... • * ~ * ** º sº: PINII ºr tº: NIII 3. ;ITY OF MIC : in VERSITYornut AN | - wºes tº Eºº Ž- % : : * B E E E E E E [- E º E º º E E > º F ºš Cº. * . *x º' --~~~~<4 Af.º.º. ixxº~rrºt ſº *~~. J... S- - Jº Krºs. Sº - y- yº.j £3 ſ. Prº *~ ºf ºil it...º.º. cº º * ... ſw' [...] \ \ . . . . ) * ^ºx. {. f ... W. º "S$3. * \...” Sºº-ºººº…” *zºº. * §e º : #3 #2 & 3." i. %, z º, *... Jº º . . . . ~f~~ : ' , * † § - - **, 3, F.A.’ “ ** BRIT Is H IN FoRMATION SERVICES #, * -- • . AN AGENcy of THE BRITISH covern MENT REFERENCE DIVISION - 1. D. 598 [REVISED), FEBRUARY, 1947 (P U B L 1 s H E D A U G U S T 1947) TOWARDS SELF - GOVERNMENT IN THE BRIT IS H COLONIES A N A C C O U NT O F T H E G R O W T H OF P O L IT I C A L REs Po N s 1B ILITY - A ND OF T H E S T E PS B Y W H I C H D E M O C R A T I C IN STITU TI O N S A R E B E IN G B UILT UP g º • e º e º 'º' 30 R O C K E FE L L E R P L A ZA, N E w Y O R K 20, N. Y. 9 07 FIFT E E N TH s TREET, N.W., W As H IN G T O N 5, D. C. 360 N OR T H M I C H IG A N A V E N U E , CHICA G O 1 391 s U TTE R S T R E E T, SAN FRANCIS CO 8 Tow ARD's SELF-GOVERNMENT IN THE BRITISH COLONIES s 3.w * Appendix: ---- * -- Contents I. INTRODUCTION II. CEYLON III. MALTA IV. GIBRALTAR V. CYPRUs VI. THE WEST INDIES - -* * - Jamaica—Barbados— Trinidad and Tobago— British Guiana VII. BERMUDA VIII. BRITISH TROPICAL AFRICA Nigeria and Indirect Rule Other West African Dependencies: Sierra Leone—The Gambia—The Gold Coast The East African Dependencies: Zanzibar—Uganda—Kenya–Nyasaland— Northern Rhodesia–Tanganyika § Inter-territorial Organizations in Africa *** & IX. Malaya X. FIJI ºn XI. THE SEYCHELLEs XII. CONCLUSION THE PRESENT POSITION IN THE LEGISLATURES OF OTHER BRITISH DEPENDENCIES READING LIST Page 5 9 12 14 14. 15 24 49 54 56 57 61 This material is filed with the Department of Justice, where the required registration statement of B.I.S. under 56 Stat. 248-258 as an agency of the British Government is available for inspection. 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INTRODUCTION “They respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live. . . .” So runs Clause 3 of the Atlantic Charter. It is reasonable to ask: How does this profession square with British practice? Do all the peoples of British colonial territories choose their own form of government? If not, why not? Doesn't self-government for British colonial peoples mean the breakup of the British Commonwealth and Empire? Before answering these questions, let us look again at the Atlantic Charter. Fifth in the aims it sets forth stands . economic advancement and social security.” The framers of the Charter realized fully that political freedom was meaningless without economic stability—that you cannot feed empty bellies on ballot papers. Progress towards self-government must go hand in hand with economic progress and educational opportunity. Peoples whose civic sense and sense of nationhood are still unawakened, who have no basic aims in common, have to learn through experience what is meant by the concept of “self-government” before they can know how to choose the form of government they want. & & ſº VARIETY OF CONDITIONS This means that the development of self-government must be a gradual business—for it must depend on processes that in themselves take time: education and economic development. In addition, it must be adapted to widely differing conditions. In the Colonial Empire, which stretches over the tropics from the West Indies across Africa to the islands of the Pacific, live some 63 million people in more than 50 different territories. Only a small proportion of these people are of European stock; the rest are colored people, two-thirds of them Africans and most of the remaining third Asiatics. Though 43 million inhabitants of British Africa are all African, they spring from widely differing stocks, speak many different tongues, and are at all sorts of different levels of culture and intelligence. Nigeria alone numbers 20 millions. There the vast Moslem emirates of the north contrast sharply with the pagan kingdoms of the south, while there is little in common between tribes of nomads driving their cattle from one pasture to another and African officials, lawyers and doctors educated in the European tradi. tion. In Nigeria, with its great population, there is an immense variety 5 of tribes, cultures, languages and religions. There is the primitive animist, the Mohammedan Emir, the Christian lawyer with a European education; and self-government, if it is to bring real freedom, must depend on a reconciliation of these varying interests which in its turn can come about only through economic and educational development. In Kenya, the prob- lem is complicated by the existence of a white settler community and of an Indian community whose immigration was largely Government-sponsored and to whose efforts the opening up and development of the country (by which the Africans have benefited) is largely due. Here self-government must strike a balance between the white settler, the Indian settler, and the different African communities. *& In Jamaica, the original constitution gave wide powers, but until the nineteenth century these were confined to one section of the population, namely, the white settlers. Emancipation and education of the Negro popu- lation altered the whole situation. After many changes, there is now a constitution based on universal suffrage. These are only three examples. But they show that there can be no hard and fast rule, no uniformity of method, no simultaneous flowering of self- government in such varied conditions. “We have no cut and dried pat- tern,” said a former Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Cranborne, in 1942: “We have adopted and adapted existing systems, changing them readily as the need arose and experience taught.” This flexibility and elasticity has long been a characteristic of British constitutional methods. THE BACKGROUND OF THE PAST To the variety of race, culture, and standards of the different peoples of the Colonial Empire, and of different peoples in the same area (which may be called the human factor) there is added another factor—the history of their relations with Britain. In many places British government was finally established less than 50 years ago. Before the British arrived, these were not happy, peaceful countries enjoying the Four Freedoms. Africa was a prey to tribal warfare and slavery; the Pacific islands were scenes of cannibalism and head-hunting; tyranny, lawlessness, and civil war scarred the face of Malaya. Poverty and disease were everywhere. Until recent years, Britain was chiefly concerned with providing the Dependencies with justice and security and promoting their progress to- wards self-government. Since the 1920's, however, it has been increasingly recognized that political advance is unreal unless it is reinforced by social and economic development. As so many of the peoples of the Colonial Empire are backward or primitive, their chances as citizens of self-govern- ing communities are slight unless they are relieved of the incubus of dis- ease and poverty and are adequately educated, and unless the economic resources of their countries are properly organized and the communications necessary for a healthy trade and effective government are well developed. In every area Britain is faced in varying degrees with the gigantic problem of raising the standard of living of the people, and the challenge has been accepted. It is not within the scope of this pamphlet to describe the schemes for social and economic improvement which are being put into practice nor the plans which are being made for the future, but they must not be forgotten. 6 DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT In spite of the variety of the British Dependencies, some general classi- fications can be made. Most of the older Dependencies are known as Colonies and are directly governed under the system known as Crown Colony Government—a system capable of expansion all the way up to complete self-government. Many of the Dependencies, however, particu- larly in Africa, are described as Protectorates; and still others, again, are Protected States. In both these types central government operates through a system of indirect rule; that is to say, it governs through the existing. native administrations and aims at developing and expanding these exist- ing systems so that the native peoples acquire increasing responsibility. Malta and Jamaica are examples of Crown Colonies; Uganda and Nyasa- land are examples of Protectorates. In a number of areas the original trading settlement became a Colony while the rest of the territory is a Protectorate; for example, the Gold Coast includes a Colony and a Pro- tectorate. In such territories the aim is to develop the political systems in both areas towards a finally integrated form of self-government. There are certain legal differences in the status of Colonies and Pro- tectorates. Thus while a Colony is British territory under the Crown, in a Protectorate the Crown exercises authority without annexing the territory. In Protected States authority is vested in the sovereign of each State, and not in the Crown which derives its functions from treaty agreements con- ferring certain powers and duties upon it. For administrative purposes, however, the general framework is very similar. HOW PROGRESS IS MADE The common denominator of all these Dependencies is the Governor, appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London, and directly responsible to him. The Secretary of State, in his turn, is responsible to the British public through its elected representatives in Parliament. The Governor in some cases rules unassisted; or he may have an Executive Council only; or he may have both an Executive and a Legislative Council; and the legislative body may consist of one or two Houses. These are the broad variations. Development of responsible government is being brought about by extending the vote, by increasing the number of elected members in the Legislature and finally by admitting to the executive body elected members drawn from the Legislature. THE LADDER OF POLITICAL PROGRESS The various stages through which the authority of the people can develop are sometimes likened to the different rungs of a ladder. Between the top and the bottom there is scope for many intermediate steps, but their broad stages are these: On the lowest rung stand those Dependencies which are administered by a Governor alone whose authority is supreme, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State. This is an exceptional form of government. Next come the Dependencies where the Governor, exercising all legis- lative and executive functions, is assisted by a nominated council composed of the chief European officers—the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, 7 the Treasurer—and certain other officials or members of the public. In these Dependencies, although the Governor can veto the demands of the members of his council, they are empowered to appeal to the Secretary - of State if they so desire. A step higher and we can see the makings of a regular constitution. Here the Governor with his nominated Executive Council, which he is required to consult on all save the most urgent matters, has the additional assistance of a Legislative Council, a law-making, tax-raising body. The Legislative Council at first consists entirely of nominated official members,” “but as soon as the people are politically ready one or more of them is appointed to serve on it, and the Council is later expanded to include elected members. Gradually the elected element is increased until the elected members are in a majority, first over the nominated unofficial members, and then over the nominated unofficial and the official members combined. Another step and we arrive at representative government. This often takes the form of a Legislative Assembly, entirely elected somewhat on the lines of the British House of Commons, and a nominated Legislative Coun- cil as an Upper House. These two bodies together form the Legislature. The Executive Council is still appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Governor, but the latter begins to nominate to it certain members of the Assembly. At this stage the elected representatives of the people, who form the Lower House, control taxation and have at the least a very large voice in all legislative and executive matters. In some cases, such as the Colonies of Bermuda, the Bahamas and Barbados, the Legislature, comprising the nominated Legislative Council and the elected House of Assembly, has the final voice in matters of legislation and taxation, although the Governor possesses the power of veto, which has not in fact been used in those Colonies for very many years. Although, therefore, it may be said that in such Colonies the ultimate responsibility rests with the Governor, and through him with the Secretary of State, he does not in fact possess the ulti- mate power which normally accompanies responsibility, since in the vital fields of legislation and finance he has in the last resort only a negative voice. At the top of the ladder, but below the status of a Dominion, are the Dependencies that have achieved responsible government. This means that the Executive Council is transformed into a Cabinet or Board of Ministers representing the majority party of a fully developed parliament, and guides and advises the Governor on practically every aspect of internal policy affecting the territory. This is the essential feature of parliamentary democracy as practised in Britain. Responsibility, formerly vested in the Governor, is now assumed by the Ministers who are directly answerable to the people. * A nominated official member is appointed by the Governor from members of the Gov- ernment service (e.g., Director of Health Services, Director of Education, etc.) but his office does not automatically entitle him to a seat. In some cases it does, and he is then known as an ex-officio member (e.g., Colonial Secretary, Colonial Treasurer, Attorney- General). A nominated unofficial member is appointed by the Governor from outside the Gov- ernment service. An elected member is elected by the voters of the country. 