- - __ 5) ) (’4545 º c \ D --> zºº . /…/ º ºz/º - | | - º º - º Bºº- --> - - º ſ - º º º | - º - |- - - - ºn U (CAS” PROGRESSIVE DRAWING BOOK. IN THREE PARTS: PART I –THE PRINCIPLES OF DRAWING IN PENCIL, PART II–COLOURING AND SHADING IN INDIA INK, PART III—A TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE: CoNSISTING CHIEFLY OF 0 RIGINAL VIEWS OF AMERICAN SCENERY, AND EMBRACING THE LATEST AND BEST IMPROVEMENTS IN The Mode of INSTRUCTION. “Nor lives there one That in his manhood's prime can calmly gaze Upon that bay, or on that mountain stand, Nor feel the prouder of his native land.”—Fanny. išaltimort: PUBLISHED BY FIELDING LUCAS, JUN-R, No. 138 MARKET STREET John D. Toy, PRINTER. - - DISTRICT of MARYLAND, To wit: Be it REMEMBERed, that on this first day of January, in the fifty-first year of the Independence of the United states of America, Fielding Lucas, Junºr, of the said district, haul deposited in this office, the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, to wit: “Lucas' Progressive drawing Book, in three parts: Part 1–the Principles of Drawing in Pencil, Part il-colouring and shading in India Ink, Part III-A treatise on Perspective; consisting chiefly of original views of Americanscenery, and embracing the latest and best improvements in the mode of instruction. -Nor lives there one That in his manhood's prime can calmly gaze Upon that bay, or on that mountainstand, Nor feel the prouder of his native land.”—Fanny.” In conformity to the act of the congress of the United states, entitled “An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned,” and also to the act, entitled “Anact supplementary to an act, entitled "An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, PHILIP MooRE, and etching historical and other prints.” clerk ºf the District ºf...Maryland. To ROBERT GILMOR, Esq. SIR. The dedication which is the result of private friendship, or which is made to rank, may be excepted to as partial, or doubted as insincere: the dedication which is made to acknowledged talent, taste and information, can be regarded only as the tribute which those qualities are entitled to receive. THE COMPILER. INTRODUCTION. In the compilation of the present work, the course suggested by the nature of the subject, has been followed, and an endeavour made to lead the pupil, gradually, from one branch of the art to the other, retaining him long enough in each to become well grounded in the principles and practice. The following is the general arrangement. PART I–Contains the principles of drawing with a black lead pencil, commencing with the most simple objects, and concluding with the most complicated and difficult. PART II–Is devoted to shading in India ink and colouring, pursuing the same progressive plan that was adopted in part the first. PART III–Is a treatise on Linear Perspective, compiled from the latest and most approved works on the subject. In this arrangement, we are perhaps delaying the pupil more than his impatience to become master of the art, and the anxiety of his friends to see brilliant specimens of his skill, will justify. But the correct judgment of every experienced teacher, must bear us out in the course which we have adopted, as one most conducive to ultimate success. There can be no patent way of learning to draw or paint. Like every other art, it must be commenced at its elements, and a child might as well attempt to study Cicero, who has never learned the Latin grammar, as to paint a finished landscape, to copy a Salvator or a Claude, before he has become familiar with the use of his pencil in imitating the most simple objects. Notwithstanding this apparent truth, however, such pictures are frequently placed before beginners, and after they have been occupied for weeks and months, in labour- ing, stumbling, blundering through, and becoming weary of their copy, the accommodating master corrects the inaccuracy of their draw- ing, stipples the irregularity of their colouring, and sends the picture home well varnished to be admired by wondering friends. This is every day the case, and it is a practice like this, which we hope in some measure to do away, by the present collection of models and the explanations accompanying them. - vi INTRODUCTION. In order to give interest to the work, and to stamp it with a national character, we have endeavoured, as much as possible, to make it a collection of American views, taken from original sketches. Where this has not been done, we have either selected from the best authors, or composed, as necessity required. That we might not be behind hand in any of the improvements of latter days, we have spared neither trouble nor expence in pro- curing from England, where water colour drawing has been carried to the highest degree of perfection, the best works upon the subject; and we have not scrupled to borrow ideas and even models, from the most approved publications, with a view to render this as com- plete as possible. · . - - - - PLATE L. | º | | - PRO GRESSIVE DRAWING. PLATE I. This plate contains the most simple and easiest models. The beginner should furnish himself with a sheet of paper, large enough to contain the objects which he intends to copy, a black lead pencil and a piece of Indian rubber. The paper should be neither very smooth nor very rough; but of such grain as to take the impression of an HH pencil without creating a dust. The pencil should be cut as represented in the plate, rather dull than pointed. The model should be placed parallel with the breast of the drawer, and immediately above the paper which is to receive the copy. The first thing to be done now, preparatory to commenc- ing the drawing, is to examine the model attentively, and find which is the principal line that it contains; either perpendicular or hori- zontal or oblique:–a straight line should always be preferred. In Figure A, for instance, the principal line is on the right hand of the post; it is the longest unbroken line, as will be perceived; where, as in Figure B, &c. there are several lines of equal length and importance, the centre one should be selected; because, by estimating the distance to the right and left, it is probable that any error in dimension will be less than iſ either of the exterior lines was taken for the same purpose. This line being established, all the rest are regulated by it. It should be traced very faintly on the paper, with great attention to its correctness. The next most important line is then added, as, in this instance, the opposite side of the post—then the line joining them at the top, which is horizontal,—then the projecting peg, and then the surface of the ground. This process must be pursued in every case. G should be commenced by drawing the left hand line of the chimney on the right: H, the oblique line of the ladder: M, the horizontal line of the roof: N, the centre perpendicular line: 0, one of the longest lines of the window, &c. After one or two trials the eye of the beginner will readily select the line to be used as the base line of the drawing. 6 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. Having obtained a correct outline, upon which depends principally the merit of the copy, the next thing is the effect of light and shade. It should be premised here, that all shadows in the system of pencil drawing which we propose to teach, are made of separate and distinct lines, varying in width and closeness according to the depth of the shadow to be produced; each line therefore should be drawn with a firm decided hand, and not with the rapid undefined scratching, which is too often the fault of pupils. The lines used in shading should also be parallel with each other, to a certain degree; not opposing a concave part to a concave one, but fitting one with the other, as in the stones of the chimney L. By this means, and occasionally changing the direction of the lines, as in the pump N, the effect of stone, wood, bark of trees, &c. may be produced in a characteristic manner. Simple shadows, upon unbroken surfaces, should be made with parallel right lines, as in the flood gate B, and the window 0. The general rule in making the shadows of a picture, copied with a black lead pencil, is to commence at the uppermost and continue successively to the lowest. The learner will find it useful to have a piece of waste paper, on which to ascertain the weight of touch which he must use to produce the strength of the original, and should endea- vour, as much as possible, to attain it with one stroke of the pencil. PLATE II. - * s = IIIc As P. D.B.: - - ºn tº dº nº nº ºn tº ºn tº manu. ºne ºn ºn ºn nº ſºlº ºn tº º ºn in nº ºn ºn tº nº nº lº ºn nº ºn ºn - - ºn tº ºuld nº nº ºne ºn nº lº ºn nº ºn nº ºn tº nº ºn tº nº -man nºn- ºn ºn tº illº unº-ºn- in ºn and ºn tº ºn tº ºn ºn tº ºne ºn - ºn line nº lº a nº ºnes - ºne ºne nº ºn nº in nº ºne ºn - PLATE II. This plate being composed of objects defined by curved lines, will require more attention, accuracy of eye, and steadiness of hand, than the preceding. The general rule of selecting the principal line, and estimating the others by it, holds here, with some little variation; other lines than those used in the original, becoming necessary to facilitate the copyist. For instance, by drawing a faint perpendicular line through the centre of the wine glasses, the bowl, the jar, the churn, the grindstones, the jug, and the arch, and a straight oblique one through the axis of the barrel, the symmetry of the curves will be observed by keeping the corresponding parts of each side of them equally distant from the line thus used as the base of the drawing. All assistance from instruments should be rejected, and the eye taught to rely upon itself in copying. The learner may be further assisted in determining the curves, by crossing the principal lines thus spoken of by others perpendicular to them, and marking on these, at equal distances from the centre, the points through which the curves are to pass; as in the egg in this plate. In drawing a curve, as for instance the top of the bowl, the wrist should remain station- ary, and the fingers be made to sweep around, as the moveable point of a pair of compasses. The learner will see illustrated in this plate, our remarks upon the necessity of keeping the lines forming shadows, parallel; and the basket and the cloth covering it, shew how their general direction may be changed to produce any required effect. In shading around bodies with a pencil, the lines may be made swelling and continuous, as in the jars; or of equal thickness, and broken, as in the jug, the former method should be preferred where the surface is polished, as in glass, &c.; the latter where it is rough, as in earthern ware, wood, &c. PLATE III * , | | Hºlº - ºn -- * * tº - - ſº - ºf Drawing Bººk - - … - - - - - PLATE III. This plate in which right lines are principally used, is more difficult than Plate II, but must be copied by the same rules that we gave in Plate I; selecting the principal lines to begin with, and reserving the smaller ones and the minute details to the last. In the towers, with foliage, for example, the principal perpendicular lines should be first drawn, commencing with the centre one; then the horizontal lines, then the curved tops of the towers, then the entrance, then the windows, then the shadows—and the inequalities and breaks of the surface should be drawn when the rest is finished. Those parts which are in the back ground, as the second tower, and the gate on the right, should be drawn faintly, but not with a sharp pointed pencil, which would destroy the softness of nature. PLATE IV: - ---- L _ | ((~ ºA, sº. As Pºssive DRAWING B00K. _- - - - - - - º PLATE IV. Gradually advancing from the simple, to the more complicated and difficult, as we imagine ourselves authorized by the progress of the learner, we have, in the present plate, a collection of cottages, the irregular lines of which do not afford that assistance to the copyist, which was given by the parallel lines of the preceding plate. In this case, we can recommend no better plan, than that of selecting the principal points, and having placed them upon the paper, referring all the others to them. PLATE v. As ProgRºssive DRAWINº. Luc PLATE W. If the learner has studied with attention, and correctly copied the preceding plates, he is by this time qualified to commence drawing trees, the stumbling block of all beginners in landscape painting. This we have endeavoured to render as simple as possible, by giving, first, the general character of the tree–next, the character of the foliage, and then the character of the bark. The general character of the tree, is a view of it at such a distance, that we can discern little more than its outline and principal masses. The character of the foliage and bark, is the view of the tree in the foreground of a picture, or near to us. We do not pretend to say, that the leaves of the Poplar have the figure of three shape, which we have given them in the plate; that the Pine is a collection of sharp points round a circle, or that the Oak is composed of the diamonds which we have drawn for its leaves: but these characters when joined together, as we have joined them in the plate, produce an effect, such as reminds us of the trees which they represent. This, then, is what is understood by the character of a tree; and the learner who wishes to become a good landscape painter, should never tire of repeating again and again these characters, until his hand becomes familiarized with them, and he is able to join them without awkwardness. We therefore advise the beginner to copy this plate frequently, varying the shape of the models we have given, to please his own fancy. We have here the characters of the Poplar, Cedar, Pine, Weeping Willow, Oak, Gum and Swamp Willow. In drawing a tree, the direction of the principal branch should be selected, and traced faintly from the summit of the tree through the centre of the trunk, to the ground. In the Poplar, Cedar, Pine and Oak, in the plate this line is nearly perpendicular. The direction of the other branches should then be added, and then the general outline of the tree, without going into the detail of the foliage. This being done, the learner, by hold- ing his copy at a little distance from him, will perceive whether