpirit melancholy Oroonoko. Can you raiſe the dead? Had bak'd thy blood, and made it heavy-thick, Purſue and overtake the wings of time? Which elſe runs trickling up and down the veins, And bring about again the hours, the days, The years, that made me happy! Oroonoko, act 2. ſc.2. Making that ideot Laughter keep men's eyes, And ſtrain their cheeks to idle merriment, I would not be the villain that thou think'ſt (A paſſion hateful to my purpoſes); For the whole ſpace that's in the tyrants graſp, Or if thou couldſt ſee me without eyes, And the rich earth to boot. Macbeth, act 4. fc. 4. Hear me without thine ears, and make reply In the tragedy of Jane Shore, Alicia, in the full purpoſe of de Without a tongue, uſing conceit alone, ſtroying her rival, has the following reflection : Without eyes, ears, and harmful ſounds of words; Oh Jealouſy! thou bane of pleaſing friendſhip, Then, in deſpite of broad ey'd watchful day, Thou worſt invader of our tender boſoms; I would into thy boſom pour my thoughts. How does thy rancour poiſon all our ſoftneſs, But ah, I will not.—Yet I love thee well And turn your gentle nature into bitterneſs! And, by my troth, I think thou lov'ſt me well. See where ſhe comes ! Once my heart's deareſt bleſſing, Hubert. So well, that what you bid me undertake, Now my chang'd eyes are blaſted with her beauty, Though that my death were adjunct to my act, Loathe that known face, andı ſicken to behold her. Aet 3.ſc.1. By heav'n. I'd do't. A perſon ſometimes is agitated at once by different paſſions ; and K. John. Do not I know thou would'ſt ? the mind in that caſe, vibrating like a pendulum, vents itſelf in fen- Good, Hubert, Hubert, Hubert, throw thine eye timents that partake of the ſame vibration. This we give as ano- On yon young boy. I'll tell thee what, my friend; ther obſervation. He is a very ſerpent in my way. Queen. Would I had never trod this Engliſh earth, And wherefoev'r this foot of mine doth tread, Or felt the flatteries that grow upon it! He lies before me. Doſt thou underſtand me? Ye've angels faces, but heav'n knows your hearts. . Thou art his keeper.. King John, Act 3. ſc. 5. What ſhall become of me now ? wretched lady ! There are faulty ſentiments of various kinds, of which we ſhall I am the moſt unhappy woman living. cite a few inſtances. Othello. Alas! poor wenches, where are now your fortunes ? O my ſoul's joy! [To her women. If after every tempeſt come ſuch calms, Shipwreck'd upon a kingdom where no piety, May the winds blow till they have waken’d death : No friend, no hope, no kindred, weep for me! And let the labouring bark climb hills and feas Almoſt, no grave allowed me. Henry VIII, act 3. ſc. I. Olympus high, and duck again as low As hell's from heaven? Othello. Oh devil, devil ! Othello, act 2. fc. 6. If that the earth could teem with woman's tears, This ſentiment may be ſuggeſted by violent inflamed paſſion; but is not ſuited to the ſatisfaction, however great, that one feels Each drop ſhe falls would prove a crocodile. Out of upon eſcaping danger. my ſight! The ſentiments of the Mourning Bride are for the moſt part no Oth. Ay ; you did wiſh that I would make her turn: lefs delicate than juſt copies of nature : in the following exception Sir, ſhe can turn and turn, and yet go on ; And turn again. And ſhe can weep, Sir, weep ; the picture is beautiful, but too artful to be ſuggeſted by ſeveregrief . And ſhe's obedient: as you ſay, very obedient. Had they or hearts or eyes, that did this deed ? Could Æmilia. Oh! mygood lord I would ſpeak a word with you. eyes endure to guide ſuch cruel hands? Othello. Yes ; ’tis Æmelia-By and by:-She's dead. Are not my eyes guilty alike with theirs, 'Tis like ſhe's come to ſpeak of Caſſio's death ; That thus can gaze, and yet not turn to ſtone ? The noiſe was high-Ha! no more moving ? -I do not weep ! The ſprings of tears are dry'd, And of a ſudden I am calm, as if Still as the grave. Shall ſhe come in ? were't good ? I think ſhe ſtirs again-No-what's the beſt? All things were well ; and yet my huſband's murderd ! If ſhe come in, ſhe'll, ſure, ſpeak to my wife : Yes, yes, I know to moan : I'll ſluice this heart, My wife ! my wife! What wife? I have no wife: The ſource of woe, and let the torrent in. A Et 5. ſc, 11. Oh inſupportable! oh heavy hour! Othello. act. 5. ſc. 7. Pope's elegy to the memory of an unfortunate lady, expreſies de- licately the moſt tender concern and ſorrow that one can feel for the Hence a capital rule in repreſentation of immoderate paſſions, deplorable fate of a perſon of worth. Such a poem, deeply ſerious is, that they ought to be hid or diſſembled as much as poſſible. And and pathetic, rejects with diſdain all fiction. Upon that account, this holds in an eſpecial manner with reſpect to criminal paſſions : the following paſſage deſerves no quarter; for it is not the language one never counſels the commiſſion of a crime in plain terms ; guilt of the heart, but of the imagination, indulging its fights at eaſe, muſt not appear in its native colours, even in thought; the propoſal and by that means is eminently diſcordant with the ſubject. It muſt be made by hints, and by repreſenting the action in ſome fa would be a ſtill more fevere cenſure if it ſhould be aſcribed to imi- vourable light. Of the propriety of ſentiment upon ſuch an occa tation, copying indiſcreetly what has been ſaid by others : fion, Shakeſpeare, in the Tempeſt, has given us a beautiful exam What tho' no weeping loves thy aſhes grace, ple, in a ſpeech by the uſurping duke of Milan, adviſing Sebaſtian Nor poliſh'd marble emulate thy face? to murder his brother the king of Naples : What though no facred earth allow'd thee room, Antonio. What might, Nor hallow'd dirge be mutter'd o'er thy tomb ? Worthy Sebaſtian,--0, what might--no more Yet ſhall thy grave with riſing flow'rs be dreſt, And yet, methinks, I ſee it in thy face And the green turf lie lightly on thy breaſt: SEP S E R There ſhall the morn her earlieſt tears beſtow, ſubſiſts in the churches both of the eaſt and weſt. It is however There the firſt roſes of the year ſhall blow ; obſervable, that the chronology of the feptuagint is different from While angels with their ſilver wings o'erſhade the Hebrew text. The ground, now facred by thy relics made, SEPTUM, in anatomy, an incloſure, or partition; a term ap- The Lady Macbeth, projecting the death of the king, has the plied to ſeveral parts of the body, which ferve to ſeparate one following ſoliloquy. part from another; as, ſeptum narium, or partition between the The raven himſelf's not hoarſe noſtrils, &c. That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan SEPULCHRE, SEPULCHRUM, a tomb, or place deſtined for Under my battlements. Come, all you ſpirits interment of the dead. The term is chiefly uſed in ſpeaking of That tend on mortal thoughts, unſex me here, the burying-places of the ancients; thoſe of the moderns we uſually And fill me from the crown to the toe, top-full call tombs. The pyramids are ſuppoſed to have been built as fe- Of direct cruelty ; make thick my blood, pulchres for the kings of Egypt. And the obeliſks had generally Stop up th' acceſs and paſſage to remorſe, the ſame intention. Sepulchres were held ſacred and in violable, That no compunctious viſitings of nature and the care taken thereof was deemed a religious duty, grounded Shake my fell purpoſe. Macbeth, act i.fc.7. on the fear of God, and the belief of the ſoul's immortality. Thoſe who ſearched or violated them have been odious to all nations, and This ſpeech is not natural. A treacherous murder was never always ſeverely puniſhed. The Egyptians called their fepulchres, perpetrated even by the moſt hardened miſcreant without com- eternal houſes, in contradiſtinction to their houſes and palaces, punction. Oſmyn. Yet I behold her—yct—and now no more. which they called inns; by reaſon of the ſhort lojourn we have in Turn your lights inward, Eyes, and view my thought ; the one, in compariſon of our long ſtay in the other. The eaſtern pilgrimages are all made with deſign to viſit the holy ſepulchre, that So ſhall you ſtill behold her—'Twill not be. is, the tomb of Jeſus Chriſt. Nobody enters here but bare-footed, O impotence of ſight! mechanic ſenſe, and with abundance of ceremonies. The Turks exact twenty- Which to exterior objects ow'ſt thy faculty, Not ſeeing of election, but neceſſity. four crowns of each pilgrim, whom devotion carries to the holy ſepulchre. Thus do our eyes, as do all common mirrors, SEQUESTRATION, SE QUESTRAT10, in common law, the Succeſſively reflect ſucceeding images. act of ſeparating a thing in controverſy from the poſſeſſion of both Nor what they would, but muſt; a ſtar or toad; parties, till the right be determined by courſe of law. Juſt as the hand of chance adminiſters! SERAGLIO, formed of the Turkiſh word farai, which is bor- Mourning Bride, aft 2. ſc. 8. rowed from the Perſian ſeraw, ſignifying a houſe, among the Levan- No man in his ſenſes, ever thought of applying his cyes to dif tines, denotes the palace of a prince or lord. At Conſtantinople cover what paſſes in his mind; far leſs of blaming his eyes for not they ſay the ſeraglio of the ambaſſador of England, of France, &c. ſeeing a thought or idea. The ſeraglio is uſed, by way of eminence, for the palace of the Ventidius. But you, ere love miſled your wandering eyes, grand ſignior at Conſtantinople, where he keeps his court, and where Were fure the chief and beſt of human race, his concubines are lodged, and where the youth are trained up for Fram'd in the very pride and boaſt of nature, the chief poſts of the empire. It is a triangle about three Italian So perfect, that the gods who form'd you, wonder'd miles round, wholly within the city, at the end of the promontory At their own ſkill, and cry'd, A lucky hit Chryſoceras, now called the Seraglio Point. The buildings run Has mended our deſign. Dryden, All for Love, act 1. back to the top of the hill, and from thence are gardens that reach Not to talk of the impiety of this ſentiment, it is ludicrous in to the edge of the ſea. It is encloſed with a very high and ſtrong ſtead of being lofty. wall, upon which are ſeveral watch towers: and it has many gates, SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, reckoned from ſome of which open towards the ſea fide, and the reſt into the city: January, and the ſeventh from March, whence its name, viz. from but the chief gate is one of the latter, which is conſtantly guarded Jeptimus, ſeventh. by a company of capoochees, or porters: and in the night it is well SEPTÉNNIAL, any thing laſting ſeven years. guarded towards the ſea. SEPTENNIAL Elections. Blackſtone, in his Commentaries, The outward appearance, du Loir tells us, is not beautiful, in re- Vol. I. p. 189, ſays, (after obſerving that the utmoſt extent of gard the architecture is irregular, being cantoned out into ſeparate time allowed the ſame parliament to ſit by the ſtat. 6 W. and M. edifices and apartments, in manner of pavilions and domes. No c. 2. was three years,) ~ But, by the ſtatute i Geo. I. ſt. 2. c. 38. ſtranger, it is ſaid, has ever yet been admitted to the inmoſt parts of (in order profeſſedly to prevent the great and continued of the feraglio. The old ſeraglio is the place where the emperor's old frequent elections, and the violent heats and animoſities conſequent miſtreſſes, and the ſultanas that have belonged to the deceaſed grand thereupon, and for the peace and ſecurity of the government, juſt ſigniors, are kept. The ladies of the haram, which is the part al- then recovering from the late rebellion,) this term was prolonged to lotted to the women, are a collection of young beautiful girls, who, ſeven years; and what alone is an inſtance of the vaſt authority of on their admiſſion, are committed to the charge of ſome old lady, parliament, the very ſame houſe that was choſen for three years and taught muſic, dancing, and other accompliſhments. Theſe fre- enacted its own continuance for feven." quently play and dance before the grand fignior, while others enter- SEPTENTRIO, or SePTENTRIONES, in aſtronomy, a nor- tain him with their converſation. Beſides theſe ladies, there are a thern conſtellation of ſtars. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. great many black eunuchs and female ſlaves in the feraglio, whoſe SEPTICS, among phyſicians, an appellation given to all ſuch buſineſs it is to guard and wait upon them. fubſtances as promote putrefaction. From the many curious ex SERENADE, SERENATA, a kind of concert given in the periments made by Dr. Pringle to aſcertain the ſeptic and antiſeptic night-time by a lover, at his miſtreſs's door, or under her window. virtues of natural bodies, it appears that there are very few ſub- Sometimes it conſiſts wholly of inſtrumental muſic ; ſometimes ſtances of a truly ſeptic nature: fee PUTREFACTION. voices are added, and the pieces compoſed or played on theſe oc- SEPTUAGESIMA, in the calendar, denote the third Sunday caſions, are alſo called ſerenades. This is ſtill practifed in Spain. before Lent, or before quadrageſima ; and quinquageſima is the SERJEANT, Common, an officer in the city of London, who next before quadrageſima, then ſexagefima, and feptuageſima : attends the lord mayor and court of aldermen on court days, and theſe were all days appropriated by the church to acts of penance is in council with them on all occaſions, within and without the and mortification, by way of preparing for the devotion of the precincts or liberties of the city. He was to take care of orphans Lent enſuing. eſtates, either by taking account of them, or to ſign their inden- SEPTUAGINT, the name given to a Greek verſion of the tures, before their paſſing the lord mayor and court of aldermen: books of the Old Teſtament, from its being ſuppoſed to be per- and he was likewiſe to let and manage the orphans eſtates, accord- formed by ſeventy-two Jews, who are uſually called the ſeventy in ing to his judgment, to their beſt advantage. terpreters. The hiſtory of this verſion is expreſsly written by SerJEANT, or Sergeant, in war, is a non-commiſſioned or in- Ariſtæas, an officer of the guards to Ptolemy Philadelphus, the ſub- ferior officer in a company of foot, or troop of dragoons; appointed ſtance of whoſe account is as follows: Ptolemy having erected a to fee diſcipline obſerved, to teach the foldiers their exerciſe fine library at Alexandria, which he took care to fill with the moſt and other duty. See the Treatiſe on MILITARY AFFAIRS, curious and valuable books from all parts of the world, wasinformed Sect. IV. that the Jews had one containing the laws of Moſes, and the hiſtory SERIES, a continual ſucceſſion of things in the ſame order, and of that people; and being deſirous of enriching his library with a which have ſome relation or connexion with each other. Greek tranſlation of it, applied to the high-prieſt of the Jews; and SERIES, in algebra, denotes a rank or progreſſion of qnan- to engage him to comply with his requeſt, ſet at liberty all the Jews tities, increaſing or decreaſing in ſome conſtant ratio, which, in whom his father Ptolemy Soter had reduced to ſlavery. After ſuch its progreſs, approaching ſtill nearer and nearer to ſome ſought va- a ſtep, he eaſily obtained what he deſired; Eleazer the Jewith high- lue, and the terms continually decreaſing, is called a converging ſe- prieſt fent back his ambaſſadors with an exact copy of the Moſaical ries; and, if infinitely continued, becomes equal to that quantity; law, written in letters of gold, and fix elders of each tribe, in all whence its uſual appellation of infinite ſeries. See the Syſtem, ſeventy two; who were received with marks of reſpect by the king, throughout. This verſion was in uſe to the time of our bleſſed Saviour, and is SERPENT, in aſtronomy, a conſtellation in the northern that out of which all the citations in the New Teſtament, from the hemiſphere, called more particularly Serpens. See the Syſtem, Old, are taken. It was alſo the ordinary and canonical tranſlation Sect. VIII. made uſe of by the Chriſtian church in the earlieſt ages, and it ſtill SEPPENT, ſerpens; in zoology, a general term for all amphi- bious SER SE T bious animals without legs. See COLUGER, ANGUIS, CÆ at this day, that conſider them with veneration and regard. The CILIA, AMPHISBÆNA, CROTALUS, &c. adoration paid by the ancient Egyptians to a ſerpent, is well known: The ſerpent has from the beginning been the enemy of man; and many of the nations at preſent along the weſtern coaſt of Africa it has hitherto continued to terrify and annoy him, notwithſtanding retain the ſame unaccountable veneration. Upon the gold and all the arts which have been practiſed to deſtroy it. Formidable in llave coaſts, a ſtranger, upon entering the cottages of the natives, is itſelf, it deters the invader from the purſuit ; and from its figure, often ſurpriſed to ſee the roof ſwarming with ſerpents, that cling But his capable of finding ſhelter in a little ſpace, it is not eaſily diſcovered there without moleſting, and unmoleſted by the natives. by thoſe who would ventute to try the encounter. Thus pofſeffed ſurpriſe will increaſe upon going farther fouthward to the kingdom at once of potent arms and inacceſſible or ſecure retreats, it baffles of Widah, when he finds that a ferpent is the god of the country. all the arts of man, though ever ſo earneſtly bent upon its deſtruc- | This animal, which travellers deſcribe as a huge overgrown cream tion. For this reaſon, there is ſcarce a country in the world that ture, has its habitation, its temple, and its prieſts. Theſe impreſs does not ſtill give birth to this poiſonous brood, that ſeem formed to the vulgar with an opinion of its virtues; and numbers are daily ſeen quell human pride, and repreſs the boaſts of ſecurity. Mankind to offer not only their goods, their proviſions, and their prayers, at have driven the lion, the tiger, and the wolf, from their vicinity; the ſhrine of their hideous deity, but alſo their wives and daughters . but the ſnake and the viper ftill defy their power. Their numbers, Theſe the prieſts readily accept of, and after ſome days of penance, however, are thinned by human aſſiduity ; and it is probable fome return them to their ſuppliants , much benefited by the ſerpent's fup- of the kinds are wholly deſtroyed. In none of the countries of poſed embraces, For a particular deſcription of the forms and cere- Europe are they ſufficiently numerous to be truly terrible. The monies uſed in the worſhip of the grand ferpent, and eſpecially various malignity that has been aſcribed to European ſerpents of thoſe attending the grand annual proceſſion to the temple, ſee old, is now utterly unknown ; there are not above three or four Bankes's Geography, page 333. For a repreſentation of it, ſee the kinds that are dangerous, and their poiſon operates in all in the Plate annexed. fame manner. See Poison. SERPENTARIUS, in aſtronomy, a conſtellation of the nor- The drowſy earth, the ſtarting of the blood from every pore, thern hemiſphere, called alſo Ophiuchus, and anciently Æfeu- the inſatiable and burning thirſt, the melting down the ſolid lapius. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. maſs of the whole form into one heap of putrefaction, ſaid to be SERRATUS, in anatomy, a name given to ſeveral muſcles, occaſioned by the bites of African ſerpents, are. horrors with from their reſemblance, in ſhape, to a ſaw. Such are the ſer? which we are entirely unacquainted. ralus anticus minor; ſerratus anticus major; ſerratus pofticus If we take a ſurvey of ferpents in general, they have marks by inferior; ſerratus poiicus ſuperior. See the Syſtem, Part II. which they are diſtinguiſhed from all the reſt of animated nature. Séct. II. Table of Muſcles, Art. 15, 16, 17, 18. For repreſen- They have the length and the ſuppleneſs of the eel, but want fins to tation, ſee Plate III. fig. 1. ſwim with; they have the ſcaly covering and pointed tail of the SERVANT, a term of relation, fignifying a perſon who owes lizard, but they want legs to walk with ; they have the crawling and pays obedience for a certain time to another, in quality of a motion of the worm, but, unlike that animal, they have lungs | maſter. As to the ſeveral ſorts of fervants, it was obſerved, under to breathe with: like all the reptile kind, they are reſentful the article Liberty, that pure and proper ſlavery does not, nay, can- when offended ; and nature has ſupplied them with terrible arms not, ſubſiſt in Britain ; ſuch, we mean, whereby an abſolute and to revenge every injury. unlimited power is given to the maſter over the life and fortune of Leguat aſſures us, that he ſaw.one in Java that was 50 feet long. the flave. And indeed it is repugnant to reaſon, and the principles Carli mentions their growing to above 40 feet; and we have now of natural law, that ſuch a ſtate ſhould ſubfiſt any where. The the ſkin of one in the Britiſh Mufæum that meaſures 32. Other three origins of the right of ſlavery, aſſigned by Juftinian, are all of creatures have a choice in their proviſion ; but the ſerpent indiſ them built upon falſe foundations. As, firſt, ſlavery is held to ariſe criminately preys upon all; the buffalo, the tiger, and the gazelle. jure gentium, from a ſtate of captivity in war; whence Naves are One would think that the porcupine's quills might be ſufficient to called mancipia,quaſi manu capti. The conqueror, ſay the civilians, protect it; but whatever has life, ſerves to appeaſe the hunger of had a right to the life of his captive; and, having ſpared that, has theſe devouring creatures : porcupines, with all their quills, have a right to deal with him as he pleafes. But it is an untrue poſition, frequently been found in their ſtomachs when killed and opened. when taken generally, that, by the law of nature or nations, a man nay, they moſt frequently are ſeen to devour each other. A life | may kill his enemy: he has only a right to kill him in particular of ſavage hoſtility in the foreſt, offers to the imagination one of the caſes ; in caſes of abſolute neceſſity, for ſelf-defence; and it is plain moſt tremendous pictures in nature. In thoſe burning countries, this abfolute neceſſity did not ſubliſt, ſince the victor did not actu- where the ſun dries up every brook for hundreds of miles round; ally kill him, but made him priſoner. War is itſelf juſtifiable only when what had the appearance of a great river in the rainy ſeaſon, on principles of ſelf-preſervation : and therefore it gives no other becomes, in ſummer, one dreary bed of fand; in thoſe countries, right over priſoners, but merely to diſable them from doing harm a lake that is never dry, or a brook that is perennial, is conſidered to us, by confining their perſons : much leſs can it give a right to by every animal as the greateſt convenience of nature. When they kill, torture, abufe, plunder, or even to enſlave an enemy, when the have diſcovered this, no dangers can deter them from attempting to war is over. Since, therefore, the right of making flaves by cap- quench their thirſt. Thus the neighbourhood of a rivulet, in the tivity, depends on a ſuppoſed right of ſlaughter, that foundation heart of the tropical continents, is generally the place where all the failing, the conſequence drawn from it muſt fail likewiſe. hoſtile tribes of nature draw up for the engagement. On the banks engagement. On the banks There are ſeveral kinds of ſervants, as men-fervants appren- of this little envied ſpot, thouſands of animals of various kinds are ticcs, labourers, ſtewards, bailiffs, &c. ſeen venturing to quench their thirſt, or preparing to ſeize their prey. SERVITOR, in the Univerſity of Oxford, a ſcholar or ſtudent, Theelephants are perceived in a long line, marching from the darker who attends and waits on another for his maintenance there. parts of the foreſt; the buffalos are there, depending upon numbers SERUM, a thin, tranſparent, watery liquor, ſomewhat faltiſh, for ſecurity ; the gazells relying ſolely upon their ſwiftneſs; the which makes a conſiderable part in the maſs of blood. The blood lion and tiger waiting a proper opportunity to ſeize; but chiefly the conſiſts of two kinds or parts ; the cruor, or red part ; and the larger ſerpents are upon guard there, and defend the acceſſes of the ſerum, or wheyiſh, limpid part. See the Syſtem of ANATOMY, lake. Not an hour pafies without ſome dreadful combat; but the Part V. Sect. V. and the Article Blood. ſerpent, defended by its ſcales, and naturally capable of ſuſtaining a SESSION, Sefio, denotes each fitting, or aſſembly, of a council. multitude of wounds, is, of all others, the moſt formidable. It is the In quoting councils, we ſay, in ſuch a ſeſſion, ſuch a canon, &c. moſt wakeful alſo; for the whole tribe ſleep with their eyes open, SESSION of Parliament, is a ſeaſon, or ſpace, from its meet- and are conſequently for ever upon the watch; ſo that, till their ing to its prorogation, or diffolution. See PARLIAMENT. rapacity is fatisfied, few other animals will venture to approach The Court of Session, otherwiſe called the college of juſtice, is their ſtation. the ſupreme court in Scotland for all civil cauſes. It conſiſts of one The ſerpent, inſtead of ſhortening the body, bends it into an conſtant preſident, who has an annual ſalary of 1300l. and fourteen arch; and this is the principal difference between ſerpentine and other judges, at 700l. per annum, each, who are lords by their vermicular progreſſion. Indeed, if we conſider the length and the office, which they hold by patent quamdiu ſe bene geſſerint. The lord weakneſs of the back-bone in all theſe animals; if we regard the high-chancellor preſides here when preſent. The king names ſe- make of the vertebræ, in which we ſhall find the junctures all veral other extraordinary lords, who ſit, but are not obliged to at- formed to give play, and none to give power; we cannot be of tendance, becauſe they have no ſalaries ; but they may vote among opinion that they have a faculty of ſpringing from the ground, as the reſt. An appeal lies from this court to the houſe of lords. they entirely want a fulcrum, if we may ſo expreſs it, from whence Court of Quarter Sessions. See QUARTER Seſſions. to take their ſpring; the whole body being compoſed of unfup SETON, Jetaceum, in ſurgery, &c. a kind of topical remedy, ported muſcles and joints that are yielding. The various calami- like a cautery, or an iſſue, to divert defluxions from the eyes, &c. ties that the poiſon of ferpents is capable of producing, are not by making a wound in the ſkin of the hind part of the neck, which only inflicted by the animal itſelf, but by men more miſchievous is kept ſuppurating, by means of a little ſkain of filk, or cotton, even than ferpents who prepare their venom to deſtroy each other. paffed through it. Setons are alſo ſometimes applied to fuch as are With this the favages poiſon their arms, and alſo prepare their re apt to fall into epileptic fits. They are of more efficacy than a com- vengeful potions. The ancients were known to preſerve it for the mon iſſue, but are preſcribed with much the ſame intention. The purpoſes of ſuicide; and even among ſemi-barbarous countries at like operation is frequently practiſed on horſes, &c. and called by this day, the venom of ſnakes is uſed as a philtre. the farriers, rowelling. Setons evacuate with a gentle pain; Though the generality of mankind regard this formidable race make the nerves diſcharge ſerum, and give vent to repletions and with horror, yet there have been fome nations, and there are ſome coacervation of humours, SET SHE SH E SETTING, in aſtronomy, the withdrawing of a ſtar or planet; | inhabitants of the feveral counties; in confirmation of which it was or its finking below the horizon. See the Syltem, Sect. III. ordained by 28 Edward I. c. 8, that the people ſhould have election SETTING of Wheat, in agriculture, is a method of cultivating of ſheriffs in every ſhire; where the ſhrievalty is not of inheritance; wheat. See the Syſtem, Sect. III. for anciently in ſome counties the ſheriffs were hereditary, as judge Act of SETTLEMENT, in Britiſh hiſtory, a name given to Blackſtone apprehends they were in Scotland, till the itatute the ſtatute 12 & 13 W. III. cap. 2. whereby the crown was limited 20 George II. c. 43. and ſtill continue in the county of Weſtmore- to his preſent majeſty's illuſtrious houſe; and ſome new proviſions land to this day; the city of London having alſo the inheritance of were added, at the ſame fortunate æra, for better ſecuring our reli the ſhrievalty of Middleſex veſted in their body by charter. By gion, laws, and liberties; which the ſtatute declares to be the birth four ſeveral ſtatutes it is enacted, that no one ſhall be ſheriff, ex- right of the people of England, according to the ancient doctrine cept he have ſufficient land within the ſhire to anſwer the king and of the common law. his people in any matter of complaint. 9 Edw. II. ſt. 2. 4. Edw. III. SEX, ſomething in the body, which diſtinguiſhes male from c. 9. 5 Edw. III. C. 4. 14 & 15 Car. II. c. 21. It has been ad- female. The number of perſons, of the two ſexes, are exceed judged, that an attorney is exempted from the office of ſheriff by ingly well balanced; ſo that every man may have his wife, and every reaſon of his attendance on the courts of Weſtminſter. By 2 Geo. woman her huſband. It is expreſsly forbidden by the law of Moſes III. c. 20. no perſon, during the time he is acting as a militia officer, to diſguiſe the ſex. von ſhall be obliged to ſerve the office of ſheriff. Proteſtant diſſenters, SEXTANS, the fextant, in aſtronomy, a conſtellation of the who are exempted by the TOLERATION act, from the obligation ſouthern hemiſphere. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. of complying with the requiſition of the CORPORATION act, and SEXTANT, in mathematics, denotes the fixth part of a circle, who can plead their non-compliance as a reaſonable and ſufficient or an arch comprehending fixty degrees: ſextant is more particu- excuſe, are not compellable to ſerve this office, nor of courſe to pay larly uſed for an aſtronomical instrument, made like a quadrant, any fine for refuſal. See Furneaux's Letters to Blackſtone, ed. 2. excepting that its limb only comprehends fixty degrees. For de and particularly the Appendix, containing lord Mansfield's ſpeech in fcription and uſes, ſee the Syſtem of NAVIGATION, Sect. V. For the houſe of lords 1767, on the cauſe between the city of London repreſentation, ſee ſyſtem of AsTRONOMY, Plate V. fig. 4.. and the diſſenters, when the houſe affirmed the unanimous judgment SEXUAL Syſtem, in botany, denotes that ſyſtem, which is of the commiſſioners delegates, who delivered their opinions ſeriatim, founded on a diſcovery, that there is in vegetables, as well as in on the 5th of July, 1762, after hearing counſel ſeveral days. animals, a diſtinction of the ſexes; or that plants propagate them By a by-law of the city of London, no freeman choſen Sheriff, felves by means of male and female organs, either growing upon &c. ſhall be excuſed, unleſs he voluntarily ſwears he is not worth the ſame tree, or upon different trees of the fame ſpecies. For the 10,000l. &c. and if he refuſes to take the office, he incurs a for- principal parts which conduce to fructification, ſee the Syſtem, feiture of 4001. The ſherif, before he exerciſes any part of his Sect. II. For the doctrine of the ſexual ſyſtem, ſee the Syſtem of office, and before his patent is made out, is to give ſecurity in the BOTANY, Sect. III. king's remembrancer's office in the exchequer, under the penalty SHADOW, in perſpective, a certain ſpace deprived of light, of 100l. for the payment of his proffers, and all other profits of the where the light is weakened by the interpoſition of ſome opake iheriffwick; he muſt alſo take the oaths of allegiance and abjura- body before the luminary. See the Syſtem, Sect. VII. and tion, and all, except the ſheriffs of Wales and Cheſter, an oath Plate III. appointed by 3 Geo. I. c. 15. fect. 18. for the due execution of SHAMMY, or CHAMMY, CHAMOIS, a kind of leather, either their office. This oath may be adminiſtered in purſuance of a writ dreſſed in oil, or tanned; much eſteemed for its ſoftneſs, pliancy, of dedimus poteftatem. &c. It is prepared from the ſkin of the charnois, a ſpecies of the The power and duty of a ſheriff are thoſe that belong to him as genus Capra; and appropriated to a great variety of uies. a judge, as a' keeper of the king's peace, as a miniſterial officer of SHARP, in muſic, a kind of artificial note or character (thus the ſuperior courts of juſtice, or as the king's bailiff. In his ju- formed, X): this, being prefixed to a note, ſhews that it is to be dicial capacity he is to hear and determine all cauſes of forty ſnil- ſung or played a femitone, or half a note, higher than the natural lings value and under, in his County Court; and he has alſo a ju- note would have been. See the Syſtem, under DEFINITIONS, dicial power in divers other civil caſes. He is likewiſe to decide Article IV. Plate II. the elections of knights of the ſhire (ſubject to the controul of the SHEARING. The beſt time for fhearing ſheep is about the houſe of commons), of coroners, and of verderors; to judge of the middle, or the latter end of June, becauſe it is good for them to qualification of voters, and to return ſuch as he ſhall deterinine to ſweat in the wool before it is cut. They muſt be very well waſhed be duly elected, but incapable of being elected himſelf for the before the fhearing, for this is a great addition to the price of the county, &c. of which he is returning officer. As the keeper of wool; after the waihing, let them go three or four days in a clean the king's peace, both by common law and ſpecial commiſſion, he dry ground. When they are cut, the ſhearer muſt be very careful is the firſt man in the county, and ſuperior in rank to any noble- not to wound their ſkins, becauſe this gives occaſion to the fies to inan therein, during his office. He may apprehend and commit teaze the poor creatures in a terrible manner. Some fhear their to priſon all perſons who break the peace, or attempt to break it; lambs, the firſt year eſpecially, behind: but before the doing of and may bind any one in a recognizance to keep the peace. He this they ought to be carefully tagged, as it is called; that is, their may, and is bound, ex oficio, to purſue and take all traitors, mur- tails and thighs behind ſhould be well cleared of wool, that the dung derers, felons, and other miſdoers, and commit them to gaol for may not hang there, which would elſe make them ſore, and ſubject ſafe cuſtody. He is alſo to defend his county againſt any of the them to fies, which would blow them, and make them full off king's enemies when they come into the land; and, for this pur- maggots. In Glouceſterſhire they houſe their ſheep every night, poſe, as well as for keeping the peace and purſuing felons, he may and litter them with clean ſtraw. Their dung makes this a very raiſe the poſſe comitatus. However, by the expreſs directions of good manure for the land, and the wool of the ſheep is rendered lo the great charter, the ſheriff, together with the conſtable, coro- much finer by it, that the farmers have a double advantage from ner, and certain other officers of the king, are forbidden to hold the practice. any pleas of the crown, or, in other words, to try any criminal SHECHINAH, in the Jewiſh hiſtory, the name of that mira- offence; for it would be highly unbecoming, that the executioners culous light, or viſible glory, which was a ſymbol of the ſpecial pre- of juſtice be alſo the judges; ſhould impofe as well as levy fines ſence of the Deity. This fhechinah, after it had conducted the and amercements; ſhould one day condemn a man to death, and Ifraelites through the wilderneſs, had its more ſtated reſidence in perſonally execute hiin the next. Neither may he act as an ordi- the tabernacle and the temple. See ARK of the Covenant. nary juſtice of the peace during the time of his office, for this SHEEP, the Engliſh name of the genus ovis in the Syſtem of would be equally inconſiſtent, he being in many reſpects the fer- MAMMALIA. See Ovis. For the breeding, feeding, and ma vant of the juſtices. In his miniſterial capacity, the ſheriff is nagement of this animal; ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, bound to execute all proceſs iſſuing from the king's courts of juf- Sect. XXIV. tice. In the commencement of civil cauſes, he is to ſerve the SHELL, a hard calcareous cruſt, ſerving to cover and incloſe a writ, to arreſt, and to take bail: when the cauſe comes to trial, kind of animal, hence called TESTACEOUS. For the properties of he muſt ſummon, and return the jury; when it is determined, he Thells as a manure, fee Syítem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. II. muſt ſee the judgment of the court carried into execution. In SHELL-Fiſh. Theſe animals are in general oviparous. Among criminal matters, he alſo arreſts and impriſons; he returns the jury; the oviparous kinds, anatomiſts have found that ſome ſpecies are he has the cuſtody of the delinquent; and he executes the ſentence of different ſexes in the different individuals of the ſame ſpecies, of the court, though it extend to death itfelf. To execute theſe but others are hermaphrodites, every one being in itſelf both male various offices, the Theriff has under him many inferior officers, an and female: in both caſes their increaſe is very numerous, and under-ſheriff bailiffs, and gaolers, who muſt neither buy, ſell, ſcarce inferior to that of plants, or of the moſt fruitful of the inſect nor farm their offices, on forfeiture of 500l. 3 Geo. I. c. 15. claſs. The eggs are very ſmall, and are hung together in a ſort The under-ſheriff uſually performs all the duties of office, few ex- of cluſters by means of a glutinous humor, which is always placed cepted, with regard to which the perſonal preſence of the high about them, and is of the nature of the jelly of frogs ſpawn; by Meriff is neceſſary. But no under-ſheriff hall abide in his office means of this they are not only kept together in the parcel , but above one year by 42 Edw. III. c. 9. and if he does, by 23 Hen. the whole cluſter is faſtened to the rocks, ſhells, or other ſolid VI. c. 8. he forfeits 200l. and no under-ſheriff, or sheriff's officer ſubſtances, and thus they are preſerved from being driven on ſhore thall practiſe as an attorney, during the time he continues in ſuch by the waves, and left where they cannot ſucceed. office, by i Hen. V. c. 4. But theſe regulations are evaded, by SHERIFF, or SHIRE-REVE, an officer in each county in Eng- practiſing in the names of other attornies, and putting in them de land of very great antiquity; ſheriffs were formerly choſen by the puties by way of nominal under-ſheriffs . 4 G SHIELD, NO 139. SI G SIL mans. SHIELD, in heraldry, denotes the eſcutcheon or field, whereon played for three diviſions, and for three ſhips of each diviſion; or the bearings of the armory are placed, and ſerve as marks of diſ for three ſhips in each ſquadron, and for only nine ſhips in the tinction, valour, honour, &c. See the Syſtem, Sect. I. whole fleet. For the general ſignal of the fleet being ſhewn, if a SHIP, a general name for all great veſſels with fails, fit for na particular pendant be alſo thrown out from ſome remarkable place vigation on the ſea; but in ſea language, the term is more parti on the ſame maſt with the general ſignal, it will communicate in- cularly applied to a veſſel furniſhed with three maſts, each of which telligence to nine ſhips that wear the ſame pendant. The prepara- is compoſed of a lower maſt, top-maſt, and top-gallant-maſt, with the ratory ſignal given by the admiral to the whole, or any part of his uſual machinery thereto belonging. For the conſtruction of SHIPS fleet, is immediately anſwered by thoſe to whom it is directed; by in general, ſee the Treatiſe on NAVAL AFFAIRS, Sect. IV. For ſhewing the ſame ſignal, to teſtify that they are ready to exe- a lection of the internal parts of a firſt-rate ſhip of war; repreſen cute his orders. Having obſerved their anſwer, he will ſhew the tation of the ſame lying at anchor, and alſo of a ſhip with three ſignal which is to direct their operations; as, to chaſe, to form the malts in full fail, ſee the Plate annexed, fig. I and 2. line, to begin the engagement, to board, to double upon the enemy, SHOP-LIFTER, a perſon who, on pretence of buying goods to rally or return to action, to diſcontinue the fight, to retreat and or otherwiſe, takes an opportunity to ſteal them; and if the goods ſave themſelves. The dexterity of working the ſhips in a fleet de- amount to the value of five ſhillings, though no perſon be in the pends on the preciſe moment of executing theſe crders, and on the ihop, he is guilty of felony without benefit of clergy, by io & II general harmony of their movements : a circumſtance which Will. III. c. 23. evinces the utility of a ſignal of preparation. SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS, a defect in the conformation of SILK, Sericum; a very ſoft, fine, bright, delicate thread; the the eye, wherein the cryſtalline, &c. being too convex, the rays work of an inſect called bombyx, or the filk-worm. The ancients reflected from different objects are refracted too much, and made were but little acquainted with the uſe and manufacture of filk. to converge too faſt, ſo as to unite before they reach the retina, by It was in the iſle of Cos that the art of manufacturing lilk was which means viſion is rendered dim and confuſed. See the Syſtem firſt invented: and Pamphila, daughter of Platis, is honoured as of Optics. The ordinary remedy for ſhort-ſightedneſs is a con the inventreſs. The diſcovery was not long unknown to the Row cave lens, held before the eye, which, making the rays diverge, or Silk was brought them from Serica, where the worm was at leaſt diminiſhing much of their convergency, makes amends for a native. But ſo far were they from profiting by the diſcovery, the too great convexity of the cryſtalline. that they could not be induced to believe ſo fine a thread ſhould be SHRUB, frutex, a little, low, dwarf tree, or a woody vegeta the work of a worm, and thereupon formed a thouſand chimerical ble, of a ſize leſs than a tree; and which inſtead of one ſingle conjectures of their own. Silk was a very ſcarce commodity among ſtem, frequently from the ſame root puts forth ſeveral fets or ſtems. them for many ages; it was even ſold weight for weight with See PLANT. gold; infomuch that Vopiſcus tells us, the emperor Aurelian, who SHWAN Pan, the name of a Chineſe inſtrument, compoſed died A. D. 275, refuſed the empreſs, his wife, a ſuit of ſilk, of a number of wires, with beads upon them, which they move which ſhe ſolicited of him with much earneftneſs, merely on ac- backwards and forwards, and which ſerves to aſſiſt them in their count of its dearneſs. computations. See ABACUS. In 1521, the French being ſupplied with workmen from Milan, SİDERIAL Day is the time in which any ſtar revolves from commenced a filk manufacture; but it was long after this time the meridian to the meridian again; viz. 23 hours, 56 minutes, before they could obtain raw ſilk from the worms: and even in 4 ſeconds, 6 thirds of mean folar time. There are 366 fiderial the year 1547, ſilk was ſcarce and dear in France: and Henry II. days in a year, or in the time of 365 diurnal revolutions of is ſaid to have been the firſt who wore a pair of ſilk knit ſtockings; the fun. though the firſt invention criginally came from Spain, whence SIDUS, Georgium, in aſtronomy, a new primary planet, diſco filk ſtockings were brought over to Henry VIII. and Edward VI. vered by William Herſchel, eſq. of Bath, in the year 1781 ; for of England. which he obtained from the Royal Society the honorary recompence The great advantages which the new manufacture afforded, of Sir Godfrey Copley's medal, and ſo called in honour of his ma made our king James I. very earneſt for its being introduced into jeſty king George III. who has taken Dr. Herſchel under his pa England : accordingly it was recommended ſeveral times from the tronage, and granted to him an annual ſalary. For a particular throne, and in the moſt earneſt terms, particularly in the year account of this planet, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. Art. New 1608, to plant mulberry trees, &c. for the propagation of filk- Planet, or GEORGIUM SIDUS. worms; but unhappily without effect; though from the various SIGHING, an effort of nature, by which the lungs are put into experiments we meet with in the Philoſophical Tranſactions, and greater motion, and more dilated, ſo that the blood paſſes more other places, it appears that the ſilk-worm thrives and works as freely, and in greater quantity, to the left auricle, and thence to the well, in all reſpects, in England, as in any other part of Europe. ventricle. Hence we learn, ſays Dr. Hales, how fighing increaſes However, towards the latter end of this king's reign, i. e. about the force of the blood, and conſequently proportionably chears and the year 1620, the broad ſilk manufacture was introduced into this relieves nature, when oppreſſed by its too ſlow motion, which is country, and proſecuted with great vigour and advantage. In the caſe of thoſe who are dejected and ſad. Hale’s Statical Efſay, 1629, the ſilk manufacture was become ſo conſiderable in London, vol. ii. p. 6. that the ſilk throwſters of the city and parts adjacent, were incor- SIGHT, the exerciſe, or act, of the ſenſe of ſeeing. For a porated under the name of maſter, wardens, &c. of the filk- copious deſcription of the organ of viſion, ſee the ſyſtem of Anatomy, throwſters; and in 1661, this company of filk-throwſters em- Part VII. Sect. V. For repreſentation, ſee Plate XI. For ex ployed above forty thouſand perſons. The revocation of the edict planation of the nature of viſion, and what relates to fight, ſee the of NANTES, in 1685, contributed in a great degree to promote Syſtem of Optics throughout. the ſilk manufacture in this kingdom: as did alſo the invention of SIGN, in aſtronomy, a twelfth part of the ecliptic, or zodiac; a ſilk throwing machine at Derby, in 1719. The filk-worm is an or a portion containing thirty degrees thereof. See the Syſtem, infećt not more remarkable for the precious matter it furniſhes for Sect. IX. divers ſtuffs, than for the many forms it aſſumes, before and after SIGNAL, a certain ſign agreed upon for the conveying intelli its being enveloped in the rich cod or ball which it weaves for gence to places to which the voice cannot reach. Signals are given itſelf. From a ſmall egg, about the ſize of a pin's head, which is for the beginning of a battle, or an attack ; uſually with drums its firſt ſtate, it becomes a pretty big worm, or caterpillar, of a and trumpets : at ſea they are given by cannon or muſquet ſhot, by whitiſh colour inclining to yellow. In this ſtate it feeds on mul- lights, fails, flags, &c. All ſignals may be reduced into three dif- berry leaves, till, being come to maturity, it winds itſelf up in a ferent kinds; viz. thoſe which are made by the ſound of particular filken bag, or caſe, about the ſize and ſhape of a pigeon's egg: inſtruments; as the trumpet, horn, or fife, to which may be added, and becomes metamorphoſed into an aurelia; in this ſtate it re- ſtriking the bell, or beating the drum; thoſe which are made by mains without any ſigns of life, or motion; till at length it awakes diſplaying pendants, enligns, and flags of different colours; or by to become a butterfly, after making itſelf a paſſage out of its filker lowering or altering the poſition of the ſails; and thoſe which are ſepulchre; and, at laſt, dying indeed, it prepares itſelf, by an egg executed by rockets of different kinds; by firing cannon or ſmall which it cafts, for a new life; which the warmth of the ſummer arms; by artificial fire-works, and by lanthorns. weather aſſiſts it in reſuming. In many other reſpects it reſembles SIGNALS at Sea, are ſigns made by the admiral, or commander the caterpillar. See CATERPILLAR. in chief of a ſquadron of ſhips, either in the day, or by night, SILPHA, in the Linnæan ſyſtem of entomology, a genus of whether for ſailing, for fighting, or for the better ſecurity of the the coleoptera order of inſects. For deſcription and claflification, merchant ſhips under their convoy. The ſignals are very nume ſee the Syſtem, Order I. Genus VIII. rous, and important; being all appointed and deterinined by order SILVER, called alſo luna by chymiſts, a white rich metal ; be- of the lord high admiral, and lords of the admiralty, and communi- | ing the fineſt, pureſt, moſt du&tile, and moſt precious of all metals, cated in the inſtructions ſent to the commander of every ſhip of the except gold: ſilver contracts no ruſt, nor does it adınit any change fleet, or ſquadron, before their putting out to ſea. It is by the of its colour and brilliancy from the combined action of air and combination of ſignals, previouſly known, that the admiral conveys water : however, its ſurface is apt to tarniſh, and even to become orders to his fleet; every ſquadron, every diviſion, and every ſhip black by the contact of the phlogiſton of ſeveral inflammable mat- of which has its particular ſignal. The inſtruction may, therefore, ters or of their exhalations; becauſe it has the property of impreg- occaſionally be given to the whole fleet, or to any of its ſquadrons, nating itſelf with the inflammable principle, even in the cold, to a or to any diviſion of thoſe ſquadrons, or to any ſhip of theſe divi greater degree than any other metal. See the Syſtem, Part III. fions. Hence the ſignal of command may at the ſame time be diſ Chap. II. Sect. VI. The effect of the vapour of putrefied urine, &c. in SIM SIM &c. in rendering ſilver ſuperficially yellow, and like gold, has ſeven or eight years old, into trees, and that they could not be been the occaſion of many abuſes with regard to wire and laces : for wreſted from them without a great deal of difficulty.” When preventing which ſeveral edicts have been iſſued in France. There taken young, they are capable of being tamed, and taught to per- are ſilver mines in all the four quarters of the world. Europe has form many menial offices. Francis Pyrard relates, “ that in the its ſhare: nor is our own iſiand quite deſtitute thereof, though it province of Sierra Leona there is a ſpecies ſo ſtrong-limbed, and ſo has none yet diſcovered of much value. Although we have no induſtrious, that, when properly trained and fed, they work like ſilver mines, properly ſpeaking, in Great-Britain, we have plenty fervants; that they generally walk on their two-hind feet; that they of lead, from which ſilver is, in ſome places, extracted with con. pound any ſubſtance in a mortar ; that they go to bring water fiderable advantage. The Derbyſhire lead has been ſaid to contain from the river in ſmall pitchers, which they carry full on their heads. two grains of ſilver in a pound of lead; and, it is ſaid, that there But when they arrive at the door, if the pitchers are not ſoon taken are ſome lead ores in Great-Britain, which, though very poor in off, they allow them to fall; and when they perceive the pitchers lead, contain between three and four hundred ounces of ſilver in a overturned and broken, they weep and lament." They are taken ton of lead. Silver has formerly been extracted from lead in many with ſnares, taught to walk on their hind-feet, and to uſe their fore- places in this iſland. In the reign of Edward I. near fixteen feet as hands in performing different operations, as rinſing glaſſes, hundred pounds weight was obtained in the courſe of three years carrying drink round the company, turning a ſpit, &c. I ſaw at from a mine in Devonſhire; and the lead mines in Cardiganſhire Java, lays another naturaliſt, a very extraordinary ape. It was a have at different periods afforded great quantities of ſilver : ſir female. She was very tall, and often walked erect on her hind- Hugh Middleton is ſaid to have cleared from them two thouſand feet. Except the eye-brows there was no hair on her face, which pounds a month, and thus to have been enabled to undertake the pretty much reſembled the groteſque female faces I ſaw among the great work of bringing the New River from Ware to London. Hottentots at the Cape. She made her bed very neatly every day, Theſe ſame mines yielded, in the time of the great rebellion, eighty lay upon her ſide, and covered herſelf with the bed-cloaths. When ounces of ſilver out of every ton of lead, and part of the king's her head ached, ſhe bound it up with her handkerchief; and it was army was paid with this filver, which was minted at Shrewſbury. amuſing to ſee her thus hooded in bed. I could relate many other The mines of Peru, and ſome other parts of America, are much little articles which appeared to me very ſingular. Gemelli Carreri the richeſt, and moſt abundant; they appeared almoſt inexhauflible; tells us, that he ſaw one of theſe apes, which cried like an infant, particularly thoſe of Potoſi , which, although decayed, continue to walked upon its hind-feet, and carried a mat under its arm to lie be dug with conſiderable advantage, with this only difference, that down and ſleep upon. the veins which were formerly almoſt in the ſurface of that famous An orang-outang, which Buffon ſaw, is deſcribed by him as mountain, are now ſunk to prodigious depths, the workmen going mild, affectionate, and good-natured. His air was melancholy, his into them by a painful deſcent of four or five hundred ſteps. Many gait grave, his movements meaſured, his diſpoſitions gentle, and millions of Indians have periſhed in them; and prodigious numbers very different from thoſe of other apes. He had neither the impa- continue to be deſtroyed there yearly. The aſſay of ſilver is alſo tience of the Barbary ape, the maliciouſneſs of the baboon, nor the made by the coppel, in the ſame manner as the refining by lead. extravagance of the monkeys. “ It may be alledged, (ſays our If the ſilver, after this aſſay, preſerve its weight, it is ſtandard ; author), that he had the benefit of inſtruction; but the other apes if it loſe, the grains or penny-weights of its diminution are ac which I ſhall compare with him, were educated in the ſame man- counted. See the Article ASSAY. ner. Signs and words were alone ſufficient to make our orang- SILVERING, the covering of any work with ſilver leaf or outang act: but the baboon required a cudgel, and the other apes powder. See the Articles LACQUER, and GILDING. a whip; for none of them would obey without blows. I have ſeen SILURUS, in ichthyology, a genus belong to the order of Ab this animal preſent his hand to conduct the people who came to viſit dominales. For claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, Order V. him, and walk as gravely along with them as if he had formed a SIMIA, the ſecond Genus of the Order of Primates, in the part of the company. I have ſeen him ſit down at table, unfold Syſtem of Mammalia. This race of animals, which is very 'nu his towel, wipe his lips, uſe a ſpoon or a fork to carry the victuals inerous, is almoſt confined to the torrid zone; they fill the woods of to his mouth, pour his liquor into a glaſs, and make it touch that Africa, from Senegal to the Cape, and from thence to Æthiopia; of the perſon who drank along with him. When invited to take they are found in all parts of India, and its iſlands; in Cochin tea, he brought a cup and ſaucer, placed them on the table, put in China, in the ſouth of China, and in Japan; and one kind is met ſugar, poured out the tea, and allowed it to cool before he drank it. with in Arabia ; they ſwarm in the foreſts of South America, from All theſe actions he performed without any other inſtigation than the Iſthmus of Darien as far as Paraguay. Theſe animals are the ſigns or verbal orders of his maſter, and often of his own accord. lively and full of frolic, chatter, and grimace: from the ſtructure He did no injury to any perſon; he even approached company of their members, they have many actions in common with the hu with circumſpection, and preſented himſelf as if he wanted to be man kind: moſt of them are fierce and untameable ; ſome are of careſſed. See Plate I. Genus II. Species 2. Variety 1. a milder nature, and will ſhew a degree of attachment, but in ge There is another variety of this ſpecies, called Chimpanzee, an neral they are miſchievous, filthy, laſcivious, and thieving; they animal very much approaching to the human figure; but of a feed on fruits, leaves and inſects; inhabit woods and live in trees; fierce diſpoſition, and remarkably miſchievous. In the year 1738, are in general gregarious, and go in large companies: the different we had one of theſe creatures brought over into England, by the ſpecies never mix with cach other, but always keep apart: they captain of a ſhip in the Guinea trade; it was of the female ſex, leap with great activity from tree to tree, even when loaded with and was two feet four inches high; but they grow in their native their young, which cling to them: they are the prey of leopards, country, to the height of five feet; it naturally walked erect, and and other animals, of the feline race, and alſo of ſerpents, which was hairy on ſome parts of the body and limbs, and of a ſtrong muſ- purſue them to the ſummits of the trees and ſwallow them entire cular make. It would eat very coarſe food, and was very fond of they are not carnivorous, but, for the ſake of miſchief, will rob the tea, which it drank out of a cup with milk and ſugar, as we do ; neſts of birds of the eggs and young; and is obſerved, that in thoſe it ſlept in the manner of the hunan ſpecies, in which it reſembles countries where apes moſt abound, the feathered tribe diſcover fin the aniinal before deſcribed : in its voice it made ſome imitation of gular ſagacity in fixing their neſts beyond the reach of theſe inva the human ſpeech, when people ſpeak very haſtily, but without any ders. See MOTACILLA. articulate found. The males of this ſpecies are very bold, and will Linnæus enumerates thirty-three ſpecies of this genus, amongſt fight a man, though they ſee him armed. It is ſaid that they often which the following are the moſt remarkable: 1. The ſatyrus, fet upon, and raviſh the negro women, when they meet them in orang outang, or great ape, has a flat face, and a deformed re the woods. See Plate I. Genus II. Species 2. Variety 2. ſemblance of the human ears exactly like thoſe of a man; the hair 3. The innuus, magot, or Barbary ape, has a long face not on the head longer than on the body. The body and limbs are unlike that of a dog: canine teeth, long and ſtrong; ears like the covered with reddiſh and ſhaggy hair; longeſt on the back, thinneſt human: nails flat: buttocks bare: colour of the upper part of the on the fore-parts. The face and paws are ſwarthy; the buttocks body, a dirty greeniſh brown; belly, of a dull pale yellow : grows covered with hair. They inhabit the interior parts of Africa, the to above the length of three feet. They inhabit many parts of illes of Sumatra, Borneo, and Jarva. Are folitary, and live in the India, Arabia, and all parts of Africa except Egypt, where none moſt deſart places. They grow to the height of ſix feet: have of this genus are found. A few are found on the hill of Gibraltar, prodigious ſtrength, and will overpower the ſtrongeſt man. The which breed there: probably from a pair that had eſcaped from old ones are ſhot with arrows, the young alone can be taken alive. the town; as they are not found in any other part of Spain. They They live entirely on fruits and nuts. They will attack and kill are very ill-natured, miſchievous, and fierce; agreeing with the the negroes who wander in the woods; will drive away the ele character of the ancient Cynocephali. They are a very common phants, and beat them with their fifts or pieces of wood; and will kind in exhibitions. By force of diſcipline, are made to play ſome throw ſtones at the people that offend them. They ſleep in trees; tricks; otherwiſe, they are more dull and ſullen than the reſt of and make a ſort of ſhelter from the inclemency of the weather. this genus. Apes were worſhipped in India, and had magnificent They are of a grave appearance and melancholy diſpoſition, and temples erected to them. When the Portugueſe plundered one in even when young not inclined to frolic. They go erect, and are Ceylon, they found in a little golden caſket the tooth of an ape; vaſtly ſwift and agile. Froger, a French naturaliſt, informs us, a relic held by the natives in ſuch veneration, that they offered " that thoſe along the banks of the river Ganges are larger and more 700,000 ducats to redeem it, but in vain; for it was burnt by the miſchievous than in any part of Africa: the negroes dread them, dread them, viceroy, to ſtop the progreſs of idolatry. For repreſentation of and cannot travel alone in the country, without running the hazard this animal, ſee Plate 1. Genus II. Species 3. of being attacked by theſe animals. I have heard the Portugueſe 4. The nemeſtrina, or pig-tail baboon, with a pointed face, ſay, that they have often ſeen them hoiſt up young girls, about which is naked, of a ſwarthy redneſs: two ſharp canine teeth : j ears SIM SIM one. well as társ like the human: bair on the limbs, and body brown inclining SIMILE, or SIMILITUDE, in oratory, a compariſon of two to alh-colour, paleſt on the belly: fingers black : nails long and things, which, though different in other reſpects, yet agree in ſome fiat: thumbs on the hind-feet very long, connected to the neareſt As, He ſhall be like a tree planted by the water ſide, &c. ſo toe by a broad membrane : tail four inches long, ſlender, exactly that in every ſimilitude three things are requiſite; two things that like a pig's, and almoſt naked; the bare ſpaces on the rump red, are compared together; and a third, in which the likeneſs or ſimi- and but ſmall: length from head to tail 22 inches. Inhabits litude between them conſiſts. The difference between a ſimile and the iſles of Sumatra and Japan : is very docile. In Japan it is a compariſon conſiſts in this, the ſimile belongs to what we call the taught ſeveral tricks and carried about the country by mounte quality of the thing, and the compariſon to the quantity. And the banks. For repreſentation of this animal, ſee Platc I. Genus II. difference between a metaphor and ſimilitude conliſts in this, that a Species 4. metaphor has not thoſe ſigns of compariſon which are expreſſed in 6. The ſphynx or great wood baboon, with a long dog-like fimilitude. For the effect of Simile, in oratory, ſee the Treatiſe, face, covered with a ſmall glofly black ſkin; hands and feet naked, Part III. Sect. II. Art. 3. and black like the face; hair on all parts long, elegantly mottled SIMONIACAL, is applied to a perſon guilty of fimony; that with black and tawny; nails white. About three feet high when is, of purchaſing a benefice, or other ſacred matter, with money. erect; tail not three inches, and very hairy on the upper part. In SIMONY, SIMONIA, the crime of trafficking with facred habits Guiney, where it is called the man of the wood. For repre things; particularly the corrupt preſentation of any one to an eccle- ſentation ſee Plate I. Species 6. fiaftical benefice for money, giſt, or reward. The word is bor- 8. The hamadryas, or dog-faced baboon. The colour of the rowed from Simon Magus, who is mentioned in the Aets of the greater part of the hair of this animal is grey and olive-brinded ; Apoſtles, as offering to buy the power of working miracles with the hands and feet are duſky, the buttocks are very bare and covered money : though the purchaſing of holy orders ſeems to approach with a ſkin of a bloody colour. We need not enter into a deſcrip nearer to his offence. By the Engliſh canons, anno 1229, ſimony tion of the form and proportion of this animal, as they are accu is not only committed by an agreement for money in hand, or to rately repreſented in Plate I. Species 8. They inhabit the hot be paid yearly; but by any other profit or emolument; any reward, teſt parts of Africa and Aſia; where they keep in vaſt troops, and gift, or benefit , directly or indirectly; or by reaſon of any promiſe, are very fierce and dangerous. They rob gardens. They will run grant, bond, &c. and this either in the acceptance of a living, or up trees when paſſengers go by, ſhake the boughs at thein with in an exchange or reſignation. Simony was by the canon law a great fury, and chatter very loud. They are exceſſively impudent, very grievous crime ; and it is ſo much the more odious, becauſe, indecent, laſcivious: mof deteſtable animals in their manners as as Sir Edward Coke obſerves, it is ever accompanied with perjury; as appearance. They range the woods in hundreds; which for the preſentee is ſworn to have committed no ſimony. However, obliges the owners of the coffee plantations to be continually on it was not an offence puniſhable in a criminal way at the common their guard againſt their depredations. One of them was ſhown law; it being thought ſufficient to leave the clerk to eccleſiaſtical in London ſome years ago: it came from Mokba, in the province cenſures : but many acts of parliament have been made to reſtrain of Yeman, in Arabia Felix, in the Perſian gulph; and was above it by means of civil forfeitures. Farther, by the ſtatute 12 Ann. five feet high. It was very fierce and untameable; ſo ſtrong, as ſtat. 2. c. 12. if any perſon, for money or profit, thall procure in eaſily to maſter its keeper, a ſtout young man. Its inclinations to his own name, or the name of any other, the next preſentation to women appeared in the moſt violent manner. A footman, who any living eccleſiaſtical, and ſhall be preſented thereupon, this is brought a girl to ſee it, in order to teize the animal, killed and declared to be a ſimoniacal contract, and the party is ſubjected to hugged the girl: The beast, enraged at being ſo tantalized; caught ail the eccleſiaſtical penalties of ſimony, is diſabled from holding hold of a quart pewter pot, which he threw with ſuch force and the benefice, and the preſentation devolves to the crown. ſo ſure an aim, that, had not the man's hat and wig ſoftened the SIMPLICITY, in writing. If we examine the writers whoſe blow, his ſkuli muſt have been fractured; but he fortunately eſcaped compoſitions have ſtood the teſt of ages, and obtained that higheſt with a common broken head. honour, “ the concurrent approbation of diſtant times and na. 18. The fabæa, or green monkey, has a black and flat face : tions,” we ſhall find that the character of fimplicity is the unvary- the ſide of it bounded by long white hairs, falling backwards, and ing circumſtance which alone hath been able to gain this univerſal almoſt covering the ears, which are black and like the human : homage from mankind. Among the Greeks, whoſe writers in head, limbs, and whole upper part of the body and tail, covered general are of the ſimple kind, the divineſt poet, the moſt com- with ſoft hair, of a yellowiſh green colour at their ends, cinerous manding orator, the fineſt hiſtorian, and deepeſt philoſopher, are, at their roots: under-ſide of the body and tail, and inner ſide of the above the reſt, conſpicuouſly eminent in this great quality. The limbs of a ſilvery colour: tail very long and ſlender : ſize of a Roman writers riſe towards perfection according to that meaſure ſmall cat: inhabit different parts of Africa: keep in great flocks, of fimplicity which they mingle in their works, indeed they are and live in the woods: they are very common in the Cape Verd all inferior to the Greek models. But who will deny that Lucretius, iſlands. For repreſentation fee Plate I. Species 18. Horace, Virgil, Livy, Terence, and Tully, are at once the ſimplelt 19. Cephus, or white-eyelid monkey, has a long, black, naked, and belt of Roman writers ? It is this fimplicity hath given to Boi- and dog-like face: the upper eye-lids of a pure white: ears black, leau the moſt laſting wreath in France, and to Shakeſpeare and and like the human : no canine teeth. For repreſentation, ſee Milton in England; eſpecially to the laſt, whoſe writings are more Plate I. Species 19. unmixed in this reſpect, and who had formed himſelf entirely on 24. The iacchus, or ftriated monkey, with a very round head: the ſimple model of the beſt Greek writers and of the ſacred about the ears two very long full tufts of white hairs ſtanding out on ſcriptures. each fide: irides reddiſh : face a ſwarthy fleſh colour : ears like the As it appears from theſe inſtances, that fimplicity is the only human: head black : body afh-coloured, reddiſh, and duſky : the univerſal characteriſtic of juſt writing, ſo the ſuperior eminence of laſt forms ſtriated bars croſs the body: tail full of hair, annulated the ſacred ſcriptures in this prime quality hath been generally ac- with aſh colour and black: body ſeven inches long: tail, near knowledged. One of the greateſt critics in antiquity, himſelf con- eleven: hands and feet covered with ſhort hairs : fingers like thoſe ſpicuous in the ſublime and ſimple manner, hath borne this teſti- of a ſquirrel : nails, or rather claws, ſharp. Inhabits Bralil: feeds mony to the writings of Moſes and St. Paul; and by parity of rea- on vegetables; will alſo eat fiſh : makes a weak noiſe : very reſt fon we muſt conclude, that had he been converſant with the other leſs: often brought over to Europe. For repreſentation, ſee ſacred writers, his taſte and candour would have allowed them the Plate I. Species 24.---The two following ſpecies are not enume ſame encomium. rated in the ſyſtem of Linnæus, having been diſcovered by other It hath been often obſerved, even by writers of no mean rank, naturalifts Gince his time. that the “Scriptures ſuffer in their credit by the diſadvantage of a 34. The mico, or white monkey, with a ſmall round head: face literal verſion, while other ancient writings enjoy the advantage of and ears of the moſt lively vermillion colour : body covered with a free and embelliſhed tranſlation.” But in reality thoſe gentle- moſt beautiful long hairs of a bright and ſilvery whiteneſs, of men's concern is ill-placed and groundleſs: for the truth is, “ that matchleſs elegance: tail of a ſhining dark cheſnut: head and moſt other writings are impaired by a literal tranſlation; whereas body eight inches long; tail twelve. Inhabits the banks of the giving only a due regard to the idiom of different languages, the Amazons; diſcovered by M. de Condamine. For repreſentation, ſacred writings, when literally tranſlated, are then in their full per- fee Plate I. Species 34. fection.” Now this is an internal proof, that in all other writings 35. Naſus niger, black-noſed monkey, or talapoin, is a na there is a mixture of local, relative, exterior ornament, which is tive of the Eaſt Indies, where it is ſuffered to multiply without often loſt in the transfuſion from one language to another. But the moleſtation, owing to the religious ſuperſtition of the bramins, internal beauties, which depend not on the particular conſtruction which forbids them to take the life of any kind of animal whatever. of tongues, no change of tongue can deſtroy. Hence the Bible- They are ſo tame and familiar, that numbers of them frequently compoſition preſerves its native beauty and ſtrength alike in every come into their towns, enter the houſes, and if not prevented, help language, by the fole energy of unadorned phraſe, natural images, themſelves to whatever they meet with that is agreeable to them, weight of ſentiment, and great fimplicity. ſuch as fruits, ſweetmeats, &c. The talapoin is about twelve It is in this reſpect like a rich vein of gold, which, under the fe- inches long: its head is round; ears black, and ſhaped like the vereſt trials of heat, cold, and moiſture, retains its original weight human; eyes of a bright hazel colour; with black pupils; the noſe and ſplendour, without either loſs or alloy; while baſer metals are remarkably black at the tip; the hair on the back, upper part of corrupted by earth, air, water, fire, and allimilated to the various the body, and limbs of a duſky yellow, tinged with green; the elements through which they paſs. This circumítance, then, may belly lighter: its tail very long, ſlender, and of an olive colour. be juſtly regarded as ſufficient to vindicate the compoſition of the For repreſentation, ſee Plate I. Species 35. ſacred ſcriptures, as it is at once their chief excellence and greateſt ſecurity, 1 SKE SKI ſecurity. It is their excellence, as it renders them intelligible and tomy, an aſſemblage or arrangement of all the bones of a dead uſeful to all; it is their ſecurity, as it prevents their being diſguiſed animal, dried, cleaned, and diſpoſed in their natural ſituation; and by the falfe and capricious ornaments of vain or weak tranſlators. kept in that diſpoſition by means of wires, &c. Skeletons ſerve for We may ſafely appeal to experience and fact for the confirmation good purpoſe in learning the oiteology. For the ſeveral bones of of theſe remarks on the ſuperior ſimplicity, utility, and excellence which a human ſkeleton conſiſts, ſee the Syſtem, Part 1. Plate I. of the ſtyle of the holy ſcripture. Is there any book in the world Figures in general. ſo perfectly adapted to all capacities ? that contains ſuch fublime We have, in the Philoſophical Tranſactions an account of a and exalted precepts, conveyed in ſuch an artleſs and intelligible human ſkeleton, all the bones of which were ſo united, as to make ftrain, that can be read with ſuch pleaſure and advantage by the but one articulation from the back to the os facrum, and down- lettered fage and the unlettered peaſant ? wards a little way. On ſawing ſome of them, where they were SIN, denotes want of conformity to the law of God in the things unnaturally joined, they were found not to cohere throughout their which that law requires, or the tranſgreſſion of that law in thoſe whole ſubſtance, but only about a fixth of an inch deep all round. things which it forbids; and under this definition are comprehended The figure of the trunk was crooked, the fpinæ making the con- both the fins of omiſſion and fins of commiſſion. vex, and the inſide of the vertebræ the concave part of the ſegment. SINCERITY, in ethics, is that excellent habitude and temper The whole had been found in a charnel-houſe, and was of the ſize of mind, which gives to virtue its reality, and makes it to be what of a full grown perſon. it appears. Sincerity has reſpect to two ſorts of objects; perſons We have ſufficiently explained the human ſkeleton, and its ſeo and things. Of the firſt kind are God; other men, and every man's veral parts in the ſyſtem of Anatomy, Part I. and illuſtrated them felf. Sincerity with regard to God, fignifies, that the form of reli by the Plates thereto annexed. Reſpecting the ſkeletons of quadru- gion is accompanied with the power of it, and that piety and obe peds, birds, fiſhes, &c. we have given in five plates ſeveral accurate dience are ſubſtantial and unaffected; proceeding from principles, and faithful repreſentations, which will ſerve to convey a better idea right in themſelves, and uniform in their influence. Sincerity, as it of them than any verbal deſcription that could poſſibly be given. regards men, implies an honeſty and openneſs in our dealings with As the muſcles, viſcera, organs of generation, &c. of theſe animals them, extending to the ſprings and motions of our actions, as well are better underſtood from deſcription than repreſentation, the rea- as the actions themſelves. As to things, truth and goodneſs are the der will find them fully explained in the ſyſtem of Comparative principal objects of ſincerity. The extremes of this virtue are Anatomy. We ſhall only ſubjoin a few remarks relative to ſome over-frank neſs and hypocriſy. of the ſkeletons we have introduced in the work. SINCIFUT, the fore part of the head, reaching from the fore In Plate I. of Comparative Anatomy, we have given a repreſen- head to the coronal ſuture. See the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part I. tation of the ſkeleton of a monkey, which tends to fhew in many Sect. II. Art. I. inſtances the affinity of this race of animals, in point of ſtructure, to SINE, or Right Sine, in trigonometry, a right line drawn from the human form. In the ſame plate is a repreſentation of the ſke- one extremity of an arch, perpendicular to the radius drawn from leton of a bear, in which it is curious to remark the great ſtrength the other extremity: or, the fine is half the chord of twice the arch. of the jaws, the neck, and fore feet, and the ſhortneſs of the upper- See the Treatiſe on TRIGONOMETRY. moſt ribs, which renders the animal ſo ſtrong as to be able to graſp SINGING, the act of making divers inflexions of the voice, any object with the utmoſt force; and is therefore its principal agreeable to the ear, and correſpondent to the notes of a ſong, or means of defence. piece of melody. The firſt thing done, in learning to ſing, is to In Plate IV. is the ſkeleton of an hedge-hog. This animal is re- raiſe a ſcale of notes, by tones and ſemitones to an octave ; and de markably formed for folding his body round; the action repreſented fcend again by the ſame notes; and then to riſe and fall by greater in the plate, is that when he begins to unfold himſelf. This fur . intervals; as a 3d, 4th, and 5th, and to do all this by notes of dif niſhes him with a power of defence; as being poſſeſſed of little ferent pitch. Then theſe notes are repreſented by lines and ſpaces, ſtrength or agility, he does not attempt to fly from or affail his ene- to which the ſyllables fa, ſol, la, mi, are applied, and the pupil is mies, but erects his briſtles and rolls himſelf up likea ball, expoſing no taught to name each line and ſpace thereby; whence this practice part of his body that is not furniſhed with ſharp weapons of defence. is uſually called fol-fa-ing. See the Syſtem of Music, Plate I. From the repreſentation of the ſkeleton of a rabbit, plate III. SINGING of Birds. It is worthy of obſervation, that the female it appears that the bones are ſo conſtructed as to bring the hind of no ſpecies of birds ever ſings : with birds it is the reverſe of feet eaſily under the center of gravity of the whole body, while the what occurs in human kind. Among the feathered tribe, all the animals ſcratch their holes; and for this reaſon the fore feet are cares of life fall to the lot of the tender ſex: theirs is the fatigue of bent from the earth to paſs eaſily underneath them; and their jaws incubation, and the principal ſhare in nurſing the helpleſs brood : are particularly conſtructed for their feeding on the bark of trees as to alleviate theſe fatigues, and to ſupport her under them, nature hath well as on graſs. given to the male the ſong, with all the little blandiſhments and The ſkeleton of the mole is repreſented in the ſame plate in two foothing arts; theſe he fondly exerts, even after courtſhip, on ſome views, to thew the vaſt ſtrength of the fore feet for digging; the ſpray contiguous to the reſt, during the time his mate, is performing ſlenderneſs of the head; the back bones with ſmall proceſſes, and her parental duties. But that ſhe ſhould be ſilent is alſo another the poſture of the hind legs; all contrived for their paſſing eaſily wiſe proviſion of nature, for her ſong would diſcover her neft; as along the holes they dig. would a gaudineſs of plumage, which, for the ſame reaſon, ſeems The ſkeleton of the cameleon, Plate III. ſtands in the ſame poſ- to have been denied her. On the ſong of birds ſeveral curious ex ture, as they uſually do in trees, where they live by catching flies, periments and obſervations have been made by the Hon. Daines and for their drink they thruſt forwards their lower jaw, and receive Barrington. See Philoſophical Tranſactions, vol. Ixiii. the drops of dew that fall down their foreheads. SINISTER, in heraldry. The finiſter ſide of an eſcutcheon is In Plate II. is the ſkeleton of an oſtrich, which being a bird the ſide anſwering to the right hand of the perſon who looks at it. formed for walking or running, the bones of the legs are made ex- See the Syſtem, Sect. I. ceedingly ſtrong, and when ſtanding ſtrait, unlike other birds, almoſt SINKING FUND. See FUND. under the center of gravity. The wings, though ſmall, are very SINUS, in anatomy, denotes a cavity in certain bones, and uſeful when they run faſt or leap. other parts, the entrance whereof is very narrow, and the bottom The ſkeleton of a thornback, a little dried, is repreſented in wider, and more ſpacious. Plate V. with ſuch care and accuracy, that there is not one rib or SIPHON, in hydraulics. For deſcription, ſee the Syſtem, Part joint more or leſs than in the life. II. Art. 2. For repreſentation, ſee Plate I. fig. 12, 13, 14, 15, Next to the repreſentation of the thornback, are the bones of the and 16. head of a pike, which being looſely connected, and the lower jaw SIREX, in entomology, a genus of the hymenoptera claſs of in compoſed with an additional bone on each ſide, like the jaw of a fects. For deſcription and claſſification, See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. viper, their jaws are thereby capable of being vaſtly extended, SIRIUS, in aſtronomy, the Dog-ſtar; a very bright ſtar of the when they ſwallow their prey, which they do whole, and often- firſt magnitude, in the mouth of the conſtellation Canis Major, or times things of a greater diameter than themſelves. the Great Dog. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. SKIN, in anatomy, a large thick membrane, fpread over the SITTA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order of picæ. whole body, ſerving as the external organ of feeling, and as a cover There are three ſpecies, the moſt remarkable of which is, the Eu and ornament of the parts underneath. For a particular deſcrip- ropæa, or nut-hatch, which is in length near five inches three tion, ſee the ſyſtem, Part II. Sect. I. quarters, breadth nine inches. This bird runs up and down the bo The cuticle, or ſcarf-ſkin of the human body is remarkable for dies of trees, like the woodpecker tribe; and feeds not only on in its ſcales, and for its pores; its ſcales are wholly a microſcopical fects but nuts, of which it lays up a conſiderable proviſion in the diſcovery, for being ſo very minute that two hundred of them may hollows of trees : it is a pretty ſight, ſays Mr. Willoughby, to ſee be covered with a grain of ſand, they never could have been diſco- her fetch a nut out of her hoard, place it falt in a chink, and then, vered by the naked eye. Theſe are placed on our ſkin as on fiſhes, ſtanding above it with its head downwards, ſtriking it with all its that is, three deep, or each ſcale ſo far covered by two others, that force, break the ſhell, and catch up the kernel. For repreſenta- only a third part of it appears; and their lying in this manner over tion, ſee Plate II. Genus 24, one another, ſeems to be the reaſon of the ſkin's appearing white; SIX-CLERKS, officers in chancery of great account, next in for about the mouth and lips, where they only juſt meet together, degree below the twelve maſters; whoſe buſineſs is to enroll com and do not fold over, the blood veſſels are ſeen through, and the miſſions, pardons, patents, warrants, &c. which paſs the great parts appear red. The perfpirable matter is ſuppoſed to iſſue from ſeal, and to tranſact and file all proceedings by bill, anſwer, &c. between theſe ſcales, which lie over the pores, or excretory veſſels, SKELETON, Enenetov, formed from oueanw, I dry, in ana through which the watery and oily matters perſpire: and theſe may find No 139, 4H S L E S L E any find'vent in a hundred places round the edges of each ſcale; ſo that for any conſiderable time, he is in great danger of becoming deli- if a grain of fand can cover two hundred of theſe ſcales, it may rious. After a perſon has taken a full meal, he is ſeized with cover twenty thouſand places through which perſpiration may iffue drowſineſs, becauſe the freſh chyle continually pouring into the forth. See PERSPIRATION., ſubclavian vein, requires the exertion of great part of the vital SKIN, in commerce, is particularly uſed for this membrane power to aſſimilate it to the blood, ſo that enough is not left to ſtripped off the animal, to be prepared by the tanner, ſkinner, cur affect the ſenſes fo readily as uſual. In like manner may we un- rier, parchment-maker, &c. and converted into leather, &c. derſtand the fleep which follows the immoderate uſe of ſpirituous SKULL, cranium, in anatomy, that great bony cavity of the liquors, of large doſes of opium, &c. Theſe ſeem to act by rare head, which contains the brain. "See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. II. fying the blood to ſuch a degree, that the fine veſſels are over- Art. 1. ſtretched, and compreſs the ſmall nervous fibres which every where SKY, the blue expanſe of air or atmoſphere. The azure colour accompany them, ſo as to deſtroy for a time their power of action. of the ſky, Sir Iſaac Newton attributes to vapours beginning to In the fame manner do the vapours of charcoal or fixed air, in condenſe therein, which have got confiftence enough to reflect the manner applied, ſeem to act. Hence the beſt cure for perſons moſt reflexible rays, viz. the violent ones; but not enough to re affected by theſe things is to cool them as much as poffible; and fect any of the leſs reflexible ones. hence alſo we may ſee the reaſon why drunken people will bear an SLATE, a bluiſh, fiſfile ſtone, very ſoft when dug out of the expoſure to much greater degrees of cold, without injury, than luch quarry, and on that acccount eaſily cut and ſplit into thin long as are ſober. How cold itſelf induces ſleep, is ealily underſtood. ſquares or eſcollops, to ſerve in lieu of tiles for the covering of The whole body is then ſo benumbed, that neither the blood can houſes; ſometimes alſo to make tables, and for paving. part with its animating principle, nor can the nerves take it SLAVE, a perſon in the abſolute power of a maſter, either by up even if it ſhould do ſo; and hence the fatal ſleep which enſues war or conqueſt. in ſuch caſes. From what has been advanced concerning the nature We find no mention of ſlaves before the deluge; but immedi of ſleep, we may eaſily fee, that its uſes are to reſtore the ſpirits ately after, viz. in the curſe of Canaan, Gen. ix. 25; whence it is and ſtrengthen the body, though too great indulgence in this reſpect eaſily inferred, that ſervitude commenced ſoon after that time; for has a contrary effect. The night is the moſt proper time for ſleep, in Abraham's days we find it generally eſtabliſhed. Some will have by reaſon of the abſence of the folar light, which animates the it to have commenced under Nimrod, becauſe it was he who firſt whole creation, and in ſome meaſure prevents that waſte of fpirits began to make war, and of conſequence to make captives; and to which is the conſequence of watching for any length of time. bring ſuch as he took, either in his battles or irruptions, into ſlavery. Hence we fee why a perſon who has fat up all night finds a revival Among the Romans, a ſlave, when he was ſet at liberty, changed of his ſpirits in the morning; and why nocturnal watchings are pre- his name into a furname, and took the nomen or prænomen of his judicial to health, even though a perſon ſhould indulge himfelf in maſter; to which he added the cognomen he had been called by ſleeping throughout the day. Perſpiration, during the time of when a ſlave. Great part of the Roman wealth conſiſted in ſlaves; Sleep, is twice as great as at other times : upon ſleeping too long, they had the power of life and death over them, which no other na the head grows heavy, the ſenſes dull, the memory weak, with tion had; but this ſeverity was afterwards moderated by the laws coldneſs, pituitouſneſs, an indiſpofition of the muſcles for motion, of the emperors. The ſlaves were eſteemed the proper goods of and a want of perſpiration : much ſleeping will ſuſtain life a long their maſters, and all they got belonged to them ; but if the maſter | time, without either meat or drink, for upon a laudable ſleep was too cruel in his correction, he was obliged to fell his ſlave at a there always follows an expanſion of all the muſcles, frequently a moderate price. The Romans not only approved of, but even in- repeated yawning, and the muſcles and nerves acquire a new vented new ways of making ſlaves; for inſtance, a man born free agility; fætuſfes always ſleep; children often; youth more than among them, might fell his freedom and become a ſlave. There grown perſons, and they more than old men; and people reco- were generally three ways of obtaining ſlaves ; either when they ſlaves; either when they vering from violent diſtempers, ſleep much more than when per- bought them with the booty taken from the enemy, diſtinct from fectly in health. the ſhare reſerved for the public : or of thoſe who took them pri Some animals require much more ſleep than others, and many foners in war; or of merchants who dealt in them, and ſold them continue even for months in this ſtate. For the human ſpecies fix at fairs. Slavery is abſolutely aboliſhed in Britain particularly, or ſeven hours are generally ſufficient; though from habit many as to perſonal ſervitude. See SERVANT. require eight, nine, or even ten hours. Thofe who addict them- SLAUGHTER, See MANSLAUGHTER, HOMICIDE, MUR ſelves to ſtudy, in general require much ſleep, on account of the great waſte of ſpirits which intenſe thought occaſions. SLEEP, that ſtate of the body in which, though the vital functi SLEEP of the Soul, in theology, denotes that inſenable, uncon- ons continue, the ſenſes are not affected by the ordinary impreſſions fcious, and inactive ſtate into which ſome have ſuppoied, that man- of external objects. Under the article DREAMS the nature of kind are removed at death, and in which they remain till the period ſleep has been inveſtigated ſo fully, that little remains to be ſaid in of the general reſurrection and laft judgment. The term ſleep has this place, beſides the obviating a few objections that may be made been uſed by way of contradiſtinction to that which has been com- to the account of it there given. Sleep we have ſhewn to ariſe im-monly called the intermediate or ſeparate ſtate. Of the advocates mediately from the communication between our ſentient principle of this opinion, fome have allowed the eſſential diſtinction between and external objects being cut off, in conſequence of which me body and ſpirit, and the natural immortality of the human ſoul; fo mory is alſo loſt, and the perſon becomes inſenſible of exiſtence. that, being a ſubſtance and not a mode, it will go on to exiſt, till This ſtate may be induced either by ſuch cauſes as affect the brain, by ſome poſitive act of the Creator it is annihilated. They can- the nervous ſyſtem, or the blood; though it probably depends in not admit the ſuppoſition, that the whole man becomes extinct at moſt caſes on the ſtate of the vital fluid. The greateſt difficulties death, or that death deſtroys or annihilates the thinking ſubſtance; that occur in giving a ſolution of the phenomenon of ſleep, is becauſe, becauſe, they ſay, the reſurrection, on this hypotheſis, will not that it may be brought on by ſeemingly oppoſite cauſes. be a reſurrection, but a creation of a new ſet of beings : if Thus, though moderate fatigue will induce a propenſity to ſleep, death annihilates us in this ſenſe, there can be no future ſtate, be- the ſame may be brought on by eating a full meal without any fa cauſe, a being who has loſt his exiſtence cannot be recovered. Ac- tigue at all. In like manner, though moderate fatigue will in- cordingly, they maintain, that what happens to the foul at death duce ſleep, too great a degree of fatigue will prevent it altogether. can be no more than a ſuſpenſion of the exerciſe of its faculties, or This, however may eaſily be ſolved, on the principles laid down an incapacitation, from which it will, by the power of Chriſt, be in the abovementioned article. It is there ſuppoſed that the maſs delivered at the reſurrection: and they alledge, that there is an in- of blood contains the vital principle, or what is called the animal finite difference between the annihilation of the foul at death, and Spiritslike a general reſervoir to be diſtributed through the whole its incapacitation; becauſe, one who believed the former, could body. Part of the blood is ſent to the brain, where another col not poſſibly entertain the hope of a future ſtate; but one who be- lection or reſervoir is made, ſerving in a particular manner for the lieves the latter might reaſonably entertain ſuch a hope. Death, purpoſes of reaſon, memory, and the reſt of our mental faculties. | they ſay, is a diſtreſs in which our ſpecies has been involved by ex- The reſt of the blood is diftributed through the whole body, where traordinary cauſes, and from which we have obtained the hope of ſome part of the vital ſpirit is taken up by each of the ſmall extre being faved by the moſt extraordinary means, viz. by the interpo- mities of the nerves, and by means of the nerve communicates a ſition of Jeſus Chriſt, who taking upon him our nature and humb- certain ſenſation to the brain when theſe extremities are affected ling himſelf to death, has acquired the power of deſtroying death, by any external object. As long as the blood continues in a found and is on this account ſtyled the Saviour of the world. However, ffate, and can ſupply a certain quantity of theſe ſpirits, the perfon moſt of thoſe who deny the notion of an intermediate ſtate of con- remains awake; but when the ſupply is interrupted, by whatever ſcious perception between death and the general reſurrection, reject means, he neceffarily falls aſleep. This is the caſe with a perſon the ſuppoſition of two diſtinct natures in man, and conſider that when moderately fatigued; the blood being then deprived in ſome principle which is called the ſoul, not as a ſpiritual ſubſtance, but as meaſure of part of that animating principle which is neceſſary to a quality or property, either ſuperadded to matter by the Creator the exerciſe of our external ſenſes, or for keeping us awake. If of our framne, or reſulting from the organization of the human the fatigue be carried to too great a length, the crafis of the blood | body, and particularly of the brain. See Soul. itſelf is injured, and it becomes incapable of retaining the necef Accordingly, they alledge, that when the organized fyftem, to fàry quantity for carrying on the operations of life; which though which the power of thinking, &c. is annexed, on which it de- independent of our ſenſes, are maintained by means of the fame pends, and from the organization of which, as ſome maintain, it principle with them. Hence, though the perſon remains awake, neceffarily reſults, is diffolved by death; all the percipient and he is far from being in health ; and if the watchfulneſs continues thinking powers of man, all his capacities of action, and of fuf- fering, DER, &c. S L E S L E fuffering, or of enjoyment, muſt be extinguiſhed, and ceaſe, of courſe. I to which they were condemned was only the death of the body: And if the property of thinking neceſſarily attends the property of hence, they infer, that there is, and would have been, a future im- life, as fome apprehend, nothing can be requiſite to the reſtoration mortal ſtate of being beyond the preſent life, and (the moral attri- of all the powers of the man, but the reſtoration of the body (no butes of God preſuppoſed) a juſt retribution therein, independent of particle of which can be loft) to a ſtate of life. Whatever is de the doctrine of a reſurrection of the dead; and that in the interval compoſed, it is faid, may certainly be recompoſed by the fame between death and the general reſurrection, there is an intermediate Almighty Power that firft coinpoſed it, with whatever change in its ſtate, in which the departed fouls of good men are ſuppoſed to have conſtitution, advantageous or diſadvantageous, he ſhall think pro an imperfect reward, and the ſouls of the wicked an imperfect pu- per : and then the powers of thinking, and whatever depended niſhment; but that every one, at the period of the reunion of the upon them will return of courſe, and the man will be, in the moſt ſoul and body and of final judgment, will receive a full and complete proper ſenſe, the fame being that he was before. Thoſe who recompence for the deeds done in the body. In proof of this opi- hold this opinion maintain, that according to the ſcriptures, life nion they alledge a variety of paſſages both from the Old and New and immortality were brought to light by the goſpel of Chriſt, in Teſtament, the principal of which we ſhall here enumerate; ſe- a ſenſe, excluſive of all other teachers, and all other revelations, veral of them they think cannot be conſiſtently explained on the at leaft from the birth of Moſes downwards; excluſive, likewiſe, other hypotheſis. Gen. ii. 7. xv. 15. xxxvii. 35. Exod. iii. 6. of all information from the light of nature, or the reſult of philo I Sam. xxviii. 11-19. 1 Kings xvii. 21. 22. Pl. xxxi. 5. fophical diſquiſition on the ſubſtance or qualities of the human ſoul. Eccleſ. iii. 21. xii. 7. Matt . X. 28. xvii. 3. Luke xvi, 19. XX. They hold, moreover, that the ſentence pronounced upon our firſt 38. xxiii. 43. xxiv. 39. Aets i. 25. vii. 59.2 Cor. v. 8. xii. 2. parents, imported a total deprivation of life, without any reſerve, Phil. i. 21–24. 1 Pet. iii. 19. iv. 6. Heb. xi. 40. xii. 23. Rev. or ſaving to the life of the ſoul; and conſequently, that eternal life vi. 9. 10. xiv. 13. vive or a reſtoration and redemption from the conſequences of this fen To theſe authorities of fcripture, they add the teſtimony of the tence, was effected for, revealed, conſigned, and inſured to man, fathers of the church, who lived in or near the times of the apoſtles, in and through Chriſt, and will be accompliſhed in no other way who are ſaid to be unanimous in this opinion, and perſuaded that than that ſpoken of by Chriſt and his apoſtles, who, they ſay, have the foul of every man upon the diffolution of the body died not, left no room to conclude, that there is a ſeparate or intermediate life but had a proper place to go to, and that accordingly this doctrine for the ſoul, when diſunited from the body. The learned Dr. Law, is to be found in the moſt ancient Chriftian liturgies. Great ſtreſs formerly biſhop of Carliſle, having, with a particular view to the has been laid, in this controverſy, on the meaning of the term death, controverſy concerning the intermediate ſtate, enumerated the ſeve as it occurs in ſcripture, and particularly in the fentence denounced ral paſſages both in the Old and New Teſtament, in which the againſt the firſt parent of the human race. The biſhop of Carliſle words, that are tranſlated ſoul or ſpirit in our verſion, occur, main- obſerves, that the word death, in its original and obvious fenſe, im- tains, that none of them ever ſtand for a purely immaterial princi- plies a ceſſation of all natural life, or a real diffolution and deſtruc- ple in man, or ſubſtance wholly ſeparable from, and independent tion of the whole man. But Mr. Farmer, a well known and ex- of the body; and after examining the account which the ſcriptures cellent writer, in the introduction to his learned work of the Ge- give of that ſtate to which death reduces us, he obſerves, that it is neral Prevalence of the Worſhip of Human Spirits, &c. 1783, has repreſented by ſleep, by a negation of all life, thought, or action; taken ſome pains to aſcertain the meaning of the word death, in by reſt, reſting-place, or home, filence, oblivion, darkneſs, de- the threatning denounced againſt Adam. To this purpoſe, he ſays, ſtruction, or corruption. He adds, that the ſcripture, in ſpeaking that if human ſpirits were worſhipped in the age of Moſes, parti- of the connection between our preſent and future being, doth not cularly in Egypt and Phenicia, the word death could not at that take into account our immediate ſtate in death; no more, than time, and in thoſe countries, denote more than the deſtruction of we in deſcribing the courſe of any man's actions, take in the time bodily life; for, if this term had farther included in it the inſenſi- he ſleeps; and that, therefore, the ſcriptures, (in order to be con bility or extinction of the ſoul, the dead would not have been ho- fiftent with themſelves) muft affirm an immediate connection be noured as gods. And if Moſes had uſed it in this extenſive ſenſe, tween death and judgment. As for thoſe texts that are uſually he would have been miſunderſtood by the Egyptians, who aſferted alledged on the other ſide of the queſtion, which he has cited and the immortality of the ſoul, and by the Hebrews who dwelt among endeavoured to accommodate to his own opinion, he thinks that them, and had adopted their ſyſtem of religion. they are either quite foreign to the point, or purely figurative, or This learned writer, in confirmation of this interpretation of capable of a clear and eaſy ſolution on the principle which he death, obſerves, that, although one great deſign of Moſes in giving adopts, viz. that the times of our death and reſurrection are coinci an account of the introduction of death into the world, was to dent; and that they cannot be fairly oppoſed to the conſtant, obvi- guard againſt the worſhip of departed ſpirits, and though nothing ous tenor of the ſacred writings. With reſpect to philoſophical could have anſwered this deſign more effectually than repreſenting arguments deduced from our notions of matter, and urged againſt the ſoul of Adam as a mere quality, or as the reſult of the peculiar the poſſibility of life, thought, and agency, being ſo connected with ſtructure and organization of his body, yet, ſo far is he from fup- fome portions of it as to conſtitute a compound being, or perſon, poſing this to be the caſe, that according to him, after the body of he imagines that they are merely grounded on our ignorance, and the firſt man was perfectly organized by the immediate hand of the that they will equally prove againſt known fact and obſervation, in Almighty, he did not become a living foul or perſon, till God the production of various animals, as againſt the union of two breathed into his noftrils the breath of life; a principle diſtinct ſuch heterogeneous principles as thoſe of the foul and body are from the duſt out of which his body was formed, and, therefore, ca- ſuppoſed to be. pable of ſubſiſting in a ſtate of ſeparation from it. Nor does Moſes With reſpect to the conſequences of either opinion, he ſays, uſe the ſame language in relating the formation of any other living that, on the one ſide, there is nothing more than a temporary cef creatures; which proves that the principle of life in man is of a fation of thought, which can hurt nobody, except the ſelf-intereſted fuperior kind to that in brutes. papiſt, or the ſelf-ſufficient deiſt; but on the other fide, there is a Beſides, the ancient patriarchs did not believe that the ſoul of man manifeſt derogation from, if not a total ſubverſion of that poſitive periſhed with his body. Agreeably to the moſt ancient opinion covenant, which profeſſes to entitle us to everlaſting life. He adds, concerning departed ſpirits, the ſacred writers ſuppoſed the fouls that all proper and confiftent notions of death, reſurrection, and a of the dead to exiſt in meol or hades, a place inviſible to human future judgment, are confounded, and in fine, all the great fanc fight, and that, in the diſtribution of them, regard was had to the tions of the goſpel rendered unintelligible or uſeleſs. former relation in which they ſtood to one another. Moreover, The doctrine of the New Teſtament, ſays an eminent writer Moſes himſelf believed the ſeparate ſubſiſtence of the ſoul, and againft a ſeparate ſtate, is that man ſhall become immortal by the has even given it a divine fanction. Gen. xv. 15. Nor do way of a reſurrection of the dead, a reſtoration of the whole man to the ſacred writers ever deſcribe death in terms different from thoſe life: and the New Teſtament is ſo far from acknowledging any in uſed by perſons, who certainly acknowledged the continuance of the termediate conſciouſneſs in man, between death and the refurrection, foul after it. Sleep, by which it is deſcribed, is not a ſtate of non- that it always ſpeaks of that interval as a ſleep, which implies a ſuf exiſtence, but of reft; and it is well known that this ſoft image of penſion of the thinking faculty, a reſt from thoſe labours, which re death was commonly uſed to expreſs the thing itſelf by thoſe who quire thought, memory, conſciouſneſs, &c. during which thoſe fa aſſerted the exiſtence of ſouls in hades. Silence, oblivion, dark- culties are uſeleſs. Beſides, the ſcriptural ſyſtem of immortality neſs, and corruption, by which the ſtate of the dead is deſcribed, fuppoſes that inan had forfeited his original title to immortality, by refer only to the body, or to the ſuppoſed ſtate of the foul while it the fall, and would never have received it, but for the interpoſition was in theol, and are not peculiar to the ſacred writers, but were of a Redeemer. The conſequence of this doctrine is, that between common in all countries, where both the popular belief, and the the time of the forfeiture and the actual appearance of the Redeemer, eſtabliſhed worſhip, were inconſiſtent with the notion of the ſoul's the dead could have life in no ſenſe at all; and that neither before periſhing with the body. And many of the terms, by which death nor after the appearance of the Redeemer, dead men were, or would was deſcribed in all countries, clearly imply, and are built upon, a be reſtored to life, otherwiſe than in the way revealed by him, belief of the diſtinction between foul and body, and of their being namely, a reſurrection of the dead. On the other hand, the advo- ſeparated at death. According to the Greeks, to die was to depart, cates of a ſeparate ftate inſiſt, that the ſoul, being an active, fimple, to go away; and the writers of the New Teſtament deſcribe death uncompounded, immaterial ſubſtance, is immortal in its own na- | by a departure, Luke ix. 31. that is of the foul from the body to ture, and capable of an active and conſcious exiſtence, in a ſtate of another ſtate. To all which it may be added, that the Jews, from diſunion and ſeparation from the body; that this natural capacity the time of their return from Babylon, aſſerted the ſeparate exiſtence of the ſoul was not impaired, or at all affected by any thing that hap- of the foul after death; as appears from their imitation of the hea- pened upon the tranſgreſſion of our firſt parents; that the death then idolatry, from their evocation of the dead, and from the early references any of S LU SNO references in fcripture to the receptacle of departed fouls, and many upon the mill wheel; ſuch alſo are thoſe uſed as vents or drains to other proofs. This was the opinion not only of a few eminent in diſcharge water off land. See the ſyſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. dividuals, ſuch as Philo, but of the learned ſects, the Eſſenes and XIX. under the head of DRAINING. Phariſees, and of the whole body of the people, almoſt without SLUR, in muſic, a mark like the arch of a circle, drawn from exception, in the time of our Saviour. one note to another, comprehending two or more notes in the ſame And if, in or near the time of Chriſt, the terms reſurrection, or different degrees. reviviſcence, or living again, as uſed both by Jews and Gentiles, SMALL-POX, variole. For deſcription, prognoſis and cure, denoted the reunion of a foul to a human body, the ſame terms, ſee the ſyſtem of MEDICINE, Genus XXVI. when adopted by Chriſt and his apoſtles, muſt have the ſame SMELL, odor, with regard to the organ, is an impreſſion made meaning: and every one would underſtand them in their common on the noſe by little particles continually exhaling from odorous and ordinary ſignification. Conſequently, if life, as expreſſing bodies. With regard to the object, it is the figure and diſpoſition of the reſurrection, ſignifies the foul's return to a human body, death, odorous effluvia, which, ſticking on the organ, excite the ſenſe of its oppoſite, denotes its feparation ; both terms imply the continu- ſmelling. The principal organs of ſmelling are the noftrils and ance of the foul after death : a principle, ſays Mr. Farmer, held the olfactory nerves, the minute ramifications of which latter are in the moſt ancient times, by Heathens and Jews, by patriarchs deſcribed throughout the whole concave of the former: fee the and prophets, and by the people, particularly in the times of Moſes ſyſtem of ANATOMY, Part VII. Sect. III. and the Meſſiah, and which gives great probability to the doctrine SMELTING, among metalliſts, the melting of a metal from of a reſurrection. The advocates of the ſleep of the ſoul, on the the ore in a ſmelting furnace; in order to ſeparate the metallic other hand, earneſtly contend, that it was the opinion of the apoſ parts from the fulphur and arſenic, and the earthy and ſtrong ſub- tles and early Chriſtians, that, whatever be the nature of the ſoul, ſtances of all kinds with which they are combined. Smelting, in its percipient and thinking powers ceaſe at death ; and that they propriety, is reſtrained to large works, wherein ores from the mines had no hope of the reſtoration of thoſe powers, but in the general are melted down, and ſeparated. In ſpeaking of works in a leſſer refurrection of the dead, way, we do not ſay ſmelting, but melting. However, Peter Pomponatius, a philoſopher of Mantua, pub ŚMOKE, or SMOAK, fumus, a humid matter exhaled in form liſhed a book in 1516, on the immortality of the foul, in which, of vapor by the action of heat, either external or internal; or ſmoke after ſtating the moral arguments againſt the mortality of the ſoul, conſiſts of palpable particles, elevated by means of the rarefying and endeavouring to ſhew that they are weak and inconcluſive, in heat, or by the force of the aſcending current of air, from bodies fers upon the whole, that the immortality of the ſoul, being a pro- expoſed to heat; and theſe particles vary much in their properties, blematical queſtion, we can have no aſſurance of it but from reve according to the ſubſtances from which they are produced. See lation, and that they who would build immortality upon any other FLAME. foundation, only verify the character given to certain ſelf-ſufficient Smoke, Sir Iſaac Newton obſerves, afcends in the chimney by reaſoners by the apoſtle, viz. profeffing themſelves wiſe, they be the impulſe of the air it floats in: for that air being rarefied by came fools. In 1520, Luther, in the defence of his propoſitions, the fire underneath, has its ſpecific gravity diminiſhed; and thus, which had been condemned by a bull of Leo X. ranks the natural being determined to aſcend itſelf , it carries up the ſmoke along immortality of the foul among the monſtrous opinions of popery; with it. The tail of a comet that great author takes alſo to aſcend and he afterwards made uſe of the doctrine of the ſleep of the ſoul from the nucleus after the ſame manner. See the Syſtem of Astro- as a confutation of purgatory and ſaint-worſhip, and he is ſaid to NOMY, Sect. XIII. There are various inventions for prevent- have continued in that belief to the laſt moment of his life. Wil. ing and curing ſmoaking chimneys; as the æolipiles of Vitru- liam Tyndall, alſo, the famous tranſlator of the bible into Engliſh, vius, the ventiducts of Cardan, the wind-mills of Bernard, the in defending Luther's doctrine againſt ſir Thomas Moore's objec- capitals of Serlio, the little drums of Paduanus, and ſeveral artifi- tions, conſiders the ſleep of the ſoul as the doctrine of the Proteſ ces of De Lorme, &c. tants in his time, and founded on the ſcriptures: though in conſe SMUT, a diſeaſe in corn, in which the grains, inſtead of being quence of the oppoſition given to this doctrine, by Calvin in his filled with flower, are full of a black ſtinking powder. For the Pſychopannychia, publiſhed in 1534, and the turn hereby given to cauſes and moſt approved methods of remedying and preventing the ſentiments of the Reformed in general, he ſeems to have re- this diſeaſe, ſee the Syſtem of Agriculture, Sect. III. you Canted his opinion. Calvin, however, ſeems to have been embar SNAIL, the Engliſh name of the Genus Helix; in the order of raſſed with the ſouls of the wicked, and ſays, he would only be Vermes 'Teſtacea: fee HELIX. reſponſible for the faithful. The firſt expreſs condemnation of the Snails are great deſtroyers of fruit in our gardens, eſpecially the doctrine of the ſleep of the foul, in a proteſtant confeſſion, occurs better forts of wall-fruit. Lime and aſhes ſprinkled on the ground in the fortieth of king Edward's Articles, compoſed in 1552. Af where they moſt reſort, will drive them away, and deſtroy the ter the long prevalence of the doctrine of the intermediate ſtate, young brood of them; it is a common practice to pull off the fruit that of the leep of the ſoul has of late years been revived, and, as ihey have bitten, but this ſhould never be done, for they will eat one of its zealous advocates affirms, gains ground, not ſo much no other, till they have wholly eat up this, if it be left for them. from conſiderations of philoſophy, as from a cloſe attention to the The Romans were fond of ſnails, and had them fed on purpoſe ſenſe of the ſcriptures. for their tables. The Pomatiæ were preferred for this purpoſe; We ſhall cloſe this article with obſerving, that a ſingular hypo- and they were fed with bran and fodden wine. Their taſte is not theſis was advanced a few years ago by Dr. Caleb Fleming, and delicious, but rather diſagreeable; but this they diſguiſed by means of late vindicated by an anonymous writer; and this is, that the of good ſauces, and had other reaſons for the receiving them into reſurrection of the ſoul takes place immediately after death. On the liſt of foods. They uſed them as provocatives, or inciters to this ſubject ſee Law's Appendix and Poſtſcript to his Conſiderati venery. The eaſtern nations at preſent run much into the opinion ons on the Theory of Religion, &c. 1774. Hiſtorical View of of the Romans of old, as to provocatives; they uſe, as the others the Controverſy concerning an intermediate State, &c. 1772. did, every thing that ſerves to the purpoſes of generation in other Prieſtley's Diſquiſitions on Matter and Spirit, 1777. Correſpon animals, and every thing that has but the reſemblance of the exter- dence between Dr. Price and Dr. Prieſtley, 1778, and the publi- nal figure of the parts ſubſervient to it. cations of Steffe, Warburton, Goddard, Coward, Peckard, Jor SNAKE, the Engliſh name of the Genus Anguis, belonging to tin, &c. on both ſides of the queſtion, cited by the author of the the order of Amphibia Serpentes. For deſcription, ſee ANGUIS. Hiſtorical View, &c. Fleming's Search after Souls. SNIPE, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the genus Scolopax. SLEEPERS, in natural hiſtory, a name given to ſome animals See SCOLOPAX. which ſleep all the winter; ſuch as bears, marmots, dormice, bats, SNORING, in medicine, otherwiſe called rhencos or ſtertor, is hedge-hogs, &c. Theſe do not feed in winter, have no ſenſible that ſound like that of the cerchnon, but greater and more mani- evacuations, breathe little, or not at all, and moſt of the viſcera feſt. Aftertor is that ſound which is ſuppoſed to be made betwixt ceaſe from their functions. Some of theſe creatures ſeem to be the palate and noſtrils, by perſons aſleep; cerchon or cherchnon, dead, and others to return to a ſtate like unto that of the fætus be is that bubbling noiſe which is made in reſpiration, from the larynx, fore birth. In this condition they continue, till by length of time or the aſpera arteria. Theſe affections are owing to a weakneſs of maturating the proceſs, or by new heat, the fluids are attenuated, nature. Expectoration is ſuppreſſed either by the viſcidity of the the ſolids ſtimulated, and the functions' begin where they left off. humour, which requires to be diſcharged, and which adhering to See Dr. Stevenſon in Med. Edinb. Vol. V. Art 177. the aſpera arteria, and being there agitated by the breath, excites that SLOATH, or Sloth, the Engliſh name of the genus bubbling noiſe or ſtertor; or by an obſtruction of the bronchia ; or Bradypus, in the ſyſtem of Mammalia. For deſcription of the laſtly, by a compreſſion of the aſpera arteria and throat; whence Genus, &c. ſee BRADYPUS; for repreſentation, ſee Plate II. the paſſage is ſtraitened, in which the humours being agitated, ex- Genus 7. cite a kind of noiſe. SLOOP, in ſea language, a ſmall veſſel furniſhed with one maſt, | SNOW, a well-known meteor, formed by the freezing of the the main-ſail of which is attached to à gaff above, to the maſt on vapours in the atmoſphere. It differs from hail and hoar-froſt in its foremoſt edge, and to a long boom below ; by which it is occa being as it were cryſtallized, which they are not. This appears ſionally ſhifted to each quarter. This kind of veſſel is very con on examination of a flake of ſnow by a magnifying glaſs; when venient for the coaſt trade. the whole of it will appear to be compoſed of fine ſhining ſpicula SLUICE, a frame of timber, ſtone, or other matter, ſerving to diverging like rays from a centre. As the flakes fall down through retain and raiſe the water of a river, &c. and on occaſion to let it the atmoſphere, they are continually joined by more of theſe radi- paſs. Such is the ſluice of a mill, which ſtops and collects the wa ated fpicula, and thus increaſe in bulk like the drops of rain or ter of a rivulet, &c. to let it fall, at length, in the greater plenty hailſtones. Dr. Grew, in a diſcourſe, of the nature of ſnow, ob- ſerves, S NU SOC obſerves that many parts thereof are of a regular figure, for the have been deſcribed by the writers in general on theſe ſubjects, moſt part ſo many little rowels or ſtars of ſix points, and are as ſince this pernicious cuſtom has reigned in the world: but one of perfect and tranſparent ice as any we ſee on a pond, &c. Upon the moſt remarkable accidents, occafioned by it, is related in the each of theſe points are other collateral points, ſet at the ſame angles Acta Eruditorum, which was the forming a polypus in the æſo- as the main points themſelves: among which there are divers other phagus, and which killed the patient by ſtarving him, from an irregular, which are chiefly broken points, and fragments of the inability of ſwallowing. Act. Erudit. an. 1715. p. 475. regular ones. Others alſo, by various winds, ſeem to have been SOAL, or SOLEA, a ſpecies of the Genus Pleuronectes. For thawed, and froze again into irregular cluſters; ſo that it ſeems as the generic characters and claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, Order 4. if the whole body of ſnow were an infinite maſs of icicles irregu- The foal is found on all our coaſts, but thoſe on the weſtern ſhores larly figured. That is, a cloud of vapours being gathered into are much larger than thoſe of the north. They are uſually taken in drops, the ſaid drops forthwith deſcend; upon which deſcent, a trawl-net; they keep much at the bottom, and feed on ſmall thell- meeting with a freezing air as they paſs through a colder region, fiſh. The ſmall foals are much ſuperior in goodneſs to the larger each drop is immediately frozen into an icicle, ſhooting itſelf forth ones. They are common in the Mediterranean, Engliſh, and into ſeveral points; but theſe ſtill continuing their deſcent, and German Seas. The chief fiſhery for them on the Engliſh coaſt meeting with ſome intermitting gales of warmer air, or in their is at Brixham in Torbay. Soals may be taken at any time of the continual waftage to and fro touching upon each other, ſome of year, but they muſt not be under ſeven inches from the eye to the them are a little thawed, blunted, and again froze into cluſters, or end of the tail. 1 & 2 Geo. I. cap. 18. intangled ſo as to fall down in what we call flakes. SOAP, or Sope, a kind of paſte, ſometimes hard and dry, and The lightneſs of ſnow, although it is firm ice, is owing to the ſometimes ſoft and liquid, much uſed in waſhing and whitening exceſs of its ſurface, in compariſon to the matter contained under linens, cleanſing woollen cloths from oil, whitening ſilk, and freeing it; as gold itſelf may be extended in ſurface, till it will ride upon it from the reſinous varniſh with which it is naturally covered; and the leaſt breath of air. According to fignior Beccaria, clouds of for various other purpoſes, by the dyers, perfumers, hatters, fullers, ſnow differ in nothing from clouds of rain, but in the circumſtance &c. The alkaline lixiviums, being capable of diffolving oils more of cold that freezes them. Both the regular diffuſion of the ſnow, effectually than ſoap, might be employed for the ſame purpoſes ; and the regularity of the ſtructure of its parts (particularly fome but when this activity is not mitigated by oil, as it is in ſoap, they figures of ſnow or hail which fall about Turin, and which he calls are capable of altering, and even deſtroying entirely, by their cauſ- roſette) ſhow that clouds of ſnow are acted upon by ſome uniform ticity, moſt ſubſtances, eſpecially animal matters, as filk, wool, cauſe like electricity; and he endeavours to ſhow how electricity and others; whereas foap cleanſes from oil almoſt as effectually as is capable of forming theſe figures. He was confirmed in his pure alkali, without danger of altering or deſtroying, which renders conjectures by obſerving, that his apparatus for obſerving the elec it very uſeful. The manufacture of ſoap in London, firſt began in tricity of the atmoſphere never failed to be electrified by ſnow as the year 1524; before which time this city was ſerved with white well as rain. Profeſſor Winthorp ſometimes found his apparatus ſoap from foreign countries, and with grey ſoap, ſpeckled with electrified by ſnow when driven about by the wind, though it had white, from Briſtol, and fold for a penny a pound, and alſo black not been affected by it when the ſnow itſelf was falling. A more ſoap for a halfpenny the pound. The principal ſoaps of our own intenſe electricity, according to Beccaria, unites the particles of manufacture, are, the ſoft, the hard, and the ball ſoap. The ſoft hail more cloſely than the more moderate electricity does thoſe of ſoap again is either white or green. ſnow, in the ſame manner as we ſee that the drops of rain which SOCIETY, SOCIETAS, an afſemblage or union of ſeveral per- fall from thunder-clouds, are larger than thoſe which fall from ſons in the ſame place, for their mutual alliitance, ſecurity, intereſt, others, though the former deſcend through a leſs ſpace. or entertainment. See GOVERNMENT. From fome late experiments on the quantity of water yielded by The ſocial principle in man is of ſuch an expanſive nature, that ſnow, it appears that the latter gives only about one-tenth of its it cannot be confined within the circuit of a family, of friends, of a bulk. In the northern countries, the ground is covered with ſnow neighbourhood; it ſpreads into wider ſyſtems, and draws men into for ſeveral months; which proves exceedingly favourable for vege- larger communities and commonwealths; ſince it is in theſe only tation, by preſerving the plants from thoſe intenſe froſts which are that the more ſublime powers of our nature attain the higheſt im- common in ſuch countries, and which would certainly deſtroy them. provement and perfection of which they are capable. Of ſocieties, The peculiar agency of ſnow as a fertilizer, in preference to rain, we have a great many kinds, diſtinguiſhed by the different ends pro- may, without recurring to nitrous ſalts ſuppoſed to be contained in poſed by them: civil ſocieties, trading ſocieties, religious ſocieties, it, be rationally aſcribed to its furniſhing a covering for the roots literary ſocieties, &c. of vegetables, by which they are guarded from the influence of the Society, in trade, is a contract or agreement between two or amoſpherical cold, and the internal heat of the earth is prevented more perſons, whereby they bind themſelves together for a certain from eſcaping. Snow may alſo fertilize the earth, agreeably to time, and agree to ſhare equally in the profits or loſſes which ſhall the hypotheſis of thoſe who make oil the food of plants, by means accrue in the affairs for which the ſociety or copartnerſhip is con- of the oily particles which it contains : beſides, ſnow, in melting, tracted. We have ſeveral very confiderable ſocieties of this kind : moiſtens and pulverizes the ſoil which had been bound up by the as the Merchant Adventurers, the Turkey, Eaſt India, Muſcovy, froſt; and as its water has a tendency to putrefaction, it ſeems, on Eaſtland, Greenland, Spaniſh, African, South Sea, and Hudſon's many accounts, without admitting it to contain any nitre, to be Bay, companies; the inſtitutions, policies, &c. whereof, ſee under admirably fitted to promote vegetation. Watſon's Chem. Ef. the article COMPANY. vol. ii. p. 77, &c. Royal Society. See Royal SOCIETY. Bartholin aſcribes great virtues to ſnow water, but experience SOCINIANS, in church-hiſtory, a fect of Chriſtian heretics, does not ſeem to warrant his affertions. Snow or ice water is ſo called from their founder Fauſtus Socinus. They maintain, always deprived of its fixed air, and thoſe nations who live among " That Jeſus Chriſt was a mere man, who had no exiſtence before the Alps, and uſe it for their conſtant drink, are ſubject to affec the Virgin Mary; that the Holy Ghoſt is no diſtinct perſon, but tions of the throat, which are thought to be occafioned by it: that the Father is truly and properly God. They own that the they are called Bronchiæ; and in form appear as large tumours on name of God is given in the holy ſcriptures to Jeſus Chriſt; but the outfide of the throat; like thoſe of the people impoſed on the contend, that it is only a deputed title, which, however, inveſts him public a few years ago as natives of an unknown clime, under the with an abſolute fovereignty over all created beings, and renders appellation of Monſtrous Craws. For the mode of treatment fee him an object of worſhip to men and angels. They deny the doc- the article BRONCHI Æ. trines of ſatisfaction and imputed righteouſneſs; and only ſay that In Italy they cool their wines all the ſummer with ſnow water. Chriſt preached the truth to mankind, ſet before them in himſelf Snow may be preſerved by ramming it down in a dry place under an example of heroic virtue, and ſealed his doctrines with his blood. ground, and covering it well with chaff. At Leghorn they uſe Original fin and abſolute predeſtination they eſteem ſcholaſtic chi- barley chaff for this purpoſe. Snow and ice are alſo preſerved with meras. They likewiſe maintain the ſleep of the ſoul, which they ſtraw or reeds. Mr. Boyle has deſcribed the manner in his experi- ſay becomes inſenſible at death, and is raiſed again with the body mental hiſtory of cold. See Ice and Ice-houſe. It is uſual in hot at the reſurrection, when the good will be eſtabliſhed in the poſ- countries to mix ſnow and ice with their wine. ſeſſion of eternal felicity, while the wicked will be configned to a In England, large quantities of ice are preſerved for that fire that will not torment them eternally, but conſume both their purpoſe; and it is eſteemed a great luxury, and therefore fre ſouls and bodies for a certain duration proportioned to their demerits. quently ſerved up at the tables of the great and moſt ſumptu The only ſociety of Socinians in England was that formed by Mr. ous entertainments. John Biddle, under the patronage of Mr. Thomas Firmin, and his SNUFF, a preparation of tobacco, made by reducing it into a adherents were called Bidellians; but this name was loſt in the powder, fit to be taken in at the noſe, in order to purge or clear more common appellation of Socinians, or, what they prefered, the head of pituita. Ordinarily, tobacco is the baſis of ſnuti; other Unitarians. This ſociety does not appear to have ſubſiſted after matters being only added to give it a more agreeable ſcent, &c. the death of Biddle; nor have the Socinians, though their ſenti- The kinds of ſnuff, and their ſeveral names, are infinite; and new ments have been adopted by ſeveral, made any figure as a commu- ones are daily invented; ſo that it would be difficult , not to ſay nity in England. The moſt diſtinguiſhed Socinian writers, in Po- impoſſible, to give a detail of them. We ſhall only ſay, that there land, were Crellius, Smalcius, Volkelius, Slichtingius, Wolzoge- are three principal forts: the firſt granulated; the ſecond an impal- nius, Przipcovius, and Staniſlaus Lubianicius: to this number, pable powder; and the third the bran, or coarſe part remaining ſome have added Grotius; in later times we might enumerate Le after fifting the ſecond fort. The many miſchiefs attending the Clerc, Biddle, Lardner, Lowman, Fleming, Lindſey, Prieſtley, unnatural practice of taking this powder of tobacco at the noſtrils, &c. See on this ſubject Socini Oper. tom. i. & i. pallim. Mo- Theim's N° 139. 4 1 SOL SOL courts, Theim's Eccl. Hift. vol. iv. p. 167. &c. 8vo. 'Toulmin's Life of iron wire; then lay on the folder covered with the borax, and Socinus, paſlim. See UNITARIANS. placing it near the fire, let it dry hard; then lay it on charcoal, SOCRATIC Philoſophy, the doctrines and opinions with regard and convey a blaſt from a large ſpouted lamp, with a blowpipe, to morality and religion, maintained and taught by Socrates. See directly under the buckle, heating it as quick as you conveniently PHILOSOPHY. can, keeping the folder as cool as poſſible, till the part of the SODOMY, an unnatural crime: thus called from the city of buckle which the folder lays on, is of a blood red heat, then Sodom, which was deſtroyed by fire for the ſame. The Levitical direct the greateſt heat on the folder, which will flow into the laws adjudged thoſe guilty of this execrable evil to death, Lev. xviii. joints, and be as found as ever; be careful not to fuffer the folder 22, 23. xx. 15, 16. and the civil law aſſigns the ſame puniſhment to melt before the work is red hot, as it will be apt to curdle, to it. Our laws alſo make it felony. 25 Hen. VIII. cap. 6. and muſt be ſcraped off again, and if too long in heating, the borax 5 Eliz. cap. 17. periſhes, and muſt be ſupplied with freſh. Braſs, iron, &c. is SOIL, folum, in agriculture and gardening, denotes earth, or ſoldered in the ſame manner, but, inſtead of ſilver ſolder, uſe ſpelter ground, conſidered with regard to the quality of its mould for the with the borax, and in ſoldering braſs, leave off immediately the production and growth of vegetables. For a particular deſcription ſpelter, which Aows freely, or flight work will be apt to melt. of the nature, qualities, and properties of the various kinds of ſoils, The beſt ſilver ſolder, and ſpelter, &c. is to be had at the watch and the modes of adopting them to the important purpoſes of vege- tool ſhops. tation, ſee the ſyſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. I. and II. and the SOLDIER, a military man, liſted to ſerve a prince or ſtate, in Treatiſe on GARDENING. Part II. throughout. confideration of a certain daily pay. For a deſcription of the rank, SOL, in muſic, the fifth note of the gamut: ut, re, mi, fa, ſol, duties, diſcipline and immunities of the ſoldiery in general, ſee the la. See the Syſtem, Definition I. Treatiſe on MILITARY AFFAIRS throughout. For repreſentation Sol, in aſtronomy, fignifies the ſun. See the Syſtem of As of the figures illuſtrative of the directions for performing the Manual TRONOMY throughout. Exerciſe, ſee the plates annexed to the Treatiſe. SOLÆUS, or SOLEUS, in anatomy, a large fleſhy flat muſcle, SOLECISM, in grammar and oratory, a groſs impropriety in nearly of an oval figure, and thicker at the middle than at the edges. ſpeech, contrary to the uſe of language, and the rules of grammar, It has its name from its ſuppoſed likeneſs to a ſole. It is ſituated either in reſpect of declenſion, conjugation, or ſyntax. See Trea- on the backſide of the leg, lower down than the gaſtrocemii, by tiſe on the Art of ORATORY, Part III. Art. I. which it is covered, and with which it forms the calf of the legs. SOLEN, a genus belonging to the order of Vermes Teftacea. For its origin, inſertion, and uſe, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. For deſcription ſee VERMES; for the ſhell, as it forins a branch of Table of Muſcles, Art. 26. conchology, ſee the Syſtem, Order II. Genus 5. SOLDER, is a metallic or mineral compoſition, uſed in ſolder SOLICITOR, a perſon employed to follow, and take care of, ing or joining together other metals. For this purpoſe it is required other perſons ſuits depending in courts of law or equity; formerly that folders melt ſooner than the metal to be ſoldered, and that they allowed only to nobility, whoſe menial ſervants they were; but approach as near as may be to the metal ſoldered in hardneſs and now regularly admitted to practiſe in the court of chancery. See colour. ATTORNEY. The king has a ſolicitor-general, who holds his The different folders are made of gold, filver, copper, tin, bif office by patent, during the king's pleaſure. The folitor-general muth, and lead; uſually obſerving, that in the compoſition there has the care and concern of managing the king's affairs, and hath be ſome of the metal to be ſoldered, mixed with ſome higher and fees for pleading, beſides other fees ariſing by patents, &c. He hath finer metals. Goldſmiths uſually make four kinds of ſolder; viz. his attendance on the privy council; and the attorney-general and folder of eight, where, to ſeven parts of filver, there is one of braſs ſolicitor were anciently reckoned among the officers of the exche- or copper; folder of fix, where only a ſixth part is copper; folder quer: they have audience, and come within the bar, in all other of four, and ſolder of three. It is the mixture of copper in the folder that makes raiſed plate always come cheaper than flat. As mix SOLID, in philoſophy, a body whoſe parts are ſo firmly con- tures of gold with a little copper are found to melt with leſs heat nected together, as not to give way or flip from each other upon than pure gold itſelf , theſe mixtures ferve as folders for gold: two the ſmalleſt impreſſion; in which ſenſe ſolid ſtands oppoſed to pieces of fine gold are foldered by gold that has a ſmall admixture fluid. Geometricians define a ſolid to be a third ſpecies of mag- of copper ; and gold alloyed with copper is foldered by fuch as is nitude, or that which has three dimenſions, viz. length, breadth, alloyed with more copper ; the workmen add a little filver as well and thickneſs or depth. Solids are commonly divided into regular as copper, and vary the proportions of the two to one another, fo and irregular. The regular folids are thoſe terminated by regular as to make the colour of the folder correſpond, as nearly as may be, and equal planes, and are only five in number, viz. the tetrahedon, to that of the piece. A mixture of gold and copper is alfo a folder which conliſts of four equal triangles ; the cube, or hexahedron, of for fine copper as well as for fine gold. fix equal ſquares; the octahedron, of eight equal triangles; the We were favoured with the following improved methods of dodecahedron, of twelve; and the icoſihedron, of twenty equal making that kind of folder, which is called tin-mans, or ſoft-fol-triangles. The irregular iolids are almoſt infinite, comprehending dering, as alſo that of filver-foldering with hard-folder, by Mr. Na all ſuch as do not come under the definition of regular ſolids; thaniel Merriman, tin plate worker in Crutched Friars.-Tin as the ſphere, cylinder, cone, parallelogram, priſm, parallelo- mans, or ſoft-ſoldering: this folder is beſt made by mixing an equal piped, &c. quantity of grain tin and lead, in an iron ladle, over a fire till it is Solids, in anatomy, &c. denote all the continuous and con- pretty hot, but not quite red, then ſkim it and pour it off for uſe; if tinent parts of the body; thus called, in oppoſition to the fluids, a little rofin is thrown in when hot, and ſtirred well about, it clears or parts contained therein, Of the folid kind, are the bones, the metal. To folder therewith, provide a common tile and two cartilages, ligaments, membranes, fibres, muſcles, tendons, arte- irons, with ſquare bits of copper fixed in the ends, about? of an ries, veins, nerves, glands, lymphedućts, and lacteals. The folid inch ſquare, and two or three inches long, and drawn to a ſquare parts of the body, though equally compoſed of vefſels, are diffe- point, like that of a poker, which muſt be filed bright, and then rent with regard to their conſiſtence; fome being hard, and others tinned by heating them in a charcoal fire, till they are but juſt hot ſoft. The hard, as the bones and cartilages, give firmneſs and enough to melt the folder ; then cover the tile and folder with plenty attitude to the body, and ſuſtain the other parts; the ſoft parts, of roſin, and by applying the bright part of the copper to it, cut off either alone or together with the hard, ſerve to execute the animal- a ſmall piece, and rub it about the tile with iron, or rather copper, functions. For deſcription of theſe ſeveral parts of the human till it is well tinned; which operation muſt be repeated every time frame, ſee the ſyſtem of ANATOMY, in the ſeveral parts to which the tin gets burnt off, by being too hot, which it certainly is when they reſpectfully belong. For repreſentations, ſee the Plates of it appears the leaſt red. Any metal that is covered with tin, will Oſteology, Myology, and thoſe of the Nerves, Veins, Arte- readily folder, by laying rofin upon it, and then taking a ſmall drop ries, &c. of folder from the tile, with the hot iron; but if the thing you wiſh SOLIDITY, that property of matter, or body by which it ex- to folder is impaired by ruſt, &c. or the metal has never been tinned, cludes all other bodies from the place which itſelf poſſeſſes; and as it muſt be fcraped or filed bright; and tinned by laying on plenty it would be abſurd to ſuppoſe that two bodies could poffefs one and of rofin, and rubbing it over with the tinned iron, with a ſmall piece the ſame place at the ſame time, it follows, that the ſofteſt bodies of ſolder thereon, before it will folder found. But iron being dif are equally ſolid with the hardeſt. Among geometricians, the foli- ficult to tin, many uſe moiſtened fal ammoniac to that metal, in dity of a body denotes the quantity or ſpace contained in it, and is preference to rofin; be careful not to heat the iron in a ſea coal called alſo its ſolid content. fire, as it ſhortly deſtroys the tin, and prevents its ſoldering, SOLILOQUY, SOLILOQUIUM, a reaſoning, or diſcourſe, Silver-SOLDERING, is performed both with ſoft and hard folder, which a man holds with himſelf. Papias ſays, that ſoliloquy is the ſoft is made as before directed, and the parts which are to be properly a diſcourſe by way of anſwer to a queſtion that a man has joined, being neatly tinned, apply them together, and then laying propoſed to himſelf. Soliloquies are become very common things on the folder covered with a little fal-ammoniac, rofin, or Venice on the modern ſtage; yet can nothing be more inartificial, or more turpentine, convey a ſmall blaft from a lamp, &c. with a blowpipe, / unnatural, than an actor's making long ſpeeches to himſelf, to -upon the parts you wiſh to folder, and it will be much neater, and convey his intentions, &c. to the audience. Where ſuch diſcoveries equally as ſtrong, as thoſe done with the iron; this metal is uſed are neceſſary to be made, the poet ſhould rather take care to give chiefly in foldering French plate, &c. the dramatic perſons ſuch confidants, as may neceſſarily ſhare their Silver-SOLDERING, with hard-folder ; fuppofing a buckle, ſpoon, inmoſt thoughts ; by which means, they will be more naturally con- &c. let the parts to be ſoldered, be filed bright, and wet them with veyed to the audience. Yet is even this a ſhift an accurate poet a little borax, diffolved in water; and bind them together with would not be found to have occafion for. The uſe and abuſe of ſoliloquies SOP S OU co ſoliloquies is well delivered by the duke of Buckingham in the fol-, word is formed from the Latin, fopor, ſleep. The Greeks, in lieu lowing lines : hereof, uſe the word hypnotic. Soliloquies had need be very few, SORCERY, the crime of witchcraft or divination by the af- Extremely ſhort, and ſpoke in paſion too. fiſtance of evil ſpirits : ſee MAGI and MAGIC. Our lovers talking to themſelves, for want Our forefathers were ſtrong believers when they enacted; by Of others, make the pit their confidant : ſtat. 33 Hen. VIII. c. 8. all witchcraft and forcery to be felony Nor is the matter mended yet, if thus without benefit of clergy; and again, by ftat. I. Jac. I. c. 12. that They truſt a friend, only to tell it us.-- all perſons invoking any evil ſpirit, or conſulting, covenanting SOLO, in the Italian muſic, is frequently uſed in pieces con with, entertaining, employing, feeding, or rewarding any evil ſpi- fiſting of ſeveral parts, to mark thoſe that are to perform alone : rit; or taking up dead bodies from their graves to be uſed in any as fiauto ſolo, violino ſolo. It is alſo uſed for fonatas, compoſed for It is alſo uſed for fonatas, compoſed for witchcraft, forcery, charm, or enchantment; or killing, or other- one violin, one German flute or other inſtruments, and a bafis : wiſe hurting any perſon by ſuch infernal arts; ſhould be guilty of thus we ſay, Corelli's ſolos, Geminiani's folos, &c. felony without benefit of clergy, and ſuffer death. And if any per- SOLSTICE, in aſtronomy, the time when the ſun is in one of fon ſhould attempt by forcery to diſcover hidden treaſure, or to re- the folftitial points; that is, when he is at his greateſt diſtance ſtore ſtolen goods, or to provoke unlawful love, or to hurt any man from the equator, which is twenty-three degrees and a half; thus or beaſt, though the ſame were not effected, he or ſhe ſhould ſuffer called, becauſe he then appears to ſtand ſtill, and not to change his impriſonment and pillory for the firſt offence, and death for the fe- place in the degrees of the zodiac, any way: an appearance owing cond. Theſe acts continued in force till lately, to the terror of all to the obliquity of our ſphere, and which thoſe who live under the ancient females in the kingdom; and many poor wretches were ſa- equator are ſtrangers to. The ſolſtices are two in each year ; the crificed thereby to the prejudice of their neighbours and their own æftival or ſummer ſolſtice, and the hyemal, or winter ſolſtice. See illuſions, not a few having by ſome means or other confeſſed the the Syſtem, Sect. IV. and Plate III. fig. 3. fact at the gallows. But all executions for this dubious crime are SOLSTITIAL Points, in aſtronomy, are thoſe points of the now at an end; our legiſlature having at length followed the wiſe ecliptic, whereby the ſun's aſcent above the equator and his deſcent example of Louis XIV.in France, who thought proper by an edict below it are terminated. See the Syſtem, Sect. IX. Art. XII. to reſtrain the tribunals of juſtice from receiving informations of SOLUTION, in chymiſtry, is ſometimes uſed for the analyſis witchcraft. And accordingly it is with us enacted, by ſtatute or reduction of a natural body into its chymical principles. See the 9 Geo. II. c. 5. that no proſecution ſhall for the future be carried Syſtem, Part I. on againſt any perſon for conjuration, witchcraft, forcery, or in- SON, a relative term, applied to a male CHILD, conſidered in chantment. But the miſdemeanour of perſons pretending to uſe the relation he bears to his PARENTS. See PARENT and CHILD. witchcraft, tell fortunes, or diſcover ſtolen goods, by ſkill in the SONATA, in muſic, a piece or compoſition, intended to be occult ſciences, is ſtill deſervedly puniſhed with a year's impriſon- performed by inftruments only; in which ſenſe it ſtands oppoſed to ment, and ſtanding four times in the pillory. cantata, or a piece deſigned for the voice. See CANTATA. There SOREX, the SHREW-MOUSE; a genus of quadrupeds, belong- are ſonatas from one to eight parts; but uſually they are per- ing to the order of Feræ. The moſt remarkable ſpecies are the formed by a ſingle violin, or with two violins and a thorough two following: 1. The araneus, or field ſhrew-mouſe: inhabits baſs for the harpſichord, and frequently a more figured baſs for the Europe; lives in old walls, heaps of ſtones, or holes in the earth; bafe-viol. Sonatas, though extremely numerous, are reduced by is frequently near hay-ricks, dunghills, and neceſſary-houſes; lives the Italians to two kinds; 1. Thoſe proper for church muſic, on corn, inſects, and any filth; is often obſerved rooting in ordure, which uſually begin with a grave and folemn motion, and after like a hog; from its food, or the places it frequents, has a diſa- wards ftrike into a briſker and gayer manner; theſe are what they greeable ſmell; cats will kill, but not eat it; it brings four or five more particularly call fonatas. 2. Thoſe for the chamber, being young at a time. The ancients believed it was injurious to cattle ; little pieces for dancing. an error now detected. There ſeems to be an annual mortality of SONG, in poetry, a little compoſition, conſiſting of fimple, eaſy, theſe animals in Auguſt, numbers being then found dead in the natural verſes, ſet to a tune, in order to be ſung. Each ſtanza of paths. For repreſentation, ſee the Syſtem of MAMMALIA, Plate a ſong is called a couplet. The ſong bears a great deal of reſem VI. Genus XIX. Species 5. blance to the madrigal, and more to the ode; which is, indeed. The cæcus, or blind mouſe: inhabits Mexico; burrows and nothing but a ſong, according to the ancient rules. Its object is makes ſuch a number of cavities, that travellers can ſcarce tread uſually either wine or love, whence M. le Brun defines a modern with ſafety; if it gets out of its hole, does not know how to re- ſong, to be either a ſoft and amorous, or a briſk and Bacchic turn, but begins to dig another; grows very fat, and is eatable; thought expreſſed in few words. Indeed, this is to reſtrain it to feeds on roots, kidney-beans, and other ſeeds. For repreſenta- too narrow bounds; for we have ſatyrical ſongs, and panegyrical tion, ſee Plate VI. Genus XIX. Species 5. ſongs. But be the ſong what it will, the verſes are to be eaſy, na SOVEREIGN, in matters of government, is applied to the tural, and howing; and are to contain a certain harmony, which fupreme magiſtrate or magiſtrates of an independent government neither ſhocks the reaſon nor the ear; and which unites poetry or ſtate; by reaſon their authority is only bounded by the laws of and muſic agreeably together. God, of nature, and the fundamental laws of the ſtate: fuch are SONNET, in poetry, a kind of compoſition properly contained kings, princes, &c. in fourteen verſes; viz. two ſtanzas, or meaſures, of four verſes SOVEREIGN Power, or SoverEIGNTY, in the Britiſh Polity, each, and two of three; the eight firſt verſes being all in two is the power of making laws; for wherever that power reſides, all rhymes. The ſonnet is of Italian origin: it is held the moſt diffi others muſt conform to it, and be directed by it, whatever appear- cult and artful of all poetical compofitions, as requiring the utmoſt ance the outward form and adminiſtration of the government may accuracy and exactneſs. It is to end with ſome pretty ingenious put on. For it is at any time in the option of the legiſlature to thought: the cloſe muſt be particularly beautiful, or the ſonnet is alter that form and adminiſtration by a new ediet or rule, and to defective. Of twenty-three fonnets which were written by our put the execution of the laws into whatever hands it pleaſes; and great poet Milton, that addreſſed to Henry Laws is one of the beſt; all the other powers of the ſtate muſt obey the legiſlative power in and this ſhews how difficult and unnatural the conſtruction of the execution of their ſeveral functions, or elſe the conſtitution is at this ſpecies of poem is in the Engliſh language; whereas, from the an end. Blackft. Com. Vol. I. p. 49. In our conſtitution the law great number of ſimilar terminations in the Italian tongue, it has aſcribes to the king the attribute of ſovereignty; but that is to be long been the favourite meaſure of Italy for ſhort compoſitions. underſtood in a qualified ſenſe, i. e. as ſupreme magiſtrate, not as SOOT, an earthy volatile matter, ariſing from wood, coals, and ſole legiſlator; as the legiſlative power is veſted in the king, lords, other fuel, along with the ſmoke, by the action of fire; or rather, and commons, not in any of the three eſtates alone. it is the ſmoke itſelf, fixed and detained on the ſides of the chimney. SOUL, a ſpiritual ſubſtance which animates the bodies of liv- Soot is a collection of ſubſtances formed by the inatter of the flame ing creatures; it is the principle of life and activity within them. of inHammable bodies, but which have eſcaped combuſtion, from Various have been the opinions of philoſophers concerning the ſub- not having fufficient contact with the air. This matter is always ſtance of the human ſoul. The Carteſians make thinking the of a black colour, more or leſs browniſh, which colour it acquires eſſence of the ſoul. Others again hold, that man is endowed from an oil that is burnt, and half reduced to the ſtate of coal. Its with three kinds of ſouls, viz. the rational, which is purely fpiri- different qualities and appearances are owing to the nature in tual, and infuſed by the immediate inſpiration of God; the irra- which they are burnt. For the uſes of soot in manure, ſee the tional, or ſenſitive, which is common to man and brutes; and Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. II. laftly the vegetative ſoul, or principle of growth and nutrition. SOPHISM, Eoploua, in logic, a captious and fallacious reaſon That the ſoul is an immaterial ſubſtance appears from hence, ing; or an argument, which, with ſome ſubtilty carries much ap that its primary operations of willing and thinking have not only pearance of truth, but little ſolidity. no connection with the known properties of body, but feem plainly SOPHIST, Eoisins, a perſon who frames fophiſms; that is, inconſiſtent with ſome of its moſt eſſential qualities. For the mind uſes ſubtile arguments, with deſign to deceive thoſe he would per diſcovers no relation between thinking and the motion and arrange- ſuade or convince. The term fophift was anciently honourable, ment of parts. As to the immortality of the human ſoul, the argu- and aſſumed by the philoſophers, but it was afterwards diſcarded as ments to prove it may be reduced to the following heads : I. The conveying an idea derogatory to their character, and therefore be nature of the ſoul itſelf, its deſires, ſenſe of moral good and evil, came a term of reproach. gradual increaſe in knowledge and perfection, &c. 2. The moral SOPORIFIC, or SOPORIFEROUS, a medicine that has the fa attributes of God. Under the former of theſe heads it is urged, culty of procuring fleep. Such are opium, laudanum, &c. The that the ſoul, being an immaterial intelligent ſubſtance, does not depend yet SOU SOU depend on the body for its exiſtence; and therefore may, nay, and if the mental principle was, in its own nature, immaterial and im- muſt, exiſt after the diffolution of the body, unleſs annihilated by mortal, all its particular faculties would be ſo too; whereas we fee the ſame power which gave it á being at firſt. This argument, that every faculty of the mind, without exception, is liable to be eſpecially if the infinite capacity of the ſoul, its ſtrong delire after impaired, and even to become wholly extinct before death. Whence immortality, its rational aċtivity and advancement towards perfec- he infers, that the ſubſtance, or principle in which theſe faculties tion, be likewiſe conſidered, will appear perfectly concluſive to exiſt, muſt be pronounced to be mortal too. He adds, if the ſen- men of a philoſophical turn; becauſe nature, or rather the God of tient principle in man be immaterial, it can have no extenſion, but nature, does nothing in vain. But arguments drawn from the lat every thing within it, or properly belonging to it, muſt be ſimple ter head, viz. the moral attributes of the Deity, are not only better and indiviſible; and if this is not the caſe, the ſoul would be adapted to convince men unacquainted with abſtract reaſoning, but liable to corruption and death. equally certain and concluſive with the former : for as the juſtice Dr. Prieſtley alledges alſo, in favour of the ſyſtem of materialiſm, of God can never ſuffer the wicked to eſcape unpuniſhed, nor the that we hereby get rid of many difficulties, which muſt embarraſs good to remain always unrewarded; therefore, arguments drawn the oppoſite ſyſtem; ſuch, e. g. as theſe--what becomes of the ſoul from the manifeſt and conſtant proſperity of the wicked, and the during ſleep, in a ſwoon, when the body is ſeemingly dead (as by frequent unhappineſs of good men in this life, muſt convince every drowning or other accidents), and eſpecially after death? alſo what thinking perſon that there is a future ſtate wherein all will be ſet was the condition of it before it became united to the body, and at right, and God's attributes of wiſdom, juſtice, and goodneſs fully what time did that union take place ? what are the nature and the vindicated. We ſhall only add, that had the virtuous and conſcien ſtate of the ſouls of brutes ? what is the uſe of the human body, &c. tious part of mankind no hopes of a future ſtate, they would be of The ſyſtem of materialiſm he ſays, which revelation uniformly all men moſt miſerable: but as this is abſolutely inconſiſtent with ſuppoſes, is clogged with no difficulties of this kind. Man, accord- the moral character of the Deity, the certainty of ſuch a ſtate is ing to this ſyſtem, is no more than what we now ſee of him. His clear to a demonſtration, being commences at the time of his conception, or perhaps at an The doctrine of the materiality of the human ſoul has been earlier period. The corporeal and mental faculties, inhering in adopted and maintained by ſeveral modern writers; and even by the ſame ſubſtance, grow, ripen, and decay together; and when- thoſe who have diſtinguiſhed themſelves as able and zealous advo ever the ſyſtem is diffolved, it continues in a lfate of diffolution, cates in the cauſe of religion both natural and revealed. In this till it ſhall pleaſe that Almighty Being, who called it into exiſtence number we may reckon Dr. Prieſtley, who, rejecting the com to reſtore it to life again. Accordingly the Chriſtian ſyſtem pro- monly received notion of MATTER, as an abſolutely impenetrable, vides no reward for the righteous till the general reſurrection of the inert ſubſtance, and premiſing, that the powers of ſenſation or per- juſt, nor any puniſhment for the wicked till the end of the world. ception, and thought, as belonging to man, have never been found Hence alſo the doctrine of the pre exiſtence of human ſouls, and but in conjunction with a certain organized ſyſtem of matter, that of the pre-exiſtence of Chriſt, are rejected, as having no other maintains that thoſe powers neceſſarily exiſt in, and depend upon, foundation than the notion of there being ſomething in man quite ſuch a ſyſtem. In proof of this doctrine, it is alledged, that per- different from his coporeal organized ſyſtem. ception and thought are not incompatible with the properties of Dr. Prieſtley argues in many parts of his work on the ſuppoſition, matter, conſidered as a ſubſtance extended and endued with the that, according to the ideas of modern immaterialiſts, ſpirit can powers of attraction and repulſion; and, therefore, if one kind of have no relation to place, and is incapable of being preſent any ſubſtance be capable of ſupporting all the known properties of man, where. But Dr. Clarke, and ſome others of the beſt modern true philofophy, which will not authorize us to multiply cauſes or writers, did not entertain theſe ideas of ſpirit. Time and place kinds of ſubſtance, without neceſſity, will forbid us to admit of are neceſſary to the exiſtence of all things; and hence Dr. Clarke any ſubſtance in the conſtitntion of human nature eſſentially dif infers, that infinite ſpace and duration are the eſſential properties ferent from matter. The proper ſeat of the powers of perception of the Deity. Sir Iſaac Newton was alſo of the ſame opinion ; and and thought, according to this writer, is the brain; becauſe, as Dr. Price obſerves, that if ſpirit exiſts at all, it muſt exiſt ſome- far as we can judge, the faculty of thinking and a certain ſtate where, as well as in ſome time. Dr. Prieſtly deduces another of the brain always accompany and correſpond to one another: and argument in favour of the material ſyſtem, from the confideration, there is no inſtance of any man retaining this faculty, when his that the ſpirit and body have no common property, and that it brain was deſtroyed; and whenever that faculty is impeded or in muſt therefore be impoſſible for them to act upon one another: jured, there is ſufficient reaſon to believe that the brain is diſordered againſt which it has been objected, that his principles tend in proportion. Dr. Prieſtley apprehends that ſenſation and thought to prove, that the Deity is material, as well as all inferior beings: neceſſarily reſult from the organization of the brain, when the and if matter be a power of attraction and repulſion united to ex- powers of mere life are given to the ſyſtem, and that they follow of tenſion, the Deity muſt be the ſame, But if this maxim be not courſe as much as the circulation of the blood follows reſpiration ; univerſally true, and the Deity be immaterial, as Dr. Prieſtley but he profeſſes to bave no idea at all of the manner in which the himſelf aſſerts, it will follow, that ſpirit may act upon matter, power of perception reſults from an organization of life. without having any other common property with it than being To this reaſoning it has been replied in general, that Dr. Prieſt- locally preſent to it; and one of his chief arguments for the inate . ley's account of matter does not anſwer to the common ideas of riality of the ſoul will be given up. Beſides, allowing this maxim, matter, or that it is not folid extenſion, or an impenetrable and how is it poſſible to avoid aſſerting the impoſſibility of the creation inert ſubſtance, which is the only matter that is the object of natural of the world out of nothing? For what common property can philoſophy; but ſomething not ſolid, that exiſts in ſpace, and ſo far the Creator have with nothing agreeing with ſpirit; and conſequently, if ſuch matter is, as he Dr. Prieſtley has laboured to prove, that the ſcriptures, both of aſſerts, the only matter poſſible, it will follow, not that we have no the Old and New Teſtament, ſuppoſe and inculcate the doc- ſouls diſtinct from our bodies, but that we have no bodies diſtinct trine of the uniform compoſition of man, or of the materiality of from our ſouls, and that all in nature is ſpirit. Beſides, it has been the human ſoul, and that in conformity to this doctrine, the ſtate of farther urged, that a connection and dependence by no means retribution does not take place till after the general reſurrection. prove ſameneſs. From the dependence of actual ſenſations and Accordingly his ſyſtem leads him to deny the natural immortality thought on the brain, we have no more reaſon to conclude that the of the foul, and its conſcious exiſtence in the intermediate ſtate. brain is the mind, than a ſavage who had never heard the muſic of To thoſe who object, that if the ſoul be not naturally capable of a harpſichord, and did not ſee the hand that played upon it, would ſurviving the body, or if death is unavoidably its deſtruction, then have to conclude, that it played upon itſelf, and was the muſician'; reſurrection muſt be the reſurrection of a non-entity; he replies, becauſe he could trace all the ſounds to the inſtrument, and found that though the power of thinking cannot exiſt without its ſub- that when the ſtrings were out of order, the muſic was diſturbed or ſtance, which is an organized ſyſtem, yet if this property of think- deſtroyed. What experience teaches us is, that the exerciſe of the ing neceſſarily attends the property of life, nothing can be requiſite mental powers depends on the brain and the nerves; not that the to the reſtoration of all the powers of the man, but the reſtoration mind is the brain and the nerves. We are ſure the mind cannot be of the body to a ſtate of life. And he apprehends that a reſurrec- the brain, becauſe the brain is an aſſemblage of beings; whereas tion properly ſo called (becauſe this can be only a refurrection of the mind is one being. ſomething that had been dead; viz. the body), is manifeſtly uſe- Dr. Prieſtley farther argues, that all our ideas either proceed from leſs, upon the ſuppoſition of there being a foul diſtinet from the the bodily ſenſes, or are conſequent upon the perceptions of ſenſe ; body, it being upon this hypotheſis, the foul, and not the body, and hence infers, that the notion of the poſſibility of thinking in that is the ſeat of all perception, and the ſource of all action. man, without an organized body, is not only deititute of all evi See SLEEP of the Soul. dence from actual appearances, but is directly contrary to them. SOUND, SONUS, a perception of the ſoul, communicated by Moreover, if the mind was naturally fo independent of the body, means of the ear; or the effect of a colliſion of bodies, and a tre- as to be capable of ſubſiſting by itſelf, and even of appearing to mulous motion, conſequent thereon, communicated thence to the more advantage after the death of the body, as ſome of the advocates circumambient fluid, and propagated through it to the organs of for an intermediate ſtate have maintained, it might, he ſays, diſco hearing. For the nature and properties of Sounds, ſee the Syf- ver ſome ſigns of its independence before its death, and eſpecially tem of ACOUSTICS throughout. when the organs of the body were obſtructed, ſo as to leave the ſoul Sound, in geography, denotes a ſtraight or inlet of the ſea, be- more at liberty to exert itſelf, as in a ſtate of ſleep or ſwooning, tween two capes or head-lands. The ſound is uſed by way of emi- which moſt reſemble the ſtate of death, in which it is pretended nence, for that famous ſtreight which joins the German ſea to the that the foul is moſt of all alive, moſt active, and vigorous; but Baltic. See the Syſtem, under Natural Diviſions of the Earth. judging by appearances, the reverſe of all this is the caſe. Beſides, SOUP, or Soop, a kind of pottage made of bread, and broth, or SPA SPE the year. to any more or of the juice of Aeſh, or other matters, uſually ſerved at the begin- ning of a meal. Portable Soup, is a kind of cake, formed of concentrated broth, which being freed from all fat, and having by long boiling evapo- rated the moſt putreſcent parts of the meat, is reduced to the con- ſiſtence of a glue, as in reality it is, and will like other glues, in a dry place, keep found for many years together. Sir John Pringle inclines to believe, that the gelatinous parts of animal ſubſtances, ſuch as compoſe theſe cakes, are not of a nature much diſpoſed to putrefy. But however that be, captain Cook obſerves, that, in his voyage, this ſoup was the means of making his people eat a greater quantity of greens than they would have done otherwiſe, and ſo far we muit allow it to have been virtually antiſeptic. SOWING, in Agriculture. For directions concerning the man- ner of fowing the different kinds of grain, ſee the Syſtem, on the feveral articles from Sect. III. to Sect. XIV. incluſive: fee alſo the Treatiſe on GARDENING, Article Kitchen Garden throughout For deſcription of an univerſal Sowing Machine, ſee Sect. XXVIII. and Plate II. SPA, or Spaw, in Geography, a town in the biſhopric of Leige in Germany, famous for its mineral waters. Thoſe of the Pouhon ſpring in Spa have been preferred, by our chief phyſicians, others in or near the country of Liege; particularly to the waters of Bru, which they complain have been impoſed on the pub- lic, to their patients frequent diſappointment. However, as the Spa waters are impregnated with different proportions of the ſame ingredients, they may be choſen differently, according to the inten- tions with a view to which they are uſed. The Pouhon is the strongeſt chalybeate. This is in its moſt perfect and natural ſtate in cold dry weather; but in warm moiſt weather it loſes its tranſ- parence, appears turbid or wheyiſh, contains leſs fixed air, and is partly decompoſed. This water, which is colder by inany degrees than the heat of the atmoſphere, is ſuppoſed to contain the greateſt quantity of fixed air of almoſt any acidulous water; and in conſe- quence of this ingredient it has a remarkable ſprightlineſs and vino- ſity, and boils by mere warmth; but this ſoon fies off if the water be left expoſed, though it may in a great meaſure be preſerved in well-corked bottles. It is capable of diſſolving more iron than it naturally contains, and of thus becoming a ſtronger chalybeate, on account of the great quantity of fixed air which it contains; and for the ſame reaſon an ebullition is raiſed in it on the addition of acids, which diſengage its fixed air. This water mixes ſmoothly with milk, whether it be cold or of a boiling heat. The Tonnelet and Geroníterre waters are weaker chalybeates, but briſker and ſpirituous. The Groeſbeck, Sauveniere, and Wartroz, are ſtill weaker chalybeates, but highly impregnated with calcareous and ſelenitical earths, and contain alſo a greater proportion of the foſil alkali. The Geromont is likewiſe a weak chalybeate, but contains a great deal of calcareous and ſelentical earth, and about three times as much alkaline falt as any of the others. The four laſt waters, therefore, will be better in diſorders ariſing from an acid cauſe, and as diuretics, particularly the Geromont. The Bru, or Churon water, approaches to the nature of the Tonnelet, and though it has been decried, is ſaid, in conſequence of every trial, not to be inferior to any of the Spa waters. All the waters that are comprehended under this denomination, abound with fixed air; they alſo contain more or leſs iron, foſil alkali, and calcareous and ſelenitical earths, together with a ſmall portion of ſea ſalt, and an oily matter com- mon to all waters. All theſe ingredients are kept ſuſpended, and in a neutral ſtate, by means of the fixed air, on which their virtues chiefly depend; though they are probably rendered more active and penetrating both in the firſt paſſages, and alſo when they enter the circulation, by means of that ſmall portion of iron, earth, ſalt, &c. with which they are impregnated. Theſe waters are diuretic, and ſometimes purgative; and, like other chalybeate waters, they tinge the ſtools black. They exhilarate the ſpirits much better than wine or ſpirituous liquors, and their general operation is by ſtrengthening the fibres. They cool and quench thirſt much better than common water. They are found excellent in caſes of univerſal languor or weakneſs, proceeding from a relaxation of the ſtomach, and of the fibres in general, and where the conſtitution has been weakened by diſeaſes, or by a too ſedentary life; in weak, relaxed, groſs habits; in nervous diſorders; at the cloſe of fits, of the gout and rheuma- tiſin; in ſuch aſthmatic diſorders and chronic coughs as proceed from too great a relaxation of the pulmonary veſſels; in obſtructi- ons of the liver and ſpleen; in ſcorbutic and other putrid diſorders; in hyſterical and hypochondriacal complaints; in paralytic diſor- ders; in gleets; in the fluor albus; in fluxes of the belly; in the gravel and ſtone; in female obſtructions; in barrenneſs, and in moſt other caſes where a ſtrengthening and briſk ſtimulating reſolv- ing chalybeate remedy is wanted: but they are generally hurtful in hot, bilious, and plethoric conſtitutions, when uſed before the body is cooled by proper evacuations; they are alſo hurtful in caſes of fever and heat, in hectic fevers, and ulcerations of the lungs, and of other internal parts, and in moſt confirmed obſtructions attended with fever. The uſual ſeaſon for drinking them is in July and Auguft, or from May to September. The quantity to be drank is ſuch as the ſtomach can bear without heavineſs or uneafineſs: but it is adviſeable to begin with drinking a glaſs or two ſeveral times in a day, and ſo increaſe the quantity daily, as the ſtomach can bear; and during the courſe to continue that doſe, and to diminiſh the quantity at the cloſe in the ſame degree as it was augmented at the beginning. Moelerate exerciſe is proper after drinking. Pre- vious to the uſe of the water the firſt paſſages ſhould be cleanfed by gentle purges, and, if neceffary, an emetic fhould be given; and during the coltiveneſs ſhould be prevented, by occaſionally adding Rochelle falts or rhubarb to the firſt glaſſes of water in the morn- ing; and a cooling regimen ſhould be obſerved. The Spa water is alſo uſed externally, in a variety of caſes, with good ſucceſs. It is uſed as an injection in the fluor albus, and in ulcers and cancers of the womb, and alſo in the gonorrhæa; it is ſerviceable for waſh- ing venereal aphthæ, and ulcers in the mouth, phagædenic ulcers, by way of gargle for tonſils, and for faſtening looſe teeth, and in other caſes of relaxation. It is alſo ſaid to cure the itch, and ſuni- lar complaints, by waſhing and bathing, an internal courſe being obſerved at the ſame time. Ellioti's Mineral Waters, p. 201, &c. The town of Spa being reſorted to by perſons from all parts of Europe, on account of its waters, has always been allowed a neutra- lity during the hotteſt wars. SPACE, SPATIUM, a ſimple idea, the modes whereof are diſtance, capacity, extenſion, duration, &c. Space, conſidered barely in length between any two bodies, is the fame idea which we have of diſtance. If it be conſidered in length, breadth, and thickneſs, it is properly called capacity. When conſidered between the extremities of matter, which fills the capacity of ſpace with ſomething ſolid, tangible, and moveable, it is then called extenſion. So that extenſion is an idea belonging to body only; but ſpace, it is plain, may be conſidered without it: ſpace, therefore, in the neral ſignification, is the ſame thing with diſtance conſidered every way, whether there be any folid matter in it or not. Space and time, according to Dr. Clarke, are attributes of the Deity, and the impoſſibility of annihilating theſe, even in idea, is the ſame with the neceſſary exiſtence of the Deity. See Watt's Phil. Ef. Efl. i. Space, in Geometry, denotes the area of any figure ; or that which fills the interval or diſtance between the lines that terminate it. SPANIEL, a ſpecies of the genus canis. For deſcription and management, ſee Dog. For repreſentation, ſee ſyſtem of Mam- MALIA, Plate III. Genus 12. Species 1. Variety 6. SPASM, SPASMA, or SPASMUS, 6700ue, a Greek term of equal import with the Latin convulſio, and Engliſh convulſion. Accidental ſpaſms are of ſhort continuance: there are ſome ariſing from flatulencies; others from bites of venomous beaſts, from the puncture of a nerve, the acrimony of the humours vellicaring the ſtomach, exceſſive cold, hyſteric vapours, &c. And ſpaſm may be either univerſal, extending itſelf over the whole body, which is a very rare caſe : or partial, occupying only fome one part of the body; theſe are very frequent, and ſeize at times on every part, from the head to the foot. For deſcription, cauſes, prognofis, &c. ſee the fyſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 39. SPAVIN, a diſeaſe in a horſe : being a ſwelling or ſtiffneſs, uſually in the ham, which cauſes him to halt. See the ſyſtem of FARRIERY, Claſs I. fect. III. SPEAKING, the art or act of expreſſing one's thoughts in articulate ſounds or words. Fora copious explanation of this ſub- ject, ſee the Syſtem of GRAMMAR, and the Treatiſe on ORATORY, together with the articles, LANGUAGE, and READING. SPECIAL, ſomething that is particular, or has a particular de- ſignation; from the Latin ſpecies : in oppoſition to general, or ge- nus. The king, in his letters, frequently ſays, of our ſpecial grace, full power, and royal authority. SPECIES, an idea, which relates to ſome other more general one, or is compriſed under a more univerſal diviſion of a genus; as in the definition of anything, we obtain its general nature or genus, by comparing it with other things that are moſt like to itſelf, and obſerving wherein its eſſence or nature agrees with them ; ſo we obtain the eſſential or ſpecific difference, by conſider- ing the moſt remarkable and primary attribute, property, or idea, wherein this differs from thoſe other things that are moſt like it: and this attribute, or ſpecific difference, diſtinguiſhes each ſpecies from one another, while they ſtand ranked under the ſame genus. Lin- næus has ſtrictly adhered to this method of definition throughout the whole of his elaborate and invaluable work, called SYSTEMA NATURÆ. SPECIFIC, in Philoſophy, that which is proper and peculiar to any thing; or that characterizes it, and diſtinguiſhes it from every other thing. See PROPER, &c. Thus, the attracting of iron is ſpecific to the load-ſtone, or is a ſpecific property of the load-ſtone: a juſt definition ſhould contain the ſpecific notion of the thing defined, or that which ſpecifies and diſtinguiſhes it from every thing elſe. Specifics, in Medicine. By ſpecifics is not meant ſuch as infallibly and in all patients produce falutary effects. Such medi- cines are not to be expected, becauſe the operations and effects of remedies are not formally inherent in them, but depend upon the mutual action and reaction of the body and medicine upon each other; hence the various effects of the ſame medicine in the ſame kind of diſorders in different patients, and in the ſame patient at different times. By ſpecific medicines we underſtand ſuch me- dicines as are more infallible than any other in any particular diſorder. * SPECIFIC N° 140. 4K S P E SPI the eye. of a very Specific Gravity, in Hydroſtatics : ſee the Syſtem, Part I. of the aorta, below the emulgents. See the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Section I. Part V. Sect. I. SPECIFIC Names, in Natural Hiſtory, are thoſe epithets com- SPHENOIDES, in Anatomy, os cuneiforme; a bone of the poſed each of one or more terms, and placed after the generical head common to the cranium and upper jaw. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. II. name, in the denomination of any ſpecies of plant, animal, or mineral, expreſſing thoſe characters by which it differs from all SPHERE, in Geometry, a ſolid body contained under one fin- the other ſpecies of that gle ſurface, and having a point in the middle, called the centre, genus. SPECTACLES, an Optic Machine, conſiſting of two lenſes whence all lines, drawn to the ſurface, are equal. The ſphere is ſet in a frame, and applied on the noſe, to aſſiſt in defects of the fuppoſed to be generated by the revolution of a femicircle. See the organ of fight. Old people, and all Preſbytæ, uſe ſpectacles of Syſtem, Sect. III. convex lenſes, to make amends fer the flatneſs of the eye, which SPHERE, in Aſtronomy, that concave orb or expanſe which in- does not make the rays converge enough to have them meet in the veſts our globe, and in which the heavenly bodies, viz. fun, ſtars, retina. Short-fighted people, or Myopes, uſe concave lenſes, to planets, and comets, appear to be fixed at an equal diſtance from keep the rays from converging ſo faſt, on account of the great This is alſo called the ſphere of the world; and is the roundneſs of the eye, which is ſuch as to make them meet before fubject of the ſpherical aſtronomy. See the Syſtem, Sect. IX. they reach the retina. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. II. throughout. ŚPECULUM, Mirror, in Optics, any poliſhed body, imper SPHERE, in Geography, and Aſtronomy, &c. denotes a certain vious to the rays of light: ſuch is water in wells, and deep rivers, diſpoſition of the circles on the ſurface of the earth, with regard poliſhed metals, and glaſſes lined with mercury, or any other opake to one another, which varies in various parts thereof. See the matter, popularly called looking-glaſſes . See the Syſtem, Part II. Treatiſe on the GLOBES, and the Plate annexed, Fig. 3 and 4. Prop. XVII. to XXII. and Plate II. Armillary or Artificial SPHERE, is an aſtronomical inſtrument, SPEECH, the act, or art of expreſſing a man's thoughts, by repreſenting the ſeveral circles of the ſphere in their natural order; certain figns invented for that purpoſe. Theſe figns are princi ſerving to give an idea of the office and poſition of each of them, pally ſounds made by the voice, and letters. See LANGUAGE. and to ſolve various problems relating to them. It is thus called, SPEECH, in Grammar, denotes an aſſemblage of ſeveral words as conſiſting of a number of faſciæ or rings of braſs, or other ranged in order. The grammarians generally make eight parts matter, called by the Latins armille, from the reſembling of brace- of ſpeech, i. e. eight kinds of words uſed in diſcourſe; viz. noun, lets, or rings for the arm. By this it is diſtinguiſhed from the pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, conjunction, prepoſition, and inter globe, which, though it hath all the circles of the ſphere on its jection; each of which fee under its proper article. See the Trea ſurface; yet is not cut into armillæ or rings, to repreſent the cir- tiſe, Part II. Chap. III. Article ANALOGY. cles ſimply and alone; but exhibits alſo the intermediate ſpaces, SPELLING, that part of grammar properly called Orthogra between the circles. For repreſentation of the Copernican Armil- phy. See the Treatiſe, Part II. Chap. I. lary Sphere, ſee the Plate annexed to the Treatiſe on the GLOBES, SPERMACETI, in Pharmacy, is a whitiſh, Aaky, unctuous Fig. 1. For deſcription and repreſentation of the newly improved ſubſtance, prepared from oil; principally from that of a cetaceous Armillary Sphere, by Mr. Adams, ſee Fig. 2, the fame Treatiſe. fiſh, called by ſome the male whale , by others cachalot, and by the SPHEROID, SPHÆROIDES, EQnipoeldus, formed from oQcupera Latins orga; diſtinguiſhed from the common whale by its having fphæra, and Eidos ſhape, in Geometry, a ſolid approaching to the teeth in lieu of whale-bone, and by a bunch on its back. See figure of a ſphere, though not exactly round, but oblong; as hay- PHYSETER. It had its name ſpermaceti, ſeed or fperm of whale, ing one of its diameters bigger than the other; and generated by given it, no doubt, to raiſe its value, by a notion of its ſcarcity; the revolution of a ſemi-ellipfis about its axis. the oil it is properly to be made from is found in a large trunk, SPHINCTER, in Anatomy, a term applied to a kind of cir- four or five feet deep, and ten or twelve long, filling almoſt the cular muſcles, or muſcles in form of rings, which ſerve to cloſe and cavity of the head, and ſeeming to ſupply the office of brain and draw up ſeveral orifices of the body, and prevent the excretion of cerebellum. The method of preparing it is a ſecret in the hands the contents. The word is formed from Diyvtyp, ſtrietor, or con- few. The proceſs is ſaid to be thus: the matter, being frietor, ſomething that binds and conftringes a thing very cloſely; taken out of the animal, is melted over a gentle fire, and put into theſe muſcles having an effect much like that of a purſe-ſtring. moulds, like thoſe wherein ſugar-loaves are formed. When cold SPHINCTER Ani, is a circular muſcle, ſerving to ſhut the anus, and drained, it is taken out, and melted over again, and this they and keep the excrements from coming away involuntarily. See continue to do till it be well purified and become white. It is the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. IV. then cut with a knife for the purpoſe, and reduced into flakes, SPHINX, in Entomology, a genus of the lepidoptera order of ſuch as we have from the druggiſts. Some of our druggiſts have inſects. For deſcription and claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, Ore now got the art of making it from the ſediment or fæces of any der III. kind of oil. It muſt be choſen white, clear, and tranſparent, of SPIDER, in Entomology, the Engliſh name of a genus of the a ſweetiſh ſmell, which fome fancy to partake of that of the violet: aptera order of infects. For deſcription of the generic and ſpeci- fome ſophiſticate it with wax; but the deceit is diſcovered, either fic characters fee ARANEA. For claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, by the ſmell of the wax, or by the dulneſs of the colour. Some Order VII. alſo ſell a preparation of oil gained from the tail of the whale, in SPINAL Arteries, in Anatomy, are two arteries, one anterior Itead of that from the brain; which laſt kind turns yellow, as ſoon and one poſterior, both produced by the vertebrales; cach of which, as opened to the air. In the general, there is no merchandize that as ſoon as it enters the cranium, ſends out a ſmall branch, by the Thould be kept cloſer from the air than ſpermaceti. Spermaceti is union of which the poſterior ſpinalis is formed. See the Syſtem, of great uſe in medicine. Quincy ſays, it is a noble remedy in Part V. Sect. III. the aſthma, &c. though chiefly uſed in bruiſes, inward hurts, and SPINALIS, in Anatomy, the name of ſeveral muſcles of after delivery. For internal uſe, it may be diffolved in aqueous the ſpine. See the Syſtem, Table of Muſcles, Art. XVIII. liquors into the form of an emulſion, by trituration with almonds, SPINE, Spina Dorſi , in Anatomy, the ſeries or aſſemblage of the yolk or white of an egg, and more elegantly by mucilages; vertebræ, or bones of the back, which ſuſtain the reſt of the body, or made into a lohoch, by mixing two drams of it with a ſuitable and to which are connected the ribs. See the Syſtem, Part 1. quantity of yolk of egg, then adding half an ounce of freſh drawn Sect. I. and Plate I. fig. 1. letter a, and fig. 2. letter c. oil of almonds, and an ounce of balſamic ſyrup. It is certain its SPIRACULA, in Entomology, are little holes or pores placed greateſt property, and that which makes it ſo much in vogue in ſingly on each ſide of every ſegment of the abdomen, through many places, is its ſoftening the ſkin. Whence it comes to be uſed which the inſect breathes: ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Article De- by the ladies in paſtes, waſhes, &c. Spermaceti candles are of mo ſcription of an Infect. dern manufacture: they are made ſmooth, with a fine gloſs, free SPIRAL, in Geometry, a curve line of the circular kind, which, from rings and ſcars, fuperior to the fineſt wax candles in colour in its progreſs, recedes from its centre; as in winding from the and luſtre; and, when genuine, leave no ſpot or ſtain on the fineit vertex, down to the baſe of a cone. Alk, cloth, or linen. SPIRAL Pump. See Archimede's SCREW, in the Syſtem of SPERMATIC, in Anatomy, ſomething belonging to the ſperm HYDROSTATICS, Part II. Art. IX. or feed. The ancients made a general diviſion of the parts of the SPIRIT, the moſt ſubtle and volatile part, or juice, of the body; animal body into ſpermatic and languineous. Spermatic parts are by means whereof the functions and operations thereof are ſuppoſed thoſe, which by their colour, &c. bear ſome reſemblance to the to be performed. feed; and were ſuppoſed to be formed thereof; ſuch are the nerves, Vital SPIRITS, are only the fineſt, and moſt agitated parts of the membranes, bones, &c. Sanguineous are thoſe ſuppoſed to be blood; whereon its motion and heat depend. formed of the blood after conception. But the moderns, with much Animal SPIRITS, are an exceedingly thin, ſubtle, moveable fluid, better reaſon, hold all the parts to be ſpermatic in this ſenſe, and juice, or humour, ſeparated from the blood in the cortex of the either formed originally of the ovum of the female, or of the ſe brain, and thence received into the minute fibres of the medulla, men of the male. and by them diſcharged into the nerves; by which it is conveyed SPERMATIC Veſſels, called alſo vaſa preparantia, are certain through every part of the body, to be the inſtrument of ſenſation, veſſels appointed for bringing the blood to the teſticles, &c. to be muſcular motion, &c. ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. II. ſecreted and prepared into feed, and for carrying back again the SPIRIT, in Chymiſtry and Pharmacy, a name applied to every vo- blood remaining after the fecretion is effected. The ſpermatic latile liquid which is not infipid like phlegm or water; and hence veſſels are two arteries, and as many veins. See GENERATION. the diſtinction into acid, alkaline, and vinous ſpirits. The SPERMATIC Arteries ariſe from the forepart of the trunk SPIRITS, is alſo a general name, among diſtillers, for all dif- 4 tilled SPR SQU MISTRY. TICITY. tilled liquors that are neither oil nor phlegm. See Treatiſe on ſpring, and thouſands of others; viz. that it breaks out of fo incon- DISTILLATION. ſiderable an hillock, or eminence, as can have no more influence in Spirits, in Medicine. Rectified ſpirit coagulates all the fluids the condenſation of the vapours, or ſtopping the clouds, than the of animal bodies that have been tried, except bile and urine. It lower lands about it have. The very higheſt ground in the country, hardens the ſolid and conſiſtent parts, and, being a powerful an he finds, is not above a hundred and thirty-five yards above the tiſeptic, preſerves them from corruption. Applied externally to level of the fea ; and what is ſuch an inconſiderable riſe of land, to living animals, it ſtrengthens the veſſels, contracts the extremities perennial condenſation of vapours, fit to afford ſo conſiderable a of the nerves, and deprives them of ſenſibility; hence its power ſpring ? or the high-lands of the whole country, to the maintaining of reſtraining hæmorrhages, abating ſuperficial pains, &c. Re all its fountains and rivulets ? ceived into the ſtomach undiluted, it produces the like effects ; Different forts of SPRINGS. Springs are either ſuch as run con- thickening the fluid, and contracting all the ſolid parts which it tinually, called perennial, or ſuch as run only for a time, and at cer- touches, and deſtroying, at leaſt for a time, their uſe and office : tain ſeaſons of the year, and therefore called temporary ſprings. if the quantity taken is conſiderable, a palſy, or apoplexy, follows, Others, again, are called intermitting ſprings, becauſe they flow and and ſpeedily proves mortal. For the method of rectifying SPIRITS, then ſtop, and flow and ſtop again : and reciprocating ſprings, ſee the Treatiſe on DISTILLATION, under the article RectiFI whoſe waters riſe and fall, or flow and ebb, by regular intervals. CATION. It is ſaid that in the dioceſe of Paderborn, in Weliphalia, there is a Foreign SPIRITS, a general name by which our dealers in theſe ſpring which diſappears twice in twenty-four hours, and always re- things call Brandy and Rum. It is hard to purchaſe any of theſe turns at the end of fix hours, with a great noiſe, and with ſo inuch genuine and pure, unleſs at the firſt hand, and in large quantities. force, as to turn three mills not far from its fource. It is called the The dealers generally mix our own ſpirits with them. When we bolder-born, or boiſterous ſpring. Phil. Tranſ. N7. p. 127. had little other ſpirit but that of malt made with us, this cheat Burning or Boiling SPRINGS. See BURNING SPRINGS. was eaſily diſcovered, for a nice palate would diſtinguiſh the mix SPRING-Tide. See the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Sect. X. ture of only a tenth part of this foul ſpirit among the foreign clean SPRING, in Coſmography, denotes one of the ſeaſons of the ones; but ſince we have the molaſſes-ſpirit ſo common, and rec year : commencing in the northern parts of the world, on the day tified to ſo great a perfection, the deceit is not eaſily found out, the fun enters the firſt degree of Aries, which is about the twenty- though a larger proportion is uſed. All foreign ſpirits are to be firſt day of March, and ending when the ſun leaves Gemini. Or, fuſpected of this adulteration, which have not a uniform taſte and more ſtrictly and generally, the ſpring begins on the day when the grateful odour. But one of the beſt ways of diſcovering the mix diſtance of the ſun's meridian altitude from the zenith, being on ture, is to burn away all that is inflammable in a ſmall quantity by the increaſing hand, is at a medium between the greateſt and leaſt. way of trial, and then examine the phlegm. The end of the ſpring coincides with the beginning of ſummer. SPIRIT of Nitre. See Nitrous Acid, in the ſyſtem of Chy SPRING, in Phyſics, denotes a natural faculty, or endeavour, of certain bodies to return to their firſt ſtate, after having been vio- SPLANCHNOLOGY, formed from they xvov, inteſtine, and lently put out of the ſame by compreſſing, bending them, or the hoyos, diſcourſe, in Anatomy, a diſcourſe on, or explication of the like. This faculty philoſophers uſually call elaſtic force, or ELAS- viſcera. For a copious explanation, ſee the Syſtem, Part. III. See ELASTICITY. Fleas only jump to thoſe exceſſive Sect. V. For repreſentation of the ſeveral parts of the viſcera, fee heights, by means of a ſpringy membrane, eafily viſible by a mi- Plate V. croſcope. By the elaſtic force of this ſpring they are enabled to leap SPLEEN, in Anatomy, a ſoft, ſpongy viſcus, of a darkiſh red, two hundred times the height of their own body. Nature has pro- or rather livid, colour, ordinarily reſembling the figure of a tongue; vided for the regular fowing of the feeds of ſeveral kinds of plants, though ſometimes triangular, and ſometimes roundiſh, being about by furniſhing them with a ſpring, which is wound ſometimes feven or eight fingers-breadth in length, and four or five in breadth ; round the outſide, and ſometimes round the inſide, of the cafe ſee the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. V. and Plate V. fig. 3. letter T. wherein the ſeeds are contained. SPLENETIC, a perſon affected with obſtructions of the ſpleen. SPRUCE Beer, a kind of diet-drink made by infuſion or coc- In ſplenetic people, the ſpleen is ſwelled beyond the natural bulk; tion of the leaves and ſmall branches of the black and white ſpruce or it is hardened ſo, as to ſhew a ſchirrous tumor therein. Sple-fir, and reckoned antiſcorbutic. netic people are diſtinguiſhed by a livid, lead-coloured complex SQUADRON, a body of horſe, whoſe number of men is not ion; and their character is, to be very prone to laughter ; which fixed, but is uſually from eighty to a hundred and twenty men. is an expedient nature is ſuppoſed to make uſe, to evacuate the See the Treatiſe on MILITARY AFFAIRS, fect. III. too redundant humour the ſpleen is charged withal ; whence it is, SQUADRON of Ships, denotes either a detachment of fhips em- that the ancients made the ſpleen the organ of laughter; and hence ployed on any particular expedition, or the third part of a naval that popular ſaying, of a perſon laughing heartily, that he vents his The number of ſhips in a ſquadron is not fixed : a fpleen. ſmall number of vefſels, if they be in a body, and have the ſame SPLENITIS, in Medicine, the name of a ſpecies of fever, in commander, may make a ſquadron. If there be a great number, which the blood is powerfully directed toward the ſpleen by nature they are uſually divided into three ſquadrons; and if the ſquadrons in order to break and diffolve congeſtions formed there. For de be numerous, each ſquadron is divided into three diviſions, diftin- fcription, cauſes, prognoſis and cure, ſee the Syſtem, Genus XVII. guiſhed by their flags and colours. See the Treatiſe on NAVAL SPLENT, or SPLINT, among farriers, a callous, infenfible AFFAIRS. excreſcence, or griſtle, that ſometimes ſticks to an horſe's ſhank SQUALUS, the SHARK-KIND ; a genus belonging to the bone ; generally on the inſide below the knee. For the method order of amphibia nantes. There are five fpiracula, one on each of treatment, ſee the ſyſtem of FARRIERY, Part II. ſect. IV. fide of the neck, the body is ſomewhat oblong and cylindrical ; SPONTANEOUS, SPONTANEUS, formed from the Latin ad and the mouth is ſituated in the anterior part of the head. There verb ſponte, of one's own accord, in the fchools, a term applied to are 15 fpecies, all inhabitants of the ocean. The moſt remark- fuch motions of the body and mind as we perform ourſelves with able are, The ſquatina, or angel-fiſh, has a large head ; teeth out any conſtraint. Thus, in morality, thoſe actions performed broad at their baſe, but ſlender and very ſharp above, and diſpoſed upon an inward and natural principle, conformable to our own in in five rows all round the jaws. Like thoſe of all ſharks, they are clinations, excluding all conſtraint, are called ſpontaneous actions. capable of being raiſed or depreſſed by means of muſcles uniting SPOON-bill, Platea, in Ornithology, the Engliſh name of the them to the jaws, not being lodged in fockets as the teeth of ceta- Genus Platea. For deſcription of the Genus, ſee PLATEA. ceous filh are. The back is of a pale aſh-colour, and very rough; SPRING, fons, in Natural Hiſtory, a fountain or fource of water, along the middle is a prickly tuberculated line : the belly is white riſing out of the ground. The origin of ſprings or fountains is a and ſmooth. The pectoral fins are very large, and extend horizon- thing much controverted among naturaliſts. Dr. Halley refers the tally from the body to a great diſtance; they have ſome reſemblance origin of ſprings merely to vapours raiſed by the heat of the fun, or to wings, whence its name. The ventral fins are placed in the of ſubterraneous fires, from the ſea, lakes, rivers, &c. Now, to fame manner, and the double penis is placed in them ; which forms, ſhew that vapour is a ſufficient fund to ſupply all our ſprings, rivers, another character of the males in this genus. . &c. the ſame exceilent author makes an eſtimate of the quantity of This is the fiſh which connects the genus of rays and ſharks vapour raiſed from the ſea, by the action of the ſun : for the reſult partaking ſomething of the character of both; yet is an exception of which, ſee EVAPORATION. The perpetuity of divers ſprings, to each in the fituation of the mouth, which is placed at the extre- always yielding the ſame quantity of water, when the leaſt rain or mity of the head. It is a fiſh not unfrequent on inoft of our coafts, vapour is afforded as well as the greateſt, is a ſtrong objection to where it prowls about for prey like others of the kind. It is ex- Dr. Halley's Syſtem. Dr. Derham mentions one in his own pariſh tremely voracious; and like the ray, feeds on flounders and flat- of Upminſter, which he could never perceive by his eye to be di fiſh, which keep at the bottom of the water. It is extremely fierce miniſhed in the greateſt droughts, even when all the ponds in the and dangerous to be approached. Mr. Pennant mentions a fiſher- country, as well as an adjoining brook, had been dry for ſeveral man whoſe leg was terribly tore by a large one of this ſpecies months together; nor ever to be increaſed in the moſt rainy ſea which lay within his nets in ſhallow water, and which he went to fons, excepting perhaps for a few hours, or at moſt for a day, from lay hold of incautiouſly. The aſpect of theſe, as well as the reſt ſudden and violent rains. Had this ſpring its origin from rain or of the genus, have much malignity in them : their eyes are oblong, vapour, there would be found an increaſe and decreaſe of its water, and placed lengthwiſe in their head, funk in it, and overhung by the correſponding to thoſe of its cauſes ; as we actually find in ſuch ſkin, and feem fuller of malevolence than fire. Their ſkin is very temporary ſprings as have undoubtedly their riſe from rain and va rough; the ancients made uſe of it to poliſh wood and ivory, as we pour; add to this another confiderable thing in this Upminſter do at preſent that of the greater dog-fish. The fleth is now but little eſteemed armament. STA S T A eſteemed on account of its coarſeneſs and rankneſs; yet Archeſtra ſtadtholders to command in their abſence in the ſeveral provinces ; tus, (as quoted by Athenæus, p. 319), ſpeaking of the fiſh of beſides a governor-general of all the ſeventeen provinces of the Ne- Miletus, gives this firſt the place, in reſpect to its delicacy, of the therlands. William I. prince of Orange, was made ftadtholder of whole cartilaginous tribe. They grow to a great ſize; being ſome- Holland and Zealand, in 1576, and foon after of the provinces of times near an hundred weight. Guelders, Utrecht, and Overyffel, at the time when the Dutch The ſpinax, or picked dog-fiſh, takes its name from a ſtrong and ſhook off the Spaniſh yoke ; which enabled him to contribute ſharp ſpine placed juſt before each of the back-fins, diſtinguiſhing greatly to that happy event. it at once from the reſt of the Britiſh ſharks. The noſe is long, In 1584, when William I. was aſſaſſinated, the ſame dignity and extends greatly beyond the mouth, but is blunt at the end. was conferred, by the ſame provinces, on his ſon prince Maurice, The teeth are diſpoſed in two rows, are ſmall and ſharp, and bend who was ſucceeded by his brother Frederic-Henry in 1625 ; upon from the middle of each jaw towards the corners of the mouth, his death, in 1647, his ſon, William II. became ſtadtholder, and he The back is of a browniſh aſh-colour; the belly white. It grows poffefied this dignity till his death in 1650. The ambitious views to the weight of about 20 pounds. This ſpecies ſwarms on the of this prince having given offence to the provinces of the repub- coaſts of Scotland, where it is taken, ſplit, and dried; and is a food lic, they took meaſures to reduce the authority of the ſtadtholder; among the common people. It forms a ſort of internal commerce, and the province of Holland formed a deſign of excluding his ſon being carried on womens backs 14 or 16 miles up the country, and William III. prince of Orange, afterwards king of England, from ſold or exchanged for neceſſaries. the dignity poſſeſſed by his anceſtors. However, in 1672, Hol- The carcharias, or white ſhark, grows to a very great bulk, land, alarmed at the progreſs of Lewis XIV. declared 'William Gillius fays to the weight of 4000 pounds : and that in the belly ſtadtholder, and captain-general of the forces of the republic, with of one was found a human corpſe entire ; which is far from incre the ſame power which his predeceſſors had enjoyed. Their exam- dible, conſidering their vaſt greedineſs after human fleſh. The ple was followed by four other provinces ; and, in 1674, on ac- mouth of this fiſh is furniſhed with (ſometimes) a fixfold row of count of his ſignal ſervices to the ſtates of Holland, they declared teeth, flat, triangular, exceedingly ſharp at their edges, and finely him hereditary ſtadtholder, and determined that his dignity ſhould ſerrated. Mr. Pennant has one that is rather more than an inch deſcend to his male heirs. He was ſucceeded by his appointed heir and an half long. Grew fays, that thoſe in the jaws of a ſhark two the prince of Naſſau-Dietz, hereditary ſtadtholder of the provinces yards in length are not half an inch ; ſo that the fiſh to which this of Frieſland and Groningen, from whom the dignity deſcended to tooth belonged muſt have been fix yards long, provided the teeth his ſon William-Charles-Henry-Friſon : in 1722, he was named and body keep pace in their growth. ſtadtholder by the province of Guelderland. In 1747, the ſtadt- This dreadful apparatus, when the fiſh is in a ſtate of repoſe, lie holderſhip was extended to all the ſeven United Provinces, and quite flat in the mouth ; but when he ſeizes his prey, he has power made hereditary in the male and female repreſentatives of the family of erecting them by the help of a ſet of muſcles that join them to of Orange. But this office is now totally aboliſhed with all its the jaw. The mouth is placed far beneath; for which reaſon theſe, appendages of dignity, authority and emolument, both civil and as well as the reſt of the kind, are ſaid to be obliged to turn on military. their backs to ſeize their prey. They are the dread of the ſailors STÁGGERS, among farriers, a giddineſs in a horſe's head, in all hot climates, where they conitantly attend the ſhips in ex- which ends in madneſs. For the cauſes and methods of cure, fee pectation of what may drop over-board : a man that has that mis the Syſteno, ſect. XXV. fortune periſhes without redemption ; they have been ſeen to dart STAIRCASE, an aſcent incloſed between walls or a baluſtrade, at him like gudgeons to a worm. A maſter of a Guinea ſhip in conſiſting of ſtairs or ſteps, with landing-places and rails ; ſerving formed Mr. Pennant, that a rage of ſuicide prevailed among his to make a communication between the ſeveral ſtories of a houſe. new-bought ſlaves, from a notion the unhappy creatures had, that See the Syſtem of ARCHITECTURE, on the principles of the air. after death they ſhould be reſtored again to their families, friends, STAMINA, in Botany, thoſe fine threads, or capillaments, and country. To convince them at leaſt that they ſhould not reani growing up within the flowers of tulips, lilies, and moſt other mate their bodies, he ordered one of their corpſe to be tied by the plants, around the ſtyle or piſtil. See the Syſtem, fect. III. Theſe heels to a rope and lowered into the ſea; and though it was drawn are the male organs of generation in flowers. up again as faſt as the united force of the crew could be exerted, yet STAMINA, in the animal body, are thoſe ſimple, original parts, in that ſhort ſpace the ſharks had devoured every part but the feet, which exiſted firſt in the embryo, or even in the ſeed; and by whoſe which were ſecured at the end of the cord. Swimmers very often diſtinction, augmentation, and accretion by additional juices, the periſh by them ; ſometimes they loſe an arm or leg, and ſometimes human body, as its utmoſt bulk, is ſuppoſed to be formed. All are bit quite aſunder, ſerving but for two morſels for this ravenous that is eſſential to the animal, are the ſtamina, which exiſt in ovo; animal: a melancholy tale of this kind is related in a Weſt-India the reſt being foreign, additional, and even accidental. The ſta- ballad, preſerved in Dr. Percy's Relics of an ancient Engliſh mina ſeem to coincide with the ſolids, which are ſurprizingly ſmall Poetry. in SQUARE, Quadratum, in Geometry, a quadrilateral figure, STAMINEOUS Flowers, among botaniſts, are ſuch as are ſo , , whoſe angles are right, and ſides equal. See the Syſtem, fect. I. far imperfect, as to want thoſe coloured leaves, which are called pe- SUARE Root, a number, conſidered as the root of a ſecond tala : ſee the Syſtem, fect. II. power or ſquare number : or a number by whoſe multiplication STAMP-Duties, are a tax impoſed upon all parchment and into itſelf, a ſquare number is generated. See Root. paper whereon any legal proceedings, or private inſtruments of al- SQUIRREL, the Engliſh name of the genus ſciurus, in the moſt any nature whatſoever are written ; and alſo upon licences for Syſtem of MAMMALIA, See SCIURUS. retailing wines of all denominations ; upon all almanacks, newſpa- STADTHOLDER, STADTHOLDER, or ſtadholder, prior to pers, advertiſements, cards, dice, and pamphlets containing leſs than the Revolution which took place in conſequence of the conqueſt fix ſheets of paper. Theſe impolls are very various, according to of the country by the arms of the French Republic in 1795, was the nature of the thing ſtamped, riſing gradually from a penny to a governor or lieutenant of a province, in the United Netherlands, ten pounds. This tax, though in many inſtances very burthenſome, particularly that of Holland, where the word was moft uſed, by is of ſervice to the public in general, by authenticating inſtruments, reaſon of the ſuperior importance of the government of that pro- rendering it much more difficult than formerly to forge deeds of vince. The ſtadtholder, i. e. the ſtadtholder of Holland, was the firſt any ſtanding ; fince, as the officers of this branch of the revenue member of the republic ; chief of all the courts of juſtice, and vary their ſtamps frequently, by marks perceptible to none but might preſide therein when he pleaſed. All ſentences, judgments, themſelves, a man that would forge a deed of king William's time &c. were diſpatched in his name. When an office became vacant muſt know, and be able to counterfeit the ſtamp of that date alſo. of the courts, the ſtates propoſed three perſons to the ſtadt The firſt inſtitution of the famp-duties was by Itatute 5 & 6 Will holder, who was to chuſe one of them. He could even pardon and Mar. cap 21. and they have ſince, in many inſtances, been in- criminals, which is a ſovereign prerogative; and he had the choice creaſed by ſubſequent ſtatutes to five times their original amount. of ſcabines, or chief magiftrates in each city ; to which end the It would far exceed the limits of this work to recite all the duties council of the city always preſented him two perſons, one of whom of this kind that already exiſt. he appointed. In ſeveral cities he had the ſame right of nominating STADARD, in Commerce, the original of a weight, mea- the burgo-maſters and counſellors ; as at Rotterdam, Dort, &c. ſure, or coin, committed to the keeping of the magiſtrate, or depo- He had alſo a power to caſhier the magiſtrates, and put others in ſited in ſome public place, to regulate, adjuſt, and try the weights their room, when he found it neceſſary for the public good, upon uſed by particular perſons in traſfic. The juſtneſs of weights and giving a reaſon for the ſame. meaſures is of that conſequence to the ſecurity and good order of By article VI. of the union of Utrecht, the ſtates conſtituted him trade, that there is no civilized nation but makes it part of their arbiter of all the differences that aroſe between the ſtates of the policy to preſerve the equality thereof by means of ſtandards. The ſeveral provinces, or between the cities and the members of the ſtandards of weights and meaſures in Englandare appointed, by Mag- ſtates of the province. To the dignity of fladtholder was inſeparably na Charta, to be kept in the exchequer by a ſpecial officer, called annexed that of captain and admiral-general of the province ; in the CLERK, or comptroller of the market. Whether gold or ſilver be which quality he named all the officers, and diſpoſed of all military above or below ſtandard, is found by aſſaying. See AssAYING. poſts. He took care of the execution of the ordinances of the STANDARD, in War, a ſort of banner or fags borne as a fignal itates; and his authority gave him a right to receive, and gave audi for joining together of the ſeveral troops belonging to the ſame ence to ambaſſadors from foreign princes, and even to ſend ambaſ body. See FLAG, &c. ſadors on his own private affairs. The office of ftadtholder was very STANNARIES, STANNARIA, the mines and works where tin ancient; the counts, not being able to reſide in Holland, appointed is dug and purified; as in Cornwall, Devonſhire, &c. There are four ز in any Plate ? C. Miscellaneous Suljons represeming vlie Origin of Musical Insurumeni,she's Thermometer Tre the Mphabet for description of the several Miles Fig.6. Fig.3. Fig. 5. Fig. 27 Fig. 4. Fig. 2 Fig. 7. Thermometer 00 Fig. 7. Fig. 17 Fig. 8. Fig. 23 fio10 fig.I. Fig. 22 3 + b Fig.18. Fig. Il Fig. 28 BIR Fig. 25 D B I Tool Twitching Machine Bread Fruit lin. 22 S Fig. 16 Fig. 14. Fig. 13 G 722 G B K . M TO 12 n NI 半 ​12 200 ZS 13 Z 10 Interual beoreen Boiling & Freezing in Inches Method Method 0 29 8 710.21. Teoht ei Barometer 11 28 28 z 1) 7 S1 3 Fig. 20 A z E Fig. 2 M B Rolling Lamp B В GIT E D Titter MIS O N P V S. 1 Q Op" R Steam Engine Steam Engine Lodac sculp. S T A S T E The mar- four courts of the ſtannaries in Devonſhire, and as many in Corn-cultivated among the former than the latter. It is diſputed between wall, for the adminiſtration of juſtice among the tinners. Theſe, ftatuary and painting, which of the two is the moſt difficult, and the which are courts of record, are held before the lord warden and his moit artful. See SCULPTURE. ſubſtitutes, in virtue of a privilege granted to the workers in the tin STATUTE, in its general ſenſe, ſignifies a Law, DECREE, mines there, to ſue and be ſued only in their own courts, that they | ORDINANCE, &c. Satute, in our laws and cuſtoms, more imme- may not be drawn from their buſineſs, which is highly profitable to diately ſignifies an act of parliament, made by the three eſtates the public, by attending their law-ſuits in other courts. of the realm ; and having the force of a law. See LAW and STANZA, in poetry, a certain ſtated number of grave verſes, PARLIAMENT. containing ſome perfect ſenſe, terminated with a reit , or pauſe. STEAM, denotes the ſmoke, or vapour, proceeding from any The word is Italian, and literally ſignifies a ſtand or ſtation, becauſe thing that is moiſt and hot. Subterranean fleams often affect the of the pauſe to be made at the end of each Itanza, or complete ſenſe. ſurface of the earth in a very remarkable manner, and influence or Every ſtanza ought not only to contain a perfect ſenſe, but to be prevent vegetation more than any thing elſe. The ſurface of ſome terminated with ſome lively and ingenious thought, or ſome juſt ground is ſo hollow and light, and ſo ſwoln by a warm and conti- and pertinent reflection: ſtanzas were firſt introduced from the Ita- nually working ferment, that it muſt needs ſend up a warming ſteair, lian into the French poetry, about the year 1580, and thence they and that it does ſo, even in the coldeſt weather, is evident from the were transferred into the Engliſh. immediate melting of the ſnow that falls on it; nay, in many places, STAPHYLINI, in anatomy, are two ſmall fleſhy ropes, cloſely the effect of this iteam is ſo great, that it melts the ſnow before it united together, as if they made but one muſcle, but diſtinguiſhed reaches the ground, ſo that it falls on it in form of rain. Some in ſome ſubjects by a very fine white line. They are fixed by one ſtones alſo, and ſome waters, impregnate the earth by their innate extremity in the common point of the poſterior edges of the olla warmth, ſending up a continual ſucceſſion of warm effluvia from all palati, and from thence run downward and backward along the parts of their ſurfaces; and other ſtones have exactly a contrary ef- middle of almoſt the whole uvula. For their origin, inſertion and fect, rendering the places where they lie barren and cold. Streams uſe, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. XI. of water, which have in their ſubterranean courſe run through beds STAR, in aſtronomy, a general name for all the heavenly bodies, of lime-ſtone, marl, or chalk, are always enriched, and warmed by which, like ſo many brilliant ſtuds, are diſperſed throughout the the ſteams iſſuing from thoſe ſubſtances, and mixing with them as whole heavens. The ſtars are diſtinguiſhed, from the phænomena they paſs, and conſequently theſe waters enrich the ground where- of their motion, &c. into fixed, and erratic or wandering ſtars ; ever they run; and, on the contrary, ſome waters are uliginous, or theſe laſt are again diſtinguiſhed into the greater luminaries, viz. corroſive, from the ſteams they have received in their channels from the fun, and moon; the planets, or wandering ſtars, properly ſo the veins of pyrites, or beds of metallic ores. called; and the comets; all which have been fully conſidered and STEAM-ENGINE, commonly called fire-engine, in hydrau- explained in the ſyſtem of AstRONOMY, to which the reader | lics is one of the moſt uſeful machines, of which modern art is referred. Star is alſo a badge of honour, worn by the ſeveral can boaſt, for draining mines and raiſing water, &c. by the pro- orders of knighthood: ſee Knight and KNIGHTHOOD; and per application and uſe of the ſteam of boiling water. Plate VII. in the ſyſtem of HERALDRY. quis of Worceſter, in his Century of Inventions (printed A. D. STARCH, a fecula, or ſediment, found at the bottom of veſſels 1663.) was probably the firſt perſon who propoſed railing great wherein wheat has been ſteeped in water: of which fecula, after quantities of water by the means of fire converting water into ſeparating the bran from it, by paſſing it through fieves, they form a ſteam; and he mentions an engine of this kind of his own inven- kind of loaves, which, being dried in the ſun, or an oven, is after tion, which played in a continual ſtream in the manner of a foun- wards broken into little pieces, and ſo ſold. The beſt is white, The beſt is white, tain, forty-feet high. He alſo ſays, that a perſon attending it ſoft, and friable, eaſily broken into powder : ſuch as require very turned two cocks; that, one veffel of water being conſumed, ano- fine ftarch do not content themſelves like the ſtarchmen, with re ther begins to force and refill with cold water, and ſo fucceflively; fuſe of wheat; but uſe the fineſt grain. the fire being tended and kept conſtant by the ſame perſon in the STARLING, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the genus interim between the ſeveral occaſions of turning the cocks. Cap- Sturnus. See STURNUS. tain Savery, having read this account, immediately attempted to STATE is uſed for the policy or form of government of a na raiſe water by fire, and erected an engine for that purpoſe. The tion, &c. Politicians diſtinguiſh ſeveral forms of ſtate, viz, the mo- captain in order to ſecure the invention to himſelf, bought up, as narchic, as that of England; ſee MONARCHY: the democratic, as Deſaguliers informs us, all the books of the marquis, which he that of Rome and Athens; ſee DEMOCRACY: the oligarchy, as that could find, and burnt them: and then gave out, that he diſcovered of Venice; ſee OLIGARCHY: and the ariſtocracy, as that of the power of ſteam by accident. He made many experiments to Sparta ; ſee AristOCRACY. See GOVERNMENT. bring the machine to perfection, and erected ſeveral for gentlemen's Council of State, in modern hiſtory, was projected by the ſtates ſeats, but could not ſucceed for mines; the depth from which of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, in conjunction with William I. water was to be raiſed in this caſe being ſo great, that it required the prince of Orange, and erected in 1584, with ample authority. ſteam of ſuch a ſtrength as to be dangerous in its application. All affairs of ſtate, the army, and revenue, were entruſted to the care Thus the progreſs of the engine was ſtopped, till about the year of this council; but the ſtates, growing jealous of this extraordinary 1705, when Mr. Newcomen, an iron-monger, and Mr. John power, reduced it gradually; and by a new inſtruction in 1651, Cowley, a glazier, at Dartmouth, contrived another way to raiſe the diſpoſition of military affairs, and the command of the army, water by fire, where the ſteam for this purpoſe, even at the greateſt were in part transferred to the ſtates-general, with the advice of the depths of mines, is not required to be greater than the preilure of council. In this council the provinces are repreſented by ſuch a the atmoſphere; and agreeable to this is the ſtructure of the fire en- number of deputies as bears ſome proportion to the quota of money gine as it is now uſed. which each contributes for the ſupport of the whole, Groeningen In order to explain the principles, conſtruction, and uſe of this excepted. Guelderland has one, Holland three, Zealand two, engine, let us ſuppoſe a well or mine, (as p, in fig. 19, Plate I. of Utrecht one, Frieſland two, Overyſſel one, and Groeningen two. miſcellaneous ſubjects) one hundred and fifty feet deep, from which Theſe are all changed every three years, except the deputy from water is to be raiſed with a pump, the diameter of whoſe barrel is the nobility of Holland, and the two from Zealand, who enjoy 74 inches; and, therefore, in this caſe, the weight of a cylindric their poſts for life. Here every member has a deciſive voice, and column of water one hundred and fifty feet high, and 72 inches in preſides for a week in his turn, without regard to the rank of the diameter, will be about three thouſand pounds. If now the rod of provinces. The governors or STADTHOLDERS of the provinces this pump were hung by a chain to the end of a lever hh, as at H, have a ſeat, but no deciſive vote in this council, in which affairs are and at the other end a power were applied, as at P, with a ſuperior determined by a majority of voices. force, the pump might be worked, and the water raiſed. It ap- STATICS, fatice, formed of isyu., I weigh, a branch of mathe pears, that this power cannot be ſupplied by the ſtrength of man or matics, which conſiders weight or gravity, and the motion of bodies beaſt ; for it will require one hundred men to pull down the beam, ariſing therefrom. Thoſe who define mechanics the ſcience of each pulling with a force of thirty pounds; but as the pump in a motion, make ſtatics a member thereof; viz. that part which con mine muſt not ſtand ſtill, there thould be one hundred more to re- ſiders the motion of bodies ariſing from gravity. Others make lieve theſe when weary; and even ſuppoſing two hundred men to them two diſtinct doctrines, reſtraining mechanics to the doctrine be ſufficient, which is far from being the caſe, the expence would of motion and weight, in reference to the ſtructure and power of be too great. If we allow horſes, and one horſe equal to five machines ; and ſtatics to the doctrine of motion, conſidered merely men, there muſt be twenty horſes working at a time, and twenty as ariſing from the weight of bodies, without any immediate re more to relieve theſe, which number of horſes would be attended ſpect to machines. On which footing, ftatics ſhould be the doc with too great expence for moſt mines; and neither men nor horſes trine, or theory of motion ; and mechanics, the application thereof would be able to give more than 15 or 16 ſtrokes in a minute; fome to machines. other power muſt therefore be applied. An effectual method of per- STATIONARY, in aſtronomy, the ſtate of a planet when it forming this is by means of a ſteam-engine, the deſcription and uſe of ſeems to remain immoveable in the ſame point of the zodiac. which is as follows: B is a large boiler, whoſe water by the fire The planets having ſometimes a progreſſive, and ſometimes a retro under it is converted into elaſtic ſteam. The great cylinder CC is grade motion, there will be ſome point wherein they appear ftati 8 or 9 feet long, and 22 inches wide, and is fixed upon the boiler, onary. See the Syſtem, fect. VI. and communicates with it by the pipe Dd; on the lower orifice of STATUARY, a branch of ſculpture, employed in the making which (within the boiler) moves a broad plate, by means of the of Itatues. Statuary is one of thofe arts wherein the ancients ſur ſteam-cock or regulator E 10, ſtopping or opening the paſſage, to paſſed the moderns ; indeed it was much more popular, and more prevent or permit the ſteam to paſs into the cylinder, as occaſion rèn N° 140. VOL. III. quires. 