8 *. Southern Rhodesia has had responsible government since 1923, and is therefore not strictly part of the Colonial Empire. It has its own Cabinet of Ministers who are responsible to a freely elected legislature. Britain still retains control over external affairs and to some extent over legislation affecting the large native population. Ceylon has had a form of responsible government since 1931, and in 1946 acquired virtually complete control over her own internal affairs. Malta, which was promised responsible gov- ernment as soon as possible after the war, is at present discussing with the British Government the details of her new constitution. Jamaica now has a bicameral legislature and five of the ten members of the Executive Coun- cil are elected by the House of Assembly, itself elected by universal fran- chise. In several of the other West Indian Dependencies, in East and West Africa, in Fiji, and in the Seychelles there were advances during the war, and many others have taken place since the war ended. The succeeding pages aim at giving some account of the various politi- cal advances. In spite of the strain and anxiety of total war, progress has been continuous and widespread, and in the post-war period there have already been major changes. This account illustrates the genuine and dynamic quality of Britain's colonial policy of advance to self-government, Nor is this a sudden change of attitude resulting from the pressure of world opinion or the fear of disintegration. It is just the latest chapter in the story of the application of a long-established policy. <> II. CEYLON DEVELOPMENT OF REPRESENTATIVE INSTITUTIONS IN THE 1877H AND 19TH CENTURIES Most politically advanced of all the territories of the Colonial Empire today is Ceylon. Captured from the Dutch, the island was made a depend- ency of India in 1796 under a dual civil and military control divided between the Crown and the East India Company. In 1802, Company con- trol came to an end, and, as a Crown Colony, Ceylon was administered for 30 years by a Governor with the assistance of an Advisory Council. In 1833, the people of Ceylon were first represented in their own govern- ment, for it was in that year that a Legislative Council containing European and Ceylonese members nominated by the Governor was established. This Council provided a valuable opportunity for all sections of the community to discuss their grievances and express their wishes, an opportunity which was amplified by the complete freedom of the press. Earlier in the century, after a system of corrupt local government had been swept away, the Cey- lon civil service was brought into being, and, equally important, a judicial system consisting of two branches, one for Europeans and one for Ceylonese. Throughout the nineteenth century the British Government labored conscientiously in an endeavor to bring the peoples of Ceylon to the stage of political development when they could be given control of their internal policy. This was no easy problem, for though the ultimate aim was national autonomy on the dominion model, the question remained: Was Ceylon a nation? Of its five million inhabitants less than three and a half million were Sinhalese and of these one and a quarter million were of the ancient 9 Kingdom of Kandy and held themselves to some extent apart. In addition, there were half a million Ceylon-born Tamils, originally from Southern India, and another 700,000 recent Tamil immigrants; and there were two other small but important communities: the descendants of the Dutch burghers, and other Europeans. But the problem of welding diverse cul- tural and racial elements into a united whole had to be faced. It is a significant fact that a hundred years beforé the League of Nations gave expression to the theory of the trusteeship of native peoples the Govern- ment of Ceylon was acting according to the same principle. Under British administration political growth was accompanied by great strides in social and economic progress. Irrigation works long abandoned were restored, a magnificent network of roads and railways was provided and large areas of jungle were reclaimed for agriculture, the island's chief pursuit; while the prosperity of the tea, coconut, and plumbago industries swelled the revenue and made available large sums of money which have been spent on the development of agriculture and on educational and medical facili- tleS. POLITICAL PROGRESS: 1927-1946 Politically, a series of alterations and amendments in the constitution culminated in 1931 in the grant of a new constitution, based on the find- ings of a Commission which went out to Ceylon in 1927-28, under the Chairmanship of the Earl of Donoughmore. Under it the Legislative Coun- cil was replaced by a State Council consisting of 50 members elected for territorial constituencies on the basis of universal adult suffrage. This State Council was divided into seven Executive Committees, each being responsible for a department of Government, namely, Home Affairs, Education, Agriculture and Lands, Local Administration, Labor, Industry and Commerce, Public Health, Communications and Works. Each Committee elected its own chairman who became the Minister responsible to the Council as a whole. All ordinances were enacted by the State Council with the Governor's assent. Thus the foundations of a system of ministerial responsibility were laid and the Board of Ministers was an approach to the Cabinet system of the British constitution. The Governor retained control over defense and foreign affairs. A further advance was made in 1941. The British Government gave an undertaking to review the constitutional position “by means of a Com- mission or Conference” as soon as practicable after the end of the war. In 1943, this undertaking was reaffirmed in a statement which emphasized that “the post-war re-examination of the reform of the Ceylon Constitu- tion, to which His Majesty's Government stands pledged, will be directed towards the grant to Ceylon by Order of His Majesty in Council, of full responsible Government under the Crown in all matters of internal civil administration.” This statement, which defined Britain's continuing re- sponsibility for the conduct of defense and foreign affairs and for certain measures affecting currency, the rights of racial and religious communities and of British subjects not residing on the island, gave Ceylon's Ministers the opportunity to start the work of drafting their own constitution and of defining the broad limits within which it might be framed. By the summer of 1944, the Ceylon Board of Ministers had completed * 10 a draft scheme which was submitted to the Secretary of State for the Colonies. Although it had originally been intended that examination of any proposals must wait until the end of the war, consideration of the new constitution was hastened by the appointment of a Commission to visit the island and examine the scheme. Lord Soulbury was appointed Chair- man of the Commission whose terms of reference included examination and discussion of any proposals for constitutional reform; “and after con- sultation with various interests in the island, including minority commu- nities, concerned with the subject of constitutional reform, to advise His Majesty's Government on all measures necessary to attain that object.” The Commission remained in Ceylon from December, 1944, to April, 1945. It reported” in October, 1945, and in November the British Gov- ernment offered Ceylon a new constitution giving the Ceylonese full con- trol over the internal affairs of the island. This constitution is based on the Commission's proposals and conforms in most respects to the Ministers' 1944 draft scheme. It provides for a Parliament, in which the King will be represented by the Governor, and which will consist of an Upper and a Lower House to be known as the Senate and the House of Representa- tives. A Cabinet of Ministers, headed by a Prime Minister, will be charged with the general direction of the Government. This Cabinet will be collec- tively responsible to the Ceylon Parliament, a fact which should give it much greater efficiency and unity of purpose than was possible for the Board of Ministers, each of whom was in effect only the spokesman for a Commit- tee of the State Council. The British Government retains a limited degree of control over certain matters through the Governor, whose powers are, however, considerably reduced. He is required to reserve for His Majesty's assent, Bills which in his opinion have evoked serious opposition by any religious or racial community, or are likely to involve repressions or seri- ous injustice to any such community. He may not enact special ordinances dealing with defense and external affairs, but the British Government retains the power to legislate on these points if necessary. Legislation relat- ing to franchise and immigration is specifically excluded from the Gov- ernor's powers of reservation. The interests of minorities aré safeguarded in various ways besides through the Governor's powers. The Ceylon Parlia- ment may not introduce legislation discriminating against any community. In the House of Representatives, which will have 95 elected members, there will also be six members nominated by the Governor from communities which have failed to secure adequate representation through the election, while in the delimitation of constituencies special consideration has been given to providing fair chances of representation to all communities. The Upper House (consisting of 15 members elected by the Lower House and 15 nominated by the Governor) will also act as a safeguard in so far as its delaying powers will impede over-hasty legislation. . When the British Government proposed this constitution to Ceylon, they stated that they hoped it would be accepted with a determination to operate it in such a way that Dominion status might be achieved in a - * Ceylon: Report of the Commission on Constitutional Reform (Cmd. 6677). London, H. M. Stationery Office, September, 1945: Price 90 cents. f Ceylon: Statement of Policy on Constitutional Reform (Cmd. 6690). London, H. M. Stationery Office, October, 1945. Price 10 cents. II short time. The State Council, while expressing disappointment that the constitution did not confer Dominion status forthwith, accepted it on these terms by a majority of 51 votes to three. The Order in Council embodying the new constitution was published on May 17, 1946. In preparation for elections under the new constitution, a census was held in February and March, 1946, and a Commission for the delimi- tation of constituencies was appointed in May. On the basis of the popu- lation figures obtained by the census, the Commission presented its report in September. Elections will be held in the latter half of 1947. Ceylon is a conspicuous illustration of the problems that confront polit- ical progress in a country where there are communities of different races with different cultural backgrounds and where, in consequence, the development of a common sense of nationhood is difficult. The British Government had assumed responsibility for the welfare of all the peoples of Ceylon. Its task has been to ensure that the rights of minorities are not ignored, while at the same time avoiding such an emphasis on com- munal rights as would tend to perpetuate rather than resolve communal differences. Emphasis has been laid rather on the responsibility of Min- isters of Government to the whole population, regardless of race or com- munity. The series of political experiments which have led Ceylon to the threshold of Dominion status have been based on this principle, and on the realization that political maturity can only come to a country which has been responsible for solving its own political and social problems. III. MALTA Throughout a history which dates from the Stone Age, Malta (which is the largest of the small group called the Maltese Islands) has been ruled by many different peoples including the Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Nor- mans, and Spaniards. In 1798, Napoleon and his army on the way to Egypt seized Malta from the crusading Order of the Knights of St. John of Jersualem who had ruled it for over 200 years. The Maltese appealed to Britain for help and, as a result, the Royal Navy with the help of the Maltese besieged the French garrison in the harbor town of Valletta until it surrendered in 1800. The Treaty of Amiens in 1802 provided for the restoration of Malta to the Knights. But the Maltese people strongly pro- tested and petitioned for the return of the British, and in 1814 Malta was recognized by the Treaty of Paris as part of the British Empire. From 1849 onwards, the people had a hand in their own government, and after the war of 1914-18 they achieved internal self-government with a Cabinet of Ministers and a bicameral legislature consisting of a Senate and an elected Assembly. Internal party conflict aggravated by Italian Fascist interference led first to the suspension and finally to the withdrawal of the constitution in 1933 in favor of Crown Colony rule under a Gov- ernor assisted by a nominated Executive Council. In 1938, however, internal differences having been resolved, the Secretary of State announced a new constitution for Malta providing for a legislature to be known as the “Council of Government” composed of eight official members, two unofficial nominated members, and ten elected members. 