it has the proper proportions, and may then commence the delineation of the foliage, making it more or less minute, as the tree is near or distant. In sketching from nature it is rarely necessary to finish the trees more highly than those in the upper line of the plate, and the same outline will be found, in all cases, sufficient for coloured drawings. Instead of using the peculiar character of the tree, repeated again and again, to give depth to shadows in the foliage, it will answer equally well, and require much less trouble, to express the character on the edges, and occasionally within the mass, of the foliage, and fill up the intervening space with the parallel lines of shadow, as in the Poplar in this plate. To do this well the learner should be accus- - 14 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. tomed to draw indifferently from the left to the right, (thus º,) or from the right to the left, (thus º and should vary the direction of the lines of shadow, so as to correspond with the direction of the rays of light. When the tree is finished, a great effect is produced by going over the whole with a very black lead pencil, and here and there, in the deep shadows and half tints, making a few of the characters of the foliage, as in the Oaks in Plate VI. Much of the beauty of a tree drawn with pencil depends upon the firmness of the touch on the bark, where every thing like scratching and rubbing should be avoided. One of the principal drawbacks upon the learner, is his own anxiety to progress. In drawing trees, this is very bad; the freedom with which he sees them drawn, in this plate, has been acquired after years of practice, and the apparent rapidity with which it is done, will not warrant his endeavouring to commence at the same pace. He must tie his patience down to the task, and be content, at first, to copy line for line of the picture before him; this may be a tedious, but it is a certain way to succeed. After labouring for some time at the drawing book, the learner should endeavour to copy trees from nature, and in doing this he should pursue the plan of selecting the principal line of branches and trunk, then the secondary lines, and then the general outline of the foliage. This may be readily done by looking at the object with eyes nearly closed, when nothing but the masses are visible. –3 º --- ----- Lucas PROGRE #. - º --- - º º - - - - PLATE WI. In this plate we have trees of various characters, to illustrate the remarks made on Plate W. and to afford models to the learner. In each of the trees of this plate, the manner before described, of forming the shadows, may be perceived—that is to say, by parallel lines, varied occasionally in their general direction. All the trees, except those in the right hand corner, are supposed to be in the foreground, and the broken Oak shews the highest finish, which is usually given to pencil drawings either in the foliage or bark. - - - - - * Lºº ºil. - º % %. º - - º-º-º: º- º º: º º º º | º - ---, - º - - º ~~~~ - - º º - ººlºº. - - - º sº - -º. sºliº - ... tº fliºn º - = -- º-ºº: sº == | | º- "I l | -- º sº * - tº--- ------- º sº º ºw, - --- sº - -º-º: --- ***=>g e-e "ºº-º-º-º: Tºº ºn tº ºn Bannº - - Q Cº- - - - --> - - - - --- - º - - ||| | PLATE VII. Having in the preceding plates given models of the different parts of a landscape separately, that the learner might not be taxed too much in the commencement, we here begin to join them, as we are accustomed to see them in nature. As in drawing a house or a tree. so in drawing a landscape, the principal features should be selected, and put upon paper first, to serve as the ground work of the rest. In the view of Fort Putnam, for instance, the opposite shore should be taken as the base line of the picture, and drawn first—then the horizontal line running by the flagstaff—then the promontory on the left—then the outline of the hill of the fort—then the fort– then the mountains beyond, and then the more minute details. The foreground which represents a part of Constitution island, may be drawn first or last. To draw a landscape well with pencils, two should be used, one an HH, (hard drawing) for the distance, and the other a B. (black.) for the foreground. The lines used in shading the distance should be finer and nearer together than those in the foreground, where breadth and boldness of touch contribute so much to produce effect. Houses in the middle ground or distance should not be too minutely defined; the general figure will convey the idea sufficiently well, and will avoid the diminution of distance, which proceeds from the introduction of the doors and windows of a building several miles off. The mill in the next model should be drawn first, by the rules before laid down, and the other parts of the landscape governed by it. As the chief part of this picture is the foreground, the effect will depend upon the firmness and freedom with which it is copied. In the water fall, the horizontal line of the fall should be made the base line of the drawing. The principal object here is the tree, which must be drawn as before directed. The directions for drawing the mill, and those given in the preceding pages, will be a sufficient guide in copying the remaining model of this plate. E LATE VIII, º- ſae.¿º, §§|-ſº| № - №ſ.!:|- №š :№ſ. § ”Iſ| *\,ſſºſ%:\\| ||---- \ ,\(\\ſ* &!) | ±±) № |- --> - º - - - - - - - -- - PLATE VIII. This is only a more difficult combination of the principal objects in the preceding plates. In the view of Fort Putnam, the hill side in shadow would have been too flat and uninteresting without something to break it; and for this purpose the curling smoke was introduced. A similar fault would have existed in the view of Redhook, if the man and the bird had not been placed where they are, to give lightness and interest to the water. These two pictures form a strong contrast. In one the middle ground is dark, and the foreground and back ground light—in the other, it is the foreground and back ground which are dark, and the middle ground light; either method of shading produces equally the effect of distance; and the choice of them must be regulated by the nature of the subject and the judgment of the painter. - º %2 - Ø Ø - 2 - - º PLATE IX. This plate is entirely occupied with a view of West Point, in which the learner will perceive the method of managing the distance, middle ground, and foreground of a landscape. The town of Newburgh and the Catskills, seen between the mountains, are indicated by faint lines, and only slightly shaded, without any attempt at detail. The lines of shadow of Polypus island, which is nearer, is more defined. Butterhill, the Crow's Nest, and St. Anthony's Nose, forming the sides of the gap, are shaded with a still stronger touch, and the masses of foliage, and the direction of the strata of rock, are here and there indicated. Constitution island, with the sloop off its point, increases in strength, West Point, with Fort Clinton on its summit, is yet more strongly defined, and the whole force of the pencil has been applied to the foreground. the effect of distance in a picture, depends very much upon the arrangement of the foreground, which should, by its lights or shadows, or objects placed upon it, be made to appear the most prominent or nearest part of the landscape. In this instance, and in ac- cordance with the rule, we have introduced the old fence for the sake of its strong lights and deep shadows, the boys and their sheep, and the trees on the right and left. Without these, much of the effect of distance would be lost, as the learner may perceive by examining his copy before he has placed these objects upon it. We have here noticed the breaks in the wood, the direction of the grass, the peb- bles on the road, and the character of the foliage and bark of the trees, in order to strengthen the foreground in proportion to the darkly shaded mountain in the middle ground. The learner should commence the copy of this plate with the line where the foreground and river meet—then the shore of West Point; then the shores of the headlands beyond: then the piece of the base of the mountain, which is interrupted by the sail of the sloop; then the shore at Newburgh, and, having obtained these correctly, proceed with the outlines of the different parts. When he has completed the outlines of the middle ground and distance, and marked the principal masses into which these are divided, he should care- fully draw the outline of the foreground. The business of shading must now commence, which throughout the picture is done by parallel lines, varying occasionally in their general direction to avoid sameness. The subject is an excellent one to exercise the learner in this manner of producing the effect of light and shade, and one, the correct copying of which will, for that reason, advance him much in his progress. 22 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. Experience has shewn, and the learner will in a short time perceive, that an unbroken straight line in a picture, always causes an awkward and unpleasant appearance to the eye; offending against that irregular beauty which the face of nature generally presents. These lines, however, are so easily broken, technically speaking, that they never need exist. the sloops, the end of the open gate, and the head and stick of the shepherd. For this purpose we have here introduced ~~~~ |-§ !|-|× *~); § |×№∞\ §§ |-zae|- ROE(§■§§ \\ :<-- ! -(№.§· · -ŅĀ.,(№.ſae_- № № :№ šā PLATE X. The principles which we have heretofore endeavoured to explain, in our remarks upon trees, and the manner of indicating distance in a landscape, will be sufficient to enable the learner to copy the present plate. To produce a proper effect, two pencils should be used, a hard one for the distance, and a soft one for the foreground, as recommended in Plate VII. The upper line of the bridge, may, with propriety, be made the base line of the picture. This is, perhaps, the most difficult among the models we have given, and the learner who copies it well, may congratulate himself at having overcome the chief difficulties in the use of the black lead-pencil. Lucas' PRotºEssive DRAWING Boºk - º - - - - PLATE XI. As the lead pencil may be employed with much effect in drawing water pieces, we have devoted three plates to this subject. The first of these contains boats in various positions, intended to exercise the eye and hand of the learner. In drawing vessels, a great deal depends upon the unbroken sweep of the curves, which, if possible, should be drawn with one free stroke of the pencil. This, nothing but habit can give; and the command of the pencil which is acquired by copying subjects like the present, will well repay the labour which is bestowed upon them. As a great rule, the shadows of boats should be made by lines running with the grain of the planks. These may be occasionally varied as in some of the boats in the plate, to lines at right angles to the grain. - Z// º ºft - Nº.3 SN º º a- - - =- - -- - - - - —l PLATE XII. This plate combines boats and water with portions of landscape and figures. The shadows on calm water should be made by hori- zontal lines very slightly waving. Objects resting upon calm water or its banks, are reflected inverted. By giving to the outline of an object reflected in the water, a tremulous appearance, the effect of transparency is considerably increased. These, with the directions already given, will enable the learner to copy this plate. PLATE XIII. This plate contains two views on the water which are far from being difficult, and which require no instructions in addition to those already given. - - - - PLATE XIV. Figures are of such frequent occurrence in the landscape, and they add so much to its beauty, when properly disposed, that our work would be incomplete without some notice of them. To go fully into the subject would require a volume much larger than the present: we must content ourselves with a collection of various attitudes of men and beasts, which will serve to give the learner an idea of the manner in which they are usually drawn. In drawing figures the learner should make use of a straight line faintly traced through the centre of the object; he should then divide this line at the shoulders, thighs, knees, &c. by horizontal lines, and from these estimate the distances to the other parts of the figure. If cattle are reposing, the surface of the ground may be made the base line. If they are standing up, it is better to draw a straight line through the centre of their bodies, and perpendicular lines at the breast and flank, which will prevent the copy exceeding the length or size of the original. I-L-L-E. º - - - *** - Sº PLATE XV. This plate is but a continuation of the preceding. In shading animals, the lines composing shadows should always, if possible, cor- respond with the direction of the hair. REMARKS. When a soft pencil breaks by cutting it towards the point, cut the wood away, and then carefully cut the lead from the point towards the wood. When you wish to rub out, place pieces of paper on those parts which are not to be touched by the Indian rubber. You may rub the smallest spot in the darkest shade, by cutting a hole of the required size in stiff paper, placing it over the part, and rubbing through it. Clouds should seldom, if ever, be attempted in pencil drawings; as it is next to impossible, without infinite labour, to make them appear soft and light. Always place the drawing paper upon a hard substance, and avoid as much as possible shifting the position of the sheet on which you are at work. Pencil drawings may be rendered more permanent by being passed through milk; the white of an egg or gum Arabic, dissolved in water, and laid on with a broad long haired brush, will accomplish the same end. The effect of drawings in black lead pencil is much increased by mounting them on coloured paper; olive, purple, brown or blue. AUCAS" PROGRESSIVE DRAWING BOOK, PART II. CONTAINING THE PRINCIPLES OF SHADING IN INDIA INK AND DRAWING IN WATER COLOURS: To which is ADDED, A TREATISE ON THE THEORY OF EFFECT. išaltimore: PUBLISHED BY FIELDING LUCAS, JUN*R, No. 138 MARKET STREET. -o-º-º-º-o- PRINTER. nºtºr or MARYLAND, to wºr: BE IT REMEMBERen, that on the first day of September, in the Fifty-second