4 L S TE S T E quires. In the cylinder is a piſton well leathered, whoſe rod L is at F: which, not doing, cannot be ſtronger than air, even in this faſtened to a chain hanging from the end of a lever at P. The dia- caſe, where the regulator being thut, it is inoſt of all confined. meter of the pipe D is about four inches. The ſteam in the boiler The ſteam in the boiler When the regulator is opened, the ſteam gives the piſton a puth, ought always to be a little ſtronger than the air, that when let into which raiſes it up a little way, then occupying a greater fpace, it the barrel, it may be a little more than a balance to the preſſure of becomes of the ſame ſtrength, and ſo a balance to the atmoſphere ; the external air, which keeps down the piſton at the bottom dn. thus the piſton, being at liberty, riſes to the top W. The ſteam, The piſton being by this means at liberty, the pump-rod will, by now expanded into the whole capacity of the cylinder, is weaker its great weight, deſcend at the oppoſite end to fetch a ſtroke, which than the air, and would not ſupport the piſton, if it were not for the is more than double the weight of the piſton, &c, at the other end. greater weight at the other end of the lever, which keeps it up. The end of the lever at the pump, therefore, will always preponder. The ſteam, at each ſtroke, drives the injected water of the preced- ate and defcend, when the piſton is at liberty. The handle of the ing ſtroke out of the eduction-pipe dT Y, and would itfelt follow ſteam-cock E 10, being turned towards n, opens the pipe D to let and blow out the valve Y, which is not loaded, if it were ſtronger in the ſteam; and being turned towards O, ſhuts it off, that no more than the air, which it never does. If it were exa&ly equal to the can enter. The piſton is now raiſed towards the top of the cylin- ftrength of the air, it would juſt drive out all the water at Y, but der at C, and the cylinder is full of ſteam. The lever o I muſt could not follow itſelf, the preſſure on each ſide of the valve being then be lifted up to turn, by its teeth, the injecting cock at N, equal by ſuppoſition. If it be weaker than the air, it will not which permits the water, brought from the ciſtern , by the pipe force all the water out of the pipe dT Y, but the ſurface will ſtand, g MN, to enter the bottom of the cylinder at n, where it flies up e. g. at T, where the column of water T Y added to the ſtrength like a fountain, and ſtriking againſt the bottom of the piſton, the of the fteam is equal to the preſſure of the air. When the ſteam drops, being driven all over the cylinder, will by their coldneſs is one tenth weaker than the air, the height TY=31 feet. Now condenſe the ſteam into water again, and precipitate it to the bottom ſince the whole perpendicular diſtance from d to Y is but four feet, of the cylinder. and the ſteam always ſufficient to expel the water; it is plain, Mr. Beighton made an experiment to determine the rarity of that it can never be more than one tenth part weaker than the air, ſteam, and found the content of a certain cylinder of fteam was one when weakeſt. There is air in all the water injected, and though hundred and thirteen gallons ; and ſince there were fixteen ſtrokes that air cannot be taken out or condenſed with the ſteam, yet it in a minute, therefore, 113 x16=1808 gallons of ſteam per mi- will precipitate and fall through the ſteam to the bottom of the cy- nute. He alſo obſerved, that the boiler, proportioned to that cylin-linder, as being much heavier. For it has been ſhewn, that ſteam der, required to be ſupplied with water at the rate of five pints per is to water as 1 to 2887 in its denſity; but the denſity of air is to minute, and ſince 282 cubic inches make a gallon, 35 I make a pint, that of water as I to 864 ; therefore, the rarity of ſteam is to that of and 5 X 351 =176in five pints; and the cubic inches of ſteam air as 2887 to 864: the air will therefore fall through the ſteam to are 1808 X 282=509856: if then we ſay, as 1761 : 509856 :: the bottom, and from thence be driven out through a fmall pipe 1:2887; or one cubic inch of water is expanded into 2887 inches opening into the cup at 4, on which is a valve. Now when the of ſteam: conſequently thie fteam in the cylinder is reduced to 1877 Iteam firſt ruſhes into the cylinder, and is a little ſtronger than the part, when converted into water by the jet of cold water; and, outward air, it will force the precipitated air to open the valve at 4, therefore, a ſufficient vacuum is made in the cylinder for the piſton and make its eſcape, but the ſteam cannot follow, becauſe it is to defcend unbalanced, by the preſſure of the atmoſphere. The weaker than the outward air, as the piſton gives it room, by aſcend. piſton, being forced down, raiſes the other end of the lever, and ing, to expand. The valve, on account of the noiſe it makes, is conſequently the piſton of the pump, which brings up and dif- called the ſnifting-clack. charges the water at p. Now the whole operation of opening and Among the greateſt improvements of this engine, we may reckon fhutting the ſteam regulator and injection cock, may be performed that contrivance, by which the engine itſelf is made to open and in ſuch a time as will produce very well fixteen ſtrokes in a minute. ſhut the regulator and injection cock, and even more accurately That the ciſtern g may be always ſupplied with water, there is an than any perſon attending could poſſibly do it: for this purpofe arch x fixed near the arch H at the pump end, from which another there is fixed to an arch Z, at a proper diſtance from the arch P, pump rod k with its piſton draws water from a ſmall ciſtern near a chain from which hangs a perpendicular piece or working beam the mouth of the pit (fupplied from the water raiſed at p) and forces QQ, which comes down quite to the floor, and goes through it in it up the pipe m m m into the ciſtern g, which, therefore, can never a hole, which it very exactly fits. This piece has a long ſlit in it, want water. That the leathers of the piſton C may be always ſup- and ſeveral pin-holes and pins, for the movement of ſeveral ſmall ple, and ſwelled out ſo as to be always air-tight, a ſmall ſtream of levers deſtined to the office of opening and ſhutting the cocks, after water is ſupplied from the injecting pipe M by the arm %. On the the following manner. Between two perpendicular pieces of wood top of the cylinder is a cup L, to hold the water that lies on the on each ſide of P, there is a ſquare iron axis AB (fig. 20.) which piſton, left it ſhould overflow when the piſton is at its greateft has upon it ſeveral iron pieces of the lever kind. The firſt is the height, as at W; at which time, if the cup be too full, the water piece CE D, called the Y, from its repreſenting that letter inverted will run down the pipe V to the waſte well at Y. The water in by its two fhanks E and D; on the upper part is a weight F to be the boiler, which waſtes in generating ſteam, is fupplied by a pipe raiſed higher or lower, and fixed as occaſion requires. This Y is Ff about three foot long, ſupplied by the pipe W with water from fixed very faſt upon the iron axis A B. From the axis hangs a the top of the piſton, which has the advantage of being always ſort of iron ſtirrup IKLG, by its two hooks I, G, having on the warm, and ſo not apt to check the boiling of the water. That the lower part two holes K, L, through which pafies a long iron pin boiler may not have the ſurface of the water too low (which would LK, keyed in the ſame. When this pin is put in, it is alſo paſſed endanger its burning) or too high, which would not leave room through the holes in the ends E, N, of the horizontal fork or ſpan- enough for ſteam, there are two gage-pipes at G; one going a ner EQ N, joined at its end Q to the handle of the regulator V 10. little below the ſurface of the water when at a proper height, and From to o are ſeveral holes, by which the ſaid handle may be the other ſtanding a little above it. When everything is right, fixed to that part of the end which is moſt convenient. Upon the the ſtop cock of the ſhorter pipe being opened, gives only ſteam, and axis A B is fixed at right angels to the Y, a handle or lever G 4, that of the long one water; but if otherwiſe, both cocks will give which goes on the outſide of the piece QQ, and lies between the fteam when the ſurface is too low, and both give water when it is pins. Another handle is alſo faſtered upon the fame axis, viz. too high: and hence the cock which feeds the boiler at F may be H 5, and placed at half a right angle to the former G 4; this paſſes ſo opened as always to keep the ſurface of the water to its due through the flit of the piece Q Q lying on one of its pins. Hence height. The cold water, conſtantly injected into the cylinder to we fee, that when the working beam goes up, its pin in the ſlit condenſe the ſteam, is carried off by the eduction-pipe dT Y, going lifts up the ſpanner H 5, which turns about the axis ſo faſt as to from the bottom of the cylinder to the waſte-well Y, where pal- throw the Y with its weight F from C to 6, in which direction it fing a little under water, it has its end turned up with a valve Ý to would continue to move, after it paſſed the perpendicular, if it were keep out the air from preſſing up into the pipe, but allowing the in not prevented by a ſtrap of leather fixed to it at æ, and made faſt at jected water coming the other way to be diſcharged; whereby the the ends m and n, in ſuch manner as to allow the Y to vibrate cylinder is kept empty. Left the ſteam ſhould become too ſtrong backwards and forwards about a quarter of a circle, at equal diſa for the boiler and burit it, there is a valve fixed at b, with a perpen tances, on this fide and that of the perpendicular. In the repre- dicular wire ſtanding up from the middle of it, on which are fixed ſentation here given, the regulator is open, its plate TY being weights of lead, for examining the ſtrength of the ſteam puſhing thewn on one ſide of the pipe S, which joins the cylinder and boiler. againſt it from within. Thus the ſteam is known to be as ſtrong The piſton is now up, and alſo the working beam near its greateſt as the air, if it will raiſe up ſo much weight on the valve as is at the height: the pin in the flit has ſo far raiſed the ſpanner H 5, that rate of fifteen pounds to an inch ſquare. When the ſteam becomes the weight F on the head of the Y is brought ſo far from n, as to ſtronger than what is required, it will lift up the valve and go out. be paſt the perpendicular, and ready to fall over towards and This valve is called the puppet clack. The ſteam is variable in when it does ſo, it will by its ſhank E, with a ſmart blow, ſtrike the ſtrength, but never one tenth ſtronger or weaker than common air : iron pin KL, ånd drawing the fork O N horizontally towards the for it has been found that the engine will work well, when there is beam Q, will draw the end 10 of the regulator towards t, and there- the weight of one pound on every ſquare inch of the valve b. This by ſhut it by ſtopping the plate Y under the holes of the throat-pipe thews that the ſteam is then one fifteenth part ſtronger than the com S. Immediately after the regulator is ſhut, the beam riſing a litile mon air. Now as the height of the feeding pipe from the funnel higher, with its pins, on the outſide upon the lower part, lifts up F to the ſurface of the water Ss is not above three feet, and 3 į feet the end k I of the handle of the injection cock, and opens it by the of water afford one tenth of the preſſure of the air ; if the ſteam turning of the two parts with teeth. The jet immediately making were one tenth part ſtronger than air, it would puſh the water out a vacuum, the beam again deſcends, and the pin r depreſſing the handle m; S T E S TE ing itſelf. handle k i ſhuts the injection-cock: and the beam continuing to with the exhauſtion regulator; theſe inſtantly deprive it of its heat, defcend, the pin p bears down the handle G 4, and throwing back and reduce it to water; and the vacuum remaining perfect, more the Y, its ſhank D throws forward the fork N Q. and again opens ſteem continues to ruſh in, and be condenſed until the inner cy- the regulator to admit freſh ſteam ; after this every thing returns as linder is exhauſted, Then the ſteam which is above the piſton, before, and thus the engine is wonderfully contrived for work ceaſing to be counteracted by that which was below it; acts upon the piiton with its whole elaſticity, and forces it to defcend to the After the engine had been made as above deſcribed, for many bottom of the cylinder, and ſo raiſes the buckets of the pumps years, it received another improvement of very great advantage : which are hung to the other end of the beam. The exhauſtion re- that was, inſtead of feeding the boiler with warm water from the gulator is now thut, and the ſteam one opened again; which, by top of the cylinder, by the pipe W (fig. 19.) above, and F f below ; letting in the ſteam, allows the piſton to be pulled up by the ſupe- it was ſupplied with the ſcalding hot water which comes out of the rior weight of the pump rods, and ſo the engine is ready for ano- eduction-pipe dTY, which now, initead of going to the waſte- ther ſtroke. well at Y, was turned into the boiler in the top-part; and as the The working of theſe engines is more regular and ſteady than eduction pipe before went out at the ſide of the cylinder, it was the common ones, their other advantages are very conſiderable. The now inſerted in the bottom of the fame; and though the preſſure of ſavings amount at leaſt totwo thirds of the fuel, which is an important the ſteam in the boiler be ſomewhat greater in the cylinder, yet the object, eſpecially where coals are dear. The new engines will weight of water in the eduction-pipe, being added to the force of raiſe from twenty thouſand to twenty-four thouſand cubic feet of fteam in the cylinder, will carry the water down continually, by water, to the height of twenty-four feet, by one hundred weight of overcoming the reſiſtance in the boiler. good pit coal. The improvements above recited were invented by Ever ſince Mr. Newcomen's invention of the ſteam fire-engine, Mr. James Watt, of Birmingham, in 1764; he obtained his ma- the great conſumption of fuel with which it is attended, has been jeſty's letters patent for the ſole uſe of his invention in 1768; but complained of as an immenſe drawback upon the profits of our meeting with difficulties in the execution of a large machine, and mines. It is a known fact, that every ſteam-engine of conſiderable being otherwiſe employed, he laid aſide the undertaking till the fize conſumes to the amount of three thouſand pounds worth of year 1774, when, in conjunction with Mr. Boulton near Bir- coal in every year. But the moſt important improvements which mingham, he completed both a reciprocating and a rotative or have been made in the ſteam-engine for more than thirty years wheel engine. He then applied to parliament for a prolongation paſt, we owe to the ſkill of Mr. James Watt. He has contrived of the term of his patent, which was granted by an act paſſed in to preſerve an uniform heat in the cylinder of his engines, by ſuf 1775; ſince which Mr. Watt has made other valuable improve- fering no cold water to touch it, and by protecting it from the air, ments in this Machine, and obtained a patent for the ſame, bear- or other cold bodies, by a ſurrounding caſe filled with the ſteam, or ing date the 3d of July 1782, and which we ſhall in the following with hot air or water, and by coating it over with ſubſtances that pages fully deſcribe. The terms they offer to the public are, tranſmit heat flowly. He makes his vacuum to approach nearly to take in lieu of all profits one third part of the annual ſavings to that of the barometer, by condenſing the ſteam in a ſeparate in fuel, which their engine makes, when compared with a veſſel, called the condenſer, which may be cooled at pleaſure with common engine of the ſame dimenſions in the neighbour- out cooling the cylinder, either by an injection of cold water, or hood. The engines are built at the expence of thoſe who uſe by ſurrounding the condenſer with it, and generally by both. He them, and Meſſrs . Boulton and Watt furnith ſuch drawings, direc- extracts the injection water, and detached air, from the cylinder, or tions, and attendance, as may be neceſſary to enable a reſident en- condenfer by pumps, which are wrought by the engine itſelf, or gineer to complete the machine. blows them out by the ſteam. As the entrance of air into the cy Having given a conciſe account of the riſe and progreſs of the linder would ſtop the operation of the engines, and as it is hardly to Steam Engine, and a curſory view of the nature of Mr. Watt's be expected that ſuch enormous piſtons as thoſe of ſteam-engines | improvements, we ſhall now proceed to give a particular deſcrip can move up and down, and yet be abſolutely air-tight in the com tion of all its preſent improvements, in which ſtate, it must appear mon engines ; a ſtream of water is kept always running upon the evident to all thoſe who have ſeen or heard of its application and piſton, which prevents the entry of the air : but this mode of ſe- operation at the Albion Mills, that it is one of the moſt im- curing the piſton, though not hurtful in the common ones, would portant inventions in mechanics that has taken place this cen- be highly prejudicial in the new engines. Their piſton is, there tury paſt. fore, made more accurately ; and the outer cylinder having a lid, Before we enter on our deſcription, it will be neceſſary to pre- covers it, the ſteam is introduced above the piſton ; and when a miſe, that we shall confine ourſelves only to Mr. Watt's improve- vacuum is produced under it, acts upon it by its elaſticity, as the ment, as his Engine is in every other reſpect the ſame as thoſe atmoſphere does upon cominon engines by its gravity. This way commonly uſed, and which are repreſented in Fig. 19 and 20, of of working effectually excludes the air from the inner cylinder, and the Miſcellaneous Plate ; therefore thoſe who attentively read the gives the advantage of adding to the power, by increaſing the elaf- | preceding account of the Figures 19 and 20, cannot fail to under- ticity of the ſteam. Itand the uſe and application of the following improvements of In Mr. Watt's engines, the cylinder, the great beans, the pumps, | Mr. Watt. &c. ftand in their uſual poſitions. The cylinder is ſmaller than The reader is requeſted to obſerve, that all the Figures, illuſtra- ufual, in proportion to the load, and is very accurately bored. In tive of the new improvements, are drawn on a ſcale of proportion, the moſt complete engines, it is ſurrounded at a finall diſtance with as they will find in the courſe of the deſcription. another cylinder, furniſhed with a bottom and a lid. The inter In order that the reader may more clearly conceive the nature of ſtice between the cylinders communicates with the boiler by a large this invaluable improvement, we ſhall in the following twenty lines pipe, open at both ends ; fo that it is always filled with ſteam, and give an explanation of the terms uſed by Mr. Watt, the Patentee, thereby maintains the inner cylinder always of the ſame heat in his deſcription of the Machine. with the ſteam, and prevents any condenſation within it, which Firſ, the cylinder, or ſteam veſſel, is that veſſel wherein would be more detrimental than an equal condenſation in the outer the powers of ſteam or air are employed to work the engine of whatever form it may be made, though it is moſt commonly made The inner cylinder has a bottom and piſton as uſual : and as cylindrical. it does not reach up quite to the lid of the outer cylinder, the ſteam Second, the piſton is a moveable diaphragm, ſliding up and in the interſtice has always free acceſs to the upper ſide of the piſton. down or to and fro in the cylinder, and fitted to it exactly; "The lid of the outer cylinder has a hole in its middle; and the piſton- on which piſton the powers of ſteam or air are immediately rod, which is truly cylindrical, moves up and down through that hole, exerted. which is kept ſteam-tight by a collar of oakum ſcrewed down upon Third, the condenſers are certain veſſels of my invention, in which it. At the bottom of the inner cylinder, there are two regulating the ſteam is condenſed either by immediate mixture with water, valves, one of which admits the ſteam to paſs from the interſtice into ſufficiently cold, or by contact with other cold bodies; which con- the inner cylinder below the piſton, or thuts it out at pleaſure: the denſers are ſituated either in that part of the cylinder itſelf which other opens or thuts the end of a pipe, which leads to the conden- the ſteaın never enters, except to be condenſed or reduced to water, fer. The condenſer conſiſts of one or more pumps furniſhed with or they communicate with the cylinder by means of pipes, which clacks and buckets (nearly the ſame as in common pumps) which are opened or ſhut at proper times; or thoſe pipes called eduction are wrought by chains faltered to the great working beam of the pipes, which lead to the air pumps, or other contrivance for carry- engine. The pipe, which comes from the cylinder, is joined 10 ing off the condenſed ſteam, air, and water of injection, are them- the bottom of theſe pumps, and the whole condenſer ſtands im- felves uſed for that purpoſe. merſed in a ciſtern of cold water ſupplied by the engine. The Fourth, the air, and hot water pumps, are pumps, or other con- place of this ciſtern is either within the houſe under the floor, be- trivances, which ſerve to extract the air, and heated water, from tween the cylinder and the lever wall; or without the houſe, be- the cylinders and condenſers. tween that wall and the engine ſhaft, as conveniency may require. Fifth, the working beam is a double ended lever, a wheel, or The condenſer being exhauſted of air by blowing, and both the cy- wheels, or other machinery eſtabliſhing the means of communicating Bioders being filled with ſteam, the regulating valve which admits the the power, from the piſton to the pump work, or other machinery fleain into the inner cylinder is ſhut, and the other regulator which to be wrought by the engine. cominunicates with the condenſer is opened, and the ſteam ruſhes My firſt New Improvement in Steam or Fire Engines, conſiſts in into the vacuum of the condenſer with violence: but there it comes admitting ſteam into the cylinders or ſteam veſſels of the engine into contact with the cold ſides of the pumps and pipe, and only during ſome certain part or portion of the deſcent or aſcent of mecis a jet of cold water which was opened at the ſame time I the piſton of the ſaid cylinder, and uſing the elaſtic forces where- one, With S TE S TE 5 with the ſaid ſteam expands itſelf in proceeding to occupy larger the length of the ſtroke, it is neceſſary to render the whole acting ſpaces, as the acting powers on the pilton through the other parts or powers equal by other means. I perform this first by means of portions of the length of the ſtroke of the ſaid pitton ; and in apply. two wheels or factors of circles, one of which is attached to the ing combinations of levers or other contrivances to cauſe the un pump rods, and the other to the piſton rod of the engine, and which equal powers wherewith the ſteam acts upon the piſton, to produce are connected together by means of rods or chains, or otherwiſe, uniform effects in working the pumps or other machinery required that the levers whereby they act upon one another decreaſe and in: to be wrought by the ſaid engine, whereby certain large proportions creaſe reſpectively, during the aſcent or deſcent of the pillon in or of the ſteam hitherto found neceſſary to do the ſame work are ſaved; nearly in the ratios required. to explain which principle, or improvement, I have delineated a This method, mechaniſm, or contrivance, is delineated in PlateII. ſection of a hollow cylinder at Fig. 12, Plate IV. the ſcale of Fig. 2. and alſo its application to one of my New-invented Steam which is one half inch'for each fout of the real ſize of the cylinder. Engines. In order to convey a proper idea of the confiruction The cylinder ABCD is perfectly ſhut at the lower end by its of this machine, we ſhall introduce the following explanation of bottom (D, and alſo at the upper end by its cover AB ; the ſolid its ſeveral parts. A, the piſton ; BB, the cylinder or fteam velfel; piſton EF is accurately fitted to the ſaid cylinder, ſo that it may C, the perpendicular ſteam pipe, which conveys the ſteam from the Ilide eaſily up and down, yet ſuffer no fteam to paſs by it; the ſaid upper to the under end of the ſteam veffel; D, the place of the top piſton is ſuſpended by a rod, or rods, GH, which is capable of regulating valve; E, the place of the middle regulating valve; Sliding through a hole in the cover AB of the cylinder, and its cir F, the place of the exhauſtion regulating valve ; GG, the eduction cumference is made air and ſteam tight by a collar of oakum, or pipe; H, the injection pipe; I, the hot water pump; K, the air other proper materials, well greaſed, and contained in the box 0); pump; L, a valve at the eduction pipe foot, to prevent the regreſs and near the top of the cylinder there is an opening I, to admit of the water ; M, the paſſage to the hot water pump ; N, the ſteam from a boiler; alſo at D there is an opening to let off the plug tree, by the motion of which the regulating valves are opened ſteam into the condenfer. The whole cylinder, or as much of it and ſhut; O, one of the poſts which guide the plug-tree; P, the as poſſible, is encloſed in a caſe MM, containing ſteam ſurround- piſton rod; QRSTU, the wheel to which the piſton rod is fuf- ing the cylinder, or otherwiſe is maintained of the ſame heat with pended ; VWXYZ, the wheel to which the pump rods are hung; boiling water, or of the ſteam from the boiler ; likewiſe N, N, are I, the condenſer pump rods ; 2, a heavy platform, to which the caſes containing ſteam above and below the cylinder. Thoſe cylinder is faſtened; 3, the ſpring beams ; 4, 4, the ſprings ; things being thus ſituated, and the piſton placed as near as may be the rod which connects the two wheels which form the working to the top of the cylinder, let the ſpace of the cylinder under the beam ; 6, the pump rods ; 7, the ſteam caſe which ſurrounds the piſton be ſuppoſed to be exhauſted or emptied of air, ſteam, and cylinder ; 8, the back wall of the engine houſe ; 9, the lever wall; other fluids; and let there be a free paſſage above the piſton for the 10, doors and windows. entry of ſteam from the boiler ; and ſuppoſe that ſteam to be of the Having given a deſcription of its ſeveral parts, we fall proceed farne denſity or elaſtic force as the atmoſphere, or able to ſupport a to give an account of the operation of this Engine, with the new column of mercury of 30 inches high in the barometer, then the mechaniſm added to it, The above machine has a cylinder preſſure or elaſtic power of the ſaid Iteamı on every ſquare inch of | 30 inches diameter, which is capable of making ſtrokes 8 feet long, the area, or upper ſide of the piſton, will be nearly 14 lb. avoirdu with the firſt ſpecies of the new machinery for equalizing the ex- poiſe weight: and that if the ſaid power were employed to act upon panfive powers of ſteam applied thereto. It is delineated upon a the piſton through the whole length of its ſtroke, and to work a ſcale a quarter of an inch to each foot of the real ſize of the engine. pump or pumps, either immediately by the piſton rod prolonged, The piſton A being at its higheſt place, and the part of the cy- or through the medium of a working beam, or great lever, as is linder under it exhauſted of ſteam and air, the regulating valve uſual in Iteam engines, it would raiſe through the whole length of which admits the ſteam to enter below the piſton being ſhut, and its ſtroke a column or columns of water, the weight whereof the valve F, which allows fieam or air to paſs to the condenſer ſhould be equal to ten pounds for each ſquare inch of the area of GK, being open, in order to maintain a good vacuum, the top re- the piſton, beſides overcoming all the frictions and vis-inertiæ of gulating valve D is opened and permits the ſteam from the boiler to water and parts of the machine or engine. But ſuppoſing the enter and act upon the piſton, which then begins to deſcend and whole diſtance from the underſide of the piſton to the bottoin of poll round the wheel or ſector of a circle to which it is hung: the cylinder to be eight feet, and the paſſage which admitted the when the point Q of that wheel has moved to R, the piſton has de- ſteam from the boiler to be perfectly ſnut when the piſton has de ſcended two feet; and V of the wheel to which the pump rods, ſcended to the point Kiwo feet, or one fourth of the length of the or other machinery, wrought by the engine, are fufpended, being ſtroke or motion of the ſaid piſton ; I ſay that when the piſton has pulled by the rod 5, connecting it with the other wheel QRSTU, deſcended four feet or one half the length of the ſtroke, the elaſtic and form the working beam, will have moved through the power of the Itam would then be equal to ſeven pounds on each ſpace V W, the regulating valve D is then ſhut, ſo that no ſquare inch of the area of the piſton, or one half of the original more ſteam may be adınitted from the boiler during that ſtroke, power, and that when the piſton had arrived at the point P, the but the piſton continues to deſcend by virtue of the expanſion of power of the ſteam would be one third of the original power, or four the ſteam; and when the point Q is come to the points R, S,T,U, pounds and two thirds of a pound on each ſquare inch of the the point V is come to the points W, X, Y, Z, reſpectively; de- piſton's area ; and that when the piſton had arrived at the bottom n had arrived at the bottom fcribing ſpaces which are nearly proportional to the powers of the or end of its ſtroke, that the elaſtic power of the ſteam would be ſteam, at the correſponding points of the deſcent of the piſton. one fourth of its original power, or three pounds and one half When the piſton has made its Atroke, and is come to the bottom of pound on each ſquare inch of the ſaid area : and I further ſay, that the cylinder, the regulating valve F is fhut, and the valve E is the elaſtic power of the ſteam at the other diviſions marked in the opened, by which means the ſteam paſſes from the part of the cy- length of the ſaid cylinder, are repreſented by the lengths of the ho Tinder above the piſton to the part below it, by the pipe C, and ſo rizontal lines or ordinates of the curve KL, the ordinates of which reſtoring the equilibrium, permits the piſton to aſcend to its poſi- repreſent the powers of the ſteam when the piſton is at the reſpective The regulating valve E is then to be ſhut, and the exhauſtion places, and are alſo marked or delineated in the ſaid cylinder, and are regulating valve F is opened; the ſteam ruſhes into the eduction- expreſſed in decimal fractions of the whole original power, by the pipe G G, where it meets a jet of cold water, which enters through numbers written oppoſite to the ſaid ordinates or horizontal lines: the injection-pipe H, which is opened immediately before the regu- and I alſo ſay, that the ſum of all theſe powers is greater than fifty- | lating valve F. lating valve F. The contact of this cold water immediately re- ſeven hundred parts of the original power, multiplied by the length duces the ſteam to water, and produces a vacuum under the piſton, of the cylinder ; whereby it appears, that only one fourth of the and thereby enables the elaſtic force of the ſteam to act again upon ſteam neceſſary to fill the whole cylinder is employed, and that it, as has been deſcribed : or inſtead of injecting cold water into the the effect produced is equal to more than one half of the effect condenſer or eduction-pipe itſelf; I bring the ſteam into contact which would have been produced by one whole cylinder full of with thin plates or pipes of metal which have their external ſurface ſteam, if it had been admitted to enter freely above the piſton dur cooled by contact with water or other cold matter. The con- ing the whole length of its deſcent; conſequently that the ſaid New denſed ſteam, the injection water, and the air which entered with or Expanſive Engine, is capable of eaſily raiſing columns of water, it, or any other air which has entered by other means, proceed by the weights whereof are equal to five pounds on every ſquare inch the edućtion-pipe to the air-pump K, and paſſing the valves of its of the area of its piſton, and that with one fourth of the contents of bucket or piſton, are retained and lifted up by it on the return of the cylinder of ſteain. Though, for example ſake, I have men the ſtrokes, and thereby are thrown into the hot-water pump I, tioned the admiſſion of one fourth of the cylinder full of ſteam, (as which by the next ſtroke raiſes up and delivers them into the at- being the moſt convenient) yet any other proportion of the fill of a moſphere, from whence part is returned into the boiler to fupply its cylinder, or any other dimenſions of the cylinder, will produce conſumption of water; and the remainder is conveyed away for any ſimilar effects; and in practice I actually do vary theſe proportions, other purpoſe, or runs to waſte. as the caſe requires, and alſo in ſome caſes I admit the required The ſecond variety of the firſt method of the new equalizing ma- quantity of ſteam to enter below the piſton; and I pull the piſton chinery, is delineated upon a ſcale of one ſixth of an inch for each upwards by ſome external power againſt the elaſtic force of the foot, Plate III. fig. 3. -- The piſton is ſuſpended from the arch A fteam from the boiler, which then always freely communicates with by means of a chain or rods, and the pump rodis ſuſpended from the the upper part of the cylinder, and which produces ſimilar effects arch B. The primary or cylinder arch A by means of the arm to thöfe deſcribed. But the powers which the ſteam exerts being O P, and the rod or chain O Cacts upon the working beam B C, unequal, and the weight of the water to be raiſed or other work to to the arch of which the pump rods are ſuſpended, by which means be done by the engines, being ſuppoſed to reſiſt equally throughout , while the piſton deſcends through the equal ſpaces I K, KL, IM, MN, tion, S TE S T E ز MN, the pump rod is made to aſcend through the unequal ſpaces of water or other liquid to oppoſe the aſcent of the piſton in the DE, EF, FG, GH, which are nearly proportional to the elaſtic beginning of the ſtroke, and to affiſt it in the latter part. Here forces of the ſteam at the reſpective points. AĂ and BB repreſent two cylinders or other formed vefſels filled My Second Method of New Machinery for equalizing the ex with water, or ſome other liquid above their piſtons C and D, the panſíve powers of ſteam is delineated in Plate III. fig. 4. upon a rods of which are fixed to or ſuſpended from the oppoſite end of the ſcale of one fixth of an inch for each foot of the real fize of the axis of the working beam of the engine, or ſuch ſecondary or auxi- machinery, upon which ſcale of proportion all the figures of liary beam, as may be applied to this uſe ; the centre of motion of Plate III. are delineated. This piece of mechaniſm for equaliz the working bearn is ſupported upon the wall EE, and the work- ing the power of the ſteam, is by means of chains which are wound ing beam or ſecondary beam is ſo connected with the piſton of the upon one ſpiral, and wound off another as the piſton deſcends, engine, that when the ſaid piſton defcends it raiſes the oppoſite end which ſpirals are fixed upon two wheels or ſectors of circles, to of the working beam, the piſton of the water cylinder BB, which which the chains of the piſton and pump rods are attached. The is then loweſt, and thereby cauſes the water it contains to run over piſton is ſuſpended by chains, or otherwiſe from the ſide A of the into the cylinder AA ; both cylinders being open at the top and wheel A B, and the pump rods from the ſide C of the wheel DC; bottom, and at top are connected together by atrough either cloſe which wheel DC being pulled by the chains IRK, paſſing along or open. Thus the piſton C of the cylinder AA becoming loaded the fpiral wheels I, P, S, R, K, the points of the circumference in proportion as the piſton D of the cylinder BB riſes, it gradu- move through the unequal ſpaces KL, LM, MN, NO, (almoſt ally comes to aſſiſt the piſton of the ſteam veffel in the latter part of exactly proportional to the powers of the ſteam) while the points of its motion. Theſe cylinders containing water may be either placed the circumference of AB move through the equal ſpaces EF, FG, below the working beam, or above it, or may be ſuſpended to a ſe- GH, HI. condary working beam, conſtructed or neceſſary for fome other My Third Method or Piece of Mechaniſm for equalizing the powers uſe connected with the piſton rod or pump rod, or other part, and of the ſteam is by means of a friction wheel, or wheels attached to placed ſo that the water cylinders may be in or out of the engine- or ſuſpended from one ſector or wheel, and acting upon a curved or houſe, where it may be moſt convenient. ſtraight part of another ſector, wheel, or working beam. Two My Sixth Methodor Contrivance for equalizing the powers of the modes of this contrivance are delineated in Plate III. Fig. 5. and 6. ſteam, conſiſts in employing the ſurplus powers of the ſteam upon of which it is only neceſſary to obſerve the piſtons of the engines the piſton in the firſt parts of its motion to give a proper rotative, are ſuſpended from the arches A, A, and the pump rods from the or vibratory velocity to a quantity of matter, which retaining that arches of the working beams BB, and by means of the connecting velocity ſhall act along with the piſton, and aſſiſtit in raiſing the co- rods EC, the friction wheels CC are pulled down, as alſo the lumns of water in the latter part of its motion, when the powers ends of beams BD, on which they reſt; and by the motion of theſe of the ſteam are defective. friction wheels on the beams, the levers are lengthened (nearly) as Two modes by which I perform this are delineated in fig. 1, the powers of ſteam diminiſh; and theſe contrivances afford the Plate I. which reprefents the New-improved Engine, the piſton means of equalizing the powers of the ſteam very correctly. of which is preſſed forcibly both upwards and downwards by N. B. The arms E, E, and the connecting rods E, C, are ſup the powers of ſteam, with a 30 inch cylinder and 8 feet ſtroke. poſed to be double in each machine, that the piſton chains or racks The better to underſtand the engraving, we have introduced the may go up between them. following explanation of its different parts. A, the piſton ; BB, My Fourth Method or Piece of Mechaniſm for equalizing the power the cylinder or ſteam veffel , C, a pipe which brings ſteam from of the ſteam, is by cauſing the centre or ſuſpenſion of the working the boiler to the lower regulator box or nozle; D, the place of beam, or great lever to change its place during the time of the ſtroke, a regulating valve, which admits ſteam into the upper end of the whereby the end of the lever to which the piſton is ſuſpended be ſteam veffel ; E, the place of the regulator which admits ſteam be- comes longer, and the end to which the pump rods are ſuſpended low the piſton; F, the place of a regulator, which lets ſteam go becomes ſhorter as the piſton deſcends in the cylinder. An eaſy out from below the piſton into the condenſer ; N, place of a regu- method of doing this is repreſented in fig. 7. AB repreſents the lator, which diſcharges the ſteam from above the piſton; GG, the working beam; B, the end from which the piſton is fuſpended; A eduction or condenſer pipe ; H, the injeélion pipe; I, the hot the end from which the pump rods are ſuſpended; CD a hollow water pump; K, the air pump ; L, a valve at the eduction pipe curve of wood or metal fixed to the lower ſide of the working beam; foot ; M, a paſſage from the air pump to the hot water pump ; E, the end of a friction roller which is furniſhed with teeth to keep 00, a toothed rack, which connects the piſton rod with the work- it from ſliding, and rolls between the curve CD, and the plane or ing beam ; P, the piſton rod; QQ, a toothed ſector or arch, This friction roller is divided into three parts, as which alſo ſerves for a weight to aſſiſt the piſton in its deſcent; may be ſeen in its horizontal view KLM, the two extremities KM, QR, the working beam ; SS, the pump rod, which is made double whích roll upon the ſupports FG, are fixed firmly upon an 'axis ; when the rotative machinery is uſed ; T, the connecting rod of the middle part L, which rolls under the curve CD, can turn round the rotative machinery; U, the wheel fixed upon an axis ; W, the on its axis, therefore when by the action of the piſton on the work wheel fixed to the connecting rod; VV, the fly; XX, the fly of ing beam, the end B is pulled downwards, the roller proceeds to the reciprocating rotative motion ; Y, the pinion of which it acts wards C to the part of the curve which is then the higheſt, and and is acted upon by the working beam ; 9, the pipe which brings thereby lengthens the lever by which the piſton acts on the pumps, ſteam from the boiler. and ſhortens that by which the pumps réfift the cylinder ; and that The mode of the Engine's working is as follows: in any ratio which may be required according to the form of the The heavy fly XX, is put in motion by a means of a pinion, or ſmaller wheel Y, fixed upon its axis, and the teeth of which pinion My Fifth Method or Piece of Machaniſm or Contrivance for equa or ſmaller wheel are acted upon by the toothed ſector QQ, fixed lizing the power of the ſtream, conſiſts in placing upon, ſuſpending upon the arch of the working beam QR, which toothed ſector alſo from, or fixing to the working beam of the ſteam engine, or ſome ſerves for a weight to aſſiſt the piſton on its deſcent; or the ſaid Ay other beam, wheel, or level, connected with it, a quantity of heavy is by other means connected with the motion of the ſaid working matter in ſuch a manner, that the faid heavy matter ſhall not act beam. When the piſton A, pulls down the end of the working againſt the power of the piſton at the commencement of the deſcent beam, the toothed ſector Ql, gives motion to the pinion, and there- of the ſaid piſton: and as the piſton deſcends ſhall gradually move by gives velocity to the fly; and when the deſcending or aſcending towards that end of the beam, from which the piſton is ſuſpended, velocity of the arch, or ſector of the working beam becomes leſs or otherwiſe ſhall act in favor of the piſton in the latter part of the than the velocity which the pinion and fly have acquired, then the ſtroke. Three methods or varieties upon this principle are repre velocity of the fly continuing, cauſes the pinion to act upon the ſented in fig. 8, 9, and 10. Plate III. Fig. 8, operates by means ſector in its turn, and aſſiſt the powers of the ſteam until its velocity of a heavy cylinder A, of iron, or other material, which rolls in a is ſpent, or the piſton has reached the bottom of the cylinder ; and hollow curve BC, on the back of the working beam CD, whoſe the ſaid fly operates in like manner during the aſcent of the piſton, axis or gudgeon is F; as the piſton deſcends, the weight will change but turns then in the contrary direction. In the ſecond variety of its place, and proceed towards the cylinder end of the beam. this method, a fly or heavy wheel is put into a continued rotative fig. 9. the ſame is performed by a heavy weight of iron or other motion, by a crank, according to any of the rotative motions which matter, A, fixed above the wheel BC, as in N° 1. fig. 9. or above I have invented, or by any other means, which ſhall or can produce the working beam BC, as in N° 2. fig. 9. ſo that its centre of gra a continued rotative motion ; and the ſaid rotative machine is con- vity at the beginning of the motion, lies nearer the pump end of nected with or joined to either end of the working beam, to or the beam that the centre of ſuſpenſion of the beam, whereby it with the piſton and rod itſelf, to or with the pump rods, to or with acts againſt the piſton, and at laſt comes to be at the ſame fide of any other moving part of the engine, or pump rods, which is found that centre, with the end from which the piſton is ſuſpended, and to work beſt. thereby acts in its favour; in both of which caſes F is the axis or In Fig. 1. Plate I. TUWVV repreſent the application of my centre of motion. Fig. 10, ſhews a method of fixing the working fifth method of producing rotative motions from ſteam-engines, as beam, ſo as to perform in ſome degree the office of the weight in a method or contrivance for equalizing the powers of the ſteam. fig. 9, for in this caſe the working beam AB is placed ſo high above The piſton being at the top of the cylinder BB, and the working its centre of motion F, that its own gravity acts the part of the beam in the ſituation delineated, the engine begins its ſtroke, and weight A in fig. 9. by means of the connecting rod TT, pulls upwards the toothed Plate IV. fig. 11. is delineated upon a ſcale of proportions of a wheel W, which is fixed to the connecting rod T, in ſuch a man- quarter of an inch to a foot, and ſhews a fourth variety of the fifth ner that it cannot turn upon its own axis, and is confined by means method whereby I perform the ſame thingby cauſing a quantity of a link or chain reaching from its centre to the axis of the other * toothed ſupport FG. curve. No. 140. 4 M S TE S T E The hot water toothed wheel U, or is otherwiſe fo contrived that it cannot recede tion. The ſteam vefſels and condenſers of two or more diſtinct from it; therefore when the action of the engine pulls the wheel ſteam engines, each of which has its ſeparate working beam, and W, upwards, it revolves round the other wheel U, and cauſes it U other conſtituent parts of a ſteam engine, or is otherwiſe fo con- ſtructed that it can work pumps or other machinery, which are to revolve upon its own axis, and the fly, or heavy wheel VV, be- ing fixed upon the ſame axis, it is alſo put into motion; and be either connected with or are independent of thoſe wrought by the cauſe of the great power of the ſteam in the firſt parts of the ſtroke, other engine, and which two engines can take their ſtrokes alter- the fly acquires a great velocity, whereby, through the medium of nately, or both together, as may be required. The conſtruction the two wheels, and the connecting rod, it acts upon the working of the ſaid machine is deſcribed as follows; and an external front beam, and aſſiſts the action of the ſteam in the latter parts of the view of the ſteam veſſels, or cylinders and condenſers of the two ftroke. When the piſton has completed its ſtroke downwards, the engines is delineated in fig. 14. The ſection or ſide view of the lower edge of the wheel W, has paſſed over the upper edge or two engines is not delineated, becauſe when viewed in that direc- higheſt part of the wheel U, and the velocity of the fly continuing, tion, only one of them can be ſeen, the other being hid by it; and the wheel U, acts upon the wheel W; and aſſiſts the unballanced the engine which could be ſeen would appear the ſame as the en- weight of the pump rod or rods SS, in raiſing the piſton to the top gine delineated in fig. I. The compound or double engines ad- of the cylinder mit the application of any of the equalizing machinery, which My Second New Improvement upon ſteam or fire engines, con have been already deſcribed. fiſts in employing the elaſtic power of the ſteam to force the piſton FIG. 14, repreſents a front view of the new compound, or dou- upwards, and alſo to preſs it downwards alternately, by making ble engine, as ſeen from the lever wall. a vacuum above or below the piſton reſpectively, and at the ſame Deſcription of the ſeveral Parts of this piece of Mechaniſm. time employing the ſteam to act upon the piſton in that end, or to No 1. The ſteam veſſel and ſome other parts of the primary be exerted upon the piſton only in one direction, whether upwards engine; No. 2, the ſteam veſſel, and other parts of the ſecondary or downwards. This improvement, as applied to one of the ſteam engine; DR, places of the top regulating valves ; C R, the per- engines of my invention, is delineated in fig. 1. The lower part pendicular ſteam pipes; E O, places of the middle regulators; of the cylinder BB being exhauſted of air, ſteam and other fluids, EP, places of the exhauſting regulators ; NG, eduction pipes ; the regulating valve F, which lets ſteam out from below the piſ K, I, air and hot water pumps; M, a paſſage from the air pump ton into the condenſer, being open, and the regulating valve E, to the hot water pump; S, a pipe for communicating the ſteain which admits ſteam below the piſton, and the valve N which dif from the primary engine to the ſecondary engine, inſtead of the charges ſteam from above the piſton being ſhut; the regulating valve eduction pipe N; 8,9, pipes which convey the ſteam from the Dis opened, which admits ſteam from the boiler into the upper end boiler. of the cylinder or ſteam veſſel, and thence it preſſes upon the upper N. B. The engines may have each a condenſer, or the ſame fide of the piſton ; by the action of which ſteam, the piſton de condenſer may ſerve both, as is here delineated. The fide view of ſcends, pulls down the cylinder end of the working beam, and theſe engines would appear the ſame as Fig. 2, or Fig. 1, accord- raiſes the end from which the pump rods are ſuſpended. When ing to the conſtruction of their working beams. the piſton is arrived at the bottom of the cylinder, or end of its pump is broken off in this figure, to avoid its interfering with the ſtroke, the valve F is fhut, and the valve E'is opened, which ad eduction pipe N. mits the ſteam under the piſton, and at the ſame time the valve D The ſeveral operations of this piece of machinery, or mecha- is íhut, which prevents the ſteam from coming from the boiler niſm, are as follows: the cylinder of the primary engine N° 1. into that end of the cylinder; alſo the other valve N in the upper receives ſteam from the boiler, by the ſteam pipes, 8, 9: which nozle or regulator box is opened, which permits the ſteam to ruſh ſteam enters the cylinder by a regular valve ſituated at D: its piſ- from above the piſton into the eduction or condenſer pipe GG, ton being at the upper end of its kroke, and the part of the cylin- where it meets the jet or injection water, paſſing through the in der which is below the piſton being exhauſted, the elactic power of jection pipe H, which condenſes it, and produces a vacuum in the the ſteam preſſes down the piſton, until it arrives at the bottom or upper part of the cylinder, which deſtroying the equilibrium, per termination of its ſtroke; the regulating valve D is then ſhut and mits the ſteam under the piſton to force it upwards : then the pif the middle regulating valve at E is opened, which admits ſteam to ton rod Pbeing faſt in the piſton, and having the toothed rack OO, enter under the piſton, whereby the engine is enabled to riſe up which connects the piſton rod, and the working beam fixed to its the pillon to the top of its ſtroke, where it was at the beginning, upper end, by means of the teeth thereof, which are engaged in the middle regulating valve E is then ſhut, and the regulating the teeth of the toothed ſector, which alſo is fixed to, or forms a valves F and P are opened ; the valve F permits the ſteam to paſs part of the arch QQ of the working beam, or by means of dou through the eduction pipe N, into the perpendicular ſteam pipe R, ble chains or any other practicable method, the pilton or its rod of the ſecondary engine, and to preſs upon its piſton, under which raiſes the cylinder end of the working beam, and alſo a heavy pifton there is a vacuum. The ſteam, which is or was contained weight concealed or contained in the arch thereof, or otherwiſe under the piſton of the primary engine Nº 1, being of the ſame fixed or attached to it, or ſuſpended therefrom; which weight denſity with the atmoſphere, or nearly ſo, will, while the piſton ought to be equal, or nearly ſo, to the force or power of the ſteam, of the ſecondary engine Nº 2, remains ſtationary, act upon it with when acting upon the piſton in the aſcending direction. When the full power belonging to its denſity or elaſticity, and will there- the piſton is arrived at the ſummit of its motion, the regulating by cauſe it to commence its motion downwards; but as the piſton valves Ę and N are to be fhut, and the regulating valves D and F 2, moves downwards, the denſity and elaſtic force of the opened ; whereby the piſton again commences its motion down ſteam will diminiſh in proportion as the ſpaces which it occupies wards, as has been deſcribed ; and during the deſcent of the pif are increaſed; ſo that in caſe the cylinders of the two engines are ton, the weight QQ fixed to, or ſuſpended from the working beam. of an equal capacity, when the piſton of Nº. 2, has arrived at the affiits the power of the ſteam on the piſton in raiſing the columns bottom or lower end of its itroke, the denſity and elaſtic force of of water in the pumps, or in working other machinery. the ſteam will be only one half of what they were while the piſton The reader ſhould take notice that the figures 13, 14, 15, 16, remained at the top; therefore if a ſimple lever, wheel, or work- 17 and 18, are all delineated on a ſcale of a quarter of an inch to ing beam, is uſed for this ſecondary engine N° 2, the engine each foot of the real ſize of the machine. In fig. 13, is delineated ought only to be loaded with a column of water or other work, af ront view of the cylinder and condenſer of fig. 1, wherein equal to half the number of pounds on each ſquare inch, which the ſame letters are put upon the ſame reſpective parts : 88, repre the primary engine Nº I, is able to work with. But if the ſe- fent part of the pipes which brings ſteam from the boiler, and 9 condary engine, Nº 2, is furniſhed with any proper contrivance the croſs pipe fixed to the upper nozle or regulator box. N.B.The for equalizing the powers of the ſteain, it may, in caſe the cylin- eduction pipe G is repreſented as broken off to ſhew the other ders of the two engines are of equal capacity, be made to do ſe- parts. This improvement permits the engine to be uſed either ven tenths of the work which is done by the primary engine Nº I, with the uniform exertion of the whole power of the ſteam on the When the piſton of the ſecondary engine, Nº 2, has come to the piſton, both in the deſcent and aſcent; or by making the weight bottom of its ſtroke, the middle regulating valve O is opened, and of the columns of water in the pumps or the reſiſtance of other the ſteam ruſhes into the condenſer GK, and in its way meets the machinery, which it may be required to work equal to the full be required to work equal to the full jet of injection water, which condenſes it, and thereby the upper power of the ſteam upon the piſton, when acting in one direction part of the cylinder of the ſecondary engine, and the lower part of only, and the weight on the working beam equal to half that the cylinder of the primary engine are exhauſted of ſteam. The power. It may be uſed as a double expanſive engine, and wrought piſton of the ſecondary engine, Nº 2, having the vacuum both in the manner I have herein ſet forth in the diſcription of my firſt above it, and below it, is pulled up eaſily by the working beam of improvement; and in ſuch caſe the fourth, fifth and fixth contri that engine ; and there being a vacuum under the piſton of the pri- vances, for equalizing the powers of ſteam (already deſcribed) are mary engine, Nº 1, the ſteam from the boiler exerts its power peculiarly applicable to this mode of conſtructing the engine. upon it, and preſſes it down ; and the other motions are repeated Wherefore I have delineated the two varieties, which I have de as have been deſcribed. fcribed of the fixth method as applied to this engine; an deiher Theſe compound engines may alſo be wrought by other methods, or both of them may be uſed at the ſame time, though only one of which I ſhall deſcribe one of the beſt : let the eduction pipe N is ſtrictly neceſſary, and any other two or more of the aforeſaid be ſuppoſed to be removed, and a ſteam pipe S, (which for diſtinc- fix methods or of the varieties thereof, may be applied to one tion is dotted in the engraving) be made to communicate between engine at the ſame time, that is, ſuch of them whoſe nature admits the perpendicular ſteam pipe C, of the primary engine, and the top of ſuch combination. regulator box or croſs pipe Qof the ſecondary engine; then the piſton My Third New Improvement on ſteam or fire engines conſiſts in of the primary engine, Nº 1, being preſſed to the bottom by ſteam, connecting together by pipes or other proper channels of communica fhuts its top regulating valve D and opens the top regulating valve, S T E S TE An engine the of the ſecondary engine: the piſton of that engine will immedi or greater or leſſer portion of the circle according to the ſtructure ately begin to deſcend with a decreaſing power, as has been re of the machine. The piſton is returned into its former ſituation marked before. When the piſton of the ſecondary engine, No. 2, by admitting ſteam on the other ſide of the ſaid piſton, and draw- has come to the bottom of its ſtroke, its middle regulator O, is ing the piſton back by ſome external power, or by exhauſting the opened, whereby the ſteam ruſhes out of the cylinder of both the part of the ſteam veſſel, which was filled with ſteam. engines into the condenſer or condenſers ; and there being a vacu conſtructed upon this principle, which I name the new reciproca- um both above and below the piſtons of both engines, the equili- | ting ſemi-rotative engine, is delineated in fig. 15, 16, and 17, brium of both is reſtored, and both the piſtons are permitted to Plate IV. according to a ſcale of one fourth of an inch to each be raiſed by the unballanced weight of the pump rods, or other foot of the real ſize; but I make them greater or leſſer, and vary the weights or machinery applied for that purpoſe. It is proper in ſhape and ſize of the ſteam veſſel, and other parts according to their this mode of application to make a ſmall pipe, leading from the uſe. Fig. 15. is a ſection of the engine at right angles to the axle of lower part of the cylinder of the primary engine to the eduction the engine cylinder ; AA is the hollow cylinder cut open ; B, the pipe or condenſer of the ſecondary engine, whereby the vacuum axle or axis; C, the piſton ; D, a box filled with ſome ſoft ſub- under and above both piſtons may be maintained of an equal ſtance to make the joining of the diviſion plates EE with the axle, degree of rareneſs or perfection. ſteam and air tight; FG, pipes which admit and diſcharge the For the more clear underſtanding of theſe improvements and ſteam ; HKLI, places of valves or regulators ; M, the ſteam pipe contrivances, I have delineated and adapted them all, except from the boiler; NN the ſteam regulator box; 00, the eduction (fig. 12, Plate IV.) to engines whoſe cylinders are 30 inches in or condenſer pipe ; Q, the injection pipe; PP, condenſer pumps. diameter, and the length of the ſtroke of whoſe piſtons is eight Fig. 16, is a fide view of the engine wherein the fame letters are feet; but I make the cylinders larger or leſſer, longer or ſhorter, placed on the fame parts as in fig. 15. RR, are ſockets to make and vary the proportions and Shape of them, and of the other parts the axle air tight; SS, the wheel which acts upon pump rods; according as their 'uſes may require; and as each improvement, and 2, the wheel which works the condenſer. Fig. 17, is an out- method, piece of mechaniſm or contrivance admits of numberleſs ſide front view of the engine and pump rods. The condenſer and variations, I have ſet forth and delineated only ſuch as I eſteem to regulator boxes are not drawn in this view; and the upper part be among the beſt, and which are the moſt eaſy to be executed. of the pump rod UU is ſuppoſed to be broken off. T, is the pivet My Fourth New Improvement, on ſteam or fire engines, conſiſts of the axle ; and UU, WW, are the pump rods and their racks. in applying a certain mechanical contrivance, called a toothed The operation of the engine is as follows: the ſteam-veſle rack, and ſector of a circle, or toothed racks, and toothed ſectors of AAA being exhauſted of ſteam and air, and the regulating valves circles for ſuſpending or connecting the pump rods or piſtons with K and I being ſhut, and L and H open, the ſteam coming from the the working beams, leavers, or other machinery uſed in lieu of them, boiler through the pipe M enters the ſteam veſſel by L and G, and in place or inſtead of chains, which hitherto have been uſed for theſe cauſes the pilton C to turn round into or towards the exhauſted purpoſes. This new improvement, or mechanical contrivance, is part of the ſteam-veſſel A X, and thereby turns the axle B, and the delineated at O Q, Fig. 1, Plate I. and requires no other explanation machinery attached to it until the piſton C comes to X; the re- than to ſay, that it is delineated by a ſcale of of an inch to each foot gulating valves L and H are then ſhut, and K and I are opened; of the real ſize, according to its proper dimenſions for a cylinder of the ſteam which had entered by the pipe G and had acted upon the 30 inches in diameter; and the faid ract and ſector are ſuppoſed to piſton, returns through G and I into the condenſer or eduction pipe be made of hammered or caſt iron ; but it may be made of wood or O, where it is condenſed; and the ſteam from the boiler entering other materials by giving it dimenſions ſuitable to the ſtrength of through K and F, forces the piſton C to return to its firſt ſituation. the material of which it is made : and in order to accommodate The pump rods U, W, or other machinery, are wrought by the the ſame to cylinders of other ſizes, the ſtrength of its parts muſt wheel SS fixed on the axle BB, or otherwiſe. See fig. 16, and 17: be increaſed or diminiſhed, in proportion to the powers of the re- Plate IV. And the condenſer pump or pumps is wrought by the ſpective cylinders, to which it may be applied. I have deſcribed wheel Q, fixed to any part of the ſaid axle, or otherwiſe. The ſaid and delineated all my aforeſaid new improvements upon, and new ſteam-veſſel muſt be firmly fixed, and the gudgeons or pivots of the mechanical contrivances applicable to ſteam engines, as applied to faid axle muſt be reſted upon proper ſupports, which things could or connected with the new ſteam engine of my own invention, as not be delineated without confulion. I alſo cauſe engines made being the moſt perfect hitherto made ; but I notwithſtanding apply according to this fifth improvement to revolve with a continued the fame to the common ſteam engines, known by the name of rotative motion, by making their ſteam veſſels complete cylinders, Newcomen's ſteam or fire engines, and they are alſo applicable to or other circular figures, and in place of the fixed diviſion or divi- any other ſpecies or variety of ſteam engines, which works with a ſions, I place one or more valves in their ſteam-veſſels, which ſhut pifton, moving in a cylinder, or ſteam veſſel, and they will in ſuch or cloſe the area between their axles and their circumferences, and engines, produce greater or leſs effects in proportion to the which valves open by turning upon a hinge or joint, or are drawn degree of perfection of the engine, to which they are applied. back by a ſliding motion like a drawer, or otherwiſe are conſtructed Though I have deſcribed all the engines as ſtanding erect, and hav ſo that they may be removed when the piſton comes to them, and ing the piſton rods coming through the holes at the top of the cy thereby ſuffer it to paſs by the place where they were (ſee fig. 18 ) linder, and the working beams or equalizing machinery to be and ſo begin a new revolution in the ſame direction : or I make a placed under them, yet I ſometimes uſe ſuch cylinders and work fixed diviſion or diviſions as has been deſcribed. And I fix one or ing beams, in an inclined or an horizontal poſition. more valves to the axle, which valves are capable of folding down My Fifth New Improvement, on ſteam or fire engines, conſiſts in and applying themſelves to the axle, and of forming a part of its making the ſteam veſſels, in form of hollow cylinders, or in the circumference, ſo that they can thereby paſs by the diviſion, and form of other regular, round, hollow veſſels, or the form of greater when they have paſſed it, they are raiſed up by ſprings or other- or leſſer ſegments or ſectors, of ſuch bodies or veſſels ; and I place wiſe ſo as to perform the office of a piſton or piſtons. In fig. 18, in the centre or axis, of the circular curvature of ſuch veſſels, the ſteam enters by the pipe G, and acts againſt the valve E, and a round ſhaft or axle, paſſing through, and extending beyond one or the moveable radius or piſton C; and the ſpace AA, BB, being ex- both ends of ſuch ſteam veſſel; and I ſhut up the ends of the ſaid hauſted, the piſton revolves through it by the action of the ſteam, ſteam veſſel with ſmooth plates, which have proper apertures for and turns the axle BB. When the piſton comes to the valve E, the the ſaid axle or ſhaft to paſs through; and wichin the ſaid ſteam pipe G is fhut, and the valve E opens by turning upon the joint D, veſſel, I fix to the ſaid axle a piſton or plate extending from the and ſo permits the piſton C to paſs by it. The ſteam then ruſhes faid axle to the circular circumference of the ſteam veſſel, and into the condenſer by the pipe H, which exhauſts the ſteam veſſel. alſo extending from one end of the ſteam veſſel to the other : and I When the piſton has got to its original place, the valve E is again make the ſaid piſton ſteam tight, by ſurrounding the parts which ſhut, and the ſteam admitted through the pipe G into the ſpace be- fit to the ſteam veffel, with hemp or other ſoft ſubſtances, ſoaked tween the valve E and the piſton C. And to continue the motion in greaſe, oil, wax; or by means of ſprings made of ſteel or other during the time that the piſton is paſſing the valve, a heavy fly is folid and elaſtic or pliable materials; and to the ſaid ſteam veſſel, fixed on or connected with ſome part of the axle BB on the outſide I fix one or more plates, or diviſions, extending from the axle to of the cylinder. The outſide of this engine is nearly the ſame the circumference of the ſteam veſſel, and where theſe plates or as fig. 16; but the ſteam veſſel may be placed either vertically, as diviſions join to, or approach the axle, or where the ſaid axis paſſes drawn, or inclined or horizontally as its uſe may require. through the end plates of the ſteam veſſel, I make ſuch joinings, Fig. 19. Plate IV. is a ſection of a part of a regulator box iteam and air tight, by the means above recited. In the ſteam or nozle, which is delineated at the ſcale of an inch to each foot, veílel on each ſide of the piſton I make one or more channels, or A is a croſs ſection of a ſpindle which comes through the ſide of the apertures, for receiving and diſcharging the ſteam ; which channels box, and moves the arm or ſector B, which acts upon the rack C, I furniſh with proper valves for that purpoſe. I alſo apply to the and raiſes the regulating valve D, which is ground to fit the ſeat ſaid engine, proper condenſers, and air pumps; and the pumps EE, and is guided by the ſocket FF; GG is the pipe that leads which raiſe water, or ſuch other machinery as is required to be to the condenſer; K a cover which is opened occaſionally to rectify wrought by the ſaid engine, are put in motion, or worked by a the valve HH; and II is part of the nozle. wheel or wheels fixed to or upon the external parts of the ſaid axle, I have not deſcribed the boilers which ſupply any or all of theſe en- or by any other mechaniſm which may be ſuitable: and the engine 1 gines with ſteam, becauſe I uſe ſuch as are commonly applied to other ſo conſtructed is wrought by admitting the ſteam between the fixed ſteam-engines, or any kind of boiler which is capable of producing ſteam diviſion and the moveable piſton, and exhauſting or making a va in ſufficient quantities; neither have I deſcribed the machinery which cuum on the other ſide of the ſaid piſton, which, according to the opens and ſhuts the regulating valves, as it is ſimilar to that which is force of the ſteam, moves into the ſaid vacuum and turns the axle in common uſe, and may be varied at pleaſure. 1 That STA S T E per hour. That the reader may be the better acquainted with the powers the preſſure of the atmoſphere to find the diameter of the pump.- of ſteam engines, and with the proper dimenſions of the cylinder, Rule, Multiply half the ſquare of the cylinder’s diameter in inches &c. as ſuited to different caſes, the following problems are inſerted by the number of pounds preſſure on a ſquare inch ; divide the pro- with rules for their ſolution. In theſe ſolutions it is fuppoſed that duct by the depth in fathoms, and you will have the anſwer in the preſſure of the atmoſphere upon a ſquare inch at the earth's inches. ſurface is at a mean about 14.8 lb. avoirdupoife, that water may be Prob. XIV. Given the cylinder’s diameter, the depth, and the rarified at leaſt 14,000 times, by being reduced into ſteam, and preſſure, to find the number of gallons drawn by a ſix-feet ftroke. that the ſame may again be condenſed, as has been ſhewn, into its Rule, Multiply 6 of the ſquare of the cylinder's diameter, by the former ſtate ; that though the preſſure of the atmoſphere is about pounds that preffes on a ſquare inch ; then divide the product by 14.8 lb. upon every ſquare inch, yet through friction and other re the depth in fathoms; and you will have the anſwer in gallons. fiſtances, the piſton of a cylinder does not deſcend with a force PROB. XV. Given the hogſheads drawn per hour, the depth, above 8 or 9 lb. but for ſafety in practice it is taken at 7.64 1b. and the number of ſtrokes per minute, to find the diameter of the avoirdupoiſe, upon every ſquare inch of its ſurface; and that a cu cylinder.-Rule, Multiply 7 times the given number of hogſheads bic foot of water weighs about 62.5 lb. avoirdupoiſe. by the depth in fathoms ; divide the product by the number of PROB. I. To determine the diameter of the cylinder to work å ſtrokes, and you will have the anſwer in inches. pump of a given diameter, and from a given depth.-Rule, Mul PROB. XVI. Given the hogſheads per hour, the number of tiply the ſquare of the pump’s diameter in inches by of the depth ſtrokes in a minute to find the diameter of the pump. Rule, of the pit in fathoms, and the ſquare root of the product will be Multiply the given number of hogſheads by 21; divide the product the diameter of the cylinder in inches : thus, let the diameter of the by the number of Itrokes, and the quotient will be the anfwer in pump be 12 inches, and the depth of the pit 30 fathoms : then the inches. required diameter of the cylinder will be found equal to 38 inches. PROB. XVII. Given the diameter of the cylinder, the depth, PROP. II. To find the diameter of the pump, that a cylinder of the number of ſtrokes per minute, and the preffure of the atmo- a given diameter can work at a given depth. --Rule, Divide thrice ſphere, to determine the hogſheads drawn per hour.-Rule, Mul- the ſquare of the cylinder's diameter in inches, by the depth of the tiply twice the ſquare of the cylinder's diameter in inches, the num- pit in fathoms : the ſquare root of the quotient will be the anſwer ber of ſtrokes per minute, and the number of pounds that preffes in inches : thus, if the diameter of the cylinder be 38 inches, and upon each ſquare inch into one product ; divide that product by 21 the depth 30 fathoms, the diameter of the pump will, by this rule, times the depth in fathoms, and you will have the hogſheads drawn be found to be 12 inches PROB. III. To find the depth from which a pump of a given PROB. XVIII. Given the cylinders diameter, the depth, the hogs- diameter will work, by means of a cylinder of a given diameter. heads drawn per hour, and the preffure of the atmoſphere to find Rule, Divide thrice the ſquare of the cylinder’s diameter in inches, the number of ſtrokes per minute. Rule, Multiply 21 times the by the ſquare of the pump's diameter in inches, and the quotient depth in fathoms, by the number of hogſheads drawn per hour, then will be the anſwer. If the diameter of the cylinder be 36 inches, multiply twice the ſquare of the cylinder’s diameter in inches, by and that of the pump 10 inches, then the depth correſponding will the pounds that preſſes on each ſquare inch ; divide the former pro be 39 fathoms. duct by the latter, and the quotient will be the anſwer. PROB. IV. To determine the preſſure of the atmoſphere on a PROB. XIX. Given the number of gallons drawn by a ſtroke cylinder of a given diameter, which works a pump of a given dia of any given length to determine the diameter of the pump. meter at a given depth. --Rule, Multiply twice the ſquare of the Rule, Divide 3 times the given number of gallons by já the length pump’s diameter in inches by the depth of the pit in fathoms; di of the ſtroke in feet, and the quotient will be the anſwer in inches. vide the product by the ſquare of the cylinder’s diameter in inches, Prob. XX. Having given the diameter of the pump, and the and the quotient will be the preſſure in pounds on an inch ſquare. length of the ſtroke to find the number of gallons drawn at each When the diameter of the cylinder is 36 inches, that of the pump ſtroke. ---Rule, Multiply the ſquare of the pump's diameter in 10 inches, and the depth 39 fathoms, it will be found that the inches, by the length of the ſtroke in feet; divide the product by 30, preſſure upon an inch ſquare will be 6 lb. and you will have the gallons required. Prob. V. To determine the hogſheads delivered per hour by a More problems of this kind might be given, but it is apprehend- pump of a given diameter, which makes a given number of itrokes ed that theſe are of the moſt general uſe, and are ſufficient to con- in a minute.—Rule, Multiply 4 times the ſquare of the pump's vey a proper knowledge of the different powers of ſteam engines, diameter in inches, by the number of ſtrokes per minute ; divide according to the different ſizes of the cylinders and pumps, &c. the product by 21, and the quotient will be the number of hogs any one well verſed in the operations of theſe problems cannot be heads required. Thus, if the diameter of the pump be 16 inches; at a loſs in any other. and the number of ſtrokes made each minute be 12; then it will In the deſcription of this machine, we have exceeded the general be found that the hogſheads diſcharged in an hour are 585. ceconomy of our plan ; but as the improvement of the Engine is Prob. VI. To determine the number of ſtrokes per minute that an invention of ſuch a highly important nature, and as there has an engine muſt make to raiſe a given number of hogſheads per not been a deſcription of it, or plates given to reprefent it in any hour by a pump of a given diameter.-Rule, Multiply the given other Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, or in any other work what- number of hogſheads per hour by 21 ; divide the product by four ever, it is preſumed that the readers will not deem the ſpace it oc- times the ſquare of the pump's diameter in inches, and the quotient cupies miſapplied. will be the number of ſtrokes made each minute. If it be required STEEL, is an iron reduced or converted by art to a particular to raiſe 585 hogſheads per hour, by a 16 inch pump, it will be found ſtate, which occafions ſome changes in its properties ; though theſe that the number of ſtrokes per minute muſt be 12. are eſſentially the ſame as thoſe of iron. Stahl, Cramer, and all PROB. VII. To determine the number of gallons drawn at a good chymiſts, juſtly conſider ſteel as an improved iron, poffefſing ſix-feet ſtroke by a pump of given diameters.-Rule, Multiply a larger quantity of the inflammable principle, ſo neceſſary to all me- the ſquare of the pump’s diameter in inches, by 2, and the product tals, and containing fewer heterogeneous, and more metallic parts will be the anſwer. than an equal bulk of iron. PROB. VIII. Having given the number of gallons drawn by a Steel may be made by fuſion or by cementation. The firſt ſtroke of fix feet; and the depth of the pit in fathoms to determine method is uſed to convert iron into ſteel immediately from the ore. the diameter of the cylinder.-Rule, Multiply five times the All ores of iron are not uſed indifferently for this purpoſe ; becauſe number of gallons drawn at a ſtroke by the depth in fathoms; ex fome of theſe, which are therefore called ores of ſteel, are much tract the ſquare of 'of the product, and you will have the anſwer fitter than others for affording good ſteal ; and the ſteel extracted in inches. from them is called natural ſteel. But though ſteel is made fome- PROB. IX. Having given the number of gallons drawn by a times directly from the ore, it is more frequently produced from fix-feet ſtroke, to determine the diameter of the pump.-Rule, The crude or caſt-iron. Theſe methods of making ſteel are not known ſquare root of 5 times the given number of gallons will be the an in England, but are practiſed in Sweden and other parts of Europe. ſwer in inches. There is another kind of ſteel, beſides thoſe which are produced PROB. X. Given the diameter of the cylinder, and the depth of from the ore and caſt-iron, or from the forged iron, which is ob- the pit to find the number of gallons drawn at a ſtroke of ſix feet. tained by remelting bar-ſteel in crucibles, and caſting it into ingots. Rule, Divide the ſquare of the cylinder’s diameter in inches by the This, which is of modern diſcovery, is called caſt-ſteel, and being given number of fathoms; then three-fifths of the quotient will be more uniform and ſimilar in all its parts than any other fort of the anſwer in gallons. ſteel, is fitter for being wrought into the finer kinds of utenſils for Prob. XI. Given the diameter of the pump, and the number which ſteel is employed. of hogſheads drawn per hour, to find the number of ſtrokes that By converſion of iron into ſteel, this metal acquires a darker and can be made per minute.-Rule, Multiply the number of hogſheads browner colour, a cloſer, more compact, and finer grained texture, drawn per hour by 21; divide the product by 4 times the ſquare of greater hardneſs, elaſticity, tenacity, denſity, ſonorouſneſs, and dif- the pump’s diameter in inches, and you will have the anſwer. poſition to receive the magnetic property. Beſides, ſteel is much PROB. XII. Given the diameter of the pump, the depth, and the inore fuſible than iron, on account of the greater quantity of phlo- preſſure of the atmoſphere to find the diameter of the cylinder.- giſton united with it; as phlogiſton is known to be, in general, Rule, Multiply twice the ſquare of the pump’s diameter in inches, the cauſe of the fuſibility of metals. Indeed foft forged iron can by the depth in fathoms; divide by the number of pounds preſſure ſcarcely, without addition, be brought into perfect fufion by the heat en a ſquare inch, and the quotient will be the anſwer in inches. of our furnaces, till the fuel has converted it into ſteel. If ſteel, Prob. XIII. Given the diameter of the cylinder, the depth, and after the tempering, be found too hard, there is a very familiar way Panel Waris Paseny Sramngive, arrozoling wo the laten Improvements. 6 Fig. 1. 7. R Х Q X 6. P R T S 6 D 5 1 T В. V G V B 7. F I 5 K S This figure is delineated on a Scale, of one fourth of an Inch 10 each foot of the real size of the Machine. Engraved for the New Envelopædia, l Published as the Ict directs, by C.coske,1,Paternoster Ron July 1795. Lodge seule Llate 2 Wani Paten Sram Congine, toronding to the latest Wimprovements. 9 8 Fig. 2. Q R Z Х 10 W 5 T U 4 KOHA 13 3 HT 8 P 9 N P 0 10 1 6 8 C HITTA TIMMTUMLINTU 10 10 7 B E I N 8 G 1 Tuun! mu This ligure is delineated on a sente, of one fourth of an Inch to each Foot, of the real size of the Machine. Lodge Enarmed for the New Enaclopædial Published as the Ict itirecto, or C toohe, 1.47, Paternoster Row. Fuity £1795- Witis butoa Siram ngine:awwinding to the laicu Sepse moratis, Fig: 9. VOL. Fig: 4. Fig: 3 R M L В B. B В A D C K D М. E Ε. B I Fig: 6. Fig. 7 E A K G M C Fig: 10. Fig. 5. C F | В B. D F Fig. 9. N° 2. Fig: 8. 28 F B E The figures on this Plate, are delineated on a scale of one Sixth of an Inch to each Foot, of the real size of the Machine'. Tinatanud vor the New Emreopaudia Published on the lotitiw birooke, 1:27. Paternoster Row. July z4795. Lodge soulp. ilaris Pateri Sivamengine, arvinding wthio' lavest Improvements. N°1 Fig.14. Fig. 12. Fig. 13 8 B NO2 CA MUNDO MI 0.83 0.714 0.625 25 பாயயா 10 0.555 0.500 10.+5+ 12 0.417 13 10.385 14 M 15 0.357 P/0,333 0.312 16 G 0.294 18 0.277 19 0.262 M M 20 0.250 L Fig. 19, Fig 17 U Fig. 1 3 G G Fig.15. A E E Fig. 1 1 S Fig.11. R R T T W A B HOME U E F S M H B А P P B B A A А Figure 12 in this Plate is delineated on a Scale of half u Inch for each Foot of the real size of the Machine Figure 19, on a Scale of an Inch to each foot, and Fiques 11,13,14, 15, 16, 17 and 18, one fourth of an Inch to each foot. Engrard for the New Endopardia, i Iublished as the la directs, in C. Cooke 1977, Paternoster Row.July 2795. Lodoo soup S TE STI CIPHERING. of bringing it back to what ſtate one pleaſes, between that and iron, local debility of the genital ſyſtem; by which means, the parts have which is only the heating it in the fire; for it may be kept in the ing loſt their tone or contractile power, the ſemen is thrown off im- fire ſo long as to be reduced wholly to iron again. It is eaſy to mediately poſt coitum :--from imperforation of the vagina, the infer from hence, what was before obſerved, that caſt iron is ſteel uterus, or the tubæ : or from diſeaſed ovas, &c. Hence medical of a peculiar kind; its properties plainly evince, that it is ſteel with an treatment can only avail in caſes ariſing from topical or univerſal over proportion of all that makes it ſo, and conſequently of all its debility : in correcting irregularities of the menſtrual flux, or in properties. It is not malleable, is very brittle, and too hard for removing tumours, ciatrices, or conſtrictions of the paſſage, by the the file, or any other tool, to cut. Theſe are the qualities of ſteel art of ſurgery. which is over tempered, or, as it may be called, too much ſteel; it STERN of a Ship, denotes her poſterior face; or that part owes theſe qualities to its being overcharged with thoſe fulphurs which is preſented to the view of a ſpectator, placed on the conti- and ſalts, which in a due proportion make ſteel of iron. nuation of the keel behind. For repreſentation of a ſtern view, Annealing or Nealing of STEEL, is by ſome uſed for the foften- &c. of a ſhip of the line, ſee the Treatiſe on Naval Affairs, Sect. IV. ing it, in order to make it work eaſier ; which is uſually done by and the Plate annexed. giving it a blood red heat in the fire, and then taking it out, and STERN-Poſt, in a ſhip, a great timber let into the keel, at the letting it cool of itſelf. Steel may indeed be made a little ſofter ſtern of a ſhip, fomewhat ſloping, into which are faſtened, the after- than in the common way, by covering it with coarſe powder of cow planks; and on this poſt, by its pintle and gudgeon, hangs the rud- horn, or hoofs ; thus encloſing it in a loam, heating the whole in der. For a geometrical delineation of the dimenſions of the ſtern- a wood-fire till it be red-hot, and then leaving the fire to go out of poſt of a ſhip of the line, ſee Sect. IV, the Plate annexed. itſelf, and then the ſteel to cool. cho STERNOHYOIDEUS, in anatomy, is a long, thin, flat muſ- STEEL YARD, in mechanics, a kind of balance, by means cle, broader at the lower than the upper part, and is ſituated, toge- whereof, the gravities of different bodies are found by the uſe of ther with its fellow, on the foreſide of the throat. For its origin, one weight. For its conſtruction and uſes, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. III. inſertion, and uſe, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Table of Muſcles, Art. IX. For repreſentation, ſee Plate III. fig. 1. STERNOTHYROIDEUS, in anatomy, a pair of muſcles of STEERING, in navigation, the art of directing a ſhip’s way the larynx ; ariſing in the fternum, .or breaſt-bone, and termiña- from one place to another, by means of the helm and rudder, or of ting in the cartilago thyroides. For its origin, inſertion, and uſe, applying the efforts of the helm to regulate her courſe when ſhe ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Table of Muſcles, Art. IX. st. advances. He is held the beſt ſteerſman, who uſes the leaſt motion STERNUM, Ezequov, in anatomy, the breaſt-bone, a cartilagi- in putting the helm over to and again, and who keeps the ſhip beſt nous fort of bone, which makes the fore-part of the breaſt, and into from making yaws; that is, from running in and out. which the ribs are fitted. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. III. Art.2 STEGANOGRAPHY, Eteyuvoypa Dias formed of çeyuVOS, 1 fig. 1. letter a. DOO ſecret, and youDw, I write, the art of ſecret writing, or of writing STERNUTATIVE, or STERNUTATORY, a medicine proper in ciphers; known only to the perſons correſponding. See De to produce ſneezing. Sternutatives, alſo called Ptarinics, are of two kinds, gentle and violent. Of the firſt kind are betany, ſage, STEM, in botany, that part of a plant ariſing out of the root, marjoram, tobacco, and the whole faſhionable tribe of ſnuffs. Of and which ſuſtains the leaves, flowers, and fruits. See the Syſtem, the latter kind are euphorbium, white hellebore, pellitory, &c. Sect. II. and Plate II. Sternutatives operate by their ſharp pungent parts vellicating the STEM of a Ship, is a circular piece of timber, into which her two inner membrane of the noſe, which is exceedingly ſenſible, and oc- fides are united at the fore-end ; the lower end of it is ſcarfed to the cafioning the ferous inatter contained in the gland of the noſe, and keel ; and the bowſprit reſts upon its upper end. See Treatiſe on in ſeveral ſinuſes ſituate in the baſe of the cranium, and the os fron- Naval Affairs, Part II. Sect. IV. and the Plate annexed. tis, to be expelled. STENOGRAPHY, from 5Tɛvos, anguftus, and ypapy, writing ; STEWS, or Stues, were places, anciently permitted in the art of quick or ſnort-writing. There have been various kinds England, to women of profeſſed incontinency, for the proffer of of ſtenography invented : among the Romans, there were certain their bodies to all comers. Theſe were under particular rules and notes uſed, each whereof fignified a word. In France, &c. the laws of diſcipline, appointed by the lord of the manor. The word only ſtenography uſed is, the retrenching of letters, or even whole is probably borrowed from the French, eſtuves, hot baths, in regard fyllables of words: as in ſdm for ſecundum, aut for autem, d for ſed, proſtitutes are wont to prepare themſelves for venereal acts by o for non, participaon for participation, &c. The firſt printers imi bathing; and hot baths were, by Homer, reckoned among the ef- tated theſe abbreviations : but at preſent they are almoſt laid aſide, feminate ſorts of pleaſure. The ſtews were ſuppreffed by king except among fcriveners, &c. In England we have great variety Henry VIII. about the year 1546. do of methods of ſtenography, or ſhort-hand ; more by far, and thoſe STEWARD, or SENESCHAL, an officer, whereof there are va- too, much better, eaſier, ſpeedier, and more commodious, than what rious kinds ; thus called from the Saxon ſteda, ſtead, place or room ; are known in any other part of the world ; witneſs Shelton's, and ward, keeper, q. d. a deputy, or perſon, appointed in the place Wallis's, Rich's Maſon's Webſter's Weſton's, Macaulay's, of another. Annet's, Gurney's, Lyle's, and ſeveral other ſhort-hands. The Lord High STEWARD of Great Britain, is the firſt and higheſt moſt effential properties of ſhort-hand writing are expedition, and officer of the crown ; as having the power of what we call vice-roy. legibility. Any ſcheme which does not poſſeſs a ſufficient degree Common lawyers call him magus Anglic ſeneſchallus. His office, of the firſt, has no title to the name of ſhort-hand, and if the laſt as expreſſed in an ancient record, is to ſuperviſe and regulate the is wanting, let the method in other reſpects be what it will, it can whole kingdom, both in time of peace and war, immediately under not anſwer any uſeful purpoſe. the king, and after him ; an authority ſo very great, that it has STEREOGRAPHIC Projection of the Sphere, is that wherein not been judged ſafe to truſt it any longer in the hands of a ſub- the eye is ſuppoſed to be placed in the ſurface of the ſphere. Stereo- ject. The office was hereditary and permanent in the family of graphic projection is, the projection of the circles of the ſphere on the dukes of Lancaſter, till the time of Henry IV. ſince whom it the plane of ſome one great circle ; the eye being ſuppoſed placed has only been made pro hac vice, occaſionally: as to officiate at a in the pole of that circle. coronation ; at the arraignment and trial of fome nobleman for trea- STEREOGRAPHIC Projetion on the Plane of the Meridian. See fon, or other great crimes. And it hath been the conſtant practice the Syſtem of AstroNOMY, Sect. IX. Problem I. and Plate IV. (and therefore ſeems now to have become neceſſary) to grant it to Fig. 1. lord of parliament elſe he is not capable of trying ſuch delinquent STEREOGRAPHIC Projection on the Plane of the Equinoctial. peer. While he holds his office, he bears, a white ſtaff in his hand, See Sect. IX. Problem III. and Plate IV. Fig. 3. and the trial, &c. ended, he breaks his ſtaff, and with it his commif- STEREOGRAPHIC Proje£tion on the Plane of the Horizon. See fion expires. During the ſeſſion of parliament, the trial of an in- Sect. IX. Problem II. and Plate IV. Fig. 2.3 dicted peer is not properly in the court of the lord-high-ſteward, STEREOGRAPHIC Projection on the Plane of the Ecliptic. See but before the court of our lord the king in parliament. In this Sect. IX. Problem IV. and Plate IV. Fig. 4. caſe, however, a lord-high-ſteward is always appainted to regulate STEREOMETRY, ETEPEOPLETPIC, formed of sepeos, ſolid, and and add weight to the proceedings : but he is rather in the nature PLETPov, meaſure, that part of geometry which teaches how to mea of a ſpeaker, pro tempore, or chairman of the court, than the judge fure folid bodies, i.e. to find the folidity, or ſolid contents of bodies; of it; for the collective body of the peers are therein the judges as globes, cylinders, cubes, veſſels, ſhips, &c. he both of law and fact, and the high-ſteward has a vote with the relt, STERILITY, formed from fterilitas, of ſterilis, barren, the in right of his peerage But in the court of the lord-high-ſteward, quality of a thing that is barren; in oppoſition to fecundity. Steri which is held in the receſs of parliament, he is the fole judge in lity was held a grievous affliction by the wives of the ancient pa matters of law, as the lords triers are in matters of fact; and as triarchs. Nature has annexed fterility to all monſtrous productions, they may not interfere with him in regulating the proceedings of that the creation might not degenerate. Hence the ſterility of the court, ſo he has no right to intermix with them in giving any mules, &c. Sterility in women ſometimes happens from a miſcar vote upon the trial. Blackft . Com. book iv. p. 260. riage, or violent labour injuring ſome of the genital parts; Lord STEWARD of the Houſhold, is an officer to whom the ſtate of the moſt frequent cauſes is the ſuppreſſion of the menſtrual flux. of the king's houſe is committed, to be ruled and guided at his diſ- There are other cauſes, ariſing from various diſeaſes incident to cretion. thoſe parts; by which the uterus may be unfit to receive or retain STIGMA, among botaniſls, is the ſummit of the piſil, covered the male ſeed; -- from the tubæ fallopianæ being too ſhort, or hav with a moiſture for the breaking of the pollen. See the Syſtem, ing loſt their erective power ; in either of which caſes no concep- Sect. II. and Plate III. tion can take place ; from univerſal debility and relaxation ; or a STIGMATA, in natural hiſtory, the apertures in different parts 141. * of - a but one Nº 4 N STO S TO the ſediment of the urine ſubfide of the bodies of infects communicating with the trachex, or air- See alſo Plate XII. and XIII. with the explanation of them under the ſame article, veſſels, and ſerving for the office of reſpiration. Nature has given to theſe minute animals a much larger number of tracheæ and STONES, in Natural Hiſtory, are defined to be eſſentially com- bronchia, than to us. We have the rarnifications of the trachea pound foffils, not inflammable, nor ſoluble in water or oil, nor at all ductile; found in continued ſtrata, or beds, of great extent ; reaching no farther than into the breaſt, whereas, in the bodies of theſe infects, we find them extended through the whole, and finely formed either of a congeries of finall particles, in fome degree re- We have but one and admirably interlaced with one another. ſembling fand, and lodged in a ſmoother cementitious matter ; or mouth to reſpire by ; and the organization of the parts, conducive elſe of this cementitious matter, and the grit or fand-like particles to reſpiration, is very admirable in us; but in the inſect claſs, the running together into one finooth maſs ; or, finally, of granules co- mouths or openings to breathe at, are much more numerous, and hering by contact , without any ceinentitious matter among them ; the organization much more complex. See the Syſtem of Com or compoſed of chryſtal or ſpar, uſually debaſed by earth, and often PARATIVE ANATOWY, Chap. IV. mixed with talc, and other extraneous particles. They are formed STIMULATING, a property in angular or ſharp bodies, by ſucceſſion of time, in the body of the earth, by earthy particles, whereby they velicate, and cauſe vibrations and inflections of the which, in approaching to one another, acquire various degrees of fibres of the nerves, and a great derivation of nervous Auid into connection and union. Bodies of this kind are infinitely various, the parts affected. Stimulants produce pain, heat, redneſs, &c. according to their different conſiſtence, colour, form, and other pro- They may be reduced to violent penetrating depilatories, gentle perties. Stones are of various kinds, with regard to the place they ſinapiſms, veſicatories, and cauſtics. are produced in; the moſt common are formed under ground; STING, aculeus, an apparatus in the body of certain inſects, in others in the bodies of men, and other animals; others ſeem to be form of a little ſpear, ſerving them as a weapon of offence. The generated by the ſea, as pumice, &c. and others to be the effect of ſting of a bee, or waſp, is a curious piece of mechaniſm ; it conſiſts a petrifying virtue in certain waters. Of theſe, ſome ſerve fimply of a hollow tube, at the root whereof is a bag full of iharp penetrat for magnificence and ornament: as all thoſe called, precious ing juice, which, in ſtinging, is injected into the fleſh through the ſtones, which make the commerce of lapidaries and jewellers. tube. Within the tube, Dr. Derham has obſerved, there lie two Much the greateſt quantity, and thoſe too of the moſt immediate ſmall ſharp bearded ſpears; in the iting of a waſp, he told eight and common uſe, are thoſe employed in building ; fuch as free- beards on the ſide of each ſpear, ſomewhat like the beards of filh- ſtone, marble, lime-fone, fire-ſtone, &c. hooks. By means of theſe beards it is, that the animal is forced STONE, in Medicine, is the denomination of a diſeaſe, called to leave its ſting behind it, when diſturbed, before it can have time alſo calculus, lithiaſis, and nephritis. It conſiſts of a ſtony concretion, to withdraw the ſpears into their ſcabbard. Sed formed either in the bladder, in which caſe it is called LITHIASIS; STOCK, in Gardening, the ſtem or trunk of a tree. What or, in the kidneys, when it is denominated NEPHRITIS ; (ſee the ſtock is moſt proper for each kind of fruit, ought as well to be con Syſtem, Genus 18 and 79) which prevents the diſcharge of urine ſidered and known, as what foil is moſt ſuitable to trees; for on and occaſions violent pains. The ſtone, Etmuller ſays, is not a thoſe two things the future vigour of trees, and the goodneſs of fruit diſeaſe, but the product of a diſeaſe : the diſeaſe, properly, is the equally depend. For full directions on this ſubject, ſee the Syſtem, | lithiaſis, or the diſpoſition of the kidneys and bladder to generate Part II. under the head of Fruit-Garden, month of February. ſtones. When ſmall ſtones are lodged in the kidneys or diſcharged STOCK- Jobbing, denotes the practice of trafficking in the pub- along with the urine, the diſorder is called the GRAVEL ; but if lic funds, or of buying and ſelling ſtock with a view to its riſe and one of theſe ſtones happens to make a lodgment in the kidneys, or fall. This term is commonly applied to the illegal practice of buy in the bladder, for ſome time, ſo as to accumulate freſh matter, and ing and ſelling ſtock for time, or of accounting for the differences become too large to paſs off with the urine, or if it paſſes from the in the riſe or fall of any particular ſtock for a ſtipulated time, whe kidneys, and obſtructs the ureter, or paſſes with great difficulty, ther the buyer or ſeller be poſſeſſed of any ſuch real ſtock or not. the patient is ſaid to have the ſtone. By a fit of the gravel or ſtone, STOICS, afect of ancient philoſophers, the followers of Zeno; are underſtood the pain and other ſymptoms that uſually attend thus called from the Greek OTOM, portico, in regard Zeno uſed to ſtoney concretions in the kidneys, &c. eſpecially when nature makes teach under a portico or piazza. One of his chief followers was an effort for their diſcharge. The ſtone and gravel may be Cleanthes, who was ſucceeded by Chryfippus, and he by Diogenes fioned by high living ; the uſe of ſtrong aſtringent wines; a feden-- Babylonius, Antipater, Panætius, and Pofidonius, among the tary life; lying too hot, too ſoft, or too much on the back; the Greeks; and by Cato, Varro, Cicero, Seneca, the emperor Anto conſtant uſe of water, impregnated with earthy or ſtony particles ; nius, &c. among the Romans : and by Pantenus and Clemens Alex aliments of an aſtringent or windy nature, &c. Theſe diſorders andrinus, among the Chriſtians. And the chief reſtorers of the may likewiſe ſometimes proceed from an hereditary diſpoſition. ſtoic philoſophy among the moderns were, Juſtus Lipſius, Sciop Perſons in the decline of life, and thoſe who have been much af- pius, Heinſius, and Gataker. The ſtoics cultivated logic, phyſics, flicted with the gout and rheumatiſm, are moſt ſubject to them. metaphyſics, &c. but chiefly ethics. As for the morality of the The ſtone is generated, according to ſome authors, of the earthy Stoics, it was couched much in paradoxes ; as, that a wiſe man is viſcid parts of the blood, hardened, in courſe of time, by the heat void of all paſſion or perturbation of mind ; that pain is no real of the kidneys ; much after the manner as brick is baked in a evil ; but that a wiſe man is happy in the midſt of the fevereſt tor kiln. Dr. Quincy ſuppoſes it generated of the harder parts of the ture ; that a wiſe man is always the ſame, and always joyful; that urine, pent up by the ſtraitneſs of the ducts, and brought into con- none but a wiſe man is free; all others are flaves : that none but tact and coheſion. Etmuller aſcribes the ſtone, ſometimes to the a wiſe man is rich : that none but a wife marr ought to be itony and metallic particles of our foods and drinks, which the eſteemed a king, magiſtrate, poet, or philofopher : that all wiſe men reins, through weakneſs and relaxation thereof, cannot eject; but are great: that all things are a wiſe man’s, who is contented with more uſually to the unequal ſtrength of the kidneys, whence it is himſelf: that wiſe men are the only friends, and the only lovers : that we ſee one kidney often breeds ſtones, the other remaining that nothing ever happens to a wiſe man beyond expectation: that found. The matter of the ſtone in the bladder is firſt formed in the all virtues are inviolably connected together : that all good things pelvis of the kidneys; whence falling into the bladder, it becomes are equal, and equally to be deſired ; and that goodneſs admits of augmented by new lamellæ or coats. Dr. Mead ſeems to think, no increaſe or diminution. They owned but one God, whom, that the proximate cauſe of this diſeaſe is a tartarous ſalt, conveyed however, they called by various names, as Mind, Fate, Jupiter, out of the blood into the ſmall ducts of the kidneys, for it is the &c. by which they did not mean various things; but various powers nature of theſe falts to contain a conſiderable quantity of that ſubtile and relations of the ſame things. Providence they expreſſed under matter which Newton has ſhewn to be the cauſe of the coheſion of the name of Fate, which Chryfippus defines to be a natural feries or bodies. Thus, the calculus is a ſubſtance compoſed of earth and a compoſition of things mutually following each other, by an immu very large ſhare of air concreted in the renal ducts; and either table nexus, or tie, fixed from all eternity ; and which fome have mains therein, or drops down into the urinary bladder. Dr. ſuppoſed to be different from what is now called abſolute fatality, Hales found, by diſtilling a human calculus in an iron retort, that and not altogether inconſiſtent with free agency, Laſtly, they held half of it was raiſed by the action of the fire into elaſtic air. Theſe that the human ſoul ſurvived the body. See PHILOSOPHY. particles of air, which are combined in it, in an unelaſtic ſtate, are STOMACH, OTOL.C.XOS, in Anatomy, a hollow membraneous, firmly united together by ſulphur and falt; the proportion of caput organical part of the human ſyſtem, deſtined to receive the food mortuum, or earth, being very ſmall. And Mr. Boyle found after deglutition, and to convert it into chyle. See Syſtem of ANA in ſuch a calculus, a conſiderable quantity of volatile falt, with TOMY, Part III. Sect. III. and Plate V. For deſcription of the fome oil. peculiar formation of this part, in quadrupeds, birds, and fiſhes, The diagnoſtic ſigns of the ſtone in the kidneys, are, I, a fixed ob- ſee Syſtem of Comparative Anatomy, under their reſpective heads. tuſe pain in the region of the loins, ſeeming like a weight loading STOMACHIC, a medicine that ſtrengthens the ſtomach, and the reins, accompanied with coſtiveneſs and Hatulency, ſickneſs, and promotes the office of digeſtion. Of this kind are wormwood, rhu ſometimes vomiting. As the ſtone falls out of the pelvis into the barb, mint, maftic, aloes, pepper, cinnamon, and aromatic bitters, ureter, the pain is exceedingly acute and racking, which continues good wine is alſo a ſtomachic. till either the ſtone be got into the bladder, or returned again to the Stomachic, in Anatomy, is applied to the arteries, veins, &c. pelvis. 2. An inflexibility of the ſpina dorſi, from the extenſion of the ſtomach, called alſo gaſtric. The ſtomachic veins terminate and compreſſion of the nerves. 3. A ftupor of the thigh and leg in the trunk of the vena porta, and the ſplenic vein. The ſtoma of that fide, from the conſent of parts. 4. A retraction of the chic arteries ariſe from the cæliac. The ftomachic nerves come teſticles. 5. A very ſmall quantity of urine, diſcharged frequently, from the eighth pair. See the Syſtem, Part V. Sect. II. and Part IV. and with difficulty, either thin and limpid, or bloody ; in this caſe Sect. I. and II. For repreſentation, ſee Plate XI. fig. 3, 4, 5 and 10. Occa. re- is S TO S TR w is got into the bladder, the urine becomes thick, turbid, blackiſh, for ſhelter into their bodies. Thus the opoffum, Dr. Tyſon obe and in great quantity. ſerves, has a curious bag on purpoſe for the ſecuring and carrying The diagnoſtics of the ſtone in the bladder, are, a ſenſe of heavineſs about her young. The ſame author adds, from Oppian, that the in the perinæum, and inguinal region, a perpetual and troubleſome dog-fiſh, upon any ſtorm or danger, receives her young into her defire of making water, which is preceded and followed with a ſharp belly, which come out again when the fright is over. And it is pain, and an itching, principally in the glans of the penis, whence ſaid the ſquatina and glaucus do the like. With what tenderneſs a prolapſus of the anus ; and an inclination to go to ſtool during the do others ſeek and prepare the food for their young, teach them to diſcharge of urine; the urine's coming away by drops, or ſtopping fuck, cheriſh, or lull them to reſt, &c. like ſo many nurſes, deputed ſuddenly when it was running in full ſtream ; the patient's palling by the Creator to take care of his creatures! and ſtill in proportion, the urine more eaſily when lying than in an erect poſture; a kind as they grow up, and become fit to look to themſelves, this ſtorgé of convulſive motion occaſioned by the ſharp pain in diſcharging abates; and, at length, when no longer needed, becomes extinct, the laſt drops of the urine; a white, thick, copious, ſtinking, mu- See INSTINCT. cous ſediment in the urine; and a violent pain in the neck of the STORK, ciconia, in Ornithology, a ſpecies of the genus Ardea. bladder upon motion, eſpecially on horſeback, or in a coach on a For deſcription of the Genus, ſee ARDEA. rough road. STRAIT, in Geography, a narrow channel or arm of the ſea, As to the regimen proper to be obſerved by perſons afflicted with ſhut up between lands on either ſide, and affording a paſſage out of the ſtone or gravel, they ſhould avoid aliments of a windy or heating one great ſea into another. There are ſeveral kinds of ſtraits, as nature, as falt meats, four fruits, &c. Their diet ſhould be light the Straits of Gibraltar, Magellan, Babelmandel, Caffa, &c. but and eaſy of digeſtion, and conſiſt chiefly of ſuch things as tend to the moſt celebrated of theſe, and indeed of the whole world is that promote the ſecretion of urine, and to keep the body open. Arti of Gibraltar, which is about one hundred and thirty miles long, and chokes, aſparagus, ſpinach, lettuce, parſley, ſuccory, purſlane, tur twelve broad, joining the Mediterranean ſea with the Atlantic neps, potatoes, carrots, and radiſhes, may be eaten with ſafety; ocean. The Straits of Magellan, diſcovered in 1520, by F. Ma- onions, leeks, and celery, are reckoned medicinal. Dr. Hales ob gellan, were uſed ſome time, as a paſſage out of the North into the ſerves, that onion-juice ſeems to have conſiderable efficacy in dif South Sea; but ſince the year 1616, that the ſtrait of Le Maire has ſolving the calculus ; and where frequently eaten, ſhould, if not been diſcovered, the former has been diſuſed : both becauſe of its waſte, at leaſt prevent its increaſe. Dr. Lobb found leeks more length, which is full three hundred miles, and becauſe the navi- effectual folvents than onions. The moſt proper drinks are whey, gation thereof is very dangerous, from the waves of the North and butter-milk, milk and water, barley-water, decoctions, or infuſions South Seas meeting herein, and claſhing. The ſtrait at the entrance of the roots of marſhmallows, parſley, HeaTH, liquorice, or of of the Baltic is called the SOUND. Strait is alſo uſed in geography, other mild mucilaginous vegetables, as linſeed, &c. Pitcairn re for an iſthmus or neck of land between two ſeas; preventing the commends the uſe of milk for common drink, in the ſtone, with communication thereof. barley-water and a little ſugar. He adds, that he cannot give any STANGURY, spayisple, formed from spaye, gutta, drop, spov, better reaſon why milk is ſerviceable to nephritics than becauſe the urine, in medicine, a diſeaſe, occaſioning a frequent and involuntary fame is always found ſerviceable to gouty perſons. The ſymptoms emillion of urine, in very ſmall quantities, and, as it were drop by of both diſeaſes are the fame, excepting what relates to the parts drop, with an intenſe pain. Some authors confound the ſtrangury, affected. If the patient has been accuſtomed to generous liquors, he which the Latins call urinæftillicidium with the urine incontinentia. may drink ſmall gin and water without acid. Dr. Mead allows The difference between them conſiſts in this, that in the former, either ſmall wine and water, or new ſoft ale ; which, he ſays, will the urine comes away with pain ; in the latter, without pain. The be rendered better and wholſomer, if ground-ivy leaves be infuſed former proceeds from the acrimony of the urine; and the latter in it, while it is working : mead is likewiſe a proper drink, for from a relaxation or pally of the ſphincter of the bladder, which honey is an excellent diuretic. A ſpoonful alſo of honey in a glaſs cannot keep the neck thereof cloſe ihut. By this word is generally or two of the infuſion of marſhmallow roots is an admirable cleanſer underſtood the three ſeveral complaints called by phyſicians ſtran- of the kidneys, if conſtantly uſed. The wines ought to be the gury, dyfury, and iſchury. See the Syſtem, Genus 78 and 79. ſofteſt and ſmootheſt that can be had, and the lighteſt, cleareſt river STRATA, in Natural Hiſtory, the ſeveral beds or layers of differ- or running water is preferable to any other, except ſuch as abound ent matters whereof the earth is compofed. The ſtrata whereof with fixed air, and may be taken medicinally. Out of the fit, the the earth is compoſed are fo very different in different countries, patient ſhould uſe moderate exerciſe, without fatigue, or any vioa that it is impoſſible to ſay anything concerning them, that they may lent motion, which is apt to occaſion bloody urine. Indeed perſons be generally applicable : and indeed the depths to which we can affli&ted with gravel often paſs a great number of ſtones after riding penetrate are ſo ſmall, that only a very few can be known to us at on hor -back, or in a carriage, but thoſe who have a ſtone in the any rate; thoſe that lie near the centre, or even a great way from bladder cannot bear ſuch exerciſe. Perſons who have an hereditary it, being for ever hid. The reaſon why we cannot penetrate to any tendency to this diſeaſe, ſhould never indulgethemſelves in a ſeden great depth is, that as we go down, the air becomes foul, loaded with tary life. Much depends, in the way of prevention, when the firſt pernicious vapours, inflammable air, fixed air, &c. which deſtroy fymptoms of gravel, &c. appear, on a proper regimen of diet, and the miners, and there is no poſſibility of going on. In many places, the uſe of ſufficient exerciſe. In a fit of the gravel, occaſioned by however, theſe vapours become pernicious much ſooner than others, the ſtone ſticking in the ureter, or ſome part of the urinary paſſages, particularly where ſulphureous minerals abound, as in mines of me- the patient ſhould be bled, warm fomentations ſhould likewiſe be tal, coal, &c. But however great differences there may be among applied to the part affected, emollient clyſters adminiſtered, and di the under ſtrata, the upper one is in ſome reſpects the ſame all over luting mucilaginous liquors drank: and the treatment of this caſe the globe, at leaſt in this reſpect, that it is fit for the ſupport of ve- is ſimilar to that of an inflammation of the kidneys. getables, which the others are not, without long expoſure to the air, Mr. Pennant mentions two inſtances of ſtones found in horſes ; Properly ſpeaking, indeed, the upper ſtratum of the earth all round, the one of a horſe that voided ſixteen calculi, each of an inch and a is compoſed of the pure vegetable mould, though in many places it half diameter: the other of a ſtone taken out of the bladder of a is mixed with large quantities of other ſtrata, as clay, ſand, gravel, horſe, and depoſited in the cabinet of the late Dr. Mead, weighing &c.; and hence proceed the differences of ſoils ſo well known to eleven ounces. Theſe ſtones are formed of ſeveral cruſts, each thoſe who practiſe agriculture. It has been ſuppoſed, by ſome na- very ſmooth and gloffy; their form triangular, but their edges round, turaliſts, that the different ſtrata of which the earth is compoſed as if by colliſion againſt each other. Brit. Zool. vol. i. P. were originally formed at the creation, and have continued in a STONE-Blue, a preparation uſed in waſhing linen. See In manner immutable ever ſince : but this cannot poſſibly have been DIGO and SMALT. the caſe, ſince we find that many of the ſtrata are ſtrangely inter- STONEHENGE, or Stone-HENG, in Britiſh antiquity, a mixed with each other ; thê bones of animals, both marine and ter- famed pile or monument of huge ſtones on Saliſbury plain, nine reſtrial are frequently found at great depths in the earth; beds of miles diſtant from that city. For a copious deſcription of this oyſter-lhells are found of immenſe extent in ſeveral countries; and wonderful fabric, ſee the article CARNEDDE. concerning theſe and other ſhell-fiſh, it is remarkable, that they are STOP, in Grammar. See the Syſtem, Part II. Chap. IV. generally found much farther from the ſurface than the bones or under the article PUNCTUATION. teeth either of marine or terreſtrial animals. Neither are the ſhells STORGE', Etopin, a Greek term, frequently uſed by naturaliſts, or other remains of fiſh found in thoſe countries adjoining to the to ſignify that parental inſtinct, or natural affection, which animals ſeas, where they grow naturally, but in the moſt diſtant regions. bear toward their young. The ſtorgé is an admirable principle im Mr. Whitehurſt, in his inquiry into the original ſtate and forma- planted by the all wiſe Creator throughout the animal world, for the tion of the earth, has given a copious account of many different preſervation thereof: and is governed by ſuch rules as make it beſt kinds of animals, whoſe ſhells and other remains or exuviæ are contribute thereto. By means of this, with what care and alacrity found in England ; though at preſent the living animals are not do animals nurſe their young ? and what dangers will they brave to be found except in the Eaſt and Weſt Indies. for their ſecurity ! Even the moſt timorous creatures, which at other STRATAGEM, a military wile, or a device in war, for ſurpriſing times fly the face of men, dogs, &c. will, for the ſake of their or deceiving an enemy. The ancients dealt very much in ſtrata- young, expoſe themſelves. Thus, hens, inſtead of Aying from, gems ; the moderns wage war more openly, and on the ſquare. will aſſault ſuch as meddle with their brood ; and partridges, be Frontinus has made a collection of the ancient ſtratagems of war. fore their young can fly, will frequently drop down before the dogs, STRAWBERRY, fragaria, in Botany, a genus of the icoſandria firſt at leſs, then at greater diſtances, to dodge, and draw them off , polygynia claſs. For the culture and management of ſtrawberries, from purſuing their young. With what concern do others lead fee the Treatiſe on GARDENING, article Fruit Garden, months, about their young in places of ſafety and ſome even admit them February, March, April, and October. STRAITED pe I 2. STR S TR ; STRAITED Leaf, among botaniſts. See the Syſtem, Sect. I. feet are of the running kind. Latham, in his arrangement, makes Plate I. or the oſtrich the 58th Genus, and the Caſſowary the 59th Genus, of STIX, the owl; in ornithology, a genus belonging to the the 6th Order, called STRUTHIOus. But according to Linnæus, it order of accipitres. The bill is hooked, but has no cere or wax ; is the 56th Genus, and belonging to the 4th Order, by him the noſtrils are covered with ſetaceous feathers; the head is very called ĞRALLÆ. But he has divided the Genus Struthio into large, as are alſo the ears and eyes; and the tongue is bifid. There three ſpecies ; the Camelus, or common oſtrich ; the Emu, or are 12 ſpecies ; the moſt remarkable are the following. The American oſtrich ; and the Caſſuarius, or Caffowary. The ex- otus, or long-eared owl, is found, though not frequently, in the iſtence of the Emu is much doubted ; but of the two other ſpecies north of England, in Cheſhire, and in Wales. Mr. Haffelquiſt we ſhall give the following deſcription : has ſeen it alive in Cairo, and it is not unfrequent all over Egypt. The camelus, or common oſtrich, is the largeit of all birds. The weight of the female, according to Mr. Willoughby, is 10 Travellers affirm that they are ſeen as tall as a man on horſeback ounces; the length 14 inches and a half; the breadth 3 feet and even ſome of thoſe that have been brought into England were 4 inches; the irides are of a bright yellow; the bill black; the above ſeven feet high. The head and bill ſomewhat reſemble thoſe breaſt and belly are of a dull yellow, marked with ſlender brown of a duck; and the neck may be likened to that of a fwan, but that ſtrokes pointing downwards; the thighs and vent-feathers of the it is much longer ; the legs and thighs bear a reſemblance to that ſame colour, but unſpotted. The back and coverts of the wings of a camel. But though uſually ſeven feet high from the top of the are varied with deep brown and yellow; the tail is marked with head to the ground, from the back it is only four ; ſo that the head duſky and reddiſh bars, but beneath appears aſh-coloured ; the and neck are about three feet long. From the top of the head to horns or ears are about an inch long, and conſiſt of fix feathers va therump, when the neck is ſtretched out in a right line, it is fix feet riegated with yellow and black; the feet are feathered down to long, and the tail is about a foot more. One of the wings, with- the claws. See Plate I. letter A. out the feathers, is a foot and an half; and being ſtretched out, The ſhort-eared owl, is 14 inches; extent three feet; the head with the feathers, is three feet. The plumage is much alike in is ſmall and hawk-like; the bill is duſky; weight 14 ounces ; the all; that is, generally black and white ; though ſome of them are circle of feathers that immediately ſurrounds the eyes is black; the ſaid to be grey. There are no feathers on the ſides, nor yet on larger circle white, terminated with tawny and black; the feathers the thighs, nor under the wings. The lower part of the back, on the head, back, and coverts of the wings, are brown, edged with about half way, is covered with ſtill ſmaller feathers than thoſe on pale dull yellow; the breaſt and belly are of the ſame colour, mark the belly and back; and thoſe alſo are of different colours. All ed with a few long narrow ſtreaks of brown pointing downwards. theſe feathers are of the ſame kind, and peculiar to the oftrich ; for The horns of this ſpecies are very ſmall, and each conſiſts of only other birds have ſeveral forts, ſome of which are ſoft and downy, a ſingle feather ; theſe it can raiſe or depreſs at pleaſure; and in a and others hard and ſtrong. Oſtrich feathers are almoſt all as foft dead bird they are with difficulty diſcovered. This kind is ſcarcer as down, being utterly unfit to ſerve the animal for flying, and than the former ; both are folitary birds, avoiding inhabited places. ſtill leſs adapted to be a proper defence againſt external injury. This is a bird of paſſage, and has been obſerved to viſit Lincolnſhire The feathers of other birds bave the webs broader on one ſide than in the beginning of October, and to retire early in the ſpring ; ſo the other, but thoſe of the oſtrich have their ſhaft exactly in the probably, as it performs its migrations with the woodcock, its ſum middle. The The upper part of the head and neck are covered with a mer-retreat is Norway. Farmers are fond of ſeeing theſe birds in very fine clear white hair, that ſhines like the briſtles of a hog; the fields, as they clear them from mice. It is found frequently on and in ſome places there are ſmall tufts of it, confiſting of about the hill of Hoy in the Orknies, where it flies about and preys by twelve hairs, which grow from a ſingle ſhaft about the thickneſs day like a hawk, It is found alſo in Lancaſhire, which is a hilly of a pin. At the end of each wing, there is a kind of ſpur, al- and wooded country : and in New-England, and Newfoundland. moſt like the quill of a porcupine, It is an inch long, being hol- See Plate I. letter B. low and of an horny ſubſtance. There are two of theſe on each The flammea, or common white owl. The elegant plumage of wing ; the largeſt of which is at the extremity of the bone of the this bird makes amends for the uncouthneſs of its form : a circle wing, and the other a foot lower. The neck ſeenis to be more of ſoft white feathers ſurrounds the eyes. The upper part of the flender in proportion to that of other birds, from its not being fur- body, the coverts, and ſecondary feathers of the wings, are of a fine niſhed with feathers. The internal parts of this animal are formed pale yellow : on each ſide the ſhafts are two grey and two white with no leſs ſurpriſing peculiarity. At the top of the breaft, un- ſpots placed alternate. This ſpecies is almoſt domeſtic ; inhabit der the ſkin, the fat is two inches thick ; and on the fore-part of ing, for the greateſt part of the year, barns, hay-lofts, and other the belly it is as hard as ſuet, and about two inches and out-houſes; and is as uſeful in clearing thoſe places from mice as an half thick in ſome places. It has two diſtinct ſtomachs. The the congenial cat: towards twilight it quits its perch, and takes a firft, which is lowermoſt, in its natural ſituation ſomewhat reſem- regular circuit round the fields, ſkimming along the ground in queſt bles the crop in other birds ; but it is conſiderably larger than the of field-mice, and then returns to its uſual reſidence; in the breed other ſtomach, and is furniſhed with ſtrong muſcular fibres, as ing ſeaſon it takes to the caves of churches, holes in lofty houſes, or well circular as longitudinal. The ſecond ftomach, or gizzard, hollows of trees. During the time the young are in the neſt, the has outwardly the ſhape of the ſtomach of a man; and upon open- male and female alternately ſally out in queſt of food, make their ing is always found filled with a variety of diſcordant ſubítances; circuit, beat the fields with the regularity of a ſpaniel, and drop in hay, graſs, barley, beans, bones, and ſtones, ſome of which ex- ſtantly on their prey in the graſs. They very ſeldom ſtay out above cecd in ſize a pullet's egg. The kidnies are eight inches long and five minutes ; return with their prey in their claws ; but as it is two broad, and differ from thoſe of other birds in not being di- neceſſary to ſhift it into their bill, they always alight for that purpoſe vided into lobes. The heart and lungs are ſeparated by a midriff, on the roof, before they attempt to enter their neſt. This ſpecies as in quadrupeds ; and the parts of generation alſo bear a very does not hoot ; but ſnores and hiſſes in a violent manner; and while ſtrong reſemblance and analogy to them. it Aies along will often ſcream moſt tremendouſly. Its only food The oſteology of this bird is no leſs ſupriſing than the formation is mice. As the young of theſe birds keep their neſt for a great of its internal parts, as may be ſeen in Plate II. of Comparative length of time, and are fed even long after they can fly, many hun Anatomy; which ſhews how different the bones are formed from dreds of mice will ſcarcely ſuffice to ſupply them with food. Owls thoſe of all other birds, nature having furniſhed them with extra- caft up the bones, fur, or feathers of their prey, in form of ſmall ordinary ſtrength, and diſpoſed them in ſuch a manner as to be hap- pellets, after they have devoured it, in the ſame manner as hawks pily adapted to the purpoſes of walking or running, and the mode of do. A gentleman, on grubbing up an old pollard-aſh that had been life peculiar to the bird. The oſtrich is a native only of the torrid the habitation of owls for many generations, found at the bottom regions of Africa, and has long been celebrated by thoſe who have many buſhels of this rejected ſtuff. Some owls will, when they had occaſion to mention the animals of that region. Its fel is are ſatisfied, like dogs, hide the remainder of their meat. proſcribed in Scripture as unfit to be eaten ; and moſt of the an- The ulula, or tawny owl. This is a hardier ſpecies than the for cient writers deſcribe it as well known in their times. Like the mer ; and the young will feed on any dead thing, whereas thoſe of race of the elephant, it is tranſmitted down without mixture ; and the white owl muſt have a conſtant ſupply of freſh meat. It is the has never been known to breed out of that country which firſt ftrix of Aldrovandus, and what we call the ſcreech-owl; to which produced it. It ſeems formed to live among the ſandy and burn- the folly of ſuperſtition had given the power of preſaging death by ing deſerts of the torrid zone; and, as in ſome meaſure it owes it its cries. The ancients believed that it ſucked the blood of young birth to their genial influence, ſo it feldom migrates into tracts children. more mild or more fertile. The Arabians affert that the oftrich The ulula, or brown owl. Both theſe ſpecies inhabit woods, never drinks; and the place of its habitation ſeems to confirm the where they reſide the whole day; in the night they are very clamor aſſertion. In theſe formidable regions oftriches are ſeen in large ous; and when they hoot, their throats are inflated to the ſize of Aocks, which to the diſtant ſpectator appear like a regiment of ca- In the duſk they approach our dwellings; and will valry, and have often alarmed a whole caravan. There is no de- frequently enter pigeon-houſes, and make great havoc in them. ſert, how barren foever, but what is capable of ſupplying theſe They deſtroy numbers of little leverets, as appears by the legs fre animals with proviſion ; they eat alınoſt every thing; and theſe quently found in their neſts. They alſo kill abundance of moles, barren tracts are thus doubly grateful, as they afford both food and and ſkin them with as much dexterity as a cook does a rabbit. ſecurity. The oſtrich is of all other animals the moſt voracious, Theſe build in hollow trees or ruined edifices; lay four It will devour leather, graſs, hair, iron, ſtones, or any thing that aneliptic form, and of a whitiſh colour. is given. Thoſe ſubſtances which the coats of the ſtomach cannot STRUTHIO, the Oſtrich; the bill is ſomewhat conical ; the foften, paſs whole ; ſo that glaſs, ſtones, or iron, are excluded in the noftrils are oval; the wings ſhort, and not fit for flying; and the form in which they were devoured. In an oſtrich diffected by Ranby a hen's egg. eggs, of S T U S TU eaten. , moſt , Ranby, there appeared ſuch a quantity of heterogeneous ſubſtances, 1 ling upon an oſtrich; and Adanſon aſſerts, that at the factory of Po- that it was wonderful how any animal could digeſt ſuch an over- dore he had two oſtriches, which were then young, the ſtrongeſt of charge of nouriſhment. Valifnieri alſo found the firſt ſtomach which ran ſwifter than the beſt Engliſh racer, although he carried filled with a quantity of incongruous ſubſtances ; graſs, nuts, cords, two negroes on his back. As ſoon as the animal perceived that it ſtones, glaſs, braſs, copper, iron, tin, lead, and wood ; a piece was thus loaded, it ſet off running with all its force, and made ſe- of ſtone was found among the reſt that weighed more than a pound. veral circuits round the village ; till at length the people were ob- He ſaw one of theſe animals that was killed by devouring a quan- | liged to ſtop it by barring up the way. How far this ſtrength and tity of quick-lime. It ſhould ſeem that the oſtrich is obliged to ſwiftneſs may be uſeful to mankind, even in a poliſhed ſtate, is a fill up the great capacity of its ſtomach in order to be at eaſe; but matter that perhaps deſerves inquiry: For repreſention of this that nutritious ſubſtances not occurring, it pours in whatever of bird, fee Plate IV. Genus 58. fers to ſupply the void. The Caljowary is a bird which was firſt brought into Europe by In their native deſerts, however, it is probable, they live chiefly the Dutch from Java in the Eaſt Indies. Next to the preceding, upon vegetables, where they lead an inoffenſive and ſocial life; the it is the largeſt and the heavieſt of the feathered ſpecies. The caſ- male, as Thevenot aſſures us, aſſorting with the female with con fowary, though not ſo large as the former, yet appears nearly as nubial fidelity. They are ſaid to be very much inclined to venery; bulky to the eye; its body being nearly equal, and its neck and legs and the make of the parts in both ſexes ſeems to confirm the re much thicker and ſtronger in proportion to its ſize; this confor- port. It is probable alſo they copulate like other birds, by com mation gives it an air of ſtrength and force, which the fierceneſs preſſion ; and they lay very large eggs, ſome of them being above and fingularity of its countenance conſpire to render formidable. five inches in diameter, and weighing above fifteen pounds. Theſe It is five feet and an half long from the point of the bill to the ex- eggs have a very hard fhell, ſomewhat reſembling thoſe of the cro tremity of the claws. The legs are two feet and an half high from codile, except that thoſe of the latter are leſs and rounder. The ſea the belly to the end of the claws. The head and neck together are ſon for laying depends on the climate where the animal is bred. In a foot and an half; and the largeſt toe, including the claw, is five the northern parts of Africa, this ſeaſon is about the beginning of inches long. The claw alone of the leaſt toe is three inches and a July, in the ſouth, it is about the latter end of December. Theſe half in length. The wing is ſo ſmall that it does not appear, it birds are very prolific, and lay generally from 40 to 50 eggs at being hid under the feathers of the back. In other birds, a part of one clutch. "No bird has a ſtronger affection for her young than the feathers ſerve for flight, and are different from thoſe that ſerve the oſtrich, nor watches her eggs with greater aſſiduity. It hap- | for merely covering; but in the caffowary all the feathers are of pens, indeed, in thoſe hot climates, that there is leſs neceſſity for the ſame kind, and outwardly of the ſame colour. They are ge- the continual incubation of the female ; and ſhe more frequently nerally double, having two long ſhafts, which grow out of a ſhort leaves her eggs, which are in no danger of being chilled by the one which is fixed in the ſkin. We weather ; but though ſhe ſometimes forſakes them by day, ſhe al- The part, however, which moſt diſtinguiſhes this animal is the ways carefully broods over them by night. head; which, though ſmall, like that of an oſtrich, does not fail to The beauty of a part of the plumage, particularly the long fea- inſpire come degree of terror. It is bare of feathers, and is in a thers that compoſe the wings and tail, is the chief reaſon that man manner armed with an helmet of horny ſubſtance, that covers it has been ſo active in purſuing this harmleſs bird to its deſerts, and from the root of the bill to near half the head backwards. This hunting it with no ſmall degree of expence and labour. The anci helmet is black before and yellow behind. Its ſubſtance is very ents uſed ſome plumes in their helmets ; , the ladies of the eaſt hard, being formed by the elevation of the bone of the ſkull; and make them an ornament in their dreſs; and among us, our under it confifts of ſeveral plates, one over another, like the horn ofan ox. takers and our fine gentlemen ſtill make uſe of them to decorate To the peculiar oddity of this natural armour, may be added the their hearſes and their hats. Thoſe feathers which are plucked colour of the eye in this animal, which is a bright yellow ; and the from the animal while alive, are much more valued than thoſe globe being above an inch and a half in diameter, give it an air taken when dead, the latter being dry, light, and ſubject to be worm equally fierce and extraordinary. About the middle of the neck Beſide the value of their plumage, ſome of the favage na before, at the riſe of the large feathers, there are two proceſſes tions of Africa hunt them alſo for their fleſh ; which they conſider formed by the ſkin, which reſemble ſomewhat the gills of a cock, as a dainty. They ſometimes alſo breed theſe birds tame, to eat but that they are blue as well as red. the young ones, of which the female is ſaid to be the greateſt deli The interval parts are equally remarkable. The Caffowary cacy. Some nations have obtained the name of Struthophagi, or unites with the double ſtomach of animals that live upon vegetables, oſtrich-eaters, from their peculiar fondneſs for this food; and even the ſhort inteſtines of thoſe that live upon fleſh. The inteſtines of the Romans themſelves were not averfe to it. As the ſpoils of the the caffowary are 13 times ſhorter than thoſe of the oſtrich. The oſtrich are thus valuable, it is not to be wondered at that man has heart is very ſmall, being but an inch and an half long, and an inch become their moſt aſliduous purſuer. For this purpoſe, the Arabi broad at the baſe. Upon the whole, it has the head of a warrior, ans train up their beſt and fleeteſt horſes, and hunt the oſtrich ſtill the eye of a lion, the defence of a porcupine, and the ſwiftneſs of a in view. Perhaps, of all other varieties of the chaſe, this, though courſer. Thus formed for a life of hoſtility, for terrifying others, the moſt laboriousis yet the entertaining. As ſoon as the and for its own defence, it might be expected that the caſſowary hunter comes within ſight of his prey, he puts on his horſe with a was one of the moſt fierce and terrible animals of the creation. But gentle gallop, ſo as to keep the oftrich ſtill in fight, yet not ſo as to nothing is ſo oppoſite to its natural character: it never attacks terrify him from the plain into the mountains. Of all known ani others; and inſtead of the bill, when attacked, it rather makes uſe mals, the oſtrich is by far the ſwifteſt in running; upon obſerving of its legs, and kicks like a horſe, or runs againſt its purſuer, beats himſelf, therefore, purſued at a diſtance, he begins to run at firit him down, and treads him to the ground. The manner of going but gently; either inſenſible of his danger, or ſure of eſcaping. In of this animal is not leſs extraordinary than its appearance. In- this ſituation, he ſomewhat reſembles a man at full ſpeed; his wings, ſtead of going directly forward, it ſeems to kick up behind with like two arms, keep working with a motion correſpondent to that one leg ; and then making a bound onward with the other, it of his legs ; and his ſpeed would very ſoon ſnatch him from the goes with ſuch prodigious velocity, that the ſwifteſt racer would view of his purſuers ; but, unfortunately for the filly creature, in- be left far behind. The ſame degree of voraciouſneſs which we ſtead of going off in a direct line he takes his courſe in circles ; perceived in the oſtrich, obtains as ſtrongly here. The caffowary while the hunteis ſtill make a ſmall courſe within, relieve each ſwallows every thing that comes within the capacity of its gullet. other, meet him at unexpected turns, and keep him thus ſtill em It is ſaid, that the paſſage of the food through its gullet is per- ployed, ſtill following. At laſt, ſpent with fatigue, and finding all formed fo ſpeedily, that even the very eggs which it has ſwallowed power of eſcape impoſſible, he endeavours to hide himſelf from thoſe whole paſs through it unbroken in the ſame form they went down. enemies he cannot avoid, and covers his head in the fand, or the In fact, the alimentary canal of this animal, as was obſerved above, firſt thicket he meets. Sometimes, however, he attempts to face is extremely ſhort; and it may happen, that many kinds of food his purſuers; and though in general the moſt gentle animal in na are indigeftible in its ſtomach, as wheat or currants are to man, ture, when driven to deſperation, he defends himſelf with his beak, when ſwallowed whole. The caíſowary's eggs are of a grey-afh his wings, and his feet. Such is the force of his motion, that a man colour, inclining to green. They are not lo large nor fo round would be utterly unable to withſtand him in the ſhock. as thoſe of the oftrich. They are marked with a number of little When the Arabians have thus taken an oſtrich, they cut its tubercles of a deep green, and the ſhell is not very thick. The throat; and making a ligament below the opening, they ſhake the largeſt of theſe is found to be 15 inches round one way, and about bird as one would rinſe a barrel : then taking off the ligature, there twelve the other. The ſouthern parts of the moſt eaſtern Indies runs out from the wound in the throat a conſiderable quantity of ſeem to be the natural climate of the caſfowary. His domain, if blood mixed with the fat of the animal ; and this is conſidered as we may ſo call it, begins where that of the oſtrich terminates. one of their greateſt dainties. They next Aea the bird ; and of the The latter has never been found beyond the Ganges; while the ſkin, which is ſtrong and thick, ſometimes make a kind of veſt, caffowary is never ſeen nearer than the iſlands of Banda, Sumatra, which anſwers the purpoſes of a cuiraſs and a buckler. There are Java, the Mollucca iſlands, and the correſponding parts of the con- others who, inore compaſſionate or more provident, do not kill their tinent. From late accounts it appears that the Caſſowary is captive, but endeavour to tame it, for the purpoſes of ſupplying alſo found in New-Holland, yet this animal ſeems not to have thoſe feathers which are in ſo great requeſt. The inhabitants of multiplied in any conſiderable degree, as we find one of the kings Dara and Lybia breed up whole flocks of them, and they are tamed of Java making a preſent of one of theſe birds to the captain of a with very little trouble. But it is not for their feathers alone that they Dutch ſhip, conſidering it as a very great rarity. For repreſenta- are prized in this domeſtic ſtate ; they are often ridden upon and tion fee Plate IV. Genus 29. storocitaotles uſed as horſes. Moore aſſures us, that at Joar he ſaw a man travel STUC, or STUCCO, in Building, a compoſition of white marble, pul- N° 141. 4 0 S T Y SU B See Art. 9. gory XIII. pulverized, and mixed with a plaiſter of lime ; the whole fifted | began, Sir William Temple poliſhed the language ftill more, arl wrought up with water ; to be uſed like common plaiſter. Of and the author, who formed it more than any one into its preſent this are made ſtatutes, buſts, baſſo relivos, and other ornaments of ſtate, is Dryden. Since his time conſiderable attention has been architecture. paid to purity and elegance of ſtyle ; but it is elegance, rather than STUPIDITY. The Greek word uopwcis, correſponds moſt ftrength, that forms the diſtinguiſhing quality of moſt of the good with our Engliſh word ſtupidity or fooliſhneſs, (in the common ac Engliſh writers. ceptation of it), which is, when reaſon is rendered ſomewhat de STYLOGLOSSI, in Anatomy, a pair of muſcles, running off fective. The immediate cauſes are, a deficiency of vital heat; or ſharp and fleſhy from the proceſſus ſtyloides, whence deſcending a defect in the brain. Stupid children ſometimes become ſprightly obliquely forwards, they are inſerted into the root of the tongue, youths ; but if ſtupidity continues to the age of puberty, it is hardly and form two portions of its lateral parts. For their origin, inter? ever removed. If ſtupidity follows upon a violent paſſion, an in tion, and uſe, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Table of Muſcles, Art. 10. jury done to the head, or other evident cauſe, if it continues long, STYLOHYOIDÆUS, in Anatomy, a ſmall fleſhy muſcle, it becomes incurable. But the ſtupidity which conſiſts in a loſs of lying obliquely between the apophyſis ſtyloides and os hyoides. memory, and ſucceeds a lethargy, ſpontaneouſly ceaſes when the lethargy is cured. STYLOPHARYNGÆI, in Anatomy, a pair of muſcles ariſing STÚRNUS, the STARLING, a genus belonging to the order round and Aeſhy from the apophyſis, or epiphyſis ſtyloides, and of paſſeres. The beak is ſubulated, depreſſed, and ſomewhat blunt; which in their oblique deſcent along the lateral part of the pharynx, the ſuperior mandible is entire, and ſomewhat open at the edges ; cover and croſs the other muſcles. See Art. 1o. the noſtrils are marginated above; and the tongue is ſharp and e STYPTIC, in Medicine, aſtringent, a reinedy that has the vir- marginated. There are five ſpecies, the principal of which is, tue of ſtopping blood, or of binding up the aperture of a wounded The vulgaris, or ſtare. It lays four or five eggs, of a pale-greeniſh vefſel. The ſervice, nettle, Soloman's ſeal, &c. are ftyptics, aſh-colour ; and makes its neſt of ſtraw, ſmall fibres of roots, and There are various ſtyptic waters, and powders of great efficacy, in the like. In winter, ſtares aſſemble in vaſt focks : they collect in moſt of which vitriol is the principal ingredient. The uſual ſtyptic myriads in the fens of Lincolnſhire, and do great damage to the water is made of colcothar calcined, or vitriol diffolved with burnt fen-men, by rooſting on the reeds, and breaking them down by alum, ſugar-candy, &c. their weight; for reeds are the thatch of the country, and are har SUBALTERN, formed from ſub and alter, another, an inferior veſted with great care. Theſe birds feed on worms and inſects; officer, or one who diſcharges his poſt under the command, and and it is ſaid that they will get into pigeon-houſes, for the ſake of ſubject to the direction of another. Such are lieutenants, ſub-lieu- fucking the eggs. Their fleſh is ſo bitter as to be ſcarce eatable. tenants, cornets, and enſigns, who ſerve under the captain. See They are very docile, and may be taught to ſpeak. For repre the Treatiſe on MILITARY AFFAIRS, Sect. IV. ſentation, ſee the Plate II, Genus 30. SUBCLAVIAN, SUBCLAVIUS, is applied to any thing under STYLE, in Botany, the part riſing up in the middle of a fower the arm-pit, or ſhoulder, whether artery, nerve, vein, or muſcle. and bearing, by its lower part, on the rudiment of the fruit, and See thoſe reſpective articles in the Syſtem of ANATOMY. ſerving to elevate the Itigma from the germen. This we more SUB-DOMINANTE, in Muſic, is a name given by M. Ra- uſually call the piſtil . See the Syſtem, fect. II. meau to the fourth note of the tone, becauſe the dominant is im- Style, in Chronology, denotes a particular manner of ac mediately above it, or rather becauſe it has the ſame interval of the counting time, with regard to the retrenchment of ten days from tonic in deſcending, as the dominant has in aſcending. See the the calendar, in the reformation made thereof- under pope Gre Syftem, Sect. XIII. SUBJECT, a perſon under the rule and dominion of a ſove- Old STYLE, is the Julian manner of computing, which obtains reign prince or ſtate. reign prince or ſtate. Of ſubjects, ſome are ſo by birth, others in ſome proteſtant ſtates, who refuſed to admit of the reformation. become ſo by acts of naturalization. New Style, is the Gregorian manner, followed by the catho SUBJECT is alſo uſed for the matter of an art or ſcience, or lics, and others, in conſequence of that reformation. The Julian, that which it confiders, or whereon it is employed. Thus the hu- or old ſtyle, agrees with the Julian year, which contains three hun man body is a ſubject of medicine. In this ſenſe, anatomiſts call dred and fixty-five days ſix hours. The Gregorian, or new ſiyle, the body they are diffecting, and whereon they read lectures, their agrees with the true ſolar year, which contains only three hundred ſubject. The ſubject of logic is thinking, or reaſoning: but more and fixty-five days five hours forty-nine minutes. Bu particularly in a ſyllogiſm, one of the terms of a propoſition is cal- Style, in Dialling, denotes the gnomon or cock of a dial, led the ſubject, and the other the attribute. In poetry, the ſubject raiſed on the plane thereof, to project a ſhadow : ſee the Treatiſe, is the matter treated of, or the event related, or ſet to view, and Part II. fect. III. enriched with ornaments. STYLE, in Grammar, is a particular manner of delivering a man's SUBJUNCTIVE, in Grammar, the fourth mood, or manner of thoughts in writing, agreeably to the rules of ſyntax : lee the conjugating verbs; thus called, becauſe uſually ſubjoined to ſome Syſtem, Part II. Chap. IV. other verb, or at leaſt to ſome other particle, as, if I loved : though This definition fixes the notion of ſtyle, to ſomething determi this were true, &c. See the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. II. Sect. I. nate, which before was very vague and arbitrary ; whence many SUBLIMATE, a Chymical preparation, the baſis whereof is authors, even of note, confounded it with fyntax itſelf. From the mercury or quickfi.ver. In making corroſive ſublimate, the quick- definition it appears, that the ſtyle ſuppoſes or includes the ſyntax ; ſilver is extinguiſhed by trituration in calcined vitriol. and that ſyntax does not extend ſo far as ſtyle ; for the ſyntax may SUBLIMĂTION, in Chymiſtry, an operation by which vola- be very juſt, where the ſtyle is wretched. A very common error tile and ſolid ſubſtances are collected and obtained, and differs little in grammarians, is to confound two kinds of ſtyles in one ; the from diſtillation, excepting that, in diſtillation only the fluid parts grammatical ſtyle, or that directed by the rules of grammar; and of bodies are raiſed; but, in fublimation, the ſolid and dry : and the perſonal ſtyle, which depends leſs on the grammar than on the that the matter to be diſtilled may be either ſolid or fluid ; but perſon that writes ; whether with regard to his particular taſte and ſublimation is concerned only about ſolid ſubſtances, and reſtored genius, or with regard to his matter, or the kind or character of to them in its operations. his work. There are a great many differences between the two: the SUBLIME, in Diſcourſe, ſomething extraordinary and ſurprif- moſt eſſential is, that the one may be diverſified an infinite number ing, which ſtrikes the ſoul, and makes a ſentiment or compoſition of ways, and the other cannot. In effect, the perſonal ſtyle is raviſh and tranſport. By the definition, it may appear, that the naturally variable, according to the different geniuſes, humours, ſublime is a very different thing from what the orators call the and complexions. It is the imagination that acts, that conceives, ſublime ſtyle. See GRANDEUR. that propoſes, and that expreſſes things, according to its character, SUBLÍNGUAL Glands, in Anatomy, two glands under the which is different in all men ; and which is to be varied, accord tongue, placed one on each ſide thereof. They are of the ſame ing to the particular kind of the work. Hence ariſe the gay, the kind with the maxillary glands, one ſmaller, ſomewhat oblong, and grave, the florid, the jejune, the copious, the conciſe, the poeti flatted like a blanched almond. cal, the epiſtolary, and the burleſque ſtyle. Theſe perſonal ſtyles SUBSCAPULARIS, in Anatomy, a muſcle ariſing from the are all independent on the grammatical ; and we have authors who baſis and ſide of the ſcapula ; and ſpreading itſelf under the whole excel in the cafe, yet are miſerably defective in the other. The convex or under ſide of it, being of the ſame breadth and length perſonal ſtyle is not under the direction of Grammar ; but of the with it. For its origin, inſertion, and uſe, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. imagination, or rather of rhetoric, that art having to do directly Table of Muſcles, Art. 20. with our thoughts, as Grammar with our words. SUBSCRIPTION, in the Engliſh commerce, is uſed for the STYLE, in Oratory and Poetry, is reſtrained wholly to what ſhare or intereſt which particular perſons take in a public ſtock, or F. Buffier calls the perſonal ſtyle. Language refers principally to a trading company, by writing their names and the ſhares they re- the matter of the diſcourſe, viz. the words ; elocution to the parti- quire, in the books or regiſters thereof. cular members of parts thereof; and ſtyle to the whole compoſition. SUBSCRIPTION, in the commerce of books, ſignifies an engagement The maſters of the art of rhetoric reduce the kinds of ſtyle to three to take a certain number of copies of a book going to be printed; viz. the low or plain, the middle, temperate, or equable, and the lofty and a reciprocal obligation of the bookſeller or publiſher, to deliver or ſublime ſtyle.. Theſe ſeveral characters are diſtinguiſhed from the ſaid copies on certain terms. The uſual conditions of theſe one another, both by the thoughts and by the language. See the Treatiſe on ORATORY, Part. III . Sect. II. throughout. ſubſcriptions are, on the part of the bookſeller, to afford the books cheaper to a ſubſcriber than to another, by one third or one fourth The reſtoration of king Charles II. ſeems to be the æra of the of the price; and on the part of the latter, to advance half the money formation of our preſent ſtyle in Great Britain. Lord Clarendon in hand, and to pay the reſt on the delivery of the copies ; an agree- ment SUC SU G Take an ment equally advantageous to the one and the other, as the book- ) practice will be ever productive of tumult, contention, and anar- feller is hereby furniſhed with money to carry on works which chy. And, on the other hand, divine indefeaſible hereditary right, would otherwiſe be above his ſtock ; and the ſubſcriber receives, when coupled with the doctrine of unlimited paſſive obedience, is as it were, intereſt for his money, by the moderate price the book ſurely of all conſtitutions the moſt thoroughly flaviſh and dreadful . ftands him in. Subſcriptions had their riſe in England, and it is But when ſuch an hereditary rightas our laws have created and veſted but very lately that they are got into other countries. They were in the royal ſtock, is cloſely interwoven with thoſe liberties which firſt ſet on foot in the middle of the laſt century, for the printing of are equally the inheritance of the ſubject; this union will form a Walton's Polyglot Bibles, which is the firſt book every printed by conftitution, in theory the moſt beautiful of any, in practice the way of ſubſcription. From England they paſſed a few years ago moſt approved, and, we truſt, in duration the moſt permanent. into Holland, and they have been ſince introduced into France. SUCKERS, off-ſets, in Agriculture and Gardening, young fhoots In England they are become exceedingly frequent; and their fre- proceeding from the root of a tree; being of the ſame kind with quency has rendered them liable to fome abuſes, which begin to the tree from which they ſpring ; becauſe ſuch as grow from trees diſcredit them. raiſed by grafting or inoculation, follow the nature of the ſtock. SUBSIDY, ſubſidium, in Law, any aid, tax, or tribute, granted, See Treatiſe on GARDENING, article Fruit Garden, month by authority of parliament to the king, on preſſing occaſions of February the ſtate, levied on the ſubjects, according to their ſeveral abilities, SUCTION, SUCTIO, the act of fucking, or of drawing up a or the yearly produce of their lands, goods, &c. fluid, as air, water, or the like, by the mouth and lungs, or in a SUBSTANTIVE, in Grammar, is a quality aſcribed to a noun ſingular manner by artificial means : ſee the Syſtems of HYDRO- or name, when the object it denotes is conſidered fimply, and in STATICS and PNEUMATICS. itſelf, without reference to any other ſubject or idea. When the SUDORIFIC, in Medicine, a remedy that cauſes, or pro- object is conſidered, as cloathed with certain qualities, the noun is motes ſweat. Sudorifics gely differ from diaphoretics in the de- faid to be adjective. For a more palpable criterion, all nouns, to gree of their action; the one promoting ſenſible perſpiration, the which one cannot add the word thing, are ſubſtantives; and all other inſenſible. To the claſs of fudorifics belong 1°, all things thoſe to which thing may be added, are adjectives. Subſtantives, that roving violently through the body, attenuate the humours, according to Mr. Harris, are all thoſe principal words which are and accelerate their motion. 2°, ſuch things, as at the ſame time di- fignificant of ſubſtances, conſidered as ſubſtances. See the SYSTEM, miniſh the reſiſtance in the fudatory veſſels about the cutis. To Part I. Chap. I. which ſome add a third kind; ſuch as abſorb the acidities of the SUBSTRACTION, or SUBTRACTION, in Arithmetic, the ſe blood, and thus ſet at liberty the matter of the ſweat. Sudorifics, cond rule, or rather operation, in arithmetic, whereby we deduct a if taken in time, are the beſt medicines for preventing inflamma- leſs number from a greater, to learn the preciſe difference : or, tory and feveriſh diſorders of all kinds. Sir John Pringle con- more juſtly, ſubſtraction is the finding a certain number from two demns the uſe of treacle, given with this intention, on account of homogeneous ones given, which, with one of the given numbers, its heating quality. However, he obſerves, that it is rendered is equal to the other. See the SYSTEM, Chap. II. Sect. II. more ſudorific and leſs narcotic, by adding ten grains of ſalt of Chap. III. Sect. II. Chap. IV. Sect. II. hartſhorn to a common doſe, and promoting the ſweat by a large SUBSTRACTION, in Algebra, is performed by connecting the draught of vinegar-whey. Inſtead of this compoſition, two ſcru- quantities with all the ſigns of the ſubtrahend changed; and at the ples of ſalt of hartſhorn, ſaturated with about three ſpoonfuls of ſame time uniting ſuch as may be united : ſee the Syſtem, Art. II, common vinegar, may be given at bed time. Pringle's Obſ. on SUBTERRANEOUS, or SUBTERRANEAN, ſomething un the Diſeaſes of the Army, p. 131. A ſafe, eaſy, and effectual derground. Naturaliſts talk much of ſubterranean fires, as the cauſe ſudorific, may be prepared in the following manner. of volcanos ; and ſubterranean winds, as the cauſe of earthquakes. ounce of refined camphor, beat it in a marble mortar with two Among the many places where ſubterranean fires are found, Eng | 0 ounces of blanched almonds, till it be reduced to a ſmooth and land is not wholly without them; though with us they appear only even paite. This may be formed into pills, boluſſes, and given in the coal countries, and plainly feed on nothing but the upper according to the ſtrength of the patient, and other conſiderations, ſtratum of the coal, called by the miners day-coal, unleſs where from three grains to forty. they have by accidents been kindled by actual fires at great depths, SUFFOCATION, in Medicine, a privation or obſtruction of or fired downward, by being pent in for room. See VOLCANO. We reſpiration or breathing. Suffocation ſometimes ariſes from a too have an account, in the Philoſophical Tranſactions, of a ſubter- great abundance of blood thrown on the lungs, or the muſcles of ranean town found at Portici, near Naples, in which many antique the larynx, and preventing the ingreſs of the air ; as is the caſe in ftatues, paintings, and other curioſities have been found. This quinzies, fuffocating catarrhs, peripneumonies, &c. The fumes of ſubterrunean town is probably the ancient city of Herculaneum, wines, or ſtrong beers, when boiling, cauſe ſuffocation, by interrupt- which was ſwallowed up by an earthquake. See Phil. Tranf. ing the circulation of the blood. And the ſame may be obſerved N° 458. fect. 4, 5, and 6. It is remarkable, that ſome of the an of the fumes of lime, wherewith walls are whitened ; and thoſe of tique paintings found there are freíh and perfect, as if lately painted. charcoal, antimony, ſulphur, vitriol, and ſpirit of nitre. The ſuf- Ibid. ſect. 6. focation under water is owing partly to the paſſage of air being SUBTILE, in Phyſics, intimates a thing exceedingly ſmall, ſtopped up, and partly to the irruption of the water into the breaſt. fine, and delicate; ſuch as the animal ſpirits, the effluvia of odo See DROWNING, HANGING, &c. rous bodies, &c. are ſuppoſed to be. One kind of matter is only SUFFUSION, in medicine, an overflowing of ſome humour, more ſubtile than another, in that, being divided into ſmaller parts, ſhewing itſelf in the ſkin ; particularly that of the blood or bile. and thoſe too more agitated ; on the one hand, it makes leſs reſif That redneſs ordinarily ariſing from ſhame, is only a ſuffuſion of tance to other bodies; and, on the other, infinuates itſelf more ea blood appearing in the cheeks. The jaundice is a ſuffuſion of bile ſily into their pores. over the whole body. SUBTILIZATION, ſubtilizatio, the act of ſubtilizing, or ren - SUGAR, SACCHARUM, a very ſweet, agreeable, faline juice, dering any thing ſmaller and fubtiler; particularly, the diſſolving expreſſed from a kind of canes, or reeds, growing in great plenty, or changing a mixt body into a pure quor, or a fine powder, by in the Eaſt and Weſt Indies. See SUGAR-cane. It is a queſtion ſeparating the groſſer parts therefrom. yet decided among botaniits, &c. whether the ancients were ac- SUCCESSION to the Crown. See HEREDITARY Right.- quainted with this cane, and whether they knew how to expreſs From the days of Egbert, the firſt fole monarch of England, even the juice from the ſame? What we can gather from the argu- to the preſent, the four cardinal maxims mentioned in that article ments advanced on either ſide is, that if they knew the cane, and have ever been held conſtitutional canons of ſucceſſion. The title juice, they did not know the art of condenſing, hardening, and to the crown is at preſent hereditary, though not quite ſo abfo whitening it ; and of conſequence they knew nothing of our ſugar. lutely hereditary as formerly: and the common ſtock, or anceſtor, Dr. William Douglas, in his Summary, &c. of the firſt planting from whom the deſcent muſt be derived, is alſo different. For of our American ſettlements, printed at Boſton in 1751, and re- merly, the common ſtock was king Egbert; then William the printed at London in 1755, affirms, that ſugar was not known conqueror; afterwards, in James I.'s time, the two common ſtocks among the ancient Greeks and Romans, who uſed only honey for united ; and ſo continued till the vacancy of the throne in 1688 ; ſweetening. Paulus Ægineta, he ſays, a noted compiler of me- now it is the princeſs Sophia, in whom the inheritance was veſted dical hiſtory, and one of the laſt Greek writers on that ſubject, about by the new king and parliament. Formerly, the deſcent was ab anno 1625, is the firſt who exprelly mentions ſugar: it was at firſt folute, and the crown went to the next heir without any re called mel arundinaceum, i. e. reed or cane honey. He adds, that it ftriction : but now, upon the new ſettlement, the inheritance is came originally from China, by way of the Eaſt Indies and Arabia conditional; being limited to ſuch heirs only, of the body of the into Europe, and was formerly uſed only in ſyrups, conſerves, and princeſs Sophia, as are Proteſtant members of the church of Eng- fuch Arabian medicinal compoſitions. Another queſtion among land, and are married to none but Proteſtants. And in this due the naturaliſts is, whether the ſugar-canes be originally of the medium conſiſts the true conſtitutional notion of the right of ſuc Weſt-Indies, or whether they have been tranſlated rather from the ceffion to the imperial crown of theſe kingdoms. The extremes Eaſt. The learned of theſe laſt ages have been much divided on between which it fteers are each of them equally deſtructive of the point; but F. Labat; a Dominican miſſionary, in a Differtation thoſe ends for which focieties were formed and are kept on foot. publiſhed in 1722, aſſerts, that the ſugar-cane is as natural to Ame- Where the magiſtrate, upon every ſucceſſion, is elected by the rica as India ; and the Spaniards and Portugueſe firſt learned from people, and may by the expreſs proviſion of the laws be depoſed the Orientals the art of expreſſing its juice, boiling it, and reducing (if not puniſhed) by his ſubjects, this may ſound like the perfection it into ſugar. The boiling and baking of ſugars, ſays Dr. Heylin of liberty, and look well enough when delineated on paper; but in in his Coſmography, the firſt edition of which was printed in 1624, not as SUG S U L a as it is now uſed, is not above two hundred years old ; and the re- furniſhes the greateſt quantity of it. Mr. Margråaf has obtained fining of it more new than that, firſt found out by a Venetian in the ſugar from the roots of ſeveral plants, as from carrots, parſnips, days of our forefathers, who got one hundred thouſand crowns by white and red beets. Conſidering that ſugar is foluble in ſpirit of the invention. Before which art of boiling and refining it, our an wine, and that the mucilaginous parts of plants are not ſoluble in ceſtors made uſe of it rough as it came from the canes, but they that Auid, he eaſily obtained a pure ſugar by digeſting the dried moſt commonly uſed honey inſtead of it. The firſt account we have roots in that ſpirit, and by evaporating the liquor. It is alſo pre- of ſugar-refiners in England is in the year 1659. Anderſon's Hiſt. ſumed, that much ſugar may be obtained from other vegetables, as of Com. vol. i. p. 82. 246, 331, 334. vol. ii. p. 72–105. from green peas, cabbage, green farinaceous grains, and from fe- Preparation of SUGAR. The juice coming out of the canes, veral trees, as the ſycamore and birch trees. Green Maze con when preſſed and broken between the rollers, runs through a little tains a liquor from which the American ſavages are ſaid to extract canal in the ſugar-houſe, which is near the mill ; where it falls ſugar. It may alſo be extracted from the afelepias caule erecto fim- into a veſſel, whence it is conveyed into the firſt copper, or caldron, plici annuo, and from any flowers collected while the morning dew to receive its firſt preparation, only heated by a ſlow fire to make it is upon them. But the vegetable which yields the largeſt quantity fimmer. With the liquor is here mixed a quantity of aſhes and of ſugar, next to the ſugar-cane, is the ſugar-maple. The methods quick-lime, called temper; the effect of which mixture, aſſiſted by employed for extracting ſugar from this tree in Canada are related the action of the fire, is, that the unctuous parts are ſeparated from by M. Gautier, in the Mem. des Scav. Eſtrang. tom. ii. and by the reſt, and raiſed to the top, in form of a thick ſcum, which is Mr. Kalm in the Swediſh Mem. for 1757. By diſcovering a men- kept conſtantly ſcumming off, and ſerves to feed the poultry, &c. ftruum, that would diſſolve the ſugar and not the ſlimy ſubſtance, The juice, in the next place, is purified, in a ſecond copper; where the faccharine and mucilaginous parts of plants might be ſeparated a briſker fire makes it boil; and all the time the caſting up of its from one another with advantage. ſcum is promoted by the means of a ſtrong ley, compoſed of lime Sugar preſerves both animal and vegetable ſubſtances from putre- water, and other ingredients. This done, it is purified and ſcummed, faction ; and Dr. Lewis ſays, that it poſſeſſes this power in in a third boiler, wherein is caſt a kind of ley, that afliſts in purging higher degree than the common alimentary ſalt. On account of it, collects together its impurities, and makes them riſe to the ſur this property, it has been ſometimes applied externally as a balfa- face, whence they are taken with a ſkimmer. From the third it is mic and antiſeptic. The impure brown ſugars, by virtue of their removed to a fourth boiler, where the juice is farther purified by a oily or treacly matter, prove emollient and gently laxative. The more violent fire ; and hence to a fifth : where it is brought to the cryſtals or candy are moſt difficult of ſolution, and hence are moſt conſiſtence of a fyrup. In a fixth boiler, the fyrup receives its full proper where this ſoft lubricating ſweet is wanted to diffolve ſlowly coction ; and here all the impurities left from the former leys are in the mouth, as in tickling coughs and hoarſeneſs. Dict. Chem. taken away by a new ley, and a water of lime and alum caſt into it. Art. Sugar. Lewis's Mat. Med. Coarſe ſugar, in which there In this laſt copper there is ſcarce found one-third of what was in is more oil than in refined ſugar, is recommended as a good media the firſt; the reſt being waſted into ſcum. By thus paffing, fuc cine in collyria for diſcharging ulcers of the cornea, in which ceflively, a number of coppers, the ſugar juice is purified, thickened, aftringents are hurtful. and rendered fit to be converted into any of the kinds of ſugar. The SUGAR-ſpirit, a name given by our diſtillers to a ſpirit made in ſize of the ſeveral coppers always diminiſhes from the firſt to the England, Holland, and other places, from the waſhings, ſcum- laſt; each being furniſhed with a furnace, to give an heat propor mings, droſs, and waſte of a ſugar-baker's refining houſe. The tionable to the degree of coction the juice has received. In ſome manner of preparing it is the ſame with that uſed for the malt and large ſugar-works there are alſo particular coppers for the boiling melaffes ſpirits. The refuſe of the ſugar is fermented with water and preparing of ſcums. in the uſual manner, then diſtilled into what is called low wines, Crude, or Muſcovado Sugar, is that firſt drawn from the juice of and afterwards rectified, without any addition, into proof ſpirit. the cane ; and whereof all the reſt are compoſed. The method of When the operation is well performed, and no foul, foetid, or making it is that already deſcribed as for ſugar in the general. We foreign matter has got in among the waſh, that is a tolerably clean need only add, that when taken out of the ſixth copper, it is put in fpirit. We uſually make it ſuch, but in Holland it is uſually made to a cooler, where, ſtirring it briſkly together, it is let ſtand to ſet very nauſeous and diſagreeable: though capable, by an eaſy recti- tle, till a cruſt of the thickneſs of a crown piece be formed thereon. fication, familiar with us, though not much known abroad, of being The cruſt being formed, they ſtir it up again, then put it into vel brought to a fine and clean ſpirit. With us this ſugar ſpirit is ſels, where it ſtands to ſettle till it be fit to barrel. uſed to mix with, and adulterate brandy, rum, and arrack, which Refining of SUGAR, is the art of purifying ſugar, and of giving will receive a large doſe of it without its being at all diſcoverable ; it a ſuperior degree of whiteneſs and ſolidity. The excellence of but the Dutch, who have it very coarſe, can only adulterate rum Muſcovado ſugars, or ſuch as have not been refined by the planter, with it, and even that will bear but a ſmall proportion, without but are ſent home in the moſt crude ſtate, conſiſts in their white-being betrayed by its nauſeouſneſs. being betrayed by its nauſeouſneſs. The ſugar ſpirit, reduced to neſs, dryneſs or freeneſs, cleanneſs and ſharpneſs, or ſtrength. The alcohol , makes one of the pureſt fpirits we are acquainted with, judicious refiner decides upon theſe ſeveral qualities by the eye, the much ſuperior to that of melaſſes, and much more to that of malt. touch, and the taſte. Sugar is refined from the courſe ſtate in Shaw's Eſſay on Diſtillery. which it generally comes from abroad, to various degrees of purity SUICIDE, or SELF-MURDER, the pretended heroiſm, but by new ſolutions, and is ſold at different prices, and under different real cowardice of the Stoic philoſophers, who deſtroyed themſelves names, according to the purity it is brought to. Our fugar-re to avoid thoſe ills which they had not the fortitude to endure, though finers firſt diffolve it in water, then clarify the ſolution by boiling the attempting it ſeems to be countenanced by the civil law, yet with whites of eggs and deſpumation ; and after due evaporation was puniſhed by the Athenian law with cutting off the hand which pour it into moulds ; where the fluid part being drained off, and the committed the deſparate deed. And alſo the law of England ſugar concreted, its ſurface is covered with moiſt clay as before.wiſely and religiouſly confiders, that no man hath a power to de- The ſugar thus once refined, by repetition of the proceſs, becomes ſtroy life but by commiſſion from God the author of it: and as the double-refined ſugar of the ſhops. the ſuicide is guilty of a double offence; one ſpiritual, in invad- SUGAR-candy, ſaccharum candidum, or cryſtallinum, is fugar de- | ing the prerogative of the Almighty, and ruſhing into his immedi- purated and cryſtallized. The ſugar to be uſed herein is firſt dif ate preſence uncalled for ; the other temporal, againſt the king, ſolved in a weak lime water, then clarified, ſcummed, ſtrained who hath an intereſt in the preſervation of all his ſubjects ; the through a cloth, and boiled, and put in forms or moulds, that are law has therefore ranked this among the higheſt crimes, making it traverſed with little rods, to retain the ſugar as it cryſtallizes. a peculiar ſpecies of felony, a felony committed on one's ſelf. And Theſe forms are ſuſpended in an hot ſtove, with a pot underneath, this admits of acceſſories before the fact, as well as other felonies ; to receive the fyrup that drops out at the hole in the bottom, which for if one perfuades another to kill himſelf, and he does ſo, the is half-ſtopped, that the filtration may be the gentler. When the adviſer is guilty of murder. A felo de ſe, therefore, is he that de- forms are full, the ſtove is ſhut up, and the fire made very vehe liberately puts an end to his own exiſtence, or commits any un- ment. Upon this, the ſugar faſtens to the ſticks that croſs the forms, lawful malicious act, the conſequence of which is his own death; and there hangs in little ſplinters of cryſtal. When the ſugar is as if, attempting to kill another, he runs upon his antagoniſt's quite dry, the forms are broken and the ſugar is taken out candied. ſword ; or, ſhooting at another, the gun burſts and kills himſelf. Red ſugar-candy they make, by cafting into the veſſel, where the The party muſt be of years of diſcretion, and in his ſenſes, elfe it ſugar is boiling, a little juice of the Indian fig; and, if it is deſired is no crime. A felo de ſeis to be interred without Chriſtian burial, to have it perfumed, they caſt a drop of ſome eſſence in, when the with a ſtake driven through his corpſe, and is to forfeit his goods ſugar is putting into the forms. and chattels, real and perſonal; but he may make a deviſe-of his Barley SUGAR, ſaccharum hordeatum, is a ſugar boiled till it be lands, becauſe they are not ſubject to forfeiture. However, theſe brittle, and then caſt on a ſtone anointed with oil of ſweet almonds, forfeitures are generally ſaved by the verdict of the coroner's jury, and formed into twiſted ſticks, about the length of the hand, and who find lunacy. the thickneſs of a finger. It ſhould be boiled up with a decoction of SUIT, in Law, is uſed in divers ſenſes. As Suit in Law, barley, whence, it takes its name; but, in lieu thereof, they now which is of two kinds, real and perſonal; the ſame with what we generally uſe common water, to make the ſugar the finer. To give call real and perſonal actions ; from which alſo proceed mixed it the brighter amber colour, they ſometimes caft faffron into it. actions. Suit in Equity or Chancery; for the proceedings in this It is found very good for the cure of colds and rheums. court, ſee CHANCERY, Sugar, in Chymiſtry and Medicine, denotes a chryſtallizable ef SULPHUR, in a general ſenſe, is a term that has been uſed by ſential falt, of a ſweet agreeable taite, contained more or leſs plenti the ancient chymiſts to denote all infammable ſubſtances, of what- fully in many kinds of vegetables, as well as in the ſugar-cane, which ever nature they might be. Sulphur, according to them, is one of the 1 S U L SU N the principles of bodies, and they call the inflammable principle , to rub over the cables in ſhipping, or any other ropes that are itſelf the principal ſulphur. Accordingly, they ſpeak continually endangered by lying much in the water. Mortimer's Huſbandry, of the fulphurs of metals, of the fulphurs of plants, and of the vol. ii. p. 104 ſulphurs of animals : and oils, ardent ſpirit, refins and bitumens SULTAN, a title or application given to the emperor of the were, in this extenſive application of the term, all ſulphurs. But, Turks. It had its riſe under Mahmoud, ſon of Sebečteghin, the by the more accurate diſtinction, ſuggeſted by Beecher, and more firſt emperor of the dynaſty of the Gaznevides, toward the cloſe of fully illuſtrated and eſtabliſhed by Stahl and modern chymiſts, be the fourth century of the æra of the hegira ; when that prince going tween the pure and ſimple inflammable principle, called phlogiſton, to Segaftan to reduce Kalaf, governor of that province, who af- and the more compounded bodies which contain it, and owe their fected the ſovereignty; Kalaf was no ſooner advertiſed of his com- inflammability to it, we acquire a knowledge of the true theory of ing, than he went out to meet him, delivered the keys of his for- fulphur and all inflammable ſubſtances, Hence we learn, that the treſs, and owned him his ſultan ; that is, his lord or commander. infiammable principle is always alike, and the ſame in every body, The title pleaſed Mahmoud ſo well, that he aſſumed it ever after- and that this principle, by its combination with different ſubſtances, wards; and from him it paſſed to his deſcendants, and to other produces all the inflammable matters with which we are ac Mahometan princes. quainted. Oils, fats, reſins, bitumens, ardent ſpirits, coals, me SULTANA, the wife of a fultan. The favourite ſultana is tals, ſulphur properly ſo called, or common ſulphur, are ſo many called haſeki-ſultana, i. e. private ſultana. The ſultana queen is compounds, all which have the common property of burning, be the emperor's chief wife. The old fultana, mother of the empe- cauſe they all contain the principle of infiammability ; but which ror reigning, is called ſultana valide. If any of the virgins of the differ in other reſpects, becauſe this principle is united to different ſeraglio, whom the grand fignior makes choice of for his bed-fel. ſubſtances, and in different proportions. See the Syſtem of low, by walking between two ranks of them, and throwing a CHYMISTRY, under the article INFLAMMABLE SUBSTANCES. handkerchief into her hand, conceives by him, and brings forth his The uſes of fulphur are very extenſive in chymiſtry, in medi firſt begotten child, ſhe is called by the name of ſultana queen : cine, and in the arts. The Liver of Sulphur is employed in and if this child be a ſon, ſhe is confirmed and eſtabliſhed by great Chymiſtry for ſeveral ſolutions. Sulphur is alſo uſeful for ſeveral feaſts and folemnities, and hath a ſeparate dwelling aſſigned unto fuſions, precipitations, and ſeparations of metals, and minerals. her of many ſtately rooms well furniſhed, and many ſervants to And as ſulphur contains a very large quantity of vitriolic acid, attend upon her . She is likewiſe allowed a large revenue, and a method is now practiſed of extracting from it this acid, by acknowledged in the ſeraglio as queen, by every expreſſion of duty burning fulphur in cloſe veſſels with the addition of nitre. Sulphur and reſpect. The other women (though they may have iſſue) are is employed in medicine, both internally and externally: the inter not called queens; but they are called ſultanas, becauſe they have nal preparations are fowers of ſulphur, waſhed ſulphur, magiſtery had carnal commerce with the king; but the only is honoured with of ſulphur, tablets, balſams, &c. in ſome of which this ſubſtance the title of queen, who is the mother of the firſt begotten ſon, heir is not altered, but only purified and divided, and in others it is to the empire. If this ſon ſhould die, and another of the ſultanas combined with other ſubſtances. The native fulphurs ſhould ne ſhould have a ſecond ſon, then her ſon being to ſucceed the de- ver be uſed internally without purification, becauſe they almoſt al ceaſed heir, ſhe is immediately made queen, and the former ſhall ways participate of arſenic, which is diſcoverable in ſome by their remain a ſultana only, and be deprived of her revenue and royalty: having naturally more or leſs of a red colour, and in others by their and thus the title of queen is transferred from one ſultana to ano- exhibiting this colour after a part of the pure ſulphur has been ther, by virtue of the ſon's ſucceſſion. Greave's Works, vol.ii. ſeparated by ſublimation. Pure fulphur, taken in doſes of ten grains p. 638, &c. to a dram or more, gently looſens the belly, and promotes perfpi SUMMARY, an abridgment, containing the ſum and ſubſtance ration. Some phyſicians and chymiſts, indeed, conſidering that of a thing in a few words. The ſummary, placed at the head of fulphur is unfoluble in water, and capable of reſiſting the action a book, a chapter, a law, or the like, is very uſeful to the reader, of moſt menſtrua, have advanced, that it can produce no effect to facilitate the underſtanding thereof. A recapitulation is to con- when taken internally, ſingle and unaltered; but this notion ſeems tain a ſummary of the whole preceding diſcourſe. to be groundleſs; and ſulphur, which is attached by all oily and fa SUMMER, one of the ſeaſons of the year, commencing, in ponaceous ſubſtances, and conſequently by almoſt all animal li theſe northern regions, on the day the fun enters Cancer; and end quors, is much more ſoluble than is generally believed. It ſeems ing when he quits Virgo. Or, more ſtrictly and univerſally, the to paſs through the whole habit, and manifeſtly tranſpires through ſummer begins on the day when the ſun's meridian diſtance from the ſkin, as appears from the fulphureous ſmell of perſons who the zenith is the leaſt. It ends on the day when his diſtance is a have taken it, and from ſilver being ſtained in their pockets to a mean betwixt the greateſt and ſmalleſt. The end of ſummer blackiſh hue, as by the vapour of ſulphureous ſolutions. coincides with the beginning of winter. It is ſaid, that a froſty Sulphur is principally recommended againſt the piles, in diſor winter produces a dry ſummer, and a mild winter a wet ſummer. ders of the breaſt, and in cutaneous eruptions: in the itch it is a It often happens ſo, in fact, but why it ſhould be fo, is perhaps a certain remedy, whether internally or externally uſed, in which queſtion difficult to determine. The curious may, on this ſubject, caſe its efficacy probably depends, not ſo much on its purifying the conſult the Philoſophical Tranſactions, Nº 458, ſect X. blood, as on its fumes being deſtructive to the cuticular animal Summer Solſtice. See Solstice. cules to which the preſent theory aſcribes that diſtemper. It re SUMMIT, the vertex or point of any body or figure ; as of a markably corrects or reſtrains the power of certain mineral ſub triangle ; a pyramid, a pediment, &c. ftances of the more active kind : by the admixture of ſulphur SUMPTUARY Laws, Leges SUMPTUARIÆ, are laws made mercury becomes inert, the virulent antimonial regulus mild, and to reſtrain exceſs in apparel, coſtly furniture, eating, &c. Moſt arſenic itſelf almoſt innocent. Several mineral waters, which are ages and nations have had their ſumptuary laws, and ſome retain drank or uſed as baths for ſome diſeaſes of the breaſt or of the ſkin, them ſtill, as the Venetians, French, &c. But it is obſerved, that owe their good qualities to the ſulphur contained in them. And no laws are worſe executed than ſumptuary laws. Political writers fulphur combined with other ſubſtances may contribute to their have been much divided in opinion with reſpect to the utility of theſe medicinal powers. Sulphur is alſo uſed in ſeveral arts. By means laws to a ſtate. Baron Monteſquieu obſerves, that luxury is nee of it fine impreſſions of engraved ſtones are taken. ceſſary to monarchies, as in France : but ruinous to democracies, The utility of this ſubſtance as an ingredient in the preparation as in Holland. With regard to England, whoſe government is com- of gunpowder and fire-works is well known; and it is alſo uſed for pounded of both ſpecies, it may ſtill be a dubious queſtion, ſays whitening wool, ſilk, and many other matters expoſed to its vapour judge Blackſtone, how far private luxury is a public evil: and as during its combuſtion, the colours and redneſs of which could not ſuch cognizable by public laws. The ſumptuary laws of that an- be deſtroyed by any other ſubſtance, but are quickly effaced by this cient Locrian legiſlator Zaleucus, are famous : by theſe it was or- acid vapour. In this caſe it muſt be burnt, as Stahl has obſerved, dained, that no women ſhould go attended with more than one very ſlowly. The vapours of fulphur alſo whiten red roſes. They maid in the ſtreet, except ſhe were drunk : that ſhe ſhould not go have the ſame effect on gold, which is to be reſtored to its colour by out of the city in the night, unleſs ſhe went to commit fornication : boiling it in water with tartar : ſee on the ſubject of this article, that ſhe ſhould not wear any gold or embroidered apparel, unleſs Dict. Chym. art. Sulphur. Watſon's Chym. Efl. vol. i. p. 167, ſhe propoſed to be a common ſtrumpet ; and that men fhould not &c. Lewis's Mat. Med. art. Sulphur. There is a preparation of wear rings, or tiſſues, except when they went a whoring, &c. The common ſulphur, ſtrongly recommended by Mortimer for pre Engliſh have had their ſhare of ſumptuary laws, chiefly made in the ferving timber from being worm-eaten, as it is very ſubject to be reigns of Edw. III. Edw. IV. and Hen. VIII. againſt picked when felled before the fap is wholly at reſt. A quantity of com ſhoes, ſhort doublets, and long coats; though all repealed by ſta- mon yellow brimſtone is to be put into a common retort of glaſs, tute i Jac. I. c. 25. Under king Henry IV. Camden tells us, and covered three fingers deep with aqua fortis ; this is to be diſ pride was got ſo much into the foot, that it was proclaimed, that tilled off to a dryneſs, and the ſame repeated three times. The no man ſhould wear ſhoes above fix inches broad at the toes. And ſulphur then is to be taken out, and laid on a marble, or put into their other garments were ſo ſhort, that it was enacted, 25 Edw. an open flat glaſs vefſel, where it will ſoon run into an oil by deli IV. no perſon, under the condition of a lord, thould, from that time, quium. This oil is to be rubbed on any curious piece of wood that wear any mantle or gown, unleſs of ſuch length, that, ſtanding up- is in danger of worms; it will deſtroy them if they have begun to alſo SUN, Sol, in Aſtronomy, the great luminary which enlightens gives the wood an agreeable tinge or colour, which no art can ever the world, and by his preſence conſtitutes day. The ſun, which, robit of afterwards. It is alſo a great preſervative of wood that is in the infancy of aſtronomy, was reckoned among the planets, ſhould to be ſet in the earth, or under water ; and may be uſed with ſucceſs rather be numbered among the fixed STARS. It appears bright * 4 P and ories in it, and wholy prevent them if not yet begun. Om alto riebti i might cover his privy members and buttocks. No. 141. SUP SUP limply, and without any regard to body, we uſually call it figure :/ vee the Syſtem, Genus 78, 79, and 80. änd large in compariſon with them, becauſe we keep conſtantly per. The author of the article fanaticiſm in the Diet. Encycloped near the ſun, whereas we are at an immenſe diſtance from the ſtars. Paris, defines fanaticiſin as a blind and paſſionate zeal, which For a ſpectator, placed as near to any ſtar as we are to the ſun, ariſeth from ſuperſtitious opinions, and leads its votaries to com- would ſee that ſtar a body as large and bright as the ſun appears to mit ridiculous, unjuſt, and cruel actions, not only without ſhame, as; and a ſpectator, as far diſtant from the ſun as we are from the but even with certain internal feelings of joy and comfort: from ſtars, would ſee the fun as ſmall as we ſee a ſtar, diveſted of all its which he concludes that fanaticiſm is really nothing more than fu- circumvolving planets; and would reckon it one of the ſtars, in perſtition ſet in motion. The difference between true religion numbering them. According to the Copernican hypotheſis, which and ſuperſtition ſeems to be this: that the former is the exerciſe of is now generally received, and which has even demonſtration on its the underſtanding and affections, and the regulation of the con- ſide, the ſun is the centre of all the planetry and cometary ſyſtem: duct, founded on juſt notions of God, and of the method of round which all the planets and comets, and our earth among the averting his diſpleaſure and ſecuring his favour; and the latter is reſt, revolve, in different periods, according to their different dif the reſult of fancy and paſſion undirected and ungoverned, and ori- tances from the ſun. For a particular deſcription of the SOLAR ginating either in the deluſive hope of pleaſing God by ſome opi- System, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. II. and Plate III. Fig. 1. nion or practice entirely diſtinct from, and contrary to, thoſe no- SUNDAY, the firſt day of the week, thus called by our idola tions, or the diſtreſſing fear that he will not be pleaſed without trous anceſtors, becauſe ſet apart for the worſhip of the ſun. It is the addition of ſomething which ſuch notions neither require nor now more properly called the Lord's day, dies Dominicus, becauſe juſtify: kept as a feaſt in memory of our Lord's reſurrection on this day ; SUPINATOR, in Anatomy, a denomination given to two See SABBATH. muſcles of the arm ; the one called fupinator longus, the other ſupi- It was Conſtantine the Great who firſt made a law for the proper nator brevis; both ſerving to turn the palm of the hand upwards : obſervation of Sunday ; and who, according to Euſebius, appointed ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Table of Muſcles, Art. 22. it ſhould be regularly celebrated throughout the Roman empire. SUPINE, in the Lattin Grammar, a part of the conjugation of Before him, and even in his time, they obſerved the Jewiſh fab a verb, of like effect with the infinitive mood. There are two kinds bath, as well as Sunday ; both to ſatisfy the law of Moſes, and to of ſupines ; the one is um, whoſe ſignification is active, and marks imitate the apoſtles, who uſed to meet together on the firſt day. It a motion, as dare nuptum; the other in u, having a paffive fignifica- is well obſerved by Judge Blackſtone, (book iv. p. 63.) that beſides tion, as horrendum auditu, &c. The ſupines have neither number the notorious indecency and ſcandal of permitting any ſecular bu nor perſon. fineſs to be publicly tranſacted on this day, in a country profeſſing SUPPER, the evening repaft ; ſuppers that are heavy ſhould Chriſtianity, and the corruption of morals which uſually follows the be avoided, becauſe the ſtomach is more oppreſſed with the ſame profanation of it; the keeping one day in ſeven holy, as a time of quantity of food in an horizontal poſture than in an erect one, and relaxation and refreſhment as well as for public worſhip, is of ad becauſe digeſtion goes on more ſlowly when we ſleep than when we mirable ſervice to a ſtate, conſidered merely as a civil inſtitution. are awake. They ſhould be eaten long enough before bed-time, It humanizes, by the help of converſation and ſociety, the manners that they may be nearly digeſted before going to ſleep; and then a of the lower claſſes, which would otherwiſe degenerate into a ſordid draught of pure water will dilute that which remains in the fto- ferocity and ſavage ſelfiſhneſs of ſpirit : it enables the induſtrious mach. workman to purſue his occupation in the enſuing week with health SUPPLIES, called alſo AIDS and SUBSIDIES, are extraordinary and cheerfulneſs; it imprints on the minds of the people that ſenſe grants made by the commons of Great Britain, in parliament al- of their duty to God, ſo neceſſary to make them good citizens; but ſembled : who, when they have voted a ſupply to his majeſty, and which would be worn out and defaced by an unremitted continuance ſettled the quantum of that ſupply, uſually reſolve themſelves into of labour, without any ſtated times of recalling them to the worſhip what is called a committee of ways and means, to confider of the of their Maker. No arreſt can be made nor proceſs ſerved upon a ways and means of raſing the ſupply ſo voted. And in this com- Sunday, except for treaſon, felony, or breach of the peace; nor can mittee every member) though it is looked upon as the peculiar pro- any proceedings be had nor judgment given, nor ſuppoſed to be vince of the chancellor of the exchequer) may propoſe ſuch ſchemes given on Sunday. of taxation as he thinks will be leaft detrimental to the public. SUPERCILÍUM, in Anatomy, the eye-brow. See the Syſtem, The reſolutions of this committee (when approved by a vote of Part VII. Sect. V. the houſe) are in general eſteemed to be, as it were, final and con- SUPEREROGATION, in Theology, what a man does beyond clufive. For though the ſupply cannot be actually raiſed upon the his duty, or more than he was commanded to do. The Romaniſts ſubject till directed by an act of the whole parliament, yet no mo- ſtand up ftrenuouſly for works of ſupererogation ; and maintain, nied man will ſcruple to advance to the government any quantity that the obſervance of evangelical counſels is ſuch. By means of ready caſh, on the credit of a bare vote of the houſe of commons, hereof, a ſtock of merit is laid up, which the church has the diſ though no law be yet paſſed to eſtabliſh it; and which requires the poſal of, and which the diſtributes in indulgences to ſuch as need. aſſent of the two other branches of the legiſlature. The general This monſtrous and abſurd doctrine was firſt invented towards the reaſon given for this excluſive privilege of the houſe of commons, cloſe of the twelfth century, and modified and embelliſhed by St. is that the ſupplies are raiſed upon the body of the people, and, Thomas in the thirteenth : according to which it was pretended, therefore, it is proper that they alone ſhould have the right of tax- that there actually exiſted an immenſe treaſure of merit, compoſeding themſelves. This reaſon, ſays judge Blackſtone, will be uri- of the pious deeds and virtuous actions, which the ſaints had per anſwerable, if the commons taxed none but themſelves ; but it is formed beyond what was neceſſary for their own ſalvation, and notorious, that a very large ſhare of property is in the houſe of lords, which were, therefore, applicable to the benefit of others : that the which is equally taxed with the property of the commons; and, , guardian and diſpenſer of this precious treaſure was the Roman pon therefore, he ſays, the commons not being the fole perſons taxed, tiff; and that, of conſequence, he was empowered to aſſign to ſuch this cannot be the reaſon of their having the ſole right of raiſing as he thought proper a portion of this inexhauſtible ſource of merit, and modelling the ſupply. The true reaſon, ariſing from the ſpirit ſuitable to their reſpective guilt, and ſufficient to deliver them from of our conſtitution, he apprehends to be this. The lords being a the puniſhment due to their crimes. The reformed churches do not permanent hereditary body, created at pleaſure by the king, are ſup- allow of any work of ſupererogation ; but hold with the apoſtles, poſed more liable to be influenced by the crown, and when once in- that when we have done our beſt, we are but unprofitable ſervants. fluenced to continue ſo, more than the commons, who are a tempo- SUPERFETATION, SUPERFOETATIO, formed from ſuper, rary elective body, freely nominated by the people. It would, there- over, and fætus, embryo, in Medicine, an after or ſecond conception ; fore, be extremely dangerous to give the lords any power of fram- happening when the mother, already pregnant, conceives of a later ing new taxes for the ſubject. It is ſufficient that they have a power coition; ſo that fee bears at once two foetuſes of unequal age and of rejecting, if they think the commons too laviſh or improvident bulk, and is delivered of them at different times. We alſo meet in their grants. See PARLIAMENT and Money-Bills. with ſomething like a ſuperfetation in plants; there being a kind SUPPORTERS, in Heraldry, figures, ſtanding on the ſcroll, of lemon found to grow encloſed in the body of another. and placed by the ſide of the eſcutcheon, and ſeeming to ſupport SUPERFICIES, or SURFACE, in Geometry, a magnitude, or hold up the ſame. See the Syſtem, fect. VII. Art. X. conſidered as having two dimenſions; or extended in length and SUPPRESSION, in Medicine, is applied to the humours that breadth, but without thickneſs or depth. In bodies, the ſuperfices are retained in the body by ſome obſtruction or ſtoppage of the is all that preſents itſelf to the eye. A ſuperfices is chiefly conſi uſual outlet. We ſay, a ſuppreſſion of urine, of the menfes, &c. dered as the external part of a ſolid : when we ſpeak of a furface SUPPÚRATION, formed from ſub, ünder, and pus, puris, in ſee the Syſtem of and Medicine, the action whereby extravaſed blood, or other humours, SUPERLATIVE, in Grammar, an inflexion of nouns adjec in the body, are ripened, or changed into pus. See ABSCESS. tive, ſerving to augment and heighten their ſignification, and ſhew SUPRASPINATUS, in Anatomy, a thick, narrow, muſcle, the quality of the thing denoted to be in the higheſt degree : ſee thus called from its fleſhy origination at the upper end of the baſis Syſtem, Part II. Chap. III. Art. IV. of the ſcapula above the ſpine : ſee the Syſtem, Part. II. Table of SUPERSTITION, extravagant devotion, or religion wrongly Muſcles, Art. 20. directed or conducted. Superſtition confifts in falſe and abject no SUPREMACY, in the Engliſh policy, the ſuperiority or love tions of the deity, in the gloomy and groundleſs fear of inviſible reignty of the king over the church, as well as ſtate, of England, beings, and in the abſurd rites which theſe notions and fears natu whereof he is eſtabliſhed head. See KING. rally produce ; and, generally ſpeaking, it is the effect of igno The king's ſupremacy was firſt eſtabliſhed, or, as others ſay, re- rance, and of a judgment perverted by a ſour and ſplenetic tem covered, by king Henry VIII. in 1534, after breaking with the рор? SUR SUR my 9 pope. Stat. 25 Hen. VIII. cap. 12. 20. 1 Eliz. cap. I. It is ſcribes Eurypylus as wounded and under the hands of Patroclus lince confirmed by ſeveral canons, as well as by the articles of the who would certainly practiſe according to the directions of the church of England : and is paſſed into an oath, which is required furgeons. ord ni 19tung akan as a neceſſary qualification for all offices and employments both in Patroclus cut the forky ſteel away ; arts bilans de church and ſtate, from perſons to be ordained, from the members Then in his hands a bitter root he bruis’d, not an ou of both houſes of parliament, &c. This oath, as finally eſtabliſhed The wound he waſh'd, the ftyptic juice infus'da gure by i W. cap. 8. is as follows: "I A. B. do ſwear, that I do from The cloſing fleſh that inſtant ceas' to glow: heart abhor, deteſt, and abjure, as impious and heretical, that The wound to torture, and the blood to flow. ert damnable doctrine and poſition, that princes excommunicated or Till the days of Hippocrates we know very little of what was the deprived by the pope, or any authority of the fee of Rome, may be practice of the Greek ſurgeons. From him, however, we learn, depoſed or murdered by their ſubjects, or any other whatſoever. that the practice of blood-letting, cupping, and ſcarification, was And I do declare, that no foreign prince, perſon, prelate, ftate, or known to them ; alſo the uſe of warm and emollient fomentations, potentate, hath or ought to have any juriſdiction, power, ſuperio iſſues made with hot irons, peſſaries, injections, fumigations, &c. rity, pre-eminence, or authority, eccleſiaſtical or ſpiritual, within Hippocrates alſo gives directions with regard to fractures, luxa- this realm. So help me God,” By ſtat. 5 Eliz. cap. 1. to refuſe tions, ulcers, fiſtulas. He directs the extenſion, reduction, ban- the oath of ſupremacy will incur the pains of PRÆMUNIRE. dages, and ſplints, proper to be uſed in fractures and luxations of difa This right of fupremacy conſiſts chiefly in the following arti ferent bones, with ſeveral machines to increaſe the extenfion when cles, 1°, That the archbiſhops of either province cannot fummon neceſſary. He directs the laxity and tightneſs of the bandages; the biſhops and clergy to convocation, or enact any canons, with the intervals for looſing and binding them on again; the poſition out the king's expreſs conſent, by 25 Henry VIII. cap. 19. where and repoſe of the fractured member, the regimen and diet ; and he as, before that act, the convocation was often called, and laws mentions the time when a callus is uſually formed. He treats alſo made by it for governing the church, without any authority from of fractures of the ſkull, and the method. of applying the trepan. the crown. 2°, In that there lies now an appeal, from the arch In his treatment of ulcers, he ſpeaks of reducing fungous fleſh by biſhop to the king in chancery ; and, on ſuch an appeal, a com means of eſcharotics, ſome of which are alum, nitre, verdigreaſe, miſlion, under the ſeal, is to be directed to certain perſons, where quick-lime, &c. of commonly half are laymen, and half clergymen, which is called In the time of Ptolemy Philopater of Egypt, medicine, all the the Court of delegates, and which finally determine all eccleſiaſ branches of which had hitherto been practiſed by the fame perſon, tical cauſes, by 25 Hen. VIII. cap. 19. though ſometimes a re was now divided into three, viz. the dietetic, pharmaceutic, and view is granted. Before this ſtatute, the appeal from the archbi ſurgical; from which time to the preſent, ſurgery has continued ſhop's court lay to the pope only. 3°, The king can grant com to be reckoned a diſtinct profeſſion from medicine, though very miſſions for viſiting ſuch places as are exempt from the juriſdic- improperly, in the opinion of the beſt authors. tion of biſhops, or archbiſhops: and appeals lie from thence to Surgery appears not to have exiſted in Rome, notwithſtanding the king in chancery : whereas before 25 Henry VIII. the pope the warlike genius of the people, for more than 500 years. Ar- only could viſit them, and receive appeals from thoſe courts. 4° chagathus, a Greek, was the firſt profeſſor of that art in the city; Perſons in holy orders are not, as formerly, exempt from the king's and ſo frequently employed the knife, hot irons, and other cruel temporal laws, any more than laymen. 50, The biſhops and clergy methods of cure, that he was branded with the opprobious title of do not ſwear, or pay any obedience to the pope ; but muſt take hangmart, and expelled the city, where no phyſician or ſurgeon of the oaths of allegiance and ſupremacy to the king, eminence again made his appearance for 180 years. At this time SURD, in Algebra, denotes a number or quantity that is in Aſclepiades undertook the profeſſion of medicine ; but ſeems to commenſurate to unity; or that is inexpreſſible by any known have dealt little in ſurgery. Neither have we any thing of impor- way of notation, otherwiſe than by its radical ſign or index. tance on that ſubject till the year of Celſus, who flouriſhed during For explanation of the rules, &c. relative to this branch of the the reigns of Auguſtus and Tiberius. In his ſurgery, all the im- ſcience, with examples for reducing thoſe practices, ſee the Syſtem provements from Hippocrates to his own days are collected; the throughout. moſt minute and trifing diſeaſes are not omitted. An eminent SURGEON, or CHIRURGEON, one that profeſſes the art of ſurgeon, of the moderns, emphatically exhorts every perſon in that SURGERY. In England there are two diſtinct companies of ſur profeſſion “ to keep Celſus in his hands by day and by night." He geons now occupying the ſcience or faculty of ſurgery ; the one deſcribes the ſigns of a fractured ſkull, the method of examining company called barbers, the other ſurgeons, which latter are not in for the fracture, of laying the ſkull bare by an inciſion in the form corporated. The two are united to ſue, and be ſued, by the name of the letter X, and afterwards of cutting away the angles, and of of maſters or governors and commonalty of the myſtery of barbers applying the trepan, with the ſigns of danger and of recovery. and ſurgeons of London. 32 H. VIII. C. 42. The cure of fractures, in the upper and lower extremities, he ſaid SURGERY, a branch of medicine, including the knowledge were nearly alike; that fractures differ in degree of violence and of all thoſe diſeaſes wherein the application of the hand is necef danger, in being ſimple or compound, that is, with or without a ſary, whether ſuch diſeaſes are occaſioned by external injuries, or wound of the fleſh, and in being near to the joint. He directs the take their riſe from internal cauſes, with the method of perform extenſion of the member by aſſiſtants ; the reduction, by the ſur- ing all manual operations which may be neceſſary in ſuch caſes. geon's hands, of the fractured bones into their natural ſituation; and That ſurgery was coeval with the other branches of medicine, to bind the fractured part with bandages of different lengths, pre- or perhaps antecedent to any of them, will not admitt of doubt. viouſly dipped in wine and oil. Splints, if neceſſary, are to be ap- The wars and contentions which have taken place among man plied, to retain the bones in a fixed poſition. The fractured arm kind almoſt ever ſince their creation, neceſſarily imply that there is to be ſuſpended in a broad ſling hung round the neck. He de would be occaſion for furgeons at a very early period; and proba ſcribes the method of treating compound fractures, and of remov- bly theſe external injuries would for ſome time be the only diſeaſes ing ſmall fragments of ſplinters of bones; and the manner of ex- for which a cure would be attempted, or perhaps thought practi-tracting darts. In luxations of the ſhoulder, he mentions ſeveral cable. In the ſacred writings we find much mention of balſams, methods of giving force to the extenſion, and of replacing the particularly the balın of Gilead, as excellent in the cure of wounds: diſlocated bone. though at the ſame time we are informed that there were ſome In external gangrene, Celſus cut into the found fleſh; and when wounds which this balſam could not heal; as indeed we know, at the diſeaſe, in ſpite of every effort, ſpread, he adviſed extirpation of this day, there are many wounds which, though curable by inter the member. After cutting to the bone, the fleſh was ſeparated nal medicines, will reſiſt the moſt powerful external applications, from it, and drawn back, in order to ſave as much Aeſh as poſſible Concerning the ſurgery practiſed among the Egyptians, Jews, and to cover the extremity of the bone. Celſus, though extremely Aſiatic nations, we know little or nothing. The Greeks were diffuſe in the deſcription of ſurgical diſeaſes, and of various reme- thoſe from whom the art deſcended to us, though they confeſſedly dies and external applications, yet is nearly ſilent on the method received it from the eaſtern nations. The firſt Greek ſurgeons on and proceſs of extirpating members; from which, comparing his record are Æſculapius, and his fons Podalirius and Machaon. treatiſe with the modern ſyſtems, we might infer, that the opera- Eſculapius flouriſhed about 50 years before the Trojan war; and tion was then ſeldomer practiſed than at preſent. He deſcribes his two ſons diſtinguiſhed themſelves in that war both by their va the ſymptoms of that dangerous inflammation the carbuncle, and lour and ſkill in curing wounds. This indeed is the whole of the directed immediately to burn or corrode the gangrened part. To medical ſkill attributed to them by Homer; for in the plague promote the ſuppuration of abſceſſes, he ordered poultices of barley- which broke out in the Grecian camp, he does not mention their meal, or of marſhmallows, or the ſeeds of linſeed and fenugreek. being at all conſulted. Nay, what is ſtill more ſtrange, though he He alſo mentions the compoſitions of ſeveral repellent cataplaſms, ſometimes mentions his heroes having their bones broke, he never In that fuperficial inflammation called the eryſipelas, he applied takes notice of their being reduced or cured by any other than ſu ceruſs, mixed with the juice of ſolanum or nightſhade. Sal am- pernatural means; as in the caſe of Æneas, whoſe thigh bone moniac was ſometimes mixed with his plaſters. was broken by a ſtone caſt at him by Diomed. The methods He is very minute in deſcribing diſeaſes of the eyes, ears, and which theſe two famous ſurgeons uſed in curing the wounds of teeth, and in preſcribing a multitude of remedies and applications. their fellow ſoldiers ſeems to have been the extracting or cutting In inflammation of the eyes, he enjoined abſtinence and low diet, out the dart which inflicted it, and applying emollient fomenta reſt, and a dark room : if the inflammation was violent, with tions or ſtyptics, when neceſſary to the wound: and to theſe they great pain, he ordered veneſection and a purgative ; a ſmall poul- undoubtedly attributed much more virtue than they could poſſibly tice of fine flour, ſaffron, and the white of an egg, to be laid to poffeſs; as appears from the following lines, where Homer de the forehead to ſuppreſs the flow of pituita ; the ſoft inſide of warm white SUR SUR any white bread dipped in wine, to be laid on the eye ; poppy and complains of their groſs ignorance, and that the manual operations roſes were alſo added to his collyriums, and various ingredients, were performed by the phyſicians ſervants. Albucaſis enumerates too tedious to enumerate. In chronic watery defluxions of the a tremendous liſt of operations, ſufficient to fill us with horror. The hot iron and cauteries were favourite remedies of the Ara- eyes, he applied aſtringents, cupped the temples, and burnt the veins over the temple and forehead. He touched cataracts by de bians; and, in inveterate pains, they repoſed, like the Egyptians and eaſtern Aſiatics, great confidence in burning the part. He preſſing the cryſtalline lens to the bottom of the orbit. He de- ſcribes not only the inflammation, but likewiſe the elongation, of deſcribes accurately the manner of tapping in the aſcites ; mentions ſeveral kinds of inftruments for drawing blood ; and has left a more the uvula : he alſo deſcribes the polypus, and ſome other diſeaſes affecting the noſe. ample and correct delineation of ſurgical inſtruments than of He deſcribes ſeveral ſpecies of herniæ or ruptures, and alſo the the ancients. He gives various obſtetrical directions for extrac- hydrocele or dropſy of the ſcrotum, and the manual aſſiſtance required ting the foetus in caſes of difficult labours. He mentions the bron- in thoſe complaints. After the return of the inteſtines into the chocele, or prominent tumour on the neck, which he tells us, was abdomen, a firm compreſs was applied to that part of the groin moſt frequent among the female ſex. We are alſo informed by through which they protruded, and was ſecured by a bandage this writer, that the delicacy of the Arabian women did not permit round the loins. He deſcribes various diſeaſes of the genital parts, male ſurgeons to perform lithotomy on females ; but, when necef- a difficulty of urine, and the manner of drawing off the water by a fary, it was executed by one of their own ſ. x. catheter ; the ſigns of ſtone in the bladder, and the method of From the 11th century to the middle of the 14th, the hiſtory of founding or feeling for that ſtone. Lithotomy was at that time furgery affords nothing remarkable except the importation of that performed by introducing two fingers into the anus ; the ſtone was nauſeous diſeaſe the leproſy into Europe. St. Lewis king of France then preſſed forward to the perinæum, and a cut made into the had caught the leproſy in the Cruſades ; and in order to a cure was bladder; and by a crooked inſtrument, made in a particular form, preſcribed the blood of young children, as a potion, by the Jewiſh the tone was extracted. He deſcribes the manner of performing phyſicians. It does not appear that either external or internal re- this operation on both the ſexes, of treating the patient, and the medies were of any avail in curing it, or indeed thought to be fo; figns of recovery and of danger. Hippocrates had even ventured but, by taking proper precautions to ſeparate the infected from to cut into the kidney, either to give a diſcharge to abſceſſes, or to the found, it gradually diſappeared. The diſcovery of America in- extract ſtones. Celſus directed various corrolive applications and troduced a new and more terrible diſeaſe than the leproſy, namely, injections to fillulas : and, in the laſt extremity, opened them to the venereal ; which as its origin appeared in loathſome ulcers af- the bottom with a knife, cutting upon a grooved inſtrument or fecting the genitals, and by degrees the palate and uvula. Swellings conductor. In old callous ulcers, he made a new wound, by either and buboes aroſe in the groin ; in its more advanced ſtages, excru- cutting away the hard edges, or corroding them with verdigreaſe, ciating pains were felt in the bones, eſpecially at night; ſcabs and quick-lime, alum, nitre, and with ſome vegetable eſcharotics. ſmall running fores covered the ſkin; nodes or protuberances appeared He mentions the ſymptoms of caries in the bone ; directs the bone in the forehead ; the bones became at length carious, enlarged, and to be laid bare, and to be pierced with ſeveral holes, or with the rotten; many, after lingering for months under ſuch wretched cala- trepan, or to be burnt or raſped, in order to promote an exfoliation mities, others, for a year or more, loſt their palate, noſe, eyes, lips, of the corrupted part : afterwards to apply nitre and ſeveral other teeth, genitals , and, before death, preſented a cadaverous ſpectacle ingredients. One of his applications to a cancer was auripigmen of deformity and corruption. Even at this day, when the diſeaſe tum or arſenic. He directs the manner of tapping the abdomen has become much milder, venereal ulcers will ſometimes appear in the aſcites, and drawing blood by the lancet and cupping-glaſſes. with ſuch inveteracy, as to give no ſmall trouble to the ſurgeon who His cupping-glaſſes ſeem not to have been ſo convenient as the attempts to remove them. Soon after this, the ſcurvy, with all its modern : they were made either of braſs or horn, and were unpro train of direful, and for a long time incurable, ulcers, rigid muſcles, vided with a pump. He cured varicoſe veins by uſtion, or by in and rotten gums, made its appearance. The ſtate of medical know- ciſion. He gives directions for extracting the dead fvetus from ledge did not, in thoſe ages, admit of a certain and eaſy cure, either the womb, in whatever poſition it ſhould preſent. for the venereal diſeaſe or ſcurvy, nor was the true cure of the latter The laſt writer of conſequence who fouriſhed at Rome, was known, till within theſe few years. Galen, phyſician to the emperor Marcus Aurelius. His works are At the beginning of the 16th century, ſurgery was held in con- for the moſt part purely medicinal ; however, he wrote alſo on ſur tempt in this iſland, and was practiſed indiſcriminately by barbers, gery, and made Commentaries on the Surgery of Hippocrates. farriers, and fow-gelders : the barbers and ſurgeons company con- He opened the jugular veins, and performed arteriotomy at the tinued for 200 years after to be incorporated both in London and temples ; directed leeches, ſcarification, and cupping-glaſſes, to Paris. In Holland and ſome parts of Germany, even at this day, draw blood. He alſo deſcribed with accuracy the different fpecies barbers exerciſe the razor and lancet alternately. of herniæ or ruptures. In the year 500 Aouriſhed Aetius, in company in London, however, have now diſengaged themſelves whoſe works we meet with many obfervations onnitted by Celſus from that diſhonourable connection ; they are now likewiſe autho- and Galen, particularly on the ſurgical operations, the diſeaſes of riſed to examine and to grant certificates to young ſurgeons, which women, the cauſes of difficult labours, and modes of delivery. He qualify them to purchaſe or to be appointed to a medical commif- alſo takes notice of the dracunculus, or worm under the ſkin, a ſion in the army or navy. Even yet, however, the diſtinction bem diſeaſe at preſent common in Africa. Aëtius, however, is greatly tween phyſicians and ſurgeons is by far too great, and their recipro- excelled by Paulus Egineta, who flouriſhed in 640; and whoſe cal ignorance of theſe different branches of the fame ſcience, fre- treatiſe on ſurgery is ſuperior to that of Celfus or all the other an quently embarrelſes both phyſician and ſurgeon, often to the great cients. He directs how to extract darts ; to perform the operation danger of the patient, as will appear in the ſequel of this article. ſometimes required in dangerous ruptures or herniæ, where the Surgery, in the ſtrict limitation of the word, is principally con- inteſtines cannot by any other means be returned back; he directs fined to wounds, fractures, luxations, tumours, ulcers, and to the alſo to tie up punctured arteries in the operation for the aneruiſm. different manual operations, inſtruments, and bandages. Theſe Galen, Paulus, and all the ancients, ſpeak only of one ſpecies of are the themes of general ſyſtems of ſurgery. On this ſcience and aneuriſm, and define it to be “ a tumour ariſing from arterial art, amongſt the ancient ſurviving writers, Hippocrates, Celſus, blood, extravaſated from a ruptured artery." The aneuriſm from Galen, P. Ægineta, and Albucalis, alone poſleſs any intrinſic a dilation of the artery is a diſcovery of the moderns. In vio excellence. lent inflammations of the throat, where immediate danger of fuf It is within the laſt three centuries that we have any original focation was threatened, Paulus performed the operation of bronch improvement in ſurgery, from the æra of the Arabians; nor do we otomy. In obftinate defluxions upon the eyes, he opened the ju- know of any eminent Britiſh ſurgical writers until within the laſt gular veins. He deſcribes the manner of opening the arteries be 130 years. “ In Germany," ſays Heiſter, “ all the different hind the ears in chronic pains of the head. He wrote alſo upon ſurgical operations, at the beginning even of the 18th century, were obſtetrics, on difficult labours, and other female diſeaſes. Fabri left to empirics ; the reſt were contented to cure a wound, open a cius ab Aquabendente, a celebrated ſurgeon of the 16th century, vein or an abſceſs, return a fractured or luxated bone ; but they has followed Celſus and Paulus as text-books. ſeldom or ever ventured to perform any of the difficult operations : From the time of Paulus Egineta to the year 900, no writer of he alſo ſpeaks of their groſs ignorance of the Latin language. any conſequence, either on medicine or ſurgery, appeared. At The firſt furgical work of the 16th century, entitled to any pre- this time the Arabian phyſicians Rhazes and Avicenna revived in eminence or criticiſm, is that of J. Carpus; but in the effulgence the Eaſt medicinal art, which as well as others was almoſt all of later writers, his lightis ſcarce perceptible. F. ab Aquapendente, entirely extinguiſhed in the Weſt. Avicenna's Cannon Medicinæ, an Italian, publiſhed a ſyſtem of Surgery, containing a deſcription or General Syſtem of Medicine and Surgery, was for many ages of the various diſeaſes, accidents, and operations. Boerhaave pays celebrated through all the ſchools of phyfic. It was principally this author the following compliment: Ille fuperavit omnes, et nemo compiled from the writings of Galen and Rhazes. The latter had illi hanc diſputat gloriam ; omnibus potius quam hocce carere poljumus. correctly deſcribed the ſpina ventoſa, accompanied with an enlarge About the ſame period, A. Parey, a Frenchman, made ſeveral in- ment of the bone, caries, and acute pain. In difficult labours he portant additions to ſurgery, particularly in his collection of caſes recommends the fillet to affiſt in the extraction of the foetus : and of wounds, fractures, and other accidents which occur during war. for the ſame purpoſe Avicenna recommends the forcepts. He The ancients, who were ignorant of powder and fire-arms, are de- deſcribes the compoſition of ſeveral coſmetics to poliſh the ſkin and fective in this part of military ſurgery. Parey pretends to have make the hair grow or fall off. firſt invented the method of tying, with a needle, and ſtrong filk- Notwithſtanding this, however, it was not till the time of Albu thread waxed, the extremeties of large arteries, after the amputation caſis, that ſurgery came into repute among the Arabians. Rhazes of a member. The ligature of the blood-veffels is, however, merely The ſurgeons 2 Plate Carious Seulls infected with the Venereal Disease, Seether Anticle Surgery B. FU/ Fig.2. D D ررر MASKAITA C. Crianion felp. ingraved for Hatts Encyclopatia, Prinicd tir tlooke, 17, Paternoster flow, SUR S Ú R the rays a revival of the ancient practice, which had fallen irito diſuſe; 1 contuſions, and a variety of complaints, is alſo well entitled to throughout the dark ages, the hot iron, cauteries, and ſtrong peruſal. aſtringents, were ſubſtituted in its place. B. Maggius and L. Bo In preventing the protruſion of inguinal ruptures, the modern tallus wrote on the cure of gun-Thot wounds. J. A. Cruce wrote ſteel-bandages called truſſes are more effectual than the ancient. a ſyſtem of ſurgery. The nature of the hernia congenita, or inguinal rupture of infants, In the 17th century, ſurgery was enriched with ſeveral ſyſtems, was obſcure before the publications of Haller, Hunter, and Pott. and with detached or miſcellaneous obſervations. The principal The laſt author has written excellent treatiſes on ruptures and on authors are. M. A. Severinus, V. Vidius, R. Wiſeman, Le Clerc, the hydrocyle. J. Scultetus, J. Mangetus, C. Magatus, Spigellius, F. Hildanus, On diſeaſes of the eyes, and ſurgical operations of thoſe organs, T. Bartholin, P. de Marchette. The 18th century opens with ſe the moſt celebrated treatiſes are written by Maitre Jean, C. St. veral eminent ſurgical writers and improvements. In the operation Yves, D. Mauchard, and Taylor ; to which may be added, thoſe of lithotomy, as aſcribed by Celſus, the rectum or lower gut, and of Wathen and Ware, modern practitioners of great eminence. often the ſeminal ducts, were wounded, fiftulas enſued, or the Daviel a modern French ſurgeon, rejected the operation of de- power of generation was annihilated. The moderns therefore in- preſſing the cryſtalline lens with a needle to the bottom of the vented three methods different from that of Celſus. One method, orbit, in couching of cataracts ; he made an inciſion through the and the earlieſt, was to introduce a catheter into the urethra and external coat of the eye, and extracted this humour entire. In the bladder, and upon that to make a direct inciſion through the ure former mode the lens frequently aſcended, and again interrupted thra into the bladder. J. de Romanis, an Italian, in the 16th cen- of light.de tury was the original inventor of this operation, a deſcription of On the teeth, their diſeaſes, the dentiſt operations, and the den- which was publiſhed by his pupil Marianus. Another method tition of infants, we have two excellent treatiſes,one in French, the much later invented, was to diſtend the bladder as large as poſſible other in Engliſh; written by P. Fauchard and by J. Hunter. We with urine, and when thus enlarged and elevated, to open into it do not meet among the ancients with any mention of artificial through the abdominal muſcles, immediately above the os pubis. teeth. Hippocrates and Celſus only direct the immediate reinſta- Theſe are called the high and low operations ; that of Celſus, the ting into their ſockets found teeth ſuddenly looſened from the jaw. apparatus minor. With us, artificial teeth are commonly made from the hard tulks A French prieſt called Frere Jacques introduced another im of a fea-horſe. provement, ſomewhat different from the modern low opera Another modern invention, in which, unfortunately, the tion, or apparatus major. Jacques's inciſion' was directed ob- advantages and diſadvantages are ballanced, is that of tranſ- liquely and to one ſide of the urethra, avoiding as much as poſſible planting found teeth of ſimilar ſhape and fize from one head, to cpen any conſiderable extent of the urinary canal. Inconveni and fixing them inſtantaneouſly into the freſh fockets of another ences ſtill attended theſe various experiments in lithotomy. Jacques perſon's jaws; there they are tied to the neighbouring teeth by a was a bold raſh man, and ignorant of anatomy; of 60, cut by him waxed filk thread, and in a few weeks are firmly graſped and ſe- for the ſtone, 25 died foon after ; others ſurvived, but under an cured by the gums. incontinence of urine and fiftulas, and only 13 were perfectly cured. Through the writings of almoſt all the eminent anatomiſts, The prieſt's operation and ſucceſs is deſcribed by J. Merey. A there are a variety of miſcellaneous ſurgical operations. To re- grooved catheter was afterwards invented to conduct the inciſion- capitulate their names in detail would be ſuperfluous. knife ; other ſurgeons added the cutting-gorget ; and with theſe im 1. The great ſuperiorty of the moderns above the ancients, in the provements, Jacques's lateral operation is now conſidered as knowledge of anatomy, and the ſuperiority likewiſe in the con- one of the moſt ſafe and ſucceſsful. Douglas, Cheſelden, and ſtruction and workmanſhip of their inſtruments, neceſſarily render afterwards Le Dran, took uncommon pains to explain and to all their operations more ſafe and proſperous. improve this operation. J. Denys alſo wrote well on the ſtone In England there are two diſtinct companies now occupying the and lithotomy. ſcience or faculty of ſurgery ; the one commonly called barbers, J. Petit of Paris wrote on diſeaſes of the bones, fractures, diſlo the other ſurgeons, which latter were not incorporated till lately. cations, and caries. Boerhaave ſays, Tractatus hic nunquam fibi | The two were united to ſue and be ſued, by the name of maſters parem habuit. Petit invented the ſcrewed tourniquet, which can or governors, and commonly of the myſtery of Barbers and Sur- be braced or relaxed at pleaſure, and, in the hurry of battles, is ex geons of London. 