12 The Maltese people thus once more acquired, through their elected mem- bers, a measure of responsibility for the conduct of their own affairs. In 1943, a far greater measure of responsibility was promised, for the Secretary of State announced that Malta would have responsible government in , the conduct of internal affairs as soon after the war as the necessary exam- ination of the constitutional, financial, and administrative questions in- volved could be completed. In December, 1943, as a result of this announcement, the elected mem- bers of the Council of Government convened a National Congress which held its first meeting in February, 1944, with the object of calling a Na- tional Assembly to draft a new constitution. This Assembly held its first meeting in January, 1945, and some six months afterwards appointed at committee to frame the constitution. Progress, however, was slow, and in September, 1945, it was announced that the British Government had de- cided, with the object of hastening matters, to appoint a Commissioner to visit Malta to discuss, in consultation with representative opinion, “the formulation of detailed proposals regarding the form of the new con- stitution and any other matters bearing on the grant of responsible gov- ernment.” Sir Harold MacMichael was appointed to this office in January, 1946, and arrived in Malta on May 4. Discussions were conducted over a period of four months. On January 20, 1947, Sir Harold MacMichael's report* was published, together with a statement of policy; by the British Government. The form of government envisaged follows closely that proposed by the Malta National Assembly. The British Government has, however, suggested cer- tain amendments which have still to be considered in Malta. The con- stitution is expected to provide for an elected Legislative Assembly and a Cabinet of Ministers resembling the British system. Franchise for all men and women at the age of 21 has been agreed to, and women will be eligible for election to the legislature. While securing full internal self-government to the Maltese, this constitution would continue to place responsibility for defense and external affairs in the hands of the British Government. An essential consideration in planning the restoration of self-govern- ment to Malta has been the financial situation of the island, for Malta is faced with a heavy program of reconstruction and restoration of war damage. In accordance with the principle that effective self-government must be based on a sound economic foundation, special measures have therefore been taken to ensure that the new constitution shall not be unduly handicapped at the outset by financial burdens resulting from the gallant part played by the island in the war. In November, 1942, Britain made available £10,000,000 ($40,000,000) as a gift to Malta for restoring war damage, with a promise that further assistance would be forthcoming later if this sum were not sufficient. A further grant has now been made, bringing the total sum available to £31,000,000 ($124,000,000). Special legislation has also been enacted to enable Malta to continue to receive * Malta: Report of the Constitutional Commissioner (Colonial No. 207). London, H. M. Stationery Office, January, 1947. Price 10 cents. f Malta: Statement of Policy on Constitutional Reform (Cmd. 7014). London, H. M. Stationery Office, January, 1947. Price 10 cents. 13 \ assistance under the Colonial Development and Welfare Act (which does not normally apply to self-governing Colonies) and a sum of £1,000,000 ($4,000,000) has been allocated to her under this Act. Certain immediate and temporary financial help will also be forthcoming. Malta's political future is, to a great extent, conditioned by her geo- graphical position. Her past history makes this obvious and her share in the late war underlines it. Her defense must remain an Imperial respon- sibility, but full internal self-government will, it is hoped, be achieved in the near future. IV. GIBRALTAR Since Gibraltar became a British possession in 1704 it has been primarily a fortress and naval station. The Governor of the Colony is the Com- mander-in-Chief of the Garrison, and up to 1945 all power of legislation was vested in him. An Executive Council to assist the Governor was created in 1922, and was composed of four official and three nominated unofficial members. In November, 1945, the Secretary of State for the Colonies announced that Gibraltar was to have a Legislative Council for the first time. This was to be created as soon as circumstances would permit, but in any case not before all the evacuees had returned. Gibraltar, however, remains a fortress and because of this, it will be necessary for the Council to have an official majority, though it may include elected as well as nominated un- official members. Since 1921, the town's affairs have been managed by a City Council of four elected members. At the end of 1944, it was announced that this Council was to be enlarged to comprise seven elected and six official mem- bers, and that an Advisory Council was to be set up to include all mem- bers of the reformed City Council as well as the Colonial Secretary and the Attorney-General. Elections to the City Council took place in July, 1945. V. CYPRUS In 1878, Cyprus, which was then part of the Turkish Empire, came under British administration by an agreement whereby Britain under- took to assist the Sultan in the defense of his Asiatic territories. When war broke out with Turkey in 1914, Cyprus was formally annexed to Britain, and in 1925 it was declared a Crown Colony. Before the British occupation, government had been despotic. The mass of the people were illiterate and there was no tradition of self-govern- ment. In 1882, however, a constitution based on the electoral principle was introduced. This provided for a High Commissioner with an Executive Council, and a Legislative Council with six nominated official and 12 elected members. In 1925, when Cyprus became a Crown Colony, the office of Governor was substituted for that of High Commissioner, and 14 Af the Legislative Council was enlarged by the addition of three official and three elected members. , * . Among the Cypriots of Greek descent, who form about three-quarters of the population, the idea of union with other Greeks on the mainland has held a strong attraction since before the British occupation. Britain did, in fact, offer the island to Greece in 1915, but the offer was refused. The Greek Nationalist Party, strongly influenced by the Orthodox Church, continued none the less to agitate. Their demand was vigorously op- posed by the Cypriots of Turkish descent, who compose most of the re- mainder of the population and who have been established in the island for centuries. In 1931, agitation culminated in disturbances throughout the island, as a result of which the Government was reconstituted. The Legis- lative Council was abolished, and power of legislation was entrusted to the Governor. The Executive Council was retained. At the same time, the leading agitators, who included two of the island's three Orthodox Bishops, were exiled. In recent years, however, while the movement for union with Greece continues to play an active part in the political life of the island, it has been possible to make good progress in rebuilding democratic institutions. In 1943, municipal councils, elected by adult suffrage, were restored, and in 1945 a plan was published for extending a similar scheme to rural areas. The successful working of these councils was intended to pave the way to the restoration of the Central Government. This step is now to be taken. In October, 1946, Mr. Creech Jones, Secretary of States for the Colonies, announced in Parliament that the Governor of Cyprus would be asked to call a Consultative Assembly, drawn from the representative elements in the island, to frame proposals for con- stitutional reform, including the re-establishment of the central legisla- ture. The desired result is the creation of a council which will bring rep- resentatives of the Cypriot people into full consultative government in the conduct of their local affairs. Mr. Creech Jones also stated that laws passed in 1937 affecting elec- tions to the Archepiscopal See of the Church of Cyprus would be repealed. It is hoped that as a result the See, which has been vacant for some years, may again be filled so that the Church may resume its full spiritual au- thority and influence. The leaders of the 1931 disturbances are also to be allowed to return to the island. VI. THE WEST INDIES Scattered across the Caribbean Sea lie the islands of the British West Indies, the most important among them being Jamaica, the Leeward and Windward groups, Barbados, and Trinidad. British Guiana in South America and British Honduras on the mainland of Central America, and the Bahama Islands which fringe the Atlantic Ocean from the coast of Florida to Cuba and Haiti, are also customarily included in the West Indies for purposes of a political survey, although geographically the in- clusion of these three Colonies is inexact. 15 ~r- --→ • , ！~ *** ſňŹºſyyſaſ”，- •l2. 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The history of the West Indies during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is the story of a phenomenal rise in economic prosperity ac- companied by very wide powers of self-government for European settlers, followed in the nineteenth century by a steep economic decline which re- sulted, in nearly all the Dependencies, in the loss of self-government and the substitution of direct political control. The third part of the story which we can see today is of another rise towards self-government. In the early days, the West Indies enjoyed great prosperity as producers of sugar and the European planters, through elected legislatures closely resembling those of the Colonies on the North American mainland, man- aged to a considerable extent their own local affairs. In 1833, came the emancipation of the slaves who had been imported to work on the sugar plantations. This caused an acute scarcity of labor and, coupled with the gradual abolition of tariff preferences in the British markets, brought the West Indies perilously near to bankruptcy. With the loss of their position as the principal suppliers of sugar to Europe, there developed widespread poverty and all that goes with poverty—bad housing, lack of adequate health and educational services, and the like. This situation was to become prevalent also in the territories under Dutch, French, and American juris- diction. Social and economic changes brought about by the deteriorating posi- tion of these Colonies had a disorganizing effect on the Legislatures, which became less and less representative and increasingly irresponsible and made it almost impossible for the Colonial Governments to discharge their finan- cial responsibilities. Power divorced from responsibility was disrupting the whole political framework. The British Government decided to replace in almost every territory the existing system by a system of government under which a Governor, with the advice of a nominated council, was responsible for all acts of government to the authorities at home. POLITICAL REVIVAL Perhaps the most significant feature of the new rise of the West Indies in the e--itical scale is that the population which is now being vested with increasing responsibility is not, as in the old days, a small group of white planters and overseers, but a population more than 80 per cent of whom are the direct descendants of the original slaves. These people, many of whom must be trained in political responsibility, are also desperately in need of better social and economic conditions. As a result of the recommendations of a Royal Commission which visited the West Indies in 1938, and with grants from the funds made available under the Colonial Development and Welfare Act, a strenuous attack is being made on malnutrition and disease. Some form of political federation in the British West Indies has long been under discussion, both locally and in Britain. The object would be to create a political unit sufficiently large and diverse to be capable of self-government in the modern world. The British Government has, how- ever, always emphasized that such political unity must develop from within 17 the communities themselves. From the diversity of social organization,' of political development and of historical tradition, has grown a strong local pride, leading to a concentration on local interests. But more recently a realization of the advantages of federation in economy and efficiency has been steadily growing. In recent years, the question of federation was raised by the Royal Commission of 1938 which took the view that policy should in the long run be directed to this end. In March, 1945, the Secretary of State for the Colonies proposed to the Governors that the question should be dis- cussed in the local legislatures. In March, 1946, the matter was carried a step further in a dispatch from the Secretary of State to the Governors of the Windward and of the Leeward Isands outlining proposals, to be considered locally, for a federation of these two groups, a suggestion already made in 1938 by the Royal Commission, as a practical test of the advantages of federation. The attempt to bring about a wider outlook has received great impetus from the advisory body named the Caribbean Commission, which pro- vides a means for co-operation and consultation between the