year of the Independence of the United states of America, Fielding Lucas, Junºr, of the said district, hath depo- sited in this office, the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, to wit: -Lucas Progressive Drawing Book, Part it containing the Principles of shading in India ink and Drawing in water colours. To which is added, a Treatise on the Theory of Effect.” in conformity to the act of the congress of the United states, entitled “An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned” and also to the act, entitled, “An act supplementary to an act, entitled, an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books, to the author- and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." PHILIP Moone, cºrk ºf the District of Maryland. INTRODUCTION. We have now arrived at the second part of our work; and having, it is hoped, sufficiently instructed the learner in the use of the lead pencil, we will proceed to Water Colour Drawing. The utility of the studies, which we have given in Part First, will now be felt by the learner who has patiently copied them; and to such a learner only can we give any encouragement to proceed. The free and rapid motions of the hand in filling up the shadows of a pencil drawing, the ease and spirit acquired by copying the pencilled foliage, the effect produced by strong and decided touches of the blackest lead, are guarantees to success, when the pupil, with brush in hand, and his paint box, plate, and tumbler beside him, commences Water Colour Drawing. Without the freedom to be gained by practice with a lead pencil, the learner will try in vain to give clearness to his skies, transparency to his water, spirit to his foregrounds, or character to his trees—the first will be muddled and uneven, the last tame and unvaried. Disappointed in his vain attempts, mortified at the stiff and wretched daubs which he sees grow beneath his hand, it is more than probable that he will give up the pursuit in disgust, and impute to want of talents a failure, which has proceeded only from impatience. We are far from asserting that pencil drawing has no other value than that of preparing the learner for the more difficult branches of the art—striking effects may be produced by it, and the outlines and shadows of nature exactly copied and preserved; yet it cer. tainly sinks to a secondary rank when compared with water colour drawing. In this last, the colours and tints, as well as the outlines and shadows, are at the command of the artist. A few full sweeps of the brush, a few eccentric and apparently careless movements of the hand, and the blue sky and its jagged clouds appear upon the paper; another touch, and the purple distance recedes from the eye; another, and the mellow middle ground takes its place in the growing landscape; another, and another, and the warm bright foreground projects from the picture and completes the harmony of the whole. Thus far advanced, and giving his imagination its fullest range, the artist may proceed to finish and adorn his work. The white sail peeps upon the distance: the castle, town, or tower stands upon the mid- dle ground; and the rich foliage, and cattle, and men, and the tall weed and dull pool, the broken stick, the coloured pebble, all lend their iv. INTRODUCTION. aid to give interest and beauty to the foreground—until the white paper, of a few hours since, becomes a memorial, which will last when time and the seasons have changed or destroyed the objects represented. It is not our intention to enter into a demonstration of the advantages of the art, which it is the object of the present work to teach. By the sketches here given, we have endeavoured to shew what may be done with the brush and a few colours; and if we have suc- ceeded in copying one feature of our native scenery, we have succeeded in furnishing as strong an eulogium upon our art, as we could do in the most elaborate preface. Whoever admires the extended scenery of our mountainous country—the perpendicular cliffs of the Hud- son, and the broad tranquil expanse of its waters—the round, rolling and cleft hills and promontories of the Susquehannah, and the foam- ing torrent beneath them—the secluded dell and the dashing waterfall—the moss grown rock and the gnarled tree—the variegated livery of our gorgeous autumn, and the ever changing and peculiar features of animate nature—whoever admires these, must appreciate the art which enables him to give to each an almost living existence. PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. The best work, which has yet been published in England upon water colour drawing, is that of J. Varley, Esq. who deservedly stands at the head of this branch of the Fine Arts. The system, which he has originated, we have endeavoured to pursue in the present work; and, as our object is not so much to be original, as to be instructive, we have made very copious extracts from the remarks and instructions with which his treatise is replete. Paper, brushes, and colours being the materiel of the art, we will commence with these. Paper.—Well sized cap paper, with a grain, is to be preferred for the usual purposes of water colour drawing, and is quite large enough for the generality of pictures. Larger paper, for larger pictures, may be procured; and for pictures, which it is intended to finish highly paper of a finer texture and smoother surface is desirable. But the beginner should confine himself to cap paper and moderate sized pictures. The size of those in the present work is convenient. To finish one of this size will not fatigue the beginner—one much larger will certainly weary him, before it is completed. When the learner can draw a picture on cap paper well, he is then a compe- tent judge of the paper, which he requires for one, which is larger and more highly finished. Varley says, “For colouring from nature, thick paper with rather a rough texture, such as cartridge paper, is preferable; likewise for drawings of buildings and castles, &c. but for the best finished landscapes, extra wove imperial, or super royal, or royal, either hot pressed or as it comes from the maker. If the thin wove papers be used, it will be best to mount them two or three thicknesses first, (i. e. pasting them together, over the whole surface”) as they are more liable to wrinkle than the thick paper.” - To paste sheets of paper together by the whole surface—first stretch one—then paste another on the wrong side, let it remain until it expands, which will be in a few minutes, and then lay on it the dry stretched sheet. Place a piece of dry paper over it, and, commencing with the ball of your hand, in the centre, rub in an increasing cir- cle, until the whole surface is gone over, this, by forcing the wrinkles outwards, will ensure the smoothness of the paper when dry. t; PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. Before the paper can be used it must be stretched. Procure, for this purpose, a smooth white pine board, two feet by twenty inches in size, and about three quarters of an inch thick, secured from warping by transverse keys on one side, or braces at the ends. Place your paper on the board, and turn up the edges a quarter of an inch all round; then, with a sponge, wet the paper, excepting the edges, not suffering the water to collect in puddles. Let it remain for a few minutes in this state; then, with some stiff paste, paste the turned up edges, all round. Having covered them smoothly with paste, commence with one of the longest sides and stick it, (by pressing it from the middle outwards) to the board. Turn the board round, and draw the opposite edge towards you, to stretch the paper, and stick it down in the same manner. Then stick the ends; and when all the sides are thus fastened, take a key, or folding stick, or any smooth hard substance, and laying a piece of paper on the edges, rub rapidly over them. This smooths the edges and fastens them more firmly to the board. The great secret is to let the paste on the edges dry before the centre, or else the contraction of the paper when drying will pull up the wet edges. The paper, therefore, must be kept moist, by using the wet sponge gently until the edges are dry, when the con- traction of the paper will render it tight and smooth. The right side of the paper must, of course, be laid uppermost. To determine which is the right side, hold the sheet of paper towards a window, nearly horizontal, and that side on which the fewest scratches appear is the right side. This is very important, and should be carefully attended to in laying down paper. When the paper is perfectly dry, and not before, you may begin to draw; otherwise the pencil will cut the surface. Bhushes—Sables hair are to be preferred; they are elastic, and come well to a point, even the largest. The criterion of a good brush is, that when filled with colour the hairs come to a point, as in the cut. - No. 1, for skies and the broadest tints. tº sº- No. 2, for the general work of the picture. --> No. 3, rarely used, being too small. No. 2, is the brush to the use of which the learner should accustom himself; always keeping it full of colour, or, at least, very tho- roughly moist. To paint a landscape in water colours tolerably, with a dry brush, is impossible. water colour drawings are sometimes varnished; but this is ridiculous. The use of the large flat brush, which is sometimes found in boxes, may therefore be dispensed with, and need not be described. Where sables, which are very expensive, cannot be procured, camels' hair brushes will answer, of the same sizes. Single hairs frequently project from the points of otherwise good brushes. To get rid of them, wet the brush—bring it to a point, by passing it between your lips, and then move it rapidly through the flame of a candle, which will burn off the protruding hairs alone. PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. 7. Colours.-The following is Varley's List of Colours, which we give to the learner as the best yet published. 1. Cobalt blue—Useful as a substitute for ultramarine in its brightness of colour, and superior when used in skies and other objects, which require even tints: used occasionally in retrieving the brightness of those tints when too heavy, and for tints in drapery, &c. Capa- ble, by its superior brilliancy and contrast, to subdue the brightness of other blues. - 2. Prussian Blue—For the blue part of clear and fine weather skies at all times of the day-makes a purple, when mixed with lake;— useful for distant mountains and drapery-makes a bright green when mixed with gamboge, and is permanent: but rarely used for the green of trees:–makes a good pearly grey for clouds, &c. when mixed with lake and a little gamboge. s indigo–For twilight and evening skies, but not sufficiently bright for skies in clear days; is useful for the green of trees when mix- ed with burnt sienna and gamboges useful when mixed with lake and gambage, to make greys and neutral tints with; washes smoothly, much easier than Prussian blue, and probably on that account often used where Prussian blue would be most proper. 4. Lake—For purples when mixed with indigo or Prussian blue, which last should be principally used for distant hills and mountains: this mixture is useful for the shadows of nearer but yet distant hills; makes a grey or neutral tint when mixed with gamboge and Prussian blue; and not to be used for the warm horizon tints of the sky, which in redness should, generally, not exceed the tint of light or venetian red; the purple lake is more permanent than the carmine or bright lakes, the madder lakes excepted. - 5 gamboge—for green when mixed with the blues, to be used in trees and grass, and to make greys and neutral tints when mixed with lake and indigo, or Prussian blue, but most frequently with indigo; not to be used in the horizon tints of evening skies, yellow ochre being a mellower tint, and preferable in tone. Gamboge will make a good orange colour when mixed with burnt Sienna, useful for autumnal tints and faded trees; it makes a pure green when mixed with indigo or Prussian blue. 6. Burnt Sienna—For rich banks of earth in sunshine and evening tints, and for glowing tints on buildings; not to be used in the horizon tint of skies, but particularly useful in making green of various degrees of warmth and depth when mixed with indigo and gamboge: and when mixed with purple grey, easily converted into different degrees of warm or sober brown. - Fºllow ochre-for stone buildings or plaster, corn fields and yellow lights of the sky towards the horizon; mixes well with venetian red, for warm lights on buildings, &c.; but never to be used in the green for grass or trees, it not being transparent enough, and liable to be washed off too easily. s: penetian Red-useful for the red horizon tint of skies; and to make a neutral tint, when mixed with indigo and a very little lake: and is most excellent for its quality of mixing well with all colours, Indian ink not excepted; and laying even and smooth on paper with less trouble than light red, for which it is a valuable substitute and is preferable to Indian red, (which is too heavy and purple:) and is very good to mix with yellow ochre for general tints. Used in bricks, tiles, sº 9 perminon–For the brightest reds, is useful in flesh and drapery and in painted objects, such as flags, boats, &c.; being of that degree of brightness, which will, by contrast, send back many other reds into distance. to burnt timber—used as shadow to warm tints of earth, and burnt sienna, and near foregrounds, and for the colour of earth; use ful for small dark touches of shadow to pebbles, &c. in foregrounds. s PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. 11, warm Grey—Made with Venetian red and indigo; useful for shadows to warm-coloured objects, and for the colour of earth and mould, and for a tint to put round drawings when mounted. 12. Purple Grey—Made with lake and lamp black; very useful in grey barks of trees, and for rocks; makes various browns when mix- ed with burnt Sienna, and a grey when mixed with Prussian blue or indigo; but not equal to the grey made with lake, gamboge and indigo, or Prussian blue, as lamp black is rather a heavy colour. 