32 Hen. VIII. cap. 42. tremely uſeful to compreſs the large arteries, and to ſtop the hæ No perſon uſing any barbery, or ſhaving in London, was to morrhage. Tourniquets were not uſed until towards the end of occupy any furgery, letting of blood, or other matter, drawing the 17th century. of teeth only excepted. And no perſon uſing the mytery or craft The ancients, previous to 'amputation, only made a tight of ſurgery, was to occupy or exerciſe the ſeal or craft of barbery, ligature round the member, or attempted to graſp and com or ſhaving, neither by himſelf, nor any other for his uſe. 32 preſs the arteries with the hand and fingers ; from theſe defects, Hen. VIII. cap 42. By the ſame ſtatute, ſurgeons were obliged amongſt them, the amputation of any large member, was thought to have ſigns at their doors. tremendous, and was too frequently fatal. Of late years, the aga- EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. ric, growing upon oak-trees, has been extolled as a powerful ſtyp- tic in hæmorrhages from large veſſels. FIGURE I. A complete deſcription of the different ſurgical accidents and dif Repreſents the ſkull of a woman, who died of the eaſes, and of the principal furgical operations, as executed from the Venereal Diſeaſe. beginning of the 18th century to the preſent time, with deſcriptions A, the carious part of the ſkull, "B, great part of the upper and plates of the inſtruments and bandages, will be ſeen in thoſe jaw rotted away. no celebrated writers, French, German, and Englſh, P. Dionis and FIGURE II. De la Faye, J. Garengeot, H. F. le Dran, L. Heiſter, and S. Repreſents the ſkull of a Man who died of the Sharp. Heiſters's Syſtem conſiſts of two quarto volumes, and is Venereal Diſeaſe. prefaced with a large catalogue of writers. To Sharp's Compen A, the bones of the noſe. B, the upper jaw. CC, the orbits of dium of ſurgical operations, is added a volume called A Critical the eyes. DD, proceſſus jugales. EE, carious parts of the ſkull, Inquiry into the Modern Prafiice of Surgery. To theſe may be the places which appear in ſhadow being exfoliated through both added, Saviard's Surgical Obſervations, J. Z. Platner's Surgical figures. Inſtitutions. The bones are ſubject to diſeaſes from all the ſame cauſes that On gunſhot wounds, and on fractures, Ranby and Brom other parts are ; but either from their hardneſs, inſenſibility, or field merit peruſal. Splints of a new conſtruction, to retain other cauſes, they are neither ſo frequently diſeaſed, nor do their fractured bones in a ſteady poſition until a callus is formed, were diſeaſes appear ſo various; and it is generally of moreconſequence, invented by Sharp, and improved by Pott. Gouch, with merito what texture the diſeaſed bone or part of the bone is of, than from rious ingenuity, has invented and publiſhed a deſcription of ſeveral what cauſe the diſeaſe proceeded; for when diſeaſes happen upon machines to ſecure fractured bones in a fixed ſtation. As ſuch ac the ſurface of the hard bones, they uſually admit a cure by exfolia- cidents occur ſo frequently in life, and above all during war, every tion. But when matter is formed in the ſpongy ends of the cylin- invention of this fort, and the author, is intitled to public thanks. drical bones, or in the bodies of other ſpongy bones ; the matter, There is infinitely more ſkill and addreſs required to ſave a frac-whatever was the firſt cauſe, inſinuates itſelf through thoſe ſpongy tured member, than to cut it off. Knives and ſaws are dreadful cells, ſwelling the hone, and making generally an incurable caries. alternatives ; and we have already an exuberant ſtock of treatiſes But if the matter is corroſive, it often ulcerates theſe parts, and uſu- on extirpation. ally makes fo large a diſcharge as to deſtroy the patient where the Numbers had dragged through a great part of life, and many had part diſeaſed cannot be extirpated, which is often the caſe when died in excruciating agony, from obſtructions of the urethra and matter is formed in the bones in ſcrophulous habits. fiſtulas, the conſequence of venereal gleets, and other cauſes. To The venereal diſeaſe rarely attacks any but the hardeſt parts of remedy ſuch complaints, we find bougies, of different conſtructions the bones ; very foon raiſing large tumours, and caries or mortifi- and materials recommended by the moderns, and deſcribed with cation, but theſe carious parts of bones, from this or other cauſes, more or leſs accuracy in moſt of the ſurgical fyſtems. In the pre are but partially mortified; for were they perfectly ſo, the ſound and fent century, Daran and Goulard have written diſſertations ex unfound parts would ſeparate, though the integuments were not preſsly upon this ſubject. Goulard's Treatiſe on the Prepara-taken off; whence it happens, that where there is a good habit of tions of Lead, and its utility in external inflammations, ſprains, body, carious bones are often endured many years without much 4 Q incon- No. 142. SUR SUR a, rectum ; rr, the ſpermatic inconvenience, and we find from experience, that ſuch feparations thew the ſituation of the urethra ; e, fymphiſis pubis ;f, bladder ; gg; are not to be made till the diſeaſed part is laid bare, and perfectly the ſuperior and inferior portions of the proftrate gland; i, bulb of mortified by being expoſed to the air; and then the ſecond part un the urethra preternaturally enlarged; k, cavity of the rectum ; i, derneath ſeparating from the unſound, there firſt granulates a fun- integuments ; m; the cut ſurface of the ſkin upon the belly; n, the navel. gous fleſh-like appearance, which ought never to be treated with FIGURE IV. corroſive medicines, it conſtantly ſhrinking and hardening of itſelf, being the ſame ſubſtance, which ſhoots from the ends of broken A ſide view of the blood veſſels of the pelvis. bones, where alſo it ſoon ſhrinks and connects into a callous to re- the aorta ; b, vena cava ; Co, the two iliac arteries ; dd, the unite them. two iliac veins ; e, internal iliac artery ;f, Poupart's ligament; The diſeaſes of the joints either happen from ulcers in the lubri- g, fymphiſis pubis ; h, the ſciatic artery ; i, obturator artery; k, cating glands, which pouring out matter that cannot be diſcharged, hæmorrhoidales arteries internæ ; 1, arteria veſicalis ; m, arteria foul the ends of the bones, or elſe form ſwellings in the ends of the pudica ; n, arteriæ hæmorrhoidales externæ ; 0, arteria circum- reſpective bones ; either of theſe in time create exceſſive pain, Rex, iliac artery ; p, the left thigh ; 9, which appears to be chiefly in the ligaments of the joints, notwith artery ; ſ, vertebræ of the loins ; t, inferior meſenteric artery ; u, ſtanding what has been ſaid of the inſenſibility of theſe parts by au- arteria ſacra ; v, the external iliac artery ; w, the epigaſtric thors. When a joint is much ſwelled, in theſe caſes it is vulgarly artery ; *, the os ilium ; y, arteries of the loins ; z, great tro- called a white ſwelling, and whatever may be done, when once the chanter of the right thigh bone. limb waſtes, and the fingers or toes of the limbs grow thinner at the joints, loſe their ſhape, and are what a painter would call out of FEMALE PELVIS. drawing, the caſe then is abſolutely irrecoverable. Sometimes in FIGURE Y. theſe caſes theends of the bones corrode, then join together and form A ſide view of the cavity of the pelvis. an anchyloſis, which though a bad diſeaſe of itſelf, yet is often a re- medy for this diſeaſe, which is much worſe. In like manner the a, the ſymphiſis pubis ; b, point of the os coccygis ; c, the og bones of the hands and feet, when they are vlcerated, ſometimes facrum ; dd, the iliac vein and artery cut off; é, the external iliac artery ; f, the obturator nerve ; g, a portion of the obturator unite, and are thus preſerved from total ruin. But there is one caſe of a white ſwelling that is amazing, where the pain is ſo great artery ;. h, a knife in the anus ; i, the lumbar vertebræ ; , mufculi levatores ani; 1, the right thigh ; m, ſacral nerves, going that there is a neceſſity of taking off the limb, and yet neither per- to form the great ſciatic nerve, or nerve of the thigh ; n, integu- ceive the ligament or glands diſeaſed, nor matter in the joints, nor ments and fat, &c. the bones carious, or any diſeaſed appearance, except that the ends of FIGURE VI, the bones are a little larger and ſofter. Cheſelden, in his Oſteographia,or Treatiſe on the Bones,obſerves A fide view of the contents of the pelvis, with the muſcles that not only theſe parts, but even the large medullary cavities of of the vulva and anus. the cylindrical bones, have ſometimes matter formed in them, aa, the vulva ; b, a bougie introduced into the vagina ; e, which conſtantly increaſing and wanting vent, will partly by cor- fymphiſis pubis; d, the clitoris ; e, ſphincter vaginæ ; , fat and roding and rendering the bone carious, and partly by preſſure, | integuments; &, a bougie in the rectum ; h, the uterus ; i, tear afunder the ſtrongeſt bone in the human body, of which, this plexus retiformis; k,the vagina; 1,the rectum ; m, the internal iliać author ſays, he has known ſeveral inſtances. In one caſe, where artery ; n, the ureter; o, levatores ani muſcles ; 9, muſcles and in- the matter had ſufficient diſcharge by an external caries, formed teguments of the loin; r, the os facrum. together with the internal one, all the internal hard part of the FIGURE VII. bone which contains the medulla was ſeparated from the reſt, and being drawn out through the place where the external caries made a A ſide view of the blood veſſels of the pelvis from Baron Haller. vent, the patient received a perfect cure. Another caſe of this kind a, the aorta ; bb, the two iliac arteries ; c, the internal iliac where the internal part which contains the medulla was alſo ſepa- artery given off the umbilical ligament and arteries of the bladder, rated from the reſt, and there being holes through which the matter and rectum, &c. d the femoral artery ; e, the os pubis;f, the bladder was diſcharged, but none ſufficient to take out the unfoliated bone, turned up; &, the uterus ; i, the vagina ; k, the rectum ; 1, the the matter continued to flow in a great quantity till it deſtroyed the laſt lumbar vertebræ; m, a portion of the vena cava ; n, the patient: and poſſibly if this caſe had been rightly known, the in os ilium ; 0, pſoas muſcle ; p, the arteria ſacra ; q, the umbia ternal foliated part might have been taken out, and the patientlical ligament; r, obturator artery ;/, epigaſtric artery; t, arteria cured. In both theſe caſes it ſeems as if only ſo much of the in- lumbalis. ternal part of the bone was become carious, as receives nouriſhment FIGURE VIII. from the artery which enters the middle of the bone, and as a caries A front view of the contents of the pelvis is a mortification of a bone, might not this diſeaſe ariſe from a hurt a, a, the thighs; b, the recti, muſcles and ſkin, turned over in the veſſels which nouriſhes that particular part? Theſe are the the pubes ; c, the bladder; d, the uterus ; ee, the fallopian tubes;f; moſt common diſeaſes of the bones. the ovaries; 8 the rectum; h, the ſigmoid flexor of the colon EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. i, appendiculæ vermiformes; k, the cæcum ; !, the ilium at its in- fertion into the cæcum ; m, the pſoas muſcles ; n, muſcles of EXHIBITING VIEWS OF THE HUMAN PELVIS. the abdomen and integuments. Male Pelvis. For deſcription of the bones of the pelvis, ſee the Syſtem of ANA- FIGURE I. Part I. Sect. III. Art. 3. and Plate I. Fig. 1. For the A front view of the poſterior muſcles of the pelvis, the ſubject Art. 24. For views of the Human Pelvis, male and female , in muſcles of the Pelvis, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Sect II. Table being put in the attitude as when cut for the ſtone. We have begun the Plates with this view, becauſe it is following a variety of ſituations, fee Plate II. annexed to this article.-- the order of diffection: theſe muſcles always being ſhewn before For a further deſcription of the bones and contents of the Fe- the contents of the pelvis are explained, and becauſe theſe muſcles male Pelvis, ſee the Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, Plate I. and its are generally cut in the operation of Lithotomy. Explanation. aa, the right and left thighs, b, penis, c, ſcrotum, turned back, Surgery, as it relates to theory and practice, being ſo compre- dd, the corpora convernoſa penis : in this view the erector muſcles, henſive in its nature, that to give it in an abſtracted point of view or as Winſlow terms them, the Iſchia Cavernoſa, are hid in the would be attended with little utility or entertainment to the readers ; internal labium of the ramus of the Os Iſchium ; e, the accelerator and if we were to introduce a regular and complete Syſtem, it urinæ, by the aſſiſtance of this muſcle the laſt drops of urine are would occupy the whole ſpace allotted for the completion of the ſqueezed out ;f, the tranſverſalis muſcle ; g, levatores ani ; h, work. We have therefore waved the conſideration of it in a ſyſte- ſphincter ani ; i i, the two tuberoſities of the os iſchium. matic point of view, eſteeming it a ſubject of too great importance to admit of abridgment, or to be preſented by way of epitome. FIGURE II. But we have given a copious account of its riſe and progreſs, A ſide view of the contents of the Pelvis. and have deſcribed the two plates which refer to this article, A, fymphiſis pubis, b, this letter is placed over the point of the os the latter of which (the human pelvis) we thought could by coccygis above the rectum, the rectum c, ſymphiſis facri or junction no means be omitted, though we have not treated the ſubject between the os ilium and ſacrum ; d, external iliac artery ; e, iliac at large. vein, f, internal iliac artery, gg, veſiculæ ſeminales; h, the ſcrotum; Notwithſtanding ſo many authors have written on this ſubject, i, cowpers glands ;k, proſtate gland; 7, bulb of the urethra; m, vefi and treated it ſo copiouſly, not one of them has illuſtrated the de- culæ ſeminales, n, bladder ; 6, ſpermatic plexus; PP, rectum; q, cor ſcription by plates; we therefore preſume thoſe we have preſented pus cavernoſum penis; rrr, the peritonæal coat diſſected offfrom the will be acceptable to readers in general, and the faculty in par- Icft thigh ;/, the right thigh ; t, the levatores ani; u, the umbilical ticular, as they minutely explain parts ſo inacceſſible to the in- ligament ; vv, a ſtaff in the urethra, fhewing its courſe into the ſpection of the practitioner, ſo frequently the ſeat of diſeaſe, and the left ureter ; xx, ſpermatic plexus, coming down conſequently of ſurgical treatment; and further, as they afford from the aorta. more correct information with reſpect to the relative ſituation FIGURE III. and figure of the parts, than can be derived from the peruſal A ſide view of a ſchirrous, poſtrate gland, and as a conſequence of the beſt writers. Indeed, in this inſtance, deſcriptions with- of it the bladder preternaturally enlarged. out figures to illuſtrate them, may be conſidered as a body with- a, right thigh ; b, penis c, ſcrotum ; d, the catheter introduced to out animation. TOMY. Practical Surveying inviata liv the Pain - Jable, Theodolite 21. TODA 96 MBUS 30 170 180 DOO 40 30 20 11 unds of Henry emith ( ani ester » Sostruments. Die tle Joystem Fig: 8. Fig: 9. Fig. 10. E D 21om 29/0 G E } B @ B Fig: 7. Fig.5. B с D Fig. 6. 6 6 6 6 С D B D Duul Iorner Land Fig. 3. Fig: 4. Lunds of I. Williams E 6 ? Ilijinsi lini 1 North Field 1111 20. F Land 3 4 I 010 JO Last Field of ll interton Jhenry Derman Tum 190 Turls iluntatore 200 TVestlicla 3 II Char! v Part 6 к 1 N I L S M N 6 N B 9 P Fig:1 Fig.2. 10 TE K с 1 A B В F16 6. 6 3 C D 182 72 7 4 7 R 700 O 90 R 3 S O 2 S B Fig.11. Fig. 12 on 90 1:0 (0) VU. Go Nodol amion tinguered for the New Enerciopedia l Derblished as the ket directs, loy c Cooke, 1947, Paternoster Row. July 15795 y la per non leo lao Geometrail and Graphical Tranr. Ivalo SYSTEM OF SURVEYING: THE HE practice of furveying conſiſts of four parts. 1. Meaſur= when the ſtaff is fixed in the ground on the ſtation line, the ſquare ing ſtrait lines. 2. Taking angles, or finding the poſition of anſwers the purpoſe of a croſs ſtaff, and may, if deſired, have ſights ftrait lines with reſpect to each other. 3. Laying down or planning fitted to it. The quadrant is furniſhed with a ſpirit level, and is theſe poſitions and meaſures upon paper. 4. Obtaining the area faſtened to the limb D E of the ſquare, by the ſcrew G. When the ſuperficial meaſure of the land to be ſurveyed. Land ſurveying ſeveral lines on the limb of the quadrant, have their firſt diviſion, is therefore an art which teaches us according to the rules of geo- coincident with their reſpective index diviſions, the axis of the level metry, trigonometry, and menſuration, to find how many times any is parallel to the ſtaff. The firſt line next the edge of the quadrant cuſtomary meaſure is contained in a given piece of ground, and to is numbered from right to left, and is divided into 100 parts, exhibit the true boundaries thereof, in a plan or map. In this buſi- which ſhews the number of links in the horizontal line, which are neſs the curvature of the earth's ſurface, within the limits of an or completed in 100 links on the hypothenuſal line, and in propor- dinary ſurvey, is ſo inconſiderable, that it may be ſafely conſidered tion for any leffer number. The ſecond, or middlemoſt line, as a plane. Though in an exceeding large extent, as a province, ſhews the number of links the chain is to be drawn forward, to or a kingdom, ſuch curvature becomes conſiderable, and duc render the hypothenuſal meaſure the ſame as the horizontal. The allowance ſhould be made for it. third or uppermoſt line, gives the perpendicular height, when the SE CT. I. horizontal line is equal to 100. OF THE DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS USED IN ground, ſo that the place of the quadrant may be upright, then To uſe the quadránt. Lay the ſtaff along the chain line, on the SURVEYING, AND THE METHOD OF EXAMIN- move the quadrant till the bubble ſtands in the middle, and on the ING THEIR ADJUSTMENTS. ſeveral lines you will have, 1. The horizontal length gone for- A ſurveyor ſhould be provided, 1. with a meaſuring chain, and ward in that chain. 2. The links to be drawn forward to com- arrows, ſtations, a croſs ſtaff, and offset ſtaff, in order to the taking plete the horizontal chain. 3. The perpendicular height or of diſtances, or diſtances may be meaſured by a meaſuring wheel, alſo deſcent made in going forward on the horizontal chain. The two with a ſurveying quadrant to correct diſtances meaſured by the chain. firſt lines are of the utmoſt importance in ſurveying land, which 2. with a theodolite, plain table, circumferenter, Hadley's ſextant, cannot poſſibly be planned with any degree of accuracy without or fome other convenient and practical inſtrument for the taking of having the horizontal line, and this is not to be obtained by any angles, or determining the poſitions of lines ; and 3. with a caſe of inſtrument in uſe, without much loſs of time to the ſurveyor. For pocket inſtruments, a ſet of plotting ſcales, and with parallel rules, with this, he has only to lay his ſtaff on the ground, and ſet the proportional compaſſes, and ſuch other pocket inſtruments as may quadrant till the bubble is in the middle of the ſpace, which is very be found uſeful in planning, or laying down the meaſuremcr.ts foon performed, and he ſaves by it more time in plotting his ſurvey, upon paper. than he can loſe in the field; for as he completes the horizontal Deſcription of the Chain. The meaſure now univerſally adopted chain ashe goes forwards, the offsets are always in their right places, in this kingdom for the purpoſes of land-ſurveying, is the Gunter's and the field-book being kept by horizontal meaſure, his lines are chain. It is 66 feet, or 4 poles in length, and is divided into 100 always ſure to cloſe. If the ſuperficial content by the hypothenu- links, each link, with the rings between them is 7.92 inches long, ſal meaſure be required for any particular purpoſe, he has that every tenth link is pointed out by p:ieces of braſs of different ſhapes likewiſe by entering in the margin of his field-book the links drawn for the more ready counting of the old links. N. B. Ten chains forward in each chain, having thus the hypothenuſal and horizontal or 40 poles or perches in length, and one chain, or 4 poles or length of every line. Alſo the third line, which is the perpendi- perches in breadth, make an acre : conſequently an acre contains cular height, may be uſed with ſucceſs in finding the heights of 160 ſquare poles. timber. Directions for uſing the chain. Marks are firſt to be ſet up at Of the IMPROVED MEASURING WHEEL, as conſtrueted by the places whoſe diſtance is to be obtained; the place where you be- Mr. GEORGE ADAMS. gin, may be called your firſt ſtation ; and the ſtation to which you A meaſuring wheel conſiſts of a wheel of wood, ſhod or lined firſt meaſure, the ſecond ſtation ; two perſons are to hold the chain, with iron, to prevent the wear ; a ſhort axis fixed to the wheel, one at each end; the foremoſt, or chain leader, muſt be provided which communicates motion to the wheel-work, included in the with nine arrows, one of which is to be put down (perpendicularly) body of the inſtrument. In this inſtrument, the circumference of at the end of the chain when ſtretched out, and to be afterwards the wheel is 8 feet 3 inches, or half a pole ; one revolution of this taken up by the follower, by way of keeping an account of the num wheel turns a ſingle-threaded worm once round; the worm takes ber of chains. When the arrows have all been put down, the into a wheel of 8o teeth, and turns it once round in 80 revolutions; leader muſt wait till the follower brings him the arrows, then pro- on the ſocket of this wheel is fixed an index, which makes one ceeding onwards as before, but without leaving an arrow at the revolution in 40 poles, or one furlong ; on the axis of this worm tenth extenſion of the chain. In order to keep an account of the is fixed another worm with a ſingle thread, that takes into a wheel number of times which the arrows are thus exchanged, they of 40 teeth ; on the axis of this wheel is another worm with a ſingle Should each tie a knot on a ſtring carried for that purpoſe (and which thread, turning about a wheel of 160 teeth, whoſe focket carries an may be faſtened to the button or button-hole of the coat): they index that makes one revolution in 80 furlongs, or ten miles. On ſhould alſo call out the number of thoſe exchanges, that the ſurveyor the dial-plate there are three graduated circles, the outermoſt is di- may have a check on them. And as it is neceſſary that the chain vided in 220 parts, or the yards in a furlong; the next into 40 parts, bearer ſhould proceed in a ſtrait line, it is a very good method to the number of poles in a furlong; the third into 80 parts, the num- ſet up a ſtaff at every ten chains, for the purpoſe of a guide to pre ber of furlongs in ten miles; every mile being diſtinguiſhed by its ſerve the rectilinear direction. All diſtances of offsets from the proper Roman figure. This is a uſeful inftrument for meaſuring chain line to any boundary which are leſs than a chain, are moſt roads and commons, &c. where expedition is required. conveniently meaſured by the offset ſtaff: the meaſure muſt always Of the SURVEYING Cross, or Cross Staff. be obtained in a direction perpendicular to the ſtation line, which The croſs conſiſts of two pair of ſights, placed at right angles to in ſmall offsets may be accurately enough determined by the eye, In large offsets, the croſs ſtaff, or ſome convenient inſtrument, each other; theſe fights are ſometimes pierced out in the circum- ference of a thick tube of braſs about 2 inches diameter. Some- ſhould be uſed. Deſcription of the SURVEYING QUADRANT, invented by Mr. times it conſiſts of four fights ſtrongly fixed upon a braſs croſs; this R. KING, Surveyor. is, when in uſe, ſcrewed on a ſtaff having a ſharp point at the bot- There are two circumſtances to be conſidered in the meaſuring ſurveying. The ſurveying croſs is a very uſeful inſtrument for plac- tom to ſtick in the ground; one of this kind is repreſented at fig. 8, of lines in an inclined ſituation : the firſt regards the plotting, or laying down the meaſures on paper ; the ſecond, the area or ſuper- ing of offsets, or even for meaſuring ſmall pieces of ground ; its ac- ficial content of the land. With reſpect to the firſt, it is evident curacy entirely depends on the placing the fights, which are to be that the oblique lines will be longer than the horizontal ones, or by baſe; if therefore the plan be laid down according to ſuch meaſures, time, without moving the inſtrument, another object through the at one object through two of the lights, and obſerving at the ſame all the other parts thereof, would be thereby puſhed out of their true ſituations; hence it becomes neceſſary to reduce the hypothe-fame objects through the oppoſite fights ; if they are accurately in other two ſights; then turning the croſs upon the ſtaff, look at the nuſal lines to horizontal , which is eaſily affected by Mr. King's the direction of the fights, the inſtrument is jutt. quadrant. With reſpect to the area, there is a difference among ſurveyors; ſome contending that it ſhould be made according to The Common PLANE TABLE. the hypothenuſal, others according to the horizontal lines: but as This is an inſtrument ſo well known that it is unneceſſary to deli- all are agreed to the neceſſity of the reduction for the firſt purpoſe, neate it. The tabular part of it is uſually made of two well ſea- we need not enter minutely into their reaſons here; for even if we ſoned boards, forming a parallelogram of about 15 inches long, and admit, that in ſome caſes more may be grown on the hypothenuſal 12 inches broad: the ſize is occaſionally varied to ſuit the intentions plane than the horizontal, yet even then the area ſhould be given of the operator. The aforeſaid parallelogram is framed with a according to both ſuppoſitions, as the hilly and uneven ground re- ledge on each ſide to ſupporta box frame, which frame confines the quires more labour in the working. The quadrant, A B, fig. 10, paper on the table, and keeps it cloſe thereto; the frame is therefore Plate of Surveying, is fitted to a wooden ſquare which ſlides upon fo contrived, that it may be taken off and put on at pleaſure, either an offset ſtaff, and may be fixed at any height, by means of the ſide upwards; each ſide of the frame is graduated; one ſide is uſu- ſcrew C, which draws in the diagonal of the ſtaff, thus embracing. ally divided into ſcales of equal parts, for drawing lines parallel or the four ſides, and keeping the limb of the ſquare perpendicular to perpendicular to the edges of the table, and alſo far more conveni- the ſtaff; and the ſtaff ſhould be pointed with iron to prevent wear: ently ſhifting the paper: the other face or ſide of the frame is di- vided SURVEY ING. ged ſtaff. ܪ paper vided into 360°, from a braſs centre in the middle of the table, in, fixed, taken out, and changed at pleaſure ; àrly two of thém may Order that angles may be meaſured as with a theodolite; on the ſame be joined together on the table, by making each of them meet exa face of the frame, and on two of the edges, are graduated 180°, the actly at the middle, whilſt near one half of each will hang over the centre of theſe degrees is exactly in the middle between thetwo ends, fides of the table; or by doubling them both ways through the and about part of the breadth from one of the ſides. A magnetic middle, four of them may be put on at one time, metting in the needle and compaſs box, covered with a glaſs and ſpring ring, ſlides centre of the table. For this purpoſe, each chart is always to be in a dovetail on the under ſide of the table, and is fixed there by a croſſed quite through the middle; by theſe means the great trouble finger ſcrew ; it ſerves to point out the direction, and be a check and inaccuracy in ſhifting the paper is removed. The charts thus upon the ſights. There is alſo a braſs index fomewhat larger than uſed, are readily laid together by correſponding numbers on their the diagonal of the table, at each end of which a ſight is fixed; the edges, and thus make up the whole map, in one view; and being vertical hair, and the middle of the edge of the index, are in the ſame in ſquares are portable, eaſily copied, enlarged, or contracted. plane ; this edge is chamfered, and is uſually called the fiducial Underneath the table is a ſprang to fit on the focket of a ſtaff with edge of the index. Scales, of different kinds, are uſually laid down parallel plates and adjuſting ſcrews. on the edge of the index. Under the table is a ſpring to fix on the Of the CIRCUMFERENTER. pin of the ball and ſocket, by which it is placed upon a three-leg- This inſtrument conſiſts of a compaſs box, a magnetic needle, and two plain ſights, perpendicular to the meridian line in the box, To place the Paper on the Table, take a ſheet of paper that will by which the bearings of objects are taken from one ſtation to an- cover it, and wet it to make it expand, then ſpread it flat upon the other. It is not much uſed in England where land is valuable; table, preſſing down the frame upon the edges to ſtretch it, and but in America, where land is not ſo dear, and where it is ne keep it in a fixed ſituation : when the paper is dry it will by con ceſſary to ſurvey large tracts of ground (overſtocked with wood,) in tracting become ſmooth and flat. a little time, and where the ſurveyor muſt take a multitude of an- Of Shifting the Paper on the PLANE TABLE, gles, in which the fight of the two lines forming the angle may be When the paper on the table is full, and there is occaſion for hindered by underwood, the circumferenter is chiefly uſed. The more, draw a line in any manner through the fartheſt point of the circumferenter, ſee fig. 12, conſiſts of a braſs arm about 14 or 15 laſt ſtation line, to which the work can be conveniently laid down inches long, with lights at each end, and in the middle thereof a then take the ſheet of paper off, and fix another on the table ; draw circular box (with a glaſs cover) of about 51 inches diameter; a line upon it in a part moſt convenient for the reſt of the work ; within the box is a braſs graduated circle, the upper ſurface divided then fold or cut the old ſheet of paper by the line drawn on it, ap into 360 degrees, and numbered 10. 20. 30. to 360 ; every tenth ply the edge to the line on the new Theet, and, as they lie in that diaree is cut down on the inner edge of the circle. The bottom of poſition, continue the laſt ſtation line upon the new paper, placing the box is divided into four parts or quadrants, each of which is upon it the reſt of the meaſures, beginning where the old ſheet left ſubdivided into go degrees numbered from the meridian, or north off, and ſo on from ſheet to ſheet. To faſten all the ſheets of and fouth points, each way to the eaſt and weſt points; in the mid- together, and thus form one rough plan, join the aforeſaid lines ac dle of the box is placed a ſteel pin finely pointed, called the centre curately together, in the ſame manner as when the lines were tranſ pin, on which is placed a magnetic needle, the quality of which is ferred from the old ſheets to the new one. But if the joining lines ſuch, that allowing for the difference between the aſtronomic and upon the old and new ſheet have not the ſame inclination to the ſide magnetic meridians) however the inſtrument may be moved about, of the table, the needle will not point to the original degree when the bearing or angle which any line makes with the magnetic me- the table is rectified. If the needle therefore ihould reſpect the ridian, is at once ſhewed by the needle. At each end of the braſs ſame degree of the compaſs, the eaſieſt way of drawing the line in rule, and perpendicular thereto, fights are fixed ; in each ſight the ſame poſition, is to draw them both parallel to the fame fides there is a large and ſmall aperture, or flit, one over the other, of the table, by means of the ſcales of equal parts on the two ſides. theſe are alternate ; that is, if the aperture be uppermoſt in one To uſe the Plane Table. Fix it at a convenient part of the ground, ſight, it will be loweſt in the other, and ſo of the ſmall ones ; a and make a point on the paper to repreſent that part of the ground. fine piece of ſewing ſilk, or a horſe hair, runs through the middle Run a fine ſteel pin or needle through this point into the table, of the large ſit. Under the compaſs box is a ſocket to fit on the againſt which you muſt apply the fiducial edge of the index, mov pin of the ſtaff; the inſtrument may be turned round on this pin, ing it round till you perceive ſome remarkable object, or mark ſet or fixed in any ſituation by the milled nut ; it may alſo be readily up for that purpoſe. Then draw a line from the ſtation point, fixed in an horizontal direction by the ball and ſocket of the ſtaff, along the fiducial edge of the index. Now ſet the fights to another moving for this purpoſe the box, till the ends of the needle are equi- mark, or object, and draw its line, and ſo proceed till you have ob diſtant from the bottom, and traverſe or play with freedom. tained as many angular lines as are neceſſary from this ſtation. To uſe the circumferenter. Let FED, (fig. 1.) be the angle to The next requiſite is the meaſure or diſtance from the ſtation to as be meaſured. 1. The inſtrument being fixed on the ſtaff, place many objects, as may be neceſſary, taking at the ſame time the off its centre over the point E. 2. Set it horizontal, by moving the ſets to the required corners or crooked parts of the hedges ; ſetting ball in it's ſocket till the needle is parallel to the bottom of the off all the meaſures upon their reſpective lines upon the table: compaſs box, on which the flower de lys is engraved, next the eye. Now remove the ſtation to ſome other ſtation, whoſe diſtance from 4. Look along EF, and obſerve at what degree the needle ſtands, the foregoing was previouſly meaſured; then lay down the objects fuppoſe 30. 5. Turn the inſtrument round upon the pin of the which appear from thence, and continue theſe operations till your ball and ſocket, till you can ſee the object D, and ſuppoſe the nee- work is finiſhed, meaſuring ſuch lines as are neceſſary, and deter dle now to ſtand at 125. 6. Take the former number of obſerved mining as many as you can by interſecting lines of direction, drawn degrees from the latter, and the remainder is the required angle. from different ſtations. In uneven ground, the table cannot in When in the uſe of the circumferenter, you look through the up- all ſtations be ſet horizontal, or uniformly in any one place. Alſo per lights from the ending of the ſtation to the beginning, it is called the contraction and expanſion of the paper according to different a back-fight; but when you look through the lower ſlit from the degrees of moiſture and temperature of the air, is a ſource of many beginning of the ſtation towards the end, it is termed the fore fight. errors in the uſe of this inſtrument, if not carefully attended to. Of the New IMPROVED CIRCUMFERENTER, as conſtructed Of the IMPROVED PLANE TABLE, Fig. 9. by Mr. ADAMS. To remedy ſome of the inconveniences and errors, to which The excellency and defects of the preceding inſtrument, both the common plane table is liable, the following improvedone uſually originated in the needle ; from the regular direction thereof, ariſe called Beighton's plane table, though differing in many reſpects all its advantages; the unſteadineſs of the needle, the difficulty of from that deſcribed by him in the Philoſophical Tranſactions, is aſcertaining with exactneſs the point at which it fettles, are ſome conſtructed and fold by Mr. George Adams of Fleet ſtreet. It is of it's principal defects. In this improved conſtruction, theſe are a plain board, 16 inches fquare, with a frame of box or braſs round obviated, as will be evident from the following deſcription. One the edge, for the purpoſe of being graduated. On the ſides AB, of theſe inſtruments is repreſented at fig. 11. A pin of about three CD, are two grooves and holdfafts for confining firmly, or eaſily quarters of an inch diameter goes through the middle of the box, removing the paper ; they are diſengaged by turning the ſcrews and forms as it were a vertical axis, on which the inſtrument may under the table from the right towards the left, and drawn down be turned round horizontally; on this axis an index AB is faſtened, and made to preſs on the paper by turning the ſcrews the contrary moving in the inſide of the box, having a nonius on the outer end way. When the holdfaits are ſcrewed down, their ſurface is even to cut, and fubdivide the degrees on the graduated circle. By the with that of the table. There are two pincers to hold that part of help of this index, angles may be taken with much greater accuracy the paper, which in ſome caſes lies beyond the table, and prevent than by the needle alone; and as an angle may be aſcertained by its Alapping about with the wind. The compaſs box is made to the index with or without the needle, it of courſe removes the diffi- fit either ſide of the table, and is fixed by two ſcrews, and does not culties which would otherwiſe ariſe if the needle ſhould at any time when fixed, project above one inch and a half from the ſide of the happen to be acted upon, or drawn out of its ordinary poſition by table. There is an index with teleſcopic fights, EFGH ; it is extraneous matter ; there is a pin beneath, whercby the index may ſometimes ſo conſtructed, as to anſwer the purpoſe of a parallel be faſtened temporarily to the bottom of the box, and a forew as rule. The papers or charts for this table, are to be either a fine uſual, to fix the wholeoccaſionally to the pin of the ball and ſocket, thin paſteboard, fine paper paſted on cartridge paper, or two ſo that the body of the inſtrument, and the index, may be either papers paſted together, cut as exactly ſquare as poſſible, and turned round together, or the one turned round, and the other re- of ſuch a length that they may fide in eaſily, between the main fixed, as occaſion ſhall require. A further improvement is upright parts, and under the flat part of the hoiders, Any one that of preventing all horizontal motion of the ball in the focbet; the of theſe charts may be put into the table any of the four ways, be ball has a motion in the focket every poſſible way, and every one of SUR VE YING. fectly free rurate commodious, and univerſal inſtruments for the purpose of theſe poſſible motions is nieceſſaryexcept the horizontal one, which is To adjuſt the Levels of the Horizontal Plate. here totally deſtroyed, and every other poſſible motion left per 1. Place the inſtrument on it's ſtaff, with the legs thereof at ſuch a diſtance from each other, as will give the inſtrument a firm Of the COMMON THEODOLITE. footing on the ground. 2. Set the nonius to 360, and move the The common theodolite conſiſts of a braſs graduated circle, and inſtrument round, till one of the levels is either in a right line with a moveable index ; on the top of the index is a compaſs with a two of the ſcrews of the parallel plates, or elſe parallel to ſuch a magnetic needle, the compaſs box is covered with a glaſs, two ſights line. 3. By means of the two laſt mentioned ſcrews, cauſe the are fixed to the index, one at each end, perpendicular to the plane bubble in the level to become ſtationary in the middle of the glaſs. of the inſtrument; there are two more ſights which are fitted to the 4. Turn the horizontal limb by the milled nut half round, or till graduated circle at the point of 360° and 180°; they all take on the nonius is at 180, and if the bubble remains in the middle as be- and off for the conveniency of packing. In each ſight, there is, fore, the level is adjuſted ; if it does not, correct the poſition of the as in the circumferenter, a large and a ſmall aperture placed alter- level, by turning one or both the ſcrews which paſs through its ends, nately, the large aperture in one fight, being always oppoſed to the till the bubble has moved half the diſtance it ought to come to reach narrow aperture in the other; underneath the braſs circle, and in the middle, and cauſe it to move the other half by turning the the centre thereof, is a ſpring to fit on the pin of the ball and ſocket ſcrew of the parallel plates. 5. Return the horizontal limb to its which fixes on a three-legged ſtaff. The circle is divided into de former poſition, and if the adjuſtments have been well made, the grees, which are all numbered one way to 360°, uſually from the bubble will remain in the middle ; if otherwiſe, the proceſs of al- left to the right, fuppofing yourſelf at the centre of the inſtrument; tering muſt be repeated till it bears this proof of accuracy. 6. Now on the end of the index is a nonius diviſion, by which the degrees regulate the ſcrews of the ſtaff-head, ſo that the bubble remain in on the limb are ſubdivided to five minutes; the diviſions on thering the middle while the limb is turned quite round. 7. Adjuſt the of the compaſs box are numbered in a contrary direction to thoſe other level by its own ſcrews to agree with that already adjuſted. of the limb. The index ſhould move regularly when in uſe ; the To adjuſt the LEVEL 'under the TELESCOPE. theodolite ſhould always be placed truly horizontal, otherwiſe the I The horizontal Plate being levelled, ſet theindex of the nonius angles meaſured by it will not be true ; of this poſition you may of the vertical arch too, pull out the two pins, and open the loops judge with ſufficient accuracy by the needle, for if this be originally which confine the teleſcope. 2. Adjuſt the bubble by its own well ballanced, it will not be parallel to the compaſs-plate unleſs ſcrews. 3. Reverſe the level ſo that its right hand end may now the inſtrument be horizontal. be placed to the left ; if the bubble continues to occupy the middle THEODOLITes with TeLESCOPIC SIGHTS. of the glaſs, it is in its right poſition ; if not, correct one half of the Theodilites with teleſcopic ſights are without doubt the moſt ac error by the capſtan ſcrews under the plate, and the other half by of the ſcrews, under the level. 4. Reverſe the level, and correct if furveying, and have been recommended as ſuch, by the moſt expert there is any occaſion, continuing the operations till the error va- practitioners, and beſt writers on the ſubject, as Gardiner, Ham- niſhes, and the bubble ſtands in the middle in both poſitions, . mond, Cunn, Stone, Wild, Emmerfon, Waddington, &c. The To adjuſt ihe LINE of COLLIMATION. leading requiſites in a good theodolite are, 1. That the parts be 1. Direct the teleſcope, ſo that the horizontal wire may coincide firmly connected, ſo that they may always preſerve the ſame figure. with ſome well defined parts of a remote object. 2. Turn the te- 2. The circles muſt be truly centred and accurately graduated. leſcope ſo that the bubble may be uppermoft : if the wire does not 3. The extremity of the line of ſight, ſhould form a true circle : coincide with the ſame part of the object as before, correct half the various ſorts of theodolities have been invented by different Artiſts ; difference by moving the vertical circle, and the other half by mov- but that which we ſhall here deſcribe, claims the preference above ing the wire, which is effected by the ſcrews in the eye tube of the all others ; except perhaps one that Mr. Adams is about the con- teleſcope; and ſo on repeatedly, till the difference wholly diſap- ſtruction of, but the deſcription of which he has not yet made public. pears. Laſtly, adjuſt the vertical wire in the fame manner; when Of the THEODOLITE, as improved by Ramsden, fig, 7. the two wires are properly adjuſted, their interſection will coincide Among the improvements the inſtruments of ſcience have re- exactly with the ſame point of an object, while the teleſcope is ceived from Mr. Ramſden, we are to rank thoſe of the theodolite ; turned quite round. The defcripfion of Hadley's Sextant, which in the preſent inſtance, he has happily combined elegance and neat is alſo a very uſeful inſtrument in furveying, the reader will find neſs of form, with accuracy of conſtruction and the ſurveyor will in the Treatiſe on Navigation. contemplate with pleaſurethis inſtrument, and the various methods General Dire&tions for Surveying: by which the parts concur to give the moſt accurate reſults. The The ſurveyor being provided with a ſurveying chain, and proper principal parts of this inſtrument are ſimilar to thoſe of a common inſtruments, he muſt proceed to take the dimenſions, &c. of the theodolite. FF repreſents the horizontal limb, ſo called, becauſe ground to be ſurveyed ; and that muſt be done by dividing it into when in uſe it ought always to be placd parallel to the horizon. ſome convenient polygon, regular, or irregular, as the caſe may It conſiſts of two plates, the edges of theſe two arc chamfered, ſo happen. And to effect this, he muſt fix as many marks at the that the diviſion and the nonius are in the ſame plane, which is ſeveral corners, and out-parts of the field, as are neceſſary for that oblique to the plane of the inſtrument. The limb is divided into purpoſe. And beginning his ſurvey at ſome convenient place, he half degrees, and ſubdivided by the nonius to every minute ; it is mult direct the chain in a ſtraight line, from one ſtation to another, numbered to 300 from the north towards the eaſt: beſides theſe, and with inſtruments muſt take as many angles as he can ; by the tangents to joo of the radius are laid down thereon. The means of thoſe angles and ſides, he will be able from geometrical upper plate is moved by turning the pinion ; on this plate are and trigonometrical principles, to make a plot of the ground or placed, at right angles to each other, two ſpirit levels for adjuſting eſtate which he is about to ſurvey; and he will find it conſtituted more accurately the horizontal limb. NOP is a ſolid piece fitted of a number of triangles, from the dimenſions of which he muſt on the upper horizontal plate, by means of three capítan headed find the area, according to the rules delivered in our ſyſtem of Men- fcrews paſſing through three fimilar ſcrews. By the action of furation; obſerving, however, that the operation will be performed theſe, the vertical arch may be fet perpendicular to the horizontal in chains and decimal parts, or links, each link being the rooth part limb, or be made to move in a vertical plane. On this folid piece of a chain, and that 10 ſquare chains is an acre. But there is one are fixed two ſtout ſupports to carry the axis of the vertical arch, which arch is moveable by the pinion E. On the upper part of the general , method for finding the area which I prefer to any other, where the ſurveyor is furniſhed with inſtruments for taking the vertical arch are the Y's and loops to ſupport and confine the telef bearings of the different ſtations. This is by means of ſuch a table cope: the Y's are tangents to the cylindric rings of the teleſcope as is uſed in navigation, for finding the eaſtings, and weſtings, and which rings are turned and then ground as true as poſſible, and are northings, and ſouthings ; commonly called a table of difference of prevented from moving backwards or forwards, by means of two latitude, and departure; the rule adapted to this method is derived ſhoulders. The teleſcope is acromatic, and may be adjuſted to the from the following theorem. eye of the obſerver, or the diſtance of the object, by turning the UNIVERSAL THEOREM. milled nut B. The hairs are adjuſted by the ſcrews in the eye tube. If the ſum of the diſtances, (on an eaſt and weſt line,) of the two Under the teleſcope is fixed a ſpirit level C, the diſtance of whoſe ends of each line of the ſurvey, from any aſſumed meridian laying ends from the teleſcope may beregulated by the ſcrewscc. Beneath entirely out of the ſurvey, be multiplied by the reſpective northing the horizontallimb there is a ſecond teleſcope, which has both anho or ſouthing, made on each reſpective line; the difference between rizontal and vertical motion; it is moved horizontally by the milled the ſum of the north products, and the ſum of the ſouth products, ſcrew H, and when directed to any object, is fixed in its ſituation will be double the area of the ſurvey.* by another middle ſcrew ; it moves vertically on the axis ; there is an adjuſtment to this axis, to make the line of collimation move in d a vertical plane. By the horizontal motion, this teleſcope is eaſily ſet to what is called the backſet ſtations ; the under teleſcope keep- * Demonſtration. Let ABCDEF be any ſurvey, and let the eaſt and a ing in view the back object, while the upper one is directed to the weſt lines Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, and e fore object. Underneath the lower teleſcope is a clip to faſten oc- Ff, be drawn from the ends of each caſionally the main axis : this clip is tightened by the finger ſcrew of the lines of the ſurvey to any b B L, and when tightened, a ſmall motion of the adjuſting ſcrew K, aſſumed meridian, as N. S. laying will move the teleſcope a few degrees, in order to ſet it with great entirely out of the ſurvey. F accuracy. Beneath theſe is the ftaff, the nature of which will be ſufficiently evident from what was ſaid thereơn in the deſcription of the laſt theodolite, or by inſpection of the figure. Then N A S N° 142. * 4 R O O ооо O o O 8 00 0 95 II OO o 66 O O o o 3 20 O 3 To the bounda- I 25 of the field. A corner. I 2 40 O O W. Humphrey's O O o 4 IO o 60 i To the bounda- O S. 40° W. SURVEYING. Then, I ſay, the difference between the ſum of the products FIELD-BOOK. Off Station Off- Aa+Bbx a b, Bb+ Cex b c, Ce+Ddxcd, and the fum of Remarks. fets. lines. Remarks. fets. the products Dd+ Ee xde, Ee+Ff Xef, Ff + Aa Xfa ; will be double the area of ABCDEFA. For, the former products will 3d. be, reſpectively, double the areas of the ſpaces ABba, Becb, S. 62° 30 E. and Cddc, and their ſum will of courſe be double the area D. Horne's land of the ſpace Aad DCBA. In like manner the latter products 7 40 o go | To the boundas A corner will be, reſpectively, double the areas of the ſpaces DEed, Effe, 14 40 ry of the field. and FAaf; and their ſum will of courſe be double the area of the 4th ſpace AadDEFA, but it is evident that the difference between the C. Ward's land areas of the ſpaces Aad DEFA, and AadDCBA muſt be the area of the ſpace ABCDEFA; confequently the difference between O 40 their double, muſt be double the area of ABCDEFA. To a corner To take the plot of a field, ABCDEF, with a plain table, 5th. by going round the fame, fig. 1. Set up your plain table at S. 4° 15 E. the firſt ſtation in the field; move the fiducial edge of the index To the above cor. 098 on the centre O, and take an obſervation at the mark placed C. Ward's land. I 25 7 50 at the 2d ſtation, then will the ſame fiducial edge cut the circle A corner. 14 00 OP QR in the point i; then remove your inſtrument to the ad 6th. ſtation, and placing the edge of the index on and the point i, W. Humphrey's take a back ſight to the iſt, or laſt, ſtation ; then directing the in- N. 73° 45N land. dex on the centre o to the 3d. or next ſtation, the edge thereof will croſs the circle in the point 2. In like manner the inſtrument being planted at every ſtation, a backſight taken to the laſt prece- 7 50 ry ding one, and the index directed forward to the next ſucceeding ſta- tion, will give the protracted points, 3, 4, 5, 6. The field-book is 7th. ruled into five colums, the middle column contains the courſes or S. 52º W. land. bearings and diſtances, the adjoining columns on the right and left contain the meaſure of the offsets to the right and left reſpec- tively; and the outſide column contains remarks made on the 9 17 ry of the field. right or left hand reſpectively. Here at ſetting out, the line from the firſt to the ſecond ſtation bears N. 7°.W. and at the diſtance of three chains and fixty links, To draw the Plan. Chuſe any point o 1, to denote the firſt ſtation, lay the edge there is an offset to the left of forty links; at 8 chains forty-five of a parallel ruler on the centre and the point 1, and extend links, there is an offset of ten links; at fifteen chains and ſixty links, the other edge till it touch O 1, and draw by the ſide thereof the there is an offset of fixty-five links; at the ſecond ſtation there is line i 2 in length equal to the proper meaſured diſtance; then apply no offset; then the third ſtation bears N. 55° 15 E. and at fix the ruler to O and the mark 2, and extend the other edge to o 2, chains ten links diſtance, there is an offset of ſixty links to the right and draw thereby the line 2 3 equal to its proper length ; again, hand, and ſo for the reſt. lay the edge of the ruler to O and the point 3, and the other edge The northings and ſouthings, eaſtings and weſtings, in the being extended to 3, draw the line 3 4 according to its length; following table are obtained thus; firſt find the courſe 7 de- after the ſame method lay down the remaining ſtations, and the grees in the traverſe table, and over againſt 21 chains in the traverſe is delineated. column marked dift. you have 20.84, that is 20 chains, 84 links, To take the plot of ſeveral fields A, B, C, D, by circulation, for the quantity of northing; and 2.56, that is 2 chains, and 56 fig. 2. From the projecting point o, by the laſt example, links for the weſting made on that courſe and diſtance. 2. Find project the ſtations in A into the points 1, 2, 3, 4 ; then the the next courſe 55.15 in the table, and over againſt 18 chains in the inſtrument being planted at the 2d ſtation, from the ſame pro- column diſt. you have 10 chains 26 links for the northing, and 14. jecting point , project that ſtation, the 2d in A, into the point 2°, chains 79 links, for the eaſting; and over againſt 20 links in theco- 2' denoting the inſtrument being planted a ſecond time at that ſta- lumn dift. you have ii links, and 16 links for northing and eaſting tion, which is done thus: lay the index to and the point 2, and reſpectively, which put together, make 10 chains, 37 links, for the take a back-fight to the firſt ſtation, that being the ſtation imme- northing, and 14 chains, 95 links, for the caſting made on the ſe- cond courſe diately preceding that you are at in the field-book ; then on the ; and ſo of the reſt. The north and ſouth diſtances center o take a fore-obſervation at the next ſucceeding ſtation, and made from the place of beginning to the end of each line, contained the index will cut the circle in the point 2. Thus project every in the next column, are determined thus. On the firſt courſe, 20 other remaining ſtation. The bearings being protracted, the plan chains, and 84 links of northing was made ; on the ſecond courſe, will be drawn by ſetting off the reſpective diſtances, &c. 10 chains, 37 links of northing, which added to the preceding, Practice of Surveying, fig. 3, repreſents a field to be ſurveyed makes 31 chains, 21 links of northing ; on the third courſe was whoſe boundaries are crooked. Having a circumferenter, theodolite, made, 6 chains, 65 links of fouthing, which ſubtracted from the or other proper inftrument, ſet it upat or near any convenient corner preceding, 31 chains 21 links, of northing, makes 24 chains 56 links as at I, and take the courſe and bearing, which ſuppoſe to be north of northing; and ſo of the reſt. The caſt and weit diſtances made 7° weſt, note this down in the middle column of the field-book, from the place of beginning to the end of each line, contained in the and meaſure with the chain as before directed, till you come oppo- next right hand column, are determined in the ſame manner; thus, ſite to the firſt bend, ſo that the bend be at right angles to the ſtation on the firſt courſe was made, 2 chains, 56 links of eaſting ; on line : note the diſtance thus meaſured, 3 chains, 60 links, in the the ſecond courſe, 14 chains, 25 links of eaſting; from which middle column, and meaſure the offset from thence to the bend, 40 ſubtracting the preceding, 2 chains, 56 links of weſting, there re- links, noting the ſame in the adjoining left hand column, (becauſe mains 12 chains, 39 links, of eaſting ; on the third courſe was the boundary is on the left hand of the ſtation line) and note in the made, 12 chains, 77 links, of eaſting, which added to the preceding outſide column, the name or owner of the adjoining field, proceed 12 chains, 39 links, makes 25 chains, 16 links of eaſting; and ſo ing in the fame manner all round the field, noting the courſes, of the reſt. The diſtances of the end of each line from the aſſumed diſtances, offsets, and remarks, as in the following meridian, contained in the next right hand column, are thus deter- mined. The firſt aſſumed number may be taken at pleaſure, pro- FIEL D-BOOK. vided only, that it exceeds the greateſt quantity of weſting contained Off Station Off- in the preceding column, whereby the affumed meridian ſhall be Remarks. Remarks. ſets. lines. fets. entirely out of the ſurvey. In the foregoing example, the greateſt ift. at the corner, againſt quantity of weſting contained in the preceding column, is 2 chains, Wm. Humphreys, and H. 56 links; the neareſt whole number greater than this, is 3 chains, which is according!y taken and placed at the top, to repreſent the Derman's land. diſtance between the affumed meridian and the place of beginning N.7°W. of the ſurvey; from this 3 chains ſubtract 2 chains 56 links of weſt- ing, there remains 44 links for the diſtance between the termina- H. Derman's land 3 60 tions of the firſt line and the aſſumed meridian. The 12 chains, 39 links of eaſting, in the next ſtep, is added to the aſſumed 3 chains o 65 which make 15 chains, 39 links, for the diſtance of the termination, A corner by the ſecond line from the aſſumed meridian. The 25 chains, 16 links of eaſting, in the next ſtep, being added in like manner to the 2d. aſſumed 3 chains, makes 28 chains, 16 links, for the diſtance of the W.Huggin's land N. 55º 15 E termination of the third line from the aſſumed meridian, and ſo on, always adding the eaſtings, and ſubtracting the weſtings from 6 10 o 60 | Tothe bounda the firſt aſſumed number. A corner ry of the field. The three laſt columns, relating to the area, are the only ones that remain to be explained. The firſt of theſe three columns con- O O O O 40 Ο ΙΟ 8 45 15 60 21 00 O O o o O O O 18 20 0 O tains SURVEYING. + ducts in S Logó 87 7419+ 2 pro- 16 41571 60 17 mo 1 - OOO E. 12 39 1 40 pro- 41 51775 34 81359 South 60 33512 acres. 51 73087 2 92348 2)103 46175 Perches 36 93920 | 34 81359 ! 138 27534 For the Area. 7 16896 II 22892 Roods Area. Acres North prod. Subtract the twoends 15 83 43 55 lumed me from the af- ducts in 49 25 43 22 Diſtances of Sums of the 3 00 044 15 39 28 16 22 13 IO 23 3 00 E. ſouth dif- weſt diſtan- the ends of diſtances of place of be-place of be-fridian, lay ſumed me-acres. For the Plotting ginning to ginning to ing out of ridian ; for the end of the end of the lurvey. multipliers from the weſtings, made on thoſe reſpective on thewhole the whole, from an al- of each line North North and Eaſt and each line. leach line. The firſt and third of theſe co- from the N. 31 21 Northings, ſouthings, eaſtings, and tances made ces made on each line II 90 N. 5 64 | E. of the northings, and the ſum of the lumns only are uſed in plotting ;- ſouthings, and between the ſum of the middle column is only a prepa- the eaſtings, and the ſum of the ratory ſtep, for the diſtances con- 23 7 07 28 76 E. weſtings, thews that the ſurvey hastained in the third column. 14 95 12 77 I 04 For a Proof of the Field Work. The agreement between the fum 34 68 28 76 S. been truly taken. N. 3 47 Courfes and diſtances as courſes and diſtances. W. 21 00 20 84 917 ch. 1. Total. 34 68 W. II 00 Field Notes. W. 415 E. 14.00 taken in the field. N. 73 45 W. 12 40 7 95 2 •M+8 or 'N 952 9I Sz :49S va N 0 00 1 3 15 5 64 m tains the ſums of the diſtances of the two ends of each line of the line, and the boundary of the field, we have firſt, a baſe line 3.609 ſurvey from the aſſumed meridian ; which (according to the above and a perpendicular offset 0.40;which contains an area, ofo.07200. univerſal theorem) are multipliers for determining the area. Theſe Secondly, a baſe line 4.85 (being the difference between 3.60 and are formed by adding each two of the ſucceſſive numbers in the pre- | 8.45; on the ſtation line, at which points the offsets were taken,) eeding left hand column together. Thus 3.00 is the diſtance of the and an offset or breadth at the one end 0.40, and at the other end place of beginning from the aſſumed meridian , and 0.44 is the dif 0.10, which contains an area of 0.12125. Thirdly, a baſe line tance of the end of the firſt line from the aſſumed meridian ; and 7.15 (being the difference between 8.45 and 15.60 on the ſtation their ſum is 3.44 for the firſt multiplier. Again, 0.44 added to line,) and an offset or breadth at the one end 0.10, and at the other 15.39 makes 15.83 for the ſecond multiplier. And 15-39 added end 0.65 ; which contains an area of 0.26812. Fourthly, a baſe to 28.16 makes 43.55 for the third multiplier ; and ſo of the reſt. line 5.40 (being the difference between 15.60 and 21.00 on the ſta- tion line,) and a perpendicular offset 0.65; which contains an area of 0.17550. Theſe added together, make 0.63687 for the area of the offset on the firſt ſtation line: and, as this ſtation line is within the ſurvey, this area muſt of courſe be added to the area compre- hended within the ſtation lines. Next, for the area comprehended between the ſecond ſtation line and the boundary of the field, we have a baſe line 18.20, and a perpendicular or offset 0.60 ; which contains an area of 0.54600. And, as this ſtation line is without the ſurvey, this area mult of courſe be ſubtracted from the above mentioned arca. The areas of all the other offsets are determined in the ſame manner, and are reſpectively as follows: viz. Areas of the offsets. To be ſub- To be added 30 tracted. On the firſt ſtation line A.0.63687 On the ſecond 0.54600 On the third 0.64800 B On the fourth 0.36250 On the fifth 1.08875 On the ſixth 0.68750 On the ſeventh 0.27510 zzzzzz Totals 2.08812 2.15660 The area comprehended within the ſtation lines, as above, is 51.73087 acres. The offsets to be added are 2.08812. The fum 53.81899. The offsets to be ſubtracted are 2.15660. The area of the ſurvey is therefore 51.66239 acres,=51 acres, 2 roods, and 26 perches. When the ſurvey conſiſts of a number of fields lying together, it is beſt to determine the area of the whole, firſt; and af- terwards, the area of each of the fields ſeparately; the ſum of which, if the work be true, will of courſe agree with the area of the whole, which forms a check on the truth of the computations. But here it muſt be obſerved, that the boundaries of each field muſt be fo arranged for the computation, as to proceed regularly one after ano- ther, all the way round the field, becauſe without ſuch arrangement, the northing or ſouthing made on each line, and the diſtances from the aſſumed meridian, would not correſpond with one another. For example. Suppoſe it were required to afcertain the area of the fields denoted by fig. 4. of which this is the zzi coz ம் FIELD-BOOK. Off Station OF Remarks. Remarks. The north products contained in the next column, are the products fets. lines. fets. of the multiplication of the ſeveral northings contained in the co- iſt. At a corner againſt| lumns marked N, by their correſponding multipliersin the laſt men- Winterton farm, and H. tioned column. Thus 7.16896 is the product of the multiplica- Smith's land. tion of 20.84 by 3.44 ; an additional place of decimals being cut off, to give the product in acres. Eaſt field. The fouth products contained in S. 87° W. Land of H. Smith 6 00 0 00 To the corner of the next right hand column are, in like manner, the products of the 5 50 I 10 eaſt and weſt fields multiplication of the ſeveral fouthings in the column marked S, by o oo corner of weſt field their correſponding multipliers. Thus 28.96075, is the product o 60 of the multiplication of 6.65 by 43.55 ; an additional place of deci- 2d. mals being cut off, as before, to give the product in acres: and fo of the reſt. The north products being then added together into N 18° 30 W The above corner. one fum, and the ſouth products into another fum, and the lefſer of o 58 O 16 Hunterdon farm theſe ſums being ſubtracted from the greater ; the remainder (by the above univerſal theorem) is double the area of the ſurvey : 3d. which being divided by Q, gives the are required : viz. 51.73087, N. 12° 15 E equal (when reduced) to 51 acres, 2 roods, and 36 perches 9-10. o oo Weſt fields. Nothing can be more ſimple or eaſy in the operation, or more ac- o 60 curate in anſwering the deſired ends, both with reſpect to the proof 8 90 of the work, the plotting and the computation of the area, than 4th. this proceſs. The northings, ſouthings, eaſtings, and weſtings, N. 37° E. to the corner of the which give the moſt deciſive proof of the accuracy, or inaccuracy of 5 40 O 40 weſt field and the field work, are ſhewn by inſpection. From theſe the numbers 17 00 0 00 north field. or diſtances for the plotting, are formed by a ſimple addition or ſub- 5th. traction. And the multipliers, for determining the area, are S. 760 45 E. formed from thence, by a ſimple addition, with much leſs labour, Lands of 6 50 North field. than by the common method of dividing the plot into trapezia, and Jacob Williams taking the multipliers by the ſcale of equal parts. If the boundary 6th. lines of the ſurvey ſhould have crooks and bends in them, which is generally the caſe in old ſettled countries, thoſe crooksand bends are S. 5° 15 W. To the corner of taken by making offsets from the ſtation lines. In theſe caſes the o 56 north and eaſt field Winterton farm. 14 30 O ION. B. A gate into area comprehended within the ſtation lines is determined as above; 19 and the areas comprehended between the ſtation lines and the boun- o 70 each field 20 links daries, are determined ſeparately, from the offsets and baſe lines, 25 o 90 from the corner. noted in the field book; and are added or fubtracted reſpectively, 7th. according as the ſtation lines ſhall happen to be within or without S.740 30 W. the field ſurveyed ; which, of courſe, gives the area required. o 86 Eaſt field, In the preſent caſe the area comprehended between the firſt ſtation 7 65ooo oat LE 01 02 81 SISS O ооо II 30 15 00 9 60 ооо 4 IO ооо l ооо o 70 O OO 16 00 ооо 9 60 oo old 00 2 30 8 30 ооо o old 5 40 O 3 40 O 00 0 00 . a SUR VE YING. FIEL D-BOOK. a white rag at the top, at each of the places, marked with the letter. Off-1 Station 1 Off- of the alphabet. If there be a tree, houſe, white cliff, or other res Remarks. Remarks. ſets. lines. ſets. markable object at any of theſe places, it may ſerve inſtead of a fta- tion ſtaff. 2. Chuſe fome level ſpot of ground upon which a right line 1 Sth. North, called a fundamental baſe, may be meaſured either by a chain, a Weſt field. o 75 Eaſt field. 16 61 meafure pole, or a piece of log line marked into feet ; generally 0 00 ſpeaking the longer this line is, the better : its ſituation muſt be 9th. Eaſt field. ſuch, that the whole or moſt part of the ſtation-ſtaves may be ſeen Eaſt to the corner of from both ends thereof; and its length and direction muſt, if poſſible ooo northandeaſtfields be ſuch, that the bearing of any ſtation-ſtaff, taken from one of its North field, ends, may differ at leaſt ten degrees from the bearing of the ſame o 60 againſt Winterton ſtaff taken from the other end; ſtation-ſtaves muſt be ſet at each 1377 ooo farm. end of the fundamental baſe. Ifa convenient right line cannot be loth. had, two lines and the interjacent angle may be meaſured, and the diſtance of their extremes found by conſtruction, may be taken as Back to the laſt ſtation. Weſt field. O N.62'03.W the fundamental baſe. If the fand meaſured has a ſenſible and Corner of weſt and looo ooo North field. gradual declivity, as from high-water mark to low-water, then the north fields againſt o 70 length meaſured may be reduced to the horizontal diſtances (which Huntendon farm. 7 92 is the proper diſtance) by making the perpendicular riſc of the tide, one ſide of a right angled-triangle, the diſtance meaſured along the The bearings and lengths of the ſtation lines on the outſide ſand the hypothenuſe, and from thence finding the other ſide trigo- boundaries are as follow; viz. nometrically, or by protraction on paper ; which will be the true I ft. S. 879 W.15.00: 20. N. 18° 30' W. 9.60: 3d. N. 12° 15' length of the baſe-line. If the plane meaſured is on the dry land, E. 8.90: 4th. N. 37.°E. 17.00: 5th. S.760 45'E. 16.00 : 6th.S. and there is a ſenſible declivity there, the height of the deſcent 5° 15' W. 25.00: 7th. S. 74° 30' W.7.65. muſt be taken by a ſpirit-level, or by a quadrant, and that The area comprehended within theſe ſtation lines, computed made the perpendicular ſide of the triangle. If, in a bay, one according to the above mentioned univerſal theorem, is A. 66. ſtrait line of a fufficient length cannot be meaſured, let two 90493 ; the area of the offsets to be added, is 0.56715; the ſum is or three lines, forming angles with each other, like the ſides 67:47208 ; and the area of the offsets to be ſubtracted, is 2.56715; of a polygon, be meaſured on the ſand along the circuit of the bay; therefore the area of the whole ſurvey is 64.90493 acres=64 theſe angles carefully taken with a theodolite,andexactly protracted, acres, 3 roods, and 24 perches. or calculated, will give the ſtrait diſtance between the two fartheft Then for determining the area of the eaſt field, we have the fol- extremities of the firſt and laſt line. 3. Find the bearing of the lowing. iſt. Part of the firſt ſtation line in the field book, viz.S. fundamental baſe by the compaſs, as accurately as poſſible, with 870 W.5:50 ; 2d. The offset of the corner of the field, N. 3° W. Hadley's quadrant, or any other inſtrument equally exact; take the 1.10; 38. The eighth ſtation line in the field book,N.16.61; 4th. angles formed at one end of the baſe, between the baſe line and The ninth ſtation line in the field book, E. 13.77 ; 5th. The off- lines drawn to each of the ſtation-ſtaves ; take likewiſe the angles set from the corner of the field to the ſixth ſtation line in the field formed between the baſe line and lines drawn to every remarkable book, S. 84° 45' E. 0.56 ; 6th. Part of the 5th ſtation line in the object near the ſhore, as houſes, trees, windmills, churches, &c. field book, S. 5° 15' W. 15.40; 7th. The ſeventh ſtation line in the field book, s. 74° 30' W. 7:65. The area comprehended of the baſe, take the angles formed between the baſe and lines drawn which may be ſuppoſed uſeful as pilot-marks ; from the other end within theſe lines, (computed according to the foregoing univerſal to every one of the ſtation ſtaves and objects ; if any angle be theorem,) is 22.91936 acres. There are no offsets to be added in greater than the arc of the quadrant, meaſure is at twice, by taking this field, the areas of the offsets to be ſubtracted, are 2.22052 acres. the angular diſtance of fome intermediate object from each extreme The remainder is the area of the caſt field, 20.69884 acres, object ; enter all theſe angles in a book as they are taken. 4 Draw =20 acres, 2 roods, 31.8 perches. For aſcertaining the area of the weſt field, we have the following from its ends reſpectively draw unlimited lines, forming with it the the fundamental baſe upon paper, from a ſcale of equal parts, and lines. Iſt. The offset from the ſouth-eaſterly corner to the firſt ſta- tion line in the field book, S. 3° E. 1.10 ; 2d. Part of the firſt ſta- angles taking in the ſurvey, and mark the extreme of each line with the letter of the ſtation to which its angle correſponds. The inter- tion line in the field book, S. 87° W.9.50: 3d. The ſecond ſta- ſection of every two lines, whoſe extremes are marked with the ſame tion line in the field book. N.180 30' W.9.60; 4th The third ſta- letter, will denote the ſituation of the ſtation or object, to which in tion line in the field book, N.1 2° 15' E.8.90;5th.Part ofthe fourth the rough draught that letter belongs; through or near all the ſtation line in the field book, N. 37° E. 5.40; 6th. The offset to points of interſection which repreſent ſtation-ſtaves, draw a waving the corner, S.53º E. 0.40; 7th. The tenth ſtation line in the field line with a pencil, to repreſent the coaſt. 5. At low water fail about the harbour, and take the foundings, obſerving whether the ground the field book, reverſed, S.16.61. The area comprehended within be rocky, fandy, ſhelly, &c. Theſe foundings may be entered by theſe lines, (computed according to the above univerſal theorem,)is A. 22.18048. The areas of the offsets to be added 0.62287. bearings of two remarkable objects, in this excurſion, be particular ſmall numeral figures in the chart, by taking at the ſame time the Their ſums is 22.80335 acres. The areas of the offscts to be ſub- in examining the ground or points of land which project out into tracted, are 1.15900 acres. Conſequently the area of the weſt field, is 21.64435, acres,=21 acres, 2 roods, and 23 perches. cauſe, or in the vicinity of ſmall iſlands, &c. obſerve the ſet and ve- From the above, the reader cannot be at a loſs how to find the locity of the tide of flood, by heaving the log while at anchor, and area of the North field, which is 22 acres, 2 roods, and 10 perches. denote the ſame in the chart by ſmall darts. The time of high Of LEVELLING. water is denoted by Roman numeral letters ; rocks are denoted by Levelling is the art which inſtructs us in finding how much ſmall croſſes ; ſands by dotted ſhading, the figures upon which uſu- higher or lower any given point on the ſurface of the earth is ally Thew the depth at low water in feet ; good anchoring places than another given point on the ſame furface: or in other words, are marked by a ſmall anchor ; upon coming near the ſhore, care the difference in their diſtance from the centre of the earth. Thoſe muſt be taken to examine and correct the outline of the chart, by points are ſaid to be level, which are equidiſtant from the centre of obſerving the inflections, creeks, &c. more minutely, 6. In a ſmall the earth. The art of levelling conſiſts therefore : ift, In finding failing veffel go out to ſea, and take drawings of the appearance of and marking two, or more level points that ſhall be in the circum- the land, with its bearings; fail into the harbour, obſerve the ap- ference of a circle, whoſe centre is that of the earth. 2dly, In com- pearance of its entrance, and particularly whether there be any falſe paring the points thus found, with other points, in order to aſcertain reſemblance of an entrance, by which ſhips may be deceived into the difference in their diſtance from the earth's centre. danger; remark the ſigns or objects, by attending to which the Of Simple Levelling. We term that ſimple levelling, when harbour may be entered in ſafety : more eſpecially, when it can be the level points are determined from one ſtation, whether the level done, let the ſhip ſteer to the anchoring place, keeping two remark- be fixed at one of the points or between them. Thus let A. B. able objects in one, or on a line. 7. Coaſts are ſhaded off on the fig. 5. be the ſtation point of the level, C, D. the two points aſcer- land fide; houſes, churches, trees, &c. on ſhore are drawn ſmall in tained, and let the height from A to C be fix feet, from B. to D be nine feet, their difference is three feet, Thewing that B is three feet their proper figures; in a proper place of the chart, draw a mari- ner's compaſs, to denote the ſituation of the rhumbs, &c. and on lower than A. In this example, the ſtation points of the level are below the line of fight and level points, as is generally the caſe one ſide of the fleur-de-lis, draw a faint half fleur-de-lis at the point of north by compaſs; draw alſo a divided ſcale of miles, or leagues, but if they were above, as in fig. 6, and the diſtance of A to C. be fix feet, and from B to D. nine feet, the difference will be ſtill three which muſt be taken from the ſame original ſcale as the funda- feet, which B is higher than A. Asto compound levelling it is mental baſe. Charts or plans may be neatly drawn with indian nothing more than a collection of many ſingle or ſimple opera- ink, or the pen and common ink, and are as uſeful as any others, tions compared together. but they are frequently done in water colours : for which purpoſe MARITIME SURVEYING, Or DIRECTIONS for SURVEYING the beginner will derive more advantage from viewing a proper COASTS and HARBOURS. drawing, or from overlooking a proficient at work, than from a multitude of written inſtructions. 1.Make a rough ſketch of the coaft or harbour, and make every point of land, or particular variation of the coaſt, with ſome letter of the al- Thoſe who would wiſh to ſee more on this ſubject, we refer to Adams's Geometrical and Graphical Efſays. phabet ; either walk or fail round the coaſt, and fix a ſtaff with is SUS SUS ܪ She goes SURVIVOR, in law, fignifies the longer liver of two joint- and ſcrophulous complaints, are reckoned among them. Theſe are tenants; or any two perſons joined in the right of any thing. beſt prevented by keeping the animals, as the ancients ſtrongly re- Thus, when two or more perſons are ſeized of a joint-eſtate of in- commended, very clean in their ſties, allowing them air, exerciſe, heritance, for their own lives, or pour autre vie, or are jointly pof- and a fufficiency of water. Linnæus obſerves, that its fleſh is feffed of any chattel intereſt, the intire tenancy upon the diſeaſe of wholeſome food for athletie conſtitutions, or thoſe that uſe much ex- any of them, remains to the ſurvivors, and at length to the laſt fur-erciſe ; but bad for ſuch as lead a ſedentary life ; it is however, of vivor ; and he ſhall be entitled to the whole eſtate, whatever it be, moſtuniverſal uſe; and furniſhes numberleſs materials forepicuriſm. whether an inheritance or a common freehold only, or even a leſs They can engender at the age of nine or twelve months, but it is eſtate. This right of ſurvivorſhip is called by ancient authors the better to reſtrain them till they be eighteen months or two years. jus accreſcendi, becauſe the right upon the death of one joint- The firſt litter of the fow is not numerous ; and, when only one tenant, accumulates and increaſes to the ſurvivors ; or as they year old, her pigs are weak, and even imperfect. She may be faid themſelves expreſs, pars illa communis accrefcit fuperftitibus, de to be in ſeaſon at all times. Though full, the folicits the approach perfona in perſonam uſque ad ultimum fuperftitem. And thisjus ac- of the male. This may be regarded as an exceſs among animals ; creſcendi ought to be mutual ; which judge Blackſtone apprehends for almoſt every other ſpecies refuſe the male after conception to be the reaſon why neither the king, nor any corporation can be | The ardour of the fow; though almoſt perpetual, is however marked a joint-tenant with a private perfon : for here is no mutuality ; the by paroxyſms and immoderate movements, which always terminate private perſon has not even the remoteſt chance of being ſeized of by her wallowing in the mire. She, at the ſame time, emits a the entirety, by benefit of ſurvivorſhip ; for the king and corpora- thick whitiſh Auid. four months with young : brings tion can never die. For the encouragement of huſbandry and forth in the beginning of the fifth : and foon afterwards folicits the trade, it is held that a ſtock on a farm, though occupied jointly, male, is impregnated a ſecond time, and of courſe brings forth and alſo a ſtock uſed in a joint undertaking, by way of partnerſhip twice a year. The wild fow, which every way reſembles the do- in trade, ſhall always be conſidered as common and not as joint- meſtic kind, produces only once a year. This difference in ferti- property; and there ſhall be no ſurvivorſhip therein. Blackft. lity is probably owing to want of nouriſhment, and the neceſſity of Com. B. ii. p. 183. &c. p. 399. ſuckling her pigs much longer than the domeſtic fow, which is SURVIVORSHIP. Payments which are not to be made till never allowed to nurſe her young above fifteen days or three weeks. fome future period, are termed reverſion, to diſtinguiſh them from Only eight or nine of the litter are kept longer; the reſt are ſold. payments which are to be made immediately. Reverſions are In fifteen days pigs are excellent food. either certain or contingent. Of the former fort are all ſums or As theſe creatures, though exceedingly voracious, will feed almoſt annuities, payable certainly at the expiration of any terms, or the on any thing, they are bred and kept every where, and are quickly extinction of any lives. Of the latter fort are all reverſions, the and cheaply fatted. In miry and in marſhy grounds (from which title to which depends on any contingency; as, particulary the they are not averſe) they devour worms, frogs, fern, ruſh, and fedge furvivorſhip of any lives beyond other lives. lives beyond other lives. See the Syſtem of roots. In dryer and in woody countries, they feed on hips, haws, ANNUITIES, with the tables annexed. noes, crabs, mait, cheſnuts, acorns, &c. and on this food they will SUS, a Genus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of Belluæ. grow fleſhy and fat. They are a kind of natural ſcavengers, will They have four converging fore-teeth in the upper jaw, and fix thrive on the traſh of an orchard, the outcaſts of the kitchen, the prominent ones in the under jaw ; the fnout is truncated, promi- fweepings of barns and granaries, the offals of a market, and moſt nent, and moveable. We ſhall not enter into a detail of the dif- richly on the refuſe of a dairy. If near the ſea, they will ſearch ferent proportions of the quadrupeds of this genus ; as the drawings the ſhores for ſhelfiſh ; in the fields they eat graſs ; and in cities which are very accurate will give a better idea than the deſcription. and large towns they are kept in great numbers, and ſupported There are fix fpecies : the ſcropha, or common hog, is univerſal, chiefly by grains. It is evident that the facility of feeding them except in the frigid zones, and in Kamtſchatka, where the cold is every where at a ſmall expence, is a national benefit, more ſpeci- very ſevere. Since its introduction into America by the Europeans, ally in a country where the people are accuſtomed to eat fleſh daily, it abounds to exceſs in the hot and temperate parts. It is found and could nor perhaps perform their daily labour if they did not. wild in moſt parts of Europe. In the foreſts of South America In no part of Europe is the management of theſe creatures better there are vaft droves, which derive their origin from the European underſtood than in Britain. They are in moſt places regularly kind relapfed into a ſtate of nature. For repreſentation, ſee managedand cloſely attended. Tuſſer, many years fince, affirmed, Plate X. of the Syſtem of MAMMALIA, Genus 35, Species i, from his own experience, that a ſow might bring as much profit Variety I. Theſe animals in different countries are of very dif- In America they are uſeful by clearing the country of rattle- ferent fizes. In Leiceſterſhire, Northamptonſhire, and Pem- fnakes, which they devour with ſafety. Ofall quadrupeds, the hog brokeſhire, they are very large. In Hampſhire, Wiltſhire, and is the moſt rude and brutal. The imperfections of his form ſeem wherever they can run in the woods, and feed on maſt and to have the influence of his nature and diſpoſition. All his habits acorns, their fleſh is firmer and better. The Chineſe breed are are grofs; all his appetites are impure ; all his ſenſations are con common with us: they are ſmaller, blacker, and their legs fined to a furious luſt , and a brutal gluttony. He devours indiferi- ſhorter than ours ; ſo that, when fat, their bellies literally touch minately every thing that comes in his way, even his own progeny the ground. They thrive exceedingly well with us, are very the moment after their birth. This voraciouſneſs ſeems to proceed prolific, and their feſh admirably fine and well-taſted. from the perpetual cravings of his ſtomach, which is of an immode Pork, though it might be wiſely prohibited in ſome warm coun- rate fize; and the groſſneſs of its appetites, it is probable, ariſes, tries, is found by experience equally nutritive and falutary here. from the bluntneſs of its ſenſes of taſte and of feeling. The rude- As ſuch it furniſhes a very large proportion of that food which is neſs of the hair, the hardneſs of the ſkin, and the thickneſs of the vended in our markets. It takes falt better, and keeps longer than fat, render theſe animals lefs ſenſible to blows. The other fenſes the fleſh of any other animal, and the conſumption of it is prodi- of the hog are very good. It is well known to the hunters that the gious when pickled or falted, more eſpecially in our foreign garri- wild boar hears and ſmells at a great diſtance ; for in order to fur- fons and in the ſea-ſervice. Our bacon is differently cured, ſo as priſe him, they are obliged to watch him in ſilence during the night, to render it acceptable to all palates; and our hams are not at all and to place themſelves oppoſite the wind, that he may not per inferior to thoſe of other countries. The dung of ſwine will ſo en- ceive the ſmell, which never fails to make him turn back. But the rich the land, that it will bring a good ſward upon it, and will graze hog, though the moſt impure and filthy of all quadrupeds, is yet uſe- many years afterwards. Our old huſbandmen had an ill opinion ful by the very ſordidneſs of its manners; this alone devouring of this dung, as ſuppoſing it breeds weeds, which any dung will do what is the refuſe of all others, and contributing not only to remove that abounds in ſalts. See the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Article what would be a nuiſance to the human race, but alſo converting Manure, Sect. II. In ſome places they waſh with hogs dung the moſt nauſeous offals into the richeſt nutriment; for this reaſon for want of ſoap ; which anſwers tolerably well, if the linen hangs its ſtomach is capacious, and its gluttony exceſſive; not that its pa- long enough in the air to become thoroughly ſweet. late is infenfible to the difference of eatables; for where it finds va The wild boar was formerly a native of our country, as appears riety, it will reject the worſt with as diſtinguiſhing a taſte as from the laws of Hoeldda, who permitted his grand huntſman to other quadrupeds. chace that animal from the middle of November to the beginning The parts of this animal are finely adapted to its way of life. of December. of December. William the Conqueror puniſhed with the loſs of As its method of feeding is by turning up the earth with its noſe for their eyes any that were convicted of killing the wild boar, the ſtag, roots of different kinds, ſo nature has given it a more prone form or the roebuck; and Fitz-Stephen tells us, that the vaſt foreſt than other animals ; a ſtrong brawny neck ; eyes ſmall, and placed that in his time grew on the north ſide of London, was the re- high in the head ; a long ſnout, noſe callous and tough, and a quick treat of ſtags, fallow-deer, wild-boars, and bulls. Charles I. fenſe of ſmelling to trace out its food. Its inteſtines have a ſtrong turned out wild boars in the New Foreſt, Hampſhire; but they reſemblance to thoſe of the human fpecies. The external form of were deſtroyed in the civil wars. For repreſentation fee Plate its body is very unweildy; yet, by the ſtrength of its tendons, the X. Genus 35. Species 1. Variety 2. wild boar(which is only a variety of the common kind) is enabled to The tajacu, or pecary, with four cutting teeth above, and fix be- fly from the hunters with amazing agility ; the back-toe on the feet low : two tuſks in each jaw; thoſe in the upper jaw pointing down, of this animal prevents its ſlipping while it deſcends declivities, and and little apparent when the mouth is ſhut; the others hid ; length muſt be of lingular uſe when purſued ; it is fond of wallowing in from noſe to the end of the rump about three feet : body covered the dirt, either to cool its ſurfeited body,orto deſtroy the lice, ticks with briſtles, ſtronger than thoſe of the European kind, and more and other inſects with which it is infeſted. Its diſeaſes generally like thoſe of a hedge-hog ; they are duſky, ſurrounded with rings of ariſe from foul feeding and intemperance ; meaſles, impoſthumes, l white: thoſe on the top of the neck and back are near five inches * long as a COW. 1 NO 142. S WA S Y M ܪ long, grow ſhorter on the ſides ; the belly almoſt naked ; from the 1 - SWEAT, a fenſible moiſture iſſuing out of the pores of the ſkin ſhoulders to the breaſt is a band of white : no tail ; on the lower of animals, through too much heat, exerciſe, or weakneſs; or part of the back is a gland, open at the top diſcharging a fetid, icho- through the action of certain medicines called Sudorifics. See rous liquor; this has been miſtakenly called a navel. Inhabits the PERSPIRATION, and SUDORIFICS. hotteſt parts of South America, and ſome of the Antilles: lives in SWEET. By a ſweet is underſtood any vegetable juice, whe- the foreſts on the mountains: not fond of mire or marſhy places : ther obtained by means of ſugar, raiſins, or other foreign or do- leſs fat than the common hog. They go in great droves. They meſtic fruit, which is added to wines, with a deſign to improve are very fierce, and will fight ſtoutly with the beaſts of prey. them. It is plain, from the making of artificial muft, or ſtum, by They feed on fruits and roots: alſo on toads and all manner of means of fine fugar, with a ſmall addition of tartar, that the art ſerpents, which they hold with the fore-feet and ſkin with great of ſweet-making might receive a high degree of improvement, by dexterity. The fleſh is reckoned very good food; but all writers the uſing pure ſugar, as one general wholeſome ſweet, inſtead of agree that the dorſal gland muſt be cut out as ſoon as the animal is thoſe infinite mixtures of honey, raiſins, fyrups, treacles, ſtum, cy- killed, or the fleſh will become ſo infected as not to be eatable. der, &c. wherewith the ſweet-makers ſupply the wine-coopers to The Indian name of this ſpecies is paquiras, from whence ſeems lengthen out, or amend their wines ; for pure ſugar being added to to be derived that of pecary. For repreſentation, ſee Plate any poor wine, will ferment therewith, and improve it, and bring X. Genus 35, Species 3. it to a proper degree of ſtrength and vinoſity. If the wine that is The babyrufſa, or Indian hog, with four cutting teeth in the to be amended is tart of itſelf, no tartar ſhould be added to the fu- upper, fix in the lower jaw; ten grinders to each jaw; in the gar; but if it be too ſweet or luſcious, then the addition of tartar lower jaw two tuſks pointing towards the eyes, and ſtanding near is neceſſary. Shaw’s Lectures, p. 203. The duty on ſweets made eight inches out of their ſockets ; from two ſockets on the out- | for ſale is 125. a barrel. ro Geo. II. c. 17. to which is added a- ſide of the upper jaw two other teeth, twelve inches long, bending nother duty of 6s. by 20. Geo. III c. 52. like horns, their ends almoſt touchingthe fore head ; ears ſmall, SWIMMING, the act, or art, of ſuſtaining the body in water, erect, ſharp-pointed ; along the back are ſome weak briſtles; on and of advancing therein by the motion of the arms, legs, &c. the reſt of the body only a ſort of wool, ſuch as is on the lambs: Man alone learns to ſwim ; all other perfect animals ſeem to take the tail long, ends in a turf, and is often twiſted: the body plump it naturally; though ſeveral of the imperfect ſwim not at all. The and ſquare. Inhabits Buero, a ſmall iſle near Amboyna : it is reaſon is, that the human machine differs very much in its ſtructure alſo found in Celebes, but neither on the continent of Aſia or and configuration from that of brutes ; and particularly, which is Africa. For repreſentation, fee Plate X, Genus 35, Species 4. very extraordinary, in the ſituation of its centre of gravity. In The hydrochæris, or river-hog, has a very large and thick man, the head is exceedingly heavy, with regard to the reſt of the head and nofc; ſmall round cars ; large black eyes ; upper jaw body; by reaſon the head is furniſhed with a very great quantity of longer than the lower : two ſtrong and great cutting teeth, and brain, and has, beſides, a deal of fleſh and bones, and no cavities only eight grinders, in each jaw; and each of thoſe grinders form on their filled with air; ſo that the head immerging under water by its own ſurface ſeemingly three teeth, each fat at their ends ; legs ſhort, gravity, the noſe and ears are foon filled : thus the heavy carrying toes long, connected near their bottoms by a ſmall web, their ends down the light, the man foon is drowned, and loft. But in brutes guarded by a ſmall hoof; no tail; hair on the body ſhort, rough, it is otherwiſe : for the head, here, having but little brain, and there and brown ; on the noſe, long and hard whiſkers. It grows to the being abundance of ſinuſes therein, its weight, with regard to the ſize of a hog of two years old. Inhabits the eaſtern ſide of South reſt of the body, is much leſs conſiderable ; ſo that they are eaſily America, from the iſthmus of Darien to the river of Amazons; able to keep their noſe above water; and thus reſpiring freely, are lives in the fenny parts not remote from the banks of great rivers; out of danger of being drowned, on the principles of ſtatics. Among runs ſlowly ; ſwims and dives remarkably well, and keeps for a the ancient Greeks and Romans, ſwimming made ſo effential a long time under water : feeds on fruits and vegetables : is very dex part of the diſcipline of their youth, that to repreſent a man per- terous in catching fiſh, which it brings on ſhore and eats at its eaſe: fectly rude and uneducated, they uſed to ſay proverbially, he had it ſits up, and holds its prey with its fore-feet, feeding like an ape; neither learned to read nor to ſwim. feeds in the night, and commits great ravages in gardens. They SWORD, an offenſive weapon, worn at the ſide, ſerving either keep in large herds, and make a horrible noiſe like the braying to prick or cut, or both. Its parts are the blade, guard, hand or of an afs. The fleſh is tender, but has an oily and fithy taſte. | graſp, and pummel; to which may be added, the bow, ſcabbard, They are eaſily made tame, and grow very fat. For repreſenta- hook, and chape. The maſters of defence divide the ſword into the tion, ſee Plate X. Genus 35, Species 5. upper, middle, and lower part; or the fort, middle, and foible or The æthiopicus, or Ethiopian hog, no foreteeth : noſe broad, fmall and weak part. Anciently, there were a kind of two handled depreſſed, and almoſt of a horny hardneſs: head very large and ſwords, called ſpados, which were to be managed with both hands; broad: beneath each eye a hollow, formed of looſe ſkin, very ſoft, and which in thoſe days they accuſtomed themſelves to brandiſh ſo and wrinkled ; under theſe a great lobe or wattle, lying almoſt ho- nimbly, as to cover the whole body therewith. The ſavages of rizontal, broad, flat, and rounded at the end, placed ſo as to inter- | Mexico, when firſt viſited by the Spaniards, had a kind of wooden cept the view. of any thing below from the animal. Between ſwords, which would do as much execution as ours. In Spain, theſe and the mouth on each ſide, there is a hard callous protube- fwords are only allowed of ſuch a length, determined by authority. The mouth is ſmall: ſkin duſky: briſtles diſpoſed in faſci- | The ancient cavaliers gave names to their ſwords; Joyeuſe was culi, of about five each: longeſt between the ears and on the be that of Charlemagne ; Durandol, thatof Orlando, &c. For rules ginning of the back, thinly diſperſed on the reſt of the back : its relative to the artof uſing the ſword, either in the defenſive or offen- whole length 4 feet 9 inches : height before, 2 feet 2 inches : but five, ſee the Treatiſe on the Art of FENCING throughout. For re- in a wild ſtate, it grows to an enormous fize. Theſe animals in- preſentation of the ſeveral poſitions of the body, maneuvres, &c. habit the hotteſt parts of Africa, from Senegal to Congo, alſo the See the three Plates which illuſtrate them annexed to the Treatiſe. iſlands of Madagaſcar. We know little of their nature ; but they SWORD-Bearer, an officer in the city of London, who attends are repreſented as very fierce and ſwift, and that they will not the lord-mayor at his going abroad, and to carry the ſword before breed with the domeſtic fow. For repreſentation fee Plate X. | him, as the emblem of juſtice. It is obſerved by an ancient writer Genus 35, Species 6. of armoury, that the bearer muſt carry it upright, the hilts being SUSPENSION Of Arms, in war, is a ſhort truce which the holden under his bulk, and the blade directly up the middle of his contending parties agree on, for the burial of their dead, the wait- breaſt, and between the ſword-bearer's brows. The ſword is like- ing for ſuccours, or the orders of their maſters, &c. In oratory, wiſe carried before the principal officers of boroughs, and other cor- ſuſpenſion is a keeping the hearer attentive and doubtful, in ex porate towns, to repreſent the ſtate and princely office of the king, pectation of what the ſpeaker will conclude with. as the chief governor. SUSPENSION, in mechanics. Points of Suſpenſion in a ba SYLLABLE, in grammar, a part of a word, or an articulate lance, are thoſe points in the axis or beam wherein the weights found, conſiſting of one or more letter which are pronounced toge- are applied, or from which they are ſuſpended. ther; or which of itſelf conveys either no idea, or part only of SUTURE, Sutura, in anatomy, a peculiar kind of juncture, what is denoted by the word. See the Syſtem, Part II. Chap. I. or articulation, of certain bones in the animal body : thus called as SYLLOGISM, ouxa.orioulos, in logic, an argument, or form of reſembling a feam. There are two kinds of future ; one called reaſoning, conſiſting of three propoſitions ; having this property, the true or genuine future ; wherein bones are indented like ſaws, that the concluſion neceſſarily follows from the two premiſes; fo and reciprocally received into each other. The other called falſe The other called falſe that if the firſt and ſecond propoſitions be granted, the concluſion ſpurious or ſquammous ſuture ; wherein the bones are laid over muſt be granted in like manner; and the whole allowed for a de- each other, like the ſcales of fiſhes. The bones of the cranium monſtration. See the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. III. and IV. are uſually joined by three genuine ſutures ; ſee the Syſtem, Part I. SYMBOL, a ſign or repreſentation of any moral thing, by the Sect. II. Art. I. images or properties of natural things. Thus we ſay, the lion is SUTURE, in ſurgery, denotes a ſeam made to cloſe the lips of a the ſymbol of courage, the pelican of paternal love, &c. Symbols wound, in order to its healing. are of various kinds,as types, ænigmas, parables, fables, allegories, SWALLOW, the Engliſh name of the Genus Hirundo ; in emblems, hieroglyphics, &c. each whereof ſee under its reſpective ornithology, fee HIRUNDO. The characters are, that the article, TYPE, ÆNIGMA, PARABLE, FABLE, &c. beak is extremely ſmall, a little bending, pointed, and depreſſed | SYMPHONY, ouu.Qayid, formed from ouy, with, and down, at the baſe, and the opening of the mouth larger than the very found, in muſic, properly denotes a conſonance, or concert of fe- head of the bird. veral ſounds agreeable to the ear ; whether they be vocal or inftru- SWAN, cygnus, in ornithology, a fpecies of the Genus Anas. mental, or both ; called alſo HARMONY. See the Syſtem, Part I For deſcription of the Genus &c. See ANAS Sect. I. rance. SYN SYS e Courſe of this work. SYMPHYSIS, a natural coherence or connećtion, in anatomy, elders; of twenty-four, fends five, and two elders; every royal one of the manners of articulating or joining the bones. See See burgh ſends one elder, and Edinburgh two ; every univerſity ſends the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. I. one commiſſioner, uſually a miniſter. The general aſſembly meets SYMPTOMATICAL, in medicine, is a term often uſed to once a year, in the month of May, and is opened and adjourned denote the difference between the primary and ſecondary diſeaſes. by the king's royal commiſſion appointed for that purpoſe. Thus a fever from pain is ſaid to be ſymptomatical, becauſe it ariſes SYNTAX, ZUVToži, in grammar, the conſtruction or connec- from pain only; andtherefore, the ordinary means in fevers are tion of the words of a languages into ſentences or phraſes. See the not in ſuch caſes, to be had recourſe to; but what will remove Syſtem, Part 11. Chap. IV. the pain : when that ceaſes, the fever will ceaſe, without any SYNTHESIS, in logic, denotes a branch or method, oppoſite direct means taken for it. to analyſis. In the fyntheſis, or ſynthetic method, we purſue the SYNAGOGUE, SYNAGOGA, Quvaywyn, literally importing truth by reaſons drawn from principles before eſtabliſhed, or aſſembly, congregation; a particular aſſembly of Jews, met to per- aſſumed, and propoſitions formerly proved; thus proceeding by a form the office of their religion. Alſo, the place wherein they meet. regular chain, till we come to the concluſion. See the Syſtem, The Jews uſe the term in the primary ſenſe, when they ſpeak of Part IV. the great Synagogue ; meaning the court of ſeventy elders, which SYPHILIS, is a term uſed by ſome writers, for the lues veneræ, they pretend to have been inſtituted originally by Moſes, and the or pox. See the Syſtem of Medicine, Genus 59. members of which they afterwards increaſed to one hundred and SYRINGE, formed from oupivyš; or ſyrinx, pipe, an inſtrument twenty. Some authors take the uſe of fynagogues to be of no old ſerving to imbibe, or ſuck in, a quantity of any fluid; and to ſtanding among the Jews; and maintain that it was not till after ſquirt or expel the ſame with violence. In effect, a fyringe is their return from the Babyloniſh captivity, that the opinion firſt only a ſingle pump, and the water aſcends in it on the ſame prin- got footing, that the worſhip of God was not ſo reſtrained to the i ciple as in the common fucking pump. See the Syſtem of Hy- temple at Jeruſalem, that it could not be held any where elſe. The DROSTAtics, Part II. Art. V. N° 1. conſequence of which new opinion was, that the Jews began to SYRUP, in pharmacy, an agreeable liquor, or compoſition, of build them fynagogues in all their cities. Others hold, that there a thick conſiſtence, made of juices, tinctures, or waters of fruits, were fynagogues even in the time of David. But be this as it will, flowers, or herbs, boiled up, in order to preſerve it from ſpoiling, no aſſemblies of the Jews appear to have been called ſynagogues till by fermentation, or otherwiſe, with ſugar or honey. There are a little before the coming of Jeſus Chriſt; who is ſaid to have various kinds of fyrups denominated from the various fruits, preached in the middle of the ſynagogue. The fynagogues were &c. they are extracted from, or from their virtues ; as a ſyrup of uſed not only for divine ſervice, but for holding courts of juſtice, violets, of elder, of wormwood, or poppies, &c. Syrups, which eſpecially upon eccleſiaſtical affairs. To this uſe of ſynagogues, were formerly looked upon as medicines of conſiderable value, are fome have ſuppoſed that St. James refers, ch. ii. 2—4. There at preſent regarded chiefly as vehicles for medicines of greater effi- were reckoned four hundred and eighty fynagogues in the ſingle cacy, and are uſed for ſweetening draughts, juleps, or mixtures, and city of Jeruſalem. There are fynagogues at London, Amſterdam, for reducing the lighter powders into bolufes, pills, and electuaries. Rotterdam, Avignon, Metz, &c. But all theſe purpoſes may be anſwered by the ſimple ſyrup SYNARTHROSIS, ovvaplewors, formed from ouv, with, and alone, there is little occaſion for any other. aghey, articulus, joint ; in anatomy, a kind of articulation, or join SYSTEM,Sytema, formed from ousnuo, compoſition, in the ge- ture of the bones of the body; wherein they remain without any, neral, denotes an aſſemblage or chain of principles and concluſions; at leaſt, apparent motion. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. I. or the whole of any doctrine, the ſeveral parts whereof are bound SYNCOPE, EUYxotin, in medicine, a deep and ſudden ſwooning, together, and follow, or depend on each other. In this ſenſe we wherein the patient continues without any ſenſible heat, motion, ſay, a ſyſtem of Algebra, a ſyſtem of Agriculture, a ſyſtem of Bo- fenſe, or inſpiration: and is ſeized with a cold ſweat over the whole tany, and ſo of the ſyſtems in general, reſpecting the ſeveral tion, cauſes, prognoſis and cure, ſee the Syſtem, Genus 37. System, in aſtronomy, denotes an hypotheſis or ſuppoſition of SYNECDOCHE, in rhetoric and oratory, a figure or trope, a certain order and arrangement of the ſeveral parts of the univerſe; whereby the whole of a thing is put for a part of it, or a part for whereby aſtronomers explain all the phenomena or appearances of For its exemplification in ſeveral inſtances, ſee the the heavenly bodies, their motions, changes, &c. treatiſe on Oratory, Part III. Sect. I. Art. 2. peculiarly called the ſyſtem of the world, and ſometimes the ſolar SYNOCHA, in medicine, the name of a ſpecies of fever, of Syſtem. See the Syſtem throughout: for the ſolar Syſtem in parti- which authors diſtinguiſh two kinds, the ſimple and the compound. cular, Sect. II. For the riſe and progreſs of the ſcience of Aſtro- For deſcription, cauſes, and cure, ſee the Syſtem, Genus 4. nomy, and the time of the introduction of the ſeveral ſyſtems, as SYNOD, in church hiſtory, a council, or meeting, or aſſem the Ptolemaic, Copernican, Tychonic, &c. ſee the hiſtory pre- bly of eccleſiaſtics, to conſult on matters of religion. fixed to our ſyſtem of ASTRONOMY, Sect. I. Provincial SYNODS, in the government of the Church of Scotland, SYSTEM, in muſic, an aſſemblage of the rules for harmony de- are compoſed of ſeveral adjacent preſbyteries, of which there are duced from ſome common principle, by which they are re-united fifteen in all. The members are a miniſter and ruling elder out by which their connection, one with another, is formed; from of each pariſh. Theſe fynods meet twice a year, and chuſe a mo whence, as from their genuine ſource they naturally flow, and to derator, who is their prolocutor. The acts of the ſynod are ſubject which, if we would account for them, we muſt have recourſe. See, to the review of the general aſſembly, which is the dernier reſort in the Syſtem, the ſeveral articles, Chromatic, Diatonic, Enhar- of the kirk of Scotland, and conſiſts of commiſſioners from pref- monic, Harmony, Interval, &c, byteries, royal burghs, and univerſities. A preſbytery of twelve SYSTOLE, in anatomy, the contraction of the heart; whereby miniſters, ſends two miniſters and one ruling elder ; a preſbytery the blood is driven out of its ventricles into the arteries, to be dif- of between twelve and eighteen, ſends three and one ruling elder; tributed throughout the body. See the Syſtem, Part V. Sect. III. of between eighteen and-twenty four, ſends four, and two ruling the whole. This is more T. T A B T T A B A conſonant, and the nineteenth letter in the alphabet ; the him. It was erected on the firſt day of the firſt month of the ſecond of by a ſtrong expulſion of the breath exodus exit xl. 2. 17. through the mouth, upon a ſudden drawing back of the tongue from 26. 29. 34. 35. The value of the gold and ſilver only, uſed for the fore part of the palate, with the lips at the ſame time open. The the work of the tabernacle, Exod. xxxviii. 24, 25, amounted ac- cuſtomary found of T, is that which occurs in the words take, temp-, cording to biſhop Cumberland’s reduction of Jewiſh talents and ſhe- tation ; but before an i, when followed by a vowel, it has the found kels to Engliſh coin, to upwards of one hundred and eighty-two of an obſcure s, as nation, ſalvation, except when s precedes t, as thouſand five hundred and fixty-eight pounds. Jenning's Jewiſh Chriſtian; and in derivatives from y, as mighty, mightier. Th has Ant. vol. ii. b.2. C. I. Anc. Univ. Hiſt. v.i. partii. p. 651, &c. fol. two founds; the one ſoft, as thus; the other hard, as thing. The We have alſo an account of two other tabernacles, before the build- found is ſoft in theſe words, then, thence there, with their deriva- ing of Solomon's temple, beſides that above deſcribed. One of tives and compounds, that, theſe, &c. and in all words between theſe was erected by Mofes for himſelf; in which he gave audi. two vowels, as father; and between r and a vowel, as burthen. In ence, heard cauſes, and enquired of God; and, perhaps, alſo, the other words it is hard, as thick, thunder. Where it is ſoftened at Where it is foftened at public offices of religious worſhip were performed in it for ſome the end of a word, an e ſilent muſt be added, as breath, breathe. time; whence it was called the tabernacle of the congregation, Ex- Johnſon. odus xxxiii. 7. The other was that which David erected in his TABERNACLE, TABERNACULUM, q. d. a tent; among the own city, for the reception of the ark, when he received it from Jews, was a kind of moveable chapel, ſo contrived as to be taken the houſe of Obededom, 2 Sam. vi. 17.1. Chron. xvi. 1. to pieces and put together at pleaſure, for the convenience of car TABES, in medicine, a general name for conſumptions of all rying it from place to place, during the migration of the Iſraelites kinds. Tabes dorſalis, is a kind of conſumption proceeding ſome- in the wilderneſs, for forty years. It was erected by Moſes in con times from an exceſſive application to venery ; the proximate cauſe ſequence of the expreſs command of God, partly to be a palace of of which is a general debility of the nerves. Of the feveral kinds his preſence as the king of Iſrael, and partly to be the medium of of conſumptions incident to human bodies, the tabes dorſalis, is th the moſt folemn public worſhip, which the people were to pay to Noweſt in its progreſs, but the moſt melancholy in its circum ſtance" T AL TAN ſtances; and unleſs timely obviated, for the moſt part fatal. This by the deciſions of the moſt approved of the ancient doctors. The diſeaſe is incident only to young men of ſalacious difpofitions; and Talmud conſiſts of two general parts: the one called the miſchnag. proceeds from too early venery, an immoderate nfe of it, or pol- the other the gemara ; which firſt part is alſo frequently called ab lutions. It ſeems, therefore, to derive its origin from too frequent ſolutely the Talmud, the general name of the whole work. The venereal ſpaſms. 'And the immoderate lofs of the feminal fluid, Jews divide their law into written, which is that contained in the has alſo a conſiderable ſhare in producing the effect. The fymp. books of Mofes ; and unwritten,which is thatconveyed by tradition. This latter is, in effect, no other than a glofs or interpretation toms of the tabes dorſalis are involuntary nocturnal feminal emif- fions , a pain in the back, and often in the head; formication in of the former, given by the ancient rabbins. The Talmud then the ſpine, an aching pain, rolling, and hanging down of the teſti- cles, a weakneſs of memory and light, and a mucous diſcharge from remonies, which they obſerve as religiouſly as the law of God the urethra, eſpecially after ſtraining at the diſcharge of the excre- itfelf: they would never put them in writing till they were com- ments. The mucous diſcharge here mentioned, is called by Hip- pelled to it by the deſtruction of Jeruſalem, and till the; faw pocrates liquidum ſemen ; but it is no more than the mucus of the themſelves diſperſed throughout the world. ter proſtate glands. The patient has neither a fever nor loſs of appe TALON, in architecture, a kind of moulding, conſiſting of tite: but after any violent exerciſe his head is heavy, and his ears a cymatium, crowned with a ſquare fillet ; frequently found to tingle. This diſeaſe is farther attended with great melancholy and terminate ornaments of joiners-work, as thoſe of doors, &c. See dejection of mind ; and a gutta ſerena often follows. The eyes the Syſtem, Plate VI. 523i grow hollow, the viſage meagre and thin; the body emaciated and TALPA, the MOLE ; a Genus of quadrupeds belonging to the weak, a palpitation of the heart, and ſhortneſs of breath ſucceed; order of feræ. There are ſix fore-teeth in the upper jaw, and eight with a concourſe of hectical complaints, ending in death. For the in the under jaw; with one large dog-tooth, and four ſmaller ones. cure of this diſtemper, a regularity of the nonnaturals is of the ut There are two fpecies, viz. I. The Europeus or European mole, moſt importance. As to medicines, the claſſes of balſamics and with a tail, and five toes on each foot. It lives under-ground; bur- aſtringents are chiefly uſeful Among the latter the Peruvian rows with vaſt rapidity with its fore-feet, flinging the earth back bark, either in ſubſtance, extract, or tincture, the acid elixir of with its hind feet; has the ſenſe of ſmelling exquiſite, which directs vitriol, and the tinctura ſaturnina or antiphthyſica, are the moſt it to its food, worms, inſects, and roots. It does vaſt damage in efficacious. Strengthening plaſters may alſo be laid on the gardens, by flinging up the ſoil and looſening the roots of plants. loins; and the chief of all, the cold bath ſhould be uſed. It is moſt active before rain, and in winter before a thaw, worms TÁBLES, in mathematics, are fyſtems of numbers, calcu- being then in motion. It breeds in the ſpring, and brings four or lated to be ready at hand for expediting aſtronomical, geometri five young at a time, it makes its neſt of moſs, a little beneath cal, and other operations. the ſurface of the ground, under the greateſt hillock : raiſes no Aftronomical TABLES, are computations of the motions, places, hillocks in dry weather, being then obliged to penetrate deep af- and other phenomena of the planets, both primary and ſecondary. ter its prey. It makes a great feream when taken. Palma chriſi See the Syſtem throughout. For Tables, relating to annuities, &c. and white helebore, made into a paſte, and laid into their holes, fee Annuities, Expectation of life, Life-annuities, Mortality, deſtroys them. None in Ireland. For repreſentation, fee the and Survivorſhip. See the Syſtem of ANNUITIES throughout. Syſtem of Mammalia, Plate VI. Genus 18. Species I. TACTICS, the art of diſpoſing forces in form of battle, and 2. Radiatus, or radiated mole. The radiated mole is leſs of performing the military motions and evolutions. See the Trea than the European. Its fur is very cloſe, ſhort and fine ; and tiſe on Military AFFAIRS, Sect. III. and the four Plates an its noſe very curiouſly beſet with radiated tendrils. It is a native nexed. For naval tactics, or the arrangement of a fleet for an of North America, feeds on roots, and forms fubterraneous paſ- engagement, ſee the Treatiſe on NAVAL AFFAIRS, Sect. II. ſages in different directions. It is ſaid that hats peculiarly fine TACTUS, the toucb, in midwifery, is the exploration of and beautiful are made of the fur of the mole. For repreſenta- the ſtate of the vagina and uterus, and of the fituation of the tion, ſee the Seſtem of Mammalia, Plate VI. Genus 18. Species 3. fætus, and whatever elſe is contained therein. See the Syſtem, TAMARIND, tamarindus, in botany, a Genus of the triandriu Part IV. Sect. I. monogynia claſs. The Eaſt India tamarinds are longer than thoſe TADPOLE. The animal called by this name is no other of the Weſt; the former containing fix or feven feeds each, the than the frog in its firſt ſtate from the ſpawn; and this creature latter rarely above three or four ; nevertheleſs they ſeem to be the furniſhes the curious in microſcopic obſervations with a beautiful produce of the ſame plant : the Oriental fort is dryer and darker view of the circulation of the blood, eſpecially when young coloured than the occidental, and has more pulp ; the former is TÆNIA, a genus of inſects, belonging to the order of vermes ſometimes preſerved without addition, but the latter has always an zoophyta. The body is of an oblong form ; and compoſed ofevi admixture of ſugar. We owe the knowledge of the uſe of tama dent joints or articulations, in the manner of the links of a chain, rinds, in medicine, to the Arabians. The ancient Greeks knew no- with a mouth and viſcera in each joint. 1. The lata, long tape- 1. The lata, long tape- thing of them ; and Serapion, Meſue, and Avicenna, are the firſt worm, or folitary worm, infeſts the inteſtines of man and ſome authors who preſcribe them. We uſe the tamarinds only in me- other claſſes of animals, and ſeems to derive its nouriſhment from dicine; but the Africans, and the people of many of the Oriental the chyle that is prepared in the ſtomach. This worm is long and nations, where they are common, make them into a ſort of con- flat, compofed of many very ſhort rings that are articulated to each fection with ſugar, which they eat as a delicacy, and which cools other, and has a kind of vein running through its whole length, them in the violent heats of their climates, and at the ſame time which is more or leſs apparent. This has occaſioned the Germans keeps their bowels in a proper ſtate of laxity. The pulp of ta- to give it the name of flat ſpinous worm. Its body, which is uſually marinds is an agreeable laxitive acid, of common uſe in inflam- feveral ells in length, and Hattened like a ribband, becomesgradually matory and putrid diſorders, for abating thirſt and heat, correct narrow towards its upper extremity, and at length terminates in a ing putrefactions, and looſening the belly. The doſe, as a laxa ſmall thread-like appearance, of a foot or more in length. The tive, is two or three drams; an ounce or two prove moderately ca- body of the worm extends itſelf throughout the whole inteſtinal ca thartic. It is an uſeful addition to the purgative ſweets, callia or nal and often reaches even to the anus. It has been named folitary manna, in increaſing their action, and rendering them leſs liable worm, becauſe there commonly exiſts only one in the ſame ſubject'; to produce flatulencies : the reſinous cathartics are ſaid to be ſometimes, however, two of them are found together; and ſome ſomewhat weakened by it. times, after the expulſion of the firſt, there regenerates a ſecond. TAMUZ, in chronology, the fourth month of the Jewiſh ec- 2. The folium, or gourd-worm, reſembles the former in many cleſiaſtical year, anſwering to part of our June and July. The particulars, and is equally met with in the inteſtines of animals. It 17th day of this month is obſerved by the Jews as a faſt , in me- will be diſtinguiſhed from the preceding one, by having neither mory of the deſtruction of Jeruſalem by Nebuchadnezzar, in the appearance of a head nor of a longitudinal vein ; its rings are the rith year of Zedekiah, before Chriſt, 588. much longer than thoſe of the folitary worm, and are ſtriated TAN, the bark of the oak, chopped, and ground by a tanning- through their whole length, being furniſhed only with a little la mill, into a coarfe powder ; to be uſed in the tanning or dreſſing teral prominence. Thefe rings are eaſily detached from each of ſkins. New tan is the moſt eſteemed ; when old and ſtale, it other, ſo that they appear as ſo many diſtinct worms, which have lofes a great deal of its effect, which conſiſts in condenſing or each of them life and motion independent as it were of the reſt. cloſing the pores of the ſkins ; ſo that the longer the ſkins are The form of theſe rings, when viewed together, varies conſide- kept in tan, the greater ſtrength and firmneſs they acquire. This rably. For the methods of deſtroying and expelling thoſe worms, bark, which is more abundant in the gummy reſinous part than ſee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 46. any of our common indigenous aſtringents, and which, on ac- TAJACU, or PECCARY, a ſpecies of the Genus ſus in the count of its aſtringent gummy-reſinous property, ferves both to Syſtem of Mammalia. For deſcription of the Genus, ſee Şus. preſerve leather from rotting, and to render it impervious to TALMUD, or THALMUD, from 1990 doctrine, from pob he water, is preferred to all other ſubſtances for the purpoſe of tan- taught, a Jewith book, wherein is collected all that relates to the ex ning. It is uſed either in the way of infuſion, which is called plication of their law. The Talmud is the body of the Hebrew ooze; or the dry powder is ſtrewed between layers of hides and law; a compilation of expofitions of the duties impoſed on the peo- fkins, when theſe are laid away in the tan-pits. The ooze is ple, either in Scripture, or by tradition, or by authority of their made by macerating the bark in common water, in a particular doctors, or by cuſtom, or even by fuperſtition: to ſpeak more plainly ſet of holes or pits, which by way of diſtinction from the other ſtill, it is the courſe of caſes of conſcience, or of moral theology, holes in the tan-yard, are called letches. wherein the duties are explained, and the doubts cleared, not by rea TANGENT, in geometry, a right line which touches a circle ; ſoning, but generally by authority, by the cuſtom of the nation, and that is, meets it in ſuch a manner, as that though infinitely produced, it T A R T AS zons. it would never cut the ſame; that is, never come within the cir be formed of two parts of lime and one part of plaſter of Paris, cumference. See the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. II. well beaten together and uſed immediately. There is another fort TANGENT, in trigonometry. A Tangent of an Arch, is a right of terrace, made for coarſar uſes, which is ſometimes called line, raiſed perpendicularly on the extreme of the diameter, and Welch terrace, formed of one part of lime, and two parts of well- continued to a point, where it is cut by a ſecant, that is, by a line, ſifted coal aſhes, thoroughly mixed by being well beaten together. drawn from the centre through the extremity of the arch, where- Handm. to the Arts, Vol. i. p. 32. of it is a tangent. See the Treatiſe. TARSUS, in anatomy, is what we call the inſtep; being the TAPE-Worm. See TÆNIA. beginning of the foot, or the ſpace between the ancle and the body TAPIIR, in the Syſtem of Mammalia, a ſpecies of the Genus of the foot, which is called metatarſus. The tarfus anſwers to Hippopatamus, diſcovered ſince the time of Linnæus, who makes the wriſt of the hand. It conſiſts of feven bones: for a deſcrip.. but one ſpecies, viz. amphibius. The tapiir or long noſed hippo- of which, ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. II. Art. 7. Por repre- potamus, inhabits the woods and rivers of the eaſtern ſide of fentation, ſee Plate I. Fig. 2. letter k. South America, from the iſthmus of Darien to the river of Ama TARTAR, TARTARUS, in chymiſtry, an acid concrete falt It ſleeps during the day, in the darkeſt and thickeſt foreſts which riſes from wires, after complete fermentátion, and ſticking adjacent to the banks; and goes out in the night time in ſearch of to the top and ſides of the caſks, forms a cruſt, which hardens to food. It lives on graſs, ſugar-canes, and on fruit. If diſturbed, the conſiſtence of a ſtone. Its goodneſs rather depends on the it takes to the water ; ſwims very well, or finks below, and, like number of repeated fermentations, which a ſucceſſion of new wincs the hippopotamus, walks on the bottom as on dry ground. It makes in the ſame calks, for ſeveral years, makes, than on the foil or cli- a ſort of hiſſing noiſe. The Indians ſhoot it with poiſoned arrows; mate where the wine is produced. The fweet wines afford always they cut the ſkin into bucklers: and eat the fleſh, which is faid to leſs tartar than the ſharp ones, and it is alſo leſs valuable. The be very good. It is a falacious, Now-footed, and ſluggiſh animal. tartar of Rheniſh wine is better than that of any other; and in ge- Gumila ſays, it will make a vigorous reſiſtance if attacked, and neral thoſe wines which have the moſt acid in them, afford the ſcarcely fails ſlaying the dogs which it can lay hold of. Dampier greateſt quantity of tartar, and that in the largeſt cryſtals. It is and Bancroft give very faulty deſcriptions of this beaſt, imagining objected by ſome to this fyſtem, that vinegar affords no tartar; but it to be the ſame with the hippopotamus amphibius. For an ac this is eaſily anſwered, by obſerving, that the wine, from which eurate repreſentation of the tapiir, or long noſed hippopotamus, vinegar is made, has before depoſited its tartar. White tartar is Yee Plate X. Order 6. Genus 34. Species 2. preferred to red, and is really better; though both kinds, when TAR, or Tarr, a groſs pitchy liquor, iſſuing from the wood purified, are exactly the ſame. The marks of good tartar of and bark of old pines, or firs, either naturally, or by burning.- either kind are, its being thick, brittle, brilliant, and but little Some modern writers inform us, that tar flows from the trunks of earthy. See the Syſtem, Part I. Chap. I. Art. I. pines and firs, when they are very old, through inciſions made Cream of TARTAR, cremor tartari. Cream of tartar has a ſen- in the bark near the root ; that pitch is only tar infpiffated, and ſibly acid taſte ; it reddens the blue colours of vegetables ; it may both are the oil of the tree grown thick and black with age and the be ſaturated by uniting with any of thoſe ſubſtances which are ca- fun. The trees, like old men, being unable to perſpire, and the pable of forming with acid neutral falts ; and it may be afterwards fecretory duets obſtructed, they are, as one may fay, choaked and ſeparated from theſe ſubſtances and recover its former appearance. ſtuffed with their own juice. It is alſo procured by burning them Whence it may be inferred that this falt, which is concrete and with a cloſe ſmothering heat, much uſed in coating and caulking cryſtalliſable, on account of a portion of earth and oil, with which fhips, &c. It is prepared in different parts of Germany, in North it is intimately combined, is an acid. But by the analyſis of Mr. America, and in all countries where there is much wood. The Scheel, in the Swediſh tranſactions, part iii. for 1770, it appears, wood is encloſed in a large oven, to the quantity of ten or more that cream of tartar is not a pure acid, but a compound falr, con- loads at a time: this ſtands within another oven, called the man- taining the fixed vegetable alkali, united with a ſuperabundance tle, the ſpace between them receiving the fire. From the bottom of the tartareous acid ; and, therefore, it differs from ſoluble tartar of the inner oven there runs a gutter, by which the tar is con- only in the proportion of acid which it contains. Cream of tartár veyed off in proportion as it melts out from the wood. Along with is reputed a great ſweetener of the blood; for which ſome take it the tar there runs out an acid ſpirit or juice, by means of which in whey or water-gruel in the ſpring time, to the quantity of half part of the oily matter becomes ſoluble in water ; and it is owing an ounce every morning, for three or four weeks. Its operation to this that tar infuſed in water communicates to it a medical vir is by ſtool; and, by its faline particles, pretty much alſo by u- Tar when diſtilled yields a kind of eſſential oil called oleum rine. It is generally mixed with lenitive electuaries, in nephri- pini, and oleum tæde, which is greatly valued by painters, var tic and anti-venereal caſes, where it often proves ſerviceable. milhers, &c. on account of its drying quality : it ſoon thickens of TASTE, ſavour, a ſenſation excited in the ſoul by means of itſelf, almoſt to the conſiſtence of a balſam. Of late it has been the organ of taſte, viz. the papillæ of the tongue, &c. See the found that the empyreumatic oil produced from pitcoal or culm, Syſtem, Part VII. Sect. II. anſwers the purpoſes of tar diſtilled from wood. There is, how Taſtes may be diſtinguiſhed into ſimple and compound. Two ever, the fame difference between the two as there is between a faults have here been committed ; the firſt, a defective enume- vegetable and a bituminous empyreumatic oil. The proceſs is rating of ſimple taſtes: the ſecond, a reckoning them indiſtinctly much the ſame as when wood is uſed. among ſuch as are compounded. TARANDUS, or REIN-DEER, a ſpecies of the Genus Cer Simple Tastes, of which we uſually reckon only fix or ſeven vus, in the Syſtem of MAMMALIA. See CERVUS. For re forts, are at leaſt fixteen: 1. Bitter, as in wormwood; whoſe preſentation of the rein-deer, ſee Plate VIII, Genus 29, Species 4. contrary is, 2. Sweet, as in ſugar. 3. Sour, as in vinegar ; whoſe TARANTULA, in entomology, a venomous infect, whoſe contrary is, 4. Salt. 5. Hot, as in cloves; to which is oppoſite, bite gives name to a diſeaſe called tarantiſmus. It is a ſpecies of 6. Cold, as in ſal prunellæ ; for we may as properly ſay a cold taſte the Genus Aranea ; under which article may be ſeen its deſcrip- as an hot one, ſince there are ſome bodies which do manifeſtly im- tion, together with an account of the effects of its bite, the opinions preſs the ſenſe of cold upon the tongue, though not to the touch. of ſeveral of the faculty upon it, and the remedy for the cure of it. 17. Aromatic, to which is contrary, 8. Nauſeous, or malignant. TARE and TRET, in commerce, any defect, waſte, or dimi- 9. Soft, which are either vapid, as in water, ſtarch, whites of eggs, nution in the weight, the quantity, or the quality of goods. The &c. or unctuous, as in oils, fat, &c. 10. Hard, of which may be ſeller is uſually to account to the buyer for the tare and tret. reckoned four kinds. II. Penetrant, which worketh itſelf into Tare is more particularly uſed for an abatement, or deduction, in the tongue without any pungency; as is found in the root and the price of a commodity, on account of the weight of cheſts, caſks, leaves of the wild cucumber. 12. Stupefacient, at in the root of bags, &c. in which goods are put up, and whoſe weight may be black hellebore, which, being chewed, and for ſome time retained known ſeparately from that of the goods; and which being ſub upon the tongue, affects that organ with a numbneſs, or paralytic tracted from the groſs weight, or that of the caſk, &e, and goods ftupor. 13. Aftringent, as in galls; and, 14. Pungent, as in ſpirit together, gives the weight of the goods alone, or the nett, or neat of fal ammoniac'; which two laft taſtes are contrary to the unctu- weight. The allowance, called tret, is calculated in the ſame way. ous, as penetrant and ſtupefacient are contrary to the vapid one. For the arithmetical rules reſpecting this article of commerce, fee Compound Tastes, are very numerous; but we have words to the Syſtem of ARITHMETIC, Chap. VII. expreſs but ſix of them: 1. Auftere, which is aftringent and bit- Tare, a ſpecies of pulſe, called alfo Vetch. For its cultiva ter, as in the green and ſoft ſtones of grapes. 2. Acerb, properly tion and uſes, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. VII. ſo called, which is aſtringent and acid, as in the juice of unripe TARRACE, or TERRACE, a coarſe ſort of plaſter, or mortar, grapes. 3. Acrid, which is pungent and hot. 4. Muriatic, which durable in the wet, and chiefly uſed to line baſons, ciſterns, wells, is ſalt and pungent, as in common falt. 5. Lixivious, which is and other reſervoirs of water. That which is called the Dutch faltneſs joined with ſome pungency and heat. 6. Nitrous, which terrace, is made of a foft rock ſtone, found near Collen, upon the is faltneſs joined with pungency and cold. lower part of the Rhine ; it is burnt like lime, and afterwards re Intellectual TASTE. The external ſenſe with which nature duced to powder by means of mills : from thence it is brought to has furniſhed us, and by which we diſtinguiſh and reliſh the vari- Holland in great quantities, where it has acquired the name of ous kinds of nouriſhment that are adapted to health and pleaſure, Dutch terrace: It is of a greyiſh colour when it is not mixt, has in all languages given occaſion to the metaphorical word taſte, which is very ſeldom the cafe ; becauſe it is very dear, and the de- by which we expreſs our perception of beauty, deformity, or de- mand for it in aquatic works very great. In ſome parts of En- fect, in the ſeveral arts. Taſte then, in general, is a quick dif- gland there is found a ſoft ſtone, reſembling that of Dutch terrace, cernment, a ſudden perception, which, like the ſenſation of the and which might ſerve in aquatic works. An artificial terrace may palate, anticipates reflection ; like the palate, it reliſhes what is good tue. No. 143, . 4 T T AS T A X many of good with an exquiſite and voluptuous ſenſibility, and rejects the by the laws of religion. Nothing renders the mind ſo narrow, and contrary with loathirg and diſguſt; like the palate alſo, it is often ſó little, if we may uſe that expreſſion, as the want of ſocial inter- doubtful, and, as it were, bewildered, not knowing whether it courſe: this confines its faculties, blunts the edge of genius, damps ſhould reliſh or reject certain objects, and frequently requires the every noble paſſion, and leaves in a ſtate of languor and inactivity influence of habit togive it a fixed and uniform determination. To every principle that could contribute to the formation of true taſte. have a taſte, ſuppoſes ſomething more than merely to perceive, and Beſides, where ſeveral of the finer arts are wanting, the reſt muſt to diſcern with accuracy the beauty of any work or object . This neceſſarily languiſh and decay, ſince they are inſeparably connected beauty muſt be felt, as well as perceived; the mind muſt be touched together, and mutually ſupport each other. This is one reaſon and affected by it in a lively and fenfible manner. This feeling why the Aſiatics have never excelled in any of the arts : and hence however, in order to conſtitute true taſte, muſt not be a vague and alſo it is that true taſte has been confined to certain parts of Europe. confuſed ſenſation; but muſt be attended with a diſtinct view, a A late excellent writer has defined taſte to be the power of re- quick and comprehenſive diſcernment of the various qualities, in ceiving pleaſure from the beauties of nature and of art. Though their ſeveral relations and connexions, which enter into the compo- taſte, ſays this writer, be ultimately founded on a certain natural ſition of the object we contemplate. And in this we fee another and inſtinctive ſenſibility to beauty, yet reaſon affiſts taſte in ſtriking reſemblance between the intellectual taſte and the ſenſual of its operations, and ſerves to enlarge its power. The characters one: for as a nice palate perceives immediately the mixture of dif- of taſte, when brought to its moſt perfect ſtate, are all reducible to ferent wines, ſo the man of taſte will quickly diſcern the motley two, delicacy, which principally reſpects the perfection of that na- mixture of different ſtyles in the ſame production; and, let the tural ſenſibility on which taſte is founded, and correctneſs, which beauties and defects be ever ſo cloſely blended in an object, will chiefly reſpects the improvement that faculty receives through its always be capable of diſtinguiſhing the former from the latter. As connexion with the underſtanding ; the former of theſe qualities the corruption of the ſenſual taſte diſcovers itſelf by a relish for only is more the gift of nature; the latter, more the product of culture thoſe delicate and high-ſeaſoned diſhes, in which all therefinements and art. Among the ancient critics, Longinus poſſeſſed moſt deli- of art have been employed to excite a forced ſenſation of pleaſure; cacy; Ariſtotle moſt correctneſs. Among the moderns, Mr. Ad- ſo the depravity of the intellectual taſte manifeſts itſelf by an attach diſon is a high example of delicate taſte ; and Dean Swift, if he ment to far-fetched and ſtudied ornaments, and by a want of reliſh had written on the ſubject of criticiſm, would perhaps have afforded for thoſe beauties which are unaffected and natural. The corrup the example of a correct one. An ingenious writer has diſtin- tion of the ſenſual taſte, which makes us delight in ſuch aliments guiſhed between taſte and genius. Taſte, he ſays, conſiſts in as are diſguſting to thoſe whoſe organs are in a good ſtate, is in re- the power of judging ; genius, in the power of executing. One ality a kind of diſeaſe; nor is that depravity of the intellectual taſte may have a conſiderable degree of taſte, in poetry, eloquence, or which makes many prefer the burleſque to the ſublime, and the la any of the fine arts, who has little or hardly any genius for com- boured ſtiffneſs of art to the beautiful ſimplicity of nature, leſs a poſition or execution in any of theſe arts. of theſe arts. But genius cannot be diſeaſe in our mental frame. found without including taſte alſo. Genius, therefore, deſerves to Elegant and able artiſts may communicate their feeling and their be conſidered as a higher power of the mind than tafte ; genius al- diſcernment to others, and thus excite taſte in a nation, which, with ways imports ſomething inventive or creative, which does not reſt out them, had never known its refined pleaſures. By frequently in mere ſenſibility to beauty where it is perceived, but which can, contemplating the works of great and eminent maſters in the vari moreover, produce new beauties and exhibit them in ſuch a man- ous arts, the powers of nature ariſe into taſte; and we imbibe, as it ner as ſtrongly to impreſs the minds of others. Refined taſte were, the ſpirit of theſe illuſtrious men, ſo as to come at length to forms a good critic; but genius is farther neceſſary to form the of paintings with the eyes of a Le Brun, a Pouſſin, poet, or the orator. Beſides, genius, in common acceptation, ex- or a Le Seur; nay, we even read works of learning and genius tends much farther than to the objects of taſte; but though it is a with a portion of that ſpirit that appears in their compoſition. It higher faculty than taſte, it is ever, according to the uſual frugality is a common ſaying, that there is no diſputing about taſtes; and if nature, more limited in the ſphere of its operations. See Dr. by the taſte here be underſtood the palate, which loaths certain ali Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric, and Belles Letters, vol. i. Lect. ii. ments and reliſhes others, the maxim is juſt; becauſe it is needleſs and ii. See alſo Hume’s Eſſay on the ſtandard of taſte, in his to diſpute about what cannot be corrected, or to attempt reforming Eſſays, &c. vol. i. Ef. xxiii. p. 253, edit. 1764. the conſtitution and mechaniſm of, organs merely corporeal. But TATTOOING, an operation in uſe among the iſlanders in the maxim is falſe and pernicious, when applied to that intellectual the South Sea for marking their bodies with figures of various kinds taſte which has for its objects the arts and ſciences. As theſe ob which they conſider as ornamental. It is performed by punctur- jects have real charms, ſo there is in reality a good taſte which per ing the ſkin, and rubbing a black colour in the wounds. The ceives them, and a bad one which perceives them not; and there inſtrument uſed ſomewhat reſembles a comb, the teeth of which are certain methods by which we may often correct thoſe mental de are repeatedly ſtruck into the ſkin by means of a ſmall mallet. It is fects which produce a depraved taſte. But it muſt be granted, at the very painful; but the children are forced by their relations to fub- ſame time, that there are certain phlegmatic ſpirits which nothing mit to it. For a particular deſcription of the manner in which the can inflame ; and alſo certain diſtorted intellects which it is im operation is performed, ſee Bankes's fyſtem of Geography, p. 48. poſſible to rectify; with ſuch, therefore, it is in vain to diſpute TAURUS, in the Syſtem of MAMMALIA, a ſpecies of the about taſte, hecauſe they have none at all. In many things taſte Genus Bos. For deſcription, ſee Bos. For claſſification, ſee the ſeems to be of an arbitrary nature, and without any fixed or uniform Syſtem. For repreſentation, ſee Plate IX, Genus 32, Species 1. direction ; ſuch as in the choice of dreſs and equipage, and in TAURUS, in aſtronomy, the bull; one of the twelve ſigns of every thing that does not come within the circle of the finer arts. the zodiac, and the ſecond in order. See the Syſtem, Sect. IX. In this low ſphere it ſhould be diſtinguiſhed by the name of fancy; under the head of DEFINITIONS. for it is fancy rather than taſte, that produces ſuch an endleſs va TAX, a tribute or impoſition laid upon the ſubject for the ſup- riety of new and contradictory modes. port of government. See REVENUE. The taſte of a nation may degenerate and become extremely de It is the ancient indiſputable privilege and right of the houſe of praved; and it almoſt always happens, that the period of its per commons, that all grants of ſubſidies or parliamentary aids do fection is the forerunner of its decline. Artiſts, through the appre- begin in their houſe, and are firſt beſtowed by them ; although henſion of being regarded as mere imitators, ſtrike out into new their grants are not effectual to all intents and purpoſes until they and uncommon paths, and turn aſide from the beautiful fimplicity have the abſent of the other two branches of the legiſlature. The of nature, which their predeceſſors invariably kept in view. In general reaſon given for this excluſive privilege of the houſe of theſe efforts there is a certain degree of merit, which ariſes from in commons, is, that the ſupplies are raiſed upon the body of the peo- duſtry and emulation, and caftsa veil over the defects which accom ple, and therefore it is proper that they alone ſhould have the right pany their productions. The public, fond of novelty, applauds of taxing themſelves. This reaſon would be unanſwerable, if the their invention; but this applauſe is foon ſucceeded by ſatiety and commons taxed none but themſelves: but it is notorious, that a very diſgust. A new ſet of artiſts ſtart up, invent new methods to pleaſe large ſhare of property is in the poſſeſſion of the houſe of lords ; a capricious taſte, and depart ſtill further from nature than thoſe that this property is equally taxable, and taxed, as the property of who firſt ventured from its paths into the wilds of fancy. Thus the commons; and therefore the commons not being the ſole perſons the taſte of a people degenerates into the groſſeft corruption. Over taxed, this cannot be the reaſon of their having the ſole right of whelmed with new inventions, which ſucceed and efface each other raiſing and modelling the ſupply. The true reaſon, ariſing from with incredible rapidity, they ſcarcely know where they are, and the ſpirit of our conſtitution, ſeems to be this. The lords being a caft back their eager and anxious deſires towards the period when permanent hereditary body, created at pleaſure by the king, are true taſte reigned under the empire of nature. But they implore ſuppoſed more liable to be influenced by the crown, and when once its return in vain; that happy period cannot be recalled; it depo influenced to continue ſo, than the commons, who are a temporary, fits, however, in the cuſtody of certain choice ſpirits, the ſublime elective body, freely nominated by the people. It would therefore pleaſures of true taſte, which they cheriſh and enjoy in their little be extremely dangerous to give the lords any power of framing new circle, remote from the profane eye of the depraved and caprici taxes for the ſubject; it is ſufficient that they have a power of re- ous multitude. jecting, if they think the commons too laviſh or improvident in their There are vaſt countries where taſte has not yet been able to pe grants. But ſo reaſonably jealous are the common of this valua- netrate. Such are thoſe uncultivated waſtes, where civil ſociety | ble privilege, that herein they will not ſuffer the other houſe to has never been brought to any degree of perfection, where there is exert any power but that of rejecting. They will not permit the little intercourſe between the ſexes, and where all repreſentations leaſt alteration or amendment to be made by the lords to the mode of living creatures in painting and ſculpture are ſeverely prohibited of taxing the people by a money-bill: under which appellation are included 1 Τ Ε Α TEA iron pan. tree. included all bills by which money is directed to be raiſed upon the However, the beſt tea, grows in a mild temperate climate, the ſubject, for any purpoſe or in any ſhape whatſoever ; either for the country about Nankin producing better tea than either Pekin or exigences of government, and collected from the kingdom in ge- Canton, betwixt which places it is ſituated. neral, as the land tax; or for private benefit, and collected in any The leaves muſt not be torn off by handfuls, but plucked care- particular diftrict, as by turnpikes, pariſh-rates, and the like. The fully, one by one; and are not to be gathered all at once, but at commcns, when they have voted a fupply to his majeſty, and ſet different times. Thoſe who pluck their ſhrubs thrice a-year, begin tled the quantum of that ſupply, uſually reſolve themſelves into their first gathering about the end of February. Theſe ſmall and what is called a committee of ways and means, to conſider the ways tender leaves are reckoned much better than the reſt, and, becauſe and means of railing the ſupply ſo voted. And in this committee of their ſcarcity and price, are diſpoſed of only to princes and rich every member though it is looked upon as the peculiar province people : for which they are called in Europe, imperial tea, flower of the chancellor of the exchequer) may propoſe ſuch ſchemes of of tea, gunpowder tea, &c. The ſecond gathering, and the firſt taxation as he thinks will be leaft detrimental to the public. The of thoſe who gather but twice a-year, is made about the latter end reſolutions of this committee (when approved by a vote of the of March or beginning of April : ſome of the leaves are then al- houſe) are in general eſteemed to be (as it were) final and conclu- ready come to perfection, others are but half grown; both, how- five. For though the ſupply cannot be actually raiſed upon the ſub ever, are plucked off promiſcuouſly: though care is afterwards ject till directed by an act of the whole parliament, yet no monied taken, previous to the uſual preparation, t arrange theminto claſſes, man will ſcruple to advance to the government any quantity of according to their ſize and goodneſs The third and laſt gathering, ready caſh, on the credit of a bare vote of the houſe of commons, which is alſo the moſt plentiful, is made in the end of May, when though no law be yet paſſed to eſtabliſh it. The taxes which are the leaves have attained their full growth, both in number and raiſed upon the ſubject are either annual or perpetual. I. The ſize. The leaves of this gathering are arranged in like manner annual ta xesare thoſe upon land and malt. See Land and MALT. as the former, according to their ſize and goodneſs, into different II. The perpetual are, 1. The cuſtoms. 2. The exciſe-duty. claſſes, the loweſt of which contains the coarſeſt leaves of all, be- 3: The falt-duty. 4. The poſt-office. 5. The ſtamp duty: - ing full two months grown, and that ſort which is commonly 6. Houſe and window duty. 7. The duty on hackney-coaches drank by the vulgar. The buildings, or drying-houſes, that are and chairs. 8. That on offices and penſions. As to the applica- erected for curing tea, contain from five to ten or twenty ſmall tion of all theſe, ſee the articles REVENUE, NATIONAL Debt, furnaces, about three feet high, each having at the top a large flat FUNDS, and Civil List. There is alſo a long low table covered with matts, on TEA, or Thea, the Tea-plant; a Genus of the Monogynia which the leaves are laid, and rolled by workmen, who fit roundit: order, belonging to the Polyandria claſs of plants. This ſhrub, the iron pan being heated to a certain degree by a little fire made in formerly deſcribed by Dr. Breynius, in his Century of Exotic Plants, the furnace underneath, a few pounds of the freſh gathered leaves publiſhed at Danızick in 1678, is of a very flow growth, and di are put upon the pan: the fresh and juicy leaves crack when they minutive ſize. It has a black, woody, irregularly branched root. touch the pan, and it is the buſineſs of the operator to ſhift them as The riſing ſtem foon ſpreads into many irregular branches and quick as poſſible with his bare hands, till they become too hot to be Theſe at the lower end and near the ground often ſeem to eaſily endured. At this inſtant he takes off the leaves with a kind be more in number than they really are ; for ſeveral feeds being put of thovel reſembling a fan, and pours them on the matts before the together in one hole, it frequently happens that two, three, or more rollers, who, taking ſmall quantities at a time, roll them in the palm ſhrubs grow up together, and ſo cloſe to one another, as to be ea of their hands in one direction, while others are fanning them that fily miſtaken for one by ignorant or leſs attentive obſervers. The they may cool the more ſpeedily, and retain their curl the longer. branches and twigs are ſlender, of different ſizes, irregularly beſet This proceſs is repeated two or three times, or oftener, before the with ſimple leaves, ſtanding on very ſmall, fat, green footſtalks ; tea is put into the ſtores, in order that all the moiſture of the leaves and reſembling, when full grown, the leaves of the garden cherry- may be thoroughly diſſipated, and their curl more completely pre- The footſtalk of the flower is about half an inch long, and ſerved. On every repetition the pan is leſs heated, and the ope- ends in fix very ſmall green leaves, which ſerve inſtead of the calyx ration performed more flowly and cautiouſly. The tea is then or flower cup. This deſcription, applied by Kæmpfer to the ſeparated into the different kinds, and depoſited in the ſtore for ſhrub, which, as he pretends, produces all the different ſorts or pre domeſtic uſe or exportation. The Chineſe know nothing of im- parations of tea, correſponds, ſays Linnæus, to a particular ſpecies perial tea, flower of tea, and many other names, which in Europe only, termed by him bohea : for ſome tea plants, he obſerves after ſerve to diſtinguiſh the goodneſs and the price of this faſhionable Dr. Hill, produce flowers compoſed of nine petals, which muſt commodity: but beſides the common tea, they diſtinguiſh two other therefore conſtitute a diſtinct ſpecies from ſuch as have only ſix. kinds, viz. the voui, and ſoumlo, which are reſerved for people of From this circumſtance is conſtructed the other ſpecies of that au the firſt quality, and thoſe who are fick. We have two principal thor, thea viridis, or green tea, the flowers of which have always kinds of tea in Europe: viz. nine petals. The leaves alſo are much larger than thoſe of the Green TEA, which is the common tea of the Chineſe, &c. bohea, and of a brighter green. F. le Compte calls it bing tea, and ſays it is gathered from the Dr. Lettſom, in his botanical deſcription of the tea-plant, thinks plant in April . It is held very digeſtive, and a little aſtrin- it moſt probable, that there is only one ſpecies, and that the differ gent: it gives a paliſh green tincture to water, and its leaves are ence between the green and bohea teas depends on the nature of much twiſted. The ſecond is, the ſoil, culture, age, and the manner of drying the leaves. He Bohea Tea, which is the voui tea, or boutcha of the Chineſe. F. adds, that it has even been obſerved, that a green tea tree planted in le Compte makes this only differ from the green tea, by its being the bohea-country, will produce bohea, and on the contrary; and gathered a month before it, viz. in March, while in the bud; and that on his examining ſeveral hundred flowers, brought both from hence the ſmallneſs of the leaves, as well as the depth of the tinc- the bohea and green tea countries, their botanical characters have ture it gives to water. Others take it for the tea of ſome parti- always appeared uniform. cular province ; the ſoil being found to make an alteration in the We do not find that the tca plant grows naturally beyond the properties of the tea, as much as the ſeaſon of gathering it. It is 35th degree of north latitude on the one hand, and the 45th degree all bought at Nankin, and thence brought into Ěurope, where it is on the other. The root reſembles that of the peach-tree: the leaves now much in vogue. Reſpecting the difference in colour and are green, longifh at the point, and pretty narrow,an inch and a half flavour peculiar to theſe two kinds, and to their varieties, Dr. Lett- long,and jagged all round. The flower is much like that of the wild fom thinks that there is reaſon to ſuſpect that they are, in ſome roſe, but ſmaller. The fruit is of different forms, fometimes round, meaſure, adventitious, or produced by art. He has been informed ſometimes long, ſometimes triangular, and of the ordinaty ſize of by intelligent perſons, who have reſided ſome time at Canton, that a bean, containing two or three feeds, of a mouſe colour, including the tea about that city affords very little ſmell while growing. The each a kernel. Theſe are the ſeeds by which the plant is propa- fame is obſerved of the tea-plants now in England, and alſo of the gated: a number from fix to twelve or fifteen being promiſcuouſly dried ſpecimens from China. Weare not, however, as he obſerves, put into one hole, four or five inches deep, at certain diſtances from to conclude from hence, that art alone conveys to tea, when cured, each other. The ſeeds vegetate without any other care, though the the ſmell peculiar to each kind ; for our vegetable graſſes, for in- more induſtrious annually remove the weeds and manure the land. ſtance, have little or no ſmell till they are dried and made into hay. The leaves which ſucceed are not fit to be plucked before the third As to the opinion that the green tea owes its verdure to an effloreſ- year's growth at which period they are plentiful , and in their prime. cence acquired from the plates of copper on which it is ſuppoſed to In about ſeven years the ſhrub riſes to a man's height and as it then be cured or dried, he ſhews that there is no foundation for this fuf- bears few leaves, and grows flowly, it is cut down to the ſtem, picion. The infuſions of the fineſt imperial and bloom teas un- which occafions an exuberance of freíh ſhoots and leaves the fuc- dergo no change on the affuſion of a volatile alkali, which would ceeding ſummer: ſome indeed, defer cutting them till they are of detect the minuteſt portion of copper contained in them, by turning ten years growth. In Japan the tea tree is cultivated round the the liquors blue. The fine green colour of theſe teas, with as little borders of the fields, without regard to the foil; but as the Chi- reaſon, hath been attributed to green copperas; as this metallic falë nefe export conſiderable quantities of tea, they plant whole fields would, on its being diffolved in water, immediately ' act on the with it. The tea-tree loves to grow in vallies, at the foot of moun-aftringent matter of the leaves, and convert the infufion into ink, tains, and upon the banks of rivers, where it enjoys a ſouthern ex as happens when a chalybeate water has been employed in the mak- poſure to the ſun, though it endures conſiderable variation of heating of tea. On the whole, Dr. Lettſom thinks it not improbable, and cold, as it flouriſhes in the northern clime of Pekin, as well that ſome green dye prepared from vegetable ſubſtance, is employed as about Canton; and it is obſerved that the degree of cold at Pekin in the colouring of the leaves of the green teas. And Neumann is as ſevere in winter as in ſome of the northern parts of Europe. ſuſpects, that the brown colour and the favour of the bohea forts are ΤΕ Α' TEL are introduced by art. Both the green and bohea teas have an might eaſily be made here by ſimple decoction and evaporation, bere agreeable ſmell, and a lightly bitteriſh ſubaſtringent taſte : with thoſe who experience the noxious qualities of the volatile princi- folution of chalybeate vitriol, they ſtrike an inky blackneſs. ples of this plant. They give out their ſmell and taſte both to watery and ſpirituous Tea is, perhaps, leſs injurious, than many other infuſions of menſtrua : to water, the green ſorts communicate their own green herbs, which, beſides a very ſlight aromatic fiavour, have very tincture, and the bohea, their brown : but to rectified ſpirit they little, if any ftyptieity, to prevent their relaxing debilitating ef- both impart a fine deep green. The extracts, obtained by gently fects. So far, therefore, tea, if not too fine, if not drank too drawing off the menſtrua from the filtered tinctures, are confiderably hot, nor in too great quantities, is perhaps preferable to any other aſtringent, and not a little ungrateful ; but the fpirituous moſt ſo. known vegetable infufion. And if we take into conſideration, Tea is to be choſen of the briſkeſt-ſmelt, and as whole as pof- likewiſe, its known enlivening energy, our attachment to it will ſible; and the greateſt care is to be taken that it have not been appear to be owing to its fuperiority in taſte and effects to moſt expoſed to the air to pall and evaporate. The tea which is drank, other vegetables. See Dr Lettſom's Natural Hiſtory of the Tea- is made in China, and throughout the greateſt part of the Eaſt, tree, with Obſervatioas on the Medical Qualities of Tea, and after the fame manner as in Europe : viz. by infuſing the leaves in Effects of Tea drinking, 4to. 1772. boiling water, and drinking the infuſion hot. Indeed, among us, TEA-Tree of New Zealand, is a ſpecies of myrtle, of which an it is uſual to temper its bitterneſs with ſugar, but the Orientals uſe infuſion was drank by Captain Cook's people in their voyages it without the addition of fugar or milk. However, the Japaneſe round the world. Its leaves were finely aromatic, aſtringent, and are ſaid to prepare their liquor a ſomewhat different way, viz. by had a particular pleaſant flavour at the firſt infuſion ; but this went pulverizing the leaves, ſtirring the powder in hot water, and drink off at the next filling up of the tea-pot, and a great degree of bitter- ing it as we do coffee. From the account given by Du Halde, this neſs was then extracted ; for which reaſon it was never ſuffered to be method is not peculiar to the Japaneſe, but is alſo uſed in ſome twice infuſed. See Bankes's Syſtem of GEOGRAPHY, page 12. provinces of China. The Chineſe are always taking tea, efpe In our account of this valuable plant we have extracted all that cially at meals; it is the chief treat wherewith they regale their is eſſential and intereſting ; to have treated more copiouſly would friends. The moſt moderate take it at leali thrice a-day ; others have been too tedious for our purpoſe. Thoſe who wiſh for more ten times, or more ; and yet it is computed, the conſumption of particular informarion are referred to Kæmpfer’s Hiſtory of Ja- tea among the Engliſh and Dutch is as great in proportion as pan, vol. ii. Appendix. among the Orientals. With regard to the commercial hiſtory of TELEGRAPHE, from TEXO-, diſtance, and ypadw, I deſcribe, tea, we may obſerve that it was firſt introduced in Europe by the an inſtrument lately invented by the French, for the purpoſe of com- Dutch Eaſt India Company, very early in the laſt century, and municating intelligence from place to place, though very diſtantly that a quantity of it was brought over from Holland by Lord Ar remote, more effectually and ſpeedily than by any other mode of lington and Lord Offory, about the year 1666, at which time it conveyance previouſly diſcovered. As the public curioſity has been was ſold for 60s. a pound. But it appears that before this time, much excited by this new diſcovery, we preſent the following ac- drinking of tea, even in public coffee-houſes in this country, was count of its conſtruction, application, and uſes. not uncommon ; for, in 1660, a duty of 8d. per gallon was laid Provide a circle of wood, A, B, C, D, of about four feet in dia- on the liquor made and fold in all coffee-houſes. The prefent meter : and divide its circumference, which will be about 12 feet, conſumption of it is immenſe. Dr. Lettſom tells us, that he has into 25 equal parts. In one of thoſe ſpaces cut an open ſquare, and been informed, that at leaſt three millions of pounds are allowed through each of the others cut one of the 25 letters of the alphabet for the annual home conſumption, not including the incredible (the letter I ſerving for J.) Over the ſpaces that are cut paſte a thin quantity ſmuggled into the kingdom ; and that the Eaſt India oiled paper. On the top of a pole, P, fixed to the ground or floor, Company have generally in their warehouſes a ſupply for three place a frame of wood, E, F, in which there is to be an opening of years. As to the properties of tea, they are ſtrangely contro the ſame ſize with one of the diviſions of the wheel. On the out- verted ; the eaſtern nations are at leaſt as much poſſeffed with an fide of this opening, let there be a door, by which it may be occa- idea of their extraordinary virtues as the Europeans; but it is, | fionally clofed. To the pole let the wheel be fixed at its center G, perhaps, becauſe imagination bears as great a fway there as here. round which it muſt turn, and be placed at ſuch a height that the The immoderate uſe of it, however, has been very prejudicial to letters on its circumferenee may anſwer to the hole in the frame. many, who have been thereby thrown into the diabetes. In Eu Behind that part of the pole which is oppoſite the board, let there rope, infuſions of tea-leaves have been extravagantly condemned be fixed, on a ſtand, a ſtrong light. by fome and commended by others. From the contradictory opi When you would communicate your intelligence, open the door nions even of medical writers on this ſubject, the natural infer on the outſide of the frame; then put that diviſion of the wheel on ence ſeems to be, that they poſſeſs neither noxious nor beneficial which the ſquare is cut againſt the opening, and place the light be- powers in any very conſiderable degree. They ſeem, when mo hind it, that ſerves as a ſignal to your correſpondent, which he an- derately uſed, to be for the moſt part innocent; in ſome caſes they ſwers by putting his wheel in the ſame poſition. ſeem to be falutary ; in ſome they are apparently prejudicial. What you intend to communicate being written on paper, and They dilute thick juices, and quench thirſt more effectually, and placed before you in a proper poſition, you turn the wheel round, paſs off by the natural emunctories more freely than more watery till that diviſion which contains the firſtletter of the firſt word comes fluids; they refreſh the fpirits in heavineſs and ſleepineſs, and before the opening, and keep it while you tell four: you then ſeem to counteract the operation of inebriating liquors. From turn the wheel, either backward or forward, to the ſecond letter, their manifeſt aſtringency they have been ſuppoſed to ſtrengthen and keep it before the opening the ſame time; fo of all the let- and brace up the folids : but this effect experience does not coun ters of that word, and between every one you place the vacant tenance; as it is in diſorders, and in conſtitutions, wherein corro diviſion before the opening, while you tell four. tell four. When When you have borants are moſt ſerviceable, that the immoderate uſe of tea is finiſhed the whole of your intelligence, you ſhut the door of the culiarly hurtful ; in cold indolent habits, cachexies, chlorofis, frame, or withdraw your light. dropſies, and debilities of the nervous ſyſtem. Lewis's Mat. Med. Where the diſtance is conſiderable, it will be neceſſary to be Dr. Lettfom has particularly enquired into the medical qualities provided with proper teleſcopes. Your apparatus ſhould be placed and effects of tea ; and having obferved that infuſions of bohea and ſome way within the room that it may not be obſerved by paſſen- green tea contribute to preſerve ſweet fome ſmall pieces of beef gers. It is evident, from the conſtruction of the inſtrument, immerſed in them, he infers that they poſſeſs an antiſeptic power, that it is full as well adapted for a correſpondence by night as by when applied to the dead animal fibre, and from their ſtriking a day. A machine of this fort may be conſtructed at a trifling ex- purple colour with falt of iron, he deduces their aſtringent qua pence; and the utility of it is obvious from the ſucceſsful experi- lity. From other experiments he concludes, that the activity of ments the French have made with it. If one be apprehenſive left tea chiefly reſides in its fragrant and volatile parts ; and that if any other perſon than his particular correſpondent knows what the uſe of it be beneficial or injurious to any particular conſtitu- paíſes, inſtead of letters, as Mr. De Lolme obſerves, twenty- tion, it becomes ſo principally by means of this odorous fragrant four characters may be uſed, with which the correſpondent may principle. He apprehends that it is the ſafeſt courſe to uſe the alſo be previouſly acquainted. There is one circumſtance, how- infuſion of the more ordinary kinds of this plant, which abound ever, which will render this entirely uſeleſs, and that is a thick leſs with this fragrant principle. Or the tea may be boiled a few fog or miſt; for in that caſe, let the light be ever ſo ſtrong, and minutes in order to diſſipate this volatile part, which ſtands the letters as large as they may, it will be impoſſible to diſcover charged as the cauſe of thoſe nervous affections that are ſaid to them at any conſiderable diſtance. be produced, or aggravated, by the uſe of this liquor. By this TELESCOPE, form of tinne, far, and JZOTEW, I obſerve, an proceſs may likewiſe be extracted more copiouſly the more fixed, optical inſtrument, conſiſting of ſeveral glaiſes or lenſes fitted into a bitter, and ſtomachic parts of this vegetable. tube ; through which remote objects are ſeen as if nigh at hand ; Dr. Lettſom, who ſeems to be thoroughly perſuaded of the oc or more generally, a teleſcope is an optical inſtrument, which ſerves caſional noxious effects of this volatile principle, in the finer teas for diſcovering and viewing diſtant objects, either directly by glaſſes, eſpecially, recommends this laſt mentioned mode of making tea, or by reflection, by means of ſpecula or mirrors. The invention or the ſubſtitution of the extract inſtead of the leaves ; by the uſe of the teleſcope is one of the nobleſt and moſt uſeful theſe ages have of which the nervous relaxing effects, which follow the drinking to boaſt of: by means hereof the wonders of the heavens are dil- of tea in the uſual manner, would be in great meaſure avoided. covered to us, and aſtronomy is brought to a degree of perfection This extract has been imported hither from China, in the form which former ages could have no notion of. The opticalprinciples, of ſmall cakes, not exceeding a quarter of an ounce each in weight, whereon teleſcopes are founded, are contained in Euclid, and were then grains of which might ſuffice one perſon for breakfaſt: but it well known to the ancient geometricians; and it is for want of attention pe- T ER T E S er. attention thereto, that the world was ſo long without that admir even in this apparent diſorder; Dr. Derham particularly obſerves, able invention ; as no doubt, there are numerous others lying hid that the diſtribution of land and water is admirable; the one being in the ſame principles, only waiting for reflection or accident to laid over the other fo ſkilfully through all the world, that there is a bring them forth. For the methods of conſtructing teleſcopes, to juft equipoiſe or balance of the whole globe. Thus the northern fubfcrve various purpoſes in optics, ſee the Syſtem, Part IV.Sect.I. ocean balances the ſouthern, and the American continent is a coun- throughout. For repreſentation of them, ſee Plate IV. fig. 22,to 29. terpoiſe to the European, African, and Afiatic. And what fome TEMPERAMENT, among phyſicians, the ſame with conſti may object, that the waters occupy too great part of the globe, tution, or a certain diſpoſition of the folids and fluids of the human which they imagine would be of more uſe if it were dry land, he body, by which it may be properly denominated ſtrong, weak, lax, obviates, by ſhewing that this would deprive the world of a due &c. In every perſon there are appearances of a temperament pe quantity of vapours and rain; for if the cavities which contain the culiar to himſelf, though the ancients only took notice of four, ſea and other waters were deeper, though the quantity of water and ſome have imagined theſe were deduced from the theories of were the ſame, and only the ſurface leſs and narrower, the evapo- the four humours or four cardinal qualities ; but it is more pro rations would be ſo much the leſs, inaſmuch as they are made from bable that they were firſt founded on obſervations, and afterwards the ſurface, and conſequently are in proportion to it. See the adapted to thoſe theories, ſince we find that they have a real ex Article EARTH, the Treatiſe on the GLOBES, and the Plate iſtence, and are capable of receiving an explanation. The two annexed, Fig. 3. that are moſt diſtinctly marked, are the fanguineous and melan TERROŘ. The act of terror, or of fudden frights, in diſeaſes, cholic, viz. the temperaments of youth and age. is often very great. Sudden frights, in acute diſeaſes, have evi- 1. Sanguineous. Here there is a laxity of folids, diſcoverable dently killed many, by the agitation into which they have thrown by the ſoftneſs of hair and ſucculency ; large ſyſtem of arteries, the ſpirits, already too much diſordered. We have alſo accounts redundancy of Auids, florid complexion ; ſenſibility of the ner of perſons abſolutely killed by terrors, when in perfect health at the vous power, eſpecially to pleaſing objects; irritability from the ple- time of receiving the ſhock from them. The general effects of thora ; mobility and levity from lax folids. Theſe characters terror are a contraction of the ſmall veſſels, and a repulfion of the are diſtinctly marked, and are proved by the diſeaſes incident to blood in the large and internal ones ; hence proceed the ſuppreſſion this age, as hæmorrhages, fevers, &c. but theſe, as they proceed of perſpiration, the general oppreſſion, trembling, and anguiſh of from a lax ſyſtem, are more eaſily cured. the heart and lungs overcharged with blood, &c. When a perſon 2. Melancholic Habit. Here greater rigidity of folids occurs, is affected with terror, the principal endeavour ſhould be to reſtore diſcoverable by the hardneſs and criſpature of the hair ; ſmall the circulation to its due order, to promote perſpiration, and to allay proportion of the fluids, hence dryneſs and leanneſs ; ſmall arteries, the agitation of the patient. For theſe purpoſes he may drink a hence pale colour; venous plethora, hence turgeſcency of theſe, and little warm liquor, as chamomile tea, &c. the feet and legs may be lividity ; ſenſibility, frequently exquiſite, but with great accuracy; put into warm water, the legs rubbed, and the chamomile tea re- moderate irritability, with remarkable tenacity of impreſſions; peated every ſix or eight minutes, and when the ſkin is warm, and Steadineſs in action and flowneſs in motion, with great ſtrength ; there is a tendency to perſpiration, ſleep may be promoted by a gen- for exceſs of this conſtitution in maniacs gives the moſt extraordi tle opiate. For the effects of terror on the countenance, ſee Trea- nary inſtance of human ſtrength we know: this temperament is tiſe on DRAWING, Sect. VII. and the Plate annexed. moſt diſtinctly marked in old age, and in males: the fanguineous TERTIAN, TERTIANA, a fever or ague intermitting every temperament of youth makes us not diſtinguiſh the melancholic day, ſo that there are two fits in three days. See the Syſtem of till the decline of life, when it is very evident, from diſeaſes of the MEDICINE, Claſs I. Genus I. veins, hæmorrhoids, apoplexy, cachexy, obſtructions of the viſcera, TEST AEt, is the ſtatute 25 Car. II. cap. 2. which directs all particularly of the liver, dropſies, affections of the alimentary ca officers, civil and military, to take the oaths and make the declara- nal, chiefly from flower and weaker influence of the nervous pow tion againſt tranſubſtantiation, in the court of King's Bench or So much for the fanguineous and melancholic temperaments; Chancery, the next term, or at the next quarter ſeſſions, or (by ſub-“ the other two are not ſo eaſily explained: the choleric temperamant ſequent ſtatutes) within ſix months after their admiſſion; and alſo takes place between youth and manhood. In the within the ſame time to receive the facrament of the Lord's ſupper, 3. Cholerie, the diſtribution of the fluids is more exactly ba according to the uſage of the church of England, in ſome public lanced ; there is leſs ſenſibility, and leſs obeſity, with more irrita church, immediately after divine ſervice or fermon, and to deliver bility, proceeding from greater tenfion, leſs mobility and levity, and into court a certificate thereof, ſigned by the miniſter and church- more ſteadineſs in the ſtrength of the nervous power. As to the warden, and alſo to prove the ſame by two credible witneſſes, upon 4. Phlegmatic : This temperament cannot be diſtinguiſhed by forfeiture of sool. and diſability to hold the ſaid office. The word any character of age or ſex. It agrees with the fanguineous in teſt ſignifies proof or trial, being formed of teſtis, witneſs; this act laxity and ſucculency. It differs from that temperament, and the being eſtabliſhed with a view to exclude Roman catholics from any melancholic, by the more exact diſtribution of the fluids. Again, ſhare in the government, though it has operated to the excluſion of it differs from the fanguineous, by having leſs ſenſibility, irritabi Proteſtant diſſenters in general. It may here be obſerved, that the lity, mobility, and perhaps ſtrength, though ſometimes indeed this original deſign of the teſt, was not to exclude the Proteſtant dif- lalt is found to be great. Theſe are the ancient temperaments. fenters, but the papiſts. It was brought in by the patriots, in the The temperaments, indeed, are much more various ; and very far reign of Charles the Second, under their apprehenſion of popery, from being eaſily marked and reduced to their genera and ſpecies, and a popiſh ſucceſſor ; and when, during the debate in the houſe not only on account of variety of temperaments themſelves, but of commons, it was obſerved, that it was drawn in ſuch a manner alſo on account of idioſyncraſy, or particular averſions and inclina as to comprehend the Proteſtant difſenters, the court greatly en- tions to certain things in certain perſons. deavoured to avail themſelves of that circumſtance in order to de- TENACITY, in natural philoſophy, that quality of bodies by feat the bill. But the diffenting members diſappointed them, by which they ſuſtain a conſiderable preſſure or force without break declaring, that they had rather confide in the juſtice and generoſity ing. Tenacity is the oppoſite quality to fragility or brittleneſs. of parliament, to paſs ſome future bill in their favour, than be the TENESMÚS, in medicine, a continual painful inclination to occaſion of retarding or defeating the ſecurity, which the preſent go to ſtool, yet without voiding any thing ; unleſs ſometimes a bill was calculated to afford to the liberties of their country. Their little purulent or bloody ſlime : this diſorder is uſually attended patriotiſm produced ſoon afterwards a bill for their relief, from the with ſome tumour, ſometimes with a very conſiderable one, in the penal laws; but the parliament was prorogued, through the re- part : this is properly no primary diſeaſe, but merely a ſymptoma ſentment of the court, to prevent its paſſing : and when notwith- and differs in degree according to the diſeaſe on which it ſtanding this, a bill in favour of the diſſenters did afterwards paſs is an attendant. both houſes, and lay ready for the royal aſſent, the court ventured TENSION, the ſtate of a thing bent, or the effort made to upon a very extraordinary expedient : the clerk of the crown was hend it. Animals only ſuſtain and move themſelves by the ten ordered to convey away the bill, and, accordingly,it was never after- fion of their muſcles and nerves. A chord, or ſtring in a muſical wards to be found. The particular teſt of receiving the facrament inſtrument, gives an acuter or deeper found, as it is in a greater according to the rites of the church of England, was calculated to or leſs degree of tenſion. exclude the papiſts rather than the proteſtant diſſenters; as it was TEPID, in natural hiſtory, a term uſed by writers on mineral no uncommon thing for the latter, at that time, to receive the ſa- waters, to expreſs ſuch of them as have a leſs ſenſible cold than crament occaſionally in the church of England, in order to expreſs common water. They diſtinguiſh all the medicinal ſprings into their charity towards it, as a part of the church of Chriſt. If it three kinds; the hot, the tepid, and the cold; but the middle term had been the deſign of the legiſlature to exclude all from civil offices might eaſily be miſunderſtood to mean a great deal more than they but thoſe who have a real affection for the conſtitution and worſhip expreſs by it; all that have what can be called the leaſt ſenſible of the church, it is apprehended they would have appointed the teſt warmth, are called hot; and the tepid are diſtinguiſhed from the to be, not merely once taking the facrament at church, but a ſtated abſolutely cold, only by their being leſs cold. and conſtant conformity to its religious ſervices. Furneaux's Let- TERRAQUEOUS, compounded of tera, and aqua, earth and ters to judge Blackſtone, p. 133. Motions have frequently been water, an epithet given to our globe or earth, conſidered as conſiſt made in the houſe of commons, for bringing in a bill for a repeal ing of land and water, which together conſtitute one maſs. Some of this act in favour of proteſtant difſenters, but it has hitherto philoſophers, particularly, Dr. Burnet, tax the frame and faſhion been conſtantly negatived by a conſiderable majority. of the terraqueous globe, as rude, unartful, and diſorderly, and con TESTACÉA, in the Linnæan Syſtem of natural hiſtory, is a clude it highly abſurd to ſuppoſe it came thus out of the hands of denomination given to the third order of vermes or worms ; the the Creator ; and, therefore, have recourſe to the deluge for mak- 1 characters of which are, that they are animals of the MOLLUSCA ing it thusi But others can perceive much art and conveniency, or ſoft kind, of a ſimple make, and commonly covered with a cal- * tic one, . No. 143 careous T E T Τ Η Ε 5 careous habitation. See VERMEOLOGY. This order compre- take a covering ſuited to the ſeaſon: it is then cloathed with a hends the whole tribe of Thells under 36 genera, and diſpoſed by warm down beneath; and its outward plumage aſſumes the colour Linnæus in a new method. For the ſeveral genera of this or of the ſnow amongſt which it ſeeks its food : thus it is doubly der, ſee the Syſtem of Conchology throughout, and the fy-fitted for the place, by the warmth and the colour of its plumage, noptical table annexed. the one to defend it from the cold, the other to prevent its being TESTACEOUS, an epithet given to thoſe fiſh, which are noticed by the enemy. The dog, as every body knows, is trained covered with a ſtrong, thick ſhell ; as oyſters, pearl-fiſh, &c. in to this exerciſe by a long courſe of education ; by blows and ca- oppoſition to thoſe which are cruſtaceous. reſſes he is taught to lie down at the word of command ; a par- TESTES, in anatomy, two white, ſoft, oval bodies, ſerving for tridge is ſhewn him, and he is then ordered to lie down; he is generation ; uſually called diminutively, teſticles. See TESTICLE. brought into the field, and when the ſportſman perceives where TESTICLE, a double part in animals of the male kind, fery the covey lies, he orders his dog to crouch: at length the dog, ing for the office of generation. See GENERATION. They are from habit, crouches wherever he approaches a covey; and this called teſticles, by diminution of teſtes, witneſſes ; as giving teſti is the ſignal which the ſportſman receives for unfolding and co- mony of virility ; they are what we properly call genitores, geni- vering the birds with his net. A covey thus caught, is ſometimes talia. The Greeks call them didymi, or twins. In man, and fed in a place proper for their reception ; but they can never be tho- moſt animals, the teſticles are exterior ; in ſome, as fowls, inte roughly tamed like the reſt of our domeſtic poultry. Latham in rior. See the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part III. Sect. XV. Art. I. his ſyſtem makes the perdix or partridge a diſtinct genus. For and Plate X. fig. 4 and 5. For the formation of theſe parts in repreſentation, ſee Plate III, Genus 54. Quadrupeds, Birds, and Fiſhes, ſee the Syſtem of COMPARA The coturnix, or quail, is not above half the ſize of the par- TIVE ANATOMY, Chap. I. II. and III. tridge. The feathers of the head are black, edged with ruſty Tumours of the TESTICLE. Tumours and inflammations of brown; the breaſt is of a pale yellowiſh red, ſpotted with black one or both the teſticles are not unfrequently the conſequence of the feathers on the back are marked with lines of pale yellow, and falls, blows, and contuſions, and very often are alſo brought on the legs are of a pale hue. Except in the colours thus deſcribed, by venereal diſorders. For the method of treatment in the laſt and the ſize, it every way reſembles a partridge in ſhape, and, ex- inſtance, ſee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 76. cept that it is a bird of paſſage, all other of the poultry kind in TESTUDO, the TORTOISE, in zoology, the name of a Ge its habits and nature. The quail is by all known to be a bird of nus belonging to the order of Amphibia Reptilia. It has four legs paſſage ; and yet, if we conſider its heavy manner of flying, and and a tail, and the body is covered with a ſtrong ſhell. There are its ſcantineſs of plumage with reſpect to its corpulence, we ſhall 15 fpecies, principally diſtinguiſhed by peculiarities in their feet. be ſurpriſed how a bird fo apparently ill qualified for migration, The ſhell is ſo ſtrong, that ſeveral men may ſtand on it without ſhould take ſuch extenſive journeys: their ardour in courtſhip doing it any injury. It digs round holes in the fand, in which it yields ſcarce to any other bird, as they are fierce and cruel at that Jays ſeveral membranaceous eggs. It grows to a very large ſize ; ſeaſon to each other, fighting moſt deſperately, and (a puniſhment ſome having been found weighing 480lb. Theſe creatures are they richly deſerve) being at that time very eaſily taken. Quail- ſaid to continue ſeveral weeks in the act of copulation. They are fighting was a favourite amuſement among the Athenians. They found in great numbers in the Weſt Indies and the ſouth ſeas. abſtained from the fleſh of this bird, deeming it unwholeſome, as Thoſe who take them, watch them from their neſts on ſhore, in ſuppoſing that it fed upon the white hellebore: but they reared moon-light nights; and, before they reach the ſea, turn them on great numbers of them for the pleaſure of ſeeing them fight; and their backs, and leave them till morning; when they are ſure to ftaking ſums of money, as we do with regard to cocks, upon the find them; ſince they are utterly unable to recover their former poſ ſucceſs of the combat. Faſhion, however, has at preſenr changed ture: at other times they hunt them in boats, with a peculiar kind with regard to this bird ; we take no pleaſure in its courage, but of ſpear, ſtriking them with it through the ſhell; and as there is its fieth is conſidered as a very great delicacy. a cord faſtened to the ſpear, they are taken much in the ſame man TEXT, a relative term contradiſtinguiſhed to glofs or commen- ner as the whales. See Bankes's Geography, pages 9 and 10. tary, and ſignifying an original diſcourſe, excluſive of any note or TETANUS, TETUVOS, formed from talvely, to ſtretch, ſtrain, interpretation. Infinite pains have been taken by the critics, to in medicine, a kind of tonic ſpaſmus, or convulſion, wherein the reſtore, reconcile, fettle, explain, &c. the text of the Bible, and that anterior and poſterior muſcles of the head, neck, and body, are of the claſſics. Mr. Whiſton accounts for all thoſe miſunder- rendered rigid and inflexible ; fo that the patient can neither bend ſtandings between the Old and New Teſtament, particularly as one way nor the other, the head being much retracted. Tetanus to the prophecies in the Old, cited as fulfilled in the New, from is alſo a name ſometimes given to a kind of partial ſpaſm, in the corruption of the text of the Old Teſtament; and to obviate which the anterior and poſterior muſcles of the head and neck are objections made againſt Chriſtianity on that head, has publiſhed an rendered inflexible, ſo that itcan neither bend one way nor the other. El ay towards reſtoring the true Text of the Old Teſtament. This TETRADYNAMIA, in botany, the fifteenth claſs of plants ; reſtoration he attempts to effect from the Samaritan Pentateuch, for deſcription and claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. II). For the Roman Pſalter, the Apoſtolical Conſtitutions, &c. It ſuffi- repreſentation of the orders, appertaining to this claſs, fee Plate V. ciently appears from the learned and acceptable labours of the late TETRANDRIA, in botany, the fourth claſs of plants, which Dr. Kennicott, in collating the Hebrew manuſcripts of the Old have hermaphrodite flowers, with four ſtamina or male parts in Teſtament, that the alterations introduced into the text, &c. are each, of equal length. See the Syſtem, Sect. III. moſtly of a trivial nature, and by no means affect the authority fentation of the orders appertaining to this claſs, ſee Plate IV. of the ſacred writings. TETRAO, in ornithology, a Genus of birds, belonging to the THALIA, in mythology, one of the nine muſes, who preſided order of Gallinæ, diſtinguiſhed by having the part of the forehead over comedy and paſtorals. She is diſtinguiſhed from the other near the eyes naked and papillofe: there are many ſpecies, diſ muſes by her maſk, and from the tragic muſe by her ſhepherd's tinguiſhed principally by their colour, their having rough or naked crook ; her aſpect is likewiſe meaner than that of Melpomene, feet, &c. the following are the principal. and her dreſs ſhorter and lefs noble than that of the other muſes. The moor-fowl or grous is peculiar to the Britiſh iſlands : the THEOCRACY, formed from @sos, God, and ugutos, power, male weighs about 19 ounces ; and is in length 151 inches : the empire, a ſtate governed by the immediate direction of God alone. bill is black ; the irides hazel-coloured : the throat is red: the plu- According to Jofephus, the ancient government of the Jews was mage on the head and neck is of a light tawny red; each feather theocratic ; God himſelf ordering and directing every thing be- is marked with ſeveral tranſverſe bars of black. For repreſenta- longing to the ſovereign authority. By the oracle of Jehovah him- tion, ſee Plate III. Genus 53. ſelf, all laws were enacted, war was proclaimed, and magiſtrates The perdrix, or partridge, is ſo well known, as to render any were appointed, in which three particulars the ſumma poteſtas, or technical deſcription unneceſſary. “Theſe birds (ſays Willoughby) ſovereign authority of any ſtate conſiſts. And as Jehovah was the hold the principal place in the feaſts and entertainments of princes; king, as well as the God of Iſrael, the PRIESTS and LEVITES, without which their feaſts are eſteemed ignoble, vulgar, and of no who were the ſtated attendants on his preſence, and to whom the account: the Frenchmen do ſo highly value, and are ſo fond of execution of the law in many caſes was committed, were properly the partridge, that if they be wanting, they utterly ſlight and de miniſters of ſtate and of eivil government, as well as of religion. ſpiſe the beſt ſpread tables ; as if there could be no feaſt without The facrifices alſo, beſides their religious uſe, were intended for them." But however this might be in the times of our hiſtorian, the ſupport of the ſtate, and civil government. This theocracy the partridge is now too common in France to be conſidered as a laſted till the time of Saul, when the Ifraelites, weary thereof, delicacy; and this, as well as every oth:er ſimple diſh, is exploded deſired they might have a king, like other nations ; and thence for luxuries of a more compound invention. In England, where forward the ſtate became monarchic. the partridge is much ſcarcer, and a great deal dearer, it is ſtill a THEODOLITE, a mathematical inſtrument much uſed in favourite delicacy at the tables of the rich ; and the deſire of keep- ſurveying, for the taking of angles, diſtances, altitudes, &c. It is ing it to themſelves has induced them to make laws for its preſer made variouſly ; ſeveral perfons having their ſeveral ways of con- vation, no way harmonizing with the general ſpirit of Engliſh triving it, each attempting to make it more ſimple and portable, legiſlation. The partridge ſeems to be a bird well known all over more accurate and expeditious, than others. For deſcription and the world, as it is found in every country, and every climate ; as methods of adjuſting this inſtrument, ſee the Syſtem of SURVEY- well in the frozen regions about the pole, as the torrid track un ING, Sect. I. For repreſentation, ſee the Pláte annexed, fig. 7. der the equator. It even ſeems to adapt itſelf to the nature of THEOGONY, formed from aos, God, and young geniture, the climate where it reſides. In Greenland, the partridge, which ſeed, offspring, that branch of the heathen theology which taught is brown in ſummer, as ſoon as the icy winter ſets in, begins to the genealogy of their gods. For repre- Τ Η Ε THE DISSERTATION ON THEOLOGY. image-worſhip, as neceſſary to keep the people from falling into THEOLOGY, compounded of Ozos, God, and woyos, dif- irreligion and atheiſm ; and added, that ſome of the more refined courſe, Divinity ; a ſcience, which inſtructs us in the knowledge philofophers were againſt any external worſhip of the ſupreme God. of God, and divine things; or which has God, and the things Many of the philofophers, and of the learned and polite pagans, he has revealed, for its object. Theology is a ſcience which ſhews denied a providence. Of thoſe who profeſſed to acknowledge it, us what we are to believe of God, and the manner wherein he fome confined it to heaven and heavenly things; others ſuppoſed it to would be ſerved. It is divided into many branches, ſuch as extend to the earth and to mankind, yet ſo as only to exerciſe a ge- follow : neral care and ſuperintendency, but not to extend to individuals; Natural THEOLOGY, is the knowledge we have of God others, again, fuppoſed all things, the leaſt as well as the greateſt, from his works, by the light of nature and reaſon. to be under the care of divine providence ; but they aſcribed this Supernatural THEOLOGY;is that which we learn from revelation. not to the fupreme God, who, they thought, was above concerning Poſitive THEOLOGY, is the knowledge of the holy Scrip- himſelf with ſuch things as theſe, and committed the care of them tures, and of the ſignification thereof, conformably to the opi- wholly to inferior deities. See the illuſtration and proof of theſe nions of the fathers and councils; without the aſſiſtance of any ſeveral allegations of Dr. Leland, ubi fupra, cap. 7. 10-17, argumentation. But ſome will have it, that this ought to be The third, Quoixn, natural, was chiefly cultivated by the philo- called expoſitive, rather than poſitive. ſophers, as moſt agreeable to nature and reaſon. The phyſical or Moral THEOLOGY, is that which teaches us the divine laws natural theology acknowledged one only ſupreme God; to which relating to our manners and actions ; in contradiſtinction to it added dæmons or ſpirits, as mediators between him and man. Speculative THEOLOGY, which explains and eſtabliſhes the THEOLOGY as it relates to the Study of the Chriſtian Religion. doctrines of religion, as objects of faith. To afcend by a chain of reaſoning from things viſible to things Scholaſtic, or School Theology, is that which proceeds by rea inviſible, from palpable to impalpable, from terreſtrial to celeſtial, foning; or that derives the knowledge of ſeveral divine things from from the creature even up to the Creator, is the buſineſs of theo- certain eſtabliſhed principles of faith. The ancients, according to logy: it is not ſurpriſing, therefore, that the union of many doc- Varro, Scævola, and Plutarch, had a three-fold theology; the firſt trines is neceſſary completely to form ſuch a ſcience. To under- uvoixer, mythic, fabulous, which flouriſhed among the poets ; and ſtand, and properly to interpret, the fcriptures or revelation, de- was chiefly employed in the theogony, or genealogy, and hiſtory of mands not leſs fagacity than affiduity. The gift of perſuaſion is the gods: to whom all things were attributed, which men, and alſo effential to the miniſters of the goſpel. And laſtly, the civil even the vileft of them could be guilty of. Nevertheleſs, the po- government has committed to their care certain functions of ſociety, pular religion and worſhip were in a great meaſure founded upon which relate, or ſeem to relate, either to the doctrines or morality that mythology, which run through the whole of their religion, and of the goſpel. They aſſemble, for example, in bodies to form was of great authority with the people. Many unexceptionable conſiſtories ; they judge in matrimonial caſes; they carry confola- proofs of this are produced by Dr. Leland, in his Advantage and tion and hope to the ſouls of the ſick ; they prepare for death thoſe Neceſſity of the Chriſtian Revelation, vol. i. part i. chap, 6. The criminals which juſtice facrifices to public ſafety ; they take upon fecond, Toastian, political or civil, was that eſtabliſhed by the Ro themſelves the inſpection of pious foundations; they diſtribute man laws, and chiefly embraced by the politicians, prieſts, and alms ; they adminiſter the facraments, &c. people, as moſt ſuitable and expedient to the ſafety, quiet, and Qualifications neceſſary to farm the Theologian. proſperity of the ſtate. This, though not the true, was the vulgar In order to the true underſtanding of the ſacred text of all the theology, and conſtituted the public and authoriſed religion. It books contained in the Holy Bible, whether of the Old or New was that which the philoſophers themſelves, whatever private opi- Teſtament, it is abſolutely neceſſary that the theologian be tho- nions or ſpeculations they might entertain, or diſpute of in their roughly acquainted, not only with the languages in which the ſe ſchools, univerſally conformed to in their own practice, and alſo books were originally wrote, but likewiſe with the hiſtory and an- exhorted others to do ſo. Varro informs us, that this theology par- tiquities of thoſe remote times in which their authors lived. With ticularly determined what gods they were publicly to worſhip, regard to reſearches into the hiſtory of the Jewiſh nation, their an- what facred rites they were to obſerve, and what facrifices to offer. tiquities, their morals, and their cuſtoms, it will be found advan- Although even the vulgar among the pagans ſeem, in general, to tagcous to purſue it as far as the nature of the ſubject will admit, have had fome notion of one fupreme God, yet their theology was without, however, engaging in critical ſubtilties that lead to a laby- properly polytheiſm ; and the providence they acknowledged was rinth to which there is no end, and have ſpread more clouds over the providence not of one god, but of many gods. The learned theology than even the ſcholaſtic controverfies have formerly done. Dr. Cudworth, who ſeems inclined to put the moſt favourable con Furniſhed with ideas from ſuch fources, the theologian may ven- ſtruction upon the pagan theology,acknowledges, that the civil theo ture to inveſtigate the true ſenſe of thoſe paſſages of Holy Scripture logy, as well as the poetical, had not only many phantaſtic gods in that may appear to him obſcure, contradictory, or difficult, and to it, but an appearance of a plurality of independent deities ; ſeveral interpret them to others ; but he will be more wiſe and leſs vain being made ſupreme in their reſpective territories or functions. than to attempt to impoſe his deciſions on mankind, at all times, Ariſtotle (Oper. tom. i. p. 124.6. edit. Paris 1629) intimates, that as authentic and infallible: the human diſcernment is ever con. according to the laws of cities and countries, that is in the civil or fined and imperfect ; and God has not granted to any man, to any political theology, there ſeems to be no one abſolutely powerful or theologian, or aſſembly of divines, an excluſive power of interpret- all-perfect being, but a plurality of gods, one of whom is ſuppoſed | ing his divine word : he has moreover denounced his anathema to be more powerful in one reſpect, and another in another reſpect. | againſt all thoſe who ſhall add or take away a ſingle word thereof. Beſides, the public religion was made up partly of the phyſical and But to explore the true ſenſe of any paſſage, and to explain it to partly of the poetical theology. Thoſe poetical fables which Varro others, cannot certainly be deemed either adding or retrenching. cenſures as unworthy of the gods, and as aſcribing to them actions To diſcharge fully ſo many duties, the theologian has need, i Of which none but the vileſt of men could be guilty of, were not only ſeveral preparatory ſtudies: 2 Of ſome theoretic ſciences: and 3 Of permitted to be acted on the public theatres, and heard with plea- many doctrines which have for their object his miniſterial office. The ſure by the people, but they were regarded as things pleaſing to the languages are theſe: his native language, in which he is to preach and gods themſelves, by which they were propitiated and rendered fa excrciſe his miniſtry, and with which he ought to be perfectly ac- vourable ; and accordingly they were taken into the public religion. quainted. The Latin language, which is the language of the learn- Games were celebrated, and plays were founded upon them; and ed world in general. The Greek language, in order to underſtand the public games and plays were on certain cccaſions conſidered as the New Teſtament. The Hebrew language, of which the Tal- acts of religion, encouraged by their deities, and celebrated in ho mudian and Rabbinical idioms are a part. The Arabic language. nour of them. It is alſo juſtly obſerved, that the images, forms, The Syriac language. The French language. And, the Engliſh lan- habits, and ornaments of their gods, their different ſexes and ages, guage : the two latter of which now appear neceffary to every man and the ſacred feſtivals inſtituted to their honour, had all of them a of letters, and particularly to a theologian, on account of the excel- reference to the fables of the poets and mythologiſts, and were lent works which are wrote in thoſe languages. The principal parts founded upon them ; ſo that the civil and the fabulous theology of philoſophy; as, Logic, Metaphyſics, Moral Philoſophy; and might each of them be called civil, and each fabulous. Hence pro Rhetoric and Eloquence, or the art of ſpeaking correctly, of writ- ceeded many abſurd and ridiculous, and many immoral and inhu- ing with elegance, and of perſuaſion: to which may be added, the man rites, which were made uſe of in the worſhip of their gods, and Elements of Chronology, and Univerſal Hiſtory. He who would which were either preſcribed by the laws, or were eſtabliſhed cuf devote himſelf to the important employment of a theologian, and toms, countenanced by the magiſtrates, and which had obtained the has the noble ambition to excel in it, ſhould early imprefs on his force of laws, and may, therefore, be regarded as belonging to the mind theſe truths: that the years which are paſſed at an univerſity public religion of the pagans. The philofopers likewiſe referred are few : that they run rapidly away ; that they are entirely en- the people for inſtruction in divine matters to the oracles, which groffed by the theoretic ſciences; and that he who does not carry were managed by the prieſts; this was particularly the caſe with with him to the univerſity a fund of knowledge in the prepara- Socrates, Plato, and the Stoics. The worſhip of inferior deities tory parts of learning, commonly brings very little away, when was recommended by them, under pretence that it tended to the his age or his parents oblige him to quit it. honour of the ſupreme. Some of the moſt eminent of them endea The theoretic ſciences of a theologian are, the dogmatic, or the voured to colour over the moſt abſurd part of the pagan poetical theory of theology, which fome Latin authors name alſo thetica, theology, by allegorizing the moſt indecent fables : they apologized or ſyſtematica; the exegefis, or the ſcience of attaining the true fenfe for the Egyptian animal worſhip, which the generality of the vul of the holy ſcriptures : the hermeneutic, or the art of interpreting gar pagans in other nations ridiculed: they vindicated idolatry and and explaining the ſcriptures to others; this differs in general but little THE THE little from the exegeſis, and in ſome reſpeéts is quite the fame : principles and the knowledge of the latter are derived, it is evident polemic theology, or controverſy: natural theology : moral theolo that philoſophy is intimately connected with theology: neverthe- gy; the hiſtory of the church under the Old and New Teſtaments. leſs, the aid of the former is to be employed with precaution, and The practical ſciences are, homiletic theology: catechetic theo is not to be regarded as the foundation of the theological dogmas, logy; and caſuiſtic theology. or tenets, but only as a mean by which they may be explained and RELIGIOUS TENETS.. enforced. The Holy Scriptures conſtitute perpetually the true ba- Every poſitive religion muſt naturally have a ſyſtem of certain ſis of revealed theology : philoſophy effectually concurs, however, points of doctrine to propoſe to its followers ; otherwiſe each one to prove the exiſtence and the attributes of the Supreme Being; would form a particular ſyſtem according to its own faney: there the neceſſity of the creation of the univerſe by Almighty God, in would be as many different religions as there are individuals on the oppoſition to every other poſſible manner of its being produced: earth, and each ſociety would conſiſt of a confuſed maſs of fantaſtic it furniſhes, moreover, plauſible conjectures concerning the inten- opinions; as the different modes of thinking, and the different de tion of the Almighty in creating this world; it proves the neceſſity grecs of diſcernment, are varied and compounded by mankind to of a perpetual power to preſerve it; it ſuppoſes, that as God could infinity ; but truth, on the contrary, is uniform and invariable. not produce any thing that was not perfect in its kind, he could The Chriſtian religion is as compound in its dogmas as it is ſimple not have created man as he now is ; it vindicates the conduct of in its moral principle. It includes, 1, the dogmas or tenets found the Supreme Being, in appointing chaſtiſements for tranſgreſſions, ed on the light of reaſon : 2, thoſe drawn from the Old Teſta- by ſhowing that moral evil was not introduced into the world by ment, and the law of Moſes: 3, thoſe taken from the New Teſta- abfolute neceffity, but by the abuſe of liberty, the moſt noble pre- ment and the doctrine of Jeſus Chriſt: 4, thoſe that the fathers rogative of the human ſoul; it determines the neceſſity of a Me- of the church have drawn from the Holy Scriptures : 5, thoſe that diator; it furniſhes argument for the belief of the immortality of the church under the New Teſtament has preſcribed to Chriſti the foul, and of a future ſtate that has a relation to the moral ac- ans by ecumenical and other councils aſſembled in different ages : tion of this life ; and laſtly, it inſpires a love of God as a Being 6, the dogmas that the popes, in quality of heads of the church, of fovereign perfection, a gratitude towards him as our Creator have eſtabliſhed by their bulls : and to theſe muſt be added, on the and Preſerver, and a ſubmiſſion to his will as our Supreme Ruler part of the Proteſtants , 7, the dogmas that the reformers, eſpeci- and Director; motives of all others the moſt powerfully conducive ally Luther and Calvin, have taught: 8, the deciſions of fynods ; to a virtuous conduct. and laſtly, the tenets that are maintained by the different ſects, as MORAL THEOLOGY. Socinians, Anabaptiſts, Quakers, &c. Each of theſe particular re The evangeliſts are the only hiſtorians of the Meſſiah; it is to ligions or fects pretend to ſupport their dogmas both by reaſon and their labours that we owe the knowledge of his actions upon earth, revelation : we do not here offer a work of controverſy, and are and his divine doctrine. The four Evangeliſts, and the Acts of wery far from attempting to determine on which ſide truth and the Apoſtles wrote by St. Luke, contain therefore alone the hiſtory reaſon are to be found. of the life of Jeſus Chriſt, and the doctrine that he taught. His * Our zeal for the Chriſtian religion in general, which we regard apoſtles and diſciples began by paraphraſing his doctrine, as well as perfectly divine, and as the only religion adapted to promote the by their evangelic fermons as in the epiſtles they addreſſed to the happineſs of mankind in this world, and to ſecure it in the next, and faithful of ſeveral Chriſtian churches; they have given explications the deſire we have that it may endure to the end of time, compels and have added paſtoral inſtructions, which are in effect admirable; us to make in this place one important reflection ; which is, that but which, nevertheleſs, form not the original text of the diſcourſes fimplicity is ever an eſſential attribute of perfection, as complexity of our Saviour. It is not the ſame with regard to the mortality of is of imperfection. Now, it cannot be denied, without doing vio- Jeſus Chriſt, every one may read it in the Goſpel; and to know lence to truth, that among the different dogmas, or tenets, of which which, it is not neceſſary to become learned, nor to ſtudy a com- we have been ſpeaking, there are ſeveral that ſeem to be founded on plicated ſyſtem. The Saviour of the world has not enjoined any ſpeculations very abſtruſe, on ſubtilties very intricate, and on inter- part of mankind to engage in diſputes or abſtract refinements: the pretations very ambiguous. God certainly never intended that all fole command that he has given them, is, to believe in his goſpel; mankind ſhould be theologians; he has not given them his divine and that is compriſed in one word only, LOVE: the grand and word to be the cauſe of diſcord among men, nor that they ſhould only principle on which the whole of his facred doctrine is founded. paſs their whole lives in a painful ſearch after objects of belief and By the word Love in regard to bodies in general, is meant a ten- articles of faith; and that they ſhould forego, in that purſuit, the dency, a mutual inclination that urges them to join and to coaleſce; neceſſary offices of life, and their duties as citizens : the tenets, and with regard to man in particular, a lively affecting pleaſure then, eſſentially neceſſary to the welfare of mankind, ought to con that poſſeſſes the mind on contemplating the perfections of any lift of a ſmall number, and to bear the marks of ſimplicity and object: this pleaſure is always accompanied with a deſire either perſpicuity ; without which they muſt be imperfect, and conſe to poffefs that object, or to render it propitious. By adopting quently the work of man. Our intention, in making this remark, therefore this principle, and this laſt definition of Love, it fol- is, to extend our voice, if it be poſſible, even to poſterity, whom lows, that all the duties of man conſiſt, I. In the love of God in we would conjure not to injure our religion, fo holy and fo ad- preference to all other objects. 2. In the love of himſelf. 3. In mirable, by a multiplicity of tenets. It is neceſſary, however, the love of his own ſpecies. 