British, Ameri- can, French and Dutch territories over the whole social and economic field—a most hopeful method of bringing about the improved social and economic conditions essential to full political maturity. Meanwhile, political progress is being made. During the war there were a number of constitutional advances. The most significant, of course, was the new constitution for Jamaica, but there were several others which, though small in themselves, are important. Thus, in British Honduras, and Barbados women have been given the vote, and in Barbados there has been a substantial reduction in the franchise qualifications. - In Trinidad and Tobago, elected members now have parity in num- bers in the Legislative Council with the official and nominated unofficial members combined, and the introduction of universal adult suffrage was approved in 1944. In British Guiana, the elected members of the Legisla- tive Council now have a decisive majority over the official and the nomin- ated unofficial members combined, and a very substantial reduction in the franchise qualification was approved in 1944. What was the prelude to these changes? JAMAICA 17TH CENTURY CONSTITUTION BASED ON THE NORTH AMERICAN MODEL --- At the time of its capture from Spain in 1655, the island of Jamaica, . although it had been occupied by the Spanish for 150 years, had never really been settled by them. For a few years the British Government kept it under military control, but by 1663 an elected House of Assembly was in being, together with a Council of nominated members which acted both as a Privy Council and (during sittings of the Assembly) as a Legis- lative Upper Chamber. This constitution, modeled on the constitution introduced into the North American Colonies, served, with variations to suit local conditions, 18 for the other West Indian Colonies also, and an eighteenth-century his. torian of Jamaica has described the island's constitution in terms which, in the main, apply to the others: “It is composed of three estates, of which the Governor (as representing the King) is head. Having no order of nobility here, the place of a house of peers is supplied by a council of twelve gentlemen appointed by the King; which, in our system of legis- lature, forms the upper house. The lower house is composed (as in Britain) of representatives of the people, elected by the freeholders.” DISCORD BETWEEN CROWN AND LEGISLATURE CULMINATING IN CROWN COLONY RULE The phrase “as in Britain” was one of the rocks on which Jamaica's constitution foundered. The members of the first Assembly, Englishmen whose sympathies in England's Civil War were strongly on the side of the rights and privileges of parliamentary government, assumed that the Jamaica Assembly would have similar powers. One of their first steps, therefore, was to establish, and maintain for the next 200 years, control over the raising and spending of all revenue. Difficulties inevitably arose be- tween the Governor responsible to the British Crown for the administra- tion, and a legislature so securely in control of finance that no proposal for the expenditure of public money could be made except in the AS- sembly. This division of responsibility proved fatal. So great was the discord created that the Assembly (whose full term of office was seven years) was dissolved no less than eight times between 1702 and 1711, while in 1785 it met and was dissolved three times in three months. The emancipation of the slaves, consequent on the 1833 abolition of slavery, called for drastic social and economic adjustments which the European population of Jamaica were reluctant to make. Attemps to re- lieve the constitutional impasse were made on several occasions only to be rejected by the Assembly, ever jealous of its financial privileges. In 1865, a situation, politically hopeless, was inflamed by riots among the Negro laboring classes, caused partly by opposition to the West Indian planters and partly by the increased price of food. The riots were put down and martial law declared. The Governor wrote to the Secretary of State for the Colonies: “The real truth is that the people are not fit to elect legislators and there are few persons in the island fit to become legislators.” Members of the Assembly, at length aware of the need for drastic constitutional reform, agreed to surrender their powers, and in 1866 the Legislature was dissolved and a Legislative Council consisting entirely of officials and nominated members was set up in its place. A START IS MADE This might have been the end of Jamaica's responsibility for its own government. It was, in fact, only the beginning. In 1883, at the request of the people, nine elected members had been added to the Legislative Council. In 1885, a Local Government Act established elected boards to deal with internal local affairs. In 1895, the constitution was amended to provide for a Legislative Council presided over by the Governor and com- posed of five official members, not more than ten nominated members and I9 14 elected members, one for each of the parishes into which the island had been divided. The vote of nine of the elected members could secure the rejection of any financial proposal, and that of all 14 of any other proposed legislation. The Governor retained the right of overriding them in cases of absolute necessity, a right which was very rarely used. g Since that date, although constitutional reforms have been discussed, no change was agreed upon until shortly before the outbreak of the last war. Meanwhile, in 1919, the franchise qualifications were reduced from the low level fixed in 1884 to an even lower level. Men paying 10s. ($2) a year in taxes on real property or 30s. ($6) a year on personal property,’ or having an income or salary of £50 ($200) a year, were entitled to vote. Jamaican women (the first of the West Indian women to be admitted to the franchise) qualified for the vote on a similar income or salary minimum but a higher rate of taxes—namely £2 ($10) a year. The age qualification was 21 for men and 25 for women. In May, 1939, the Legislative Council appointed a committee of elected and unofficial nominated members to draft proposals for a reform in the existing constitution, thus giving effect to the words of the Secretary of State for the Colonies when he said that “the people themselves have been asked to suggest the constitutional machinery which they desire.” The resulting proposals, which were submitted to the Colonial Office and led to an in- terchange of views between that Office and the recognized spokesmen of the Colony, contained the opinions of the elected members of Jamaica's Legislative Council and of two influential organizations, the People's Na- tional Party (which had a member on the Legislative Council) and the Federation of Citizens’ Association. PROPOSALS FOR A NEW CONSTITUTION: AN IMPORTANT ADVANCE TOWARDS INTERNAL SELF-GOVERNMENT Discussion of the Jamaica proposals and of counter-proposals, based on the recommendations (made public in 1940) of the Royal Commission which visited the West Indies in 1938-39, continued until the early months of 1943. On February 23, through the Secretary of State, the British Gov- ernment proposed to Jamaica a new constitution with a two-chamber legislature consisting of a House of Representatives of not fewer than 24 elected members and a Legislative Council with a strong unofficial majority consisting of three official and 12 unofficial members, each body to elect its own presiding officer. Members of the House of Representatives, elected by universal adult suffrage, represent constituencies set up on the basis of the recent census in order to ensure equal representation of all parts of the island. This constitution came into force in November, 1944. The ancient Privy Council has been replaced by an Executive Council, but a Privy Council is retained to advise the Governor on matters relating to the Royal Prerogative.” The Executive Council consists of ten members * The Royal Prerogative is the power still vested in the Crown by virtue of the common law of England. The prerogative permits the Crown to legislate directly for a Colony. Such laws are embodied in Orders in Council. In practice, the powers of the Crown are exercised by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, subject to the supreme control of the Cabinet. º 20 presided over by the Governor. Five of them are elected by the House of Representatives from among its own members and five (three of whom are officials) are appointed by the Governor from the members of the Legis- lative Council. The Executive Council, which prepares the budget and initiates all money and other bills, is responsible for the administration of the Government and is the principal instrument of policy. The Governor retains certain reserve powers: (1) The power of veto, that is to say, the power to refuse assent to a Bill. (2) Authority to give the force of law to a Bill, resolution, motion or vote, which he considers necessary in the interest of good government but which is rejected by the Legislature or passed by them with amendments of which he is unable to approve. * As regards (1), the power of veto, the Secretary of State observed that, “Under every Colonial Constitution without exception, when a Bill is pre- sented to the Governor for his assent on behalf of His Majesty, the Gov- ernor has a discretion to assent, to withhold his assent, or to reserve the Bill for His Majesty's pleasure.* Any fetter expressly imposed by consti- tutional instrument upon this discretion would be without precedent in the Colonies. Indeed the legal position is the same in the self-governing Dominions, though in their case the practice is, of course, dependent upon principles of constitutional usage. I should see no objection to an under- standing that, on the rare occasions upon which the Governor is not pre- pared to assent to a Bill, he should in practice either reserve it for His Majesty's pleasure, or, before refusing assent consult the Executive Coun- cil, and, if they do not agree, the Secretary of State. . . .” As regards (2) the Secretary of State explained that at this stage some power must be provided to meet the rare and unpredictable occasions when the public interest demands action which the Legislature might be unwilling to take; and it was decided that this reserve power should be exercised by the Governor in accordance with the advice of the Executive Council; that its exercise should be considered only on the written request of the Governor; that any decision to exercise should be reported imme- diately to the Secretary of State; and that except in cases of urgency it should not be exercised without the Secretary of State's prior approval. In order to provide an embryo ministerial system, a number of Com- mittees have been set up in the House of Representatives to deal with (a) General Purposes, (b) Agriculture, (c) Education, (d) Social Welfare, and (e) Communciations. The members of the House elected to the Executive Council are separate and distinct from the Chairmen of the above-men- tioned Committees, who form a General Committee for the control of the internal affairs and business of the House. The Chairman of this General Committee is regarded as the Leader of the House. This constitution marks a very real step forward. It is to be given a five years' trial and the posi- tion will then be reviewed in the light of the experience gained and with a view to establishing a government which approximates even more closely to autonomy. Meanwhile, through their own votes and their elected mem- bers in the House of Representatives and on the Executive Council, all * i.e., to refer the Bill back to the Secretary of State for the Colonies. 