13. Neutral Tint—Made with Venetian red and indigo, and a very little lake; useful for a very good tint for cloudy skies, and with the addition of a little blue and lake, makes a pearly grey useful for the shadows to clouds in general. 14. Dark warm Green.—Made with burnt Sienna, gamboge, and indigo; useful for tints of trees, and shadows for grass, &c. very useful near the foreground. 15, harm Green—Made with a different proportion of the same colours with the last, and mixed for convenience; very useful in grass and weeds. = low green. 16. Olive Green—Made with more burnt Sienna and gamboge added to the blue; very useful for shadows to bright and warmish yel. 17. Orange—Made with gamboge and burnt Sienna; useful for autumnal tints, and to mix with the other greens in order to vary their tones and depth; not to be used in any warm sky tints. 18. Roman ochre—Used for most of the purposes of yellow ochre; but being less bright, is adapted for drawings with deeper tones, and is more useful for the light tints of stone buildings; not to be used in greens of trees. - 19. Sºpia—For sketches, and is used for dark objects and drapery; but not much in coloured drawings of landscapes; principally used | instead of India ink, being of a richer tone, and bears out with more depth. These colours which are considered as permanent, are sufficient for the general purposes of painting in water colours, and by which great depth and purity may be obtain- ed; but in order to retrieve parts of drawings, which may have too much heaviness; and for historical, portrait, or flower painting in water colours, many other colours may be found useful and particularly valuable such as Indian yellow which is very brilliant, and being transparent, is useful in glazing over greens, which are too dark or heavy, and to give them richness; this with gallstone which is by some colourmen now rendered permanent, is superior to gamboge in everything, except that they are by no means so well adapted to make the greys or neutral tints with, nor to express pale yellow or green lights. In addition to these are the iron yellow, the madder lakes, and browns and purple; which last is particularly deep and rich, and useful for drapery, cattle, &c. with many other reds, browns, &c. which are found useful for various purposes of art, but which would be too numerous to be here described. PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. 9 Newman's colours are the best—Ackerman's are nearly as good—both these are English. Osborne, in this country, has succeeded very well in the manufacture of water colours; and his boxes are conveniently arranged. They are probably quite as good as the Eng- lish, and time alone is necessary to establish their reputation. A very little of the mixture of prepared ox-gall with the colours, will prevent any thing like greasiness in working them. Water colours are used, by rubbing them in a little water, on a smooth surface, which takes off a portion of the colour; this the artist renders paler by additional water. No more colour should be rubbed than it is intended to use at the time; for, after remaining long on the plate, the colours scale off, and become unfit for use. A smooth white plate, is perhaps the best pallet that can be procured. quality and polish, wastes the colours, by grinding more from them than is necessary. In rubbing colours, care should be taken not to wet the sides of the cake, and to wipe the cake dry when you have done with it— Marble, which is sometimes used, unless of the very finest otherwise, it is very apt to crumble. A tumbler of water completes the preparations for water colour drawing—and with the general directions, not to let your brush remain in the water, nor put it in your mouth to bring it to a point, we leave this part of our subject. We will now proceed to the explanation of the plates, and the remarks to which they will give rise. T- - ºniº ºn ºut ºr sº ºn º PLATE I. The following are some general remarks made by Varley.” “As the effect of a picture, independent of colour, must depend on light shade and middle tint, it must be observed, that, generally. the two first should occupy each a quarter of the picture, and the middle tint half the same. “There are two classes of subjects, which require different methods of treatment in their light and shade. “Those which have distance, principally, for their subject, should have the great line of shadow thrown upon the objects in the fore- ground, at a moderate distance from the bottom of the picture. This shadow should be succeeded by a mass of light in the next dis- tance, and that light succeeded by the middle tint of the distance; which, though made faint, receives its full value, by being opposed to the light mass above mentioned; between which, and the dark part of the foreground, there should be so strong an opposition, as will throw into relief and mass all the minor oppositions on the picture. “The old and common method of darkening the foreground most at the bottom of the picture, must be avoided; as it would, if supposed to be continued lower, be consistent only with the darkest night; whereas by running a lighter tint towards the bottom, it tends to recall the idea of daylight, and prevents the opposition being greatest between the frame and the picture. “Pictures whose subject is distance, should have but few figures in the foreground; and these should mostly be in shadow or a subdued light, and generally in a reclining position. “The middle distance of such pictures, in light, is the most suitable place for figures and herds of cattle; and the whole of each mass, and its objects, should appear nearly of the same tone of colour. “Figures placed in the middle ground, will serve as a scale to judge of the size of trees, and other objects, in this portion of the picture. “After arranging the larger features of the subject, the finishing must depend on gentle shadows and lights, and varieties in the smaller or distant parts, and in bestowing particular attention on the sentiment, form, and importance of well chosen incidents. “In scenes which have moderate distances, or such as have the middle distance, principally, for their subject, it appears to be one of the leading principles to introduce clouds or lowering weather, which preventing the imagination from roaming far, reconciles the spec- *All those passages, marked with inverted commas, in the present work, are extracted from the different publications of this eminent artist. 12 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. tator to contemplate that which is before him. This treatment becomes necessary, when either the middle distance, or most distant parts, come too high or near in the picture to belong to the horizon, or to partake of its tints. “Evening subjects rarely tell without an extreme distance, or mountains so small and dim as to belong to the mass of horizon light, without forming a line, when compared with the deeper shades and forms of the landscape.” As it is usually expected, that all “Drawing Books" should contain a landscape “from the beginning,” we have here complied with custom; although, if the learner has attended well to the first part of our work, our labour will be unnecessary. Plate I. is the outline of a drawing which is to be shaded or coloured. The outline is drawn lightly with an H. pencil, great care being taken that all the lines are in the proper places and of correct proportions. A good outline may save a bad colouring; but the best colouring can never mend a bad outline. The corners of shadows may be slightly marked, as on the mill, to guide the brush; and a few strong marks may be placed on the foreground to enable the draftsman to see his effect. In making an outline, a paper should be placed under the hand, to prevent any moisture or greasiness from it, which would inter- fere with the colouring. ºn tº PLATE II. Having rubbed some India ink upon the side of his plate, the pupil must dilute a portion of it, with a clean brush and clean water, until he obtains the lightest tint of this plate—the tint of the upper part of the sky. Working from left to right in this plate, the pupil should go over, with this tint, all those parts of the picture, which are in sha- dow; the darkest, as well as the lightest. After this is dry on the picture, the pupil must pass over the next lightest parts with the same tint, and so on, until the general effect of light and shade is obtained, as in the original—The pencil marks must now be rubbed out. He must now turn to the next plate. - PLATE III. This is the preceding plate, finished in India ink. The picture having received its first shading, as above described, the pupil is certain that his general effects are correct, and may begin to finish, commencing with the distance. This must be done with a full brush and free hand; and every tint which is put upon the background, must be put upon those ob. jects in the ſoreground, or parts of objects, which are darker than that part of the background for which the tint was used. In this way, the harmony of the picture will be better preserved, than if each part was finished separately. For instance; the tint used for the trees near the long house, those on the left of the picture, and the darkest part of the distant bank, must be passed over the windows and shaded side of the mill, the shadow of the mill, the bank, trees, water and boat in the foreground. And, in turn, the darkest shadows of the mill must be passed over the nearest water, and the tall trees and their shadow on the right. The breaks in the walls and ground, the character of the foliage, the branches and trunks of the trees, must be laid on with a free hand, and a dark tint; not hurriedly and confusedly, but carefully and distinctly. These constitute the life and spirit of the picture; without them, it is tame and uninteresting; with them, it is animated and striking. Always rub fresh India ink, in small quantities, to prevent waste; as it is impossible to work smoothly with that, which has been long on the plate. To lay a smooth tint in India ink, or in any colour, the brush must be full, and kept full, and the pupil must be perfectly self collected. It may appear singular and even ludicrous to speak of presence of mind in India ink drawing. Look, however, at an expe- rienced artist; he lays the broadest tints slowly and composedly, and they are smooth. Look at the beginner; all hurry, bustle, and anxiety, his brush flies from one spot to another, and yet his tint is muddled. This last is in too great a hurry. The first commences gently with a full brush, which he keeps full, and takes care, when he raises it from one part of the paper to place it on another, to leave always a puddle of colour behind; so that it shall not dry before he is again ready to go on there. If this puddle is not left- and a beginner, working with a dry brush, cannot leave it—the colour dries; and when the pupil returns to it, he finds a hard line, or a muddled spot, which disfigures his picture; whereas, had it been wet, the colour would have flowed smoothly after the brush, when it returned to it. Do not, therefore, be over anxious—festina lente. 16 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. If a drawing in water colours looks hard, in any stage of its progress, or the colours are unevenly laid on, the fault may be easily remedied by passing a wet sponge over the whole drawing, until no more colour will leave the paper, and then wiping the paper with the same sponge with the water squeezed out of it. This should be done in all misty scenes. the picture, and to produce a harmony, which you may otherwise seek in vain to procure. proceed to finish as before. The effect is, to give great softness to After thus washing the picture, you may The general rule in all water colour drawing is, to begin with the sky, then take the background or distance, then the middle ground. and last of all the foreground. r In the first part we mentioned the importance of accustoming the hand to draw from right to left, and from left to right, indif. ferently. This is equally, if not more important, in water colours. In the present plate, great part of the trees on the right and left must be drawn by strokes of the brush moving from left to right; which is, ordinarily, the most difficult of the two motions. The pupil should accustom himself not to go beyond the margin of the picture with his brush; as it interferes with the dark line to be drawn afterwards, and gives a slovenly air to the work. ºntº º ºrº ºne __-_-_ _ _ | .