4. In the love of every other crea- that the divine, who makes it his ſtudy and his profeſſion, ſhould ture to a certain degree: the doctrines of Jeſus Chriſt are, in theſe be thoroughly acquainted with the theory of this ſcience, in order reſpects, the moſt explicit. that he may be able to inſtruct the ſincere Chriſtian, and to ex From this principle flows our duty towards God, towards our- plain the nature of each particular tenet, as well as the folidity of ſelves, our neighbour, and to thoſe beings that are ſubject to our its proofs ; and to that it is that the ſtudy of the dogmatic leads; power. The firſt rule is, to communicate to all thoſe, whom it is of which we ſhall now continue the analyſis. our duty to love, all the good, and to preſerve them from all the evil The dogmatic is then nothing but a ſuccinet expoſition of all the in our power. The ſecond, to do to no one what we would not dogmas of the Chriſtian religion, in a naturaland philosophicalorder. have done to ourſelves in ſimilar circumſtances. The third, which By the word philoſophic, we do not here preciſely mean the method is the ſimple effect of love, is to endeavour to pleaſe the object that of mathematicians, in the manner the late M. Wolff has applied it we ought to love. The fourth, to endeavour to render the plea- to philoſophy ; every ſubject is not capable of a demonſtration fo ſures that we communicate to others, as lively as poſſible, and thoſe exact and rigid ; but a regular order is required in the arrange- inevitable evils, which we are fometimes conſtrained to do them, ment of the general ſyſtem, and a connexion is to be preſerved in as ſupportable as we can; and ſo of the reſt. The whole evangelic the ſeveral matters that form it: the definitions ſhould be juſt ; doctrine of our Saviour is replete from beginning to end, with ad- the diviſions exact; the arguments ſolid ; the proofs clear; the mirable precepts for theſe purpoſes; and theſe precepts, with their citations concluſive; the examples ſtriking; and, in a word, every applications, general and particular, we learn from that ſcience thing ſhould be adduced that appertains to ſo important a diſcipline. which we call moral theology. It is very effential, moreover, in the dogmatic, at the beginning Polemic THEOLOGY, or CONTROVERSY. of each theſis, to explain the ſeveral terms that are peculiar to it, We cannot ſufficiently lament, that the church of the God of and that uſe has eſtabliſhed in treating of theology ; to draw from peace ſhould be a church-militant; and that a doctrine ſo ſimple each definition certain axioms, and from thence to form propofi- and clear as that of the Goſpel ſhould be the cauſe of diſcord even tions, and to illuſtrate them by folid reaſoning. among Chriſtians themſelves. Nevertheleſs, as the truth is ſo dif- The ſyſtematic part of the Chriſtian religion, among the great ficult to diſcover in all things, and eſpecially in matters of religion; number of its dogmas or theſes, has three principal, from which all as it is ſo frequently covered with the clouds of intereſt and ambi- the reftare derived and which form the baſis of its whole doctrine: I, tion; as the ſame object appears ſo different to different men ; and the exiſtence of one God: 2, the neceſſity of a Mediator or Redeem as error in the face of the world commonly aſſumes the maſk of er: 3, the real appearance of the Mediator or Meſſiah on the earth. truth; it is but juſt that the true religion be furniſhed with arms to Whoever writes, profeffes, or teaches the dogmatic, ſhould be combat error, and to pluck off that deceitful maſk by which ſo above all things, careful well to eſtabliſh theſe important truths: many poor mortals are ſeduced. The theologian, who has made to evince them by the ſtrongeſt and moſt evident proofs, drawn the proper preparatory ſtudies, who is thoroughly inſtructed in na- partly from the light of reaſon, and partly from revelation : and tural religion, in the dogmatic and the hermeneutic, and who joins he will then ſee with what facility all other theſes flow from, and to theſe found logic, is already well prepared for this fpiritual com- how eafy it will be to prove them by, theſe truths. bat: he is armed but he is ſtill to learn how to uſe theſe arms; he Revealed religion being founded (at leaſt in great part) on natu muſt alſo be made acquainted with the enemies he is to encounter, ral religion, and philofophy being the fource from whence the to know their force, and the arts they will uſe againſt him: force is ever Τ Η Ε Τ Η Ε ever an infallible proof of the want of argument. The propaga- I ligious make a parade, that is ſhocking both to good ſenſe and evan- tion of a religion by the ſword, after the manner of Mahomet; gelic morality, and which render their miniſtry, in the eyes of fen- perſecutions either ſecret or open; conſtraint, violence, every ſort fible people, more contemptible than reſpectable. Theſe are rocks of religious war, is ſo atrocious, ſo contrary to the ſpirit of the Gof on which the young theologian is much too liable to run, and of pel, in a word ſo deteſtable, that every true Chriſtian muſt avert which he cannot be ſufficiently cautioned. his fight from ſuch infamous horrors. CASUISTIC THEOLOGY. The principal conteſts in which the theologian may be engaged, By caſuiſtic theology is meant, the ſcience that decides in doubt- are, 1. Againſt thoſe who admit of no revealed religion ; as the ful caſes of moral theology, and that calms the ſeruples of conſci- atheiſt and deiſt. 2. Againſt thoſe who admit of a revealed religion, ence which ariſe in the Chriſtian's mind during his ſojourn in this but adopt not the true Revelation; as the Heathens, the Mahome world. The ſtudies relative to theſe objects, which the theologian tans, &c. 3. Againſt thoſe who believe only a part of the true is is ſuppoſed to have made, and the confidence that the common rank Revelation; as the Jews. 4. Againſt thoſe who add to the true of Chriſtians place in their paſtors, afford them the means and the Revelation matter foreign to it; as traditions, &c. 5. Againſt opportunities of rendering ſignal ſervice to thoſe of their fellow-ci- thoſe who make a falſe interpretation of the ſacred text, and draw tizens who have need of their counſel and conſolation : for where from it erroneous ſyſtems; as the heretics and the ſchiſmatics, there is one man of a philofophic ſpirit, one Chriſtian of a well- &c. And laſtly, 6. Againſt thoſe who make a wrong uſe of cer grounded knowledge in theology, there are in a fociety a thouſand tain expreſſions of Revelation, and build on whimſical notions, that are not, and who are yet deſirous of being inſtructed, guided, ridiculous ſyſtems, as the Fanatics, &c. comforted, eſtabliſhed. It is therefore both juſt and important According to this diviſion, the theologian will have to combat that he who devotes himſelf to the ſervice of the altar, ſhould early principally with, 1. The Atheiſts, with Spinoſa at their head. ftudy all thoſe ſciences that will enable him worthily to perform 2. The Deifts. 3. The Heathens and Idolaters. 4. The Maho this important part of his miniſtry. God forbid, however, that we metans. 5. The modern Jews. 6. The Arians and the Maniche ſhould countenance the abuſe that is made, in ſome Chriſtian coun- ans, or rather thoſe who in theſe days follow their ancient errors. tries, of the duties that we have here explained. In a word, to 7. The Socinians. 8. The Catholics, oppoſed to the Proteſtants. aſſume an abſolute authority over the conſciences of mankind, is a 9. The Proteſtants, oppoſed to the Catholics. 10. The Moliniſts, pernicious invention, contrary to the evangelic moral, to the wel- oppoſed to the Janſeniſts. 11. The Janſeniſts, oppoſed to the Mo- fare of ſociety, to the intereſt of the ſtate, and to the ſovereign au- liniſts. 12. The Reformed, oppoſed to the Lutherans. 13. The thority. He who is charged with the duties of the miniſtry by a Lutherans, oppoſed to the Reformed. 14. The Arminians. 15. The lawful vocation, ſhould remember that there are four claſſes of men Anabaptiſts. 16. The Quakers. 17. The Fanatics, at the head with whom he will be engaged: 1. With thoſe of weak minds; of of whom is Jacob Bohm. 18. The Pietiſts. 19. The Moravian little knowledge and little ability. 2. With thoſe whoſe ſpirits are Brethren, or the Herenuters, &c. Now, as each of the religions, afflicted by ſome great reverſe of fortune. 3. With thoſe of nice and communions, or hereſies above mentioned, have not fcrupled to timorous conſciences, who ſuffer by their ſcruples, whether they be publiſh to the world their dogmas and creeds, the theologian ought vain or rational. 4. And laſtly, the wicked, the hardened and in- carefully to inſtruct himſelf in thoſe ſymbolic books, in which each corrigible ſinner. The grand art here conſiſts in repreſenting to of them have compriſed its ſyſtem; to ſtudy and to make a good each of theſe claſſes of men, the truth, in a manner ſo clear, ſo analyſis of them; and to prepare ſuch arguments as are the moſt ſtrong and full, that they can no longer retain any doubts, that con- juſt, the moſt weighty, and proper to confute them. There is viction muſt take place, and conſolation or converſion be the con- one remark to be made, or rather one caution that is very effential, ſequence. Truth is in its nature highly problematic : each one, which we would offer to the young theologian ; which is, that however, is perſuaded that he knows it, that he poſſeſſes it, and is the polemic is uſeful, and even neceſſary, in the ſtudy of theology | guided by it; every man thinks himſelf in the right. We ſhould in general ; but that it is a diſcipline which ought to be treated therefore begin by diſcovering the truth in the ſubject before us, with great prudence and moderation. Diſputation in general is a and in placing it upon a folid foundation. This buſineſs of de- dangerous att; and religious diſputation is a deceitful art, and of monſtrating the truth to others, is attended in the mean time with infinite peril. The ſtudent will do right well to remember, that infinite difficulty. Every mind is not capable of diſcovering it at there is no ſect, no communion on earth, that is perfectly true in the firſt glance; nor can all diſcern it from the ſame point of view. all its tenets without exception; that there are fome ſmall errors in Sometimes men require conviction by abſtract or philoſophical ar- all religions; that infallibility never was, nor ever will be, the por- guments, and ſometimes by the expreſs deciſions of the Holy Scrip- tion of humanity. He ſhould likewiſe remember, that the maſters ture. Sometimes by authority, ſometimes by gentle remonſtrance, who teach him, or the books that he reads, are conſtantly partial to and ſometimes by dreadful menaces. Sometimes they are to be the religion they profeſs; and that when he has ſupported a theſis, reclaimed by properly expoſing the neceſſary and fatal.conſequences and confuted his adverſaries in a collegial diſpute, (where his adver that reſult from their conduct; and at others, by the alluring pro- faries, as well as his preceptors, are of the ſame ſide of the queſtion, miſes of the goſpel. Vice ſhould be boldly confronted ; and the and will not fail to adjudge him the victory), he ſhould be perſuaded, tranſgreffor is to be conducted into the right path by artful turnings: that the victory would not have been ſo eafily obtained had he con the ſinner's crimes are to be painted in the ſtrongeſt colours ; and tended with able adverſaries of the oppoſite religion, he ſhould re ſometimes a veil ſhould be lightly caſt over them ; and we ſhould member, that he triumphs without glory, when he combats with even indulge a favourite inclination, in order to induce them to a- out danger; becauſe it is very poſſible that he may go off victorious bandon a more pernicious paſſion. from ſuch a diſpute, that he may receive vaft applauſe from his As it is impoſſible that the books which have been wrote on this profeſſors and his colleagues, and at the ſame time have reaſoned ſubject, though of an immenſe quantity, can contain every caſe without judgment. On the other hand, the moſt able theologians, that daily occurs in the miniſtry of the goſpel ; and as theſe cafes are and the moſt conſummate profeſſors in this ſcience, ought to be con not always juſtly decided by theſe authors; and, if they were, the ftantly on their guard againſt the abuſe of polemic theology ; conſulting ſuch enormous works would take up too much of a which frequently ſerves leſs to clear and confirm the truth of the theologian's time, and divert him from his other ſtudies, and as dogmas of a communion, than to eſtabliſh perpetual diſcord and theſe caſuiſtic writers contain, moreover, a number of puerile ſub- hatred among Chriſtians. Every theologian ſhould alſo remember, tilties and wretched chimeras; it is highly proper that the miniſter that, by the nature of the ſubject, it is not poſſible to produce de of the altar, whom we ſuppoſe to have a maſterly knowledge of the monſtration in ſupport of his theſes and opinions; but that his ar principles and morals of the Chriſtian religion, ſhould endeavour guments will be only valid, and preponderate in proportion to their to draw from the true ſource the means that he is to employ on degree of evidence: and laſtly, that it is a ridiculous and inſuffera-cach occurrence, and not have recourſe to books for their deciſions. ble vanity to imagine, that every man, who does not think preciſely THERMOMETER, aninſtrument for meaſuring the increaſe as we do, is guilty of palpable error. and decreaſe of heat and cold. It is an inſtrument of modern in- PASTORAL THEOLOGY. vention, but authors are not agreed on the perſon who was the firſt It is in vain that a theologian poſſeſſes all the ſciences that be inventor. Sanctorius affirms, that he himſelf had this honour ; long to his profeſſion, that he is an agreeable and even a renowned and his aſſertion is corroborated by the teſtimonies of Borelli and preacher, if he do not give a life, an effiacious ſpirit, to his miniſtry, Malphigi. Boerhaave, however, aſcribes it to Cornelius Drebbel, , by a good example; for that is the firſt precept in paſtoral theology. about the beginning of the 17th century, Muſchenbroek to the Ve- He is at the head of a flock, and ought to be their guide; but how netian Paul Sarpi ; and Viniani to Galileo. It is not well known abſurd, if his words and his actions be at continual variance with what was the form of the firſt inſtruments of this kind, only it is cach other! How ſcandalous, if he be not the firſt to practiſe theſe certain that they were far from being as perfect as they are at preſent. leſſons of wiſdom that he preaches! How indecent, if, while he | They were very clumſy ; and air being the fluid employed, they edifies by his diſcourſes, he diſguſts by his morals! But this exem acted alſo as a kind of barometers, and thus were entirely unfit for plary conduct ſhould be free from all affectation in the external be- comparing the degrees of heat at the diſtance of any conſiderable haviour. A fingularity of dreſs, and an air of auſterity; the head time: the firſt improvement in their conſtruction was made by Fer- declined, the eyes turned up to heaven, the hands conſtantly claſped, dinand II. great duke of Tuſcany, or the members of the Academy a planitive tone of voice, and a ſolemn gait; a ſcrupulofity in del Cimento under his protection, about the middle of the 17th cen- things indifferent, and a dogmatic and clerical manner of deciding tury. Spirit of wine incloſed in glafs tubes hermetically ſealed, in the common affairs of life; a ridiculous inclination to diſcover was now employed; by which means evaporation was prevented, iniquity in innocent actions; to confound pleaſure with vice, and and likewiſe the preſſure of the external air kept off. Inſtruments to be an enemy to joy, the greateſt boon that God has beſtowed on of this kind were introduced into England by Mr. Boyle, and very man; and a hundred other fopperies there are, with which the re foon came to he univerſally uſedamong the virtuo fiin different parts . * of N° 143 4 X Τ Η Ε T H E cover, Bf the world. However, they ſtill laboured under great diſadvan-, hinge, as that might be apt to make it ſtick, in which caſe the ins tages ; for as they were not adjuſted to any common ſcale, though cluded vapour might be ſo much compreſſed as to cauſe an error. they would each of them Thew the comparative degrees of heat and It is moſt convenient not to make the cover fit on tight, but to take cold in the bodies to which they were applied : yet they could never on and off caſily ; and to wrap fome ſpun cotton round that part be compared with one another, nor could the obſervations made of the cover which enters into the pot, in order to make it ſhut clofer . in different parts of the world be collected in ſuch a manner as to “ There are various eaſy ways by which the hole in the anſwer any uſeful purpoſe. through which the tube of the thermometer is paffed, may be ſtopped The only difficulties which remained in the conſtruction of ther up, and by which the thermometer may be ſuſpended at the proper mometers were the choice of a proper fluid, the adjuſting of the two height. The hole in the cover may be ſtopped up by a cork, which fixed points, and the diviſion of the ſpace between them in fuch a muſt firſt have a hole bored through it big enough to receive the manner as to make proper allowance forany inequalities that might tube, and be then cut into two, parallel to the length of the hole. happen to be in the diameter of the tube through which the fluid Another method more convenient in uſe, but not ſo eaſily made, moves. With regard to the fluid, quickſilver has univerſally ob- is repreſented in fig. 16, which exhibits a p rſpective view of the tained the preference, as being ſooner heated and cooled than any apparatus ; A a, is the cover ; H, the hole through which the other with which we are acquainted, and requiring ſo great a degree thermometer is paffed ; B b, a flat piece of braſs fixed upon the of cold to congeal it, that till very lately it was thought impoſſible cover; and Dd Eé, a Niding piece of braſs, made ſo as either to to do fo; though the contrary is now ſhewn by undeniable experi- cover the hole H, or to leave it uncovered, as in the figure, and to ments. The heat alſo which quickfiver requires to make it boil, be tightened in either poſition by the ſcrew S Nliding in the flit is very conſiderable, ſo that the ſcale on a quickſilver thermometer Mm; a femi circular notch being made in the edge Bb, and alſo may be enlarged greatly beyond that made with any other fluid. in the edge D d, to incloſe the tube of the thermometer : pieces of In extreme degrees of cold, indeed, where quickſilver freezes, the woollen cloth ſhould alſo be faſtened to the edges B b and Dd, and thermometer ſhould be filled with highly rectified fpiritof wine, or alſo to the bottom of the ſliding-piece Dd Ee, unleſs that piece and the Auid petroleum, called naphtha; both of which are found un the cover are made fufficiently flat, to prevent the eſcape of the alterable in the greateſt degrees of cold, either natural or artificial, ſteam. In order to keep the thermometer ſuſpended at the proper hitherto obſerved in any part of the world. The adjuſtment of the height, a clip may be uſed like that repreſented in fig. 12. which, two fixed points of heat, viz. that of boiling and that of freezing by the ſcrew S, muſt be made to embrace the tube tightly, and may water, has been found a matter of conſiderable difficulty,as they vary reft on the cover. That part of the clip which is intended to bear conſiderably according to the height of the mercury in the barometer againſt the tube had beſt be lined with woollen cloth, which will at the time. Hence the greateſt philoſophers have not thought it make it ſtick tighter to the tube, and with leſs danger of breaking below them to beſtow their labour in attempting to bring this mat it. Another method, which is rather more convenient when the top ter to its utmoſt exactneſs; and for this purpoſe a committee of of the tube of the thermometer is bentinto a right angle, in the man- the Royal Society was appointed. This inaccuracy in the heat of ner frequently practiſed at preſent for the ſake of more conveniently boiling water at different times, was obſerved by Mr. Fahreinheit, fixing it to the ſcale, is repreſented in fig.i6. Gg Ff, is a plateofbraſs, a celcbrated artiſt at Afterdam; from whom the kind of thermo- ſtanding perpendicularly on the cover; and Ll Nn, a piece of braſs, meters now moſtly uſed took their name. He ſuppoſed the varia bent at bottom into the form of a loop, with a notch in it, ſo as tion to be much greater than it realy is ; but Mr. de Luc, by a great to receive the tube of the thermometer, and to ſuffer the bent part to number of experiments made at different heights above the level of reft on the bottom of the loop: this piece mult Nide in a flit K k, the fea, found a rule by which the difference in the boiling point, cut in the plateLiNn,and be tightened atany height by the ſcrewT. anſwering to different heights in the barometer, is determined with “ 4thly. It is beſt making the water boil pretty briſkly, as other- great exactnefs. According to this rule, the alteration of the boil wiſe the thermometer is apt to be a great while before it acquires its ing point by the variation of the barometer from 29 to 30 inches, full heat, eſpecially if the veſſel is very deep. The obſerver, too, is 19.59 of Fahreinheit. The committee of the Society (of whom ſhould wait atleaftone or two minutes after the thermometer appears M. de Luc was one,) after a number of experiments which our li- to be ſtationary, beforche.concludes that it has acquired its full height. mits will not allow us to infert, lay down the following practical 5thly. Though, as we ſaid before, this appears to be the moſt rules for adjuſting the boiling and freezing points. accurate way of adjuſting the boiling-point; yet, if the operator RULES TO BE OBSERV'D IN ADJUSTING THE BOILING POINT. was to ſuffer the air to have any acceſs to the inſide of the veſſel, “ The moſt accurate way of adjuſting the boiling point is, not he would be liable to a very great error: for this reaſon, we ſtrongly to dip the thermometer into the water, but to expoſe it only to the recommend it to all thoſe who uſe this method, not to deviate at all ſteam, in a veífel cloſed up in the manner preſented in the Mif from the rules laid down, without aſſuring themſelves, by repeated cellaneous Plate, fig. 14. where A Bba is the veſſel containing the trials with a pretty ſenſible thermometer, that ſuch alteration may boiling water, Dd the cover, E a chimney made in the cover intend be uſed with ſafety. But the covering the chimney with the tin- ed to carry off the ſteam, and Mm the thermometer paſſed through plate ought by no means to be omitted ; for though, if the cover a hole in the cover. Thoſe who would make uſe of this method, of the pot fits cloſe, it ſeldom fignifies whether the plate is laid muſt take care to attend to the following particulars. on or not, yet, if by accident the cover was not to fit cloſe, the “ ift. The boiling point muſt be adjuſted when the barometer omitting the tin-plate would make a very great error. is at 29.8 inches; unleſs the operator is willing to correct the ob “ Another way of adjuſting the boiling point is, to try it in a ferved point in the manner directed below. veſſel of the ſame kind as the former, only with the water riſing a “2dly. The ballof the thermometer muſt be placed at ſuch a depth little way, namely from one to three or four inches above the ball, within the pot, that the boiling point ſhall riſe very little above taking care that the boiling point ſhall riſe very little above the co- the cover; for otherwiſe part of the quickſilver in the tube will not ver, as in the former method. In this method there is no need to be heated, and therefore the thermometer will not riſe to its proper cover the chimney with the tin-plate ; and there is leſs need to height. The ſurface of the water in the pot alſo ſhould be at leaſt make the cover fit cloſe, only it muſt be obſerved, that the cloſer one or two inches below the bottom of the ball, as otherwiſe the the cover fits, the leſs the operator will be incommoded by the water, when boiling faſt, might be apt to touch the ball : but it ſteam. The height of the barometer at which the boiling point does not ſignify how much lower than that the ſurface of the wa ſhould be adjuſted, when this method is uſed, is 291 inches, or ter may be. three-tenths of an inch leſs than when the former method is uſed. " 3dly. Care muſt be taken to ſtop up the hole in the cover “The greateſt inconvenience of this method of adjuſting the through which the tube is inſerted, and to make the cover fit pretty boiling point is the trouble of keeping a proper depth of water in clofe, ſo that no air fhall enter into the pot that way, and that not the pot; as to do this it is neceſſary firſt to find the height of the much ſteam may eſcape. A piece of thin flat tin plate muſt alſo boiling point coarſely by trying it in an open vefſel, and then to put be laid on the mouth of the chimney, ſo as to leave no more paf- fuch a quantity of water into the pot that it fall riſe from one to fage than what is ſufficient to carry off the ſteam. The ſize of this three or four inches above the ball when the thermometer is placed plate ſhould not be much more than ſufficient to cover the chimney, at ſuch a depth within the pot that the boiling point ſhall riſe very that its weight may not be too great; and the mouth of the chimney little above the cover. The operator muſt be very careful that the ſhould be made fiat, that the plate may cover it more completely. quantity of water in the pot be not ſo ſmall as not entirely to cover It muſt be obſerved, that when the tin-plate is laid on the mouth the ball . A third way of adjuſting the boiling point is to wrap of the chimney, it will commonly be lifted up by the force of the ſeveral folds of linen rags er fiannel round the tube of the thermo- Steam, and will rattle till it has ſlipped aſide ſufficiently to let the meter, and to try it in an open veſſel, taking care to pour boiling fteam eſcape without lifting it up. In this caſe it is not neceſſary water on the rays, in order to keep the quickſilver in the tube as the plate back again, unleſs by accident it has flipped afide nearly of the heat of boiling water as poſſible. The beſt The beſt way is to more than uſual. If the artiſt pleafes, he may tic cach corner of pour boiling water on the rags three or four times, waiting a few this plate by a ſtring to prongs fixed to the chimney, and ſtanding ſeconds between each time, and to wait fome ſeconds after the laſt 07 a level with the plate, as thereby it will neceſſarily be kept time of pouring on water before the boiling point is marked, in always in its place. Fig. 13, is a perſpective view of the chimney order that the water may recover its full ſtrength of boiling, which and tin-plate ; ABCD is the plate ; E the chimney ; Ff, Gg, is in good meaſure checked by pouring on the boiling water. In Mm, and No, the prongs faſtened to the chimney, to which the this method the boiling point ihould be adjuſted when the barome- four corners of the plate are to be tied by the ſtrings AF, BG, CM, ter is at 29.8 inches, that is, the ſame as when the firſt method is and DN; the ends F, G, M, and N, of the prongs, muſt be on a uſed; the water Mould boil faſt, and the thermometer ſhould be level with the plate, and the ſtrings ſhould not be ſtretched tight: held upright, with its ball two or three inches under water, and in but we would by no means recommend having it made with a that part of the veſſel where the current of water aſcends. In a to put vefiel Τ Η Ε THE Collection in 2d lift or 30 2d 59 06 4 28.95 5 si 07 5 lower. higher. 1 84 3 28.92 73 2 IO veffel of boiling water one may almoft always percĉive the current ends, we can perceive what length of ſpace it occupies in different of water to aſcend on one ſide of the veſſel, and to deſcend on the parts of the tube, and divide accordingly. However, even after other. Which-ever of theſe methods of adjuſting the boiling thermometers are conſtructed in this manner with the utmoſt ac- point is uſed, it is not neceſſary to wait till the barometer is at curacy, a very conſiderable inconvenience ſtill attends the uſing the proper height, provided the operator will take care to correct them, namely, that to know the extreme heat or cold of the air, the obſerved height according to the following table. during any given period, the obſerver's eye muſt be on the inſtru- Heighr of the baro. Correction in | Height or the baro ment the very inſtant that the mercury ſtands at the higheſt or meter when the boil. 1 oooths of the meter when the boil 1000 hs of the loweſt degree ; for ſince the time when that may happen is utterly ing point is adjuſted interval between |ing point is adjuſted aterval between uncertain, if it be not immediately noticed, it can never afterwards according to, 329 and 2120. according to, 32° and 212', be known. The ſultry heat of the ſummer's day, and the freez- Iſt or 3d ing cold of the winter's night, render it very unpleaſant to be method. method. method. 1 method. abroad at ſuch times in the open air, although it is abſolutely ne- | 30.64 29.69 :29:39 1 ceffary that the thermometer ſhould be fo. It would therefore be 3.53 9 58 281 2 a very great improvement could a thermometer be conſtructed in 30.71 41 8 ſuch a manner as to thew the greateſt height to which it had af- 47 17 3 297 36 cended, or the loweſt point to which it deſcended, in the obſer- 48 | 18 6 25 ver’s abſence. One of this kind has been conſtructed by Mr. 37 14 84 6 James Six, of which the following account is given by him in the 25 29.95 4 72d vol. of the Phil. Tranſ. 03 73 7 14 62 8 Fig. 17, ab is a tube of thin glaſs, about 16 inches long, and five fixteenths of an inch in diameter; cdefgh, a ſmaller tube ar 81 03 51 9 29.91 Wol 61 I with the 'inner diameter, about one fortieth, joined to the larger 70 80 i 50 oj 59 II at the upper end b, and bent down, firſt on the left ſide, and then, “ To make uſe of this table, ſeek the height which the baro- after deſcending two inches below ab, upwards again on the right, meter is found to ſtand at in the left hand column, if the boiling from it. On the end of the fame tube at h, the inner diameter in the ſeveral directions cde, fgh, parallel to and one inch diſtant point is adjuſted either in the firſt or third method, and in the fe- cond column if it is adjuſted in the ſecond method; the correſ- is enlarged to halfaninch from h to i, which is two inches in length.' ponding number in the third column Thuws how much the point of half an inch of the end i, excepting that part of the ſmall tube from This glaſs is filled with highly rectified ſpirits of wine to within 212° muſt be placed above or below the obſerved point, expreſſed d to g, which is filled with mercury. From a view of the inftru- in thouſandth parts of the interval between the boiling and freezing point: for example, ſuppoſe the boiling point is adjuſted-in ſteam, ment in this ſtate, it will readily be conceived, that when the ſpirit when the barometer is at 29 inches, and that the interval between panded by heat, the mercury in the ſmall tube on the left fide will in the large tube, which is the bulb of the thermometer, is ex-> the boiling and freezing points is 1 inches; the neareſt number to 29 in the left-hand column is 29.03, and the correſponding riſe; on the contrary, when the ſpirit is condenſed by cold; the re- be preſſed down, and conſequently cauſe that on the right ſide to number in the table is 7 higher, and therefore the mark of 212° verſe will happen, the mercury on the left ſide will riſe as that on muſt be placed higher than the obſerved point by 1000 of the interval the right ſide deſcends. The ſcale, therefore, which is Fahreinheit's between boiling and freezing, that is, by 1661 or .077 of an inch. *** This method of correcting the boiling point is not ftrictly juft, 1 (fig. 21) beginning with o at the top of the left ſide, has the de- grees numbered downwards, while that at the right ſide, beginning unleſs the tube is of an equal bore in all its parts; but the tube is, very ſeldom ſo much unequal as to cauſe any ſenſible error, where with o at the bottom, aſcends. The diviſions are aſcertained by placing this thermometer with a good ſtandard mercurialone in wa- the whole correction is ſo ſmall. The trouble of making the cor- rection will be abridged by making a diagonal ſcale, ſuch as is re- ter gradually heating or cooling, and marking the diviſions of the new ſcale at every 50. The diviſions below the freezing point are preſented in fig. 15. It is not very material what kind of water is uſed for adjuſting the boiling point, ſo that it is not at all falt; Nollet, De Luc, and others. Thus far this thermometer reſem - taken by means of a mixture of ſea-falt and ice, as deſcribed by only, if any kind of hard water is uſed, it is better that it ſhould bles in ſome reſpects thoſe of Mr. Bernoulli and Lord Charles Ca: be kept boiling for at leaſt ten minutes before it is uſed. But we would adviſe all thoſe deſirous of adjuſting thermometers in the vendiſh : but the method of ſhewing how high the mercury had riſen in the obſerver's abſence, the effential property of an inſtru- moſt accurate manner for nice experiments, to employ rain or dif- ment of this kind, is wholly different from theirs, and effected in tilled water, and to perform the operation in the firſt-mentioned the following manner. Within the ſmall tube of the thermo- manner, that is, in fteam. ineter, above the ſurface of the mercury on either ſide, immerſed ON THE FREEZING POINT. in the ſpirit of wine, is placed a ſmall index, fo fitted, as to paſs up “ In adjuſting the freezing as well as the boiling point, the and down as occaſion may require: that ſurface of the mercury quickſilver in the tube ought to be kept of the ſame heat as that which riſes, carries up the index with it, which index does not re- in the ball. In the generality of thermometers, indeed, the diſ- turn with the mercury when it defcends; but by remaining fixed, tance of the freezing point from the ball is ſo ſmall, that the ſhows diſtinctly, and very accurately, how high the mercury had greateſt error which can ariſe from neglecting this precaution is riſen, and conſequently what degree of heat or cold had happened. not very conſiderable, unleſs the weather is warmer than uſual; Fig. 18. repreſents one of theſe indexes drawn larger than the but as the freezing point is frequently placed at a conſiderable diſ- real ones, to render it more diftinet. a is a ſmall glaſs tube, three tance from the ball, the operator ſhould always be careful either to pile the pounded ice to ſuch a height above the ball, that the quarters of an inch long, hermetically ſealed at each end, incloſing error which can ariſe from the quickſilver in the remaining part a piece of ſteel wire nearly of the fame length: at each end cd is fixed a ſhort piece of a tube of black glaſs, of ſuch a diameter as to of the tube not being heated equally with that in the ball, ſhall be paſs freely up and down within the ſmall tube of the thermometer. very ſmall; or he muſt correct the obſerved point, upon that ac- The lower end floating on the ſurface of the mercury, is carried up count, according to the following table. with it when it riſes, while the piece at the upper end being of the Heat of the air Correction. ſame diameter, keeps the body of the index parallel to the ſides of the thermometrical iube. From the upper end of the body of the .00087 index at r is drawn a ſpring of glaſs to the fineneſs of a hair, about .00174 five-ſevenths of an inch in length, which being fet a little oblique, so 62 .00261 preſſes lightly againſt the inner ſurface of the tube, and prevents .00348 the index from following the mercury when it deſcends, or being 82 .00435 moved by the ſpirit paffing up or down, or by any ſudden motion " The firſt column of this table is the heat of the air, and the given to the inſtrument by the hand or otherwife ; but at the ſame ſecond is the correction expreſſed in 1oooth parts of the diſtance time the preſſure is fo adjuſted as to permit this index to be readily between the freezing point and the ſurface of the ice : for exam carried up by the ſurface of the riſing mercury, and downwards ple, if the freezing point ſtands feven inches above the ſurface of whenever the inſtrument is to be rectified for obſervation. the ice, and the heat of the room is 62, the point of 32° ſhould prevent the ſpirit from evaporating, the tubę at the end i is cloſely be placed 7 X.00261, or .018 of an inch lower than the obſerved ſealed. When this tube is cloſed (not hermetically, but only fo point. This correction alſo would be made more eaſy by the help as to prevent the ſpirits evaporating) the thermometer muft be of a diagonal ſcale, fimilar to that propoſed for the boiling point. brought to the greateſt heat it is likely at any time after to ſuſtain; 0 B and though no more air is incloſed than what remains at that MAKING OBSERVATIONS WITH THERMOMETERS. time above the ſpirits, yet that will, by its elaſticity preſſing on the “. In trying the heat of liquors, care ſhould be taken that the fluid, anſwer every purpoſe as well as if the external air was freely quickſilver in the tube of the thermometer be heated to the fame admitted. Fig. 21, repreſents the thermometer on its frame; the degree as that in the ball; or, if this cannot be done conveniently, plates on which the ſcale is graved on either ſide are made to ſlide the obſerved heat ſhould be corrected on that account.” After out, and the frame is open to the back behind the large tube, which having adjuſted the fixed points of thermometers in this manner, does not touch it, except at each end. The cap a, and the baſe b, the diviſion of the ſcale is eaſy; for by making a certain quantity are made to fix on with ſcrews, and only cover the turning of the of mercury, ſuppoſe as much as fills the tube the length of half fmall tube. By a ſcrew at the bottom of the frame, it may be made an inch, paſs through the whole length of it when open at both faſt to the wall againſt which it is to hang without doors, to prevent 420 52 72 To ON THE PRECAUTION NECESSARY TO BE OBSERVED IN C its T H I Τ Η Ο . its being ſhaken by violent winds. Towards evening an obſerver is capable of infinite others, whereof we have no notion at all. may viſit the thermometer, and fee at one view, by the index on THIRD, in muſic, a concord reſulting from a mixture of two the left ſide, the cold of the preceding night ; and by that on the ſounds, containing an interval of two degrees. It is called third, right, the heat of the day. Theſe he may minute down, and then as containing three terms or ſounds, between the extremes. Chro- apply a ſmall magnet to that part of the tube againſt which the in-matically it is compoſed of four femitones ; two whereof are dexes reſt, and move each of them down to the ſurface of the mer greater, and the third leſs. See the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. XIV. cury : thus, without heating, cooling, ſeparating, or at all diſturb THIRST, an uneaſy ſenſation ariſing from a deficiency of ing the mercury, or moving the inſtrument, may this thermometer, the ſaliva to moiſten the inward parts of the mouth. Hence ariſes without a touch, be immediately rectified for another obſervation. a ſtrong deſire for drink; and thirſt is a ſymptom generally at- In ſome caſes it may be found expedieni, inſtead of the double tending fevers of all kinds. Thirſt is beſt allayed by acids, wa- thermometer firſt deſcribed, to make two ſingle ones ; one to ſhew ter kept a while in the mouth, then ſpit out, and repeated as re- the greateſt degree of heat only, and the other the cold, each having quired; a bit of bread chewed with a little water, which latter its proper index (fee fig. 22,and 33) in the Miſcellaneous Plate,which may be gradually ſwallowed ; if the perſon is very hot, brandy is contains all the preceding figures on this ſubject. The firſt has the the beſt for holding in the mouth, but ſhould be ſpit out again : ſmall tube bent down on the left ſide, and the lower end immerſed except in fevers, large draughts of cold water are hurtful. in a bulb or ſmall ciſtern of mercury, to which the external air has THISTLE, in botany. See CARDUUS. The dried flowers free acceſs; the other has the fmall tube turned up on the right ſide, of the carduus lanceolatus or ſpear-thiſtle, and carduus nutans or with ſome mercury let down to the bottom, and the upper end muſk-thiſtle, are uſed in fome countries as a runnet for curdling cloſely ſealed, as in the double thermometer. We ſhall here inſert their milk : the tender ſtalks of the paluſtris, or marſh-thiſtle, fome obſervations made with the thermometers of Fahreinheit. and indeed of moſt thiſtles, are eſculent, being firſt peeled and Obſervations by Fahreinheit's thermometer. boiled. In this manner the inhabitants of Smaaland in Sweden, At 600 degrees mercury boils ; 546 oil of vitriol boils ; 242 as Linnæus informs us, often eat them. For a copious account ſpirit of nitre boils ; 240 Lixivium tartari boils ; 213 cow's milk of the moſt approved method of deſtroying this noxious weed, ſee boils ; the above is according to Muſchenbroeck, the barometer the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. 29. being at 29 Rhinland inches. Order of the Thistle, or of St. Andrew, is a military order At 212 deg. water boils ; 206 freſh human urine boils ; 190 in Scotland; inſtituted, as fome ſay, by Hungus, or Hungo, king brandy boils; 174 alcohol boils ; 156 ſerum of blood, and white of the Picts, after a victory. obtained over Athelſtan: the legend of eggs harden ; 146 killing heat for animals, in a few minutes ; is, that a croſs of St. Andrew (the patron of that kingdom) appear- 108 a hen hatching eggs, but ſeldom ſo hot ; 107 0 103 heat of ing to him at the time of the engagement, he bleſſed the happy ſkin in ducks, geeſe, hens, pidgeons, partridges, and ſwallows. augury, took the figure thereof into his ſtandard in honour of his At 106 deg. heat of ſkin in a common ague and fever ; from protector, and inſtituted an order of knights whoſe collar is of gold 103 to 100 heat of ſkin in dogs, cats, ſheep, oxen, ſwine, and interwoven with thiſtle-flowers and ſprigs of rue. From the col . other quadrupeds ; 99 to 92 heat of the human ſkin in health. lar hangs a medal, on which is the image of St. Andrew with his At 80 deg. heat of the air in the ſhade, in very hot weather ; croſs on his breaſt , with this motto, Nemo me impune laceſſet. No -:74 butter begins to melt; 64 heat of the air in the ſhade, in warm body ſhall provoke me unpuniſhed. For deſcription, feeKNIGHT- weather ; 48 temperate air, in England and Holland ; 43 oil of HOOD, and the Syſtem of HERALDRY, Plate VII. olive begins to thicken and grow opake; 39 mercury freezes ; THORACIC, in anatomy, an epithet given to two branches 32 water juſt freezing, or ſnow and ice juſt thawing ; 30 milk of the axillary artery, on account of the conveying the blood into freezes 28 urine and common vinegar freezes ;: 25 blood out of ſome parts of the thorax. The thoracic arteries are diſtinguiſhed the body freezes ; 20 good Burgundy, ſtrong claret, and Madeira into upper and lower : there are likewiſe thoracic veins, an up- freezes ; 7 one part of ſpirits of wine mixed with three parts wa per and under, deſtined for the reconveyance of the blood from ter freezes ; 5 greateſt cold in Penſylvania in 1731-2, 40° lat. ; the thorax to the axillary vein. See the Syſtem, Part IV. Sect. I. 4 greateſt cold at Utrecht in 1728-9; o a mixture of ſnow and THORACIC Duct, is a thin tranſparent canal ariſing from, or falt, which is able to freeze oil of tartar, per deliquium, but not rather it is a continuation of, the exit or mouth of the receptacu- brandy, Martine's Effays, p. 284, &c. lum chyli, and running along the ſpina dorſi, between the vena We muſt here obſerve, that the heat of a hen hatching chickens azygos and aorta, as high as the fifth vertebra of the back, or is placed, by this table, at 108 of Fahreinheit's thermometer ; but higher. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. V. it appears from M. Reaumur's experiments, that eggs will hatch THORACICI, in ichthyology, the name of the third order in a heat no greater than that of the human ſkin. See HATCHING. of bony fiſhes, reſpiring by means of gills only: the character of For further information on this ſubject of thermometers, ſee which is, that the ventral fins are placed underneath the pectoral Martine's Eſſays, Medical and Philoſophical, printed at London in fins. See the Syſtem, Seet. V. 1740, 8vo. Deſaguliers's Exp. Phil. vol. ii. p. 289, &c. Muf THORAX, inanatomy, that part of the human body which forms chenbroeck's Int. ad. Phil. Nat. vol ii. p. 625, &c. ed. 1762. De the capacity of the breaſt, and wherein are included the heart and Luc's Recherches ſur les Modifications de l'Atmoſphere, tom. i. lungs. See the Syſtem, Part IV. throughout. For the bones of the part ii. chap. 2. Nollet's Leçons de Phyſique, tom. iv. p. 375, &c. thorax, ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Sect.III. Art.2. For repreſentation, THESIS, dois, poſition, in the Schools, a general propoſition, fee Plate I. letters a, b, c, d, &c. For the Muſcles, ſee Part II. which a perſon advances, and offers to maintain. In the college Table of Muſcles, Art. 17. and Plate V. fig. 3. it is frequent to have placards, containing a number of theſe the THOUGHT, ſentiment, a general name for all the ideas con- ſes in theology, in medicine, in philoſophy, in law, &c. The ſequent on the operations of the mind, and even for the operations maintaining a theſis, is a great part of the exerciſe a ſtudent is to themſelves. As, in the idea of thought, there is nothing included undergo for a degree. of what we include in the idea of an extended ſubſtance; and that Thesis, in logic, &c. Every propofition may be divided into whatever belongs to body, may be denied to belong to thought ; theſis and hypotheſis: theſis contains the thing affirmed or denied, we may conclude, that thought is not a mode of extended ſub and hypotheſis the conditions of the affirmation or negation. Thus, ſtance, it being the nature of a mode not to be conceived, if the in Euclid, if a triangle and parallelogram have equal baſes and al- thing, whereof it is a mode, be denied. Hence we infer, that titudes (is the hypotheſis), the firſt is half of the ſecond (the theſis). thought, not being a mode of extended ſubſtance, muſt bc the at- THIGH, a part of the body of men, quadrupeds, and birds, tribute of ſome other ſubſtance very different. The followers of between the leg and trunk. We have an account in the Philo Sir Iſaac Newton, and the new philoſophy, deny extenſion to be fophical Tranſactions of a large piece of a young man's thigh- the eſſence of matter; and the followers of Mr. Locke deny bone being taken out, and the place ſo well ſupplied by a callus, thought to be the eſſence of the mind. See THINKING. that he walked ſtraight. See No. 461. ſect. 2. When ſpeaking with a particular reference to the belles letters Thigh-bone, os femoris, in anatomy. For deſcription, fee and polite arts, we mean, by thoughts, the ideas which the artiſt the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. IV. Art. 4. For repreſentation, ſee attempts to raiſe by his performance, in contradiſtinction to the Plate I. fig. 1. Letter a. manner in which they are raiſed or expreſſed. In works of art, THINKING, cogitation, a general name for any act or ope- thoughts are what remains of a performance, when ſtripped of its ration of the mind. When the mind turns its view inwards, upon embelliſhments. Thus, a poet's thoughts are what remains of his itſelf, the firſt idea that offers, ſays Mr. Locke, is thinking ; poems, independently of the verſification, and of ſome ideas merely wherein it obferves a great variety of modifications, and thereof ferving for its decoration and improvement. Thoughts, therefore, frames to itſelf diſtinct ideas : thus the perception annexed to any are the materials propoſed and applied by art to its purpoſes : the impreſſion on the body, made by an external object, is called fenſa dreſs in which they appear, or the form into which they are tion. When an idea recurs without the preſence of the object, it moulded by the artiſt, is merely accidental. Conſequently, they is called remembrance. Wher fought after by the mind, and are the firſt object of attention in every work of art ; the ſpirit, brought again in view, it is called recollection. When held there the foul of a performance, which, if its thoughts are indifferent, long under attentive conſideration, it is called contemplation. is but of little value, and may be compared to a palace of ice, When ideas float in the mind without regard or reflection, it is cal raiſed in a moſt regular form of an habitable ſtructure, but, from led a revery ; when they are taken expreſs notice of, and, as it were the nature of its materials, totally uſeleſs. While, therefore, you regiſtered in the memory, it is attention ; and when the mind fixes are contemplating an hiſtorical picture, try to forget that it is a its view on any one idea, and conſiders it on all ſides, it is ſtudy picture : forget the painter, whoſe magic art has, by lights and and attention. Theſe are the moſt obvious modes of thinking ; but ihades, created bodies where there are none. Fancy to yourſelf there are ſeveral others which we know of; and, doubtleſs, the mind that you areactually looking at men and then attend to their actions. Obſerve THU TIL Obſerve whether they are intereſting; whether the perſons expreſs thunderbolt, which the vulgar, to fit it for ſuch effects, ſuppoſe to thoughts and ſentiments in their faces, attitudes, and motions ; be a hard body, and even a ſtone. But that we need not have re- whether you may underſtand the language of their airs and geſtures, courſe to a hard ſolid body to account for the effects commonly at- and whether they tell you ſomething remarkable. If you find it tributed to the thunderbolt, will be evident to any one, who conſiders not worth your while to attend to the perſons thus realiſed by your thoſe of the pulvis fulminans, and of gunpowder ; but more eſpeci- fancy, the painter has thought to little purpoſe. Whilſt liſtening ally the aſtoniſhing powers of electricity, even when collected and to a muſical performance, try to forget that you are hearing ſounds employed by human art, and much more when directed and exer- of an inanimate inſtrument, produced only by great and habitual ciſed in the courſe of nature. When we conſider the known effects dexterity of lips and fingers. Fancy to yourſelf , that you hear a man of electrical exploſions, and thoſe produced by lightning, we ſhall ſpeaking ſome unknown language, and obſerve whether his ſounds be at no loſs to account for the extraordinary operations vulgarly expreſs ſome ſentiments; whether they denote tranquility or diſturb aſcribed to thunderbolts. As ſtones and bricks ſtruck by lightning ance of mind, ſoft or violent, joyful or grevous affections; whether are often found in a vitrified ſtate, we may reaſonably ſuppoſe, with they expreſs any character of the ſpeaker; and whether the dialect fignior Beccaria, that ſome ſtones in the earth, having been ſtruck be noble or mean. If you cannot diſcover any of theſe requiſites, in this manner, firit , gave occaſion to the vulgar opinion of the then pity the virtuofo for having left ſo much ingenuity deſtitute thunderbolt. of thought. THUNDER-houſe, in Electricity, is an inſtrument for illuſtrat- In the ſame manner we muſt alſo judge of poems, eſpecially of ing the manner by which buildings receive damage from lightning, the lyric kind. The ode is valuable, which, when deprived of its and to evince the utility of metallic conductors in preſerving them poetical dreſs, ſtill affords pleaſing thoughts or images to the mind. from it. See the Syſtem, Sect. II. Art. V. and Plate II. Fig. 35. Its real merit may bett be diſcovered by tranſpoſing it into ſimple THYMUS, in Anatomy, an oblong glandular body, round on proſe, and depriving it of its poetical colouring. If nothing re- the upper part, and divided below into two or three lobes, of which mains that a man of ſenſe and reflection would approve, the ode, that towards the left hand is the longeſt. It is that part which in with the moſt charming harmony and the moſt ſplendid colouring, a brealt of veal we call the ſweetbread. See the Syſtem, Part IV. is but a fine dreſs hung round a man of ſtraw. How greatly then Sect. III. are thoſe miſtaken, who conſider an exuberant fancy and a delicate Thymus, in Surgery, is uſed for a kind of wart, growing on the ear as ſufficient qualifications for a lyric poet! It is only after parts of generation, the fundament, and ſeveral other places of the having examined the thoughts of a performance in their unadorned body, with cloven aſperities, like thoſe of the herb thyme, whence ftate, that we can pronounce whether the attire, in which they have its name. The ordinary method of curing a thymus, is by ligature, been dreſſed by art, fits and becomes them well or ill. . A thought, and deſiccative lotions, or by cauſtics; and, if large, by inciſion ; whoſe value and merit cannot be eſtimated but from its dreſs, is, in taking care firſt to ſecure the greater veſſels, by tying them. effect, as futile and inſignificant as a man who affects to diſplay THYRO- Aritenoidæi, in Anatomy, are two very broad muſcles, his merit by external pomp. each of which is ſituated laterally between the thyroides and cria THROAT, the anterior part of an animal, between the head coides. See the Syſtem, Part II. Table of Muſcles. Art. 13. and the ſhoulders, wherein is the gullet. Phyſicians include, under THYROIDÆA Glandula, THYROIDE Gland, is a large whi- the word throat, all that hollow, or cavity, which may be ſeen when tiſh maſs which covers the anterior convex ſide of the larynx. See the mouth is wide open. It is ſometimes alſo called iſthmus, be the Syſtem, Part IV. Sect. V. cauſe it is narrow and bears fome reſemblance to what is called by TIBIA, in Anatomy, the boney part of the leg, between the knee the geographers iſthmus, and the ankle. The tibia conſiſts of two bones, called focils, the THÙMB, pollex, in Anatomy, one of the members or parts of one on the inſide of the leg, called the fibula, or little focil: the other the hand. For the bones, ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. IV. Art. on the outſide, called by che common name tibia, or the great focil, 3. and Plate I. Fig. I. For the Muſcles ſee Part II. Sect. II. to which may be added the Patella. See the Syſtem, Part I. Table of muſcles Art. 23. and Plate II. Fig. 3. letter i. Sect. IV. Art. 5. and 6, and Plate I. fig. 1. letters g, h, f. THUNDER, the noiſe occaſioned by the exploſion of a flaſh TIBIALIS, of TIBIÆUS, in Anatomy, a name given to two of lightning echoed back from the inequalities on the ſurface of the muſcles of the leg ; diſtinguiſhed by anticus, and poſticus. Tibialis earth, in like manner as the noiſe of a cannon is echoed, and in Anticns, is a long muſcle, fleſhy at the upper part, and tendinous at particular circumſtances forms a rolling lengthened ſound. Although the lower, ſituated on the foreſide of the leg, between tibia and thunder, properly ſpeaking, is only a mere found capable of produc the extenſor digitorum longus. Tibialis Poſticus, is ſituated between ing very little effect, yet the word is generally ſuppoſed to include the tibia and fibula, on the back ſide of the leg, and covered by the the phenomena of lightning alſo; and electrified clouds are by uni extenſor digitorum longus. Tibialis Gracilis, a muſcle of the leg, verſal conſent called thunder-clouds, and the exploſions of many called alſo plantaris. It is a ſmall pyriform muſcle, ſituated ob. faihes of lightning produced from them are generally called thunder liquely in the ham, below the external condyle of the os femoris. ſtorms. Though the phenomena of lightning, therefore, have been For the origin, inſertion and uſes of theſe ſeveral muſcles, ſee the at great length explained and accounted for under the articles Syſtem, Part II. Sect. II. Table of Muſcles. Art. 26. ELECTRICITY and LIGHTNING, and though the immediate cauſe TIDES, two periodical motions of the waters of the ſea; called of electrical exploſions from clouds is explained under the article alſo the flux and reflux, or the ebb and flow. When the motion of the ultimate cauſe remains ſtill to be ſhown, and pro the water is againſt the wind, it is called a windward-tide-when perly belongs to the preſent article. It is univerſally allowed, that wind and tide go the fame ward, leeward-tide--when it runs very the variation of the electicity in different parts of the atmoſphere ſtrong, it is called a tide-gate. For a copious explanation of the is the cauſe of thunder. Under the article ELECTRICITY, it has flux, and reflux of the ſea, ſee the fyſtem of AsTRONOMY, Sect. X. been ſhown why lightning explodes after the thunder-clouds are throughout; to find the time of high-water at any given place, charged. Under the article LIGHTNING it is ſhown why that ſee the fyftem of NAVIGATION, Part VI. Sect. II. and the table meteor puts on the various forms in which we ſee it, why it ſome-annexed, thewing at what hour it is high-water on the full and times ſtrikes houſes or animals, and ſometimes not, &c. and under change of the moon. the article Rain, why the atmoſphere in ſome caſes parts with TĪGER, tigris, in the Syſtem of Mammalia, a ſpecies of the ge- the vapours which at other times it ſo obſtinately retains. It re nus felis. For deſcription of the genus, ſee FELIS; for repreſen- mains, therefore, only to ſhow why rains are ſometimes attended tation of the tiger, fee plate IV. Genus 13, Species 2. with thunder, and ſometimes not; which, to thoſe who attentively TILBURY-Water, in Medicine, is an acidulous or ſaline water, peruſe the articles abovementioned, may be done in few words. iſſuing from a ſpring, ſituated near a farm houſe at Weſt Tilbury, By the ſtruggle of two other winds as well as thoſe of the eaſt and near Tilbury Fort, in Effex. This water is of a ſtraw colour, ſoft weſt, may a thunder-ſtorm be produced; but it is always ne and ſmooth to the taſte, but leaving, after agitation in the mouth, ceſſary that the reſiſtance of the air to the motion of the clouds a ſmall degree of roughneſs on the tongue: it throws up a ſcum va- ſhould be very great, and nearly equal all round. For if the vapour riegated with ſeveral colours, which feels greaſy, and efferveſces ſhould get off to a ſide, no thunder would take place; the electri with ſpirit of vitriol; it mixes ſmooth with milk, but curdles with city would then be carried off as faſt as it was collected, and rain ſoap; when boiled, it turns milky, but is fined by a fourth part of would only be the conſequence, by reaſon of the electrified vapours mountain-wine, and by acids; it operates chiefly by urine, though parting with their latent heat, as is explained under the article it is ſomewhat purgative, and increaſes perſpiration. This water RAIN. In fact, we very often obſerve that in the time of rain the is eſteemed for removing glandular obſtructions, and hence is alſo clouds evidently move acroſs the wind, and the nearer their motion recommended in ſcurvies and cutaneous diſeaſes; it is good in bloody is to a direct oppoſition, the heavier will the rain be; while on the fluxes, purgings, and the like: in diſorders of the ſtomach ariſing other hand, if they move briſkly before the wind, let the direction from acidity, in the gravel, fluor albus, and immoderate flux of the be what it will, the atmoſphere foon clears up. The nearneſs, or menſes. As a diuretic, it is beneficial in dropſical complaints. It diſtance, may be eſtimated by the interval of time between the flaſh gently warms the ſtomach, ſtrengthens the appetite, and promotes and the noiſé. Dr. Wallis obſerves, that, ordinarily, the difference digeſtion. The uſual doſe is a quart a-day. This water is ſup- between the two is about ſeven ſeconds, which at the rate of 1142 poſed to owe its virtue to a native alkaline ſalt, which may be ob- feet in a ſecond of time, gives the diſtance about a mile and a half; tained from it by evaporation ; and to its fixed air, which, however, but ſometimes it comes in a fecondortwo, which argues the exploſion being very volatile, foon exhales when the water is heated or very near us, and even among us. And in ſuch caſes, the doctor af ſtands for ſome time expoſed. Elliot's Account of Mineral Wa- fures us, he has more than once foretold the miſchiefs that happened. ers, &c. p. 220. THUNDERBOLT. If what we call lightning acts with ex TILLING, TILLAGE, in Agriculture, a moving or ſtirring of traordinary violence, and breaks or ſhatters any thing, it is called a the ground with a plough, ſpade, hoe, or other inſtrument; which, * being RAIN; yet N° 144. TIM TIT rery, &c. being performed on the ſurface, enters to a certain depth, and makes | by the ſaid act. This appellation is now become faſhionable the lower and upper parts change place; by which means the amongſt artiſts, to diſtinguiſh ſuch watches as are made with ex- goodnefs of the earth is kept from being ſpent in feeding uſeleſs traordinary care and accuracy for nautical or aſtronomical ob- plants; and the ground is divided by attrition, as the addition of fervations. dung does by fermentation. For copious directions reſpecting this TIN, one of the ſeven perfect metals. This metal is found very important branch, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. XXVI. and XXVII. For plentifully in the ſouthen parts of Britain, particularly Cornwall , deſcription of the inſtruments uſed, fee Sect. XXVIII. For repre to which and Devonſhire the mines are now principally confined: ſentation of them, ſee the Plates annexed to the Syſtem. Though in itſelf the lighteſt, it is in its ore the heavieſt of all the TIMBER, includes all kind of felled and ſeaſoned woods, uſed metals. It is very feldom, if ever, found pure, and the appearances in the ſeveral parts of building; as carpentry, joinery, tur of its ore are very different. The fineſt and richeſt are ſtyled tin grains, or corns of tin, being cryſtals of a black colour of different The kinds of TIMBER are numerous: we ſhall only mention fizes. It is alſo found in an heavy black ſtone, fometimes in a fome of the moſt uſeful, from Evelyn's Sylvia, &c. As, 1. Oak, more porous yellow-coloured one, and is commonly intermixed with the uſes whereof need no enumeration; to endure all ſeaſons and ſpar, arſenic, &c. ſpar, arſenic, &c. Tin-mines are generally found on the fides of weathers, there is no wood like it; hence its uſe in pales, ſhingles, the hills, though veins ſometimes paſs through vallies or brooks bea poſts, rails, boards, &c. For water-works it is ſecond to none; tween two hills, and may be traced to the oppoſite hill. The mic and where it lies expoſed both to air and water, there is none equal ners work with the utmoſt difficulty through hard rocks from three to it. 2. Elm: this, felled between November and February, is to 70 fathoms depth; and it is no leſs troubleſome, as well as dan- all ſpine or heart, and no fap; and is of ſingular uſe in places gerous, where the earth is looſe and apt to crumble. The veins are where it either is always wet, or always dry; its toughneſs likewiſe of an uncertain thickneſs; from three inches to three feet. makes it of uſe to wheelwrights, millwrights, &c. nor muſt it be grains or corns of tin yield five parts in eight of metal ; whereas tia omitted, that its not being liable to break and fly in chips, makes ſtones yield only from one in 40 to one in 60, and to one in 120; it fit for dreſſers and planks to chop on. 3. Beech : its chief uſe for theſe laſt are alſo wrought with ſome finall profit. After melt- is in turnery, joinery, upholſtery, and the like, as being of a clean, ing it is called black tin; but before it can be expoſed to fale it is white, fine grain, not apt to bend, nor ſlit; it has been fometimes, carried to one of the five coinage-towns, where, after examination eſpecially of late, uſed for building timber, and if it lie conſtantly of a piece that is broke from the corner of a block, the arms of the wet, it is judged to outlaſt oak. 4. Afh: its uſe is almoſt univerſal ; duchy of Cornwall are impreſſed with a hammer, and then it is it is good for building, or other occaſions, where it may lie dry; it called white tin. For a further account, ſee the Syſtem of CHYMIS- ſerves the carpenter, cooper, turner, ploughright, wheelwright, TRY, Part. III. Chap. II. Sect. II. gardener; and alſo it is uſed at fea for oars, handſpikes, &c. 5. Fir, The duty on coinage, which is four ſhillings on the hundred- commonly known by the name of deal, is of late much uſed in weight, belongs to the prince of Wales, as duke of Cornwall, and building, eſpecially within doors, for ſtairs, floors, wainſcot, and produces a revenue of upwards of 10,000l. per annum. moſt works of ornament. 6. Walnut-tree: this is of univerſal uſe, Tin-plates, an article of manufacture very common among us, excepting for the outſides of buildings; none is better for the and vulgarly called tin. It is iron plated over with tin. The joiners uſe, it being of a more curious brown colour than beech, French call' it fer blanc, white iron, as we ſometimes do in England. and leſs ſubject to worms. 7. Cheſnut tree, next to oak, is the It was once known under a diſtinct name, lattin. We ſhall here timber moſt ſought for by joiners and carpenters: it is very laſting. add, with regard to the hiſtory of this manufacture, that in the year 8. Service-tree, uſed in joinery, as being of a delicate grain, and fit 1681, tin plates where made in England by one Andrew Yarronton, for curioſities: it alſo yields beams of conliderable bigneſs, proper for who was ſent to Bohemia to learn the manner of making them. building. 9. Poplar, abel : this and aſpen differing very little from But the manufacture was diſcontinued by his employers, and after- one another, are much uſed of late inſtead of fir; they look as wards ſo much difregarded as to be reckoned among the projects, well, and are tougher and harder. 10. Alder, much uſed for fewers called bubbles of the year 1720: however, it was revived, and or pipes to convey water: when kept always wet, it grows hard brought to ſuch perfection about the year 1749, that very little of it like a ſtone; but where ſometimes wet, and ſometimes dry, it rots was imported from foreign parts; our own plates being of a finer preſently. The uſes of timber are ſo many, and ſo great, that the gloſs, or coat, than that made beyond fea, the latter being hammer- procuring of a ſufficient ſupply of it extremely well deſerves the ed, and ours being drawn under a rolling-mill. And. Hift. Com. care of every ſtate; as it muſt be a great diſadvantage to it to be vol. ii. p. 175, 361. obliged to have recourſe to its neighbours, and purchaſe at a very TINCTURE, in Pharmacy, a ſeparation of the finer and more conliderable and continually renewed expence, what might, by an volatile parts of a mixed body, made by means of a proper men- eaſy æconomy, be ſufficiently ſupplied at home. This ceconomy, ftruum diffolving the ſame. Tincture is more particularly uſed however, muſt be applied in time; for our natural indolence, our for an extract of part of the ſubſtance of a body, eſpecially its fa- love to reap the advantages of every thing ourſelves, and our little vour and colour, which are hereby communicated to the menftruum. care for poſterity, give great room to fear fucceeding ages will Wehave cephalic tinctures, antifcorbutic tinctures, ſtomachic tinc- want wood, both for private and public exigencies. All our arts tures, anticholic tinctures, invirogating tinctures, &c. and tinctures ſhould be employed on this ſubject, with two views, the one to drawn froin roſes, from coral, &c. preſerve and cheriſh our growing wood, the other to renew the TINCTURE is applied by heraldic writers, to the colours uſed in trees which have been and are continually cut down. For the or eſcutcheons, or coats of arms; as are likewiſe the two metals, or ganization and conſtruction of timber, as viewed by the micro- and argent. Tincture comprehends colours and furs. See the ſcope, ſee MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. For repreſentation, ſee Syſtem, Sect III. and Plate II. Plate III. annexed to this Article, fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. TINNING, the covering or lining any thing with melted titig TIMBERs, in ſhip-building, the ribs of a ſhip, or the incurvated or with tin reduced to a yery thin leaf. Looking-glaffes are foliated pieces of wood, branching outward from the keel, in a vertical di or tinned with thin leaves of beaten tin, applied and faſtened thereto rection, ſo as to give ſtrength, figure, and folidity to the whole fa by means of quickſilver. Kitchen utenſils are tinned with melted bric. For a general deſcription of the conſtruction of ſhips, ſee the tin ; and locks, bits, ſpurs, &c. with leaf tin, by the help of fire. Treatiſe on NAVAL AFFAIRS. Sect. IV. For repreſentation, fee TINNITUS Auris, tinkling or buzzing of the ear, a diſeaſe the Plate annexed, with the explanation in the Treatiſe. pretty frequent in the ear, conſiſting in the perception of a ſound TIME, a ſucceſſion of phenomena, in the univerſe, or a mode which is not, or at leaſt is not external; and the ear being thus of duration marked by certain periods or meaſures, chiefly by the filled with a certain fpecies of found, cannot admit other ſounds, motion and revolution of the fun. The general idea which time unleſs they are very violent. This perception may be occaſioned gives in every thing to which it is applied, is that of limited dura- | by the beating of an artery in the ear, by an inflammation or abſceſs tion. Thus we cannot ſay of the Deity, that he exiſts in time; be of the tympanum, or the labyrinth, by the admiſſion of foreign cauſe eternity, which he inhabits, is abſolutely uniform, neither ad bodies, by commotion of the cranium, or blows on the ear, &c. mitting limitation nor ſucceſſion. Extraordinary and irregular motion of the animal ſpirits are alfo TIME, in Muſic, is an affection of ſound, whereby we denomi found to occaſion the tinnitus, as we find in deleriums, phrenſies, niate it long or ſhort, with regard to its continuance in the ſame de vertigoes, &c. The tinkling of the ear is reckoned one of the diag- gree of tune. The figns or characters by which the time of notes is noitic ſigns of the plague. The tinnitus is of two kinds, the one repreſented, are ſpecified in the Syſtem of Muſic, where the names, proceeding from a diſtemperature of the organ of hearing, the other proportions, &c. are alſo expreſſed. For repreſentation, ſee Plate I. from a diſorder of the brain; and the cure is to be attempted ac- TIME, in Fencing. There are three kinds of time; that of the cordingly. In thoſe of the ſharper kind, which are uſually occa- fword, that of the foot, and that of the whole body. All the times fioned by inflanmations and pains in the ear, where the parts are that are perceived out of their meaſure, are only to be conſidered as uſually very tenſe and dry, we muſt uſe the ſame means as in acute appeals, or feints, to deceive and amuſe the enemy. See the intro- pains, and tenſions of the membrana tympani ; but in dull hum- ductory part of the Treatiſe on FENCING, ming heavy noiſes, which are uſually occaſioned by rheums and TIME-Keepers, in a general ſenſe, denote inſtruments adapted for fuppurations, where the membranes are relaxed, we are to uſe the meaſuring time, fee CHRONOMETER. In a more peculiar and fame remedies which give relief in pains occafioned by cold: after definite ſenſe, time-keeper is a term firſt applied by Mr. John Har which it will be no difficulty to chuſe the moſt proper, while we riſon to his watch, for the performance of which, in determining have a due regard to the circumſtance, from which the more juſt in- the longitude in a voyage to the Weſt Indies, in compliance with dications may be taken. the act of the 12th of queen Anne, he obtained from the Britiſh par TITHES, in ecclefiaftical law, are defined to be the tenth-part liament a moiety of the reward of twenty thouſand pounds offered of the increaſe, yearly ariſing and renewing from the profits of lands, the ΤΙ Τ TIT ز the ſtock upon lands, and the perſonal induſtry of the inhabitants : agreeable to what was afterwards directed by the ſame pope in other the firſt fpecies being uſually called predial, as of corn, graſs, hops, countries. This Epiſtle, ſays Sir Edward Coke, bound not the lay and wood; the ſecond mixed, as of wool, milk, pigs, &c. conſiſting fubje&ls of this realm ; but being reaſonable and juſt, it was al- of natural products, but nurtured and preſerved in part by the care lowed of, and ſo became lex terræ. This put an effectual ſtop to of man ; and of theſe the tenth muſt be paid in groſs ; the third all the arbitrary confecrations of tithes ; excépt ſome footſteps perſonal, as of manual occupations, trades, fiſheries, and the like ; which ſtill continue in thoſe portions of tithes which the parſon of and of theſe only the tenth-part of the clear gains and profits is due. one pariſh hath, though rarely, a right to claim in another ; for it is We ſhall, in this article, conſider 1. The origin of the right of now univerſally held, that tithes are due, of common right, to the tithes. 2. In whom that right at preſent ſubſiſts. 3. Who may parſon of the pariſh, unleſs there be a ſpecial exemption. This be diſcharged, either totally or in part, from paying them. parſon of the pariſh may be either the actual incumbent, or elſe the 1. As to their origin, we will not put the title of the clergy to appropriator of the benefice: appropriations being a method of tithes upon any divine right. Yet an honourable and competent endowing monaſteries, which ſeems to have been deviſed by the maintenance for the miniſters of the goſpel , is undoubtedly jure regular clergy, by way of ſubſtitution to arbitrary confecrations divino, whatever the particular mode of that maintenance may be. of tithes. For, beſides the poſitive precepts of the New Teſtament, natural Lands and their occupiers may be exémpted or diſcharged from reaſon will tell us, that an order of men who are ſeparated from the the payment of tithes, either in part or totally, firſt, by a real com- world and excluded from other lucrative profeſſions for the ſake of poſition ; or, ſecondly, by cuſtom or preſcription. Firſt, a real the reſt of mankind, have a right to be furniſhed with the neceſſaries, compoſition is when an agreement is made between the owner of conveniencies, and moderate enjoyments of life, at their expence, the lands and the parſon or vicar, with the conſent of the ordinary for whoſe benefit they forego the uſual means of providing them. and the patron, that ſuch lands ſhall for the future be diſcharged Accordingly all municipal laws have provided a liberal and decent from payment of tithes, by reaſon of ſome land or other real recom- maintenance for their national prieſts or clergy; ours, in particular, penſe given to the parſon in lieu and ſatisfaction thereof. This have eſtabliſhed this of tithes, probably in imitation of the Jewiſh was permitted by law, becauſe it was ſuppoſed that the clergy would law: and perhaps, conſidering the degenerate ſtate of the world in be no looſers by ſuch compoſition ; ſince the conſent of the ordi- general, it may be more beneficial to the Engliſh clergy to found nary, whoſe duty it is to take care of the church in general, and of their title on the law of the land, than upon any divine right what the patron, whoſe intereſt it is to protect that particular church, ſoever, unacknowledged and unſupported by temporal ſanctions. were both made neceſſary to render the compoſition effectual : and • We cannot preciſely aſcertain the time when tithes were firſt in hence have ariſen all ſuch compoſitions as exit at this day by force troduced into this country. Poſſibly they were cotemporary with of the common law But experience ſhewing that even this cau- the planting of Chriſtianity among the Saxons by Auguſtin the tion was ineffectual, and the poſſeſſions of the church being by this monk, about the end of the ſixth century. But the firſt mention of and other means every day diminiſhed, the diſabling ſtatute 13 Eliz. them which we have met with in any written Engliſh law, is acon c. 10. was made; which prevents, among other ſpiritual perſons, ſtitutional decree, made in a ſynold held A. D. 786, wherein the all parſons and vicars from making any conveyances of the eſtates payment of tithes in general is ſtrongly enjoined. This canon or of their churches, other than for three lives, or 21 years. So that decree, which at firſt bound not the laity, was effectually con now, by virtue of this ſtatute, no real compoſition made ſince the firmed by two kingdoms of the heptarchy, in their parliamentary 13 Eliz. is good for any longer term than three lives, or 21 years, tho' conventions of eſtates, reſpectively conſiſting of the kings of Mer made by conſent of the patron and ordinary: which has indeed ef- cia and Northumberland, the biſhops, dukes, fenators, and people, fectually demoliſhed this kind of traffic ; ſuch compoſitions being which was a few years later than the time that Charlemagne efta now rarely heard of, unleſs by authority of parliament. Secondly, bliſhed the payment of them in France, and made that famous di a diſcharge by cuſtom or preſcription, is where time out of mind viſion of them into four parts;one to maintain the edifice of the church, ſuch perſons or ſuch lands have been, either partially or totally dif- the ſecond to ſupport the poor, the third the biſhop, and the fourth the charged from the payment of tithes. And this immemorial uſage parochial clergy. The next authentic mention of them is in the is binding upon all parties ; as it is in its nature an evidence of uni- fædus Edwardi et Guthruni; or the laws agreed upon between king verfal conſent and acquieſcence, and with reaſon ſuppoſes a real Guthrun the Dane, and Alfred and his ſon Edward the Elder, fuc compoſition to have been formerly made. This cuſtom or pre- ceffive kings of England, about the year 900. This was a kind of ſcription is either de modo decimandi, or de non decimando. A modus treaty between thoſe monarchs, which may be found at large in the decimandi, commonly called by the ſimple name of a modus only, Anglo-Saxon laws; wherein it was neceffary, as Guthrun was a is where there is by cuſtom a particular manner of tithing allowed, Pagan, to provide for the ſubſiſtence of the Chriſtian clergy under different from the general law or taking tithes in kind, which are his dominion ; and accordingly, we find the payment of tithes not the actual tenth-part of the annual increaſe. This is ſometimes a only enjoined, but a penalty added upon non-obſervance; which pecuniary compenſation, as two-pence an acre for the tythe of land: law is ſeconded by the laws of Athelſtan, about the year 930 : and ſometimes it is a compenſation in work and labour, as that the par- this is as much as can certainly be traced out with regard to their ſon ſhall have only the twelfth cock of hay, and not the tenth, in legal authority. conſideration of the owner's making it for him : ſometimes, in lieu 2. Upon the firſt introduction, though every man was obliged of a large quantity of crude or imperfect tithe, the parſon ſhall have to pay tithes in general, yet he might give them to what prieſts he a leſs quantity when arrived to greater maturity, as a couple of pleaſed, which were called arbitrary confecrations of tithes ; or he fowls in lieu of tithe eggs, and the like, Any means, in ſhort, might pay them into the hands of the biſhop, who diſtributed whereby the general law of tithing is altered, and a new method of among his diocefan clergy the revenues of the church, which were taking them is introduced, is called a modus decimandi, or ſpecial then in common. But when dioceſes were divided into pariſhes, manner of tithing. the tithes of each pariſh were allotted to its own particular miniſter; A preſcription de non decimando is a claim to be entirely diſcharged firſt by common conſent or the appointments of lords of manors, of tithes, and to pay no compenſation in lieu of them. Thus the and afterwards by the written law of the land. However, arbitrary king by his prerogative is diſcharged from all tithes. . So a vicar confecrations of tithes took place again afterwards, and became in ſhall pay no tithes to the rector, nor the rector to the vicar, for ec- general uſe till the time of king John; which was probably owing cleſia decimas non folvit ecclefic. But theſe perſonal privileges (not to the intrigues of the regular clergy, or monks of the Benedi&ine ariſing from or being annexed to the land) are perſonally confined and other rules, under archbiſhop Dunſtan and his ſucceſſors; who to both the king and the clergy; for their tenant or lefſee ſhall pay endeavoured to wean the people from paying their dues to the fe tithes, though in their own occupation their lands are not generally cular or parochial clergy, (a much more valuable ſet of men than tithable. And, generally ſpeaking, it is an eſtabliſhed rule, that in themſelves), and were then in hopes to have drawn, by fanctimoni- lay hands, modus de non decimando non valet. But fpiritual perſons ous pretences to extraordinary purity of life, all eccleſiaſtical profits or corporations, as monafteries, abbots, biſhops, and the like, were to the coffers of their own ſocieties; and this will naturally enough always capable of having their lands totally diſcharged of tithes by account for the number and riches of the monaſteries and religious various ways: as, I. By real compoſition. 2. By the pope's bull houſes which were founded in thoſe days, and which were fre of exemption. 3. By unity of poſſeſſion ; as when the rectory of quently endowed with tithes. For a layman, who was obliged to a parish, and lands in the ſame pariſh, both belonging to a religious pay his tithes ſomewhere, might think it good policy to erect an houſe, thoſe lands we diſcharged of tithes by this unity of poffef- abbey, and there pay them to his own monks, or grant them to fion. 4. Ry preſcription ; having never been liable to tithes, by ſome abbey already erected ; ſince for this donation, which really being always in fpiritual hands. 5. By virtue of their order ; as coſt the patron little or nothing, he might, according to the fuper the Knights Templars, Ciſtercians, and others, whofe lands were ftition of the times, have maſſes for ever fung for his foul. But in privileged by the pope with a diſcharge of tithes. Though, upon proceſs of years, the income of the poor laborious pariſh-prieſts be the diſſolution of abbeys by Henry VIII. moſt of theſe exemptions ing ſcandalouſly reduced by theſe arbitrary confecrations of tithes, from tithes would have fallen with them, and the lands become is was remedied by pope Innocent III. about the year 1200, in a tithable again, had they not been ſupported and upheld by the ſtatute decretal epiſtle ſent to the archbiſhop of Canterbury, and dated 31 Henry VIII c. 13. which enacts, that all perſons who ſhould from the palace of Laferan ; which has occafioned Sir Henry Ho come to the poſſeffion of the lands of any abbey then diſſolved, bart and others to miſtake it for a decree of the council of Lateran, ſhould hold them free and diſcharged of tithes, in as large and am- held in 1179, which only prohibited what was called the infeodation ple a manner as the abbeys themſelves formerly held them. And of tiibes, or their being granted to mere laymen ; whereas this letter from this original have ſprung all the lands, which being in lay of pope Innocent to the archbiſhop, enjoined the payment of tithes hands, do at prefent claim to be tithe-free; for if a man can ſhew to the parſons of the reſpective pariſhes where every man inhabited his lands to have been fuch abbey-lands, and alſo immemorially dif- charged ز TO L TON charged of tithes by any of the means beforementioned, this is now ber of their deities, as well as the infinite variety of their ceremo- a good preſcription de non decimandı. But he muſt ſhew both theſe nies, a ſociable and tolerating ſpirit fubfiſted almoſt univerſally in requiſites ; for abbey-lands, without a ſpecial ground of diſchargé, the Pagan world. are not diſcharged of courſe ; neither will any preſcription de non « But when the Chriſtian revelation declared one Supreme decimando avail in total diſcharge of tithes, unleſs it relates to ſuch Being to be the fole object of religious veneration, and preſcribed abbey-lands. the form of worſhip moſt acceptable to him, whoever admitted its TÍTHING, (Tithinga, from the Sax. Theothunge, i. e. Decu truth, held every other mode of religion to be abſurd and impious. riam), is in its firſt appointment the number or company of ten men Hence the zeal of the firſt converts to the Chriſtian faith in propa- with their families, held together in a ſociety, all being bound for gating its doctrines, and the ardour with which they laboured to the peaceable behaviour of each other; and of theſe companies overturn every other form of worſhip. They employed, however, there was one chief perſon, who was called teothung man, at this day for this purpoſe, no méthods but ſuch as ſuited the nature of reli- tithing-man : but the old diſcipline of tithings is long ſince left off. gion. By the force of powerful arguments, they convinced the un- In the Saxon times, for the better confervation of the peace, and derſtanding of men ; by the charms of fuperior virtue, they allured more eaſy adminiſtration of juſtice, every hundred was divided into and captivated their hearts. At length the civil power declared in ten diſtricts or tithings; and within every tithing, the tithing-men favour of chriſtianity, and though numbers, imitating the exandple were to examine and determine all leſſer cauſes between villages and of their ſuperiors, crowded into the church, many ftill adhered to neighbours; but to refer greater matters to the then ſuperior courts, their ancient ſuperſtitions. Enraged at their obſtinacy, the miniſ- which had a juriſdiction over the whole hundred. ters of religion, whoſe zeal was ſtill unabated, though their ſanctity TITHING-Men, are now a kind of petty-conſtables, elected by and virtue were much diminiſhed, forgot ſo far the nature of their pariſhes, and ſworn in their offices in the court-leet, and ſometimes own miſſion, and of the arguments which they ought to have em- by juſtices of the peace, &c. There is frequently a tithing-man in ployed, that they armed the imperial power againſt theſe unhappy men; the fame town with a conſtable, who is, as it were, a deputy to ex and as they could not perſuade, they tried to compel them to believe. ecute the office in the conſtable’s abſence : but there are ſome things " At the ſame time, controverſies concerning articles of faith which a conſtable has power to do, that tithing-men and head-bo multiplied, from various cauſes, among Chriſtians themſelves ; and roughis cannot intermeddle with. When there is no conſtable of a the ſame unhallowed weapons which had firſt been uſed againſt the pariſh, the office and authority of a tithing-man ſeems to be all one enemies of their religion were turned againſt each other. Every under another name. zealous diſputant endeavoured to intereſt the civil magiſtrate in his TITLE, an application of dignity, diſtinction, or pre-eminence, cauſe, and each in his turn employed the ſecular arm to cruſh or given to perſons poſſeſſed of the fame. The king of Spain has a to exterminate his opponents. Not long after, the biſhops of whole page of titles, to expreſs the ſeveral kingdoms and fignories Rome put in their claim to infallibility in explaining articles of he is maſter of. The king of England takes the title of King of faith, and deciding points in controverſy: and, bold as the preten- Great-Britain, France, and Ireland : the king of France, had the fion was, they, by their artifices and perſeverance, impoſed on the title of King of France and Navarre ; but ſince the revolution has credulity of mankind, and brought them to recognize it. To doubt been effected, till the'abolition of kings in that country, he was or to deny any doctrine to which theſe unerring inſtructors had called King of the French ; and all other titles are aboliſhed in given the fanction of their approbation, was held to be not only France : the king of Sweden entitles himſelf King of the Swedes and a reliſting of truth, but an act of rebellion againſt their facred au- Goths ; the king of Denmark, King of Denmark and Norway ; the thority; and the ſecular power, of which, by various arts, they had ac- king of Sardinia, among his titles, takes that of King of Cyprus and quired the abſolute direction, was inſtantly employed to avenge both Jeruſalem : the duke of Lorrain, the title of King of Jeruſalem, « Thus Europe had been accuſtomed, during many centuries, to Sicila, &c. ſee ſpeculative opinions propagated or defended by force; the charity TITMOUSE, in Ornithology, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies and mutual forbearance which Chriſtianity recomrnends with fo of the Genus parus. For deſcription of the Genus, ſee PARUS. much warmth, were forgotten, the facred rights of conſcience and TOAD, the Engliſh name of the Genus rana. See RANA. of private judgment were unheard of; and not only the idea of to- TOBACCO, Nicotiana, for the introduction and general uſes leration, but even the word itſelf, in the ſenſe now affixed to it, was of this plant, fee NICOTIANA. unknown. A right to extirpate error by force, was univerſally al- TODY, in Ornithology, according to Linnæus, is the 25th lowed to be the prerogative of thoſe who poſſeſſed the knowledge of Genus of the order of picæ; but Latham in his improved arrange truth ; and as each party of Chriſtians believed they had got poffef- ment makes it the 25 genus of the ſame order ; the characters of iion of this invaluable attainment, they all claimed, and exerciſed, , that the bill is awl-ſhaped, depreſſed, obtuſe, ſtraight, as far as they were able, the rights which it was ſuppoſed to convey. and beſet with briſtles ; and the feet are formed for walking. For The Roman Catholics, as their ſyſtem reſted on the deciſions of an repreſentation, ſee Plate 2, Genus 25. infallible judge, never doubted that truth was on their fide, and TOES, by anatomiſts called digiti pedis, are the extreme diviſions openly called on the civil power to repel the impious and heretical of the feet : anſwering to the fingers of the hand, and reſembling innovators who had riſen up againſt it. The Proteſtants, no leſs them in figure, and makes the third part of the foot. For the bones, confident that their doctrine was well-founded, required with equal ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. IV. Art. 7 and 8, and Plate I. fig. I. ardour the princes of their party to check ſuch as preſumed to im- Letters m, n, o, po For the Muſcles, ſee Part II. Sect. II. Table pugn or oppoſe it. Luther, Calvin, Cranmer, Knox, the founders of Muſcles, Art. 27, and Plate I. Fig. 2. letters p, q. of the reformed church in their reſpective countries, inflicted, as far TOLERATION, in Religion, a term which has made a great as they had power and opportunity, the fame puniſhments which figure in the diſputes among proteſtants, who have been exceed were denounced againſt their own diſciples by the church of Rome; ingly divided about the meaſures of toleration, or the degrees to on ſuch as called in queſtion any article in their creeds. To their which heretics and fchifmatics are, or are not, to be ſuffered. followers, and perhaps to their opponents, it would have appeared Many of the church of England have zealouſly oppoſed the tole a fymptom of diffidence in the goodneſs of their cauſe, or an ac- ration of preſbytery, &c. nor has the church of Scotlard been be knowledgment that it was not well-founded, if they had not em- hind-hand with them in their zeal againſt epiſcopacy. But all who ployed in its defence all thoſe means which it was ſuppoſed truth have reaſoned conſiſtently from the principles of reformation, have had a right to employ. It was towards the cloſe of the 17th century, been for toleration ; as well perceiving they had no right to oblige before toleration, under its preſent form, was admitted firſt into the any body to follow their particular ſentiments, but the difficulty republic of the United Provinces, and from thence introduced into is, the ſetting of bounds to this toleration. By civil toleration, is England. Long experience of the calamities of mutual proſecu- meant impunity and ſafety in the ſtate for every ſect which does tion, the influence of free government, the light and humanity ac- not maintain any doctrine inconſiſtent with the peace and welfare quired by the progreſs of ſcience, together with the prudence and of the ſtate. This civil, or political toleration, implies a right of authority of the civil magiſtrate, were all requiſite in order to eſta- enjoying the benefit of the laws, and of all the privileges of the ſo bliſh a regulation fo repugnant to the ideas which all the different ciety, without any regard to difference of religion. Eccleſiaſtical ſects had adopted from iniſtaken conceptions concerning the nature toleration is an allowance of certain opinions, which, not being of religion, and the rights of truth. fundamentals, do not hinder thoſe who profeſs them from being TONE, or Tune, in Muſic, a property of found, whereby it eſteemed members of the church. But as to the quality and num comes under the relation of grave and acute; or, the degree of ele- ber of theſe fundamental points, they never could, nor in all pro vation any found has, from the degree of ſwiftneſs of the vibrations bability ever will be agreed upon. See the Articles DISSENTERS, of the parts of the ſonorous body. See the Syſtem, Sect. XII, GOVERNMENT, LIBERTY, and NONCONFORMISTS. and XIII. On the ſubject of religious toleration, we have the following ob TONGUE, in Anatomy, an oblong member, whoſe form and ſervations in Dr. Robertſon's hiſtory of Charles V. "Among ſituation are fufficiently known, and whoſe uſe is to be the organ of the ancient heathens, all whoſe deities were local and tutelary, di taſte, and the principal inſtrument of ſpeech and deglutition. See verſity of ſentiments concerning the object or rites of religious the Syſtem, Part VII. Sect. II. For the Muſcles, ſee Part II. worſhip ſeems to have been no ſource of animoſity ; becauſe the Sect. II. Table of Muſcles, Art. II. acknowledging veneration to be due to one God, did not imply TONGUE-tied, a diſtemperature of the tongue in children, when a denial of the exiſtence or the power of any other god : nor were it is tied down too-cloſe to the bottom of the mouth, by a ligament the modes and rites of worſhip eſtabliſhed in one country incompa- connected all along its middle, and called its frænulum, which re- tible with thoſe which other nations approved and obſerved. Thus quires to be divided, to give the tongue its proper motion. For the errors in their ſyſtem of theology were of ſuch a nature as to the management of children labouring under this diſorder, ſee the be productive of concord : and notwithſtanding the amazing num Syſtem of MIDWIFRY, Part IX. Sect. III. which are, TONIC TOR TOR TONIC, is applied to a certain motion of the muſcles, wherein French officer, ſome time in the ſervice of England, who has writ- the fibres being extended, continue their extenſion in ſuch manner, ten the Hiſtory of Whiggiſm and Toryiſm, printed at Leipſic, and as that the part ſeems immoveable, though in reality it be in mo M. Rapin, whoſe Diſſertation ſur les Weighs & les Torys, printed tion. See the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part II. Sect. II. at the Hague the ſame year, is well known ; and reprinted at the TONSILS, in Anatomy, two round glands, ſituate near the cloſe of the ſecond volume of his Hiſtory of England, fol. ed. root of the tongue, on each ſide the uvula, under the common mem During the unhappy war, which brought king Charles I. to the brane of the fauces, with which they are covered; they are called allo ſcaffold, the adherents of that king were firſt called cavaliers, and amygdalæ, or almonds of the ears. See the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XIII. thoſe of the parliament round-heads; which two names were after- TONTINE, denotes annuities on ſurvivorſhip. The name is wards changed into thoſe of tories and whigs, on the following oc- derived from an Italian, called Tonti, who is ſaid to have firſt formed caſion. A kind of robbers, or banditti, in Ireland, who kept on the ſcheme of theſe life annuities. the mountains, or in the iſlands formed by the vaſt bogs of that TOOTH-ACH, a very common diſeaſe, by phyſicians called country, being called tories, a name they ſtill bear, indifferently odontalgy. For deſcription, cauſes, and cure, ſee the Syſtem of with that of rapparees ; the king's enemies accuſing him of favour- MEDICINE, Genus 23. ing the rebellion in Ireland, which broke out about that time, gave TOOTH-drawing This operation, however wrong in many his partiſans the name of tories : and on the other hand, the tories, caſes, yet is certainly right and neceſſary in others. 1. In children, to be even with their enemies, who were cloſely leagued with the for the removing of their lacteal or deciduous teeth, for when theſe Scots, gave them the name of whigs, who, living in the fields and are left too long in their ſockets, they diſplace the new ones and woods, fed much on Milk ; whig ſignifying whey. But for a more turn them awry. 2. In infants it is alſo neceſſary to draw ſuch probable etymology of whig, ſee WHIGs. The cavaliers, or to- teeth as grow out of the palate, or out of improper parts of the ries, had then principally in view the political intereſts of the king, mouth, and are placed ſo as to impede their ſpeaking or ſucking. the crown, and the church of England; and the round-heads, or 3. In the tooth-ach, proceeding from a tooth being carious, and whigs, propoſed chiefly the maintaining of the rights and intereſts giving way to no medicines, drawing is the laſt reſort, and is abſo of the people, and of proteſtantiſm. Nor have the two factions lutely neceſſary. 4. Thoſe teeth ought to be drawn, which, by yet loſt their firſt views; though their firſt names, cavalier and their irregular figure and poſition, lacerate the gums and lips, and round-head, be now entirely diſuſed. cannot be brought into ſhape by the file. And, laſtly, it is ſome We ſhould here confine ourſelves to the tories; and for what times neceſſary to draw a tooth for the curing of a feftula, or ulcera- regards the whigs, refer to that article; but ſince, by comparing tion of the gums near the roots of the teeth. and confronting the two parties together, both the one and the TOP-Maſt , in a ſhip, the ſecond diviſion of a maſt, or that part other will appear in the ſtronger light, it will be imprudent to ſe- which ſtands between the upper and lower pieces. parate them, ſo that we rather chooſe to ſay the leſs under the word TOP-Gallant-Malt, in a ſhip, are two, viz. Main-top-gallant- whigs, and refer thence hither. The factions we are ſpeaking of, maſt, and FORE-top-gallant-maſt , which are ſmall round pieces of may be conſidered either with regard to the ſtate, or to religion. timber, ſet on their reſpective top-mafts, on the top of which The ſtate tories are either violent or moderate; the firſt would have mafts are ſet the flag-flaffs, on which the colours, as flags, pen the ſovereign to be abſolute in England, as in other countries, and dants, &c. hang. See the Treatiſe on NAVAL AFFAIRS, Sect. IV, his will to be a law. This party, which is not very numerous, and Plate annexed. has yet been conſiderable ; 1. On account of its leaders, who have Top.Sails , and Top-gallant-fails, in a ſhip are thoſe belonging been lords of the firſt rank, and generally miniſters and favourites. to the top mafts, and top-gallant-mafts. For deſcription of the 2. In that, being thus in the miniſtry, it engaged the church tories mafts and fails of a ſhip, ſee the Treatiſe on NAVAL AFFAIRS, to maintain ſtiffy the doctrine of paſſive obedience. 3. Becauſe Sect. IV. For repreſentation of a ſhip with three maits and all they have been frequently ſupported by the crown. The moderate her fails fet, ſee the Plate annexed. tories would not ſuffer the king to loſe any of his prerogatives ; TOPAZ, in natural hiſtory, a gem called by the ancients chryſo- but neither would they ſacrifice thoſe of the people. The ſtate lite, as being of a gold colour: The fineſt topazes in the world are whigs, again, are republican or moderate : the firſt, according to found in the Eaſt-Indies; but they are very rare there of any great our author, are the remains of the long parliament; who took in fize; the Great Mogul, however, at this time, poſſeffes one which hand to change the monarchy into a common wealth : theſe make is ſaid to weigh 157 carats, and to be worth more than 20,000 ſo flender a figure, that they only ſerve to ſtrengthen the party of pounds. The topazes of Peru come next after theſe, in beauty and the other whigs. The tories would purſuade the world, that all in value. The European are principally found in Sileſia, and Bo the whigs are of this kind; as the whigs would make us believe, hemia, and are generally full of cracks and flaws, and of a browniſh that all the tories are violent. The moderate ſtate whigs are much yellow. Beſides all theſe degrees of value in the genuine topazes, in the ſame ſentiments as the moderate tories; and deſire the go- our jewellers keep what they call a kind of them, inferior greatly vernment may be maintained on its ancient foundation, and that to the true ones; all theſe are common hexangular cryſtals, coloured the king may be reduced to an incapacity of abuſing his power, by to a paler or deeper yellow in mines ; theſe they cut into itones for leaving him the poſſeſſion of his juſt rights; all the difference is, rings, and ſell under the name of topazes; and moſt of the ſtones that the moderate tories lean a little more to the ſide of the king, we fee under that name are fuch. and the moderate whigs to that of the parliament and people. Be- TOPHUS, in Medicine, à ftony or chalky concretion in any fore we conſider our two parties with regard to religion, it muſt be part of an animal body: as in the bladder, kidnies, &c. or in the obſerved, that the Reformation, as carried on to a greater or leſs joints. Dr. Rutty, in his Treatiſe of the Urinary Paffages, takes length, divided the Engliſh into epiſcopalians, and preſbyterians or the ſtone to ariſe from the attraction between volatile ſaline parti puritans; the firſt contended, that the epiſcopal juriſdiction ſhould cles; of which particles the ſtone, when viewed with a teleſcope, be continued on the ſame footing, and the church on the ſame form, feems to be made up: he thinks the fault of theſe aggregates of as before the Reformation : the latter maintained, that all miniſters faline particles ought generally to be ſuppoſed to begin in, or pro and prieſts had equal authority; and that the church ought to be ceed from the papillæ of the kidnies, and not from the ſediment of governed by preſbyteries, or conſiſtories of prieſts and lay-elders. urine in the bladder. The reaſon why wine-drinkers are more fub See PURITANs and PRESBYTERIANS. ject to the ſtone, and other concretions, than malt or water-drinkers, After long diſputes, the more moderate of each party relaxed a he ſuppoſes to be, that volatile and faline or earthy particles are little of their ſtiffneſs ; and thus formed two branches of moderate contained in the wine in greater quantities than in the ale, &c. A whigs, and moderate tories, with regard to religion ; but there were calculus, he obſerves, reduced to a caput mortuum, will upon the others who kept to their principles with inconceivable firmneſs; effuſion of warm water, diffolve and entirely mix; but in a ſhort and theſe conſtituted two branches of rigid epiſcopalians and preſby- time will again ſettle, and the particles thereof ſo cloſely unite or at terians, compriſed under the general names of whigs and tories; in tract, as that, by repeated effufions, they cannot be brought again to regard the firſt join the tories, and the latter the whigs. The for- diffolve. See Stone. mer conſiſted of rigid churchmen, who were againſt the leaſt change TOPICS, or TOPICAL Remedies, in Medicine, are commonly in the diſcipline of the church, while the more moderate among ufed for what we otherwiſe call external remedies, i. e. ſuch as are the eccleſiaſtical tories were leſs ſcrupulous and obſtinate, and may applied outwardly to ſome particular diſeaſed and painful part. Such be called the low or moderate churchmen. The latter were the are plaiſters, cataplaſms, bliſters, unguents, falves, collyriums, &c. rigid preſbyterians, who would be contented with nothing leſs than TOPOGRAPHY, a deſcription or draught of foune particular the deſtruction of the hierarchy, while the more moderate among place, or ſmall tract of land; as that of a city, or town, manor or them would have been ſatisfied with much leſs, and put up, ſays tenement, fields garden, houſe, caſtle or the like; ſuch as ſurveyors Mr. Rapin, with a bare toleration. From what has been obſerved, ſet out in their plots, or make draughts of, for the information and we may conclude, that as the names tory and whig have à regard ſatisfaction of the proprietors. Topography differs from chorogra to two different objects, they are equivocal, and of conſequence phy, as a particular from a more general. See CHOROGRAPHY. ought never to be applied without expreſſing in which fenſe it is TORIES, or Torys, a party or faction in England, oppoſite done ; for the ſame perſon may be, in different reſpects, both whig to the whigs. Theſe two celebrated parties, which have ſo long di and tory. For the reſt, the general motives that have formed and vided our country, make a conſiderable article in the Engliſh kept up the two parties, appear, in the main, to be no other than hiſtory. The diviſion has gone ſo far, that, it is preſumed, no the private motives of particular perſons; ſelf-intereſt is the primum Engliſhman, who has any concern or principles at all, but inclines mobile of their actions ; ever ſince the riſe of theſe factions, each more to one ſide than the other; for which reaſon, we ſhall borrow has ſtruggled earneſtly to get the advantage over the other ; inal- our account of them from the mouths of foreigners, who may be much as from ſuch fuperiority accrue places, and honours, and ſuppoſed more impartial : and particularly from M. de Cize, a promotions, &ć. which the prevailing party uſually diſtributes among N° 144. 4 Z TO W TRA merce. among its own members, excluſive of the contrary party. There tower of London, &c. The tower of London is not only a citadel are, however, men belonging to each of theſe parties, though the to defend and command the city, river, &c. but alſo has been a diſtinction is almoſt worn out, who act from conviction ; ſome of royal palace, where our Kings with their courts have ſometimes whom are for the extention, and others for the limitation of royal lodged. It contains a royal arſenal, wherein are arms and am - prerogative, with a view to the good of the ſtate, as their principles munition for 80,000 foldiers, the offices of ordnance, a treaſury for lead them to form different notions of the moſt effectual method of the jewels and ornaments of the crown; a mint for coining of promoting it. The names, it is true, are almoſt ſunk into obli. money; the great archive, wherein are preſerved all the ancient re- vion: but the operation of the diſtinguiſhing ſentiments of whigs and cords of the courts of Weſtminſter, &c. and is the chief priſon for tories is diſcoverable in every period of the Engliſh hiſtory: and ftate criminals. The tower-liberty, which is ſubject to no juriſdic- the true intereſt of a limited monarchy, always inſeparably con tion but that of the tower itſelf, includes both the tower-hilis, part nected with the rights of the people, renders the diſtinction of im of Eaſt Smithfield, Roſemary-lane, Well-cloſe-ſquare, Little- portance, and ſhould prevent its ever being diſregarded. It is with Minories, Artillery-ſtreet, French-alley, Duke-ſtreet, Steward- the whigs and tories on thoſe points, which have diſcriminated the ſtreet, Gun-ſtreet, Fore-ftreet, and the other courts and allies two parties, ſays Dr. Gregory Sharpe, as it is with all other ſects within their compaſs, in Spitalfields. of men under the agitation of hope and fear, ambition and intereſt; TRACHEA, in Anatomy, a large arterial veſſel, called alſo al - they tighten or relax their principles as ſuits beſt their convenience. pera arteria, and popularly the wind-pipe, being the canal or tube When the tories have had the exerciſe of the powers of the prero which carries the air into the lungs for the uſe of reſpiration and gative, they have been eager to extend thoſe powers; when the ſpeech. See the Syſtem, Part V. Sect. V. For repreſentation, edge has been turned againſt them, they have been as eager in ſee Plate V. Fig. 3, Letter A. the defence of popular liberty; and in like manner the whigs, who TRACHEAL Artery, in Anatomy, a branch of the right ſubcla- withſtood the ſtorm, have melted in the ſun-line, ſo that in point vian, running up from it in a winding courſe along the aſpera ai - of court complaiſance, the adminiſtrations of the one have differed teria. See the Syſtem, Part V. Sect. I. very little from thoſe of the other. Holberg's Int. to Univerſal TRADE, traffic, commerce, the act, or art, of dealing, buying, Hiſtory, by Sharpe, p. 260. ſelling, exchanging, &c. of commodities, bills, money, &c. For As to the characters commonly attributed to the whigs and tories; the origin, progreſs, &c. of trade, ſee COMMERCE. the tories, ſays M. Rapin, appear fierce and haughty: they treat TRADE-winds denote certain regular winds a ſea, blowing ei- the whigs with the greateit contempt, and even ſometimes with ri - ther conſtantly the ſame way, or alternately this way and that; gour, when they have the advantage over them : they are very hot thus called from their great uſe in navigation, and the Indian com- and vehement, and proceed with a rapidity which yet is not always The trade-wints are of different kinds, ſome blowing the effect of heat and tranſport, but has its foundation ſometimes in three or ſix months in the year one way, and then the like ſpace good policy: they are very ſubject to change their principles, as their the oppoſite way: theſe are very common in the Indian ſeas, and party prevails, or is humbled. If the rigid preſbyterians prevailed in are called MONSOONS. Others blow conſtantly the ſame way: the whig party, it would not be leſs hot and zealous than that of ſuch is that general wind between the tropics, which off at ſea is the tories; but it is ſaid they have not the direction thereof; found to blow all day long from eaſt to weſt. For the phenomena which gives room to affirm, that thoſe at the head of the whig of each, with their phyſical cauſes, ſee WIND. party are much more moderate than the chiefs of the tories : and TRADITION, in matters of religion, is applied to thoſe laws, that they uſually conduct themſelves on fixed principles, proceed doctrines, relations, &c. which have been handed down to us by our to their end gradually, and without violence; and their ilowneſs forefathers, without being written. is not leſs founded on good policy than the baſtineſs and precipita TRAGEDY, a dramatic poem, repreſenting ſome ſignal a&tion, tion of the tories. Thus much, ſays our author, may be ſaid to the performed by illuſtrious perſons, and which has, generally a fatal advantage of the moderate whigs, that, in the general, they main iffue to end. Ariſtotle more ſcientifically defines tragedy, the imi- tain a good cauſe, viz. the conſtitution of the government as by tation of one grave and entire action, of a juſt length, and which, law eſtabliſhed. without the aſſiſtance of narration, by raiſing of terror and com- TORPEDO, cramp fiſh, or electric ray, in ichthyology, a ſea paſſion, refines and purges our paſſions. Our Engliſh authors are fiſh, famed both among the ancient and modern naturalits, for a more favourable to the definition; by the purging of our paflions, remarkable numbneſs wherewith it ſtrikes the arm of ſuch as touch they underſtand not the extirpating of them, but the reducing them it. For a copious deſcription of the electrical properties of this to juſt bounds ; for by ſhewing the miſeries that attend a fubjection fiſh, ſee the cloſe of the Syſtem of ELECTRICITY, under the to them, they ſay it teaches us to watch them more narrowly; and by article TORPÉDO. ſeeing the great misfortunes of others, it lefſens the ſenſe of our own. TORPOR, a numbneſs, or defect of feeling and motion. Galen As theſe dramatic poems were originally ſung and accompanied ſays it is a ſort of intermediate diſorder between pally and health. by a chorus which might fatigue the fingers, as well as tire TORTOISE, the Engliſh name of the Genus Teſtudo. See the audience, they bethought themſelves to divide the ſinging of TESTUDO. the chorus into ſeveral parts, and ſo have certain recitations in the TORTOISE-Shell, the ſhell, or rather ſcales, of the teftaceous ani intervals. Accordingly, Theſpis firſt introduced a perſon to ſpeak mal, called a TORTOISE; uſed in inlaying, and in various other upon the ſtage with this view: Æſchylus, finding one perſon in- works, as for ſnuff-boxes, combs, &c. Mr. Cateſby obſerves, that ſuficient, introduced a ſecond, to entertain the audience more the hard ſtrong covering which encloſes all ſorts of tortoiſes, is agreeably by a kind of dialogue: he alſo cloathed his perſons more very improperly called a ſhell; being of a perfect bony contexture; decently, and firſt put on them the bukin. The perſons who but covered on the outſide with ſcales, or rather plates, of an horny made their recitations on the ſcene, were called actors; ſo that tra- ſubſtance: which are what the workmen call tortoiſe-ſhell. Phil. gedy at firſt was without many actors. And what they thus re- Tranſ. N° 438, p. 117. hearſed, whereof they were no neceſſary part, were called epiſodes. TORUS, in Architecture, a large round moulding uſed in the Tragedy and comedy were at firſt confounded with each other'; but baſes of columns. For repreſentation of this part, and the orna- they were afterwards ſeparated; and the poets in general applied ments that embelliſh it, ſee Plate VI. themſelves to the cultivating of tragedy, neglecting comedy. TORY. See TORIES. The Engliſh received the firſt plan of their drama from the TOUCAN, otherwiſe called anſer Americanus, or American French, among whom it had its firſt riſe towards the end of the gooſe, in aſtronomy, a modern conſtellation of the ſouthern hemiſ reign of Charles V. under the title of the chant-royal, which con- phere, conſiſting of nine ſmall ſtars. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. fiſted of pieces in verſe compoſed in honour of the Virgin, or ſome TOUCAN, in Ornithology, the Englith name of the Genus of the ſaints, and were ſung on the ſtage; they were called by the title Ramphaſtos. For deſcription of the Genus, See RAMPHASTOS. chant-royal, becauſe the ſubject was given by the King of the year, TOUCHING is fometimes uſed for the ſenſe of FEELING. or the perſon who had borne away the prize the year preceding. This ſenſe may be injured by any thing that obſtructs the nervous Their firſt eſſay was in the bourg St. Maur, and their ſubject the influence, or prevents its being regularly conveyed to the organs of paſſion of our Saviour. The prevot of Paris prohibiting their touching, as preſſure, extreme cold, &c. alſo by too great a degree continuing of it, they made application to court; and to render it of ſenſibility, when the nerve is not ſufficiently covered with the the more favourable to them, erected themſelves into a friary, or ſcarf-ſkin, or where there is too great tenſion, or it is too delicate. fraternity, under the title of Brothers of the Pallion; which title For an anatomical deſcription of this organ of ſenſe, ſee the Syſtem has given ſome occaſion to ſuſpect them to have been an order of of ANATOMY, Part VI. Sect. I. religious. The King, on ſeeing and approving ſome of their pieces, TOWER, turris, an high building, conſiſting of ſeveral ſtories, granted them letters of eſtabliſhment in 1402, ypon which they and uſually of a round form, though ſometimes ſquare or polygonal. built a theatre, and for an age and an half acted none but grave Before the invention of guns, they uſed to fortify places with towers. pieces, which they called moralities ; till the people growing weary and to attack them with moveable towers of wood, mounted on of them, they began to intermix farces or interludes taken from wheels, to ſet the befiegers on a level with the walls, and drive the profane ſubjects. This mixture of farce and religion diſpleaſing beſieged from under the ſame. Theſe towers were ſometimes twenty many, they were re-eſtabliſhed by an arret of parliament in 1548, ftories, and thirty fathoms high : they were covered with raw ſkins, on condition of their acting none but profane, yet lawful and de- and a hundred men were employed to move them. Towers are alſo cent ſubjects, without intermeddling with any of the myſteries of built to enable people, by their elevation, to view to a great diſtance. religion ; and thus were the Brothers of the Paſſion deſpoiled of Theſe are of all figures, as ſquare, round, pentagonal, &c. Io China is a famous tower of porcelain, whereof the Dutch relate their religious character; upon which they mounted the ſtage no wonders. Towers are alſo built for fortreſſes, priſons, &c. as the more in perſon, but brought up a new ſet of comedians, who acted under their direction. Thus was the drama eſtabliſhed, and on this TR A TRA was. this foundation arrived in England. In proceſs of time, as it was to opacity, or that quality of bodies which renders them impervious improved, it became divided into two branches; agreeable to the to the rays of the light. It has been generally ſuppoſed by philoſo- practice of the ancients, and the nature of things, viz, into tra phers, that tranſparent bodies have their pores diſpoſed in ſtrait gedy and comedy, properly ſo called; and this laſt again was ſub lines by which means the rays of light have an opportunity of pe- divided into pure comedy and farce. See COMEDY. netrating them in all directions; but ſome experiments in electri- TRAGI-COMEDÝ, a kind of dramatic piece, repreſenting city have made it apparent, that by the action of this fluid the moſt ſome action paſſed among eminent perſons, the event whereof is opaque bodies, ſuch as fulphur, pitch, and ſealing wax, may be not unhappy or bloody, and wherein is ſometimes admitted a mix rendered tranſparent as glaſs, while yet we cannor ſuppoſe the di- ture of leſs ſerious characters. The tragi-comedy, was formerly rection of their pores to be any way altered from what it originally very common on the Engliſh itage: there was ſcarce ſuch a thing A curious inſtance of an increaſe of tranſparency we have in in the ſeventeenth century as a pure tragedy without a ſpice of co rubbing a piece of white paper over one that has been written upon medy or farce to make the people laugh. Now, that the ſtage or printed : while the white paper is at reit, the writing or print and our taſte are brought nearer to the model of aature and the will perhaps ſcarce appear through it; but when in motion, will be ancients, the tragi-comedy is diſuſed. very eaſily legible, and continue ſo till the motion is diſcontinued. TRANGLE, in Heraldry, the diminutive of a feſſe, commonly | TRANSPLANTATION, in Gardening, the act of removing called a bar. trees or plants from the places where they are lowed or raiſed, and TRANSACTION, an accommodation of ſome buſineſs or planting them in others. For particular inſtructions reſpecting diſpute between two parties, by a mutual and voluntary agree this part of gardening, ſee the Syſtem, Article Fruit Garden ment or contract between them. throughout. Philoſophical TRANSACTIONS, are a kind of journal of the TRANSPORTATION, the aćt of conveying or carrying a principal things that come before the Royal Society of London. thing from one place or country to another. In matters of com- The Tranſactions contain the ſeveral diſcoveries and hiſtories of merce, tranſportation is of equal import with re-examination, viz. nature and art, made by the members of the ſociety, communi the taking up of commodities in one, foreign ſtate or kingdom, cated by them from their correſpondents, with the ſeveral experi- | bringing them hither, and paying duties for them : and then con- ments, obſervations, &c. made by them or tranſmitted to thein, veying them to ſome foreign ſtate; by which it is diſtinguiſhed &c. See ROYAL SOCIETY. from importation, and exportation; where the commodities are ei- TRANSFIGURATION, among divines, that miraculous ther, carried originally out of, or brought finally into our own change wrought by Jeſus Chriſt, in preſence of St. Peter, St. James, kingdom. and St. John, on mount Thabor, where he appeared in his glory, TRANSPOSITION, in Algebra, the bringing any term of in company with Moſes and Elias. See the deſcription thereof in equation over to the other ſide. See the Syſtem, Sect. V. St. Matthew, chap. xvii. Article XVII. TRANSFORMATION of Equations, in Algebra, is a method TRANSPOSITION, in Muſic, is a changing of the notes of a of changing equations into others of a different form, but of equal piece of muſic, or the fhifting a ſong from its former ſituation, to value. See the Syſtem, Section V. Art. XVII. svjetërsim AT ſet it higher or lower, or in another octave. Of this there are two TRANSFUSIONS of the Blood, is particularly uſed for the kinds; the firſt with reſpect to the cleff, the ſecond with reſpect to letting out of the blood of one animal, ſo as to be immediately re the key. See the Syſtem, Part II. Se&. XI. N° 178. ceived into the body of another. However, according to Heiſter, TRANSUBSTANTIATION, in the Roman theology, the this operation could ſcarce be ventured upon even in the moſt def fuppoſed converſion or change of the fubitance of the bread and perate caſes : " for (ſays he) almoſt all the patients who have been wine, in the euchariſt, into the body and blood of Jeſus Chriſt. this way treated, have degenerated into a ſtupidity, fooliſhneſs, or Tranſubſtantiation, taken in its general and literal ſenſe, implies a raving or melancholy madneſs; or elſe have been taken off with any change of one ſubſtance into another. Thus the change of fudden death, either in or not long after the operations. Theſe Moſes's rod into a ſerpent; of the waters of the Nile into blood, lamentable and fatal conſequences have brought the art of injec of Lot's wife into a pillar of ſalt; were preternatural tranſubſtan- tions and transfuſion into neglect at preſent: ſo that being ſuf tiations : and the change of the food we eat, into the ſubſtance of pected and condemned by proper judges at Paris, where they moſt our bodies, is a natural tranſubſtantiation. But the word, in its flouriſhed, we are told they were in a little time prohibited by a proper and technical ſenſe, is reſtained to the miraculous change public edict of that parliament.”. Yet, a little after, the fame which the Romiſh church holds is wrought in the ſacrament, by the author adds, “ But whether or no this method of injecting proper conſecration of the prieſt. One of the great articles of that medicines into the blood may ſucceed, eſpecially in deſperate apo church, rejected by the reformed, is that of tranſubſtantiation; the plexies, anginas, hydrophobia, &c. and whether it may not be latter maintaining the tranſubſtantiation to be only figurative, and often uſeful to diſcharge the morbid blood, and transfuſe ſuch as is the former affirming it to be real. This doctrine was eſtabliſhed found, or warm milk or broth in its ſtead, ought, in my opinion, in the fourth general Lateran council, under pope Innocent III. in to be determined by future and repeated experiment. 1215, who is ſaid to have introduced and eſtabliſhed the uſe of the TRANSIT, in Aſtronomy, ſignifies the paſſage of any planet, term tranſubſtantiation, which was hitherto abſolutely unknown ; juſt by, or over a fixed ſtar, or the ſun ; and of the moon, in par though ſome ſay that Stephen, biſhop of Autun, firſt uſed this term. ticular, covering or moving over any other planet. Mercury and Burnet on the Articles, p. 312. The reformed interpret eft, is, in Venus, &c. in their tranſits over the ſun, appear like dark ſpecks. the text, Hoc eft corpus meum, This is my Body, by ſignificat ; q. d. See the Syſtem, Sect. VI. This ſignifies my body: but the council of Trent Itand up ſtrenu- TRANSITIVE, in Grammar, an epithet given to ſuch verbs ouſly for the literal ſenſe of the verb. Thus in can. I. ſeſſ. 13. of as ſignify an action which paſſes from the ſubject that does it, to, or that council, it is expreſsly decreed, that, in tranſubſtantiation, upon, another ſubject which receives it. Under the head of verbs the body and blood of onr Lord Jeſus Chriſt are truly, rea!ly, and tranſitive, come what we uſually call verbs active and paflive: fubftantially, under the ſpecies of bread and wine. It is added, that, other verbs, whoſe action does not paſs out of themſelves, are by truly, we mean properly; and not only by ſignification, as if the called neuters, and by ſome grammarians intranſitives. See the euchariſt were no more than a ſign of the body and blood of Jeſus Syſtem, Part II. Chap. III. Art. V. Chriſt : that by really, we mean in fact, and not only in figure, as if TRANSMIGRATION is particularly uſed for the paſſage of the euchariſt were only a figure and repreſentation of the body and a ſoul out of one body into another; the ſame with what we other blood of the Saviour of the world; and that by ſubſtantially, we wiſe call_METEMPSYCHOSIS. See METEMPSYCHOSIS. The mean in ſubſtance, and not only in virtue and energy. Thus is Siameſe, F. Tachard informs us, from a belief of the tranſmigra- | truly oppoſed to a ſingle ſign, really to a figure, and ſubſtantially, to tion of ſouls into other bodies, forbear killing any beaſts ; left, by energy or virtue. that means, they ſhould diſpoſſeſs the ſouls of their deceaſed relations. TRANSVERSALIS, in Anatomy, a name given to ſeveral muf- TRANSMUTATION, the act of transforming or changing cles, &c. in reſpect of their ſituation, progreſs,&c. For the origin, one nature into another. The term is chiefly uſed in chymiltry | inſertion, and uſes of theſe ſeveral muſcles, as they relate to the and medicine. It has been greatly queſtioned, whether the tranſ different parts of the human æconomy, ſee the Syſtem, Part 11. mutation of ſilver into gold, and of tin into filver, ſo much fought Sect. II. Table of Muſcles throughout. by the chymiſts, be poflible or not. See ALCHYMY. TRAPEZIUM os, in Anatomy, is one of the bones of the CAR- The pureſt and ſubtileft parts of the food are tranſmuted or al Pus or wrist. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. IV. Art. 3. fimilated into the proper ſubſtance of the body. See NUTRITION, TRAVERSE, or TRANSVERSE, ſomething that goes athwart Nature, Sir Iſaac Newton obſerves, ſeems delighted with tranf another, i. e. that croſſes and cuts it obliquely. mutations: he goes on to enumerate ſeveral kinds of natural tranſ TRAVERSE, in Navigation, is the variation or alteration of a mutations ; groſs bodies and light, he ſuſpects, may be mutually ſhip’s courſe, occaſioned by the ſhifting of the winds, currents, &c. tranſmuted into each other: and adds, that all bodies receive their or a traverſe is a compound courſe, wherein ſeveral different courſes active foree from the particles of light which enter their compoſition. and diſtances are known. Traverſe ſailing is uſed when a ſhip, TRANSOMS, in a ſhip, are beams and timbers extended a having ſet fail from one port towards another, whoſe courfe and croſs the ſtern-poſt of a ſhip, to fortify her after-part, and give it diſtance from the port ſailed from is given or known, is, by reaſon the figure moſt ſuitable to the ſervice for which the is calculated. of contrary winds, or other accidents, forced to ſhift and fail on See the Treatiſe on NAVAL AFFAIRS, Sect. IV. and the Plate ſeveral courſes, which are to be brought into one courſe, to learn, annexed. after ſo many turnings and windings, the true courſe and diſtance TRANSPARENCY, in Phyſics, a quality in certain bodies, made from the place ſailed from, and the true point or place where whereby they give paſlage to the rays of light: in contradiſtinction the ſhip is; that ſo, the wind coming fair, it may be known how, afters TRE TRE For water. SON. afterwards, to ſhape a courſe for the place intended. For the Rules be carried or walk; though uſually (by connivance, at length and methods reſpečting this branch,ſee the Syſtem Sect.I.throughout. ripened by humanity into law, a fledge or hurdle is allowed, to pre- TRAVERSE Table, in Navigation, is the ſame with a table of dif- ferve the offender from the extreme torment of being dragged on ference of latitude and departure. This table is one of the moſt ne- the ground or pavement. 2. That he be hanged by the neck, and then cut down alive. 3. That his entrails be taken out, and burned ceſſary things a navigator has occafion for ; for by it he can rea- dily reduce all his courſes and diſtances, run in the ſpace of twenty while he is yet alive. 4. That his head be cut off. 5. That his four hours, into one courſe and diſtance; whence the latitude he body be divided into four parts. 6. That his head and quarters be is in, and his departure from the meridian may be found. See a at the king's diſpoſal. The king may, and often doth, diſcharge table of this kind, in the Syſtem, Sect. I. all the puniſhment except beheading, eſpecially where any of noble blood are attainted. TREACLE, in Pharmacy, &c. See THERICA. For beheading being part of the judgment, that The word treacle is alſo popularly uſed for melaffes ; and in this may be executed, though all the reſt be omitted by the King's ſenſe it is that Dr. Shaw, in his Eſſay on Diſtillery, has endea command. But where beheading is no part of the judgment, as voured to bring into uſe ſeveral ſorts of treacles, which might be in murder or other felonies, it hath been ſaid that the king cannot made at home, and would ſerve very conveniently for the diſtillation change the judgment, although at the requeſt of the party, from one of ſpirits, or the making of potable liquors. Theſe are the in- | fpecies of death to another. In the caſe of coining, which is a ſpiſſated juices or decoctions of vegetables ; ſuch as the ſweet juice treaſon of a different complexion from the reſt, the puniſhment of the birch, or fycamore, procured by tapping or piercing the trees is milder for male offenders : being only to be drawn and hanged in ſpring, and the common wort made from malt, or from other by the neck till dead. But in treaſons of every kind the puniſh- vegetable ſubſtances treated in the ſame manner. Theſe liquors ment of women is the ſame, and different froin that of men. are ſeverally to be boiled down in a copper till they begin to in as the natural modeſty of the ſex forbids the expoſing and publicly ſpiſſate, and then to be poured into a balneum Marize, when the re mangling their bodies, their ſentence (which is to the full as ter- mainder of the evaporation may be finiſhed without burning the rible to fenſe as the other) is to be drawn to the gallows, and ſpiſſated juices: thus prepared it may be at any time reduced to there to be burned alive. For the conſequences of this judgment, the ſtate of wort, only by adding a ſufficient quantity of warm fee ATTAINDER. See SUGAR Petit-TREASON, according to the ſtatute 25 Edward III. c. 2. TREASON, proditio, in its very name (which is borrowed may happen three ways; by a ſervant killing his maſter, a wife from the French ) imports a betraying treachery, or breach of faith. her huſband, or an ecclefiaftical perſon (either ſecular or rugular) It therefore happens only between allies, faith the Mirror of Juſtice: his ſuperior, to whom he owes faith and obedience. See TREA- for treaſon is indeed a general appellation, made uſe of by the law A ſérvant who kills his maſter whom he has left, upon a to denote not only offences againſt the king and government: but grudge conceived againſt him during his ſervice, is guilty of petit- alſo that accumulation of guilt which ariſes whenever a ſuperior treafon : for the traiterous intention was hatched while the relation repoſes a confidence in a ſubject or inferior, between whom and ſubfiſted between them, and this is only an execution of that in- himſelf there ſubſiſts a natural, a civil, or even a fpiritual relation: tention. So if a wife be divorced a menſa et thoro, ſtill the vincut- and the inferior ſo abuſes that confidence, ſo forgets the obligations culum matromonii ſubfiſts ; and if the kills ſuch divorced huſband of duty, ſubjection, and allegiance, as to deſtroy the life of any ſuch ſhe is a traitreſs. As to the reſt, whatever has been faid with rea ſuperior or lord. This is looked upon as proceeding upon the ſame ſpect to wilful Murder, is alſo applicable to the crime of petita principle of treachery in private life, as would have urged him treaſon, which is no other than murder in its moſt odious degree; who harbours it to have conſpired in public againſt his liege lord except that the trial ſhall be as in caſes of high-treaſon, before the and ſovereign: and therefore for a wife to kill her lord or huſband, improvements therein made by the ſtatutes of Williain III. But a ſervant his lord or maſter, and an ecclefiaftic his lord or ordinary: a perſon indicted of petit-treaſon may be acquitted thereof, and theſe being breaches of the lower allegiance, of private and domeſ found guilty of manſlaughter or murder : and in ſuch caſe it ſhould tic faith, are denoininated petit treaſons. But when diſloyalty ſo ſeem that two witneſſes are not neceſſary, as in caſe of petit-trea- reers its creſts, as to attack even majeſty itſelf, it is called by way ſon they are. Which crime is alſo diſtinguiſhed from murder in of eminent diſtinction high treaſon, alta proditio; being equivalent its puniſhment . The puniſhment of petit-treaſon in a man, is to to the crimen læfæ majeſtatis of the Romans, as Glanvil denomi be drawn and hanged, and in a woman to be drawn and burned : nates it alſo in our Engliſh law. the idea of which latter puniſhment ſeems to have been handed High-TREASON. As this is the higheſt civil crime, which, con down to us from the laws of the ancient Druids, which condemned fidered as a member of the community, any man can poſſibly com a woman to be burned for murdering her huſband, and it is now mit, it ought therefore to be the moſt preciſely aſcertained. For if the uſual puniſhment for all forts of treaſons committed by thoſe the crime of high-treaſon be indeterminate, this alone, ſays the pre of the female ſex. Perſons guilty of petit-treaſon were firft de- fident Monteſquieu, is ſufficient to make any government degene barred the benefit of clergy by ſtatute 12 Henry VII. c. 7. which rate into arbitrary power. And yet, by the ancient common law, has ſince been extended to their aiders, abettors, and counſellors, there was a great latitude left in the breaſt of the judges to deter by ſtatutes 23 Henry VIII. c. 1. and 4 & 5 P. and M. c. 4. mine what was treafon, or not ſo: whereby the creatures of tyran- TREASURE, in general, denotes a ſtore or ſtock of money in nical princes had opportunity to create abundance of conſtructive reſerve. treaſons ; that is, to raiſe, by forced and arbitrary conſtructions, TREASURE Trove, in Law, derived from the French word offences into the crime and puniſhment of treaſon, which never trover, to find, called in Latin theſaurus inventus, is where any were ſuſpected to be ſuch. But to prevent the inconveniences money or coin, gold, ſilver, plate, or bullion, is found hidden in which began to ariſe in England from chis multitude of conſtructive the earth, or other private place, the owner thereof being unknown; treaſons, the ſtatute 25 Edw. III. c. 2. was made ; which defines in which caſe, the treaſure belongs to the king; but if he that hid what offences only for the future ſhould be held to be treaſon: in it be known, or afterwards found out, the owner and not the king like manner as the lex Julia majeſtatis among the Romans, promul is entitled to it. When the Romans, and other inhabitants of the gated by Auguſtus Cæſar, comprehended all the ancient laws that reſpective countries which compoſed their empire, were driven out had before been enacted to puniſh tranfgreffions againſt the ſtate. by the northern nations, they concealed their money under ground, This ſtatute muſt therefore be our guide, in order to examine into with a view of reſorting to it again when the heat of the irruption the ſeveral kinds of high-treaſon. ſhould be over, and the invaders driven back to their defarts. But “ When a man doth compaſs or imagine the death of our as this never happened, the treaſures were never claimed ; and on lord the king, of our lady his queen, or of their eldeſt ſon and heir." the death of the owners the ſecret alſo died along with them. The Under this deſcription it is held that a queen-regnant (ſuch as queen conquering generals being aware of the value of theſe hidden mines, Elizabeth and queen Anne) is within the words of the act, being made it highly penal to ſecrete them from the public ſervice. In inveſted with royal power and entitled to the allegiance of her England therefore, as among the feudiſts, the puniſhment of ſuch ſubject : but the huſband of ſuch a queen is not compriſed within as concealed from the king the finding of hidden treaſure was for- theſe words ; and therefore no treaſon can be committed againſt merly no leſs than death; but now it is only fine and impriſonment. him. TREASURER, an officer to whom the treaſure of the prince, “ If a man do violate the king's companion, or the king's or corporation, is committed to be kept, and duly diſpoſed of, in eldeſt daughter unmarried, or the wife of the king's eldeſt ſon and payment of officers, and other expences, ſee TREASURY. Of heir.” By the king's companion is meant his wife ; and by vio theſe there is a great variety His majeſty of Great Britain, in lation is underſtood carnal knowledge, as well without force as quality of elector of Brunſwick, is arch-treafurer of the Roman with it : and this is high-treaſon in both parties, if both be con- empire. In the ſtates of Poland were two grand-treaſurers, that of ſenting; as ſome of the wives of Henry VIII. by fatal experience the kingdom of Poland, and that of the duchy of Lithuania. In evinced. The plain intention of this law is to guard the blood England, the principal officers under this denomination are, the royal from any ſuſpicion of baſtardy, whereby the ſucceſſion to the lord high-treaſurer, the treaſurer of the houſehold, treaſurer of the crown might be rendered dubious: and therefore, when this reaſon navy, of the king's chamber, &c. Anciently, we had likewiſe a ceaſes, the law ceaſes with it; for to violate a queen or princeſs treaſurer of the exchequer, treaſurer of war, &c. dowager is held to be no treaſon: in like manner as, by the feodal Lord High TREASURER of England, is the principal officer of law, it was a felony, and attended with a forfeiture of the fief, if the the crown ; under whoſe charge and government is all the king's vaffal vitiated the wife or daughter of his lord; but not ſo if he revenue kept in the exchequer. He receives the office by delivery only vitiated his widow. of a white ſtaff to him from the king, and holds it during the king's The puniſhment of high-treaſon in general is very folemn and pleaſure ; anciently he received it by delivery of the golden keys of terrible. 1. That the offender be drawn to the gallows, and not the treaſury. He has the cheque of all the officers any way employed I is. TRE TRI TIONS. cutter, &c. in collecting impoſts, cuſtoms, tributes, or other revenues of the called lines of APPROACH. See the Treatiſe, article DEFINI- crown. He has the gift of all the cuſtomers, comptrollers, and ſearchers places, in all the ports of London; and the nomination of TRIAL, in Law, the examination of a cauſe according to the the efcheators in every county. He alone (or others in commif laws of the land before a proper judge; or it is the manner and or- fion with him) lets leaſes of all the crown-lands, gives warrants to der obſerved in the hearing and determining of cauſes. Trials are certain perſons of quality to have their wine cuſtom-free, &c. either civil or criminal. Killing the lord-treaſurer in the execution of his office, is high-trea Givil TRIALS. The ſpecies of trials in civil caſes are ſeven: fon. The office of lord-treaſurer is now in commiſſion. The The by record, by inſpection or examination, by certificate, by wit- number of lords-commiſſioners is five; one of whom is the firit neſſes, by wager of battel, by wager of law, and by jury. The firſt lord, whoſe annual ſalary was formerly 3831. but is now 40001, fix are only had in certain ſpecial or excentrical caſes, where the and who, unleſs he be a peer, is alſo chancellor of the exchequer, trial by jury would not be ſo proper or effectual. The nature of and prime miniſter in the government of this country; the other the laſt, that principal criterion of truth in the law of England, lords-commiſſioners have an annual ſalary of 1600l. each. ſhall be explained in this article. The method of trial by jury, cal- TREASURER of the Houſhold, is an officer who, in the abſence led alſo the trial per pais, or by the country, hath been uſed time out of the lord-ſteward, has power with the comptroller, and other of of mind in this nation, and ſeems to have been coeval with the firſt ficers of the green-cloth, and the ſteward of the Marſhalſea, to hear civil government thereof. Its uſe, though for a time greatly im- and determine treaſons, felonies, and other crimes committed within paired and ſhaken by the introduction of the Norman trial by bat- the king's palace. There is alſo a treaſurer belonging to the eſta tel, was always ſo highly eſteemed and valued by the people, that bliſhment of her majeſty's houſhold, &c. no conqueſt, no change of government, could ever prevail to aboliſh TREASURER of the Navy is an officer who receives money out it: and in magna charta it is more than once inſiſted on as the of the exchequer, by warrant from the lord high-treaſurer, or the principal bulwark of our liberties. Trials by jury in civil cauſes lords commiſſioners executing that place: and pays all charges of are of two kinds : extraordinary and ordinary. the navy, by warrant from the principal officers of the navy 1. The firſt ſpecies of extraordinary trial by jury is that of the ge- TREASURY, the place wherein the revenues of a prince are neral aſlize, which was inſtituted by king Henry II. in parliament, received, preſerved, and diſburſed. In England the treaſury is a by way of alternative offered to the choice of the tenant or defen- part of the exchequer; by ſome called the lower exchequer. The dant in a writ of right, inſtead of the barbarous and unchriſtian cuſo officers of his majeſty's treaſury, or the lower exchequer, are the tom of duelling. For this purpoſe a writ de magna afiſa eligenda lords commiſſioners, one of whom is chancellor, two joint ſecre is directed to the ſheriff, to return four knights, who are to elect taries, private ſecretary to the firſt lord, two chamberlains, an audi and chooſe 12 others to be joined with them; and theſe altogether tor, four tellers, a clerk of the pells, uſher of the receipt, a tally form the grand allize, or great jury, which is to try the matter of right, and muſt now conſiſt of 16 jurors. Another ſpecies of ex- TREATY, a covenant between ſeveral nations: or the ſeveral traordinary juries, is the jury to try an attaint; which is a proceſs articles or conditions ſtipulated and agreed upon between fovereign commenced again il a former jury for bringing a falſe verdict. See powers. There are treaties of peace of marriage, of confederacy, the article ATTAINT. of neutrality, of capitulation, and of commerce, and navigation. 2. With regard to the ordinary trial by jury in civil caſes, the Treaties of commerce are uſually followed by various tarifs, to ad moſt clear and perſpicuous way of treating it will be by following juſt the duties of exportation and importation of merchandizes into the order and courſe of the proceedings themſelves. When there- the reſpective dominions of the contracting powers. It is the king's fore an iſſue is joined by theſe words, “And this the faid A prays prerogative to make treaties, leagues, and alliances, with foreign may be inquired of by the country;” or, “And of this he puts princes and ſtates; and yet, leſt this plenitude of authority thould himſelf upon the country, and the ſaid B does the like:” the court be abuſed to the detriment of the public, the conſtitution has inter awards, a writ of venire facias upon the roll or record; commanding poſed a check, by the means of parliamentary impeachment, for the the ſheriff “that he cauſe to come here, on ſuch a day, twelve puniſhment of ſuch miniſters as from criminal motives adviſe or free and lawful men, liberes et legales homines, of the body of his conclude any treaty, which ſhall afterwards be judged to derogate country, by whoin the truth of the matter may be better known, from the honour and intereſt of the nation. and who are neither of kin to the aforeſaid A, nor the aforeſaid B, TREE, arbor, the firſt and largeſt of the vegetable kind, confift to recognize the truth of the iſſue between the ſaid parties." ing of a fingle trunk, out of which ſpring forth branches and leaves. A trial by jury, ever has been, and it is hoped ever will be, For the arrangement of trees, as they relate to the ornamentals of looked upon as the glory of the Engliſh law. It is certainly the gardening, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Art. 3. moſt tranſcendant privilege which any ſubject can enjoy or wiſh TREES, timber, are thoſe whoſe trunks are tall and ſtraight, for, that he cannot be affected either in his property, his liberty, or whereof beams, maſts, &c. are uſed to be made. Trees that are in his perſon, but by the unanimous conſent of 12 of his neighbours nine inches girt about a yard from the ground, are commonly reck and equals. The impartial adminiſtration of juſtice, which ſe- oned timber-trees, but none under this ſize. See TIMJER. cures both our perſons and our properties, is the great end of civil TREEFOIL, in Botany, the Engliſh name of the genus trifolium, ſociety. But if that be entirely intruited to the magiſtracy, a ſelect ſee TRIFOLIUM. For the cultivation, ſee the Syſtem of AGRI body of men, and thoſe generally ſelected by the prince or ſuch as CULTURE, Sect. VIII. enjoy the higheſt offices in the ſtate, their decilions, in ſpite of their TREMOR, TREMBLING, in Medicine, a diſeaſe near akin to own natural integrity, will have frequently an involuntary bias to- a convulſion, wherein there is ſomething of a convulſive motion or wards thoſe of their own rank and dignity: it is not to be expected fhaking, accompanying a voluntary òr natural motion. A tremor from human nature, that the few hould always be attentive to the is frequently found to ariſe upon the more violent paſſions, particu-intereſts and good of the many. On the other hand, if the power of larly anger, gluttony, venery, &c. but this is accidental and tranſi judicature were placed at random in the hands of the multitude, tory. A tremor is ſometimes apt to degenerate into other worſe their deciſions would be wild and capricious, and a new rule of diſeaſes, viz. palſy, apoplexy, lethargy, ſpaſmus, &c. Medical action would be every day eſtablished in our courts. It is wiſely writers diſtinguiſh this tremor into the active and paſſive: the active therefore ordered, that the principles and axioms of law, which are is that which happens in violent paſſions of terror, anger, joy, &c. general propoſitions flowing from abſtracted reaſon, and not ac- or in intermittent fevers, and is to be referred to the ſemi-convulſive commodated to times or to men, ſhould be depofited in the breaſts motions : the paſſive are owing to a privative cauſe, and are allied of the judges, to be occaſionally applied to ſuch facts as come pro- to the ſemi-paralytic affections. The paſſive tremors of the limbs, perly aſcertained before them. For here partiality can have little when conſidered as a diſeaſe, are to be diſtinguiſhed from thoſe ſcope; the law is well known, and is the ſame for all ranks and which are cauſed by external accidents, ſuch as the being plunged degrees: it follows as a regular conclufion from the premiſſes of into cold water, the drinking tea, coffee, or other warm liquors, in fact pre-eſtabliſhed. But in ſettling and adjuſting a queſtion of fact, many conſtitutions, and other ſuch accidental cauſes. The perſons when intruſted to any ſingle magiſtrate, partiality and injuſtice have ſubject to tremors of the limbs are principally old people, in whom an ample field to range in, either by boldly aſſerting that to be the vital principle is weak and languid. The internal cauſes, are a proved which is not lo, or more artfully by ſuppreſſing ſome cir- flaccidity of the nerves and remiffion of the tone of the parts; the cumſtances, ſtretching and warping others, and diſtinguiſhing away external and accidental ones are the omiſſion of accuſtomed evacu the remainder. Here therefore a competent number of ſenſible and tions, a diaphoretic regimen, and an abuſe of ſpirituous liquors. upright jurymen, choſen by lot from among thoſe of the middle The medicine commonly made uſe of in tremors, and other nervous rank, will be found the beit inveſtigators of truth, and the ſureſt diſtempers, by the name of palſy drops, is no other than the com guardians of public juſtice. For the moſt powerful individual in pound ſpirit of lavender. The moſt ſucceſsful way of uſing it, is the ſtate will be cautious of committing any flagrant invaſion of by taking thirty or forty drops twice or thrice a day, dropt on loaf anothers right, when he knows that the fact of his oppreſſion muſt ſugar or a little bread. It is ſuppoſed, that, by this way, the moſt be examined and decided by 12 indifferent men, not appointed till fpirituous and efficacious parts make their way directly by the the hour of trial, and that when once the fact is aſcertained, the nerves of the palate, &c. without undergoing the courſe of the cir law muſt of courſe redreſs it: this therefore preſerves in the hands culation, as it muſt do when taken in a liquid vehicle. of the people that ſhare which they ought to have in the adminiſtra- TRENCH, a ditch cut or dug in the ground, to drain off the tion of public juſtice, and prevents the encroachments of the more waters in a meadow, or morals, or the like. See the Syſtem of powerful and wealthy citizens. AGRICULTURE, Sect XIX. Criminal TRIALS. The feveral methods of trial and conviction TRENCHES, in Fortification, are ditches which the beſiegers cut of offenders, eſtabliſhed by the laws of England, were formerly more to approach more ſecurely to the place attacked, whence they are alſo numerous than at preſent, through the ſuperſtition and ignorance of 3 * N° 144 5 A our TRI TRI young about beſt . our Saxon anceſtors; who, like other northen nations, were ex that element: like the whale it has no voice; and like that animal, tremely addicted to diviration; a character which Tacitus obſerves has an horizontal broad tail, without even the rudiments of hind of the ancient Germans: they therefore invented a conſiderable feet. It inbabits the ſhores of Kamtſchatka, thoſe of the oppoſite number of methods of purgation or trial, to preſerve innocence coaſt of America, and of the intervening iſlands. It is found again from the danger of falſe witneſſes, and in conſequence of a notion on that of Mindanao, one of the Phillippine illards, and on the that God would always interpoſe miraculouſly to vindicate the coaſt of New Holland: on that of the iſle of France, and on that guiltleſs : as, 1. By ordeal; 2. By corfoed; 3. By battel. of Senegal ; on the Moſquito fhore, in the river Oronoque, and the A fourth method is that by the peers of Great Britain, in the lakes formed by it; and laſtly, in the river of Armazons; but in Court of PARLIAMENT; or the Court of the Lord High STEWARD, no other part of the Atlantic Ocean. They live perpetually in the when a peer is capitally indicted ; for in caſe of an appeal, a peer water, and frequent the edges of the ſhores; and in calm weather thall be tried by jury. "This differs little from the trial per patriam, ſwim in great droves near the mouths of rivers : in the time of or by jury: except that the peers need not all agree in their ver flood they come ſo near the land, that a perſon may ſtroke them dict; and except alſo, that no ſpecial verdict can be given in the with his hand : if hurt they ſwim out to ſea; but preſently return trial of a peer: becauſe the lords of parliament, or the lord high again. They live in families, one near another ; each conliſts of a ſteward (if the trial be had in his court) are judges ſufficiently com male, a female, a half-grown young one, and á very ſmall one. The petent of the law that may ariſe from the fact : but the greater females oblige the young to ſwim before them, while the other old number, conſiſting of 12 at the leaſt, will conclude, and bind the ones ſurround and as it were guard them on all ſides. The affec- minority. The trial by jury, or the country, per patriam, is alſo tion between the male and female is very great; for if ſhe is at- that trial by the peers of every Briton, which, as the Great bulwark tacked, he will defend her to the utmoſt ; and if ſhe is killed, will of his liberties, is ſecured to bim by the great charter : nullus liber follow her corpſe to the very ſhore, and ſwim for ſome days near homo capiatur, vel impriſonetur, aut exulet, aut aliquo alio modo the place it has been landed at. They copulate in the ſpring, in deftruatur, niſi per legale judicium parium ſuorum, velper legem terre. the ſame manner as the human kind, eſpecially in calm weather, TRIANDRIA, in Botany, the third claſs of plants which have towards the evening. The female ſwims gently about; the male hermaphrodite flowers, with three ſtamina or male parts in each purſues ; till tired with wantoning ſhe flings herſelf on her back, For the repreſentation of the ſeveral orders appertaining to this and admits his embraces. Steller thinks they go with claſs, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. III. and Plate IV. a year: it is certain that they bring but one young at a time, which TRIANGLE, in Geometry, a figure comprehended under three they ſuckle by two teats placed between the breaſt. They are lines, or ſides, and which of conſequence has three angles. See the vaſtly voracious and gluttonous; and feed not only on the fuci that Syſtem, Part I. Sect. I. grow in the ſea, but ſuch as are flung on the edges of the ſhore. TRICEPS, in Anatomy, a muſcle of the thigh, having three When they are filled, they fall aſleep on their backs. During their originations, and as many inſertions; and which may therefore be meals, they are ſo intent on their food, that any one may go among divided into three muſcles, all ariſing from the os pubis, and inſerted them and chooſe which he likes Their back and their fides into the linea aſpera of the thigh-bone, whereof they poſſeſs the are generally above water; and as their ſkin is filled with a ſpecies greateſt part. For their names, origin, inſertions and uſes, ſee the of louſe peculiar to them, numbers of gulls are continually perching Syſtem, Part II. Sect. II. and Table of Muſcles, Art. 25. and on their backs and picking out the inſects. They continue in the Plate I. fig. 3. letter c. Kamtſchatka and American ſeas the whole year; but in winter TRICHECUS, the walrus ; a genus of quadrupeds, belonging are very lean, ſo that you may count their ribs. They are taken to the order of bruta. The characters are theſe : two great tuiks by harpoons faſtened to a ſtrong cord; and after they are ſtruck, it in the upper jaw, pointing downwards ; four grinders on both ſides requires the united force of thirty men to draw them on ſhore. above and below; no cutting teeth ; five palmated toes on each Sometimes when they are transfixed, they will lay hold of the rocks foot: there are two ſpecies. with their paws, and ſtick ſo faſt as to leave the ſkin behind before 1. The roſmarinus, morſe, or ſea-horſe, has a round head; ſmall they can be forced off. They bave not any voice; but make a mouth; very thick lips, covered above and below with pellucid noiſe by hard breathing, like the ſnorting of a horſe. They are of briſtles as thick as ſtraw; the tail is very ſhort ; penis long; the an enormous fize; ſome are 28 feet long, and 8ooolb. in weight. length of the animal, from noſe to tail, ſometimes eighteen feet, Thoſe of the Weſt Indies and other hot climates do not exceed and ten or twelve round in the thickeſt part: the teeth have been I 200lb. in weight, and few arrive at that ſize. Probably they are ſometimes found of the weight of 20lb. each. The teeth of this pot ſuffered to live their full time in thoſe countries, being perpe- ſize are only found on the coaſt of the Ice Sca, where the animals tually perſecuted by the Moſquito and other Indians, who are very are ſeldom mulelted, and have time to attain their full growth: we dexterous in ſtriking them. The head, in proportion to the bulk need not enter into a further diſcription of the proportions of tie of the animal, is ſmall, oblong, and almoſt ſquare; the noſtrils are different parts of theſe animals, as the repreſentations in Plate II. filled with ſhort briſtles: the gape, or rictus, is ſmall : the lips are will afford a better idea than our diſcription. They inhabit the double: near the junction of the two jaws the mouth is full of coaſt of Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Hudſon's Bay, and the gulph white tubular briſtles, which ſerve the ſame uſe as the laminæ in of St. Laurence; and the Ice Sea, as far as Cape Tſchuktſchi. the whales, to prevent the food running out with the water: the They are gregarious; in ſome places appearing in herds of hun lips are alſo full briſtles, which ſerve inſtead of teeth to cut the dreds. They are ſhy animals, and avoid places which are much ſtrong roots of the ſea-plants, which floating aſhore are a fign of haunted by mankind; but are very fierce. If wounded in the the vicinity of theſe animals. In the mouth are no teeth, only two water, they attempt to fink the boat, either by riſing under it, or flat white bones, one in each jaw; one above, another below, with by ſtriking their great teeth into the ſides; they roar very loud, undulated ſurfaces, which ſerve inſtead of Grinders. The females and will follow the boat till it gets out of ſight. Numbers of them have, between the pectoral fins, two large round and fair breaſts: are often ſeen ſleeping on an iſland of ice; if awoke, they fing and both ſexes have the parts of generation, and the navel, perfectly themſelves with great impetuoſity into the ſea ; at which time it is reſembling thoſe of the human ſpecies : there is no doubt, Mr. dangerous to approach the ice, left they ſhould tumble into the boat Pennant thinks, but all the fables concerning mermaids, mermen, and overfet it. They do not go upon the land till the coaſt is and ſyrens, took their riſe from an imperfect view of this animal. clear of ice. At particular times, they land in amazing numbers. The ſkin is very thick, black, and full of inequalities like the bark The method of killing them on the Magdalen iſles, in the gulph of oak, and ſo hard as ſcarce to be cut with an ax, and has no hair of St. Laurence, according to Mr. Pennant, is thus: The hunters on it: beneath the ſkin is a thick blubber, which taſtes like oil of watch their landing; and as ſoon as they find a ſufficient number almonds. The fleſh is coarſer than beef, and will not ſoon putrify. of what they call a cut, they go on fhore, each armed with a ſpear, The young ones taſte like veal. The ſkin is uſed for thoes, and ſharp on one ſide like a knife, with which they cut their throats. for covering the ſides of boots. For repreſentation, ſee Plate II. Great care muſt be taken not to ſtand in the way of thoſe which Genus 6. Species 2. attempt to get again to ſea, which they do with great agility by TRIENNIAL, an epithet applied chiefly to offices or employ- tumbling headlong; for they would cruſh a perſon to death by ments which laſt for three years. In 1695, an act was made for their vaſt weight. They are killed for the ſake of their oil, one triennial parliaments, i.e. for parliaments which ſhould be diſſolved, walrus producing about half a tun. They bring one, or at moſt and the members be elected anew, every three years. Till that two young at a time: they feed on ſea herbs and filh; alſo on ſhells, time, the King had it in his power to prorogue and continue his par- which they dig out of the ſand with their teeth: they are ſaid alſo liament as long as he pleaſed. This opened a door to corruption, to make uſe of their teeth to afcend rocks or pieces of ice, faſtening which the triennial bill was intended to prevent. The triennial act them to the cracks, and drawing their bodies up by that means. has, from ſome other views, been ſince repealed; for the great Beſides mankind, they ſeem to have no other enemy than the white ſtruggles uſed at elections, the great ferment it uſually put the na- bear, with whom they have terrible combats; but generally come tion into, the great expences upon that occaſion, with other confi- off victorious, by means of their great teeth. For repreſentation, derations, determined the legiſlature, in 1717, to change triennial fee Plate II. Genus 6. Species I. parliaments for ſeptennial ones. 2. The inanatus, manati, or ſea-cow. This animal, in nature, TRIFOLIUM, Trefoil, denotes ſeveral three-leafed plants. fo nearly approaches the cetaceous tribe, that it ſcarce deſerves the For cultivation of the ſeveral ſpecies of this plant, ſee the Syſtem of name of a biped : what are called feet are little more than pectoral AGRICULTURE, Sect. VII. fins; they ſerve only for ſwimming: they are never uſed to affift TRIGLYPHS, in Archite&ture, forts of ornaments repeated the animal in walking or landing; for it never goes aſhore, nor at equal intervals in the doric freeze. Each triglyph conſiſts of two ever attempts to climb the rocks, like the ſea-horſe and ſeal. It entire gutters or channels cut to a right angle called glyphes, and ſe- brings forth in the water, and like the whale, fuckles its young in parated by three interſtices. See the Syltem, Plate Vi, TRIGON O M E T R Y. TRI "RIGONOMETRY teaches how to meaſure the ſides and of the ſides muſt be ſuppoſed the radius of a circle, agreeabiy to the angles of triangles, and is either plane or ſpherical, according foregoing lemmas; and if the ſide fo made radius, were actually as the triangles are plane or ſpherical; of each whereof we ſhall an unit, or 10, or ioo, &c. then the table of natural fines, tangents, treat in order. &c. would ſhew the lengths of the other fides by inſpection, care PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. being had to point off truly the decimal places. When the ſide PLANE TRIGONOMETRY, or that which treats of plane trian made radius is not an unit, as repreſented in the table of natural gles, is commonly divided into rectangular and oblique-angular. ſines, &c. then in whatever proportion the ſide made radius is Of RECTANGULAR PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. greater or leſs than an unit, in the ſame proportion will the other DEFINITIONS. tides be greater or leſs than the natural ſine, tangent, ſecant, &c. 1. The periphery of every circle is ſuppoſed to be divided into which they reſpectively denote ; and which is found in the table of 360 equal parts, called degrees, each degree into 60 equal parts, natural lines, tangents; &c. by inſpection : the degrees and minutes called minutes, and each minute into 6o equal parts called ſeconds, of the angle, of which the ſaid reſpective ſides are the natural fines, &c. 2. Any part AB (fig. 51) Plate Miſcellaneous Mathematics) tangents, &c. being ſuppoſed to be known. Thus ſuppoſe the of ihe periphery of a circle is named an arch, and is ſaid to be the lide made radius was 12, then the other fides would be reſpectively meaſure of the angle ACB at the centre, which it fubtends. 1 2 times greater than the natural fine, tángent, &c. which they re- N B. Degrees, minutes, feconds, &c. are wrote in this manner, ſpectively repreſent; and which natural fine, tangent, &c. would viz. 50° 18' 35"; which fignify that the arch or angle thereby ex be had by inſpection from the table of natural fines, &c. in the preſſed, contains 52 degrees, 18 minutes, and 35 ſeconds. 3. The proper columns, and correſponding to the degrees and minutes of complement of an arch is what it wants of a quadrant or 90°. thus, the angle. In ſhort, in the ſolution of right-angled triangles there BH. is the complement of AB. 4 The ſupplement of an arch is is nothing more to do than to reduce one kind or denomination of what it wants of a ſemicircle; BD is the ſupplement of AB. meaſure to that of another. For if the ſide made radius, when 5. The chord or ſubtenſe of an arch is a right line drawn from one meaſured by one kind of ſcale or rule of meaſure, be ſuppoſed 1, extremity of the arch to the other; the right line BFE is the chord but when meaſured or compared by another ſcale of a different or ſubtenſe of the arch BAE. 6. The fine or right ſine of an arch magnitude or kind of meaſure, be any other number; as 12, 15, 20, is a right line drawn from one extremity of the arch, perpendicular &c. then if either of the other ſides of the triangle be meaſured or to the diameter, pafling through the other extremity thereof; BF compared by theſe two different ſcales or rules of meaſure, its length is the fine of the arch AB, or DB. 7. The cofine or ſine com or meaſure, by one ſcale, will differ from that by the other in the plement of an arch is the diſtance between the centre and the fine; ſame ratio or proportion as did the fide made ratio, when ſo mea- CF is the cofine of the arch AB, which is allo equal to BI, the ſured or compared. From theſe ideas we gather the following fine of HB, the complement of BA. 8. The verſed fine of an theorems: arch is the part of the diameter intercepted between the line and THEOREM I. As radius (or 1) is to the real length of the ſide the periphery; AF is the verſed ſine of the arch AB, and DF of made radius, ſo is the fine, tangent, or fecant, denoted by the fide DB. 9. The coverſed fine of the arch AB is the diſtance HI, be. fought, (and which will be found in the table correſponding to the tween the end of the quadrant AH, and BI perpendicular to HC. degrees, &c. of the angle, of which ſuch ſide is the fine, tangent; 10. The tangent of an arch is a right line touching the circle in one or fecant, &c.) to the length of the ſide ſought. It is evident this extremity of that arch produced from thence, till it meets a right theorem is to find a ſide, when one lide and an acute angle is given, fine palling through the centre, and the other extremity of the arch; and when the given ſide is made radius. By reverſing the theo- AG is the tangent of the arch AB, and HK is the tangent of the rem it will ſtand as follows; and then inſtead of finding a ſide it arch BH. 11. The ſecant of the arch is a right line reaching will find an angle. without the circle, from the centre to the extremity of the tangent ; THEOREM II. As the real length of the ſide made radius is thus, CG is the fecant of the arch AB; and CK is the fecant of to radius (or 1) ſo is the length of the other given fide to the fine, the arch BH. 12. The cotangent, and coſecant, of an arch, are tangent, &c. of the angle which it repreſents, according as the the tangent and ſecant of the complement of that arch ; HK and ſame thall denote ſine, tangent, &c. This theorem, which is the CK are the cotangent and coſecant of AB reſpectively. 13: The reverſe of the former, is calculated to find an angle when two ſides fine of an arch, Ab, greater than 90°, is equal to the fine of an are given. Either of the given ſides being made radius. other arch AB, as much below 90 degrees; thus, bf = BF; and N. B. When one ſide and an angle is given to find another its coſine, tangent, and ſecant, are alſo reſpectively equal to the ſide, the ſame might be performed by making any ſide radius, but cofine, tangent, and ſecant of its ſupplement AB, only they are the proportion would not be ſo ſimple and ealy as that by the first negative, or fall on contrary ſides of the points Ć and A, from theorem. And as one good rule is preferable to a multitude of whence they have their original . 14. A natural trigonometrical others that are not ſo good, we ſhall not in this work inſiſt upon canon is a table exhibiting the length of the line tangent, and ſe more. The above theorems will be equally applicable to the artifi- cant to every degree and minute of the quadrant with reſpect to cial cannon, as, to that of the table of natural fines, &c. only ob- the radius, which is ſuppoſed unity, and conceived to be divided ſerving that the artificial cannon being logarithms, the firſt term of into locooo, or more decimal parts. An artificial trigonometri the proportion muſt be ſubtracted from the ſum of the ſecond and cal canon, is a table exhibiting the logarithms of the numbers in third terms, in order to obtain the fourth term, or anſwer. And the natural canon, the index of the radius being uſually made io, the logarithm of radius in that cannon is 10. and the reſt according to their proper proportion. This artificial Case I. In the right angled triangle, ABC, (fig. 54) let there table on account of its diſpatch, is commonly made uſe of in opera be given the hypothenuſe AC=121 miles, and the angle BAC= tion. Note, that the three angles of every plane triangle make 180 54° 30'; to find the legs AB and BC. By the firſt theorem, the degrees, or are equal to two right angles. Therefore in a right an hypothenuſe being made radius, we ſhall have, as under. gled plane triangle, the two acute angles makes 90°, or are equal To find BC. to one right angle. And conſequently the acute angles of a plane As radius log. 10 000000 right angled triangle are complements to one another. Is to AC (121 miles) 2.082785 LEMMA I. If the hypothenuſe of any right-angled plane triangle So is fine of angle BAC (54° 30') 9.010686 be made the radius of a circle, then each leg will be the fine of its To log. of BC=98.51 miles 1.993471 oppoſite angle: thus, if in the right-angled plane triangle ABC, To find AB (fig. 52.) the hypothenuſe AC be made radius, then by definition As radius 6, BC will be the fine of the arch CD, which is the meaſure of its oppoſite angle CAB : alſo AB will be the coſine of the ſaid angle; Is to AC (121) 2.082785 and the angle CAB being the complement of the angle ACB; So is coſine A (54° 30') 9.76 3954 iherefore, by definition 7, AB, the cofine of angle A, is equal to To AB=70. 26 miles 1.840739 ihe fine of its oppoſite angle C; conſequently, when the hypothe In the firſt of theſe proportions, BC, which is ſought, is by the nuſe is radius, each leg becomes the line of its oppoſite angle. firſt lemma the fine of the angle A, and therefore the fine of the LEMMA II. If either of the legs of a right-angled plane triangle angle A muſt be the third term: In the ſecond proportion where be inade radius, the hypothenuſe becomes the ſecant of the angle AB is ſought, the third term of the proportion is the cofine of the contained between it and the leg made radius, and the other leg angle A, (or which would have been the line of the angle C)for AB becomes the tangent of the ſame angle, or they are reſpectively the by the ſaid lemma denotes the fine of angle C, or cofine of angle coſecant or cotangent of the other acute angle, contained between A, ſeeing that the angles A and C are complements to one another. the hypothenuſe, and the other leg. Thus, in the triangle The proportions are wrought according to the artificial cannon, (ABC, fig. 53.) If AB be radius, then by definition 10, BC is by ſubtracting radius or 10, from the ſum of the ſecond and third the tangent of the arch BD, (which is the meaſure of the angle A) terms; and by looking in the table for the number anſwering to the and by definition 11, AC is the ſecant thereof. Alſo the angle logarithm ſo obtained. C being the complement of the angle A, it follows by defini Case II. There being given the angle ABC,=35°, 30'; and tion 12, that BC and AC are reſpective cotangents, and coſecant the leg BC=to 98.5 miles; to find the hypothenuſe and the leg AB. of the angle C. In like manner, if the leg BC was made radius, Here the given lide BC being the radius, we have this proportion it might be ſhewn that AB and AC are the tangent and ſecant of for finding AC, viz. as radius is to BC (98.5) ſo is the ſecant of the the angle C, and the cotangent and coſecant of the angle A. angle C (35° 30') to AC, which wrought out as before, will be SOLUTIONOFRIGHT-ANGLED PLANE TRIANGLES found equal to 121. In finding AB; the tangent of the angle In order to explain the nature of reſolving the different caſes of C muſt be the third term of the proportion; for AB denotes right angled plane triangles, it is neceſſary to obſerve that ſome one 9 10.000odo ſuch tangent. 4 Case TRIGONOMETRY. Alſo the greater Case III. The hypothenuſe AC=121 and the leg AB=70 146° 31' which ſubtracted from 189° leaves the other angle C being given to find the angles A and C, and the other leg BC, 33° 29': then the ſide AB will be found = 103.5, as hewn in the firſt caſe. Here either of the given fides may be made radius. Suppoſe AC. Then we ſhall have this proportion by the ſecond theorem. As CASE III. Given AB = 103.6, BC =97, and AC, = 169.6 ſide AC (121) is to radius :: ſo is the leg AB (70) to the fine of to find the angles. ift. Let a perpendicular be let fail from _ C upon AB, as di- angle C = 35° 30': or which is the fame to the cofine of angle A = 54°, 30. The acute angles being thus known ; the other rected in theorem 3: then, by the ſaid theorem, we ſhall have this leg BC will be found by theorem 1, as in caſe 1. proportion; as AC (169.6) is to AB + BC ( = 200.6) ſo is AB - Case IV. The legs AB and BC being given, =98 and 70 BC (66) to AD-DE (= 7.8) = the difference of the ſeg- reſpectively to find the hypothenuſe, and the acute angles. Here ments of the baſe : then half this difference (3.9) added to half the either of the given legs may be made radius : ſuppoſe A B radius. baſe (84.8) = the greater ſegment AD=88.7 ; but ſubtracted Then by Theorem 2., we have this proportion. As AB is to ra therefrom gives the leſs ſegment DE = 80.9; then in the right dius, fo is BC to the tangent of the angle A; the angles being angled triangle ADB, there is given the hypothenuſe AB=103.9, found, AC will be found thus, by theorem 1. (continuing AB ra and the leg AD=88.7 to find the angle BAD; for which, by theo dius) as radius is to AB ſo is ſecant of angle A to the hypothenuſe rem II. of right-angled triangles, and making AD radius, we have AC, which the reader may work at his leiſure; it is ſufficient for this proportion, viz. as AD (88.7) is to radius, fo is AB (103.6) us to Thew in what manner the operations are wrought. to fecant of Z BAD or BAC=31° 07'. And in the right-angled OBLIQUE ANGLED PLANE TRIANGLES. triangle BDC, there is given the hypothenuſe BC=97, and the leg The ſolution of the ſeveral caſes of oblique angled plane trian DC=80.9; to find the angle BCD, or BCA; and by making gles, depends on the following theorems. DC radius, we have this proportion : as BC (80.9) is to radius, THEOREM I. In any plane triangle the ſides are proportional ſo is BC (97) to the ſecant of BCD or BCA=33° 29': then to the fines of the oppoſite angles, viz. as any one ſide is to the adding the angles at A and C together, and ſubtracting the ſum fine of its oppoſite angle, ſo is any other ſide to the fine of its from 180°, there remains 115° 24' for the angle ABC. oppolite angle, and vice verſa. The operations of plain trigonometry may be alſo performed by THEOREM II. In any plane triangle, As the ſum of any two actually drawing the triangles according to the rules of plane geo- fides is to their difference, ſo is the co-tangent of half the included metry, from a proper ſcale of equal parts, and a ſcale of chords, angle, to the tangent of half the difference of the other two; then and then meaſuring the ſides which you want to find, on the fame this half difference added to half the ſupplement of the included ſcale of equal parts that the given fide or ſides were drawn from: angle, gives the greater of the other two angles: but ſubtracted and, in like manner, the angles that you want to find muſt be meaſured therefrom gives the leſs. Alſo the greater angle is oppoſite the from the ſame line of chords that was uſed in drawing the triangle. greater ſide, and the leſs angle is oppoſite the leſs fide. This will be eaſy to thoſe who have a thorough knowledge of geo- THEOREM III. In any plane triangle, Having let fall a per metry ; to the ſyſtem of which we refer our readers. pendicular upon the greateſt fide, or baſe from its oppoſite angle, Alſo all the cafes in trigonometry may be folved by Gunter's dividing the baſe into two ſegments, and the whole triangle into Scale ; which is nothing but a ſcale, or rather ſcales of logarithm two right angled triangles, it will be, as the baſe or ſum of the lines, tangents, &c. The method of uſing it is by extending a ſegments is to the ſum of the other two ſides, ſo is the difference pair of compafies from the firſt term of the proportion on the pro- of theſe ſides to the difference of the ſegments of the baſe. The per line or ſcale to which it belongs ; to the ſecond or third term half of this difference added to half the baſe gives the greater ſeg of the proportion, according as either of them ſhall happen to be ment; but ſubtracted therefrom gives the leſs. of the ſame kind or denomination with the firſt : then that extent ſegment of the baſe is adjoining to the greater of the two other applied the ſame way from the other term, on its proper line or fides; and the leſs ſegment is adjoining to the leſs of them. ſcale, will reach to the fourth term or anſwer. By the firſt of the above theorems, when two ſides and an angle The METHOD of APPLYING PLANE TRIGONOMETRY to ALTI- oppoſite to one of them is given, the angle oppoſite to the other METRY and LONGIMETRY. may be found ; or when two angles, and a ſide oppoſite to one of DEFINITIONS. them is given, the ſide oppoſite to the other angle may be found. iſt. Altimetry is the art of determining the height of an object When a ſide is to be found, the proportion muſt be with the angle by means of an angle or angles of altitude taken with a quadrant oppoſite the given fide; and when an angle is to be found, the or other inſtrument, and ſome certain meaſured diſtance or diſtances proportion muſt begin with the ſide oppoſite the given angle. on the ground correſponding therewith. B By ihe ſecond theorem, when two fides and an included angle is 2d. Longimetry is the art of determining the diſtance of a re- given, the other angles may be found. mote object by means of certain meaſured diſtances on the ground, And by the third theorem, when the three ſides are given, the and the angles or bearings which the object makes at the different angles may be found, which theorems are ſuficient for reſolving all ſtations you meaſured from. the common caſes of oblique plane triangles. The theorems being Thus in altimetry. Suppoſe it were required to find the height univerſally known, we think it is unneceſſary to demonſtrate them. of an obeliſk or other objectas AB fig. 56: and ſuppoſe you to take But we ſhall illuſtrate them by the following caſes. an angle of altitude ADC at the point D; then if you can meaſure Case I. In the triangle, ABC, (fig. 55) let there be given from D to the foot of the ſpire, you will have one leg CD of a the angles CAB=31° 07', the angle ABC=115° 24', and the right angled triangle, and the angle B given, to find the other leg fide BC oppoſite to the former angle CAB= 97° feet to find the AC; and making CD radius, the proportion will be; as radius is to fides AC and AB. Iſt. To find AC we have by the firſt axiom the diſtance CD, fo is the tangent of the angle of altitude taken at this proportion, as the fine of the angle CAB: BC :: fine of the D to the height AC; to which add the height of the inſtrument at angle CBA : AC.—The proportion wrought by logarithms is as D above the foot of the obeliſk at B, and you will have the whole under. height of the ſpire AB. The height of the inſtrument may be af- As ſine of ZA (31° 37') log. 9.7133077 certained by means of a ſpirit level, or other contrivance uſed by Is to BC (97) 1.9867717 ſurveyors. But if the object is inacceſſible, then meaſure only the So is fine 2B (115° 24') acceſſible part FD, and take angles of altitude at F, and D. Then 9.9558490 the ſupplement of the altitude at F, will give the angle AFD. 11.9426207 Wherefore you will have the angles AFD and ADF of the oblique To AC = 169.6 feet 2.2293130 triangle AFD, and alſo the fide FD, to find either of the fides AF Since two of the angles are given, therefore the other angle ACB or AD, which may be performed by theorem I. of oblique plane is alſo given, it being the ſupplement of the other two to 180° trigonometry. For two of the angles being known, the other is wit. 33° 29' ; and therefore AB will be found by this proportion, known alſo, being their ſupplement to 180°. This done there will viz. as ſine of angle CAB (31° 07') is to BC, (97) ſo is fine of be the hypothenufe AF or FD, with the correſponding angle AFC, angle ACB (33° 29') to AB ;=103.6, the operation of which or ADC to find the leg AC; which found, add to it the height of being ſimilar to the former we ſhall not inſiſt on. the inſtrument as before, and you will have the whole height AB. CASE II. Given AC = 169.6, and BC = 97; alſo the In longimetry, the bearings or angles which objects make with angle CAB, oppoſite to the latter=31° 07' to find the angles ACB, one another or taken by proper inſtruments, and as many conti- ABC, and the ſide AB. Here we have theſe proportions, viz. guous lines are meaſured as are found neceſſary, ſo as to form com- By Theorem I. As 97 (BC): fine 31° 07' (ZA):: 169.6 plete triangles, of which the objects, whoſe diſtances you want to (AC): fine of angle B ; which, as CB is leſs than AC, will be find are ſo many angular points, and taking care to have either greater than the angle A, but may be either acute or obtuſe, viz. it two angles and a fide, or two ſides and an angle given'; and then may be either 64° 36', or the ſupplement thereof 115° 24'. When the required ſides will be found according to the reſpective theo- the given angle is obtuſe, or when its oppoſite ſide is greater than the rems already given in the ſyſtem. The whole of which is ſo eaſily other ſide, then the angle ſought is acute : otherwiſe it is doubtful, underſtood, that it will be only taking up ſpace and time to no as in this caſe. Butif it is known that the ſide which is not given valuable purpoſe, to enter farther into it. is longer than either of the others, then the angle ſought is acute : SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY, but if the fide adjacent to the given angle be the longeſt, then the NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES. angle found as above is obtuſe ; but if the ſide oppoſite the given 1. Every ſide of a ſpheric triangle is an arc of a great circle, and angle be the longeſt, it is acute : ſuppoſing therefore in this caſe, is leſs than a ſemicircle. 2. Every great circle divides the ſphere that the fide adjacent to the given angleis the longeſt, then the angle or globe into two equal parts, called hemiſpheres. 3. Any two B will be 115° 24': this added to the other angle 519 07' makes great circles cutting each other, make the angles which are oppo- i to fite TRIGONO M E T R Y. grees. 8. PROPOSITION. and the fide AB. fite and contrary, equal to each other. 4. The ſum of any two fides junct, conſequently to find the Angle ACB, the proportion will be of a ſpheric triangle is greater than the third ſide. 5. The ſum of the as radius is to the tangent of the given leg BC (239 29') ſo is the three ſides of a ſpheric triangle is leſs than 360 degrees, and the ſum tangent complement of the hypothenuſe AC (54°25') to the fine of the three angles is leſs than 540 degrees, but more than 180 de complement of the adjacent angle ACB, which by actually working grees. 6. The ſum of any two ſides is leſs than the difference be the proportion will be found to be 71° 53'. tween the third ſide and 180 degrees. 7. The ſum of any two an Then to find the angle BAC oppoſite to the given leg, the pro- gles is more than the difference between the third ſide and 180 de portion is thus; BC in this caſe, being the middle part, and AC 8. In any rectangular ſpheric triangle, the legs and their and the angle BAC, being extremes disjunct ; as the fine of the oppoſite angles, are of the ſame affection; that is, if a leg be more hypothenufe AC (54° 25') is to radius, lo is the fine of the given or leſs than a quadrant, its oppoſite angle is likewiſe more or leſs leg BC (23° 29') to the line of the angle BAC 29° 20'. than a right angle. 9. In a rectangular ſpheric triangle, if one Alſo for the leg AB we have this proportion ; AC, being the leg be a quadrant, the hypothenuſe will be a quadrant, but if both middle part, and BC and AB extremes disjunct; as the fine com- legs be of the ſame affection, viz. both either more or leſs than plement of the given leg BC (23° 29') is to radius, fo is the fine 90 degrees, the hypothenuſe will be leſs than a quadrant ; if of dif complement of the hypothenuſe AC (50° 25') to the fine complea: ferent affections, viz. one more and the other leſs than 90 degrees, ment of the leg AB = 50° 37' it is more. 10. If the hypothenuſe be leſs than 90 degrees, one leg and CASE II. In the rectangular ſpheric triangle ABC, (fig. 57) its oppoſite angle will be leſs than go degrees, but the other leg and there is given the hypothenuſe AC=(54° 25'), and the angle its oppoſite angle may be either leſs or more. 11. In every ſpheric BAC=(29° 20') to find the legs BC and AB : and the angle triangle the greateſt fides are oppoſite to the greateſt angles. 12. In АСВ. . every oblique ſpheric triangle, if two acute angles be equal, their 1. For the leg BC; BC being the middle part, and BAC and oppoſite ſides will be equal, and leſs than quadrants. Alſo the op AC disjuncts; as radius is to the fine of the hypothenuſe, AC poſite ſides of equal obtuſe angles are equal, and greater than qua 54° 25' ſo is the fine of the given angle BAC, (29° 20') to the fine drants. 13. If two acute angles are unequal, the ſide oppofite to of the leg BC 23° 29'. 2. For the leg AB, BAC being the middle the leſs angle will be leſs than a quadrant. If two obtuſe angles part, and AC and AB the conjunct extremes; as the tangent com- are unequal, the ſide oppoſite the greater angle will be more than a plement of the hypothenuſe AC (54° 25') is to radius, ſo is the quadrant. 14. If all the angles be acute, each ſide will be leſs ſine complement BAC (23° 20') to the tangent of the adjacent leg than a quadrant. AB=50° 37'. 3. For the angle ACB, AC being the middle SOLUTION OF THE DIFFERENT CASES OF RECTANGULAR, part ; and BÁC and ACB extremaes conjunct; as the tangent com- SPHERIC TRIANGLES, ACCORDING TO LORD NAPIER'S plement of the given angle BAC (29° 20') is to radius, ſo is the ſine complement of the hypothenuſe AC (54°25') to the tangent Ift. It muſt be obſerved that in a rectangular ſpheric triangle, complement of the other angle ACB=71° 53'. there are, beſides the right angle, 5 things; to which Lord Napier Case III. In the rectangular triangle ABC, (right angled at B) gave the name of the 5 circular parts; that is, the three ſides, and there is given the leg AB= 50° 37'; and the angle BAC=29° the two acute angles, and, the right angle not being reckoned or 20'; to find the leg BC, the angle ACB, and the hypothenuſe AC? taken into the account, the two legs are ſuppoſed to be adjoining 1. For the leg BC; AB being the middle part. . parts. As the tangent complement of the given angle BAC, (29° 20') is 2. Any one of theſe five parts may be made a middle part, and to radius, ſo is the fine of its adjacent leg AB (50° 37') to the tan- then the two circular parts, which are next to ſuch middle part, gent of its oppoſite leg BC=23° 29. 2. For the angle ACB ; ACB are named the extremes conjunct, and the other two circular part being the middle part. As radius is to the fine complement of the remote from the middle part, are called the extremes disjunct. given leg AB (50° 37') fo is the fine of its adjacent angle to the fine 3. In every caſe two of the aforeſaid circular parts are always complement of its oppoſite angle ACB 710°53. 3. For the hypo- given ; from which a third is to be found. One of theſe three thenuſe AC, it is, as the tangent of the given leg AB, (50° 37') is parts muſt be a middle part; and it muſt be ſo ordered that the other to radius, fo is the fine complement of its adjacent angle BAC, two parts, muſt be both of the ſame name, viz. both extremes con (29° 20') to the tangent complement of the required hypothenuſe junct, or extremes disjunct. AC=54° 25 This being premiſed, obſerve this general theorem, viz. the fine CASE IV. In the rectangular ſpheric triangle ABC, there is of the middle part and radius are reciprocally proportional with the given the leg BC=23" 29" ; and the angle BAC=29° 20', to tangents of the extremes conjunct, and with the fine complements find the leg AB, the angle ACB, and the hypothenuſe AC. of the extremes disjunct ; that is, iſt, When the middle part is 1. For the leg AB. As radius is to the tangent of the given leg fought, then it will be, when the extremes are conjunct, as radius BC, (23° 29') ſo is the tangent complement of the angle BAČ is to the tangent of one extreme, ſo is the tangent of the other to (29° 20') to the line of the leg AB 50° 37'. the fine the middle part; but when the extremes are disjunct, this 2. For the angle ACB. As the fine complement of the given is the proportion ; as radius is to the fine complement of one ex leg, (23° 29') is to radius ; fo is the fine complement of its oppo treme, ſo is the fine complement of the other to the fine of the ſite angle BÁĆ (29° 20') to the line of its adjacentangleACB 71° 53' middle part. 3. For the hypothenuſe AC. As the fine complement of the 2. When either of the extremes are fought, then if the extremes given angle is to radius, ſo is the fine of its oppoſite leg, to the fine are conjunct, uſe the following proportion, viz. As the tangent of of the hypothenuſe required=54° 25'. one given extreme is to radius, fo is the ſine of the middle part, to CASE V. Suppoſe AB and BC are given to find the angles tangent of the required extreme; but if the extremes are disjunct, BAC, ACB, and the hypothenuſe AC. The proportions will be as then this is the proportion, as the fine complement of the given under. As radius is to fine of leg AB, ſo is tangent complement extreme, is to radius, ſo is the fine of the middle part, to the fine of leg BC to tangent complement of angle BAC : and, as radius is complement of the required extreme. to ſine of leg BC, ſo is tangent complement of leg AB to tangent EXCEPTIONS TO THE FORE GOING PROPORTIONS. complement of angle ACB : alſo as radius is to fine complement of 1. If the middle part, or either of the extremes conjunct, be the leg AB, ſo is fine complement of leg BC, to fine complement of hypothenuſe, or either of the oblique angles, then inſtead of fine, the hypothenuſe AC. and of tangent, you muſt uſe ſine complement, and tangent com Case VI. Let there be given the angle BAC, and the angle plement. 2. If either of the extremes disjunct, be the hypothenuſe ACB: to find the three ſides. or either of the oblique angles, then inſtead of ſine complement, We ſhall have the following proportions. As fine of angle A you muſt uſe the fine. is to radius ; ſo is the fine complement of angle C, to the fine com- TABLE plement of leg AB ; and as fine of angle C is to radius, fo is the THE VARIETIES OF EXTREMES, CONJUNCT AND fine complement of angle A to the leg BC ; alſo, as radius is to tan- DISJUNCT. (See Plate Miſcellaneous Mathematics, fig. 57.) gent complement of one angle, fo is the tangent complement of the Number | Middle Part 1 Extr. Conjunct | Extr.Disjunct. other angle to the fine of the hypothenuſe. Note. In the ſolutions of all ſpheric triangles, particular atten- BC Sine ACB Sine AR tion muſt be paid to the properties and affections already men- Tang. c. BAC Sine AC tioned, in order to determine whether the ſides or angles be more Tang. C. AC | Sine c. BC Sinė c. BAC or leſs than quadrants, if the data and knowledge of the queſtion Tang. AB Sine АСВ. does not clear this point, which is generally the caſe. Tang. c. BAC | Sine c. BC SOLUTION of OBLIQUE ANGLED SPHERIC TRIANGLES. Sine c. AC 3 Tang. c. ACB Sine c. AB AXIOMS. Sine BAC 1. In all ſpheric triangles whatever the lines of the ſides are pro- 4 BC | Sine portional to the fines of their oppoſite angles, viz. as the fine of any Tang. AB Sine BAC one ſide is to the fine of its oppoſite angle, fo is theſine of any other 5 Sine BC Tang. c. ACB | Sine AC ſide to the fine of its oppoſite angle; and as the fine of any one angle is to its oppoſite fide; fo is the fine of any other angle to its CASE I. In the rectangular ſpheric triangle ABC, there is oppoſite ſide. given the hypothenuſe AC 54° 25', and the leg BC 23° 29' : re 2. As the fine of half the ſum of two fides (containing an angle) is to the line of half their difference, ſo is the tangent complement Here the angle ACB (which is to be found) muſt be the middle of half the contained angle, to the tangent of half the difference of part, and then the given lides AC and BC will be extremes con- the other two angles : alſo as the fine complement of half the ſum of OF ALL Tang. I 2 Sine C. ACB | Tang. C. AC Tang. AB No. 145 5 B TRIGONOMETRY. . artwo iides is to the Gine complement of half their contained angle, I. By axiom 3. As į ſum of the angles ACD and ADC : Gne fo is the tangent complement of half their contained angle of their difference :: tangent { fide CD: tangent difference of to the the remaining fides : and as ſine complement { ſum of anyles of half the ſum of the other two angles. The half tangent difference added to the half fum gives the greater of the ſaid angles, ACD and ADC: fine complement their difference :: tangent ; but ſubtracted therefrom, gives the leſs. Alſo the greater angle is CD : tangent of { fum of remaining fides: the ſum of theſe gives oppoſite the greater of the given fides, and the contrary : alſo this the greater fide AD; but their difference gives the leſs fide AC. axiom is equally true when reverſed or taken backwards. Note, If the ſum of the two given angles exceed 180°, then ſubtract 3d. As the line of half the ſum of two angles is to the fine of half each given angle from 180°, and proceed with the remainders as their difference, ſo is the tangent of half their interjacent ſide to the with the given angles, and you will obtain the ſupplement of the tangent of half the difference of the other two fides: alſo as the fine required fide. The angle CAD will then be found by the firſt complement of half the ſum of two angles is to the line complement axiom, or it may be had without finding the ſides thus; as radius is of half their difference, fo is the tangent of half the interjacent to the fine complement of the interjacent fide, fo is the tangent of ſide to the tangent of half the ſum of the other two ſides; the half the leſs given angle to the tangent of a fourth arc; now if the in- difference added to the half fum, gives the greateſt ſide, but ſubtracted terjacent ſide be more than a quadrant, fubtract the fourth arc from from it, gives the leſs ; this axiom is alſo uſed reverſed. the greater given angie, but when it is leſs from the ſupplement 4th. As the rectangle of the fines of the two containing fides is to thereof, and the remainder is the 5th arc ; then as the fine com- the ſquare of radius, ſo is the rectangle of the fine of the half ſum plement of the 4th arc, is to the fine complement of 5th arc, fo is of the three ſides, and of the fine of the difference between the ſaid the fine complement of the leſs given angle, to the fine complement half ſum and the ſide oppoſite the angle, to the ſquare of the fine of the required angle. Note, when the adjacent fide and 5th arc, complement of half the contained angle ſought. are each more or leſs than 90° the angle fought is acute; but when Case I. In the oblique ſpheric triangle, ACD, fig. 58, let one is more and the other leſs it is obtuſe. there be given the ſide ACD=34° 7; the ſide AD=65° 20', Case V. The three fides AD, CD, and AD, being ſuppoſed and the angle ADC=27° 30' to find the angles ACD and givers to find the three angles. This caſe is performed by the 4th CAD, and the ſide CD. By the firſt axiom we have, as fine of axiom : which axiom by logarithms is as follows. the ſide AC 34° 7' is to the fine of the angle ADC (27° 30') ſo is I. Add the three ſides together, and from their half ſum ſubtract the fine of ſide AD (65° 20') to the fine of the angle ACD, 480 the ſide oppoſite the required angle, nothing the remainder. 25', which, being ſubtracted from 180°, leaves 131° 35' for the 2. To the complement of arithmetic of the logarithm fines of ſaine angle ACD, when it is required to be obtuſe : but when the the containing ſides, add the logarithm fines of the half ſum, and ſide oppoſite the given angle is leſs than the other given fide, as in the remainder; half the total of theſe four logarithms, is logarithm this caſe, the angle oppoſite the ſaid other given ſide will be ambigu fine of half the required angles ſupplement to 180?. ous or doubtful, unleſs there be ſomething elſe in the nature of the Note: If either of the containing ſides, or the half fun exceed queſtion from whence it can be determined. For the contained 90', then the fine, or fine complement, arithmetic, muſt be taken angle CAD, the proportion by axiom 2, reverſed, is thus ; as the of the ſupplement to 180°. N. B. The complement arithmetic of AC (1536') is to any logarithm is . the fine the of half the dif CASE VI. This is per- ference of the angles ACD and ADC=52° 2', (ACD being ob formed in the fame manner as the laſt putting angles for ſides and tuſe) to the tangent complement of half the angle CAD (15° 23'); fides for angles. which doubled, gives 30° 46', the angle CAD required. Alſo for Having gone through all the ordinary cafes in plain and ſpheri- the third fide CD, we have, by axiom 3, reverſed, this proportion ; cal trigonometry, we ſhall conclude the treatiſe with ſome other as fine of half the difference of the angles ACD and ADC (52° 2') uſeful theorems relative to ſpherical triangles, and which are not is to the fine of half. their ſum (79° 32') ſo is the tangent of half the ſo commonly known. difference of the ſides AD and AC (15° 36') to the tangent of half THEOREM I. If from the verſed ſign of the ſuin of two given the ſide CD=19° 12', which doubled, gives CD=38° 24: fides, containing a given angle, there be ſubtracted the verſed fign Case II. Let there be given the angle CAD (preceding figure) of their difference, and if half the remainder be multiplied by the = 30° 48'; the angle ADC=27° 30'; and the ſide CD=386 verſed ſign of the given angle, and the product be added to the 28.4 to find the ſide AC, when leſs than 90°, the ſide AD, and verſed fine of the difference of the fides, the ſum will be the verſed fine of the third fide. By Axiom I. As fine _CAD (30° 48'): fine CD (38° 28'):: THEOREM II. If from the verſed fine of the ſide oppoſite to fine Z ADC (27° 30') : fine AC 34° 7'.-Second, by the angle fought (all the ſides being given) there be ſubtracted the Axiom III, (reverſed) as fine of { difference of Z's CAD and verſed fine of the difference of the other two ſides, and the re- ADC (1° 39') : fine of į their ſum (29° 9'): : tangent of differ; mainder be divided by the exceſs of the verſed fine of the ſum of ence of fides CD and AC (2° 10') : tangent of į lide AD=32° the two ſides, (including the required angle) above the verſed ſine 37' which doubled gives ÀD=650 14.-Third, by Axiom II. of their difference, the quotient will be double the verſed fine of reverſed. Asſine of į difference of ſides CD and AC (2° 10'), fine the required angle, N. B. There is no ambiguity in the two laſt their ſum ( 36° 17') : : tangent of half the difference, of angles CAD | theorems. and ADC, (1° 39') : tangent complement of į the angle ACD Theorem III. If two ſides and their contained angle be given, 65° 44', which doubled gives 131° 28', the angle ACD required. multiply together the line of the ſide oppoſite to the required an- In the preceding caſes, the three given terms without the quality | gle, the cofine of that adjacent thereto, and the verſed ſine of the of a fourth, are not fufficient ; and the quality of the fourth is not known angle. Then when the fide adjacent to the given angle is always diſcoverable by the given terms; therefore they are called acute, add this product to the fine of the difference ; but when doubtful cafes, but ſuch doubts may often be removed by deline- .obtuſe, take the difference between this product, and the fine of ating the triangle according to the principles of ſtereographic pro the difference of the known fides: and divide this ſum or differ- jection treated of in the Syſtem of Aſtronomy.es ence by the rectangle, under the fines of the given angle, and of CASE III. Let the ſides AC and AD, and the angle CAD be the fine oppoſite to that required; ſo will the quotient be the cotan- given to find the angles ACD and ADC, and the fide CD. gent of the angle fought. iſt. By axiom 2d, as fine { ſum AD and AC: fine of half their THEÔREM IV. In any ſpheric triangle, where there are three difference : : tangent complement Ž ZCAD : tangent of į the angles given to find a fide, multiply together the coſines of the an- difference of the remaining angles : and as fine complement of half gles adjacent to the required fide ; then if theſe two angles are of ſum of AD and AC: ſine complement of their difference:: tan like affection, and the third angle acute; or if of unlike affection gent complement { CAD : tangent of ſum of the remaining an and the third obtuſe, add to this product the cofine of the third gles, the above { difference added to the ſum gives the greater an angle ; but if the ſaid two adjacent angles, be of the fanie affec- gle ACD, but ſubtracted therefrom gives the leſs angle 27° 29'. tion, and the third angle obtufe ; or if of different affections, and N. B. If the ſum of the two containing fides exceeds 180°, then the third angle, acute; take the difference between the ſaid product fubtract each ſide from 180° and proceed with thoſe remainders as and the cofine of the third angle; fo will the ſum or difference (as with the given ſides, and the proportion will produce the ſupplement the caſe hhall be) divided by the product of the fines of the adja- of the required angle. The third fide CD may be found by axiom cent angles, give the cofine of the required-ſide. I; but CD may be found firſt, without finding the angles, thus : THEOREM V. Uſeful in finding a fide, having two ſides and ſay, as radius is to the fine complement of the contained angle, fo the included angle given. Add the log, ſines of the two ſides, and is the tangent of the leſs given fide to a fourth arc; then if the con the log. cofine of the included angle together ; and find the natural tained angle be acute, ſubtract the fourth arc from the greater number of the fum. Alſo add the log. coſines of the fides together, given fide; but when it is obtuſe from the fupplement thereof, call and find the natural number of the ſum. Then the ſum of theſe the remainder the 5th arc. Then as the fine complement of the two natural numbers will be the natural cofine of the ſide ſought. 4th arc is to the fine complement of the 5th arc, ſo is the ſine comple THEOREM VI. As gois to the angle intercepted between ment of the leſs given fide, to the fine complement of the fide required. two great circles, fo is the area of one whole great circle of the Note. When the contained angle and the fifth arc are each ſphere to the lunular area, between the great circles. more or leſs than 90°, the ſide ſought is leſs than a quadrant ; but THEOREM VII. In any ſpheric triangle, as 180° is to the ex- when one is more and the other leſs than 90° the ſide fought is ceſs of the three angles above two right angles, ſo is the area more than a quadrant. great circle of the ſphere, (conſtituting the triangle) to the area of CASE IV. When the angle ACD; angle ADC and ſides CD the triangle. For the application of ſpherical trigonometry, lee are given, to find the ſides AC and AD and the angle CAD. the Problems of the ſphere in the Syſtem of Aſtronomy. of a I TRI TRO per- TRIGYNIA, in Botany, the third order in the firſt thirteen ture, and ſubſtance. Perſon is defined an individual, reaſonable, or claſſes in the ſexual Syſtem of Linnæus. See the Syitem, Sect. intellectual ſubſtance; or an intellectual and incommunicable fub- ri Ill. and Plate 4 and 5. ſtance: the hypoftafis, or ſubſtance, is what conſtitutes the perſon: TRINGA, the SANDPITER, in Ornithology, a genus of birds, there are then in the Holy Trinity three perſons, Father, Son, and belonging to the order of grallæ. The beak is ſomewhat cylindri- | Holy Spirit. which have all things in common, except their relati- cal, and as long as the head; the noſtrils are linear ; there are four toes ons : whence that axiom in theology comes to have place, in the di- on the feet, the hind one conſiſting of one joint, and elevated above vine perſons there is no diſtinction where there is no oppoſition of the ground. The moſt remarkable ſpecies are the two following, relation : the father is the firſt perſon in the Holy Trinity, by rea- 1. The vanellus, or lapwing, inhabits moſt of the heaths and fon the Father alone produces the Word, by the way of underſtand- marſhy grounds of the iſland. The bill is black; the crown of ing; and with the Word produces the Holy Spirit, by way of will . the head of a shining blackneſs; the creſt of the ſame colour. The Here is to be obſerved, that the Holy Spirit is not thus called from lapwing lays four eggs, making a ſlight neſt with a few bents. The his ſpirituality, that being common and eſſential to all the three éggs have an olive caſt, and are ſpotted with black. The young, fons ; but from the paflive fpiration (as ſome popiſh ſchoolmen ex- as ſoon as hatched, run like chickens; the parents ſhew remarkable preſs the manner in which the perſonality of the Holy Spirit is de- folicitude for them, Aying with great anxiety and clamour near rived from the Father and Son), which is peculiar to him alone. them, ſtriking at either man or dogs that approach, and often flutter Add, that when one perſon in the Holy Trinity is called firſt, ano- along the ground like a wounded bird to a conſiderable diſtance ther ſecond, and another third, it muſt not be underitood of a priority from their neſt, to delude their purſuers ; and to aid the deceit, be of time, or of nature, which would imply fome dependence; but of come more clamorous when moſt remote from it. In winter, lap a priority of origin and emanation, which conſiſts in this, that one wings join in vaſt flocks; but at that ſeaſon are very wild: their perſon produces the other, in ſuch a manner, as that the perſon felh is very good, their food being inſects and worms. During which produces cannot be, or be conceived, without that O&tober and November, they are taken in the fens in nets, in the produced. Thoſe who maintain the doctrine of the Trinity alledge, fame manner that ruffs are ; but are not preſerved for fattening, that the ſame titles, attributes, works, and worſhip, are aſcribed by being killed as ſoon as caught. 2. The ſquatarola, or grey ſand the ſacred writers to the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit: neverthe- piper, is in length 12 inches; in breadth 24: the bill black, about leſs they contend, in different ways, for the proper unity of the di- an inch long, ſtrong and thick; the head, black, and coverts of the vine nature. For the ſentiments of ſome of the chief modern Tri- wings are black, edged with greeniſh aſh-colour and ſome white; nitarians, ſee TRINITARIANS: and for the ſentiments of others, cheeks and throat white; marked with oblong duſky ſpots: the who have rejected what has been uſually denominated the orthodox belly and thighs white; the exterior webs of the quill-feathers doctrine of the Trinity, ſee ARIANS, SOCINIANS, and UNITARI- black, the lower parts of the interior webs of the four firſt white; Ans. It is obſerved by Dr. Waterland, and many other writers, the rump white; the tail marked with tranſverſe bars of black and that the term Trinity firſt occurs in the works of Theophilus, white; the legs of a dirty green; the back toe very ſmall. Theſe biſhop of Antioch, about the year 180. Theoph. ad Autolyc. lib.ii. appear in ſmall focks in the winter-time, but are not very com cap. 14. p. 148, 150, ed. Wolfii. But at this time the words, per- mon; their fleſh is very delicate. For repreſentation, ſee Plate IV. fons and ſubſtance, were not in uſe ; however, they were introduced Genus 69. on occaſion of the diſputes with Praxeas, Noetus, and Sabellius, TRINITARIANS, a term uſed very variouſly, and arbitra either by Clemens of Alexandria, or by Tertullian. OU rily: frequently it ſtands as a common name for all perſons who TRIPLÍCATE Ratio, is the ratio which cubes bear to each have ſentiments on the myſtery of the Trinity, different from thoſe other. This ratio is to be diſtinguiſhed from triple ratio, and may of the catholic church. Sometimes it is more immediately re- be thus conceived. In the geometrical proportionals 2, 4, 8, 16, ſtrained to ſome one or other particular claſs of ſuch perſons. It 32, as the ratio of the firſt term (2) is to the third (8) duplicate of is now applied in contradiſtinction to the others who are then that of the firſt to the ſecond, or of the ſecond to the third ; ſo the called Antitrinitarians, who deny and impugn the doctrine of the ratio of the firſt to the fourth is faid to be triplicate of the ratio of Trinity. Thus the Socinians and others called the Athanafians, the firſt to the ſecond, or of that of the ſecond to the third, or Trinitarians. The Trinitarians of the preſent age, and eſpecially that of the third to the fourth, as being compounded of three thoſe, who, in England, have written on the ſubject of the Trinity, equal ratios. are far from being agreed in their opinions, and therefore ought to TRITHEISM, the opinion of the tritheiſts, or the herefy of be claffed very differently from one another. A late writer (Prieſt- believing three Gods. Tritheiſm conſiſts in admitting not only of ley's Hiſt. Corrupt. of Chriſtianity, vol. i. p. 147.) thinks that they three perſons in the Godhead; but of three ſubſtances, three ef- are all reducible to two claſſes, viz. that of thoſe who believe, that ſences, or hypoftafes, and indeed three Gods. Several people, out there is no proper divinity in Chriſt, beſides that of the Father ; of fear of giving into Tritheiſm, have become Sabellians; and ſeveral and the claſs of Tritheiſts, who maintain that there are three equal others, to avoid Sabellianiſm, have commenced Tritheiſts; ſo deli- and diſtinct Gods. Dr. Waterland and the reſt of the Athanaſians cate and ſubtile is the diſtinction. In the famous controverſy be- aſſert three proper diſtinct perſons, entirely equal to and dependent tween Dr. South and Dr. Sherlock, the firſt is judged to have run upon each other, yet making up one and the ſame being. Mr. into Sabellianiſm, by a too rigorous aſſerting the unity of a God- Howe (Works, vol. ii. p. 560-568) ſeems to fuppoſe that there head, and the latter into Tritheiſm, by a too abſolute maintaining are three diſtine eternal ſpirits, or diſtinct intelligent hypoftafes ; the Trinity. each having his own diſtinct, fingular intelligent nature, united in TROCHANTER, in Anatomy, a name given to two apophyſes ſuch an inexplicable manner, as that upon account of their perfect ſituate in the upper part of the thigh-bone. The largeſt, which is harmony, conſent and affection, to which he adds their natural ſelf above, is called the great trochanter ; and the ſmaller, beneath the conſciouſneſs, they may be called the one God, as properly as the "ifs trochanter. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. IV. and Plate I. different corporeal, ſenſitive, and intellectual natures united may be Art. 4. fig. 1. letters by c. Woha called one man. Biſhop Pearſon (on tlie Creed, p. 134, &c. 322, TROCHILUS, the HUMMING-BIRD; a genus belonging to &c.) Biſhop Bull (Serm. vol. iv. p. 829,) and Dr. Owen (on the the order of picæ. There are 60 ſpecies ; all of them remarkable Heb. i. 3. p. 53, &c.) are of opinion, that though God the Father for the beauty of their colours, and moſt of them for the fmallneſs is the fountain of the Deity, the whole divine nature is communi of their fize, though ſome are eight or nine inches in length.- cated from the Father to the Son, and from both to the Spirit; yet They are divided into two families, viz. thoſe with crooked bills, fo as that the Father and Son are not ſeparate, or ſeparable from and thoſe with ſtraight bills. Of theſe we ſhall deſcribe the three the divinity, but do fill exiſt in it, and are moſt intimately united toit. Dr. Thomas Burnet (Script. Do&r. p:173.) maintains the following fpecies, from Mr: Latham's Synopſis of birds. mute 1. The little humming-bird has a crooked bill, is an inch and an felf-exiſtent and two dependant beings; but afferts, that the two half in length ; frequently weighing leſs than 50 grains. The bill latter are ſo united to and inhabited by the former, that by virtue is black, and half an inch-in length; the body greeniſh-brown, with of that union, divine perfections may be aſcribed and divine worſhip a red ſhining inimitable glofs ; the head is crelted with a ſmall tuft, paid to them. In this opinion Dr. Doddridge is ſaid to have con green at bottom, but of a ſparkling gold-colour at top: quills and curred. Dr. Wallis (Lett. on the Trin.) thought, that the diſtinc- tail fine black. It is a native of Guiana ; and the velocity of it in tion between the three perſons was only modal ; which ſeems, ſays flying is ſo great , that the eye can ſcarce keep pace with its motion. Dr. Doddridge, to have been the opinion of archbiſhop Tilotſon. 2. The moſchitus, or ruby-necked humming-bird, according to Tillotf . Serm. vol. i. p. 492—494. Dr. Watts (Diff. No. 7.) Maregrave, is the moſt beautiful of the whole genus. Its length is maintained one ſupreme God dwelling in the human nature of three inches four lines ; the bill ſtraight. This ſpecies is found in Chriſt, which he ſuppoſes to have exiſted the firſt of all creatures ; Braſil , Curafloa, Guinana; and Surinam. 