2I sections of the community are assuming a very considerable measure of responsibility for the government of their country. The political problem in Jamaica, as in other West Indian Colonies, was the adjustment of the existing political and economic status of the original white settlers to the political and economic aspirations of the large colored populations descended from the emancipated Negroes. In the early stages after the emancipation, economic decline led to political decadence, and Britain in many cases, assumed closer control in order to stabilize the Government and protect the rights of the unorganized and uneducated colored communities. With advances in education and economic status, the Negro descendants have acquired a very considerable share in the work of administration and have become integrated into the community. The crux, however, lies in the power of legislation. To develop a wider sense of responsibility and acquire experience in the co-operation and compromise essential to wise legislation, political risks have to be taken which the original communities are often reluctant to agree to. The new Jamaica Constitution is an example of the British Govern- ment's realization that in the final stages of political education “learn- ing by doing” is the best, in fact the only, method. BARBADOS The Barbados Assembly, which comes next in seniority to the Ber- mudan, was established in 1639. The Legislature today consists of the House of Assembly with 24 elected members and the Legislative Council with nine nominated members. The Governor has no power to authorize measures which have not previously been approved by both Houses of the Legislature but, as in all Colonies, his assent is required before a Bill can become law. Executive power rests with the Governor who has the advice of a small Executive Council and in certain matters is assisted by an Executive Committee. The members of this Committee (one from the Legislative Council and four from the House of Assembly, together with the mem- bers of the Executive Council) form with the Governor a body for the transaction of financial and other public business. The Committee acts as a link between the different branches of the administration, for its mem- bers advise the Governor on measures to be brought by the Executive Coun- cil before the Legislature. It is also responsible for initiating money votes in the Assembly and preparing the Estimates. In October, 1946, the retiring Governor, in proroguing the Legislature, put forward certain proposals for altering constitutional procedure. These are tentative and experimental, and depend upon the general assent and co-operation of the House of Assembly. No legal alteration of the con- stitution is involved. The proposals are that the new Governor shall send for the person who seems to him best able to command a majority in the House and ask him to submit names from the House for membership of the Executive Committee. Members of the Executive Committee would then be asked respectively to take charge of the general policy relating 22 to particular Government Departments for the purpose of dealing with the affairs of these Departments in the Executive Committee and in the House of Assembly. The Executive Committee would then, in practice, cease to be merely a number of individuals nominated by the Governor to advise him, and would become an effective organ of Government accepting col- lective responsibility for policy, although the Governor must, under the Constitution as it is at present, still retain ultimate responsibility. The 1943 reform which gave women the vote on equal terms with men, also reduced the freehold property qualifications for electors from a yearly value of £5 ($20) to £2.10s. ($10), and the income qualification from £50 ($200) to £20 ($80) a year. As a result, the majority of agricultural laborers were able to vote in the elections held in November, 1945. TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO When Trinidad was ceded to Britain by Spain in 1797, the British Gov- ernment decided that it would not be appropriate to introduce an elected Assembly on the model of the British settlements in North America and other West Indian dependencies. This decision was chiefly due to a desire to protect the interests of the colored inhabitants by vesting sole authority in the Crown. Gradually, however, the Government of the Colony assumed a more representative form. In 1801 the Governor appointed five prominent residents as a Council of Advice. In 1831, this Council became the Execu- tive Council and, for the first time, a nominated Legislative Council was established. The island of Tobago became part of the Colony in 1889. There were no elected members on the Legislative Council until 1924 when provision was made for seven elected members, six nominated mem. bers and 12 official members. In 1941, an amendment to the Constitution made provision for nine elected members and reduced the number of official members to three, the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, and the Colonial Treasurer. In 1944, the Franchise Commission recommended that universal suffrage should be introduced, that women should be eligible for election to the Legislative Council, and that the income qualification for membership should be substantially reduced. The Secretary of State approved these proposals and an Order in Council amending the con- stitution was published in September, 1945. The new constitution came into force in March, 1946, and elections were held in July. BRITISH GUIANA When British Guiana was ceded to Britain in 1814 by Holland, the old Dutch constitutional machinery was retained. It consisted of a Court of Policy whose members, with the Governor, undertook the functions nor- mally performed by an Executive Council and Legislature; and a Combined Court which with the Governor, members of the Court of Policy and certain financial members, was responsible for questions of finance and taxation. Apart from the remission of certain taxes resulting from the emancipation of the slaves, there were no changes until 1892 when the administrative functions of the Court of Policy were transferred to an Executive Council, 23 the Court retaining its legislative powers. The year 1928 saw further changes, the outcome of the recommendations of a parliamentary commission which had investigated conditions with a view to ensuring a more rapid develop- ment of the Colony and of promoting the well-being of the people. The recommendations led to the substitution of a Legislative Council for the Court of Policy and the Combined Court, the Legislative Council con- sisting of ten official members, five nominated members and 14 elected members. The 1943 amendment to the constitution, by reducing the num- ber of nominated and official members from 15 to ten, gave the elected members a majority of four over the official and nominated members com- bined. In 1944, the Franchise Commission recommended a very substantial reduction in the qualifications necessary for membership of the Legislative Council and for the franchise, and its proposals have been approved by the Secretary of State. These changes will extend the vote to large sections of the manual laboring population. Elections on this basis will be held in 1947. The Secretary of State has announced that he will be prepared to consider in five years' time from the new elections a request from the Legislative Council or some other representative ad hoc body for universal adult suffrage. | THE NEED FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE WEST INDIES It will be seen, therefore, that all these changes are the logical develop- ment of constitutions all of which are steps to the same goal—responsible self-government. The speed of the advance has been hampered in varying degrees by social and economic difficulties. The administrations are now largely staffed by West Indians themselves, but education and social wel- fare in its broadest sense for large sections of the population still lag far behind the standard of the most advanced section. Educational advance and economic development were called by a former Secretary of State for the Colonies “the twin pillars upon which any sound scheme of political responsibility must be based.” It is in their attainment that the future of the West Indies lies. VII. BERMUDA With the exception of the House of Commons the Bermuda Assembly is the oldest legislative body in the overseas empire. Its constitution, like those of Barbados and the Bahamas, is a survival of the system which ap- plied in the North American Colonies before the Revolution, and which afterwards in Canada and later in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, broadened out until it made complete independence within the Commonwealth a working possibility. “Upon the first of August” (1620) wrote a contemporary historian of 24 the Bermuda Assembly, “began the general assembly at the towne of Saint George which was the first these Iles ever had; consisting, as is said, of the Governor, Councell, Bailiffes, and Burgesses, and a Secretarie to whom all bils were presented and by him openly read in the house, also a clerke to record the acts, being 32 in all; 15 of which being sent into England were by generall consent received and enacted.” Bermuda retained a single Council longer than any of the West Indian Colonies and it was not until 1888 that Executive and Legislative Councils were set up. Four officials serve on the Executive Council—the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Colonial Treasurer, and the Senior Military Officer. In addition, there are three unofficial members. The Legislative Council consists of three official and six nominated unofficial members, and the House of Assembly of 36 elected members. The 1944 reforms which gave women the vote on equal terms with men also rendered women eligible for election to the Assembly. The Bermuda Constitution amounts to something approaching full in- ternal self-government, although it is not responsible government in the constitutional sense. The final say in matters of legislation and finance— in Barbados and the Bahamas as well as in Bermuda—rests, however, for practical purposes with the Legislature. VIII. BRITISH TROPICAL AFRICA SOME PROBLEMS WHICH HAVE HINDERED PROGRESS By far the largest land area of the British Colonial Empire is occupied by the Dependencies in East and West Africa, which also possesses the greatest mass of population. On the east of the continent lie Kenya, Uganda, Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia, Zanzibar, British Somaliland, and the Trust Territory of Tanganyika occupying an area of over a million square miles and supporting a population of some 16 millions. On the west lie the Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, Nigeria, and the Trust Territories of Togoland, and the Cameroons with a much smaller area— ſess than 500,000 square miles—but supporting a population of 26 millions. The peoples of Africa have different racial origins and histories, and they present a bewildering complexity of language, religion and custom. It has been reckoned that there are in Africa no less than 700 spoken languages, between two and three hundred of which have been reduced to writing since the coming of the white man. Within the four British West African Dependencies alone there are 40 distinct tribal groups speaking as many different languages, together with innumerable smaller tribes each with its own dialect. The wide differences existing even in a single territory have meant that no one form of government which would be both workable and acceptable to the people could be devised. Indirect Rule, which has been introduced into all the African territories, follows many patterns but has only one aim— to educate Africans to play an ever-increasing part in the management of their own affairs. Africans are also beginning to take a share in the govern- ment of their country as a whole. 25 v . — y Arizish West Africa - . ſigeria.” i wr/h Cameroons (colony & Prof.) hhursk - * Barn: > Gamāja Y ((o/ony & ProA) area 4 ooo sº miles area; $72.7aosymmes populo/ſon: 2,333.300 Go/a/ Coas/, wh 7ogo/and/ (Colony & Pro/ ) opw/a/von: /33 soo area; 3,300 sq miſes & © ... 2 —r——ºr-— -—-3– Aopv/a/rom 3362, zoo // } o” - /2// pºzzºl % 4% & g X. 27 erºr 5/;\; A r ſo y f' ºr a e s : º ,” V lº. % §§ !/ZZZ Areefown %t. J. - A. %. 6. ...? % .e.: <> ZZ >. (Goſony & Aro/.) //?' %, & 7%dºri*** ... • * ‘... gº 2^{ area 2% ooo sºm/es ãº) §%% %u% %26 wº populo/ron / 600 odd &%%& º 1%*::: 42.% £% * /4j Joa/e 300////es /o ºf.*22°, -2 lſº U. & ...” ”;:(, * * * * - %%; º º J * e 4%lº sº w º/ (a/77érooms 7rus/ Terri/ory O ſo .5/7///, /O — ... O | | \ 3ritish, Zast & ſº S N —Jº ^ e :* • . gº ~% A 2". 2.2% |r-Q 4. Cen/ra / Africa ºž ... ." * , K% %22% % _JH'... ." … S N N N N N N S S/ & 3%/º F.I. . . . . . . \\\\\\\\\ \{ ||Ang/6%//ian Sudan << 4.2%/ . . . . . . . . . NN N \\ N NY N & \ (Condom ſarum) *~...~" ºlº A || NNNNN’Sºº- 2% ºf • ‘I. & // N N N N * tº Y * | " . . . \ . . N N Ar Soma//a/a/ . . . . . (.7 N N (Arofec/ora/e) . . . . . N N area: 68 000 s? /m/es Aopo/a/zoo. 602 do.” Ž ( Aro/ec/oro/e) area 3% odd sº m//es popula//on 3 230 200 Zaagaſy/Aa (7rusſ 7erru/ory) area. 362 000 sq. m//es 2000/a/rom 5 +/z 600 Aake 7zzyaayika 22nz//a/. (Aro/ec/ora/e) //7 /ſ/hodes/a area. Zooo sº m//es Wºź. J Aoau/o//on: 250 000 area. 292300 sq m//es Aopulahoa ... / 343, 400 Æeaya (Colony & Pro/ ) area. 22s ooo sym/es Aopu/a/won & e3& 400 "S.A. NY,\,\ O S&NJø/j34/ry } J'ca/e 'N > w ** & & .# **, * ëSº \ Åang d \. ~~, © •A/or J/ar \ Af \X,/a Aharu Áed a # ſ” —- f St. ..º. ... 'S .* X-r * \." 3. • * "...Apov. :... 6eoſyefoº (Mº.;/€y : Penday : e ...” 5 -> ... ." A ke/ an / an i. e. g “... tº --> W.Żºły S-CA f .."?. .” ‘’’. . . .”. Q-CA cS A 62 /* (7 A. 3...…” t’ ”.....” “... •'. r *. S- W &o/a Aſoº’s * , 4. * Sy “”. :***. ***...* *... •" ". . . . .& (7 /, CZ /? gº. A .97 S o sº ©. -> “…'.... ... Avaſa Zumpur • Å •e < . • j/Weyr f *. *> *......' º ".. «» #".5em ö/ / a m +. 2." f O * “.. CN ^^ § Sereméan ; *................ //a/aya 'S area: 50.362 sy//es opuſa/ſon : (2% /94/) 2 — Malays 2,273,384 Chinese 2,379,2// Aash/naſians 744,276. %.” 