---- PLATE IV. Is the preceding plate coloured with one warm tint? This is a very good way of finishing an India ink drawing; as it gives a life and animation, which the dull cold shadows of the ink have not of themselves. Burnt Sienna, burnt Sienna and lake, or burnt Sienna and gamboge, make, when very much diluted, excellent tints for India ink drawings. PLATE W. Our desire that the learner might reap all possible advantages from the outline and progressive shading of a drawing, induced us to select a picture, that combined a number of the subjects, which usually compose a landscape; houses and trees in the distance, the same in the middle ground, tree in the foreground, water, and figures—so that the manner of delineating all these, preparatory to shading them, might be seen. And the natural sequence suggested by this part of our work induced us to place this subject first. The present plate, however, will be found to be the easiest; and after reading, carefully, the preceding directions, we advise the pupil to apply them to this plate, and to commence with it. The outline here is very simple, as simple as it can well be. With the lightest tint, that behind the spire, the pupil should, with a full brush, go over all the shadows of the drawing. Placing his brush in the right hand corner of the sky, he must pass it deliberately to the left; returning to fill up places not cover- ed, until he obtains the form of the horizontal clouds. He repeats his tints, in this way, until the sky is finished, and the same tints are laid upon the trees and bank. The trees, it will be seen, are made by strokes from right to left, as are nearly all the inequalities of the bank. The darkest tints must be patiently reserved for the last; and, until it is time to use them, the learner must lay tint over tint, until the masses of light and shadow are obtained, as in the original. This picture consults the ease of the beginner, by being composed of broad tints, drawn, in the manner most familiar to the hand, from right to left; and there is not one part of it, in which a full brush may not be used, with perfect confidence. We advise that it be copied several times. It may be uninteresting to do so, but it will be highly useful. Very pretty effects are produced in foregrounds, by giving a touch, with some dark colour, to the little white spots, frequently left by the brush—forming pebbles, as in the present plate. Sometimes these spots are purposely left. This may be overdone, however; and the learner should be careful not to lay them regularly on the ground, or to give them shadows darker than they would really have:—a shadow but little darker than the ground they rest on, is sufficient. PLATE WI. Having drawn and shaded Plates I, and V, the learner arrives at Plate VI, which is more difficult, but more interesting, than the last. The outline of this must be drawn as laid down in Part I. of the Drawing Book; and the same system, of tint after tint, pursued, which is recommended for the last plate. It is always well for beginners to pencil the outlines of clouds—rubbing out the marks of the pencil when the drawing is perfectly dry. - There are few objects in close scenery, more interesting than cottages or rural buildings. “The great interest, which is excited by cottage scenes, originates in the facility of finding so many of the subjects of nature, sub- dued in all their primitive and formal eccentricities and offensive angles, where age and nature have both united to obliterate the predo- minance of art, and to blend them with nature, by irregularity of lines, and neutrality of colour; with growth of weeds, varieties of plaister, mortar, bricks, tiles, old greenish glass windows, inequalities of ground; with homely figures and drapery, broken and varied pave- ment of stone, brick, or oyster shells; with ancient and greyish beams of timber, gently contrasting with the sober and subdued warmth of tiles and bricks on the one hand, and on the other harmonizing with the greyish and greenish tones, which age and vegetation give to other parts of the same. And all the squareness, sharpness, hardness, and reddish colour of the tiles, varied with roundish masses of soft and greyish moss, or contrasted with a green. And if the tiles or thatch are sobered down to grey, by time and weather, then often richly varied by their mossy vegetation, deep and of a reddish brown; and all these materials, in the course of years, operated on by the general laws of nature and necessity, which give this unity of appearance to the whole, ready to the hand of the painter; who, though but moderately gifted with the power of choice, may, with these helps, often produce works, superior in their unity to those of his own invention; although, to attain the latter, he may have devoted years of his life.” Continuing to speak of the general principles of landscape, Varley says, “Every figure in the drawing must not only, generally, speak for itself, but frequently terminate a vigorously relieved mass of light and shade, where some such description of form must have existed.—even if a block, or stone, be substituted for it. “A large picture, of cattle or figures, may exhibit a group of objects intersecting each other, sufficiently relieved, yet little varied in colour; but, if seen as in a landscape, small and at a distance, they must appear distinct and expressive of their principal characters. 22 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. although seen in their first flat tint; or, if intercepting each other, they must then be relieved by contrast; in which case, a white animal will relieve against one that is dark or red, by which each will have relief in its clear and distinct shape. “The figures best suited to a scene, are those which generally would be suggested by the view of such a place, or, of themselves, might suggest such a scene.” Trifling as many of the things here enumerated may seem—the tint of moss, stones, &c. &c. &c. and unimportant as they are held. by those who neglect the use of them,-yet, on an inspection of the works of Varley, the effect produced by them is astonishing.—ex- ceeding even his own description. The subject of the present plate is well adapted, if coloured, to illustrate the ideas of Warley—the broken plaister, the uncovered bricks, the cross beams, the thatch, the inequalities of the ground, the thick foliage—all unite to complete the subject, and give it an interest, which would be diminished, materially, by the absence of any one of these. PLATE VII. Is No. 1, finished in colours, the last of the progressive stages of making a water-colour drawing—and placed by us as the first of the series of our coloured plates. And here we find, that our compliance with the custom before alluded to, has, as we supposed it would do, placed us in somewhat of a dilemma-A drawing in India ink, cannot be coloured to look, as a drawing in water-colours ought to look. Black is not the tint of nature's shadowing. We find, on the contrary, no such tint in the landscape, unless upon an artificial object. Black is not the hue of the clouds, of the hill side, of the house top, or the foliage: therefore black is not the colour to be used in advancing a coloured drawing to its finished state; as it forms no part of that scene, which it is the object of colours to imitate closely. Black should be confined to drawings in India ink, alone; and, in the description of the present plate, we shall not limit ourselves by the consideration, that this is the last of a series of India inks, but that it is a representation of a scene in nature. True, all copyists from an engraving must labour under the disadvantage of working from a black drawing coloured; and perhaps to assist them in this, our progressive series may be of service. The learner, however, should consider the plates, merely as the best assist. ance which we can give to our written directions, and should study both jointly. This naturally enough leads us to inquire, what is the tint of the shadows of nature?—for this is the tint in which we must prepare our drawings for colouring; this is the tint which must predominate in those colours, which are in shade, and be absent from those, which directly receive the light. This tint is well known—it is the hue of the shadows of a stormy sky—it is the pearly grey which rises before the distant landscape—it is the lead-coloured shade on the body of a mid-day cloud. It is called neutral tint, from the absence of all defined colours, from its harmonizing equally well with the saddest and the brightest, and from its shewing all the pure colours, with which it is covered, taking its character of shadow from the tint which is passed over it. Yellow laid on black, and the black still forces itself into notice—laid on the neutral tint, it is yellow still, but yellow in shadow: the idea of yellow alone comes to the mind, and the neutral tint is forgotten. This then is the colour, with which the general effect of a drawing should be got up. As it is a retiring colour, however, it should be used very sparingly in the foreground-and mixed there with some warm colour—terra Sienna, or burnt umber. For the composition of the neutral tint we refer to the list of colours. To copy this plate, the pupil must first draw a correct outline, as in No. 1. 2. 1 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. Then rub a small portion of cobalt, if he has it, or, if not, Prussian blue, and dilute it to the colour of the sky—Then having pre- viously traced the outline of the clouds, tint the sky, as though India ink was used. (We suppose the pupil to have copied the India ink drawing) Having laid on the blue of the sky—rub a quantity of neutral tint; and after diluting a portion to the tint of the lightest portion of the clouds, add a very little lake, which will give a pearly grey, and lay on the shadows of the clouds—passing the same tint over all those parts of the landscape which are in shadow, exactly as if India ink was used. Continue after the tint is dry, to repeat it. where wanted, until the general effect of the picture is produced—and you have a picture in neutral tint, rather lighter than the finished picture in India ink. Recollect, once for all, that an India ink drawing, is nature in her lights and shadows only. A neutral tint drawing is the same. And the advantage of the last over the first is, that, being the true tint of shadow, it may be coloured with perfect truth. Therefore. work with the neutral tint as if it were India ink. If the neutral tint is too harsh, wash it out. It is better to get up a drawing, in neutral tint, too light than too dark. The tints should be thin, and frequently repeated, else they will rise and muddle the colours, subsequently put upon them. Use neutral tint, warmed with Sienna, or burnt umber, sparingly, in the foreground—merely to mark the masses of light and shade. Having got up the drawing in neutral tint—we must proceed with the colouring. The distant trees are tinted first with a green, composed of indigo and gamboge, as is the bank. This tint, receives a portion of burnt Sienna for the left hand tree. As one tint will not be enough on the neutral tint, to imitate the original, the pupil must repeat the tint in the parts where it is required, until he pro- duces the effect of the copy. The roof of the distant house is tinted with indigo—the walls with light red. The indigo, which is a retiring colour, predominates in the green of the distant bank, near the right hand trees. Sienna, which is a warm colour, (making “warm green,” No. 15, in the list of colours.) is added to the green of the tree behind the mill, to bring it forward—being nearer to the eye than the trees in the centre of the picture. The body of the mill is tinted with light red; and strengthened, afterwards, by the addition of a tint of light red and lake. The rooſ is tinted with light red and lake, and such a tinge of indigo, as is sufficient to destroy the harshness of these two colours. The stone work indigo, and a little light red, mixed. The gable of the mill, burnt terra Sienna, shaded with burnt umber and lake. The windows, burnt umber and lake. The bank is then tinted with burnt Sienna and gamboge. (No. 17, in the list) and the inequalities with the same tint, with the addition of light red. The darkest shadow on the bank, to the left, is made by the addition of lake and burnt umber, with a little indigo. PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. 25 The shadow of the mill, on the bank, is the same as the last, with more indigo and gamboge. The nearest projecting point, light red and Sienna, touched with burnt umber. The green of the right hand trees is composed of indigo, burnt Sienna, and gamboge–Gamboge predominating in the lights, and indigo and Sienna in the shades. The trunks and branches purple grey, (see list, No. 12.) to strengthen the tint of green which was, at first, laid over them. The bank on the right, coloured as the trees. The water, indigo, with a tinge of green—in the distance, a very slight tinge of purple. The boat, in the foreground, burnt Sienna and light red, darkened with burnt umber. The jacket of the farthest man, lake; that of the nearest, gamboge. These are the general directions—but the learner will soon discover that it is impossible either to govern, or to be guided, by a list of tints. The effect is produced often by accident, even in the original. The painter forgets his own process; and the best course left for the copyist, is to try the combinations of colour until he selects that which imitates the picture before him. We have spoken of destroying the harshness of two colours, by adding a third. This is often done—and the effect is to make the mixed colour appear soft to the eye, even though the presence of the agent cannot be detected. We often see the scratches of a penknife, on a coloured drawing, in order to produce lights. This is improper. If you want to introduce a light, upon a part already in shadow, wet the size of the light with your brush, and upon passing a handkerchief rapidly over the spot, the moistened colour comes off, and leaves the paper white. Adepts, who wish to give a rough and natural appearance to the face of rocks, banks of earth, &c. rub them with pumice-stone, and then tint upon the place rubbed. None, however, but an experienced hand, dare attempt this. The principal features of the view, here given, are taken from the banks of the creek at Marlborough, Maryland. ºlº sº -------- PLATE VIII. This is a view on the Susquehannah, at one of those numerous parts of it, where the body of the stream is filled with rocks and small islands; and is intended to shew the appearance of a landscape, in clear sunshiny weather. The process prescribed for the last plate, in neutral tint, must here be gone through with; and having finished it, the colouring commences. The distant hills are tinted with indigo and a slight portion of lake. The greens of the middle ground, are indigo and gamboge, darkened with an addition of burnt Sienna, where necessary. The rocks and bank of the middle ground, are tinted light red and indigo, the former predominating—warmed occasionally, and nearer the foreground, with a little burnt Sienna, or burnt umber. The foreground is in shadow, the sunlight just glancing between the trees on the high bank on the right. The greens of the fore- ground are composed of indigo, burnt Sienna and gamboge; and, in the darkest parts, a little burnt umber may be added. The two trees most remote on the bank, are in light; and assist, greatly, in relieving those nearer to the eye. The shadows of the rocks have burnt umber for their principal colour; with here and there a tint of gray, or a dash of light red, to relieve and give variety to their surface. The predominant colours, of the shore, are burnt Sienna and burnt umber. The mullen, which is an admirable auxiliary in effect, the only use yet found for it, is introduced here to break the sameness of the bank. The figures—fishermen—are characteristic; and their net serves a good purpose, in filling the left hand corner, and