3. The minimus, or leaſt and ſpeaks of the divine Logos, as the wiſdom of God, and the Holy humming-bird, is exceeded, both in weight and dimenſions, by ſe- Spirit, as the divine power, or the influence and effect of it; which, veral ſpecies of bees. veral ſpecies of bees. The total length is one inch and a quarter ; he ſays, is a fcriptural perſon, i. e. ſpoken of figuratively in fcrip and when killed, weighs no more, according to Sir Hans Sloane, ture under perſonal characters. Doddridge's Lectures, p. 402, &c. than 20 grains. The bill is ſtraight and black, three lines and a TRINITY, TRINITAS, Trias, TRIAD, in Theology, the half in length; the upper parts of the head and body are of a greeniſh ineffable myſtery of three perſons in one God, Father, Son, and gilded brown, in ſome lights appearing reddiſh; the under parts Holy ſpirit. It is an article in ſome ſyſtems of theology, that there are of a greyiſh white; the wings are violet-brown; the tail of a is one God, an unity in nature and eſſence, and a Trinity of perſons: bluiſh black, with a gloſs of poliſhed metal; but the outer feather, the term Trinity implies the unity of three divine per except one on each fide, is grey from the middle to the tip, and the fons really different, and the identity of an indiviſible nature : outer one wholly grey; legs and claws brown. The female is leſs the Trinity is a ternary of divine perſons of the fame effence; na than the male; the whole upper fide of a dirty brown, with a Night TUR T UR flight glofs of green; the under parts of a dirty white. Theſe lower mandible, which is yellow. Its ſong is very fine; which it birds are found in various parts of South America and the adjacent begins very carly in the ſpring, often with the new year, in blowing iſlands. Our author received it from Jamaica. Theſe birds ſub ſhowery weather, which makes the inhabitants of Hampſhire call it fiſt on the nectar or ſweet juice of flowers; they frequent thoſe moſt the ſtorm cock. It feeds on infects, holly and miſſeltoe berries, which which have a long tube ; particularly the impatiens noli me tangere, are the food of all the thruſh kind: in ſevere ſnowy weather, when the monarda with crimſon flowers, and thoſe of the convolvulus there is a failure of their uſual diet, they are obſerved to ſcratch out tribe. They never ſettle on the lower during the action of extract of the banks of hedges, the root of arum, or the cuckoo pint; this ing the juice, but Autter continually, like bees, moving their wings is remarkably warm and pungent, and a proviſion ſuitable to the very quick, and making a humming noiſe ; whence their name. ſeaſon. For repreſentation, fee Plate, Genus 31. They are not very ſhy, ſuffering people to come within a foot or 2. The pilaris, or fieldfare, is in length 10 inches, in breadth two of the place where they are, but on approaching nearer fly off 17. This bird paſſes the ſummer in the northern parts of Europe; alſo in lower Auftria. It breeds in the largeſt trees ; feeds on ber- like an arrow out of a bow. They often meet and fight for the right to a fower, and this all on the wing : they do not feed on in ries of all kinds, and is very fond of thoſe of the juniper. Field- fects nor fruit ; nor can they be kept long in cages, though they fares viſit our iſlands in great flocks about Michaelmas, and leave have been preſerved alive for ſeveral weeks together by feeding them us at the latter end of February or the beginning of March. with water by which ſugar had been diſſolved: they lay two eggs 3. The muſicus, or throſtle, is in length 9 inches, in breadth of the ſize of a pea, which are white, and not bigger at one end 13. In colours it ſo nearly reſembles the miffel-thruſh, that no than the other. For repreſentation of the male and female, ſee other remark need to be added, but that it is leſs, and that the in- Plate II, Genus 29. ner coverts of the wings are yellow. The throſtle is the fineſt of The above account of the manners will in general ſuit all the our ſinging birds, not only for the ſweetneſs and variety of its notes, birds of this genus : for as their tongues are made for ſuction, it is but for the long continuance of its harmony; for it obliges us with by this method alone that they can gain nouriſhment; no wonder, its ſong for near three parts of the year. Like the miffel-bird, it therefore, they can ſcarcely be kept alive by human artifice. Cap- delivers its muſic from the top of ſome high tree. tain Davies, however, informed our author, that he kept theſe birds 4. The iliacus, or red-wing, has a very near reſemblance to the alive for four months by the following method. He made an exact throſtle; but is leſs. Theſe birds appear in Great Britain a few imitation of ſome of the tubular flowers with paper, faſtened round days before the fieldfare; they come in vaft flocks, and from the a tobacco pipe, and painted them of a proper colour; theſe were ſame countries as the latter. With us they have only a diſagreea- placed in the order of nature, in the cage wherein theſe little crea ble piping note; but in Sweden during ſpring, they fing very tures were confined; the bottoms of the tubes were filled with a finely, perching on the top of ſome tree among the foreſts of Maples, mixture of brown ſugar and water as often as emptied; and he had They build their neſts in hedges, and lay fix blueiſh-green eggs, the pleaſure of ſeeing them perform every action ; for they foon ſpotted with black. grew familiar, and took the nouriſhment in the ſame manner as 5. The merula, or black-bird, when it has attained its full age, when ranging at large, though cloſe under his eye. is of a fine deep black, and the bill of a bright yellow; the edges TROCHUS, in Conchology, a genus of ſhells. For deſcrip of the eye-lids yellow. When young, the bill is duſky, and the tion and claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, Order III. Genus 27. plumage of a ruſty black, fo that they are not to be diſtinguiſhed TROPE, in Rhetoric and Oratory, a word or expreſſion uſed in from the females ; but at the age of one year they attain their pro- a different ſenſe from what it properly ſignifies. Or, a word per colour. This bird is of a very retired and ſolitary nature; fre- changed from its proper and natural ſignification to another, with quents hedges and thickets, in which it builds earlier than any other ſome advantage. For a deſcription of the various tropes and their bird: the neſt is formed of moſs, dead graſs, fibres, &c. lined and reſpective uſes, ſee the Treatiſe on ORATORY, Part III. Sect. I. plaſtered with clay, and that again covered with hay or ſmall ſtraw. Art. III. It lays four or five eggs of a blueiſh green colour, marked with irre- TROPICS, in Aſtronomy, two immoveable circles of the ſphere, gular duſky ſpots. The note of the male is extremely fine, but too drawn through the ſolſtitial points, parallel to the equator. See any place except the woods ; it begins to fing early in the the Syſtem, Sect. IX. and Piate VI. ſpring, continues its muſic part of the ſummer, defifts in the moult- Tropic Bird, in Ornithology, the Engliſh name of the Genus ing ſeaſon, but reſumes it for ſome time in September and the firſt phaeton. See PHAETON. For repreſentation, ſee Plate V.Genus 95. winter months, TRUNCATED Leaf, in Botany. See the Syſtem, Sect. I. 6. The polyglottus, or mocking-bird, is a native of American For repreſentation, ſee Plate I. It is about the fize of a thruſh, of a white and grey colour, and a TUBEROUS, or TUBEROSE, an epithet given to ſuch roots reddiſh bill. It is poſſeſſed not only of its own natural notes, as are round, and conſiſt of an uniform fleſhy ſubſtance, having | which are muſical and folemn, but it can aſſume the tone of every neither ſkins nor ſhells, as bulbous roots have. other animal in the wood, from the wolf to the raven. It ſeems TUMEFACTION, the act of ſwelling, or riſing into a tumor. even to ſport itſelf in leading them aſtray. It will at one time allure Inflammations and tumefactions of the teſtes frequently happen in the leſſer birds with the call of their males, and then terrify them the gonorrhoea; either from the weakneſs of the veſſels, violent when they have come near with the ſcreams of the eagle. There motion, unſeaſonable uſe of aſtringents, a neglect of purging, or is no bird in the foreſt but it can mimick; and there is none that the like. it has not at times deceived by its call. But, unlike ſuch as we TUMOR, or TUMOUR, in Medicine, &c. a preternatural riſing uſually fee famed for mimicking with us, and who have no parti- or eminence on any part of the body. Tumor is defined by the cular merit of their own, the mock-bird is ever ſureſt to pleaſe when phyſicians, a ſolution of continuity, ariſing from ſome humour col it is moſt itſelf. At thoſe times it uſually frequents the houſes of lected in a certain part of the body, which disjoins the continuous the American planters; and ſetting all night on the chimney-top, parts, infinuates itſelf between them, and deſtroys their proper pours fourth the ſweeteſt and the moſt various notes of any bird what- form. When a tumour is reſolved by induration, the ſwelling of It would ſeem, if accounts be true, that the deficiency of the part, and pain, decreaſe as the hardneſs comes on. When moſt other fong-birds in that country is made up by this bird alone. it terminates in putrefaction or mortification, the part grows ſenſe- They often build their neſts in the fruit-trees about houſes, feed leſs, and turns black and fetid. See MORTIFICATION. But upon berries and other fruits, and are eaſily rendered domeſtic. when a tumor goes off by repulſion, or a return of the matter into TURF, peat, a blackiſh ſulphureous earth, uſed in ſeveral parts the blood, it diſappears at once; upon which a fever, or ſome of England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, and Flanders, as fuel. other acute diſeaſe, uſually enſues. See INFLAMMATION. Turf, as diſtinguiſhed from peat, conſiſts of mould interwoven with 5. Tumors of the Breaſts, tumors and inflammations of the breaſts the roots of vegetables; when thoſe roots are of the bulbous kind, are a diſorder that very frequently affiets child-bearing women, and or in a large proportion, they form the looſer and worſe kind of almoſt conſtantly happens, in ſome degree, a few days after their turf; but when mixed with a conſiderable proportion of peat, they delivery. For the method of treatment, ſee the Syſtem of Mid form what is called ſtone-turf; it at firſt hardens, but at laſt crum- WIFERY, Part X. Sect. VI. bles by long expoſure to the air. Of peat or geanthrax, there are TUNICA, or Tunic, in Anatomy, is applied to the membranes two forts: the firſt and principal is of a brown, yellowiſh brown, which inveſt the veſſels, and divers others of the leſs folid parts of or black colour, found in moory grounds, and, when freſh, of a the body. The eye conſiſts principally of a number of humours viſcid conſiſtence, but hardens by expoſure to the air ; it conſiſts of contained in tunics ranged over one another : as the tunica albu- clay mixed with calcareous earth and pyrites, and ſometimes con- ginea, the tunica cornea, the tunica retiformis, &c. See the Syſtem, tains common falt; when diſtilled, it affords water and oil and vo- Part VII. Sect. V. and Plate X. fig. 11. Letters A, B, C, D. latile alkali, and its alhes contain a ſmall proportion of fixed alkali. TURBO, the ſcrew-ſhell, in Conchology. For deſcription and They are either white or red, according as it contains more or leſs claſification, ſee the Syſtem, Order III. Genus 28. ochre or pyrites. This ſort of peat is found in Scotland, Holland, TURBOT, in Ichthyology, a ſpecies of the genus pleuronectes. and Germany. Another fort is found near Newbury, in Berķihire; For deſcription of the Genus, ſee PLEURONECTES. it contains but little earth, and conſiſts chiefly of wood-branches, TURDUS, the THRUSH; a genus of birds belonging to the twigs, roots of trees, with leaves, graſs, ſtraw, and weeds. Phil. order of paſſeres. The bill is ſomewhat cylindrical and cultrated; Tranſ. for 1757, p. IIO. Kirwan's Elem. of Miner. p. 219, the noſtrils are naked; the faux is ciliated; and the tongue is lace In Flanders their turf is dug or pared from off the ſurface of the rated. There are 28 ſpecies, the moſt remarkable of which are, earth, and cut in form of bricks. The ſedge, or ſpecies of graſs, 1. The viſcivorus, or the miſſel, is the largeſt of the genus. Its growing very thick on the turf earth, contributes greatly, when length is 11 inches ; its breadth 161. The bill is ſhorter and dry, to the maintenance of the fire. The Dutch take their turf thicker than that of other thruſhes, and duſky; except the baſe of the from the bottom of the dykęs or canals which run acroſs moſt of there ever. TUR TWI a freſh crop: their lands; by which means they not only ſupply the defeat of Medical writers diſtinguiſh four kinds of turpentines'; as that of wood, which is very great in moſt of the united Provinces, but Chiro, or Cyprus, that of Venice, that of Stralburg, and the com- alſo keep their dykes clear and navigable: this turf-earth is very mon turpentine. All the turpentines are hot ſtimulating corrobo. black. In the north of England, Scotland, &c. turf or peat is dug rants and detergents. They are given, where inflammatory ſymp- out of ſoft, moiſt, rotten earth, called peat-moſs: for the formation toms do not forbid the uſe of them, from half a ſcruple to half a whereof fee Bog. They dig horizontally from the ſurface, to the dram and upwards, for cleanſing the unirary paſſages, and internal depth of about four feet, with a ſpade, which at once faſhions and ulcerations in general, and in laxities of the ſeminal and uterine takes them out in parallelopipeds, nine or ten inches long, and veſſels; they ſeem to act in a peculiar manner on the urinary or- three ſquare, which are ſpread on the ground to drain as faſt as gans, impregnating the water with a violet ſmell, even when applied dug, and then ſet up on end three or four againſt each other, for externally, particularly the Venice ſort: this laſt is accounted the the wind to blow through them, and at laſt they are ſtacked or moſt powerful as a diuretic and detergent, and the Chio and Straſ- houſed. The pits or dykes in a few years fill up again, and afford burg as corroborants. They all looſen the belly, but the Venice . moſt; and on this account they are ſuppoſed by Reverius and others to TURKEY, in Ornithology, the Engliſh name of the genus Me be leſs hurtful than ſuch irritating diuretics as are not accompanied leagris. For deſcription of the Genus, See MELEAGRIS. with that advantage. Dr. Cullen remarks, that terebinthinate glyſters TURNAMENTS, or TOURNAMENTS, in Chivalry, were ho in obſtinate coſtiveneſs, are much preferable to ſaline, as being more nourable exerciſes formerly uſed by all perſons of note that defired certain and durable. The common turpentine, as being the moſt to ſignalize themſelves by their dexterity, &c. They were firſt in offenſive, is rarely given internally; its principal uſe is in ſome ex- ſtituted in Germany, according to hiſtorians, towards the beginning ternal applications, among the farriers, and for the diſtillation of the oil. of the roth century and became afterwards a general practice : This oil is a moſt potent, ſtimulating, detergent diuretic. It is they derived their name from the French word tourner, i. e. “to ſometimes given in doſes of a few drops, in rheumatiſins and fixed turn round,” becauſe to be expert in theſe exerciſes, much agility pains of the joints; and ſome have ventured on much larger quan- both of horſe and man was requiſite, they riding round a ring in tities. Cheyne recommends (Efl. on the Gout, p. 119. ed. 10.) imitation of the ancient Circi. They were the principal diverſion as a perfect cure for ſciatics, though of many years ſtanding, from of the 13th and 14th century. The following account of Engliſh one to four drams of the etherial oil, to be taken with thrice its tournaments, extracted from Harriſon's Hiſtory of London, will quantity of honey, in a morning faſting, with large draughts of fack- not, it is hoped, be diſagreeable to the reader.-In the reign of Ed whey after it, and an opiate at bed-time; this medicine is to be re- ward IV. Roch, who was better known by the appellation of peated, with the occaſional intermiſon of a day, if daily repetiti- the Baſtard of Burgundy, being greatly celebrated for the acts of ons cannot be bore, for four or five days, or eight at fartheſt. It chivalry, came over and challenged the Lord Scales, brother to the appears, however, ſays Dr. Lewis, highly imprudent to venture on queen, to fight with him ; which Scales rgadily accepting, the king ſuch large doſes at once of a medicine ſo very hot and ſtimulating. commanded liſts to be prepared in Smithfield (wherein to perform Boerhaave, after recounting, not without ſome exaggeration, combat), of the length of 370 feet, and breadth of 260, with inag its ftyptic, anodyne, healing, antiſeptic, and diſcutient virtues, nificent galleries for the reception of the illuſtrious ſpectators ; when applied hot Externally, and its aperient, warming, ſudorific, where aſſembled the King, the nobility, and the principal gentry of and diuretic qualities, when taken internally, adds, that it muſt be both ſexes. The firſt day they fought with ſpears, without a viſi uſed with great caution; that when taken too freely, it affects the ble advantage on either ſide. The ſecond they tournayed on horſe head, excites heat and pain therein, and, violently urges a diabetes, back, when the Lord Scales having a long pike fixed on his chaf brings on a flux of the ſemen and of the liquor of the proſtrates; fron (pommel of his faddle) which, as they cloſed, ran into the nof and that in venereal runnings, in which it has by ſome been com- trils of the Baſtard's horſe, by the anguih whereof he reared him mended, it tends to inflame the parts, and increaſe the diſorder. ſelf with that violence, that he ſtumbled backwards, whereby his The oil of turpentine, taken in too large a doſe, hath often very rider was unfortunately unhorſed: which occafioned him to cry bad conſequences; ſuch as ſtrangury, bloody urine, and its total out, “ That he could not hold by the clouds ;” and that though his fuppreſſion, with a fever, violent thirſt, and vomiting. In the horſe had failed him, he would not fail to meet his adverſary the Medic. Eff. Edinb, vol. i. article 5. we have an account of ſuch next day. This being accordingly performed, they fought on foot ſynptoms, produced by the taking of two drams of this oil in warm with pole-axes: when Scales ſoon penetrating the Baſtards helmet, ale. The patient was cured by a warm bath, and drinking plen- the king threw down his warder, whereupon they were immediately | tifully of Fuller's emulſio Arabica. This oil is generally uſed as a parted by the maríhal. But the Baſtard inſiſting upon fighting out drier, to mix with other oils : for which purpoſe it has greatly the that weapon, a council was held to deliberate thereon. The reſult advantage of drying oil, with regard to colour, as it is perfectly was, that if he perſiſted in renewing the combat, he muſt, accord tranſparent and white. It is uſed without any other preparation ing to the law of arms, be delivered to bis adverſary in the ſame than mixing it, either along or together with drying oil, with the condition he was in at his horſe's misfortune: but rather than ſub other oils and colours. Turpentine is ſometimes uſed with other mit to thoſe terms, he waved his pretenſion. bodies, to render ſpirit of wine a fit vehicle for colours. The bal- King Richard II. deſigning to hold a tournament at London on ſam and the inſpiffated reſins are uſed chiefly externally: the bal- the Sunday after Michaelmas, ſent divers heralds to make proclama ſam is leſs pungent than the oil, and the refins much leſs ſo than tions of it in all the principal courts of Europe; and accorüingly not the turpentines in ſubſtance: the common yellow reſin, in taſte a few princes, and great numbers of the prime nobility, reſorted conſiderably bitter, is ſometimes given as an internal corroborant, hither from France, Germany, the Netherlands, &c. This ſolemn in preference to the turpentines themſelves, as being diveſted of the nity began on Sunday afternoon, from the Tower of London, with ſtimulating oil. Lewis's Mat. Med. a pompous cavalcade of 60 ladies, each leading an armed knight by TURTLE, in Ichthyology, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the a filver chain, being attended by their 'ſquires of honour, and, paſ genus teſtudo. For deſcription of the Genus, See TESTUDO. fing through Cheapſide, rode to Smithfield, where the juſts and TUSCAN, in Architecture, the firſt, fimpleſt , and moſt maſſive tournaments concinued ſeveral days with magnificent variety of en of the orders. For a general deſcription of the characters, propor- tertainments ; on which occaſion the king kept open houſe at the tions &c. of this order, ſee the Syſtem under the orders of ARCHI- biſhop of London's palace for all perſons of diſtinction, and every TECTURE in general, and Plate I. For Sir William Chambers's night concluded with a ball. proportions, fee Plate VI. Not long after this, three Scotch champions challenged three TUTENAG, a name given in India to the ſemi metal ZINC. Engliſh to fight, which was performed in Smithfield with the It is alſo ſometimes applied to denote a white metallic compound, greateſt folemnity; the Earl of Mar againſt the Lord Nottingham; | brought from China, called alſo Chineſe, or white copper, the art Sir William Dorrel the King of Scotland's banner-bearer, againſt of making which is not known in Europe. It It is the beſt imitation Sir Pierce Courtney, the king of England's ſtandard-bearer; Cock of ſilver which has been made; it is very tough, ſtrong, malleable, burne, Eſq. againſt Sir Nicholas Hawkirke. Mar and Cockburne may be eaſily caſt, hammered, and poliſhed; and the better kinds of were unhorſed; but the two ſtandard-bearers were ſo well matched, it when well manufactured, are very white, and not more diſpoſed that betwixt them it was a drawn battle. Voltaire, in his Eſſay to tarniſh than filver is. Three ingredients of this compoſition upon the Civil Wars of France, p. 4, obſerves, that this romantic may be diſcovered by analyſis, viz. copper, zinc, and iron. and dangerous ſport was put an end to by the death of Henry II. TWINS, two young ones delivered at a birth by an animal which king of France, who was killed at Paris in a tournament, which ordinarily brings forth but one. It has been greatly diſputed, was the laſt in Europe. which of two twins is to be eſteemed the elder? The faculty of One Chiaoux, who had afliſted at a tournament under Ch. VIII. Montpelier have given it, that the latter born is to be reputed the faid very wiſely, If it be in earneſt, it is too little ; if in jeft, too much. elder, becauſe firſt conceived: but by all the laws which now obtain, It is to the exerciſe of tournaments that we owe the firſt uſe of ar the firſt-born enjoys the privilege of ſeniority: and the cuſtom is mories; of which the name blazonry, the form of the eſcutcheons, confirmed by the Scripture inſtance of Efau and Jacob. But if the colours, principal figures, the mantlings, labels, ſupporters, &c. two twins be born ſo intermixed, that one cannot diſtinguiſh which are undeniable evidences. of the two appeared firſt, it ſhould ſeem that neither the one nor the TURNEP, or TURNIP, in Botany, a ſpecies of the genus other can pretend to the right of primogeniture, which ought to braffica. For a copious account of the culture of turneps, and their remain in ſuſpence by reaſon of their mutual concourſe. In ſuch ſeveral uſes, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. XII. caſe ſome would have the deciſion left to the father, and others to TURPENTINE, terebinthina, a tranſparent ſort of reſinous the chance ofalot. For the method of delivery in caſes of twins, ſee the juice, flowing either naturally, or by inciſion, from ſeveral unctu Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, Part VIII. Sect. I. and Plate II. fig. 15. ous and reſinous trees; as the terebinthus, larch, pine, fir, &c. TYMPANUM, in Anatomy. Membrana TYMPANI, is a thin tender N° 145 5 C TYR TY R Terder ſkin or membrane, ſtretched upon a bone or circle in the commands of thoſe that have it, there it hecomes tyranny, whether meatus auditorius of the ear, which it ihuts, and ſuppoſed to be the thoſe who thus uſe it are one or many. Accordingly we read of the immediate organ of hearing. See the Syſtern, Part IV. Seet VI. thirty tyrants at Athens, as well as one at Syracuſe ; and the into and Plate X. fig. 6. lerable dominion of the decemviri at Rome was nothing better. TYMPANY, in Medicine, a flatulent tumor, or ſwelling of the Every wanton and cauſeleſs reſtraint of the will of the ſubject, abdomen or belly, very hard, equable and permanent; whereby the whether practiſed by a monarch, a nobility, or popular aſſembly, ſkin is ſtretched ſo tight, that, when ſtruck, it gives a ſound like is a degree of tyranny. Whenever the conſtitution of a ſtate veits that of a drum. For deſcription, cauſes, and cure, ſee the Syſtem, in any man, or body of men, a power of deſtroying at pleaſure, Genus 56, and 57 without the direction of laws, the lives or members of the ſubject, TYPE, form, figure, a copy, image, or reſemblance, of ſome or of alienating their property, or of depriving them of their liberty mode. The term type is leſs in uſe than its compounds PROTO at pleaſure, ſuch conſtitution is tyrannical. In a word, wherever TYPE and ARCHETYPE, which are the originals that are made law ends, tyranny begins, if the law be tranſgreſſed to another's without model. harm. And whoſoever in authority exceeds the power given him Type is alſo a ſcholaſtic term, much uſed among divines, figni- by the law, and makes uſe of the force he has under his command, fying a ſymbol, ſign, or figure, of ſomething to come. In this to compafs that upon the ſubject which the law allows not, ceaſes ſenſe the word is commonly uſed with relation to ANTITYPE, in that to be a magiſtrate, and, acting without authority, may be which is the thing itſelf, whereof the other is a type or figure. | oppoſed as any other man, who by force invades the right of ano- Thus Abraham’s ſacrifice, the paſchal lamb, &c. where types or ther. The end of government, whatever be its name or nature, is figures of our redemption ; and the brazen ſerpent was a type of the good of mankind : and upon this principle, whoſoever uſes the croſs, &c. The ancient fathers, as well as the modern critics, force without right, as every one does in ſociety who does it with, have been greatly divided about the nature and uſe of types and out law, puts himſelf into a ſtate of war with thoſe againſt whom typical repreſentations in the Old Teſtament ; and it is this makes he uſes it; and in that ſtate all former ties are cancelled, all other one of the greateſt difficulties in underſtanding the ancient prophe- rights ceaſe, and every one has a right to defend himſelf, and to cies, and in reconciling the New and Old Teſtament together. reſiſt the aggreſſor. If it be aſked, who ſhall be judge ; whether the TYRANNY, in Political Government; is the exerciſe of power prince or legiſlature at contrary to their truſt? The anſwer is ob- beyond right, which no one can have a right to; and thus it is vious, the people ſhall be judge; for who ſhall be judge whether diſtinguiſhed from USURPATION, or the exerciſe of power which the truſtee or deputy acts well, and according to the truſt repoſed another hath a right to : and it is the uſe of power which any one in him, but he who deputes him, and muſt, by having deputed poſſeſſes, not for the good of thoſe who are ſubject to it, but for him, have ſtill a power to diſcard him when he fails in his truſt? his own private ſeparate advantage: when the governor, however If this be reaſonable in particular caſes of private men, why ſhould intitled, makes not the law, but his will the rule; and his con it be otherwiſe in that of the greateſt moinent, where the welfare mand and actions are not directed to the preſervation of the pro- of millions is concerned ; and alſo, where the evil, if not prevented, perty of his people, but the ſatisfaction of his own ambition, re is greater, and the redreſs very difficult, dear, and dangerous ? venge, covetouſneſs, or any other irregular paſſion. It is a mistake TYRANT, TYRANNUS, among the ancients, denoted fimply to think this fault peculiar to monarchies; other forms of govern a king or monarch. But the ill uſe ſeveral perſons inveſted with ment are liable to it as well as that. For, wherever the power that the character made of it, has altered the import of the word, and is put in any hands for the government of the people, and the pre tyrant now carries with it the idea of an unjuit and cruel prince, ſervation of their property, is applied to their ends, and made uſe who invades the people's liberty, and rules in a more deſpotic man- of to impoveriſh, harraſs, or ſeduce them to the arbitrary irregular ner than the laws of nature, or the country do allow of. V AC U V AC 3 or u, the 20th letter, and 5th vowel of our alphabet. The but if there be n10 body between, there is no extenſion between ; ex- by a final e, as in tune, tube, &c. In ſome words it is rather acute between, then the walls are contiguous; and where is the vacuum? than long; as in brute, flute, lute, &c. It is moſtly long in poly- But this reaſoning is founded on a miſtake, viz. that body and ex- fyllables ; as in union, curious, &c. but in ſome words it is obſcure, tenſion is the ſame thing, as in nature, venture, &c. This letter in the form of V, or v, is VACUUM Diſeminatum, or interſperſum, is that ſuppoſed to be properly a conſonant, and as ſuch is placed before all vowels ; as naturally interſperſed in and among bodies, in the pores of the ſame in vacant, venal, vibrate, &c. Though the letters v and u had al body and in the interſtices between different bodies. It is this kind ways two ſounds, they had only the form v till the beginning of the of vacuum which is chiefly diſputed aniong the modern philoſophers; fourth century, when the other form was introduced, the inconve the Corpuſcularians ftrenuouſly aſſerting it; and the Peripatetics, nience of expreſſing two different ſounds by the ſame letter having and Carteſians, as tenaciouſly impugning it. See CORPUSCULAR been obſerved long before. In numerals V ſtands for five ; and and CARTESIAN PHILOSOPHY; ſee alſo PERIPATETICS. with a daſh added to the top, thus , it ſignifies 5000. The great argument the Peripatetics urge againſt a vacuum in- VACUUM, VACUITY, in Phyſics, a ſpace empty or devoid of terſperſum, is, that there are divers bodies frequently feen to move all matter, or body. Whether there be any ſuch thing in nature as contrary to their own nature and inclination; and that for no other an abſolute vacuum ; or whether the univerſe be completely full, apparent reaſon, but to avoid a vacuum; whence they conclude, and there be an abſolute plenum ; is a thing that has been contro that nature abhors a vacuum; and give us a new claſs of motions verted by the philoſophers of all ages. The ancients, in their con aſcribed to the fuga vacui, or nature's flying a vacuum. Such, they troverſies, diſtinguiſhed two kinds, a vacuum concervatum, and a va- ſay, is the riſe of water in a ſyringe, upon the drawing up of the cuum interſperſum, or diſſeminatum. piſton ; ſuch alſo is the aſcent of water in pumps, and the ſwelling VACUUM Concervatum, is conceived as a place deſtitute of of the fleſh in a cupping-claſs, &c. But ſince the weight, elaſti- matter : ſuch, e. gr. as there would be, ſhould God annihilate all city, &c. of the air have been aſcertained by ſure experiments, thoſe the air, and other bodies within the walls of a chamber. The exiſt motions and effects are univerſally aſcribed to the gravity and pref- ence of ſuch a vacuum is maintained by the Pythagoreans, Epicu- fure of the atmoſphere. The Carteſians deny not only the actual reans, and the Atomiſts, or Corpuſcularians ; moſt of whom aſſert exiſtence, but even the poſſibility of a vacuuin ; and that on this ſuch a vacuum actually to exiſt without the limits of the ſenſible principle, that extenſion being the eſſence of matter, or body, where- world. But the modern Corpuſcularians, who hold a vacuum coa ever extenſion is, there is matter : but mere ſpace, or vacuity, is cervatum, deny that appellation ; as conceiving, that ſuch a vacuum ſuppoſed to be extended; therefore it is material. Whoever afferts muſt be infinite, eternal, and uncreated. According, then, to the an empty ſpace, they ſay, conceives dimenſions in that ſpace, i. e. later philoſophers, there is no vacuum coacervatum without the he conceives an extended ſubſtance in it; and therefore he denies bounds of the ſenſible world; nor would there be any other vacuum a vacuum, at the ſame time that he admits it. Deſcartes if we may provided God ſhould annihilate divers contiguous bodies, than what believe ſome accounts, rejected a vacuum from a complaiſance to amounts to a mere privation, or nothing ; the dimenſions of ſuch a the taſte which prevailed in his time, againſt his own firſt fenti- ſpace, which the ancients held to be real, being by theſe held to be ments: and among his familiar friends uſed to call his ſyſtem his mere negations; that is, in ſuch a place, there is ſo much length, philoſophical romance. On the other hand, the corpuſcular au- breadth, and depth wanting, as a body muſt have to fill it. Tofup- thors prove, not only the poſſibility, but the actual exiſtence of a poſe, that when all the matter in a chamber is annihilated, there vacuum, from divers conſiderations : particularly from the confi- Thould be real dimenſions, is to ſuppoſe corporeal dimenſions deration of motion in general : and that of the planets, comets, &c. without body ; which is abſurd. The Carteſians, however, deny in particular ; from the fall of bodies ; from the vibration of pendu- any vacuum coacervatum at all; and affert, that if God ſhould im- lums ; from rarefaction and condenſation; from the different fpe- mediately annihilate all the matter, i.e. in a chamber, and prevent cific gravities of bodies : and from the diviſibility of matter into the ingreſs of any other matter, the conſequence would be, that the parts. walls would become contiguous, and include no ſpace at all. They 1°, It is argued, that motion could not be effected without a va- add, that if there be no matter in a chamber, the walls can be con- This is what Lucretius urged long ago. Principium quo- ceived no otherwiſe than as contiguous: thoſe things being ſaid to niam cedendi nulla daret res—undique materies quoniam ſtipata fuiffet, be contiguous, between which there is not any thing intermediate; The force of this argument will be increaſed from the two follow- cuum. 3 ing VAC V AC a vacuum. ing conſiderations, viz. firſt that all motion is either in a ſtraight the reſiſtance of projectiles to be infinitely diminiſhed by dividing line, or in a curve, which returns into itſelf, as the circle, and ellip the parts of the fluid, even in infinitum (Princip. lib. ii. prop. 38) fis; or in a curve that does not return into itſelf, as the parabola, &c. when on the contrary, it is clear the reſiſtance is but little di- And, ſecondly, that the moving force muſt always be greater than miniſhed by the ſubdiviſion of the parts, (ibid. Prop. 40) and that the reſiſtance. For hence it follows, that no force, even though in the reſiſting forces of all Auids are nearly as their denſities : for why finite, can produce motion where the reſiſtance is infinite; confe ſhould not the ſame quantity of matter, whether divided into a quently, there can be no motion either in a ſtraight line, or a non great number of ſubtile parts, or into a few larger ones, have the returning curve; becauſe, in either of thoſe caſes, the protruſion, ſame reſiſting force? If then there were no vacuum, it would follow, and conſequently the reſiſtance, would be infinite. There remains that a projectile, moving in the air, or even in a ſpace whence the the:efore only the motion of a revolving curve practicable; this muſt air is exhauſted, ſhould inove with as much difficulty as it would either be a revolution upon an axis, or an annular motion round a in quickſilver, which is contrary to all experience. Nor will it quieſcent body; both which are again impoſſible in an elliptic curve; avail to ſuppoſe the particles of the ſubtile fluid, conſtituting a ple- and conſequently, all motion muſt be in circles geometrically true; and the revolving bodies muſt either be ſpheres, ſpheroids, cylinders, num, to move conſtantly and equally in all directions; and by fa- vour of this hypotheſis, to imagine that they act but do not refift. or portions of them, exactly geometrical ; otherwiſe, the revolu Becauſe the motion of a fluid favours the motion of a body in it, tions in a plenum would be impoſſible: but ſuch motions, or only as far as it is in the ſame direction; and an inteſtine motion ſuch figured bodies, we do not know in nature. Therefore there is of the parts of the fluid, equal in all directions, cannot make the reſiſtance leſs than if there was no motion of the parts. It is ſup- 2", The motions of the planets and comets demonſtrate a va poſed by many, that the particles of common fluids, e. g. water cuum : thus Sir Iſaac Newton_“That there is no ſuch fluid me- or air, are in a conſtant inteſtine motion; but this does not dium as æther,” (to fill up the porous parts of all ſenſible bodies, as hinder thoſe fluids from reſiſting in proportion to their denſity. the air and interſtellar parts, and ſo make a plenum)“ ſeems pro If it ſhould be alledged, that by ſuppoſing this denſe fluid which bable; becauſe the planets and comets proceed with fo regular and repleniſhes ſpace to penetrate the pores of bodies with the utmoſt laſting a motion through the celeſtial ſpaces, both from and to all freedom, (as light paſſes through tranſparent bodies, and the mag- parts ; for hence it appears, that thoſe celeſtial ſpaces are void of netic and electric effluvia through moſt kinds of bodies) its re- all ſenſible reſiſtance, and conſequently of all ſenſible matter. For ſiſtance will then be incomparably leſs than in proportion to its - the reſiſting force of Auid mediums ariſes partly from the attrition denſity; the reſiſtance in this caſe not being meaſured by the den- of the parts of the medium, and partly from the inactivity of matter. ſity of the fluid, becauſe the greater part paſſes through the pores Now, that part of the reſiſtance of any medium, which ariſes from of the body in motion freely, without reſiſtance: yet even on this the tenacity or attrition of its parts, may be leſſened by dividing the hypotheſis, the reſiſtance of a golden ball in a plenum would be matter into ſmaller parts, and rendering thoſe parts more ſmooth ſtill very great. For this ſubtile fluid, how penetrating foever it be, and ſlippery: but that part of the reſiſtance which ariſes from the muſt reſiſt the ſolid parts of the ball; which cannot move in the inactivity of matter, is always in proportion to the denſity of the fluid without diſplacing its parts, and loſing as much motion as muſt matter : nor can it be diminiſhed by dividing the matter, nor by any be communicated to thoſe parts ; and this ' reſiſtance depends on other means, except by diminiſhing the denſity thereof. Conſequent the quantity of the ſolid parts in the ball; whereas the reſiſtance ly, if the celeſtial regions were as denſe as water, or as quickſilver, which the ſame ball meets with in quickſilver (which we fuppoſe they would reſiſt almoſt as much as water or quickſilver; but if to have no paſſage through the ball), depends on the quantity of they were perfectly denſe, without any interſperſed vacuity, though the folid parts in an equal bulk of the quickſilver, which muſt be the matter were ever ſo fluid and ſubtle, they would reſiſt more than moved to make way for the ball. for the ball. And this being leſs than the quickſilver does ; a perfectly ſolid globe, in ſuch a medium, would quantity of ſolid parts in an equal bulk of the golden ball, in pro- lofe above half its motion, in moving three lengths of its diameter; portion as the ſpecific gravity of quickſilver is leſs than that of and a globe not perfectly ſolid, ſuch as the bodies of the planets and gold, it follows that the reſiſtance of a golden ball, moving in ſuch comets are, would be ſtopped ſtill ſooner. Therefore, that the mo a ſubtile penetrating plenum, would ſtill be greater than its re- tion of the planets and comets may be regular and laſting, it is ne ſiſtance in quickſilver. The reſiſtance of a golden ball in a ple- ceſſary the celeſtial ſpaces be void of all matter, except perhaps num (how freely foever the matter conſtituting it paſs through the fome few, and much rarefied effluvia of the planets and comets, and pores of the ball, and how large or numerous foever theſe pores the paſſing rays of light. may be) muſt correſpond to the ſolid matter in the ball ; which is 3º, The fame great author deduces a vacuum alſo from the con greater than the ſolid matter in any equal bulk of any of our fluids, ſideration of the weights of bodies; thus : “ All bodies about the upon which their reſiſtance depends. earth gravitate towards the earth; and the weights of all bodies, 6', That there are interſperſed vacuities, appears from matter equally diſtant from the earth’s centre, are as the quantities of mat being actually divided into parts, and from the figures of thoſe ter in thoſe bodies. If the æther, therefore, or any other ſubtile parts : for, on ſuppoſition of an abſolute plenitude, we do not con- matter, were altogether deſtitute of gravity, or did gravitate leſs than ceive how any part of matter could be actually divided from that in proportion to the quantity of its matter; becauſe (as Ariſtotle, next adjoining, any more than it is poſſible to divide actually the Deſcartes, and others, argue) it differs from other bodies only in parts of abſolute ſpace from one another : for by the actual diviſion the form of matter; the ſame body might, by the change of its form, of the parts of a continuum from one another, we conceive nothing gradually be converted into a body of the ſame conſtitution with elſe underſtood, but the placing of thoſe parts at a diſtance from one thoſe which gravitate moſt in proportion to the quantity of matter ; another, which, in the continuum, were at no diſtance from one and, on the other hand, the moſt heavy bodies might gradually loſe another : but ſuch diviſions between the parts of matter muſt im- their gravity, by gradually changing their form ; and therefore the ply vacuities between them. weights would depend upon the forms of bodies, and might be 70, As for the figures of the parts of bodies, upon the ſuppoſition changed with them; which is contrary to all experiment. of a plenum, they muſt either be all rectilinear, or all concavo-con- 4", The deſcent of bodies proves, that all ſpace is not equally full; vex; otherwiſe they would not adequately fill ſpace ; which we do for the fame author goes on, c. If all ſpaces were equally full, the not find to be true in fact, ſpecific gravity of that fluid with which the region of the air would 89, The denying a vacuum ſuppoſes what it is impoſſible for any in that caſe be filled, would not be leſs than the ſpecific gravity of one to prove to be true; viz. that the material world has no limits. quickſilver or gold, or any other the moſt denſe body; and therefore However, we are told by ſome, that it is impoſible to conceive a neither gold, nor any other body, could deſcend therein. For bo- But this ſurely muſt proceed from their having imbibed dies do not deſcend in a fluid, unleſs that fluid be ſpecifically lighter Deſcarte's doctrine, that the eſſence of body is conſtituted by ex- than the body. But by the air-pump, we can exhauſt a veſſel, till tenſion: as it would be contradictory to ſuppoſe ſpace without even a feather ſhall fall with a velocity equal to that of gold in the extenſion. To ſuppoſe that there are fluids penetrating all bodies open air : the medium, therefore, through which this feather falls, and repleniſhing ſpace, which neither refiſt nor act upon bodies, muſt be much rarer than that through which the gold falls in the merely in order to avoid admitting a vacuum, is feigning two forts other caſe. The quantity of matter, therefore, in a given ſpace, of matter, without any neceſſity or foundation; or is tacitly giving may be diminished by rarefaction: and why may not it be dimi up the queſtion. Since then the eſſence of matter does not confilt nished in infinitum ? 'Add, that we conceive the folid particles of in extenſion, but in ſolidity, or impenetrability, the univerſe may all bodies to be of the ſame denſity, and that they are only rarefiable be ſaid to conſiſt of ſolid bodies moving in a vacuum: nor need by means of their pores : and hence a vacuum evidently follows. we at all fear, left the phenomena of nature, moſt of which are “ That there is a vacuum, is evident from the vibrations of plauſibly accounted for from a plenitude, ſhould become inexplica- pendulums: for ſince thoſe bodies, in places out of which the air is ble when the plenum is ſet aſide. The principal ones, ſuch as the exhauited, meet with more reſiſtance to retard their motion, or tides ; the ſuſpenſion of the mercury in the barometer; the mo- fhorten their vibrations; it is evident there is no ſenſible matter in tion of the heavenly bodies, and of light, &c. are more eaſily and thofe ſpaces, or in the occult pores of thoſe bodies.” As to what ſatisfactorily accounted for from other principles. Deſcartes urges of his materia ſubtilis, that its tenuity prevents VACUUM, vacuum or Boyleanum, is alſo uſed to expreſs the ap- its reſiſtance from being ſenſible; and that a ſmall body, ſtriking proach to a real vacuum, which we arrive at by means of the air- againſt a greater, cannot in the leaſt move, or reſiſt the motion of pump. Thus, any thing put in a receiver fo exhauſted, is ſaid to that other, but is reflected back again with all its momentum ; it be put in vacuo : and thus, moſt of the experiments with the air- is contrary to all experience. For Sir Iſaac Newton proves, that pump are ſaid to be performed in vacuo, or in vacuo Boyleano. the denſity of fluid inediums is proportionable to their reſiſtances, Some of the principal phenomena, obſerved of bodies in vacuo, very nearly; and that they are exceedingly miſtaken who ſuppoſe are; that the heavieſt and lighteſt bodies, as a guinea and a feather, faſt vacuum. V A L V A R came. fall here with equal velocity: that fruits, as grapes, cherries; very frequently out of order, &c. Dr. Cheyne, by all means, di- peaches, apples, &c. kept for any time in vacuo, retain their nature, rects the weakly, the ſtudious, the ſedentary, and valetudinary, freſhneſs, colour, &c. and thoſe withered in the open air recover to a low, ſpare regimen. their plumpneſs in vacuo: all light and fire become immediately VALID, a term applied to acts, tranſactions, expeditions, &c. extinct in vácuo : the colliſion of Aint and ſteel in vacun, produces which are clothed in all the formalities requiſite to the being put no ſparks: no ſound is heard, even from a bell rung in vacuo: a into execution, and to their being admitted to a court of juſtice. ſquare phial, full of common air, well cloſed, breaks in vacuo: a A contract by a minor is not valid, or is invalid : a marriage is round one does not: a bladder half full of air will heave up forty not valid, unlefs performed with the folemnities enjoined. pound weight in vacuo : cats, and moſt other animals, foon expire VALVE, in Anatomy, a thin membrane, applied, like a door in vacuo. By experiments made in 1704, Dr. Derham found, that or ſhutter, on divers cavities and veſſels of the body; to afford a animals which have two ventricles, and no foramen ovale, as birds, paſſage to fome humour, or other matter, going one way, and prevent its reflux towards the part whence it came. The veins dogs, cats, mice, &c. die in leſs than half a minute; counting from the firſt exſuction; a mole died in one minute, a bat lived ſeven or and lymphatics have valves, ſituate from ſpace to fpace, which eight. Inſects as wafps, bees, graſhoppers, &c. feemed dead in open towards the heart, but keep cloſe on that ſide towards the ex- two minutes; but after being left in vacuo twenty-four hours, they tremities; i. e. they let the blood and lymph paſs towards the heart, came to life again in the open air : ſnails continued twenty-four but prevent their returning to the extreme parts, whence they hours in vacuo, without appearing much incommoded. "Seeds See the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XIV. and Plate VI, planted in vacuo do not grow : Small beer dies, and loſes all its VAPOUR, in Philoſophy, the particles of bodies rarefied by heat, taſte, in vacuo: lukewarm water boils very vehemently in vacuéo : and thus rendered ſpecifically ligher than the atmoſphere, in which and air, ruſhing through mercury into a vacuum, throws the mer they riſe to a conſiderable height. See EVAPORATION, DAMP, cury in a kind of ſhower upon the receiver, and produces a great Gas, &c. Many kinds of vapour are unfriendly to animal life, but light in a dark room. The air-pump can never produce a perfect the moſt noxious are thoſe which ariſe from metallic ſubſtances. vacuum; as is evident from its ſtructure, and the manner of its In the ſmelting and refining of lead, a white vapour arifes, which, working : in effect, every exſuction only takes away a part of the falling upon the graſs in the neighbourhood, imparts a poiſonous air : ſo that there will ſtill be ſome left after any finite number of quality to it, ſo that the cattle which feed there will die ; and in exſuctions. Add, that the air-pump has no longer any effect than like manner ſtagnant waters impregnated with this vapour will kill while the ſpring of the air remaining in the receiver is able to lift fiih. Phlogiſtic vapours are alſo extremely noxious ; and hence up the valves: when the rarefaction is come to that degree, you painters, and others who are expoſed to theſe vapours, are generally can come no nearer to a vacuum. Sir Iſaac Newton, obſerving unhealthy. In ſome places the earth exhales vapours of a very that a thermometer ſuſpended in vacuo, and in that ſtate removed to noxious quality ; ſuch as the Grotto del Cani, and other places in a warm or a cold room, receives the heat or cold, and riſes, or falls, Italy, where a mephitic vapour conítantly hovers over the ſurface of almolt as ſoon as another in open air; takes thence occaſion to ful the ground, proving inſtantly fatal to ſuch animals as are immerſed pe&t, that the heat of the warm room is conveyed through the va in it. But the molt formidable kind of vapours are thoſe which cuum, by the vibrations of a much ſubtiler medium than air, which iſſue from the mouths of volcanoes, and which ſeem to be a com- remained in the vacuum after the air was drawn out. bination of all others, joined to ſuch a quantity of electric matter as VAGABOND, a perſon that wanders about, having no cer to produce the greateſt miſchiefs. In ſome parts of the world tain dwelling; or a ſturdy beggar, &c. mentioned in divers ſta there have been inſtances of people killed, and almoſt torn to tutes. All itinerant beggars, fortune-tellers, collectors for gaols, pieces, by a vapour ſuddenly burſting out of the earth under their fencers, bearwards, players of interludes, minſtrels, jugglers, gyp feet. Of the aqueous vapour raiſed from the earth by the ſun's heat fies, &c, ſhall be reputed vagabonds, rogues, and ſturdy beggars, are formed the clouds ; but though theſe are commonly at no great 39 Eliz. c. 4. The court of Areopagus at Athens puniſhed idle- height from the carth, we cannot from thence determine the neſs, and exerciſed a right of examining every citizen in what height to which the vapours afcend. Indeed, conſidering the great manner he ſpent his time. The civil law ex pelled all ſturdy beg- propenſity of water, and even quickſilver, to evaporate in the moſt gars froin the city; and, in our own law, all idle perſons or vaga perfect vacuuin we can make, it is by no means probable that any bonds, (whom our ancient ſtatutes deſcribe to be, “ ſuch as wake limit can be fixed for this afcent. For the formation of Vapour, in the night, and ſleep in the day, and haunt cuſtomable taverns, ſee the article EVAPORATION, under that head. or alehouſes, and routs about ; and no man wot from whence they The vapour-bath is very commodious for the diſtilling of odori- come or whither they go:” or ſuch as are more particularly de ferous waters, and the drawing of ſpirit of wine. We alſo uſe the ſcribed by ſtatute 17 Geo. II. c. 5. called the vagrant aci, and di term yapour-bath, when a fick perſon is made to receive the vapours vided into three claſſes, (idle and diſorderly perſons, rogues and va ariſing from ſome liquid matter placed over a fire. Many contri- gabonds, and incorrigible rogues ;) are offenders againſt the good vances have been propoſed for this purpoſe : and their expediency order and blemiſhes in the government of any kingdom. They and utility are beſt known to thoſe who are converſant in this buſi- are all puniſhed by the ſtatute laſt mentioned. neſs. A late writer has ſuggeſted a new conſtruction of vapour- VAGINA, in Anatomy, denotes a canal, or cavity, leading baths: and the whole apparatus is reduced to a tin boiler, tin pipes from the pudendum to the uterus of women. The vagina, called wrapped in flannel, and a deal box with a cotton cover, for the re- alſo cervix-uteri, is a membranous paſſage, extended from the ception of the body, and circulation of the vapour. See Playfair's rima, or aperture of the labia, to the neck of the womb. See the Method of conitructing vapour-baths, at a ſmall expence, for the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XV. Art. 2, and Plate IX. fig. 1. letter H. uſe of private families, 8vo. 1783. See alſo Plate II. and III. and its deſcription. VAPOURS, in Medicine, a diſeaſe properly called hyps, or the by- VAIR, in Heraldry, a kind of fur, or doubling, conſiſting of pochondriacal diſeaſe; and in men, particularly the ſpleen. For de- divers little pieces, argent and azure, reſembling a Dutch U, or a ſcription, caufes, prognoſis and cure, ſee the Syſtem, Genus 17. bell-glaſs. See the Syſtem, Sect. IV. and Plate II. Fiery VAPOURS, halitus ignei, a term uſed by ſome to expreſs VALERIANA, VALERIAN; a genus of the monogynia order, thoſe exhalations from the earth, which either take fire of themſelves belonging to the triandria claſs of plants. There are 20 ſpecies ; on their burſting forth into the air, or are readily inflammable on the moſt remarkable of which is the officinalis, or great wild vá the bringing of a candle to them. See DAMPs; and Air Inflamma- lerian, growing naturally in Britain, in ditches, marſhy places, ble. Many of the ſuppoſed burning lakes are owing to theſe fumes and ſometimes in dry mountainous paſtures. The root is much burſting up through the water, and not to any quality of the water uſed in medicine, and conſiſts of a number of ſtrings or fibres itſelf. Our famous burning-well at Wigan, in Lancaſhire, is of matted together, iſſuing from one common head ; of a whitiſh or this kind. The common people affirm, that the water of this pale browniſh colour : its ſmell is ſtrong, like a mixture of aro fpring burns like oil ; but there is nothing of truth in this. There matics with fetids; the taſte unpleaſantly warm, bitteriſh, and ſu burſts up a vapour through the earth in this place, which keeps the bacrid. The London college have reſtrained the ſhops to that water bubbling, as if boiling over the fire, though it is not warm, which grows in dry places, and is conſiderably the ſtrongeſt, and and the ſteam of this breath may be felt iſſuing up in theſe places loſes of its quality if tranſplanted into ſuch foils as the other natu like a ſtrong wind. This breath alone is inflammable, and takes rally delights in. The roots produced in low watery grounds have fire at the approach of a candle, burning with conſiderable violence a remarkable faint ſmell in compariſon of the others, and ſome for ſome time. There are coal-pits in the neighbourhood, and the times ſcarce any at all. air is certainly of the ſame kind with that inflammable vapour, Wild valerian is a medicine of great uſe in nervous dif often met with in thoſe places, and which may alſo be prepared orders ; and is particularly ſerviceable in epilepſies proceed from iron diſſolved in a proper menftruum. The water itſelf, taken ing from a debility of the nervous ſyſtem. It was firſt from the place, does not burn; and if the bottom be made dry, the brought into eſteem in theſe caſes by Fabius Columna, who by vapour which aſcends from it will burn as ſtrongly as if the water taking the powdered root in the doſe of half a ſpoonful, was cured were there. The flame is not diſcoloured like that of ſulphureous of an inveterate epilepſy after many other medicines had been tried bodies, nor has it any bad (cent; and the fumes, as they are felt in vain. Repeated experience has ſince confirmed its efficacy in burſting out of the earth, by the hand held over the place, are hot. this diſorder ; and the preſent practice lays conſiderable ſtreſs upon Phil. Traní. N° 20. it. The common doſe is from a ſcruple to a dram : in infuſion VARIABLE, in Geometry, is a term applied by mathematicians, from one to two drams. Its unpleaſant flavour is moſt effectually to ſuch quantities as either increaſe or diminish, according as fome concealed by a ſuitable addition of mace. Cats are very fond of other quantity either increaſes or diminiſhes. Thus, the ſemior- the ſmell of this root, and ſeem to be intoxicated by it. dinates and abfcifles of an ellipfis, &c. are variable quantities ; be- VALETUDINARY, a term ſometimes uſed by the writers cauſe, if the one increaſe, the others increaſe likewife. See the of medicine, for a perſon of a weak, fickly conſtitution, who is Syſtem, Part II. Sect. II. The V AS U B I cept If a count of the poorneſs of the ſoil, or ſome other ſuch reaſon. Mr. mana The infinitely ſmall quantity whereby a variable quantity is con- another name for the tenant or holder of the lands; though, on aca tinually increaſing, or diminiſhing, is called the increment or de count of the prejudices we have juſtly conceived againſt the doctrines crement, or difference; and the velocity with which it increaſes that were afterwards grafted on this ſyſtem, we now uſe the word or decreaſes at any given point, is called its fluxion; the calcula vaſſal opprobriouſly, as ſynonymous to llave or bondman. The tion whereof is the ſubject of the new methodus differentialis; or manner of the grant, on the part of the proprietor or lord, who re- doctrine of fluxions. See the Syſtem of Fluxions, Sect. I. tained the dominion of ultimate property of the feud or fee, was by VARIATION of Quantities, in Algebra. See the Syſtem, words of gratuitous and pure donation, dedi et conceſi; which are Article XX. ſtill the operative words in our modern infeodations, or deeds of VARIATION, in Navigation, &c. a term applied to the devia feoffment. This was perfected by the ceremony of corporal inveſ- tion of the magnetic needle, or compaſs, from the true north point, titure, or open and notorious delivery of poſſeſſion, in the preſence towards either eaſt or weft; called alſo the declination. For de of other vafſals, which perpetuated among them the æra of the ſcription of the variation of the compaſs, ſee the Syſtem of Navi new acquiſition, at a time when the art of writing was very little GATION, Part I. Sect. I. N° 7; to find the variation of the known; and, therefore, the evidence of property was repoſed in the compaſs, ſee Sect. IV. of the ſame part. memory of the neighbourhood ; who in caſe of a diſputed title VARIATION of Curvature, in Geometry, is uſed for that inequa were afterwards called upon to decide the difference, not only ac- lity, or change, which happens in the curvature of all curves, ex cording to external proofs adduced by the parties litigant, but alſo the circle. And this variation or inequability conſtitutes the by the internal teſtimony of their own private knowledge. quality of the curvature of any line. line. See CONIC SECTIONS. vallal offended his lord grievouſly, either in perſon, or in ho- VÁRICOCELE, in Surgery, a name given to one of the ſpuri nour, he committed the crime of felony: which carried with it a ous hernie, which conſiſts in a dilatation of the blood-veſſels of the confiſcation of his fee. ſcrotum. Theſe are of different ſizes, in different people, and VASTUS, in Anatomy, a name common to two muſcles of the like the veſſels in other parts of the body, are liable to become va leg diſtinguiſhed into internal and external ; both of them ſerving ricoſe; but are ſeldom ſo much enlarged as to be troubleſome, un to extend the leg. See the Syſtem, Sect. II. Table of Muſcles, leſs ſuch enlargement is the conſequence of a diſeaſe, either of the Art. 25. and Plate III. fig. 1. Jetters h, i. teſticle, or of the ſpermatic chord. When this is the caſe, the ori VATICAN, vaticanus is properly the name of one of the ginal diſeaſe ſhould engage the attention of the ſurgeon, and not ſeven hills whereon Rome ſtands : on the foot hereof is the famous this ſimple effect of it; and therefore, conſidered abſtractedly, the church of St. Peter, hence called the Vatican ; and a magnificent varicocele is a diſeaſe of no importance. Pott's Chirurgical palace of the pope, which has the ſame denomination. Hence arife Works, vol. ii. p. 423, 1779. divers figurative expreſſions; as the thunderbolt of the Vatican. q. d. VARICOMPHALUS, in Surgery, a kind of umbilical rup the pope's anathema, &c. ture, or exomphalus, ſo denominated from the nature of the parti The Library of the Vatican, is one of the moſt celebrated in cular humour of which it is formed. the world : it is particularly remarkable for its manuſcripts. It VARIETIES, in Natural Hiſtory, a word uſed to expreſs an was firſt erected, according to Petavius (Rat. Temp. lib. ix. c.9.) accidental change in ſome body which is not eſſential to it, and by pope Nicholas V. who ſucceeded to the papal chair, in 1447. therefore does not conſtitute a different ſpecies. The naturaliſts Towards the beginning of the laſt century, it was greatly aug- of former ages have run into great errors, in miſtaking the acci mented by the addition of that of the elector Palatine. It is open dental varieties of plants, animals, and minerals, for diſtinct fpe to all the world, three or four times a week. In it are ſhewn a cies. Many of them have called a plant a new ſpecies, becauſe Virgil, Terence, &c. above a thouſand years old; as alſo the manu- its flower, which ſhould have been blue or red, is wbite, on ac ſcript whereon the edition of the Septuagint was made; and abun- dance of rabbinical manuſcripts. Ray has eſtabliſhed a very good teſt for varieties in botany; he allows VATICAN Manuſcript, is one of the moſt celebrated manu- every thing to be a diſtinct plant which will propagate itſelf in its cripts of the Greek verſion of the Bible now extant in the world. own forın by its feeds; but ſuch, as when ſown, loſe their differ It was publiſhed at Rome by Cardinal Carafa, at the command of ence, and run back to the old ſtandard, he accounts varieties, how Sixtus Quintus, in 1587 ; and in the preface, it is ſaid to have ever great their diſtinctions may appear. In the hiſtory of fiſh as been written ante millefimum ducentefimum annum, i. e. before 1200; much confuſion has been introduced, by miſtaking varieties for but Blanchini ſuppoſes it a few years later. A Latin edition from diſtint fpecies, as in botany. Artedi was the firſt author who his manuſcript, with notes, was printed at Rome in 1588, by has rationally attempted to bring this part of natural hiſtory into Flam, Nobilius and an edition, with the Greek and Latin, with order in this reſpect, and to ſettle regularly the rules by which to the diviſion of the verſes, according to the Vulgate, and Nobilius's diſtinguiſh real and eſſential, from accidental differences. The Latin notes, and the Greek fcholia of Carafa, by J. Morinus, at principal grounds of the error of ſuppoſing varieties diſtinct ſpecies Paris, in 1628. This manuſcript is written in large or text letters of fiſh, have been theſe: the variable and inconſtant colour of fiſh and has no diftinguiſhing chapters, verſes, words, nor any marks have been miſtaken for a ſpecific difference; in this manner Ron of accents. It is mutilated both at the beginning and end, and deletius has deſcribed many varieties of the turdi, labri, and other wants the firſt forty-ſix chapters of Geneſis, thirty-two Pſalms, fiſh, under the names of diſtinct genera. Of the ſame kind are viz. from the 105th to the 137th, and the latter part of the Epiſtle, the miſtakes of thoſe who eſteem fize or magnitude a ſpecific cha to the Hebrews, from chap. ix. ver. 14. with the other Epiſtles of racter; and thus, out of the varieties of the ſame fiſh, occaſioned Paul to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon, and the whole book of by ſcarcity or plenty of food, or other ſuch occaſions, make larger Revelation. It appears alſo, that the whole manuſcript has been or ſmaller ſpecies. repaired, with freſh ink laid over the letters, which were diſap- The place, where filh are caught, is alſo another cauſe of pearing through age. In the edition of Carafa the mutilated paf- making new ſpecies with theſe authors: thus, through the perca ſages have been ſupplied from other copies. It has been aſſerted, fluviatilis of Bellonius, and the perca marina of other authors by two eye-witneſſes, that this manuſcript has undergone ſome al- be the ſame fiſh, yet they are pretended to be different ſpecies. terations by a later hand. See Le Long's Biblioth. Sacra. cap. 3. All theſe differences are falſe and frivolous, and the utmott they ſect. 4. and Weſtein's Prolegomena, Nov. Teſt. p. 24. It is can do, is to make what are properly called varieties, though difficult to eſtimate the comparative value of this and the Alexan- few of them are ſufficient even for that. A falmon caught at ſea, drian manuſcript, in which thirty Pſams, a few chapters, and a few is not different from one of the ſame brood caught in a river; and verſes, are now loſt, as well parts of verſes in different places y if the perca marina, falfy ſo called, be a little different from the and in which there have been ſome raſures and inſertions, as Grabe perca fluviatilis, yet if its ſpawn will produce regular percæ fluviati- allows. If, as Grabe ſtates it, that manuſcript be the moſt reſpec- les, its difference can only amount to a variety, not a diſtinct ſpecies. table, which comes the neareſt to the Hexaplar copy, the Alexan- VARIOLÆ, or VARIOLI, a contagious diſeaſe, popularly called drian manuſcript ſeems to claim that merit in preference to its rival, the finall-pox. It is called variolæ, as ſhewing itſelf in puſtules, But if it be thought a matter of ſuperior honour, to come nearer or little tumors, like varices ; or as variegating the ſkin. For de the old Greek verſion unaltered by Origen, that merit ſeems to fcription, cauſes, prognoſis and cure, ſee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, belong to the Vatican. For further particulars, ſee the Prolego- Genus 26. mena of Walton, Grabe, Wetſtein, Mills, and Le Long. VARIORUM, in matters of literature, a term or phraſe of ab VAULT, fornix, in Architecture, an arched roof, ſo contrived, breviation, uſed for an edition of a claſſic author, printed in Hol as that the ſeveral ſtones whereof it conſiſts, do, by their diſpoſition land, with the notes of divers authors thereupon : Cum notis vario ſuſtain each other. Vaults are to be preferred, on many occaſions rum, or cum ſ-leftis variorum obſervationibus, to foſfits, or flat ceilings, they give a greater riſe and elevation ; VASCULAR, vaſcularis , in Anatomy, is applied to any thing and, beſides, are more firm and durable. See the Syſtem, on the conſiſting of divers veſſels, veins, arteries, &c. We ſay, the vaſcu Principles of the Art. lar and valvular texture of the lungs. All the fleſh, in an animal UBIQUITY, omnipreſence; an attribute of the Godhead, where- body, is found to be vaſcular, none of it parenchymous, as the an by he is always intimately preſent to all things; gives the effe to cients imagined. For the vaſcular ſyſtem, ſee the Syſtem of ANA all things; and knows, preſerves, and does all in all things. For TOMY, Part V. throughout, and Plate 6. ſince God cannot be ſaid to exiſt in all places, as placed therein VASSAL, valjallus, in our ancient cuſtoms, a perſon who vowed (becauſe, then, he would need ſomething to his exiſtence, viz. fidelity and homage to a lord, on account of ſome land, &c. which place; and would have extention, parts, &c.) he muſt be conceived he held of him, in fee. The vaſſal was alſo called piratus, lord's to be every where, or in all things, as a firſt, univerſal, efficient man cauſe in all bis effects. He is preſent, therefore, to all his crea- of tenant in fee. Accordingly the vaſſal, or feudatory, was only tures, as a pure act, or an exerciſe of an active virtue, which knows, * 4 D preſerves now No. 145 VEG V EG preferves, governs, &c. every thing. Nor are even finite minds is improper. While vegetables, from their paſſive nature, muſt be preſent otherwiſe than by operation. See God. content with what we give them. The impregnated ovum of VEGETABLE, VEGETABILE, in Phyfiology, a term applied every animal, after it has paſſed down the Fallopian tube, and fixed to all plants, conſidered as capable of growth, i.e. to all natural bo itſelf to the bottom of the uterus, is found to contain the tender em- dies which have parts organical, formed for generation and accre bryo within two membranes called chorion and amnion. In this tion, but not ſenſation. See PLANT. In vegetables, there is ſup ſituation the embryo could not long, ſubſiſt without a ſupply of poſed to be a principle of life, coramonly called the vegetative foul; nouriſhment. Nature has, therefore, beſtowed upon it a placenta ſee alſo VEGETATIVE. The vaſcular ſtructure of vegetables is ren and umbilical chord, through which the blood and juices of the dered very apparent byan experiment of Mr. Willoughby. Cutting mother are tranſmitted, for its preſervation and increaſe: Seeds are off ſome pretty big branches of birch, and making a ſort of bafon, diſpoſed by providence nearly in the ſame manner ; they have two or reſervoir, on the end thereof, with foft wax; upon filling this coverings, anſwering to the chorion and amnion, and two lobes, with water, and holding the branch upright, the water, in a few which perform the office of the placenta. Theſe lobes conſtitute minutes, ſunk into the veſſels of the wood, and running quite through the body of the ſeed, and, in the farinaceous kinds, they are the the length, dropped out conſiderably faſt at the other end; continiu Aower of the grain. Innumerable ſmall veſſels run through the ing fo to do as long as the water was poured on. The fame fuc fubſtance of the lobes, which, uniting as they approach the ſeminal ceeds, in a ſycamore, walnut-tree, &c. though the flux here is not plant, form a ſmall chord to be inſerted into the body of the grain. fo copious. Phil. Tral. No.70. In a dietetical view, it is to be Through this the nutriment ſupplied by the placenta or lobes is obferved, that greens as well as fruit are but a flatulent diet, and conveyed for the preſervation and increafe of the embryo plant. therefore ought to be eaten with moderation in bilious diſorders. Here it may be obſerved, that the lobes of farinaceous grains are However, on account of their antiſeptic quality, they are eſteemed fixed in the earth; they are, therefore, improperly termed SEMINAL good for preventing putrid and contagious diſeafes. Pringle, Obſer. leaves, being rather the placenta or cotyledons of the plant. On on the Diſeaſes of the Army, p. 210. 294. Vegetables, according the contrary, vegetables that have an oily feed, as rape, hemp, line, to the analyſes made of them by chymiſtry, are diſtinguiſhable into and turnip, carry their lobes upward, and ſpread them upon the two grand tribes, the acid and the alkaline : the firſt affording a furface in the form of broad leaves. Thefe, though they perform volatile acid, and the ſecond a volatile alkali, upon a dry diſtillation: the office of a placenta, are properly feminal leaves. See the ar- thus guaiacum, cedar, box, cinnamon, cloves, forrel, mint, baum, ticle Seed. &c. afford an acid ; but garlick, leeks, onions, horſe-radilh, fcurvy. Toilluſtrate the ſubject of vegetation, let us take a view of what graſs, muſtard, &c. afford an alkali, which, when rectified, is hardly happens to a bean, after it has been committed to the earth. In diſtinguiſhable from that of animal ſubſtances, fo as nearly to re a few days, ſooner or later, according to the temperature of the ſemble the ſpirit and ſalt of hartſhorn. For the analogy between weather and diſpoſition of the ſoil, the external coverings open at the animal and vegetable world, ſee Plants, and VEGETATION one end, and diſclofe to the naked eye part of the placenta or body infra. Alſo ſee the Syſtem of BOTANY, Sect. III. and the Syſtem of the grain. This ſubſtance conſiſts of two lobes, between which of CHYMISTRY, Part IV. the ſeminal plant is ſecurely lodged. Soon after the opening of VEGETABLE Salt. In the Philofophical Tranſactions we have the membrane, a ſharp pointed body appears, which is the root. ſome very curious proceſſes and obſervations, by Redi, on the ſub By a kind of principle which ſeems to bear foine appearance of in- ject of the ſalt of vegetables. Burn any wood, herb, fruit, or flower ftinct, it ſeeks a paffage downward, and fixes itſelf into the ſoil. to alhes; make a ley with theſe alhes with common water, not At this period the root is a ſmooth and poliſhed body, and has, per- heated ; filtre this through paper till it is clear as rock water; then haps, but little power to abſorb any thing from the earth, for the nu- evaporate this ley to a proper degree in a balneum Mariæ, in a glaſs triment of the germ. The two lobes now begin to ſeparate, and veſlel. This degree of evaporation muſt be carefully obſerved, ac the germ, with its leaves, may be plainly diſcovered. As the germ cording as the congelation of the ſalt is intended to be haſtened or increaſes in fize, the lobes are farther feparated, and the tender retarded. In the common way of evaporating lixiviums of this leaves, being cloſely joined, puſh themſelves forward in the form of kind in earthen veſſels over a naked fire, a great quantity of the ſalt a wedge. Theſe leaves take a contrary direction to the root. is always loft ; part of this is carried off with the vapours raiſed They ſeek a paſſage upward; which having obtained, they lay alide too haſtily in this manner, and part penetrates the ſides and bottom their wedge-like form, and ſpread themſelves in an horizontal direc- of the veſſel, though it be ever ſo well glazed. The quantity of water tion, as being beſt adapted for receiving the rains and dew. neceſſary, is, in moſt caſes, about five pints to two pounds weight of The radicle, every hour increaſing in ſize and vigour, puſhes itſelf the athés. After all the ſalt that can be got is extracted by this ope deeper into the earth, from which it now draws ſome nutritive par- ration, the alhes, being calcined again in a kiln, will afford more ticles. At the fame time the leaves of the germ, being of a ſuccu- falt of the ſame kind, but in a much ſmaller quantity. lent nature, aſſiſt the plant by attracting from the atmoſphere ſuch VEGETATION, VEGETATIO, the act whereby plants and particles as the tender veffels are fit to convey. Theſe particles, other living bodies, receive nouriſhment, and grow. Plants, we however, are of a watery kind, and have not in their own nature a learn from the microſcope, conſiſt of different parts, veſſels, &c. ſufficiency of nutriment for the increaſing plant. Vegetables, as analogous to thoſe of animals : and each kind of veſſel is ſuppoſed well as animals, during their tender ſtate, require a large ſhare of to be the vehicle of a different humour, or juice, fecreted from the balmy nouriſhment. As ſoon as an animal is brought into life, the maſs of ſap ; which is conſidered as the blood, or common fund of milk of its mother is ſupplied in a liberal ſtream, while the tender them all. Dr. Grew affigns the offices of the ſeveral veſſels: thoſe germ ſeems only to have the crude and watery juices of the earth for placed on the inner verge of the bark, he calls lympheducts, and its ſupport. This, however, is not the cafe ; for the vegetable lives ſuppoſes them deſtined for the conveyance of the moſt aqueous or upon a ſimilar fluid, though differently ſupplied. For its uſe the watery liquor : theſe Mr. Bradley calls the new forming veſſels, farinaceous lobes are melted down into a milky juice, which, as long which are annually produced, and help to increaſe the bulk of the as it laſts, is conveyed to the tender plant by means of innumerable tree. Thoſe in the middle of the bark, Dr. Grew calls lactiferous, finall veſſels, which are ſpread through the ſubſtance of the lobes. or reſiniferous veſſels ; their uſe, according to Bradley, is to return Theſe veſſels uniting into one common trunk, enter the body of the the ſuperfluous fap; theſe veſſels, Grew obſerveş, are the principal germ, and perform the office of an umbilical chord. Without this viſcera of plants; and adds, that as the viſcera of animals are but ſupply of balmy liquor, the plant muſt inevitably have periſhed, its ſuch veſſels conglomerated, ſo the veſſels of a plant are viſcera roots being then too ſmall to abſorb a ſufficiency of food, and its drawn out at length. The proceſs of nature in the vegetation of body too weak to aſſimilate it into nouriſhment. plants is very accurately delivered by the excellent Malphigi, and Turnips, and all the tribe of braſſicas, in oppoſition to the legu- others, to the effect following. The ſeed of the plant, after it has minous and farinaceous plants, ſpread their ſeminal leaves upon dropt from the ovarium, called the pod or huſk, may be conſidered the ſurface; theſe leaves contain all the oil of the feed, which as an impregnated ovum, within which the embryo plant is ſecurely when diluted with the moiſture of the atmoſphere, forms an emul- lodged. The egg or ſeed of the plant being excluded out of tion of the moſt nouriſhing quality ; and on account of its ſweat- the ovary, and requiring further foſtering and brooding, is con neſs, the ſeminal leaves are greedily devoured by the fly. A grain mitted to the earth; which having received it into her fertile boſom, of wheat, as ſoon as the germ has made its appearance, ſhews the not only does the office of incubation by her own warm vapours milky liquor to the naked eye; but the umbilical chord with its and exhalation, joined with the heat of the ſun, but by degrees ramifications, can only be diſcovered by the niceſt glaſſes. As the ſupplies what the feed requires forits further growth; as abounding plant increaſes in ſize, the balmy juice diminiſhes, till at laſt every where with canals and finuſes, wherein the dew and rain it is quite exhauſted. The umbilical chord then dries up, and the water, impregnated with fertile ſalts, glide, like the chyle and blood external covering of the grain appears connected with the root in in the arteries, &c. of animals. In a few days after it has been the form of a ſhrivelled rag. In the proceſs of vegetation, there committed to the earth, we may diſcern the rudiments of the future is no mortality; from the moment that the feed is lodged in its pa- plant. Every part appears to exiſt in miniature. The nutritive rent earth, the vegetative ſoul begins its operations, and in the juices of the ſoil inſinuate themſelves between the original particles whole ſucceſſive gradation of them illuſtrates the wiſdom, power, of the plant, and bring about an extenſion of its parts; and this is and bounty of providence. It is worthy of obſervation, that fari- called the growth of the vegetable body; with regard to this in- creaſe by addition and extenſion, there ſeems to be a great analogy naceous vegetables and oviparous animals are nouriſhed in their tender ſtate, nearly in the fame manner. The embryo plant is between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Every one knows ſupported by the farina melted down into a milky liquor, and con- that animals; inſtead of being ſtrengthened, are enfeebled by a ſup- veyed into its body by means of an umbilical chord, at a time ply of improper nouriſhment. This caſe is the ſame with regard to when the radicle was unable to ſupply a fufficiency of nutriment, vegetables ; but with this difference, that animals refuſe whatever An oviparous animal from the time that it is brought into light, ſeemns V EN V EN note. GETATION. ز ſeems to receive all its nouriſhment from without; but this is only two fexes. It takes it name from Venus, the ſuppoſed deity of the in appearance. The yolk of the The yolk of the egg, remaining entire during in- paffion of love. cubation, is received into the body of the animal, and in a man VENERY alſo denotes the arts or exerciſe of hunting wild beaſts; ner ſimilar to the paſſage of the milky juice of the vegetable, is which are alſo called beaſts of venery, and beaſts of the foreſt . Such flowly conveyed into the veſſels of the tender chick: and thus a are the hare, hart, hind, boar, &c. ſweet nouriſhment is prepared at a time when neither the induſtry VENTER, belly, in Anatomy, a cavity in the body of an animal, of the animal , nor the attention of its mother, could have procured containing viſcera, or other organs, neceſſary for the performance a ſuſficient ſupply. Evelyn's Sylva, by Dr. Hunter, p. 33, &c. of divers functions. Phyſicians divide the human body into three Hales's Statics, vol. i. and Miller's Gard. Dict. art. VE venters, regions, or cavities: the firſt, the HEAD, containing the For other particulars reſpecting the vegetation of brain, &c. The ſecond, the BREAST, or THORAX, as far as the plants, ſuch as their nature, anatomy, ceconomy, generation, nu diaphragm, containing the organs of reſpiration. The third, which trition, &c. ſee the Syſtem of BOTANY, Sect. II. is what we more commonly call the venter, or belly, is that wherein As to the manner in which vegetation is effected, very little can the inteſtines and the organs of generation and digeſtion are con- be ſaid. That heat, air, and light are neceſſary for this purpoſe, is tained ; this is called, by anatomiſts, the ABDOMEN. For defcrip- known to every one ; but in what manner they act, ſeems to be tion of theſe ſeveral parts, ſee the Syſtem, Part III. and IV. with the totally undiſcoverable by us. The loweſt degree of vegetation ſeems Plates annexed. to be that of the cryſtallization of falts. This indeed has ſcarce VENTRICLE, ventriculus, q. d. little belly, in Anatomy, a been allowed really to be a vegetation, though it certainly is owing diminutive of venter ; ſignifying a cavity ſmaller than what we to the ſame cauſes. Whether cryſtallization will ſucceed in vacuo, expreſs by a venter; or, rather a diviſion of a venter ; or ſome ſmal- indeed, has not been determined; but it certainly may go on ler cavity contained in a larger. There are two cavities in the heart, without light, and in much lower degrees of heat than thoſe in adjoining to the auricles, and four in the brain, called ventricles. which any vegetable will grow. Light, indeed, ſeems not ab The right ventricle of the heart, relaxing, admits the blood, by folutely neceſſary to vegetation; for the roots of all plants the right auricle, from the cava ; and, in contracting, drives it out grow below ground, where they are very much deprived of into the pulmonary arteries; the left, receiving the blood by the left light. This element ſeems only neceſſary for giving a green auricle, from the lungs, drives it out into the aorta. See the Syſtem, colour to the upper part of vegetables, and perhaps ſtrength- Part V. Sect. III. and Plate VII. ening them, ſo that they can better bear the inclemency and changes VENUS, in Aſtronomy, one of the inferior planets ; denoted by of the weather. But whatever may be the differences between the the character 2. Venus is eaſily diſtinguiſhed by her brightneſs powers which produce vegetation and thoſe of cryſtallization, water and whiteneſs, which exceed that of all the other planets; and is the medium by which only both can act : for if a falt is which is ſo conſiderable, that in a duſky place, ſhe projects a ſen- perfectly dry, it will not cryſtallize, more than a feed will grow ſible ſhadow. Her place is between the earth and Mercury. in dry land or duft. Some kinds of chryſtallization indeed re- For a particular deſcription of this planet, ſee the Syſtem, ſemble vegetation ſo much, that we ſcarce avoid aſcribing them Sect. VIII. to the fame cauſe. Of theſe the moſt remarkable is the arbor Venus, in Mythology, the goddeſs of love, is repreſented by the Dianæ, or compound of nitrous acid and ſilver. Several curious poets, painters, and ſtatuaries of antiquity, in a variety of alluring cryſtallizations, or vegetations, as they are called, may alſo be formed forms : with her hair ſometimes, waving over her naked ſhoulders, with other metals ; but that which moſt of all reſembles a true ve and ſometimes negligently tied behind in golden treſſes ; with a getation, is the caput mortuum of Glauber's ſpirit of nitre. This is mantle, exhibiting all the colours of the rainbow and glittering a combination of very pure vegetable fixed alkali with vitriolic acid. with diamonds, ſometimes flowing looſely, and at other times If the latter has been employed in the diſtillation, and the maſs bound with a girdle or belt, called CESTUS, of which it is ſaid that, is ex coſed to a moiſt air, a great number of cryſtillizations will in eo deliramenta omnia incluſa erant ; ubi inerat amor, inerat defi- take place on the ſurface, exactly reſembling the vegetations of derium, inerat et amantium colloquium itinerat et blanda loquentia fome kinds of ſhrubs. See CRYSTALLIZATION, PLANT, &c. quæ furtim mentem prudentium ſubripit: accompanied by the two VEGETATIVE, a term applied to that principle, or part, in Cupids, the three Graces, and followed by the beautiful Adonis, plants; by virtue whereof they receive nouriſhment, and grow, or who held up her train ; and riding in a chariot of ivory, finely vegetate. The philoſophers ſpeak of three kinds of ſouls, the ve carved and beautifully paintedand gilt, and drawn by ſwans, doves, getative, ſenſible, and rational. See SOUL. or ſwallows. She is ſometimes exhibited like a young virgin ariſing The vegetative foul is that principle whereby trees and plants from the ſea, and riding in a ſhell ; at other times with a ſhell in live, grow, and produce their kinds. This vegetative principle is her hand, and her head crowned with roſes; fonetimes with a differently ſeated, in different plants: an ingenious author obſerves, mirror in her hand, and golden ſandals and buckles on her feet; that, generally ſpeaking, its place is exactly between the trunk ſometimes with poppy in one hand, and an apple in the other; and and root; at leaſt this appears to be the place in moſt of the an at Elis ſhe was repreſented as treading on a tortoiſe ; the tortoiſe nual tribe ; which if cut down near this place, rarely ſhoot again. being an emblem of reſerve and modeſty. We ſhall only add that, In other vegetables, as the elm, and many edible plants, it ſeems Venus is ſometimes deſcribed by the poets of the third age under to relide wholly in the roots ; which, if cut into ever ſo many the character of the goddeſs of jealouſy, rather than as the goddeſs parts, yet thoſe being planted in the ground, ſoon grow. In of love; in which Valerius Flaccus (Argon. ii. v. 106.) and Statius others, as the willow kinds, it ſeems to be diffuſed all over the root, (Theb. v. v. 69.) have drawn two very terrible pictures of her. trunk, and branches; inſomuch, that if cut into a thouſand pieces, Spence’s Polymetis , p. 74, there is no deſtroying them without ſplitting them in the middle ; VENUS di Medicis, in the hiſtory of ancient ſculpture, a famous and ſcarcely then. Laſtly, in others as the cereuſes, ficuſes, &c. ſtatue of white marble, about five feet high, brought from the Me- it is ſeated in the body, branches, and leaves ; any of which, being dicis palace at Rome to Florence, by order of duke Coſmo III. put into the ground, ſtrike root immediately, and grow. The and now ſtanding in the great duke's palace. The hips, legs, and office of this vegetative principle is to concout the nutritive matter arins, were broken off by the removal of this ſtatute ; but they have which is imbibed by the roots and flowers, and to aſſimilate it to been rejoined with an art, that renders their former ſeparation im- the nature of the plant. perceptible. The inſcription on the baſe intimates that this was VEIN; VENA, in Anatomy, a name given to ſeveral veſſels or the work of Cleomenes, an Athenian, the ſon of Apollodorus ; the canals, which receive the blood from the divers parts of the body right knee advances a little, the left hand is placed before that part , ; to which the arteries had conveyed it from the heart ; and carry it back to the heart again. For the particular deſcription of the Vas which diſtinguiſhes the ſexes, and the right acroſs her breaſts : yet CULAR Syſtem, ſee the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part V. through- without touching the body. The head inclines a little to the left out, and Plate V. ſhoulder ; ſo that her face ſeems to be turned away a little from the VELOCITY, in Mechanics, ſwiftneſs ; that affection of motion, obſerver; and from this circumſtance ſome have taken occaſion to whereby a moveable is diſpoſed to run over a certain ſpace in a remark, that the air of the head of this Venus expreſſes three dif- certain time. It is alſo called ÇELERITY, and is always propor ferent paſſions; as you firſt approach her, you perceive averſion or tional to the ſpace moved. See the Syſtem, Sect. II. and IV. ſee denial in her look; as you advance a ſtep or two nearer, ſhe ſhews alſo the articles ACCELERATION and MOTION. For VELOCITY compliance ; and one ſtep more to the right, it is ſaid, turns into a in Acouſtics denotes the motion of Sounds. For Sir Iſaac New little inſidious and inſulting ſmile; but Mr. Spence does not allow ton's calculation, ſee the Syſtem of ACOUSTICS, Sect. I. that this account is juſtified by the ſtatue itſelf . The attitude of VELOCITY, in Gunnery, denotes the velocity with which mili the Venus de Medicis is peculiarly graceful : that attitude may be tary projectiles iſſue from the piece by which they are diſcharged. deſcribed in two verſes of Ovid, Art. Am. v. 614. This is now known to be much more conſiderable than was for The bloom of youth, the pleaſing ſoftneſs of her look, and merly apprehended. For the method of eſtimating it, and the re her beauty and modeſty, ſeem to rival each other in the charms of her countenance, ſult of a variety of experiments, ſee the Syitem of ProJECTILES. Her perſon is ſomewhat plump, and the VENEREAL, ſomething belonging to VENUS. VENEREAL fleſh is ſo admirably executed, that it ſeems ſo ſoft as if it would diſeaſe, lues VENEREA, the French diſeaſe, foul diſeaſe, French pox, yield to the touch. Time has given to the white marble a yel- or great pox, is a contagious malady, contracted by ſome impure lowiſh hue, though ſtill in the ſun-ſhine it is almoſt tranſparent: humour generally received in coition; and diſcovering itſelf in her hair is brown, which may be no more than the faded gilding ulcers and pains about the genital, and other parts. For a copious not unuſual among the ancients. The head, which is ſaid to be too deſcription, with the prognoſis, and cure, ſee the Syſtem of ſmall in proportion to the other parts, is ſuſpected by ſome not to MEDICINE, Genus 59. have been executed by the ſame artiſt who made the body: this VENERY is uſed for the act of copulation, or coition, of the will ever be the ſtandard of female beauty and ſoftneſs: the breaſts are V E R V E R it is a proper, take are alſo the fineſt that can be conceived, ſmall, diſtinct, and delicate, privy verdict is either when the judge hath left or a ljourned ſuggeſting an idea of ſoftneſs, which no copies can imitate, and alſo the court: and the jury, being agreed in order to be delivered of firmneſs: from the breaſts, her ſhape begins to dinainiſh gradu from their confinement, obtain liberty to give their verdict privily ally down tɔ her waiſt; but with an exquiſite fineneſs of ſhape; the to the judge out of court: which privy verdict is of no force, un- Venus of Medici has what the Romans call corpus folidum, and the leſs afterwards affirmed by a public verdiet given openly in court : French t'e enbon-point ; and her waiſt in particular is not repre wherein the jury may, if they pleaſe, vary from their privy verdict. ſented as ſtinted by art, but as exactly proportioned by nature to all So that the privy verdict is indeed a mere nullity ; and yet the other parts of her body. There is alſo a tenderneſs and elegance dangerous practice, allowing time for the parties to tamper with the in every other part of her form : ſo that ſhe poffeffes all thoſe leſſer jury, and therefore very ſeldom indulged. But the only effectual and beauties which the poets have marked out in the female make; the legal verdict is the public verdict; in which they openly declare to teretes ſuræ (Hor. lib. ii. od. iv. ver. 21.) and the pes candidus (id. have found the iſſue for the plaintiff, or for the defendant ; and if lib. iv. od. i. v. 27.) and exiguus (Ovid. Am. lib. ii. el. iii. v. 7.) for the plaintiff, they aſſeſs the damages alſo ſuſtained by the plain- And one may well ſay of this ſtatue, what one of the perſons in tiff, in conſequence of the injury upon which the action is brought. Plautus's Epidicus (act v. ſc. 1.) ſays of a complete beauty : Sometimes, if there ariſes in the caſe any difficult matter of law, Ab unguiculo ad capillum ſummum, eft feftiviſima. the jury, for the ſake of better information, and to avoid the danger Though the Venus of Medici has not eſcaped cenſure, with re of having their verdict attainted, will find a ſpecial verdict ; which gard to the ſmallneſs of her head and hips, the largeneſs of the noſe, is grounded on the ſtatute Weſtm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 30 $ 2. And the depth of the partition along the vertebræ of the back, the length herein they ſtate the naked facts, as they find them to be proved, of her fingers, which, excepting the little finger on the right hand, and pray the advice of the court thereon; concluding conditionally, are without joints; and though in comparing the parts ſeparate, as that if upon the whole matter the court ſhall be of opinion that the the head, noſe, &c. of this ſtatue, with thoſe of others, the ſimilar plaintiff had cauſe of action, they then find for the plaintiff; if parts might be found, even of ſuperior workmanſhip; yet for ſuch otherwiſe, then for the defendant. *This is entered at length in a combination of beauties, the delicacy of ſhape and attitude, and the record, and afterwards argued and determined in the court at ſymmetry of the whole, it is univerſally allowed that the world doth Weſtminſter, from whence the iſſue came to be tried. not afford its equal. This incomparable ſtatue ſtands between two Another method of finding a ſpecies of ſpecial verdict, is when others, which in any other place would be eſteemed admirable the jury find a verdict generally for the plaintiff, but ſubject never- pieces: that on the right of the Venus de Medici is twice as big, theleſs to the opinion of the judge or the court above, on a ſpecial with the golden apple in her hand, and is c lled Venus Victrix : caſe ſtated by the counſel on both ſides with regard to a matter of the other by Hercules Ferrata, is diſtinguiſhed by the name of law : which has this advantage over a ſpecial verdict, that it is at- Venus Urania. Spence's Polymetis, p. 6, &c. Keyſler's Travels, tended with much leſs expence, and obtains a much ſpeedier deci- vol. i. p. 434. For a repreſentation of the Venus de Medicis, ſee fion; the poſtea being ſtayed in the hands of the officer of nifi prius Plate II. in the Treatiſe of Drawing; for its proportions and till the queſtion is determined, and the verdict is then entered for meaſurements in Drawing, according to Monſieur Audran, ſee the the plaintiff or defendant as the caſe may happen. But as nothing Treatiſe, Sect. III. appears upon the record but the general verdict, the parties are Venus, in Conchology, a genus of ſhells, belonging to the precluded hereby from the benefit of a writ of error, if disſatisfied ſecond order Bivalves. For the Characters of the genus and claf with the judgment of the court or judge upon the point of law; fification in general, ſee the Syſtem, Order II. Genus 10. which makes it a thing to be wiſhed, that a method could be deviſed Mount of Venus, Mons VENERIS, among Anatomiſts, is a little of either leſſening the expence of ſpecial verdicts, or elſe of enter- hairy protuberance in the middle of the pubes of women; occaſi- ing the caſe at length upon the poſtea. But in both theſe inſtances oned by the collection of fat under the ſkin in that place. See the the jury may, if they think upon themſelves to deter- Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XV. Art. 2. mine, at their own hazard, the complicated queſtion of fact and VERB, in Grammar, a word ſerving to expreſs what we affirm law; and, without either ſpecial verdict or ſpecial caſe, may find a of any ſubject, or attribute to it; or, it is that part of ſpeech, by verdict abfolutely either for the plaintiff or defendant. which one thing is attributed to another, as to its ſubject; as the In criminal caſes, the jury deliver in their verdict with the ſame words, is, underſtands, hears, believes, &c. ſee the Syſtem, Part I. forms as in civil caſes: only they cannot, in a criminal cale Chap. II. Sect. I. and Part II. Chap. III. Article 5, throughout. which touches life or member, give a privy verdict. But an open VERDEGREASE, VERDIGREASE, VERDEGRIS, or Ver verdict may be either general, guilty, or not guilty ; or ſpecial, ſet- DIGRIS, a kind of ruſt of copper, formed from the corroſion of ting forth all the circumſtances of the caſe, and praying the judg. copper by a fermented vegetable, and into a bluiſh green ſubſtance, ment of the court, whether, for inſtance, on the facts itated, it be of great uſe among painters for a green colour. The goodneſs murder, manſlaughter, or no crime at all. This is where they of verdigriſe is judged of fro:n the deepneſs and brightneſs of its co doubt the matter of law, and therefore chooſe to leave it to the de- lour, its dryneſs, and its forming, when rubbed on the hand with a termination of the court; though they have an unqueſtionable right little water or ſaliva, ſmooth paſte, free from grittineſs. Verdigrife of determining upon all the circumſtances, and finding a general is employed externally for deterging foul ulcers, and as an eſcharotic. verdict, if they think proper ſo to hazard a breach of their oaths : Hoffman recommends it particularly for deſtroying the callofities of and, if their verdict be notoriouſly wrong, they may be puniſhed, old fiſtulæ : tents of powdered verdigriſe, made up with ſaliva, or and the verdict ſet aſide by attaint at the ſuit of the king; but not at other liquids, not fat or oily, confume, he ſays, the hardeſt callus in the fuit of the priſoner. But the practice, heretofore in uſe, of three or four days, ſo as to render it completely ſeparable. A de fining, impriſoning, or otherwiſe puniſhing jurors, merely at the tergent ointment, called mel ÆGYPTIACUM, is prepared by boiling diſcretion of the court, for finding their verdict contrary to the di- five parts of verdigriſe in fine powder with fixteen of honey, and rection of the judge, was arbitrary, unconſtitutional, and illegal ; ſeven of vinegar, till reduced to a clear conſiſtence. The thinner and is treated as ſuch by Sir Thomas Smith 200 years ago ; who matter which floats on the top of this mixture, after ſtanding for accounted“ ſuch doings tɔ be very violent, tyrannical, and contrary ſome time, is generally uſed, unleſs it be required more acid, in which to the liberty and cuſtom of the realm of England.” For, as Sir caſe the thick part which has ſubſided is took up airong it. In the Matthew Hale well obferves, it would be a' moſt unhappy cafe for Edinburgh diſpenſatory, an ointment called unguentum ex ærugine, the judge himſelf, if the priſoner’s fate depended upon his directi- is directed, compoſed of white wax and reſin, each two ounces, olive ons :--unhappy. alſo for the priſoner ; for if the judge's opinion muſt oil one pint, and verdigriſe half an ounce. When theſe kinds of rule the verdict, the trial by jury muſt be uſeleſs. Yet in many in. applications are employed for venereal or other ulcerations in the ſtances, where, contrary to evidence, the jury have found the pri- mouth or tonfils, great caution is necefiary, left they ſhould paſs into foner guilty, their verdict hath been mercifully ſet aſide, and a new the ſtomach, in which caſe dangerous and even fatal conſequences trial granted by the court of king's bench; for in ſuch a caſe, as may enſue. Verdigriſe is rarely or never given internally. Some hath been ſaid, it cannot be ſet right by attaint. But there hath recommend it, in the doſe of a grain or two, as an emetic, which yet been no inſtance of granting a new trial, where the priſoner produces almoſt inſtantaneous effect, were poiſonous ſubſtances was acquitted upon the firſt. See Jury and TRIAL. have been taken, for the immediate rejection of them. But warm VERJUICE, a juice or liquor drawn from four grapes, or wild water, milk, and oils, are much leſs dangerous, and more proper. apples, unfit for wine, or cyder ; or from ſweet ones, while yet Lewis's Mat. Med. M Navier has lately evinced the falutary ef acid, or unripe. Its chief uſe is in fauces, ragouts, &c. though it is fects of liver of ſulphur, and particularly of liver of ſulphur of Mars, alſo an ingredient in ſome medicinal compoſitions; and is uſed by as an antidote againſt the poiſon of verdigriſe. Verdigriſe makes a the wax-chandlers to purify their wax. It has its name from a blue green colour in paint; but is generally uſed in yellow, which, large ſort of grape, called verjus, or bour delas ; which is ſaid never by a proper mixture, renders it a true green. It is bright when to grow perfectly ripe ; or rather, which in its utmoſt maturity is good ; but ſoon flies when uſed in oil. When diſſolved in vinegar, too auſtere and four to be uſed in wine : whence it is commonly it is uſed in water painting, and is more durable ; it may be alſo turned into verjuice ; though in France all unripe grapes are de- diſſolved in the juice of rue, and thus produces a fine full green co nominated verjus. There is alſo tolerable verjuice made of crabs, lour, equally fit for waſhing with that diffolved in vinegar. Verdi gathered and laid in an heap to ſweat, the ſtalks, &c. ſeparated ; griſe, with a decoction of logwood, ſtrikes a deep black, which they are then ſtamped, or ground, and the crab maſh put in a hair when diluted becomes a fine blue. VERDICT, (Vere dietum), is the anſwer of the jury given to bag; the juice ſqueezed in a preſs, then barrelled up cloſe, and ſet in a warm place to work for ten or twelve days. the court concerning the matter of fact, in any caſe civil or crimi VERMEOLOGY, or VERMEs, in the Linnæan ſyſtem, the nal, committed by the court to their trial and examination. In ſixth claſs in the animal kingdom. For its deſcription and claſſi- the law of England, a verdict is either privy or publiç. A fication, ſee the Article VERMEOLOGY, The VERMEOLOGY TI 1 INTRODUCTION. not only generically analagous to the animals themſelves, but has HIS part of natural hiſtory forms the fixth and laſt claſs of preſerved the diſtinctive characters of their habitations likewiſe, animals in the firſt diviſion of the ſyſtem of nature, called which is certainly the moſt ſcientific method; and though certain zoology, or the animal kingdom. The claſs vermes compriſes five perſons have taken the liberty to criticiſe the works of this won- orders, viz. 1. Inteſtina; 2. Molluſca; 3. Teſtacea; 4. Litho- derful man, they are as much inferior to him in brilliancy of wit phyta; and 5. Zoophyta. Theſe orders are divided into 80 ge- and ſolidity of judgment, as a glow worm is to the evening ſtar. nera, which are again fubdivided into 1166 ſpecies ; conſequently be perhaps ſo numerous as is commonly imagined; for this rea- The animals generally arranged under the order molluſca, may not to enter into a deſcription of all the generic and ſpecific characters of theſe numerous animals would lead us far beyond the limits of ſon; many of them may be inhabitants of ſhells, whoſe uſual abode our plan. Indeed was the ſpace allotted much more extenſive, we hold in an hoſtile manner, by animals more powerful than them- is in the depths of the ocean, and may have been forced from their ſhould have perſiſted in our preſent plan, as this is one of the claſſes of animal nature ſo little known and ſtudied; that to enter into a ſelves; and having eſcaped the enemy, have riſen to the ſurface, deſcription beyond that which is here adopted, it is apprehended and by the hardning nature of the air, may have acquired a tough- neſs to their ſkin, and likewiſe ſtrength ſufficient to float or ſwim, would prove unentertaining and tedious to the majority of our rea- ders from the multiplicity of ſpecies that would require conſidera- according to the ſeveral properties with which nature may have endowed them; in ſhort, their external appearance ſtrongly en- tion as well as the unintereſting nature of many of them. There- fore under this head we ſhall introduce general obſervations on the forces my opinion, and moſt eſpecially when we conſider, that the claſs and orders extracted from that valuable work of Mr. James generic character to thoſe inhabiting Thells, and that they all are animals of the molluſca bear ſo ſtrong a reſemblance in form and Barbut entitled, The Genera Vermium exemplified by various ſpe- capable of contraction and expanſion. The animals arranged cimens of the animals contained in the orders of Linnæus, which under this claſs, internally are endued with innumerable muſcles, from its merits will be highly entertaining to the readers. Thoſe who wiſh to purſue the ſubject further, we recommend to the which give them the peculiar property of increaſing or diminiſh- peru- ing their volume. fal of the above work, as being the moſt judicious ſyſtem, founded The gordius, a genus of the firſt order, pierces through the clay, on the baſis of Linnæus, and ſuperior to any of the kind yet extant. with the ſame facility, as a fiſh does the water, and by which per- OBSERVATIONS ON THE CLASS, ORDERS, AND GENERA. forations are made for the water to paſs through, and form ſprings; others of the fame genus inſinuate themſelves in the muſcles of The animals of this claſs are diſtinguiſhed by having the heart the eaſtern traveller, while ſome infeſt the livers of the herring, with one ventricle, and no auricle, and a cold, colourleſs fanies, and freſh water pike. The aſcaris penetrates the putrefying roots and they are particularly diftinguiſhed from inſects which are an of plants, and the human inteſtines. The lumbricus bores the tennated, by being tentaculated. They are of a ſlow progreſſive earth and ſands of the ſea, and is an excellent bait for fiſhing. motion, ſoft ſubſtance, able to encreaſe their volume; very tena- The faſciola feeds on the livers of ſheep, and is often vomited up cious of life; they renew their ſkin, are hermaphroditical, fond of by them in brooks where they drink, and in all probability occa- moiſture, have neither head nor feet, and niay be known by their fions the rot, or no doubt ſome diſorder, not leſs fatal to theſe tentacula or feelers. By the ancients they were not improperly harmleſs uſeful animals; may they not be the occaſion of the ſpots called imperfect animals, as being deſtitute of head, ears, noſe, which we often ſee in their livers? The fiphunculus lodges under feet, and for the moſt part of eyes; therefore totally diſtinct from the rocks, and through its tubular mouth, takes in with the ſea inſects, between whom Linnæus has long ſince exploded the clan water the minute animalcula, which conſtitute its nouriſhment, deſtine union of nature: they are inteſtine, ſoft, teſtaceous, li- ſquirting out again the uſeleſs water. Leeches, though great thophyte, and zoophyte. The inteſtine, formerly called earthy, plagues to fiſh and animals on which they fix, are yet productive by help of the great fimplicity of their frame, bore holes through of great good, when medicinally applied to draw off the infpiflated every thing. The gordius perforates clay, to make a paſſage for blood. The myxine enters the mouth of the poor captive fih, the water; the lumbricus the earth, left it ſhould be ſpoiled by in when caught by a night line, devours its whole inſide, and leaves action; the myxine dead bodies, to effect their diſſolution; the te the bare ſkin as the fiſhermen's prey. The ſlug, a genus of the redo wood, to its deſtruction; as the pholades and ſtone-pene- | ſecond order, conſumes the roots and leaves of plants, trees, &c. trating mytili do in rocks, to bring on their diſſolution. The mol but affords food for many birds, as ravens, rooks, &c. and the luſca or ſoft, are naked, provided with arms, for the moſt part in amber ſlug has been recommended in conſumptive caſes. The habit the ſea, ſhine in the open air, and being of a phoſphorous laplyſia, wrapped round as it were with a cloak, is protected by nature, they, as ſo many lamps, illuminate the darkſome deep, ſo the qualities nature has endowed it with, both on account of its that the nether parts reſemble the vaſt expanſe above. The teſ foetid ſmell, and the painful tingling which follows the touch, tacea are ſoft worms that carry their habitations with them, being feeds on ſea weeds, and is greedily devoured by the porpoiſe. provided with a ſmall houſe made of lime. They are oppoſed to Thus it plainly appears, that whatever poiſonous qualities fome inſects by the number of their ſpecies which ſporting nature mul animals may poſſeſs, with regard to mankind, they may never- tiplies in great varieties. theleſs be harmleſs and even nouriſhing food to other creatures; Lithophytes, are ſoft compoſite animals affixed to and inhabiting for a failor happening to take a laplyſia in the Mediterranean, it ſhells. The ancients judged theſe corals to be plants petrified by gave him ſuch inſtantaneous and excruciating pain, as to cauſe an the contact of the air; to the moderns, they appeared to be ſtones inflammation, and the poor man loſt his arm; and ſo ſenſible are growing from their own proper ſeed; eſpecially on account of their the fiſhermen of the poiſonous quality of the mucus, which oozes calcareous nature, till the induſtry of Marſiglius drew out of the from its body, that they will not on any account touch it. ſea corals vegetating with octandrous octopetalous flowers, which The doris is furniſhed with eyes in the manner of the land ſnail, contracted when expoſed to the air, and expanded again in the wa trails among the rocks, feeds on weeds, corallines, &c. and falls ter: but at the ſame period Peyſonel makes corals to conſiſt of ani a prey to crabs, ftar fiſh, the cuttle, &c. This genus accords malculæ. Above a century after this opinion was received among with the limax in motion, and the animals belonging to it, fold- the Sages of India. Tremblaus firſt ſaw in them water ſnakes, ing themſelves up, when at reſt. The aphrodita, remarkable for in which he would have ſcarce been regarded, had he not diſcovered the beauty of the velvetty down, which adorns the whole genus, them to the admiration of every one, and brought to the ſhore a crawls among the rocks, by the aſſiſtance of its feet, fimilar in concourſe of curious perſons, whereby, with the help of Ellis's conſtruction to thoſe of the caterpillar tribe, exiſts upon ſmall ſhell invention, a way was opened to the corals. Zoophytes, are compo fiſh, and in its turn, becomes delicious food to many of its marine fite animals placed in the medium between animals and vegetables, neighbours. moſt of them taking root, grow in ſtalks, multiplying life in their The nereis contains animals of various ſize, ſome inviſibly mi- branches, in their buds which decay, and in the metamorphoſe of nute, yet afford ſubſiſtence to many finall marine animalcula; their animated bloſſoms which move ſpontaneouſly, and turn to fe thoſe lodge in the interſtices of the ſcales of fiſhes, and perhaps exiſt miniferous bags, as if plants were zoophytes, deſtitute of ſenſe and on the mucous matter which oozes from their bodies; others of motion, and zoophytes were real plants but with a nervous ſyſtem, greater magnitude, enter the tubular lodging of the ſerpulæ and and endowed with organs of fenſe and motion. My opinion, ſays | teredines, and deſtroy the inhabitants thereof; while the giant ne- Pliny, is that they have a ſenſe which is neither that of animals reis, the largeſt of this tribe, bores holes in the piles driven down nor of vegetables, but a third nature compounded of the two, and in the ſea, and thereby undermining the work, effects its deſtruc- that therefore vegetables by a natural transformation are to be tion. Theſe animals bear a ſtrong reſemblance in form to the changed into animals. For a deſcription of theſe animals, as viewed land Juli. by the microſcope, ſee MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS, Plate I. and its We now take a a ſtep rather remote from animals of a more explanation. active nature, when we enter upon a view of the Aſcidia; an ani- When we conſider the ſtation of animals which inhabit the deep, mal, whoſe functions are ſo extraordinary, as to appear only a few we need not wonder that this part of nature has not been thoroughly degrees removed from marine plants, conſtantly affixed to ſome illuſtrated. Innumerable figures of their habitations have been body; its motion is imperceptibly flow, ſcarce making one inch in correctly delineated, but many of the inhabitants are not ſuffici ſome hours, therefore never recedes far from its native ſpot; its ently known. By this it may appear that our naturaliſts have life is taken up, in continually receiving in its body the ſea water, been greater painters than philoſophers; ſave the inimitable Ar and ſquirting it out again; the internal ſtructure of the animal's genville, whoſe knowledge and labour adorn the age and country mouth, is furniſhed with a number of minute papillæ, by which which gave him birth. The immortal Linnæus, with infinite means it preſerves from eſcape, in the act of ejecting the water, thoſe judgement, has exhibited an arrangement of the teſtaceous animals, animalcula, which conſtitute its nouriſhment. The actinia affixes itſelf Nº 146. Vol. III. 5 E VERMEOLOGY. itſelf by a kind of peduncle, to rocks, oyſters, &c. and diſplays its with which it is fet, fall off, and leave naked the avenues and floreſcent head, in ſuch manner as more to reſemble a flower than numberleſs ſmall points, ſet in compartments over the bony in- an animal; the radii which adorn the head, are ſo many tentacula, cruſtation. It has been warmly diſputed by naturaliſts, whether the Echini by which the animal aſſumes and conveys its prey to its mouth, which is the center of the flower as it were; at times they affume Marini belonged properly to the cruſtaceous or the teſtaceous ani, ſuch various forms, as to be miſtaken for animals of a different mals; the determination is eaſy, they belong to neither: their cha- racteriſtics, the ſtructure of their bodies, and even the form, uſe genus. and intent of their ſeveral exterior parts, uſually comprehended un- The Tethys makes its abode in the depths of the ocean, af- fixing itſelf to the argillaceous bottom, or to rocks; lives upon der the term ſhell, are wholly different from thoſe of all other crea- ſea weeds, is preyed upon by lobſters, &c. Little is known of tures; and as ſuch are a diſtinct ſeries of animals by themſelves, this animal on account of its deep receſs, and very few have been and require to be arranged accordingly.) taken. Klein, who has been at great pains to arrange theſe bodies, has The Holothuria, beſet with innumerable tentacula all over its divided them into ſeveral genera, but they may be all conveniently belly, adheres by them to the bottom of the ſea, at the ſame time ranked under the two families of the Linnæan ſyſtem. agitating in ſearch of food the branchy tentacula which adorn its But nature has ornamented this creature in a moſt ſurpriſing head; and occaſionally affumes many ludicrous and groteſque manner; the fineſt ſculptor could not, with the moſt conſummate forms, which has cauſed naturaliſts to impoſe on them names not ſkill and labour, imitate its ornaments, with ſuch regularity, beauty, in the leaſt analagous to their nature. and numerous excreſcences; which are the joints to which their The Terebella, furniſhed as it were with an auger; pierces the ſpines are affixed, and made moveable by, all over the calcareous rocks, and conſigned by nature to its dark dwelling, reits in ſecu- covering; ſome are as it were, laid out in avenues, like unto a rity, till the hungry crab, with its cheliferous claw, drags him parterre, others are reticulated, in the manner of the moſt beauti- from his lurking place, and devours him. The Triton, inſerting ful and exact net-work, interſperſed with excreſcences of a minute its body in the holes of rocks, which lie concealed under water ; globular form. Some have their habitation round, others oval; and throws out its head and cheliferous tentacula, whereby it ſeizes again there are ſome that have them round, oblong, and Aat: as va- the unwary prey, which happens to crawl or ſwim within reach. rious are the forms of their ſpines; round, quadrangular, octagonal; But he has likewiſe many enemies to encounter, the crab, afterias, fome formed like briſtles, others like pillars belonging to a fine cuttle, &c. building. Their colour, when ſtripped of their ſpines, which foon The Lernæa affixes itſelf behind the gills of various fiſhes, and fall off after the animal's deceaſe, is beautifully various; ſome be- like the leech draws forth its nouriſhment by ſuction. The Scyl ing green, yellow, purple, red, brown; and others bluſhing with læa affixed by its back to the fucus floating in the ocean, under the tinge of the Tyrian dye. neath ſpreads out his foliate tentacula, and aſſumes ſuch food as Obſervations on teftaceous animals are far from being unenter- chance may throw in its way during the courſe of the voyage; but taining, and poſſeſs great fingularity in their endowment, every ge- the ſhark; porpoiſe, and other fiſh riot in its deſtruction. The nus having qualities peculiar to it. The ſplendor and durability of Clio, from its ſtructure, ſeems more calculated as a prey, than to their beautiful colours render them pleaſing ſubjects of admiration prey upon others. Nature therefore has provided it with a funnel in the cabinet. How are we ſtruck with amazement, when, on formed fheath, into which it withdraws itſelf when neceſſity traverſing the ſhores of iſlands, we obſerve ſome cloſely affixed and urges. cemented by means of a viſcous humour, which agglutinates them The Cuttle, ſo frequently a prey to turbot, and many other ma to rocks, wrecks, &c. while the animal is ſporting its tentacula rine animals, often eſcapes by blackening the water around with from the opening at the top in queſt of prey? Others we find bu- the liquor which Providence has furniſhed him with, and which he ried in rocks, ſtones, and woods, enlarging their habitations ac- ejects as occafion requires. He is not leſs voracious in his kind, cording to their growth, whoſe nutriment is the minute animalcula and is the deſtroyer of many weaker animals. Some of this ge- contained in the ſea-water, which they draw in by means of a tube, nus are of an alarining magnitude; and with their ſtrong tenta and reject it again at pleaſure. Behold the ſolen burying himſelf cula will pull a boat under water, if they are not cut off with an quickly in a directing perpendicular manner in the ſand, to elude axe; an inſtrument commonly carried by the Indians in thoſe ſeas the purſuit of its enemy, or travelling in the ſame manner to the where they frequent. ſurface in queſt of prey. View yon Tellina, how the embraces The Meduſa, a gelatinous ſubſtance, appearing like a lifeleſs the greater circumference of her ſhells with her muſcular foot, and lump of jelly, floating on the ſurface of the ocean, and plying un ſtriking the ground therewith, leaps to a certain diſtance. The derneath with its tentacula, embraces the ſmall fry, and devours Pectines likewiſe poſſeſs this quality. them: they are aggregate animals; and though they are ſaid to Behold the ſplendour of the Pectines which rival the glowing co- occaſion, when touched, the fame alarming ſenſation as the laply- lours of the papilionaceous tribe, as numerous as they are beautiful; fia, the ravenous ſhark, with malignant eye, darts ſide-leng at flirting from place to place, and may well be called the Papiliones them, and devours many of them at a mouthful. Theſe animals of the ocean. What ſuperior qualities do not the Pectines enjoy when dead foon diſſolve to a thin lucid water, and nothing ſub above the Oſtrea edulis, which, conſtantly confined to its native ftantial of them remains which leaves any traces of their former bed, ſeems wholly deſtined to afford food to other creatures, not animated ſtate. To examine the nature and property of theſe bea | having any means of defence but its ſhelly caſtle, which is fre- ings, it is neceſſary to preſerve them in a large glaſs filled with ſea quently attacked by its numerous enemies. This creature is not water, which ſhould be changed daily. The Actinia, Aſcidia, only uſeful to man as a dainty food, but the ſhell , being levigated and many others, might be inveſtigated by the ſame means, and into a ſubtile powder, is employed as an abſorbent in heart-burns much pleaſure and improvement in the knowledge of the ways of and other like complaints ariſing from acidities in the firſt paſſages : theſe creatures derived therefrom. the hollow ſhells are generally made choice of as containing more We are now come to the Aſterias; an animal apparently poſlef- | than the thinner Aat ones of the fine white earth, in proportion to ſing ſtronger animal functions and properties, than the preceding the outer rougher coat; which laſt is found to be conſiderably genus, though it's motion is ſlow, when we conſider the number | impregnated with ſea falt. The Pectines, by fome, are eſteemed of faſciculi which ſurround its rays, and ſerve the animal as feet, as delicious a food as the oyſter ; but though the generic character by which means it moves either ſide ways, backward or forward, of the hinge agrees in both, the animal inhabiting the Pectines is and in any direction the creature requires; with them it likewiſe very different from that of the oyſter; for which reaſon, Linnæus clings to the rocks, and preſerves itſelf from being daſhed about has divided the genus into ſections. by the tempeſtuous waves. They are likewiſe as tentacula to the The various endowments of theſe animals, complement of ten- animal with which it ſeizes its prey, and conveys it to the mouth; tacula, ways of life, and manner of procuring their ſubſiſtence, are their rays are of fo brittle a nature as eaſily to be broke off, but matters of entertainment; while they produce in the heart the ſub- in time they grow again, as the claws of crabs and lobſters do, lime reflection of the infinite wiſdom and power of the Moſt when loft. It ſubliſts on young crabs, ſmall ſhell-fiſh, &c. High, in enduing every animal with their neceſſary requiſites, and The Echinus is an extraordinary creature, though common; fixing the places of their abode according to the taſk and function, armed with ſpines, which ſerve the animal as feet, it moves in every he has been pleaſed to frame them for. Various are their purſuits; direction, and occaſionally throws out tentacula, with which it one preys on another; the inoſt numerous fall a prey to thoſe ani- grapples to the bottom of the ſea, at the approach of a ſtorm. Some mals which are more rare. Their increaſe and decreaſe are pro- of theſe animals have feet to the number of 2000, with which they portioned to their hazards, and the full complement of every ge- move in every direction; between the feet iſſue 12 or 1500 ſmall tentacula, the uſe of which ſeems to be that of reconnoitering the haps the firſt cauſe of our little acquaintance with this part of the nus is kept up to compleat every link in the chain of nature. Per- ground; and they are like to tackling, by the help of which they work of God, is in a great meaſure due to our pride, by looking caſt anchor during the violence of a tempeſt. As ſoon as theſe down with contempt or diſregard on animals, vainly in our ideas animals are ſeen to plunge and grapple at the bottom of the wa deemed worthleſs, by being far removed from us in their nature ter, there is a certainty of foul weather to come. and properties; but let us take a nearer view of them, and our The head of theſe animals is placed at the large aperture, admiration will encreaſe as our ignorance wears away; and the and armed with ſmall teeth. At Marſeilles, Sea Urchins are ſold mind will become illumined; ſo prolific indeed is nature in all her in the markets the ſame as oyſters, and the people do not open them works, ſporting with her amazing powers over all the creation, but with gloves on. They are eaten when full of eggs, boiled like and proving the vaſt ſource of wiſdom from whence her operations hens eggs. Cuſtom muſt reconcile one to this kind of food, which flow; that in the holy exultation of our hearts, we ſhall cry aloud, at firſt ſeems very difguftful. When the animal is dead, the ſpines O God, how wondrous are thy works! VER V E S TEUCH. 1 VERMICELLI, or VERMICHELLY, a kind of mixture pre back, and loins. For the origin, inſertion and uſes of theſe ſeveral pared of Aour, cheeſe, yolks of eggs, ſugar, and ſaffron; and reduced muſcles, ſee the Syſtem, Part II. Sect. II. Table, Art. 8, and 9. into little long pieces or threads, like worms, by forcing it with a For the firſt and ſecond layer of the muſcles of the vertebræ of the piſton through a number of little holes in the end of a pipe made for back, ſee Plate II. of ANATOMY, fig. 2, and 4, and its explana- the purpoſe. The word in the original Italian, ſignifies little tion. See alſo Plate III. fig. 2 and 4, and its explanation. worms; they alſo call it tagliarini and millefanti. It was firſt VERTEBRAL Vein, in anatomy, ariſes poſteriorly from the ſub- brought to us from Italy, where it is in great vogue. In effect, it is clavian or axillary, ſometimes by two ſtems, and ſometimes by one, the great regale of the Italians. Other nations are not eaſily which foon afterwards divides into two. See the Syſtem, Part V, brought to reliſh the taſte of it. It is chiefly uſed in foups and Sect. 1. and the fig. in Plate XII. letter O. pottages, to warm, provoke venery, &c. VERTEX, in anatomy, the crown of the head, or that upper- VĚRMICULAR, an epithet given to any thing that bears a re moſt and middle part ſituate between the ſinciput and occiput. lation or reſemblance to worms, vermiculi. Anatomiſts, particu- Hence, alſo, vertex is figuratively uſed for the top of other things. larly apply it to the motion of the inteſtines and certain muſcles of Thus the vertex of a cone, pyramid, conic ſection, &c. is the point the body. The vermicular, or periſtaltic motion of the inteſtines of the upper extremity of the axis, or the top of the figure. is performed by the contraction of the fibres thereof from above Vertex, in aſtronomy, the point of heaven perpendicularly downward; as the unnatural, or antiperiſtaltic motion, is by their over our heads, called the zenith. contraction from below upwards. The contraction happening in VERTICAL Circle, in aſtronomy, is a great circle of the ſphere, the periſtaltic, which others call the vermicular motion, as reſem paſſing through the zenith N, and the nadir S, and any other given bling the motion of worms, does not affect all the parts of the in point on the ſurface of the ſphere. The vertical circles are alſo teſtines at once; but one part after another. called azimuths. The meridian of any place is a vertical circle. VERMIFORMIS, in anatomy, a term applied to various parts All the vertical circles interſect each other in the zenith and nadir. in the human body; bearing ſome reſemblance to worms. Such See the Syſtem of ASTRONOMY, Sect. IX. and the Syſtem of are the Proceſſus, or Apophyſes VERMIFORMES, two extremi GEOGRAPHY, Plate II. fig. 1 and 2. ties of the cerebellum, ſituated near the fourth ventricle of the VERTICAL Plane, in perſpective. See the Syſtem, Sect. III. brain. Article DEFINITIONS. VERNAL, ſomething belonging to the ſpring ſeaſon. See VERTICAL Plane, in conics, a plane paſſing through the vertex SPRING. Hence, vernal leaves are thoſe leaves of plants, which of a cone, and parallel to any one conic ſection. Vertical line in come up in the ſpring, &c. conics, is a right line drawn on the vertical plane, and paſſing VERNAL Equinox. See EQUINOX. through the vertex of the cone. See the Syſtem of GEOMETRY, VERSE, in poetry, a line or part of a diſcourſe, conſiſting of a Part II. article CONIC SECTIONS. certain number of long and ſhort fyllables, which run with an agree VERTICITY is that property of the loadſtone whereby it able cadence; the like being alſo reiterated in the courſe of the turns or directs itſelf to ſome peculiar point. The attraction of the piece. This repetition is neceſſary to diſtinguiſh the notion of magnet was known long before its verticity. verſe from that of profe; for in proſe, as well as verſe, each period VERTIGO, in medicine, an indifpofition of the brain, wherein and member are parts of diſcourſe, conſiſting of a certain number the patient ſees the objects about him as if they turned round, and of long and ſhort fyllables ; only, proſe is continually diverſifying fancies he turns round himſelf: though he is all the while at reſt. its meaſures and cadences, and verſe regularly repeats them. See Phyſicians diſtinguiſh two kinds or rather two degrees of vertigoes. POETRY. The firſt, called ſimple vertigo, is when the body and external ob- VERSE is alſo uſed for a part of a chapter, fection, or paragraph, jects appear to turn round, without any great' dimneſs of ſight. ſubdivided into ſeveral little articles. The whole Bible is divided The other called ſcotomia, or vertigo tenebroſa, is when the eyes into chapters; and the chapters are divided into verſes. The five are alſo darkened, and, as it were covered with a miſt. Cauſes of books of the law are divided into fifty-four ſections. See PENTA vertigoes are a continued turning round of the body, drunkenneſs, The diviſion of verſes in the New Teſtament was firſt too long faſting, immoderate exerciſe, ſurprize, voracity, much uſe made by Robert Stephens; and ſo negligently was it done, that his of pulſe, onions, leeks, radiſhes, cabbage, muſtard, &c. and in ſon Henry Stephens afures us, he worked at it as he travelled general whatever may preſs, diſtend, or contract the arteries. The from Paris to Lyons. Many learned men find great fault with this firſt ſtep in the cure is bleeding in the jugular, or cupping; then diviſion, and yet it is every where followed. they proceed to an emetic; then a veſicatory on the neck, or a per- VERSIFICATION, the art or manner of making verſe; alſo petual bliſter, or iſſues, with fternutatories, and the other medi- the tune and cadence of verſe, Verſification is properly applied to cines that obtain in the apoplexy. what the poet does more by labour, art, and rule, than by invention, VESICULA, veſicle, a diminutive of VESICA; fignifying a and the genius, or furor poeticus. See POETRY. The matter of little bladder. The lungs conſiſt of veſiculæ, or lobules of veficulæ, verſification is long and ſhort fyllables, and feet compoſed of them; admitting air from the bronchiæ; and not only air, but alſo duſt, and its form is the arrangement of them in correct, numerous, &c. There are ſeveral parts in the body which bear this appella- and harmonious verſes; but this is no more than a mere tranſlator tion; as, may pretend to, and which the Catilinarian war, put in meaſure, VESICULE Seminales, in anatomy, are ſoft, whitiſh, knotted might merit. It is with reaſon, therefore, that theſe ſimple matters bodies, about three or four fingers breadth in length, one in breadth, are diſtinguiſhed from the grand poetry, and called by the name and about three times as broad as thick, ſituated obliquely between verſification. In effect, there is much the ſame difference between the rectum and lower part of the bladder, in ſuch a manner, as that grammar and rhetoric, as there is between the art of making their ſuperior extremities are at a diſtance from each other, and their verſes, and that of inventing poems. lower extremities united between thofe of the vaſa deferentia. See VERSION, a tranſlation of ſome book, or writing, out of one the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. XV. Art. I. and Plate X. upper Divi- language into another. For various verſions of the Scriptures, ſee fion, fig. 1. letters DD. See alſo GENERATION. SEPTUAGINT, and POLYGLOT. VESICULÆ Seminales. Theſe veſſels are very evident in fiſh; VERT, in heraldry, the term for a green colour. In engraving, the females of moſt fiſh have double ovaria, though in ſome they are it is expreſſed by diagonals, or lines drawn athwart, from right ſingle, as in the ofmerus, and perca fluviatilis of Bellonius; but the to left, from the dexter chief corner to the finiſter. See the Syl- veſiculæ ſeminales in the males are two in number in all fiſh, not tem, Sect. III. Plate II. excepting the males of theſe here mentioned. They differ, how- VERTEBRÆ, in anatomy, a chain of little bones, reaching ever, very much in regard to their figure and ſituation. See COM- from the top of the neck, down the back, to the os ſacrum; and PARATIVE ANATOMY, Chap. III. Sect. III. forming a third part of the human ſkeleton, called the ſpina dorſi. VESPER, in aſtronomy, called alſo Heſperus, and the evening For a particular deſcription, ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. III. Star, is the planet VENUS, when ſhe is eaſtward of the fun, and Art. I. and Plate I. fig. 2. letters e and c. conſequently ſets after him. See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. VERTEBRÆ of fiſh. The vertebræ of fiſh are extremely dif VESPERS, in the Romiſh church, evening Song ; that part of ferent in ſhape in the ſeveral kinds, and even vary in number in the office which is rehearſed after noon: anſwering to our evening the different ſpecies of the ſame genus. 'The anterior vertebræ in prayers; except that it differs more from the office of the morning, ſome have three apophyſes, as in the cyprini, eſoces, pleuronecti, called matins. &c. and in the clupex they have no leſs than ſeven of theſe apophy VESPERTILIO, the Bat, a genus of quadrupeds, belong- fes, but they are ſlender and capillary. For repreſentation of the ing to the order of primates. All the teeth are erect, pointed, near ſpine of a thornback, and water tortoiſe, ſee the Syſtem of COM each other; and the firſt four are equal. The fore-feet have the PARATIVE ANATOMY, Chap. III. Sect. II. Plate V. toes connected by a membrane expanded into a kind of wings, by VERTEBRAL Artery, in anatomy, is an artery that goes out which the creature is enabled to fly. There are many ſpecies ; of from the poſterior and upper ſide of the fubclavian, and runs up which the moſt remarkable are, the vampyrus, vampire, or Ternate through all the holes in the tranſverſe apophyſes of the vertebræ of bat, with large canine teeth; four cutting teeth above, the ſame be- the neck; ſending off little twigs, through the lateral notches of low; ſharp black noſe; large naked ears; the tongue is pointed, theſe vertebræ, to the medulla ſpinalis and its coverings, and giv-terminated by ſharp aculeated papillæ; talons very crooked, ſtrong, ing arteries to the vertebral muſcles and others near them. and compreſſed ſideways; no tail; the membrane divided behind See the Syſtem, Part V. Sect. I. and the Figure in Plate VIII. quite to the rump; head of a dark ferruginous colour; on the neck, letter R. Mouider, and under-ſide, of a much lighter and brighter red; on VERTEBRAL Muſcles, in anatomy, are thoſe which lie along the the back the hair ſhorter, duſky, and ſmooth; the membranes of ſpine, the greateſt part of which ferve for the motions of the neck, the wings duſky, They vary in colour; ſome being entirely of a reddifa VIC VIL par- par- reddiſh brown, others duſky. Theſe monſters inhabit Guinea, dial tithes whereof are impropriated, or appropriated; that is, be- Madagaſcar, and all the iſlands from thence to the remoteſt in the long either to a chapter, long either to a chapter, religious houſe, &c. or to a layman, Indian Ocean. They fly in flocks, and perfectly obſcure the air who receives them, and only allows the vicar the ſmall tithes, or a convenient ſalary, antiently called portio congrua. He is thus with their numbers; they begin their flight from one neighbouring iſland to another immediately on ſun-ſet, and return in clouds from called, quaſi vice fungens rectoris, as ſerving for, or in lieu of, the time it is light till ſun-rife . They live on fruits, and are ſo rectors who would be entitled to the great tithes. Hence, the fond of the juice of the palm-tree, that they will intoxicate them part or portion of the parſonage, allotted to the vicar for his main- ſelves with it till they drop on the ground. The Indians eat them, tenance and ſupport, or the promotion or living which he has un- and declare the fleſh to be very good: they grow exceſſively fat at der the parſon, is called a vicarage. The endowments have ulu- certain times of the year. The French who live in the Inle de ally been by a portion of the glebe, or land belonging to the Bourbon, boil them in their bouillon, to give it a reliſh. The ne fonage, and a particular ſhare of the tithes, called fmall , or vica- groes have them in abhorrence. Many are of an enormous fize: rial TITHES. Some, however, were more liberally, and fome Beckman meaſured one, whoſe extent from tip to tip of the wings more ſcantily endowed: and hence many things, as wood in was three feet four inches. Their bodies are from the ſize of a ticular, are in ſome countries a rectorial, and in ſome a vicarial pullet to that of a dove: their cry is dreadful, their ſmell rank, tithe. The diſtinction therefore of a parfon and vicar is this: their bite, reſiſtance and fiereeneſs great when taken. that the parſon has generally the whole of all the ecclefiaftical dues The noctule hath the noſe ſlightly bilobated: ears ſmall and in his pariſh; but a vicar has generally an appropriator over rounded; on the chin a minute verruca; hair reddiſh aſh-colour: him, entitled to the beſt part of the profits, to whom he is in extent of wings 13 inches. Inhabits Great Britain and France; effect a perpetual curate, with a ſtanding ſalary. Though in flies high in ſearch of food, not ſkimming near the ground. Bats ſome places the vicarage has been conſiderably augmented by a appear abroad in this country early in the ſpring; ſometimes they large ſhare of the great tithes; which augmentations were greatly are tempted by a warm day to fally out in the winter. They fly aſſiſted by the ſtatute 29 Car. II. cap. 8. enacted in favour of poor in the evenings, and live on moths and other nocturnal inſeats. vicars and curates, which rendered ſuch temporary augmentati- They fly by jerks, not with the regular motion of birds, for which ons, when made by the appropriators, perpetual. Blackít. Com. the ancients miſtook them. They frequent glades and ſhady places: book 1. p. 387. will go into larders and gnaw any meat they find. They bring VICE, in ethics, is ordinarily defined an elective habit, deviat- two young at a time, which they ſuckle at their breaſt. They re ing either in exceſs, or defect, from the juſt medium wherein vir- tire at the end of ſummer into caves, the eaves of houſes, and into tue is placed. It is called a habit, to diſtinguiſh it from ſin, which is ruined buildings, in vaſt multitudes, where they generally remain only an act: hence a ſin is looked upon as ſomething tranſient; and torpid, ſuſpended by the hind-legs, enveloped in their wings. a vice, as ſomething permanent. In the common uſe of the terms They are the prey of owls. Their voice is weak. Ovid takes no vice and fin, there is no ground for this ſubtle diſtinction. Vice, tice both of that and the origin of the Latin name. See the Syſtem as oppoſed to virtue, is better defined the diſagreement of the ac- of Mammalia, Plate I. Order I. Genus IV. Species 6. tions of any intelligent being with the nature, circumſtances, and VESSEL, a thing proper to hold or contain liquor. Thus a relation of things; hence called the moral unfitneſs of ſuch ac- tun or hogſhead, &c. are vefſels fit to contain ale, wine, &c. The tions. Some authors diſtinguiſh three ſtates of vice: the firſt incon- chymiſts uſe a great diverſity of veſſels in their operations. See tinentiæ, of incontinence, wherein a perſon fees and approves the CHYMICAL APPARATUS, in the Syſtem, and Plate annexed. good, but is hurried to evil by the violence of his paſſions. The VESSEL, among anatomiſts, &c. all the tubes or canals wherein ſecond intemperantie, of intemperance; wherein even the judg- the blood and other juices or humours, are ſecreted, conveyed, de ment is depraved and perverted; the third feritatis, of obduracy; poſited, &c. as the veins, arteries, lymphatics, ſpermatics, &c. are wherein the perſon is totally immerſed in vice, without any fenfe or called veſſels. See thoſe articles, in the Syſtem of ANATOMY, feeling thereof. under their reſpective heads. VICE, is alſo uſed in the compoſition of divers words, to denote Vessel, in navigation, is a general name common to all ſorts the relation of ſomething that comes inſtead, or in the place, of of ſhips ; i. e. all floating machines or vehicles that move in water; another. In this ſenſe the word is Latin, vice, ſtead, place, turn, &c; whether they are navigated on the ocean, or in canals and rivers. Vice-Roy, a governor of a kingdom, who commands therein in For the conſtruction of ſhips in general, and deſcription of the the name and ſtead of a king, with full and ſovereign authority, ſeveral important parts, ſee the Treatiſe on NAVAL AFFAIRS, Thus when Naples and Sicily were ſubject to Spain, vice-roys Sect. IV. throughout. For the Section of a firſt rate ſhip of war were ſent thither; and the name is now given to thoſe who govern from ſtem to ſtern, the repreſentation of a firſt rate ſhip of war with in Mexico and Peru. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland is ſometimes rigging, &c. alſo the fails and yards of a ſhip, ſee the Plate annexed called the vice-roy. to the Treatiſe. The name veſſel, however, is more particularly VICE verſa, a Latin phraſe frequently retained in Engliſh writ- applied to thoſe of the ſmaller kind, furniſhed with one or two ings; ſignifying as much as on the contrary. Thus, as the ſun mafts. mounts higher and higher above the horizon, inſenſible perſpiration VESTIBULE, in anatomy, denotes the fore-part of the laby- increaſes; and, vice verſa, as he deſcends lower it diminiſhes. rinth of the ear. The veſtibule is a ſmall cavity, of an irregular VIGNETTE, in the art of painting, is a French word, now form, placed immediately above the baſis of the ſtapes; between often uſed among Engliſh artiſts and writers, to denote the flouriſh the ſemicircular canals, and the cochlea. In it appear divers fora or ornament, placed at the beginning of a book, preface, or dedi- mina; as that of the feneſtra ovalis; the five foramina of the ſemi cation. Theſe vignettes or head-pieces are very various in their circular canals; that of the cochlea; and five other very ſmall form and fize. ones, through which ſo many nerves paſs. See the Syſtem, Part VILLAGE, VILLA, or Vill, an aſſemblage of houſes, inha- VII. Sect. IV. and Plate XI. fig. 6, letter G. bited chiefly by peaſants and farmers, having uſually a church, but VETCH, or Tare, a ſpecies of pulſe uſeful as fodder for cat no market. The want of a market diſtinguiſhes a village from a tle. See the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. VII. VIBRATION, in mechanics, a regular, reciprocal motion of VILLAIN, or VILLEIN, VILLANUS, in our ancient cuſtoms a body, e. g. a pendulum, which being ſuſpended at freedom, the ſame with Bondman: called alſo, in Doomſday-book, fervus, ſwings, or vibrates, firſt this way, then that. For the bob be- ſave. A villain was one who held lands in villenage, or on con- ing raiſed, falls again by its gravity; and with the velocity thus dition of rendering baſe ſervices to his lord. Under the Saxon acquired, riſes to the ſame height on the other fide; whence its government, there was, as Sir William Temple ſpeaks, a ſort of gravity makes it fall again; and thus its vibrations are continued. people in condition of downright ſervitude, employed in the moſt For the doctrine of pendulums reſpecting their vibrations, &c. fee ſervile works, and belonging, they, their children and effects, to PENDULUM. the lord of the ſoil, like the reſt of the cattle or ſtock upon it. The VIBRATIONS of a ſtretched Chord, or String, ariſe from Theſe ſeem to have been thoſe who held what was called the folk- its elaſticity; which power being of the ſame kind with that of land, from which they were removeable at the lord's pleaſure. gravity, the vibrations of a chord follow the ſame laws as thoſe of On the arrival of the Normans here, it ſeems not improbable, that pendulums; conſequently the vibrations of the fame chord equally they, who were ſtrangers to any other than the feodal ſtate, might ſtretched, though they be unequal in length, are equidiurnal, or give ſome ſparks of enfranchiſement to ſuch wretched perſons as are performed in equal times; and the ſquares of the times of the fell to their ſhare, by admitting them, as well as others, to the vibrations are among themſelves, inverſely, as the powers where oath of fealty, which conferred a right of protection, and raiſed the by they are equally bent, and and inflected : ſee CHORD. The tenant to a kind of ſtate ſuperior to downright ſlavery, but inferior vibrations of a ſpring, too, are proportionable to the powers to every other condition. This they called villenage, and the te- whereby it is bent; theſe follow the ſame laws as thoſe of the nants villains, either from the word vilis, or elſe, as ſir Edward Coke chord, or pendulum; and conſequently, are equidiurnal; which is tells us, a villa, becauſe they lived chiefly in villages, and were the foundation of ſpring-watches. For the vibration of ſounds, ſee employed in ruſtic works of the moſt fordid kind; hence they the Syſtem of Acoustics, Sect. I. were alſo denominated pagenſes and ruſtici. Theſe villains be- VICAR, VICARIUS, a perſon appointed as deputy of another longing principally to lords of manors, were either villains regar- to perform his functions in his abſence, and under his authority. dant, by the civilians called glebæ addicii or afcriptitii, that is an- The pope pretends to be vicar of Jeſus Chriſt on earth. He has nexed to the manor or land; or elſe they were in grofs, or at large, under him a grand vicar, who is a cardinal; and whoſe juriſdiction that is annexed to the perſon of the lord, and transferable from extends over all prieſts both ſecular and regular. one owner to another. They could not leave their lord without VICAR, in the canon law, denotes a prieſt of a pariſh, thepre- his permiſſion; but if they ran away, or were purloined from him, town. might V IN VIP might be claimed and recovered by action, like beaſts or other There was a famous vineyard at Bath, planted with white Muſca- chattels. They held indeed ſmall portions of land by way of fuf dine and black cluſter grapes, which at one time, yielded fixty taining themſelves and families; but it was at the mere will of the hogſheads of wine at a vintage, though, in 1721, it only yielded lord, who might diſpoſſeſs them whenever he pleaſed; and it was three hogſheads. Bradley alſo mentions a ſmall vineyard of a pri- upon villain ſervices, that is, to carry out dung, to hedge and ditch vate perſon at Rotherhithe, conſiſting only of a hundred vines, the lord's demeſnes, and any other the meaneſt offices; and their which yielded at a vintage ninety-five gallons of wine, that had ſervices were not only. baſe, but uncertain both as to time and the true Burgundy flavour, as being made of that ſort of grape, and quantity. exceeded any made on this fide of Paris. Mr. Miller apprehends, A villain could acquire no property either in lands or goods, but that renewed trials, conducted with judgment, might be attended if he purchaſed either, the lord might enter upon them, ouſt the with a ſucceſs beyond the expectations that are now generally en- villain, and ſeize them to his own uſe, unleſs he contrived to diſ tertained. With this view particular attention ſhould be given to poſe of them again before the lord had ſeized them; for the lord the ſoil, ſituation, &c. The beſt foil, he ſays, for a vineyard in had then loſt his opportunity. In many places alſo, a fine was England, is ſuch, whoſe ſurface is a light ſandy loam, and not payable to the lord, if the villain preſumed to marry his daughter above a foot and a half, or two feet deep, above the gravel or chalk: to any one without leave from the lord; and by the common law, the moſt deſirable ſituation is that on the north ſide of a river, upon the lord might alſo bring an action againſt the huſband for damages an elevation inclining to the ſouth, with a ſmall gradual deſcent in thus purloining his property. For the children of villains were for draining the moiſture; always open to the eaſt, defended from alſo in the ſame ſtate of bondage with their parents; whence they the north and north-weſt wind by hills with a chalky ſurface, and are called in Latin nativi, whence the female appellation of a vil ſurrounded by an open hilly country. lain, who was called a neife. In caſe of a marriage between a free VINOUS, vinofis, ſomething that relates to wine; or that has man and a neife, or a villain and a free-woman, the iſſue followed the taſte and ſmell thereof. All vegetables, by a due treatment, the condition of the father, being free if he was free, and villain if afford a vinous liquor; as corn, pulſe, nuts, apples, grapes, &c. he was villain; but no baſtard could be born a villain. The law, A ſecond fermentation, duly managed, turns any vinous liquor however, protected the perſons of villains, as the king's ſubjects, into an acetous one, The proper character and effect of fermen- againſt atrocious injuries of the lord; for he might not kill, or tations are, to produce either a vinous or an acetous quality in the maim his villain; though he might beat him with impunity, ſince body ferinented. See FERMENTATION. the villain has no action or remedy at law againſt his lord, but in VINTAGE, the crop of wine, or what is got from the vines caſe of the murder of his anceſtor, or the maiming of his own per each ſeaſon. The word is alſo uſed for the time or ſeaſon of ga- fon. Neifes indeed had alſo an appeal of rape, in caſe the lord thering, or preſſing the grapes. In France a decree or ordinance of violated them by force. the proper judge, and a folemn publication thereof, are acquired, Villains might be enfranchiſed by manumiſſion. Hence, and by before the vintage can be begun. other means, they gained in proceſs of time conſiderable ground on VIPER, vipera, in natural hiſtory, a kind of ſerpent, the coluber their lords; and in particular ſtrengthened the tenure of their eſtates verus of Linnæus, famed not only for the exceeding venomouſ- to that degree, that they came to have in them an intereſt in many neſs of its bite, which is one of the moſt dangerous poiſons in the places full as good, in others better than their lords. For the good animal kingdoin, but alſo for the great uſefulneſs of its fleſh in nature and benevolence of many lords of manors having, time out medicine; whence vipers come to make a conſiderable article in of mind, permitted their villains, and their children, to enjoy their the materia medica. The head of the viper is inflated, which diſ. poſſeſſions without interruption, in a regular courſe of deſcent, the tinguiſhes it from the common ſnake; the ſnout not unlike that common law gave them title to preſcribe againſt their lords; and, of a hog; the tongue is forked; the teeth, which are ſixteen in on performance of the fame ſervices, to hold their lands, in ſpite each jaw, ſmall and immoveable; beſides the four canine teeth, of any determination of the lord's will. For though, in general, which are placed two on each ſide the upper jaw, and are the in- they are ſaid to hold their eſtates at the will of the lord; yet it is ſuch ſtruments of poiſon; theſe are long, crooked, and moveable, and a will as is agreeable to the cuſtoms of the manor ; which cuſtoms are can be raiſed and depreſſed at pleaſure; theſe are hollow from near preſerved and evidenced by the rolls of the ſeveral courts-baron in the point to the baſe, near which is a gland that ſecretes, prepares, which they are entered, or kept on foot by the conſtant immemo and lodges the poiſon; and the ſame action that gives the wound, rial uſage of the ſeveral manors in which the lands lie. And, as forces from this gland, through the tooth, the fatal juice into it. ſuch tenants had nothing to ſhew for their eſtates but theſe cuſtoms, The viper has only one row of teeth; whereas many others of the and admiſſions in purſuance of them, entered on thoſe rolls, or the ſerpent kind have two ; its body is not at all fetid : whereas the copies of ſuch entries witneſſed by the ſteward, they, now began to inner parts of the bodies of other ſerpents are intolerably fo; it creeps be called tenants by copy of a court-roll, and their tenure itſelf a but ſlowly, and never leaps like other ſerpents; though it is nimble copy-hold. Copy-holders are, therefore, in truth no other but vil enough to bite when provoked. lains, who, by a long ſeries of immemorial encroachments on the Vipers are found in many parts of this iſland; but the dry, ſtony, lord, have at laſt eſtabliſhed a cuſtomary right to thoſe eſtates, and, in particular, the chalky countries abound with them. They which were before held abſolutely at the lord's will. Theſe in are ſaid to ſwarm in many of the Hebrides. Wormius ſays, the croachments at length became ſo univerſal, that when tenure in vil viper feeds on worms; but this aſſuredly is not its only diet, ſince lenage was virtually aboliſhed (though copy-holds were reſerved) by there are frequently found in its ſtomach, frogs, toads, lizards, the ſtatute of Charles II. there was hardly a pure villain left in the mice, beetles, moles, ſmall birds, and the like; many of which nation. To this purpoſe Sir Thomas Smith teſtifies, that in all his are often found whole; and it is ſurprizing to conceive how they time (and he was ſecretary to Edward IV.) he never knew any vil are ſwallowed, ſince they are often three times as thick as the whole lain in groſs throughout the realm; and the few villains regardant neck of the ſerpent, which muſt, therefore, be capable of a very that were then remaining, were ſuch only as had belonged to biſhops, extraordinary diſtenſion. The viper is capable of ſupporting very monaſteries, and other eccleſiaſtical corporations, in the preceding long abítinence; ſome of them have been kept in a box ſix-months times of popery. By ſeveral means the generality of villains in the without food and yet with unabated vivacity. See ABSTINENCE. kingdom have long ago ſprouted up into copy-holders; their perſons They feed only for a ſmall part of the year, but never during their being enfranchiſed by manumiſſion or long acquieſcence; but their confinement, except, as it is ſaid, females with young; for if eſtates in ſtrictneſs, remaining ſubject to the ſame ſervile conditions mice, their favourite diet, ſhould at that time be thrown into their and forfeitures as before; though, in general, the villain ſervices box, though they will kill, they will not eat them. The poiſon are uſually commuted for a ſmall pecuniary quit-rent. decreaſes in proportion to the duration of their confinement; and VINCULUM, in Algebra, a character in form of a line, or the virtues of their fleſh are at the ſame time conſiderably leſſened. ſtroke drawn over a factor, diviſor, or dividend, when compounded Theſe animals, when at liberty, remain torpid through the winter ; of ſeveral letters, or quantities; to connect them, and Thew, that but when confined have never been obſerved to take their annual they are to be multiplied, or divided, &c. together by the other repoſe. The male and female have the organs of generation very term. Thus, dxa+bc, ſhews that d'is is to be multiplied into perfect; the female viper brings forth her young living; whereas atb-c. See the Syſtem. Sect. I. Definition 18. all other ſerpents lay eggs, and hatch them; on which account the VINE, in botany, the Engliſh name of the genus vitis. For viper is ranked among the viviparous animals. See Philof. Tranſ. N° 84. p. 138. deſcription of the Genus, &c. ſee the article VITIS. VINEGAR, ACETUM, an agreeable acid and penetrating li- Though vipers are viviparous, they are of that claſs of animals quor, prepared from wine, cyder, beer, and other liquors; of con- of whoſe generation Ariſtotle (De Gen. Anim. lib. iii. cap. 2.) ſays, ſiderable uſe, both as a medicine and a fauce. The word is French, that they conceive a perfect egg within, but bring forth their young vinaigre; formed from vin, “ wine;" and aigre, “ ſour.” See alive. The ſpecies is far from being prolific, more than eleven eggs Acetum and Wine. Wine and other vinous liquors are ſaid to not being found in one viper, which are, as it were, chained toge- ther, and each about the ſize of a blackbird's egg. They copulate gain a grateful ſharpneſs, i. e. to become vinegar, by having their falts extracted by infolation or other means, and their fulphurs bring forth. It is ſaid that the young of the viper, when terrified, in May, and are ſuppoſed to be about three months before they weakened or depreſſed. Others aſcribe the converſion of vinous liquors into vinegar, to the grinding or ſharpening of the longitu- will run down the throat of the parent, and ſeek ſhelter in its belly, dinal particles thereof; by which means they become more ſharp in the ſame manner as the young of the opoffum retire into the ven- and pungent: tral pouch of the old one; whence fome have erroneouſly imagined, VINEYARD, vinetum, a plantation of vines. See Vitis. that the viper devours its own young. The method of catching vipers is by putting a cleft-ſtick on or near their head, after which Vineyards were formerly common in England, but for a conſider- able time the cultivation of them has been altogether neglected. they are ſeized by the tail, and put into a bag. Ray and Pennant. * N° 146. As 5 F VIP VIR As to the manner wherein the viper conveys its poiſon, author's the concave ſide of the liver was alſo gangrened, and had wholly are a little diſagreed. Franciſco Redi, and Moiſe Charras, have loft its conſiſtence; and the lungs of a fowl, that had been bitten each of them written very curious pieces on the ſubject: but their on the wing, were found in part gangrened. The effects, how. reſult is very different. Redi maintains, that all the venom of the ever, were different in degree, from the bite of the ſeveral vipers; viper is contained in the two veſiculæ, or bags, which cover the and there ſeems no reaſon to doubt, but that the bites of different baſe of the two canine teeth; whence, upon biting, a yellowiſh li animals, though of the fame ſpecies, under different circumſtances, quor is ſqueezed out into the wound; where, mixing with the either in regard to the creature wounding, or the creature wounded, blood, and other juices, it produces thoſe dreadful ſymptoms. may be followed with very different conſequences; fo that reme- This hypotheſis he maintains by a good number of experiments; dies are not to be depended on from their ſueceſs in one or two as of animals, viz. cocks, &c. being bit with vipers, after theſe trials. Mem. Acad. Scienc. Par. 1737. veſiculæ and their juice had been taken out, without any ſigns of The poiſon of the viper is only noxious when immediately con- poiſon, or any ill conſequence at all. Charras, on the other hand, veyed into the blood. Nor is it mortal to eat the fielh of creatures maintains, that this yellow liquor is not poiſonous ; that he has given killed by vipers, or to drink the wine in which they have been it to pigeons as food, without their being at all diſordered thereby; drowned, or to ſuck the parts they have wounded. On the contrary, that the viper's bite he has always found mortal to animals, even fignior Redi ſays, fucking the wound is a ſovereign remedy againſt after the bag has been taken clear out, as well as before; and laſtly, the bite of vipers. This author denies what has been affirmed by that the poiſon muſt lie in the irritated ſpirits of the viper, which it Ariſtotle and Galen, that the ſpittle of a faſting perſon kills vipers, exhales in the ardour of its biting, and which are ſo cold, that they Phil. Tranſ. Nº 9, p. 160. curdle the blood, and ſtop the circulation. The controverſy be The practice of ſucking out poiſons is very ancient, and indeed tween theſe two ingenious authors is very extraordinary; their nothing can be more rational. Where the bite cannot be cut out, ſyſtems are oppoſite, yet both are maintained by a great number this is the moſt likely way for extracting the poiſon. There can of well atteſted experiments. be no danger in performing this office, as the poiſon does no harm, Effects of the Bite of the Viper. The ſymptoms following the unleſs it is taken into the body by a wound. The perſon who ſucks bite of a viper are, an acute pain in the place wounded; ſwelling, the wound, ought, however, to waſh his mouth frequently with firſt red, afterwards livid, ſpreading by degrees ; great faintneſs; ſallad oil, which will ſecure him from the leaſt inconvenience. a quick, low, and ſometimes interrupted pulſe ; fickneſs at the The Pſylli in Africa, and the Merſi in Italy, were famed for ſtomach: bilious convulſive vomiting; cold ſweats; ſometimes curing the bites of poiſonous animals, by fucking the wound; and pains about the navel; and death itſelf, if the ſtrength of the pa we are told that the Indians in North America practiſe the ſame tient, or ſlightneſs of the bite do not prevent it. If he overcomes at this day. When the wound is well ſucked, it ſhould be after- it, the ſwelling continues inflamed for ſome time; and the ſymp wards rubbed with warm fallad oil. A poultice of bread and milk, toms abating, from the wound runs a fanious liquor, little puſtules ſoftened with ſallad oil, ſhould likewiſe be applied to it, and the are raiſed about it, and the colour of the ſkin is as if the patient patient ſhould drink freely of vinegar-whey, or water-gruel with were ieterical. By the microſcope, the virus, according to Dr. vinegar in it, to make him ſweat. Vinegar is indeed one of the Mead, was found to conſiſt of minute falts in continual motion; beſt medicines which can be uſed in any kind of poiſon, and after which a number of ſpicula or darts appeared, reſembling, ought to be taken very liberally. If the patient be ſick, he may but much finer, a ſpider's web. This, when mixed with ſyr, violar. take a vomit. This courſe, ſays Dr. Buchan, will be ſufficient inclined it to red, no ways to green; ſo that the juice is not alkali to cure the bite of any of the poiſonous animals of this country, ous : but Mr. Boyle, and Dr. Pitcairn, prove the blood to be only The form in which they are uſed to the beſt advantage, is that of an alkali. Such a ſmall quantity of the virus ſeems to have ſo great broth, or jus viperinum, of which an elegant preparation is di- an effet, partly by wounding the fibres, and partly by altering the rected by the London College. coheſion of the globules of the blood, which by the elaſtic matter VIRGIN, VIRGO, a female who has had no carnal commerce thereof, proves a nimble vehicle to carry the viperine fpicula almoſt with a man; or, more properly, who has ſtill the flos virginis, or every where ſuddenly. Theſe will ſtimulate and fret the ſenſible maidenhood. By the Moſaic law, the prieſts are enjoined to take membranes; whereupon a more than uſual afflux of the animal none to wife but thoſe that are virgins; the widow, the divorced, juices may be carried to the parts. There have been various opi and the harlot are to be refrained from. nions with reſpeet to the cauſe of the death of animals bitten by vi Virgin, is alſo applied by way of eminence, to Mary the mo- pers. Some have thought that it is occaſioned by the immediate ther of our Saviour. Many of the fathers, with the modern churches, coagulation of the blood; and others, by a ſudden inflammation hold, that the Virgin not only conceived, but brought forth, or was of the whole frame. Hoffman, and his diſciples, attribute this delivered without breach of her virginity: otherwiſe faith St. Au- death to an univerſal ſpaſm. Dr. Mead, as we have ſeen above, - guſtine, it would be falſe which is faid in the creed, that he was to the effects of the cauſtic faline property of the virus; Buffon, born of a virgin. It is even alledged that ſhe ftill remained a vira who diſcerns organic molecules in all animated nature, aſſerts that gin to the end of her life; whence the Greeks always called her they exiſt in this venom, and conſtitute its deleterious property. agt Tapbevos, ever Virgin Mary; and after them the Latins, ſemper Baker maintains, that this poiſon affects the figure and ſolidity of virgo. Though, as this is not recorded in Holy Writ, many have the red globules of the blood, and that a ſingle atom of it is ſuffi denied it, and held, that ſhe had afterwards to do with Joſeph, cient to corrupt the whole maſs of that fluid. But the abbé Fon and bore other children; and this as early as the time of Origen. tana, apprehending that the life of an animal is wholly dependent VIRGINITY, VIRGINITAS, the teſt or criterion of a virgin, on the irritability of its muſcular fibres, aſcribes the deleterious or that which entitles her to the denomination. In the firſt ages property of the poiſon of vipers, to its effect upon the irritability of the chriſtian church, virginity grew into great honour and eſteem, which it deſtroys, diſpoſing the parts to a very rapid putrefaction; inſomuch that the women were admitted to make folemn vows or rather, this loſs of irritability is the conſequence of the change thereof in public. Yet it was held infamous among the Jews for a produced in the blood by the venom. woman to die a maid. Solomon ſays expreſsly, there are four The viper-catchers, Dr. Mead adds, have a ſpecific, in which things too wonderful for him to know: “ The way of an eagle in they can ſo far confide as not to be afraid of being bitten. That the air; of a ſerpent on the rock; of a ſhip in the midſt of the ſea; ſpecific is, the axungia of the viper preſently rubbed into the and the way of a man in a maid; which our tranſlators have ren- wound; which conſiſting of clammy, viſcid, penetrating, and ac dered, leſs juſtly, the way of a man with a maid. tive parts, ſheathes the ſalts of the virus. The ſame author Yet Moſes eſtabliſhed a teſt, which was to be concluſive among plying it to the noſtrils of a dog bitten, found the creature well the the Jews. The nuptial ſheets, it ſeems, were to be viewed by the next day; when this is not timely applied, and the virus has inſi relations on both ſides; and the maid's parents were to reſerve nuated into the blood, the ſal. viper is excellent, given and repeated them as a token of her virginity, to be produced, in caſe her huſ- till ſweats be produced. This ſucceeded well with M. Charras: band ſhould ever reproach her on that ſcore. In caſe the token of and Dr. Mead relates, that it recovered one after the virus had virginity was not found thereon, ſhe was to be ſtoned to death at induced an univerſal icterus, her father's door. This teſt of virginity has occaſioned abundance The diffections of the animals which had died by the bite of the of ſpeculation about the parts concerned; but the niceſt enquiries viper, whether they had or had not been rubbed with ſallad oil, cannot ſettle any thing certain about them. Dr. Drake fays ex- recommended in this caſe, afforded all the ſame appearances. The preſsly, that, whatever might be expected among the Jews, there limb which had received the wound was in all ſwelled and livid, and is not the ſame reaſon to expect thoſe tokens of virginity in theſe theſe ſymptoms were uſually carried along the thigh to the belly, countries; for beſides that the Hebrews married extremely young, and ſometimes up to the breaft. Inciſions made along theſe parts as is the cuſtom in all the Eaſtern countries, there are ſeveral cir- always diſcovered the cellules of the membrana adipoſa full of cumſtances which may here fruſtrate ſuch expectations, even in bloody coloured water, and the membrane itſelf was fwelled, virgins not vitiated either by any male contact, or any wantonneſs blackiſh, and gangrened. And this appeared always more plainly of their own. In effect, in theſe northern climates, the incle- in the belly than in any other part : the membrana adipoſa in all mency of the air expoſes the ſex to ſuch checks of perſpiration, as other parts of the body was in its natural ſtate. The injured parts gives a turn to the courſe of the humours, and drives ſo much hu- often had a cadaverous ſmell; the muſcles of the wounded limb midity through the parts, as may extraordinarily ſupple and relax were alſo found of a browniſh colour, and their fibres had loſt their thoſe membranes from which the reſiſtance is expected; and from conſiſtence, and ſeemed ready to give way to the approaching gan- which, in hotter countries, it might more reaſonably be depended on. grene. Nor is this effect confined to the external parts alone : a What moſt commonly paſſes among us for the teſt of virginity is gooſe that had been bitten had three gangrenous fpots on its heart, the hymen; and yet the moſt curious among the anatomiſts are and all the indications of a beginning gangrene in other parts of it; greatly divided, not only about the figure, ſubſtance, place, and per- forations ap- V IS VIT forations of this famous membrane, but even about the exiſtence VISIER, or VIZIER, an officer or dignitary in the Ottoman thereof, ſome poſitively affirming, and others as filatly denying it. empire, whereof there are two kinds; the firſt, called by the Turks See HYMEN. viſier azim, that is grand viſier, firſt created in 1370, by Amu- In Peru, and ſeveral other provinces in South America, we are rath I. in order to eaſe himſelf of the chief and weightier affairs of aſſured by Pedro de Cieca, in the hiſtory of the Yncas, &c. that the government. The grand or prime viſier; is the prime miniſ. the men never marry but on condition that the next relation or ter of ſtate of the whole empire. He commands the army in chief, friend of the maid's ſhall undertake to enjoy her before him, and and preſides at the divan or great council. Renegado Chriſtians take away her virginity. And our countryman, Lawſon, relates have been ſometimes raiſed to the viſierate; ſuch were Khairedain, the like of ſome of the Indian nations of Carolina. So little is the ſurnamed Barbaroſſa : Ulug Ali, Cuproli, &c. Next to the grand flos virginis valued in ſome places. viſier, there are ſix other ſubordinate viſiers, called viſiers of the VIRGO, in aſtronomy, one of the ſigns or conſtellations of the bench, who officiate as his counſellors or aſſeſſors in the divan. zodiac, into which the ſun enters in the middle of Auguſt. The VISION, Visio, the act of ſeeing or peceiving external ob- ſtars in the conſtellation Virgo, in Ptolemy's catalogue, are 32; in jects by the organ of ſight Viſion is well defined to be a ſenſa- Tycho's, 33; in Hevelius's, 50; and in the Britannic, 110; See tion, whereby, from a certain motion of the optic nerve, made in the Syſtem, Sect. IX. the bottom of the eye by the rays of light emitted or reflected from VIRILE, fomething that belongs, or is peculiar to men, or the objects, and hence conveyed to the common ſenſory in the brain, male ſex. Thus virile member, membrum virile, is frequently the mind perceives the luminous object, its quantity, quality, fi- uſed for the penis. gure, &c. The phenoinena of viſion, the cauſes thereof, and the VIRILE, Age, ætas virilis, is the ſtrength and vigour of a man's manner wherein it is effected, make one of the greateſt and moſt age, viz. from thirty to forty-five years, which is an age wherein important articles in the whole ſyſtem of natural knowledge. In- we are equally removed from the extremes of youth and old age. deed, a great part of the phyſical, mathematical, and anatomical See AGE. The civil lawyers only make one age of youth and viri diſcoveries and improvements of the moderns, terminate here, and lity, and yet their different temperatures ſeem to require a diſtinc only tend to ſet the buſineſs of viſion in a clearer light. Hitherto tion, for which reaſon ſome compare youth to ſummer, and viri refer what Sir Iſaac Newton and others have diſcovered of the na. lity to autumn. ture of light and colours; the laws of inflexion, reflexion, and VIRTUE, a term uſed in various fignifications. In the general refraction of the rays; the ſtructure of the eye, particularly the it denotes power, or perfection of any thing, whether natural or retina and optic nerves, &c. fupernatural, animate or inanimate, eſſential or acceſſory. But in Vision in optics. The laws of viſion, brought under mathe- its more proper or reſtrained ſenſe, virtue ſignifies a habit which matical demonſtrations, make the ſubject of optics, taken in the improves and perfects the poffeffor and his acīions. See Morals. greateſt latitude of that word: for among the writers of mathema- VIRULENT, a term applied to any thing that yields a virus, tics, optics is generally taken, in a more reſtrained ſignification, that is, a contagious or malignant pus. The gonorrhæa virulenta for the doctrine of direct viſion ; catoptrics, for the doctrine of re- is what we commonly call a clap. flected viſion ; and dioptrics, for that of refracted viſion. For an VIS, a Latin word ſignifying force or power; adopted by phy- anatomical deſcription of the eye, or organ of viſion, ſee the Syf- fical writers to expreſs divers kinds of natural powers or faculties. tem of ANATOMY, Part VII. Sect. V. For repreſentation of the This is active and paſſive; the vis activa is the power of producing ſeveral parts appertaining to this organ, ſee Plate XI. fig. 10, 11, motion; the vis paſiva, that of receiving or loſing it. The vis 12, 13 and 14. For the properties of light, the nature of viſion, activa, is again ſubdivided into vis viva and vis mortua. and whatever relates to the fight, ſee the ſyſtem of Optics through- Vis abſoluta, or abſolute force, is that kind of centripetal force out. For a general illuſtration of the ſubject, ſee the Plates an- which is meaſured by the motion that would be generated by it in nexed to that ſyſtem. a given body, at a given diſtance, and depends on the efficacy of Vision, among divines, is uſed for an appearance which God the cauſe producing it. See the artjcle Motion. occaſionally ſent to his prophets and ſaints; either by way of dream Vis acceleratrix, or accelerating force, is that centripetal force or in reality. Such were the viſions of Ezekiel, Amos, &c. the which produces an accelerated motion, and is proportional to the viſion of St. Paul, lifted up to the third heaven, &c. of Joſeph, by velocity which it generates in a given time. This is different at which he was aſſured of the purity of the virgin, &c. Some have different diſtances from the ſame central body; and depends not on repreſented our bleſſed Lord's temptation in the wilderneſs, Mait. the quantity of matter that gravitates, being equal in all ſorts of v. 1. &c. as a viſion. Mr. Farmer, in particular conſiders it as a bodies at equal diſtances from the centre. See ACCELERATION, divine viſion, repreſenting the trials he was to endure, and deſigned and the Syſtem of MECHANICS, Sect. IV. to prepare him for encountering and vanquiſhing them. Many Vis inertice, power of inactivity, is defined by Sir Iſaac New among the Romilh ſaints, have pretended to viſions : as St. The- ton to be a power implanted in all matter, whereby it reſiſts any reſa, St. Bridget, St. Catharine de Sienna, &c. Hence the word change endeavoured to be made in its ſtate; i. e. whereby it be has come into diſrepute, and become a common name for all chi- comes difficult to alter its ſtate, either of reft or motion. See the meras or fpectres, which either our folly or our fear poſſeſſes us Syſtem of mechanics, Sect. I. with; and hence a perſon that frames to himſelf wild romantic no- VISCERA, in anatomy, a term of equal import with entrailes, tions, is called a viſionary. Quevedo's viſions are deſcriptions of including the heart, liver, lungs, ſpleen, inteſtines, and other in what paſſed in the imagination of that author. ward parts of the body. For deſcription of theſe ſeveral parts, ſee VISITATION, viſitatio, an act of juriſdi&tion, whereby a ſua the Syſtem, Part III. Sect. I. to XI. For repreſentation, ſee perior, or proper officer, viſits ſome corporation, college, church, Plate V. fig. 3. 4, and its explanation. or other public or private houſe, to ſee that the laws and regula- VISCIDITY, or VISCOSITY, the quality of ſomething that is tions thereof be duly obſerved. Among us, the biſhop of each dio- viſcid or viſcous, i. e. glutinous and ſticky, like bird lime. Viſcid | ceſe is obliged to hold a viſitation every third year, and the arch- bodies are thoſe which conſiſt of parts ſo implicated within each deacon the other two years; to ſee that the diſcipline be well ob- other, that they reſiſt, a long time, a complete feparation, and ra ſerved, the people well inſtructed, and to take care, that neither ther give way to the violence done them by ſtretching, or extend the church, nor the paſtors thereof, receive any detriment. ing each way. The too great viſcidity of foods has very ill effects; VISITATION of the Virgin Mary, is a feaſt inſtituted in me- thus meals, or farinæ not fermented, jellies, &c, of animals, toughmory of the viſit paid by the Virgin to Elizabeth, firſt eſtabliſhed cheeſe, or curd too much preſſed, produce a weight, or oppreſſion by Bonaventure, general of the order of St. Francis, by the decree in the ſtomach; wind, yawnings, crudities, obſtructions of the of a general chapter, comprehending the churches of his own or- minuter veſſels in the inteſtines, &c. Hence an inactivity of the in der, held at Pila in 1263; and afterwards extended to the whole teſtines themſelves, a ſwelling of the abdomen: and hence a viſci- church by pope Urban IV. in the year 1379, and ordered to be dity of the blood, from the re-union of the viſcid particles; obſtruc- kept on the ſecond of July. tions of the glands, paleneſs, coldneſs, tremors, &c. VITAL, vitalis, in anatomy, ſomething that miniſters princi: VISCOUNT, or Viscount, is uſed for a degree of nobi- pally to the conſtituting or maintaining of life in the bodies of ani- lity, next below a count or earl, and above a baron. Camden ob mals. Thus the heart, lungs, and brain are called vital parts. ferves that this was an ancient name or office, but a new one of VITAL Functions, or Ačiions, are thoſe operations of the vital dignity never heard among us till Henry VIth's days, who, in his parts whereby life is affected; fo as that it cannot fubſiſt without eighteeth year, created in parliament, John lord Beaumont, vil them. Such are the muſculous action of the heart; the ſecretory çount Beaumont: but it is much more ancient in other countries. action of the cerebellum, the reſpiratory action of the lungs; and Du Cange, indeed, will have the dignity to have had its firſt riſe the circulation of the blood and ſpirits through the arteries, veins, in England; but it is much more probable, it was firſt brought over and nerves. See FUNCTION. hither by the Normans. The privileges of a viſcount are, that he VITAL Principle or Subſtance, denotes a kind of agent or in- may have a cover of affay held under his cup when he drinks, and ſtrument, fuppoſed by Dr. Grew to be employed under the direca may have a traverſe in his own houſe. And a Viſcounteſs may have tion and ſubordination to the will of the Creator in the production her gown borne up by a man, out of the preſence of her ſuperiors; of plants, animals, &c. and in their preſence, by a woman. See the Syſtem of PEERAGE, VITIS, the vine, in botany, a genus of the angioſpermia or- on the progreſs and increaſe of BARONIAL honours. For titles der, belonging to the didynamia claſs of plants. The uſes of and creations of Engliſh viſcounts, ſee Part I. Sect. IV. For the fruit of the vine for making wines, &c. are well known. arms, &c. fee Plate III. For Scotch viſcounts, &c. fee Part II. However, the number of vines cultivated in this country is by Sect. IV. and Plate VI. For Iriſh viſcounts, ſee Part. III. no means ſufficient to ſupply the conſumption. The plant was Sect. IV. and Plate VIII. introduced by the Romans, and appears formerly to have been very VIT VIT eery common. From the name of vineyard yet adhering to the covered with a cupreous coat: this, together with the deep blue ruinous ſites of our caſtles and monaſteries, there ſeems to have colour ariſing from mixing it with a volatile alkali, diſcovers its been few in the country but what had a vineyard belonging to baſis; as its uniform mixture with other vitriolic ſalts does its acid, them. The county of Glouceſter is particularly commended by Hence it alſo appears, that the acid of vitriol has a greater affinity Malmeſbury in the twelfth century, as exceeding all the reſt of with iron than with copper, becauſe it quits copper to unite itſelf the kingdom in the number and goodneſs of its vineyards. In with iron. This fact explains, in a very ſatisfactory manner, the the earlier periods of our hiſtory, the Iſle of Ely was expreſsly nature of that tranſmutation of iron into copper, which was for- denominated the Iſle of Vines by the Normans. Vineyards are merly conſidered as a perplexing phenomenon. Agricola ſpeaks of frequently noticed in the deſcriptive accounts of Doomſday. And waters in the neighbourhood of Newſol, in Hungary, which had thoſe of England are even mentioned by Bede, as early as the com the property of tranſmuting the iron which was put into them into mencement of the eighth century. But Doomſday exhibits to us a copper. In the year 1673, our countryman, Dr. Brown, viſited particular proof of the wines made in England, during the period a famous copper-mine at Herrn-Grundt, near Newſol; and he in- preceding the conqueſt. And, after it, the biſhop of Ely appears forms us, that he there ſaw two ſprings called the old and new to have received at leaſt three or four tuns of wine annually, as ZIMENT; which turned iron into copper. The iron in this caſe is tythe, from the produce of the vineyard, in his dioceſe; and to taken up by the water, and remains ſuſpended in it, in the place of have made frequent reſervations in his leaſes of a certain quantity the copper: ſo that this tranſmutation is nothing but a change of of wine for rent. A plot of land in London, which now forms place; and as the copper is precipitated by the iron, ſo the iron Eaſt-Smithfield and ſome adjoining ſtreets, was with-held from the might be precipitated by pot-aſh, or any other ſubſtance which has religious houſe within Aldgate by four ſucceſſive conſtables of the a greater affinity with the acid of vitriol than iron has. The cauſe Tower, in the reigns of Rufus, Henry, and Stephen, and made by of the impregnation of theſe copper waters in Germany is not diffi, them into a vineyard to their great emolument and profit. In the cult to be explained. Moſt copper ores contain ſulphur, and when old accounts of rectorial and vicarial revenues, and in the old regiſ- the fulphur is in any degree decompoſed, its acid unites itſelf to the ters of ecclefiaftical ſuits concerning them, the tithe of wine is an copper, and forms blue vitriol, which is the ſubſtance with which article that frequently occurs in Kent, Surry, and other countries. the waters iſſuing from the copper-mines are impregnated. The France was famous for its vineyards in the reign of Veſpaſian, and copper contained in theſe waters bas been for ſome centuries col- even exported its wines into Italy. The whole province of Nar lected in Germany, by putting old iron into pits filled with the cop- bonne was then covered with vines: and the wine-merchants of pery water; and thus the iron is diſſolved, and the copper is pre- the country were remarkable for all the knąviſh dexterity of our cipitated, and being raked out in the form of mud, it is afterwards modern brewers, tinging it with ſmoke; colouring it, as was ſul melted into very fine copper. The quantity of copper procured by pected, with herbs and noxious dies, and even adulterating the an hundred tons of iron amounts ſometimes to ninety tons, and ſel- taſte and appearance with aloes. For the culture and management dom to leſs than eighty-four. Of late years ſome ſucceſsful at- of vines, ſee the Treatiſe on GARDENING, Article Fruit Garden, tempts of this kind have been made in England and Ireland. See Months of January, March, May, and July. For the mode of COPPER. In the iſle of Angleſey, near Paris mountain, which preſerving grapes on the vines, ſee the ſame article, Month of abounds in copper ore, the water in which the roaſted ore is waſhed Auguft. is ſo ſtrongly impregnated with copper, that they have found it uſe- VITREUS Humor, or Vitreous Humour, in anatomy, denotes ful to adopt the German method of precipitating it by means of the third, or glaſly humour of the eye; thus called from its reſem old iron, and they have obtained in one year near a hundred tons of blance to melted glaſs. It lies under the cryſtalline; by the im copper precipitated from this water. The water, after the copper preſſion of which, its fore-part is rendered concave. It greatly has been precipitated by means of iron, is at preſent thrown away; exceeds in quantity both the aqueous and cryſtalline humours taken whereas, by evaporation, it would yield green vitriol: and as above together, and conſequently occupies much the greateſt part of the a hundred tons of iron muſt be employed in obtaining the foremen- cavity of the globe of the eye. For deſcription, ſee the Syſtem, tioned quantity of copper, Dr. Watſon ſuggeſts, whether a manu- Part VII. Sect. V. factory of green vitriol might not be eſtabliſhed at this and at all VITRIFICATION, the act of converting a body into glaſs, other places where copper is obtained by precipitation. One hun- by means of fire. Of all bodies, fand, flints, and pebbles, with dred tons of iron would yield, at the leaſt, two hundred tons of vi- alkaline falts, vitrify the moſt eaſily: accordingly, it is of theſe triol, which at the low price of three pounds per ton, would defray that glaſs is principally made. For a copious deſcription of this the expence of extracting it; more eſpecially as the watery ſolution ſubject, ſee the article GLASS. might be evaporated by a proper application of part of that heat. The VITRIOL, a compound, imperfect falt, formed by the union greateſt part of the blue vitriol, now met with in the ſhops, is prepar- of certain metals with the fulphureous acid. It is of three colours, ed in England, by artificially combining copper with its ſulphur or. white, blue, and green. For deſcription of the qualities and pro its acid. See Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part. III. Chap. II. Sect. IV. perties of this branch of Chymiſtry, ſee the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. Green Vitriol, or vitriol of iron, is commonly called Engliſh II. Chap. V. throughout. Native vitriol is often met with in vitriol, or copperas; and it is the Roman vitriol of the Italian wri- our coal-mines. From an old cannel coal-pit, near Wigan, in ters. This vitriol is of a greeniſh colour, when perfectly and re- Lancaſhire, Dr. Watſon procured a conſiderable quantity of it cently cryſtallized, but effloreſces by expoſure to the air, and be- very well cryſtallized; and Dr. Rutty has obſerved, that the vitri comes yellowiſh; it requires fix times its weight of water to diſ- olic water at Haigh in Lancaſhire, is the ſtrongeſt in Britain, folve it in the temperature of 60°. Its acid is known by this, that yielding 1920 grains of vitriol from a gallon of water. See Vi the ſolution of this ſalt mixes without turbidity with the ſolutions of TRIOLIC Waters, under the Article WATER, other ſalts that contain the vitriolic acid, as Epſom, ſelenite, tartar, The White VITRIOL, or vitriol of zinc, is found native in the vitriolate, &c. but renders the ſolutions of nitrous or marine ſelenité mines of Gollar, ſometimes in tranſparent pieces, more commonly turbid, and its baſis is known by the black colour which the folu- in white effloreſcences; which are diſſolved in water, and cryſtallized tion of galls, or vegetable aſtringents, immediately produce in its into large irregular maſſes, ſomewhat reſembling fine ſugar; it is ſolution. It is frequently found native, either in coal-mines, or in alſo found diſſolved in mineral waters, and generally with ſome the cavities of pyritaceous mines. The common green vitriol is proportion of the vitriol of iron and copper: it is in taſte ſweetiſh, made at Deptford near London, and other places, from a ſpecies nauſeous, and ſtyptic. It has been diſputed whether white vitriol of the pyrites found on Sheppey iſle, the iſle of Wight, and various is any thing elſe than green vitriol calcined. But it ſeems that other parts of the Eſſex, Kentiſh, Suſſex, and Dorſetſhire coaſts. white vitriol is of a quite different ſpecies from either the green or Vitriol is made from the pyrites found among coal; there are ma- the blue vitriols. See Geoffry, Mat. Med. tom. i. p. 124. In the nufactories of it near Wigan, at Whitehaven, at Newcaſtle upon condition in which white vitriol is uſually bought, it contains ſome- Tyne, and in ſeveral other parts of the kingdom. But all the vi- what both of copper and iron; but being purified by ſolution, filtra triol works have funk in value of late years; he home conſump- tion and cryſtallization, it is freed from both theſe metals, and ap- tion of vitriol being much diminiſhed, ſince the acid, which uſed to pears to be a native vitriol ſui generis. See Cramer, Elem. Art. Do be procured from the diſtillation of vitriol, has been obtained from cim. vol. i. p. 302. ed. 2. Med. Ef. Edinb. Abrid. vol. ii. p. 472. the burning of ſulphur. It is not eaſy to determine when this me- See alſo the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. I. Sect. I. thod of making vitriol was introduced into England. From the Blue VITRIOL, or vitriol of copper, is commonly called Roman green vitriol the vitriolic acid has been generally extracted; by diſ- or Cyprian vitriol, or blue-ſtone. After being long expoſed to the After being long expoſed to the tilling the calcined vitriol in earthen long necks, with a ſtrong fire air, it degenerates into a mixture of blue and ruſty yellow. It re continued for two days or longer; though it is now moſtly obtained quires about four times its weight of water to diſſolve it in the tem by collecting the vapour of burning fulphur. See Sulphur. perature of 60°. Its ſpecific gravity is about 2,23. This ſalt VITRIOL, in medicine and the arts, has various applications and rarely occurs cryſtallizett , but is often found naturally diffolved in uſes. White vitriol is ſometimes given, from five or ſix grains to water, in Hungary, Sweden, and Ireland; from which water blue half a dram and more, as an emetic, and appears to be one of the vitriol is generally prepared, by evaporating the water to a proper quickeſt in operation of thoſe that can be employed with ſafety. ſtandard; after which it is let out into coolers, where it ſhoots into Its chief uſe is for external purpoſes, as cooling, reſtringent and de- regular and beautiful cryſtals of a rhomboidal form. See ZIMENT ſiccative: a dilute ſolution of it, as ſixteen grains in eight ounces water. It is alſo occaſionally extracted from ſulphurated copper of water, with the addition of fixteen drops of weak vitriolic acid, ores after torrefaction, by the application of water, or waſhed out or the aqua vitriolica of the Edinburgh Diſpenſatory, is an excel- by rain or ſubterraneous waters. Mr. Cronſtedt ſays, it is ſeldom lent collyrium in defluxions and light inflammations of the eyes; free from iron and zinc. If a piece of clean poliſhed iron be and, after bleeding and purging, in the more violent ones. A ſolu- dipped into the ſolution of this ſalt, it will almoſt immediately be tion of it with alum, in the proportion of two drams of each to a pint VI T VIV 4. Me. pint of water, called the aqua aluminoſa Bateana, is uſed as a repel- | galls are an alkali or abſorbent, this alkali, meeting the acids lent fomentation for ſome cutaneous eruptions, for cleanſing foul which hold the iron diſſolved, unites with them, and makes them ulcers, and as an injection in the fluor albus and gonorrhæa, when let the iron looſe; which thereupon revivifies and reſumes its na- not accompanied with virulence. This vitriol is ſometimes like tural blackneſs; ſo that in ſtrictneſs we write with the iron. wiſe employed as an errhine, and ſaid to be a very effectual diffol VITRIOLIC, ſomething that partakes of the nature of vitriol. vent of mucous matters ; in which intention it is recommended, in Vitriolic minerals are compound foflile ſubſtances, formed of va- the German Ephemerides, againſt obſtructions of the noſtrils in new. rious ſtony and earthy particles, mixed with others of iron and born infants, Blue vitriol, like the other preparations of copper, copper, and that either ſeparately or conjunctly; ſo that, in effect, acts in doſes of a few grains, as a moſt virulent emetic. Its uſe is they are ores of vitriols. The different kinds of theſe minerals are, chiefly external, as a detergent, eſcharotic, and for reſtraining hæ I. The chalcites. 2. The miſy. 3. Sory, or ruſma. morrhagcs; for which laſt intention a ſtrong ſtyptic liquor is pre lanteria. 5. Pyrites, or fire-ſtone. 6. Marcaſites. pared in the Chops, called aqua vitriolica cærulea. Blue vitriol has VITRIOLIC Air. See the Syſtem of AEROLOGY, Sect. XI. & XIII. of late been conſiderably employed as an emetic by ſome prac VITRIOLIC Waters. The countries which abound with mines tioners; and is ſaid to be by no means an unſafe one, as it operates of copper and iron uſually afford a great many vitriolic waters. the inſtant it reaches the ſtomach, before it has time to injure by its One of the moſt remarkable ſprings of this kind, of which we corroſive quality. The peculiar advantage in uſing it is repreſented have an account, is that near Paderborn in Germany: this is a to be, that it has no tendency to become alſo purgative, and that its fort of treble ſpring, having three openings, and all three yielding aftringent power prevents the tone of the ſtomach from being im very different waters. Two of theſe openings are not more than paired after vomiting with it. It is much recommended in the a foot and a half diſtant from one another, and yet of ſo different early ſtate of tubercles in the lungs; and the following method of qualities, that the one is limpid, bluiſh, milk-warm, and bub- exhibition directed. (See Simmons on the Treatment of Con- bling, and contains ſal ammoniac, ochre, iron, vitriol, alum, ſumptions, p. 70.) Let the patient firſt ſwallow about half a pint fulphur, nitre, and orpiment; all theſe ſubſtances having been of water, and immediately afterwards, the vitriol diſſolved in a cup ſeparated in its analyſis. The other is cold as ice, and is turbid, full of water. The doſe may be varied according to age, conſtitu whitiſh, and much heavier, and ſtronger to the taſte than the tion, &c. from two grains to ten, or even twenty; always taking other. This holds much orpiment, with ſome ſalt, alum, nitre, care to begin with ſmall ones. After the emetic is rejected, another ſal ammoniac, and vitriol. The firſt of theſe waters is taken by half pint of water is to be drank, which is likewiſe ſpeedily thrown the people in the neighbourhood againſt worms, and diſorders of up, and this is commonly ſufficient to remove the naufea. In ſtill the ſpleen, alſo againſt epilepſies; the other is poiſonous to birds, ſmaller doſes, the blue vitriol has been much uſed by ſome as a all that drink of it dying in a very little time. The experiment tonic in intermittents, and other diſeaſes. has been tried on common hens, with the water brought from the Pure green vitriol is in no reſpect different from the artificial ſprings into other places, and given them to drink. Thoſe to SAL martis. It is one of the moſt certain of the chalybeate medi which falt is given, after the ſwallowing of this poiſonous wa- cines, ſcarcely ever failing to take effect where the calces and other ter, ſtruggle longer before they die by it; and vinegar is found to indiſſoluble preparations, paſs inactive through the inteſtinal tube. ſave them very often from death, after drinking largely of it; It may be conveniently given in a liquid form, largely diluted with but in this caſe they are ſickly for ſeven or eight days after it, aqueous fluids: two or three grains or more, diſſolved in a pint, or and have the pip, as the good women expreſs it. In the diſſecting quart of water, may be taken in a day, divided into different doſes. of thoſe birds which have died by drinking this water, the lungs This vitriol is uſed alſo, eſpecially when calcined, as an external are always found quite ſhrivelled up. The people of the country ftyptic: the StyPTIC of Helvetius, and, as it is ſaid, that of Eaton have not been deterred by this bad effect of the water, from uſing is other than French brandy impregnated with the calcined vi it in medicine; they take ſmall quantities of it diluted in water, to triol; a dram of the vitriol is commonly directed to a quart of the deſtroy the worms, and it performs this very well; but gives them fpirit, but only a minute portion of the dram diffolves in it. As a grievous ſickneſs while it operates. The third ſtream, or open- French brandy has generally an aſtringent impregnation from the ing of this remarkable ſpring, is about twenty paces diſtant from oaken caſks in which it has been kept, the vitriol changes it, as it the others; the water is here very clear, of a greeniſh colour, and of does the watery infuſions of vegetable aſtringents to a black colour; a ſour, but not very diſagreeable taſte. It is of a middle weight, and but makes no ſuch change in ſpirituous liquors that have not re of middle qualities between the other two, and is evidently formed ceived ſome aſtringent tincture. The acid of vitriol or ſulphur, of the joining of thoſe two ſprings with ſome other freſh water in the largely diluted is the moſt falubrious of all the mineral acids. It way; for a liquor exactly reſembling this third kind may be pre- is mixed with watery infuſions, ſpirituous tinctures and other li- | pared by mixing equal quantities of the other two, with a ſuffici- quids, as an antiphlogiſtic; as a reſtringent in hæmorrhages; and ent quantity of common well-water. See the Article WATER. as a ſtomachic and corroborant in weakneſſes, loſs of appetite, and VIVERRA, a genus of quadrupeds, belonging to the order of decays of conſtitution, accompanied with flow febrile ſymptoms, FERÆ. They have ſix fore-teeth, the intermediate ones being brought on by irregularities, or ſucceeding the ſuppreſſion of inter ſhorter, and more than three grinders, and the claws are exſerted. mittents by Peruvian bark. In ſeveral caſes of this kind, after bit The ſpecies are as follow. ters and aromatics of themſelves had availed nothing, a mixture of SPECIES I. The Ichneumon. them with the vitriolic acid has taken effect : the form commonly This animal in Egypt is domeſtic like the cat; and is re- made uſe of is that of a ſpirituous tincture; ſix ounces of oil of vi tained by the natives for the ſame uſeful purpoſes of clearing their trioi are dropt by degrees into a quart of rectified ſpirit of wine; houſes of rats and mice. With all the ſtrength and agility of the the mixture digeſted for three days in a very gentle heat, and after cat, it has a more general appetite for carnage. It attacks, without wards digeſted for three days Jonger with an ounce and a half of dread, the moſt deadly ſerpents, and preys on every noxious reptile cinnamon, and an ounce of ginger; this is the elixir vitrioli of the of the torrid zone, which it ſeizes and kills with great avidity. It Edinburgh Diſpenſatory. Or a pint of an aromatic tincture drawn is ſaid, that when this animal is wounded by a ſerpent, and begins with proof ſpirit is mixed with four ounces of the ſtrong acid, ſo as to feel the effect of the poiſon, it immediately has recourſe to a to form the acid Elixir of vitriol of the London Diſpenſatory; certain root which the Indians call after its name, and aſſert that theſe liquors are given from ten to thirty or forty drops, in any cor- it is an antidote for the bite of any venomous reptile. venient vehicle, when the ſtomach is moſt empty. A mixture of The Ichneumon is the moſt formidable enemy of the crocodile: oil of vitriol with ſpirits of wine alone, in the proportion of one it deſtroys its eggs, which it digs out of the ſand, where they are part of the former to three of the latter, digeſted together for ſome laid to hatch by the heat of the ſun; and kills great numbers of the time, is uſed in France as a reſtringent in gonorrhoeas; female young crocodiles ſoon after their production, before they are able fluors, and ſpittings of blood, under the denomination of aqua Ra to reach the water. It was for this reaſon that the ancient Egyp- belliana, and Eau de Rabel. The acid of vitriol, diluted with wa tians worſhipped this animal, and ranked the Ichneumon amongſt ter, has been given internally with great ſucceſs in the itch. It thoſe deities that were moſt propitious to them. was firſt uſed for this purpoſe in the Pruſſian army in 1756, and Theſe animals, in their doineſtic ſtate, are perfectly tame and has ſince been much employed in ſeveral parts of Germany. The gentle. M. d'Obſonville ſpeaks of one which he reared from a doſe recommended is from an eighth to a fourth of a dram of the young one. It became tamer than a car, was obedient to the call pure acid twice or thrice a day. It is ſaid to ſucceed equally in of its maſter, and followed him wherever he went. Theſe ani- the dry and moiſt itch; and when given to nurſes, to cure both mals are numerous in all the ſouthern regions of Aſia, from Egypt themſelves and their children. The ſpirit of vitriol of the Edin to the iſland of Java; they are alſo found in Africa, in the country burgh pharmacopoeia, called Spiritus vitrioli dulcis, taken from about the Cape of Good Hope, they frequent the banks of ten to eighty or ninety drops, itrengthens the ſtomach and digeſtive rivers, are fond of fiſh, are ſaid to take the water like an otter, powers, relieves flatulencies, promotes urine, and, in many caſes, and will continue in it a conſiderable time without riſing to take abates ſpaſmodic ſtrictures, and procures reſt. It is not effentially breath. The Ichneumon varies in ſize. The domeſtic kind is ge- different from the celebrated mineral anodyne liquor of Hoffinan; nerally larger than thoſe that are wild, and its colours more varie- to which it is frequently, by the author himſelf directed as a ſub gated. It is in general about the ſize of a common cat; ſome- ſtitute. The principal uſe of green vitriol is in DYEING, and in what longer in the body, and ſhorter in the legs. Its fur con- the making of ink. When the vitriol is diſſolved in water, the tains tints of white, brown, fawn-colour, and a dirty filver iron contained in it becomes black by the addition of an infuſion which altogether form a mixture very agreeable to the eye. of gall-nuts. Mr. Lemery the younger, in order to account for form is like that of the polecat. Its eyes are ſmall, but inflamed, this blackneſs, imagines, that as the vitriol , of which ink is made, and fparkle with a ſingular vivacity; its noſe is long and flender ; is iron diſſolved by an acid, and intimately mixed with it; and as its ears ſmall, rounded, and almoſt naked; its tail is very thick at N° 146. * 5G the grey, eye. Its U LC U L C carry off the baſe, and tapers to a point; underneath the tail is an orifice, SPĚcies V. VARIETY I. Annulatus, or Annulated Zibet. from which a moſt foetid humour is ſecreted; its claws are long, Is ſo ſimilar to the civet, as to be conſidered by ſome authors as It darts upon its prey like an arrow, and feizes it with inevitable only a variety of that animal; and it muſt be allowed, that they certainty. It frequently fits up like a ſquirrel, and feeds itſelf with have many eſſential relations, both in their external and internal ſtructure; but they differ from each other by ſuch diſtinguiſhing its fore feet; catches any thing that is thrown to it; and will often feign itſelf dead till its prey come within its reach. For repreſen- characteriſtics, as entitle them to be regarded as two diftinét fpe- tation, ſee Plate V. Genus 14. Species 1. cies. The ears of the zibet are larger and more erect: and its muzzle is thinner and flatter: Its body is longer than that of the ci- Species II. Nauſa, Coati , or Brazilian Weaſel. This animal has fome reſemblance to the bear, in the length of vet; and its tail, which is longer, is marked with annular ſpots, like its hind legs, in the form of its feet, in the buſhineſs of its hair that of the genet: It has no mane or long hair on the neck and and in the ſtructure of its paws; but it is ſmall, and its tail is long, ſpine; and its hair is ſhorter and ſofter. The perfume of the zibet and variegated with different colours. Its upper jaw is much is peculiarly violent and piercing, beyond that of either the civet longer than the lower, and very pliant; its ears are rounded; its or the genet. This odorous liquor is found in a fiſſure near the hair is ſmooth, foft, and gloſſy, of a bright-bay colour; and its organs of generation. It is a thick humour of the conſiſtence of breaſt is whitiſh. Linnæus deſcribes one of theſe animals, which pomatum; and, though very ſtrong, it is agreeable even as it iffues he kept a conſiderable time, and in vain attempted to bring into from the body of the animal. This matter of the zibet muſt not ſubjection. It was ſo obſtinate, that it would do nothing to which be confounded with muſk, which is a fanguineous humour, derived it was diſinclined. It killed the poultry, tore off their heads, and from a ſpecies of the roe-buck, or goat without horns; and has fucked their blood. It defended itſelf with great force whenever nothing in common with the zibet but its ſtrong perfume. For any perſon attempted to day hold of it contrary to its inclination; repreſentation, ſee Plate V. Genus 14. Species 5. Variety 1. and it ſtuck faſt to the legs of thoſe with whom it was familiar, Species VI. Genetta, or Genet, when it wanted to ranſack their pockets, and any thing Is as much diſtinguiſhed for the agreeable perfume which it that it found in them. This creature inhabits Brazil and Guiana, yields, as the ſkunk we have juſt deſcribed is for the rankeft and runs up trees very nimbly, eats like a dog, and holds its food be moſt diſagreeable odour in nature. The body of the genet is longer tween its fore legs like a bear. The Coati ſtands with eaſe on its than that of the martin; its head is long and ſender, with a ſharp hind feet. It is ſaid to gnaw its own tail, which it generally car muzzle; its ears are a little pointed; its hair ſoft, ſmooth, and ries erect, and ſweeps it about from ſide to ſide. For repreſenta- ſhining, of a tawny-red colour, ſpotted with black; along the tion, ſee Plate V. Genus 14. Species 2. ridge of the back there is a kind of mane of long hair, which forms SPECIES IV. Putorius or Skunk. a black line from head to tail; the ſpots on the ſides are round and This animal, which is called the chinche by the natives of Brazil, diſtinct, thoſe on the back almoſt cloſe; its tail is long, and marked is about the ſize of a common cat. This creature inhabits Peru with ſeven or eight rings of black. From an orifice beneath its and other parts of South America, and is remarkable above all the tail, it yields a kind of perfume which ſmells faintly of mulk. weaſel kind for a moſt intolerable, fuffocating, fetid vapour, which This creature is found in Turkey, Syria, and Spain. We are it emits from behind, when attacked, purſued, or frightened. The told by Belon, that he ſaw genets in the houſes at Conftantinople ſtench of this effluvia is inſupportable, and is the creature's beſt as tame as cats; and that they were uſeful to the inhabitants in de means of defence. There are three or four varieties of this animal, ftroying rats, mice, and other vermin. It is a moſt beautiful, mentioned by Mr. Buffon under the name of ſtinking-pole-cats; cleanly, and induſtrious animal, and very active in purſuing its all of which pofleſs this wonderful faculty of annoying their ene prey. Its nature is mild and gentle; its colours beautifully vari- mies from the ſame quarter. Some turn their tail to their purſuers, egated; and its fur valuable. Upon the whole, it ſeems to be one and emit a moſt horrible ſtench, which keeps both dogs and men of thoſe animals that, with proper care and attention might become at a conſiderable diſtance: Others eject their urine to the diſtance a uſeful addition to our ſtock of domeſtic quadrupeds. For repre- of about eighteen feet; and it is of fo virulent a quality, as almoſt fentation, ſee Plate V. Genus 14, Species 6. to occaſion blindneſs, if any of it ſhould happen to fall into the VIVIFICATION, in medicine, the art of vivifying, that is, eyes. Clothes infected with ít, retain the ſmell for many days : No of contributing to the action that gives life, or maintains life. The waſhing can make them ſweet; but they muſt be even buried in chymiſts alſo uſe the word in ſpeaking of the new force, vigour, freſh foil before they can be thoroughly cleanſed. Dogs that are and luſtre, which, by their art, they give to natural bodies, parti- not properly bred, turn back as ſoon as they perceive the ſmell: cularly to mercury; which, after having been fixed, or amalga- Thoſe that have been accuſtomed to it, will kill the animal; but mated, they reſtore to its firſt itate. are obliged to relieve themſelves by thruſting their noſes into the VIVIPAROUS, viviparus, in natural hiſtory, an epithet ap- ground. For repreſentation, ſee Plate V. Genus 14, Species 4. plied to ſuch animals as bring forth their young alive and perfect ; Species V. VARIETY 2. Vulgaris, or Common Civet. in contradiſtinction to ſuch as lay eggs, which are called oviparous Though originally a native of the warm climates of Africa or animals. The females of all the quadruped claſs are viviparous, Aſia, this creature can live in temperate, and even in cold coun and thoſe of the bird claſs are all oviparous. The laws of nature tries; but it muſt be fed with nouriſhing diet, and carefully de in the larger animals are, therefore, in a great meaſure fixed and fended againſt the ſeverities of the weather. Numbers of them are certain; but it is not ſo in the inſect tribes nor in the fiſhes; for kept in Holland for the purpoſe of collecting this valuable perfume. of theſe ſome are viviparous, and others oviparous; and thoſe of The civet procured at Amſterdam is more eſteemed than that which genera nearly allied to one another. See the Syſtems of Ento- comes from the Levant or India, being leſs adulterated. To collect MOLOGY and ICTHYOLOGY. this perfume, the animal is put into a cage, ſo narrow that it can Among inſects the much greater number are oviparous; but not turn itſelf: the cage is opened at one end, and the animal there are many which are not ſo, as the pucerons, progall infects, drawn backwards by the tail, and ſecurely held by its hind legs: a cochineal, &c. The millepedes and ſcorpions are alſo well known ſmall ſpoon is then introduced into the pouch, which contains the to be ſo; all the females of the butterfly, and of ſome other claſſes perfume, with which it is carefully ſcraped, and the matter put into lay only eggs; but the moſt fingular and remarkable inconſtancy a veſlel properly ſecured. This operation is performed two or three in nature, if we may be allowed the expreſſion, is that in the fly times a week. The quantity of odorous humour depends much kingdom ; the ſame claſs of inſects, and even the ſame on the quality of the 'nouriſhment, and the appetite of the animal, furnith us with ſome which are viviparous, and others which are which always produces more in proportion to the goodneſs of its oviparous: the two-winged flies give us inſtances of this; but theſe food. Boiled fleſh, eggs, rice, ſmall animals, birds, and particu- are not fingular in that reſpect; for anong the reptile world, there larly fiſh, are the kinds of food the civet moſtly delights in; and are other creatures which are ſubject to the ſame varieties; and theſe ought to be varied, ſo as to excite its appetite, and preſerve Swammerdam has obſerved a viviparous ſnail. Vipers are diſtin- its health. It requires very little water; and, though it drinks ſel- guiſhed from ſnakes, in that the latter lay eggs in dunghills, to be dom, it diſcharges its urine frequently. It is ſomewhat remarka- hatched by the warmth thereof; but the former are viviparous, that ble, that in this operation the male is not to be diſtinguiſhed from is, they keep their eggs within their bellies and bring forth live vipers. the female. The perfume of this animal is ſo ſtrong, that it in ULCER, Ulcus, in ſurgery, a ſolution or diſcontinuity of fects every part of its body. If a perſon be ſhut up in the fame texture, or loſs of ſubſtance, in the ſoft parts of the body and ſkin, apartment, it is almoſt inſupportable; and when heated with rage, proceeding from an internal cauſe. Galen defines ulcer, an inve- it becomes ſtill more pungent. The civet is naturally ſavage, and terate eroſion of the ſoft parts of the body; by which, inſtead of fomewhat ferocious; yet it is eaſily tamed, ſo as to be handled blood, they are brought to yield a kind of pus, or fanies; which without danger. The teeth of this creature are ſtrong and ſharp; prevents the conſolidation. Etmuller defines an ulcer, a folution but its claws are weak. It is an active and nimble animal.. It of continuity, from ſome corrofive ſharpneſs or acidity, that takes leaps like a cat, and runs with great ſwiftneſs. It lives by hunt away from the parts, and turns the proper nouriſhment of the body ing; ſurpriſes finall animals and birds; and, like the weaſel, will into a fanious matter. A like folution of continuity, happening ſometimes ſteal into the yard, and carry off poultry. Its eyes ſhine in a bony part, is called a caries. Galen commonly uſes the word in the dark; and it is probable, that it can ſee well enough to pur ulcer and wound indifferently; but the Arabs, and the moderns, ſue its prey in the night, as it is known to be moſt active at that after them, diſtinguiſhed between the two. Spontaneous ulcers are time. The civet is very prolific in its native climate; but, though generally ſuppoſed to proceed from acrimony, or a corroſive diſpo- it lives and produces its perfume in temperate regions, it is never lition of the humours of the body; whether brought on by poiſons, known to breed there. Its voice is ſtronger than that of the cat, by the venereal taint, or by other cauſes. Ulcers are divided into and has ſome reſemblance to the cry of an enraged dog. For re- ſimple and complicated. They are again divided, with regard to preſentation, ſee Plate V. Genus 14. Species 5. Variety. 