3/, 4/6 O/hers 7Z 422 Ao/a/: 3.5//, 3/3 %z \–1. ------- O/ CZ **.. *&azapore Jºca /e CŞ § & ) O SO /oo AM//es S SSS $2. O | Q_ſ\ .5 m///? /o | (7 % /20 /Wor//, Aorneo area: 29, 500 sq m//es *C) Aopula//on: 270 223 z' | - tº Jesse//o Jama/a/a/, Aruney | area: 2,200 $7 m/es Arime/ a £4. | 5. Aopu/a/ſon: 32/60 §§ cº-sº-sº-sº -ºº º sº | Jarawak area; 30 000 sº m/es Aopulation: 492 600 Ix. MALAYA British Malaya is a small country of a singularly complex character. About the size of England or New York State, it is inhabited by three main racial groups of widely divergent traditions, outlook, and interests. More- over, Britain's relationship with the various areas of the peninsula is not uniform, but has been governed by the particular circumstances through which each came under her control in the course of more than a century. Active encouragement of a sense of unity and common purpose among the many diverse elements is therefore the guiding principle in all plans for the development of self-government. THE COMPLEX BACKGROUND The early British merchants who came to Malaya found an unde- veloped, sparsely inhabited territory, divided into a number of small Sul- tanates constantly at war among themselves. In the interior, Chinese settlers worked the tin mines in a primitive fashion, but trade was made difficult by the anarchic conditions of the country. As British settlements came to be established at various points along the coast, their security soon attracted Chinese, Indians, and Malays, and early in the nineteenth cen- tury trade sprang-up between these settlements and the Malay States. But disturbances continued in the interior, and eventually the Malay Rulers began to seek British protection. Recognizing the need to establish peace- ful conditions for trade, the British Government from 1874 onwards signed treaties with the various States whereby the Rulers agreed to the appoint- ment of a British Resident whose advice was to be asked and accepted on all matters except those relating to Mohammedan religion and custom. In 1877, rubber was introduced into Malaya by the British, and from 1897 onwards production began to increase rapidly. In the early 1880's the first tin mines worked by Europeans were opened in Perak. From the beginning of the twentieth century these two industries, under the impetus of foreign, mainly British, capital, skill and initiative, changed the face of the country. The three main racial groups are Malays, Chinese, and East Indians. The Malays are largely peasant farmers and fishermen and have never shown much interest in the type of work provided by the large-scale indus- tries, or in city life. In their Mohammedan society, each Sultan is the traditional leader of his people, and until very recently Malay loyalty has been local and there has been little feeling of national or racial unity. The Chinese came to the country mainly to work in the tin mines and the big business houses. In Singapore in particular, which in 1941 was nearly 80 per cent Chinese, many of them have become wealthy and influ- ential members of the community, and their total number in the country is now slightly greater than that of the Malays. Indians, the third largest community, came mainly to work on the rubber, tea, sugar, and palm oil estates. Many of the Chinese and Indians are transients, returning even- tually to their own countries. In 1931, only 57 per cent of the whole popu- lation had been born in Malaya, but this situation has been gradually changing as more and more of the immigrants tend to settle permanently. Before the war, there were three main divisions of territory—the Straits 49 Settlements, the four Federated Malay States, and the five Unfederated Malay States. The Straits Settlements formed a Crown Colony with direct British administration, while in the Malay States British authority rested on the treaties with their Rulers already referred to. There were thus ten governments. THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS These comprised the island of Penang, (with Province Wellesley), the Settlement of Malacca, and the Island of Singapore. Penang was ceded to the British East India Company in 1786 by the Sultan of Kedah, and Province Wellesley was added to the Settlement in 1800. Malacca was acquired from the Dutch by treaty in 1824. Singapore was founded as a trading station in 1819 by Sir Stamford Raffles, who obtained a lease from the Sultan of Johore, and in 1824 the island was ceded to Britain in per- petuity. These territories were administered by the British East India Company until the British Government assumed direct control of all the Company's territories. In 1867, they became a Crown Colony with a Governor, Exec- utive Council and Legislative Council. The Executive Council, which at first consisted only of official members, had by 1942 been enlarged to com- prise the Governor as President, eight official members (of whom two were appointed by the Governor), three unofficial members nominated by the Governor, and one Chinese member. At the same date, the Legislative Council had a membership of 26, half official and half unofficial. Eleven of the latter were nominated (five Europeans, three Chinese, one British Indian, one Eurasian and one Malay) and two were elected, one by the British members of the Chamber of Commerce at Singapore and one by those of the Penang Chamber. The Governor had an original and a cast- ing vote, so that there was in effect an official majority. But in recent years the Governor rarely used the majority to pass any legislation opposed by unofficials. Bills did not come up before the Council until agreement on them had been reached between the various interests through the work of unofficial committees. Financial measures, in particular, were almost never pushed against opposition. The Crown Colony also included Labuan, an island off the coast of Borneo, ceded to Britain by the Sultan of Brunei in 1846, the Cocos-Keel- ing Islands settled by a Scotsman named John Clunies Ross in 1827, and which became a British possession in 1851, and Christmas Island, annexed in 1888. | THE FEDERATED MALAY STATES The four States of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan, and Pahang came under British protection between 1874 and 1888 by the treaties with their Rulers referred to above. Supreme authority in each State was vested in the Ruler in State Council of which the British Resident, the principal Malay Chiefs and the leaders of the Chinese were members. With the object of achieving uniformity of government, the four States agreed in 1895 to federate. The Governor of the Straits Settlements was appointed High Commissioner of the Federation, a Federal secretariat took over con- trol of revenue and expenditure throughout the Federation, and all major 50 Departments were centralized at the Federal capital. Laws passed in the Federal Council had to be signed by the Malay Rulers (who withdrew from membership in 1927, appointing the British Residents to represent them) but in effect the separate States were left with practically no exec- utive or legislative powers except in the sphere of Mohammedan law. The Federation, in fact, theatened to turn into an amalgamation. The need for efficiency and uniformity had pushed centralization too far, in direct opposition to the intention of the Government which, in accordance with the treaties, was to maintain the position of the Rulers as heads of independent States under British protection. During the 1930's the process of centralization was reversed. Certain Departments were decentralized and the States were given power to deal with some parts of the work of the Federal Departments. The Federation was left in charge of the major work of allocation of revenues between the Federation and the States and between the four States, each of which submitted estimates of expenditure to the Federal Council and was allotted a block grant from which to finance State services. The State Councils themselves were strengthened by the addition of unofficial nominated members without prejudice of race, and the Legal Adviser to the Federation became a member of all four State Councils to ensure uniformity of legislation. THE UNFEDERATED MALAY STATES Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Trengganu came under British protection only in 1909. At that date, suzerainty over them was abandoned by Siam in return for a loan from the Federated Malay States for the construction of a railway which would link up Bangkok and Singapore, and for the abolition by Britain of consular jurisdiction in Siam. Johore, which because of its position as neighbor of the great port of Singapore had been brought into closest relation with the Settlements, accepted an Adviser with the duties of Consular Officer in 1895 and asked for the appointment of a General Adviser in 1914. The other States received General Advisers at varying dates between 1910 and 1930. In Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Trengganu the Governments consisted of the Ruler and an Advisory Council, composed of the Malay Ministers and the British Adviser, which combined executive and legislative func- tions. Conditions in Johore placed that State in a somewhat different posi- tion from the other Unfederated States. It had possessed a written consti- tution since 1895, and the development of agriculture and mining provided a revenue greater than that of the other four States combined. It was, besides, the only Unfederated Malay State where Chinese and Indians outnumbered the Malays. In 1942, the Government consisted of a Coun- cil of Malay Ministers, an Executive Council, presided over by the Ruler and a Council of State, corresponding to a Legislative Council, with the Malay Prime Minister as President, and with British official members and Malay, European, Chinese and Indian unofficial members. THE GOVERNMENT SERVICES The higher posts in all parts of British Malaya were filled from the Malayan Civil Service. This service was closed to all Asiatics except Malays 51 since it provided officers for the Malay States, and these did not wish for other Asiatic administrators. In the Straits Settlements, however, local administration was carried on by a separate civil service which was open to Asiatics of any race. THE MALAYAN UNION Up to the time of the Japanese invasion in 1941, the population as a whole showed little interest in politics. The Malays paid allegiance to their Rulers and looked to the British to safeguard them against the en- croachments of the foreign Asiatics. The Chinese and Indians were mainly interested in earning their living, although those among them who had been born in Malaya, or who had lived there most of their lives, were beginning to feel that they had a claim to equal rights in the country with other native-born inhabitants. The British Government had so far main- tained unity between these different elements. But for some time consti- tutional reforms had been under consideration. If Malaya were eventually to stand on its own feet and to govern itself, the determination to do so must come from the people themselves. Real unity of interest and out- look must be developed and all communities must share in the responsibility of government. It was clear that the existing complicated administration, the division of the country into separate units of government and the privi- leged position of the Malays offered little opportunity for achieving this. The Japanese occupation ended in September, 1945, and a few weeks later, on October 10, the Secretary of State for the Colonies announced the out- line of a new constitution which it was proposed to establish in place of the pre-war system. On April 1, 1946, this constitution began to take effect. Under its provisions a Malayan Union was created, consisting of the nine Malay States and the Settlements of Penang and Malacca, while Singapore (with the Cocos-Keeling Islands and Christmas Island) was constituted a separate Crown Colony. It was felt that Singapore, as a great center of entrepot trade and with a predominantly Chinese population, had inter- ests distinct from the mainland. At the same time, it was also recognized that it has long-standing ties with the rest of Malaya and that at a later date some closer link may be desirable. The constitution provided that the Malayan Union and the Colony of Singapore would each be administered by a Governor with an Execu- tive and Legislative Council, the composition of these bodies to be agreed upon by the Governor and local opinion. In the Malayan Union, a Local Council in each State and Settlement was also provided for. Both central and local councils would have official and unofficial members, while the Legislative Council of the Colony would also include elected members. In order to bring about these changes, fresh treaties were entered into with each of the Malay Rulers after discussions with a special British rep- resentative in Malaya. Under these new treaties, the Crown was given jurisdiction in each State and could therefore legislate for the Malayan Union as a whole. The Rulers retained complete control of all matters affecting Mohammedan religion and custom. Each Ruler would preside over a Malay Advisory Council under the Chairmanship of the Governor. A Governor-General was also appointed to co-ordinate policies between the Malayan Union and Singapore. The area under his control was fur- 52 ther extended to include Sarawak and British North Borneo when these territories were brought under the Colonial Office in July, 1946,” Labuan (now a part of the Colony of North Borneo), and the State of Brunei in Borneo, formerly administered under the High Commissioner for the Malay States. g The new constitution also provided for the establishment of a Malayan Union citizenship available to all, without discrimination of race or creed, who qualify by birth or a suitable period of residence. The exact condi- tions were left to be worked out in consultation with all interests in Malaya. REACTIONS TO THE MALAYAN UNION PROPOSALS Soon after the Malayan Union plan was announced, growing opposition to it began to, appear among the Malays. At the root of their objections lay the feeling that the plan would lead to their obliteration by the immi- grant communities. The main points at issue were the citizenship pro- posals and the new treaties with the Rulers. In the cession of even nominal sovereignty by the Rulers, who for centuries have been the constitutional and spiritual leaders of their people, and hold a key position in the struc- ture of their Mohammedan society, the Malays felt a threat to their racial existence. These reactions produced a display of racial unity among the Malays, marked by a country-wide Malay popular movement, which is an entirely new phenomenon in the country's history. In the past, the Malays have shown little interest in politics, and the marked tendency to separatism between the various States has been one of the obstacles to self-government. When, therefore, shortly after the inauguration of the Malayan Union constitution, the British Government took steps to meet Malay objections it was with representatives of this movement, as well as with the Rulers, that they were able to discuss the country's future. On July 26, 1946, a committee representing the Malayan Government, the Malay Rulers, and the United Malays National Organization was ap- pointed to draft a new constitution. Their report was published on December 25. It recommends the establishment of a Federation of Malaya to replace the Malayan Union, and consisting of the same terri- tories. The Central Government would consist of a High Commissioner, a Federal Executive Council, and a Federal Legislative Council. The Legis- lative Council would comprise the High Commissioner, 14 official and 34 unofficial members, selected on a basis which will give full representation to economic as well as racial interests. Special provision would be made for the election of members as soon as possible. In each Malay State the Government would consist of the Malay Ruler (who would be the constitutional Ruler, though bound to accept British advice on all matters except Mohammedan religion and custom), a State Executive Council, and a Council of State with legislative powers. Penang and Malacca would each have a Settlement Council with legislative powers. The form of citizenship recommended by the committee is one which would be in the nature of an addition to nationality, and which would not, for instance, affect the status of subjects or Rulers in the Malay States, * See Appendix, p. 60. 