balancing the bank, as well as giving an interest to the scene. It would be well to wash out this picture once, during its progress; as that will give it all the softness and mistiness of a warm day upon the water. “In this subject, the sentiment of gloominess is avoided by the brightness of the sky behind the last distance, which relieves the eye with the prospect of cheerfulness beyond. “This light, in a coloured picture, by partaking of a warm orange colour, would afford a grateful relief to the neutral clouds above, and the pearly gray mountains below. “The upper portion of the clouds, in such a picture, should be brighter than the light in the horizon, and should partake of a gentle tint of yellow ochre and Venetian red: their general shadows should be a silvery gray, and the clear part of the sky, a mild blue. 28 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. “A coolness of middle tint might be thrown over the deeper portion of the landscape: but a very deep landscape would require a greater quantity of clouds, with greater decision in their forms, and in their light and shade, to carry of the depth of the landscape ob- jects, which would clash against a clear sky; and the blue of the sky should be stronger, and be seen through the openings of the clouds. in small portions. “One of the great principles to be attended to in all landscapes is, that the principal horizontal lines of the picture, should be con- trasted by a curved train of objects, such as the lines of banks, the arches of bridges, &c. “In general landscape it is better, that the clouds, by being less obvious in size, should help to increase the magnitude of the distant hills and mountains, which, in some pictures, are often injured by a large cloud, which spreading, and continuing its form behind the mountain, seems to mock them by appearing to rest with a base equal in extent to their own, on the horizon—therefore, for stupendous mountains, which are at a great distance and tender in tint, small floating and light clouds are better adapted to preserve their magnitude. “But if the mountains be in extreme distance, the introduction of narrow and gentle horizontal clouds will not only preserve the character, which belongs to distance, but also greatly add, by the contrast of their lines, to all the varieties and irregularities of forms in the mountains; but in subjects where near and lofty rocks preponderate, then a quantity of large misty and rolling clouds, which par- tially intercept the crag, is of great use in counteracting the excess of hard lines and materials; which is a principle much to be attended to in architectural subjects, where clouds, mists, smoke and trees, must generally be introduced.” Varley, in another part of his work, says, in relation to this subject: “As the cheerfulness of sunshine is best expressed by a display of sunbeams, a gentle degree of mist must be introduced for their production. With respect to the appearance of a misty atmosphere, its operation is more visible on the shadowed side of objects, than in those which are in light. And the superior effect of brightness on near objects, such as sails, plaister, white linen, &c. arises, in a great measure, from the relatively vigorous effect of their shadows, which support their lights, and thereby bring them forward with such bril- liancy, that a cloud, equally white, but feebly supported by its gentle shadows on one side, and the mild blue of the sky on the other, would appear as much subdued, when compared with those strongly relieved lights, as if a faint neutral, or gray tint, was carried over it. This last mentioned tint, is the true tone of the atmosphere which sometimes intervenes between a distant bright object and the specta- tor, and prevents the usual quantity of light from being transmitted to his eye.” The remarks which we thus introduce from the works of this celebrated painter, will not find illustrations in the plates to which they are respectively attached. It would, in fact, require a series for their illustration, much more numerous than our work can afford. They are highly valuable, however, as general directions, and should be carefully studied and accurately remembered, by all who wish to attain any degree of excellence in the art of water-colour drawing. —- sº tº sº ºn- lººs ºne ºne sºnsumºtº º Cºmmºnets. PLATE IX. The usual process, with neutral tint, must be gone through with, in this drawing. The sky is altogether of this tint, as is also great part of the distance, and the water. Over the nearest point of the opposite shore, a tint of green, in which blue predominates, is laid, and the stones and rocks in the river are coloured with light red and indigo, strengthened, in the nearest, with burnt Sienna or burnt umber. The right hand trees are coloured with warm green, (No. 15 of the list) and the bank with light red, neutralized with a very little indigo. The foreground tree is coloured with dark warm green, (No. 14) and the trunk and branches with purple gray; which last is useful in the bank, on which the tree stands. The rocks, behind the figures, are coloured with a gray, containing more blue than the neutral tint, and contrasted with the yellowish moss on their sides. The dark warm green, and olive green, and a little pure gamboge, are used in the grass of the foreground. The rocks and peb- bles, are coloured with burnt Sienna, light red, and burnt umber; and afterwards touched, here and there, with a little lake and indigo. to give softness and harmony to the different parts. Our friend, the mullen, stands us in good stead here, and raises its yellow top and broad rich leaves, to break the deep shadow of the bank, on the left of the picture. The learner will here see the effect of a judicious arrangement of lights, serving to carry the eye back into the picture—beginning at the light in the foreground, passing to that on the ripple, and thence to that of the point in the distance. All these lights are made to appear stronger by contrast: a pebble in the foreground—the trunk of the tree in the middle ground, and the gray promontory on the river, answering this purpose. We cannot do better than by turning to Varley, and attending to his remarks upon a scene like the present. “As this subject is intended to enforce the sentiment of gloominess, the principles, by which it is performed, are the reverse of the former for, notwithstanding that the usual effects of nature, generally, exhibit all objects relieving deeper than the sky, yet the true sen- timent of dreariness and dismal weather, is never perfectly felt until the last distance is seen lighter than the sky; and, although many masters, to effect the appearance of gloominess, have increased the depth of their clouds nearly to that of shade, yet by making their last hill, or distance, still deeper or cooler than the cloudy sky, they have instantly destroyed the character of depth, which the clouds exhi- bited before, and changed it to an appearance of imperfect light. “If, however, the sky be made deeper than the last distance, the eye and mind are kept into the scene, which exhibits no prospect of comfort or cheerfulness beyond especially if the distances are terminated with pale coloured rocks, banks of sand, or barren light sober- coloured earth. 30 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. “In these last cases, we join to this principle the operation of cold and wintry snow scenes; which affect us in this manner, by the snow causing every object to relieve lighter than the sky, which should then always be cloudy; and by these means the usual effect of nature is reversed; which, of itself, in many instances, produces an awfulness or dread.” The character of the tree, in this picture, furnishes a fit occasion for Warley's remarks upon the manner of drawing trees, the stum- bling block of all beginners. “With respect to the representation of trees, it must be remarked, that the great difficulty attending it, consists in the necessity there is for the application of general knowledge and rules of art, which must be added to great practice and a feeling for the beauties of form. Industry and ability must be a long time exerted before any thing like freedom and a general character of execution, can be obtained— provided the student has to rely only on his own observation of nature, and has no access to good masters. For, by referring only to na- ture in the first instance, the painter will be rather apt to imitate the infancy than the maturity of the art; as it is not the number of leaves that will give quantity, but variety in their sizes, tones, distances, depths and colours; for as there is more information to be gained from viewing six coins of various sizes and reigns, than a thousand coins of the same date and impression, so will a small variety of leaves and weeds appear more numerous, than a great quantity of the same kind. “The neglect of the above principle is the reason, why those trees which are so much laboured, give offence rather than pleasure to an experienced eye; and it appears, in many instances, to have been the fault of Zuccarelli, who though he executed his objects with masterly touches, yet was too apt to make the leaves of his trees equal in size on every side of them. “If, however, between two branches firmly executed in colours, a third branch is seen of a grayish and paler green, with the leaves smaller and less definite in their forms, it will not only give the appearance of a great quantity of leaves, but will help, in some measure, to harmonize the tree with the blue of the sky, or with gray clouds behind the trees, which likewise help to prevent the trees from ap- pearing harsh. “To acquire a facility and freedom of execution, it is requisite the learner should often, on a small scale, copy the regular and even formal representation of clusters of leaves—such as small branches of ash, or a rose bush would afford; and should acquire the power of making neat oval leaves, with one or two touches of a full sable hair pencil; and when he can do these quickly, he may then relax from the regular forms of leaves, and by attending principally to the masses, execute the leaves with the looseness of character observa. ble, at a small distance, in nature.” This view is characteristically American—and is intended to represent one of those drizzling, hazy days, which we so often expe- rience towards the close of Autumn. Washing out the drawing once, during its progress, will be found to produce the effect intended. - Lºur ſººn. PLATE X. The Chiques rocks on the Susquehannah. After laying in the clear sky with cobalt or Prussian blue, and the clouds with neutral tint, proceed, as before, to work up the picture in this last tint. The point on the right which catches the light on the mass of trees, must be coloured with gamboge and a little indigo, and shaded with dark warm green. The foreground must be made strong and warm—the foliage of the tree, according to the particular part of it. must be coloured with olive green, warm green, and dark warm green, (see list of colours,) and the trunk and branches coloured with warm gray, purple gray, and burnt umber: here and there introducing some touches of bright green moss, and leaving, or rubbing out, a few lights, to mark the character of the bark. Light red, purple gray, burnt Sienna and burnt umber, with some deep olive green, are used in the rocks of the foreground—and to give a coolness to them where they meet the water, and to make them harmonize with the distance, a purple tint is passed over that part. A mullen or two, and a few pebbles, are rubbed in, and with the roots of the tree, give variety to the masses of the foreground. This is the first of the two drawings, which exemplify the very different styles of light and dark foregrounds, the principles of which will be best explained by resorting to our standard authority. “The right application of light or dark foregrounds, seems, in various stages of the art, to have been much neglected, both from painters having so frequently considered the accidental appearance of the scene before them, when imitated sufficiently for the purposes of fine as well as common art, these terms being but faintly understood. The true exercise of art consists in contrasting the round with the square, the light with the dark, the hard with the soft, the far with the near, the local and distinct, with the general and inde- finite, the distant actions of the vacant many, with the composure of the near and contemplative few; in the vigour and richness of colour and texture, opposed to flatness and neutrality of tint; in recumbent and reposing objects, opposed to rapid and gliding ones; in opposing the decision and firm relief of objects, to their rippled and indefinite reflexions on the water; and in contrasting the clear and limpid reflexions of objects, to the less obvious relief of the real ones; in bringing the cool of the sky to bear against the variety of warm lights on eminences on one side of the picture, and the low and cool parts of the distance to relieve against the warmth of the horizons on the other, in fine weather; and, in part, reversing this order of effect in storms; in the judicious application of mediums to all these extremes; and in rendering simple, clear, and impressive, those objects which the unskilful execute with intricacy and confusion, and by 32 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. the judicious and skilful application of well imagined discords and incidents, to render the work, in appearance, rather the result of fortu- nate and happy observation, than of contrivance.” Having cited these various opposing principles, the deduction to be drawn therefrom appears to be, that the strength and effect of any tint depends upon its contrast with another; and that, therefore, a light coloured foreground, strengthened by a strong contrast, will have an equal effect in sending back the distance, as if the foreground was dark, and the same strength given to it by a similar contrast. And Warley himself comes to this conclusion, for he says, in another part of his work, “This circumstance must be attended to, that light earthy and sunny foregrounds, are only adapted to pictures in which the sky and distance, are subdued by neutral