2. their circumſtances, into putrid, or fordid, wherein the Hefh all around genus, will U LC U NC a around is carrupted, and fetid; verminous, where the matter, being with any proſpect of ſucceſs, in the latter ſtages of the phthiſis thick, does not flow away, but generates worms, &c. virulent, pulmonalis, when a purulent expectoration takes place. Percival's which, inſtead of pus, or fanies, yield a malignant virus, &c. They Ef. vol. ii. Prieſtly on Air, vol. i. p. 301. For a copious de- are again diſtinguiſhed with regard to their form, into ſinuous, fiſtu- fcription of this diſeaſe, with the cauſes and methods of treatment, lous, varicous, carious, &c. They are diſtinguiſhed alſo, with re ſee the Syſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 30. gard to their cauſes, into fcorbutical, venereal, cancerous, &c. with ULCERATION, a little aperture, or hole in the ſkin, cauſed regard to the part of the body which they infeft, being ſometimes by an ulcer. Cauſtic medicines occaſion ulcerations in the ſkin. found in the ſkin, fat, and glands, and ſometimes in the muſcular Arſenic always ulcerates the part it ſticks to. A ſalivation ul. parts; with regard to their ſituation in the body, as ulcers of the cerates the tongue and palate. noſe, fauces, breaſt, anus, &c. with regard to their fize, fome ULMUS, in botany. See ELM, under the article TIMBER. ſpreading wide; others occupying but a ſmall ſpace; ſome being ULNA, in anatomy, a long hard bone in the arm, with a ca- deep, and others ſhallow; and alſo with regard to their duration, vity in the middle; called alſo focile majus, and cubitus. See the they are called recent or inveterate. When an ulcer happens in a Syſtem, Part I. Sect. IV. Art. II. and Plate I. Fig. 1. letter g. good conſtitution, and proves eaſy of cure, it is ſaid to be ſimple. ULNARIS extenfor, in anatomy, a muſcle called alſo EXTEN- When attended with other concurring ſymptoms, as a cacochymic SOR carpi. This is a long muſcle, lying on the outſide of the fore- habit, which greatly retards or obſtructs the cure, it is called a arm, Aleſhy toward the os humeri, and tendinous towards the car: compound ulcer. A ſimple ulcer is attended with no other ſign than pus. See the ſyſtem, Part H. Sect. II. Table, Art. 22. and Plate I. that of eroſion; but compound ulcers, happening in a ſcorbutic, Fig. 2. Letter i. dropſical, or ferophulous conſtitution, may be attended with pain, ULNARIS Gracilis, a muſcle, called by fome PALMARIS lon- a fever, convulſions, a large and emaciating diſcharge of matter, gus. It is a ſmall muſcle, lying between the os humeri and the inflammation and ſwelling of the part, calloſity of the lips, a caries carpus, on the inſide of the fore-arm. See the Syſtem, Tables of the bones, &c. Ulcers may be the conſequence of wounds, Art. 22. and Plate I. Fig. 2. letter e. bruiſes, or impoſthumes improperly treated; and they may like UMBELLIFEROUS Plants, are ſuch as have their flowery wiſe proceed from an ill ſtate of the humours, or what may be called tops produced in an umbel on the top of the italks, or branch, and a bad habit of the body. In the latter caſe they ought not to be ſpread out, like an umbrella, on each little ſubdiviſion of which haftily dried up, left it ſhould prove fatal to the patient. Ulcers there is growing a ſmall flower; ſuch as fennel, dill, &c. For the happen moſt commonly in the decline of life, and perſons who natural method of Claſſification, ſee the Syſtem of BOTANY, Sect. II. neglect exerciſe, and live grofly are moſt liable to them. They UMBILICAL, in anatomy, ſomething that relates to the um- might often be prevented by retrenching ſome part of the ſolid bilicus, or navel. bilicus, or navel. Umbilical region, is that part of the abdomen food, or by opening artificial drains, as iffues, fetons, or the like. lying round the umbilicus, or navel . Umbilical veſſels, are a ſet The ulcerative proceſs, according to the idea of Mr. Hunter, is or aſſemblage of vefſels belonging to a fætus; conſtituting what an action of the abſorbent ſyſtem, whereby, in conſequence of a we call the funiculus umbilicalis, or navel-ſtring. Theſe yeſſels are ſtimulus, it takes up the ſoft parts, and carries them into the cir- two arteries, a vein, and the urachus. The umbilical arteries culation. With regard to the proper treatment and cure of ulcers ariſe from the hypogaſtricæ, run up by the fides of the bladder, and in general, it requires ſkill to determine whether it is expedient remain hollow and filled with blood, even in adults, as high as the and ſafe to dry up an ulcer or not. All ulcers which proceed from middle of the bladder, through all which ſpace they likewiſe ſend bad habit of body, ſhould be ſuffered to continue open, at leaſt off ramifications. Afterwards they loſe their cavity, and become till the conſtitution be fo far changed by proper regimen, or the ligamentary as they aſcend. ligamentary as they aſcend. At the upper part of the bladder they uſes of medicine, that they ſeem diſpoſed to heal of their own ac approach each other, and joining the urachus, form that rope cord. Ulcers, which are the effect of malignant fevers, or other which may be termed the ſuperior ligament of the bladder. The acute diſeaſes, may generally be healed with ſafety after the health umbilical vein, from innumerable capillaries united into one trunk, has been reſtored for ſome time. The cure ought not, however, deſcends from the placenta to the liver of the foetus, where it is to be attempted too foon, nor any time without the uſe of purging partly diſtributed into the porta, and partly into the cava. The medicines and a proper regimen. When wounds or bruiſes have, uſe of theſe veſſels is to maintain a continuity and communication by wrong management, degenerated into ulcers, if the conſtitu- between the mother and the fætus. Some authors will have it, tion be good, they may generally be healed with ſafety. When that the foetus receives its food and increaſe this way, and that it ulcers either accompany chronical diſeaſes, or come in their ſtead, grows, like a vegetable, from the mother as a root, of which the they muſt be cautiouſly healed. If an ulcer conduces to the pa umbilical veſſels are the ſtem, and the child the head or fruit of this tient's health, from whatever cauſe it proceeds, it ought not to plant-animal. For a full illuſtration of this particular, ſee the be healed; but if, on the contrary, it waſtes the ſtrength, and con Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, Fig. 40 and 41, with the explanation. ſumes the patient by a ſlow fever, it ſhould be healed as ſoon as UMBILICALIS Funiculus, commonly called the navel-ftring, is a poſſible. Mr. Sharp obſerves, that except the callous and the finu kind of ſtring formed of the umbilical veſſels, which being tied up ous ulcer, and the ulcer with a caries in the bone, the cure of all in a common coat, or membrane, traverſe the fecundines, and are the other kinds depends chiefly on that of the morbid habit of the inſerted, at one end, into the placenta of the mother, and, at the body in general. If the body is free from any degree of cacochymy, other, into the abdomen of the fætus. For the method of tying the the healing of an ulcer is the work of nature, and the effect of to navel-ftring after the delivery, ſee the ſyſtem of MIDWIFERY, Part pical application is merely to maintain the fibres in ſuch a mean IX. Sect. 1. For repreſentation of the funiculus, ſee fig. 14. Let. M. ftate between laxity and rigidity, as will render them moſt capa UMBILICUS, Navel, in anatomy, the centre, or middle part ble of carrying on this natural operation. While an inflammatory of the venter, or belly, being the place through which the umbilical hardneſs exiſts, an emollient poultice laid over the dreſſings will veſſels paſs, out of the foetus, to the placenta of the mother. See relieve, after which dry lint generally ſuffices, or at the moſt it the Syſtem, Part III. may be moiſtened in ſome mild aſtringent, to give a tone to the UNCIÆ, in Algebra, are the numbers prefixed to the letter of new fleſh. When a too great laxity, or ſpongineſs is obſerved in the members of any power produced from a binomial, reſidual, ulcers, gently ſtimulating and bracing applications take place. The or multinomial root; now uſually called coefficients. moſt proper regimen for the cure of ulcers in general, is to avoid UNCIFORME Os, in the carpus, is the fourth bone of the ſe- all ſpices, ſalted, and high ſeaſoned food, and all ſtrong liquors, cond row; it has its name from the Latin uncus, a hook, and is and to leſſen the uſual quantity of fleſh-meat. The body ought compoſed of a body, and a hook, or unciform apophyſis. See to be kept gently open by a diet conſiſting chiefly of cooling lax the ſyſtem of ANATOMY, Part I. Sect. IV. Art. 3. and Plate I. ative vegetables, and by drinking butter-milk, whey ſweetened fig. 1. letter h. with honey, or the like. The patient ought to be kept chearful, UNCTION, UNcTio, the act of anointing, or rubbing with and ſhould take as much exerciſe as he can eaſily bear. oil, or other fatty matter. Mercurial unction, properly applied, Venereal ULCERS. Theſe are almoſt always ſituated either in brings on a falivation. brings on a ſalivation. The ſurgeons cure divers wounds, ulcers, the groins, after the ſuppuration of venereal buboes, or elſe in the &c. by repeated unctions, with oils, ungents, cerates, &c. prepuce, frænum, or glans penis, which is uſually termed a chan Unction, in matters of religion, is uſed for the character con- In females they are frequently fituated in the vagina, or la ferred on facred things, by anointing them with oil. Unctions bia pudendi, and in either ſex ſometimes in the noſe, palate, lips, were very frequent among the Hebrews. They anointed both fauces, tongue, and uvula ; and ſometimes the os frontis, and other their kings and high prieſts at the ceremony of their inaugura- bones both of the head and other parts of the body, are ſubject to tion. They alſo anointed the ſacred veſſels of the tabernacle and them. For the methods of treating venereal ulcers, ſee the Sy- teinple, to fanctify and conſecrate them to the ſervice of God. The ſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 59. unction of kings is ſuppoſed to be a ceremony introduced very late Ulcer in the Lungs occaſions the diſeaſe which we call phthifis among the Chriſtian princes. It is ſaid that none of the emperors pulmonalis; for the cure of which Dr. Percival and Dr. Wither were ever anointed before Juſtinian, or Juſtin. The emperors of ing have in ſeveral caſes ſucceſsfully adminiſtered fixed air. Dr. Germany took the practice from thoſe of the eaſtern empire: king Percival directed his patients to inſpire the ſteams of an efferveſcing Pepin of France was the firſt who received the unction. In the mixture of chalk and vinegar, or of vinegar and pot-aſh; and ob ancient Chriſtian church, unction always accompanied the cere- ſerved that the hectic fever, in ſeveral inſtances, conſiderably abated, monies of baptiſm and confirmation. Extreme unction, or the and the matter expectorated became leſs offenſive and better di anointing perſons in the article of death, was alſo practiſed by the gefted; though in no inftance he was happy enough to effect an ancient Chriſtians, in compliance with the precept of St. James, abſolute cure. Dr. Withering, however, by a fimilar courſe, was chap. v. 14 and 15 verſes, and this extreme unction the Roiniſh more ſucceſsful. It is obſerved that fixed air can only be employed, church has advanced to the dignity of a facrament. It is adminiſ- tered cre. U LC U NC or ftered to none but ſuch as are afiliated with ſome mortal diſeaſe, or of a greater ſyſtem, comprehending many bodies attracting each are in a decrepid age. It is refuſed to impenitent perſons, as alſo other, and gravitating all toward one common center, is now to criminals. The parts to be anointed are the eyes, the ears, the thoroughly explored. Such a regular and uniform ſeries of connec- noſtrils, the mouth, the hands, the feet, and the reins. The laity tions, propagated through ſo great a number of beings, and through are anointed in the palms of the hands, but prieſts on the back of it , ſuch wide ſpaces, is wonderful ; and our wonder muſt increaſe, becauſe the palms of their hands have been already conſecrated by when we obſerve uniformity propagated from the minuteſt atoms to bodies of the moſt enormous ſize, and ſo widely diffuſed as that ordination. The parts before mentioned are anointed in the form of a croſs. The prieſt begins anointing the fick perſon's eyes, ſay we can neither perceive their beginning nor their end. That theſe connections are not confined within our own planetary ſyſtem, is ing, “ May God, by his holy arrointing, pardon you the ſins you have committed by the eyes." In like manner he proceeds to the certain ; they are diffu fed over ſpaces ftill more remote, where new other parts, varying the words according to the parts he anoints. bodies and ſyſtems riſe without end. All ſpace is filled with the UNDERSTANDING, intelleclus, is defined by the peripate- works of God, which are conducted by one plan, to anſwer uner- tics, to be a faculty of the reaſonable ſoul, converſant about intelli- ringly one great end. gible things, conſidered as intelligible. They alſo make it two-fold; UNIFORMITY is particularly uſed for one and the ſame form of viz, active and paſſive. public prayers, and adminiſtration of ſacraments, and other rites, Active UNDERSTANDING, they hold that faculty of the ſoul, by &c. of the church of England, preſcribed by the famous ſtat, i which the ſpecies and images of intelligible things are framed, on Eliz. and 13 and 14 Car. II. cap. 4. called the Act of Uniformity. occaſion of the preſence of phantaſms or appearances thereof. For See LITURGY. maintaining the intellect to be immaterial, they hold it impoſſible it UNION, a junction, coalition, or aſſemblage of two or more ſhould be diſpoſed to think by any diſproportionate phantaſms of different things in one. Philoſophers are much perplexed in ac- mere body; and therefore, that it is obliged to frame other propor- counting for the manner of the union of ſoul and body, or by what tionate ſpecies of itſelf: and hence its denomination afiive. medium it is that two ſuch heterogeneous beings are kept cloiely Paljive UNDERSTANDING, is that which receiving the ſpecies together. It is one of the great laws of this union, that ſuch and framed by the active underſtanding, breaks forth into actual know ſuch an impreſſion on the brain, be followed by ſuch and ſuch ledge. The moderns ſet aſide the Peripatetic notion of an active a ſenſation, or perception in the ſoul. underſtanding. The Carteſians define the underſtanding to be that UNION, in a philoſophical ſenſe, is uſed by Dr. Grew, for one faculty whereby the mind, converſing with, and, as it were, intent of the three ways of mixture; being the joining together of atoms, on itſelf, evidently knows what is true in any one thing not exceed inſenſible particles, ſo as to touch in a plane; as is ſuppoſed to ing its capacity." The Corpuſcular philoſophers define the under be the caſe in the cryſtallizations of ſalts and the like bodies. ſtanding to be a faculty, expreſſive of things which ſtrike on the UNION, or the UNION, by way of eminence, is more particu. external ſenſes, either by their images, or their effects, and ſo enter larly uſed among us to expreſs the act whereby the two ſeparate the mind. Their great doctrine is, Nihil eje in intellectu, quod non kingdoms of England and Scotland were incorporated into one, un- prius fuerit in ſenſu; and to this doctrine our famous Mr. LOCKE, der the title of the kingdom of Great Britain. The kingdom of and moſt of the lateſt Engliſh philoſophers ſubſcribe. See Cor Scotland, notwithitanding the union of the crowns on the acceſſion PUSCULAR PHILOSOPHY, and the Article PHILOSOPHY. of their king James VI. to that of England in 16o3, continued an The Carteſians exclaim much againſt it: and between theſe and entirely ſeparate and diſtinct kingdom for above a century more, the Corpuſcularians there is this farther difference, that the latter though an union had been long projected; which was judged to be make the judgment to belong to the underſtanding; but the for the more eaſy to be done, as both kingdoms were anciently under mer to the will. Hence, according to the moſt approved opinion the ſame government, and ſtill retained a very great reſemblance, of the Corpuſcularians, the underſtanding has two offices, viz. though far from an identity, in their laws. By an act of Parliament, perception and judgment; according to the Carteſians, it has only I Jac. I. cap. 1. it is declared, that theſe two mighty, famous, and one, viz. perception. ancient kingdoms, were formerly one; but great difficulties aroſe UNDULATED Leaf, among botaniſts. See the Syſtem, in carrying on the projected union; theſe, however, were at length Sect. I. Plate I. overcome, and the great work was happily effected in the year 1707. UNDULATORY Motion, is applied to a motion in the air, by the general conſent of queen Anne, and the eſtates of each realm. whereby its parts are agitated after the like manner as waves in the The act, or treaty of union, conſiſts of twenty-five articles ſea; as is ſuppoſed to be the caſe when the ſtring of a muſical in which eleven Engliſh commiſſioners, and eleven Scotch ones, ex- ſtrument is ſtruck. This undulatory motion of the air is ſuppoſed amined, approved, and ſigned on the third of Auguſt 1706. The the matter or cauſe of found. Inſtead of the undulatory, ſome au parliament of Scotland approved it on the fourth of February 1707, thors chuſe to call this a vibratory motion. and the parliament of England on the tenth of March in the ſame UNGUENT, ointment, in ſurgery, a topical remedy, or com year. On the 17th following, the queen went to parliament, where poſition chiefly uſed in the dreſſing of wounds and ulcers. Un ſhe approved the ſame treaty, with the act of ratification. guents, liniments, and cerates, are external forms, applied on The purport of the moſt conſiderable articles is as follows: divers parts of the body, both to cure, and to eaſe, and to relieve That on the firſt of May, 1707, and for ever after, the kingdoms them. They only differ from each other in their conſiſtence; un of England and Scotland ſhall be united into one kingdom, by the guents hold the medium ; being ſtiffer than liniments, but ſofter name of Great Britain. 2. The ſucceſſion to the monarchy of Great than cerates. Britain ſhall be the ſame as was before ſettled with regard to that UNGUIS, fa, in anatomy, is applied to two bones of the of England. 3. The united kingdom ſhall be repreſented by one noſe, which help to complete the internal ſides of the orbit of the parliament. 4. There ſhall be a communication of all rights and eye, to cover the fore-part of the labyrinth of the noſe, and from the privileges between the ſubjects of both kingdoms, except where it lachrymal duct. They have their name from the Latin unguis, a is otherwiſe agreed. 9. When England raiſes 2,000,000l. by a nail of the hand, and are alſo, by ſome authors, from their office land-tax, Scotland ſhall raiſe 48,000l. 16, 17. The ſtandards of the in forming the lachrymal duct, called oſa lachrymalia. Others coin, of weights and meaſures, ſhall be reduced to thoſe of England call them orbitaria ofa. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. II. Art. 2. throughout the united kingdoms. 18. The laws relating to trade, and Plate I. fig, 1. letter e. cuſtoms, and the exciſe, ſhall be the ſame in Scotland as in Eng- UNICORN, in the ſyſtem of mammalia, a ſpecies of the genus land. But all the other laws in Scotland ſhall remain in force, Rhynoceros. See RHYNOCEROS. We have repreſentations of but alterable by the parliament of Great Britain; yet with this cau- unicorns, in coats of arms, which partake of the form of a horſe, tion, that laws relating to public policy are alterable at the diſ- with a horn projecting from the middle of the forehead; but this cretion of the parliament: laws relating to private right are not to like the mermaid and many other animals have no exiſtence in na be altered, but for the evident utility of the people of Scotland, ture: but are introduced by heraldic painters, as ſupporters for arms, 22. Sixteen peers are to be choſen to repreſent the peerage of Scot- Sea UNICORN, the Englith name of a ſpecies of the genus mo land in parliament, and, forty-five members to fit in the houſe of nodon, in the fyſtem of mammalia. See MONODON. commons. 23. The ſixteen peers of Scotland ihall have all privia UNIFORMITY, regularity, a fimilitude or reſemblance be- leges of parliament; and all peers of Scotland ſhall be peers of Great tween the parts of a whole. Such is that we meet with in figures Britain, and rank next after thoſe of the ſame degree at the time of of many ſides, and angles reſpectively equal, and anſwerable to the union, and ſhall have all privileges of peers, except ſitting in each other. A late ingenious author makes beauty to conſiſt in the houſe of lords, and voting on the trial of a peer. uniformity, joined or combined with variety. Where the unifor Theſe are the principal of the twenty-five articles of union, mity is equal in two objects, the beauty he contends, is as the va which are ratified and confirmed by ſtatute 5 Anne, c. 8. in which riety; and where the variety is equal, the beauty is as the unifor ſtatute there are alſo two acts of parliament recited; the one of mity. The works of nature are remarkable in their uniformity Scotland, whereby the church of Scotland, and all the four univer- not leſs than in their variety: and the mind of man is fitted to re ſities of that kingdom are eſtabliſhed for ever, and all ſucceeding ceive pleaſure equally from both. Uniformity and variety are in- ſovereigns are to take an oath inviolably to maintain the fame: the terwoven in the works of nature with ſurpriſing art. Variety, how other of England, 5 Anne, cap. 6. whereby the acts of uniformity ever great, is never without ſome degree of uniformity; nor the of 13 Eliz. and 13 Car. II. (except as the ſame had been altered greateſt uniformity without ſome degree of variety. There is great by parliament at that time) and all other acts then in force for the variety in the ſame plant, by the different appearances of its item, preſervation of the church of England, be declared perpetual ; and branches, leaves, bloſſoms, fruit, ſize, and colour: and yet when we trace that variety through different plants, eſpecially of the fame it is ſtipulated, that every ſubſequent king and queen ſhall take an oath inviolably to maintain the ſame within England, Ireland, kind, there is diſcovered a ſurpriſing uniformity. That the earth is Wales, and the town of Berwick upon Tweed: and it is enacted. that ܪ I. U NI VOC be union.a that theſe two acts ſhall for ever be obſerved as fundamental arid | An incomplex univerſal, its what produces one only conception in: eſſential conditions of the union. the mind, and is a ſimple thing, reſpecting many; as human nature; Upon theſe articles and aớt of union, it is to be obſerved, 1. That which relates to every individual wherein it is found. See the the two kingdoms are now ſo inſeparably united, that nothing Syſtem, Part II. Sect. III. can ever diſunite them; except the mutual conſent of both, or the UNIVERSE, a collective name, fignifying the aſſemblage of ſucceſsful reſiſtance of either; upon apprehending an infringement heaven and earth, with all things therein, called by the Greeks ro". of thoſe points which, when they were ſeparate and independent av, and by the Latins mundus. See the Syſtems of ASTRONOMY nations, it was mutually ſtipulated ſhould be “ fundamental and and GEOGRAPHY, with the Plates reſpectively annexed. eſſential conditions of the union.”. 2. That whatever elſe may UNIVERSITY, UNIVERSITÁS a collective term, applied to deemed “ fundamental and eſſential conditions,” the preſervation an aſſemblage of ſeveral colleges eſtabliſhed in a citys or town, of the two churches, of England and Scotland, in the ſame ſtate wherein are profeffors in the ſeveral ſciences, appointed to teach that they were in at the time of the union, and the maintenance of them as ſtudents; and where degrees, or certificates of ſtudy in the the acts of uniformity which eſtabliſh the liturgy, are expreſſly de- divers faculties, are taken up. In each univerſity four faculties are clared ſo to be. 3. That therefore any alteration in the conſtitution uſually taught, theology, medicine, law, and the arts and ſciences. of either of thoſe churches, or in the liturgy of the chuịch of Eng- They are called univerſities, or univerſal ſchools, becauſe the four land, (unleſs with the conſent of the reſpective churches, collec- faculties are ſuppoſed to make the grand world, or whole compaſs tively or repreſentatively given) would be an infringement of theſe of ſtudy, or rather, becauſe they form one whole out of many indi- “ fundamental and eſſential conditions," and greatly endanger the viduals. Univerſities had their firſt riſe in the twelfth and thirteenth 4. That the municipal laws of Scotland are ordained to centuries, Thoſe of Paris and Bologna pretend to be the firſt that be ſtill obſerved in that part of the iſland, unleſs altered by parlia- were ſct on foot; but then they were on a very different footing ment; and as the parliament has not yet thought proper, except in from the univerſities among us. l. vel a few inſtances, to alter them, they ſtill (with regard to the particu Our univerfities, Oxford and Cambridge, feem intitled to the lars unaltered) continue in full force. greateſt antiquity of any in the world ; and Univerſity, Baliol, and Under this article of union we may obſerve, with reſpect to Wales, Merton colleges in Oxford, and Peter's in Cambridge, all made that very early in our hiſtory we find its princes doing homage to colleges in the thirteenth century, may be ſaid to be the firſt regular the crown of England; till at length, in the reign of Edward the endowments of this kind in Europe. For though Univerſity college Firſt, the line of its ancient princes was aboliſhed ; and the king in Oxford had been a place for ſtudents ever ſince the year 872, yet of England's eldeſt ſon became, as a matter of courſe, their titular this, like many of the other ancient colleges beyond fea, and Leyden prince; the territory of Wales being then entirely annexed (by a to this day, was no proper college ; but the ſtudents, without any kind of feudal reſumption) to the dominion of the crown of Eng-diſtinction of habit, lived in citizens' houſes, having only meeting- land. 10 Edw. I. By 12 Edw. I. and other ſubſequent ſtatutes, places to hear lectures, and to diſpute. In after-times, there were their provincial immunities were farther abridged; but the finiſhing houſes built for the ſtudents to live in ſociety; only each to be at his Itroke to their independency was given by the ſtatute 27 Hen. VIII. own charge, as in the inns of court. Theſe, at firſt, were called cap. 26. which at the ſame time admitted them to a thorough com- inns, but now halls. Atlaſt plentiful revenues were ſettled on ſeveral munication of laws with the ſubjects of England. By this ſtatute of theſe halls, to maintain the ſtudents in diet, apparel, &c. and it is enacted, 1. That the dominion of Wales ſhall be for ever theſe were then called colleges. The univerſities of Oxford and united to the kingdom of England. 2. That all Welchmen born Cambridge are governed, next under the king, by a chancellor, , ſhall have the ſame liberties as the other king's ſubjects. 3. That who is to take care of the government of the whole univerſity, to lands in Wales ſhall be inheritable according to the Engliſh tenures maintain the liberties thereof, &c. The chancellor's courts, in the and rules of defcent, 4. That the laws of England, and no other, two univerſities, enjoy the ſole juriſdiction, in excluſion of the king's ſhall be uſed in Wales; beſides many other regulations of the po- courts, over all civil actions and ſuits whatſoever, where a ſcholar lice of the principality. And the ſtatute 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. or privileged perſon is one of the parties, excepting in ſuch caſes cap. 26. confirms the ſame, adds farther regulations, divides it into where the right of freehold is concerned. And thele, by the uni- twelve ſhires, and, in ſhort, reduces it into the fame order in which verfity charters, they are at liberty to try and determine, either ac- it ſtands at this day: differing from the kingdom of England in only cording to the common law of the land, or according to their own, a few particulars, and thoſe too of the nature of privileges (ſuch as local cuſtoms, at diſcretion. having courts within itſelf, independent of the proceſs of Weſtmin Privileges of this kind are of very high antiquity, being enjoyed ſter-ha!?), and ſome other immaterial peculiarities, hardly more than by all foreign univerſities as well as our own, in conſequence as are to be found in many counties of England itſelf. As to Ireland, judge Blackſtone apprehends) of a conſtitution of the emperor Fre- that is ſtill a diſtinct, though a dependent, ſubordinate kingdom. derick, A. D. 1158. The oldeſt charter containing this grant to It was entitled the dominion, or lordſhip of Ireland, ſtat. Hiberniæ, the univerſity of Oxford, which the ſame learned judge had ſeen, 14 Hen. III. and the king's ſtyle was no other than dominus Hiber. was 28 Hen. III. A.D. 1244. And the ſame privileges were con- niæ, lord of Ireland, till the thirty-third year of king Hen. VIII. firmed and enlarged by almoſt every ſucceeding prince, down to when he aſſumed the title of king, which is recognized by act king Henry VII. in the fourteenth year of whoſe reign the largeſt of parliament, 35 Henry VIII. cap. 3. See Blackſt. Comm, and moſt extenſive charter of all was granted. One fimilar to vol. i. Int. ſect. 4. which was afterwards granted to Cambridge, in the third year of UNITARIANS, in eccleſiaſtical hiſtory, a name given to thoſe queen Elizabeth. All the charters of the two univerſities were who confine the glory and attribute of divinity to the One, only confirmed by the ſtatute of 13 Eliz. cap. 29. This privilege, la great and ſupreme God, and father of our Lord Jeſus Chriſt. This far as it relates to civil cauſes, is exerciſed at Oxford in the chan- denomination is ſometimes applied to thoſe that are otherwiſe called cellor's court; the judge of which is the vice-chancellor, his deputy, ARIANS; but it is now more commonly appropriated to the Soci. or aſſeſſor From his ſentence an appeal lies to delegates appointed NIANS, who maintain that the Father alone is the God of the uni- by the congregation; from thence to other delegates of the houſe of verſe, the only true God; that our Lord Jeſus Chriſt, was a mere convocation; and if they all three concur in the ſame ſentence, it is man, with a reaſonable ſoul and human body, who had no exiſtence final, at leaſt by the ſtatutes of the univerſity, according to the rule before he was born, by the immediate operation and miraculous of the civil law. But if there be any diſcordance or variation in any power of God at Bethlehem, and who, in the courſe of his life and of the three ſentences, an appeal lies in the laſt reſort to judges de- miniſtry, death, reſurrection, and exaltation, was honoured with legates, appointed by the crown under the great ſeal of Chancery. peculiar and extraordinary tokens of the divine influence and favour; The univerſities of Scotland are four, viz. that of St. Andrews's, and that the Holy Spirit was not a perſon, or diſtinct intelligent founded in 1411, under the direction of a chancellor, two principals, agent, but only the power, influence, and energy of God. Some, and eleven profeſſors: that of Glaſgow, founded in 1454, under the in imitation of Socinus, allow that Chriſt is an object of worſhip; direction of a chancellor, rector, principal, and fifteen profeſſors: but moſt of the modern Unitarians reſtrict-prayer and divine wor- that of Aberdeen, founded in 1477, which has two colleges, the thip to God alone. For an account of the progreſs of Unitarianiſm King's College and Mariíchal College; the King's College has a in our own country, ſee an Hiſtorical View of the State of thể principal, ſub-principal, and eight profeſſors: and that of Edin- Unitarian Doctrine and Worſhip from the Reformation to our burgh, founded in 1582, under the direction of patrons, a principal, own Times, by Mr. Lindſey, 8vo. 1783, and twenty-five profeſſors. UNITY, in poetry. In the drama there are three unities to be UNLAWFUL, illegal, ſomething prohibited by, or contrary obſerved ; the unity of action, that of time, and that of place. In to the terms of a law either divine or human. Unlawful Aſſembly, the epic poem, the great and almoſt only unity is that of the action. the meeting of three or more perſons together, by force to commit Soine regard, indeed ought to be had to that of time; but that of place ) ſome unlawful act; as, to aſſault any perſon, to enter his houſe, there is no room for. The unity of character is not reckoned or land, &c. and thus abiding together, whether they attempt the among the unities. The unity of the dramatic action conſiſts execution or not. See RIOT. in the unity of the intrigue in comedy, and that of the danger in VOCATIVE, in grammar, the fifth caſe, or ſtate of nouns. tragedy; and this not only in the plan of the fable, but alſo in the When we name the perſon we are ſpeaking to, to addreſs ourſelves. fable extended and filled with epiſodes. See POETRY. to the thing we are ſpeaking of, as if it were a perſon, the noun UNIVERSAL, in logic, is either complex, or incomplex. A or name acquires a new relation, which the Latins and Greeks ex- complex univerſal is either an univerſál propoſition, as, “ Every preſs by a new termination, called the vocative. In Engliſh, and whole is greater than its parts;" or whatever raiſes a manifold moſt of the modern tongues, this caſe is ordinarily expreſſed in conception in the mind; as the definition of a reaſonable animal, nours that have an article in the nominative, by ſuppreſling that article; NO 147 5 H VOL VOL article', as, the Lord is my hope.-Lord, thoru art my hope! though caſes of fainting. It is very cauſtic, diſſolves oils, and renders them on many occaſions we uſe an interjection. See the Treatiſe on ſoluble in water; prevents putrefaction; and is infiammable, but Grammar, Part I. Chap. I. Sect. I. and Part II. Chap. I. burns without exploſion. Chymical experiments abundantly prove Seet. II. and III. that volátile falts are obtainable from all kinds of land animals, the VOICE, vox, a ſound produced in the throat and mouth of an amphibious and fubterraneous tribes, birds, fiſh, and reptiles; from animal, by an apparatus of inſtruments for that purpoſe. Voices alkaline vegetables, alſo without putrefaction; and from all other are either articulate or inarticulate. vegetables, after putrefaction; as alſo from foot, horns, hoofs, and Articulate Voices, are thoſe whereby ſeveral conſpire together all refuſe animal and vegetable matters, ſuch as the pith of horns, to form fome aſſemblage, or little ſyſtem of ſounds. Such are the urine, the blood of Naughter-houſes, &c. and theſe are as pure and voices expreſfing the letters of an alphabet, numbers of which, perfect as from hartthorn ; and this affords a hint for the making of joined together, form words. volatile alkalies and fal ammoniac cheap in England. Shaw's Inarticulate Voices, are ſuch as are not organized, or affembled Lectures, p. 168. See alſo the ſyſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part. I. into words: ſuch is the barking of dogs, the braying of aſſes, the Chap. IV. Sect. II. hiſſing of ferpents, the finging of birds, &c. The formation of the VOLCANO, in natural hiſtory, is 'a name given to burning human voice, with all the varieties thereof obſerved in ſpeech, mu- mountains, or to vents for fubterranean fires, that belch or vomit ſic, &c. makes a very curious article of enquiry; and the apparatus flame, aſhes, cinders, ſtones, liquid ſulphur, and other ſubſtances and organiſin of the parts miniſtering thereto, are ſomething exceed with aſtoniſhing violence, and in a prodigious quantity. ingly ſurprifing. Thoſe parts are, the trachea, or wind-pipe, DISSERTATION ON THE NATURE, EFFECTS, AND through which the air paſſes and repaſſes into the lungs: the larynx, o CAUSES OF VOLCANOS. which is a ſhort cylindrical canal, at the head of the trachea; and Enumeration of the different Volcanos. the glottis, which is a little oval cleft, or chink, left between two The principal Volcanos in Europe are Ætna, now called Gibel, ſemicircular membranes ſtretched horizontally within-fide the law in the iſland of Sicily, a volcano famous in all hiſtories. The rýnx; which membranes, though capable of joining cloſe together, next is Veſuvius near Naples, as memorable as the former Strom- do generally leave an interval, either greater or leſs, between boli in Europe, is another volcano, which exiſts in all its force, them, called the glottis. For deſcription of theſe ſeveral parts, fee and in its form is the moſt pyramidal of all the Lipari iſlands, the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part V. Sect. V. and VI. which have been all formed by exploſion. This volcano differs Voice, in grammar, is a circumſtance in verbs, whereby they from Ætna and Veſuvius, by its continually emitting fire, and coine to be conſidered as either active, or paſſive, i. e. either as ex- ſeldom any lava. The volcano at Hecla in Iceland, rages fome- preſſing an action impreſſed on another ſubject; as; I beat; of re- times with as great violence as Ætna, and cafts out great ſtones. ceiving it from another; as, I am beaten. The Greeks have a The Chimera in Greece is likewiſe a volcano. Baſaltic moun- third voice, called medial, becauſe it has ſometimes an active, and tains, common in Sweden, ſeem to owe their origin to ſubmarine ſometimes a paſſive fignification. See the Treatiſe, Part II. volcanos. The immenfe maſſes of lava ejected by volcanos are Chap. III. Sect. V. many years in cooling, and many hundred years are required for Voice, in oratory, is one of the parts of pronunciation, upon the their decompofition, which is quicker or flower, as they have been proper regulation of which much of the orator's ſucceſs depends. more or leſs perfectly melted. According to the obſervations of Sir For this purpoſe it will be right to obſerve, in general, what nature William Hamilton (Phil. Tranſ. vol.lxi. parti. p. 5, &c.) the lava does, when free and unconftrained. As perſons are differently af- of Veſuvius forms one or two feet of mould in a thouſand years; fected when they ſpeak, ſo they naturally alter the tone of their this bed of mould being afterwards covered with freſh lava, and voice; it riſes, finks, and has various inflexions given it, according this, after mouldering by means of that of fill later eruptions, af- to the preſent ſtate and diſpoſition of the mind. When the mind fords ſome ground for calculating the age of the volcano, at leaſt is calm and ſedate, the voice is moderate and even; when the former within certain limits. Many excellent inveſtigations of this fort is dejected with forrow, the latter is languid; and when that is in- inay be feen in M. Soulavie's Hiſtory of the South of France. See flamed by paſſion, this is raiſed and elevated. It is the orator’s bu-Watſon's Chem. Eff. vol. i. eff. 5. Kirwan's Elem. of Minerals fineſs, therefore, to follow nature, and to endeavour, that the tone p. 388, &c. Varenius's Geo. vol. i. p. 145, &c. of his voice appear natural and unaffected; and for this end, he The volcanos of Aſia are not leſs numerous than thoſe of Eu. muſt take care to ſuit it to the nature of the ſubject; but ſtill ſo as rope: there are ſeveral in the mountains of Perſia, and in the iſland to be always grave and decent. For the proper management of the of Ormuz. The pic of Adam in the iſland of Ceylon, alſo burns voice, as it relates to public ſpeaking, ſee the Treatiſe on ORA at certain times: but the principal volcanos of that part of the TORY, Part IV. Sect. II. throughout. world, are in the Phillippine and Molucca iſlands. Java and Sumatra VOIDED, vuide, in heraldry, is underſtood of an ordinary alſo furniſh ſome in the centre of their largeſt mountains. The whoſe inner or middle part is cut out, leaving nothing but its edges iſland of Tenate affords alſoa volcano on the top of a mountain very toſhew its form ; ſo that the field appears through it. Hence, it is difficult of acceſs, but opening with a vaſt mouth, and very terrible needleſs to exprefs the colour or metal of the voided part; becauſe when it burns. The ſeveral violent eruptions of this mountain within it muſt, of courſe, be that of the field. the mouth or crater, have given it the appearance of an amphithe- VOLATILE, in phyſics, is commonly uſed to denote a mixt atre, formed for holding people at the time of ſome public ſhew, body whoſe integral parts are eaſily diſſipated by fire, or heat; but ſeveral circles appearing in it one above another, found with a ſort it is more properly uſed for bodies whoſe elements or firſt compo- of regularity that is ſurpriſing. In Japan there are very numerous nent parts, are eaſily ſeparated from each other, and diſperſed in air. inſtances of the uſe that mountains fèrve to on this occaſion, many VOLATILE, in Chymiſtry. When the fire decompounds any of the higher mountains of that ifland burning almoſt continually: mixt body, the parts moſt diſpoſed to receive a great motion are and the little iſlands which lie ſcattered about in the ſame fea have fooneſt looſened, and riſe up in the order which the differences of alſo many of them fpiracles of the ſame kind in the tops of the that diſpoſition give them; the reſt remaining immoveable at the mountains, ſeen principally in the night, when the abſence of the bottom of the veſſel. Thoſe that riſe firſt are called volatile parts: fun's rays gives their faint fire leave to appear. ſuch are phlegm, oil, fpirits, and ſalts, both urinous and alkalious. Whatever may be the number of theſe volcanos in Aſia, there is The parts remaining, viz. earth, and lixivial ſalts, are called fixt. no part of the world that yields ſo many as America. In the king- VOLATILE Alkali, a name given to one of the primary or ele- dom of Chili alone there are fourteen very conſiderable volcanos, mentary ſalts, the baſis of all thoſe which go by the name of am- all placed in a regular order one by the other; and not a leſs num- moniacs. It is produced chiefly from animal ſubſtances, eſpecially ber in Peru ; theſe all burſt forth from the ſummits of thoſe vaſt urine, either by diſtillation with a ſtrong heat, or by putrefaction. mountains the Andes. In New Spain there are three very for- In its pure ſtate it is a tranfparent elaſtic fluid like common air, but midable for the fierceneſs of their burning. Near Guatimala, in lighter in a conſiderable proportion; and in this ſtate Dr. Prieſtley South America, are two mountains ; the one called volcano of fire, has given it the appellation of alkaline air. It unites very readily the other of water. Out of the firſt huge pieces of rocks are fre- with fixed air, and with all kinds of acids, forming with them various quently hurled, with as much vehemence as balls out of a cannon; neutral falts according to their different natures. It unites alſo with and a written letter may be read by the light of its fames at the water, which will imbibe one third of its weight of alkaline air. diſtance of three miles. Out of the other vaft quantities of water The mixture then is a cauſtic volatile ſpirit, the ſtrongeſt that can are continually thrown up. be made, which unites with acids without any efferveſcence. If The moſtextreme parts of the northern world are not free from theſe fixed air is added, the ſpirit then contains volatile falt, and is ſaid to ſtore-houfes of fire. Authors tell us of no lefs than four of them in the be mild; though in fact it is now partly changed into neutral {aline moſt northern parts of Tartary; and we know that Greenland, and mixture along with a quantity of cauſtic ſpirit. If a true cauſtic all the neighbouring country have them. The volcanos of the fpirit is expoſed to the air, part of the alkali will fly off; but part Terra del Fuego are very well known, and it is indeed the general is alſo neutralized by the fixed air which it attracts from-the atmof- opinion, that farther north than we have yet penetrated, there may phere. The ſalt formed by an union of fixed air with volatile al- be very many undiſcovered ones, and fome authors have kali is the moſt volatile of all the ammoniacal falts, and may be far as to declare, that, were the cold no prevention, we ſhould not made perfectly neutral, though it is eaſily ſuper-ſaturated with alka- be able to come much nearer than we do to the fouthern pole, for line air, and is then extremely pungent. In this ſtate it is called the number and fierceneſs of the burning mountains. Africa alſo volatile ſalt, and is uſed in linelling-bottles : but the fuperfluous has its volcanos, in the kingdom of Fez, and other places. quantity of alkaline air ſoon flies off, and the ſalt remains neutral There are alſo ſome volcanos which have left off burning, as that as before. Alkaline air in large quantities is fatal to animals, on the iſland of Queimoda, upon the coaſt of Braſil, near the mouth though in a ſmall proportion it is a medicine of great efficacy in of Rio de la Plata; the mountains in Congo or Angula ; thoſe in the Azores, gone :- VOLCANOS. tur cotton. SO Azores, eſpecially in Tercera and St. Michael, which formerly , &c. vol. Ixx, part i. p. 42, &c.—The uſual ſymptoms of an ap- uſed to burn, but now only emit occaſionally fmoke and vapours. proaching eruption are rumbling noiſes and exploſions within the The iſlands of St. Helena and Afcenfion, Iſchia, and the Lipari bowels of the volcano, a quantity of ſmoke forcibly iſſuing from its iftands, in the Mediterranean fea; ſeveral of the Molucca islands crater, accompanied at times with an emiſſion of red-hot ſcoriæ in the Indian ſea'; ſeveral of the Azores and Antilles; &c. in the and aſhes , which gradually increaſe ſo as to exhibit in the night- Atlantic ocean ; Otaheite and Huaheine, &c. in the Southern time the moſt beautiful fire-warks that can be imagined. When ocean; all theſe and many others, furniſh a variety of volcanic ap- the eruption of 1979 began, the volcano was violently agitated; a pearances and remains. Sir William Hamilton has lately given white and fulphureous ſmoke iſſued continually and impetuouſly an account of certain traces of voleanos on the banks of the Rhine. from its crater, fórming clouds reſembling bales of the whiteſt Phil. Tranſ. vol. lxviii. part i. art. I. Such a maſs of theſe was ſoon piled over the top of the Ancientextinguiſhed volcanos have, indeed, lately been diſcovered volcano as exceeded the height and ſize of the mountain itſelf at in the inland parts of moſt countries ; and as volcanos now exiſting leaſt four times. In the midft of this white ſmoke, an immenſe are generally placed in the neighbourhood of the ſea, ſome have quantity of ſtone, fcoriæ, and aſhes, were fhot up to a height not inferred from thence, that the ſea at ſome remote period covered leſs than two thouſand feet; and a quantity of liquid lava was diſa thoſe countries. Submarine volcanos have often been obſerved even charged, which ran with violence near four miles from the ſpot in our own times. The volcanic mountains, which are of differ- | whence it iſſued. Minute aſhes, of a reddiſh hue, were diſperſed ent heights, generally form lofty ſpires internally ſhaped like an to a great diſtance, and darkened the air; theſe aſhes were mixed inverted cone, placed on a broader baſis. This cone is called the with long filaments of a vitrified matter, like ſpun-glaſs, ſeveral crater or chininey of the volcano, as the lava commonly paſſes birds in cages were ſuffocated by the ſalphureous ſmoke; and the through it, though it ſometimes burſts from the ſides, and even from leaves of trees were covered with white ſalts very corroſive. In the the bottom of the mountain ; ſometimes the crater itſelf falls in, progreſs of the eruption, after loud exploſions, a fountain of liquid and is defaced; and ſometimes in 'extinguiſhed volcanos it is filled tranſparent fire began to riſe, and gradually increaſing, arrived at a with water, and forms thoſe lakes that are obſerved on the ſummit height not leſs than three times that of Veſuvius itſelf, which riſes of fome mountains. perpendicularly near three thouſand ſeven hundred feet above the no Extraordinary Effects of Volcanos , level of the ſea. Puffs of black ſmoke ſucceeded one another The eruptions of Mount Ætna, are ſeen by thoſe that fail on haſtily, and accompanied the red-hot, tranſparent, and liquid.lava, the Mediterranean, at the diſtance of forty German miles from the within which ſmoke Sir William Hamilton, perceived a bright, fhore of Sicily. It rages at ſometinies with peculiar violence. but pale, electrical fire, briſkly playing about, in zig-zag lines. In 1536 it flrook all Sicily; the noiſe proceeding from it reſembled The liquid lava, mixed with ſtones and ſcoriæ, after having that of the firing of great guns, and many houſes were overthrown mounted at leaſt ten thouſand' feet, in part perpendicularly, and throughout the whole iſland. After this ſtorm had continued for joining that which iſſued from the crater, formed one complete fire and flame; which in four days conſumed all that were within and of the extraordinary height above-mentioned, caſting a five leagues of Ætna. Then the funnel, on the top of the moun- heat to the diſtance of about fix miles around it. This vola tain, diſgorged a great quantity of aſhes, which were not only dif- canic lightning, however, very rarely quitted the cloud, but uſu- perfed over the whole iſland, but alſo carried beyond ſea to Italy, ally returned to the great column of fire, toward the centre of the ſo that ſeveral ſhips that were failing to Venice, at two hundred volcano, from whence it originally came. The air, for ſome leagues diſtance, ſuffered damage. Mr. Oldenburg has given an Mr. Oldenburg has given an time after the eruption had cealed, continued in a conſiderable de- hiſtorical account of the eruptions of mount Ætna, in Phil. Tranſ.gree electrical. Whilſt the eruption laſted, a mixed ſmell, like that No. 48, p. 967. See ERUPTION. of ſulphur, with the vapours of an iron foundery, was ſenſible. The laſt very great eruption from this mountain happened in The air, after one day's eruption, was filled at night for many hours 1669; of which the earl of Winchelſea, who was a ſpectator, ſays, with meteors, ſuch as are vulgarly called falling ſtars, which ſhot that the inundation of fire, cinders, and burning ſtones, advanced generally in a horizontal direction, leaving behind them a luminous into the ſea fix hundred yards, and a mile in breadth: it deſtroyed trace, which quickly diſappeared. Many ſmall volcanic ſtones and in forty days the habitations of twenty-ſeven thouſand perſons; and cinders were afterwards found to have fallen more than thirty miles of twenty thouſand perſons, who inhabited Catania, three thouſand from Veſuvius, and minute aſhes fell in great abundance at the only remained. He adds, that the fiery deluge in its progreſs niet diſtance of a hundred miles. The number and ſize of the ſtones, with a lake four miles in compaſs, and not only filled it up, though or fragments of lava, which were thrown out of the volcano in this it was four fathoms deep, but raiſed it into a mountain. Borelli has eruption were incredible: the largeſt was in circumference no leſs calculated, that the matter diſcharged at this eruption was ſufficient than a hundred and eight feet, and ſeventeen feet high. It was a to fill a ſpace of 93,838,750 cubic paces. Sir William Hamilton, ſolid block much vitrified. This was thrown at leaſt a quarter of a who viſited this mountain in 1769, inforins us, that the lava which mnile clear of the volcano. For an account of theſe, and many other ran from it, and on which there are as yet no ſigns of vegetation, is curious circumſtances attending the eruption of 1779, illuſtrated by 14 miles in length, and in many parts fix in breadth, and that it a figure, ſee Phil. Tranſ. vol. Ixx. part 1. art. 4. The known qua- Teached Catania, and deſtroyed part of its walls, buried an amphi- lities and effects of the noxious vapours, called in Italy, mofete, that theatre, an aqueduct, and many other monuments of its ancient are uſually ſet in motion by an eruption of the volcano, and that grandeur, and ran far into the ſea, ſo as to form a ſafe harbour, are then manifeſt in the wells and ſubterrancous parts of its neigh, which was ſoon after filled up by a freſh torrent of the ſame in- bourhood, correſpond with thoſe attributed to fixed air. Ido flamed matter. There has been no ſuch eruption ſince, though vol. lxi. part i. P: 41. there are ſigns of many, more terrible, that preceded it. Froin The force with which a volcano explodes ſeems to be the greateſt the higheſt point of Ætna, Sir William counted 44 mountains in hitherto known in nature. the middle region on the Catanian ſide, and many others on the mult of neceſſity ſuppoſe the reſiſtance of the air to be exceedingly other ſide of the mountain, all of a conical form, and each having a leffened before the projected materials. Under the article PRO- crater, or chimney, which, he ſays, have been evidently raiſed by ex-JECTILES, it is ſhown how great this reſiſtance is, and what an plofion. Heeſtimated the great crater of Ætna, to be about two miles effect it has upon globes of folid iron. Upon irregular maſſes of and a half in circumference. The laſt eruption of Ætna was in 1776. rock, then, and much more upon ſtreams of liquid lava, the re- The firſt eruption recorded in hiſtory of Veſuvius, near Naples, liſtance muſt be ſuch, as to ſtop their motion almoſt as ſoon as it is that which happened in the time of Veſpaſian, A. D. 79; on began. Nevertheleſs, in the great eruption of Veſuvius in 1979, which occaſion, lays Dion Caflius, great quantities of aſhes and Sir William Hamilton informs us, that a ſtream of lava of an im- ſulphureous ſmoke were carried not only to Rome, but alſo beyond menſe magnitude was projected to rhe height of at leaſt 10,000 feet the Mediterranean, into Africa, and even to Egypt. Birds were above the top of the mountain : and if to this we add the depth of fuffocated in the air, and fell down dead upon the ground, and fiſhes the fource whence this lava was derived, the force by which it was perifhed in the neighbouring waters, which were made hot, and impelled muſt exceed our imagination. Indeed, let us fuppoſe the infected by it. Sir William Hamilton reckons, that the eruption cauſe to be what we will, had the air exerted its reſiſting power upon in 1767 was the twenty-ſeventh from that in the time of Titus, this lava, as it does on a cannon-ball, the force neceſſary to have lince which there have been nine others; that of 1779 being pe- carried it to that amazing height muſt have daſhed the ſtream in culiarly violent and alarming. Mr. Gerhard computes that Ve- pieces, as its firſt emiſſion from the mouth of the volcano. Either ſuvius has ejected from the year 1779 to 1783, 309,658,161 cubic the extreme heat of the lava, therefore, or ſome other cauſe, muſt feer. Biſhop Berkeley has given a particular account of the effects contribute to keep offthis reſiſtance, without which we cannot fup of the eruption in 1717; for which, ſee Phil. Tranf. No. 354. poſe that it could have reached to ſuch an height, much leſs could p. 708, or the life of Berkeley, in the Biographia Britannica, by the lighter materials, alhes, cinders, &c. have ariſen to an height Dr. Kippis . We have an account of mount Veſuvius, and of the ſufficient to carry them to the diſtance of 100 miles from the moun- eruption from it in 1737, by the Prince of Caffano, in the Phil. tain, which we are affured was the caſe at that time. Tranſ. No. 435 feet. I, 2. The matter thrown out flowed like Dr: Hooke formerly had maintained, that all land was raiſed out melted lead, and moved about half a unile in an hour, which was an of the fea by earthquakes; and modern philoſophers ſeem to admit unuſual velocity. The trees, touched by this matter, immediately his hypotheſis, though not, perhaps, in its utmoſt latitude. Von took fire, and fell. Glaſs in houſes was melted into a paſte. Troil (Letters on Ireland, p. 222.) is of opinion, that this iſland Sir William Hamilton has given an accurate and circumſtantial has been produced by volcanos in the courſe of ſeveral centuries. deſcription of the eruptions in 1766, 1767, and 1779. See Phil . Dr. Pofter, in his Obſervations made during a Voyage roạnd the Tranf. vol. lvii. p. 192, yol. lviii. p. 1, &c. vol. lix, p. 18, World, p. 151, after giving an ingenious conjecture concerning the origin V OLC A NO S. of it is no- wear origin of all the tropical low illes in the South Sea, aſſures us, that, more than 700 tons; and the projectile power employed to throw of the higher ifles there is hardly, one of them which has not ſtrong this to fuch a diſtance muſt have exceeded any thing we can coni- veſtiges of its having undergone ſome violent alteration by a volcano. ceive, almoſt of the force of gun-powder itſelf. Some of them have volcanos ſtill ſubliſting; others; among which are Some have ſuppoſed, that the earth, at a conſiderable diſtance Otaheite and Huaheine, ſeem to have been elevated, in remote ages, below its furface, is ſurrounded with a ſtratum of ignited matter from the bottom of the ſea by ſubterraneous fires. Sir W. Hamil- of a definite thickneſs; or that the whole central part ton is confident, that the iland of Iſchia, the whole baſis of which thing but a maſs of melted minerals, which, every where ſtruggling is l'ava, roſe out of the ſea in the ſame manner as ſome of the Azores. | for vent, burſts forth where there is the leaſt reſiſtance, ſhivering The effects of volcanos in the courſe of many ages muſt be al: 1 into rude fragments the ſuperincumbent cruft of earth, and deluging lowed to be very conſiderable ; and hence ſome have taken occaſion with mountainous torrents of liquid fire the adjoining countries. to account for the forination of mountains, iſlands, and even the When we conſider the immenſe power exerted by volcanos, immenſe continents in our preſent globe. That many mountains we can ſcarce find any thing in nature to which it can be owe their origin to volcanos, is an unqueſtionable fact, confirmed aſcribed. What only ſeems to reſemble it is the exploſions of ina by ſeveral obſervations récited by Sir William Hamilton. The flammable air in mines, and of which an account is given under mountain called Montagno Novo, near Puzzoli, which is an hun- the article Damps. But as it is impoſſible to account for the cona dred and fifty feet high, and three miles round, roſe in one night tinual generation of this air, which we know muſt be deſtroyed out of the Lucrine lake, in 1538, and he ſays it is not more extra- by every explofion, we cannot have recourſe to this agent; nor, ordinary, that Veſuvius itſelf" Thould in many ages riſe above two though elektricity ſeems to be very much concerned in volcanos, thouſand feet. All the high grourids near Naples are formed in are we acquainted with any laws according to which that fluid the ſame manner, as Sir William could not diſcover, in any place, acts, by which a ſucceſſion of violent exploſions could be ocea- what could be called virgin earth; and if he were to eſtabliſh a fioned. The primary conſideration, however, in attempting to ſyſtem, he ſays, it would be, that mountains are produced by volca- account for the phænomena of volcanos, is the means by which nos, and not volcanos by mountains. the fire is originally kindled, becauſe upon this, ſome how or other, Mr. Whitehurſt, in his inquiry into the Original State and all the reſt of the phænomena depend. This, from what has Formation of the Earth, 4to. 1778, apprehends, that ſubterraneous been already obſerved, cannot be occaſioned by fermentations of fire muſt at different times have exiſted univerſally in the bowels metalline, mineral, or faline ſubſtances, which in time would of the earth, and that in union with water, or by the expanſive out; but muſt depend upon ſome inexhauſtible cauſe. The only power of ſteam, it has produced the immenſe continents , as well as inexhauſtible ſource of fire which we are acquainted with, is the the mountains of our globe, and alſo the univerſal deluge. When electric fluid, by means of which every degree of heat, even theſe fires were firſt kindled, by what ſort of fuel they are ſtill to that which vitrifies gold and platina, may be excited. From maintained, at what depths below the furface of the earth they are the many articles in this work, where the nature of the electric placed; whether they have a mutual communication ; of what fluid has been conſidered, it muſt appear very probable that it is dimenſions they confift, and how long they may continue, are no other than the light of the ſun himſelf abſorbed by the earth, queſtions which do not admit an eaſy deciſion. pervading every part of it, receiving new motions, and becoming Inveſtigation of the Cauſes of Volcanos ſubject to new laws, in conſequence of this abſorption, as if it There are no phænomena in nature whoſe cauſes ſeem more dif- were different fluid. were different fluid. As the fun perpetually ſends down an im- ficult to be explained than volcanos. The fermentation of pyrites, menſe quantity, great part of which is ſtill abſorbed, it is impoſ- of ſulphur and iron, the exploſions of nitre, of aqueous ſteam vio-ſible that ſuch an abſorption can take place without an emiſſion of lently heated, or of air pent up and greatly rarefied, have all been án equal quantity ſomewhere or other. The outlets to this Auid thought of to explain them, but with very little ſucceſs. Dr. Wood- are innumerable; but by various cauſes many of theſe may occa- ward and others have recourſe to a central fire which they ſuppoſe to fionally be ſtopped. In this caſe it is evident, that the fluid muſt exiſt in the bowels of the earth, and ſuppoſe that volcanos are ſo many move with greater velocity through thoſe which remain open. ſpiracles or chimneys to prevent it from deſtroying the whole world. But it has been ſhown, under the articles ELECTRICITY, and It muſt, however, be very evident, that the immenſe force HEAT, that the violent motion of the electtric fluid through any which we obſerve in volcanos cannot by any means be accounted for ſubſtance is heat; that when this fluid converges to a centre, or from any ſuch principles. It is impoſſible that beds of pyrites can diverges from one, heat always takes place in the central point, and be ſo totally inexhauſtible as to remain for thouſands of years un- that more or leſs violent according to the quantity of fluid which der, or nearly under, the ſame part of the ſurface of the earth. thus converges or diverges. If then, from any cauſe, the electric And as to nitre, it is never found in a foſſile ſtate, nor indeed can matter diffuſed through a very large portion of the earth ſhould we conceive that ſuch quantities of nitre can exiſt under any one converge towards one particular ſpot on the ſurface, then that ſpot part of the ſurface as would be ſufficient for a ſingle exploſion : would undoubtedly be heated, or perhaps ſet on fire; and if a fuf- beſides, nitre does not explode inſtantaneoully, unleſs it is tho- ficient quantity of electric matter. Thould conſtantly be directed in roughly mixed with ſulphur and charcoal, in order to convert it this manner, we muſt eaſily ſee that the heat would be continual. into gun-powder; an operation which cannot take place in the Hence may be underſtood the origin of fol fataras, or ſpots of earth bowels of the earth. As little can we ſuppoſe thoſe eruptions which have a continual heat in them, and of hot ſprings. But if owing to the expanſion of aqueous ſteam; for though this will in this violent flux of electric matter fhould by any means be inter- ſome caſes explode with great violence, yet in others it ſeems to rupted and renewed at uncertain intervals, we ſee; in that caſe, be in a manner totally deprived of that power. With melted lead, the heat muſt occaſionally increaſe and decreaſe, without any copper, or falts, it explodes with the utmoſt fury, even when cauſe viſible to thoſe who dwelt near the ſpots above-mentioned. water in a very ſmall quantity is thrown upon the ſurface of ſuch In volcanos, however, it is probable that the flux of electric mat- ſubſtances; yet on the ſurface of melted glaſs, which is much hot- ter always continues to a very conſiderable degree, but occafionally ter than any of them, water will not explode, but evaporates is increaſed in ſuch a manner as to melt down the earth, ſtones, quietly, ſeemingly kept at ſome diſtance from the ſurface of the and mineral ſubſtances, through which it paſſes into the ſemivitri-, glaſs by the violent emiſſion of ſteam from its under part. Nay, fied compound called lava. We cannot indeed, as yet, particularly with this violent heat, it does not even appear to boil; but gradu- know the cauſes by which this electrical flux is at all times occa- ally leſſens in its dimenſions, until at laſt it quite diſappears. In- fioned. In general, we are certain, that whatever has a tendency deed, if we ſuppoſe water intimately mixed and diſperſed in ſinall to ſolicit the matter to the ſurface, will increaſe the violence of ant quantities through the ſubſtance of melted glaſs or any ſimilar ſub- eruption; and whatever can increaſe it after it has begun, will ſtance, no doubt a very violent exploſion will take place; but in alſo contribute to bring it on originally. This will happen when this caſe the matter, inſtead of being thrown up in a full ſtream, the preſſure of the atmoſphere directly over the mountain is leſſened's would be ſcattered all around in an immenſe number of finall drops. wheri a cloud paſſes over it whoſe electricity is oppoſite to that of Indeed we cannot conceive how any ſuch intimate mixture could the mountain itſelf, or which, by acting as a conductor, may facili- take place; for if we ſuppoſe any large collections of water to tate the eſcape of the confined electric matter ; or it will readily exiſt under ground at the ſame time that a lava is by ſome unknown happen if by any means the ſurface of the mountain and of the means melted in ſuch a manner as to come in contact with it, earth round it is rendered a better conductor than uſual. But either the water muſt fall upon the lava, or the lava into the above all, the ſtate of electricity in the neighbouring earth and water. If the water falls upon the lava, no explofion will take air muſt contribute towards the bringing on an eruption, or in- place, as has been already ſhewn; and if the lava falls into the creaſing one which is already begun. Under the article EARTH- water, the liquid muſt no doubt be heated boiling hot, and the QUAKE, has been ſhown, that when there is a perfect equality be- ſteam diſſipated with thoſe noiſy exploſions; when a lava of that tween the electricity of the earth and of the atmoſphere, there is then mountain ran into the ſea. On this ſuppoſition, however, the lava great danger of a concuſſion, becauſe the electric matter can neither could never be projected above the mountain; much leſs can we get into the atmoſphere from the earth, or into the earth from the fuppoſe that ſolid rocks ſhould be moved from their places, and atmoſphere. It muſt therefore ſtagnate altogether, and be ready thrown to great diſtances, as experience ſhows them to be. In to burſt out on all ſides, when the preſſure upon it becomes fuffi- the eruption of Veſuvius in 1779, Sir William Hamilton mea- ciently ſtrong. In ſuch circumſtances, if there happens to be a fured one which was 108 feet in circumference, and 17 feet high, volcano in the neighbourhood, it is probable that it will be ſet on and which was thrown to the diſtance of more than 1 300 feet from fire, or perhaps a new volcano may be produced on this occafion. the crater of the volcano. If we ſuppoſe this ſtone to have been Theſe cauſes ſeem to be ſufficient for the production of volcanos, only twice as heavy as water, it muſt have weiglied conſiderably and ſetting them on fire from time to time, as uſually happens witli thein; VOLCANOS. them ; though no doubt there may be others much more unknown his Treatiſe on Gunnery, relates ſome experiments, from which he to us which take place in the bowels of the earth itſelf; but as theſe concluded, that air, heated to an intenſe white heat, was expanded are entirely concealed from us, we can only gueſs at their exiſtence. into more than four times its uſual bulk, and conſequently, in ſuch But that all the before mentioned caufes do contribute towards the circumſtances, has more than four times its uſual elaſticity. From eruption of burning mountains, experience eviuces. Sir William another experiment he ſhewed, that inflamed gun-powder produces Hamilton mentions it as a common obſervation, that the inward a quantity of permanently elaſtic ſteam equivalent to 244 times the exploſions of Veſuvius increaſe during bad weather, when we know bulk of the gun-powder itſelf. Hence he concludes, that the force that the preſſure of the atmoſphere is leſſened, and the deſcending of inflamed gun-powder is nearly equal to 1000 times the preſſure vapours ferve as conductors to the electric fluid. The ſame gen- of the common atmoſphere. Now, though the air produced by tleman informs us, that, on the 7th of Auguſt 1779, as he was ob- the inflammation of gun-powder is of a different kind from that ferving Veſuvius, a collection of thunder-clouds paſſed directly which we may ſuppoſe to be produced by the melting of a lava, over its fummit , and mingled with the fulphureous and mineral and in much greater quantity in proportion to the bulk of moſt of clouds of ſmoke, cinders, and alhes, which were then piled up to the materials, yet it does not appear that the elaſticity of the vol- an amazing leight over its top. “ At this moment (ſays he) a canic ſteam is at all inferior, as far as it goes. From Dr. Prieſt- fountain of fire was ſhot up to an incredible height; caſting fo ley's experiments it appears, that the expanſion of the different bright a light, that the ſmalleſt objects could be clearly diſtinguiſhed kinds of air by heat are in the following proportions: Common at a place within fix miles or more of Veſuvius.” Thus we ſee air, 132; inflammable, 205; nitrous, 262; fixed, 220; marine that theſe clouds, acting either by their conducting power as aque- acid, 133; dephlogiſticated, 221; phlogiſticated, 165; vitriolic ous vapours, or by an electricity oppoſite to that of the volcano, acid, 237; fluor acid, 283; alkaline, 475. cauſed a vaſt diſcharge of the fire as ſoon as they came directly In order to form fome eſtimate of the force of volcanic ſteam, it over it. The cauſe of the volcano in the iſland of Tanna, taking is neceſſary not only that we ſhould know the different elaſticity of fire after rain, according to Mr. Forſter's obfervation, appears the airs which may be fuppofed to be extricated, but the proportions evident, namely, that by this means the ſurface of the ground which are yielded by different ſubſtances. But here our data are all round was rendered a much better conductor than before, very flender. Dr. Prieſtley, to whom we muſt in a manner wholly and perhaps ſupplied with a greater quantity of electricity, the have recourſe, has not made experiments on thoſe ſubſtances which paſſage of which to the volcano was now free, in conſequence we can moſt reaſonably ſuppoſe to exiſt in the bowels of the earth. of which it took fire and burnt violently till this fupply was From ſome, however, air was diſcharged in the following propor- again exhauſted. Laſtly, it is well known that ſome countries tions, with a heat indeterminate indeed, but certainly not greater which were formerly very ſubject to earthquakes, have been than that of a volcano. Wood-alhes, 160 times their own quan- freed from theſe deſtructive phenomena by the breaking out of tity; pit-coal ditto, 110; lapis calaminaris, 306; manganeſe, 40; a volcano. In the time of earthquakes alſo, temporary volca- chalk, 1. All theſe ſubſtances we may with good reaſon ſuppoſe to nos are often formed, and the neighbouring ones throw out vaſt exiſt in a volcano, or at leaſt ſubſtances equally ready to diſcharge quantities of fire. This was particularly obſerved in the great the air. Nay, Dr. Prieſtley himſelf fuppoſes as much dephlogiſti- earthquake of 1692, when Catania was deſtroyed, at which fatal cated air to be diſcharged from the melted materials of a lava as is moment a vaſt flame was ſeen to iſſue from mount Ætna. But fufficient to continue the burning. But however much he may be whether any ſuch appearance was obſerved during the earthquakes in the right with regard to the quantity of dephlogiſticated air pro- of the year 1783, which ſeem not to have been leſs violent than duced in this manner, he muſt certainly be miſtaken as to the ule that of 1092, has not been authenticated. of it. It is certain that the burning muſt have commenced before We ſhall only add one remark more in confirmation of any air could be emitted from the materials, and the cauſe which the hypotheſis that volcanos are ſet on fire by electricity, namely, produced it, muſt alſo be ſufficient to continue it; not to mention that in a volcanic eruption the quantity of this fluid emitted that lava could not be kept melted, nor ſtones red-hot, by blowing from the mountain is quite incredible. For a long time together, air in any quantity upon their ſurfaces. the finoke is ſometimes ſo much electrified as to attract the aſhes With regard to the effects of this ſteam, we muft eaſily fee, that which are thrown out along with it almoſt into a ſolid column. where the quantity of materials is very large, it muſt be extremely The ſtones thrown out, according to Sir William Hamilton, are formidable. From the calculations of Dr. Prieſtley above-men- ſometimes tranſparent, which we can only attribute to an immo- tioned, it appears, that fixed air let looſe and heated is more pow- derate electricity. Nay, the ſame author informs us, that the vaft erful than atmoſpheric air, and conſequently more ſo than even the ſtream of lava which iſſued in 1779 to the height of almoſt two air emitted by gun-powder, which Mr. Robins obſerves to have miles, was tranſparent alſo. Add to this, that the volcanic ſmoke much the ſame elaſticity with common air. It is true, that nitre proves very dreadful by reaſon of the thunder-ſtorms which iſſue yields pure dephlogiſticated air, which is ſomewhat more elaſtic from it. In the great explofion of 1779, which, however, laſted than fixed air: but it is inſtantly phlogiſticated by the other ingre- only twenty-five minutes, a cloud of electrified ſmoke was pro- dients; and Dr. Prieſtley found what remains after the accenfion duced, which threatened the deſtruction of Naples at fix miles of gun-powder to be more phlogiſticated than common air, and diſtance from the mountain ; and though it was happily driven conſequently to have very little more elaſticity, as Mr. Robins ob- from thence by the wind, the air continued ſo much electrified, ſerved. Now, the ſteam of a volcano muſt undoubtedly be com- that a Leyden vial, armed with a pointed wire, ſoon became con- poſed of fixed air, vitriolic acid, ſome marine acid, dephlogiſticated ſiderably charged by being only held out at a window. At Ottaiano, and inflammable air, all blended together at once by the melting of which was involved in this cloud, inceſſant flaſhes of lightning the lava, not to mention a prodigious quantity of aqueous ſteam added greatly to the horror of the ſcene, as well as to the danger of rarefied and heated to an extreme degree. As all theſe are more the inhabitants. By another day's eruption, the air was filled with powerful than an equal quantity of the vapour of inflamed meteors reſembling falling ſtars, which give us a yet higher idea of powder, no wonder that ſuch terrible effects enſue from it. From the quantity of electric matter emitted, as theſe indicate a greater Dr. Prieſtley’s calculation, it appears that two ounces of wood-aſhes, degree of electricity than even the moſt violent forked lightning. if a white ſtrong heat could be ſuddenly applied to them in ſuch a See LIGHTNING. inanner as to make them give out all their air at once, would be Thus we have attempted to explain the original cauſe of vol. much more powerful than one ounce of gun-powder; three ounces canos, the formation of lava, and the reaſon why the volcanic of pit-coal afhes would be more powerful than an ounce and an eruptions are not conſtant, but only take place at uncertain inter- half of gun-powder; fix ounces of manganeſe would be more than vals. It now remains only to aſſign a reaſon why volcanos do not an equivalent to one ounce, and 15 pounds of chalk would be the burn quietly as any common fire, but, even during the time of an ſame; though this laſt we may be aſſured would in ſuch circuma eruption, by fits and intervals. The exploſions indeed are in a ſtances yield more than fifty times the quantity of air that Dr, manner continued; but Sir Williain Hamilton obſerves, that the Prieſtley could obtain from it. Lapis calaminaris would be ter- burning mountains are ſubject to what he calls a criſis at noon and rible beyond all meaſure; one ounce of it being nearly equivalent midnight. The exacerbations alſo are very remarkable, ſo that our to two of gun-powder. What muſt be the conſequence, then, if author diſtinguiſhes them by the name of fever-fits. All theſe thouſands of tons of materials equally prolific in ſuch kinds of air phenomena, however, may be ſolved by an attentive confideration are melted at once? When all this is attentively conſidered, we of the principles above laid down. The lava is formed by a great thall be fo far from being ſurpriſed at the immenſe power of vol- quantity of electric matter violently forcing itſelf through a finall canos, that it will rather be matter of ſurpriſe that more miſchief ſpot of earth, in conſequence of which that ſpot is melted, and thus is not done by them than what actually happens. becomes a better conductor of electricity than before, whence the Thus we may in a very plauſible manner account for the ge- force of the electric blaſt towards that place is ſtill augmented. neral phenomena of volcanos; and if extraordinory phenomena Now, as the earth is compoſed of what we call ſimply mould, to- ſometimes occur, we may reaſonably ſuppoſe them to be owing to gether with ſtones, and minerals of various kinds, moiſtened with ſome accidental circumſtance. Thus the vaſt height to which the a certain quantity of water, it is not poſſible that a maſs of this lava of Veſuvius aſcended in 1779, muſt certainly have been occa- kind can be melted without the production of an incredible quan- fioned by ſome extraordinary preſſure, fuch as indeed we may well tity of ſteam of various kinds. It is not only the aqueous vapour be ſurprifed how the ſides of the mountain could bear. There are that is here concerned, but almoſt all the different kinds we can three circumſtances which may reaſonably be ſuppoſed to cauſe the imagine. No doubt the ſteam of water alone ſhows, in certain lava to ſpring up to a conſiderable height. 1. Its being very ſuddenly circumſtances, an incredible degree of ſtrength; but of all vapours formed; for thus all the elaſtic fteam will be diſcharged in a manner hitherto known, the aerial ones are the moſt powerful in their at once, and the tendency to expand will be inconceivably great. effects, as well as the quickeſt in their operation, Mr. Robins, in 2. The degree of reſiſtance. And, 3. The capability of the ma- 51 terials gun- No. 147. VOL 20 ADVOM terials to produce elaſtic ſteam. All theſe ſeem to have concurred | Oct. 11th. 1772, a luniinous ſpot on the moon, during its total eclipſe to produce the great exploſion on the 8th of Auguſt 1779. The of that night, in or near the place marked Copernicus; and from immenſe quantity of electric fuid which at this time iſſued from the this time the profeſſor mentioned this obſervation in his public lec- mountain, indicated that the lava had been ſuddenly formed. In- tures, as an evidence that the round cavities on the ſurface of the mediately before its emiffion, ſuch a report was heard as ihook the moon were ſo many craters of diſtinct volcanos; adding that he houſes at Portici, broke the windows, and cracked ſeveral walls; conſidered thoſe ſtraight radiations, or bright paths, which are ob- and the fitneſs of the materials at that time in the mountain for pro- ferved particularly on the place of the moon marked Tycho; as fo ducing elaſtic ſteam, appeared from the vaſt quantities of ſmoke many torrents of the lava, which ſpouted off in ſome former confila- which iſſued along with the lava. See Theory of the Earth, gration of a volcano. The reader, may ſee this account, given by and Differtation on the cauſes and effects of EARTHQUAKES. the profeffor himſelf, in a letter concerning the luminous appear. Uſes of Volcanos. ance obſerved by Don Ulloa on the moon, during the total eclipſe With regard to the uſes of volcanos, we may obſerve, that of the ſun, June 24, 1778; in which he maintains that ſuch a lu, however terrible their eruptions may be, they anſwer very im- minous ſpot was an actual burning volcano, and not a real hole portant purpoſes in nature, by giving vent to ſuch quantities through the maſs of the moon, as Don Ulloa aſſerted it to be. of electric matter as might otherwiſe render the earth totally unin- This letter is inſerted in the Journal de Phyſique for the month of habitable, if not endanger its frame altogether; being a kind of June, 1781. M. Æpinus obſerves, that the opinion of volcanos in ſpiracles, or tunnels, whereby to vent the fire and vapour that would the inoon was firſt ſuggeſted by Dr. Hooke, in his Micrographia, otherwiſe make a more dreadful havock, by convulſions and earth- printed at London in 1665; in the twentieth chapter of which quakes. Accordingly, Dr. Woodward obſerves, there is ſcarce any work he ſpeaks at large concerning this opinion. country much annoyed with earthquakes, but has one of theſe fiery Dr. Herſchel on the fourth of May, 1783, diſcovered two ſmall vents; which is conſtantly obſerved to be all in flames, whenever conical mountains in the very fame ſpot where he had obſerved the an earthquake happens : by which means it ſoon diſgorges that volcano; theſe are ſituated in the Mons Porphyrites of Hevelius, fire, which, while it was underneath, was the cauſe of the diſaſter ; juft by a third mouutain, much larger, which Dr. Herſchel had often and there are not wanting inſtances of countries that have been obſerved before. See Gent. Mag. for Auguſt, 1784, p. 563, &c. wholly freed from earthquakes, by the eruption of a new volcano. On the 19th of April 1787, the fame ingenious and indefatigable Sulphur, ſal ammoniac, and various other falts, are produced by obſerver diſcovered three volcanos in diiferent places of the dark them; their aſhes fertilize the neighbouring country, and the la- part of the new moon. Two of them were nearly extinct, or in a vas, tufa, baſaltes, &c. afford materials for building. By their ſtate ready to break out. The third ſhewed an actual eruption of means alſo many iſlands have been thrown up from the bottom of fire, or luminous matter. From another obſervation he infers, that the ſea, and afford new habitations for man. the diameter of this volcano cannot be leſs than 3', and that the dia- Dr. Prieſtley (Obſ. on Air, vol. i. p. 263.) thinks it not impro- meter of its burning part is equal to at leaſt twice that of the third bable, that the volcanos, with which there are evident traces of al. ſatellite of Jupiter, with which it was compared. Hence the ſhin- moſt the whole ſurface of the earth having been overſpread, may ing or burning matter is computed to be above three miles in dia- have been the origin of our atmoſphere; as well as (according to the meter. Phil. Tranſ, vol. Ixxvii . part i p. 230. See the Syſtem opinion of ſome) of all the ſolid land. of ASTRONOMY, Sect. VIII. under the article Moon. Artiſicial Volcános. VOLUNTARY in the Schools, the generality of philoſophers Mr. Lemery ſeems to have been the firſt perſon who illuf- uſe the term voluntary, in the fame fente with ſpontaneous; but trated, by actual experiment, the origin of ſubterraneous fires. through the force of habit in weak minds, it has been appropriated He mixed twenty-five pounds of powdered ſulphur with an equal to convey an idea of willing ſubjection, to a ſtate of degradation at weight of iron filings, and having made with water, a paſte which the enlightened and liberal mind muſt revolt. And it is of the mixture, he put it into an iron pot, covered it with a cloth, melancholy to reflect, that many of the human race are voluntary and buried it a foot under ground. In about eight or nine hours laves. time the earth ſwelled, became warm, and cracked : hot fulphu The following ſtriking reflections upon Deſpots and the nature reous vapours were perceived; a flame which dilated the cracks of their Government, appear in a ſmall treatiſe upon Voluntary was obſerved; the fuperincumbent earth was covered with a yellow Servitude, written in French by Stephen de la Boete, King's Coun- and black powder; and, in ſhort, a ſubterraneous fire, producing a ſellor in the Court of Parliament, at Bourdeaux, in the reign of volcano in miniature, was ſpontaneouſly lighted up from the reci- Charles IX. of France.- procal actions of ſulphur, iron, and water. See Artificial EARTH “ Poor infatuated people, blind to your own good, you permit QUAKES. your revenues to be carried off before your eyes--and all this not The above experiment has been often repeated ; and it has by a profeſſed enemy, but a man, whoſe greatneſs you yourſelves been obſerved, that large quantities of the materials are not re are the authors of. For whoſe caprice you chearfully go to war. quiſite to make the experiment ſucceed, provided there be a due and for whoſe aggrandiſement, you are prodigal of your blood, proportion of water; half a pound of ſteel filings, half a pound of And yet, he, who thus domineers over you, has only two eyes, fiower of brimſtone, and fourteen ounces of water, will, when well two hands, and one body; and poffeffes nothing of his own, that is mixed, acquire heat enough to make the maſs take fire. But it was not common to an infinite number of men. It is from you he known long before the time of Lemery, that natural mixtures of derives the hands he makes uſe of to ſtrike you-the eyes to in- ſulphur and iron would ſpontaneouſly take fire. Theſe ſubſtances, ſpect you and count your money, and the feet to trample upon it is well known, are ſupplied by the pyrites; a ſmall quantity of you! What could he do if you did not protect the robber that which is ſufficient to kindle fire; a proper portion of water (for pillages you? You ſow and plant that he may deſtroy ; and you too great a quantity would extinguiſh the fubterraneous fire) may are accomplices in effecting your own ruin. You endure indig- be derived either from fiſſures and channels communicating with nities which the brutes themſelves would reſiſt, if they felt them. the ſea, or from ſources in the earth, wherein it is known to And yet, you might free yourſelves if you had but the will to at- abound; and air, if it ſhould be thought abſolutely neceſſary to the tempt it. I do not adviſe you to overthrow yourtyrant-only for- ſpontaneous firing of the pyrites, may be conceived either to accom- bear to ſupport him, and when this bafis is taken away, he will pany the water, or to deſcend into the innermoſt parts of the earth fall by his own weight and be cruſhed in pieces. But, continues through the fiffures which are found on its ſurface. Or, if we ſup- this Author, to the developement of the ſecret ſpring, the very poſe the heated pyrites to have been in contact with black wad and foundation and bulwark of tyranny, they are much miſtaken who petrol, the flame may ariſe, as it is produced by art, from the deſic- think that the guards in particular, or the military in general, are cation of that ſubſtance, and its mixture with the mineral oil. That the ſecurity of a tyrant. It muſt be allowed, that the guards hin- ore when heated affords dephlogiſticated air, of which a very ſmall der people from entering a palace who have not preconcerted their quantity is ſufficient to produce flame; and the flame when once meaſures-No! the ſoldiers are not the people who defend tyrants produced, may be ſupported by dephlogiſticated air from other ores, For, incredible as it may appear, it is five or fix perſons who ſupport as Dr. Prieſtley has ſhewn (Obſ. on Air, vol. iv. p. 210, &c.) and the nominal head, and five or fix who keep all the country in bon- the phlogiſton may be ſupplied by pyrites, bituminous, ſhiſtus, bi- dage !—Thoſe fix have fix hundred which act under them; and tumen, and coal. After the eruption in any place, the volcanos theſe fix hundred are to them what the fix are to the tyrant. And themſelves ſerve for ſpiracles or air-holes, by which the fubterra- further, the fix hundred have fix thouſand that they have raiſed to nean fire may receive neceſſary ſupplies; ſo that theſe ſerve to keep poſts and perpetual employments, who cannot fubfitt but under the the magazines of internal fire in a due ſtate, as well as to diſcharge thadow of their ſuperiors, nor eſcape the puniſhment due to their the ſmoke and other matters with which it would otherwiſe be crimes by the laws, but through the protection and connivance of choaked up and extinguiſhed. the former. The conſequence of the connection is fatal indeed, Volcanos in the Moon. and whoever will amuſe themſelves in tracing this chain, may be Dr. Herſchel, now ſo well known and univerſally celebrated, convinced, that notonly the fix thouſand, but the hundred thou- on account of his various aſtronomical obſervations, has on the fand, and even millions, are attached to the tyrant by its various fourth of May, 1783, diſcovered a burning volcano in the links; while he makes the ſame uſe of it, as Jupiter does of that This diſcovery confirms the conjectures formed by in Homer, where he boaſts, that by only touching one extremity M. Æpinus in 1778, and publiſhed in a memoir printed at Berlin of it, he can draw all the gods towards him.” in 1781, concerning the volcanic origin of the inequalities in VOMICA, in medicine, a collection of pus in any part of the the moon's ſurface. Similar ideas occurred to profeffor Beccaria body. When this maſs, or collection, is in the lungs, it is called of Turin, nearly at the ſame time, and alſo to profetior Lichten- vomica pulmonum. When in the kidneys, vomica renum, &c. VO- berg of Gottingen. The nephew of profeſſor Beccaria diſcovered, mica pulmonum, in inedicine, the name of a diſeaſe which is a fani- 1 moon. Ous U R E U RI ous collection of matter, or an impoſtkiume formed in the lungs, URINE, URINA, formed from spov, which fignifies the ſame; and included in its own proper membrane; this ſometimes ſeizes a liquid excrement, or humour, ſeparated from the blood in the one lobe, ſometimes the other; and ſometimes lies deep in the fub. kidneys, conveyed thence into the bladder, and diſcharged by the ſtance, ſometimes near the ſurface. It finally breaks, and then dif- urethra. The urine is ſecreted from the arterial blood, in the covers itſelf by a diſcharge of purulent matter from the lungs. This glands of the kidneys, from which ariſe numerous little pellucid differs from an empyema, which is a collection of a pus in the ca-pipes, and veins; which, receiving the ſecreted urine, at length vity of the thorax. For deſcription, prognoſis, cauſes, and cure; join into twelve papillæ: out of which the urine ouſes into a cavity ſee the Syſtem, Genus 30. under the head PHTHYSIS. called the pelvis, from whence it runs into the ureters of either VOMITING, as a diſeaſe, a violent caſting up, or evacuating ſide, and through them into the bladder: and, from that, at length, by the mouth, what is contained in the ſtomach. See EVACUA. through the urethra out of the body. The ſecretion of the urine, TION. This action has been generally allowed to be owing, prin- then, is not performed by any attraction, as ſome will have it; or cipally to the contraction of the fibres of the ſtomach, when irritated by any fermentation, as others; or any precipitation : but by the by the acrimonious quality, or oppreſſed with the quantity of its force of the heart, and arteries, whereby the blood is driven through contents. Boerhaave, and moſt of our lateſt writers, allow the ſto- innumerable turnings and windings of the veſſels; attenuated by mach, the diaphragm, and the muſcles of the abdomen, all to have reſiſtances, oppoſite inotions, violent concuſſions, and various mix- their ſhare in the action of vomiting; accordingly that diligent au- tures, till the more liquid and ferous part thereof is forced through thor makes vomiting to conſiſt in a convulſive and retrograde motion canals ſmailer than the blood-veſſels, and ſo collected and diſ- of the muſcular fibres of the gullet, ſtomach, and inteſtines, as well charged. as thoſe of the abdomen, and the ſeptum tranverſum ; which, when The ſecretion of urine, as alſo that of perſpiration, is conſidera- in a leſs degree, produce a nauſea, and, in a greater, a vomiting, bly influenced by the paffionis. It is more than probable, that the By the contraction of ſo many parts, the ſtomach comes to be blood of the emulgent artery, conveyed through all the little branches ſqueezed, as in a preſs, whence it is obliged to give up what is con- that ſpread through the exterior membranes of the veſiculæ, whereof tained in its cavity, and the neighbouring parts, juſt as water is forced the kidneys are compoſed, being by this means exceedingly divided, out from a bladder, or ſponge, when ſqueezed between the hands. and, as it were, attenuated, enters the veſiculæ themſelves, and gives The evacuation, too, muſt be upwards rather than downwards, by them their red colour: that it is there filtrated, and the ſerous or reaſon the paſſage is more open and eaſy that way; and that the urinous part ſecreted, that this filtration is promoted by the alter- inteſtines are preſſed by the diaphragm and the muſcles of the nate contraction and dilatation of the fleſhy fibres that encloſe the lower venter. little veſicles; and that, after filtration, the parts that remain of blood The primary cauſes of vomiting are commonly the too great are reſumed by the capillary branches of the veins; the reſt enter- quantity, or too much acrimony, of the contents, foulneſs of the ing the excretory ducts of the veſiculæ, which are the firſt recepta- ſtomach, a tranſlation of the morbific matters of ulcers, the gout, cles of the urine. Hift. Acad. des Sciences, an. 1705. the eryſipelas, or other diſeaſes of the ſtomach ; a looſeneſs ſud M. Morin, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, marks denly ſtopped; the ſtoppage of any cuſtomary evacuation, as the out a new route or courſe of the urine. The ordinary one, which bleeding piles, menſes, &c. a weakneſs of the ſtomach, the cholic, is the paſſage of any liquor we drink through the ſtomach into the the iliac paſſion, a rupture, a fit of the gravel, worms, &c. It inteſtines, thence into the lacteals, thence into the receptacle of the ariſes alſo from poiſons, contuſions, compreſſions, inflammations, chyle; thence into the fuhclavian vein; thence into the cava, thence and wounds in the brain; inflammations of the diaphragm, ſtomach, into the right ventricle of the heart, thence into the lungs,and thence inteſtines, ſpleen, liver, kidneys, pancreas, and ineſentery, unuſual into the left ventricle of the heart, thence into the aorta, thence into agitations at ſea, in coaches, &c. It may be likewiſe excited by the emulgent artery, thence into the kidneys, thence into the ure- violent paffions: ſometimes it proceeds from a regurgitation of the ters, and at laſt into thn bladder, ſeems to him too long and circuit- bile into the ſtomach, in which caſe the matter diſcharged is gene- ous; conſidering how readily mineral waters paſs, and what a ſpeedy rally of a yellow or greeniſh colour, and has a bitter taſte. Perſons effect aſparagus is found to have on our urine. Beſides that, on this who are ſubject to nervous affections are often ſuddenly ſeized with principle, the liquors we drink mixed with ſo many other liquors violent fits of vomiting; and, moreover, vomiting is a common in their way, ſhould be greatly altered thereby; whereas we fre- ſymptom of pregnancy, in which caſe it generally comes on about quently find a tincture of caſſia rendered by urine almoſt as black two weeks after the ſtoppage of the menſes, and continues during as when firſt taken ; and the like is obſerved of divers other liquors. the firſt three or four months. The treatment of vomiting, as a The treatment of vomiting, as a M. Morin, therefore, maintains, that a conſiderable part of the lie diſeaſe, muſt therefore be alſo various, according to the different quor we drink, ouſes through the membranes of the ſtomach, and cauſes producing it. falls into the abdomen; where it enters the bladder through the VOMITING of Blood, a very dangerous kind of hæmorrhage, pores thereof, without getting into the inteſtines, which are lined conſiſting in bringing up, by vomit, pure and unmixed blood from with too thick and viſcid an humuur to allow it ingreſs. This the ſtomach, and being a method uſed by nature to throw off a ſyſtem is confirmed hence, that both the ſtomach and bladder, even portion of the blood, which moleſts the whole in the vena porta, of a dead animal, are found eaſily permeable to water. and, by that means, facilitates the circulation of the reſt of the Accordingly, Dr. Morgan affures us, that if the contents of the maſs. For cauſes, prognoſis, and cure, ſee the Syſtem of Medi-abdomen be taken out of an animal body, after it is juſt opened, CINE, Genus 30. and the ſtomach be filled with warm water, while the parts are yet VOMITING excited by Medicines. The effects of vomits, on the reeking, the liquor will paſs into the bladder; which will viſibly motion of the blood, appear by the following experiments: by ob- receive it, and be filled in proportion as the ſtomach empties. The ſerving the pulſe of ſeveral men after taking a vomit, it has been lame author adds, that if a ligature be made upon the ureters, found, that ſo ſoon as a man begins to grow fick, his pulſe becomes while the animal is yet living, and the blood continues to circulate; low, quick, and irregular, and, in the action of voiniting, is often though this muſt cut off all communication from the kidneys to the fo low as not to be felt; that in the intervals, between the vomits, bladder; yet any liquor with which the ſtomach is filled, will paſs the pulſe is ſtill low and quick, but not near fo low and quick as into tlie bladder. From the whole, he ſays, though ſome of our in the action of vomiting, and that, after the operation is over, the beſt anatomiſts hold, that a circulation of the whole mafs of blood pulſe riſes gradually, and, in the ſpace of half an hour or an hour, is effected in five minutes, and others in two, which might ac- becomes fuller than it was before the vomit was taken, Hence we count for the quick paſſage of the urine, it is hard to conceive, but : ſee the effects of vomits on the motion of the blood; they leſſen that that part of it muſt go immediately from the ſtomach into the motion during the whole time of the operation, and almoſt quite bladder. The general deſign of nature, in this urinary drain, is ſtop it in the very act of vomiting; and after the whole operation ſuppoſed to be, to prevent any ſudden plethora, or immoderate diſ- is over, they increaſe the motion of the blood, ſo as to make it tention of the veſſels upon drinking. As a neceſſary conſequence greater than it was before. From theſe effects of vomits on the of this ſyſtem, the author eſtabliſhes two kinds of urine, the one motion of the blood, we diſcover their great uſefulneſs in the cure filtrated immediately out of the ſtomach into the bladder, the other of many diſeaſes. paſſing the long courſe of circulation. But Dr. Rega endeavours URANIA, in mythology, one of the nine muſes, that preſided to prove; by an eaſy calculation of the quantity of urine ſecreted in over aſtronomy; ſhe is repreſented as clothed with an azure-colour- the kidneys, that they are capable of furniſhing all the quantity ob- ed robe, crowned with ſtars, holding a globe in her hand, or ſome- ſerved at any time. And laſtly, he mentions the fulneſs and great times with the globe at her feet, and ſurrounded with ſeveral ma- frequency of the pulſe, after drinking theſe liquors, as a proof of thematical inſtruments. their being mixed with the blood. Med. Ef. Edin. URETERS, in anatomy, two long and ſlender canals, which The ſpecific gravity of the human urine, made in the night-time, come from the pelvis or baſon of the kidneys; one on each ſide has been found greater than that made in the day. Hence Dr. runs down obliquely to the lateral parts of the inner or anterior fide Bryan Robinſon infers, that urine draws off more contents from of the os ſacrum, and paſſing between the rectum and bladder, ter the blood in ſleep than when bodies are awake; and conſequently minates in the bladder; ſerving to convey the urine, ſecreted in the that natural fleep is a very good ſign in fevers, in which the blood glands of the kidneys, into the bladder. See the Syſtem, Part III. abounds more with contents, than it does in health. Of the Food Sect. XI. and Plate 5. fig. 4, letters P. P. and Diſcharge of Human Bodies, p. 85. URETHRA, in anatomy, a tube or canal ariſing from the neck In the Phil. Tranſ. we have an inſtance given us, by Mr. Young, of the bladder, and continued to the pudendum; ſerving to dif- of a boy ſix years old, that diſcharged almoſt all his urine by his navel. charge, or carry off the urine out of the bladder. See the Syſtem, In the fame Tranſactions, Dr. Richardſon gives an account of a Part III. Sect. XV. and Plate X. fig. 1. letter H, upper diviſion; boy at North Bierly, in Yorkſhire, who lived to ſeventeen years and lower diviſion, fig. 2. letters E F. of age without ever making water; yet was in perfect health. He had . U R S U RI had conſtantly a diarrhea on him, but without much uneaſineſs . of ancient trees, whịch they aſcend and deſcend with furprizing The obſtruction, that author obſerves, muſt have been in his kid- | agility: as they lay in no winter proviſions, they are in a certain neys, for he had never any inclination to make water. ſpace of time forced from their retreats by hunger, and come out Urines are of various kinds and properties. After drinking extremely lean: multitudes are killed annually in America, for the plentifully of any aqueous fluid, the urine is crude, infipid, void fake of their fleſh or ſkin; which laſt makes a conſiderable article of ſmell, and eaſily retained. Thar yielded by chyle well con of commerce. For repreſentation. ſee Plate V. Genus 16, Spe- cocted, is ſharper, more ſaline, leſs copious, ſomewhat foetid, and cies i, Variety 1. The Polar, or white bear, has a long head and neck; ſhort more ſtimulating. That froin chyle already converted into ſerum, is redder, ſharper, falter, and more foetid and ſtimulating. And round ears ; great teeth; the hair long, loft , and white, tinged in that ſecerned, after long abſtinence, from humours well concocted ſome parts with yellow : growing to a vaſt ſize, the ſkins of fome and worn off the ſolid parts, is the leaſt copious, ſharpeft, falteſt, being 13 feet long. This animal is confined to the coldeſt part of reddeſt, moſt foetid, almoſt putrefied, and, of all others, the hardeſt the globe; it has been found as far as navigators have penetrated to retain. The urine, therefore, contains the watery part of the north wards, above lat. 80. The frigid climes only feem adapted blood, its ſharpeft, fubtileft, and moſt volatile ſalt, and that neareſt to its nature; for we do not learn from any authority that it is to the alkaline kind; its ſharpeſt, ſmalleft, and moſt volatile oil, met with farther fouth than Newfoundland. "Its bounds in reſpect and that neareſt to putrefactions and its ſmalleſt, moſt volatile earth. to longitude are alſo very limited; being an animal unknown ex- The phoſphorus, in uſe among us, is made from human urine. cept on the Shore's of Hudſon's Bay, Greenland, and Spitzbergen, Saltpetre is likewiſe prepared from the urine, and other excrements on one ſide, and thoſe of Nova Zembla on the other; for ſuch as of animals. The Indians ſcarce uſe any other medicine but cows have appeared in other parts have been brought there involuntarily urine. The Spaniards make great uſe of urine to clean their teeth:1 on floating iſlands of ice; ſo that the intermediate countries of and ſo did the Celtiberians of old. Urine is alſo uſed in dyeing, to Norway and Iceland are acquainted with them but by accident. ferment and warın the woad. Old urine tinges ſilver with a fine We cannot trace them farther eaſt than Nova Zembla ; though gold colour. the frozen fea, that is continued from thence as far as the land of Urine, in medicine. The urine affords one of the principal Tſchukſchi, that lies above Kamtſchatka, is equally ſuited to their criterions, or ſigns, whereby phyſicians judge of the ſtate of the pa- nature. The late hiſtories of thoſe countries are filent in reſpect tient, and the courſe of the diſeaſe. In caſting or examining urine, to them. the things to be conſidered are, its quantity, colour, ſmell, taſte, fluidity, During ſummer, the white bears are either reſident on iſlands and the matters ſwimming therein. For the cauſes, prognoſis, and of ice, or paſſing from one to the other: they ſwim admirably, and cure of the various diſorders which relates to the urine, ſee the Syf- can continue that exerciſe fix or ſeven leagues, and dive with great tem of MEDICÍNE, Genus 49, 78, 79, and the article STONE. agility. They bring two young at a time: the affection between Bloody Urine, mietus cruéntus, in medicine, the name of a very the parents and them is ſo ſtrong, that they would die rather than troubleſome and often dangerous diſeaſe ; it is a voiding of pure deſert one another. Their winter retreats are under the ſnow, in blood by the urinary paſſages, and takes its origin from a congeſtion which they form deep dens, ſupported by pillars of the ſame. They of blood in the emulgents, and is the method, (though an unhappy feed on fith, ſeals, and the carcaſes of whales, and on human bo- one) taken by nature to diſcharge the load of a plethora, and give dies, which they will greedily tear up: they ſeem very fond of the maſs of blood freer room to circulate. This is the natural or human blood , and are fo fearleſs as to attack companies of armed fiinple mi&tus cruentus; but, beſides this, there is another accidental men, and even to board fmall veſſels. When on land, they live on one, ariſing from an injury of the veſſels of the kidneys or bladder, birds and their eggs; and allured by the ſcent of ſeals fleſh, often occaſioned by their being either enlarged, broken, or eroded. break into and plunder the houſes of the Greenlanders; their greateſt URINE, in agriculture, is of excellent uſe as a manure. See the enemy in the brute creation is the Roſmarinus, or morfe, with Syſtem, Sect. Il. Perſons verſed in agriculture and gardening, pre- whom they have terrible conflicts, but are generally worſted, the fer urine for land, trees, &c. before dung; as penetrating better to vaſt teeth of the former giving it a ſuperiority. The fleſh is white; the roots, and removing divers infirmities of plants. In Holland, and ſaid to taſte like mutton: the fat is melted for train-oil, and and many other parts, they preſerve the urine of their beaſts, &c. that of the feet uſed in medicine: but the liver is very unwholeſome, with as much care as their dung. Mr. Hartlib, Sir Hugh Plat, as three of Barentz's failors experienced, who fell dangerouſly illon Mr. Mortimer, &c. make a common complaint, that ſo great an eating ſome of it boiled. One of this ſpecies was brought over to improver of land, and ſo remarkable a ſtrengthener of manure, England a few years ago; it was very furious, almoſt always int ſhould be ſo much diſregarded among us. motion, roared loud, and ſeemed very uneaſy, except when cooled URSUS, the bear; a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the or- by having pailfulls of water poured on it. For repreſentation, ſee der of feræ. There are fix fore teeth in the upper jaw, alternately Plate V. Genus 16, Species 1, Variety 2. hollow in the inſide, and fix in the under jaw, the two lateral ones 2. The Luſcus, wolverene, or glutton, has a black ſharp pointed being lobated. The dog-teeth are folitary and conical; the eyes viſage; thort rounded ears, almoſt hid in the hairs; the ſides of a are furniſhed with a nictitating membrane; the noſe is prominent; yellowiſh brown, which paſſes in form of a band quite over the and there is a crooked bone in the penis. There are four ſpecies, hind-part of the back, above the tail; the legs are very ſtrong: viz. 1. The Fufcus or brown bear, has ſtrong, thick, and clumſy thick and ſhort, of a deep black: the whole body is covered with limbs ; very ſhort tail ; large feet; body covered with very long very long and thick hair, which varies in colour according to the and thaggy hair. It inhabits the northern parts of Europe and ſeaſon. It inhabits Hudſon's Bay and Canada, as far as the ſtraits Afia; the Alps of Switzerland and Dauphine: Japan and Ceylon; of Michilimakinac; is found under the name of the glutton in the North America and Peru. They are ſometimes carnivorous, and north parts of Europe and Aſia, being a native of the moſt rigorous will deſtroy cattle, and eat carrion ; but their general food is roots , climates. It is a moſt voracious animal, and flow of foot; ſo is fruits, and vegetables : they will rob the fields of peale ; and when obliged to take its prey by ſurpriſe. In America it is called the they are ripe, pluck great quantities up, beat the peaſe out of the beaver-eater, watching thoſe animals as they come out of their houſes, huſks on ſome hard place, eat them, and carry off the ſtraw: they and ſometimes breaks into their habitations, and devours them. It will alſo, during winter, break into the farmer's yard, and make often lurks on trees, and falls on the quadrupeds that paſs under ; great havock among his ſtock of oats ; they are alſo particularly will faſten on the horfe, elk, or flag, and continue heating a hole into fond of honey. The bears of America are ſmall and black, and its body, till the animal falls down with pain; or elſe will tear out confine themſelves entirely to vegetables : they are remarkably its eyes: no force can diſengage it; yet ſometimes the deer in their greedy of maiz and potatoes; and will even reject animal-food, agony have been known to deſtroy it, by running their head violently though preſſed by hunger; neither of theſe varieties will attack againſt a tree. It devours the iſatis, or white fox; ſearches for the mankind, unleſs wounded, or when they have their young: they traps laid for the fables and other animals; and is often beforehand ſtrike with their fore feet like a cat; ſeldom or never ufe their with the huntſmen, who ſuſtain great loſſes by the glutton. In a mouths in fighting, but ſeizing the aſſailant with their paws, and wild ſtate, it is vaſtly fierce; a terror to both wolf and bear, which preſſing him againſt their breaſt, almoſt inſtantly ſqueeze him to will not prey on it when they find it dead, perhaps on account death. The females after conception retire into the moſt ſecret of its being ſo very fetid, ſmelling like a pole cat: it makes a places ; left, when they bring forth, the males ſhould devour the ſtrong reſiſtance when attacked; it is capable of being tamed, and young : it is affirmed that out of the ſeveral hundred bears that of learning ſeveral tricks; burrows, and has its den under ground. are killed in America, during winter, (which is their breeding ſea- The ſkin is ſold in Siberia, for 4s. or 6s. ; at Jakutſk for 12s. ; and ſon) ſcarce a female is found among them ; ſo impenetrable is their ftill dearer at Kamtſchatka, where the women dreſs their hair with retreat during their pregnancy: they bring two, rarely three, young its paws, which they eſteem a great ornament. The fur is greatly at a time. The fleſh of bears in autumn, when they are exceſſively efteemed in Europe: that of the north of Europe and Aſia, whoſe fat, by feeding on acorns, and other maſt, is delicate food; and that ſkins are ſometimes to be ſeen in the furriers ſhops, is much finer of the cubs ſtill finer ; but the paws of the old bears are reckoned blacker, and more glofly than that of the wolverene, or American the moſt exquiſite morſel; the fat white, and very ſweet; the oil kind. The glutton has by fome authors been confounded with the excellent for ſtrains and old pains. The latter end of autumn, after hyæna. For repreſentation, fee Plate V. Genus 16, Species 4. they have fattened themſelves to the greateſt degree, the bears 3. The Lotor, or racoon, has the upper part of the body covered withdraw to their dens, where they continue for a great number of with hair, afh-coloured at the root, whitiſh in the middle, and tipped days in total inactivity, and abſtinence from food, having no other with black; tail very bufhy, annulated with black, toes black, and nouriſhment than what they get by ſucking their feet, where the divided. It inhabits the warm and temperate parts of America; fat lodges in great abundance; their retreats are either in cliffs of is found alſo in the mountains of Jamaica, and in the iftes of Maria, tocks, in the deepeſt receſſes of the thickeſt woods, or in the hollows / between the ſouth point of California and Cape Corientez, in the South U TE VUL alſo many upon by way South Sea; is eaſily made tame, very good-natured and ſportive ; / geſtation, or till its delivery. For a more copious deſcription, fee but as unlucky as a monkey. It is almoſt always in motion ; and the Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part III. Sect. XV. &c. For repre- very inquiſitive, examining every thing with its pavys. It makes ſentation, Plate X. fig. 1. letter A, and B, and fig. 5. in every part, uſe of them as hands; fits up to eat ; is extremely fond of ſweet ſee alſo the Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, Part I. Sect. I. II. III. and things, and ſtrong liquors, and will get exceſſively drunk. It has IV. and fig. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. all the cunning of a fox; and is very deſtructive to poultry ; but UTERUS of Fiſh. Among the fiſh kinds, all thoſe which are will eat all ſorts of fruits, green corn, &c. It is hunted for its oviparous have no uterus ; but on the contrary, all the viviparous íkin ; the fur next to that of the beaver for making lats. For re- fiſhes have this part. The whales, and all the cetaceous kinds, as preſentation, fee Plate V. Genus 16, Species 3. of the cartilaginous ones, have the uterus very fair. It 4. The Meles, or common badger, is an animal of a very clumſy is probable that the eel kind alſo have it; but this is leſs certain, the make, with ſhort thick legs, long claws on the fore feet, and a fetid generation of theſe fiſhes being yet ſomewhat obſcure. The uterus white matter exuding from the orifice below the tail. It inhabits in the cetaceous fiſhes is always divided into two proceſſes or horns; moſt parts of Europe, as far north as Norway and Ruſſia, and the but in the cartilaginous ones it is divided into two glandulous bo- ſtep or deſart beyond Orenburgh, in the Ruſſian Afiatic dominions, dies, which are pervious, and, according to the opinion of Need- north of the Caſpian ſea: inhabits alſo China, and is often found ham, diſcharge a whitiſh liquor into the womb, and are of great in the butchers ſhops in Pekin, the Chineſe being fond of them; but uſe in gravidation. See the Syſtem of Comparative of ANATOMY, a ſcarce animal in moſt countries. It ſeldom appears in the day; Chap. III. confines itſelf much to its hole : is indolent and ſleepy; generally UVA Urſi, in botany, the name of a ſpecies of arbutus, with very fat : feeds by night; eats roots, fruits, graſs, inſects, and frogs ; trailing ſtalks, and entire leaves, called in Engliſh bears whortle- but is not carnivorous: it runs ſlowly; when overtaken, it comes berry. The plant is found on the ſnowy hills of Auſtria and Syria, to bay, and defends itſelf vigorouſly; its bite is dangerous. . It bur- but more plentifully on the Swediſh hills; it is alſo a native of the rows under ground; makes ſeveral apartments, but forms only one Highlands of Scotland, and is now cultivated in foine of our gar- entrance from the ſurface. It is hunted during night for the ſkin, dens. The leaves of this plant have a bitteriſh aſtringent taſte, which ſerves for piſtol-furniture ; the hairs for making bruſhes to without any remarkable ſmell. Infuſions of them in water ſtrike ſoften the ſhades in painting. Its fleſh makes good bacon. For re a deep black colour, with ſolution of chalybeate vitriol, but ſoon de- preſentation, ſee Plate V. Genus 16, Species 2. poſit the black matter, and become clear. For their uſe in dyeing, URTICA Marina, in Vermeology, the name of a remarkable fee DYEING. genus of aquatic animals, ſo called from a ſuppoſition of their af · The leaves of the uva urſi have of late been greatly celebrated in fecting the ſkin on touching them, with a painful ſenſation like that calculous and nephritic complaints, and other diſorders of the of the ſtinging of nettles. Theſe are animals of the loweſt claſs, urinary organs; the doſe is half a dram of the powder of the leaves and have by many been reckoned among thoſe creatures, called every morning, or two or three times a day. See Stone. De Haen zoophytes, or plant animals, as ſuppoſed to partake of the nature of relates, after large experience of this medicine in the hoſpital of vegetables and of animals. Some of the ſpecies of this fiſh are found Vienna, that ſuppurations though obſtinate and of long continuance, looſe the finooth ſhores, and ſome fixed to the rocks which are in the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, ſcrotum and perinæum, always covered with water. This has given birth to a diſtinction without any venereal taint or evident marks of a calculus, were in of them into two claſſes, which is as old as Ariſtotle ; thoſe of the general completely cured by it ; that of thoſe who had a manifeſt one being ſuch as move in the open ſea, called by later writers urtice, calculus, ſeveral found perinanent relief, ſo that, long after the me- folutæ, and referred by Linnæus to the genus of MEDUSA, and de- dicine had been left off, they continued free from pain or inconveni- nominated by the common people ſea-jellies and ſea-blubbers ; and ence in making water, though the catheter ſhewed that the calculus thoſe of the others ſuch as are fixed to rocks, and were ſuppoſed al- ſtill remained; that others, who ſeemed to be cured, relapſed on ways to remain immoveably in the ſame place, which belong to the leaving off the medicine, and were again ſucceſſively relieved on re- ACTINIA of Linnæus. For other remarkable properties of theſe peating the uſe of it; while others obtained only temporary and animals, ſee the article VERMEOLOGY. precarious relief. In ſeveral caſes, paregorics were joined to the USQUEBAUGH, a ſtrong, rich, compound liquor, chiefly taken uva urſi, and other mild aſtringents have been recommended for of dram ; its baſis being brandy, or a more ordinary ſpirit. the ſame intentions. Dr. Lewis obſerves, that the trials of the uva The manner of making it is ſomewhat various, and the ingredients urſi, made in this country, have by no means anſwered expectation ; We ſhall give a receipt, much commended formerly, in all caſes within his knowledge, it produced great fickneſs and un- as a ſpecimen. To two gallons of brandy, or ſpirits, put a pound eaſineſs, without any apparent benefit, though continued for a month. of Spaniſh liquorice, half a pound of raiſins of the ſun, four ounces Mat. Med. of currants, three of dates, ſliced ; tops of thyme, ' baum, ſavory, UVEA, in anatomy, the third tunic, or membrane of the eye. and mint, and tops or flowers of roſemary, of each two ounces ; cin. It is called uvea, on account of its reſembling the figure and colour namon and mace bruiſed, nutmegs, aniſeeds, and coriander ſeeds, of a grape, called by the Latins uva. The hind part of this coat, bruiſed likewiſe, of each four ounces ; citron, or lemon or orange- or that next to the orbit of the eye, on each ſide, is called the cho- peel, ſcraped, of each an ounce : all theſe are to be left to infuſe roides ; and is derived from the pia matcr. The anterior or fore- forty-eight hours in a warm place, often ſhaking them together ; part is, like the former, tranſparent, but thinner ; and is, by authors, then ſet them in a cool place for a week ; after which, the clear li- reckoned as a different tunic, and called uvea. Of the duplicature to be decanted off, and to it put an equal quantity of net of this part, is formed that ſtriped, variegated circle, called the iris white port wine, and a gallon of canary. The whole is finally to of the eye. And in its middle is a perforation, through which ap- be ſweetened with a proper quantity of double-refined ſugar. pears a little black ſpeck, which is the fight, or pupil of the eye ; UTERINE. UTERINUS, ſomething belonging to the uterus, and about which the iris forms a ring. See the Syſtem, Part VII. or womb of women. . Uterine brothers or ſiſters are thoſe born of Sect. V. and Plate XI. fig. II. the ſame mother, but by different fatliers. VULCAN, in Mythology, the ſon of Jupiter and Juno, who, Furor UTERINUS, in medicine. Men are ſubject to the like dif- on account of his deformity, was caſt down from heaven into the cafe, as well as women ; ſo that it might with more propriety be iſland Lemnos, and breaking his leg with the fall, is always repre- called the furor venercus, or venereal fury. It had its name, furor ſented as lame. At Lemnos, he ſet up the trade of a ſmith, and uterinus, from an opinion, that it proceeded from vapours ariſing taught the Lemnians, in recompence of the ſuccours they afforded from the womb to the brain. It has been frequently found, that him, the manifold uſes of fire and iron : he is alſo repreſented as maids, ſuppoſed to be diſordered in their ſenſes, were only ſeized the manufacturer of Jupiter's thunder, and the arms of the other with the uterine fury. For the nature and cure of this diſeaſe, fee gods. The poets deſcribe him as blackened and hardened from the Syſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 78, and 79. the forge ; with a face red and fiery, whilſt at his work; and tired UTERINE hæmorrhages. In this dangerous diſorder the Styp- and heated after it. This poor god is almoſt always the ſubject, TIC powder of Helvetius is much recommended : and the ſtibium either of pity or of ridicule. He is the great cuckold of heaven ; ceratum has alſo been tried with great ſucceſs. In the Stockholm and his lameneſs ſerves to divert the gods. The great celeſtial dei- Acts, 1770, there are ſeveral cales of uterine hæmorrhages cured ties ſeem to have admitted Vulcan among them merely to make by for į grain of IPECACUANHA, rubbed with ſugar, given every them laugh, and to be the butt of the whole company. Spence's four hours or oftener. In one caſe, the hæmorrhage returned on Polymetis, p. 81. diſcontinuing the medicine, and ceaſed on repeating it. Theſe VULGATE, a very ancient Latin tranſlation of the Bible; and ſmall doſes had good effects in catarrhal coughs, even in thoſe the only one the church of Rome acknowledges to be authentic. which attend conſumptions; and if not beneficial, are at leaſt not The Ancient Vulgate of the Old Teſtament was tranſlated, almoſt hurtful, in bloody coughs, in which vomiting has ſeveral times word for word, from the Greek of the Septuagint. It was the com- been obſerved to come on, without any increaſe of the hæmorrhage. mon, or vulgar verfion, before St. Jerome made a new one; whence They may be uſeful in peripneumony and pleuriſy, in which cough it has its name Vulgate. It has fince been retouched from the cor- is often the moſt troubleſome fymptom, and in which ſeneca root rection of St. Jerom ; and it is this mixture of the ancient Italian (which in increaſed doſes proves alſo emetic) has been ſo much re- verſion, and ſome corrections of St. Jerom, that is now called the commended. For a more copious treatment of this ſubject, ſee the Vulgate, and which the council of Trent has declared to be authen- Syſtem of MEDICINE, Genus 32, and the Syſtem of MIDWIFERY, tic. It is this Vulgate alone that is uſed in the Romiſh church, ex- Part X. Sect. III. cepting fome paſſages of the ancient Vulgate left in the miffal, and UTERUS, in anatomy, the matrix, or womb; that organ of ge- the plalms; which are ſtill ſung according to the cld Italic verſion, neration, in women, wherein conception is performed, and wherein VULGATE of the New Teſtament. This the Romaniſts gene- the embryo or fætus is lodged, fed, and grows, during the time of rally hold preferable to the common Greek text, becauſe it is this alone, numerous. quor is No. 147. 5K V U L U V U inch; with it. copy. alone, and not the Greek text, that the council of Trent has de- meaſured 12 feet 4 inches; the diameter of the quill half an clared authentic : accordingly that church has , as it were, adopted and the extent of the wing 16 feet. The bird was met in lat. 33 this edition, and the prieſts read no other at the altar, the preachers fouth, not far from the iſland Mocha, in the South Sea, in the year quote no other in the pulpit, nor the divines in the ſchools. In 1691;. The ſeamen ſhot it on a cliff by the fea-fide, and taking 1675, a new edition of the Greek Teſtament was publiſhed by the for a kind of turkey, made a meal of it. In this account we are Univerſity of Oxford ; and great care taken therein, to compare the told that the colour was black and white, like a magpie, and the common Greek téxt with all the moſt ancient manuſcripts in En- creſt, or comb, ſharp like a razor. It has been ſuppoſed, that gland, France, Spain, and Italy; and to note the differences obſerved theſe birds were peculiar to South America: but Buffon believes therein In the preface of this work, the editors, ſpeaking of the they are likewiſe inhabitants of Aſia and Africa, and not unlikely of divers verſions of the Bible in the vulgar tongues, obſerve of the Europe alſo, if the laemmergeir of the Germans be the ſame bird, Vulgate, that there is no verſion of any language to be compared which he ſeems inclined to think ; and that the roc, or ruch, men- And this they juſtify, by comparing paſſages that occur tioned frequently in the Arabian Tales, may alſo prove to be the in the moſt celebrated Greek manuſcripts, with the ſame paſſages fame. M. Briffon obferves, that theſe birds vary in colour; which in the Vulgate, where there is any difference between that and the will account for the difference in the plumage by which authors have common printed Greek In effect, it is probable, that at the deſcribed them: which circunſtance frequently happens in other time the ancient Italic, or Vulgate verſion of the New Teſtament birds, as well as in this ſpecies. was made, and at the time it was afterwards compared with the The phænecopterus, or Egyptian vultur, is thus defcribed by Greek manuſcripts by St. Jerom ; as they were then nearer the Mr. Haffelquiſt. "times of the apoſtles, they had juſter Greek copies, and thoſe better The appearance of this bird is as horrid as can well be imaginedl, kept, than any of thoſe uſed when printing was firſt ſet on foot. viz. the face is naked and wrinkled ; the eyes are large and black; M. Simon calls the Greek verſion of the Septuagint, before it was the beak black and hooked; the talons large, and extended ready "reviſed and reformed by Origen, the ancient Vulgate Greek. Ori- for prey; and the whole body polluted with filth : theſe are quali- gen's correction was preferred to the ancient Greek, which was ties enough to make the beholder shudder with horror. Notwith- conſequently diſuſed; ſo that we have now ſcarce any copies there- ſtanding this, the inhabitants of Egypt cannot be enough thankful of. See SEPTUAGINT. to Providence for this bird. All the places round Cairo are filled * VULNERARY, formed from vulnus, wound, in medicine, an with the dead bodies of aſſes and camels; and thouſands of theſe epithet given to remedies, proper for the cure of wounds and ulcers. birds fly about, and devour the carcaſſes before they putrify and fill There are divers vulnerary herbs ; as ariſtolochia, or birth-wort; the air with noxious exhalations. The inhabitants of Egypt, and fanicle, or ſelf-heal ; plaintain, mouſe-ear, veronica, or fuellin ; after them Maillet in his Deſcription of Egypt, ſay, that they yearly agrimony, vervain, or the holy herb, &c. There are alſo vulne-follow the caravan to Mecca, and devour the filth of the ſlaughtered rary potions, compoſed of various ſimples. Vulnerary balſams, un- beaſts, and the carcaſſes of the camels which die on the journey ; guents, plaſters, &c. but we were not eye-witneſſes of this. They do not fly high, nor VULPES, a ſpecies of the genus canis, in MAMMALIA. For are they afraid of men. For are they afraid of men. If one is killed, all the reſt ſurround him deſcription of the Genus, fee Canis; for repreſentation of this in the faine manner as do the Royſton-crows; they do not quit the Species, ſee Plate IV. Order III. Genus, 12. Species 4. places they frequent though frightened by the exploſion of a gun, VULTUR, in ornithology, the name of a genus of birds of the but immediately return thither. Maillet imagines this bird to be HAWK kind: the characters of which are, that the bill is ſtraight, the ibis of the ancients; but it is ſearcely to be imagined, that a and hooked only at the end ; the head has no feathers, and at the wiſe nation ſhould pay fuch honours to an unclean, impure, and baſe of the bill is covered with a naked ſkin, and the tongue is rapacious bird, which was not perhaps ſo common before the Egyp- bifid. Of this genus Linnæus enumerates eight ſpecies, viz. the tians filled the ſtreets with carcaſes. If the ibis is to be found, it gryphus or CONDORE, the harpyia or crefted EAGLE, the papa king muſt certainly be looked for in the ordo of grallæ of Linnæus; and of vulturs, or cozcaquauhtli , the monachus, black creſted or Arabic we imagine it to be the white ſtork, (Ardea cicona), which is ſo vultur, the aura or urubu of Braſil, the bearded, golden, or Bætic common in Egypt. The Arabians call it rochæme; the French vultur of Egypt, the phænecopterus, or ſacred vultur of Egypt, and al- living in Egypt, give it the name of chapon de Pharaon, or de Ma- biulla or PYGARGUS. There are no vulturs in Great Britain, nor hometh. The whole of the ſpecies of this great uſe, any north of the Baltic : but the various ſpecies are found in the particularly at Great Cairo in Egypt, and other places where they fouthern parts of Europe, Aſia, Africa, and America, as low as ſuffer dead carcaſes to be expoſed in the open air, which they devour Terra del Fuego. They are a ſluggiſh ungenerous race, preying with moſt voracious appetites, and are ſo fond of the food, that they oftener on dead animals, and even on putrid carcaſes, than on liv- fight for the banquet. For a repreſentation, ſee Plate I. fig. 1. ing creatures : their ſenſe of ſmelling is moſt exquiſite : they col. VULVA, quaſi valve, doors, a name which ſome phyſicians lect in flocks from great diſtances; and are directed to their prey by give to the vagina, and others to the uterus or womb. Vulva is the fagacity of their noſtrils : they fly flowly and heavily ; are very ſometimes alſo uſed for the cunnus, or whole pupendum muliebre. "greedy, and voracious to a proverb ; and they are bold and fearleſs, See Syſtem of ANATOMY, Part VII. Sect. XV.and Plate X. lower preying in the midſt of cities, undaunted by mankind. The condor diviſion, and the Plates of MIDWIFERY, with their explanation. is not only the largeſt of this genus, but perhaps of all others which UVULA, in anatomy, a round, ſoft, ſpongeous body, like the are able to fly. The accounts of authors in regard to its ex- end of a child's finger; ſuſpended from the palate near the foramina tent of wing are various, viz. from 9 to 18 feet, from the tip of of the noſtrils perpendicularly over the glottis. Its uſe is to break one wing to that of the other. In Hawkeſworth's Voyages, men- the force of the cold air, and prevent its entering too precipitately tion is made of one of theſe birds ſhot at Port Defire, off Penguin into the lungs. It is formed of a duplicature of the inembrane of Iſland, of which he gives the following deſcription : " The head the palate ; and it is called by ſome authors, columella, and, by of this bird reſembled that of an eagle, except that it had a large others, gurgulio. It is moved by two pair of muſcles, and ſuſpended comb upon it. Round the neck it had a white ruff, exactly reſem- by as many ligaments. The muſcles are, the external, called the bling a lady's tippet ; the feathers on the back were as black as jet, Salpingo-Staphilinus, which draws the uvula upwards and back- and as bright as the fineſt poliſh could render that mineral : the wards; and hinders the maſticated aliment froin paſſing into the legs were remarkably ſtrong and large, and the talons like thoſe of foramina of the noſtrils in deglutition: and the internal; called the an eagle, except that they were not ſo ſharp; and the wings when Palato-Staphilinus: which draws the uvula upwards and forwards. they were extended, meaſured, from point to point, no leſs than 12 Bartholin ſays, that ſuch as have no uvula are ſubject to the phthific, feet.” This laſt account ſeems by no means to exceed the natural and uſually die thereof; becauſe the cold air, entering the lungs ſize, ſince we have an account in the Philofophical Tranſactions of too haſtily, foon injure theon. See PHTHISIS. one of the quill-feathers of this bird, brought from Chili, which genus are of W AG W WAI W. 9 or w, is the 21 letter of our alphabet; and is compoſed, follow the vowels a, e, 0, and unites with them into a kind of dou- as its name implies, of two v's. It was not in uſe blé vowel, or diphthong; as in law, few, cow, &c. It alſo goes be- among the Hebrews, Greeks, or Romans; but chiefly peculiar to fore r, and follows / and th; as in wrath, ſwear, thwart: it goes the northern nations, the Teutones, Saxons, Britons, &c. But ſtill before h alſo, though in reality it is founded after it it; as in wheit, it is not uſed by the French, Italians, Spaviards, or Portugueſe, ex- what, &c. In ſome words it is obfcure, as in Shadow, widow, &c. cept in proper names and other terms borrowed from languages in The Engliſh w as the Latin w; in quantum, ſuadeo, lingua. Its which it is originally uſed, and even then it is founded like the found is commonly like the groſs or full w, rapidly pronounced. ſingle v: though it is not improbable, ſays Dr. Johnſon, that by In French the found of the w does not differ from that of the our w, is expreſſed the ſound of the Roman v, and Eolic f. This ſingle u or rather 01. letter is of an ambiguous nature; being a conſonant at the beginning WAGTAIL, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the genus of words, and a vowel at the end. It may ſtand before all the motacilla. For defcription of the Genus, ſee MOTACILLA. vowels except u ; as water, wedge, winter, wonder ; it may alſo WAIF, or WAFE, a term primarily applied to ſtolen goods, which WAK W A R which a thief, being either purſued or overburdened, flies, and Lake Wake, a ceremony uſed at funerals in the Highlands of waives or throws away in his flight. Scotland. The evening after the death of any perſon, the relations WAIVE, in law, a woman that is put out of the protection of and friends of the deceaſed meet at the houſe, attended by bagpipe the law. She is called waive, as being forſaken of the law; and or fiddle; the neareſt of kin, be it wife, ſon, or daughter, opens a not outlaw, as a man is; by reaſon women cannot be of the decen- melancholy ball, dancing, and greeting, (i, e. crying violently) at na, and are not ſworn in leets to the king, nor to the law, as men the ſame time, and this continues till day-light; but with ſuch gam- are; who are therefore within the law; whereas women are not, bols and frolics among the younger part of the company, that the and ſo cannot be outlawed, ſince they never were within it. In lofs which occaſioned them is often more than ſupplied by the con- this ſenſe we meet with waviaria mulieris, as of the ſame import ſequences of that night. If the corpſe remain unburied for two with utlegatio viri. nights, the ſame rites are renewed. Thus, Seythian-like, they re- WAKES, watch, vigils, or Country-WAKES, are certain an- joice at the deliverance of their friends out of this life of miſery. cient anniverſary feaſts, in ſeveral pariſhes ; wherein the people WALKS, in gardening. For the arrangement of this article in were to be awake at the ſeveral vigils, or hours to go to prayer. Gardening, ſee the Treatiſe, Part I. Article II. Sect. II. They are uſually obſerved, in the country, on the Sunday next be WALL, in architecture, &c. a work of ſtone, brick, or the like, fore the faint's day, to whom the pariſh church is dedicated. The making the principal part of a building; as ſerving both to encloſe learned Mr. Whitaker, in his Hiftory of Mancheſter, hath given a it, and to ſupport the roof, floors, &c. For further particulars rela- particular account of the origin of wakes and fairs. He obſerves, tive to this branch of architecture, ſee the Syſtem, under the article that every church at its confecration received the name of ſome STRUCTURE. particular ſaint: this cuſtom was practiſed among the Roman Bri WALNUT-Tree, juglans, in botany, a genus of the monoecia po- tons, and continued among the Saxons; and in the council of Ceal-lyandria clafs. There are ſeveral varieties of the common walnut, chythe, in 816, the name of the denominating faint was expreſsly which are diſtinguiſhed by the following titles: the large walnut, required to be inſcribed on the altars, and alſo on the walls of the the thin-ſhelled walnut, the French walnut, the late ripe walnut, church, or a tablet within it. The feaſt of this faint became of and the double walnut; but theſe all of them vary when raiſed courſe the feſtival of the church. Thus Chriſtian feſtivals were by ſeeds, ſo that the nuts from the ſame tree will produce plants, fubftituted in the room of the idolatrous anniverſaries of heatheniſm: whoſe fruit will differ ; therefore there can be no dependence upon accordingly at the firſt introduction of Chriſtianity among the Jutes the trees which are raiſed from nuts, till they have produced fruit; of Kent, pope Gregory the Great adviſed what had been previouſly ſo that thoſe perſons who plant the trees for the fruit, ſhould make done among the Britons, viz. Chriſtian feſtivals to be inſtituted in choice of them in the nurſeries when they have the fruit upon them, the room of the idolatrous, and the ſuffering-day of the martyr to prevent their being deceived. The common walnut is propa- whoſe relics were repoſited in the church, or the day on which the gated in many parts of England for the fruit, and the trees were building was actually dedicated, to be the eſtabliſhed feaſt of the pa- formerly cultivated for their wood, which was in very great eſteem, riſh. The people actually repaired to the church, and joined in the till the quantity of mahogany, and other uſeful woods, which have ſervices of it; and they thus ſpent the evening of their greateſt feſti- of late years been imported into England, have almoſt baniſhed the vities in the monaſteries of the North, as early as the concluſion of uſe of it. In order to preſerve the fruit, it ſhould remain upon the the ſeventh century. Theſe ſervices were naturally denominated trees till it is thoroughly ripe, and drops from the trees ; then laid from their late hours wæccan or wakes, and vigils or eves. That in heaps for two or three days, when the huſks will eaſily part from of the anniverſary at Rippon, as early as the commencement of the ſhells; they ſhould then be dried well in the ſun, and laid up in a the eighth century, is expreſsly denominated the vigil. But that of dry place, where vermin cannot come to them; by which means they the church's holiday was named eyric wæccan, or church-wake, the will remain good four or five months. But there are ſome perſons church-vigil, or church-eve. And it was this commencement of who put the walnuts into a gentle oven, where they let them remain both with a wake, which has now cauſed the days to be generally four or five hours to dry; and then put them up in oil-jars, or any preceded with vigils, and the church-holiday particularly to be de-other cloſe veſſels, mixed with dry ſand; by which means they will nominated the church-wake. So religiouſly was the eve and feſti- keep good fix months. The heat of the oven dries the germ, and val of the patron ſaint obſerved for many ages by the Saxons, even prevents their ſprouting; but if the oven be too hot, it will occaſion as late as the reign of Edgar, the former being ſpent in the church, them to ſhrink. The bark of the walnut-tree is a ſtrong eme- and employed-in prayer. And the wakes, and all the other holidays tic, either green, or dried and powdered; the green nuts are cor- in the year, were put upon the ſame footing with the octaves of dial, alexipharmic, and ſaid to be of great uſe in all contagious, Chriſtmas, Eaſter, and of Pentecoſt. When Gregory recommended malignant diſtempers, and the plague itſelf; and they are one of the feſtival of the patron ſaint, he adviſed the people to erect booths the principal ingredients in treacle water. The nuts preſerved are of branches about the church on the day of the feſtival, and to feaſt ſtomachic, and good to be eaten in a morning in time of peſtilential and be merry in them with innocence. Accordingly, in every pa- diſtempers, to prevent infection. Two or three ounces of the oil riſh, on the returning anniverſary of the ſaint, little pavilions were expreſſed from the ripe kernels, is a very good inedicine for the ſtone conſtructed of boughs, and the people indulged in them to hoſpita- or gravel. The ſhells powdered or burnt are accounted reſtringent, lity and mirth. The feaſting of the ſaint's day, however, was ſoon though but ſeldom uſed. Walnuts have a ſingular quality of pro- abuſed ; and even in the body of the church, when the people were moting the menſes when ſuppreſſed, and all other medicines fail. aſſembled for devotion, they began to mind diverſions, and to intro. The effiuvia of walnut-trees are ſaid to be hurtful to the head, duce drinking. The growing intemperance gradually ſtained the Mr. Boyle affures us, they cauſed the head-ach in himſelf. Works ſervice of the vigil, till the feſtivity of it was converted, as it now abr. vol.i. p. 436. is, into the rigour of a faſt. At length they too juſtly ſcandalized WALRUS, in the Syſtem of Mammalia, a ſpecies of the genus the puritans of the laſt century, and numbers of the wakes were trichecus. For deſcription of the Genus, &c. ſee TRICHECUS. diſuſed entirely, eſpecially in the eaſt and ſome weſtern parts of WAR, a conteſt or difference between princes, ſtates, or large England; but they are commonly obſerved in the north, and in the bodies of people; which not being determinable by the ordinary midland cpunties. meaſures of juſtice and equity, is referred to the deciſion of the This cuſtom of celebrity in the neighbourhood of the church, on ſword. Hobbes's great principle is, that the natural ſtate of man the days of particular faints, was introduced into England from the is a ſtate of warfare ; but moſt other politicians hold war to be a continent, and muſt have been familiar equally to the Britons and preternatural and extraordinary ſtate. The fole prerogative of Sixors; being obſerved among the churches of Aſia in the ſixth making war and peace belongs, by the Engliſh conſtitution, to the century, and by thoſe of the weſt of Europe in the ſeventh. And king. Levying war againſt the king in his realm is a ſpecies of equally in Afia and Europe, on the continent, and in the iſlands, treaſon. See TREASON. theſe celebrities were the cauſes of thoſe commercial marts which WAR is a great evil; but it is inevitable, and oftentimes neceſ- we denominate fairs. The people reſorted in crouds to the feſtival, fary. If he who firſt reduced to rules the art of deſtroying his fel- and a conſiderable proviſion would be wanted for their entertain- low-creatures, had no end in view but to gratify the paſſions of ment. The proſpect of intereſt invited the little traders of the princes, he was a monſter, whom it would have been happy to have country to come and offer their wares ; and thus, among the many, Imothered at his birth : but if his intention was the defence of per- pavilions for hoſpitality in the neighbourhood of the church, vari- fecuted virtue, or the puniſhment of ſucceſsful wickedneſs, to curb ous booths were erected for the ſale of different commodities. In ambition, or to oppafe the unjuſt claims of ſuperior power ; man- darger towns, ſurrounded with populous diſtricts, the reſort of the kind ought to erect altars to his memory. War, in the laſt caſe, people to the wakes would be great, and the attendance of traders is the moſt neceſſary and uſeful of all the ſciences: the various numerous; and this reſort and attendance conſtitute a fair. Balil kinds of knowledge which ought to furniſh the mind of ſoldier expreſsly mentions the numerous appearance of traders at theſe feſti- are not without great difficulty to be attained. Of moſt other ſci- vals in Afia; and Gregory notes the ſame cuſtom to be common in ences the principles are fixed, or at leaſt they may be aſcertained Europe. And as the feſtival was obſerved on a feria or holiday, it by the aſſiſtance of experience; there needs nothing but diligence to naturally aſſumed to itſelf, and as naturally communicated to the learn them, or a particular turn of mind to practiſe them. Philo- mart, the appellation of feria or fair. Indeed, ſeveral of our moſt ſophy, mathematics, architecture, and many others, are all founded ancient fairs appear to have been uſually held, and have been con- upon invariable combinations. Every man, even of a narrow un- tinued to our time, on the original church holidays of the places ; derſtanding, may remember rules, apply them properly, and ſome- beſides, it is obſervable, that fairs were generally kept in church- times draw.juſt conſequences from them ; but the ſtudy of war is yards, and even in the churches, and alſo on Sundays, till the in- of another kind. Experience can fo feldom be referred to rules, decency and ſcandal were ſo great, as to need reformation. See that nothing but a mind enlightened by diligent ſtudy can make a Burn's Eccl. Law. due application of rules to circumſtances. Moſt a W A R W AR pro- in Moſt artiſts may join practice to theory, and make one perfect gladiator. But the Roman general, whoſe death would have by the help of the other. The warrior has not always the like af- duced the ruin of the army, the great Scipio, when covered by the fiſtance; he ſpends part of his life in forming plans, of which hu- bucklers of three ſoldiers, to avoid a ſhower of arrows which the manity does not ſuffer him to wiſh the execution; and when he has enemy directed againſt him, approaches in ſafety the walls he be an opportunity of judging from experience of the folidity of his prin- feged, and ſtanding only a ſpectator of the action, and contenting ciples, the operations are fo rapid, the motions ſo diverſified, the ac himſelf with giving them orders, exhibits the idea of true courage. tions ſo confuſed, that he has ſcarcely time for a glimpſe of thoſe Bravery is involuntary, and depends not at all upon ourſelves; things which require the moſt calm and cloſe confideration. whereas courage (as Seneca obſerves) may be taught and acquired In learning of every kind, theory is the completion ; in the ſtudy by education ; but yet nature muſt fow the firſt feeds of it. It would of the military ſcience, it is only the introduction. Many a man, be eaſy to make the difference of theſe qualities better underſtood, depending on his rules, has found that the marches, the camps , the by runuing over all the caſes in which they make their appear- difpofitions, the manæuvres, performed with exact and ſtrict order ance, were it not for the fear of going too far in ſo copious a ſub- in the cloſet, have not only been very difficult, but even impracti- ject. It is ſaid of a magiſtrate who expoſes his life and fortune in cable in the field. A diſpoſition good in a mountainous country, defence of the laws, that he has virtue. Cicero, ſheltering himſelf would be bad in an open one ; a diſpoſition proper for one open from the hatred of Cataline, undoubtedly wanted bravery, but cer- country may fail in another, for want of foreſecing that a manæu- tainly he had an elevated firmneſs of mind (which is in reality cou- vre, which in one caſe may have been the cauſe of winning a bat- rage) when he diſcloſed the conſpiracy of that traitor to the ſenate, tle, may in another occaſion its loſs; the circumſtances of time and and pointed out all his accomplices; or when he pleaded for Deio- place almoſt always throws the beſt conſtructed ſyſtems out of order. tarus againſt Cæſar, his friend and his judge. It is therefore only by dint of ſtudy, and by the contemplation of Coolnefs is the effect of courage, which knows its danger, but caſes inceſſantly varied, that the want of practice can be fupplied, or makes no other uſe of that knowledge than to give directions with action at leaſt made lefs difficult. A military man who would be greater certainty : courage is always maſter of itſelf, provided maſter of his profeffion, has no hours to loſe ; in peace, he ought againſt all accidents, and regulated by the preſent occaſions ; never to ſtudy with the greateſt diligence ; in time of war, he will ſee his confounded by any danger to as to loſe ſight of the motions of the principles open themſelves of their own accord ; his ideas are then enemy, or of the means by which he may be moſt effectually op- more diſtinct ; he acts with clearneſs and certainty in all caſes he poſed. At the battle of Cannæ, when Giſco ſeemed to be much has foreſeen, and applies his rules to all thoſe which now occur for aſtoniſhed at the ſuperiority of the enemy's number, Hannibal an- the firſt time, and which till then had eſcaped his thoughts. Who ſwered him cooly, “There is, Giſco, a thing ftill more ſurpriſing, does not know that bravery, courage, and comprehenſion, are uſe-of which you take no notice.” Giſco aſked him what it was, “It leſs, and often fatal, to a military man who wants knowledge of his is (replied Hannibal), that in all that great crowd there is not one buſineſs ? Having no previous helps from ſtudy, it often happens man whoſe name is Giſco." Plutarch obſerves, that this coolneſs of that the braver he is, the more he is liable to miſtakes, and the leſs Hannibal greatly animated the Carthaginians, who could not ima- able to forefce or avoid them. gine that their general would joke at lo important a time, without The ſcience of war branches out into ſo many particulars ; it being certain of overcoming his enemies. Althouglı bravery and takes in ſo many different parts ; there are ſo many reflections ne courage are the moſt eſſential qualifications of a ſubordinate officer, ceſſary to be made, fo many circumſtances and caſes to be brought yet he ſhould not be deficient in thoſe which are required in a ge- together ; that it is only by a continual application, grounded upon neral, and which have been already mentioned; obedience to the the love of his duty, and an inclination to his profeflion, that any orders delivered to him is no longer a virtue than whilſt he compre- man can attain it. To march an army every fort of country, hends and knows the intention of them. War, ſays a celebrated whether open, woody, or mountainous ; to know how to form a author, is a buſineſs which, like all others, muſt be learned; it ſup- camp in all thoſe countries, with which the general muſt be tho-poſes ſome qualities to be born with us, and demands others which roughly acquainted in order to do it with fecurity; to make a proper are to be acquired; but ſince all theſe qualities muſt have the origi- difpofition for battle, whether with a view to the poſture of the nal ſource in genius, a man who propoſes war for his profeſſion, enemy; or to the ſituation of the country ; to foreſee events which ſhould never engage in it without having conſulted his natural bent, depend in a manner upon chance; to be capable of making a good or without knowing the particular turn and power of his mind. retreat on proper occaſions; to direct the forages without fatiguing Ability, whether in a general or an officer, is the effect of his genius, or expofing the troops ; to ſend out detachments with precaution ; quickened by a natural liking to his bafineſs. But ſome are by to conduct the convoys in ſafety; to know how to canton an army; their birth engaged in the profeſſion of arms before time has per* to eſtabliſh magazines in places, both fafe and within reach of the mitted them to conſult their genius and their powers ; are theſe army, ſo that it ſhall never be in want of ſubſiſtence; theſe are the men to quit it if they perceive that they are not endowed with every great ends of the military ſcience. The Alexanders of Parma, the talent that profeſſion requires ? Undoubtedly no; becauſe they Spinolas, the Guſtavuſes, the Weimars, the Condés, the Turennes, may acquire them. Study and application will ſupply the defect the Montécucullis, the Vendomes, the Marlboroughs, the Eugenes, of genius; docility may ſerve inſtead of talents, the love of glory and all the great men who have gone before us, would never have be equivalent to a liking for their buſineſs, and the virtues of their been the ſubject of our admiration, if they had neglected this ſtudy fathers ſhould always be preſent to their thoughts. When a man in any of its branches. It is by courage, genius, and capacity; by has 10 anceſtors to imitate, he is, as may be faid, at liberty to raiſe having an head always cool, and an eye at once quick and exact; a reputation of more or leſs luſtre : by being deſcended from cele- by a nice knowledge of the country, by ſkill in the choice of officers, brated anceſtors, he is obliged to follow their example, and may of- and by ſtrict diſcipline kept up in his army, that a general is ena ten improve upon their virtues. Claudius reproached Cicero with bled to take fuch juſt meaſures as will fruſtrate the deſigns of the being the firſt of his race. But you, anſwered Cicero, are the laſt enemy. It is commonly thought fufficient for a military man to of your's. An illuſtrious deſcent is oftentimes a burden ; if it adds know how to obey; and it is alſo ſuppoſed that the ſucceſs of a day fplendour to the man of virtue, it always diſgraces him who knows cannot be dubious, if a general joins the confidence of the foldiers not how to ſupport it. to all the foregoing qualities. It is true, that, in caſes of perplexity, A quick eye is natural in ſome, and in them it is the effect of ge- many generals have in a great meafure owed to their own capacity, nius; others acquire it by ſtudy or experience; he who knows how and the confidence their foldiers have repoſed in them, the advan- to command himſelf, and has courage enough to keep himſelf cool tages they have gained over the enemy; but is the officer who loves on the moſt urgent occafions, has the readieſt and quickeſt eye. his duty, and who would make himſelf mafter of it, under the feſs | A quick hot-headed man, however brave, ſees nothing; or if he obligation to know what qualifications his ſtation requires ? That does, it is confuſedly, and generally too late. It is this quick eye he ought to have ſuch or ſuch a quality, in ſuch or fucli a circum- which enables him to judge of an advantageous poſt, of a manoeu- ftance? that here only bravery is neceſſary, there only courage? and vre to be made, and of a good diſpoſition for the troops, whether that he is not always obliged to have both at the ſame time? with reſpect to that of the enemy, or to the ſituation and nature of Theſe two virtues, which are often confounded in the ſame ſub- the country. There is a quickneſs of eye which depends upon the ject, merit a particular diſtinction ; they are not ſo cloſely united, enemy, and another independent of him : it depends upon the but they are often to be found one without the other. Courage enemy when he has made ſuch a diſpoſition, that to attack him, ſeems fitteſt for a general, and all thoſe who command ; bravery another muſt be made upon the ſpot which renders his defective more neceſſary for a ſoldier, and all who receive orders ; bravery and weak in ſome parts; or when, being advantageouſly poſted, is in the blood, courage in the ſoul; the firſt is a kind of inſtinct, the general obliges him to change his poſition, by making him the ſecond a virtue; the one is an impulſe almoft mechanical, the fearfnl of being taken in flank, or being ſurrounded; or when it other a noble and ſublime conception. A man is brave at a par- is fo contrived as to render the troops on the right uſeleſs by attack- ticular time, and according to circumſtances; he has courage at all ing the left, without their being able to aſſiſt it. It is independent times, and upon all occaſions : bravery is fo much the more impe- of the enemy, when a commander being at a diſtance, knows how tuous, as it is leſs the reſult of reflection; courage, the more it is the to take an advantageous poſition, and how to chooſe a camp ſtrong effect of reaſon, becomes more intrepid. Bravery is inſpired by by fituation ; when he ſees at once what diſtances there are upon the force of example, inſenſibility of danger, and the fury of action; the right and left of the troops that may prevent their being either courage is infuſed by the love of our duty, the deſire of glory, and moleſted or ſurrounded, and obſeryes the poſts neceſſary to bc occu- zeal for our king and country: courage depends on reaſon, but bra- pied for their ſafety ; when he marches with a detachment, and very on the conſtitution. Achilles , ſuch as Horace deſcribes him diligently ſurveys the ground by which he may retreat if he ſhould from Homer, implacable, cruel, deſpiſing every other right but be attacked and repulled by ſuperior forces, taking care that he may at of force, preſents nothing to the idea but the hardinces of a 'not be ſurrounded, and that the enemy may not be able to oppoſe to him W A R WAR Yet we him a front more extenſive than his own. The quick eye is no the event is leſs doubtful. No man is born a general, although he other than that penetrating genius which lets nothing eſcape it. A brings into the world with him the ſeeds of thoſe virtues which general who knows how to unite this quality with perpetual cool make a great man; Cæſar, Spinola, Turenne, the great Conde, neſs, never is in want of expedients; he will ſee how thoſe events, and ſome others, ſhewed, even in their earlieſt years, ſuch qualities which to any other would be the preſage of his own defeat, may end as ranked them above other men; they carried within them the in the overthrow of his enemies. The army of Cyrus, in the pre principles of thoſe great virtues which they drew forth to action by ſence of that of Crofus, at Timprea, took a clap of thunder for a profound ſtudy, and which they brought to perfection by the help bad omen: this impreſſion eſcaped not the quick eye of Cyrus; 1 of practice: thoſe who came after them, with perhaps fewer na- but the coolneſs which on this occaſion he knew how to preſerve, tural talents, have by ſtudy rendered themſelves worthy of being ſuggeſted to him an interpretation which removed his ſoldiers fears. compared to them. Cæſar and all conquerors had this advantage, « My friends,” cried he, “ Heaven declares for us; come on, I that they were able to make their own opportunities, and always hear the ſound of victory: Great Jupiter, we follow thee.” acted by their own choice. A man may be a good general without The choice of the general officers depends upon this genius, being á Marlborough or a Turenne; ſuch geniuſes are ſcarcely which diſcovers every thing; they ought to be the right-hand of the ſeen once in an age; but the more they are raiſed above the reſt of general, and as capable of commanding the army as himſelf. mankind, the more they ought to excite emulation. It is by endea- Whatever good diſpolitions a general may make, they muſt prove vouring to ſurpaſs the intellects of the ſecond rate; it is by ſtriving ineffectual if not ſeconded by the general officers under his com to equal the inoſt ſublime, that the imitation of them is to be at- mand; he cannot be every where, neither can he foreſee all exigen- tained. This paſſion in a ſoldier, is neither pride nor preſumption; cies that may ariſe. arife. He is obliged to give only general orders, it it is virtue, and it is by this only that he can hope to be ſerviceable is therefore the buſineſs of thoſe who command under him to know to the ſtate, and add to the glory of his king. how to take the advantage of a wrong movement of the enemy; How much foever the honour of commanding armies may be to take upon them to attack, or ſuſtain the troops which are en ſought after, it degrades him who is not worthy of it: this rank, ſo gaged: and, as circumſtances vary, to make them advance towards much deſired, borders on the two extremes of glory and ignominy. the enemy, either to keep him back, or to attack him. A military man who labours to make himſelf capable of command- muſt except the reſerve, which ought never to march without an ing, is not to be blamed; his ambition is noble; by ſtudying the order from the commander in chief. But the qualities already men art of commanding, he learns that of obeying and of executing. tioned would be uſeleſs, if order and diſcipline were not ſeverely But it is aſtoniſhing in the higheſt degree to ſee ſoldiers thinking obſerved: the moſt numerous and beſt compoſed army would ſoon only on preferment, and neglecting the ſtudy of their buſineſs. It become little elſe than a body of rangers, who being only united by who being only united by | is perhaps leſs ſurpriſing if we ſee others, without having been the hope of booty, would féparate as ſoon as that motive ceaſed'; tried, propoſing to themſelves to command in chief; becauſe ſuch and truſting each to his own head or indulging his own humour, attempts ſuppoſe in the projector an abſurd temerity, founded on a would be cut in pieces party by party: ſo that if the general does profound ignorance of the talents he ought to have, and the virtues not keep up ſubordination (the foul and ſtrength of diſcipline) his which he has not. Such boldneſs is the character of a man whoſe army will be nothing more than a troop of Tartars acting more mind is too narrow to perceive his danger. We ſhould rather ap- from the hope of plunder than the deſire of glory. What art and what prove the timidity that ſuffers itſelf to be dejected by terror, ſince genius is there not requiſite to maintain this ſubordination ? Too it thews at leaſt that he knows to what hazards he is expoſed: both much ſeverity diſguſts the ſoldier, and renders him mutinous, diſ one and the other are blameable: modeſty is an eſſential quality of courages him and makes him deſert; too much indulgence finks a ſoldier; it gives ſplendor to virtue, it argues diffidence of himſelf, him into indolence, and makes him neglect his duty: licentiouſneſs and deſire of arriving at perfection. Mardonius, Xerxes's general, cauſes that ſubordination to ſeem burdenſome, which ſhould never propoſed himſelf to the king to command his armies; this conceit in any degree be given up: he loſes that reſpect and often that con of his own talents ought to have been anſwered by a refuſal; the fidence, which he ſhould have with regard to his officer; and in innumerable troops which he led were defeated by a ſmall number dulgence often makes a well diſciplined body become a ſet of flug- of Greeks, and his preſumption ſerved but to increaſe the misfor- gards, who march againſt their will, and who, on the moſt preſſing tune of his prince. Cincinnatus, endowed with every quality both emergencies, think only on their own ſafety. of a great man and a great ſoldier, was holding his plough when the The ability, foreſight, and prudence of a general, gains him the Romans came to intruſt the fate of the republic to him: he ſet entire confidence of the ſoldier and officer; the ſoldier indeed judges out; and Rome was delivered from her enemies. but by inſtinct, and is determined only by the event; but his judg The title of general would be leſs tempting, if proper attention ment is not leſs infallible; that of an officer is equally juſt, but he was paid to the qualities it requires, and the duties it impoſes; it is determined only by full conviction; he puts event out of the would then appear a very honourable, but painful burden. The queſtion, and places his confidence in nothing but courage and pru- moſt firm and intrepid genius might be diſcouraged, merely by dence. Confidence is again to be acquired by affability to thoſe thinking that on the conduct of a general depends the fate of a ſtate, who are ſubordinate to us, and by ſupplying their wants before the glory of his prince's arms, and his own reputation. But yet they are complained of; theſe two motives for confidence afford a the reward that follows ſuch irkſome labours ought to animate men plentiful and certain harveſt of laurels to the general. M. Luxem to undertake them. Obſtacles, however numerous they may be, bourg, M. Turenne, Prince Eugene, Marſhal Saxe, and many are not inſurmountable, ſince ſo many great men have got the bet- others, have partly owed the advantages they have gained over their ter of them: difficulties ſhould ſtir up a ſoldier's emulation, but enemies to the confidence of the ſoldiers, who, loving their general, Mould never terrify him: he ſhould endeavour to copy ſuch great conſidered it as their duty to pleaſe him, and had no joy in victory originals, though he ſhould not be able to equal them. but as they ſhared it with him. Mining is one of the moſt eſſential parts of the attack and de- Beſides theſe qualities which are eſſential to a general, and which fence of places: ſo much artillery is uſed, that nothing above all who would attain that rank ought of courſe to have, there are ground can withſtand its effects; the moſt ſubſtantial ramparts and ſtill many others neceſſary to make a great man. A hero is always parapets can reſiſt but a ſhort time; and the outworks, though nu- a good member of the community; he conſiders humanity as his merous, ſerve only to retard, for a time, the ſurrender of the place. firſt duty; he is juſt, open, and unbiaſſed; his temper may Hiſtory informs us, that mines were made long before the inven- but this ardour is always regulated by prudence; he gives advice tion of gunpowder; for the ancients made galleries or under- with the ſame openneſs as he would aſk it; and never aſks but of ground paſſages, much in the ſame way as the moderns, from with- thoſe whoſe experience, which he eſtimates rather by their actions out, under the walls of places, which they cut off from the foun- than their age, makes them capable of giving ſuch as may be dation, and ſupported them with ſtrong props: then they filled the truſted; he is haughty only to his enemies, free to his equals, affa intervals with all manner of combuſtibles, which being ſet on fire, ble to his inferiors, brave without either arrogance or raſhneſs, burnt their props, and the walls being no longer ſupported, fell, and eaſy of acceſs to all. whereby a breach was made. The beſieged alſo made, under- The general ought to be acquainted with the intereſts and force ground, paſſages from the town under the beſiegers machines, by of princes, a ſcience very neceſſary in judging of the power of which they battered the walls to deſtroy them, which proves neceſ- princes upon whom war is made, that he may fall ſooner upon the fity to be the inventor of mines, as well as other uſeful arts, country of him who can obſtruct his projects, than upon a prince, The place where the powder is lodged, is called the chamber of who, by the ſituation of his dominions and force, can make no op the mine, or fourneau. The paſſage leading to the powder is poſition. In a word, a general who would merit the title of a great called the gallery. The line drawn from the center of the cham- man, ought to unite in himſelf all civil, military, and political ex ber, perpendicular to the neareſt ſurface of the ground, is called cellence. It is by this that he will eaſily attain to make war with the line of leaſt reſiſtance. The pit or hole made by ſpringing fucceſs; nothing will eſcape him; he will know without difficulty the mines, is called the excavation. The fire is communicated to the genius of every country, and of the nations which compoſe the the mines by a pipe or hoſe, made of coarſe cloth, whoſe diameter enemy's army, the abilities of the generals who command, and the is about 1} inch, called a ſauciſſon (for the filling of which near nature of the troops under them. Without theſe precautions he half a pound of powder is allowed to every foot) extending from would never think that he could act upon certain grounds; he the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, to the end of which is knows he may venture a motion with ſome troops that he would not fixed a match, that the miner who ſets fire to it may have time to dare attempt with others that are equally brave. One nation is ve retire, before it reaches the chamber. To prevent the powder from hement, fiery, and formidable in the firſt onſet; another is not ſo contracting any dampneſs, the ſauciſſon is laid in a ſmall trough, hafty, but of more perſeverance: with the former, a ſingle inſtance called an auget, made of boards 3] inches broad, joined together determines fucceſs; with the latter, the action is not ſo rapid, but lengihwiſe, with ſtraw in it, and round the ſauciſſon, with a wooden N° 148. be fiery, 5 L cover W AR W A R which may cover nailed upon it. Some authors call the end of the ſauciſſon | way, both ſalient and re-entering; to eſtabliſh the heads F, F, near the ends of the liſtners G, G, before the ſalient angles; and the that comes within the work, and which is to be ſet fire to, the miners proceed under ground to place chambers overcharged be- foyer or focus; but by moſt people, this is generally underſtood tween the extremities of the liſtners of the re-entering angles. We to be the center of the chamber. Galleries and chambers of mines, which are made within the for- ſuppoſe they have taken the precaution to ſink their Thafts as deep as the countermines; that the chambers may be nearly on a level tification, before the place is attacked, and from which ſeveral branches are carried to different places, are generally 4 or 4į feet with the galleries, and that the ſhafts are placed in the trenches, K, wide, and 5 or 57 feet high. The earth is ſupported from falling which lead from one battery to the other, not to interfere with any in by arches and walls, as they are to remain for a conſiderable other works. From the bottom of theſe ſhafts they make the gal- time. But when mines are made to be uſed in a ſhort time, then leries K, L, of about 120 feet long. This will be a work of about the galleries are but 3 or 31 feet wide, and 5 feet high. The four or five days to the eſtabliſhing their chambers which ſhould earth is ſupported by wooden frames or props. The gallery being be finiſhed at the ſame time, that they may be ſprung together; by carried on to the place where the powder is to be lodged; the mi this time the fappers will be got to the heads E, F, to induce the ners make the chamber, which is generally of a cubical form, large beſieged to ſpring ſome of their mines to deſtroy them. enough to hold the wooden box, which contains the powder neceſ. Suppofing that they have ſprung two or three mines at each ſide; fary for the charge; the box is lined with ſtraw and fand bags, to as ſoon as this is done, the miners enter into the excavations to diſ- prevent the powder from contracting dampneſs. The chamber is cover the galleries; which they muſt do at the ſame time while the ſunk ſomething lower than the gallery, if the ſoil permits ; but lappers form a lodgment in the excavation. When the galleries are where water is to be apprehended, it muſt be made higher than the found and cleared, they ſtop up their entrances to keep in the ſmoke gallery; otherwiſe the beſieged will let in the water and ſpoil till they want to make uſe of them. On the other hand, all the the mine. globes of compreſſion H H, are fixed, and from their excavations In loading and ſtopping mines, the gallery and chamber being ſearch is made on the right and left, to diſcover the liſtners G, G; ready to be loaded; a ſtrong box of wood is made of the ſize and fi ſo that if the meaſures have been rightly taken, fourteen entrances gure of the chamber, being about or larger than is required for into the countermines will be found, by which it will be out of the containing the neceſſary quantity of powder. A hole is made in power of the beſieged to reſiſt equally every where: ſhould there the ſide next the gallery, near the bottom, for the ſauciſſon to paſs be but half that number practicable, it would be ſufficient to get through, which is fixed to the middle of the bottom, by means of poſſeſſion of all their mines, of which only thoſe that are conve- a wooden peg to prevent its looſening from the powder; or that, g from the powder; or that, nient to advance the fiege; are to be changed into trenches. if the enemy ſhould get to the entrance, they may not be able to Another eſſential article in the art of war, is the conduct and ma- tear it out. This done, the powder is brought in fand-bags, and nagement of a ſiege, which is to ſurround a fortified place with an thrown looſe in the box, and covered alſo with ſtraw and fand bags. army, and approach it by paſſages made in the ground, ſo as to be Upon this is put the cover of the box, preſſed down very tight with covered againſt the fire of the place. The firſt operation of a fiege ſtrong props: and to render them more ſecure, planks are alſo put is inveſting or blocking up the avenues of a place, ſo as to prevent above them, againſt the earth, and wedged in as faſt as poſſible. all ingreſs and egreſs. The body of troops inveſting a town, ſhould Then the auget is laid from the chamber to the entrance of the gal- at leaſt be as ſtrong again as at leaſt be as ſtrong again as the gårriſon ; they ſhould be divided lery with ſome ſtraw at the bottom, and the ſauciſſon laid in it with into ſeveral parties, in order to take poſſeſſion of all the avenues ftraw over it: laſtly, it muſt be ſhut with a wooden cover nailed leading to the place, and thereby prevent all communication. By upon it. Great care muſt be taken in ſtopping up the gallery, not day they ſhould keep themſelves out of cannon ſhot; but as ſoon as to preſs to hard upon the auget, for fear of ſpoiling the fauciffon, it is duſk, they muſt approach much nearer, the better to be able to hinder the powder from taking fire, and ſo prevent the ſupport each other and to ſtraiten the town. mine from ſpringing. The gallery is ſtopped up with ſtones, earth, Places fortified after the modern manner, conſiſt chiefly of baf- and dung, well rammed fix or feven feet further from the chamber tions and curtins, and ſometimes of demi-baſtions, according to the than the length of the line of leaſt reſiſtance. ſituation of the ground; of cavaliers, ramparts, ditches, counter- The globes of compreſſion, as repreſented in the plate annexed; ſcarps, covert-ways, half-moons, ravelins, horn-works, crown- fig. 1. letters H, H, are large globes of earth homogeneous in alí works, eſplanades, tenailles, &c. &c. For definition of theſe ſe- its parts, and a certain quantity of powder lodged in their center ſo veral articles, with the moſt approved methods of their conſtruction as to produce a proper effect without burſting the globe; by ſetting according to the reſpective plans of Vauban and Muller, the reader fire to the powder it is evident, that the explofion will act all round, is referred to the Syſtem of FORTIFICATION throughout. to overcome the obſtacles which oppoſe its motion; and as the par Fig. 2. which refers to this ſubject, repreſents the plan of a re- ticles of the earth are porous, they will compreſs each other in pro- gular fortification beſieged, with a full explanation of its component portion as the flame encreaſes, and the capacity of the chamber parts; which with the obſervations and references we have made encreaſes likewiſe: but the particles of earth next to the chamber on, and to the ſeveral articles appertaining to the Syſtem of Forti- will communicate a part of their motion to thoſe next to them, and FICATION, it is preſumed will ſufficiently elucidate the ſubject. thoſe to their neighbours: and this communication will thus con The deſcription of the above plate would have been given under tinue in a decreaſing proportion, till the whole force of exploſion the Syſtem of FORTIFICATION, as having a more immediate re- is entirely ſpent, and the particles of earth beyond this term will ference to that part: but at the early period at which it was intro- remain in the ſame ſtate as they were at firſt. The particles of earth duced in the work, it was intended to have compriſed under the that have been acted upon by the force of exploſion will compoſe a head War, a complete treatiſe comprehending fortification, pro- globe, which the miners call a globe of compreſſion. jectiles, &c. &c. But this plan not appearing fo eligible as the From ſeveral experiments made with various charges, it ap mode we have ſince adopted, we choſe to give them in a more de- peared that the greateſt diameter of an excavation may not only be tached point of view. And as And as the plate was referred to this head, made double, but triple or quadruple; contrary to the general opi to prevent confuſion we thought it better to give a deſcription of it nion. From theſe experiments we are convinced, that the diame- ter of the excavation could be made greater than was imagined; For the component parts which form the art of war, the reader but for what reaſon was not hitherto known till Mr. Belidor de is referred to the Treatiſe on MILITARY and NAVAL AFFAIRS; monſtrated it, in the Memoirs of the academy of Sciences, at the Syſtem of Projectiles, which includes Gunnery, Fortification, Paris, in the year 1762. Navigation, &c. which ſtate and explain the particulars reſpecting To explain the reaſons on which the principles of mines are the different departments of the army and navy; ſuch as the riſe and grounded; it is neceſſary to conſider, not only the reſiſtance which progreſs of the military ſtáte in Britain; military diſcipline, ar- the weight of the earth and the coheſion of the parts make againſt rangement, rank, tactics, and manual exerciſe: alſo the maritime the force of exploſion, but likewiſe the preſſure of the atmoſphere, ſtate of Britain, management and regulations of the navy; naval which is ſo great as to counterbalance a column of water of the tactics, or the methods of arranging a fleet for an engagement, as ſame baſe, whoſe altitude is 33 feet; which anſwers nearly to a well as the manner of an engagement, together with a general diſ- height of a middling ſoil of about 22 feet; ſo that if the line of play of the conſtruction of ſhips. To theſe ſeveral ſubjects is an- Jeaſt reſiſtance of a mine be 10 feet, the force of exploſion muſt nexed a plate illuſtrative and explanatory both of the theory and not only overcome the weight of 10 feet of earth above it, but 32 practice, ſo as to compriſe in the whole the moſt eſſential parts of feet, properly ſpeaking. It is, however, to be obſerved, that this this art, both military and naval. weight reſiſts the force of explofion no longer than till the mine WAR, Civil , or Inteſtine, is that between ſubjects of the ſame burſts, and the exploſion gets a communication with the air, be- realm; or between parties in the ſame ſtate. In this ſenſe we ſay cauſe then the preſſure of the air ceaſes. the civil wars of the Romans deſtroyed the republic; the civil wars In order to apply this method of attacking the countermines in a of Granada ruined the power of the Moors in Spain; the civil wars place beſieged; it is ſuppoſed the firſt and ſecond parallels made the in England began in 1641, and ended in the king's death, 1648. third parallel, as repreſented in the plate which refers to this ſub WAR-Cry, was formerly cuſtomary in the armies of moſt na- ject, fig. 1, letters A, B, C, diſtant about 360 feet from the paliſades tions, when juſt going to engage. Sometimes they were only tu- of the covert way; and from thence the trenches are carried on in multuous ſhouts, or horrid yells, uttered with an intent to ſtrike the capital of the ravelin, and in thoſe of the adjacent baſtions of the terror into their adverſaries; ſuch as is now uſed by the Indians in front attacked; and after this batteries, L, are made of cannons America, called the war-hoop. and mortars, to enfilade by ricochet the covert way, and the ram WARBLER, the Engliſh name of the genus motacilla, in the parts parallel to it, to deſtroy their defences. During this time, the Syſtem of OrnitHOLOGY. See MotACILLA ; for repreſenta- fappers carry on the faps towards the places of arms in the covert tion of the male and female, fee Plate III. Genus 41. WARD. in this place. Art Int of llar __Plathe Periode Hars) Fig1. H С. L K G E F ΑΑΑΑΑΑΑ L G H. H E 7 .......... K K K FOOOR L B A.B.C. Third Parallel. H.H. Globes of compreſsion. G.G.G. Listnurs. E.F. Saps destroyed by the Besiegers Mines. L.K. Batteries. Fig.1. Represents the Method of placing Mines in a Siege. Fig2. P 7 PS Х KO 4 B P K G Coco L M a AL Ъ n 19 H E H Н ין a B а М. ME M b s R E Acordados EL D TITrar Few Fig. 2. Representation of a fortified Place besieged. AB. Two Bastions. H. The Approaches. C. Ravclin. I . Places of Aims. D. Line of Communication of the Attacks. K . Square Redoubts to prevent Sallies. E. First Parallel. L . Travci:808 in the third Paralla. F. Second Parallel. M. Batteries G. Third Parallel a Place of Arms, N. Glacis. 0. Places of Arms in the covart way. P. The Ditch. Q. Bridge of communication, R. A River s. Rising Ground Cannon. b. Mortars. Engraved for Halls Encyclopædia,& Printed for C.Cooke,N.27 Paternoster Row. W A R W A S p. 287, &c. Aeſh like a pea. WARD is a word uſed in our law-books, in divers fignifica- | king's bench, extends all over the kingdom; and is teſted or dated tions. Thus, a ward in London, is a part of the city, committed England, and not any particular county. But the warrant of a to the ſpecial charge of one of the Aldermen of the city. There juſtice of peace in one county muſt be backed, that is, figned by a are twenty-ſix wards in London, which are as hundreds, and the juſtice of the peace in another, before it can be executed there. pariſhes thereof as towns. A foreſt is alſo divided into wards; fo Formerly, regularly ſpeaking, there ought to have been a freſh alſo are moſt of our hoſpitals. A priſon is ſometimes alſo called warrant in every freſh county: but the practice of BACKING war- a ward. The heir of the king's tenant, who held by knight's ſer rants had long prevailed without law, and was at laſt authoriſed by vice, or in capite, was alſo called a ward, during his non-age. ſtatutes 23 Geo. II. cap. 26, and 24 Geo. II. cap. 55. And now, But this ſort of wardſhip is taken away by the ſtatute 12 Car. II. by ſtatute, 13 Geo. III. cap. 31. any warrant for apprehending cap. 24. an Engliſh offender who may have eſcaped into Scotland, and vice WARDEN, guardian, one who has the charge or keeping of verſa, may be indorſed and executed by the local magiſtrates, and any perſon, or thing, by office. Such is the warden of the Fleet; the offender be conveyed back to that part of the united kingdoms, who is the keeper of the Fleet priſon, and has the charge of the pri in which ſuch offence was committed. Blackft. Comm. book iv. foners there; eſpecially ſuch as are committed from the court of chan- cery for contempt. Such alſo are the warden of the fellowſhips, WARRANT of Attorney, is that whereby a man appoints another warden of the marſhes, wardens of peace, warden of the weſt to do ſomething in his name, and warrants his action. It ſeems to marſhes, warden of the Foreſt, warden of the alnage, warden of differ from a letter of attorney, which paſſes under hand and ſeal of the king's wardrobe, &c. Warden, in an univerſity, is the head him that makes it, before credible witneſſes; whereas warrant of of a college; anſwering to what in other colleges we call the maf attorney, in perſonal, mixed, and ſome real actions, is put in courſe ter thereof. Warden, or Lord WARDEN of the Cinque Ports, is the by the attorneys for the plaintiffs, or defendants. Though a war- governor of thoſe noted havens; who has the authority of an admi rant of attorney, to ſuffer a common recovery by the tenant, or ral, and ſends out writs in his own name. See CINQUE Ports. vouchee, is to be acknowledged before ſuch perſons as the commiſ- WARDMOTE, in London, is a court ſo called, which is fion for the doing thereof directs. kept in every ward of the city; anſwering to the curiata comitia, WARREN, WARENNA, a franchiſe, or place privileged ei- in ancient Rome. ther by preſcription, or grant from the king, to keep beaits and WARDPENNY, wardpeni, was formerly a cuſtomary due fowl of warren in: as rabbits, hares, partridges, pheaſants, &c. A paid to the ſheriff, or other officer, for maintaining watch and ward. man that has the franchiſe of warren is in reality no more than a It was payable at the feaſt of St. Martin; and is ſtill paid within royal game-keeper, but no man, not even a lord of a manor, could the manor of Sutton-Colfield, in Warwickſhire; and that with by common law juſtify ſporting on another’s foil, or even in his ſome very ſingular ceremonies. own, unleſs he had the liberty of free-warren. This franchiſe is WARRANT, an act, inſtrument, or obligation, whereby a almoſt fallen into diſregard, ſince the new ſtatutes for preſerving perſon authorizes another to do ſomething, which he had not other the game. There are, indeed, many inſtances of eager ſportſmen wiſe a right to do. in ancient times, who have ſold their eſtates, and reſerved the free WARRANT, in law, is a precept under the hand and ſeal of fome warren, or right of killing game to themſelves; by which means it officer to bring any offender before the perſon granting it. A war comes to paſs that a man and his heirs have ſometimes free-warren rant may be granted in extraordinary caſes by the privy council, over another's ground. The word warren is now generally ap- or fecretaries of ſtate; but ordinarily by juſtices of the peace. This plied to a piece of ground ſet apart for the breeding and preſerving they may do in any caſes where they have a juriſdiction over the of rabbits. offence, in order to compel the perſon accuſed to appear before WART, verruca, a little round hard excreſcence, ariſing on the them. And this undoubtedly extends to all treaſons, felonies, and a pea. Warts are more frequent on the hands than any breaches of the peace; and alſo to all ſuch offences as they have other part. There are divers forts; the moſt uſual are called por- power to puniſh by ſtatute. Sir Edward Coke lays it down, that a racece; as having heads like leeks, and conſiſting of little threads, juſtice of the peace cannot iflue a warrant to apprehend a felon upon reſembling the roots thereof. Another ſort is called myrmecia; this mere ſuſpicion, nor even till an indictment be actually found; but is a little round callous eminence on the hands of young children; this opinion has been combated by Sir Matthew Hale, who main- riſing ſuddenly, and diſappearing again. A third fort is the acro- tains, that a juſtice of peace hath power to iffue a warrant to ap chordon. Warts, if only rooted in the cutis, are eaſily taken away; prehend a perſon accuſed of felony, though not yet indicted; and but if they ariſe from the tendons underneath, there is ſcarce any that he may alfo iſſue a warrant to apprehend a perſon ſuſpected of extirpating them without great danger. Strong vinegar, charged felony, though the original ſuſpicion be not in himſelf, but in the with as much common ſalt as it will diffolve, is a very proper ap- party that prays his warrant. But in both caſes it is proper to ex plication to them. A plaſter may alſo be compoſed of fal ammo- amine upon oath the party requiring a warrant, as well to aſcertain niac and galbanum, which being kneaded up together and applied, that there is a felony or other crime actually committed, without ſeldom fails of deſtroying them. Borelli commends water wherein which no warrant ſhould be granted; as alſo to prove the cauſe fal ammoniac has been diſſolved; which Dr. Mapletoft, formerly and probability of ſuſpecting the party againſt whom the warrant is profeſſor of phyſic at Greſham College, makes no ſcruple to ſay, prayed. This warrant ought to be under the hand and ſeal of the is the only ſure remedy he knows of in all medicine. juſtice, ſhould ſet forth the time and place of making, and the cauſe WASH, the diſtiller's name for the fermentable liquor made by for which it is made, and ſhould be directed to the conſtable, or diſſolving the proper ſubject for fermentation and diſtillation in other peace officer; or it may be to any private perſon by name, requiring him to bring the party either generally before any juſtice WASP, Vespa, in entomology, a genus of the hymenoptera of the peace for the county, or only before the juſtice who granted order of inſects: the characters of which are theſe: the mouth has it: the warrant in the latter caſe being called a ſpecial warrant. A maxillæ without any proboſcis; the upper wings are plicated; the general warrant to apprehend all perſons ſuſpected, without naming ſting is pointed and concealed; the eyes are lunar; and the body particularly, or deſcribing any perſon in ſpecial, is illegal and void naked and ſmooth. Linnæus enumerates 28 ſpecies. For claſſi- for its uncertainty; for it is the duty of the magiſtrate, and ought fication, ſee the Syſtem, Order V. not to be left to the officer, to judge of the ground of ſuſpicion; and M. Reaumur (Hiſt. Acad. Sci. Paris, 1719.) and Dr. Derham a warrant to apprehend all perſons, guilty of the crime therein fpe- | (Phil. Tranſ. N° 382. p. 53, or Abr. vol. viii. p. 404.) agree in cified, is no legal warrrant; becauſe the point, upon which its au diſtinguiſhing three ſorts of waſps, viz. the queens or females, the thority refts, is a fact to be decided upon in a ſubſequent trial; males, and the common labouring waſps, called mules, which, namely, whether the perſon apprehended thereupon be really guilty according to Reaumur, are neither males nor females, and conſe- It is therefore in fact, no warrant at all; for it will not quently barren. The queens, of which there is a great number, juſtify the officer who acts under it; whereas a warrant, properly are much longer in the body, and larger than any other waſp; they penned (even though the magiſtrate who iſſues it ſhould exceed his have a large heavy belly, correſponding in fize to the prodigious juriſdiction) will, by ſtatute 24 Geo. II. cap. 44. at all events in quantity of eggs with which they are charged. The males are leſs demnify the officer who executes the ſame miniſterially. A prac than the queens, but longer and larger than the common waſps tice, indeed, had obtained in the ſecretaries office, ever fince the which are the ſmalleſt of the ſpecies: they have no ftings, with Reſtoration, grounded on ſome clauſes in the acts for regulating which both the queens and common waſps are furniſhed. There the preſs, of iſſuing general warrants to take up (without naming are in one neſt two or three hundred males, and as many females ; any perſon in particular) the authors, printers, and publiſhers, of but their number depends on the ſize of the neſt; and Dr. Derham ſuch obſcene or feditious libels as were particularly ſpecified in the obſerved that the males were bred, or at leaſt moſtly reſided in When thoſe acts expired in 1694, the ſame practice was the two cells or partings, between the combs, next to the up- inadvertently continued, in every reign, and under every adminiſ permoſt cell. The antennæ or horns of the male waſps are lon- tration, except the four laſt years of Queen Anne, down to the ger and larger than thoſe of either of the other forts; but the chief year 1763; when ſuch a warrant being iflued, its validity was diſ difference, ſays Dr. Derham, conſiſts in their parts of generation, puted, and the warrant was adjudged by the whole court of king's which are altogether different from thoſe of other waſps. The bench to be void. After which the iſſuing of ſuch general warrants mules are the labourers belonging to the neſt, and are employed in was declared illegal by a vote of the houſe of commons. Com. procuring materials for the neſts, and in conſtructing them, and Journ. 22 April, 1766. alſo in furniſhing the other waſps, and young, with proviſions. When a warrant is received by the officer, he is bound to exe M. Reaumur has obſerved, that when the females that have fur- cute it , ſo far as the juriſdiction of the magiſtrate and of himſelf vived the winter, begin at the return of ſpring to lay their eggs, extends. A warrant from the chief or other juſtice of the court of they firſt lay thoſe which hatch mules, and at this time they build cells common water. or not. warrant. W A T W A T may be it found out. tells of a ſmaller ſize to lodge the eggs from which they are pro ſnow, gathered in a clear ſtill pinching night, in ſome very high duced: they afterwards build larger cells, and fill them with the place; taking none but juſt the outer or ſuperficial part thereof. largeſt eggs, which are thoſe of the males and females. This By a number of repeated diſtillations, the greateſt part of the earth, writer ſays, that the copulation of the males and females is viſible, and other fæces may be ſeparated from this: and this is what we and he has given a particular account of it; obſerving that it is per muſt be contented to call pure water. Boerhaave ſays, that he is formed in October, like that of all other flies. convinced nobody ever ſaw a drop of pure water: that the utmoſt The waſps conſtruct regular combs, and rear their young in of its purity known, only amounts to its being free from this or the cells of theſe combs, in the manner of bees. A waſp's neſt is that ſort of matter; and that it can never, for inſtance, be quite commonly round, and made of materials reſembling fine paper. deprived of falt; ſince air will always accompany it, and air always The common covering of it which is formed of ſeveral leaves or contains ſalts. layers, with intermediate ſpaces, is pierced by two holes at a dif t. The general and moſt effectual method of freeing water from tance from one another, one of which is uſed for the entrance of any heterogeneous ſubſtance is diſtillation. Thus it per- the waſps, and the other only for their exit. The eggs of the fećtly purified from almoſt every faline ſubſtance whatever; and waſp are of an oblong form, and reſemble thoſe of a common fly, thus ſea-water may be rendered perfectly freſh and wholeſome. It but they are larger; they are always faſtened to the angles of a cell, muſt be obſerved, however, that all diſtilled water acquires an em- never to the ſides of it. They are uſually placed ſingle; it is very pyreumatic ſmell and taſte by this operation; ſo that it makes but rare to find two in one cell; and, if they are laid ſo, it ſeems that diſagreeable drink until it has itood for ſome time. Another dif- only one ſucceeds; for there is never found more than one worm advantage which attends water when newly diſtilled, is its want of in a cell. The cells are left open till the nymph is at its full fixed air; which, however, it foon recovers by expoſure to the air growth; then the walps cover it over with a thin lid, under which for forne time. If water is actually putrid, it cannot be made fit the worm undergoes its transformation; and as ſoon as it arrives for uſe by ſimple diſtillation. In this caſe a quantity of lime is ne- at the waſp ſtate, it eats its way through this thin cover and ceſſary, which extracts a volatile alkali, but deſtroys the putrid comes to work with the reſt. ſubſtance. After the water is once diſtilled in this manner, may WATCHING, WAKEFULNESS, among phyſicians, denotes a be more fully purified by adding ſome vitriolic or other acid to diſorder whereby a perſon is diſabled from going to fleep. It is oc neutralize the alkali, and rediſtilling it with this addition. The ſub- caſioned by a continual and exceſſive motion of the animal ſpirits in ſtance from which it is moſt difficult to free water is any volatile the organs of the body, whereby thoſe organs are prepared to receive oil. This riſes in diſtillation, and will alſo paſs through every kind readily any impreſſion from external objects, which they propagate of ſtrainer. The only cure in this caſe therefore, is to expoſe the to the brain; and furniſh the ſoul with divers occaſions of thinking. fluid for a conſiderable time to the air, when the oil will fly off or This extraordinary flux of ſpirits may have two cauſes: for, 1. The become effete and fixed, ſo that it cannot riſe in diſtillation; after ſenſible objects may ſtrike the organ with too much force. In which which the water may eaſily be purified. caſe, the animal ſpirits being violently agitated, and thoſe agita- tions continued by the nerves to the brain , they give a like metion que hether or not it is poſible to convert water into earth, is a queſtion which has much engaged the attention of philoſophers. to the brain itſelf; the neceſſary conſequence of which is, that the Mr. Boyle relates, that a friend of his by diſtilling a quantity of animal muſt wake. Thus, a loud ſhriek, pains, head-ach, gripes, water an hundred times, found at length, that he had got fix-tenths coughing, &c. cauſe waking. Add, that the mind being oppreſſed of the firſt quantity in earth: whence he concludes, that the whole with cares, or deeply engaged in thinking, contributes to the ſame; water, by farther proſecuting the operation, might be converted fince, as it acts by the miniſtry of the ſpirits, any cares or medita into earth. Others have made experiments to the ſame purpoſe, tions that keep thoſe in motion, muſt produce watchfulneſs. Of and ſeemingly with the ſame ſucceſs : but the deception is now this kind are the inveterate wakings of melancholic perſons; ſome Water has the power of corroding the hardeſt bodies, of whom have been known to paſs three or four weeks without a even glaſs itſelf, by long digeſtion, eſpecially when aſſiſted by heat'; wink of ſleep. 