53 and of British subjects in the British Settlements. It would confer privi- leges such as qualification for electoral rights or membership of the Coun- cils, and would impose obligations. The British Government have given conditional approval to these pro- posals, subject to any views which may be expressed by the other com- munities who are now considering them. i If they are accepted they should go far towards laying the founda- tion from which Malaya can progress towards full self-government. While overcoming Malay objections to the Malayan Union constitution, they preserve the fundamental objectives which the British Government feel to be essential to Malaya's progress, namely, the establishment of a strong Central Government with control over all matters of importance to the country as a whole, and the creation of a common citizenship for all those who regard Malaya as their real home and the ºbject of their loyalty. The patient discussion and good will on both sides, which have been brought to bear on one of the most complex situations with which any country is faced, is a clear example of the method of partnership through which Britain is endeavoring to help forward the people of the Colonies. X. FIJI The first authentic record of the existence of the Fiji Islands is that of the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who sighted them in 1643. During the next two hundred years, they became known to a number of naviga- tors and explorers, and were visited by traders in search of sandalwood and béche-de-mer, for Far Eastern markets. Some of these traders took up residence in the islands and may be regarded as the first white settlers. Up to the second half of the nineteenth century, the Fiji Islands had none too favorable a reputation. They were divided among seven small, independent and warring tribes, each under its own Chief. One of these, Thakombau, endeavored for some years to unify the country under his control. Cannibalism and other savage practices were still the natural order of Fijian society. Christian missionaries began to arrive in 1830, and although Thakombau was baptized in 1854 and ordered heathen prac- tices to cease the work of the missionaries remained extremely hazardous, one of their number being killed and eaten as late in 1867. In 1858, Thakombau, unable to control the rival chiefs, offered to cede Fiji to Britain in order to put an end to a state of confusion and economic distress in the islands. The offer, however, was declined, and it was only when it was repeated in 1874 that Fiji became a Crown Colony. Since then, internal strife has ceased and considerable social progress has been made particularly in education (96 per cent of the population are said to be literate) and in health measures which are now being promoted largely by Fijian-trained doctors and nurses. EUROPEANS, FIJIANS, AND INDIANS IN THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT For the Colony as a whole, the Great Council of Chiefs gives the Governor authoritative advice on Fijian questions, and it is from a panel 54 of names submitted to him by this Council that the five Fijians who serve on the Legislative Council are selected. There are also five European unofficial members on the Legislative Council, and five Indians to rep- resent their compatriots who, coming to Fiji originally to work on the sugar plantations, are now almost as numerous as the Fijians. The official members of the Legislative Council have a majority of one but the un- official members have the right to demand that any matter on which there is a difference of opinion should be referred to the Secretary of State for the Colonies. Further amendments to the constitution are under consideration. The Executive Council consists of five official and four unofficial mem- bers. The first Fijian member was appointed in May, 1943, when the office of Adviser on Native Affairs (since renamed Secretary for Fijian Affairs), which carries with it membership of the Executive Council, went to a Fijian, Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna. A second Fijian member of the Executive Council, and an Indian member were appointed in January, 1946. LOCAL GOVERNMENT WHICH RESEMBLES INDIRECT RULE Under a system of local government which preceded and to some extent resembles the Indirect Rule of the African Dependencies and is designed to conform as closely as possible to ancient laws and customs, the Fijian people exercise a considerable measure of control over their own affairs. For administrative purposes the Colony is divided into five districts each with its own District Commissioner and one or more District Officers whose work, as in Africa, is to advise and guide the people but not to rule them. Every village has its own Headman who, after consultation with the village elders, speaks for his people. The villages are grouped into districts, each group under the control of a Chief. Every district has its district council, to which wider powers in the making of local regulations were given in 1944. The districts in their turn are grouped into provinces, each province under the control of a High Chief. Every province has its own provincial council which reports direct to the Governor through the Secre- tary for Fijian Affairs and its recommendations become local laws when they have received the Governor's assent. CLOSE LINK BETWEEN THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT AND THE NATIVE ADMINISTRATION By the enactment of the Fijian Affairs Ordinance of 1944, the five Fijian members of the Legislative Council, together with a legal adviser and the Secretary for Fijian Affairs as Chairman, now form a Fijian Affairs Board. The establishment of this Board means that Local Native Government is now almost entirely in the hands of the Fijians themselves. It largely controls the finances of the native administration and, in addition to its ordinary administrative duties, it can make regulations binding on the Fijian population. Though the Legislative Council still has to approve such regulations, the Chairman of the Board (that is, the Secretary for Fijian Affairs) can immediately grant provisional assent to a new regula- tion, if he believes that the public interest requires that it should be 55 brought into force before the next meeting of the Legislative Council. The Board held its first meeting early in 1945. Fijians are well represented on local Town Boards, which have juris- diction in urban districts over public health and other measures, and in rural districts on Boards which are responsible for the maintenance of public roads. They have their own Native Courts, Provincial and Dis. . trict, in which justice is administered according to a recognized Code of Native Regulations. District Commissioners together with Native Magis- trates preside over the Provincial Courts but in the District Courts Native Magistrates sit alone. . When in 1874 Fiji was finally annexed to Britain, Queen Victoria received the following message: “The King gives Her Majesty his old and favorite war club, the former, and until lately the only known, law of Fiji. . . . Many of his people, whole tribes, died and passed away under the old law; but hundreds of thousands still survive to learn and enjoy the newer and better state of things. With this emblem of the past the King sends his love to Her Majesty, saying that he fully confides in Her and in Her Children, who, succeeding Her, shall become Kings of Fiji, to exercise a watchful control over the welfare of his children and people; who, having survived the barbaric law and age, are now submitting them- selves under Her Majesty's rule, to civilization.” It may fairly be held that this trust has been respected. XI. THE SEYCHELLES The 92 Indian Ocean islands which form the Seychelles lie north from Madagascar and Mauritius. Captured from the French during the Napoleonic Wars, they were governed as a dependency of Mauritius until 1903 when they became a separate Colony under their own Governor assisted by an Executive and a Legislative Council. The people of the Seychelles, who number only 32,000, are descended, for the most part, from French settlers, but there are also numbers of Africans, the descendants of freed slaves, together with Indians and Chi- nese who settled on the islands for trading purposes. Before the recent war, the people were represented on the Legislative Council by three official and three unofficial nominated members. Soon, however, an elected element is to be introduced. In January, 1944, the Governor announced that the constitution of the Council was to be amended to provide (with himself as President) for six official and six unofficial members. “During the war,” he said, “the six unofficial mem- bers will continue to be nominated by the Governor, but as soon after the war as is practicable, H.M. Government will be prepared to agree to the introduction of elections in respect of up to three of the unofficial members, if in the meantime it is satisfied that elections are desired by a substantial and representative body of responsible local opinion amongst that part of the community which will be affected.” On January 30, 1946, the Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies announced that such elec- tions had been agreed to and would take place as soon as the necessary amendment to the constitution could be brought into force. He stated 56 that the franchise would be based on a property or income qualification with a simple literacy qualification. It will be readily appreciated that with so small a population this announcement marks a considerable advance in political development. XII. CONCLUSION “A uniform rate of progress in all Colonies is impossible. They con- tain a large variety of peoples at various stages of development, so that there is no magic formula by which they can be brought in regular pro- cession to self-government,” said Viscount Hall, when Secretary of State for the Colonies in June, 1946. “The keystone of our colonial policy for improving the wealth and well-being of our Colonial peoples,” he con- tinued, “is, in my view, co-ordination; and steady progress along several lines of development, all of which interact one on the other, with the administration at the Colonial Office and the Colonial Governments, each making their contribution in research, planning, men, money and materials. Without great improvement in basic economic conditions, few of the Colonies can be expected to show substantial social or political progress. Improved social services can make a contribution to greater efficiency and productivity, and in the Colonies the field of advance which will be opened up by better education is immense. Even political development of itself may react upon the social and economic welfare of a whole com- munity, by releasing potentialities for self-reliance and self-help. . . . If we can succeed, by patient industry, in providing the Colonies with more liberty, higher standards of health and better education, and with larger opportunities for creating their own wealth, then we shall have carried out our trust, and the expanding prosperity and happiness of the 60 million of our Colonial people will be assured.” We have seen the development of this policy in a number of territories. In others, not mentioned here as having made progress within the past few years, education towards political responsibility, the essential prelimi- nary to progress, is being ceaselessly pursued. Britain has evolved a sound and healthy system, infinite in its powers of expansion, positive in its scope of achievement. In the quiet and steady building up of democratic institutions lies its unity and its strength. 57 APPENDIX The Present Position in the Legislatures of Other British Dependencies WEST INDIES *a- The Bahamas are administered by a Governor, an Executive Council, with official and unofficial members, a nominated Legislative Council and an elected House of Assembly. The secret ballot system of voting, which has been in existence in all electoral districts of New Providence since 1939, was extended to the Out Islands in July, 1946. The Leeward Islands Colony is divided into four Presidencies—Antigua, St. Kitts-Nevis, Montserrat and Virgin Islands—each under an Adminis- trator or Commissioner, and all controlled by one Governor. There is a Federal Executive Council with official and unofficial members, and a General Legislative Council with nine elected members representing the four Presidencies, and nine official members. With the exception of the Virgin Islands, where there is an Executive Council only, each of the Presidencies has an Executive Council and a Legislative Council. In the latter, the official members are in a majority of one over the elected members. The Windward Islands are grouped under one Governor, but there is no common legislature. Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and Dominica each have an Executive Council and a Legislative Council. The latter have official, nominated, and elected members; the official and nominated members together form a majority over the elected members. British Honduras is administered by a Governor, an Executive Council, and a Legislative Council consisting of three officials (including the Gov- ernor), four nominated unofficials, and six elected members. AFRICA The High Commission Territories: Basutoland, Bechuanaland Protec- torate and Swaziland are under the control of the High Commissioner for South Africa. Each is administered by a Resident Commissioner. In Bechuanaland and Swaziland there are European Advisory Councils and Native Advisory Councils which meet under the presidency of the Resident Commissioner. In Basutoland there is a Basutoland Council of 100 mem- berds, five of whom are nominated by the Paramount Chief and confirmed by the Resident Commissioner. British Somaliland is administered by the Governor. There is neither Executive nor Legislative Council. 58 …” PACIFIC OCEAN The British Pacific Islands are under the control of the High Com- missioner for the Western Pacific who is also Governor of Fiji. The British Solomon Islands are administered by a Resident Commis- sioner with an Advisory Council of three official and four unofficial members. The Gilbert and Ellice Islands are administered by a Resident Com- missioner. There is no Executive or Legislative Council. Tonga is a British Protected State. The Government consists of the Queen, Privy Council, and Cabinet, the Legislative Assembly, and the Judiciary. The Legislative Assembly consists of the Prime Minister, the Ministers of the Crown (in 1946, three Tongans and one European), seven representatives of the nobles elected by the nobles themselves, and seven representatives of the people elected by popular franchise. A British Agent advises the Queen on a variety of matters including finance and foreign affairs. - Pitcairn Island was settled in 1790 by mutineers from H.M.S. Bounty. For many years it was governed in patriarchal fashion. Later, a code of law was written and a government established consisting of a Magistrate elected annually by the inhabitants, and a Council of two members. In 1898, Pitcairn came under the jurisdiction of the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific. It is now administered by a Council consisting of a Chief Magistrate, two Assessors, and two other officers, all of whom are elected annually by the people. CONDOMINIUMS Canton and Enderbury Islands, which previously formed part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, became an Anglo-American Condomin- ium in 1939. This is under the joint administration of a United States and a British official. The New Hebrides are a Condominium of Britain and France. A British and a French Resident Commissioner act in concert, each assisted by a staff of officers. Joint agreement must be reached in all decisions affecting the administration. Each Power retains sovereignty over its own nationals. ATLANTIC AND INDIAN OCEANS The Falkland Islands are administered by a Governor, with an Execu- tive Council and a Legislative Council on both of which there are official and unofficial members. St. Helena is administered by a Governor, with an Executive Council. Ascension Island and Tristan da Cunha are dependencies of St. Helena. Aden was administered by the Government of India up to 1937, when it became a Crown Colony. From 1937 to 1946, it was under the control of a Governor, with an Executive Council. On January 6, 1947, a Legis- lative Council for Aden Colony was inaugurated, consisting of the Gover- nor as President, four ex-officio members, four official members, and 59 eight unofficial members, who for the present are nominated but later on will be elected. The Governor also controls the Aden Protectorate, which consists of territories and dependencies of Arab Chiefs in protective treaty relations with the British Government. The Legislative Council has no jurisdic- tion over the Protectorate. Mauritius is administered by a Governor, with an Executive Council, and a Legislative Council which has an elected minority. Proposals are under discussion for increasing the number of elected members, and for extending the franchise. ASIA Hong Kong is administered by a Governor, with an Executive Council and a Legislative Council, the latter composed of nine official and eight unofficial members, three of whom are Chinese. There is also a Chinese member of the Executive Council. A revised constitution is at present under discussion between the Governor and representative individuals and associations in Hong Kong. The scheme at present proposed would include the setting up of a Municipal Council of 48 members, 16 elected by the Chinese, 16 elected by the other races, and 16 nominated by provincial and other bodies, to take over control of such matters as public works, education, health, and finance. Sarawak became a Crown Colony on July 1, 1946. The country had been ruled by the Brooke family since 1842, when James Brooke was appointed Rajah by the Sultan of Brunei. At that time, Britain refused his suggestion that the country should be taken over by the Crown, but in 1864 recognized the independence of Sarawak, and in 1888 agreed to assume responsibility for foreign affairs and defense. In 1941, legislative authority was given to a State Council with a majority of Asiatic members elected from among the native Chiefs and district heads. At the same time a Resident was appointed to represent Britain in Sarawak, but had no control over internal affairs. The proposal to cede Sarawak to the British Crown originated with the Rajah, and the cession was completed after the people had been consulted through their representatives in the State Council. The new Governor will submit proposals to the Scoretary of State for the Colonies for a revised constitution. These proposals will be made after consultation with leading representatives of the people and will aim at associating the peoples with the administration of the territory on the broadest basis that present conditions permit. British North Borneo became a Crown Colony on July 15, 1946. Up to that time, it had been administered by the British North Borneo Com- pany, whose charter was granted in 1881. A draft agreement for the transfer of the Borneo sovereign rights and assets from the British North Borneo Company to the Crown was published on June 26, 1946, and the cession was confirmed by Order in Council of July 10, 1946. The Gov. ernor is at present assisted by an Advisory Council, with unofficial rep. resentatives. The future Constitution will be announced after full con- sultation with all interests concerned. Labuan, formerly a part of the Straits Settlements, is now part of the Colony of North Borneo. 60 READING LIST BOOKS *Hailey, Lord. An African Survey. Oxford University Press, 1945. 1837 pp. fKeesing, F. M. The South Seas in the Modern World, John Day, revised edition 1942. 391 pp. *Mair, L. P. Native Policies in Africa. . Routledge, London, 1936. 303 pp. *Mills, L. A. British Rule in Eastern Asia: A Study of Contempo- rary Government and Economic Development in British Malaya and Hong Kong. Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1942. 581 pp. †Perham, M. Native Administration in Nigeria. Oxford University Press, 1937. 404 pp. § 3. *Walker, E. A. The British Empire; Its Structure and Spirit. Oxford University Press, 1944. 256 pp. fWight, M. The Development of the Legislative Council 1606-1945. Faber and Faber, London, 1946. 187 pp. fWight, M. The Gold Coast Legislative Council. Faber and Faber, London, 1947. 285 pp. OFFICIAL REPORTS Available from Sales Section, British Information Services, New York Ceylon: Report of the Commission on Constitutional Reform, 1945. Cmd. 6677, 90%. Ceylon: Statement of Policy on Constitutional Reform, 1945. Cmd. 6690, 10¢. The Colonial Empire (1939-1947), 1947. Cmd. 7167. 90%. The Colonial Office List, 1946. Colonial No. 205, $3.15. Inter-territorial Organisation in East Africa, 1945. Colonial No. 191, 10¢. Inter-territorial Organisation in East Africa (Revised Proposals), 1947. Colonial No. 210, 10¢. Jamaica Constitution: Despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies to the Governor of Jamaica, February 10, 1943. Cmd. 6427, 10¢. Malayan Union and Singapore: Statement of Policy, on Future Constitu- tion, 1946. Cmd. 6724, 5¢. * Available on inter-library loan from the British Information Services, New York. f Available for consultation in the Library of the British Information Services, New York. 61 Report on a Mission to Malaya (October 1945-January 1946), by Sir Harold MacMichael, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., 1946. Colonial No. 194, 10¢. Federation of Malaya: Summary of Revised Constitutional Proposals, 1947. Cmd. 7171, 20¢. Malta: Report of the Constitutional Commissioner (Sir Harold MacMichael, G.C.M.G., D.S.O.) 1947. Colonial No. 207, 70%. Malta: Statement of Policy on Constitutional Reform, 1947. Cmd. 7014, 10¢. Nigeria: Proposals for the Revision of the Constitution, 1945. Cmd. 6599, 10¢. - West India Royal Commission Report (1938-39), 1945. Cmd. 6607, $2.85. Closer Association of the British West Indian Colonies, 1947. Cmd. 7120. 25¢. PERIODICALS Available for consultation at British Information Services, New York Africa (Journal of the International African Institute). Quarterly. African Affairs (Journal of the Royal African Society). Quarterly. African World. Monthly. The Colonial Review (Produced by the Colonial Department, University of London Institute of Education). Quarterly. The Crown Colonist. Monthly. East Africa and Rhodesia. Weekly. West Africa. Weekly. The West African Review. Monthly. The West India Committee Circular. Monthly. 62 The following 16mm. sound films are available from British Informa- tion Services. (Service charge, $1.00 per reel.) ACHIMOTA. 2 reels—19 minutes. A co-educational, residential college on the African Gold Coast, en- dowed by the Government with the aim of adding the benefits of Western civilization to the best of African tradition. CYPRUS IS AN ISLAND. 4 reels—34 minutes. A brief history of Cyprus from the days of the ancient Greeks to the present day. FATHER AND SON. 2 reels—14 minutes. A young Petty Officer returns to the African village where he was born and in the face of ancient fears and superstitions is able to introduce modern ideas on agriculture, medical treatment and navigation. A MAMPRUSI VILLAGE. 2 reels—20 minutes. This film shows how the Mamprusi people of the African Gold Coast, aided by the District Commissioner, have achieved a measure of self- government along tribal lines. GOLD COAST BUILDERS. 1 reel—ll minutes. The African people are being shown how to make bricks from clay, so that they may take part in a great rebuilding project. PARTNERs. 2 reels—18 minutes. The native Africans, in partnership with Europeans, are learning engi- neering, medicine, science, hygiene and agriculture, and passing on their newly-found knowledge to their fellow countrymen. POTTERY ON THE GOLD CoAST. 1 reel—9 minutes. A Government training center has been set up at Alajo to teach the Africans the methods developed by potters in other countries. The film shows the complete technique of pottery making. FIGHT FOR LIFE. 2 reels—17 minutes. The barren country of the Northern Gold Coast is being reclaimed by a Government project which aims to enrich the exhausted soil, to con- quer the pests that are destroying the cattle, and to teach the African people the basic principles of scientific farming. The following material is available free, on application, from BRITISH INFORMATION SERVICES 30 Rockefeller Plaza, New York 20, N. Y. Illustrated Booklets AFRICAN ACHIEVEMENT AFRICAN CHALLENGE BRITAIN AND CEYLON, by Lennox A. Mills THE SUDAN: A RECORD OF PROGRESS, 1898-1947 Information Papers BRITAIN AND PALESTINE BRITAIN AND TRUSTEESHIP BRITISH GUIANA BRITISH HONDURAS HoNG KONG THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN THE BRITISH ColoniaL EMPIRE IN 1946 Commonwealth Murals—colored wall pictures with explanatory pamphlets 1. Lake Transport in Africa 2. Protection of Native Cattle From Disease 3. Young Africa Goes to School 4. Learning to be Doctors in Fiji British Information Services answers inquiries concerning British affairs; maintains a library of some 10,000 books, together with official documents and periodicals, all of which are available to the public on inter-library loan; is official sales agent in the United States for British Government documents; distributes, free of charge, a wide range of publications and visual display material; sells or loans 35mm. and 16mm. films; and has facilities for providing speakers on British affairs. Special services are maintained for the Press and Radio. Material published by British Information Services will be sent regularly to all who enter their names on the mailing list of the Circulation Section, New York office. (B.I.S. can supply material only to addresses within the United States and its Territories and Possessions.) ~ * r . . . . .* *- APR 26 1948 Printed in U.S.A. agº,495 |?CD •|ģ=ğ- īſāĞ u_ =· O 9=83 №=ð {2=ſº Li ]CD >O 2 IDCyo ș Š º