and gray tones, and the centres kept dark.” We may lay down this rule, therefore, with respect to light and dark foregrounds. That when the foreground is dark the middle ground must be light, and the distance subdued—as in the present example. That where the foreground is light, the middle ground must be kept dark, with a subdued distance, as in Plate XI. It is not in our power, nor do we pretend, to give to the learner, every example which the endless changes of nature would furnish us. We can, as in the present instance, only point out to him the general features of the art, imbue him with the principles, and then send him to collect from nature's own bright and varied drawing-book, models worthy of his powers—fit objects for his imitation. --- ºut ºneº- ºn tº nºt sº ºn ºn ºn tº ºne ºn tº nº nºn-nº ºn ºn tº -n a ºn in nu-un ºn tº ºn tº ºn an a ºn tº ºn ºn and sº ºn is annºn ºn tº ºn tº ºn tº ºn ºn an in ºn tº ºn tº nº ºn tº ºn tº ºn tº dº - - PLATE XI. This is a view on the Susquehannah; and the broad beach is chosen, as the most suitable foreground, for the exemplification of the principle mentioned in the last page. The foreground, here, is light and warm—and receives its strength from its contrast with the dark and cool tints of the water in the middle-ground. To account for this colour of the water, we have placed the clouds above, whose re- flection causes it; and as the strong contrasts of light and shadow, would otherwise appear harsh, we have joined the several parts of the picture by the tall white sail, the schooner in shadow, the birds, and the boat. The light is also made to pass down from the distance to the foreground, first striking on the bright field on the island, passing upon the water beyond, catching full upon the sloop's broad sail, glancing upon the sea-gulls, and resting, at last, upon the beach, where its greatest strength is given to it, by the contrasted hue and sha- dow of the boat. Like our other models, this must be prepared in neutral tint, when the land, in the distance and middle-ground, is tinted with a green, in which, excepting the spot on the island, blue predominates. The point, on the left, is coloured with light red and lake, shaded with light red and blue—the former colour predominating; and finally touched, here and there, with pure blue, made very light, to carry it back, and harmonize it with the middle-ground. The beach is coloured with burnt Sienna, and a little light red. The boat is done, principally, with purple gray. (See list.) We have alluded in this plate to the following points. The manner of joining the several parts of a landscape together, to produce unity and harmony—and The course of the light from the distance to the foreground. The remarks of Varley upon these two subjects, contain a great deal of most valuable information, and we shall give them entire. “The student often, in fruitless endeavours to preserve in his partial selection, the unity and breadth of effect, either fearfully tints his drawing, or sketches so faintly, that neither the beauties or blemishes remain obvious enough to please or offend; or by deepening or subduing those lights, that enforced the hardness of division, concludes with heaviness, monotony, and want of locality. “But the principle, on which these errors may be avoided, may be understood by the following method. “At a small distance from a gray coloured, or middle tinted wall, let a table, covered with a white cloth, be placed. The most for- cible thing which now appears, is the line formed by the different colours of the wall and table, and therefore a bond of union between these two is required; and that the eye should be diverted from the division, and led to the centre of the table. 34 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. *The first step towards this, is to lighten, gently and gradually, that part of the wall near to the table, by which it will, in a degree, approximate to the white table cloth; then to bring the eye on to the table, let a small gray cloth, rather deeper than the upper part of the wall, be laid on the table nearer to the edge next the wall, than to that which is next the spectator. This, by causing a greater con- trast against the white cloth than the latter can make against the diminished depth of the wall, will not only bring the eye over the divi- sion formed by the wall and table, but will also, abstractedly to the eye, carry the subject of the wall into the centre of the table; caus- ing a union to exist, and, at the same time, preserving the necessary division and separation. “But with respect to the principle of making objects hold together, that is, in their having some visible analogy, to the acknowledg- ed means by which things are held together, it may be thus explained. “If a piece of white painted wood were seen sticking to a brick wall, the observer might be disposed to question the durability of its adhesion to the same: but if the large head of a nail, nearly the colour of the wall, were seen in its centre, it would then appear to the spectator as if firmly fixed to the wall. “Now there exists in the pleasure of vision such a concordance with the principle of union and utility, that if this board were seen resting on the ground, where it would not want support. yet will the eye of the painter require some dark object, or a hole near the cen- tre, so as to break the vacancy of the empty surface; and on this principle the eye of a goose, or the centre of an archer's target, or the figures on a milestone, will afford a relief from the surrounding heaviness. “Again, if a plain, square upright tower were represented, and were cut all round as maps for children sometimes are, it would, so far from hanging together with the sky, be left behind, were the sky part to be drawn upward, but if the projection of moulding, or that of the roof be added to it, the sky though loosened as before described, could not, however, be liſted up, without pulling the representa- tion of the buildings with it, as the moulding, &c. would serve as a shoulder to attach it to the sky: “But if in a smooth and plain gray tower, relieving against a light sky—the latter be seen through in one or two belfry windows, it will appear, abstractedly, as if riveted to the sky, and would affect the general sentiment arising from vision, in the same equally agree- able manner, as if the rivets were demanded from evident utility or necessity. “Therefore, on this principle, if on the gray cloth on the table a white teapot were placed, this would hold the gray cloth to the white one, which last is held in composition to the gray wall by the gray cloth; “Then to hold the white teapot to the gray cloth, a dark knob should be placed on the lid, and to hold the knob to the teapot, there should be either a small white nut, or a small portion of shining light, which will then effect the whole train of connection required by art. “Now to transpose these principles into landscape; we may suppose the white table to be a bright bank on the side of a mountain, covered with corn-fields and bright vegetation, and the gray wall to be converted into a more distant mountain; then the top should be a PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. 35 little warmed and lightened to harmonize with the yellowish bank. Then near to the bank, as in the gray wall, the lightness of gray mists should appear. Then instead of a gray cloth, let the shadow of a passing cloud, or gray rocks, or deeper foliage, bring the eye over the division between the bank and mountain, on to the middle of the bank. Then let this shadow be connected to the bank, by a light building, or smoke arising from burning peat, or lime. If a building be composed for the purpose, let it be connected to the gray sha- dow, by slate or lead on the roof, and let the shining of the roof connect the latter with the light of the building.” We may, at first, appear to be encroaching in making these long extracts, but as more knowledge is contained in them, than in any other treatise extant, we must be excused if we proceed, even at the expense of the learner's patience. Varley continues “These principles are likewise valuable in a village scene, where the bright and sunny effect of plaster and warm coloured materials, is made to relieve against a cool and pearly air tone of distant objects; this, from its difference of colour, texture and quality, causes a division of the picture. But, if the shadow of a picture be thrown across the road, and fall on the cottages at a small distance from the edge of the picture, so as to leave a breadth of light between its farther edge and the line of the cottage next to the distance, the eye will then pass over that line and come on to the shadow, which, by its superior contrast against the light on the cottage. will cause the latter to unite with the distance, as one mass of light, yet sufficiently distinct from each other, as to colour and subject: and by these means the line between the cool tint of the sea, and the top of a cliff on which the spectator stands, may be hindered from offending; for if a forcible shadow on turf, &c. be brought on to the cliff, at a small distance from where the spectator stands, and between himself and the precipice, and relieves against a few sheep, or some light earth in sunshine, at a short distance from the edge of the cliff, the mind and the eye will then in a degree be directed by the superior contrast from the precipice, which will become the second thing in effect, though, with the sea, the first in interest. The light sheep, or the white shirt of a figure, will cause the eye to settle at a safer distance from the descent, and these sheep can be carried off by the glittering sails, in the cool gray tint of the sea, and small rolling clouds near the horizon. “As such considerations as these may by some be considered as too abstruse, and such as may be dispensed with, it becomes essential, for the purposes of fine art, to explain their utility, and their power in commanding effects, which are equivalent to impressions received from nature; which last, the greater portion of lovers of the art, and mankind at large, erroneously imagine to be the result of observa- tion, depending on the organs of vision only, and capable of representation. “For this purpose let the spectator view, by day, the general effect of a town scene; he will there generally find the lines of the houses deeper than the sky, so as to form a division between the two; yet, as he does not find anything offensive in the effect, and his mind is directed first from the near object to the distant one, he thence concludes that a painter, to make an interesting picture, has only to repre- sent what he sees, without the aid of science or abstract rules. Butlet him view the same subject early in the morning, before the inha- 36 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. bitants leave their houses, and he will find the division between the sky and the building so powerful, from the depth of the latter, as to prevent his eye from settling upon the subject below: he will then perceive that the bustle of figures, their activity, motion, sound of their feet, and the rumbling of carriages, observed on his first view of the scene, which had the power of commanding and diverting his atten- tion to the spot, near to where he stood, had likewise overpowered the line of the houses above, which in the early and quiet view of the scene, was an obstacle to the breadth of the effect, and divided the picture. But as these sounds and motions could not be introduced in a picture, expedients in art must be resorted to, to render the picture equivalent to its unity and interest, when crowded with objects, and in motion. “The first step to accomplish this is to introduce the light and warmth of the sun, on the upper portion of the houses on one side of the street, as the part of the sky against which they relieve can be made, consistently, deeper and cooler than on the opposite side of the picture. It will cause them to relieve lighter, through the sentiment of their warm colour. (which is equal to light) or lighter in reality: and by the assistance of whitish stone copings, and white painted window frames, and bright portions of mortar on the tiles. Now one great object is effected, which is that of destroying the force of shadow against the sky on that side of the street, but at the same time preserving all the vigour, value, richness and intelligence of its materials, by an equivalent contrast in colours; the next thing to be intro- duced is the shadow from opposite houses, of pointed gables, &c. which should be made to fall about one third from the top of the houses in light, (as morning or afternoon should be the time generally chosen for the representation of such scenes.) These shadows not only command the eye to pass from the sky down to them, even if the roofs were a little deeper than the sky, but are highly essential to pre- vent the great excess of warmth and light which the greater part of the buildings, if in general light, would exhibit; and which can rarely be supported in any picture on terrestrial objects, but may exist in the representation of clear evening skies, and limpid pools of water. “The lower part of the picture being now in shadow, the eye will still keep above at the light and warmth, at the opposition caused by the shadows of the gables, and still requires to be led or carried away, to contemplate the lower portion, there being neither noise or motion, to effect this purpose. The first of these methods is performed by the introduction of narrow gleams of light, shining through opposite avenues on the foreshortened fronts of plaster houses intervening amidst those of brick, or on the brick alone. This will con- duct the eye down from the light into the shade of the road, like a perpendicular stream, from whence it may be connected to figures in light, near the foreground. But in all deep and surrounding shadows, wherein these gleams would not support the stillness of the scene, then might the bright and sparkling reflections from pools, or the overflowings of water in the streets, be introduced near to the fore- ground; and then the eye would dart from the light above to the light below, without being conducted. “The contrast between pools of water reflecting the sky, and the surrounding earth, are generally the most principal in the picture, and always cause the eye to settle on them; but, nevertheless, the eye can be agreeably conducted through the shadow on the houses, by PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. 