2. The other cauſe is in the ſpirits themſelves; and hence thoſe who have made the experiments juſt mentioned which have ſome extraordinary diſpoſition to receive motion, or to have been themſelves deceived, by ſuppoſing the earth which really perſiſt in it: as from their too great heat, or that of the brain in came from the containing veſſel to come from the water. fevers, &c. Hence it is that the diſorder is moſt frequent in ſum- WATER in all Places and Bodies. Orucos : mer, in the heat of youth, &c. Long faſting has the ſame effect; Water ſeems to be diffuſed every where, and to be preſent in all the want of food ſubtilizing the ſpirits, and drying the brain. The ſpace where there is matter. There are few bodies in nature that ſame is likewiſe an ordinary ſymptom in old age, by reaſon the will not yield water: it is even aſſerted, that fire itſelf is not with- pores of the brain, and the nerves, having been much widened by out water. A ſingle grain of the moſt fiery falt, which, in a mo- the continual paſſage of ſpirits, for a great number of years, the ment's time, will penetrate through a man's hand, readily imbibes fpirits now paſs and repaſs through them with too much eaſe, and half its weight of water, and melts even in the drieſt air imagina- need not any extraordinary motion to keep the mind awake. ble: thus falt of tartar, placed near the hotteſt fire, will attract or WATER, in phyſiology, a clear, infipid, and colourleſs fluid, imbibe water; and, by that means increaſe conſiderably its weight, coagulable into a tranſparent ſolid ſubſtance at 32° of Fahrenheit's in a ſmall time: fo, in the drieft fummer's day, a pewter vefſel with thermometer, and volatile in every degree of heat above that. Many ice in it, brought up from ſome cold ſubterraneous place, in the different kinds of waters are commonly ſpoken of, ſuch as Chaly- hotteſt room, will immediately be covered over with little drops of beate waters, ſulphureous, ſaline, putrid waters, &c. but all theſe water, gathered from the contiguous air, and condenſed by the differ from one another only in having various ſubſtances mixed coldneſs of the ice. It is ſurpriſing to conſider the plenteous ſtock with them, from which when perfectly freed, the water is always of water which even dry bodies afford. Oil of vitriol, being ex- the ſame; ſo that it has not improperly been reckoned one of the poſed a long time to a violent fire, to ſeparate all the water, as much four elements. By ſome late experiments of Meffrs. Lavoiſier, as poſſible, from the fame, will afterwards, by only ſtanding a few Watt, Cavendiſh, Prieſtly, and Kirwan, it appears, that water minutes in the air, contract freſh water ſo faſt, as ſoon to afford it conſiſts of dephlogiſticated air, and inflammable air or phlogiſton as plenteouſly as at firſt. Harthorn kept forty years and turned intimately united: or as Mr. Watt conceives, of dephlogiſticated as hard and as dry as any metal, ſo that, if ſtruck againſt a flint, it air and phlogiſton, deprived of part of their latent heat. will yield ſparks of fire, yet, being put into a glaſs veífel, and diſ- No pure Water in all Nature. tilled, will afford one-eighth part of its quantity of water. Bones Water, if it could be had alone, and pure, Boerhaave argues, dead and dried twenty-five years, and thus become almoſt as hard would have all the requiſites of an element, and be as ſimple as fire; as iron, yet by diſtillation, have afforded half their weight of wa- but there is no expedient hitherto diſcovered for procuring it ſo And the hardeſt ſtones, ground and diſtilled, do always dif- pure. Rain water, which ſeems the pureſt of all thoſe we know of, cover a portion thereof. But hitherto no experiment ſhews, that is replete with infinite exhalations of all kinds, which it imbibes water enters as a principle into the combination of metallic matters, froin the air: ſo that if filtered and diſtilled a thouſand times, there or even into that of vitrefiable ſtones. ſtill remain fæces. Farther, the rain-water, gathered from the Eels, by diſtillation, yielded Mr. Boyle ſome oil, ſpirit, and vo- roofs of houſes, is a lixivium of the ſalt of tyles, flates, or the like; latile falt, beſides the latile falt, beſides the caput mortuum; yet all theſe were ſo diſpro- impregnated with the dungs and fæces of the animals, birds, &c. | portioned to the water, that they ſeemed to have been nothing but depoſited thereon; and the exhalations of numerous other things that coagulated; the fame ſtrangely abounds in vi in vipers, though they Add, that all the rain-water gathered in cities, muft at leaſt be ſatu- are eſteemed very hot in operation; and will, in a convenient air, rated with the ſmoke of a thouſand chimnies, and the various efflu- ſurvive, for ſome days, the loſs of their heads and hearts. Human via of numbers of perſons, &c. Beſides this, there is fire contained blood, itſelf, as fpirituous and elaborate a liquor as it is reputed, ſo in all water; as appears from its fluidity, which is owing to fire abounds in water, that out of ſeven ounces and a half, the ſame au- alone. As what is in the air neceffarily mixes itſelf with water, it thor, by diſtillation, drew near fix ounces of phlegm; before ever hence appears impoſſible to have ſuch a thing as pure water. If any of the other principles began to riſe. you percolate it through fand, or ſqueeze it through pumice, or paſs Whether Water be the common matter of all bodies? it thro' any other body of the like kind, you will always have ſalt re From conſiderations ſomewhat of this kind, Thales, and ſome maining. Nor can diſtillation render it pure; ſince it leaves air other philoſophers, have been led to hold, that all things were made of therein, which neceſſarily abounds in corpuſcules of all ſorts. The water: which opinion, probably, had its riſe from the writings of waters that flow within, or upon the ſurface of the earth, contain Mofes; where he ſpeaks of the Spirit of God moving upon the face of various earthy, faline, metallic, vegetable, or animal particles, ac the waters. But Mr. Boyle does not conceive the water here men- cording to the ſubſtances over or through which they paſs. The tioned by Moſes as the univerſal matter to be our elementary wa- pureſt of all waters we can any way arrive at, is, that diſtilled from ter: we need only ſuppoſe it an agitated congeries of a great variety of ter. W A T W A T ſeveral parts, grow out of may of feminal principles, and of other corpuſcles fit to be ſubdued and Water is even found more fluid than air ; a body being reputed faſhioned by them; and it may yet be a body Auid like water, in more Auid than another, when its parts will find way through caſe the corpuſcles it was made up of, were by their Creator, ſmaller pores: now air, it is known, will not paſs through leather, made ſmall enough, and put into ſuch an actual motion, as might as is evident in the caſe of an exhauſted receiver covered therewith; make them roll and glide eaſily over one another. However, Ba whereas water paſſes with eaſe. Again, air may be retained in a fil, Valentine, Paracelſus, Van Helmont, Sendivogius, and others, bladder, but water ouzes through. In effect, it is found, that have maintained the ſame principle; viz. that water is the elemen water will paſs through pores ten times ſınaller than air will. It tal matter, or ſtamen, of all things, and fuffices alone for the pro- muſt not be omitted, however, that Mr. Homberg accounts for this duction of all the viſible creation. Thus, Sir Iſaac Newton: “ All paſſage of water through the narrow pores of animal ſubſtances, birds, beaſts, and fiſhes, inſects, trees, and vegetables, with their which will not admit the air, on another principle; viz. its moiſt- do and watery tinctures, and ſalts; ening and diſſolving the glutinous matter of the fine fibres of the and, by putrefaction, they all return again to watery ſubſtances.” membranes, and rendering them more pliable and tractile; which Helmont endeavours to prove this doctrine from an experiment; are things that the air, for want of a wetting property cannot do. wherein, burning a quantity of earth till all the oil was conſumed, As a proof of this doctrine, he filled a bladder, and compreſſed it and then mixing it up with water to draw out all the falt; and put with a ſtone, and found no air to come out; but placing the blad- ting this earth, thus prepared, into an earthen pot, which nothing der thus compreſſed in water, the air eaſily eſcaped. Hiſt. de but rain-water could enter; yet a willow, planted therein, grew up l'Acad. An. 1700, p. 45. to a conſiderable height and bulk, without any ſenſible diminution Water, then, may even hence, viz. from its penetrative power, of the earth: whence he concluded, that the water was the only be argued to enter the compoſition of all bodies, both vegetable; nutriment of the vegetable kind, as vegetables are of the animal. animal, and foſſil; with this particular circumſtance, that it is eaſily, The ſame thing is inferred by Mr. Boyle, from a parallel expe and with a gentle heat, ſeparable again from bodies it had united riment; and the whole is countenanced by Sir Iſaac Newton; who with: which cannot be ſaid of any other body. Fire, indeed, will obſerves, that water ſtanding a few days in the open air, yields a penetrate more than water ; but it is difficult to procure it again tincture; which, like that of malt, by ſtanding longer, yields from the bodies it is once fixed in; as is evident in red-lead, &c. ſediment and a ſpirit; but, before putrefaction, is fit nouriſhment This property of water, joined with its ſmoothneſs and lubricity, for animals and vegetables. But Dr. Woodward endeavours to fits it to ſerve as a vehicle for the commodious and eaſy conveyance ſhew the whole to be a miſtake; water containing extraneous of the nutritious matter of all bodies; being ſo fluid, and paſſing corpuſcles, ſome of which, according to him, are the proper matter and repaſſing ſo readily, it never ſtops up the pores, and leaves room of nutrition: the water being ſtill found to afford ſo much the leſs for the following water to bring on a new ſupply of nutritious nouriſhment, the more it is purified by diſtillation. So that water, matter. And yet the ſame water, as little coheſive as it is, and as as ſuch, does not ſeem the proper nutriment of vegetables; but eaſily ſeparated from moſt bodies, will cohere firmly with ſome only the vehicle thereof, which contains the nutritious particles, others, and bind them together in the moſt ſolid maſſes; though it and carries them along with it, through all the parts of the plant. appears wonderful, that water, which will be ſhewn an almoſt Helmont, however, carries his ſyſtem ftill farther; and imagines, univerſal diffolvent, ſhould, nevertheleſs , be a great coagulator. that all bodies may be re-converted into water. His alkaheſt, he Water, we ſee mixed up with earth, or alhes, gives them the affirms, adequately reſolves plants, animals, and minerals, into one utmoſt firmneſs and fixity. The aſhes, e. g. of an animal , incorpo- liquor, or more, according to their ſeveral internal differences of rated with pure water into a paſte, and baked with a vehement fire, parts; and the alkaheſt, being abſtracted from theſe liquors, in the become a coppel; which is a body remarkable for this, that it will fame weight, and with the ſame virtues as when it diſſolved them, bear the utmoſt effort of a refiner's furnace. It is, in effect, upon the liquors may, by frequent cohobations from chalk, or ſome other the glutinous nature of water alone, that our houſes ſtand; for take proper matter, be totally deprived of their ſeminal endowments, but this out of wood, and it becomes aſhes; or out of tiles, and and return, at laſt, to their firſt matter; which is inſipid water. they become duſt. Thus, a little clay, dried in the ſun, becomes a Spirit of wine, of all other ſpirits, ſeems freeſt from water: yet powder : which, mixed with water, ſticks together again, Helmont affirms, it may be ſo united with water, as to become be faſhioned at pleaſure; and this dried again by a gentle fire, or in water itſelf. He adds, that it is materially water, only under a ſul- the ſun, and then baked in a potter's oven by an intenſe fire, be- phureous diſguiſe. And as to falt, ſalt of tartar, well calcined, be comes little other than a ſtone. So the Chineſe earth, whereof our ing laid to liquify in the air, will depoſit an earth: and if it be then porcelain veſſels are made, which hold all liquors, and even melted committed to diſtillation, will yield a conſiderable quantity of infi- lead itſelf, is diluted and wrought up with water. To ſay no more, pid water ; inſomuch, that if it be urged with a vehement fire, the all the ſtability and firmneſs ſeen in the univerſe have been aſcribed ſalt will almoſt all vaniſh, and nothing faline remain, either in the by ſome writers to water alone. Thus, they ſay, ſtone would be water, or the earth. Whence Helmont concludes, that an incoherent ſand, did not water bind it together; and thus, again might be converted into water. Add, that ſea-ſalt, recovered from of a fat gravelly earth, wrought up with water, and baked or its own acid ſpirit, and oil of tartar, reſolve into water, as much as burnt, we make bricks, tiles, and earthen veſſels, of ſuch exceeding oil of tartar. Laſtly, oils run, in great meaſure, into water; and, hardneſs and cloſeneſs, that water itſelf cannot paſs through them. it is probable, might be converted wholly into the fame. And theſe bodies, though to appearance perfectly dry, and deſti- A No Standard for the Weight and Purity of WATER. tute of water, yet, being pulverized, and put in a retort, and diſ- Water ſcarce ever continues two moments exactly of the ſame tilled, yield an incredible quantity of water. weight; by reaſon of the air and fire contained therein. Thus a The ſame, it is ſaid, holds of metals; for the parings or filings piece of pure limpid ice, laid in a nice balance, never continues in of lead, tin, antimony, &c. by diſtillation yield water plentifully; equilibrio. In effect, the expanſion of water in boiling ſhews what and the hardeſt ſtones, fea-falt, nitre, vitriol, ſulphur, &c. are effect the different degree of fire has on the gravity of water. found to conſiſt chiefly of water, into which they reſolve by force This makes it difficult to fix the ſpecific gravity of water, in order of fire. The lapis calcarius, or lime-ſtone, being expoſed to the to ſettle its degree of purity; but this we may ſay in the general, fire, affords a prodigious quantity of pure water: and the more of that the pureſt water we can procure is that which, according to this water is extracted, the more friable does it become, till, at the experiments of Mr. Hawkſbee, whoſe determination has been length, it commences a dry calx, or lime, wherein, in lieu of the uſually followed, is 850 times as heavy as air: or according to water ſo expelled, the fire, in the courſe of calcination, enters; and the experiments of the Hon. Mr. Cavendiſh, the thermometer this is expelled again, in its turn, by pouring on cold water. Yet being at 50° and the barometer at 29, about 800 times as heavy the ſame water and calx tempered together , produce a maſs ſcarce as air. However, we cannot have any tolerable ſtandard in air; for inferior, in point of ſolidity to the primitive lime-ſtone. Many, water being ſo much heavier than air, the more water there is con if not moſt, of the effects here aſcribed to water in uniting and tained in the air, the heavier, of courſe, muſt the air be: as, in conſolidating the parts of various bodies, have been attributed by effect, the principal part of the weight of the atmoſphere ſeems to modern chymiſts and philoſophers to the gas, or fixible air, which ariſe from the water in it. enters into their compoſition; which eſcapes when they are dif- Properties and Effects of Water. ſolved, and which is capable in certain circumſtances, of being Water is found the moſt penetrative of all bodies, after fire, again reſtored to them, ſee LIME. and the moſt difficult to confine; fo that a veſſel, through Monſ. Lavoiſier, and others, who have lately adapted the anti- which water cannot paſs, may retain any thing. Nor is it any phlogiſtic ſyſtem, maintain, that water muſt conſiſt of inflammable objection, that fyrups and oils will ſometimes paſs through bo and dephlogiſticated air, ſince it may both be compoſed from them, dies which hold water; this not being owing to the greater ſub and reſolved into them again. But Dr. Prieſtley has ſhewn, that tility and penetration of their particles, but to the reſin where their experiments do not authoriſe the concluſion that has been with the wood of ſuch veſſels abounds, to which oils and ſyrups drawn from them: and he obſerves, that in what manner foever are as menſtruums; fo that, diſſolving the reſin, they make their dephlogiſticated and inflammable air be made to unite, they See Experiments way through the ſpaces left thereby: whereas water, not acting compofe fome acid, and in no caſe pure water. on refins, is retained in them. And yet water gradually makes its and Obſervations on different kinds of Air, abridged, vol. iii. way, even through all woods, and is only retainable in glaſs and metals; nay, it was found by experiment at Florence, that when The changes water is liable to, and the different forms it appears ſhut up in a ſpherical veſſel of gold, and then preſſed with a great under, are very numerous: ſometimes as ice, then as a vapour, force, it made its way through the pores even of the gold; ſo that then as a cloud, ſhower, ſnow, hail, fog, &c. We may add, that the moſt ſolid body in nature is permeable to water under certain the pureſt waters ſooneſt freeze; hence ice is purer than the water circumſtances, that remains unfrozen; on this principle, vinous and ſome faline N° 148. liquors t all falts la P. 545, &c. 5 M WAT W A T USU a liquors may be freed from a part of their fulphureous water by from an ignorance of the real nature of ſea-water, or from a deſign gentle congelation. of rendering their proceſs myſterious, have mixed different ingre. Sea-WATER. dients with the water, either before or after its diſtillation. The Sea-water, is an aſſemblage of bodies, wherein water can ſcarce method of obtaining freſh-water, from the diſtillation of ſea-water, be ſaid to have the principal part; it is an univerſal colluvies of all was practiſed by Sir R. Hawkins, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, the bodies in nature, fuſtained and kept ſwimming in water as a who thus obtained water that was wholeſome and nouriſhing. See vehicle. Dr. Liſter confiders it as the fund, or ſource, out of which Purchas's Collect. of Voyages, book vii. chap. 5. all bodies ariſe. He gives, in ſome meaſure, into the opinion of In 1761, Dr. Lind diſcovered, that fea-water diſtilled, without Thales and Van Helmont; and imagines the ſea-water to have the addition of any ingredients, afforded a water as pure and whole- been the only element created at the beginning, before any animal, ſome as that obtained from the beſt ſprings; and in 1762 an ac- or vegetable, or even before the ſun himſelf. Freſh-water he ſup count of this diſcovery was read to the Royal Society, and ſoon poſes to have riſen accidentally after the creation of theſe, and to after publiſhed by authority by the lords of the admiralty. The prac- owe its origin to the vapours of plants, the breath of animals, and ticability of this operation was alſo evinced by the author of the the exhalations raiſed from the ſun. De Font. Med. Ang. Dr. Chymical Dictionary. In 1765, Mr. Hoffman introduced a ſtill Halley is of another opinion. He takes it for granted, that the of a new conſtruction, with a ſecret ingredient. About the ſame faltneſs of the ſea ariſes from the faline matter diſſolved and im time experiments were made with a ſtill of the common conſtruc- bibed by the rivers in their progreſs, and diſcharged with their wa tion, and Mr. Dove's ingredient. The manner of procuring freſh ters into the ocean; and conſequently, that the degree of faltneſs water, by the ſimple diſtillation of ſea-water, ſeems at preſent to is continually and gradually increaſing. On this hypotheſis he have attained a great degree of perfection, both in France and Eng- even propoſes a method for determining the age of the world; for land. M. de Bougainville, in his Voyage round the World, has two experiments of the degree of faltneſs, made at a large interval borne ample teſtimony to the utility of the machine for diſtilling of time, will, by the rule of proportion, give the time wherein it ſea-water, which was made public in 1763, by M. Poiſſonnier, its has been acquiring its preſent degree. Phil . Tranſ. N° 344. inventor; and Lord Mulgrave, in his Voyage towards the North Beſide common alimentary ſalt, the ſea water contains other Pole, in 1773, has done equal juſtice to the method of obtaining falts, which are found in the bittern, or bitter brine, remaining af freſh water from the ſea by diſtillation, which was introduced into ter the ſea-falt is extracted. Firſt , it contains a bitter purging the Engliſh navy in 1770, by Dr. Irving; for which he obtained a falt, known in the ſhops under the name of Epſom-ſalt. This was parliamentary reward of 5000l. firſt extracted from the Epſom, Dulwich, and other purging wa In order that the reader may have a clear notion of Dr. Irving's ters, but it is now made only from the bittern at Newcaſtle, and method, let us ſuppoſe a tea-kettle to be made without a ſpout, and other places; and it is chiefly to this bitter falt that the ſea-water with a hole in the lid, in the place of the knob; then the kettle being owes its bitter taſte, though that has been ſuppoſed to proceed from filled with ſea-water, the freſh vapour which ariſes from the ſea- bituminous matter contained in it, and often found on its furface, water as it boils, will iſſue through the hole in the lid; into that or lodged upon the rocks by its motion. Another falt is alſo found hole fit the mouth of a tobacco-pipe, letting the ſtem have a little in bittern, which is called a muriatic calcareous ſalt, its acid prin- inclination downwards: then will the vapour of freſh-water take ciple being ſpirit of ſea-ſalt, and its baſis an earth nearly allied to its courſe through the ſtem of the tube, and may be collected by fit- quickſilver. This falt remains in the bittern after the purging falt ting a proper veſſel to its end. This would be an apt repreſentation has been extracted from it, and though it is a neutral ſalt, it cannot of Dr. Irving's contrivance; in which he has adapted a tin, or be made to ſhoot in chryſtals, but may be procured in a dry form by iron, or copper tube, of ſuitable dimenſions, to the lid of the com- fire; but it is very difficultly kept in this form, being of all other mon kettle uſed for boiling the proviſions on board a ſhip; the falts, the moſt ready to imbibe the watery particles of the air, and freſh vapour, which ariſes from boiling ſea-water in the kettle, run per deliquium. Beſide theſe ſalts, the bittern contains a confi- paſſes through this tube into a hogſhead, which ſerves as a receiver; in found in boiling the ſea-water into falt. But beſide theſe there muſt kept cool by being conſtantly wetted with a mop dipped in a tub of be many other ſubſtances, which eſcape our ſearch in this manner, cold ſea-water. For a particular account of the advantages attend- fuch as the ſeeds and excrements of innumerable plants and ani- ing this method of diſtillation, contraſted againſt the defects and in- mals, and the tinctures which thoſe plants and animals impart to it conveniencies of the other methods that have been propoſed, ſee in their decay. Theſe, together with divers faline and ſulphureous Voyage towards the North Pole. Append. p. 205, &c. particles, will naturally fall under the obſervation of thoſe who It appeared from the teſtimony which was delivered to the lords ſhall attempt a perfect analyſis of ſea-water by the nicer methods of the Admiralty by many reſpectable officers, who were eye-wit- of chymiſtry; a thing yet much wanted in the learned world. The neſſes to an experiment made on board the Arrogant at Spithead, ſubſtances are found in different quantities and proportions, ac in January, 1771, that eighty gallons of ſea-water did, in twenty- cording to the nature of the waters; but the quantity of common five minutes, after being put into the copper and a fire made, diſtil ſalt is always greater than that of any other. Of this Of this the quantity in the proportion of twenty-five gallons per hour into freſh water, in different feas varies, according to the greater or leſs evaporation, perfectly well taſted, and of leſs ſpecific gravity than the beſt ſpring- and acceſſion of freſh water, from about one-fiftieth to near one water in that neighbourhood; and the faid officers gave it as their twentieth of the weight of the water. The Baltic ſea is very weakly opinion, that five hundred gallons of freſh water might be diſtilled impregnated with ſalt; the Engliſh and German ſeas more ſtrongly, in the ſpace of twenty-four hours, with the ſame quantity of fuel in and the Mediterranean ſtill more ; and the water on the coaſt of proportion to the time as it required in the ordinary buſineſs of the Moſambique is ſuppoſed to be much falter even than this. Mem. fhip. Every ſhip's kettle is divided into two parts by a partition Acad. Par. 1711. in the middle; one of theſe parts is only in uſe when peas and oat- The author of the Chymical Dictionary, ſtates the quantity of meal are dreſſed, but water is at the ſame time kept in the other, to common falt contained in ſea-water, to be to the quantity of water preſerve its bottom. Dr. Irving has availed himſelf of this circum- as 3 or 4 to 100; ſo that the water is far from being ſaturated with ſtance; and by filling the ſpare part of the copper with ſea-water, the falt; for water is capable of diffolving nearly a fourth part of and fitting on the lid and tube, he has ſhewn, that fixty gallons of its weight of common falt. Sea-water has generally been obſerved freſh-water may be drawn off, during the boiling of either of the to contain more falt in hot than in cold climates. All theſe waters above-mentioned provifions, without the uſe of any additional fuel. have a faline, and more or leſs of an acrid bitteriſh taſte: their co He recommends alſo the preſerving of the water which may be di- lour is greeniſh, and they become fætid by keeping. The acrimony ſtilled from the coppers in which peas, oatmeal, or pudding, are and bitterneſs of theſe waters are generally attributed to the bitu- dreſſed, as both a falutary beverage to the ſcorbutic, and the moſt ininous matters ſuppoſed to be contained in them: but the author proper kind of water for the boiling of ſalt proviſions. Dr. Irving of the Chymical Dictionary affirms, that he has made many expe- particularly remarks, that only three-fourths of the ſea-water ſhould riments on large quantities of theſe ſeveral waters, and never could be diſtilled, as the water diſtilled from the remaining concentrated ſenſible quantity of bitumen. The bitterneſs, therefore, of brine is found to have a diſagreeable taſte; and as the farther conti- theſe waters, he ſays, ought to be attributed to the Glauber's falt, nuation of the diſtillation is apt to be injurious to the veſſels. For which is bitter, and eſpecially to the marine falt with earthy baſis, an account of ſeveral experiments made on ſome of the beſt diſtilled bitter and acrid. Sea-water occaſions a very ſingu-' water, prepared by Dr. Irving from ſea-water, by Dr. Watſon, ſee lar nauſea, which is frequently attended with vomiting. This nau his Chem. Efl. vol. ii. p. 168, &c. ſeous ingredient (fays Bergman, Phyſ. and Chem. Eff. vol. i. p. 191.) is not to be found at all, or but very little, in ſea-water Dr. Prieſtly has ſuggeſted a propoſal to give to this diſtilled wa- taken up at the depth of fixty fathoms; the reaſon of which proba- time of rendering it, perhaps, a remedy or preventative againſt the ter the briſkneſs and ſpirit of freſh-ſpring water, and at the ſame bly is, that the immenfe quantity of fiſh, worms, and other animals, ſcurvy, by impregnating it with the gas or fluid called fixed air, which inhabit the ocean, dying, are gradually carried up to the ſurface, and there, by the affiſtance of the air, are deſtroyed by pu- obtained by mixing chalk with oil of vitriol. We have inany trefaction; and the putrefactive proceſs is much affifted by the falt, ſea-water. Bartholine in his book De Nivis Uſu, ſays, that if the counts of the methods of obtaining freſh water by diffolving frozen which, at the ſurface, is preſent preciſely in the quantity neceſſary ice of ſea-water be thawed, it loſes its faltneſs, as, he adds, has to promote that operation. Methods of making Sea-Water Freſh and Potable. been lately tried by a profeſſor in our univerſity: accordingly, the thawed ice of fea-water is often uſed in Amſterdam for brewing, Many attempts have been made for rendering ſea-water freſh Captain Cook, in his Voyage round the World, was furniſhed and potable: they have, in general, being little elſe than different modes of diſtillation; though many of the authors of them, either | ing in the ſea; and this water, he ſays, was not only freſh, but ſoft with freſh water from the melting of the ice which was found float- and find any ac- W A T W A T and wholeſome. Sea-water has been found of excellent uſe againſt River or Running WATER, ftruinous ſwellings and obſtructions of the glands, and different cu Is next in purity to ſnow or diſtilled water; and for domeſtic taneous foulneſſes. It has been given alſo in the true marine ſcurvy, purpoſes ſuperior to both, in having leſs putrefcent matter, and and found to promote the cure, when alliſted by proper vegetables. more fixed air. Indeed, if the ſtream, in deſcending from its The doſe of ſea-water is from half a pint to a pint, which may be ſpring, chance to flow over ſtrata, or beds, wherein there is ſalt, repeated every morning for ſome months. In theſe doſes it gently ſulphur, vitriol, iron, or the like, it diffolves and imbibes part purges the belly, promotes alſo the other excretions, and ſomewhat thereof. Otherwiſe, ſpring-water becomes purer and better as it warms and ſtrengthens the habit; in large ones, it excites vomit runs; for, while the river drives on its waters in an uninterrupted ing. In ſcrophulous complaints, and for removing glandular ſwel ſtream, all its ſalts, with the vegetable and animal matters drained lings, the bark is ſometimes advantageouſly joined with it. It is into it, either from exhalations, or from the ground it waſhes, alſo ſerviceable in purging off groſs humours, that have been the gradually either ſink to the bottom, or are driven to the ſhore; and conſequence of intemperance, or an inactive life; and in cleanſ- hence, the ancient poets and painters repreſent the deities of ſprings ing the inteſtines of viſcid mucus, and worms. and rivers, as combing and carding their waters. Such water, This water, at firſt, is apt to occaſion great thirſt, which abates however, is to be choſen as runs in a clear ſtream through a rocky with the continued uſe of it, and may be palliated by ſleeping im or ſtony channel ; ſuch as paſſes over mud, clay, or mofly ground, mediately after it is drank. In ſome conſtitutions it produces im- being impregnated with ſome part of theſe ſubſtances. River- moderate heat, and when uſed externally, an itching of the ſkin; waters generally putrefy ſooner than thoſe of ſprings. During the and therefore in all inflammatory caſes, and habits prone to phlo- putrefaction, they throw off a part of their heterogeneous matter, goſes, it is hurtful. Theſe ſymptoms ſhould be removed, previous and at length become ſweet again, and purer than at first. to the uſe of it, by bleeding, purging, and a proper cooling treat geboorte Spring WATER 2000 ment. In many caſes bathing in ſea-water may be joined to the Is commonly impregnated with a ſmall portion of imperfect internal uſe of it; both as a general corroborant, and as a topical neutral ſalt, extracted from the different ſtrata through which it diſcutient and antiſeptic. Accordingly it is excellent in the ſcro-percolates. Some contain a vaſt quantity of ſtony matter, which phula or king's evil, in hard ſwellings, in the bite of a mad dog, in they depoſit as they run along, and thus form mailes of ſtone; the rickets, in the dry leproſy and itch, in paralytic and ſcorbutic ſometimes incruſtating various animal and vegetable matters, complaints, and many other caſes. Lewis's Mat. Med. Elliot on which they are therefore ſaid to petrify. Spring-water is much uſed Min. Wat. p. 190. Drinking ſea-water with wine is ſaid to pre for domeſtic purpoſes, and on account of its coolneſs is an agree- vent people from being ſick at fea. It is ſaid, that thirſt may be able drink; but on account of its being generally ſomewhat hard, allayed by bathing in warm ſea-water, the pores imbibing the is inferior to that which has run for a conſiderable way in a chan- water, and carrying it to the inteſtines, but not ſuffering the diſſolved nel. The ſaline matter of theſe waters is moſt commonly nitrous falt to accompany the water. or muriatic, that is, compoſed of the nitrous or marine acids, Hard, or Crude Water, united with earths: on adding to them, by little and little, a folu- tion of any alkaline ſalt, the liquor becomes turbid and milky, Is that in which ſoap does not diffolve uniformly, but is curdled. more, and more, till the acid, completely neutralized by the alkali, The diffolving power of hard water is leſs than that of ſoft; and hence its unfitneſs for bleaching, dyeing, boiling leguminous The water thus corrected, though really no purer than at firſt, is parts with all the earth, which on ſtanding ſettles to the bottom. vegetables, and for many other purpoſes of oeconomy and arts. found perfectly ſoft for economical uſes, and much leſs, if at all, One cauſe of the hardneſs of water is, that it contains ſome ſalt detrimental to health; its pungent, auftere, earthy ſalt, being now that may be decompoſed by ſoap, the alkali of which uniting converted into a mild neutral one. with the acid of the falt, the oil of the ſoap ſeparates, and the SR im Putrid WATER. bone ſoap is ſaid to be curdled. Hardneſs of water proceeding from Water putrifying by ſtagnation is extremely dangerous to health. this cauſe may be diſcovered and remedied by adding ſome drops | Thus in the holds of ſhips, the bilge-water, if the ſhip is tight, and of a folution of fixed alkali. The ſalts capable of rendering water the water not pumped out often, ſoon becomes ſo extremely poi- hard are not only ſelenites, which is a very frequent cauſe of the ſonous, as frequently to ſuffocate thoſe ſeamen, who as the pumps hardneſs of water, but any earthy or metallic ſalt that may be are ſubject to be clogged with filth, venture down to cleanſe them contained in the water, as all theſe are capable of being decom and alſo to affect perlons at a diſtance with violent head-achs, cold poſed by fixed alkali. Such are the marine ſalt with balis of mag- ſweats, and frequent vomitings, which continue more or leſs, in neſia, or of calcareous earth, vitriolic ſalt with baſis of magneſia, proportion to the diſtance from the well of the ſhip when the injury called Epſom ſalt, green vitriol, and a nitrous ſalt with an earthy baſis, was received, and the degree of putrefaction in the water and air. to which Dr. Home attributes the hardneſs of ſeveral waters exa- Phil. Tranſ. Nº 463. p. 63. To prevent the above-mentioned mined by him. The hardneſs of water has been attributed by inconveniences, many ſchemes have been thought of, particularly ſome perſons to common ſalt. But Dr. Home, in his Eſſay on the machines of Dr. Hales, and Dr. Defaguliers; the firſt by ani Bleaching, has ſhewn, that neither pure common ſalt, nor any inftrument, which he calls the VENTILATOR, and may not impro- other ſalt with baſis of fixed alkali, give any hardneſs to water, but perly be called the ſhip's lungs; and the latter by a machine, which that this quality may be given to water by the common ſalt which is an improvement of the Heſſian bellows. Putrified water being is generally ſold, becauſe this contains fome part of the earthy falts thus noxious, a method of preventing its putrefaction would be of ſea-water, or of the water of ſalt ſprings. The gas, which very deſirable, and this ſeems now to be found in the uſe of lime. waters frequently contain, is another cauſe of the hardneſs of water. For a copious account of this method, ſee Putrefaction of Water. This gas unites with the alkali of ſoap, renders it mild, and thus Putrid water in ditches is often uſed as an object for the microſ- weakens its union with the oil. By expoſure of the water ſome time cope, and ſeldom fails to afford a great variety of animalcules. in open veſſels, this gas exhales; by which means water is rendered For a deſcription of the animalcules, and the mode of applying foft, and any calcareous earth or iron which may be diffolved in the them. See MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. water merely by means of the gas, as Mr. Cavendiſh and Mr. est Uſes of WATER. Lane have ſhewn (Phil. Tranf. 1767 and 1769) is precipitated. The uſes of water are infinite; in food, in medicine, in agricul- See the Syſtem of AEROLOGY, Sect. X. ture, in navigation, in divers of the arts, &c. As a food it is one By boiling, the hardneſs of water proceeding from gas may be of the moſt univerſal drinks in the world; and if we may credit cured, but that from earth or metallic ſalts cannot be remedied in many ny of our lateſt and moſt judicious phyſicians, one of the beſt this way. Hard waters are remarkably indiſpoſed to corrupt, and For this uſe, that which is pureft, lighteſt, moſt tranſparent, even preſerve putreſcible ſubſtances for a conſiderable length of ſimple, colourleſs , void of taſte and ſmell, and which warms and time; hence, as Dr. Home obſerves, they ſeem to be beſt fitted cools faſteſt, and wherein herbs and pulſe boil and yield their virtues for keeping at ſea, eſpecially as they are ſo eaſily ſoftened by a ſooneſt, is beſt . It is eſteemed a good quality in water, to bear little alkaline ſalt. ſoap, and make a lather therewith. This our river waters readily Rain WATER do ; but the pump and ſpring waters are found too hard for it; yet Is the water of the ſea, purified by a ſort of diſtillation; or may this be remedied in them, by barely letting them ſtand for four rather, it is the watery vehicle, ſeparated from the ſaline, and other or five days. matters reſiding therein, by evaporation. Rain water is next in As a medicine, it is found, internally, a powerful febrifuge; and purity to ſnow-water, eſpecially when collected with the ſame pre excellent againſt colds, coughs, the ſtone, fcurvy, &c. Externally, cautions, after the rain has continued for ſome time, ſo as to clear its effects are not leſs conſiderable. In agriculture, and gardening, the air from inſects, or other light bodies, that float in it. Nei water is allowed abſolutely neceſſary to vegetation; whence Varro ther this water nor ſnow-water diſcover any heterogeneity in the places it in the number of the divinities he invokes in his firſt book common trials with acids, alkalies, ſoap, blue vegetable juices, De Re Ruftica. Etiam, ſays he, precor, Lympha, quoniam fine or metallic folutions, till great part of the aqueous fluid has been aqua omnis miſera eſt agricultura. Many naturaliſts have even ſeparated by evaporation. Rain water, by being impregnated during maintained water to be the vegetable matter, or the only proper its paffage through the air with a conſiderable quantity of phlo- | food of plants; but Dr. Woodward has overturned that opinion, giſtic and putreſcent matter, is rendered ſuperior to any other in and endeavoured to fhew, that the office of water in vegetation is fertilizing the earth. Hence alſo it is inferior for domeſtic pur- only to be a vehicle to a terreſtrial matter, whereof vegetables are poſes to ſpring or river-water, even if it could be readily procured; formed; and that it does not itſelf make any addition to them. but ſuch as is got from ſpouts placed below the roofs of houſes, the All water, he allows, contains more or leſs of this terreſtrial mat- common way of procuring it in this country, is evidently very im ter, ſpring and rain water near an equal quantity; and river water pure, and becomes putrid in a ſhort time. more than either of them. Water is of the utmoſt ufe in chy- miſtry; 3 too. W A T W A T 3. per miſtry, being one of the great inſtruments by means whereof its hurt; but in caſes where the ulcers are but beginning, the drinking of the weaker ones with milk has been known to do great good. operations are all performed. It acts in various manners and ca- In ſpittings of blood ariſing from ulcerations of the lungs, the ſtronger pacities; as a menſtruum, a ferment, a putrefacient, a vehicle, a cold chalybeate waters do nothing but harm, but in the ſame caſes, medium, &c. Mineral WATERS where the milder kinds are taken warm, and mixed with an equal Are thoſe which contain ſuch, and ſo many particles of different quantity of milk, they are found to be very beneficial. They mult never be taken in caſes of dyſenteries, in confirmed dropſies, nor natures from water, as thence to derive ſome extraordinary pro- where there is a ſtone in the bladder or kidneys; but in ædematous perty beyond what common water has; or mineral waters are ſwellings of the legs and feet, they are often found highly uſeful. thoſe which have contracted ſome peculiar virtue, by paſſing through beds of minerals, as alum, vitriol , ſulphur, &c. or by In venereal caſes, whether recent, or of long ſtanding, they do receiving the fumes thereof. Or, they are ſuch, in which gas, or not cure, but they diſpoſe the body more readily to be cured; but ſulphureous, ſaline, or metallic fubſtances, are diſcovered by chy- in a ſimple gonorrhæa, where there is no venereal taint , they have been often known to cure, when all other methods have mical trials; and as many of them are employed ſucceſsfully in failed. medicine, they are alſo called medicinal waters. The ſubſtances generally found in medicinal waters are almoſt always combina- Preparations for taking them. tions of vitriolic acid, and thoſe of marine acid, together with the All people who are of a plethoric habit ought to be blooded be- ſeveral matters that theſe acids are capable of diffolving. fore they begin to take them; for by this means there is a freer The kinds of mineral waters are various, as are the kinds of com acceſs given them into the veſſels, and they become much more able poſitions of the minerals with which they are impregnated. Some to correct the whole maſs. Perſons who are not of a plethoric are ſimple, as only containing mineral particles of one fort; others habit have no occaſion to bleed before they take them, but all mixed; of two, three, four, or more ſorts. Hence we have, I. ought to take a gentle purge to clear the primæ viæ; and to this Metallic waters, in different parts; as gold, ſilver, copper, tin, purpoſe nothing is more proper than the common purging ſalts of leaden, and iron waters. Epſom, or Glauber's; but all the draſtic purges are carefully to be 2. Saline waters, viz. nitrous, aluminous, vitriolate, and thoſe of avoided on this occafion, ſuch as ſcammony, refin of jalap, and common ſalt. the like. If there be indications for vomiting in the patient, ſuch 3. Bituminous, fulphureous, antimonial, carbonaceous, and amber as pains, and a ſenſation of weight at the ſtomach, with bitterneſs waters. in the mouth, nauſeas, and reachings to vomit, then it is extremely 4. Earthy and ſtony waters; viz. lime, chalk, oker, cinnabar, proper to give, a day or two before the beginning of the courſes of marble, and alabaſter waters. the waters, a gentle doſe of ipecacuanha. To which ſome add mercurial waters. Time moſt proper. This diviſion of mineral waters is taken from their eſſences; The beſt hour of drinking them is early in the morning; ſix or that is, from the mineral particles they contain. Dr. Falconer, ſeven o'clock is very proper, becauſe they then have time to finih from a review of the impregnation of mineral waters, divides them, their operation before dinner, but earlier than this is not ſo proper; as in the following table, into thoſe impregnated with and thoſe who go to the wells or ſprings at three or four in a morn- Acid. I. Vitriolic acid per ſe. ing, are expoſed to all the injuries of a cold and damp air, which (Simple. 2. Follile alkali per fe. 2 prevents perſpiration, and often brings on coughs and other diſor- Alkali. Volatile alkali ſe. Very per Saline ders of the breaſt and head. It was formerly a cuſtom to drink ni dubious. Bodies. them in an afternoon, but this is at preſent left off, as found to pro- 4. Glauber's falt. duce many diſorders of the ſtomach; and ſuch as are deſirous of Compound. 5. Vitr. ammon. very dubious. having the utmoſt effects of the waters, content themſelves at this 6. Common falt. time of the day with drinking them at home in ſmall quantities, 7. Sal. ammon. very dubious, . Oil. and mixed with wine. Simple. 8. Oil foflile ſe. Inflam- Comp Oil in form of ſoap. Seaſon moſt proper. 9. mable Simple. 10. Sulphur per ſe. The ſummer is the ſeaſon in which the mineral waters are to be Bodies. Sulphur.Com $11. Hep. Sulph. with an alkali. drank with the greateſt advantage. The months of June, July, and pound. 12. Hep. Sulph. c. calce viva. Auguſt, are more proper for the taking of them than any other time Copper, Š 13. Vitriolic acid in form of blue of the year; but upon urgent occaſions, the courſe of them may vitriol. be begun in May, and continue till September; and in ſome extra- 1 14. Fixt vitriolic acid in form of ordinary caſes, the uſe of them may be allowed even in winter. Baſe in a ſtate Metals. of folu 15. Vol. vitriolic acid, as in many Method of taking them. chalybeates. It is always proper to begin the uſe of them by ſmall quantities, Metallic deve 16. Hep. ſulph. with an alkali. and gradually increaſe them to larger. Thus the firſt day it may Bodies. 17. Hep. ſulph. with quicklime. be proper to drink about a pint and a half at four draughts; the ſe- Iron. 18. Fixable air. cond day a quart may be drank; and on the third or fourth, three Semi- Zinc. $ 19. Vitriolic acid in form of white pints; after this the quantity may be increaſed to two quarts a day; metals. vitriol. 20. Calcareous earth in folution, and more than this is not proper to take, unleſs the perſon be of a very robuſt habit; for many people have injured themſelves by by being deprived of fixable air. taking too large quantities. The quantity that is taken as the moſt Simple. by being uni- the ſtrength will bear, whether it be two, three, or four pints, is to ted with it in over-propor- be continued every day for a fortnight or three weeks, or longer, if Karthy tion. the nature of the diſeaſe requires it; and when the courſe is to be Bodies. 22. Calcareous, in form of ſele- | finiſhed, it muſt be done in the ſame manner in which it was began, nites. by taking leſs and leſs every day, till the uſe is gradually worn off, 23. Magneſia. -- Spurious Glau and no purge or other medicine is neceſſary afterwards. Compound - with ber's falt. The mineral waters in general, operate in ſome conſtitutions by vitriolic acid, 24. Earth of alum -- in form of ſtool, and in others by urine ſingly; but in moſt they operate both alum. ways together. Theſe are both very proper ways of excretion, and Common Air. 25. In ſolution, or mixture ? which ever nature chooſes the waters ſhould paſs off by, it is to be 26. In diffuſion. Aerial Bodies. judged proper and falutary, and by no means to be checked. If Fixable Air. $ 27. Q. in ſolution, diffuſion, or la mixture ? the diſcharge by urine be plentiful, and the bowels are moved but Inflammable Air. 28. Probably only in diffuſion. once a day, it is very well in many conſtitutions; but where, as in For a further account of mineral waters, ſee the ſequel under ſome conſtitutions, it happens that the waters actually act as aſtrin- this Article. gents in the bowels, this is to be prevented, and a ſmall doſe of the common purging ſalts is to be taken in the firſt draught of the wa- As to the uſe of mineral waters, the learned Heiſter obſerves, ters every morning. that in general they are found to agree much better with perſons in In the taking of them, it is to be obſerved, that they are not to the middle ſtages of life than with the very old or very young. If If be poured down as it were all at once; for the ſtomach is often any general rule can be given in this caſe, it is that people thould loaded and injured by this; but the firſt glaſs ſhould be ſuffered to not take them when younger than eighteen, or when older than ſixty. paſs off, and then, after walking about for ten minutes or longer, a Young people, eſpecially ſuch as are under ten years old, ſhould by ſecond is to be taken, and ſo on : and no draught ſhould exceed half no means be allowed to drink the chalybeate waters, becauſe of the a pint in quantity; ſo that the taking the whole quantity in this tender ſtate of their viſcera; and older people than thoſe of ſixty are manner ſhould be the buſineſs of an hour and a half or two hours. never found to receive any benefit from them, unleſs they are of | After this it is proper to uſe moderate exerciſe by walking, or other- very robuſt conſtitutions, or have been long accuſtomed to the wiſe, till dinner time; and in the mean time, if the waters would drinking of them. In ſome caſes, however, particularly in hectics, paſs off by urine or ſtool, this muſt be by no means repreffed. young people may be allowed to drink the milder kinds mixed with People who have very weak and tender ſtomachs, or who have diſ- an equal quantity of milk, and often find great benefit from them. orders of the breaſt, and drink the waters in a rainy ſeaſon, ſhould In confirmed conſumptions and ulcers of the lungs, the ſtronger have them gently warmed before they take them: this is beſt done chalybeate waters are found to do no ſort of ſervice, but rather by ſetting a glaſs of them in a veſſel of hot water, and they are only green vitriol. tion by } 21. W A T W A T 1 to be ſuffered to ſtand thus till moderately hot, and then immedi waters do not contain ſulphur ſubſtantially diffolved in them, but ately drank off; for if heated to too high a degree, they eaſily loſe are impregnated with a phlogiſton and an acid, the principles of their virtues by evaporation. ſulphur, which, being in a volatile ſtate, are ſublimed, meet on the All perſons are to regulate the quantity of the waters they drink ſurface of the conduits, and there unite into a true and perfect ſul- by the ſtrength of their own conſtitution; however ſmall a quantity phur, which did not naturally exiſt in the water. However, Dr. they perceive to be enough, and to operate in the manner they ex- | Rutty maintains the exiſtence of fulphur, in mineral waters; pect, they are to be contented with that, and never to teize nature and Dr. Shaw and Dr. Short are ſaid to have found ſulphur in to make her bear more. It is a certain rule in regard to all mineral | Harrogate water. waters, that they are much the beſt when drank at the place, Notwithſtanding the teſtimony of ſuch eminent perſons, the more though ſome of them bear carriage much better than others. It recent opinion of a phyſician, whom Dr. Monro conſulted in 1768, is a neceſſary caution, that the motion of the body be never violent is againſt the exiſtence of ſulphur in ſuch walers ; to this purpoſe, in the time of taking the waters ; for if it produce ſweat, it always he ſays, that he has never obſerved any appearance of ſulphur in the obſtructs, in fome degree, their operation by urine or ſtool; and if Harrowgate waters, nor any ſcum at the top of the well; and that flatulencies are troubleſome at the time, it would be proper to take proper to take he could not find any perſon in the neighbourhood, who remembered candied orange-peel, or ſome other carminative. the appearance of real ſulphur ſublimed, upon taking up the ſtones Violent exerciſe is wrong; but different conſtitutions will bear at the bottom of the well, as mentioned by Dr. Neale. different degrees of it; and thoſe of cold and pituitous habits ſhould Dr. Watſon, in 1986, examined theſe waters, and found a cruſt uſe conſiderably more than others. The ſealon of the year is alſo adhering to the circular itone, contiguous to the farface of the wa- to be regarded; for the ſame degree of exerciſe that is good in a ter, a portion of which, being ſcraped off, and put on a hot iron, cooler, is too much in a hotter air. The greateſt caution, in the burned with the flame and ſmell of fulphur; whence, it may be in- courſe of taking theſe waters, is to avoid too much fitting ſtill, ei- ferred, that ſomething is ſublimed from the water, which either of ther after the taking of them, or after meals; for the water remain- | itſelf is ſulphur, or which, in conjunction with the air, or ſome ing in the body, or the food remaining undigeſted, from theſe cauſes other principle, conſtitutes fulphur. This ingenious writer men- the conſequence is, that the patient is ſubject to flatulencies, colics, tions the following experiment, which throws no conſiderable light diarrhæas, and pains of the ſtomach. Sleeping immediately after on the impregnation of ſulphureous waters in general. The acid meals is alſo improper, as it occaſions at this time diſorders of the of vitriol does not act of vitriol does not act upon the common Derbyſhire lead ore, ex- head, and many other complaints. cept when it is alliſted by heat; it then diſſolves it, and a great el- Mineral waters may be diſtributed according to their medical cape of air is obſerved; he made this air, diſcharged from the ore, properties and effects, under the following denominations. paſs through a high bended tube into a bottle full of pump-water; Chalybeate WATERS, the water, in a little time, acquired the fetid ſmell of Harrowgate Are thoſe which, beſide iron held in ſolution by means of fixed water: its taſte was the ſame as that of ſuch ſulphureous waters as air, &c. uſually contain ſea-lalt, the foſſile alkalı, a purging ſalt, or contain no falt; it was perfectly tranſparent, but in the courſe of other ſubſtances. See Mineral Waters Supra. twenty-four hours became cloudy, and loſt moſt of its ſmell; it did The learned Mr. Monro has an enquiry into chalybeate waters, not ſuffer any precipitation by the addition of the acid of vitriol ; in which he conſiders them with regard to their medical uſe, in ſilver was blackened by being put into this water, and by being ex- order to diſcover what their real or comparative ſtrength is, how they poſed to the vapours which aroſe from it; from all theſe circum- bear carriage, and how long they retain their virtues; that phyſici- itances, it may properly enough, he thinks, be called an artificial ans may judge which of them is moſt proper in the various diſeaſes ſulphureous water. and circumſtances of patients; which muſt be drank at the foun The fame phenomena were obſerved by uſing black jack inſtead tain-head, and which may be conveniently drank at a diſtance from of lead ore; and air of the ſame kind may be ſeparated from other it. For the reſult of his enquiry, fee Med. Ef. Edinb. vol. iii. | ſubſtances, and by other means, as well as by the acid of vitriol; art. 7. Abridg. vol. i. p. 126, &c. and it ſeems very probable, that the waters uſually called ſulphuren Chalybeate waters have a briſk, acidulous, or vinous taſte when ous are impregnated with this kind of air, which has been ſeparated freſh, and tinge the ſtools with black. Some of them are rarely in the bowels of the earth, from particular minerals, eſpecially ful- obſerved, and ſome ſcarcely ever, to give any black tinge to the phureous ones: and it has been remarked of Harrowgate water, that fæces, though drank in large quantity ; a phenomena, ſays Dr. as it ſprings up it is clear and ſparkling, and throws up a quantity Lewis, which, perhaps, may be aſcribed to their depoſiting of their of air-bubbles. iron in the firſt paſſages in an indiſſoluble and inactive ſtate, rather Dr. Watſon ſuggeſts the following ſimple method of imprego than to the cauſe which fome have aſſigned, their carrying it entire nating common water with the ſulphureous properties of Harrow- into the blood. gate water; put into a phial, holding four or five ounces, ſome Theſe waters taken inwardly, ſtrengthen the conſtitution in ge-pounded lead ore, and pour upon it ſome acid of vitriol; wrap a neral, increaſe the tone of the fibres, quicken the circulation, and few folds of wet linen round one end of a bended tube; inſert this reſtore a proper conſiſtence to the blood when in a too thin and wa end into the neck of the phial ſo cloſely, that no air may paſs out tery ſtate. And hence they are found to invigorate the whole frame. of the phial except through the tube; the end of the tube being at They are good in diſeaſes ariſing from weakneſs; in fpaſınodic fome diſtance from the ſurface of the acid. Put the other end of diſeaſes, ariſing from too great irritability and relaxation of the ner the tube into a bottle full of water; and by ſetting the phial on the vous ſyſtem, in the fluor albus, and gleets; in female obſtructions; hot bar of a grate, or by ſome other means, heat the acid, which, in hyſteric and hypochondriacal diſorders; in loſs of appetite and as ſoon as it is heated, will begin to act on the lead ore, and a great digeſtion; and in a variety of other complaints. Theſe waters are quantity of air will be diſcharged, which will paſs through the tube taken to the quantity of two or three pints or more in a day, divided into the water in the bottle, and in a few minutes the water will be into different doſes; and require the ſame caution in their uſe, as impregnated with the ſulphureous properties of Harrogate water. the artificial chaly beates. Of theſe waters there are thoſe of Illing- | In order to make the reſemblance complete, the ſalt which ſulphu- ton, Malvern, Harrowgate, Llandrindod, Tunbridge, Buxton, reous waters ſeverally hold ſhould be added in due proportion to the Spaw, &c. Theſe waters may be iinitated by impregnating water, water impregnated with the air. in which iron filings, or wire, have been infuſed with fixed air; There is another way in which the impregnation of waters with or they may be made according to the directions under RYMONT fulphur may be ſuppoſed to ariſe, which will account for the faline and SPA WATERS. taſte, as well as the ſmell of the water. Water extracts from the Chalybeate Purging Waters, aſhes of fea-wrack burned to a black coal, not only a great quantity Contain a greater proportion of purging ſalt than any other ſolid of common ſalt, but ſomething elſe alſo, by which, without loſing matter, and, therefore, when taken in ſufficient quantity, e. g. ſe- its tranſparency, it acquires both the ſmell and fulphureous taſte of veral pints, they operate by ſtool; and they have this advantage of Harrowgate water, and by which it is enabled, like that water, to other purges, that they do not exhauſt the ſtrength. If taken in blacken ſilver and white paint. This ſomething Dr. Watſon is leſs quantity as alteratives, they operate chiefly by urine. Of theſe ſenſible may be what the chymiſts call liver of ſulphur, or an union there are the waters of Scarborough, Cheltenham, Bagnigge, Pyr- of ſulphur with fixed alkali; no fulphur, however, can be precipi- mont, Nevil, Holt, Jeffop, &c. Theſe waters may be imitated by tated from the water by the acid of vitriol, though that acid turns adding to a gallon of water impregnated with fixed air, two or three it, as is the caſe with Harrow gate water, a little cloudy. ounces of Epſom or other purging ſalt, and a little ſea-ſalt. The air extracted from iron, by the acid of ſea-ſalt, impregnates Sulphureous WATERS, water, with a ſmell reſembling that of Harrowgate water, but its Are thoſe which are impregnated either with actual fulphur, or difference both from the natural and the artificial fulphureous waters with a phlogiſton and an acid, which are the principles of ſulphur, may be eaſily diſtinguiſhed, eſpecially after the water has ſtood a whence they derive their ſulphureous ſmell. They uſually contain, few hours expoſed to the air. See Watſon's El. vol. iii. EfT. 6. beſides, either the foſſile alkali, ſea-falt, a purging ſalt, iron, an See alſo Falconer's Eff. on Bath Wat, vol. i. p. 103, &c. It ap- earth, or other matter, and commonly ſeveral of theſe in different pears from the experiments and obſervations of Berginan, that a real proportions. It has been a ſubject of controverſy, whether theſe ſulphur is contained in fulphureous waters, in a ſtate of perfect fo- waters contain ſulphur. Dr. Hoffman ſeems much to doubt of its lution ; and that it may be precipitated from them by the nitrous exiſtence in the greater number of them; and Dr. Lucas has af- and dephlogiſticated marine acids, and likewiſe, but more flowly, firmed, that it is not to be found in the form of ſulphur in any wa. | by the atmoſpherical air. Hence, as air, as well as the nitrous acid, ter whatever; not even in that of Aix la Chapelle, where a true and has the property of decompounding theſe waters; when the natural 'perfect fulphur is found on the upper parts of the conduits through fulphureous waters come in contact with the external air, the latter, which the water paſſes; for he ſays, that, ſtrictly ſpeaking, theſe according to Bergman, ſeifes the phlogiſtic principle which kept the N° 148. VOL. III. ſulphur 5 N W A T W A T tulphur diffolved in water; and thus in time åre formed thoſe ful- | tfie perſon is always the better for it, and the noxious humours are phureous cruſts, which, as well as even the preſence of actual ſul very happily attenuated and diſcharged this way by the waters: phur in theſe waters, have been the ſubjects of ſo much controverſy in this caſe, all the caution neceſſary is not to drink too much of them at a time, and ſometimes at intervals, to take a little of among the chymiſts. Dr. Macbride has ſuggeſted a method of impregnating a ſpring ſome bitter tin&ture. But if, on the contrary, the patient is greatly with ſulphur, in its pure itate, in the way of folution. He made a weakened by this vomiting, the method is to drink ſmaller quanti- ſolution of ſulphur in water by means of quick-lime, and by inject- ties, and to eat and drink more ſparingly at meals. Sometimes this ing currents of fixed air upon the ſurface of it, found the calcareous fymptom ariſes from a redundance of bile, or of pituitous humours from the ſtomach and bowels not having been emptied by a purge earth to précipitate, leaving the fulphur to diffolve in the water. Bergman (Phil . and Chym. El. vol. i.) informs us, that the proceſs before the entering on the courſe; in this caſe a gentle purge is in of imitating the warın ſulphureous waters, conſiſts ſimply in adding be given, and after that the common ftrengthening and bitter ſto- the vitriolic acid to hepar ſulphuris, and impregnating water with machics, and the waters are afterwards to be cautiouſly taken in the peculiar ſpecies of air that ariſes from this mixture. This he ſmall quantities. patic air (part of which is fixed air, proceeding from the falt of tar When the patient is attacked with violent colic pains, and the tar) is very readily abſorbed by water; to which it gives the ſmell, common method of eating candied orange-peel, and the carminative taſte, and other ſenſible qualities of the fulphureous waters. A feeds, does not take effect, a gentle purge is to be given to evacuate Swediſh cantharus of diſtilled water will abſorb about ſixty inches the humours which occaſion them, and after this, tincture of carda- of this hepatic air ; and on dropping into it the nitrous acid, it will mon ſeeds, or ſome other fuch carminative, uſually takes effect. appear, that a real ſulphur is contained in a ſtate of perfeet ſolution In caſes where the pains are more violent and obftinate, a glyſter of in this water, to the quantity of eight grains. camomile flowers, boiled in milk, with a little ſugar, may be givena The faline or other contents peculiar to the fulphureous water to at times, and the waters afterwards muſt be drank in ſmall quanti- be imitated, muſt be added to the artificial hepatic water. Inſtead ties, and always warmed. of the liver of ſulphur, the operator inay uſe a mixture of three parts If an immoderate flux of the menſes or hæmorrhoids ſhould of filings of iron, and two parts of ſulphur melted together. The happen during the time of taking the waters, it will be proper to ab- liver of fulphur, for impregnating water with ſulphureous air, and ftain from the uſe of them on that occaſion for a few days; but if thus imitating the ſulphureous mineral waters, may be prepared by theſe evacuations are in a moderate degree, the waters may be con- mixing together equal parts of brimſtone and of clean pot-alhes, tinued, only taking them in a ſmaller quantity, and not quite cold. or quick-lime well burnt, and placing them in a crucible, or un Sometimes intermittent fevers come on while perſons are drinking glazed diſh, over a gentle fire; ftir them with a ſtick till they are the waters: but theſe are not to be regarded as any very bad caſes incorporated into a blood-red maſs; and put it, while warm, into for if the uſe of the waters be continued, and the carminatives and a bottle which is to be kept well cloſed. Then to make the fulphu- Then to make the fulphu- bitters of the cominon kind taken at times with them, they are uſu- teous water, put a ſufficient quantity of this ſubſtance, with oil of ally foon cured. Pains of the gout, rheumatiſm, ſciatica, and vitriol and water into the part A of the apparatus uſed for making teeth, alſo ſometimes return upon people accuſtomed to them, while Pyrmont water, and proceed as in impregnating water with fixed they are in a courſe of the waters; but theſe are not to be greatly air ; the fulphureous air will ariſe; the water in the middle veſſel regarded; for they uſually go off again very eaſily, only by continu- B will be impregnated with it, will ſmell ſtrongly ſulphureous, and ing the ufe of the waters, and require no peculiar care; only, during reſemble the celebrated waters of Aix la Chapelle, &c. The water the time the pains laſt, ſome comforting cordial may be taken at thus impregnated may be heated, by putting it into a cloſe veffel, times; and if they are violent, a few drops of laudanum may be placed in one that contains boiling water; and it is then a warm taken every night going to reft, or a few grains of the ſtorax ſulphureous water. pill. See Heiſter's Compend. Medic. Pract. cap. 20. If it be not immediately uſed, it ſhould be preſerved in ſtone or Hot WATERS, called Therme, ariſe from the admixture of ſul- glaſs bottles, well corked and cemented, and placed with the corks phureous particles and fumes, &c. Of theſe, the hotteſt is that of downward in a cellar. As the cold fulphureous waters contained Japan, which, it is ſaid, no fire can bring water to equal; and both fixed and fulphureous air, a mixture of liver of ſulphur and which keeps hot thrice as long as comnion water boiled. The chalk may be put into tue veſſel A with the oil of vitriol, by which cauſe of the heat of theſe waters may be, in ſome inſtances, ſubter- means both theſe airs will be produced, and the water of courſe will raneous fire; in other caſes the heat ariſes from the mineral ingre- be impregnated with them. dients with which they are impregnated in their paſſage: and the Sulphureous Waters, are diuretic and ſtrongly diaphoretic, and ſame may be ſaid of thoſe waters that are cooler than the com- are, therefore, good in cutaneous diſeaſes, uſed both internally and mon temperature of the atmoſphere. externally. They are alſo good in chronic obſtructions; and in dif Thus it is known, that quick-lime, the pyrites ſtone, and other ſub- orders proceeding from acidity, from worms, &c. Of theſe are ſtances, thrown into water will make it warm: on the contrary, ſalts thoſe of Harrowgate, Llandryndod, Moffat, Aix la Chapelle, Bath, of various kinds make it colder than before. The warın waters Matlock, &c. The fulphureous purging waters differ from the for- poſſeſs many of the virtues and properties of cold waters, whick mer, as they contain a purging falt as the principal folid ingredi are impregnated in the ſame manner; but they are in many caſes ent, and therefore operate by ſtool. They aregood in the ſame preferable, as by their warmth they are inore agreeable to the ſto- diſorders as the alterative ſulphureous waters, and alſo for foulneſſes machs of weak perſons, and promote perſpiration. The warm wa- of the bowels, &c. Some of the chalybeate purging waters are alſo ters are alſo uſed as warm baths; which, by reſtoring the fibres, are Sulphureous. uſeful in many diſorders ariſing from rigidity, ſpaſm, &c. Hence Symptoms attending the taking of thoſe WATERS. is derived their great uſe in rheumatiſms, inflammations, coſtive- Theſe are of many kinds, and differ greatly from the fame waters neſs, &c. The cure is commonly aſſiſted by the internal uſe of drank at the ſame ſeaſon, in perſons of different habits and conſti thoſe waters at the ſame time. For complaints at a particular part tutions. One of the moſt common is a binding of the bowels; and of the body, the part is either fomented with the warm water, or from this there often ariſe pains in the bowels, colics, and vomit the water is pumped upon the diſeaſed part. There are alſo con- ings, with other the like diſorders. People of melancholy, hypo- trivances for converting theſe waters into ſteam or vapour; hence chondriac, and hyſteric habits, are more ſubject than any others to called vapour baths. Baths are likewiſe made of the mud formed at this complaint froin them: this is a ſymptom eaſily removed by any the bottom of theſe waters, and they have been ſerviceable in remov- of the mild cathartics, and nothing in particular is more proper for ing pains and achs, and paralytic and other complaints; the mud that purpoſe than a decoction of fena, tamarinds, and rhubarb, to being either rubbed on the part, or the part immerſed in it. When be taken a few ſpoonfuls at a time, as occaſion ſhall require. A the mud is collected in quantity in a reſervoir for theſe purpoſes, {mall doſe of the cooling ſalts may alſo be taken, but all the hot it is called the mud-bath. and reſinous purges are apt to occaſion hypercatharſes. On the Boiling or Bubbling Waters, are produced either by a other hand, ſome are thrown into a diarrhæa by them, and this is current of air, or elſe by a ſulphureous, or a nitrous ſpirit , mixed often a ſalutary ſymptom; and while the patient's ſtrength is un with the water in the earth: if it be fulphureous, the water is hurt, and he is not found to ſuffer any great inconvenience from it, hot; if nitrous, cold. For all the waters that boil, as if hot, are this is by no means to be checked; for very often the patient is not ſo; but ſome few are cold: we read both of thermæ and aci- greatly relieved by a copious diſcharge of the noxious humours this dulæ that boil. See Boiling SPRINGS. vay, and, by a continuance in the ſame courſe, becomes abſolutely Poiſonous WATERS, are occaſioned by their creeping through cured by this means: but when the perſon is perceived to be greatly arſenical, antimonial, and mercurial earths; or being impregnated veakened by this fymptom, and it is attended with nauſeas, vomit- by their fumes. Such are the lacus Aſphaltites, and divers waters ings, and pains in the bowels, it muſt be carefully checked or re about the Alps, &c. which immediately kill thoſe who drink of trained. This is often done by drinking the ſame waters in a them; but theſeare moſt of them filled up with ſtones; which is (maller quantity, and warm inſtead of cold; but if this does not one reaſon why ſo few are known. prove fufficient , ſmall draughts of cinnamon-water are to be al- Saline WATERS, are generated two ways; either they are derived lowed, and, if neceſſary, ſmall doſes of diafcordium every night. from the ſea, by ſome fubterraneous paſſage; or they are generated In caſes where the waters take this turn violently, it is proper to from mineral ſalts, which they meet with in their paſſage, before abſtain from them for ſome days, and then to take to them again they arrive at their ſprings. ci w with great caution, and in ſmall quantities. Acidulous or Soline WATERS, contain the foflile alkaline Some perſons, on their firſt entering on a courſe of the mineral falt. This falt, as the waters are taken from the fountain, waters, are thrown into vomitings by them; and theſe are ſome is ſaturated, or rather ſuper-ſaturated, with fixed air. Hence the times ſalutary, ſometimes merely ſymptomatic. If it be falutary, waters do not then manifeſt any alkaline quality; on the con- trary, W A T W A T water. trary, they curdle with ſoap, and are termed "ACIDULÆ. This calce viva, in large quantity ; metallic bodies, as iron, in the pro fixed air, however, being very volatile, ſoon exhales when the portion of one thirty-ſeventh and a half of a grain in a pint of the water is heated, or ſtands for ſome time expoſed, and then the water, and lead, which he ſuſpects to be an accidental impregna- alkali manifeſts itſelf. For the general virtues of this water, ſee tion ; earthy bodies, as ſelenites, in large quantity; and aerial bo- Seltzer Water. Of theſe waters, there are thoſe of Seltzer, Til dies, as common air, probably both in ſolution or mixture of diffu- bury, &c. Theſe waters inay be imitáted, or even excelled, by fion, and inephitic air in large quantity. fimply impregnating water with fixed air; and the folid ingredients The primary qualities of the Bath waters enumerated by Dr. Fal- may be added in the proportions directed under SELTZER coner, are the following: they are ſtimulant, aſtringent, diuretic, diaphoretic, antiſpaſmodic, and antiſeptic. This ſtimulant quality Saline Purging WATERS, are impregnated with ſea-falt, and alſo is manifeſt in their heat, briſk and poignant taſte, and, if largely with a purging falt; either the calcareous Glauber's, or the Epſom. taken, inebriating effe&ts; as well as by their effect in accelerating They differin ſtrength: ſomeof them purge ſufficietly in the quantity and raiſing the pulſe, increaſing the heat of the body, and exciting of a pint, while 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 pints of others are neceſſary to produce the ſecretions; and beſides they poſſeſs, as he apprehends, a ſtimu- that effect. Some again are ſo weak as to require the addition of Glau- lus of a peculiar nature, principally affecting the nervous ſyſtem, ber's ſalt or other purgative. In ſmall quantities they act as diu- and not to be meaſured altogether by the pulſe, heat, or increaſe of retics and alteratives. They are good in ſcrophulous and ſcorbutic ſecretions, This ſtimulus is indicated by the glowing ſenſation in complaints, ulcers and other diſeaſes, which make their appearance the ſtomach perceived in drinking them, the ſudden increaſe of on the ſkin, and are likewiſe uſed at baths and fomentations in theſe ſtrength, often procured by their means, and the pain of the head and other diſorders. The virtues of the preceding claſs of waters conſequent on taking too large a quantity. This ſtimulant quality depend, in a great meaſure, on the preſence of their fixed air. The is leaft obferveable in the croſs bath water, and moſt conſiderable waters of this claſs ſeem to derive their virtues principally from the in that of the king's bath; and it is aſcribed by Dr. Falconer prin- faline matters which they contain. Of theſe waters there are thoſe cipally to their impregnation with fixed air. The aſtringent quality of Lymington, Dulwich, Holt, Streatham, Kilburn, Bagnigge, of Bath waters is evinced by the coſtiveneſs commonly attendant Acton, Epſom, Llandrindod; Seidlitz, Sca-water, Dog and Duck, on them: and their effects in reſtoring the tone of the ſtomach and Sydenham, &c. A purging water, anſwering, perhaps, all the in- | bowels may be probably owing to this quality. The king's bath tentions of theſe, may be made by impregnating three ounces of Epſom, is moſt remarkable for this quality, and the hot bath is generally Rochelle, or Glauber's ſalt, in a gailon of water with fixed air. thought to have the leaſt of it. Vitriolic WATERS, are imprégnated with green vitriol or copperas, The diuretic quality of theſe waters, which Dr. Falconer attri. and ſtrike a black colour with galls. They are chiefly uſed outwardly butes principally to their fixed air, is well known; and they for waſhing old ſores, and frequently with good effect. In ſome caſes, poſſeſs this quality, that of the croſs bath being thought to be the they are taken inwardly in ſmall doſes, and then they prove emetic moſt conſiderable, with no peculiar ſtimulus in either the ſecretory and purgative. But this, ſays Dr. Lewis, is a practice too hazar or excretory organs of urine. The diaphoretic quality of Bath dous to be followed. See VITRIOLIC Waters. waters ſeems to be owing to the ſame cauſe with the former; and Aix la Chapelle WATERS, ariſe from ſeveral ſources, which ſupply Dr. Falconer apprehends it is more prevalent in the king's and eight baths conſtructed in different parts of the town. In ſmell, they hot baths than in the croſs bath. Their antiſpaſmodic quality, pof- reſemble the waſhings of a foul gun; their taſte is ſaline, bitter, and feſſed in the greateſt degree by the hot bath, is obvious in their urinous; their heat is upwards of 100° of Fahrenheit's thermometer; efficacy in ſeveral ſpaſmodic and nervous caſes: and Dr. Falconer their general operation is by ftool and urine, and they alſo promote thinks it is chiefly owing to the aerial part of their impregnation, perſpiration. As an alterative, it is, in general, beſt to begin with a which ſeems to poſſeſs qualities at once ſtimulant and ſedative, which quarter or half a pint in the morning, and afterwards increaſe the is the foundation of moſt antiſpaſmodics, doſe to pints, as may be found convenient. When it is required to The antiſeptic quality of theſe waters has been demonſtrated by purge, it ſhould be drank in large and repeated draughts. With experiment, and this is alſo aſcribed to fixed air, which is known regard to bathing, it is beſt to begin with the temperate baths, and to be a powerful preventer and corrector of putrefaction; both to increaſe the heat gradually. Theſe waters are efficacious in diſ which qualities ſeem to be poſſeſſed, in ſome degree, by the Bath eaſes proceeding from indigeſtion, and foulneſs of the ſtomach and waters: the king's and hot baths, being more largely impregnated bowels, in rheumatiſins, in the ſcurvy, fcrophola, and diſeaſes of the with fixed air than the croſs bath, poſſeſs this antiſeptic quality in ſkin, in hyſteric and hypochondrical diſorders, in nervous complaints a much greater degree than the other. and melancholy, in the ſtone and gravel, in paralytic complaints, Bath waters poſſeſs alſo ſeveral ſecondary qualities : in this re- &c. They ought not be uſed in hectic caſes with heat and fever, ſpect they are attenuant, antacid, cathartic, expectorant, ſialagogue, in putrid diſorders, or where the blood is diſſolved, or the conſtitu- and emmenagogue. tion much impaired. An artificial water of this kind may be made As ſtimulants, theſe waters are indicated in cachectic diſorders; by impregnating half a dram of ſea-ſalt, a dram of foſſile alkali, a as the chloroſis incident to women, obſtructions of the viſcera, fcruple of clean chalk, and a gallon of water, with fulphureous air. oedematous ſwellings fucceeding fevers, or fits of the gout: in As the properties and effects of the Britiſh medicinal waters are ſo paralytic diſorders, ariſing from the bilious colic, fumes of metal- generally intereſting, - we ſhall here introduce all thoſe which lic ſubſtances, or fits of the gout or rheumatiſm; and alſo in ſuch have not been noticed in the courſe of the alphabet. paralytic complaints as occur in weak habits, and in conſequence Bath WATERS, of low diet, damp ſituations, &c. Theſe waters are alſo of ſpecial ſervice in the apoplexy, lethargy, and other ſimilar diſorders. Their Bath Waters, are the warin chalybeate waters of Bath in Somer-efficacy, as ſtimulants, is alſo very conſiderable in all diſorders that fetſhire, which have been long uſed both internally and externally, and depend on the inertia of the organs of digeſtion, and in reſtoring extolled for their medical efficacy in a great variety of diſorders. Of the ſtomach to ſuch a degree of tone as enables it to ſend the gout the fix baths, which are ſupplied from different ſprings with waters of from the noble parts into the extremities. the fame nature, the principal are the king's bath, the queen's bath, The Bath waters, as aſtringents, are indicated in debility and the hot bath, and the croſs bath. The temperature of theſe waters has laxity of the moving fibres , as the rickets; in weakneſs ſucceed- been variouſly eſtimated: Dr. Falconer ſlates the heat, as they are ing large evacuations either of blood, ſtool, or perſpiration; in commonly drank, of the king's bath at 116°, of the hot bath at reſtraining evacuations by ſtool and by the urinary paſſages, as in 116°, of the croſs bath at 112, and that of the queen's bath about the diarrhea and diabetes, and alfo that diſpoſition to perſpiration the ſame with the croſs bath. which ſometimes attends people of a lax and irritable habit, and The water, when viewed in the baths, has a greeniſh colour; likewiſe the fluor albus, and involuntary ſeminal evacuations. but in a phial, it appears tranſparent and colourleſs, and it ſparkles The diuretic power of theſe waters renders them peculiarly ſer- in the glaſs. It has a light faline, agreeably pungent, and light viceble in dropſical diſorders, many of which have been cured by chalybeate taſte. Dr. Falconer thinks that the king's bath poffefles them in their laſt ſtage ; alſo in leprous, ſcrophulous, and ſcorbutic the two laſt qualities in the greateſt degree, though others aſcribe complaints; and in diſcharging gravelly concretions from the kid- their prevalence to the hot bath; and the chalybeate impregnation neys and bladder. is moſt obſerveable in the waters of the king's bath. Both the cha By their diaphoretic quality, they ſtop or moderate habitual lybeate taite and pungency go off entirely on the cooling of the laxities of the bowels; and relieve violent reachings: they are ſer- water, buit are retained for the longeſt time by the water of the hot viceable in the diabetes, partly by changing the tendency of the bath; and in this caſe, the ſaline taſte becomes more manifeft. fluids from the urinary to the perſpiratory ſecretions; and have Some have aſcribed a fulphureous ſmell to theſe waters, eſpecially been found an efficacious remedy in that kind of dropſy, which when the baths are filling : but Dr. Falconer could not diſcover any | ariſes from the check given to perfpiration by ſudden changes of particular ſinell either in the waters themſelves, or in the vapours climates: they are alſo of great ſervice in cutaneous eruptions, oc- ariſing from them. caſioned by obſtructed perſpiration, and generally affecting the As the water riſes from the pump, it contains fixed air, or other face; in that kind or ſtage of the rheumatiſm, which is not at- volatile acid, in a fufficient quantity to curdle milk and diſſolve iron; tended with any conſiderable degree of fever or inflammation; and it is alſo lightly impregnated with ſea-ſalt, in allaying the pain and carrying off the paroxyſms of the gout. Dr. Falconer infers from a variety of experiments, that Bath Bath waters, by their antiſpaſmodic quality, are of the greateſt water contains the following ingredients, viz. ſaline bodies, ſome ſervice in hyſteric and hypocondriac complaints, ariſing from a of which are ſimple, as vitriolic acid per ſe, the exiſtence of which, weak ſtomach and digeſtion; in the hyſteric colic and bilious vo- however, is very dubious, and others compound, as common ſalt miting; in the colic of Poičtiers, commonly called the dry belly- in a ſmall quantity; inflammable bodies, as hepar ſulphuris cum I ach; in icterical complaints, by relaxing the ſpaſmodic conſtriction of W A T W A T of the biliary du&s and opening a paſſage for the bile, and promoting proper; and when they are uſed with an intentto promote the urinary the diſcharge of gall-ſtones; and in removing thoſe menſtrual ob- evacuations, as mild diuretics, in gravelly complaints and urinary ſtructions which occur at an early period of life, and in hyſteric obſtructions, the months of March, April , and beginning of conſtitutions: they are alfu by their antiſpaſmodic property, often May, aud the month of September and beginning of October would be preferable. peculiarly ferviceable in the gout, when it attacks the ſtomach, The uſual feaſon is in April, May, and June ; and in Auguſt, The efficacy of theſe waters in cutaneous eruptions, attendant on a ſcorbutic habit of body, may probably be owing, in fome de- September, and October. The courſe of drinking theſe waters, as gree, to their antiſeptic quality correcting the putrid tendency of | ſtimulants ſhould be, in general, from three weeks to two months: the humours of the body; and alſo in cachectic complaints, and when given with a diaphoretic, antiſpaſmodic, or antiſeptic inten- many others caſes of debility, which theſe waters relieve. tion, they may be continued, with occaſional intermillion, from fix In fome caſes, however, Bath waters are hurtful : as in heelic weeks to three months; as diluents in glandular diſorders, and as fevers ; in fuppurations of the lungs; in all caſes of inflamma- gentie diuretics, they may be drank, with occaſional intermiſſion, from two to fix months. tion; in hæmorrhages; in plethoric habits ; in confirmed ob- ſtructions of the abdominal viſeera ; and in cafes, where the folids The courſe of drinking theſe waters is uſually continued for a are very tender and friable; and the fluids very thin and acrid, month or lix weeks; and the quantity toward the clofe ſhould every which ſometimes take place in a high degree of the fcurvy. day be diminiſhed, as it was increaſed at firſt. The patient, in the It may be obſerved, in general, and with allowances for differ uſe of theſe waters, ſhould live upon a light diet, eaſy of dia ent conftitutions and other circumſtances, with regard to the choice geſtion ; ufe proper exerciſe; go early to bed, and rife betimes in of theſe waters, that in diſorders to which the ſtimulant, aſtringent, the morning. and antiſeptic qualities of the waters are adapted, it will be moſt Theſe waters are alſo uſed externally in a variety of diſorders proper to make trial of the king's bath water : thoſe for which with good effe&t; either by bathing or pumping, as occaſion may their diaphoretic and antiſpaſmodic qualities are recommended, require, eſpecially if uſed inwardly at the ſame time. The effi- will be moſt likely to find relief from hot bath water: and where cacy of bathing in paralytic cafes has been long and generally ac- large dilution is required, as in fome glandular caſes, and the uri- knowledged: it has alſo been of great ſervice by its ſtimulant nary ſecretion is to be promoted, the uſe of the croſs bath will be quality in the chloroſis, in cachectic diſorders, in the jaundice, in moſt adviſeable. the hypochondriac diſeafe, and in caſes of barrenneſs; as antifpal- As the fixed air and chalybeate impregnation of theſe waters are modic, it has been very efficacious in the colica Pictonum, hy- liable to be ſoon diſſipated and deſtroyed, it will be moſt adviſeable, lteric colic, aſthma, jaundice, menſtrual obftructions, preventing in caſes where their ſtimulant and aſtringent effects are deſired in abortion, nervous diſeaſes, as the epilepſy, St. Vitus's dance, the their full extent, to drink them at the fountain head. hyſteric and the hypochondriac diſeaſe, the nervous head-ach, par- In leprous and cutaneous diſorders, where the effects of the wa icularly the hemicrania, ſpaſmodic vomiting, nervous atrophy, ters depend not ſo much on the ſtimulant as on the diaphoretic and muſcular contractions, and paralytic contractions of the extremi- diuretic qualities, which are more permanent, they may be drank ties: as diaphoretic, the Bath waters have been much celebrated more at leiſure and at a diftance from the pump, when their heat in the common rheumatiſm, where the inflammatory diſpoſition is abated : but the water fhould never be ſuffered to ſtand ſo long is very flight, and yet the pain and other ſymptoms grievous and of as to cauſe any precipitation, which would alter its nature. long duration; eſpecially towards the decline of the paroxyſm; In all caſes, where the Bath waters are meant to act as reſtora- and in thoſe rheumatic pains which fometimes accompany the tives, they are beſt drank freth at the ſpring; and their effects may colica Pietonum; in every variety of the gout, and the complica- be moderated by leſſening the quantity. Dr. Falconer is of opinion tions of it with many other diſorders; in the ſcurvy, provided that that theſe waters can ſerve very few uſeful purpoſes in medicine, bathing be not uſed if the putrid diſpoſition thould be ſo ſtrong as when uſed at a diſtance from the ſpring; their impregnation with to form external ulcers; in the venereal difeaſe; in the colic ; in fixed air being thus deſtroyed, and the chalybeate and ſulphureous habitual diarrhæas; in the diabetes ; and in the leprofy; as diure- ones nearly fo. tics, Bath waters are uſeful in liver complaints: in cutaneous dif- Theſe waters being of a heating nature, it is uſual, previous to a orders ; in the calculus; as expectorants, they have been alſo of courſe of them, to cool the body by gentle purges, by a low diet, ſervice in gouty coughs, by promoting a beneficial diſcharge. and if neceffary by bleeding. The external uſe of theſe waters is improper in continued fevers, As to the quantity to be taken of theſe waters, it was formerly local inflammations, both internal and external, in hæmorrhages, in much greater than in the preſent practice. Guidott mentions three immoderate menſtrual diſcharges, in plethoric habits, in diarrhæas pints a day as the ſmalleſt quantity commonly taken, and recom attended with fever or an extreme degree of irritability, in obſtruc- mends, in ſome caſes, even eight pints a day. But the quantity tions of the viſcera, and in caſes of extreme weakneſs. which he adviſed as the ſmalleſt, is now ſcarce ever exceeded. Dr As to the choice of the ſeveral baths, Dr. Falconer obſerves, that Falconer thinks that, in general, theſe waters, when exhibited with as a ſtimulant, in paralytic caſes, the hotteſt part of the king's bath or a view to their ſtimulant or aftringent qualities, might be properly the hot bath is preferable; as an antiſpaſmodic, in the tetanus, taken by adults from two thirds of a pint to two pints in a day: hypochondriac complaints, and other nervous diſeaſes, the cooler but with reference to their diuretic, diaphoretic, or antiſpaſmodic parts of the king's bath or the queen’s are more proper ; when a qualities, and when the patient is advanced in life, and of an inert mild diaphoreſis is deſired, the queen's or croſs baths are moſt habit, and they are uſed at a moderate ſeaſon of the year, he would effe&tual. not adviſe to exceed from a pint to 2 or 3 pints in 24 hours. The time of ſtay in the bath is at preſent from ten or even five mi- In cafes where the waters are uſed as diluents, and for waſhing nutes to an hour. As a ſtimulus, e.g. in the pally, the common time out the lymphatic ſyſtem, as in many glandular and cutaneous dif- is from fifteen minutes to half an hour; as an antiſpaſmodic, a orders, when there is no danger of an inflammatory complaint, the longer ſtay is in general adviſeable: when the baths are uſed with a ſeaſon moderate, and the leſs ſtimulant water uſed, as that of the diaphoretic intention, a pretty long ſtay is generally thought necef- croſs bath or even hot bath, and ſome of its ſtimulant qualities al- fary, in order to procure a copious evacuation by fweat. After lowed to evaporate ; the water may be ſafely drank froin 1 to 3 bathing, the patient goes to bed for a ſhort time to compoſe him- quarts, or even more in a day. However, it is always beſt to be ſelf and cool gradually, rather than for the ſake of promoting any gin with ſmall quantities, as half a pint, or of a pint in a day, evacuation by the ſkin. and increaſing to any quantity that may be thought proper. And The time of the day for bathing has, in the public baths, been the quantity taken ſhould be divided into ſmall doſes, and taken at by immemorial cuſtom fixed between the hours of five and nine proper intervals. It has been the general cuſtom to drink the in the morning: however, the abbey baths may be had at any hour whole quantity preſcribed before dinner ; viz. f of it before break- of the day, filled with freſh water for every perſon that uſes them, faſt, between eight and ten, and at noon. Some have repeated of nearly the fame heat and quality with the king's bath water. them again in the interval between dinner and ſupper ; and a glaſs Formerly, the uſe of the Bath waters, as well externally as in- of the water has been beneficially taken going to bed. ternally, was confined to the ſummer months: but for many years As to the ſeaſon of the year beſt adapted to the uſe of Bath wa- paſt, the colder, or rather more moderate ſeaſons, as the ſpring and ters, this was formerly confined to the ſummer months; and ſince autumn, have been preferred. that time the colder feaſons have been preferred. Dr. Falconer It is the common practice to bathe from one to three or foue thinks they are more likely, in general, to produce good effects in a times a week; but the time of its being continued and the frequency warm than cool ſeafon ; eſpecially in caſes where their ſtimulant of its being repeated muft depend on the nature of the caſe. and diaphoretic qualities are likely to be ſerviceable. In caſes During a courſe of bathing, attention ſhould be had to the re- where they are meant to act as reſtoratives in debilitated habits, in gimen, to the tranquillity of the mind, to exerciſe, and to a mo- which their aſtringent and antiſpaſmodic effects, joined to a mode derate laxity of the bowels. rate degree of ſtimulus, would be deſirable, a more moderate ſeaſon When the complaint is local, pumping is generally preferred io would be adviſeable. bathing: in this caſe, the water is hotter than that of the bath ; 1. Dr. Falconer is of opinion, that the Bath waters when required the ſtream of water is generally directed to the limb or part affected, to act as ſtimulant, as in weak low caſes, eſpecially of the paralytic and ſometimes to that part of the ſpine, where the nerves that kind, are in greateſt perfection in the warmeſt ſeaſons, as in the latter fupply the place affected iſſue forth. In this way the Bath waters part of June, July, and the beginning of Auguſt; when a moderate degree of ſtimulus is required, and their diaphoretic effects deſired the vertebræ, in relieving contractions of the limbs, in diſcuſſing in- are uſed with great ſucceſs in the paiſy, in reducing didlocations of to be promoted, the latter part of May and beginning of June, and cipient white ſwellings, in nervous caſes, in fits of the gout, and from the latter part of Auguſt to the end of September, are more rheumatic complaints, and in the tinea capitis or ſcald-head. Pumping W A T W AT Pumping and bathing are often uſed at the ſame time; the mud barrenneſs. İnwardly and outwardly they are ſaid to be good in and ſcum of theſe waters have been alſo applied with good ef rheumatic and ſcorbutic complaints ; in the gout ; in inflamma- fect, by way of poultice in hard ſwellings, weak joints, con tion of the liver and kidneys, and in conſumptions of the lungs ; tractions of the limbs, ſcald heads, running ulcers, &c. and alſo in old ſtrains ; in hard callous tumours; in withered and con- herbs are ſometimes boiled with them in the Bath water to a tracted limbs; in the itch, ſcabs, nodes, chalky ſwellings, ring- proper conſiſtence for ſuch purpoſe. See Falconer's Eff. on the worms, and other ſimilar complaints. As to the difference of Bath Waters, vol. i. and vol. ii. paſſim. age and ſex in patients, there is little caution required in the Briſtol Waters. drinking of them, except that they ſhould be taken more ſparingly Briſtol waters are obtained from ſprings, known by the name by young people, between the ages of twenty-three and thirty, if of the hot wells. Theſe waters at their origin are warm, clear, very full of blood and juices, and by women with child in their pellucid, and ſparkling: and if left to ſtand in a glaſs, cover its firſt and laſt months. As to the method of uſing them, except inſide with ſmall air-bubbles. They give no ſcent, and are ſoft the body be coſtive, and the firſt paſſages furred up with groſs hu- and agreeable to the taſte. They raiſe the thermometer from mours, it is not only unneceſſary, but hurtful to prepare the about 79 to 80°. They contain an earthy matter, ſuſpended by body for them, as it is called, by purging ; or at leaſt by any means of fixed air, together with ſea-falt, and a ſpecies of Glau- ſtronger purges than manna, cream of tartar, and the like. The ber's ſalt, in ſmall quantities. heat of Buxton waters, in froſty weather, is equal to that of com- Dr. Guidott afferts that the Bath and Briſtol waters are of the mon river water with which two-fifths of boiling water have been ſame virtues, but in a different degree ; that both are impregnated immediately mixed. immediately mixed. Beſide the hot water, there is alſo a cold with the ſame principles, but the Bath waters containing a much chalybeate water with a rough irony taſte. See Short's Hift. of greater ſhare of them, are therefore capable of doing that in a Mineral Waters. Elliot on Min. Waters, p. 118. little time which thoſe of Briſtol could only do in a much longer. Cheltenham WATERS. But this feems to be far from a true ſtate of the caſe. The Briſtol Cheltenham waters are ſome of the beſt and moſt noted purging waters are ſuppoſed by many to be a modern diſcovery, and their uſe chalybeate waters in England; the ſprings of which are at Chel- but of late date, but this is a very erroneous opinion. Dr. Ven tenham near Glouceſter. The doſe is from one pint to three or ner, more than a century ago, has written profeſſedly of them, and four : they operate with great eaſe, and are never attended with given them their true character, and proper commendations in all gripings, teneſmus, or ſtraining at ſtool. They are beſt taken a the diſeaſes in which they are at this time found effectual, the dia little warm : they create an appetite ; are excellent in fcorbutic betes only excepted, in which their uſe has not been known fo complaints ; and have been uſed with ſucceſs in the gravel. long. They were not indeed much frequented at that time, nor Tunbridge WATERS. for ſome years afterwards ; but that was merely from the want of Tunbridge waters are the moſt famous chalybeate waters the neceſſary accommodations at the place. Dr. Maplet, in the in England. The wells are ſituated about five miles from the year 1639, wrote largely of their virtues, particularly in difor town of Tunbridge in Kent. This is a briſk, light water, has a ders of the urinary bladder and kidneys, and adds great praiſes of ferruginous taſte, and contains alſo a little ſea-ſalt: expoſed to their external efficacy in curing cancerous ulcers ; but with all the air, it ſoon loſes its virtues ; as it does alſo in a few days in this praiſe they never came into an univerſal repute, till their bottles. It is ſometimes uſual to mix with the firſt glaſs of character was eſtabliſhed by Dr. Mead and Dr. Lane. the water, taken in the morning, either a little common ſalt, or Theſe waters have been recommended in a variety of diſorders; ſome other purging falt, in order to make it operate by ſtool : in conſumptions and weakneſs of the lungs ; in caſes attended with with a foul ſtomach it is apt to cauſe a vomiting. The Tun- hectic fever and heat, (in which, beſide other properties, they bridge water is chiefly reſorted to in June, July and Auguſt; and differ from the Bath waters :) in uterine and other internal hæ is recommended in all the diſorders in which the celebrated Spa morrhages, and in immoderate diſcharge of the menſes : in old waters of Germany are ſerviceable : as it poſſeſſes the ſame vir- diarrhæas and dyſenteries ; in the fluor albus ; in gleets ; in the tues, though in a weaker degree. diabetes, for which ſome have extolled them as a ſpecific; and in Matlock WATERS. other caſes, where the ſecretions are too much increaſed, and the Matlock waters are warm waters ſupplied by ſeveral ſprings humours too thin ; in the ſtone and gravel : in the ſtrangury : in at Matlock, in Derbyſhire, in their nature reſembling Briſtol colliquative ſweats ; in ſcorbutic and ſimilar caſes ; in cholics ; in water, except that they are very ſlightly impregnated with iron, the gout and rheumatiſm ; in loſs of appetite and indigeſtion; and in their virtues ſimilar to thoſe of Briſtol and Buxton. The and in many other diſeaſes. The uſual method of drinking The uſual method of drinking baths are recommended in rheumatic complaints, cutaneous dif- theſe waters is a glaſs or two before breakfaſt, and about five in orders, and other caſes where warm bathing is ſerviceable. . the afternoon : on the next day, three glaſſes before breakfaſt, Harrowgate WATERS, and as many in the afternoon, which quantity is to be continued Harrowgate waters are the waters iſſuing from four ſprings at during the patient's ſtay at the wells. A quarter or half an hour Harrowgate in Yorkſhire: as they ſpring up, they are clear and is allowed between each glaſs. A courſe of theſe waters requires ſparkling, and throw up a quantity of air-bubbles ; they have a no other preparation than to empty the bowels by fome gentle ſtrong ſcent of ſulphur and a falt taſte, as they contain a conſi- purge ; and if heat or fever requires, to take away a few ounces derable quantity of ſea-ſalt, together with a little purging falt ; of blood. Coſtiveneſs ſhould be avoided. Externally they are they are purgative, the dofe being about three or four pints; when uſeful in fore and inflamed eyes; in fcrophulous and cancerous drank in ſmaller quantities, they are a good alterative, and fer- ulcers, and in other ſimilar cafes. They are cooling, and quench viceable in the fcurvy, king's evil, and diſeaſes of the ſkin. They the thirſt; they are beſt drank at the ſpring head; but will bear may alſo be uſed outwardly at the ſame time, by way of bath or carriage tolerably well. The time of drinking the Briſtol wa fomentation. They have been found efficacious in deſtroying ters medicinally is from April to September. Elliot on Min. worms; and recommended in the gout, jaundice, ſpleen, green- Wat. p. 114. ſickneſs, and other diſorders ariſing from obſtructions. They are Buxton WATERS. uſed externally for removing old aches, ſtrains, paralytic weak- The waters of medicinal ſprings near Buxton in the Peak of neſs, &c. and for the cure of ulcers, fcabs, the itch, &c. Derbyſhire, reſemble thoſe of Briſtol. Theſe waters are the Malvern WATERS. hotteſt of any in England, except thoſe of Bath. Malvern waters iſſue from two noted ſprings at Malvern, in The Buxton waters break out in many places thereabouts ; Worceſterſhire : they are light and pleaſant chalybeates, and al- what is called Buxton bath takes in ſeveral warm ſprings. Thirty moſt entirely free from an earthy matter ; three quarts of the holy two yards north-eaſt of this, is St. Anne's well, which is chiefly well water being evaporated left behind ſcarce the fourth part of a fupplied from a ſpring on its north ſide. Twenty yards fouth- grain of ſediment. Theſe waters are recommended as excellent caft of St. Anne's, in another cloſe, is a place where a hot ſpring in diſeaſes of the ſkin ; in leproſies, ſcorbutic complaints, the and a cold one riſe in the ſame' receptacle. About fixty-three king's evil, glandular obſtructions, fcald heads, old ſores, cancers, yards ſouth-eaſt of this, is that called Bingham's well, called alſo &c. they are alſo of uſe in inflammations and other diſorders of Leigh's water, from the great benefit a neighbouring gentleman the eyes ; in the gout and ſtone: in cachectic, bilious, and para- of that name received from it. A little way eaſt of this is ano lytic caſes ; in old head-achs and female obſtructions. Theſe wa- and in the ſtreams of the level that carries the water from ters are uſed externally by waſhing the part ſeveral times in a day, the bath, there riſes another very plentiful one; and about four and afterwards covering it with cloths dipped in the water, and yards farther eaſt there ariſe three or four other ſmall ones. From kept conſtantly moiſt. Thoſe who bathe are faid to go uſually this account, it may eaſily be conceived that there can be no into the water with their linen on, and to dreſs upon it wet, with- great difference between the waters of theſe ſeveral ſprings, though out any inconvenience. Theſe waters, when firſt drank, are apt on trials they ſeem to yield different portions of falts and ſediments; to occafion a nauſea in fome; they purge others briſkly for ſeveral at the utmoſt, their difference can be only in degree. They con days; but they operate by urine in all. They ſhould be drank tain calcareous earth, together with a ſmall quantity of fea-falt, freely for ſome days before they are uſed externally. and an inconſiderable portion of a purging ſalt: but no iron can Iſlington WATERS. be diſcovered in them. Iſlington water is a light chalybeate water, reckoned one of Theſe waters taken inwardly are eſteemed good in the diabetes; the beſt of the kind about London. The iron in this water is in bloody urine; in the billious colic; in loſs of appetite, and cold held in ſolution by means of fixed air; and when the air has eſcap- neſs of the ſtomach ; in inward bleedings ; in atrophy ; in con ed and precipitates, if the water be left to putrify, the fixed traction of the veſſels and limbs, eſpecially from age; cramps iron diſengaged by the putrefaction again diffolves the iron, and and convulſions; in the dry aſthma without a fever ;, and alſo in caufes it to be ſuſpended in the water : it then recovers its chaly- k beate ther; age; in No. 147. 50 W A T W A T 1 It is recom- warm. beate taſte, and property of tinging with galls, both which it Sydenham WATER. had loſt before. Sydenham water is a purgative water at Sydenham, near Lon- This water is recommended in indigeſtion and loſs of appetite, don, of the ſame nature with Epſom water, but weaker. Llandrindod WATERS. in lowneſs of ſpirits, nervous, hyſteric, and hypochondriacal com- plaints, and relaxed conſtitutions, and raiſes the ſpirits. It is good Llandrindod waters are waters iſſuing from three mineral ſprings in the fluor albus, in weakneſs from miſcarriage, in obſtructions near Landrindod, in the county of Radnor, South Wales. Theſe of the liver, the kidneys, &c. It is alſo ſerviceable in diſeaſes of ſprings are the ſaline purging water, the fulphureous water, and the ſkin, in fcorbutic complaints, in the gravel, and in paralytic the chalybeate rock water. diſorders. It operates chiefly by urine, and may be drank to the The faline purging, or pump-water, may be uſed as a purge quantity of ſeveral half-pints, or even pints, according to the con twice in a week: it is directed to be drank at the fountain-head by ftitution of the patient. This water deſerves to be eſteemed and half pints till it begins to operate ; the patient riding or walking frequented. about between each draught: it operates alfo by urine. As an Dulwich WATERS. alterative, about three pints are directed to be drank in a day: a Dulwich waters contain a purging ſalt, together with fea-falt. pint and a half before breakfaſt, at three draughts with the inter- They are purging and diuretic: uſeful in complaints ariſing from val of a quarter of an hour : the other pint and a half at three obſtructions, as thoſe of the liver, ſpleen and other viſcera ; re draughts, one an hour before dinner, another about fix in the commended in the green-ſickneſs, jaundice, ſcurvy, difficulty of evening, and the third going to bed. This courſe ſhould be con- urine, and gravelly complaints ; they are ſaid to ſtrengthen the tinued ſeveral weeks; and the moſt proper ſeaſon is the fum- ſtomach, and create a good digeſtion: they are alſo ſaid to ſtrengthen mer. It is alſo uſed as a bath and fomentation. the nervous ſyſtem, and to be ſerviceable in palſies, apoplexies and mended both internally and externally in the ſcurvy, leproſy, tet- other nervous diſorders, in which cafes it is beſt to take them ters, king's evil, and all cutaneous foulneſſes. It is alſo pre- The courſe of drinking theſe waters is uſually twenty fcribed in the gravel, ſcribed in the gravel, hypochondriacal diſeaſe, indigeſtion, and days ; three pints a day are to be drank at firſt, and the quantity in other complaints. increaſed to eight pints by the tenth day, and afterwards dimi The ſulphureous water, called alfo the black ſtinking water, is niſhed in the ſame manner. to be drank in ſmall doſes at firſt, from a pint to a quart in the Witham WATER. morning at repeated draughts: the quantity may be increaſed as Witham water, in Eſſex, is a chalybeate water of conſiderable the ſtomach will bear. This water is alſo uſed outwardly as a ſtrength, and is alſo impregnated with ſea ſalt; but muſt be drank at bath or fomentation. It is recommended in the king's evil, ſcurvy, the fountain, as it will not bear carriage. It is very diuretic, and leproſy, and all cutaneous diſeaſes ; in the jaundice, hypochon- has been ſucceſsfully preſcribed in hectic fevers, in weakneſs oc driacal and other diſorders ariſing from obſtruction: in the gravel, caſioned by long diſeaſe, in lowneſs of ſpirits, nervous complaints, rheumatiſm, gout, bloody flux, hectic fever, weakneſies of the want of appetite, indigeſtion, habitual colic and vomiting ; in limbs, want of digeſtion, &c. agues, the jaundice and incipient dropſy; in the gravel, and in The chalybeate or rock water, is limpid and tranſparent, when aſthmatic and ſeorbutic diſorders. taken from the fountain, but on ſtanding ſoon loſes theſe qualities, Carlſbad WATERS, called Caroline Baths, together with its chalybeate taſte. Mixed with ſugar and rough Are waters of Carlſbad in Bohemia, which are hot, and im- cyder as it is taken up from the ſpring, it excites a briſk fermenta- pregnated with the foſſile alkali; they are recommended, ex tion. It is recommended in ſuch chronic diſorders as proceed from ternally and internally, in female obſtructions ; relaxed habits ; laxity of the fibres, and weakneſs of the muſcular ſyſtem ; in glandulous obſtructions ; diſorders ariſing from viſcid fluids, &c. weakneſs of the nerves, paralytic complaints, and the like ; in Holt WATERS. fcorbutic cafes, moiſt and convullive aſthmas; obſtinate agues, Holt waters are mineral waters at Holt, near Bradford, in obſtructions of the lower belly, wandering, flow, nervous fevers, Wiltihire : which contain a purging ſalt, together with a large and diſorders ariſing from obſtruction. quantity of earth ; they are a very mild purge, the doſe uſually Mofat WATERS. required being two quarts : in leſs quantity they are alterative and Moffat waters are mineral waters of conſiderable efficacy at diuretic ; they are good as a diluent, cooler, and ſtrengthener, Moffat, in the county of Annandale in Scotland. They ariſe and create an appetite. Rags or ſpunge dipped in them, and ap- from two fprings on the declivity of a hill, which yield about plied externally, are ſaid to cure ſcrophulous ulcers, attended with 1360 gallons of water daily. Theſe waters have a fulphureous carious bones; an internal courſe being obſerved at the ſame time. taſte, and ſmell of the walhings of a gun-barrel ; their colour is They are alſo of ſervice in old running ulcers of the legs, and milky or bluiſh. The ſeaſon for uſing them is between the mid- other parts ; in cutaneous foulneſſes, though attended with hot dle of April and the end of September ; but they may be drank corroſive humours; in the piles, in cancerous ulcers, and in fore-all winter, and if the rains be moderate, the ſtrength of the wa- neſſes of the eyes : but in theſe caſes they muſt be uſed both in ter is not found to be impaired. The water of the upper ſpring ternally and externally. w being too foul for drinking, is made uſe of for bathing, and is Fellop WATER. for this purpoſe made ſomewhat warmer than tepid. The quan- Jeſſop water is a ſtrong purging water at Jeffop's well near tities of water uſually drank are pretty Jarge, exceeding fome- Cobham in Surrey, with a nauſeous taſte, and flightly chalybeate. times a gallon. It is uſual to join purgatives, and that in great This, ſays Dr. Lewis, is one of the ſtrongeſt purging waters in the doſes, frequently repeated with the uſe of the waters; but this is kingdom ; a pint left in evaporation yielded ſeventy-two grains of thought unjuſtifiable by fome. The water is alterant and diure- falt; whereas Kilburn and Cheltenham waters yielded only ſixty- tic : its purging is owing to the large quantities drank, or to four grains : that of Acton not fifty, and that of Epſom leſs than fome fingularity in the conſtitution, as a weak ſtate of the ſto- forty. About a quart of this water purges briſkly without grip- mach and inteſtines. Few medicines are ſaid to be ſuperior to ing, and operates likewiſe by urine. It enlivens the ſpirits; but theſe waters in diſorders of the ſtomach and bowels. It has loſes its virtues by being kept. In leſs doſes it acts as an altera- alſo proved uſeful in nephritic, nervous, and hyſteric colics, tive; and is a good antiſcorbutic. melancholy, barrenneſs, female weakneſſes and diſorders, as Epſom WATERS. alſo in old gleets, either natural, or cauſed by venereal dif- Epſom waters have a night faline taſte ; they are purgative orders. In rheumatic and ſcorbutic complaints it is advar- when drank to the quantity of two or three pints: they alſo ope- tageous, and in cutaneous eruptions. It is ſaid feldom to rate by urine: in leſs quantity, or about the third part of a pint fail in ſcrophulous diſorders. It is warmed and uſed by way of taken three times a day, they are a mild alterative. They are bath to particular parts, and even to the whole body: the hot eſteemed good for waſhing old fores. See EPSOM Salt. ſtream has been ſucceſsfully uſed for relaxing hard ſwelled parts, Nevil Holt WATER. and ſtiff joints. In ſuch complaints it is uſed both internally and Is a mineral water at a place called Nevil Holt, in Lei- | externally. This water gives no marks of a chalybeate nature ceſterſhire, which is very clear as it falls from the ſpout, and void with galls, nor of acidity with tincture of roſes, or fyrup of vio- of ſmell: it has a briſk, auſtere, bitter, but not diſagreeable taſte, lets, neither does it produce any efferveſcence with oil of tartar and abounds in fixed air : expoſed to the air, it ſoon becomes per deliquium, or ſpirit of fal ammoniac. It ſeems to contain a. turbid and ſpoils . Drank to the quantity of ſeveral pints, it fubtile volatile ſulphur, but in ſmall quantity, ſince it ſoon loſes proves purgative, and operates without griping; it operates alſo its remarkable ſmell and taſte, when expoſed to the air, and that by urine and ſweat. In putrid diſorders, it is a powerful anti- acid liquors can neither ſeparate nor precipitate it. Upon evapora- ſeptic. As an alterative, it muſt be taken in Imall doſes, from tion there is found a dirty falt mixed with earth. This ſalt ſeems a few ſpoonfuls to a quarter or half a pint ſeveral times in a day: not to be nitre, nor ſal ammoniac, but common falt; and by a ſlow and a little brandy may be added to it, if it is cold on the fto- evaporation of a ſolution of fea-falt, cryſtals not unlike thoſe of mach. This water is eſteemed an excellent remedy in old dyſen-, the falt of Moffat water have been obtained. Med. Ef. Abr. teries and diarrhæas, internal hæmorrhages, the Aluor albus, vol. i. p. 99. Ibid. p. 101. Ibid. p. 103, ſeq. where other expe- gleets, the gravel, rheumatiſms, and for the worms: it is good in riments on theſe waters may be ſeen. atrophies, bloated conſtitutions, dropſical complaints, fcorbutic diſorders, want of appetite, and other caſes; but in inflamma- Montroſe WATERS. tory complaints, and with an acidity of the humours, it is inju- Scotland : the principal of theſe are at Aberbrothoc, Kincardin, Steel ſpas are very numerous in the country about Montroſe in rious. Externally, it is a ſpeedy cure for frella wounds, inflamed and Peterhead. eyes, and hectic ulcers, &c. eſpecially if taken inwardly at the Medic. Ef. Abr. vol. i. p. 106, 107. Ibid. p. II. That of Aberbrothoc is in greateſt eſteem. Beſide fame time, theſe, there is a well near Montroſe, the water of which is of a W A T W A T water. Gate Water of Cryſtallization. whitiſh colour, ſoft taſte, and faintly diſcovering the mineral qua ner are the ſame as thoſe of the reſpective plants, &c. they are lity. This water is of a different nature from the ſteel ſprings. drawn from. Thus, the diſtilled water of mint is ſtomachic; The alkali prevails in its falt ; it reſembles the Scarborough wa that of wormwood, vermifugous, &c. The materia medica, it ter, and no ſalts come up to any analogy with thoſe of the Mon may be obſerved, affords no remedies in this way, but for the in- trofe water, and thoſe of Scarborough, but nitre and ſea-ſalt. tentions either of cordials, emmenagogues; diuretics, or diapho- See Med. Exf. vol. iji. art. 8. Abr. vol. i. p. 112, ſeq. where va retics. Were it practicable to raiſe a balſamic, cathartic, or rious experiments with thoſe waters are enumerated, and a com opiate, in this manner, yet would thoſe properties be much more pariſon inſtituted between them and the Scarborough waters. The conveniently brought forth by other proceſſes ; ſo that nothing is water of this Montroſe well is univerſally diuretic; being drank to be looked for in a diſtilled water, but ſuch ſubtle and light from two or three pints, it purges ; and half the quantity ſucceeds parts of a medicinal ſimple, as may fall in with the fore-mentioned with ſome. It has been found very uſeful in ſtranguries and ſtop- intentions : indeed, very little comes over under that diviſion, pages of urine, fcorbutic diſorders, flatulencies, ſpaſmodic colic, weighty enough to effect even the urinary ſecretions. and ſpitting of blood. In rheums and ſtrains it has been of good The ſimple waters of chief virtue, are the following: viz. dill- uſe by way of cold pump, where perſons could not bear ſuch uſe water, aqua anethi; angelica-water, aqua angelicæ ; mint-water, of ordinary cold water. Med. Ef. vol. iii. art 9. Abr. vol. i. P. aqua menthe , roſemary-water, aqua anthos ; orange-flower-wa- I 22, ſeq. For a more particular account of the nature, qualities ter, aqua naphe ; black-cherry-water, aqua ceraſor, nig.; parſley- and various kinds of mineral waters, we refer to the Treatiſes of water, aqua petroſellini; chamomile,chamæm.; penny-royal, pulegii; Dr. Munro, Dr. Rutty, Dr. Short, Dr. Falconer, and Dr. El- fennel-water, aqua funiculi; damaſk-roſe-water, aqua roſarum liot on this ſubject. See alſo Chym. Dict. Art. Water, Lewis's dam.; hytop-water, aqua bylopi ; rue-water, aqua rutæ ; juniper- Mat. Med. Art. AQUA, and Bergman's Chym. Efl. vol. i. water, aqua junipeni bacc.; elder water, aqua ſambuci flor; lovage- water, aqua loviſtici ; carminative water, aqua carminativa, &c. Water of cryſtallization is a denomination given to the water It may be here proper to note, that whatever properties any attracted by the particles of a falt during its cryſtallization. This ſimple has from the grofſneſs or folidity of its parts, which make is contained in different quantities in different ſalts, and adheres it act as an emetic, cathartic, or aſtringent, the reſidue, left after to them with different degrees of force ; though it is caſily ſepa- diſtillation, will remain in full poffeffion thereof. Thus the rated from moſt of them, the moderate heat of the atmoſphere purging ſyrup of roſes is as well made after the damaſk-roſe-water being ſufficient to evaporate it from many. When this water of is drawn off, as if the flowers were put into infuſion ; becauſe no-- cryſtallization is evaporated from any ſalt, the figure of the cryſtals thing of a cathartic quality riſes with the water. In the diſtilla- is deſtroyed; the ſalt from being a ſolid tranſparent ſubſtance be tion of ſimple waters, a good general rule is this : take as much comes an opake powder. But though a ſalt, in loſing its water of the dried herb, as when cut ſmall will fill two thirds of the ſtill of cryſtallization, loſes its cryſtalline form, it does not thereby to be uſed ; pour upon this as much rain water as will make the loſe part of its faline quality : for the water which is ſeparated plant float commodiouſly, leaving, however, a fourth of the ſtill from it is pure water : and the ſalt, by being re-diffolved in water empty ; digeſt this awhile in a gentle heat, and then give fire and re-cryſtallized, will not only regain its former figure, but the enough to work the ſtill, and draw of ſo long as the water ap- whole of its weight. pears thick or milky, and taſtes of the herb. It is a principal Mercurial Waters. caution in this operation to remove the receiver before the more Mercurial waters, a name given to a ſolution of mercury, in pellucid, acid, faint, and dead water comes over, as it will at nitrous acid, diluted with a greater or leſs quantity of common length do, and by mixing with the reſt will ſpoil the whole, by This liquor produces good effects as an eſcharotic, and giving it a vapid or faint taſte, and ſometimes a degree of acidity even as a cauſtic in fome diſeaſes of the ſkin that are external, or vitriolic ftypticity, or emetic quality; for part of the eſſential local, and eſpecially venereal. There is alſo a mercurial water ſalt of the plant now riſing, corrodes the head of the ſtill, and made with four ounces of quickſilver to two quarts of ſpring wa carries over with it ſome particles of the metal : for which reaſon, ter boiled to one quart. This is reckoned an efficacious medi ſuch waters ſhould be either diſtilled with a glaſs head, or a pew- cine in ſeveral cafes, as the worms and the itch in children, by ter one, or elſe the laſt running carefully watched, and not ſuf- Dr. Cheyne and others. fered to come over and mix with the firſt; for want of this cau- WATERS in Medicine, Pharmacy, and Chymiſtry, &c. called tion, children, and perſons of tender habits, have been often vo- alſo artificial and medicated waters, are a kind of liquors procured mitted, purged, &c. contrary to the intention of the preſcriber, or prepared by art from divers bodies, principally of the vegeta- by a ſimple water. ble tribe ; having various properties, and ſerving various purpoſes. The ſimple waters diſtilled by this method may often be too Theſe waters are either ſimple or compound. ſtrong to give alone, but then it is eaſy to let them down to a pro- Simple Waters. per ſtrength with common water ; which is beyond all compari. Simple waters are thoſe procured from ſome one vegetable ſon better than to mix them with their own faints, or the liquor body, by means of common water. A ſimple water is not ſup- of their ſecond running. Some recommend putting the freſh poſed to be the mere water, or phlegm of the body it is drawn herbs, cut and bruiſed, into an alembic placed in a water bath, from, as is evident both from the taſte and ſmell thereof. The without adding water to them, and diſtilling to dryneſs with a intention of making ſuch water is, to draw out the virtues of the very gentle heat and well-luted veſſels. There are yet, however, herb, ſeed, flower, root, or the like ; ſo as it may be more con two methods of improving the common ſimple waters, which veniently given in that form than any other. But the phlegm, or might eaſily be put in practice : the firſt is the cohobating, and watery part of any medicinal fimple, is no better than common carefully digeſting of the plant; the ſecond the fermenting of it. water diſtilled : ſo that all thoſe ingredients, which in diſtillation With regard to the firſt, if the liquor remaining in the ſtill be ex- raiſe nothing but phlegm, as may be diſcovered from the ſcent and preſſed from the herb, and returned, along with all the water that taſte of what comes over, are not fit for the ſtill. On this prin came over, upon a freſh quantity of the ſame ſubject, and then ciple, a great part of the waters retained in the diſpenſatories will diſtilled as before, the water thus obtained will be much richer, appear good for nothing, at leaſt not worth diſtilling. The means and more efficacious than before ; and if the ſame operation be whereby this ſeparation is effected, are either evaporation, infuſion, repeated two or three times, thoſe who have not tried it cannot decoction, or diſtillation. The firſt is performed by expoſing the eaſily conceive how very rich a ſimple water may by that means vegetable in a cold ſtill, to a gentle heat, like that of a ſummer's be made: and this is moſt neceſſary in diſtilling the ſimple waters fun; and catching the effluvia which exhale from it. The effect of roſes, elder-flowers, baum, and the like ſubjects; which afford of this operation is a water, or fluid matter, which is the moſt vola but little oil, and otherwiſe make but weak water. tile, fragrant, and aromatic part of the plant: and that wherein The other method recommended, viz. by fermentation, is per- its ſpecific virtue reſides. And thus it is, that the fineſt aromatic formed by adding to the plant and water, put together as for dif- or odoriferous waters of vegetables are to be procured. The fe tillation, a tenth or twelfth part of ſugar or honey, or elſe a for- cond means, viz. infuſion, is performed by putting the vegetable tieth part of yeaſt ; then ſetting the whole in a warm place to fer- in hot rain-water, below the degree of boiling ; keeping it to ment for three or four days only, ſo that the herb may not fall to this degree by an equable heat, for the ſpace of half an hour; and the bottom, nor the fermentation be above half finiſhed ; then the then drawing it off. The only waters procured this in much whole being committed to the ſtill, a water may be procured at uſe in the modern practice, are thoſe of frogs-ſpawn, and oak one operation, extremely rich, or impregnated with the whole buds. The third means, viz. decoction, only differs from the fe virtue of the plant; and thus may ſimple waters be made fit for cond in this, that the water is kept to the degree of boiling. The long keeping without ſpoiling, the ſmall quantity of inflammable fourth means, viz. diſtillation, is performed by infuſing the fub- fpirit generated in the fermentation ſerving excellently to preſerve ject in an alembic, with a gentle warmth, for ſome time; and then them. Shaw's Lectures, p. 199. The waters procured in this increaſing the heat, ſo as to make it boil ; and laſtly, catching manner contain the oil of the plant in great perfection ; which and condenſing the ſteam or vapour ariſing therefrom. This pro makes them of conſiderable uſe in medicine, farther than thoſe ceſs furniſhes what we call the diſtilled waters, of ſo much uſe in raiſed without fermentation; beſide that they keep better and longer, medicine, &c. The vegetable ſubjects beſt fitted for it, are the the ſpirit in them preventing their corrupting, or growing mothery. fapid and odorous, or thoſe of the aromatic tribe; as angelica, To procure the diſtilled waters of vegetables, or other ſubjects, aniſeed, baum, carraway, coriander, cumin, dittany, fennel, hyf- pure and free from all mixture of the other principles of the fop, marjoram, mint, roſes, roſemary, faffron, ſage, ſcurvy-graſs, . body it was extracted from, let the water, as diſtilled, be put thyme, cinnamon, citron, juniper, lime, myrtle, orange, peach, into a funnel lined with paper to be filtred, and the funnel being &c. The medicinal virtues of waters prepared after this man- kept continually filled up, that the lighter oil may not come in contact way, W A T W A T more like what the diſtillers call faints, than like a cordial-water, contact with the paper, the water will be tranſmitted through, in and is fitter to give fickneſs rather than to cure it. At leaſt, be- a great meaſure, without the oil; but there ſtill remains ſome pro- fore it can be uſed, it muſt either ſtand a long time to fine itſelf, if portion of oily, and commonly of ſaline matter alſo in it. If the ſaline matter be acid, the way to deſtroy it is by mixing chalk, or ever it will fine, or have its grofs and terreſtrial parts precipitated any alkaline ſalt, with the water, which being afterwards diſtilled by art. On the contrary, when theſe rules are prudently obſerved, again, will then raiſe pure. If the plant were alkaline, and an the water proves without farther trouble, clean taſted, clear, alkaline falt be ſuſpended in the water, let it be made a neutral briſk, pleaſant, and refreſhing. The diſtillers in general make one, by mixing ſome acid, and then the water filtred and diſtilled their compound waters in a much neater manner than the apothe- again.' By theſe methods the water of vegetables is procured caries; and what has led them into the way of doing ſo, is their pure; and this is the way of proving, that the chymical princi- ftrict obſervance of the bubble-proof, a thing which the apothe- caries ſeem either not to underſtand, or to pay very little regard to. ple water is lodged in, and may be ſeparated from all ſuch ſub- Itances. Shaw's Lectures, p. 150. The diſtillers, in the making of their compound waters, find Compound WATERS. that if they let the faints run in among the clear ſpirits, it kills Compound waters, or thoſe wherein ſeveral ingredients are uſed, the proof, as they call it, before the time; hence they are in- ſtructed to leave the faints out, and to make up the ſpirit with pure are very numerous, and make a large article in commerce ; ſome are prepared by the apothecaries, according to the Diſpenſatory pre water, reſerving the faints for other uſes, to which they are better fcripts, for medical uſes; others by the diſtillers, to be drank by adapted, as containing a copious oil; or they let the ſtill work way of dram, &c. and others by the perfumers, &c. longer than the proceſs for making water would require, and by They are diſtinguiſhed by different epithets, taken from the this means obtain a larger quantity of oil than is commonly ima- Latin, Greek, Arabic, Engliſh, &c. in reſpect either of the fpe- gined: this they preſerve ſeparate, if the oil of only fome one in- cific virtues of the waters, or the parts of the body, for the cure gredient; and they ſell large quantities of the oils of juniper, whereof they are intended; or the ingredients they are compound- aniſe, and carraway, and the like, to the druggiſts, chymiſts, ed of; or their different uſes, &c. The moſt conſiderable among and apothecaries. But this is a very ſcandalous cheat on the the claſs of compound waters we ſhall here enumerate. The buyer, for there is very great difference between a pure and clear manner of making them, it is true, is not always the ſame 3 ef eſſential oil, that is perfect and entire, and ſuch a one as has, in pecially thoſe intended for drinking ; for which every one gives this manner, been robbed of its lighter and finer parts by diſtilla- his own method as the beſt. Thoſe we here deliver are taken tion with a ſpirituous menſtruum. It is a general rule in this bu- from ſuch as have the greateſt reputation in preparing theſe things; ſineſs to change the receiver as foon as the ſpirit runs proof, and or from thoſe who have written beſt on them. make up the quantity with water : in this caſe, the whole is cer- We have only threegeneral remarks to add, with regard to thoſe tain to be clear and fine; but there are ſome caſes, as in particular intended for drinking; 1. That ſuch, wherein any thing is infuſed, in the diſtilling of cinnamon water, where a ſmall quantity of the as bruiſed fruits, pounded herbs, or ground ſpices, muſt be always faints ought to be ſuffered to come into the ſpirit: but this is to paſſed through a filtre, to make them finer and purer. be obferved by way of ſtint, that ſo much is never to be allowed of 2. That thoſe made with brandy, or ſpirit of wine, are uſually the faints as will make the water milky; for the water ſhould al- diſtilled after mixing their ingredients; which renders thoſe li ways be kept in the ſtate of full proof, as it mellows and ripens, quors exceeding ſtrong and dangerous, and confirms the proverb, as they expreſs it, much ſooner in this, than in any other ſtate. Plures occidit gula quam gladius. In effect, ſome of them are But if the cuſtom could be univerſally introduced, it would ſo penetrating, that they burn the tongue when taken. be better that all the waters kept by the apothecaries ſhould be 3. That the waters which take their name from any particular juſt in the ſtate in which they came over, that is, three-fifths of things, as cinnamon, &c. have often ſome other ingredients the quantity of the proof ſpirit put into the ſtill : if this were ge- joined with them, according to the taſte or ſmell required. nerally brought about, it would be eaſy for the phyſicians to re- In the making of compound ſpirituous liquors, or, as they are gulate the doſes in their preſcriptions accordingly ; every draught called by the apothecaries, cordial waters, the great care is to uſe and julep that they entered into would be the better for it. Shaw's a pure and well rectified ſpirit, as nearly infipid as poſſible, that Effay on Diſtillery. the flavour of it may not mix among the flavours of the other in Dr. Shaw in another treatife, after obſerving that the apothe- gredients. It is the general cuſtom to uſe the proof fpirit, but it caries uſually fucceed but ill in diſtilling cordial-waters, lays down would be infinitely better to uſe the alcohol, or totally inflamma the four following rules ; by the obſervance of which the art of ble ; partly as the ſtrength of the water would be much better af making theſe waters might be brought to great perfection. The certained that way, the proof ſtrength determined by the crown of firſt is, to uſe a well cleanſed fpirit that is free from its own effential bubbles being very vague and uncertain, and that of the alcohol oil; for as the deſign of compound diſtillation is to impregnate a or totally inflammable ſpirit perfectly fixed and certain ; and be- | ſpirit with the eſſential oil of the ingredients, it ought firſt to be cauſe this ſpirit is always more free from the oil of the ingredients deprived of its own. The ſecond rule is, to ſuit the time of the it is made from, and on that account not only approaches more to digeſtion of the ingredients to their tenacity, or the ponderoſity that ſo much deſired thing, a pure and taſtleſs ſpirit, but being of their oil; thus rhodium-wood and cinnamon require to be lon- free from oil of its own is the more hungry, the more ready to im- ger digeſted, before they are diſtilled, than calamus aromaticus, bibe that of the ingredients added to it, and has no overpowering or lemon-peel. Sometimes alſo cohobation, or the pouring of taſte to give of its own. If the method of uſing alcohol be not the ſpirit, already diſtilled, back upon the ingredients, proves ne- choſen, let a fine, clear, and pure molaffes fpirit of the proof ceffary, as particularly in making the ſtrong cinnamon water, ſtrength be uſed, without any further addition of water in the ſtill, where the eſſential oil is extremely ponderous, and difficulty an additional quantity of water only taking up room to very bad ariſes along with the ſpirit without this cohobation. The third purpoſe, and prolonging and prejudicing the operation ; and when rule is, to ſuit the degree of fire, or ſtrength of the diſtillation, to alcohol is employed, it ſhould only be mixed with an equal quan the ponderoſity of the oil intended to be raiſed with the fpirit: thus tity of pure water, to reduce it to the proof ſtrength. When the ſtrong cinnamon water ſhould be diſtilled off briſker than the fpi- choice of a ſpirit is thus ſettled, the next thing to be regarded rit of mint or baum. . is the matter of digeſtion, for without this, many ingredients will The fourth rule is, that a due proportion of only the finer el- not part with their flavour and virtues at all, and many others but ſential oil of the ingredients be thoroughly united, or incorporated very imperfectly. Cinnamon in particular, if not macerated in with the ſpirit, ſo as to keep out the groſſer and leſs fragrant oil. the ſpirit a long while before diſtillation, will not part with its This may chiefly be effected by leaving out the faints, and making heavy oil, which will therefore be left in the ſtill, and thrown up to ſtrong proof with fine foft water in their ſtead. The addi- away, while the ſlight impregnated fpirit is ſaved. tion of ſugar to cordial-waters is a thing of little moment, and When the ingredients have ſtood a due time in digeſtion, ac may therefore be omitted. If the four rules before laid down be cording to their ſeveral natures, the ſpirit is to be drawn from them duly obſerved, there is no occaſion for diſtilling in balneo Mariæ, in the manner that beſt tends to bring over their virtues, whereon nor for fining down waters with alum, whites of eggs, iſinglaſs, the character and expectation of the water is founded ; ſo if the or the like, for they will be preſently bright, ſweet, and pleaſant ingredients naturally abound in a heavy viſcous oil, the operation taſted, without any farther trouble. Shaw's Lectures, p. 127. ſhould be performed with a briſker fire, than when the oil is thin, Angelica Water is uſually prepared of brandy, angelica-roots light, and etherial. Thus ſtrong cinnamon-water, after a fuffi and feeds, carduus, baum, fennel-feed, &c. the whole beat toge- cient digeſtion to looſen the oil, may be drawn over ſmarter, or ther in a mortar; infuſed for a night in French brandy, and then with a briſker fire than citron-water, the ſpirit of mint, or the diſtilled. It is reputed a good carminative and cordial, as alſo a like, in which the oil of the ingredient is thin, and will eaſier af- cephalic; &c. See ANGELICA. cend with the ſpirit. The capital thing in this compound diſtil Aniſeed WATER. To fix ounces of bruiſed aniſeeds, add a ling reſts here, that a ſufficient quantity of the fine eſſential oil of gallon of molaſſes fpirit, and two quarts of water; diſtil a gallon, the ingredients be received into, and mixed with the ſpirit, while and, if you require it ſugared, add half a pound of clarified fu- the groffer, leſs fubtile, and leſs agreeable oil is thrown out. To gar; but many prefer it without : and ſtrain the whole. The effect this to any degree of perfection, requires that the operation compound aniſeed water, commonly kept in the ſhops, is prepared be well conducted from the beginning, that the receiver be changed from a mixture of equal parts of the ſeeds of aniſeed and angelica, in due time, and that the ſpirit be prudently made up. by drawing off a gallon of proof ſpirit from half a pound of each When no regard is had to theſe three particulars, as is uſually of the ſeeds. Lewis. the caſe among the apothecaries, the conſequence is, that the cor Apricot WATER. To a quart of water put fix or eight apri- dial-water becomes a thick, turbid, and milky liquor, and taſtes cots, ſliced and the kernels bruiſed, boil the whole to extract the taſte; W A T W A T matters. taſte; and when cold, add four or five ounces of ſugár. When Nephritic Waters are ſuch as ſtrengthen the reins, and help that is diſſolved ſtrain it. them to diſcharge by urine any impurities therein. Such are Aromatic Waters are ſuch as are impregnated by diſtillation thoſe of the honey-ſuckle, pellitory, raddiſh, beans, mallows, &c. with the ſpirituous rector, or odoriferous principle of aromatic The nephritic water of Dr. Radcliff , popularly called Dr. Rad- If ſpirit of wine be impregnated in the ſame manner, cliff's water, was taken into one of the editions of the College the waters, as they have been called, ought to be diſtinguiſhed Diſpenfatory. It is prepared from the kernels of black cherries, by the name of aromatic ſpirituous waters. Thoſe that are impreg- peaches, and bitter almonds, beaten in a mortar into a paſte, with nated with the ſmell of one ſubſtance are called ſimple, and thoſe Rheniſh wine; and feeds of ſmallage, treacle, muſtard, gromwell, impregnated by means of feveral ſubſtances compound. and parſley, beaten likewiſe, and added thereto ; to the mixture Carduus WATER is made from carduus benedictus pounded are put juniper-berries, garlick, onions, leeks, pimpernel, horſe- in a mortar, and put in an alembic; then a ſufficient quantity of raddiſh, calamus aromaticus, cinnamon, wall-rue, mace, and nut- the juice of the ſame plant, drawn by expreſſion, is poured into megs; the whole macerated in Rheniſh, ſpirit of black cherries, the alembic : that the herbs ſwimming in the juice may be in no &c. and thus diſtilled. It is ſaid to be one of the moſt powerful danger of ſticking to the bottom of the circubit in diſtillation.- detergents and cleanſers known; and good in the dropſy, jaundice, Laſtly, fitting on the head, and luting the joints, diſtil half as aſthma, pleuriſy, ſtone, &c. much as you put in. This water is ſaid to be ſudorific; and good WATER, in anatomy, &c. is applied to divers liquors, or hu- againſt the plague, malignant fevers, &c. mours, in the human body. Such is the aqua phlegmatica, phleg- Cinnamon WATER. In a gallon of ſpirit, diſtil a pound of matic water; which is a ſoft ferous humour contained in the peri- cinnamon: add four ounces of ſugar. Or thus: take a pound of cardium, and wherein the heart ſwims. Anatomiſts are divided cinnamon, three pounds of roſe-water, and as much white-wine: about it; ſome will not have it natural, but ſuppoſe it ſeparated bruiſe the cinnamon, infuſe it fourteen days, then diſtil it. The forcibly during the pangs of death: their reaſon is, the difficulty firſt quart that riſes is the beſt ; then the ſecond ; then the third. they meet with in tracing its paſſage, or how it is carried off. The Or, ſteep one pound of cinnamon-bark; bruiſed, in a gallon and lateſt anatomiſts, however, ſeem to agree to its being a natural a half of water, and one pint of brandy, for two days; and then and neceſſary humour; and one reaſon is, that it is found even in diſtil off one gallon. For a ſpirituous cinnamon-water, take of the pericardiums of fætuſes. It has likewiſe been diſputed cinnamon, one pound; proof ſpirit and common water, of each whence it ſhould be ſeparated. The moſt probable opinion is, one gallon ; fteep the cinnamon in the liquor for two days; then that it is ſecreted by ſome glands about the baſis of the heart; and diſtil off one gallon. that it diſtils thence, drop by drop, into the cavity of the peri- Citron WATER, a well known ſtrong water, or cordial, may cardium, in ſuch quantity as juſt to ſupply what is expended daily be thus made. Take of fine thin lemon-peel eighteen ounces; by the motion and warmth of the heart, and ſo needs no evacuation. of orange peel nine ounces; perfect nutmegs a quarter of a pound; Its uſe is to moiſten, lubricate, and cool the heart, and prevent alcohol perfect, that is the fineſt and beſt rectified ſpirit of wine, the inflammation that might ariſe from the dry friction of the heart two gallons and an half; digeſt in balneo mariæ for one night, draw and pericardium. So that it does the ſame office to the heart, that off with a ſlow fire; then add as much water as will juſt make the the water does to the part wherein the fætus ſwims; which, with- mixture milky; (which will be about ſeven quarts or two gallons) out it, would not have liberty to move at all. See the Syſtem of and add alſo about two pounds of fine ſugar candy. This compo- | ANATOMY, Part V. Sect. ÍI. ſition may be improved by freſh elder flowers, hung in a cloth in the Holy Water is a water prepared every Sunday in the Romith head of the ſtill ſprinkled with ambergris in powder, or its eſſence. church, with divers prayers, exorciſms, &c. uſed by the people Gentian Water. Take four pounds of gentian-roots, either to croſs themſelves with at their entrance, and going out of church; green or dried; mince them ſmall, infuſe them in white-wine, or and pretended to have the virtue of waſhing away venial ſins, driv- only ſprinkle them therewith ; then diſtil them, with the addition ing away devils, preſerving from thunder, diffolving charms, ſe- of a little centaury the leſs. This is frequently uſed as a ſtoma- curing from, or curing diſeaſes, &c. The uſe of holy water appears chic, and is alſo commended for a deterger; ſerving in dropſies, to be of an ancient ſtanding in the church: witneſs St. Jerom, in jaundice, obſtruction of the viſcera, &c. but it is really of very his life of St. Hilarion, and Gretſer, de Benedict. cap. x. &c.- little virtue. M. Godeau attributes its original to Alexander, a martyr under the Clary Water is compoſed of brandy, ſugar, clary-flowers, emperor Adrian. Many of the reformed take the uſe of holy wa- and cinnamon, with a little ambergris diſſolved in it. It helps ter to have been borrowed from the luftral water of the ancient digeſtion and is cardiac. This water is rendered either purgative Romans: though it might as well be taken from the ſprinkling in or emetic, by adding reſin of jallap and fcammony or crocus me uſe among the Jews. See Numbers xix. 17. tallorum. Some make clary-water of brandy, juice of cherries, Motion of WATER, in hydraulics. The theory of the motion ſtraw-berries, and gooſe-berries, ſugar cloves, white pepper, and of running water is one of the principal objects of hydraulics, and coriander feeds infuſed, ſugared and ſtrained. many eminent mathematicians have applied themſelves to this Clove Water is prepared of brandy, and cloves bruiſed ſubject. For a copious account of the nature and properties of therein and diſtilled. FLUIDS, ſee the Syſtem of HYDROSTATICS, and HYDRAU- Iced or Frozen WATERS, are certain agreeable and wholeſome LICS, Part I. Sect. I, II, and III. throughout, and the Plate waters, as orange water, or the like, artificially frozen in fum- | annexed to the Syſtem. mer-time, particularly in hot countries, to be uſed in collations, Raiſing of Water, in hydraulics. The great uſe of raiſing &c. as coolers. The way of making them is thus: the veſſels water by engines for the various purpoſes of life, is well known. containing the liquors deſigned to be frozen, are firſt ſet in a pail, For the doctrine of Fluids, as reſpecting their motion, in raiſing in ſuch manner as not to touch each other; then they are covered and conveying water, &c. with a deſcription of the ſeveral ma- up, and the void ſpace in the pail filled with common ice, beaten chines uſed for that purpoſe, ſee the Syſtem of HYDROSTATICS, and mixed with ſalt. Every half-hour they clear out what water and HYDRAULICS, Part II. throughout. For a repeſentation of the thawing ice ſends to the bottom of the pail, by means of a the ſeveral machines, ſee the Plate annexed to the Syſtem. hole at bottom; and at the ſame time ftir up the liquors with a Water Spout, in natural hiſtory, an extraordinary meteor, ſpoon, that they may freeze into ſnow ; for were they to ſhoot in or appearance, at ſea, and ſometimes at land, very dangerous to form of ice or icicles, they would have no taſte. Then, cover- ſhips, &c. ofteneſt obſerved in hot, dry weather ; and called by ing the veſſel again, they fill up the pail with more beaten ice and the Latins typho, and hipho; by the French, trompe, &c. Its firſt falt , in lieu of that diffolved and evacuated. The more expedi- appearance is in form of a deep cloud, the upper part whereof is tious the freezing is required to be, the more falt is to be mixed white, and the lower black. white, and the lower black. From the lower part of this cloud with the ice. See Ice. there hangs or rather falls down, what we properly call the ſpout, Imperial, aqua Imperialis Water, is a water diſtilled from in manner of a conical tube, biggeſt at top. "Under this tube is cinnamon, nutmeg, citron-peel, cloves, calamus aromaticus, fantal, always a great boiling and flying up of the water of the ſea, as in and divers other ſimples infuſed in white-wine and baum-water, a jet d'eau. For ſome yards above the ſurface of the ſea, the It is a pleaſant cordial dram, and is good againſt diſeaſes of the water ſtands as a column, or pillar ; from the extremity whereof brain, ſtomach, and womb. it ſpreads, and goes off, as in a kind of ſmoke. Frequently the Hungary Water. A diſtilled water ſo denominated from a cone deſcends ſo low, as to touch the middle of this column, and Queen of Hungary, for whoſe uſe it was prepared, and who was continue for ſome time contiguous to it; though ſometimes it only cured, by the continued uſe of it, of a paralytic diſorder. Hun- points to it, at ſome diſtance, either in a perpendicular, or in an gary water is directed to be made of roſemary flowers infuſed ſome oblique line. days, in rectified ſpirit of wine, and the ſpirit then diſtilled. The Frequently it is ſcarce diſtinguiſhable, whether the cone or the college of Edinburgh directs a gallon of rectified ſpirits to be drawn column appear the firſt, both appearing all of a ſudden againſt over in the heat of the water, both from two pounds of the flower each other. each other. But ſometimes the water boils up from the ſea to a as ſoon as they are gathered: that of London takes the tops, and great height, without any appearance of a ſpout pinting to it, ei- a ſpirit not quite ſo ſtrong, putting a gallon of proof ſpirit to a ther perpendiculary or obliquely. Indeed, generally, the boil- pound and an half of the freſh tops, and drawing off in the heat ing or flying up of the water has the priority, this always pre- of a water bath five pints. ceding its being formed into a column. Generally the cone does Chalybeate WATER is a water wherein red-hot ſteel has been not appear hollow till towards the end, when the ſea-water is vi- quenched. It is aſtringent, and good, like ferruginous, or iron- olently thrown up along its middle, as ſmoke up a chimney: foon water, for diarrhæas, &c. after this the ſpout, or canal, breaks and diſappears; the boiling Copper WATER. See ZIMENT. ир of the water, and even the pillar, continuing to the laſt, and * for N. 149. 5 P W A T W A V for ſome time afterwards ; ſometimes till the ſpout forms itſelf again to its level. But the moſt remarkable circum ſtance, and the moſt and appears anew ; which it ſometimes does ſeveral times in a quar- favourable to the ſuppoſition of their depending upon electricity ter of an hour. See a deſcription of ſeveral water-ſpouts by Mr. is, that they have been diſperſed by preſenting to them ſharp- conſtant Gordon,andby Dr. Stuart, in Phil. Tranſ. Abr. vol. iv. p. 103, &c. pointed knives or ſwords. This, at leaſt, is the prac- M. de la Pryme, from a near obſervation of two or three ſpouts tice of mariners; in many parts of the world where theſe water- in Yorkſhire, deſcribed in the Philoſophical Tranſactions, Nº 281, ſpouts abound ; and the Dr. was aſſured by ſeveral of them, that the or Abr. vol. iv. p. 106, concludes, that the water-ſpout is nothing method has often been undoubtedly effectual . The analogy be- but a gyration of clouds by contrary winds meeting in a point, tween the phenomena of water-ſpouts and electricity, he ſays; or centre ; and there, where the greateſt condenſation and gravi- may be made viſible, by hanging a drop of water to a wire com tation are, falling down into a pipe, or great tube, ſomewhat like municating with the prime conductor, and placing a veffel of Archimedes's ſpiral ſcrew ; and, in its working and whirling mo water under it. In theſe circumſtances, the drop aſſumes all the tion, abſorbing and raiſing the water, in the ſame manner as the various appearances of a water-ſpout, both in its riſe, form, and ſpiral ſcrew does; and thus deſtroying ſhips, &c. Thus, June manner of diſappearing. Nothing is wanting but the ſmoke, which the 21ſt, he obſerved the clouds mightily agitated above, and dri may require a great force of electricity to become viſible. Mr. ven together ; upon which they became very black, and were Wilcke alſo conſiders the water-ſpout as a kind of great electrical hurried round; whence proceeded a moſt audible whirling noiſe ; cone, raiſed between the cloud ſtrongly electrified and the ſea like that ordinarily heard in a mill. Soon after there iſſued a long or the earth, and he relates a very remarkable appearance which tube, or ſpout, from the centre of the congregated clouds, wherein occurred to himſelf, and which ſtrongly confirms his ſuppoſition. he obſerved a ſpiral motion, like that of a ſcrew, by which the On the 20th of July, 1758, at three o'clock in the afternoon, he water was raiſed up. obſerved a great quantity of duſt riſing from the ground, and co- Again, Auguſt 15, 1687, the wind blowing at the ſame time vering a field and part of the town in which he then was. There out of the ſeveral quarters, created a great vortex and whirling was no wind, and the duſt moved gently towards the eaſt, where among the clouds ; the centre whereof every now and then dropt appeared a great black cloud, which when it was near his zenith, down, in ſhape of a long, thin, black pipe, wherein he could electrified his apparatus poſitively, and to as great a degree as diſtinctly behold a motion like that of a ſcrew, continually draw ever he had obſerved it to be done by natural electricity. This ing upwards, and frcewing up, as it were, wherever it touched. cloud paſſed his zenith, and went gradually towards the weſt, the In its progreſs it moved ſlowly over à grove of trees, which bent duft then following it, and continuing to riſe higher and higher under it like wands, in a circular motion. Proceeding, it tore till it compoſed a thick pillar, in the form of a ſugar-loaf, and at off the thatch from a barn, bent an huge oak-tree, broke one of length ſeemed to be in contact with the cloud. At fome diſtance its greateſt branches, and threw it to a great diſtance. He adds, from this, there came, in the ſame path, another great cloud, to- that whereas it is commonly ſaid, the water works, and riſes in gether with a long ſtream of ſmaller clouds, moving faſter than a column, before the tube comes to touch it; this is, doubtleſs, the preceding. Theſe clouds electrified his apparatus negatively, a miſtake, owing to the fineneſs and tranſparency of the tubes, and when they came near the poſitive cloud, a flaſh of lightning which do moſt certainly touch the ſurface of the ſea, before any was ſeen to dart through the cloud of duſt, the poſitive cloud, conſiderable motion can be raiſed therein; but which do not be the large negative cloud, and as far as the eye could diſtinguiſh, come opaque and viſible, till after they have imbibed a conſiderable the whole train of ſmaller negative clouds which followed it. quantity of water. The diffolution of water-ſpouts he aſcribes Upon this the negative clouds ſpead very much, and diſſolved in to the great quantity of water they have glutted; which, by its rain, and the air was preſently clear of all the duſt. The whole weight, impeding their motion, whereon their force, and even appearance laſted not above half an hour. See Prieſtley's Electr. exiſtence, depends, they break, and let go their contents; which vol. i. p. 438, &c. generally prove fatal to whatever is found underneath. This theory of water ſpouts has been farther confirmed by the A ſingular inſtance hereof we have in the Philoſophical Tranſ account which Mr. Foſter gives of one of them in his Voyage actions (No.363, or Abr. vol. iv. p. 108.) related by Dr. Richard round the World, vol. i. p. 191, &c. On the coaſt of New Zea- ſon. A ſpout in 1718, breaking on Emmotmoor, nigh Coln, in land he had an opportunity of obſerving ſeveral, one of which he Lancaſhire, the country was immediately overflowed ; a brook, has particularly deſcribed. The water, he ſays, in a ſpace of in a few minutes, roſe ſix feet perpendicularly high ; and the fifty or fixty fathoms, moved towards the centre, and there riſing ground whereon the ſpout fell, which was ſixty-ſix feet over, was into vapour, by the force of the whirling motion, aſcended in a torn up to the very rock, which was no leſs than ſeven feet deep; ſpiral form towards the clouds. Directly over the whirlpool, or and a deep gulph was made for above half a mile; the earth be- agitated ſpot in the ſea, a cloud gradually tapered into a long ſlen- ing raiſed on either ſide in vaſt heaps. See a deſcription and fi der tube, which ſeemed to deſcend to meet the riſing ſpiral, and gure of a water-ſpout, with an attempt to account for it in Frank- foon united with it into a ſtraight column of a cylindrical form. lin's Exp. and Obſ. p. 226, &c. Signior Beccaria has taken The water was hurled upwards with the greateſt violence in a pains to thew that water ſpouts have an electrical origin. To ſpiral, and appeared to leave a hollow ſpace in the centre ; ſo that make this more evident, he firſt deſcribes the circumſtances at the water ſeemed to form a hollow tube, inſtead of a ſolid column; tending their appearance, which are the following. and that this was the caſe, was rendered ſtill more probable by They generally appear in calm weather. The ſea ſeems to boil, the colour, which was exactly like that of any hollow glaſs tube. and ſend up a ſmoke under them, riſing in a hill towards the ſpout. After ſome time, this laſt column was incurvated, and broke like At the ſame time, perſons who have been near them have heard a the others; and the appearance of a flaſh of lightning which at- rumbling noiſe. The form of a water-ſpout is that of a ſpeaking tended its disjunction, as well as the hail-ſtones which fell at the trumpet, the wider end being in the clouds, and the narrower end time, ſeemed plainly to indicate, that water-ſpouts either owe towards the ſea. The ſize is various, even in the ſame ſpout their formation to the electric matter, or at leaſt that they have The colour is ſometimes inclining to white, and ſometimes ſome connection with it. to black. The poſition is ſometimes perpendicular to the ſea, WATERING, in gardening, &c. the application of water to ſometimes oblique ; and ſometimes the ſpout itſelf is in the the ſoil of plants, &c. when not fufficiently moiſtened with rain, form of a curve. Their continuance is very various, ſome dif dew, &c. After ſowing ſeed of any kind, though the ground be appearing as ſoon as formed, and ſome continuing a conſiderable ever ſo dry, they ſhould never be watered till they have been time. One that he had heard of continued a whole hour. But forty-eight hours in the ground, and the ground is a little ſettled they often vaniſh, and preſently appear again in the ſame place. about them ; otherwiſe, a too great glut of nouriſhment at firſt The very ſame things that water-ſpouts are at ſea, are ſome kinds will be apt to burſt them. Care is to be taken, that the leaves of of whirlwinds and hurricanes by land. They have been known young and tender plants be not watered at all while the wea- to tear up trees, to throw down buildings, make caverns in the ther is cold; only the ground to be wet about them. For hardy earth ; and, in all theſe caſes, to ſcatter earth, bricks, ſtones, plants and ſeeds, if the nights be cold, water in the afternoon timber, &c. to a great diſtance in every direction. Great quanti otherwiſe, in the evening. Water that comes out of pits or deep ties of water have been left, or raiſed by them, ſo as to make a wells, ſhould ſtand a day in an open vefſel, before it be applied kind of deluge; and they have always been attended with a pro to tender plants in the ſpring. Dung of ſheep, pigeons or hens, digious rumbling noiſe. or aſhes, lime, &c. infuſed in the water, will forward the growth That theſe phenomena depend upon electricity cannot but ap of plants. pear very probable from the nature of ſeveral of them ; but the WAVE, unda, in phyſics, a cavity in the ſurface of the water, conjecture is made more probable from the following additional or other fluid, with an elevation aſide thereof. Or, it is a vo- circumſtances. They generally appear in months peculiarly ſub lume of water elevated by the action of the wind upon its ſurface, ject to thunder-ſtorms, and are commonly preceded, accompanied, into a ſtate of Auctuation. Air in motion, which is wind, in or followed by lightning, rain, or hail ; the previous ſtate of the paſſing over the ſmooth ſurface of water, may rub it as it were upon air being ſimilar. Whitiſh or yellowiſh flaſhes of light have ſome that ſurface, and raiſe it into wrinkles ; which if the wind con- times been ſeen moving with prodigious ſwiftneſs about them. tinues, are the elements of future waves. The ſmalleſt wave And, laſtly, the manner in which they terminate exactly reſem once raiſed does not immediately fubfide and leave the neighbour- bles what might be expected from the prolongation of one of the ing water quiet; but in ſubſiding raiſes nearly as much of the uniform protuberances of electrified clouds, mentioned before, to- wards the fea; the water and the cloud mutually attracting one water next to it, the friction of the parts making little differ- another : for they ſuddenly contract themſelves, and diſperſe almoſt round itſelf, and leaves it, hy ſinking to the bottom ; but that firſt Thus a ſtone dropped in a pool raiſes firſt a ſingle wave at once; the cloud riſing, and the water of the ſea under it falling wave ſubſiding raiſes a ſecond, the ſecond a third, and ſo on, in circles ܪ ; ence. W A X W A X fect wax. circles to a great extent. A ſmall power continually operating, upon the flat and triangular piece, which makes the third joint of will produce a great action. A finger applied to a weighty ſuf- the hinder pair of their legs. The lumps of wax with which we pended bell, can at firſt move it but a little ; if repeatedly applied, ſee them loaded in this part; and carrying to their hives, he adds; though with no greater ſtrength, the motion increaſes till the bell are only the farina of flowers worked up and compreſſed into a maſs fwings to its utmoſt height, and with a force that cannot be re or fort of cake. The ſtamina of the flowers therefore fuſtain cer- fifted by the whole ſtrength of the arm and body. Thus the ſmall tain caſes, containing a powder, which is the matter of bees-wax. firſt raiſed waves being continually acted upon by the wind, are, This powder, thus collected into lumps on the legs of the bees, though the wind does not increaſe in ſtrength, continually in is called rough wax, and is probably wax to all intents and pur- creaſed in magnitude, riſing higher, and extending their baſes, fo poſes; only wanting a little beating together. Wax, therefore, as to include a vaſt maſs of water in each wave, which in its mo ſo long eſteemed an animal ſubſtance, will appear to be a native tion acts with great violence. vegetable production. This motion of the ſea-water alſo depends greatly on the winds, If the bees are obſerved when returning to the hive loaded with and on the ſituation of mountains, in regard to the ſea ; for the their lumps of wax on their thighs ; theſe lumps on ſome will be winds are driven back from theſe with great impetuofity; and in found to be white, on others yellow, on others red, and on ſome fome places this occaſions a great and very irregular undulation, greeniſh: this is owing to the different colours of the farina, beſide that which is produced by the immediate action of the winds yielded by the different plants they have been at work upon. The on the ſurface of the water, in their own direct courſe. Waves manufacture of the bee, in moulding this into a lump, has not are to be conſidered as of two kinds, and theſe may be diſtinguiſhed yet been able to alter the colour of the farina, nor even its figure; from one another by the names of natural and accidental waves. for if the lumps be examined by the microſcope, they will all be The natural waves are thoſe which are regularly proportioned in found to conſiſt of globules of a rounded or oval figure, or of fize to the ſtrength of the wind, whoſe blowing gives origin to whatever other ſhape they had when on the plant. The bees re- them. The accidental waves are thoſe occaſioned by the wind's turning to their hives, after their morning excurſions in the ſpring, re-acting upon itfelf by repercuſſion from hills and mountains, or are always found to contain in the cells of their palettes large high fhores and by the waſhing of the waves themſelves, other-lumps of wax"; but thoſe which go out in the heat of the day, re- wiſe of the natural kind, againſt rocks and ſhoals ; and theſe turn with little or none; the reaſon of which is, that the humidity caſes give the waves an elevation, which they can never have in of the farina, by means of the dew, makes it eaſily formed into their natural ſtate. a lump or maſs, its particles naturally ſticking together ; whereas The great Mr. Boyle has proved by numerous experiments, in the heat of the day this powder is too dry to be formed thus into that the moſt violent wind never penetrates deeper than ſix feet a compact maſs, and therefore cannot be carried home by the bce. into the water ; and it ſhould ſeem a natural conſequence of this However, it is evident, that the bec does ſomething to the mat- that the water moved by it can only be elevated to the ſame height ter of which wax is made, in order to the reducing of it into per- of fix feet from the level of the ſurface in a calm ; and theſe fix feet of elevation being added to the ſix of excavation, in the part It is moſt probable, ſays Mr. Reaumur, that the method in whence that water ſo elevated was raiſed, ſhould give twelve feet Thould give twelve feet which the bees turn the farina of flowers into wax, is a very for the utmoſt elevation of a wave. This is a calculation that fimple one'; and moſt likely it conſiſts only in a ſort of beating the does great honour to its author; for count Marſigli meaſured care- quantities of them, which they collect, till they are very tho- fully the elevations of the waves near Provence, and found that, roughly united. roughly united. We have never been able yet to diſcover their in a very violent tempeft, they aroſe only to ſeven feet above the manner of doing it; but this appears, he thinks, moſt like the natural level of the fea, and this additional foot in height he eaſily courſe of nature, in the operations of other inſects. . If this be reſolved into the accidental ſhocks of the water againſt the bot the caſe, it would be poſſible, perhaps, for us to imitate their me: tom, which was, in the place he meaſured them in, not ſo deep thod, and procure for ourſelves wax out of the ſtamina of flowers. of affecting the waves; and he allows that This would be a diſcovery of the utmoſt importance ; for though the addition of one fixth of the height of a wave, from ſuch a at preſent the bees which work it for us, coſt nothing in keeping, diſturbance from the bottom, is a very moderate alteration from yet it is to be obſerved, that they are too few in number to collect what would have been its height in a deep ſea ; and concludes, that fo much as we might wiſh. Mr. Boyle's calculations hold perfectly right in deep ſeas, where The difficulty in the way of making the wax from the fub- the waves are purely natural, and have no accidental cauſes to ftance from which the bees make it, is the poſſibility of its being render them larger than their juft proportion. In deep water, converted into wax within the body of the animal. If this be the under the high ſhores of the fame part of France, this author caſe, notwithſtanding that we perfectly know the matter of which found the natural elevation of the waves to be only five feet; but wax is made, we are not to wonder that we are not able to make he found alſo that their breaking againſt rocks, and other accidents it, any more than that we are not able to make chyle or blood to which they were liable in this place, often raiſed them to eight out of the ſeveral ſubſtances uſed by us as food, and out of which feet high. we well know that it is made within our bodies. Reaumur's We are not to ſuppoſe, from this calculation, that no wave of Hiſt. Inf. vol. ix. p. 382. vol. x. p. 39, &c. the fea can rife more than fix feet above its natural level in open Wax makes a conſiderable article in commerce; the conſump- and deep water; for waves immenſely higher than theſe are formed tion thereof throughout the ſeveral parts of Europe being incre- in violent tempeſts in the great feas. Theſe, however, are not to dible. There are two kinds, white and yellow; the yellow is the he accounted waves in their natural ſtate, but they are ſingle waves native wax, juſt as it comes out of the hive, after expreſſing the formed of many others ; for in theſe wide plains of water, when honey, &c. This colour, ſays Thorley, is owing to the age of one wave is raiſed by the wind, and would elevate itſelf up to the the combs, and breath of the bees; wax, he ſays, both as it is exact height of fix feet, and no more, the motion of the water is gathered and wrought into combs, being always white : the white fo great, and the ſucceſſion of waves fo quick, that, during the is the ſame wax, only purified, waſhed, and expoſed to the air. time this is riſing, it receives into it ſeveral other waves, each of Yellow WAX. To procure the wax from the combs for uſe ; which would have been of the ſame height with itſelf: theſe run after ſeparating the honey from them, they put all the matter re- into the firſt wave one after another, as it is riſing ; and by this maining in a large kettle, with a ſufficient quantity of water; means its rife is continued much longer than it naturally would there, with a moderate fire, they melt it, and then ſtrain it through have been, and it becomes accumulated to an enormous ſize. A a linen cloth, by a preſs ; before it is cold, they ſcum it with a number of theſe complicated waves ariſing together, and being tile, or piece of wet wood, and caſt it, while yet warm, into continued in a long fucceflion by a continuation of the ſtorm, wooden, earthen, or metalline moulds; having firſt anointed them make the waves ſo dangerous to ſhips, which the ſailors in their with the honey, oil, or water, to prevent the wax from ſticking. phraſe call mountains high. Marſigli Hift. Phyſ. de la Mer. Some, to purify it, make uſe of Roman vitriol, or copperas; but WAVED, or WAVY, a term in heraldry, when a bordure, or the right method is to melt, ſcum it, &c. properly, without any any ordinary or charge in a coat of arms, has its outlines indented, ingredients at all. in manner of the riſing and falling of waves. This is alſo called The beſt is that of a high colour, an agreeable ſmell, fomewhat undy, undē, or ondē, and denotes that the firſt of the family in reſembling that of honey, brittle, and that does not ſtick to the whoſe arms it ſtands, acquired his honours for ſea ſervices, and teeth when chewed. When new, it is of a lively yellow colour has this peculiar commemoration of it ordered in his arms. See it is ſomewhat tough, yet eaſy to break ; by age it loſes its fine co- the Syſtem, Sect. VI. Art. II. and Plate IV. lour, and becomes harder, and more brittle. The ſmell alſo, by WAX, Cera, a foft, yellowiſh, concrete matter, collected from long keeping, and the proceſs by which it is whitened, is in a great vegetables by the bee, and extracted from the combs, after the meaſure diſſipated. However, wax is often ſophiſticated with re- honey is got out, by heating and preſſing them. Wax is not the fin, or pitch, coloured with rocou, or turmeric. excrement of this laborious infect, as the ancients, and after them White Wax. The whitening, blanching, or bleaching of wax, many of the moderns have imagined. According to Mr. Reau- is performed by reducing the yellow fort, firſt into little bits or mur, the farina fæcundans of the flowers of plants, contained in grains, by melting it, and throwing it, while hot, into cold wa- their apices, is the matter of which the bees form the wax ; they ter, or elſe by ſpreading it into very thin leaves or cakes. For either diſlodge this from its cells with their teeth, or elſe merely this purpoſe, ſome diſpoſe the cauldron in which the wax is melted by rubbing their bodies among the ſtamina and apices, load them ſo that it may flow gradually through a pipe at the bottom into a felves with the globules of it, which their hairs keep ſticking upon large tub filled with water, in which is fitted a large wooden cy- their body, and which they afterwards bruſh off with their legs, linder, that turns continually round its axis, and upon which the and, by degrees, collect into balls or lumps, which they depoſit melted wax falls. As the ſurface of this cylinder is always moiſ- tened WAX W E A 3 tened with cold water, the wax falling upon it does not adhere to againſt ſtrains. Dict. Chym. art. Wax. Eng. ed. and Lewis's Mat. Med. it, but quickly becomes ſolid and flat, and acquires the form of ribbands. The continual rotation of the cylinder carries off the Sealing Wax,or Spaniſh Wax, is a compoſition of gum lacca, ribbands as faſt as they are formed, and diſtributes them through melted and prepared with reſins, and coloured with ſome ſuitable the tub. This wax, thus granulated, or flatted, is expoſed to pigment. There are two kinds of fealing wax in uſe; the one the air or linen cloths, where it remains night and day, having hard, intended for ſealing letters, and other ſuch purpoſes, where equal need of ſun and dew. Then they melt and granulate it only a thin body can be allowed: the other ſoft, deſigned for re- over again ſeveral times; ftill laying it out to the air, in the in- ceiving the impreſſion of feals of office to charters, patents, and the like written inſtruments. tervals, between the meltings. When the fun and dew have at length perfectly blanched it, they To imitate fruit, &c. in Wax. Take the fruit, and bury it melt it for the laſt time, in a large kettle ; out of which they caſt half-way in clay ; oil its edges, and the extant half of the fruit it, with a ladle, upon a table covered with little round dents or then nimbly throw on it tempered alabaſter, or plaſter of Paris, cavities, of the form of the cakes of white wax, as ſold by the to a conſiderable thickneſs. When this is concreted, it makes apothecaries, &c. having firſt wetted thoſe moulds with cold water, the half mould, the ſecond half of which may be obtained in the that the wax may be the more eaſily got out. Laſtly, they lay ſame way. The two parts of the mould being joined together, a out thoſe cakes to the air for two days, and two nights, to render little coloured wax, melted, and brought to a due heat, being it more tranſparent and drier. The yellow colour of the wax is poured through a hole made in any convenient part of the mould, evidently deſtroyed by the combined action of the air, of the wa and preſently ſhook every way therein, will repreſent the original ter, and of the ſun. As the volatile, fulphureous acid, has the fruit. Boyle's Works abr. vol i. p. 136. property of deſtroying more quickly almoſt all the colours of ve Here we muſt not forget the ingenious invention of Mr. Benoiſt, getables, it is ſuggeſted by the author of the Chymical Dicti à man famous at Paris for his figures of wax. Being, by profef- onary, that this bleaching might perhaps be ſhortened, by expo- fion, a painter, he found the ſecret of forming moulds on the ſing ribbands of yellow wax to the vapour of ſulphur, as is prac faces of living perſons, even the faireſt and moſt delicate, without tiſed for wool and filk. However, the operation of bleaching any danger either to their health or complexion; in which moulds wax, above deſcribed, can be performed well only in fine weather, he caſt maſks of wax; to which, by his colours, and glaſs eyes as it depends chiefly on the action of the ſun. This circumſtance imitated from nature, he gave a ſort of life ; inſomuch as, when being attended with much inconvenience to the manufacturers, clothed in proper habits, they bore ſuch a reſemblance, that it was the diſcovery of a method of whitening wax, independently of the difficult diſtinguiſhing between the copy and the original. ſeaſons, would be very uſeful, and has been recommended to the Milky Way. See GALAXY. The opinion, long maintained attention of chymiſts by ſome oeconomical ſocieties. With a view among aſtronomers, but lately controverted, that the milky way to diſcover ſuch a method, Mr. Beckman has made experiments, contains a great number of ſtars, has been confirmed by the obſer- an account of which is publiſhed in the fifth volume of the Novi vations of the ingenious and indefatigable Dr. Herſchel. For a Commentarii Societatis Regiæ Scientiarum Gottingenſis. Ac- copious account of this branch of ASTRONOMY, ſee the Syſtem, cording to theſe experiments, thin pieces of yellow wax were Section XV. whitened and hardened, by being digeſted and boiled in diluted and WEASEL a ſpecies of the Genus Muſtela in the Syſtem of undiluted nitrous acid, in a few hours. But the wax thus whitened MAMMALIA. See Mustela. being melted by means of boiling water, was obſerved to acquire WEATHER, the ſtate or diſpoſition of the atmoſphere, with a yellow colour, leſs intenſe, however, than it was before it had regard to moiſture, or draught, heat or cold, wind or calm, rain, been treated with the mineral acids. The marine and vitrio- hail, froſt, ſnow, fog, &c. See RAIN, HEAT, WIND, HAIL, lic acids were leſs effectual than the nitrous. He expoſed wax to Frost, &c. As it is in the atmoſphere that all plants and animals the flames of burning ſulphur, but without ſucceſs. Yellow wax, live and breathe, and as that appears to be the great principle of being melted in vinegar, was rendered of a grey colour. The moſt animal and vegetable productions, alterations, &c. there does oil of tartar whitened wax, but leſs effectually than acids had not ſeem any thing, in all philoſophy, of more immediate concerna done ; and this wax, being waſhed in water, and afterwards di ment to us than the ſtate of the weather. In effect, all living geſted in nitrous acid, was rendered ftill more white ; but upon things are only aſſemblages, or bundles of veſſels, whoſe juices are melting it in water, a yellowiſh tinge returned. He liquified wax kept moving by the preſſure of the atmoſphere; and which by that in ſolutions of nitre and alum, but without any good effect. Spi- motion maintain life. So that any alterations in the rarity or rit or wine, which is recommended by Mr. Boyle for this purpoſe, denſity, the heat, purity, &c. of that, muſt neceſſarily be attended did indeed whiten the wax, but changed it to a butyraceous fub with proportionable ones in theſe. What great, yet regular alte- ſtance, ſo frothy, that its bulk was increaſed thirty times. Re- rations, a little change of weather makes in a tube filled with mer- flecting that tartar is purified from its oily particles by means of a cury, or ſpirit of wine, or in a piece of ſtring, &c.every body knows calcareous earth, he tried the effects of a kind of fuller's earth, in the common inſtances of barometers, thermometers, hygrome- which he threw upon wax liquified in water, and he agitated the ters, &c. and it is owing partly to our inattention, and partly to mixture. This method rendered wax of a greyiſh colour, and is our unequal, intemperate courſe of living, that we do not feel as therefore, recommended by him as preparatory to bleaching; the great and as regular ones in the tubes, chords, and fibres, of our time neceſſary for which he thinks, may be thus greatly ſhortened, own bodies. This white wax is uſed in making candles, torches, tapers, flam It is certain, a great part of the brute creation have a ſenſibility, beaux, figures, and other wax works. and fagacity this way, beyond mankind; and yet, without any It is alſo an ingredient, partly for giving the requiſite conſiſt means or diſpoſition thereto, more than we; except that their vef- ence to other ingredients, and partly on account of its own emol- fels, fibres, &c. being, in other reſpects, in one equable habitude; lient quality, in plaſters, cerates, and divers pomatums and un the ſame or a proportionable cauſe from without, has always a like guents for the complexion. The yellow fort, diſſolved into an or proportionable effect on them; that is, their veſſels are regular emulſion, or mixed with ſpermaceti, oil of almonds, conſerve of barometers, &c. affected only from one external principle; viz. the roſes, &c. into the form of an electuary; or divided, by ſtirring into diſpoſition of the atmoſphere; whereas ours are acted upon by divers it, when melted over a genle fire, as much as it will take up of from within, as well as without; ſome of which check, impede, powdery matters, as the compound crabs-claw powder, is given and prevent, the action of others. We know of nothing more alſo internally,and often with great ſucceſs, in diarrhæas and dy- wanting than a juſt theory of the weather, on mechanical principles, ſenteries, for obtunding the acrimony of the humours, ſupplying But, in order to that, a complete hiſtory of the weather will be re- the natural mucus of the inteſtines, and healing their excoriations quired. If regiſters were carefully kept in divers parts of the globe, or eroſions. for a good ſeries of years, we ſhould be enabled to determine the di- The empyreumatic oil, into which wax is refolved by diſtillation rections, breadth, and bounds of the winds, and of the weather they with a ſtrong heat, is greatly recommended by Boerhaave, and bring with them; the correſpondence between the weather of divers others, for healing chaps and roughneſs of the tkin, for diſcuſſing places, and the dependence between one fort and another at the chilblains, and with proper fomentations and exerciſe, againſt ſame place. In time, no doubt, we might learn to foretel divers ſtiffneſs of the joints, and contractions of the tendons. It is, grcat emergencies; as, extraordinary heats, rains, froſts, droughts, without doubt, ſays Dr. Lewis, highly emollient; but does not dearths, plagues, and other epidemical diſeaſes, &c. appear to have any other quality by which it can act in external The members of our Royal Society, the French Academy of applications ; it has nothing of the acrimony or pungency, which Sciences, and many authors of note, have made conſiderable eſſays prevail in all the other known diſtilled vegetable oils ; though in this way; and the practice of keeping meteorological journals has, ſmell it is not a little diſagreeable and empyreumatic ; a circum of late years, become very general. For inſtructions and examples ſtance which occaſions it to be at preſent more rarely uſed than appertaining to this ſubject, ſee Phil. Tranſ. vol. Ixv. part ii. art . formerly. As the wax ſwells up greatly in the diſtillation, it is 16. Eraf. Bartholin, has obſervations of the weather for every day convenient to divide it, by melting it with twice its weight of throughout the year 1671. Mr. W. Merle made the like at Ox- fand, or putting the ſand above it in the retort, that it may min- ford, for ſeven years, with very remarkable care and accuracy. gle with the wax when brought into fuſion. The oil, which is Dr. Plott did the ſame at the ſame place, for the year 1684. Mr. preceded by a ſmall quantity of acid liquor, congeals in the neck Hillier, at Cape Corſe, for the years 1686, 1687. Mr. Hunt, &c. of the retort, from whence it may be melted down, by applying a at Greſham College, for the years 1695, 1696. Dr. Derham, at live coal, and made fluid by diſtilling it two or three times with Upminſter, in Effex, for the years 1691, 1692, 1697, 1698, 1699, out addition. The fæces remaining, after expreſſing the wax, 1703, 1704, 1705. Mr. Townly, in Lancaſhire, in 1697, 1698, have been uſed both by ſurgeons and farriers, with ſucceſs, Mr. Cunningham, at Emin in China, for the years 1698, 1699, 1700 WE A W E E 2 I 52 I2 9 our ܪ at 1900, 1701. Mr. Locke, at Oats in Eſſex, 1692. Dr. Scheuchzer, &c. Hence it is, that all wood, even the hardeſt and moſt ſolid, at Zurich, in 1780 ; and Dr. Tilly, at Piſa, the ſame year. See ſwells in moiſt weather ; the vapours eaſily inſinuating into the the Phil. Tranſactions. The form of Dr. Derham's obfervations pores thereof, eſpecially of that which is lighteſt and drieſt. And we give as a ſpecimen of a journal of this kind: obſerving that hence we derive a very extraordinary uſe of wood, viz. for break- he notes the ſtrength of the winds, by o, 1, 2, 3, &c. and the quan- ing rocks for mill-ſtones. The method at the quarries is this : tity of rain, as it fell through a tunnel, in pounds and centeſimals. Having cut a rock into a cylinder, they divide that into ſeveral Phenomena of the WEATHER, October. leſs cylinders, by making holes at proper diſtances round the great one; the holes they fill with ſo many pieces of fallow wood, dried Day. Hour. | Weather. Wind. Barometer | Rain in an oven, which, in moiſt weather, becoming impregnated with the humid corpuſcules of the air, ſwell; and, like wedges, break 27 7 Fair. S.W. 29 37 or cleave the rock into ſeveral ſtones. Rain. S.W.byW.5 | 29 34 WEATHER Glaſſes are inſtruments contrived to indicate the Stormy. 29 88 O 29 ſtate or diſpoſition of the atmoſphere, as to heat, cold, gravity, moiſture, &c. to meaſure the changes befalling it in thoſe reſpects; We have ſeveral ſchemes for keeping Meteorological journals and, by thoſe means, to predict the alteration of weather, as rains, or diaries of the weather, extant in the Philoſophical Tranſac winds, ſnow, &c. Under the claſs of weather-glaſſes are com- tions, the Medical Efſays of Edinburgh, and in other books. The prehended, thermometers, hygrometers, &c. Ephemerides Ultrajectinæ may alſo be conſulted. The inſtru- WEDGE, in mechanics, the laſt of the five powers, or ſimple ments neceſſary for ſuch journal are, a barometer, thermometer, machines. For its deſcription and uſes, ſee the Syſtem, Sect. III. anemoſcope, and ombrometer. No. 5. For repreſentation of its effects and powers, ſee Plate Prognoſtics of the WEATHER. We do not here mean to ob II. and III. trude the idle, arbitrary obſervations of fanciful people upon WEED, a common name of all rank and wild herbs, that grow readers. That cloud of popular predictions from the brute world, of themſelves without particular culture, to the detriment of other which partly the fagacity, and partly the credulity, of our country uſeful herbs, among which they appear. No plants are uſeleſs in men have eſtabliſhed, we ſet aſide; as not flowing from any na themſelves; but in reſpect to the farmer they are both uſeleſs and tural, neceſſary relations, that we know of, in the things them hurtful when they come in this manner and devour the nouriſh- felves. Such is the foretelling of rain and wind from water-fowls ment deſtined for the crop of what was ſown. For the practical flocking to land, or land-fowls to the water; from birds pruning method of extirpating that pernicious weed, the thiſtle, as recom- their feathers, geeſe cackling, crows cawing loud, and flying in mended by Mr. Curtis, botaniſt, of Brompton, ſee the Syſtem of companies, ſwallows chattering and flying low, peacocks crying AGRICULTURE, Sect. XXVI. under the article PLOUGHING,&c. much, aſſes braying, deer fighting, foxes and wolves howling, All weeds are pernicious, but ſome much more ſo than others : fiſhes playing, ants and bees keeping within doors, moles caſting ſome are very miſchievous, but eaſily killed; ſome leſs hurtful, but up earth, earthworms creeping out, &c. We ſhall offer nothing with more difficulty rooted out; and ſome have both qualities to- on this head, but what has ſome viſible foundation in the nature gether. The hardeſt to kill are thoſe which grow readily from of things; and which lets fome light into the cauſe and reaſon of feed, and have roots, every part of which is qualified for becom- the weather itſelf, or diſcovers fome notable effects thereof. ing a ſtout plant in a ſhort time; the worſt are couch-graſs, coſts- 1. Then a thick dry ſky, laſting for ſome time, without cither foot, melilot, fern, and others of the like kind. fun or rain, always becomes firſt fair, then foul, i. e. it changes Some of theſe pernicious plants only affect the crop by imbibing to a fair clear ſky, before it turns to rain. This the Rev. Mr. its nouriſhment, and thus ſtarving and leſſening its increaſe ; but Clarke obſerved, who kept a regiſter of the weather for thirty there are others which add to this miſchief that of ſpoiling what years, fince put into Dr. Derham's hands by his grandſon the learn- | they leave ; theſe infect the crop with their own nauſeous ſmell, ed Dr. Samuel Clarke : he ſays, he ſcarce ever knew it to fail ; ſuch as melilot, garlic, and ſome others. The farmer finds it im- leaſt, when the wind was in any of the eaſterly points; but Dr. poſſible ever entirely to deſtroy the weeds in his lands; and the Derham has obſerved the rule to hold good, be the wind where it reaſon ſeems to be, that in ſome kinds the ſeeds will lie many years will. And the cauſe is obvious. The atmoſphere is replete with in the ground, and ſucceſſively grow, fome one year, ſome ano- vapours, which, though ſufficient to reflect and intercept the ther : fo that the deſtroying of the crop entirely for one year does fun's rays from us, yet want denſity to defcend; and while the not kill them for ſucceeding ones. The ſeed of red poppy will vapours continue in the ſame ſtate, the weather will do ſo too. lie twenty years in the ground, in a land all that time occupied Accordingly, ſuch weather is generally attended with moderate with faintfoin: and if it be, after that, ploughed for corn, they warmth, and with little or no wind to diſturb the vapours, and a will all grow, and fill the field. The ſeeds of theſe plants will heavy atmoſphere to ſuſtain them; the barometer being com never all come up in one year, becauſe they muſt have their ex- monly high. But when the cold approaches, and, by condenſing, act degrees of depth, moiſture, and covering; the ſeeds, which drives the vapours into clouds or drops, then way is made for the want any of theſe one year, lie to grow up another. The beſt fun beams; till the ſame vapours, being by farther condenſation defence the farmer has hitherto found againſt theſe enemies, is to formed into rain, fall down in drops. endeavour their deſtruction by a ſummer fallow. This, if the 2. A change in the warmth of the weather is generally followed weather be propitious, will make ſome havòc among them, but by a change of the wind. Thus, the northerly and ſoutherly it never deſtroys them entirely. If the feeds lie ſo high that the winds, commonly eſteemed the cauſes of cold or warm weather, ſummer's heat parches them up, or ſo deep that it cannot reach are really the effects of the coldneſs or warmth of the atmoſphere ; them, they do not germinate, and are by that means preſerved of which Dr. Derham aſſures us he has had ſo many confirmations, for another year. What likewiſe preſerves a very great number that he makes no doubt of it. Thus, it is common to ſee a warm of them, is their being able to bear the moiſture of a whole year ſoutherly wind ſuddenly change to the north, by the fall of ſnow without growing. Wild oats, and many other ſeeds of weeds, or hail, or to ſee the wind, in a cold froſty morning, north, when are of this kind. If you gather theſe when ripe, and fow them the ſun has well warmed the earth and air, wheel towards the in the moſt careful manner, watering them at times, and taking ſouth ; and again turn northerly or eaſterly in the cold evening. all the care of them that is neceſſary for the moſt tender plants, 3. Moſt vegetables expand their flowers and down in fun- they will not grow till the ſecond ſpring after they were ſowed, and ſhiny weather; and towards the evening, and againſt rain cloſe ſometimes not till the ſpring after that ; that is, two years and a them again ; eſpecially at the beginning of their flowering, when half after the time of putting them into the ground. It is plain, their feeds are tender and ſenſible. This is viſible enough in the from this, that no art can deſtroy theſe by fallowing, or other means, down of dandelion, and other downs; and eminently in the in one year. The common way of weeding among the young flowers of pimpernel ; the opening and ſhutting of which, Ge corn turns out to very little good ; if this be done while the weeds rard (Herb. lib. ii.) obſerves, are the countryman's weather-glaſs, are young, moſt of them are only cut or broken off near the whereby he foretels the weather of the following day. The rule ground: this, inſtead of deſtroying them, gives them new vigour, is, if the flowers are cloſe ſhut up, it betokens rain, and foul and they Noot up with many heads in the place of one, and draw weather: if they are ſpread abroad fair weather. more nouriſhment than at firſt : if, on the other hand, it is done Eft & alia (arbor in Tylis) fimilis,foliofior tamen, roſcique floris; when they are grown up, the relief comes after the diſeaſe ; for by quem noctu comprimens, aperire incipit folis exortu, meridie expan that time they have robbed the corn of all the nouriſhment, or dit. Incola dormire eum dicunt. Plin. Nat. Hift. lib. xii. cap. II. nearly all, they could. The ſtalk of trefoil, Lord Bacon obſerves, ſwells againſt rain, Hand-weeders alſo frequently do more harm in the corn, by and grows more upright: and the like may be obſerved, though treading it down, than they do good by taking out the weeds.- not fo ſenſibly, in the ſtalks of moſt other plants. He adds, that This operation ſometimes coſts the farmer twelve shillings an acre in the ſtubble-fields there is found a ſmall red flower, called by the beſide the miſchief done, and yet there remain weeds enough for country people pimpernel ; which, opening in a morning, is a fure à crop the next year from ſeeds. The method of horſe-hoeing is a indication of a fine day.... very excellent way of curing lands of this evil, ſo long as it is care- That vegetables ſhould be affected by the ſame cauſes that af fully practiſed; one of the greateſt advantages it will bring the far- fect the weather, is very conceivable; if we conſider them as ſomer, is, that no weeds will grow up but thoſe whoſe ſeeds are many hygrometers, and thermometers, conſiſting of an infinite brought in the air, and theſe are but very few in compariſon of number of tracheæ, or air veſſels ;by which they have an imme the other kind. For practical obſervations on the methods of diate communication with the air, and partake of its moiſture, heat, Horſe-Hoeing, for the purpoſe of extirpating weeds, by the Rev. &c. The tracheæ are very viſible in the leaf of the ſcabioſe, vine, James Cooke, ſee the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. XXVII. WEEK No. 149. 5Q WEI W EI WEEK, Septimana, hebdomada, in chronology, a diviſion of being ſeated at meat, as ſoon as he had eat his allowance, the in- time, compriſing ſeven days. The origin of this diviſion of weeks, creaſe of weight made his feat preponderate ; ſo that, deſcending or of computing time by ſevenths, is greatly controverted. Some to the ground, he left his table, victuals and all, out of reach. will have it to take its riſe from the four quarters or intervals of WEIGHT, Gravity, Pondus, in phyſics, a quality in natural the moon, between her changes of phaſes, which being about ſe- bodies, whereby they tend downwards, towards the centre of the ven days diſtant, gave occaſion to the diviſion. Be this as it will, earth. See GRAVITY. Or, weight may be defined, in a leſs the diviſion is certainly very ancient. The Syrians, Egyptians, The Syrians, Egyptians, limited manner, to be a power inherent in all bodies, whereby and moſt of the oriental nations, appear to have uſed it from all they tend to ſome common point, called the centre of gravity ; antiquity : though it did not get footing in the Weſt till Chriſtia and that with a greater or leſs velocity, as they are more or leſs nity brought it in: the Romans reckoned their days not by fe- denſe, or as the medium they paſs through is more or leſs rare. venths, but by ninths ; and the ancient Greeks by decads, or In the common uſe of language, weight and gravity are confi- tenths. Indeed, the Jews divided their time by weeks, but it dered as one and the ſame thing. Some authors, however, make was upon a different principle from the other eaſtern nations. God a difference between them: and hold gravity only to expreſs a himſelf having appointed them to work ſix days, and to reſt the niſus, or endeavour to deſcend: but weight an actual deſcent. ſeventh, in order to keep up the ſenſe and remembrance of the But there is room for a better diſtinction. In effect, one may creation ; which being effected in fix days, he refted the ſeventh. conceive gravity to be the quality, as inherent in the body; and Some authors will even have the uſe of weeks among the other weight, the ſame quality, exerting itſelf, either againſt an obſta- eaſtern nations, to have proceeded from the Jews ; but with lit cle, or otherwiſe. Hence, weight may be diſtinguiſhed like gra- tle appearance of probability. It is with better reaſon that others vity, into abſolute and ſpecific. vity, into abfolute and ſpecific. Sir Iſaac Newton demonſtrates, ſuppoſe the uſe of weeks, among the heathens of the Eaſt, to be that the weights of all bodies, at equal diſtances from the centre a remnant of the tradition of the creation, which they had till of the earth, are proportionable to the quantities of matter each retained with divers others. contains. Whence it follows, that the weights of bodies have This is the opinion of Grotius, de Veritat. Relig. Chrift. lib.I. not any dependence on their forms or textures ; and that all ſpaces who likewiſe proves, that not only throughout the Eaſt, but even are not equally full of matter. Hence, alſo, it follows, that the among the Greeks, I talians, Celtæ, Sclavi, and even the Romans weight of the ſame body is different, on the ſurface of different themſelves, the days were divided into weeks; and that the ſeventh parts of the earth ; becauſe its figure is not a ſphere, but a ſpheroida day was in extraordinary veneration. This appears from Jofeph. In the Philoſophical Tranſactions (No.458, p. 457, &c.) we have adv. Apion. II. Philo. de Creatione. Clem. Alexand. Strom. an account of the analogy betwixt Engliſh weights and meaſures lib. v. Though Helmodus, lib. i. cap. 84, Philoſtratus, lib. iii, by Mr. Barlow. He advances, that anciently a cubic foot of wa- cap. 13. Dion. lib. xxxviii. Tibullus, Lucian, Homer, Callima ter was aſſumed as a general ſtandard for liquids, and weighed chus, Suetonius, Herodotus, &c. who mention the ſeptenary divi 62 pounds and a half. This cubic foot multiplied by 32, gives fion of days as very ancient, ſuppoſe it to have been derived from two thouſand, the weight of a ton. And hence 8 cubic feet of the Egyptians. The days of the week were denominated by the water made a hogſhead, and four hogſheads a ton, in capacity and Jews, from the orders of their fucceffion from the fabbath. Thus, denomination, as well as weight. Þry meaſures were raiſed on the day next after the fabbath, they called the firſt of the ſabbath, the ſame model. A buſhel of wheat aſſumed as a general ſtandard the next, the ſecond of the fabbath ; and ſo of the reſt, except for all ſorts of grain, alſo weighing 62 pounds and a half. Eight the ſixth ; which they call paraſceve, or preparation of the fab of theſe buſhels made a quarter, and four quarters made a ton bath. Our anceſtors the Saxons, before their converſion to the weight. Coals were ſold by the chaldron, ſuppoſed to weigh a ton, Chriſtian faith, named the ſeven days of the week from the Sun or 2000 pounds. Hence, a ton in weight is the common ſtandard and Moon, and ſome of their deified heroes, to whom they were for liquids, wheat, and coals. If this analogy had been kept up, peculiarly conſecrated, which names we received and ſtill retain ; it would have prevented the confuſion now complained of. It thus Sunday was devoted to the Sun; Monday to the Moon; Tueſ may be reaſonably ſuppoſed that corn and other commodities, both day, according to fome, to Tuiſto or Tuisco, mentioned by Ta- dry and liquid, were firſt fold by weight, and that meaſures, for citus, but according to others, to Thyſa or Dyſa, the wife of convenience, were afterwards introduced, bearing ſome analogy Thor, and the goddeſs of juſtice; or, according to others, toTyR; to the weights before uſed. Mr. Barlow's ſcheme ſhews the rea- Wedneſday to Woden, the god of war ; Thurſday to Thor, who ſon why the word ton is applied both to weight and liquid meaſure, preſided over the air, and was ſuppoſed to govern the winds and viz. becauſe the ſame quantity of liquor is a ton, both in weight this is the ſame with Lucan's Taranis, ſimilar to the and meaſure. Hence the word quarter may alſo be explained. Welch word for thunder ; Friday to Friga or_Fræa, the wife of Biſhop Fleetwood (Chron. Pret. p. 72.) gueffed that it ſignified Thor, and the goddeſs of peace and plenty ; and Saturday to Sea the fourth part of ſome weight, and not of any meaſure. And it ter, called alſo Orodo, to whom they prayed for protection, free feems plainly to ſignify the fourth part of a ton, or 2000 pounds. dom, and concord, and for the fruits of the earth. The origin Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol. ix. p: 489. of the laſt appellation, however, is doubtful ; as ſome have ob Weight, in mechanics, is any thing to be raiſed, fuſtained, or ſerved, that the name Seater is not mentioned by any writer be moved by a machine; or any thing that in any manner reſiſts the fure Verſtegan. See Verſtegan's Reſtitution of decayed Intelli motion to be produced. See Motion, &c. In all machines, gence, p. 68. Junii Etym. Angl. nnd Mallet's North. Ant. there is a natural ratio between the weight and the moving power. vol. i. p. 91, &c. If the weight be increaſed, the power muſt be fo too; that is, To find the accompliſhment of Daniel's prophecy of the Mef the wheels, &c. are to be multiplied, and fo the time increaſed, ſiah, the deſtruction, rebuilding, &c. of the temple, chap. ix. or the velocity diminiſhed. See the Syſtem of MECHANICS, ver. 24, &c. the critics generally agree to underſtand weeks of Section I, and II. years, inſtead of weeks of days. Accordingly, Dr. Prideaux, fix Weight, in commerce, denotes a body of a known weight ing the end of theſe weeks at the death of Chriſt, in the year of appointed to be put in the balance againſt other bodies, whoſe the Julian period 4746, and in the Jewiſh month Niſan, dates weight is required. Theſe weights are uſually of lead, iron, or their commencement in the month Niſan, in the year of the Ju- braſs ; though in divers parts of the Eaſt Indies they are common lian period 4256, which was the very year and month in which flints, and, in ſome places, a ſort of little beans. The ſecurity Ezra had his commiſſion from Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of of commerce depending, in a great meaſure, on the juſtneſs of Perſia, for his return to Jeruſalem, there to reſtore the church theſe weights, there is ſcarce any nation that has not taken pro- and fate of the Jews. And thus he finds, that from the one per meaſures to prevent the falſification thereof. The fureſt means period to the other, there were exactly 70 weeks of years, or are the ftamping, or marking them by proper officers, from ſome 490 years. Connect. vol. ji. p. 381, &c. original or ſtandard, depoſited where recourſe may be had to Paſſion Week, or the Holy WEEK, is the laſt week in Lent, them. This expedient is very ancient ; and many authors are wherein the church celebrates the myſtery of our Saviour's death of opinion, that what among the Jews was called Mekel of the and paſſion. This is alſo ſometimes called the great week. Its Sanētuary, was not any particular kind of weight different from inſtitution is generally referred, by both Proteſtants and Papiſts, the common one; but a ſtandard original weight, preſerved by to the times of the apoſtles. All the days of that week were held the prieſts in the fanctuary. as faſts: no work was done on them; no juſtice was diſtributed ; Thus, alſo, in England, the ſtandard of weights is kept in but the priſoners were ordinarily fet at liberty, &c. even pleaſures, the exchequer, by a particular officer, called the clerk, or comp- otherwiſe allowed, were at this time prohibited. The ofculum troller of the market. charitatis was now forborn: and divers mortifications practiſed Moſt nations wherein there is any thing of commerce flouriſh- by all forts of people, and even the emperors themſelves. ing, have their particular weights: and even fometimes different WEIGHING Chair, a machine contrived by Sanctorius, to weights in the different provinces, and for the different kinds of determine the quantity of matter carried off from the body, and commodities. The diverſity of weights makes one of the moſt that of food taken at a meal; and to warn the feeder when he had perplexing articles in commerce; but it is irremediable. The eat his quantum. That ingenious author, having obſerved, with reducing of the weights of different nations to one, is not only many others, that a great part of our diſorders aroſe from the ex impracticable, but even the reduction of thoſe of the ſame na- ceſs in the quantity or foods, more than in the quality thereof; as tion: witneſs the vain attempts made for reducing the weights alſo how much a fixed portion, once well adjuſted, would, if kept in France, by ſo many of their kings, Charlemagne, Philip the to regularly, contribute to health, bethought himſelf of an expe- Long, Louis XI. Francis I. Henry II. Charles IX. Henry III. dient to that purpoſe. The reſult was the weighing chair: which Louis XIV. was a chair fixed at one arm of a ſort of balance, wherein a perſon Weight of the Air is equal to the elaſticity thereof. There clouds; are WE I W E L Ini are various ways of eſtimating the weight of the air, for which which commonly happen to animals under or near the athletic fee the Syſtem of AEROLOGY, Section I. weights. Hence, horſes fed upon dry food are much more ſub- The Weight of Sea Water is different in different climates.ject to fevers and apoplexies than horſes fed upon grafs. Robin- Mr. Boyle having furniſhed a learned phyſician, going on a voy ſon's Diſſertation, p. 117, &c. age to America, with an hydroſtatical balance, and recommended WELD, or WOLD, a plant uſed by dyers, to give a yellow him to obſerve, from time to time, the difference of weight he colour, and for this reaſon called, in Latin, luteolu, of luteus, yel- might meet withal, this account was returned him : that the ſea low. water increaſed in weight, the nearer he came to the line, till he This plant grows wild on dry grounds ; but it is alſo cultivated arrived at a certain degree of latitude, as he remembers, about the for uſe. It is a very rich commodity among the dyers, and is 30th ; beyond which, it retained the ſame ſpecific weight, till he the more advantageous to the farmer, as it may be raiſed on very came to Barbadoes. Philof. Tranf. NO. 18. poor land, at a very ſmall expence. Moderately fertile land does The weight of a cubical inch of good brandy, rum, or other beſt for it; but it will grow upon the moſt barren ; and if this be proof fpirits, is 235,7 grains ; therefore if a true inch cube of but dry and warm, it will require no tillage. The feed may be any metal weighs 235,7 grains lefs in ſpirits than in air, it ſhews, fown with barley or oats, and only harrowed in with bruſh or the fpirits are proof; if it loſes leſs of its aerial weight in ſpirits, furze, or rolled down with a wooden roller. It is a very they are above proof; if it loſes more, they are under ; for the ſmall feed, and the greateſt difficulty is fowing it even. It is a better the ſpirits are, they are the lighter; and the worſe the flow grower; a gallon of feed is fufficient for an acre : and heavier. As all bodies expand with heat and contract with cold, though it makes but little progreſs the firſt fummer, it begins to in different degrees, the ſpecific gravities of bodies are not pre grow after the corn is cut, and the next year yields a good crop. ciſely the fame in ſummer as in winter. It has been found, that However, though weld will grow upon very poor foil, the crop a cubic inch of good brandy is to grains heavier in winter than in will be in proportion to the goodneſs of the ſoil. ſummer ; as much ſpirit of nitre, 20 grains ; vinegar 6 grains ; The beſt way to cultivate it is to ſow it without any other crop. and ſpring water 3. Hence it is moſt profitable to buy ſpirits in In the beginning or middle of Auguſt, the ground which, unleſs winter, and ſell them in ſummer, ſince they are always bought it be poor, wants no dung, being ploughed and harrowed fine, the and fold by meaſure. It has been found, that 32 gallons of fpi- ſeeds ſhould be ſown in proportion of a gallon to an acre. rits in winter will make 33 in ſummer. Ferguſon's Lect. p. 98. about two months the plants will come up, ſo as to be diſtin- 4to. See HYDROMETER. guiſhed from weeds; and ſhould be hoed like turnips, leaving WEIGHT of the Human Body. It is to be obſerved, that the them about fix inches diſtant. If this hoeing be performed in dry heat and dryneſs of the air both lefſen the weight of the body, and weather, the plants will be clean from weeds till the ſpring ; in the cold and moiſture of the air both increaſe this weight. See March they ſhould be hoed again ; and if weeds appear, a third MOISTURE. Much ſleep, much food, and little exerciſe, are the time about the beginning of May. The beſt time to pull the principal things which increaſe the weight of the body, and make weld for uſe is when it begins to flower, though moſt people ſtay animals grow fat. Confequently, if the weight of the body be till the ſeeds are ripe, being unwilling to loſe the ſeeds: but Mr. too great for a good and uninterrupted health, it may be leffened Miller adviſes to fow a ſmall piece of land to remain for a produce by diminiſhing ſleep and food, and by increaſing exerciſe. On of new ſeeds. By drawing off the crop early, as towards the lat- the contrary, if the weight of the body be too little for good health, ter end of June, the ground may be ſown with wheat the fame it may be increaſed by adding to food and ſleep, and by leſſening feaſon ; and the plants at this time will be in the greateſt vigour, exerciſe: and the food muſt be increaſed chiefly by increaſing and afford a greater quantity of the dye. drink and liquid nouriſhment. For the diſcharges are commonly When the plants are pulled, they may be fet up in ſmall hand- Jeſs from drink and liquid nouriſhment, than from dry and folid fulls to dry in the field, and when dry enough, tied up in bundles food. There is but one weight under which a body can enjoy and houſed dry ; care being taken to houſe them looſely, that the the beſt and uninterrupted health, and that weight muſt be ſuch, air may paſs between them to prevent their fermenting. That that perfpiration and urine may be nearly equal at all ſeaſons of which is left for feeds ſhould be pulled as ſoon as the ſeeds are ripe, the year; for by this means the body will be uniformly drained of and ſet up to dry; and then beat out for uſe ; for if the plants are its moiſture; the inward parts by urine, and the more ſuperficial left too long, the ſeeds will ſcatter. Weld is much cultivated in parts by perfpiration, without any irregular and unnatural dif- Kent, for the uſe of the London dyers. With the help of pot- charges, and its moving weight will continue nearly the ſame at aſhes, it yields a deep lemon colour ; but either by the largeneſs all ſeaſons of the year. Dr. Bryan Robinſon thinks this weight of the proportion put into the liquor, or by taking from it a ſtrona may be ſettled by his obſervations in his Treatiſe on the Food and ger or ſlighter tincture, it ſerves to dye all colours between white Diſcharges of Human Bodies. A quick increaſe of weight in hu and a deep yellow. Its dye will hold well, except againſt urine man bodies often produces diſtempers ; the beſt way to prevent and tartarous liquors. Mr. Hellotobſerves, in his Art de Teindre, this increaſe is either by faſting or exerciſe. But amidſt a variety that for dyeing with weld, the beſt proportions of alum and tartar, of diſturbing cauſes, nothing ſo effectually prevents ſuch an in for the preparatory liquor are four parts of alum, and one of tar- creaſe of weight as a very exact and regular diet, which may pre- tar, to fixteen of the wool ; and that the wool, prepared with vent the diſcharges from running into irregularities and diſpropor- theſe, is to be boiled again with five or fix times its quantity of tions to one another. See Dr. Bryan Robinſon on the Food and weld: that for light ſhades, it is cuſtomary to diminiſh the alum, Diſcharges of Human bodies, p. 89. ſeq. Men and other ani and omit the tartar; and that, in this caſe, the colour is more mals of extraordinary weight, are often recorded in the writings ſlowly imbibed, and proves leſs durable. For further particu- of the learned. See Phil. Tranf. No. 479. p. 102. lars reſpecting the uſes of this plant in dyeing, ſee the Treatiſe Athletic WEIGHT, in the animal æconomy, is that weight of the on DYEING. body under which an animal has the greateſt ſtrength and activity. WELDING Heut, a degree of heat which ſmiths give their Dr. Robinſon thinks this happens when the weight of the heart, iron in the forge, when there is occaſion to double up iron, and and the proportion of the weight of the heart to the weight of the to weld a work in the doublings; ſo that the iron ſhould grow body, are greateſt. For the ſtrength of an animal is meaſured by into a lump thick enough for the purpoſe. It is alſo uſed when the ſtrength of its muſcles, and the ſtrength of the muſcles is mea two bars of iron are to be joined together at the ends, to make a fured by the ſtrength of the heart. Alſo the activity of an animal Alſo the activity of an animal length. See IRON. is meaſured by the weight of the heart, in proportion to the weight WELL, a hole dug underground, below the level or ſurface of of the body. If the weight of the body of an animal be greater the water collected in the ſtrata. It is uſually of a cylindrical fi- than its athletic weight, it may be reduced to that weight by eva gure, and commonly walled with ſtone, and lined with mortar. cuations, dry food, and exerciſe. Theſe leſſen the weight of the Mr. Blondel informs the Royal Academy of Sciences of a device body by wafting its fat, and leſſening its liver, and they increaſe they uſe, in the lower Auſtria, which is encompaſſed with the the weight of the heart, by increaſing the quantity and motion of mountains of Stiria, to fill their wells with water ; viz. that the blood ; fo that by leſſening the weight of the body, and by in they dig in the earth, to the depth of twenty or twenty-five creafing that of the heart, they will ſoon reduce the animal to feet, till they come to a clammy earth, which they bore into, its athletic weight. continuing the operation till the water breaks forcibly out; which Thus a game cock, in ten days, is reduced to its athletic water, in all probability, comes from the neighbouring moun- weight, and prepared for fighting. If the food which, with tains, in fubterraneous channels. Caſſini obferves, that in many the evacuations and exerciſe, reduced the cock to its athletic places of Modena and Bologna, they make themſelves wells by weight in ten days, be continued any longer, the cock will loſe the fame artifice. Dr. Derham adds, that the like has been his ſtrength and activity. It is known by experience, that a cock fometimes found in England, particularly in Effex. In the Phi- cannot ſtand above twenty-four hours at his athletic weight, and lofophical Tranſactions we are informed, by Mr. Norwood, that that he has even changed for the worſe in twelve hours. When in Bermudas, wells of freſh water are dug within twenty yards he is in the beſt condition, his head is of a glowing red colour, his of the ſea, and even leſs, which riſe and fall with the tides, as neck thick, and his thigh thick and firm'; the day after, his com the fea itſelf docs. He adds, that, in digging wells in that plexion is leſs glowing, his neck thinner, and his thigh fofter; iſland, they dig till they come almoſt to a level with the furface and the third day his thigh will be very ſoft and flaccid. Four game of the ſea ; and then they certainly find either freſh water, or falt; cocks reducing to their atheltic weight, were killed, and found to if it prove freſh, yet, by digging two or three feet deeper, they al- be very full of blood, with large hearts, large muſcles, and no ways come at ſalt water. If it be fandy ground, they uſually find fat. It is to be obſerved, that the atheltic weight of an animal is freſh ; but if hard lime-ſtone rock, the water is commonly falt, a very dangerous weight. Fevers and apoplexies are the diſorders or brackiſh. Lay-well, near Torbay, ebbs and flows very often ho every WHA W H E p. 50, &c. never could have belonged to the human body at all. every hour ; though ſomewhat oftener in winter than in ſummer. Merr. Dr. Oliver obſerves, its flux and reflux fumetimes return every Acad. Par. 1727. See GIANT. minute; though, at other times, not above twenty-fix or twenty Spermaceti WHALE. See PHYSETER, and SPERMACETI. eight times in an hour. Philof. Tranſ No. 104. See on the ſubjects of the preceding articles, Crantz's Hiſt, of WELL, in the military art, denotes a depth which the miner Greenland, vol. i. p. 106, &c. Pennant's Brit. Zool. vol. iii. finks into the ground, from which he runs out branches or galleries, Phil. Tranſ. Abr. vol. viii. p. 424, &c. either to prepare a mine, or find out, and diſappoint the enemy's WHEAT, in botany, a Genus of the Triandria claſs. Its cha- mine. See the Article WAR. racters are theſe: it has an oval chaffy empalement, with two WEN, in ſurgery, a tumor, or excreſcence, growing on divers valves, which incloſe two or three flowers; the petals have a dou- parts of the body ; conſiſting of a cyſtis, or bag, filled with ſome ble valve, as large as the empalement; the outer valve is bellied peculiar matter. Wens are all, uſually, of the like colour with the and acute-pointed, the inner is plain; the flowers have three hair- reſt of the body; they begin from very little, and grow gradually. like ſtamina, terminated by oblong forked ſummits, and a top- They are not dangerous, but generally laſt a long while. Some- Thaped germen, ſupporting two hairy reflexed ſtyles, crowned by times they degenerate into abfceffes. The cure is, to cut off the feathered ſtigmas; the germen afterward becomes an oblong oval cyſtis by the root, which is always narrow. In the Philoſophical feed, obtufe at both ends, convex at one ſide, and channelled on the Tranſactions we have an account of a very extraordinary wen, on other, wrapped up in the petal of the flower. Miller enumerates the lower jaw of one Alexander Palmer, of Keith in Scotland. It four, and Linnæus eleven ſpecies. was twenty-ſeven years in growing; at length its enormous bulk, Buck WHEAT, in botany, a ſpecies of Polygonum in the Lin- and the pain it gave him, together with its emaciating him exceed næan ſyſtem. Buck wheat is cultivated in many parts of Enga ingly, determined him to have it cut off. Dr. Bowers affures us, land, and is a very great improvement of dry barren lands. The its baſis was five inches over, which ſhould ſeem too large for the beſt ſeaſon for fowing it is in May, and one buſhel of the whole face; and that, with blood and all, it weighed one or two feed is enough for an acre ; the ground is to be drefſed for it ex- and twenty pounds. Its form was ſpheroidal; and, when meaſured, actly as for barley ; and if the ſoil is not very clear, it will yield a it was thirty four inches about one way, and twenty eight another. very large increaſe, as fifty buſhels an acre, and is excellent food It ſeemed to be an atheroma, being a glandulous ſubſtance, with for hogs and pouitry. The flour of it is alſo very white, and, ſeveral large blood veſſels in it, and hair growing on it: it was as mixed with wheat flour, is eaten in ſome countries, and when ſenſible as any other part. The hæmorrhage, after cutting it off, broken in a mill, makes a fine addition to corn for horſes, mak- was ſtopped by the vitriolic powder ; and, the ordinary dreſſing ing them foon grow fat. It is commonly late in the ſeaſon before being uſed, a cure was completed in ſix weeks time. it is ripe, but it is in no danger from ſtanding; when it is cut, it WEST, accidens, in coſmography, one of the cardinal points of is uſually laid many days to dry before it is houſed. Beſides thefe the horizon ; diametrically oppoſite to the eaſt. Weſt is ſtrictly uſes, ſome people fow it very thick, and ſuffer it to grow up till it defined, the interſection of the prime vertical with the horizon, on is near flowering, they then plough it in, and it makes a very that ſide which the fun fets. good land for wheat or rye. But the beſt way is, juſt before it West, in aſtronomy, is chiefly uſed for the place, in or towards bloſſoms, to graze it with cattle, bloſſoms, to graze it with cattle, cípecially with milch-cows, which the ſun or ſtars fink, under the horizon. Thus, we ſay, the which it cauſes to yield a great deal of milk, and that ſuch as af- Sun, Mars, &c. are in the weſt. The point in which the ſun ſets fords very good cheeſe and butter. It is food for the cattle in the when in the equator, is particularly called the equinoctial weſt, or very drieſt time, when all the graſs in common paſtures is burnt point of true weſt. up; and proves a very great improvement for the land. For this West, and Western, in geography, are applied to certain purpoſe they fow it thicker than for others, ſometimes three or four countries, &c. ſituate towards the point of fun-ſetting with reſpect buſhels on an acre. For a more copious account of the different to certain others. Thus, the empire of Rome, anciently, and of ſorts of wheat, with the methods of fowing and cultivation, ſee Germany, at preſent, is called the empire of the Weſt, or Weſtern em- the Syſtem of AGRICULTURE, Sect. 111. pire, in oppoſition to that of Conſtantinople, which is called the WHEEL, in mechanics, a ſimple machine, conſiſting of a empire of the Eaſt. The Latin or Roman Church is called the round piece of wood, metal, or oiher matter, which revolves on weſtern church in oppoſition to the Greek Church. The French, an axis, The wheel is one of the principal mechanic Spaniards, I talians, &c. are called weſtern nations, in reſpect to the has place in moſt engines; in effect it is of an affemblage of wheels Aliatics; and America, the Weſt Indies, in reſpect of the Eaſt that moſt of our chief engines are compoſed. Witneſs clocks, Indies. mills, &c. Its form is various, according to the motion it is to WET Couch, a term uſed by the malſters for one of the prin have, and the uſe it is to anſwer. By this it is diſtinguiſhed into ciple articles of malt-making. In making malt the uſual way ſimple and dented. See the Syſtem of MECHANICS, Sect. III. is to ſoak the grain in water two or three days, till it becomes and Plate III. plump and ſwelled, and the water is brown ; the water is then Perſian WHEEL. See the Syſtem of HYDRAULICS, and Hy- drained away, and the barley removed to a foor, where it is DROSTATICS, Part II. Art 7. and Fig. 21, in the Plate annexed thrown into a wet couch, that is, an even heap of about two feet to the Svíteni. thick. In this heap the barley ſpontaneouſly heats, and begins to WHEEL is alſo the name of a kind of puniſhment, which great grow, ſhooting out firſt the radicle, and, if ſuffered to continue criminals are put to in divers countries. In France their affallins, growing, ſoon after the blade; but at the eruption of the radicle, parricides, &c. were, previous to the revolution, condemned to the the proceſs is to be ſtopped ſhort, by ſpreading the wet couch thin wheel; i.e, to have their bones firſt broken with an iron bar on a ſcaf- over the fijor, and turning it once every four or five hours for two fold, and then to be expoſed and left to expire on the circumference of days, laying it thicker each time; after this it is thrown into a large a wheel. In Germany they break their bones firſt on the wheel itſelf. heap, and there fuffered to grow hot of itſelf: and afterwards ſpread This cruel puniſhment was unknown to the ancients, asis obſerved abroad again and cooled, and then thrown upon the kiln to be dried by Cujas. It is not certain who was the inventor. Its firſt in- criſp, without ſcorching. Shaw's Lectures, p. 186. trọdu&tion was in Germany. It was, indeed, but rarely practiſe i WHALE, in aſtronomy, one of the ſouthern conſtellations. any where elſe, till the time of Francis I. of France ; who by a See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. and Plate VI. edict in the year 1534, appointed it to be inflicted on robbers on the Whale, cete, in the Linnæan ſyſtem, the ſeventh order in the highway. Richelet dates the edict in the year 1538, and quotes claſs of Mammalia; the characters of which are, that the animals | Brodæus, Miſcell. lib. ii. cap. 1o. of this order have breathing apertures on the head, pectoral fins, the Wheel Animals, in vermeology, a Genus of the zoophytes, tail placed horizontally, and no claws. The order includes four which have an apparatus orarms for taking their prey. This appa- genera, viz. monodon, or ſea-unicorn, balana, or whale, phyſeter, ratus has been ſuppoſed, by miſcroſcopical writers, to be a kind of and delphinus, comprehending the dolphin, porpeſſe, and gram wheels.—The wheel-animal,deſcribed by Mr. Baker, has two feem- pus. The genus balana, or whale, is diſtinguiſhed by having ing wheels, with a great many teeth or notches, coming from its head horny laminæ in the upper jaw, inſtead of teeth, and a double fil and turning round as it were, on an axis. On the leaſt touch, this tula, or pipe in the head; it includes four ſpecies. The anatomy animalcula draws its wheel into its body into the heath; but when or the bones of the whale has been ſo little underſtood, that there every thing is quiet, throws them out and works them again. have been many very great errors in regard to ſuch of them as have In order to find theſe animalcules, chooſe fuch roots of duck- been at times found foſſile, or buried in the earth among the teeth weed as are long and proceed from ſtrong old plants, for the young of elephants, and the remains of teſtaceous and other animals. The roots ſeldom afford any: they ſhould not be covered with that moſt frequent and moſt ridiculous of all the wrong opinions about rough matter which is frequently found about them, nor any way theſe, is their having originally belonged to creatures of the human tending to decay, as they will often be. In the water found re- fpecies; yet many, even among the more intelligent part of the maining in the leaden pipes, or gutters on the tops of houſes, world, have taken them for the remains of giants. The vertebræ of there are alſo found great numbers of theſe wheel-animals. Thele a whale have been miſtaken for thoſe of a giant, and a part of its are of a different ſpecies from the former ; and when the water fins for a hand, and ſo of the reſt. While the world, more ready dries away, they contract their bodies into a globular or oval fi- to ſpread the marvel, than to enquire into the truth, have made gure, and are then of a reddiſh colour, and remain mixed with computations of the height of a man to whom bones of that fize the dirt, growing together in a lump as hard as clav. This, when- muſt have belonged, and from their proportion in regard to thoſe ever it is put in water, in half an hour's time diſcovers the ani- of the common human ſize, lave found the giant who poſſeſſed mal's living again, and as briſk as ever, and they have been found them muſt have been ninety or a hundred feet high ; much leſs to be living in this manner, after the matter had been kept diy pains in comparative anatomy would have taught them that they twenty months. It ſhould fcem from this that as the waler drics powers. It W HI WHI and, of up, their pores become ſhut in the manner of thoſe of ſuch ani WHIRL Wind, a wind that riſes ſuddenly, and is exceeding mals as remain torpid for the winter ; and that when they find rapid and impetuous, when riſen, but is foon ſpent. water come on again from rain, they then unfold themſelves, and It is, however, highly probable that all theſe violent motions of live and feed as long as it laſts. For deſcription of the different the air are ultimately owing to the emiſſion of electric mátter from kinds of animalcules, fee MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS; for repre- the earth. It is mentioned, as a certain ſign of an approaching ſentation, fee Plate I. hurricane in the Weſt Indies, that the ſea-water becomes exceed WHEY, the ſerum, or watery part of milk. In many diſor- | ing clear and tranſparent of a ſudden; after which it ſeems to ders of the human body, where the ſtomach will not bear milk, þoil, and the waves begin to riſe, tho' there is not the leaſt wind. or when it is not proper, for other reaſons, whey may be given Both theſe phenomena can be accounted for on no other principle with great ſucceſs. We have a diſſertation of Fred. Hoffman on than that of a quantity of electric matter attempting to get out from this ſubject, De Saluberrima ſeri Lactis Virtute. Oper. tom. vi. the earth. Now, though hurricanes are not preciſely of the na- p.9. This author recommends a particular kind of ſerum or ture of whirlwinds, as not having a circular motion, it is highly whey, made by evaporating milk to a dryneſs, and mixing the re probable that the latter alſo are occaſioned ſomehow or other by a fiduum with water. See MILK. ſimilar cauſe. A ſtream of electric matter iſſuing with violence There are various methods of making whey, commonly known. into the atmoſphere from any part of the earth, will cauſe a kind That with oranges is very agreeable, and much recommended by of vacuum in the atmoſphere directly above that place, Dr. Cheyne, in his Nat. Method of curing Diſeaſes. conſequence; a whirlwind or water-ſpout, by the air ruſhing in on Muſtard WHEY is made by boiling of bruiſed muſtard ſeed, all fides to ſupply the vacuum: If this is the true principle on an ounce and a half, in milk and water, of each a pint, till the which theſe phenomena depend, then we are ſure that there never curd is perfectly ſeparated, and ſtraining the whey through a cloth. was any hurricane or whirlwind ſo violent as to remove an ob- This, ſays Dr. Buchan, is the moſt elegant, and by no means the ſtacle of the ſize of only one cubic inch, provided that was ſup- leaft efficacious, method of exhibiting muſtard ; it warms and in- | ported by a power equivalent to 15 pounds ; for this is the utmoſt vigorates the habit, and promotes the different ſecretions. Hence, force of the atmoſphere when ruſhing into a perfect vacuum, in the low ſtate of nervous fevers, it will often ſupply the place which never could take place in the centre of a whirlwind or wa- of wine : it is alſo of uſe in the chronic rheumatiſm, palſy, dropſy, ter-ſpout. Indeed, notwithſtanding the dreadful effects ſometimes &c. The doſe is a tea-cup-full four or five times a day, which obſerved from hurricanes and whirlwinds, we ſhall eaſily perceive may be ſweetened with a little ſugar. that the utmoſt of their power always falls very far ſhort of this. Scorbutic Whey is made by boiling half a pint of the ſcorbu The diminution of the ſpecific gravity of the air by only 4 in the tic juices in a quart of cow's milk. The ſcorbutic plants are middle of the column, would produce ſuch an afflux of air from bitter oranges, brook-lime, garden fcurvy-grafs, and water-creſſes. all quarters, that an obſtacle preſenting a ſurface of one foot ſquare WHIGS, a party or faction, in England, oppoſite to the to would require a force of 504 pounds to prevent it from being car- ries. The origin of the names of theſe two factions is very ob ried away ; which ſcarce the ſtrongeſt walls that can be built by fcure. If ſome little trivial circumſtance or adventure, which ef- human art could reſiſt. Nay, even the tenth part of this, or the capes the knowledge of mankind, gives name to a party, which diminution of the gravity of the atmoſphere by oth part, would afterwards becomes famous, poſterity labours in vain to find the produce a preſſure of upwards of 50 pounds on every ſquare foot original of ſuch a name : it ſearches the ſources, forms conjec- of ſurface, which it is to be doubted whether any of our common tures, invents reaſons, and ſometimes, indeed, meets the truth, houſes could refift. but always without knowing it aſſuredly. Thus, in France, the As this degree of rarefaction in the atmoſphere would only pro- Calviniſts are called Hugonots ; yet no body was ever able cer- duce a deſcent of about įths of an inch in the barometer, it may tainly to aſſign the cauſe of that appellation.' Whig is a Scottiſh, ſeem wonderful why the moſt violent whirlwinds do not take place and ſome ſay, an Iriſh word, literally ſignifying whey. Tory is at thoſe times when the mercury defcends two or more inches, another Iriſh word ſignifying a robber or highwayman. Under the which deſcents are by no means unfrequent. But here it is to be reign of king Charles II. while his brother, then duke of York, was remembered, that, by whatever means this deſcent of the baro- obliged to retire into Scotland, there were two parties formed in meter is occaſioned, by a certain expanſive power in the rarefied that country. That of the duke, which was ſtrongeſt, perſecuted place of the atmoſphere, the air is prevented from ruſhing in ed- the other, and frequently obliged them to fly into the mountains dies, and forming the whirlwind. Now, in the caſe of electric and woods ; where thoſe unhappy fugitives had often no other ſub matter eſcaping from the earth, aſcending into the high regions of ſiſtence for a long time but cows milk. Hence they called theſe the atmoſphere, and carrying part of the air along with it, we ſec their adverſaries tories ; q. d. robbers; and the tories, upbraiding that there could be no expanſion, but on the contrary, a continued them with their unhappineſs, from the milk on which they lived, ſuction ; and, if the electric ſtream ſhould happen to be ſtopped called them whigs. From Scotland the two names came over in one place, and break out in another, the ſpout or whirlwind with the duke into England. Others give a different origin and would immediately vaniſh in the one place, and appear in the other, etymology of the two words, for which fee Tories. as is often obſerved in whirlwinds and water-ſpouts. Its progreſ- Biſhop Burnet gives another etymology of the term whigs. five motion might be owing to the electric current perpetually The fouth-weſt countries of Scotland, he fays, are ſupplied with fhifting its place ; in which caſe the whirlwind would conſtantly corn from Leith ; and from a word whigham uſed by the carriers follow it, for the reaſons already given. in driving their horſes, all that drove were called whiggamors, and Some kinds of whirlwinds move with a ſlow motion, and are by contraction whigs. He adds, that in the year 1648, after the injurious only by their vortex ; while others ſeem to do miſchief news of the defeat of duke Hamilton, who was charged with be as well by their progeſſive as their whirling motion. Of this ing a confederate with the malignants, or royal party, in England, kind are thoſe called typhons; which by their frequently follow- the miniſters animated their people to riſe, and march to Edin- ing the courſe of rivers, ſeem thus alſo to diſcover their electrical burgh: they came up marching each at the head of his pariſh, origin. Of the deſtructive effects of theſe, we have an inſtance with an un-heard-of fury, praying and preaching all the way as in what happened at Charleſtown, in South Carolina, on the they came. The marquis of Argyle and his party came and iſt of June, 1761. It was firſt obſerved about noon, on land, headed them. This was called the whiggamoor's inroad ; and ever upwards of 50 miles weſt-by-fouth of Charleſtown, and deſtroyed after, all that oppoſed the court were contemptuouſly called whigs; ſeveral houſes, &c. as it paſſed along, in many places making wide and from Scotland the term was brought into England. Burnet's avenues through the woods, from whence every tree and ſhrub Hift. of his Own Times, vol. i. p. 43. For the diſtinguiſhing was torn up, and great branches of trees were driven about in principles and characters of the whigs, ſee TORIES. the column as it paſſed along. It directed its courſe to Aſhley WHIRL-POOL, an eddy, vortex, or gult, where the water river, down which it came with ſurpriſing velocity, in its appear- is continually turning round. Theſe in rivers are very common, ance reſembling a column of ſmoke or vapour, whoſe motion was from various accidents, and are uſually very trivial, and of little very irregular and tumultuous. Its momentum was ſo great, that conſequence. In the ſea they are more rare, but more dangerous. Athley river was ploughed to the bottom, and the channel laid Sibbald has related the effects of a very remarkable marine whirl- bare. As it came down this river, it made a conſtant noiſe like pool among the Orcades, which might prove very dangerous to thunder'; its diameter being computed about 300 fathoms. It was ſtrangers, though it is of no conſequence to the people who are met at White Point by another of the ſame kind, which came uſed to it. This is not fixed to any particular place, but appears down Cooper's river, but with inferior ſtrength; however, on in various parts of the limits of the ſea among thoſe iſlands, their meeting together, the agitation of the air was much greater, Wherever it appears, it is very furious, and boats, &c. would in- while the clouds, which were driving in all directions to the place, evitably be drawn in and periſh with it; but the people who navi- ſeemed to be precipitated and whirled round with incredible velo- gate them are prepared for it, and always carry an empty veſſel, a city. It then fell upon the ſhipping in the road, entirely deſtroyed log of wood, a large bundle of ſtraw, or ſome ſuch thing, in the fome, and damaged others, being ſcarce three minutes in its paf- boat with them; as ſoon as they perceive the whirl-pool, they ſage, though the diſtance was near two leagues. In that ſhort toſs this within its vortex, keeping themſelves out ; this ſubſtance, time, it did damage to the amount of 20,000l. and, had not its di- whatever it be, is immediately received in the centre, and carried rection been altered by that guſt which came down Cooper's river. under water ; and as ſoon as this is done, the ſurface of the place it muſt have totally deſtroyed Charleſtown, as no obſtacle whatever where the whirl-pool was, becomes ſmooth, and they row over it ſeemed capable of reſiſting its fury. It is obſervable, that whirl- with ſafety; and in about an hour they ſee the vortex begin again winds do not ariſe with all their fury at once, but increaſe in in ſome other place, uſually about a mile diſtant from the fir ft. ſtrength as they go along. Dr. Franklin relates, that he once rode Sibbald's Prodr. Hift. Scoti. for a conſiderable way by the ſide of one which had but newly ariſen No. 150. SR W HI W H I men. a ariſen, and could ſcarce lift up anv thing but duſt, its vortex imbibe rays of all kinds and colours, and the latter reflect all. being only a few inches in diameter ; but, as it went along, the Thus, black Thus, black paper is ſooner put into a flame, by a burning glaſs, ſtrength and diameter conſtantly increaſed, till at laſt as it began than white ; and hence black cloths, hung up by the dyers in the to take up and whirl round large branches of trees, it became | ſun, dry ſooner than white ones. dangerous for him to accompany it any longer. WHITES, the popular name of a diſorder incident to wo- The Doctor, in his Phyſical and Meteorological Obſervations, See FLUOR albus. read to the Royal Society in 1756, ſuppoſes a whirl-wind and a WHITENING of bones, for a ſkeleton. See Bone. water-ſpout to proceed from the ſame caufe ; their only difference WHITENING of cloth. See BLEACHING. being, that the latter paſſes over the water and the former over WHITENING, or Bleaching. For the uſual methods of the land. This opinion is corroborated by the obſervations of M. bleaching woollen, ſtuffs, linens, &c. fee BLEACHING. de la Fryme, and many others, who have remarked the appear Since the inſertion of this article, we have been favoured with the ances and effects of both to be the ſame. They have both a pro- following new mode of bleaching of muſlins, and fine cottons, &c. greſſive as well as a circular motion ; they generally riſe after calms as practiſed by the whitſters in Lancaſhire, which we here preſent and great heats, and occur moſt frequently in the warmer latitudes: to our readers, in conformity to our plan of attending to every the wind blows every way from a large ſurrounding ſpace both to new improvement in the liberal and mechanical arts. the water-ſpout and whirl-wind; and the water-ſpout has, by its After taking the muſlins, &c. from the looms, they are well progreſſive motion, paſſed from the ſea to the land, and produced mill-waſhed, to clear them of the ſoap, ſize, and dirt ; then bucked all the phenomena and effects of a whirl-wind : ſo that there is no in the common way, afterwards waſhed and put into the ſowring reaſon to doubt their being meteors ariſing from the fame general ciſtern, filled with water, acidulated with oil of vitriol, in the cauſe, and explicable upon the ſame principles furniſhed by elec- proportion of two ounces to a gallon. When the cloth is run trical experiments and diſcoveries. See HURRICANE. dry, it is put into a leaden ciſtern that contains chymical bleach- For Dr. Franklin's ingenious method of acounting for both ing liquor, which has the fingular property of imbibing all the oily theſe phenomena, ſee his Letters and Papers, &c. vol. i. p. 191, particles left in the cloth. In a few hours it becomes perfectly &c. p. 216, &c. white, but muſt be ſouſed and well waſhed, and, when dry, it is WHISKY, a term ſignifying water, and applied, in the High- finiſhed. The old mode of bleaching or whitening requires two lands and iſands of Scotland and in Ireland, to ſtrong water, or weeks in performance, but it is effected in as many days by the diſtilled liquor. The ſpirit drank in the North is drawn from new; conſequently the goods may be brought ſooner to market, barley; and is ſaid to be preferable to any Engliſh malt brandy : which is one important advantage ; and it may be obſerved, as it is ſtrong, but not pungent, and free from the empyreumatic another, no leſs important, that they will not be ſo liable to da- taſte or ſmell. mage, either from the weather, cattle, or vermin. WHISPERING-places; theſe depend on this principle, that Explanation of the machine conſtructed for the preparation of the voice being applied to one end of an arch, eaſily paſſes, by the chymical liquor uſed in the new mode of bleaching, as repre- repeated reflexions, to the other. All the contrivance in a whil- ſented in Plate 1. of miſcellaneous ſubjects, fig. 26 and 27. A pering-place is, that near the perſon who whiſpers, there be a in fig. 26, is a long tubulated glaſs matraſs which will hold fix ſmooth wall, arched either cylindrically or elliptically. A circular gallons. B, a glaſs tube, crooked at both ends. C, a leaden ciſ- arch will do, but not ſo well. Places famed for the conveyance of tern, which will hold one gallon. At D, there ſhould be a pipe whiſpers are, the priſon of Dionyſius at Syracuſe, which increaſed to fix a receiver into the ciſtern; but, through the neglect of the ſoft whiſper to a loud noiſe, the clap of one's hand to the ſound of engraver, it was omitted in the engraving. the engraving. E, a cucurbite, or a cannon, &c. The aqueducts of Claudius, which carried a voice common earthen bottle, containing about three gallons. Fig. 27. ſixteen miles ; and divers others, enumerated by Kircher in his repreſents a plank or board to fix the matraſs on, with the neck Phonurgia. The moſt conſiderable in England are, the dome of downward. The whitſters method of preparing their chymical St. Paul's, London, where the ticking of a watch may be heard liquor for bleaching, is as follows: from ſide to ſide ; and a very eaſy whiſper be ſent all round thedome: They take a cucurbite, or common earthen bottle, E, place it this Dr. Derham found to hold not only in the gallery below, but on a ſand-bank, fill about one-third part of it with manganeſe and above, upon the ſcaffold, where a whiſper would be carried over marine acid, in equal quantities, ſtop the hole in the cucurbite one's head round the top of the arch, though there is a large though there is a large with a cork, having a hole firſt bored through it to receive one opening in the middle of it into the upper part of the dome: and end of a ſmall glaſs tube, and the other end to the tube of a ma- the famous whiſpering-place in Glouceſter cathedral, which is traſs, A, which being firſt filled with a cold lixivium, or lye of no other than a gallery at the eaſt end of the choir, leading from alhes and water, with its neck hung downwards, into a ſmall ciſ- one ſide thereof to the other. It conſiſts of five angles and fix tern, C, filled with the ſame lixivium ; immediately ſmall bubbles ſides, the middlemoſt of which is a naked window; yet two whil- of air will ariſe from the cucurbite along the tube, B, and up the perers there hear each other at the diſtance of twenty-five yards. tube of the matraſs, A, to the top: conſequently, it will drive the See Birch's Hift. of the Royal Society, vol. i. p. 120. See alſo liquor downwards into a receiver fixed to the pipe, D, of the ſmall the Syſtem of Acoustics, Chap. III. ciſtern below. As often as the matraſs, A, is emptied, it muſt WHITE, one of the colours of natural bodies. White is be ſupplied with another ready filled. When the ebullition begins not fo properly ſaid to be any one colour as a compoſition of to abate, they apply a ſmall fire, till darkith fumes begin to ariſe all the colours ; it being demonſtrated by Sir Iſaac Newton, along the tube; then it is neceſſary to ſtop it by plucking the that thoſe bodies only appear white which reflect all the kinds of tube out of the matraſs, or the liquor will be ſpoiled. coloured rays alike, and that the light of the ſun is only white, WHITING, in Ichthyology, is the Engliſh name of the mer- becauſe conſiſting of all colours. From the multitude of rings of langus, a fpecies of the genus Gadus. For deſcription of the colours, which appear from compreſſing two priſms, or object- Genus, &c. ſee GADUS. glaffes of teleſcopes, together, it is manifeſt, that theſe do ſo in WHITLOW, or WHITLOGH, in Surgery, a painful kind of terfere and mingle with one another at laſt , as, after eight or nine tumor, or abſceſs, ariſing at the ends of the fingers, and the roots reflections, to dilute one another wholly, and conſtitute an even of the nails. The humour, or matter, of the whitlow, is ſome- and uniform whiteneſs; whence, as well as from other experi- times ſo ſharp as to corrode the tendons, nerves, the perioſte- ments, it appears, that whiteneſs is certainly a mixture of all co um, and even the bone itſelf. It is either lodged between the in- leurs ; and that the light, which conveys it to the eye, is a mix- teguments, or between the perioſteum and bone. The deeper ture of rays endued with all thoſe colours. The ſame author it lies the more dangerous it is. Accordingly, Heiſter diftin- ſhews, that whiteneſs, if it be moſt ſtrong and luminous, is to be guiſhes three ſpecies of whitlow. The firſt kind is that in which reckoned of the firſt order of colours; but, if leſs, as a mixture of only the integuments are effected at the end of the finger, near the the colours of ſeveral orders. Of the former fort he reckons Of the former fort he reckons nail ; in this fort the pain is pretty tolerable, and does not extend white metals, and of the latter, the whiteneſs of froth, paper, beyond the finger. The ſecond kind is, when the perioſteum is linen, and moſt other white ſubſtances. And, as the white of the infiamed or eroded ; in which caſe the ſymptoms are more violent, firſt order is the ſtrongeſt that can be made by plates of tranſparent and the pain very intenſe, though ſtill confined to the finger, in- ſubſtances, ſo it ought to be ſtronger in the denſer ſubſtances of fomuch as to occaſion ſometimes a fever, convulſions, delirium, metals than in the rarer ones of air, water, and glaſs. &c. without much apparent tumor or inflammation. The third Gold or copper, mixed, either by fuſion or amalgamation, with and worſt kind is that which infects the nervous coverings of the a very little mercury, with ſilver, tin, or regulus of antimony, tendons belonging to the flexor muſcles of the fingers, or even become white; which ſhews, both that the particles of white the adjacent nerves or tendons themſelves ; in this caſe the pain metals have much more ſurface, and therefore are ſmaller than is excruciating, and the diſorder ſpreads through the whole hand thoſe of gold or copper ; and alſo, that they are ſo opake as not and arm. to ſuffer the particles of gold or copper to ſhine through them. The firſt kind is not very dangerous, and uſually terminates in And, as that author doubts not but that the colours of gold and the loſs of the nail. The ſecond fort is more painful, and has been copper are of the ſecond or third order, therefore the particles of attended with a caries of the bones of the finger, as a conſequence white metals cannot be much bigger than is requiſite to make them of the preceding inflammation and ſuppuration. But the third reflect the white of the firſt order. Hevelius affirms it as a thing ſpecies is really dangerous ; the intenſe pains, abſceſs, gangrene, moft certain, that, in the northern countries, animals, as hares, tumor, and inflammation of the whole arm, together with a fever, foxes, bears, &c. become white in the winter time ; and, in ſum and other malignant ſymptoms, frequently deſtroying the patient, mer, reſume their natural colours. Black bodies are found to unleſs its progreſs is prevented. The true and proximate cauſe take heat ſooner than white ones, by reaſon the former abſorb or of a whitlow, according to Heiſter, muſt be referred to an inflam- mation WIC W IC ture. mation of the adjacent integuments, chiefly of the perioſteum, advanced, in 1361, to be maſter of Baliol college, and, in 1365, from an inſpiſſation of the blood, or an obſtruction of its ſmall to be warden of Canterbury. hall, then newly founded. veſſels; and the inflammation may proceed from either internal or However, in 1367, he was deprived of the wardenſhip by external cauſes; as from an inſpiſſation or acrimony of the blood Simon Langham, archbiſhop of Canterbury, who ſubſtituted and lymph, induced by a tenſe fibre, a heating regimen, or an a monk in his place; and upon his appeal to pope Urban V. of abuſe of the non-naturals, or from a contuſion, wound or punc whoſe claim of homage and tribute from king Edward III. he had The moſt approved method for removing the inflammation in the preceding year publiſhed a refutation, the ſentence of the and obſtruction by diſcuſſion, is to let the patient hold his finger archbiſhop againſt him was confirmed. Exaſperated at this treat- ſeveral hours in ſpirits of wine highly rectified, or camphorated ment, he threw off all reſtraint, and not only attacked the monks, with theriaca. For the ſame purpoſe may be uſed, with ſucceſs, and their ſcandalous irregularities, but even the pontifical power a decoction of garlic and leaves of ſcodium and ſavin, in which itſelf, and other ecclefiaftical abuſes, both in his ſermons and hot liquor the finger ſhould either be immerged for ſeveral hours, writings. He afterwards proceeded to expoſe and refute the ab- or elſe fomented with it by linen rags. Others recommend fre ſurd notions that were generally received in religious matters, quently dipping and holding the diſordered finger a little while in and not only exhorted the laity to ſtudy the Scriptures, but fur- ſcalding water. But if a ſuppuration is formed, an inciſion is the niſhed them with an Engliſh verſion of the Bible, that the peru- only remedy ; and the ſuppuration may be forwarded by dipping | fal of it might thus become more univerſal. In a treatiſe which the finger in a decoction of mallow-flowers boiled in milk, or by he publiſhed Of the truth of the Scriptures, and in a preface to applying to it a poultice of bread and milk; which may be ren his tranſlation, he vindicates his deſign againſt the objections of dered ſtill more active and ripening by adding a few white lily his adverſaries, and reaſons on the importance and uſe of under- roots, or a little honey. A ſuppuration may alſo be promoted by ſtanding the Scriptures in a manner very honourable to himſelf, the application of a diachylon plaſter. conſidering the age in which he lived. is The truth of the faith, But in the ſecond or third fpecies of this diſorder, where the ſays he, ſhines the more by how much the more it is known, nor perioſteum or bone is affected, this practice would be pernicious, are thoſe heretics to be heard who fancy that ſeculars ought not increaſe the pain, andinduce an abſceſs, caries, and gangrene of the to know the law of God, but that it is ſufficient for them to know whole arm. For the cure of theſe two ſpecies, an inciſion is ne what prieſts and prelates tell them by word of mouth; for the ceſſary for the diſcharge of the offending matter ; the wound Scripture is the faith of the church, and the more it is known ſhould be dreſt with dry lint and diachylon plaſter, and a com- in an orthodox ſenſe the better; therefore, as ſecular men ought to preſs dipped in ſpirit of wine ; each being retained with a proper know the faith, ſo it is to be taught men in whatſoever language is bandage. Fungous, or proud Aeſh, if it appears, may be eaſily beſt known to them. Beſides, ſince the truth of the faith is clearer removed either with the ſciſſars, or by ſome eſcharotic mixed and more exact in the Scripture than the prieſts know how to expreſs with digeſtive ointment. The wound is afterwards to be treated it; it ſeems uſeful that the faithful ſhould themſelves ſearch out like thoſe, in which the bones are affected, with eſſence of myrrh, and diſcover the ſenſe of the faith, by having the Scriptures in a balſam of Peru, &c. and if the bone is foul, kept open with lint language which they underſtand. The laws which the prelates dipped in tincture of myrrh, till there is either an exfoliation of make are not to be received as matters of faith ; nor are we to the morbid from the ſound parts, or till the whole bone comes a believe their words or diſcourſes any farther or otherwiſe than as way entire ; after which the wound may be deterged and healed they are founded on the Scripture :" with much more to the ſame without difficulty. purpoſe and in the ſame admirable ſtrain. In this preface, and For the third ſpecies, Garengoet directs to open the tumor by ſeveral other publications and treatiſes, ſtill in manuſcript, he re- making an inciſion longitudinally down in the capſula of the ten flected ſeverely on the corruptions of the clergy, condemned the don, which will diſcharge a kind of lymph or ſerum very much to worſhip of ſaints and images, and the doctrine of indulgences, the patient's eaſe. When the matter makes its way, without any denied the corporal preſence of Chriſt in the facrament, inveighed inciſion, through the capſula of the tendon, and about its exter- againſt the wanton exerciſe of the papal power, and oppoſed the nal opening, a caruncle or fleſhy ſubſtance appears, he adviſes to making of the belief of the pope's being head of the church an ar- paſs a director through the opening into the eroded capſula of the ticle of faith and ſalvation, cenſured the celibacy of the clergy, tendon, and then to make an inciſion through the parts incumbent expoſed various errors and irregularities in the hierarchy and dif- on the director, by which means a thicker matter will be found cipline of the church, and earneſtly exhorted all people to the concealed in the divided finus. For a fuller account of the treat ſtudy of the Scriptures. ment of the different ſpecies, and particularly of the laſt, ſee Heil Wickliffe denied that biſhops were of a different order from ter's Surgery, vol. ij. p. 324, &c. prieſts, and that by virtue of their office they had any power to WHITSTERS. See WHITENING, where Fig. 26, and 27 do what prieſts have not; and that in the apoſtolic times the two are deſcribed, which are referred to this article. orders ſubſiſting in the church were thoſe of prieſt and deacon.- WHITSUNDAY, a folemn feſtival of the Chriſtian church, With regard to, tithes, he obſerves, that we do not read in the obſerved on the fiftieth day after Eaſter, in memory of the deſcent Goſpel where Chriſt paid tithes, or commanded any man fo to do; of the Holy Ghoſt upon the apoſtles in the viſible appearance of and that if they were due by God's commandment, there ſhould be fiery cloven tongues, and of thoſe miraculous powers which were every where in Chriſtendom one manner of tithing; and that thoſe then conferred upon them. It is called Whitſunday, or White- things which are due to prieſts Thould be given freely, without Sunday; becauſe this being one of the ſtated times for baptiſm in exaction or conſtraint. In oppoſition to the papal claims of the ancient church, thoſe who were baptiſed put on white gar- ſupremacy and dominion, he maintained that the grants of em- ments, as types of that ſpiritual purity they received in baptiſm. perors may be reſumed; that St. Peter and his ſucceſſors have As the deſcent of the Holy Ghoſt upon the apoſtles happened no rights conferred upon them of civil or political dominicn; that upon the day which the Jews called Pentecoſt, this feſtival re the perſons of the clergy and the goods of the church are not ex- tained the name of Pentecoſt among the Chriſtians. empted from the civil powers ; and that bulls of abſolution or WHOLE, in metaphyſics, is diſtinguiſhed into four kinds ; excommunication are conditional, not abſolute, and depend for viz. a metaphyſical, when the effence of a thing is ſaid to conſiſt their effects on the diſpoſition and character of thoſe to whom they of two parts, the genus and the difference; mathematical or inte- pertain. gral, when the ſeveral parts which go to make up the whole, are The monks whom Wickliffe had principally exaſperated com- really diſtinct from one another, and each of them may ſubfift menced a violent proſecution againſt him at the court of Gre- apart; phyſical or eſſential, uſually denoting and including the two gory XI. who, in 1377, ordered Simon Sudbury, archbiſhop of eſſential parts of man, body and ſoul, but more properly includ- Canterbury, to take cognizance of the affair at a court held at ing all the eſſential modes, attributes, or properties, contained London. Wickliffe eſcaped this danger by the intereſt of the in the comprehenſion of any idea ; and logical called alſo univer duke of Lancaſter, and ſome other peers, who had a high regard ſal, the parts of which are all the particular ideas to which this for him. When the ſchiſm which embroiled the Romiſh church univerſal nature extends. on the death of Gregory XI. was tolerably ſettled, the proceſs WICKLIFFISTS, or WICKLIFFItes, in ecclefiaftical hiſ againſt Wickliffe was revived by William Courtney, archbiſhop tory, a religious ſect, who had their riſe in England in the 14th of Canterbury, in 1382, and was carried on with great vehe- century, and their name from their leader John Wickliffe, born mence in a court of ſelect biſhops and others aſſembled in the mo- about the year 1324, a profeſſor of divinity in the univerſity of naſtery of the Preaching Friars at London. The event was, that Oxford, and afterwards rector of Lutterworth. To that immor of twenty-four articles exhibited againſt him, ten were con- tal author it is we owe the firſt hint of the great reformation, ef demned as hereſies, and fourteen as errors. It has been ſaid that fected about one hundred and fifty years after him. Wickliffe made a public recantation of the opinions with which The firſt occaſion, on which Wickliffe began to diſtinguiſh he was charged; but of this no ſufficient evidence appears. Some himſelf, was in 1360, when he defended the ſtatutes and privileges have ſaid, that king Richard baniſhed him out of England: but of the univerſity of Oxford againſt the order of Mendicants or if that was the caſe, he returned in ſafety to Lutterworth, where Begging Friars, who, from their firſt ſettlement in Oxford, A. D. he died peaceably in the year 1384. He left many followers in 1230, had diſturbed the chancellor and ſcholars, endeavoured to England and other countries, who were called Wickliffites and eſtabliſh an exempt juriſdiction, and took all opportunities of en Lollards, and who held their opinions in private without making ticing the ſtudents from the colleges into their convents. any public profeſſion of them ; though they were generally known alſo wrote and publiſhed ſeveral tracts againſt the begging trade by their diſparaging the ſuperſtitious clergy, whoſe corruptions of the friars, in order to reform the abuſes of the clergy. In were ſo notorious, and their cruelty fo enraged, that it was no conſequence of the credit he acquired by his writings, he was wonder the people were much prejudiced againſt them. Where- He ever W IF W IN VERTURE ment. ever they could be found, they were terribly perſecuted by the The wife partakes of the honour and condition of her huſband; inquiſitors, and other inſtruments of papal vengeance ; and in but none of the wife's dignities come, by marriage, to her huſ- the council of Conſtance, in 1415, the opinions of Wickliffe, band. Yet, the huſband, who marries a woman poſſeſſed of lands amounting to forty-five articles, were condemned by a folemn in fee-fimple or fee-tail, i. e. of any cſtate of inheritance, and decree, he himſelf was declared an obſtinate heretic, and his bones has by her iſſue born alive, which was capable of her eſtate, ſhall ordered to be dug up; which part of the ſentence was executed on the death of his wife, hold the lands for his life, as tenant by the about thirteen years after, when they were taken up and publicly courteſy of England, The Engliſh laws are generally eſteemed by burnt. Lewis's Hiſtory, &c. 8vo. paſſim. Moſh. Eccl. Hiſt. foreigners as very hard, in reſpect to the women ; and yet Cham- vol. iii. p. 166. 8vo. Burnet's Hiſt. Rcform. vol. 1. p. 23. berlayne is of a very different opinion, aſſerting, that the condi- WIFE, a married woman ; or one joined with, and under the tion of wives in England is better than in any other country, protection of, a huſband. See MARRIAGE. A wife, in our The diſabilities to which the wife is ſubject are for the moſt part Engliſh law, is termed fenie-covert ; fæmina viro co-operta : her intended for her protection and benefit . So great a favourite condition during marriage is called her coverture : and, in the (ſays judge Blackſtone) is the female ſex of the laws of England. judgment of the law, is reputed to have no will, as being ſuppo Wife, mid. obftetrix. See DELIVERY. For the Offices and fed entirely under, and ſubject to, that of her huſband. See Co Practice of Midwifery in general, ſee the Syſtem throughout, and the Plates annexed to the Syſtem, As to chattels perſonal (or chofes in polegion), which the wife WILDERNESS, in gardening. There is nothing fo great hath in her own right, as ready money, jewels, houſehold goods, and an ornament to a large garden as a wilderneſs; when properly con- the like, the huſband hath therein an immediate and abſolute pro trived, and judiciouſly planted, "The wilderneſs Thould always be perty, devolved to him by the marriage, which can never again proportioned to the ſize of the garden, and ſhould never be fituated revert to the wife or her repreſentatives. The wife alſo, by mar too near the houſe ; becauſe the trees perſpire fo large a quarſtity riage, acquires a property of ſome of her huſband's goods, called of watery vapours as makes the air very unwholeſome; though her parapharnalia, which ſhall remain to her after his death, and vegetables ferve, as modern experiments have ſufficiently aſcer- ſhall not go to his executors. Theſe, ſignifying the apparel and tained, to purify and meliorate the air. See the Syſtem of Aero- ornaments of the wife, ſuitable to her rank and degree, the huf LOGY, Sect II. For the diſpoſition of wood to form a wilderneſs, band cannot deviſe by his will ; though during his life perhaps he ſee the Treatiſe on GARDENING, Part I. Sect. II. hath the power (if unkindly inclined to exert it) to ſell them or WILL is uſually defined a faculty of the mind, whereby it give them away. But if ſhe continues in the uſe of them till his embraces or rejects any thing repreſented to it, as good or evil, by death, ſhe ſhall afterwards retain them againſt his executors, and the judgment. Others will have it to be the mind itſelf, conſidered adminiſtrators, and all other perſons, except creditors where there as embracing or refuſing ; adding, that as the underſtanding is is a deficiency of aſſerts. And her neceſſary apparel is protected nothing elſe but the foul, conſidered as perceiving, fo the will is even againſt the claim of creditors. nothing elſe but the ſoul, conſidered as willing, &ce Mr, Locke The wife can make no contract without her huſband's conſent ; more intelligibly defines the will, a faculty which the ſoul has of and, in all law-matters, fine viro reſpondere non poteft. The huf beginning or forbearing, continuing or ending, ſeveral actions of band is bound to provide his wife with neceſſaries by law, as much the mind, and motions of the body, barely by a thought or pre- as himſelf; and if the contracts debts for them, he is obliged to ference of the mind, ordering, or, as it were, commanding the pay them; but for any thing beſides neceſſaries, he is not doing, or not doing, ſuch and ſuch a particular action. This chargeable. Alſo, if a wife elopes, and lives with another man, power which the mind has, to order the conſideration of any idea, the huſband is not chargeable even for neceffaries ; at leaſt if the or the forbearing to conſider it; or to prefer the motion of any part perſon who furniſhes them, is ſufficiently apprized of her elope of the body to its reſt, and vice verſa, is what we call the will. See ELOPEMENT. Free-WILL. See Liberty, and FREEDOM. If the wife be indebted before marriage, the huſband is bound WILL, Laſt Will, or Teſtament, in Law, a folemn act, or afterwards to pay the debt. If the wife be injured in her perſon inſtrument, whereby a perſon declares his mind and intention as or property, ſhe can bring no action for redreſs without her huſ to the diſpoſal of his goods, effects, &c, after his death. This band's concurrence, and in his name, as well as her own: nei act or inſtrument is emphatically ſtyled the will of the deceaſed, ther can ſhe be ſued, without making the huſband a defendant. becauſe it directs the diſpoſal of the whole or part of his property, There is indeed one caſe where the wife ſhall fue and be ſued by written or oral inſtructions properly witneſſedand authenticated, as a feme-fole, viz. where the huſband has adjured the realm, or according to his pleaſure. Some have diſtinguiſhed between a tef- is baniſhed; for he is then dead in law. tament and a will; a will being properly limited to land, and a In the civil law the huſband and wife are conſidered as two dif teſtament only to chattels, requiring executors, which a will only tinct perſons ; and may have ſeparate eſtates, contracts, debts, and for land does not require : ſo that every teſtament is a will, but injuries; and therefore, in our eccleſiaſtical courts, a woman may every will is not a teſtament, However the words have been ſue and be ſued without her huſband. But though our law in ge commonly uſed indiſcriminately, neral conſiders man and wife as one perſon, yet there are ſome Nature and incidents of a WILL. Wills or teſtaments are di, inſtances in which ſhe is ſeparately conſidered ; as inferior to him vided into two forts, viz, written, and verbal or nuncupative : and acting by his compulſion. And, therefore, all deeds executed of which the former is committed to writing ; the latter depends and acts done by her during her coverture, are void ; except it be merely upon oral evidence, being declared by the teſtator in extre- a fine, or the like matter of record, in which caſe ſhe muſt be mis before a ſufficient number of witneſſes, and afterwards reduced ſolely and ſecretly examined, to learn if her acts be voluntary. to writing. A codicil is a ſupplement to a will, She cannot by will deviſe lands to her huſband, unleſs under ſpe WIND. As the air is a fluid, ſubjected to the ſame laws of cial circumſtances; for at the time of making it ſhe is ſuppoſed gravitation as other fluids, it neceſſarily has a conſtant tendency to be under his coercion. And in ſome felonies, and other in to preſerve an equilibrium in every part ; ſo that if, by any means ferior crimes, committed by her through conſtraint of her huſband, whatever, it is rendered lighter in any one place than another, the the law excuſes her ; but this extends not to treaſon and murder. weightier air will ruſh in from every ſide towards this place, till See COVERTURE. as much be there accumulated as makes it of an equal weight with The huſband alſo, by the old law, might give his wife mode the reſt of the atmoſphere: it is theſe currents of air which are called rate correction : but this power of correction was confined within winds. The winds are divided into perennial, ſtated, and variable, reaſonable bounds, and the huſband was prohibited from uſing They are alſo divided into general and particular. Perennial or cone any violence to his wife. The civil law gave the huſband the ſtant winds are ſuch as always blow the ſame way. Of theſe we have ſame, or a larger authority over his wife; allowing him, for ſome a very ſtřiking one between the two tropics, blowing conſtantly miſdemeanors, flagellis et fuftibus acriter verberare uxorum; for from eaſt to weſt, called the general trade wind. Stated, or pe- others, only modicam caſtigationem adhibere. But, with us, in riodical winds, are ſuch as conſtantly roturn at certain times, the politer reign of Charles II, the power of correction began to Such are the ſea and land breezes, blowing from ſea to land in the be doubted ; and a wife may now have ſecurity of the peace a evening, and from land to ſea in the morning, Such alſo are the gainſt her huſband, or, in return a huſband againſt his wife. The ſhifting, or particular, trade winds, which for certain months of the courts of law will ſtill permit a huſband to reſtrain a wife of her year, blow one way, and, the reſt of the year, the contrary way. liberty, in cafe of any groſs miſbehaviour. Blackſt. Com, book i. Variable, or erratic winds, are ſuch as blow now this, now that p. 443, &c. book ii. p. 433, &c. way, and are now up, now huſhed, without any rule or regularity If a wife bring forth a child during her huſband's abſence, either as to time or place, Such are all the winds obſerved in the though of many years, yet if he lived all the time inter quatuor inland parts of England, &c. though ſeveral of theſe claim their maria, within the iſland, he muſt farther the child; and the child, certain times of the day. Thus, the weſt wind is moſt frequent. if firſt born, ſhall inherit. See BASTARD. about noon ; the ſouth wind in the night; the north in the morn- If a wife bring forth a child begot by a former huſband, or any ing, &c. General wind is ſuch a one as, at the ſame time, blows other perſon, before marriage, but born after marriage with ano the ſame way, over a very large track of ground, almoſt all the ther man, the man ſhe is married to, muſt own the child : and year. Such only is the general trade wind. that child ſhall be his heir at law. The wife, after her huſband's Many are the cauſes which may vary the weight of the atmof- death, having no jointure ſettled before marriage, may challenge phere, and occaſion particular tropical winds. Although other the third part of his yearly rent of land, during her life ; and, cauſes may occaſion winds in certain circumſtances, yet their within the city of London, a third part of all her huſband's move principal and moſt univerſal cauſe is the ſun, which warmeth the air ables for ever. See Dower and INTESTATE. to a much greater degree in ſome places of the atmoſphere than in others; WIN WIN others ; and, as the air is ſuſceptible of a great degree of expan- rectly off or towards the ſhore, and never extend their influence fion by heat in thoſe places where it is heated to any conſiderable to a great diſtance from it, although this is varied by particular degree, it is expanded fo much as to become lighter than the air circumſtances in different places ; as they never extend fo far from in thoſe places where it is colder ; ſo that the weightier cold air the points of capes and promontories, as in deep bays; nor upon from all the circumjacent parts ruſhes towards this point to re the windward, as lee-ſhores. ſtore the equilibrium which had been deſtroyed. So that, if there The breezes are produced by the ſame cauſe which gives riſe be any particular part upon the earth's ſurface where the fun acts to the trade-wind, viz. the heat of the fun. In theſe warm regi- conſtantly with greater force than on any other part, a current of ons the days and nights are nearly of an equal length throughout air will conſtantly flow from theſe towards the warmer region : the whole year, the ſun riſing high in the day-time, and deſcend- but the fun acts with greater force upon thoſe parts of the earth ing almoſt perpendicularly at night ; which occaſions a much which are neareſt the equator, than thoſe which approach towards greater variation between the heat of the day and night than is either poles ; ſo that we might naturally expect that a wind would experienced in the more temperate climates ; and it is this great conſtantly blow from the polar regions towards the equator; which difference between the heat of the night and day which produces is really found to be the caſe in the torrid zone, where the influ the breezes. For the rays of the ſun are reverberated from the ence of the fun overcomes almoſt all the other lefſer cauſes which land during the day-time, much more powerfully than from the produce the variable winds in our more northerly regions. How- How- fea, whoſe furface is conſtantly evaporating ; and the air above ever, even in the torrid zone, theſe north and ſouth winds are the land is rendered much warmer, and conſequently more rare- varied in different ways. fied, than above the ſea ; ſo that a current of air neceſſarily takes Although the heat of the equatoreal regions is greater than any place at that time from the ſea towards the land, increaſing and other, yet as the fun acts perpendicularly, in his diurnal courſe, upon diminiſhing in ſtrength as the heat increaſes or declines, But one point of the equator only at one time, and immediately paſſes when the ſun deſcends below the horizon, the evaporation from over it, and as the air retains the heat communicated to it by the fun the ſurface of the ſea is ſtopped or greatly diminiſhed, and the cold but for a ſhort time, cooling gradually as he retires, and continuing which it occaſioned is of conſequence removed; the reverberation ſtill to decreaſe till his influence again returns the following day ; of the ſun's rays from the ſurface of the earth is likewiſe removed, the degree of heat upon this great circle muſt be very different in and the air above the land quickly reſumes its natural degree of different parts, and perpetually varying in every point ; which cold, which is always greater than the ſea when the influence of mult in ſome meaſure tend to diſturb thoſe winds coming from the the ſun is withdrawn : ſo that the air above the ſea becomes polar regions, which we have already mentioned. To compre warmer during the night than that above the land, and a current hend clearly what will be the effects of this rotation, let us conſider of air is of courſe eſtabliſhed from the land to the ſea ; this what power it would naturally produce upon the equator with re forms the land-breeze, which acts as uniformly, although leſs gard to wind, fuppofing no other cauſe ſhould interrupt it. And powerfully, than the ſea-breeze ; blowing at firſt gently as the air here we muſt obferve, that, as the point upon which the ſun acts begins to cool, and gradually gathering ſtrength as the ſun retires with the greateſt force is conſtantly moving from eaſt to weſt, below the horizon ; till his influence begins to be full again in the the air to the eaſt of that point over which the ſun has more lately morning, when it gradually gives place to the more powerful in- paffed will be more rarefied than that to the weſt, and will natu Auences of the ſea-breeze. Theſe breezes are not, however, en- rally flow towards that point from eaſt to weſt with greater velo tirely confined to the torrid zone. They are even felt in more city than from weſt to eaſt, as the cool air to the weſt of that point northern regions ; the ſea-breeze in particular being almoſt as will be interrupted in its motion towards it by the motion of the perceptible during the ſummer ſeaſon along the coaſts of the Me- fun meeting it. Hence, therefore, it follows, that, from the diterranean and the Levant, both on the African, European, and diurnal motion of the earth from eaſt to weſt, a conſtant wind Aſiatic ſhores, as within the tropics. Even in our own colder would always be produced, were it not obſtructed by other cauſes. climate, the effects of this are often ſenſibly felt during the ſum- But, as there is a conſtant ſtream of air flowing from the polar mer ſeaſon ; although, from the length of the day and ſhortneſs of towards the equatorial regions, a compoſition of theſe two cur the night, the difference between the heat of theſe is far leſs than rents of air acting at the ſame time will produce a north-eaſt wind in warmer climates. Notwithſtanding the ſhortneſs of our nights in all parts of the northern hemiſphere, and a ſouth-eaſt wind in prevents us from feeling a nocturnal breeze, ſimilar to the land- all parts of the ſouthern one. Theſe winds are known by the breezes of the torrid zone ; yet, in every ſerene evening, we have name of the general trade winds. an opportunity of obſerving a phenomenon proceeding from a If there were no inequalities on the ſurface of our globe, and if it ſimilar cauſe with that which occaſions them in warmer climates. were compoſed of a ſubſtance perfectly homogeneous, this wind For as the waters retain their heat longer than the earth after the would invariably take place at all times on every part of the ſun withdraws, the moiſture which was raiſed during the heat of earth's ſurface: but as this is not the caſe, it is liable to ſeveral the day to a ſmall diſtance from the earth's ſurface is quickly con- very conſiderable variations. In all thoſe regions towards the denſed by the cold of the evening, and falls down in copious dews; poles, as the influence of the ſun is there but weak, other lefſer whereas that which is above the ſurface of the water is more cauſes occaſion particular winds, and diſturb that regularity which nowly condenſed, by reaſon of the heat which that element re- at firſt view we might expect ; ſo that the general trade wind does tains longer, and hovers at a ſmall diſtance above it in the form not invariably take place beyond the 28th or 30th degree of lati of a denſe vapour, which flowly ſubſides as it loſes its heat. tude ; and the regions between that and the poles have nothing This is the cauſe of thoſe low miſts which are ſo often ſeen ho- but variable winds. Even in the torrid zone, there are many vering above the ſurface of rivers and other waters in the evenings cauſes which in particular places alter this direction of the wind; towards the end of ſummer. ſo that the genuine trade winds do not take place except in the The ſucceſſion of fea and land breezes renders the torrid zone Atlantic and Pacific oceans on each ſide the equator to the diſtance not only habitable, but comfortable. Beſides, as theſe currents of of 28 or 30 degrees, and in the greateſt part of the Indian ocean cold air, ruſhing from each ſide of the globe, and carrying along to the ſouth of the equator, where the courſe of the winds are with them vaft quantities of aqueous vapours, which they collect marked by the direction of the ſtrokes, the darts pointing in the from the ſurface of the earth in their courſe, meet and oppoſe one fame direction as the wind blows. another at that part of the atmoſphere where the influence of the Having thus explained the nature and cauſes of the general | ſun is greateſt at the time, the water is there forced from the trade-wind, we now proceed to take notice of the principal devi clouds in ſuch prodigious quantities, as to produce a diverſity of ations which take place in the torrid zone. The general-trade ſeaſons in the torrid zone, fomething ſimilar to what is experi- wind, when thus altered at particular ſeaſons, is known by the enced in more temperate climates ; with this difference, however, name of monſoons. There are other variations, which, although that whereas, in temperate climates, the warmeſt and moſt com- as general, are yet of ſmaller and more limited influence. Theſe fortable ſeaſon is when the ſun approaches neareſt perpendicular are known by the name of breezes; and, as they blow periodically to them, in theſe warmer climates the heavy rains which fall upon from the ſea, they are denominated fea or land breezes, and take them at that ſeaſon moderates the heat, and prevents the ſun from place more or leſs in every ſea-coaſt within the tropics. As the having ſuch an effect as at other times; fo that their coldeſt and cauſes of the monſoons will be more clearly comprehended after moſt inconſtant weather, which they call winter, is at that fea - the nature of theſe breezes is explained, we ſhall firſt conſider ſon, when, without this cauſe, they would be expoſed to the ſun's them. moſt powerful influence. The ſea and land breezes of the torrid zone are gentle perio We ſhall only take notice of one other inſtance of the happy dical winds regularly ſhifting twice every day, and blowing from effects produced on our globe by the laws of nature with reſpect the ſea towards the land during the day-time, and from the land to winds. We have ſeen, that in the great Atlantic and Pacific towards the ſea in the night. Theſe breezes do not blow with an oceans, the trade-wind blows conſtantly from the eaſterly points equal degree of force throughout the whole day and night, but are throughout the whole year, ſo that ſhips fail from eaſt to weſt perpetually varying, being always ſtrongeſt about mid-day and mid within the tropics with the utmoſt facility ; but it is abſolutely night, and becoming gradually weaker till the time of change in impoſſible in theſe feas to ſail from weſt to eaſt, as the wind the evening and morning ; about which time the air continues for would be conſtantly againſt them ; ſo that ſhips bound for any a ſhort ſpace perfectly calm : but in a little the breeze begins to port to the eaſtward in thoſe regions, muſt ſtand to the north or be felt on the ſide oppoſite to that from which it blew laſt, fo faint ſouth till they are beyond the limits of the trade-winds, where at firſt as hardly to be perceived; but by degrees acquiring greater they meet with variable breezes, by the help of which they ſail to ſtrength, it goes on increaſing for five or ſix hours, after which the eaſtward. But if the ſame conſtant trade-wind had taken place it again as gradually finks and dies away. They always blow di in the northern part of the Indian ocean, it would have been im- poffible No. 150 5 $ WIN W IN Freflh quan- poſſible to have failed to the eaſtwardat all, becauſe the continent of cauſe of that diſeaſe; and accordingly, all the method of curë Aſia would have prevented the ſhips from failing far enough north ought to tend to the expelling of that wind. He ſuppoſes this wind to find the variable winds. But here, as in almoſt every caſe in to be of a dry, cold, and malignant nature, conveyed by the ar- which the operations of nature are concerned, we find, that what teries to the place affected, where forciby ſeparating that ſenſible produceth a diſeaſe, at the ſame time furniſheth a remedy; for membrane the perioſteum, and diſtending it, the pain muſt needs that very continent which would have ſtood in our way going be very great. He is alſo of opinion, that head-aches, palpita- northward, draws the wind towards itſelf at one ſeaſon, which tions of the heart, tooth-ache, pleuriſy, convulſions, colics, and makes that courſe of navigation unneceſſary, the ſhifting of the many other diſeaſes, are originally owing to the ſame cauſe, and monſoons ſupplying a nearer and more commodious courſe. Thus only differ in regard to the place affected, and to the various mo- we ſee, that wherever the ſea is open to the ſouth or north, near tions and determinations of the wind. The ſhifting of the pain the tropics, ſo as that ſhips are at freedom to reach the variable in gouty perſons from one part to another, he looks on as a proof winds, the trade-wind conſtantly blows in one direction ; but of this, and thinks that curing the gout by burning moxa, or the wherever there is any extent of continent within the verge of the cotton of the mugwort leaves, upon it, is owing to its giving way torrid zone, ſo as they could not be at liberty to reach the varia to the wind in the part to evaporate itſelf. That theſe winds are ble winds, there the courſe of the trade-wind is altered, being cold, appears from the fhivering fits which generally precede a drawn towards it in ſummer, and from it in winter, forming that paroxyſm of the gout, and that the ſhiverings in the beginnings, Thifting wind called monſoons. From which we may naturally of fevers, and before all fits of agues, are owing to the ſame infer, that as there are no monſoons in the Pacific, Atlantic, or in cauſe, is ſuppoſed by this author a natural conclufion from the the weſtern part of the Indian ocean, to the ſouth of the line, former obſervations. The winds, according to this author and there are no extenſive continents near the tropics in either of Fienus, are a ſort of halituous fpirits, raifed by the improper theſe places. degree of our native heat, or out of our meat and drink ; or fi- Qualities and effects of WIND. A wind blowing from the fea, nally, out of an abundance of black choler. Their differences, is always moiſt, in ſummer it is cold; and in winter, warm, he ſays, principally proceed from the various ferments producing unleſs the ſea be frozen up. This is demonſtrated thus: there in us a variety of humours; which acting upon one another, do, is a vapour continually riſing out of all water (as appears even in their efferveſcences, create winds of various effects, and deno- hence, that a quantity of water being left a little time in an open minate diſeaſes from the places which are the ſcenes of their action. vefſel, is found ſenſibly diminiſhed), but eſpecially if it be ex It is on this account that the acupunctura, or pricking with long poſed to the ſun's rays ; in which caſe, the evaporation is beyond needles, among the Chineſe, is of uſe: the Japaneſe, and other all expectation. By this means, the air incumbent on the ſea be neighbouring nations, having no other cure for moſt diſeaſes comes impregnated with a quantity of vapour. But the winds than pricking with the needle, and burning of the moxa on the blowing from off the ſea, fweep theſe vapours along with them ; part, and conſequently they are always moiſt. The huſbandman often ſuffers extremely by high winds, in Again, water in ſummer, &e. receives leſs heat than terreſ many different reſpects. Plantations of trees, at a fmall diſtance trial bodies, expoſed to the ſame rays of the fun, do; but in win from barns and houſes, are the beſt fafe-guard againſt their ſuf- ter, ſea-water is warmer than the earth when covered with froſt fering by winds; but they muſt not be planted fo near as that and ſnow, &c. Wherefore, as the air contiguous to any body is their fall, if it ſhould happen, would endanger them. Yews found to partake of its heat and cold, the air contiguous to ſea grow very Nowly, otherwiſe they are the beſt of all trees for this water will be warmer in winter, and colder in ſummer, than defenſive plantation. Trees ſuffer by winds, being either broken that contiguous to the earth. Or thus: vapours raiſed from or blown down by them; but this may be in a great meaſure pre- water, by the ſun's warmth in winter, are warmer than the air they vented by cutting off great part of the heads and branches of them, rife in, as appears from the vapours condenſing, and becoming in places where they ſtand moſt expoſed. Hops are the moſt ſub- viſible, almoſt as ſoon as they are got out into air. quan- ject to be injured by winds of any crop; but this may be in a great tities of vapour, therefore, continually warming the atmoſphere meaſure prevented by a high pale, or very thick thorn-hedge; this over the ſea, will raiſe its heat beyond that of air over the land. will both keep off the ſpring wind, which nips the young buds, and Again, the ſun's rays reflected from the earth into the air, in fum be a great ſafe-guard againſt other winds that would tear the plants mer, are much more than thoſe from the water into air: the air, from their poles. The poles ſhould always be very firm in the therefore, over the earth, warmed by the reflexion of more rays ground; and the beſt ſecurity to be added to this, is a row of tall than that over water, is warmer. Hence ſea-winds make thick, trees all round the grounds. Winds attended with rain do great cloudy, hazy weather. injury to the corn, by laying it flat to the ground. The beſt me- Winds, blowing from the continent, are always dry; in thod of preventing this, is to keep up good encloſures; and if the ſummer they are warm; and cold in winter. For there is much accident happens, the corn ſhould be cut immediately, for it ne- leſs vapour ariſing from the earth, than from water ; and there ver grows at all afterwards. It ſhould be left on the ground, in this fore the air over the continent will be impregnated with much caſe, fome time after the cutting, to harden the grain in the air. fewer vapours. Add, that the vapours, or exhalations, raiſed by Wind, in navigation, is the ſame agitation of the air confi- a great degree of heat out of the earth, are much finer, and leſs dered as ſerving for the motion of veſſels on the water. If the fenſible, than thoſe from water. The wind, therefore, blowing wind blows gently, it is called a breeze; if it blows harder, it over the continent, carries but little vapour with it, and is there is called a gale, or a ſtiff gale; and if it blows very hard, it is fore dry. Farther, the earth in ſummer is warmer than water ex called a ſtorm. The following obſervations on the wind have been pofed to the ſame rays of the ſun. Hence, as the air partakes of made by ſkilful ſeamen, and particularly by Dr. Halley; the na- the heat of contiguous bodies, that over the earth in ſummer will ture and cauſes of which we have explained in the preceding part be warmer than that over the water : therefore the winds, &c. of this article. After the like manner it is ſhewn, that the land-winds are cold 1. Between the limits of 60°, viz. from 30° of north latitude in winter. Hence, we fee why land-winds make clear, cold to 30° of ſouth latitude, there is a conſtant eaſt wind through the weather. Our northerly and ſoutherly winds, however, which year, blowing in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, called the are commonly eſteemed the cauſes of cold and warm weather, Dr. TRADE Wind. Derham obſerves, are really rather the effect of the cold or warmth 2. The trade-winds near their northern limits blow between of the atmoſphere. Hence it is, that we frequently fee a warm the north and eaſt, and near their fouthern limits they blow be- ſoutherly wind, on a ſudden changed to the north, by the fall of tween the ſouth and eaſt. ſnow or hail; and that in a cold, froſty morning, we ſee the wind 3. Theſe general motions of the wind are diſturbed on the north, which afterwards wheels about towards the ſoutherly quar continents, and near their coaſts. ter, when the fun has well warmed the air ; and again, in the 4. In fome parts of the Indian ocean there are periodical winds, cold evening, turns northerly, or eaſterly. For the manner which are called monſoons. See MONSOONS. wherein north-eaſterly winds contribute to blights, fee BLIGHT. 5. In the Atlantic ocean, near the coaſts of Africa, at about For the effect of wind on the barometer and thermometer, ſee a hundred leagues from the ſhore, between the latitudes of 280 BAROMETER, &e. and 100 north, ſeamen conſtantly meet with a freſh gale of wind The utility of winds has been univerſally acknowledged. The blowing from the N. E. ancient Perſians, Phænicians, Greeks, and Romans, ſacrificed, and 6. Thoſe bound to the Caribbee iſlands, acroſs the Atlantic erected temples to the winds; as we learn from Voſſius, Theo ocean, find, as they approach the American ſide, that the faid log. Gentil. lib. iii. part i. cap. 1. Beſide their uſe in moving bel N. E. wind becomes eaſterly; or ſeldom blows more than a point lows, mills, and other machines, applied in various ways to the from the eaſt, either to the northward or ſouthward. The trade ſervice of mankind, and the benefits reſulting from them to navi winds, on the American ſide, are extended to 30, 31, or even gation and trade, winds ferve to purify and refreſh the air, to to 32 of N. latitude; which is about 4° farther than they extend convey the heat or cold of one region to another, to produce a to on the African lide: alſo to the ſouthward of the regular circulation of vapours from the ocean to countries remote trade-winds extend three or four degrees farther toward the coaſt from it, and to ſupply, by wafting them in their progreſs againſt of Brafil, on the American ſide, than they do near the Cape of hills, &c. ſprings and rivers. Good Hope on the African ſide. Wind has been, by ſome authors, made the baſis of Between the latitudes of 4° N. and 40 S. the wind always ferent diſeaſes; among others, Dr. Reyn has given it as his opi blows between the ſouth and eaſt: on the African ſide the winds nion, in a Treatiſe on the Gout (De Arthritid.) that flatuſes, or are neareſt the ſouth; and on the American ſide, neareſt the eaſt. wind incloſed between the perioleum and the bone, are the true In theſe feas Dr. Halley obſerved, that when the wind was eaſt- ward. equator, the many dif- W IN W IN ist 8. Along MENTATION. ward, the weather was gloomy, dark, and rainy, with hard gales November, and the ſouthern about May: the winds are not quite of wind; but when the wind veered to the ſouthward, the wea ſo certain as thoſe in the Arabian ſeas. ther generally became ſerene, with gentle breezes, next to a calm. 14. Between Sumatra and Java to the weſt, and New Guia Theſe winds are ſomewhat changed by the ſeaſons of the year : nea to the eaſt, the ſame northerly and ſoutherly winds are ob- for when the ſun is far northward, the Braſil S. E. wind gets to ſerved ; but the firſt half year monſoon inclines to the N. W. and the fouth, and N. E. wind to the eaſt; and when the ſun is the latter to the S. E. Theſe winds begin a month or ſix weeks far ſouth, the S. E. wind gets to the eaſt, and the N. E. winds after thoſe in the Chineſe ſeas ſet in, and are quite as variable. on this ſide of the equator veer more to the north. 15. Theſe contrary winds do not ſhift from one point to its the coaſt of Guinea, from Sierra Leone to the iſland oppoſite all at once; in ſome places the time of the change is at- of St. Thomas, under the equator, which is above five hundred tended with calms, in others by variable winds ; and it often hap- leagues, the ſoutherly and ſouth-weſt-winds blow perpetually ; for pens on the ſhores of Coromandel and China, towards the end of the S. E. trade wind, having paſſed the equator, and approaching the monſoons, that there are moſt violent ſtorms, greatly reſem- the Guinea coaſt within eighty or a hundred leagues, inclines to- bling the hurricanes in the Weſt Indies ; wherein the wind is fo ward the ſhore, and becomes fouth, then S. E. and by degrees; very ſtrong, that hardly any thing can reſiſt its force. All navia as it comes near to land, it veers about to ſouth, S. S. W. and gation in the Indian ocean muſt neceſſarily be regulated by theſe in with the land it is S. W. and ſometimes W. S. W. This winds ; for if mariners ſhould delay their voyages till the contrary tract is troubled with frequent calms, and violent ſudden guſts of monſoon begins, they muſt either ſail back, or go into harbour, wind, called tornadoes, which blow from all points of the horizon, and wait for the return of the trade wind. See Phil. Tranſ. 9. Between the fourth and tenth degrees of north latitude, and No. 183, or, Abr. vol. ii. p. 133, &c. Robertſon's Elem. of Nav. between the longitude of Cape Verd and the eaſtermoſt of the Book vi. Sect, 6. Cape Verd Iſles, there is a track of ſea ſubject to perpetual calms, WIND-gall, in horſes, is a ſoft flatulent tumor, or bladder, ari- attended with frequent thunder, lightning, and rains; ſhips in ſing on the fetlock joint, and cauſing great pain, eſpecially in hot failing theſe ſix degrees are ſaid to have been ſometimes detained weather, and hard roads. weather, and hard roads. For the cauſes and treatment of this whole months. The three laſt obſervations account for two cir- diſorder, ſee the Syſtem of FarrierY, Claſs II. Sect. II. cumſtances which mariners experience in ſailing from Europe to WINE, vinuni, a briſk, agreeable, ſpirituous, and cordial li- India, and in the Guinea trade. quor, drawn from vegetable bodies, and fermented. See FER- The firſt is the difficulty which ſhips, in going to the ſouth- The character of wine, according to Boerhaave, ward, eſpecially in the months of July and Auguſt, find in paf- is, that the firſt thing it affords by diſtillation be a thin, oily, in- fing between the coaſts of Guinea and Braſil, although the breadth flammable Auid, cailed a ſpirit. This diſtinguiſhes wines from of this fea is more than five hundred leagues. This happens, be another claſs of fermented vegetable juices, viz. vinegars; which, cauſe the S. E. winds at that time of the year commonly extend inſtead of ſuch ſpirit, yield, for the firſt thing, an acid uninflamma- fome degrees beyond the ordinary limits of four degrees N. lati ble matter. All ſorts of vegetables, fruits, feeds, roots, &c. may tude ; and beſides coming ſo much ſoutherly, as to be ſometimes be made to afford wine ; as grapes, currants, mulberries, elder, ſouth, ſometimes a point or two to the weſt ; it then only remains cherries, apples, pulſe, beans, peas, turnips, raddiſhes, and even to ply to windward : and if, on the one ſide, they ſteer W.S. W. graſs itſelf. Hence, under the claſs of wines, or vinous liquor, they get a wind more and more eaſterly ; but then there is dan come not only wines, abſolutely fo called, but alſo ale, cyder, &c. ger of falling in with the Braſilian coaſt, or ſhoals; and if they And we may obſerve, in general, that all vegetable and animal fteer E. S. E. they fall into the neighbourhood of the coaſt of Gui matters, which have a taſte ſweet, agreeable, and more or leſs ſac- nea, from whence they cannot depart without running eaſterly as charine, and which are nutritive, are ſuſceptible of the ſpirituous far as the iſland of St. Thomas; and this is the conſtant practice fermentation. Accordingly, wine may be made of all the juices of of the Guinea fhips. plants, the ſap of trees, the infuſions and decoctions of farinaceous Secondly. When ſhips depart from Guinea for Europe, their vegetables, the milk of frugivorous animals, which is poſſeſſed of direct courſe is north ward; but on this courſe they cannot go, be the above mentioned qualities, and likewiſe of all ripe ſucculent cauſe the coaſt bending nearly eaſt and weſt, the land is to the fruits, which alſo are poſſeſſed of theſe qualities ; but all theſe ſub- northward : therefore as the winds on this coaſt are generally be ſtances are not equally proper to be changed into a good and ge- tween the S. and W. S. W. they are obliged to ſteer S. S. E. or nerous wine. As the production of ardent ſpirit is the reſult of the fouth, and with theſe courſes they run off the ſhore ; but in fo do- | fpirituous fermentation, we may conſider that wire as eſſentially ing they always find the winds more and more contrary, ſo that the beſt, which contains moſt of this ſpirit. But of all ſubſtances when near the ſhore, they can lie fouth, at a greater diſtance they fuſceptible of the ſpirituous fermentation, none is capable of being can make no better than S. E. and afterwards E.S. E. with which converted into ſo good wine as the juice of the grapes of France, courſes they commonly fetch the iſlands of St. Thomas and Cape or of other countries that are nearly in the ſame latitude, or in the Lopez, where finding the winds to the eaſtward of the fouth, they ſame temperature. Hence wine is, in a more particular manner, fail weſterly with it, till coming to the latitude of four degrees appropriated to that which is drawn from the fruit of the vine, by ſouth, where they find the S. E. winds blow perpetually. ſtamping its grapes in a vat, or cruſhing and expreſſing the juice out On account of theſe general winds, all thoſe that uſe the Weſt of them in a preſs, and then fermenting, &c. There is a great India trade, even thoſe bound for Virginia, reckon it their beſt variety of grapes, colourleſs, yellowiſh, bluiſh, and red; more or courſe to get as ſoon as they can to the ſouthward, that ſo they leſs ſweet, and of more or leſs flavour. The colour is lodged not may be certain of a fair and freſh gale to run before it to the weſt in the juice, but in the ſkin of the grape ; though the juice, as a ward ; and for the ſame reaſon thoſe homeward bound from Ame menſtruum, frequently extracts and becomes impregnated with it, rica endeavour to gain the latitude of thirty degrees, where they during its expreſſion from the fruit. The ſame kind of grape firſt find the winds begin to be variable ; though the moſt ordi proves very different in taſte and flavour, according to the climate, nary winds in the north Atlantic ocean come from between the and expoſure to the ſun. Among the Tokay wine hills, there is fouth and weſt. one which directly fronts the ſouth, and called, from the peculiar 10. Between the ſouthern latitudes of ten and thirty degrees in ſweetneſs of its grapes, the ſugar hill. This, ſays Neumann, the Indian ocean, the general trade wind about the S. E. by S. is affords the moſt delicious of all the Hungarian wines, and is ap- found to blow all the year long in the ſame manner as in the li] propriated to the uſe of the Imperial family. latitude in the Ethiopic ocean ; and during the fix months from In very warm dry ſeaſons, the grapes at the bottoms of the hills May to December, theſe winds reach to within two degrees of are beſt; in warm and moiſt ones, thoſe at the top; ſuch as grow the equator ; but during the other ſix months, from November to in the middle region being always good. In dry ſummers the June, a N. W. wind blows in the tract lying between the third grapes are ſweeteſt, but leaſt juicy ; in rainy ones, they abound and tenth degrees of ſouthern latitude, in the meridian of the with juice, which is proportionably weaker, and more dilute. north end of Madagaſcar; and between the ſecond and twelfth Froſts in autumn promote their ripening ; but froſts ſucceeding degree of fouth latitude, near the longitude of Sumatra and Java. heavy rains diſpoſe them to burſt , and ſhed their juice. In ſome 11. In the tract between Sumatra and the African coaſt, and places the grape is rendered richer, by ſuffering it to remain on from three degrees of ſouth latitude quite northward to the Aſia the tree till great part of its watery moiſture has exhaled; the tic coaſts, including the Arabian ſea and the gulf of Bengal, the ſtem of each cluſter being cut half through, when the fruit is monſoons blow from September to April on the N. E. and from ripe, to prevent the affilux of any freſh juice from the plant. The March to October on the S. W. In the former half ſweet Hungarian and Spaniſh wines are made from grapes that wind is more ſteady and gentle, and the weather clearer than in have been thus half dried. The juice of the grape, before its fer- the latter ſix months; and the wind is more ſtrong and ſteady in mentation, is called muſt; and different forts of muſt are obtain- the Arabian fea than in the gulf of Bengal. ed from the ſame kind of grape, produced in the ſame vineyard, 12. Between the iſland of Madagaſcar and the coaſt of Africa, according to the method of management. The beſt is that which and thence northward as far as the equator, is a tract, wherein, iſſues upon breaking, bruiſing, or treading the picked fruit; in- from April to October, there is a conſtant freſh S. S. W. wind; ferior forts are extracted by forcibly preſſing the intire cluſter, which to the northward changes into the W. S. W. blowing at with its ſtalks. Dilute watery muſts are enriched by infuſing in that time in the Arabian ſea. them dried grapes, or by inſpiſſating part of the liquor, and adding 13. To the eaſtward of Sumatra and Malacca, on the north of this to the reſt. By ſuch means, Itrong full bodied wines are ob- the equator, and along the coaſts of Cambodia and China, quite tainable from the pooreſt juices: and by a ſimilar management through the Philippines, as far as Japan, the monſoons blow nor even the better fort of grape wines are imitable with the juices of therly and foutherly ; the northern ſetting in about October or other fruits, artificially concentrated, or heightened with the fim- ple year the W IN WIN ple fweetneſs of fugar. Hence it appears, that the difference of teline, Lacote, and Reiff: the Velteline ſtraw wine, ſo called from flavour, taſte, colour, and body of wines, is, perhaps, as much ow the grapes being laid for ſome time upon ſtraw before they are ing to the different manner and times of gathering, preſſing, fer- preſſed, is particularly celebrated, 13. The dry grape wines of menting, &c. the grape, as to the difference of the grape itſelf. the Upper Hungary are in general excellent, and much ſuperior Preljed Wine is that ſqueezed with a preſs out of the grapes, to thoſe of the lower. 14. Among the German wines, thoſe of when half bruiſed by the treading. The huſks left of the grapes Tyrol are very delicate, but do not keep. 15. Of Auſtrian wines, are called rape, murk, or mark; by throwing water upon which, thoſe of Ķlofter-Newburgh and Broſenberg are deemed the beſt: and preſſing them afreſh, they make a liquor for ſervants uſe, and there are alſo good wines in other parts of the imperial domi. anſwerable to our cyder-kin, and called baiſon ; which is alſo of nions. 16. In the Palatinate, the beſt wine is that of W , ſome uſe in medicine, for the cure of diſorders occaſioned by eſpecially the fort called Women's Milk. 17. Among the more viſcid humours. eſteemed German wines may be reckoned alſo Rheniſh, Mayne, Sweet Wine is that which has not yet worked or fermented. Moſelle, Neckar, and Elſaſs : a certain writer calls the Rheniſh This is turbid, and has an agreeable and very faccharine taſte. made in Hockheim (Hock) the prince of the wines of Germany, It is very laxative, when drank too freely, and by perfons dif- Wine is alſo variouſly denominated, according to its ſtate, cir- poſed to diarrhæas, is apt to occaſion theſe diſorders. Its con cumſtances, qualities, &c. fiſtence is ſomewhat lefs Ruid than that of water, and it becomes The uſes of Wine are very great, not only as a drink, but as a almoſt of a pitchy thickneſs when dried. Bouru, is that which medicine. Several phyſicians recommend it as an excellent cor- has been prevented working, by caſting in cold water. Cuve, or dial, and particularly ſerviceable in fevers. In a dietetical view, worked wine, is that which has been let work in the vat, to give the moderate uſe of wine is of ſervice to the aged, the weak, and it a colour. Cuit, or boiled wine, is that which has had a boiling the relaxed, and to thoſe who are expoſed to warm and moiſt, or before it worked ; and which, by that means, ſtill retains its native to corrupted air ; in the oppoſite circumſtances, it is lefs proper, ſweetneſs. Paſė, or ſtrained wine, is a fort of raiſin wine, made by or prejudicial. ſteeping dried grapes in water, and letting it ferment of itſelf.- Wine abounds with the antiſeptic gas, or fixed air, more per, Wines are alſo diſtinguiſhed with regard to their colour, into white haps than any other vegetable ſubſtance; and if the grateful taſte wine, red wine, claret wine, pale wine, roſe, or black wine. And of it be added, it may well be ranked firſt in the liſt of antiſcorbu- with regard to their country, or the ſoil which produces them, tic liquors. The diſeaſes, to which perſons who perfiſt habitu- into French wines, Spaniſh wines, Rheniſh wines, Hungarianwines, ally in the free uſe of wine, are moſt ſubject, are obſtructions in Greek wines, Canary wines, &c. And, more particularly, into the liver, in the meſenteric glands, and in other abdominal viſ- Port wine, Madeira wine, Burgundy wine, Champagne wine, Fa cera, which are almoſt always ſucceeded by an incurable dropſy, lernian wine, Tokay wine, Schiras wine, &c. Thoſe who digeſt wine well do not ſuffer, or much leſs ſenſibly, Wines, again, are diſtinguiſhed, with regard to their quality, the above mentioned effects of drinking it: their drunkenneſs is into ſweet wines, rough or dry wines, and rich or luſcious wines, accompanied with vivacity and joy ; but exceſs injures even ſuch vins' de liqueur; of which latt ſome are exceeding ſweet, others perſons; their conſtitution, (ſays the author of the Chymical Dic- ſweet and poignant, and all chiefly uſed by way of cordial after tionary) generally changes before fixty years of age; and the in- meals. Such are French Frontiniać, Madeira, Canary, Hungary, heritance of their old age is either a fevere gout or palſy, ſtupi- Tokay, Italian Montefiaſcone, Perſian Schiras, and the Malmſey dity, imbecility, or an accumulation of theſe diſeaſes, wines of Candia, Chio, Lelbos, Tenedos, and other iſlands of the Wine, conſidered as a medicine, is a valuable cordial in lan- Archipelago, which anciently belonged to the Greeks, but now guors and debilities ; more grateful and reviving than the com- to the Turks. Theſe are ſometimes called Greek wines, and mon aromatic infuſions and diſtilled waters, particularly uſeful in ſometimes Turkey wines. the low ſtage of malignant or other fevers, for raiſing the pulſe and The principal wines drank in Europe are as follow. I. The ſupporting the vis vitæ, promoting a diaphoreſis, and reſiſting pu- Madeira iſland, and Palma, one of the Canaries, afford two kinds: trefaction. The acid obtained from wine by diſtillation, appa: the firſt called Madeira ſec, the latter, which is the richeſt and beſt rently of a different nature from the acetous, as well as from the of the two, Canary or Palm fec. The name ſec (corruptly written native vegetable acids, ſeems to deſerve fome regard both as a Jack) fignifies dry ; thoſe wines being made from half-dried grapes. medicine, and as a more elegant menftruum, for iron and ſome There is another ſort of ſec wine, prepared about Xeres, in Spain, other bodies, than the common acids. There are five forts of and hence called, according to our orthography, Sherris, or Sherry. wine employed in the ſhops as menſtrua, for medicinal ſubſtances, 2. The wines of Candia and Greece are of common uſe in Italy. | viz. mountain, French white wine, Canary or fack, Rheniſh, and Malmſey was formerly the produce of thoſe parts only, but is red Port, ** now brought chiefly from Spain: it is a ſweet wine, of a golden With regard to the medical differences of wines, Dr. Lewis or browniſh yellow colour, and to this is applied an Italian pro- obſerves, that the effects of the full-bodied are much more durable verb, fignifying, Manna to the month, and balſam to the brain. than thoſe of the thinner ; that all ſweet wines are in ſome degree Almoſt all the wines uſed in the Venetian territories come from nutricious ; the others not at all, or only accidentally fo, by pro- Greece and the Morea. 3. Italy produces the vino Greco, which moting appetite and ſtrengthening the organs concerned in digela is a gold-coloured unctuous wine, of a pungent ſweetneſs, the tion; that ſweet wines in general do not paſs freely by urine, and growth of mount Veſuvius, but much ſophiſticated by the Nea that they heat the conſtitution more than an equal quantity of any politans. In the neighbourhood of mount Veſuvius is made the other, though containing full as much ſpirit: and thoſe which are Mangiaguerra wine, and a thick, blackiſh one, called Verracia; manifeſtly acid paſs freely by the kidneys, and gently looſen the and at the foot of the hill, the delicious vino vergine. The king- belly; and that moſt of the red ones are ſub-aftringent, and tend dom of Naples affords the Campania or Pauſilippo, Muſcatel, sa to reſtrain immoderate excretions, lernitan, and other excellent wines, and alſo the Chiarello, much Diſeaſes of WINE. All wines, malt liquors, and vinegars, drank at Rome. But the principal is the red, fat, ſweet, and which are well made, and perfect in their kind, will grow fine of grateful poignant one, called Lachyma Chriſti. 4. The Eccle- themſelves, barely by ſtanding ; ſo that if they do not thus grow ſiaſtical ſtate produces the bright, pleaſant Albano, and ſweet Mon fine in a reaſonable time, it is a ſign that they labour under fome tefiaſcone, a yellowiſh, not very ſtrong wine, reſembling good diſeaſe ; that is, they are too aqueous, too acid, too alkaline, or Florence, &c. 5. In Tuſcany are the excellent white and red they tend to putrefaction, or the like, In all theſe caſes, which Florence; the celebrated hot, ſtrong, red wine, de Monte Palci- may properly enough be called the diſeaſes of wines, ſuitable re- ano, &c. 6. In Lombardy, the Modeneſe and Montſerrat are medies are required before the wines will grow fine. The moſt tolerable ; and between Nizza and Savonă is produced an incom- general remedy hitherto known for all the diſeaſes of wines, is a parable Muſcadine. 7. Piedmont and part of Savoy, have excel- prudent uſe of tartarized ſpirit of wine, which not only enriches, lent light wines. 8. The Sicilian, Sardinian, and Corſican wines but diſpoſes all ordinary wines to grow fine. Shaw's Lectures, are alſo good. 9. Moſt of the Spaniſh wines are compoſed of fer- p. 209. For a particular account of the different diſeaſes of wines, mented or half-fermented wine mixed with infpiffated muſt, and and their uſual remedies, ſee Miller's Gard. Dict. Art. Wine, and variouſly manufactured, or of an infuſion of dried grapes in weak Birch's Hiſt. Roy. Soc. vol. i. p. 156, &c. muſt. Of theſe wines there are a few in Germany, as the Ali Pricked Wine. An eaſy method of recovering pricked wines cant, which is a thick, ſtrong, very ſweet, and almoſt nauceous may be learned from the following experiment: take a bottle of wine, Sherry, Spaniſh Malmſey, &c. 10. In Portugal there is red Port that is prieked, add to it half an ounce of tartarized fpirit plenty of red port, which is much drank in England. The beſt of wine ; ſhake the liquor well together, and ſet it by a few days, vino tinto, a blackiſh red wine, uſed by the coopers for colouring and it will be found remarkably altered for the better. This ex- other wines, is ſaid to be the produce of Portugal. This kingdom periment depends upon the uſeful doctrine of acids and alkalies, alſo deals largely in Madeira. II. In France there is a great va All perfect wines have naturally ſome acidity, and when this riety of wines ; of which the ſtrong, ſweet, full-bodied, ſpirituous acidity prevails too much, the wine is ſaid to be pricked, which ones, are called Vins de liqueur. Languedoc and Provence af- Languedoc and Provence af- is truly a ſtate of the wine tending to vinegar: but the introduc- ford the ſweeteſt wines, and the ſame provinces, with Cham- tion of a fine alkaline ſalt, ſuch as that of tartar, imbibed by paign and Burgundy, the ſtrongeſt; the wines of the northern ſpirit of wine, has a direct power of taking off the acidity, and parts, as Picardy and Bourdeaux, are the worſt, and thoſe about the ſpirit of wine alſo coptributes to this, as a great preſeryative the middle of the kingdom, as Paris and Orleans, of a middling in general of wines. If this operation be dexterouſly performed, kind. The moſt celebrated of the French wines are Champagne, pricked wines may abſolutely be recovered by it, and remain ſale- Burgundy, Vin de beaune or partridge-eye, Frontiniac, Hermitage, able for ſome time: and the ſame method may be uſed to malt- &c, 12. In Switzerland, the beſt wines are the Neufchatel, Vela | liquors juſt turned four, Shaw's Lectures, p. 214, WINE W IS W IT WINE-Spirit, á term uſed by our diſtillers, and which may it were by intuition, without the aſſiſtance of ratiocination. In feem to mean the ſame thing with the phraſe Spirit of wine ; but this ſenſe, wiſdom may be ſaid to be a faculty of the mind, or at they are taken in very different ſenſes in the trade. Spirit of wine leaſt a modification and habit thereof. Sometimes the word is is the name given to the common malt ſpirit, when reduced to an al more immediately uſed in a moral ſenſe, for what we call prudence cohol, or totally inflammable ſtate ; but the phraſe wine ſpirit is or diſcretion ; which conſiſts in the foundneſs of the judgment, and uſed to expreſs a very clean and fine ſpirit, of the ordinary proof a conduct anſwerable thereto. ſtrength, and made in England from wines of foreign growth. WIT, is a faculty of the mind, conſiſting, according to Mr. The way of producing it is by ſimple diſtillation ; and it is never Locke, in the aſſembling, and putting together, of thoſe ideas rectified any higher than common bubble-proof. The ſeveral with quickneſs and variety, wherein can be found any reſemblance wines of different natures yield very different proportions of ſpi or congruity, whereby to make up pleaſant pictures, and agreea- rit; but, in general, the ſtrongeſt yield one-fourth, the weakeſt in ble viſions, in the fancy. This faculty the ſame great author ob- fpirits one-eighth part of proof-ſpirit ; that is, they contain from ſerves, is juſt the contrary of judgment; which conſiſts in the a fixteenth to an eighth part of their quantity of pure alcohol. ſeparating carefully from one another ſuch ideas wherein can Wines that are a little four ſerve not at all the worſe for the pur be found the least difference, thereby to avoid being miſled by fi- poſes of the diſtiller; they rather give a greater vinoſity to the militude, and; by affinity, to take one thing for another: and hence produce. This vinoſity is a thing of great uſe in the wine-ſpirit, he accounts for the reaſon of that common obſervation, that men whofe principal uſe is to mix with another that is tartarized, or who have much wit and prompt memories, have not always the with a malt ſpirit, rendered alkaline by the common method of cleareſt judgment, or deepeſt reaſon. It is the metaphor, and al- rectification. All the wine-ſpirits made in England, even thoſe luſion, wherein, for the moſt part, conſiſt the entertainment and from the French wines, appear very greatly different from the pleaſantry of wit; which ſtrikes in ſolively a manner on the fancy, common French brandy; and this has given our diſtillers a notion and is therefore fo acceptable to all people, becauſe its beauty ap- that there is fome ſecret art practiſed in France; for giving the pears at firſt ſight, and there is required no labour of thought, to agreeable flavour to that fpirit; but this is without foundation. examine what truth or reaſon there is in it. The mind, without When we diſtil Sicilian or Spaniſh wines, we do not produce Si looking any farther, reſts ſatisfied with the agreeableneſs of the cilian or Spaniſh brandies; and the true reaſon of this is, that the picture, and the gaiety of the imagination; and it is a kind of affront wines which they diſtil on the ſpot into brandy, are very different to go about to examine it by the ſevere rules of truth, or reaſon. from thoſe which they export as wines. Thoſe they diſtil are ſo Whence it ſhould ſeem, that wit conſiſts in ſomething that is not poor and thin, that they will not keep many months, nor can pof- perfectly conformable to them. Eſſay on Human Underſtanding fibly bear exportation. If we had in England thoſe poor wines book ii. chap. xi. ſect. 2. they diſtil into brandy near Bordeaux, Cognac, or up the Loire, A man whoſe chief aim is to make himſelf eſteemed, fo muchi there is no doubt but the ſpirit we made from them would be uni- as to raiſe mirth and laughter; who jokes pertinently, rallies plea- verſally allowed to be French brandy. We have proof of this fantly, and finds fomething to amuſe himſelf with in every petty from ſome of the Scotch diſtilleries, where they, with no pecu- ſubject, is likewiſe allowed a wit. liar art, or fecret method, procure from ſome of the poor pricked However difficult it may be, in every particuliar inſtance; to and damaged wines received there, brandy ſo nearly reſembling diſtinguiſh a witty thought or expreſſion from one that is not fo; that of France, that a good judge will ſcarcely be able to make yet in general it may be laid down, that the term wit is appropri- the diſtinction. Wine-ſpirits and brandies therefore are the ſame ated to ſuch thoughts and expreſſions as are ludicrous, and alſo thing, only with this difference, that the former is the product of occaſion ſome degree of ſurpriſe by their ſingularity. Wit alſo; a rich wine, and the latter of a poor one; or, at the utmoſt, they in a figurative ſenſe, expreſſes that talent which ſome men have differ‘only as our two home products, the cyder-ſpirit and the crab of inventing ludicrous thoughts or expreſſions: we ſay commonly, fpirit do. a witty man, or a man of wit. Wit, in its proper ſenſe; as explain- The wine-ſpirit, diſtilled in England, is not eaſy to be had ed above, is diſtinguiſhable into two kinds; wit in the thought, pure and unmixed at our diſtillers, nor under a price almoſt equal and wit in the words, or expreſſion. Again, wit in the thought is of to that of French brandy; ſo that if it ever be required out of the two kinds; ludicrous images, and ludicrous combinations of things trade, it is as well to uſe the French brandy, which will, in all that have little or no natural relation.. cafes, ſerve the ſame purpoſe, unleſs where a high flavour or a Ludicrous images that occaſion ſurpriſe by their ſingularity, as copious effential oil are required. All other ſpirits are carefully having little or no foundation in nature, are fabricated by the ima- diveſted of their oil in the rectification; but the wine ſpirit is co gination; and the imagination is well qualified for the office ; being veted only for its oil, and all that can be obtained is preſerved in of all our faculties the moſt active, and the leaſt under reſtraint. this, its principal uſe being to give a flavour to a worſe ſpirit, and Take the following example. to cover the taſte of a diſagreeable oil in it. When a caſk of Shylock. You knew (none ſo well, none ſo well as you) of wine chances to turn four in private hands, it is worth while to my daughter's flight. diſtil it for the ſpirit. The lees alſo, if any conſiderable quantity, Salanio. That's certain. İ, for my part, knew the taylor that will yield ſuch a proportion of the ſame fort of ſpirit, as to ren made the wings ſhe flew withal. der it worth while; and as the high flavour is not required in this Merchant of Venice, aet 3. ſc. I. intent, it will be beſt to draw off the ſpirit very gently, either by The image here is undoubtedly witty. It is ludicrous; and it the cold or hot ſtill, and afterwards it may be rectified without muſt occaſion ſurpriſe ; for having no natural foundation, it is al any addition, and reduced to the ſtandard ſtrength of proof. It together unexpected: together unexpected. Wit may be defined, and perhaps more thus makes a clean and pleaſant ſpirit, though very different accurately, a junction of things by diſtant and fanciful relations; from the brandy from the ſame country whence the wine came. which ſurpriſe becauſe they are unexpected. The following is a Shaw's Effay on Diſtillery. See Spirit. proper example: : Low Wines, in the diſtillery, is a term for the ſpirituous liquor We grant although he had much wit, diſtilled immediately from the fermented matter, and continued He was very ſhy of uſing it, As being loth to wear it out; running ſo long, that the laſt of it is not at all inflammable. This And therefore bore it not about liquor is afterwards rectified to a proof-ſpirit of the ſtrength of Unleſs on holidays or fo; brandy, and thence to a rectified ſpirit called alcohol, or ſpirit of As men their beſt apparel do. . Hudibras, canto i. wine. Shaw's Lectures, p. 216. Wit is of all the moſt elegant recreation: the image enters the WINTER, one of the four ſeaſons, or quarters of the year. mind with gaiety, and gives a ſudden flaſh which is extremely Winter properly commences on the day when the ſun's diſtance pleaſarit. Wit thereby gently elevates without ſtraining, raiſes from the zenith of the place is the greateſt, and ends on the day mirth without diffoluteneſs, and relaxes while it entertains. Wit, when its diſtance is at a mean between the greateſt and leaſt in the expreſſion commonly called a play of woris, being a baf- Notwithſtanding the coldneſs of this ſeaſon, it is proved, in aſtro tard fort of wit, is reſerved for the laſt place. We proceed to ex- nomy, that the ſun is really nearer to the earth in winter than in amples of wit in the thought; and firſt of ludicrous images. ſummer. The reaſon of the decay of heat, &c. fee under HEAT. Falſtaff, ſpeaking of his taking Sir John Colevile of the Dale : Under the equator, the winter, as well as the other ſeaſons, re 56 Here he is, and here I yield him, and I beſeech your grace, turns twice every year; but all other places have only one winter let it be book'd with the reſt of this day's deeds; or, by the Lord, in the year ; which, in the northern hemiſphere; begins when the I will have it in a particular ballad elſe with mine own picture on fun is in the tropic of Capricorn ; and in the fourthern hemiſphere, the top of it, Colevile kiſſing my foot: to the which courſe if I when in the tropic of Cancer: ſo that all places in the ſame he be enforced, if you do not all ſhew like gilt twopences to me; and miſphere have their winter at the ſame time. I, in the clear ſky of fame; o'erſhine you as much as the full WIRE, a piece of metal, drawn through the hole of an iron, moon doth the cinders of the element, which thew like pins' heads into a thread, of a fineneſs anſwerable to the hole it is paſſed to her: believe not the word of the noble. Therefore let me through. Wires are frequently drawn ſo fine, as to be wrought have right, and let deſert mount. along with other threads or filk, wool, or hemp: and thus they Second Part; Henry IV. act 4. fc. 6. become a conſiderable article in the manufactures. The metals The other branch of wit in the thought, viz. ludicrous combi- moſt commonly drawn into wire are gold, filver, copper, and nations and oppoſitions, may be traced through various ramifica- iron. And hence we have gold wire, filver wire, iron wire, &c. tions. And, firſt, fanciful cauſes afligned that have no natural See GOLD Wire, and DUCTILITY, relation to the effects produced. WISDOM, Sapience, uſually denotes a higher and more re Lancaſter. Fare you well, Falſtaff, I, in my condition, ſhall fined knowledge of things, immediately preſented to the mind; as better ſpeak of you than you deſerve, [Exit. Falliaff NO 150 W OL WOO Falſtaff. I would you had but the wit ; 'twere better than WOMAN, FOEMINA, Mulier, the female of man. your dukedom. Good faith, this ſame young ſober-blooded boy A woman, in England, as ſoon as ſhe is married, with all her doth not love me ; nor a man cannot make him laugh ; but that's moveables, is wholly in poteftate viri, or at the will and diſpoſal of no marvel, he drinks no wine. There's never any of theſe demure her huſband. There are divers conſiderable things relating to women boys come to any proof; for thin drink doth ſo overcool their in the laws of England, which ſeeunder WIFE. It is a point much blood, and making many fiſh-meals, that they fall into a kind of controverted, how far learningand ſtudy becomes the ſex. Eraſmus male green-ſickneſs; and then, when they marry, they get handles the queſtion at large in one of his letters to Budæus. Lud. wenches. They are generally fools and cowards ; which ſome of Vivis, in his Inſtitutio Fæmina Chriſtianæ, has a chapter expreſs us ſhould be too, but for inflammation. A good ſherris-fack hath on the ſame ſubject. Madam Schurman, a German Lady, has gone a twofold operation in it ; it aſcends me into the brain: dries me beyond them both, in a treatiſe on this problem: Num Fæeminä there all the fooliſh, dull, and crudy vapours which environ it: Chriſtiana conveniat ſudium literarum ? Several women re- make it apprehenſive, quick, forgetive, full of nimble, fiery, and markable for learning have been alſo diſtinguiſhed from their want delectable ſhapes ; which delivered o'er to the voice, the tongue, of conduct. The reaſon, no doubt, lay in this; that their firſt which is the birth, becomes excellent wit. The ſecond property The ſecond property ſtudies laying in books of gallantry and intrigue, the imagination of your excellent ſherris is, the warmth of the blood ; which be was early turned that way, and the memory filled with a ſort of fore cold and ſettled, left the liver white and pale ; which is the ideas which a favourable diſpoſition and age, adopted too eaſily, badge of puſilanimity and cowardice: but the ſherris warms it, and improved too faſt. It is not that ſtudy in itſelf has any natural and makes it courſe from the inwards to the parts extreme ; it il tendency to produce ſuch effects, rather the contrary; the cloſe luminateth the faith, which, as a beacon, gives warning to all the abſtracted reſearches of metaphyſics, logics, mathematics, phyſics, reſt of this little kingdom, man, to arm ; and then the vital com criticiſm, &c. no doubt, would be the ſureſt means to ſecure and moners and inland petty ſpirits muſter me all to their captain, the eſtabliſh the virtue of continency in a woman. heart; who, great and puffed up with his retinue, doth any deed WOMB, Matrix, or Uterus, in Anatomy, that part of the of courage ; and thus valour comes of therris. So that ſkill in female of any kind, wherein the fætus is conceived and nouriſhed the weapon is nothing without fack, for that ſets it a work ; and till the time of its delivery. For a copious deſcription of this fub- learning a mere hoard of gold kept by a devil, till ſack commences ject, ſee the Syſtem of ANATOMY. Part III. Sect. XV. Art. 2. it, and ſets it in act and uſe. Hereof comes it that Prince Harry For repreſentation, Plate X. Art. 2. Fig. 1. See alſo the Syd- is valiant ; for the cold blood he did naturally inherit of his father, tem of MIDWIFERY, Part I. Sect. I. II. III. and IV. and Fig. he hath, like lean, ſteril, and bare land, manured, huſbanded, and 4, 5, 6, 7. and 8. till’d with excellent endeavour of drinking good and good ſtore of WONDER. See MIRACLE. The ſeven wonders of the fertile ſherris, that he is become very hot and valiant. If I had world, as they are popularly called, were the Egyptian pyramids, a thouſand fons, the firſt human principle I would teach them, the mauſoleum, erected by Artemiſia ; the temple of Diana at ſhould be to forſwear thin potations and toaddict themſelves to fack. Epheſus; the walls and hanging gardens of the city of Babylon : Fanciful reaſoning , the coloffus, or brazen image of the fun at Rhodes; the ſtatue of Falſtaff. Imbowelld if thou imbowel me to-day, I'll give Jupiter Olympius; and the pharos, or watch-tower, of Ptolemy you leave to power me, and eat me to-morrow! S'blood, 'twas Philadelphus : initead of the latter ſome reckon the royal palace of time to counterfeit, or that hot termagant Scot had paid me ſcot Cyrus, built by Menon, the ſtones of which were cemented with and lot too. Counterfeit? I lie, I am no counterfeit : to die is gold. See PYRAMID. to be a counterfeit ; for he is but the counterfeit of a man, who WOOD, a ſubſtance, whereof the trunks and branches of hath not the life of a man ; but to counterfeit dying, when a man trees conſiſt; deriving its growth from certain juices in the earth, thereby liveth, is to be no counterfeit, but the true and perfect The wood is all that part in a tree, included between the bark and image of life indeed. the pith. Dr. Grew, in his anatomy of plants, has diſcovered, by Firſt Part Henry IV. act 1. ſc. 10. means of the microſcope, that what we call wond in a vegetable, Pedro. Will you have me, Lady.net notwithſtanding all its ſolidity, is only an aſſemblage of infinite mi- Beatrice. No, my Lord, unleſs I might have another for nute canals, or hollow fibres; ſome of which riſe from the root working days. Your grace is too coſtly to wear every day. upwards, and are diſpoſed in form of a circle; and the others, which Much ado about Nothing, act 2. ſc. 5. he calls inſertions, tend horizontally from the ſurface to the cen- Taking a word in a different ſenſe from what is meant, comes ſo that they croſs each other, and are interwoven like under wit, becauſe it occaſions ſome ſlight degree of ſurpriſe : the threads of a weaver's web. For the organization of Beatrice. I may fit in a corner, and cry Heigh ho! for a huf- wood, ſee MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS, under that Article, and band. Plate III. Pedro. Lady Beatrice, I will get you one. Woods are diſtinguiſhed into divers kinds, with regard to their Beatrice. I would rather have one of your father's getting. natures, properties, virtues, and uſes. Of wood, conſidered ac- Hath your Grace ne'er a brother like you? Your father got ex cording to its quilities, whether uſeful, curious, medicinal, &c. the cellent huſbands, if a maid could come by them. principal is that called timber, uſed in building houſes, laying Much ado about Nothing, act 2 ſc. 5. floors, roofs, machines, &c. See TIMBER. Woods valued on If any one ſhall obſerve, that there is a third ſpecies of wit, account of their curioſity, are cedar, ebony, mahogany, walnut- different from thoſe mentioned, conſiſting in ſounds merely, we tree, box, &c. which, by reaſon of their extraordinary hardneſs, are willing to give it place. And, indeed, it muſt be admitted, agreeable ſmell, or beautiful poliſh or grain, are made into cabi- that many of Hudibras's double rhimes come under the definition nets, tables, beads, &c. The inedicinal woods are, guaiac, of wit given in the beginning of this article: they are ludicrous, which the Spaniards call ligno ſaneta ; aloes, or agallochum ; Jaffa- and their fingularity occaſions fome degree of ſurpriſe. Swift is fras, nephriticum, ſantal, logwood, aſpalathum, eagle-wood, or pag not leſs ſucceſsful than Butler in this kind of wit ; witneſs the fol- d'aquila, &c. Woods uſed in dying, are the Indian wood, Brazil lowing inſtances: Goddeſs—Boddice. Pliny— Nicolini. Iſcariots Campeche, &c. Wood uſed for fuel is required of various kinds --Chariots. Mitre-Nitre, Dragon-Suffragan. in regard to the various works to be performed by it. A repartee may happen to be witty ; but it cannot be conſidered Fofil, ſubterraneous Wood. There are divers places where as a ſpecies of wit, becauſe there are many repartees extremely wood is found under ground : ſuppoſed to have been overturned, ſmart, and withal extremely ſerious. We give the following ex and buried there from the time of the deluge, or at ſome other pe- ample: A certain petulant Greek, objecting to Anacharſis that riod. Whole trees, or parts of them, are very frequently found bu- he was a Scythian; “ True, (ſays Anacharſis) my country dif- ried in the earth, and that in different ſtrata ; ſometimes in ſtone, graces me, but you diſgrace your country.” This fine turn gives but more uſually in earth ; and ſometimes in ſmall pieces looſe ſurpriſe, but is far from being ludicrous. among gravel. Theſe, according to the time they have lain in WITHERS of a horſe, the juncture of the ſhoulder-bones at the earth, or the matter they have lain among and in the way of, the bottom of the neck and main, towards the upper part of the are found differently altered from their original ſtate ; ſome of ſhoulder. them having ſuffered very little change, and others being ſo high- WITTENA-gemot, among our Saxon anceſtors, a term lite- ly impregnated with cryſtalline, ſparry, pyritical, or other extrane- rally ſignifying a council, or aſſembly of ſages, or wiſe men ; ap ous matter, as to appear mere maſſes of ſtone or Jumps of the plied to the great council of the land, in later days called Parlia common matter of the pyrites, &c. of the dimenſions, and more See PARLIAMENT. or leſs of the internal figure of the vegetable bodies into the pores WOAD,Ifatis,in Botany,agenus of the Tetradynamia Siliquoſa of which they have made their way. The fuffil-wood, which claſs. The broad-leaved woad is cultivated in ſeveral parts of we find at this day, may, according to theſe differences, be England for the purpoſe of dying, being uſed as a foundation for ranged into three kinds: 1. The leſs altered. 2. The pyritical. many of the dark colours. And, 3. The petrified. WOLF, in Aſtronomy, one of the Southern Conſtellations. Of the trees or parts of them leſs altered from their ori- See the Syſtem, Sect. VIII. ginal ſtate, the greateſt ſtore is found in Jigging to ſmall depths Wolf lupere, a fpecies of the Genus Canis, in the ſyſtem of in bogs, and among what is called peat or turf earth, a ſub- Mammalia. For deſcription of the Genus &c. See Canis. For itance uſed in many parts of the kingdom for fuel. In ſome repreſentation fee Plate 4. Genus 12. Species 2. places there are whole trees ſcarcely altered except in colour the WOLVERENE, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the Genus oaks in particular being uſually turned to a jetty black: the pines Urfus. For deſcription of the Genus, fee, Ursus; for re and firs remain as inflammable as ever, and often contain between preſentation fee Plate, Genus 16, Species 4. the bark and wood a plain reſin. Parts of trees have been alfo found tre ; ment. 3 WOO WOO found unaltered in the ſtrata of clay and loam, among gravel, and when manufactured, our clothiers, &c. call Spaniſh cloth, groits ſometimes even in folid ſtone. See Boĉ. in England. Add, that the French can make no good cloth of It is idle to imagine, that theſe have been thus buried either their own wool, without; at leaſt, one third of Engliſh wool mixed at the creation, or, as many are fond of believing, at the univerſal with it. It has been ſaid, that the goodneſs of the Spanih wool deluge : at the firſt of theſe times the ſtrata muſt have been formed is owing to a few Engliſh Theep fent over into Spain as a preſent, before trees were yet in being, and the peat wood is ſo far from by Henry II. of England; or as others will have it, by Edward being of antediluvian date, that much of it is well known to have IV. in 1468. been growing within theſe three hundred years, in the very places The fineneſs and plenty of our Engliſh wools are owing, in a where it is now found buried. See MoRASS. great meaſure, to the ſweet, ſhort graſs in many of our paſtures The ſubſtances that are more altered are the larger and longer and downs; though the advantage of our ſheep feeding on this branches of trees found bedded in the ſtrata of ſtone, and partly graſs all the year, without being obliged to be ſhut up in folds aſſuming its nature ; and the ſhorter and ſmaller branches found during the winter, or to ſecure them from wolves at other times,. in pits of blue clay, which externally bear the reſemblance of contributes not a little thereto. Anciently, the principal com- what they once were, but having their pores filled with the mat merce of the nation conſiſted in wool unmanufactured; which fo- ter of the common vitriolic pyrites, internally appear to be maſſes reigners, eſpecially the French, Dutch, and Flemiſh, bought of of that matter. The irregular maſſes or fragments of wood are us : inſomuch, that the cuſtoms of Engliſh wool exported in Ed- principally of oak, and moſt uſually found among gravel, but va ward the Third's reign, amounted, at fifty fillings a pack, to riouſly altered by the infinuation of cryſtalline and ſtrong particles. | 250,000l. per annum! An immenſe fum in thoſe days, Theſe make a beautiful figure when cut and poliſhed, as they com This exceſſive cuſtom on the export of unmanufactured wool, monly keep the regular grain of the wood, and ſhew the ſeveral ſet our people to making it into cloth themſelves : in which they circles which mark the different year's growth. Theſe, according ſucceeded ſo well, that, under the reign of queen Elizabeth, the to the different matter which has filled their pores, aſſume various exportation of any wool at all was abſolutely prohibited. From colours, and the appearance of the various foſſils that have im that time England has been exceedingly jealous of its wool. To pregnated them. Of theſe fome pieces have been found with prompt their vigilance, the judges, king's counſel at law, and maſ- every pore filled with pure pellucid cryſtal, and others in large ters in chancery, in parliament, are ſeated on wool-facks. Ac- maſſes, part of which is wholly petrified, and ſome mere ſtone, cordingly, ſcarce a parliament but has renewed and reinforced the while the reſt is crumbly and unaltered wood. All theſe pieces prohibition. of petrified wood are uſually capable of a high and elegant poliſh. WOOLLEN Manufactory includes the ſeveral ſorts of com- Hill's Hiſtory of Foſſils, p. 638. &c. modities into which wool is wrought; as broad cloths, long and ſhort Wood has been found in falt-mines, incloſed in a maſs of hard kerſeys, bays, ſerges, flannel, ſays, ſtuffs, frize, ſtockings, rugs, &ca falt, and its pores filled with the matter of the falt in which it lay. The wollen manufactory, which now makes the principle arti- Wood has likewiſe been found converted, as it were, into iron, cle both in our foreign and domeſtic trade, being that which fura or thoroughly impregnated with the particles of this metal. Act. niſhes the cargoes of our vefſels, employs our people, &c. may Erud. ann. 1710. | be ſaid to have had its riſe, or rather to have received great im- Staining of Wood. See the Treatiſe on Dyeing. provement in the fourteenth century. Till that time our wool Wood-Cock, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of the Genus Scolo was chiefly ſold in the fleece, to ſuch of our neighbours as came to pax, in the ſyſtem of ornithology. For deſcription of the Genus, fetch it. Among our cuſtomers, however, the principal were the &c. fee SCOLOPAX. ob Flemings and Brabanters, and particularly the merchants of Ghent Wood-Pecker, in ornithology, the Engliſh name of the Ge and Louvain, who took off vaſt quantities to ſupply two manufac- nus Picus. For deſcription of the Genus, &c. fee Picus. tories that had flouriſhed in thoſe cities from the tenth century, WOOL, Lana, the hair, or covering of ſheep, which, waſhed, and had furniſhed the greateſt part of Europe, and even England fhorn, dreſſed, combed, ſpun and woven, makes divers kinds itſelf, with all ſorts of woollen cloths, &c. But the richneſs of of ſtuffs and cloths, &c. for apparel, furniture, &c. While the the manufactories of Ghent, and the incredible number of hands wool remains in the ſtate it was firſt ſhorn off the ſheep's back, employed therein, having ſpirited up the inhabitants to revolt and not forted into its different kinds, it is called fleece. Each divers times, particularly in the year 1300 and 1301, againſt their fleece conſiſts of wool of divers qualities, and degrees of fineneſs, fovereigns, on account of certain taxes which they refuſed to pay, which the dealers therein take care to ſeparate. The fineſt grows the feditious were at length puniſhed and diſperſed , and part of on the pole of the ſheep; the coarſeſt about the tail ; the ſhorteſt them took refuge in Holland, and the reſt in Louvain. Theſe on the head and on ſome parts of the belly ; the longeſt on the laſt, together with their art of manufacturing cloths, carried with flanks. Wool is either ſhorn, or pulled off the ſkin after the ſheep them their ſpirit of fedition. And it was not long before ſeveral is dead : this latter fort is ſhort and finer; if it be ſhort, it is uſed of them, to avoid the puniſhment they had deſerved for killing for hats, and not in the manufacture of cloth, unleſs mixed in fome of the magiſtrates, removed into England; where they in- fiçeces. The French and Engliſh uſually ſeparate each fleece into ſtructed our people how to work their own wools. three forts; viz. 1. Mother-wool, which is that of the back and With reſpect to the wollen manufacture, Anderſon (Hiſt. Com. neck. 2. The wool of the tails and legs. 3. That of the breaſt, vol. i. p. 51.) remarks, that (at leaſt) ſome ſort of wollen cloth and under the belly. The Spaniards make the like diviſion into muſt ever have been made in all civilized countries; and that three forts, which they call prime, ſecond, and third; and, for the wherever the Romans planted colonies, they there introduced the greater caſe, mark each bale or pack with a capital letter, denot- weaving of cloth. Cambden, in his Britannia, ſpeaking of the has antiquity and eminence of the city of Wincheſter, ſays, that there The firſt thing which the Spaniards do after their ſheep are the Roman emperors ſeem to have had their imperial weaving- ſheared (one hundred and twenty five ſhearmen being employed to houſes for cloths, both of wollen and linen, for the emperor and Thear a flock of ten thouſand ſheep) is to weigh the whole pile of the army; and moſt probably that neceſſary art was preſerved in wool ; and the next is to divide each fleece into three forts of wool : Britain after the Romans quitted it, though perhaps in a plainer the back and belly give the ſuperfine ; the neck and ſides the fine; kind, till the fourteenth century, when king Edward III. intro- the breaſt, ſhoulders, and thighs, the coarſe wool. A different duced the fine manufacture from the Netherlands. price is fixed upon theſe three claſſes, though the general cuſtom The year 1614 produced the diſcovery of a new ſpecies of is to ſell the whole pile together at a mean price. An ingenious wollen manufacture in England. The ſtates-general of the United writer obſerves, that the ſheep of Andaluſia, which never travel, Netherlands having prohibited the importation of any Engliſh wola have coarſe, long, hairy wool ; but that the itinerant ſheep have len cloth, that was dyed in the cloth, the Engliſh clothiers ingeni- ſhort, ſilky, white wool ; and he infers, from a few experiments outly deviſed the method of making mixtures dyed in the wool, ra- and long obſervation, that if the fine-wooled ſheep were kept at ther than loſe all the profits of dyeing and dreſſing. This has ever home in the winter, their wool would become coarſe in a few ge ſince obtained the name of medley cloth; all wollen cloth before nerations, and that if the coarſe wooled ſheep travelled from cli this time being only of one ſingle colour dyed in the cloth, as black, mate to climate, and lived in the free air, their wool would become blue, red, &c. So jealous are we now become of our wollens, fine, ſhort, and ſilky, in a few generations : the fineneſs of the wool that, beſides the precaution taken to uſe our own wools ourſelves, is owing to the animal's paſſing its life in an open air of equal tem we have added that of felling them ourſelves, and of carrying them perature. The wools moſt eſteemed are the Engliſh, chiefly thoſe to the places where they are required ; not admitting ſtrangers to about Leominſter, Coteſwold, and the Ifle of Wight; the Spa come and buy any in England. And hence the eſtabliſhment of niſh, principally thoſe about Sarragoffa for the province of Arra thoſe famous magazines in Holland, the Levant, and the North, gon, and about Segovia for Caſtile ; and the French in Rouſillon, where our woollens were repoſited to be vended by factors, or com- Languedoc, Berry, and Lower Normandy : thoſe of Berry are miſſioners. Beſides ſeveral regulations tending to the improvement ſaid to have this peculiar property, that they will knot or bind with of the woollen manufacture in England, and laws prohibiting the any other ſort; whereas the reſt will only knot with their own importation of woollen cloth (11 Ed. III. cap. 3. 4. Ed. IV. cap. kind. 1. fee Wool), and allowing woollen manufactures to be exported Engliſh Wool. The wools of England have always been in cuſtom free (11 & 12 W. cap. 20.) it is enacted by 30 Car. II. the higheſt repute, and particularly more abroad than at home. cap. 3. that no corpſe Thall be buried in any other covering but Some we have, which, manufactured by our own clothiers, Cham that which is made of ſheep's wool only, of which an affidaviť berlayne obſerves, does, both for ſoftneſs and fineneſs, vie with ſhall be made on pain of the forfeiture of five pounds. the choiceſt filks. Spaniſh wools, we know, bear a great price The dying and dreſſing of white woollen cloth in England was among us; but it is certain, much the greateſt part of that, which, brought to perfection by means of perſons who arrived from the Netherlands ing the fort. W OR W OR ex- Netherlands in 1667. It appears from further conſideration laid ſociated to one word, in which caſe they only define and determine before parliament in 1739, that more than 1,500,000 people were and may be juſtly called definitives; or to many words at once, in then employed in our Britiſh woollen manufacture ; and if theſe which caſe they ſerve to no other purpoſe than to connect, whence, earned one with another 6d. per day for 313 working days in the they are called connectives. Accordingly, Mr. Harris refers all See the Syſtem year, it would amount to 11,737,5001., a ſum which fufficiently words to theſe four ſpecies. Hermes, p. 20. evinces the immenſe benefit of this manufacture. We ſhall only of GRAMMAR, Part I. Chap. 1, and 2. Grammarians divide words into eight claſſes, called parts of add on this ſubject, that many have erroneouſly imagined that the fine broad cloth of France is principally ſupported by our Engliſh ſpeech ; which are the noun, pronoun,verb, participle, adverb, con- run wool ; whereas the real ſuperfine cloth muſt every where be junction, prepoſition, and interjection; to one or other of which, all made entirely of Spaniſh wool ; hence called Spaniſh cloths. And the words and terms in all languages, which have, or may be in- though the ſecond fort of French cloth is much meliorated by the vented to expreſs our ideas, are reducible. See the ſame Syſtem, help of our fine ſhort wool, yet the beſt wool of France alone may Part II. Chap. III throughout. The uſe of words is to ſerve as do well enough for their coarſe cloths. And it is principally for ſenſible ſigns of our ideas ; and the ideas they ſtand for in the mind their fine ſtuffs, hoſe, caps, &c. that the French find our ſoft and of the perſon that ſpeaks are their proper ſignifications. Language long combing wool (the beſt of its kind in Europe) abſolutely ne derives conſiderable improvement in the uſe of general terms, ceffary : becauſe, without a certain proportion of it, mixed up whereby one word was made to mark a multitude of particular with their own wool, they cannot make thoſe fine goods fit for iſtences; which advantageous uſe of ſounds was obtained only by the markets of Spain, Portugal, and Italy. Moreover, by run the difference of the ideas they were made ſigns of; thoſe names ning of our wool to Hamburg, Holland, Flanders, France, &c. becoming general, which are made to ſtand for general ideas; and thoſe countries are enabled to manufacture thoſe ſtuffs and ſtuck- thoſe remaining particular, where the ideas they are uſed for are ings, to the great detriment of our own manufactures. Ander- particular. See LANGUAGE. fon's Hiſt. Com. vol. ii. p. 137. The ends of language, in our diſcourſe with others, are chiefly A pack, or 240 pounds weight of ſhort wool, it is computed, three : firſt, to make our thoughts or ideas known one to another. employs fixty-three perſons a week, to manufacture it into cloths ; This we fail in, 1. When we uſe names without clear and diſtinct viz. three men to ſort, dry, mix, and make it ready for the ſtock ideas in our minds. 2. When we apply received names to ideas, carder ; five to ſcribble, or ſtock-card it ; thirty-five women and to which the common uſe of that language doth not apply them. girls, to card and ſpin it ; eight men to weave it ; four men and 3. When we apply them unſteadily, making them ſtand now for boys to ſpoole it, and reed quills ; eight men and boys to fcour, one, and then for another idea. Secondly, to make known our burl, mill, or full it ; row, ſheer, pack, and preſs it. A pack of thoughts with as much eaſe and quickneſs as poſſible. This large, long, combing wool, made into ſtuffs, ferges, ſagathies, men fail in, when they have complex ideas, without diſtinct &c. for the Spaniſh trade, will employ, for one week, 202 per names for them ; which may happen either through the defect of fons, whoſe wages amount to 431. 1os. Thus, 7 combers, 31. 105. a language, which has none; or the fault of the man, who has dyers, 51. 150 fpinners, 181. 20 throwers and doublers, 51. 25 not yet learned them. Thirdly, to convey the knowledge of weavers and attendants, i 21. A pack of wool made into ſtockings things. things. This cannot be done, but when our ideas agree to the will employ, for one week, 184 perſons, who will earn 561. Thus, reality of things. He that has names without ideas, wants mean- 10 combers, 51. 55. the dyer, 1l. 6s. 102 ſpinners, 151. 125. ing in his ing in his words, and ſpeaks only empty ſounds. He that has doublers and throwers, 41. Ios. 60 ſtocking-weavers, 301. complex ideas without names for them, wants diſpatch in his ex- Bleaching of WOOLENS. See BLEACHING. preſſion. He that uſes his words looſely and unſteadily, will ei- The machine for twitching wool, invented by Mr. Hughes, of ther not be minded, or not underſtood. He that applies names to Coggethall in Effex, to whom the Society for the encouragement of his ideas different from the common uſe, wants propriety in his Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, have adjudged a premium for language, and ſpeaks imperfectly; and he that has ideas of ſub- this uſeful invention, is recommended by ſeveral eminent baize ſtances, diſagreeing with the real exiſtence of things, ſo far wants makers of Effex. The intention of Mr. Hughes, in contriving it, the materials of true knowledge. For the uſe and application of was to find out the reverſe motion, which he appears to have done words, as the ſigns of ideas, ſee the Syſtem of Logic, Part I. Sect. I. effectually. The machine is repreſented in Plate I. of Miſ WORD, Watch-WORD, in an army, or garriſon, is ſome pecu- cellaneous Subjects, fig. 25. of which the following is an expla liar word or ſentence, by which the ſoldiers are to know and diſ- nation. tinguiſh one another in the night, &c. and by which ſpies and de- A, the winch, by which the pinion B is turned; this pinion figning perſons are diſcovered. It is uſed alſo to prevent fur- taking into the teeth of the face-wheel C, on whoſe axis is the priſes. The word is given out in an army every night by the ge- crank D, an alternate motion is communicated to the bar E, mov neral, to the lieutenant, or major-general of the day, who gives it ing on an axis F; and thus the horſe-head G, drives the wheel H, to the major of the brigades, and they to the adjutants; who give to the right or left; as the teeth of the horſe-head take into the pi- it firſt to the field-officers, and afterwards to a ſerjeant of each nion I ; and the teeth of the wheel H taking into the pinion K, company, who carry it to the ſubalterns. In garriſons it is given, fixed on the axis of the twitching machine I ; the fangs on the after the gate is ſhut, to the town-major, who gives it to the fliers are alternately driven with conſiderable velocity, firſt one adjutants, and they to the ſerjeants. way, and then the other. In the model, a cover is placed over the WORK-HOUSE is a place where indigent, vagrant, and idle part into which the wool is put, ſo that it reſembles a box, as is people are people are ſet to work, and maintained with clothing, diet, &c. neceſſary in the large works, to prevent the inconveniences ariſing Such are the bridewells, and ſeveral other places about the city, or from the ſmall particles of wool that are driven about, during the fuburbs; ſuch alſo was the foundation of that in Biſhopſgate-ſtreet, operation, to the great detriment of the workmen, employed in for employing the poor children of the city and liberties, who have the hand machines uſed before this contrivance of Mr. Hughes. no ſettlement; and that for the pariſh of St. Margaret's, Weli- It will eaſily be ſeen by any machine, how this machine may minſter, called the Grey-coat Hoſpital. be fixed to a horſe-mill, water-wheel, &c. WORKS, in fortification, the ſeveral lines, trenches, ditches, As the word twitching, when applied to the preparing wool, ap &c. made round a place, an army, or the like, to fortify and defend peared to be a local term, Mr. Hughes was deſired to explain what it. See WAR, and the Syſtem of FortiFICATION. was meant by it, and what word was made uſe of for the ſame WORLD, the aſſemblage of parts which compoſe the uni- operation in other parts of the country. In anſwer to this requeſt, verſe. The duration of the world is a thing which has been Mr. Hughes informed the fociety that the uſe of his machine was greatly diſputed. Plato, after Ocellus Lucanus, held it to be for opening and preparing the wool for the carders and ſpinners, eternal, and to have flowed from God, as rays flow from the ſun. which was formerly done by men, beating it with ſticks called Ariſtotle was much of the ſame mind : he aſſerts, that the world rods. But of late (he ſays) the method has been to uſe mills, was not generated, ſo as to begin to be a world, which before was called gigging-mills, which in Yorkſhire are termed towing-mills. and in effect, his whole eighth book of Phyſ. and firſt book Theſe are worked by men turning them backward and forward till de Cælo, are ſpent in proving the eternity of the world. Helays the woel is ſufficiently opened for uſe. He adds, that the reverſe down a pre-exiſting and eternal matter, as a principle ; and thence motion, as ſhewn in his machine; was much wanted, and the argues the world eternal. His argument amounts to this, that it benefit and advantages of it are well known and approved ; it is impoſſible an eternal agent, having an eternal paſſive ſubject, having been at work more than two years. ſhould continue long without action. His opinion was long ge- WORD, in language, is an articulate found, deſigned to re nerally followed; as ſeeming to be the fitteſt to end the diſpute preſent fome idea. among ſo many ſects about the firſt cauſe. Epicurus, however, Word, in writing, is an aſſemblage of ſeveral letters, forming though he makes matter eternal, yet ſhews the world to be but a one or more ſyllables, and ſignifying ſome thing. The proper cha new thing, and ſays, it was formed out of a fortuitous concourſe of racter of a word, according to the ingenious Mr. Harris, is that of See Lucretius, lib. v. its being a found ſignificant, of which no part is of itſelf ſignificant; Some of the modern philoſophers refute the imaginary eternity and hence he infers, that words are the ſmalleſt parts of ſpeech. of the world, by this argument: that, if it be ab æterno, there The firſt and moſt obvious diſtinction of words is in ſuch as are muſt have been a generation of individuals, in a continual ſucceſ- ſignificant abſolutely or by themſelves, and ſuch as are ſignificant fion from all eternity ; ſince no cauſe can be aſſigned why they by relation : the former may be called principals, and the latter ſhould not be generated, viz. one from another. Therefore, to acceffaries. Moreover, all words whatever, fignificant as princi-conſider the origin of things, and the ſeries of cauſes, we muſt pats, are either ſubſtantives or attributives; and thoſe, which are fig- back in infinitum, i. e. there muſt have been an infinite number of nificant as acceffaries, acquire a ſignification either from being al men, and other individuals, already generated ; which fubverts the none atoms. go very W OR W OR ate more. MEOLOGY. worms. very notion of number. And if the cauſe which rio w generates and legs in warm water, and then drink half an ounce of the has been produced by an infinite ſeries of cauſes, how ſhall an in- liquor every quarter of an hour, till the two hours are expired: finite ſeries be finite, to give room for new generations! See God. by this means, he ſays, caſes of this kind are generally cured Dr. Halley ſuggeſts a new method of finding the age of the with eaſe and ſafety, provided there is no fchirrhoſity, or fuppu- world, from the degree of faltneſs of the ocean. It is another po- ration. pular topic of controverſy, whether the world be finite or infinite ? Dr. Lewis obſerves, that this medicine is a very ſerviceable It is likewiſe diſputed, whether the plurality of worlds be poſſible? aperient, where obſtructions of the viſcera prohibit the immediate Some hold the affirmative, from an opinion of the infinite power uſe of the bark, and in ſuch obſtructions as the imprudent uſe of of the Deity; it being the ſetting bounds to omnipotence, to ſay, the bark may have occafioned. have occaſioned. Its virtues, he ſays, might be im- that he created fo many bodies at firſt, and that he could not cre proved by an addition of the bitter watery extract ; though the compound, thus laboriouſly prepared, would not be at all ſuperior WORMS, in the Linnæan ſyſtem of nature, the ſixth claſs of to a ſimple infuſion of the plant in pure water, impregnated with animals, including five orders, viz. inteſtina, molluſca teſtacea, a due proportion of fixed alkaline falt. The roots of wormwood, lithophyta, and zoophyta ; eighty genera, and eleven hundred and ſays Dr. Lewis, promiſe to be applicable to ſome uſeful purpoſes ; fixty-ſix ſpecies. The animals of this claſs are diſtinguiſhed by their virtue reſides chiefly in the cortical part; and rectified ſpirit having the heart with one ventricle, and no auricle, and a cold, extracts their flavour more perfectly than watery liquors. The colourleſs ſanies; and they are particularly diſtinguiſhed from in Edinburgh college, in their laſt edition, directs a tincture of the fects, which are antennated, by being tantaculated. See VER dried flowering tops of wormwood, in the proportion of fix ounces to a quart of rectified ſpirit, under the title of tin&tura WORMS, in huſbandry, are very prejudicial to corn-fields, eat abfinthii. Lewis's Mat. Med. ing up the roots of the young corn, and deſtroying great quanti The aſhes of wormwood afford a more pure alkaline ſalt than ties of the crop. Sea-ſalt is the beſt of all things for deſtroying moſt other vegetables, excepting bean-ſtalks, broom, and the them. Sea-water is proper to ſprinkle on the land where it can larger trees. In the Amcen. Acad. vol. ii. p. 160. Linnæus be had; where the ſalt-ſprings are, their water does as well ; and mentions two caſes, in which an eſſence, prepared from this plant, where neither are at hand, a little common or bay ſalt melted in and taken for a conſiderable time, prevented the formation of water does as well. Soot will deſtroy them in ſome lands, but it ſtones in the kidneys or bladder ; the patients forbearing the uſe is not to be depended upon, for it does not always ſucceed. Some of wine and acids. Many nauſeoues infects are deſtroyed, or farmers ſtrew on their land a mixture of chalk and lime; and driven away by the ſmell of this plant ; and it is no uncommon others truſt wholly to their winter fallowing to do it. If this is practice among the good women in the country, to preſerve their done in a wet ſeaſon, when they come up to the ſurface of the cloaths from moths, by laying bundles of dried wormwood among ground, and ſome nails with ſharp heads be driven into the bot them. Some of our brewers have a method of uſing wormwood tom of the plough, it will infallibly deſtroy them. If they are trou inſtead of hops, to give the bitter taſte to their malt-liquors, bleſome in gardens, the refuſe brine of ſalted meat will ſerve the and to preſerve them. It is found to anſwer the latter purpoſe purpoſe, or ſome walnut leaves ſteeped in a ciſtern of water for very well; but the taſte is ſo diſagreeable, that it is much com- a fortnight or three weeks, will give it ſuch a bitterneſs that it plained of. The reaſon of this is that the people who uſe it do will be a certain poiſon to them. not underſtand the time of gathering it. All plants are fulleſt of A decoction of wood-aſhes, ſprinkled on the ground, will anſwer juice while in the ſhoot, but fullelt of virtue when they have the ſame purpoſe ; and any particular plant may be ſecured both their feeds on them. their ſeeds on them. This is the caſe with wormwood, as well as from worms and ſnails by ſtrewing a mixture of lime and aſhes a thouſand others ; and though, in the feeding time, it produces about its roots. It is a general caution among the farmers to ſow much more flavour than when younger, yet it is without that their corn as ſhallow as they can, where the field is very ſubject to nauſeous bitter of the crude juice, which gives us the diſtaſte to Mortimer's Huſbandry, p. 328. the plant. WORMS, Lumbrici or Vermes, in medicine, a diſeaſe ariſing Some people have found the proper way of managing worm- from ſome of thoſe reptiles being generated, and growing in the wood, and have given a flavour with it to their malt-liquors, even body ; whence, frequently, terrible ſymptoms proceed. For de- preferable, in the opinion of all palates, to that given in the fcription of the ſeveral ſorts of worms which infeſt the hu common way by hops. The method is this: the plant is to be man body, and the methods of expelling them, ſee the Syſtem of gathered when fully ripe, and the ſeeds upon it, and in this ſtate Medicine, Genus 43. hung up in ſmall bunches to dry. When thoroughly dried, a cer- WORM, in chymiſtry, denotes a long, winding pewter-pipe, tain quantity of good ſtrong malt liquor is to be impregnated which diſtillers and apothecaries place in a tub of water, to cool with it to the utmoſt ſtrength that it can poſſibly give it. This and condenſe the vapour in the diſtillation of ſpirits. This the is to be ſet by for uſe, to add to all the reſt. When the hops chymiſts alſo call a ſerpentine. Formerly, this worm, or ſome- Thould, in the common way, be added to the beer, this liquor is thing like it, was placed above the head of a ſtill, with a re to be added in a proper quantity, making the taſte the judge frigeratory at the upper end of it, which was uſeful in the diſtil when there is enough of it. By this means juſt what degree of ling of ſpirit of wine. bitter is required may be given to the liquor, and the bitter of Worm Tineture, in chymiſtry, a name given by many to a this common plant, thus managed, is as perfectly agreeable as medicine prepared by Hoffman, from earth-worms; and in many that of any vegetable in the world. The worm wood for this pur- parts of Germany eſteemed one of the greateſt medicines in the poſe ſhould have its ſeeds carefully preſerved in the drying, and it world, though leſs known in other places. This tincture, which is beſt, if not uſed till the year after it was gathered. Phil . Tranſ. ever way prepared, is excellent in abating the pains of diſeaſes, No. 124. The effential falt of wormwood, is afforded in great that do not admit a cure. The fits of the gout are rendered ea quantity, and poſſeſſes, in many reſpects, the virtues of the plant. fier by every doſe of it; and even in cancers, the pain is quieted Wormwood ſhares with all other bitters the virtues of an abfter- in a wonderful manner by it, and life rendered much more ſup- ſive deobſtruent; and is in ſome degree purgative, as all bitters portable. Hoffman's Act. Laborator. Chym. Wormwood is one of thoſe plants which the chymiſts have WORMWOOD, Abſinthium, in botany, a genus of plants. generally choſen for their proceſſes of the reſuſcitation of plants A decoction of wormwood in water, long boiled, and inſpiffated from their aſhes; and though the pretended principles of this art to the conſiſtence of an extract, loſes the ſmell and flavour of the are falſe, yet there have been ſome of the artiſts ſo cunning as to plant, but retains its bitterneſs. An extract, made with rectified form repreſentations of this plant, that have deceived and puzzled ſpirit, contains, along with the bitter, nearly the whole of the the greateſt unbelievers, though they have not convinced them. nauſeous part ; the watery extract gives out its ſimple bitterneſs, Phil. Tranf. No.74. not only to water again, but to rectified ſpirit. Wormwood is a WORSHIP of God, cultus Dei, amounts to the ſame with moderately warm ſtomachic and corroborant : for theſe intentions what we call religion. This worſhip conſiſts in paying a due re- it was formerly in common uſe, but it has now given place to ſpect, veneration, and homage to the Deity, from a conſciouſneſs bitters of a leſs ungrateful kind. An infuſion of the leaves, of his goodneſs, &c. And this internal reſpect, &c. is to be with the addition of fixed alkali ſalt, is a powerful diuretic in ſhewn and teſtified by external acts; as prayers, thankſgivings, &c. dropſical caſes. The effential oil is fometimes given, in doſes WORT, in the materia medica, is the ſweet infuſion of malt; of a drop or two, properly diluted by folution in ſpirit of wine, firſt propoſed by Dr. Macbride, as a dietetic article to ſcorbutic as a mild antiſpaſmodic. Its more frequent uſe is a vermi- | perſons, from an apprehenſion that it would ferment in their fuge ; for which purpoſe it is both applied to the belly, and taken bowels, and give out its fixed air, by the antiſeptic powers of in pills made with crumb of bread. Dr. Lewis, however, ſays which the ſtrong tendency to putrefaction in this diſeaſe might be that the ſpirituous extract promiſes to be, in this intention, pre corrected. It was ſome time before a fair trial of this propoſed ferable to the pure oil; as it contains, along with the oil, all the remedy could be obtained, and different reports were made con- bitter matter of the wormwood. This plant very powerfully re cerning it. In 1762, the lords of the admiralty gave orders to ſiſts putrefaction, and is made a principal ingredient in antiſeptic have the wort tried in the naval hoſpitals at Portſmouth and Ply- fomentations. Boerhaave commends, in tertian agues, a medi mouth ; but the murmurs of the patients, on account of reſtric- cated liquor, prepared by grinding about ſeven grains of the oil tions that were neceſſary for determining its efficacy, put a ſtop with a dram of ſugar, and two drams of the alkaline ſalt extracted to the farther exhibition of it ; and, indeed, Dr. Huxham, in from the aſhes of wormwood, and afterwards diffolving the com 1764, informed the ingenious and benevolent propoſer of this re- pound in ſix ounces of the diſtilled water of the plant. Two medy, that it had been tried with very bad effects. But Dr. hours before the fit is expected, the patient is to bathe his feet Macbride affures us, on the teſtimony of a gentleman, who made ufe are. No. 150. 5 U WRI W RI uſe of the wort, that it may be taken for a length of time, to the The original writ is always made returnable at the diſtance of at quantity of a quart in the day, without producing any ill effect | leaſt fifteen days from the date or teſte, and upon fome day in one whatever; and he refer's to Van Swieten's Commentary, vol. iv. of the four terms: and all judicial writs, being grounded on the p. 673, where we learn, that the baron's lady, when a nurſe, uſed ſheriff's return, muſt reſpectively bear date the ſame day on which regularly to drink a pint of it every night going to bed, in order the writ immediately preceding was returnable. to increaſe her milk. After the failure of ſucceſs in the naval Judicial Writs are thoſe ſent by order of the court where the hoſpitals, orders were iſſued to have the wort adminiſtered on cauſe depends upon emergent occaſions, after the fuit begins. Thip-board, where no temptations of freſh vegetables could offer Judicial writs are diſtinguiſhed from original, in that their teſte to make the men uneaſy. But a conſiderable time elapſed before bears the name of the chief-juſtice of that court whence they any reports were made either of its good or bad effects. Dr. come; whereas the original ſay, teſte meipfo, in the name, or re- Macbride, however, perſiſted in recommending it, and lived to lating to the king. publiſh ſeveral caſes, in a poſtſcript to the ſecond edition of his Writs may be returned every term, until a defendant is arreſted: work, in 1767, from which it appears, that ſcorbutic complaints | but in the court of king's bench if the latitat be not renewed in of the moſt dangerous kind have actually been cured at ſea by the five terms, a new writ is to be taken out, and the plaintiff is not uſe of wort. Its general effects were, to keep the patients open, and allowed to renew the old one. The ſheriff's bailiffs cannot exe- to prove highly nutritious and ſtrengthening; it ſometimes purged cute a writ directed to the ſheriff, without his warrant; and if too much; but this effect was eaſily obviated by the tinctura the- ſeveral perſons are included in a writ (for four defendants may be baica. Other unqueſtionable caſes of its ſucceſs in this diſeaſe in one writ) there muſt be ſeveral warrants from the theriff to exe- are to be ſeen in the London Med. Obf. and Inq. vol. v. p. 61. cute the ſame. All writs are to be returned and filed in due time, The uſe of wort has hence been adopted in other caſes, where a to avoid poſt-terminums. Attachment lies againſt theriffs, &c. for ſtrong putrid diſpoſition in the Auids appeared to prevail, as in not executing a writ, or for doing it oppreſſively, by force, ex- cancerous and phagædenic ulcers ; and inſtances are publiſhed of torting money thereon, or not doing it effectually, by reaſon of its remarkable good effects in theſe caſes. See London Med. Obf. any corrupt practice. and Inq. vol. iv. p. 367, &c. Prieſtly on Air, vol. i. Appendix. WRITING, Scriptura, the art, or act, of ſignifying and con- As the efficacy of the malt infuſion depends upon its producing veying our ideas to others, by letters or characters viſible to the eye. changes in the whole maſs of Auids, it is obvious that it muſt be Or, writing may be defined to be the art of exhibiting to the ſight taken in large quantities for a conſiderable length of time, and ra the conceptions of the mind, by means of marks or characters, ther as an article of diet than medicine. The quantity of one to ſignificant of the ſounds of language, which enable us to transfer four pints has generally been directed. ideas from the eye to the ear, and vice verſa. WOUND, in medicine and ſurgery, a recent feparation made Written characters are of two forts: they are either ſigns for in the ſoft or fleſhy parts of the body, from an external cauſe, and things, or ſigns for words. Of the former fort are the pictures, particularly from the action of ſome hard and ſharp inſtrument. hieroglyphics, and ſymbols, employed by the ancient nations ; of Or, it is a ſolution of the continuity of a fleſhy part, made by the the latter fort are the alphabetical characters, now employed by violent application of ſome penetrating body, while it yet remains all Europeans. Pictures were, undoubtedly, the firſt cffay to- freſh, bloody, and without putrefaction ; by which circumſtances wards writing; accordingly, we find, in fact, that this was the only a wound is diſtinguiſhed from an ulcer or abſceſs, which is the fort of writing known in the kingdom of Mexico, when America ſolution of the external parts, proceeding from an internal cauſe. was firſt diſcovered. By hiſtorical pictures, the Mexicans are ſaid A like ſeparation, happening in a bony part, is called a fracture. to have tranſmitted the memory of the moſt important tranſactions Some, indeed, have taken a greater latitude, and call every exter of the empire. See Warburton's Divine Legat. of Moſes, vol. ii. nal hurt of the body, by what cauſe foever produced, a wound. part i. p. 67, &c. vol. iii. p. 73. Robertſon's Hiſt. Am. vol. iii. Wounds are generally inflicted on the ſofter parts of the human p. 203, &c. and Appendix, note 26, p.440. edit. 8vo. body, nevertheleſs the more ſolid parts, as the bones, are ſome But as pictures could do no more than delineate external events, times injured by ſharp inſtruments. without exhibiting their connexions, deſcribing ſuch qualities as All wounds proceed either from puncture, inciſion, or contu were not viſible to the eye, or conveying any idea of the diſpofi- fion, according to the nature and make of the inſtrument they tions, or words, of men, there aroſe in proceſs of time, for ſup- were cauſed by. Wounds are uſually divided with reſpect to plying this defect, the invention of hieroglyphical characters; their cauſe, circumſtances, cure, &c. into ſimple and compound. which may be conſidered as the ſecond ſtage of the art of writing. Simple wounds are thoſe made by puncture, inciſion or contuſion, Hieroglyphics conſiſt in certain fymbols which are made to ſeparately; thoſe of the outer ſkin, without any conſiderable lofs ſtand for inviſible objects, on account of an analogy or reſemblance of ſubſtance, or hurting any remarkable veſſel; and thoſe not com which ſuch fymbols were ſuppoſed to bear to the objects. Among plicated with any dangerous ſymptoms. Compound wounds are the Mexicans were found ſome traces of hieroglyphical characters, thoſe made both by puncture and inciſion at the ſame time, to intermixed with their hiſtorical pictures. But Egypt was the which is ſometimes alſo added contuſion; thoſe attended with great country where this ſort of writing was moſt ſtudied, and brought loſs of Aeſh, or the hurt of ſome conſiderable veſſel ; add, thoſe into a regular art. However, this ſort of writing could be no made by envenomed inſtruments, or attended with violent other than ænigmatical and confuſed, in the higheſt degree; and fymptoms. muſt have been a very imperfect vehicle of knowledge of any WREATH, in heraldry, a roll of fine linen, or filk (like kind. . that of a Turkiſh turbant), conſiſting of the colours borne in the The Chineſe have no alphabet of letters, or ſimple founds, eſcutcheon ; placed in an achievement, between the helmet and which compoſe their words; but every ſingle character, which the creſt, and immediately ſupporting the creſt. See the Syſtem, they uſe in writing, is ſignificant of an idea : it is a mark which Sect. VII. and Plate VI. ſtands for ſome one thing or object, and conſequently, the num- WREN, or golden-creſted Wren, the Engliſh name of a fpe- ber of theſe characters muſt be immenſe. At length, in different cies of the Genus MOTACILLA. For a particular deſcription of nations, men became ſenſible of the imperfection, the ambiguity, this very ſingular bird, ſee MOTACILLA. and the tediouſneſs of each of theſe methods of communication WRÉSLING, a kind of combat, or engagement, between with one another, and began to conſider the advantage reſulting two perſons unarmed, body to body, to prove their ſtrength and from employing ſigns, which ſhould ſtand not directly for things, dexterity; and try which can throw his opponent to the ground. but for the words which they uſed in ſpeech for naming theſe Wreſtling palæſtra is an exerciſe of very great antiquity and fame. things; and they alſo conſidered that though the number of words It was in uſe in the heroic age; witneſs Hercules, who wreſtled in every language be very great, yet the number of articulate with Antæus. It continued a long time in the higheſt repute ; and founds, uſed in compoſing theſe words, is comparatively ſmall. had very conſiderable rewards and honours aſſigned itat the Olym-- Hence they were led to invent ſigns, not for each word by itſelf, pic games. It was the cuſtom of the athletæ, or wreſtlers, to but for each of thoſe ſimple ſounds that are employed in forming anoint their bodies with oil, to give the leſs hold to their antagoniſt. words; and they obſerved, that, by joining together a few of thoſe Ablancourt obſerves, that Lycurgus ordained the Spartan maids figns, it would be practicable to expreſs, in writing, the whole to wreſtle in public, quite naked, to break them of their too much combination of ſounds which our words require. delicacy and niceneſs; to make them appear more robuſt, and fa The firſt ſtep, in this new progreſs, was the invention of an miliarize the people, &c. to fuch nudities. alphabet of ſyllables, which probably preceded the invention of an WRIST, Carpus, in anatomy, conſiſts of eight ſmall, unequal alphabet of letters, among ſome of the ancient nations; and which and irregular bones, all of which taken together repreſent a ſort of is ſaid to be retained to this day, in Ethiopia, and ſome countries grotto, of a regular quadrangular figure, and connected principally of India. By fixing upon a particular mark or character, for with the baſis of the radius. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. IV. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. IV. every ſyllable in the language, the number of characters, necef- Art. 3. and Plate I. Fig. 1. letter h. ſary to be uſed in writing, was reduced within a much ſmaller WRIT, formed from the Saxon writan to write; Breve, in compaſs than the number of words in the language. Still, how- law, a precept of the king in writing, under the ſeal, iſſuing out ever, the number of characters was great ; and muſt have conti- of ſome court to the ſheriff or other perſon, whereby any thing is nued to render both reading and writing very laborious arts. At commanded to be done, touching a ſuit or action, or giving com laſt ſome happy genius aroſe ; and tracing the founds made by the miſſion to have it done. human voice to their moſt ſimple elements, reduced them to a Original WRITS, are thoſe ſet out of the high court of chan very few vowels and conſonants; and, by affixing to each of theſe cery, to ſummon the defendant in a perſonal, or tenant in a real the ſigns which we now call letters, taught men how, by their action; either before the ſuit begins, or to begin the ſuit thereby, combinations, to put into writing all the different words, or com- binations W R I W RI binations of ſound, which they employed in ſpeech. By being overſpread the northern parts of Europe. Many ſettlements were reduced to this fimplicity, the art of writing was brought to its made in Germany long before the Chriſtian æra. higheſt ſtate of perfection, and, in this ſtate, we now enjoy The learned are not agreed with reſpect to the origin of what is it in all the coutries of Europe. To whom we are indebted for called national writing. Some will have it, that the Roman man- this admirable and uſeful diſcovery does not appear. See LETTERS. ner prevailed throughout the Weſt, until the irruption of the bar There ſeems reaſon to conclude, from the books which barous nations of the North, in the fifth and fixth centuries ; the Moſes has written, that among the Jews, and probably among Goths (they ſay) firſt introduced their mode of writing into Italy, the Egyptians, letters had been invented prior to his age. inſtead of the Roman manner; the Viſigoths did the like in Spain; The univerſal tradition among the ancients is, that they were firſt the Franks in Gaul; the Saxons in England; and the Lombards imported into Greece by Cadmus the Phoenician, who, according in Italy. According to others; the Romans were in pofſeſſion of to the common ſyſtem of chronology, was contemporary with various forms of writing ; but it is ſuppoſed, that the barbarous na- Joſhua ; but, according to fir Iſaac Newton's ſyſtem, contempo- tions introduced ſome of their own letters in the writings compoſed rary with king David. As the Phænicians are not known to of capitals and ſmall letters ; that the running hand, peculiar to have been the inventors of an art or ſcience, though, by means of cach nation, was uſed in grantsand contracts, and found admittance their extenſive commerce, they propagated the diſcoveries made likewiſe in manuſcripts after the middle of the ſeventh century. by other nations, the moſt probable and natural accounts of the Mr. Afle, however, is of opinion, that the different modes of writ- origin of alphabetical characters is, that they took riſe in Egypt, ing in Italy, Spain, France, England, and Germany were derived the firſt civilized kingdom of which we have any authentic ac from the Roman alone. Whilſt Rome continued the centre of all counts, and the great ſource of art and polity among the ancients. the provinces of the empire, her manner of writing generally pre- In that country, the favourite ſtudy of the hieroglypical charac vailed in each; but the empire being diſmembered, and all the weſ- ters had directed much attention to the art of writing. Their tern provinces diſunited, a change was produced ; the conquerors hieroglyphics are known to have been intermixed with abbreviate disfigured the Roman writing, and by their falſe taſte and igno- ſymbols, and arbitrary marks; whence, at laſt, they caught the rance, diſtinguiſhed their writing from that of their neighbours : idea of contriving marks, not for things merely, but for ſounds. the genius and diſpoſition of the different people having no ſmall Accordingly, Plato (in Phædro) expreſsly attributes the inven- Thare in producing this diverſity. tion of letters to Theuth or Thoth, the Epyptian, who is ſup- This notion greatly aſſiſts in diſcovering the age of manuſcripts ; poſed to have been the Hermes, or Mercury, of the Greeks. for if a writing is Merovingian, it cannot be ſubſequent to the Cadmus himſelf, though he paſſed from Phænicia to Greece, as ninth, nor prior to the fifth century ; if another is Lombardic, it ſeveral of the ancients have affirmed, was originally of Thebes in muſt be poſterior to the middle of the ſixth, and anterior to the Egypt. Moſt probably Moſes carried with him the Egyptian let- thirteenth ; if Saxon, it cannot be earlier than the ſeventh, nor ters into the land of Canaan ; and there, being adopted by the later than about the middle of the twelfth. The writing which Phænicians whoinhabited that partof the country, they were tranſ prevailed in England from about the year 596, from this time to mitted into Greece. But it is curious to obſerve, that the letters, the middle of the eleventh century, is generally termed Saxon, which we uſe at this day, can be traced back to the alphabet of and may be divided into five kinds; viz. the Roman Saxon, which Cadmus. The Roman alphabet, which obtains with us and moſt is very ſimilar to the Roman, and prevailed in England from the of the European nations, is plainly formed on the Greek, with a coming of St. Auguſtin till the eighth century ; the ſet Saxon, few variations. And all learned men obſerve, that the Greek which took place towards the middle of the eighth century, con- characters, eſpecially according to the manner in which they are tinued till about the middle of the ninth, and was not entirely dif- formed in the oldeſt inſcriptions, have a remarkable conformity ufed till the beginning of the tenth century; the running-hand with the Hebrew or Samaritan characters, which, it is agreed, Saxon, which came into uſe towards the latter end of the ninth are the ſame with the Phænician, or the alphabet of Cadmus. If century, when learning was diffuſed in England under the auſpices the Greek characters are inverted from left to right, according to of king Alfred, in whoſe reign many books were written in this the Phænician and Hebrew manner of writing, they will appear iſland, in a more expeditious manner than formerly; the mixed to be nearly the ſame. Beſides the conformity of figure, the names Saxon occurring in the ninth, tenth, and the beginning of the or denominations of the letters, alpha, beta, gamma, &c. and the eleventh centuries, in many,MSS. which were written in England order in which they are arranged, in all the ſeveral alphabets, Phæ in characters partly Roman, partly Lombardic, and partly Saxon ; nician, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman, agree ſo much as to amount and the elegant Saxon which took place in England early in the to a demonſtration that they were all originally derived from the tenth century, laſted till the Norman conqueſt, but was not en- fame ſource. The letters were, at firſt, written from the right tirely difuſed till the middle of the twelfth, and is more beautiful hand to the left ; and this manner of writing obtained among the than the writing in France, Italy, and Germany, during the ſame Affyrians, Phænicians, Arabians, and Hebrews : and from ſome period. The writing introduced into England, by William I. is very old inſcriptions, it appears to have obtained alſo among the uſually called Norman, and is compoſed of letters nearly Lombar- Greeks. Afterwards the Greeks adopted the method of writing dic, which were generally uſed in grants, characters, public inſtru- their lines alternately from the right to the left, and from the left ments, and law proceedings, with very little variation, from the to the right, called bouſtrophedon. At length, however, the mo Norman conqueſt till the reign of king Edward III. tion from the left hand to the right being found more natural and About the reign of king Richard II. variations took place in commodious, the practice of writing, in this direction, prevailed writing records and law proceedings ; the charters from the reign throughout all the countries of Europe. See more on this ſubject of king Richard II. to that of king Henry VIII. were compoſed under LETTERS. partly of characters called ſet chancery and common chancery, and Writing was long a kind of engraving. Pillars, and tables of ſome of the letters called court-hand ; which three different ſpecies ftones, were firſt employed, and afterwards, plates of the ſofter me of writing are derived partly from the Norman, and partly from tals, ſuch as lead: but as writing became more common, lighter the modern Gothic. The modern Gothic began to take place in and more portable ſubſtances were employed. The leaves, and the England in the twelfth century ; the old Engliſh about the middle bark of certain trees, were uſed in ſome countries; and in others of the fourteenth century; and ſet chancery and common chan- tablets of wood, covered with a thin coat of ſoft wax, on which the cery, in the decline of the fame century, and are ſtill uſed in the impreſſion was made with a ſtylus of iron. See Book. See alſo enrolments of letters patents, charters, &c. and in exemplifications STYLE, in the Treatiſe on ORATORY, Part. II. Sect. II. Arti- of recoveries ; the court-hand was contrived by the Engliſh law- cle 1. In later times, the hides of animals, properly prepared and yers, took its riſe about the middle of the ſixteenth century, poliſhed into parchmerit, were the moſt common materials ; our and continued till the beginning of the late reign, when it was preſent method of writing on paper is an invention of no greater aboliſhed by law. The court-hand characters were nothing more antiquity than the fourteenth century. The advantages of writ than the Norman characters very much corrupted and deformed. ing above ſpeech are, that writing is both a more extenſive, and a In the ſixteenth century the Engliſh lawyers engroſſed their con- more permanent method of communication ; nevertheleſs, ſpoken veyances and legal inſtruments in characters called ſecretary, Janguage has a great ſuperiority over written language, in point of which are ſtill in uſe. energy or force. See Warburton, ubi fupra. Blair's Lectures The learned and ingenious colonel Vallancy thinks, indeed, on Rhetoric, &c. vol, i. lect. 7. that the Iberians, who migrated from the borders of the Euxine and It appears that the art of writing is of great antiquity, and that Caſpian ſeas, and ſettled in Spain, learned letters and arts from the the ancients, who afcribe the invention of it to the Gods, had Phænicians : that a colony of the ancient Spaniards, by the name very imperfect ideas of its true origin. When it is conſidered of Scots, or Scythians, ſettled in Ireland about a thouſand, or per- that letters muſt have been the produce of a certain degree of ci- haps fix hundred years before Chriſt, and that they brought ele- vilization among mankind, the inquirers into their original have mentary characters with them into Ireland. He obſerves, that been naturally led to ieek it in the hiſtory of thoſe nations that ap- the Iriſh alphabet differs from that of all other nations, in name, pear to have been firſt civilized. Accordingly, many authors order, number, and power, and ſuppoſes that they might have re- have decided in favour of the Egyptians. See LETTERS. ceived their alphabet from the Carthaginians, who alſo ſettled a An opinion ſeems to be gaining credit among the learned, that colony in Ireland about fix hundred years before Chriſt; and adds, arts and letters took their riſe in the northern parts of Aſia, and that this opinion is the more to be credited, as the Iriſh language that they were cultivated in thoſe parts long before they were appears to have a radical identity with the Punic. In order to practiſed in Pænicia or Egypt. Some travelled fouthwards, diſcover what real pretenſions the Iriſh have to the early uſe of others ſtaid behind ; and thoſe who afterwards emigrated from the letters, for which they eagerly contend, Mr. Aſtle has examined Eaſt, were generally called Scythians, and ſometimes Hunns, who their ſtone monuments, their coins, and their MSS. and appealed 1 to W W RY that the manners of the old Iriſh were inconſiſtent with the know. to the hiſtorians of that country. The letters upon the mot an- cient of their monuments are apparently of Roman, and Roman- ledge of letters. Britiſh original; and none of theſe inſcribed monuments are ſo It ſeems probable, that the interior parts of Europe were imme- ancient as to prove that the Iriſh were poſſeſſed of letters before diately peopled from the northern parts of Aſia, and the maritime the Romans had intercourſe with the Britons ; though they prove parts from Phænicia, and the ſouthern and weſtern parts of that that they had letters before the arival of St. Patrick in that king- quarter of the globe. If this be the caſe, it is not ſurpriſing that dom, which Mr. Whitaker, with great probability of truth, ſays, fome eaſtern cuſtoms prevailed in Great Britain and Ireland, and were wafted over from the Caledonians, who uſed the Roman that many Celtic words are ſtill preſerved both in the Iriſh and letters. Sir James Ware ſays, that the Iriſh alphabet was bor- in the Welch languages. The Norman characters, it is obſerved, rowed from the Britiſh, and that the Saxon characters were nearly were generally uſed in England from the coming of William I. the ſame as the Irish ; and adds that Mr. Camden inclined to this and the Saxon characters were entirely diſuſed in the very be- opinion. Moreover, there are no Iriſh coins, inſcribed with let ginning of the twelfth century; but the Iriſh and Scots preſerved ters, till long after the twelfth century ; except coins ſtruck by the ancient forms of their characters till the end of the fixteenth ſome of our Saxon kings, who made incurſions into that country, century. The Gaelic or Erfe language, uſed in the Highlands of and ſtruck money there in the Saxon manner.no Scotland, and the Iberno-Gaelic, are nearly the ſame, and their The old Iriſh MS. which has been diſcovered is the Pſalter of letters are ſimilar to each other, as Mr. Aſtle has ſewn by various Caſhel, written in the latter end of the tenth century. The teſti ſpecimens. The curious will find much information on the ſub- mony of approved hiſtorians is likewiſe unfavourable to the ancient ject of this article in Aſtle's Origin and Progreſs of Writing, 4to. literature of Ireland. Mr. Innes, in his Eſſay on the Antiquities 1784. of Scotland and Ireland, and Mr. James Macpherſon, in the third WRY-neck, in Ornithology, the Engliſh name of the Genus edition of his Introduction to the Hiſtory of Great Britain and Yunx, belonging to the order of Picæ. For deſcription of the Ireland, maintain, that Ireland was firſt peopled from Britain; and Genus, &c. fee YUNX. X. X Y L A double conſonant, and the twenty-ſecond letter in the XEBEC, in ſea language, is a ſmall three maſted veſſel, navi- The x of the Latins, and of the Greeks, are compounded of c s, tugal, and Barbary ; conſtructed for the purpoſe of conveying and x o; whence to this day, the letter x in the Engliſh and merchandiſe, ſtores, &c. French has the ſame found with cs, or k s. Thus we pronounce XYLO-BALSAMUM, balſam, a name which naturaliſts, Alexander; exactly as if written Alecſander, or Alekſander. The &c. give to the wood of the tree, which yields that precious gum I talians have no x at all in their language, but both ſpeak and known to the Latins by the name of opobalſamum, and, among us, write Aleſſandro. The Spaniards pronounce the x like our c before by the name of balfam or balm of Gilead. We have branches of m; viz. Alexandro, as if it were Alecandro. The Portugueſe pro- this tree brought from Cairo. They are very ſtraight, brittle, nounce it like ſh. In foreign words, uſed in Engliſh, we ſometimes unequal, and full of knots; their bark is reddiſh without, and ſoften the x into a double s, as Bruſſels for Bruxels, &c. The greeniſh within. The wood is whitiſh, and full of pith ; and, letter is not known in the Hebrew, or other oriental languages; when broken, yields an agreeable ſmell, reſembling that of the but in lieu of it, they write the two ſimple letters whereof it is balfam. The xylo balſamum is reputed good to ſtrengthen the compounded. And the like do the modern Germans. brain and ſtomach, and to expel poiſon. Y A W Y. Y E A Y The twenty-third letter in the Engliſh alphabet, borrowed, demial to Guinea, and the hotter climates in Africa, feldom fail- 9 originally from the Greek v. It is occaſionally both vowel ing to attack each individual one time or other of their lives, but and confonant. As a vowel ſome authors have judged it unneceſ- moſt commonly in childhood or youth ; it makes its firſt appear- ſary in our language, in regard its found is preciſely the ſame ance in little ſpots on the cuticle, level with the ſkin, no larger with that of the i. Accordingly, it is but little uſed, except in than the point of a pin, which increaſe daily, and become protu- words borrowed from the Greek, to denote their origin, by repre- berant like pimples : ſoon after, the cuticles fret off, and then ſenting the Greek fanov. The vowel y, however, has a place inſtead of pus or ichor in this ſmall tumor, white floughs or fordes even in ſome words purely Engliſh; and that both in the middle are only found, under which is a ſmall red fungus growing out of thereof, as in dying, frying, &c. and at the end, as in lay, &c. the cutis, increaſing gradually to different magnitudes, ſome leſs Y was much uſed by the Saxons; whence it is found for i in than the ſmalleſt wood-ſtrawberry, ſome as big as a raſpberry, and the old Engliſh writers. When the y follows a conſonant, and at others even exceeding in bigneſs the largeſt mulberries, which the end of words, it is a vowel, and has the ſound of i; and when they very much reſemble. While they are coming to this height, it precedes a vowel, or diphthong, and at the beginning of words, the black hair, which grows out of the part now covered with it is a conſonant. Some have thought that y is in all caſes a the yaws, changes gradually white. It is impoſſible to calculate vowel ; but Dr. Johnſon obſerves of y, as of w, that it follows a the exact time which this diſtemper requires to go through theſe vowel without any hiatus, as rofy youth. The Romans uſed the different ſtages. Some negroes who were in good plight, and had у for the vowel u, which they had no character for, diſtinct from full nouriſhment, in a month after diſcovering the white ſpots, the v conſonant; their way being to pronounce the common u, have had ſeveral yaws as big as a mulberry ; and in other negroes as we do the diphthong ou; and the Greek ubinov, as the Engliſh that were low in feſh, and had but a poor ſcanty diet, in three and French u. In our own, and ſome other modern tongues, au months time none of the yaws have exceeded a common ſtraw- thors begin to diſpenſe more and more with the preciſe orthogra- berry. The yaws appear on all parts of the body ; but the moſt phy, which requires all words that have an upſilon, in the Greek, and biggeſt are generally on the groins, about the privities and to be written with a y. And with reaſon ; ſince our Greek y has anus, in the armpits and face. When they are very large, they loſt the found it had, in the language whence we borrow it. But it are few in number; and when they are many in number, they are is certainly ridiculous to uſe it, as many do, in words which in- ſmall in ſize. All this time the patient is in good health, does deed have a Greek origin, but have no u in the Greek, as in not loſe his appetite, and ſeems to have no other uneaſineſs than eclipſe: yet fome affect to do this. what the naftineſs of the fores occaſions ; for they are not painful, YAM, or YAMMES, a ſpecies of the dioſcorea, which is much except touched too roughly. This is the natural appearance of cultivated by the inhabitants of the Iſlands in America, and is of the diſtemper, when left to itſelf, and in this ſtate it will continue great uſe to them for feeding their Negroes ; and the white people a long time, without any ſenſible alteration. The yaws do not make puddings of their roots, when ground to a ſort of four. The prove often dangerous, if the cure is undertaken ſkilfully at a roots are as big as a man's leg, of an irregular form, and of a dirty proper time, and the patient has not undergone any courſe of phy- brown colour on the outſide, but white and mealy within. The fic for them before; but if the patient has been once ſalivated, or ſtalks of this plant are triangular and winged, and the leaves are taken any quantity of mercury, and the ſkin once cleared, and heart-ſhaped, with two ears, like thoſe of arum. The plants are they appear again, they are always very difficult, and often impof- propagated by cutting the roots in pieces, and preſerving an eye ſible to cure. or bud in each, as in planting of potatoes ; from each of which YEAR, in the full extent of the word, is a ſyſtem or cycle three or four large roots will be produced. The roots, after hav- of ſeveral months ; uſually twelve. Others define year, in the ing lain ſix or eight months in the ground, are roaſted or boiled general, a period, or ſpace of time, meaſured by the revolution of for food, and ſometimes made into bread. Theſe plants grow fome celeſtial body in its orbit. Thus, the time wherein the fixed wild in the woods in the iſland of Ceylon, and on the coaſt of ſtars make a revolution is called the great year. And the times Malabar ; and they are ſuppoſed to have been brought from the wherein Jupiter, Saturn, the ſun, moon, &c. finiſh their revolu- Eaſt to the Weſt Indies. Miller, tions, and return to the ſame point of the zodiac, are reſpectively YAWS, in medicine, is a diſtemper epidemical, or rather en-called the years of Fupiter, and Saturn; and the folur, and the lunar Y E A ΥΕ Ο Zunar years. rear, properly, and by way of emiņence ſo called, been crowned on the ift of January, that day thenceforth became , is the ſolar year; or the ſpace of time wherein the ſun moves the firſt of the year for hiſtorians, &c. though, in all civil affairs, through the twelve ſigns of the ecliptic. they retained the ancient manner of accounting, which began the This, by the obſervations of Caſſini, Bianchini, and de la Hire 25th of March. The part of the year between thoſe two terms contains 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes; which is the quan was uſually expreſſed both ways, às 1748-9, or 1745. But by tity of the year aſſumed by the authors of the Gregorian calendar. the act for altering the ſtyle, the civil year now commences with But, in the civil, or popular account, this year only contains 365 January 1. Since the Conqueror, the king's patents, charters, days; except every fourth, which contains 366. Sce KALENDAR. proclamations, &c. are uſually dated by the year of the king's The viciſſitude of ſeafons ſeem to have given occaſion to the reign. The church, as to her ſolemn ſervice, begins the year on firſt inſtitution of the year. Man, naturally curious to know the the firſt Sunday in Advent, which is always that next St. An- cauſe of that diverſity, foon found it was the proximity and diſ drew's day, or the 30th of November. The Jews, as moſt othet tance of the fun; and, upon this, gave the name year to the ſpace nations of the Eaſt, had a civil year, which commenced with the of time wherein that luminary, performing his whole courſe, re new moon in September ; and an ecclefiaftical year, which com turned to the ſame point of his orbit. And hence, as it was on menced from the new moon in March. account of the ſeaſons, in a great meaſure that the year was inſti Years are alſo diſtinguiſhed with regard to the epochas whence tuted, their chief regard and attention was, that the fame parts of they are numbered : thus, years of our Lord, are thoſe reckoned the year ſhould always correſpond to the fame ſeaſons; i. e. that from the birth of Jeſus Chriſt. Years of the world, are thoſe e- the beginning of the year ſhould always be when the ſun was in the lapſed ſince the creation. Years of Romey of the Hegira, of Na: fame point of his orbit; and that they ſhould keep pace, come bonaſſar, &c. See the difference between theſe years under the round, and end together. article EPOCHA. This, different nations aimed to attain by different ways ; mak YEAST, Yest, or BARM, the foam or flower of beer, or ing the year to commence from different points of the zodiac, other liquor in fermentation. The yeaſt of beer is uſed for a lea- and even making the time of his progreſs different. So that ſome ven or ferment in the making of bread: as ſerving to ſwell or of their years are much more perfect than others, but none of puff it up very conſiderably in a little time, and to make it much - them quite juft; i. e. none of them whoſe parts did not ſhift, with lighter, ſofter, and more delicate. But when there is too much regard to the parts of the ſun's courſe. of it, it renders the bread bitter. The uſe of yeaſt in bread is In effect, conſidering the imperfect ſtate of aſtronomy in thoſe but of late ſtanding among us: it is not above a century ſince the ages, it is no wonder different people ſhould diſagree in the cal avarice of the bakers firſt introduced it; and then it was only done culus of the ſun's courſe. We are even aſſured by Diod. Sicu by ſtealth. Though Pliny witneſſes to its having been uſed by the lus, lib. i. Plutarch in Numa, and Pliny, lib. vii. cap. 48. that ancient Gauls. The Faculty of medicine of Paris, by a decree the Egyptian year itſelf was at firſt very different from that now of the 24th of March, 1688, folemnly maintained it noxious to the repreſented. health of the people; yet even that cenſure could not prevent its Solar Year, is the interval of time wherein the ſun finiſhes progreſs. his courſe through the zodiac; or wherein he returns to the ſame Common ale-yeaſt may be kept freſh and fit for uſe ſeveral point thereof from whence he had departed. This, according to months, by the following method : put a quantity of it into a our account, is 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes ; though ſome a cloſe canvas bag, and gently ſqueeze out the moiſture in a ſcrew ſtronomers make it a few ſeconds, and ſome a whole minute leſs; preſs, till the remaining matter be as firm and ſtiff as clay. In as Kepler, for inſtance, who makes it 365 days, 5 hours, 48 mi this ſtate it may be cloſely packed up in a tight caſk, for ſecuring nutes, 57 ſeconds, 39 thirds. Ricciolus, and Tycho Brahe, 365 | it from the air; and will keep freſh, found, and fit for uſe for å days, 5 hours, 48 minutes. The ſolar year, is either aſtronomi- | long time. This is a ſecret that might be of great uſe to the cal, or civil. brewers and diſtillers here, who, though they employ very large Solar Aſtronomical YEAR, is that determined preciſely by the quantities of yeaſt, ſeem to know no method of preſerving it, or obſervations of aſtronomy; and is of two kinds, tropical, and fide- raiſing nurſeries of it; for want of which they ſuſtain a very con- rial, or aſtral. ſiderable loſs; whereas the brewers in Flanders make a very great Tropical, or Natural Year, is the time which the ſun employs advantage of ſupplying the malt-diſtillers of Holland with yeaſt, in paſſing through the zodiac; which, as before obſerved, is 365 which is rendered laſting, and fit for carriage by this eaſy expe- days, 5 hours, 49 minutes; or 365d 5h 48' 57". This is the dient. Shaw's Lectures, p. 195. only proper or natural year, becauſe it always keeps the ſame ſea YELLOW, a bright colour, reflecting the moſt light of any, fons to the fame months. after white. The word is formed from the Latin giallo, or the Siderial, or Aſtral YEAR, is the ſpace of time wherein the ſun German geel, which ſignifies the ſame; or from the Latin galbanus, going from any fixed ſtar, returns to the ſame. This conſiſts of bright, gay. There are divers yellow ſubſtances that become 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 141 ſeconds ; and is 20 minutes, white, upon wetting and drying them again ſeveral times in the fun; 17 ſeconds, longer than the true ſolar years. See the Syſtem of See the Syſtem of ſuch as wax, linen-cloth, &c. See BLEACHING. And the ſame ASTRONOMY, Sect. VII. PROB. V. bodies, if they be already white, and continue a long time in the Civil YEAR, is that form of year which each nation has con air, without being wetted, turn yellow. Paper and ivory, applied trived to compute time by : or the civil is the tropical year, con near the fire, become ſucceſſively yellow, red, and black. Silk, fidered as only conſiſting of a certain number of whole days; the when turned yellow, is whitened again with the fumes of ſulphur. odd hours and minutes being ſet aſide, to render the computation YELLOW, in dyeing, is one of the five ſimple and mother co- of time in the common occaſions of life more eaſy. lours. For the fineſt yellows, they firſt boil the cloth, or ſtuff, in The Common civil YEAR, is that conſiſting of 365 days. This, alum and pot-aſhes, or tartar; and then give the colour with the therefore, has ſeven months of 31 days each, four of 30 days, and weld or wold. Turmeric likewiſe gives a good yellow, though one of 28 days: according to the well-known canon: not the beſt. Woollen cloth, impregnated with a ſolution of alum Thirty days hath September, and tartar, acquires, on being boiled with the watery decoction, April, June, and November ; an elegant, but not very durable orange-yellow or gold-coloured February twenty-eight alone, dye. It is rarely made uſe of by the dyers on account of its price And all the reſt have thirty-one. and the periſhableneſs of its colour. There is alſo an Indian wood Billextile, or Leap YEAR, is that conſiſting of 366 days; or that gives a yellow colour bordering on gold. This wood, called it has one day extraordinary ; which day is called the intercalary, fuffic, is a ſpecies of mulberry-tree, of a deep fulphur yellow co- or bilſextile day. See BISSEXTILE. lour, which it readily gives out both to water and ſpirit. The Fulian Year, is a folar year, containing, commonly, 365 days; watery decoction dyes prepared woollen of a very durable orange- though every fourth year, called Billextile, it contains 366. yellow: the colour is imbibed by the cloth in a moderate warmth, Gregorian YEAR, is the Julian year corrected by this rule; that without boiling. See the Treatiſe on DYEING. whereas, on the common footing, every ſecular or hundredth year The Chineſe are famous for their yellows in dyeing, which ne- is biſſextile; on the new footing, three of them are common years, ver change with waſhing. They make this dye of the flowers of and only the fourth is biſſextile. See KALENDAR. the acacia, in a manner in which we might uſe ſeveral of our pro- YEAR of the Hegira. See HEGIRA. ductions to great advantage. See ACACIA. New Year's Day, or the day wherein the year commences, YEOMAN, the firſt or higheſt degree among the plebeians has always been very different, in different nations; and yet in all of England; next in order to the gentry. The yeomen are pro- has been held in great veneration. Among the Romans the firſt perly the freeholders, who have land of their own; ſo called from and laſt day of the year were conſecrated to Janus; on which ac the Saxon gemane, or geman, common. The word yongman, is count it was that they repreſented him with two faces. To them uſed for yeoman in the ſtatute 33. Hen. VIII. According to fir we owe the ceremony of wiſhing an happy new year, which appears Thomas Smith, a yeoman is a free-born Engliſhman, who can lay to be very ancient. Before the firſt day was ſpent, they not only out his own free-land in yearly revenue to the ſum of forty ſhil- viſited and complimented each other, but alſo preſented ſtrenæ, lings ſterling. and offered vows to the gods for the preſervation of each other. YEOMEN of the Guard, properly called yeomen of the guard of The Civil or Legal YEAR, in England, formerly commenced the king's body, were anciently two hundred and fifty men, of the on the day of the Annunciation, i. e. on the 25th day of March; beſt rank under gentry, and of larger ſtature than ordinary; every though the hiſtorical year began on the day of the Circumciſion, one being required to be fix feet high. At preſent there is i. e, the firſt of January, on which day the German and Italian but one hundred yeomen in conſtant duty, at 391. IIs. 3d. per year alſo begins. Stow obferves, that William the Conqueror having annum each; eight of whom are called uhers, who have iol. per No. 150. 5 X annum Y E W Y UN annum each more than the other yeomen; and ſeventy more not gland; and is of great uſe in gardens to form hedges for the ſhelter on duty; and as one of the hundred dies, his place is fupplied out of exotic plants. They are but of flow growth, yet in time ar- of the ſeventy. The officers are, a captain, who has a 10ool. rive to a great fize. The timber is greatly eſteemed for many uſes. per annum, a lieutenant at sool. per annum, an enſign at 300l. YOLK, or YELK, in natural hiſtory, the yellow part in the and four exons at 1501. per annum each ; a ſecretary, and clerk middle of an egg. The chicken is formed out of, and nouriſhed of the checque at 150l. per annum. Their origin is traced to the by, the white alone, till it be grown to ſome bulk ; after which, year 1485, when king Henry VII. aſcending the throne, imme- the yolk ſerves it for nouriſhment; which it likewiſe does, in part, diately after his coronation, inſtituted a guard of fifty archers to after it is hatched. For a good part of the yolk remains after ex- attend him and his ſucceſſors. They were probably then, as they cluſion ; being received into the chicken's belly: and being there are now, called the yeoman of the guard. It is obſerved, that this reſerved as in a ſtore-houſe, is by the ductus inteſtinalis, as by a is the firſt inſtance of any eſtabliſhed or permanent military guard funnel, conveyed into the guts, and ſerves inſtead of milk. in England ; its kings, till that time, except in times of war and YUNX, WRY-NECK, in ornithology, a genus of the order of inſurrection, contenting themſelves with the guard of their proper Picæ. There is but one ſpecies, viz. the yunx torquilla. The domeſtics and retinue. And. Hiſt. Com. vol. i. p:302. They go colours of this bird are elegantly pencilled, though its plumage clad after the manner of king Henry the Eighth's times. They is marked with the plaineſt kinds. The wry-neck is a bird of pal- formerly had diet as well as wages, when in waiting ; but this fage, appearing with us in the ſpring, before the cuckow. It has was taken off in the reign of queen Anne. Their attendance is a whimſical way of turning and twiſting its neck about, and bringe on the ſoverign's perſon, both at home and abroad ; and they have ing its head over its ſhoulders, whence it had its name torquilla, a room allotted for them only, called the guard-chamber. The and the Engliſh one of wry-neck. It has alſo the faculty of officers and yeomen are at the diſpoſal of the captain ; but the erecting the feathers of the head like thoſe of the Jay. It feeds captain is at the appointment of the king. on ants, which it very dexterouſly transfixes with the bony and YEW, Luxus, in botany, a Genus of the Dioecia Monadelphia Tharp end of its tongue, and then draws them into its mouth.-- claſs. We have but one ſpecies, which grows naturally in En- / For repreſentation, ſee Plate II. Genus 20. Z, ZEC Z. Z EP The laſt letter in the alphabet, and one of the double con ſhould happen to them in the latter ages of the world. Mr. Mede ſonants the Latins and Greeks. Its pronun- and ſome otherlearned men think that the gth, and following chap- ciation is much more ſoft and obtuſe than that of the x ; which ters of Zechariah, are parts of the prophecy of Jeremiah. makes Quintilian call it jucundiſſima, and dulciſſima. Neverthe ZEDOARY, a medicinal root belonging to a plant growing leſs, the found was not always the ſame as it is now; which is in the Eaſt Indies. This root has an agreeable ſmell, and a bit- but as it were, half that of an s: or, that expreſſed by its name teriſh aromatic taſte. It impregnates water with its ſmell, a ſlight izzard or s hard, of an s uttered with cloſer compreſſion of the bitterneſs, a conſiderable warmth and pungency, and a yellowiſh palate by the tongue, as freeze, froze. brown colour ; the reddiſh yellow fpirituous tincture is in taſte It had ſomething originally in it of the d; but only what founded ſtronger, and in ſmell weaker, than the watery. In diſtillation very ſmoothly ; thus, Mezentius was pronounced as if it had been with water, it yields a thick ponderous eſſential oil, ſmelling Medfentius, &c. Z begins no word originally Engliſh ; although ſtrongly of the zedoary, in taſte ſtrongly of the zedoary, in taſte very hot and pungent: the de- it is found in the Saxon alphabets, ſet down by grammarians, it coction thus deprived of the aromatic matter, and concentrated is read in no word originally Teutonic. Johnſon. by infpiffation, proves weakly and diſagreeably bitter and ſubacrid. ZAFFER, ZAFFRE, or SAFFRE, in chymiſtry, is the reſi А part of its odorous matter riſes alſo in the infpiffation of the ſpi- duum of cobalt, after the fulphur, arſenic, and other volatile mat- rituous tincture, the remaining extract is a very warm, not fiery, ters of this mineral have been expelled by calcination : ſo that it moderately bitter aromatic, in flavour more grateful than the ze- is a kind of calx of cohalt, of a grey or reddiſh colour. It is uſed | doary in ſubſtance. to produce a very fine blue colour, when it is melted with fuſible Zedoary root is a very uſeful warm ſtomachic ; and has been and vitrifiable matters. See the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part commended in cholics, and hyſteric affections, for promoting the III. Chap. I. Sect. II. menſes, &c. It has been employed by ſome as a fuccedaneum to Zaffer is employed in the manufacture of pottery and of por- gentian root; but from the above analyſis it appears to be not en- celain, for painting the ſurface of the pieces of ware upon which tirely ſimilar to that ſimple bitter ; its warm aromatic part being it is applied, together with ſome faline flux, previouſly to the bak- the prevailing principle, in virtue of which its ſpirituous extract ing or glazing, that the ſame fire may vitrify this colouring ma- (the moſt elegant preparation of it), is made an ingredient in the terial. The blue of Zaffer is the moſt ſolid and fixed of all the cordial confection of the London Pharmacopeia Lewis's Mat. colours that can be employed in vitrification ; it ſuffers no change Med. The zedoary waſh, which is a cooler yellow than ſaffron, from the moſt violent fire. It is ſucceſsfully employed to give though full as bright, and valuable for many purpoſes in painting ſhades of blue to enamels, and to the chryſtal glaſſes made in imi- with water-colours, may be prepared by boiling an ounce of the tation of ſome opake and tranſparent precious ſtones, as the lapis root in a quart of water, till the water is ſufficiently tinged to make lazuli, the turquois, the fapphire, and others of this kind. It is a ſtain on paper, of a full yellow colour ; and ſtraining the liquor alſo appropriated to other uſes. through a linen filtre. This waſh may be dried in ſhells, and ZEAL, the exerciſe of a warm animated affection, or paſſion, will again diſſolve and ſpread kindly with the addition of wa- for any thing. Some will have jealous zeal to be properly a mixt, or compoud ſenſation, where one affection is raiſed or inflamed ZENDAVESTA, by contradiction ZEND, denotes the book by another. On theſe principles jealouſy may be defined an af- aſcribed to Zoroaſter, and containing his pretended revelations 5 féction ariſing from love and indignation, which cannot bear a and which the ancient Magians and modern Perfees called alſo thing to be given to another, that a perſon deſires for himſelf, or Gaurs, obſerve and reverence in the ſame manner as the Chriſ-- one whom he loves and favours. Others make it conſiſt in an tians do the Bible, and the Mahometans the Koran, making it eager ſtudy, or deſire, to keep any thing inviolate ; or a fervour the ſole rule both of their faith and manners. The word, it is of mind, ariſing from an indignation againſt thoſe who abuſe or faid, originally ſignifies any inſtrument for kindling fire, and is do evil to a perſon beloved. The Greek philoſophers make three applied to this book, to denote its aptitude for kindling the flame ſpecies of zeal. The firſt, of envy; the fecond, of emulation, or of religion in the hearts of thoſe who read it. imitation ; the third of piety, or devotion ; which laſt makes what ZENITH, in Aſtronomy, the vertical point ; or a point in the the divines call religious zeal. Joſephus ſpeaks much of a party, 'heavens directly over our heads. Or, the zenith is a point, as Z or faction, called the Zealous, or Zealots, which aroſe among the (in Fig. I and 2 in the Plate of Spheres and Globes) in the ſur- Jews during the war with Veſpaſian and Titus. Lib. xiv. cap. face of the ſphere ; from which a right line, drawn through the 6. Antiq. and lib. iv. cap. 12. de Bello Judaico. ſpectator's head, paſſes through the centre of the earth. Hence, ZEBRA, in the ſyſtem of Mammalia, a ſpecies of the genus there are as many zeniths as there are different places on earth, Equus. For deſcription of the Genus, &c. ſee Equus. For re where the heavens may be ſeen; and, upon the changing our preſentation, ſee Plate I. Order VI. Genus 33, Species 3. place, we alſo neceſſarily change our zenith. ZECHARIAH, or the Propheſy of Zechariah, in biblical hiſ ZEPHANIAH, a canonical book of the Old Teſtament, con- tory, a canonical book of the Old Teſtament. eſtament. Zechariah was taining the predictions of Zephaniah, the ſon of Cuſhi, and grand- contemporary with Haggai, and propheſied in the ſecond year of ſon of Gedaliah ; being the ninth of the twelve lefſer prophets. Darius Hyftaſpes. The deſign of the firſt part of this prophecy He propheſied in the name of king Joſiah, a little after the cap- is the ſame with that of Haggai, viz. to encourage the Jews to go tivity of the ten tribes, and before that of Judah ; ſo that he was on with rebuilding of the temple, by giving them aiſurance of contemporary with Jeremiah. He propheſies chiefly againſt the God's aſſiſtance and protection: from whence the author proceeds people of Judah, who continued very corrupt, notwithſtanding to foretel the glory of the Chriſtian church, the true temple of the King's pious zeal for reformation, and the good example he God, under its great high prieſt and governor Chriſt Jeſus, of gave to his ſubjects. whom Zerubbabel and Joſhua the high prieſt were figures. The ZEPHYRUS, or ZEPHYR, the weſt wind; a wind blowing latter part of the prophecy from chap. ix. probably relates to the from that cardinal point of the horizon oppoſite to the eaſt. The ſtate of the Jews under the Maccabees, and then foretels their poets perſonify it, and repreſent Zephyrus as the mildeſt and moſt rejection of the Meſſiah, and ſome remarkable incidents that gentie of all the deities of the woods: the character of his per- fonage ter. ZIN Ż O D nut. fonage is youth and gentleneſs. It is alſo called Favonius, and this claſs, their good effects are often only temporary, and they Occidens; and, by many, has been confounded with the Africus. often fail altogether. When the flowers are genuine, à grain or ZEST, the woody, thick ſkin, quartering the kernel of a wal two generally at firſt excites nauſea or ſickneſs, but by degrees å Some phyſicians preſcribe this zeſt, dried, and taken with conſiderable doſe may be taken with little or no ſenſible effect. As white wine, as a remedy againſt the gravel. The word is alſo they are liable to be adulterated, it may be proper to mentioni, as uſed for a chip of orange or lemon-peel ; ſuch as is uſually ſqueezed ſuch as is uſually ſqueezed teſts of their purity, that they make no efferveſcence with acids into ale, wine, &c. to give it a flavour; or for the fine thin oil and that, when expoſed to a ſtrong heat, they become yellow, but that ſpurts out of that peel on ſqueezing it. Hence, to zeſt an in cooling, turn white again. An application for external uſe, orange or lemon, among confectioners, is to cut the peel from top made by mixing one part of flowers of zinc with fix of the ſimple to bottom into ſmall ſlips, as thin as poſſible ; or, to zeſt, is to liniments of wax and oil, is directed in the Edinburgh pharma- fqueeze the peel over the ſurface of any thing. copeia. ZEUS, in ichthyology, a Genus belonging to the order of The chief uſe of zinc is as an ingredient in the compoſition of Thoracici. For Claſſification, ſee the Syſtem, Order IV, Genus braſs. It has the property of uniting with copper in a conſiderable 34. The ſpecies are four ; of which the moſt remarkable is the proportion; e. gr. one part of zinc to four or three parts of copper faber or doree. It is of a hideous form ; its body is oval, and without much diminution of the ductility of copper. Zinc added greatly compreſſed on the ſides, the head large; the ſnout vaſtly to copper renders this metal leſs ſubject to ruſt, and gives to it a projecting ; the mouth very wide ; the teeth very ſmall; the eyes yellow colour reſembling that of gold. Hence chymiſts have been great, the irides yellow; the lateral line oddly diſtorted, finking induced to ſearch for the means of communicating to copper the at each end, and riſing near the back in the middle; beneath it on true colour of gold: and they have actually ſucceeded in the com- each ſide is a round black ſpot. The tail is round at the end, and poſition or allays called tombac, fimilor, pinchbeck, and Prince's me- conſiſts of fifteen branched rays. The colour of the ſides is tal. According to Beecher, equal parts of copper and zinc olive, varied with light blue and white, and while living is very mixed together, gave a colour to the touchſtone like that of the reſplendent, and as if gilt; for which reaſon it is called the doree. gold from the Rhine. Stahl ſays, this proportion of zinc is too The largeſt fiſh we have heard of weighed twelve pounds. In our great, but does not determine what it ought to be. Since that own country it was very long before this filh attracted our notice, time, the due proportion has been inveſtigated, and ſeveral fine at leaſt as an edible one. We are indebted to the late Mr. Quin imitations of gold have been formed. The Engliſh were the firſt for adding a moſt delicious fiſh to our table, who overcoming all who ſucceeded, and they called their invention Prince's metal, or are the vulgar prejudices on account of its deformity, has effectually Prince Rupert's metal. eſtabliſhed its reputation. This fiſh was ſuppoſed to be found only From the experiments of M. Geoffroy (Men. Acad. Sc. 1725.) in the fouthern ſeas of this kingdom, but it has been diſcovered it appears, that an equal quantity of zinc is too much, with re- lately on the coaſt of Angleſea. Thoſe of the greateſt ſize are gard to the ductility of the allay; but that equal quantities produce taken in the Bay of Biſcay, off the French coaſts; they are alſo the fineſt colour. From ſome experiments, ſeen by the author of very common in the Mediterranean : Ovid muſt therefore have the Chymical Dictionary, he inclines to think, thata fine-coloured ftyled it rarus faber, on account of its excellency, not its ſcarcity. mixture cannot be obtained, particularly of a deep enough yellow, ZIBELLINA, a ſpecies of the Genus Muſtela, in the ſyſtem if as much zinc as copper actually remain. One part of zinc is of Mammalia. For deſcription of the Genus, &c. See Mustela. ſaid to be capable of deſtroying the ductility of a hundred parts of ZIBETHUM, in Natural Hiſtory, civet, a perfume contained gold. An allay of equal parts of zinc and gold is very hard, white, in a bladder, in the groin of a civet-cat. See VIVERRA. capable of receiving a fine poliſh, and not ſubject to ruſt or tar- ZIMENT-water, or Copper-water, in Natural Hiſtory, nifh : hence, it is propoſed by Mr. Malouin as a good material the name by which ſome have called water found in places where for making ſpecula of teleſcopes. Zinc gives hardneſs to tin, and there are copper-mines, and lightly impregnated with particles of is, therefore, added in ſome compoſitions for making pewter. that metal. The moſt famous ſpring of this kind is about a mile Mr. Malouin has alſo propoſed to ſubſtitute zinc for tin in the diſtant from Newfol in Hungary, in the great copper-mine called operation upon iron plates, &c. called tinning. by the Germans herrn grundt. From various experiments it has From the whiteneſs and brilliancy of the flame produced by the been found, that this water contains a large quantity of vitriol of detonation of zinc with nitre, it has been employed with very good copper, which it probably owes to a ſolution of that metal, by effect as an ingredient in compoſitions for fire-works. Zinc, means of the acid of the common pyrites and water : when this is which yieldsinflammable air with oil of vitriol, has frequently been known, the effects are not difficultly accounted for, 'there being employed in the operation of filling balloons, or aeroſtatic ma- no real change of one metal into another ; but the true ſtate of the chines. Zinc is alſo an ingredient in the amalgama uſed by elec- caſe being, that the particles of one metal are diffolved and carried tricians. Some direct it to be made by melting five parts of quick- away, and thoſe of another metal deſpoſited in their place. A A ſilver, and one of zinc, with a ſmall quantity of bees-wax. We water thus impregnated is a menftruum capable of diffolving iron, have an account in the Phil. Tranf. No. 482, ſect. 6. of the ap- and in the ſolution of that metal becomes fo weakened as to let go plication of zinc, or ſpelter, to ſo large a work as the cylinder of the copper it before contained, in ſmall parcels. This is ſeen to a fire engine, by Mr. Ford, of Colebroke Dale, in Shropſhire. be the caſe, by examining the changed metal while it lies in the It runs eaſier, and caſts as true as braſs, and bores full as well, or water, the copper then appearing not a ſoft malleable and even better, when warmed a little. While cold, it is as brittle as glaſs ; maſs, but a congeries of granules cloſely placed together, and re but the warmth of the hand will make it ſo pliant, that a ſhaving ſembling the ſmall granules, or ova, in the ſpawn of fiſhes ; and of it may be wrapped round the finger like a bit of paper. This is very friable and fragile while in this ſtate. See COPPER, and metal never ruſts, and therefore works better than iron : the ruſt the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. II. Sect. 4. of which, upon the leaſt inter miſſion of working, reſiſts the mo- ZINC, or ZINK, a ſemi-metal, of a brilliant white colour tion of the piſton. See on the ſubject of the preceding article, approaching to blue; called alſo ſpelter and tutenag. Dict. Chym. Eng. ed. 1777. Bergman's Phyſ. and Chym. Eſſays, Chymical properties of Zinc. Zinc is the moſt malleable of all by Cullen, vol. ii. p. 311. &c. Kirwan’s Elem. of mineral, p. the femi-metals; and, when well furniſhed with phlogiſton, in the 312, &c. Lewis's Mat. Med. by Aikin. manner propoſed by Margraaf, it poſſeſſes a ſemi-ductility, which ZINZIBER, ginger. See AMOMUM. renders it capable of being flattened into thin plates. This pro ZODIAC, zodiacus, in aſtronomy, a faſcia, or broad circle, perty, joined to its hardneſs, prevents its being pulveriſed, like the whoſe middle is the ecliptic, and its extremes two circles parallel other femi-metals; and, therefore, when it is required in a divided thereto, at ſuch diſtance from it, as to bound, or comprehend, ftate, it muſt be melted and granulated, or filed, like metals. See the excurſions of the ſun and planets. The word is formed of the Syſtem of CHYMISTRY, Part III. Chap. I. Sect. 5. See the Greek (wov, animal; by reaſon of the conſtellations therein, allo TUTENAG. which have the forms of animals given them: others derive it Zinc, in medicine, and the arts. This femi-metal has been from (wr, life; from an opinion, that the planets have a great in- lately received in the ſhops in its own form ; in which, ſays Dr. fluence on animal life. The ſun never deviates from the middle of Lewis, it deſerves a place, as affording preparations ſuperior to the zodiac ; i. e. from the ecliptic: the planets all do, more or leſs. the ores or productions of it now made uſe of. A white vitriol, Their greateſt deviations, called latitudes, are the meaſure made from pure zinc, by diffolution in the diluted vitriolic acid of the breadth of the zodiac; which is broader or narrower, as the and cryſtallization, is doubtleſs preferable for medicinal uſe to the greateſt latitude of the planets is made more or leſs. According- common impure white vitriol, and the white flowers, into which ly, fome make it 16, fome 18, and ſome 20 degrees broad. The it is changed by deflagration, to the very impure calamine and zodiac, cutting the equator obliquely, makes an angle there with of tutty. Moderately pure white flowers, fublimed from it in the 23 degrees and a half; or more preciſely, of 23° 29', which is braſs or other furnaces, wherein zinc or its ores are melted with what we.call the obliquity of the zodiac, and is the ſun's greateſt de- other metal, were formerly kept in the ſhops, under the names of clination. See ECLIPTIC, and the Syſtem of ASTRONOMY, Pompholyx and nihil album. Sect. IX. Article Definitions, No. II. See alſo the Treatiſe on The flowers of zinc were firſt uſed as an internal medicine by the Globes, under the Article Deſcription, and the Plate of the celebrated chymift Glauber, but were little known in practice, Spheres and Globes, Fig. 4. annexed to the Treatiſe. till Dr. Glaubius, of Leyden, gave an account of their virtues, in ZODIACAL light, a brightneſs reſembling that of the milky his Adverſaria. They have ſince been much employed in con way, and which is ſometimes perceived in the heavens, at certain vulſive and ſpaſmodic diſeaſes, and ſometimes with good effects. times of the year, after ſun-ſet, or before its riſe. The form of Even obſtinate epilepfies have been rendered much leſs violent by this light reſembles that of a pyramid, lying lengthways in the zo- the uſe of them. However, like all other medicines in diſeaſes of diac, within which its point and axis are always incloſed, its baſe being Ζ Ο Ο Z Y G being placed obliquely with reſpect to the horizon. This phe- Syſtems of Monandria, Diandria, &c. &c. becauſe this kingdom nomenon was firſt diſcovered, deſcribed, and named, by Mr. being of a nature ſo much leſs extenſive than that of zoology, all authors who have written upon it have entered into a deſcription Caſſini the Elder, in 1683. It was afterwards obſerved by M. of the whole of the claſſes which comprehend the kingdom ; and Fatio, in 1684, 1685, and 1686; and by M. Kirch and Eim- mart, 1688, 1689, 1691, 1693, and 1694. See Aurora Bore the ſame method is purſued in the third kingdom, viz. Mine- alis, and NORTHERN LIGHTS. ralogy. ZONE, Zona, wur, q. d. belt, girdle, in geography and af The fix claſſes which compriſe the kingdom of zoology are ar- tronomy, a diviſion of the terraqueous globe, with reſpect to the ranged under the following heads. different degrees of heat found in the different parts thereof. A CLASS I. Mammalia, which includes all animals that ſuckle zone is the fifth part of the ſurface of the earth, contained be their young. The characters of this claſs are theſe: The heart tween two parallels. The zones are denominated torrid, frigid, has two ventricles and two auricles, the blood is red and warm ; and temperate. and the animals belonging to it are vivaporous. Torrid Zone, is a faſcia, or band, ſurrounding the terraqueous CLASS II. Aves, Birds, or Ornithology. The characters globe, and terminated by the two tropics. Its breadth, therefore, are the ſame with thoſe of claſs I, except that the animals be- is 46° 58'. The equator running through the middle of it, di- longing to it are oviporous. vides it into two equal parts, each containing 23° 29'. The an CLASS III. Amphibia, Amphibious animals, or Amphibiology. cients imagined the torrid zone uninhabitable. The heart has but one ventricle, and one auricle; the blood is Temperate Zones, are two faſcia, or bands, environing the red and cold; and the animals belonging to this claſs, have the globe, and contained between the tropics and the polar circles. command of their lungs, ſo that the intervals between inſpiration The breadth of each is 43° 2'. and expiration, are in ſome meaſure voluntary. Frigid Zones, are ſegments of the ſurface of the earth, ter CLASS IV. Piſces, Fiſhes, or Ichthyology. The heart has minated, the one by the antarctic, and the other by the arctic cir the ſame ſtructure, and the blood the ſame quality with thoſe of cle; or included between theſe circles and the poles. The The the Amphibia ; but the animals belonging to this claſs are eaſily breadth of each is 46° 58'. diſtinguiſhed from the Amphibia, by having no ſuch voluntary The difference of zones is attended with a great diverſity of command of their lungs, and by having external bronchiæ, orgills. phenomena. 1. In the torrid zone, the ſun paſſes through the CLASS V. Infecta, Inſetts, or Entomology. The heart has zenith twice a year; and his receſs from the equator towards the one ventricle, but no auricle ; the blood is cold and white, and the pole, which is above the horizon, is twice a year equal to the animals are furniſhed with antennæ or feelers. height of the pole. CLASS VI. Vermes, Worms, or Vermeology. The characters 2. In the temperate and frigid zones, the leaſt height of the are the ſame with thoſe of claſs 5, only the animals have no an- pole exceeds the greateſt diſtance of the fun from the equator ; tennæ, and are furniſhed with tentacula. and therefore, to the inhabitants thereof, the ſun never paſſes For deſcription of the ſeveral Claſſes, and the Orders which through the zenith; yet if, on the ſame day, the ſun riſes, at the compoſe them, ſee the reſpective Syſtems throughout the courſe fame time, to a greater height, the height of the pole is the lefs, of the work. For the Genera and Species, appertaining to the ſince the inclination of the circles of diurnal revolution to the ho Orders of the reſpective Claſſes, ſee the alphabet throughout: the rizon is leſs. more readily to find which, ſee the Synoptical Tables, which contain 3. In the temperate and torrid zones the ſun riſes and ſets every the generic names, and will ſerve as reference to them in the alpha- natural day, becauſe the diſtance of the ſun from the pole always bet. The generic and ſpecific characters may alſo be found by exceeds the height of the pole ; yet every where but under the ſcarching for the Engliſh name in the alphabet, and referring to equator, the artificial days are unequal, and the inequality is the the Claffes. For repreſentation ſee the Plates belonging to the greater as the place is leſs diſtant from the frigid zone. reſpective Syſtems. 4. Where the temperate zones terminate on the frigid, the ZOOPHYTON, Zoophyte, of zwov, animal, and Dutov, plant, height of the pole is equal to the ſun's diſtance from the pole, when q. d. plant-animal, is the fifth order of the claſs of Vermes or in the neighbouring tropic ; and conſequently, once a year, the Vermeology. For deſcription, fee VERMEOLOGY. fun in its diurnal motion, performs an entire revolution, without ZUINGLIANS, a branch of ancient Reformers or Proteſ- going down under the horizon. tants ; denominated from their author Ulric,or Huldric Zuinglius. 5. Every where, in a frigid zone, the height of the pole is This eminent divine was born at Wildehauſen, in the county of greater than the leaſt diſtance of the ſun from the pole ; and there- Toggenbourg, in Switzerland, in 1487. After having finiſhed fore, during ſome revolutions of the earth, the ſun is at a diſtance his ſtudies in theology, and received the doctor's cap at Baſil, in from the pole leſs than the pole's height; and, during all that 1505, he applied himſelf to preaching ; and that with good ſucceſs. time, does not fet, nor ſo much as touch the horizon. Where It appears that Zuinglius, from his early years, had been ſhocked the diſtance from the pole, as the ſun recedes from it, exceeds the at ſeveral of the ſuperſtitious practices of the church of Rome ; and height of the pole, or latitude of the place, the ſun riſes or ſets that ſo early as the year 1516 he had begun to inveigh againſt them. every natural day. Luther proceeded very ſlowly to that exemption from the preju- ZOOLOGY, or a diſcourſe or treatiſe upon animals or living dices of education, which Zuinglius, by the force of an adventu- creatures, forms the moſt important part of natural hiſtory, com rous genius, and an uncommon degree of knowledge and pene- prehending what relates to the form, ſtructure, method of living, tration, eaſily got rid of. And we learn from the moſt authentic feeding, propagating, &c. of the divers ſpecies of all living ani records of hiſtory, that he had explained the ſcriptures to the peo- mals and the deſcriptions of every kind. ple, and called in queſtion the authority and fupremacy of the Zoology forms the firſt of the three kingdoms or diviſions of pope, before the name of Luther was known in Switzerland. In Natural Hiſtory; the ſecond being the vegetable, and the third proceſs of time, after Luther had taken up arms againſt Rome, Zu- the mineral kingdom, which three compriſe all the productions inglius, being then miniſter of the chief church in Zurich, con- of nature, called natural hiſtory : But the kingdom of zoology be curred with him ; preaching openly againſt indulgences, then a- ing ſo extenſive in its nature, few authors have ventured to pro- gainſt the interceſſion of the ſaints, then againſt the maſs, the duce a complete ſyſtem of it ; and thoſe who have attempted it, hierarchy,the vows and celibacy of the clergy, abſtinence from fleſh, have failed of obtaining that credit for themſelves, or giving that and alſo many things which Luther was diſpoſed to treat with tole- ſatisfaction to their readers they expected: for this kingdom em ration and indulgence; ſuch as images, altars, wax-tapers, the form bracing for its object every animal exiſting in the univerſe, it is of exorciſm, and private confeſſion, &c. In a conferrence held of courſe ſuch an extenſive field of ſcience, that moſt authors have with the deputies of the biſhop of Conſtance, in 1523, he pro- contented themſelves with the ſtudy and inveſtigation of one, or cured moſt of the external ceremonies of religion to be aboliſhed. two at moſt, of the claſſes which are comprehended within the ZYGOMA, Zyywp1.4., in anatomy, a bone of the head ; other- kingdom of zoology. wiſe called os jugale. The word is formed from Gevyvuur, I join ; We have Pennant's Syſtem of Zoology, but it exhibits only a ſo that zygoma, properly ſpeaking, is the juncture of two bones. mere ſketch or curſory view of the kingdom. We have alſo Lin- The zygoma is no ſingle bone, but an union, or aſſemblage, of næus's Syſtem of Nature, comprehending the three kingdoms in two proceſſes, or eminences of bone; the one from the os tempo- general, but it is principally a claſſification of the reſpective parts ris, the other from the os malæ. See the Syſtem, Part I. Sect. II. of each; though upon the whole it is evidently one of the beſt pro-Art I. ductions that ever appeared in Europe. To enter into the mi ZYGOMATICUS, in Anatomy, a muſcle of the head, which nutiæ of all the particulars which relate to this kingdom of ex has its origin in the proceſſus jugalis, or zygoma; and, paſſing ob- hauſtleſs ſcience, the age of man is incompetent; therefore we liquely, is inſerted near the angle of the lips. It helps to draw the generally find in authors who write on natural hiſtory, diſtinct lips obliquely upwards. There are two of theſe muſcles, viz. one and ſeparate Syſtems of the ſeveral claſſes which compoſe this ex on each ſide. Each muſcle is thin, oblique, and fixed by one ex- tenſive kingdom ; ſuch as Latham's Ornithology, Barbut’s Ento- tremity, to the lower edge of that portion of the os malæ, which mology, Artedi's Ichthyology, &c. &c. is connected with the zygomatic apophyſis of the os temporis ; it But in the other two kingdoms, as in botany for inſtance, we is commonly involved in fat. See the Syſtem, Part II. Table do not meet with ſeparate Syſtems of the ſeveral claſſes, ſuch as of Muſcles, Art. 6. FINI S. Directions to the Binder for placing the Cuts to Hall's Encyclopædia. Subject. AEROSTATION, AGRICULTURE, 2 ANATOMY, VOL. I. Plate. Where to face. Page 1, Sig. Q I. Page 3, Sig. 2 F 2 II, Page 4, Sig. 2 F I. Page 3, Sig. 2 Z II. Page 1, Sig. 3 C 111. Page 2, Sig. 3C IV. Page 3, Sig. 30 V. Page 1, Sig. 3 E VI. Page 2, Sig. 3 E VII. Page 3, Sig. 3 E X. Page 3, Sig. 3. F VIII. Page 1, Sig 3 H IX. Page 1, Ditto XII. Page 1, Sig. 3 I XI. Page 1, Sig. 3 K 1. II. III. IV. >Page 2, Sig. 4 A V. VI. ARCHITECTURE, ASTRONOMY, BOTANY, III. Page 2, Sig. 42 VI. Page 2, Sig. 4 T IV. Page 3, Sig. 4 T I. Page 2, Sig. 4. Z II. Page 3; Sig. 4 Z V. Page 4, Sig. 42 1. Page 4, Sig. 5 T II. Ditto, Ditto III. Page 1, Sig. 5 U IV. Page 2, Sig. 6 A 1 V. Page 3; Sig. 6 A 1 VI. Page 3, Sig. 6 A 2 At Sig, 6 I, end Volume I. I. V. } VOL. III. Subject. Plate. Where to face. MAMMALIA, I. II. III. IV. V. VI. >Page 4, Sig. 6 N VII. VIII. IX. X. ) MECHANICS, II. III. Page 2, Sig. 6 I. Page 1, Sig. 6 S * MENSURATION, Page 4, Sig. 71 MICROSCOPIC APPARATUS, Page 3, Sig. 7 L OBJECTS, I. Page 4, Sig. 7 L II, Page 4, Sig. 7 M III. Page 2, Sig. 7 N MIDWIFERY, I. Page 1, Sig. 7 U II. Page 2, Sig. 7 U III. Page 3, Sig. 7 U VI. Page 4, Sig. 7 U IV. Page 1, Sig. 7 X V. Ditto, Ditto VII. Page 3, Sig. 7 X INSTRUMENTS, Page 4, Sig. 7 X MILITARY AFFAIRS, IV. Page 2, Sig. 7 Z II. Page 3, Sig. 7 Z III. Page 4, Sig. 7Z Ditto, Ditto MUSIC, I. II. Page 1, Sig.'8 H NAVAL AFFAIRS, 1. 1 Page 3, Sig. G III. Page 4, Sig. G. FLAGS, Ditto, Ditto CHART OF THE WORLD, Page 1, Sig. H NAVIGATION, Page 4, Sig. I OPTICS, I. & II. Page 3, Sig. R III. Page 4, Sig. U IV. Page 2, Sig. X ORNITHOLOGY, I. II. III. Page 4, Sig. 2 D 1 IV. V. VI. Page 1, Sig. 2 D1 PEERAGE, I. Page 3, Sig. 2 M II. Page 4, Sig. 2 M III. Ditto, Ditto IV. Page 1, Sig. 2 N V. Page 2, Sig. 2 N VI. Page 4, Sig. 2 N VII. Dito, Ditto VIII. Page 1, Sig. 20 IX. Page 2, Sig. 20 PERSPECTIVE, I. Page 3, Sig. 22 II. Page 1, Sig. 2 R III. Page 3, Sig, 2 R IV. Page 2, Sig. 25 PNEUMATICS, III. Page 1, Sig 3 B II. Page 3, Sig. 3 B I. Page 1, Sig. 30 MISCELLANIES, containing Ori- gin of Muſical Inſtruments, &c.} Page 1, Sig. 4 L STEAM ENGINE, I. II. Page 4, Sig. 4 M IL. J VOL. II. CHYMICAL CHARACTERS, Page 3, Sig. 7 E APPARATUS, Page 3, Sig. 7 M 1 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, I. II. III. Page 2, Sig. 7 S IV. V. DIALLING, Page 3, Sig. G DRAWING, I. Page 2, Sig. Q II. Page 3, Sig. Q III. Ditto, Ditto IV. Page 4, Ditto ELECTRICITY, 1. Page 4, Sig. 2C II. Page 4, Sig. 2 D ENTOMOLOGY, I. Page 4, Sig. 2 K II. Page 4, Sig. 2 L III. Ditto, Ditto FARRIERY, I. Page 3, Sig. 2 U 2 II. Page 1, Sig 2 X III. Page 2, Sig. 2 X IV. Page 3 Page 3, Sig. 2 X V. Page 4, Sig. 2 X VI. Page 4, Sig. 2 X FENCING, I. Page 4, Sig. 3 C 2 II. Page 1, Sig. 3 D III. Page 4, Sig. 3 D FORTIFICATION, 1. II. 1 SURGERY, I. II. SURVEYING, WAR, Page 1, Sig. 40 Page 2, Sig. 42 Page 3, Sig. 42 Page 2, Sig. 5 L GEOGRAPHY, World, Page 1, Sig. 4 I Europe, Page 2, Sig. 4 I Afia, Page 3, Sig. 4 M Africa, Page 3, Sig. 4 N America, Nh&Sh. s Page 1, Sig. 40 GEOMETRY, Page 3, Sig. 4 Q II. Page 2, Sig. 4 S GLOBES and SPHERES, Page 3, Sig. 4 Y HERALDRY, II. Page 4, Sig. 5 K II. IV. Page 1, Sig. 5 L V.) VI. Page 2, Sig: 5 L I. Page 4, Sig. 5 L HYDROSTATICS, I. Page 3, Sig. 50 II. Page 2, Sig. 5 Q KNIGHTHOOD, Page 2. Sig. 6 A At Sig. 6 L, end Volume II. * This Plate is entitled “Miſcellaneous Mathematics." The Binder is deſired to obſerve, that, in Conſequence of the many Additions introduced in the firſt and ſecond Volumes, they are rendered ſo diſproportionate, that it became neceſſary to make new Diviſions; and as the Signatures could not be altered, without creating that Confuſion which might hazard leading the Binder into Error, the Signatures have been continued as in the former Edition; he is therefore deſired to attend to the foilowing Directions. The ſecond Volume, by the preſent Diviſion, inſtead of commencing as before, with Signature A in No. 56, now commences with Signature 6 K in No. 42. And the third Volume, inſtead of beginning with Signature A in No. 114, now begins with Signature 6 M in No. 98. EMED Pro. Coll. 322, Vol. h 1930 EARLY MODERN ENGLISH DICTIONARY UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 3 9015 08459 1695 V D 405117 Sun ST BER TV van meka Ch UNGHII FEயார் al IMAGE 3 *****