37 the adoption of the reflected gray shining light in the windows, which leads the eye downward from one to the other, and the choice to be recommended in bright effects on buildings, is to introduce the deep grayish effect of depth seen through on the glass of the windows, and leaving some of them open to give a spirited effect: but in deep shadows on houses and other objects deep in shadow by twilight, it will be found essential, in order to preserve the same spirit, to reverse the effect, and to make them shine, by reflecting the light of the sky; and this will be a good relief to masses of buildings, which otherwise would be too heavy: but to make them shine without monotony, those windows which are near, and those distant, should partake of the same sort of variety of warm and cool, which the upper and lower portions of the sky do, in the evening.” Varley's remarks upon water in landscapes might, perhaps, with more propriety, be reserved for our plate of river scenery—but we introduce it here, because they should be well understood in copying the present subject, and they can be readily referred to afterwards. “The great interest excited by the introduction of water in most landscapes, renders it a study, as important as it is pleasing; but from the constant variation of its surface, its true delineation has ever been a matter of much uncertainty and difficulty, and the greater part of the works of students are either, in this particular, produced with fear and tameness, or frequently with a false confidence, and often with effects, which have no foundation in truth and nature. “It is therefore, the author's wish, now to lay down several rules, on which its variations principally depend. In the first place, it must be observed, that still water, like a looking glass, causes the reflection to appear exactly the same in size as the object reflected, provided the latter is perpendicular; if the spectator stand in the river, with the water up to his eyes, the reflection and the object will then be of equal measures, if the object be upright, or slanting in any direction whatever. “If the spectator stand on an eminence and sees the distance, over the tops of the houses near the river, the latter only will be reflected: and all intersections in the reflections of objects will then appear the same, as those of the objects would, to a person, as much below the surface of the water, as the spectator is above it; but an object like the end of a punt, which slants forward and overhangs the water, while the under part can only be seen by a person stooping, owing to its foreshortening, yet, its reflection will appear nearly of the same size, as the object reflected is in reality. “If the object slant backwards, as the roof of a house, the reflection appears very short, while the roof appears nearly of its real size, provided the spectator is a little elevated above the water; but at a distance, these reflections are so indistinct, that they are best represent- ed by lengthened, or rippled lights and shadows in the water, which form an agreeable variety with the shape of the real object. It is a general principle, to make all the reflections of objects exactly under them, and as the water is a level body, all gleams and lights on its surface must be horizontally placed. “Any of the forms or lines, the least slanting in their whole direction, are greatly contradictory to the general sentiment, and if one 38 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. of the sides or ends of a mass of rippling, which proceeds in a direction from the spectator, should occur, it must be generally formed of several tapering, horizontal, and pointed shapes, receding or increasing, as no one slanting line can be admitted (except in a river or pool of water, which is very calm.) and there a straight gleam or line, from a boat, or a swan, or a figure, will, in this case, not only bear almost any slant, but will give a high improvement to the whole, and this variety we may consider as one of those valuable discords, which enhances the nature of the scene. The utility and application of which last mentioned term, will be further explained in another part of this work. “In addition to the variety of warm shadow to a cool light of a wave, the gentle warmth of a cloud, will often be seen reflected in the midst of the gray lights of each wave; and this one circumstance alone, will break the monotony of a large mass of water, and bring the eye to a focus; and it has ever been a beauty of the highest class, to introduce the reflection of a warmish cloud in the midst of a cool mass of water, whether still or rippled; this and the cloud itself will give full weight and body to the water and sky, which without this incident, often assume no higher character than masses of imperfect light. “If in the midst of a reflection of trees, or other objects, a gentle wave should occur, that side of the wave next to the spectator, instead of receiving the reflection of those objects, will catch the light of the sky above them, and likewise the tone of colour which is in that part. A deepish gray tint, occasioned by a gentle breeze, is often seen to cross the reflection of the warm and bright part of the sky, owing to the surface of the water being rather more raised, and therefore reflecting the upper and deeper part of the sky; but as the calmer mass of the water may reflect a very reddish, dingy tint of the horizon, the intersecting gleams will sometimes reflect the brighter and cooler tint above. In this case they derive a beautiful and spirited effect, from the surrounding dinginess of the general mass of water, and in evening and twilight effects, this incident is of great consequence, as by these means the tendency to gloominess is obviated; and by a dark barge, or other object, being placed against the brightness, the gleam will, by giving a forcible contrast, assist the breadth of the sober and more distant grays of all the other parts. “As true feeling and science enable a painter to make each tint, light, and shade, of itself harmonize with the rest, the old erroneous practice of endeavouring to harmonize, by confounding the delicacy of all the cool and pearly tones, with large and general washes of reddish and yellow tints, will no more effect this purpose of art, than making a society of different sorts of men tipsy together, will prove them of true friendship and harmony towards one another that which gives the appearance of true imitation to water, is, in the general effects of day, to make the lights cooler than the shadows of the small waves; and, in many cases, this effect is principally perceived in shallow water, where the shadowed side of the nearer waves seem to conduct the eye to the bottom, through a kind of transparent clay colour; but the distant shadows in water, and other objects, should be generally cooler than the lights; and this principle should be observed, that all moist and shining weeds and substances, in and near the foreground, should have the lights cooler than their shadow, even the shine on a person's lips, on their face, or on a chestnut horse, is grayish in effect, by partaking of the light of the sky and clouds.” PLATE XII. In describing this plate, we cannot do better than copy the directions given by Varley for a similar subject in his work. “In this example a cloudy sky is chosen; for by this means a depth of tint is obtained, which being nearly destitute of colour, does not lead the eye from the subject below; but, on the contrary, assists in directing the eye towards the distance, and also in giving fulness to the subject, which is of a simple character and of few parts. “In twilight scenes, as the light can only exist near the horizon, in no other place, than this last, can the forms of darkish and horizontal clouds be seen to advantage; for though a greater depth of neutral tint exists above, yet, as a somewhat similar depth pervades the whole of that portion of the picture, the contrast becomes so gentle between the upper clouds and the sky, that those clouds which are below will appear most obvious. This choice of clouds is likewise of great use in blending the depth of the cool horizon or distance, with the warmth of the sky: not by joining them close to the horizon, but at a small distance above it, so that the warmth of the sky should be seen between it. “In the colouring of such subjects as these, it must be observed, that if the time of day is chosen when the landscape is dark and cool, then the lower portion of the sky should exhibit an orange and reddish tint, the latter being nearest the horizon; as the picture without this contrast would look cold and black: but if an earlier time of the evening be chosen, in which a greater degree of locality and warmth is thrown over all the near objects, then will it admit of a silvery tint in the light of the sky, with only a small portion of warmth near the horizon. “It must be again remarked that deepish gray clouds, which relieve against a whitish or silvery light, should, to prevent a harshness of contrast, be tinted or warmed with Venetian red or burnt Sienna, subdued with a little purplish gray. “This must generally be observed, in the lights which catch on clouds, that if they appear in nature to be yellow, they must be tinted with rather an orange colour, and if they appear orange, then a reddish colour should be used. “The above is when the colour is to be laid on in thin washes, and is here mentioned rather for the use of those who have had but small practice, as the warm tints used by them generally look raw, and almost greenish when laid on with yellow ochre alone, for there is a great deception in nature with respect to the true colours and tints in skies. 40 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. “As it is offensive to the eye to have too much of blackish colour in a picture, the real depth in misty twilight should exist in a few foreground objects, and in those figures which may preserve their full vigour; and brownish and deep greenish tones, will by the contrast give the appearance of middle tint to all the distant parts. “If the middle distance, in the evening, should relieve against the forcible depth of woods in shadow, then the foreground should be simple, and reflect, either the light of the sky in pools of water, or should not exceed in depth the character of middle tint, by which means the greatness of depth in the distance will remain more conspicuous. “It must again be observed, that in all scenes, which lead the eye to the distance, the figures of the foreground should not look out of the picture, or towards the spectator; but those in the distance, may be seen coming towards the foreground, without any hindrance of sentiment.”—The wagon, going down the hill, and so carrying the imagination forward towards the village, is in accordance with this principle. “The introduction of cattle in the distance is likewise agreeable in evening scenes; for the repose of such subjects demands, that the spectator should not be interrupted by any sound or conspicuous object, which might divert him from the contemplation of the whole. A soldier with his cocked hat, in the foreground, would disturb the sentiment; but a shepherd's boy sleeping, although near the observer, would nevertheless leave the spectator undisturbed to enjoy the whole scene.” In the present subject, which represents the gap in the Warrior mountains, through which the Juniatta passes, near the village of Bloody Run, the character of the landscape is admirably adapted to our purpose. The huge solemn mountains in the distance appearing more giant even, when contrasted with the narrow stream, which, following some convulsion of nature, has forced its passage through their midst—The broad low bottom and its quiet fields, the distant village and its curling and silent smoke, the scathed tree, the rocky foreground and the solitary mullen, all join to create the sensation of perfect rest, the more perhaps, when contrasted with the wagon rumbling down into the valley; the only moving thing on the wide landscape. - In this as in the other plates, the whole effect is got up with neutral tint, and afterwards coloured—the mountains in the distance with light red and a little lake, the valley with warm green, the foreground with burnt Sienna and light red, shaded deeper with burnt umber—the mullen is rubbed in, as before described, or laid on with king's yellow; the former method however is the best. PLATE XIII. A moonlight view of the Balize, at one of the entrances of the Mississippi river. Continuing the plan, which we proposed to ourselves, when we commenced this part of our work, we have arrived at the present subject. The simplest and least complicated scenes are the best for the representation of moonlight; and we find that great interest is always produced by the introduction of water, if for no other purpose than to furnish cold reflections of other parts of the picture. Moonlight does not admit of the strength of colouring of a daylight landscape. The effect is light and shadow, and only in the nearest objects do you perceive any of their real hues. The general tint is rather warmer than the neutral tint, but of the same character: as, in water views, that tint gives the airiness to all distant objects, which it is the peculiar province of the neutral tint to represent. To place the moon alone in the sky, and shew its reflection in a long line in the unruffled water, would be unpleasant to the eye. It is therefore best to introduce always masses and streaks of clouds, to catch and carry off the light, and by giving a ripple to the wave to have an excuse, or reason, for the gleams which picturesque effect requires it to receive and reflect. These principles we have endea- voured to follow in the present subject. The picture is got up like the others with neutral tint alone; the clear part of the sky as well as the rest—the last being ultimately tinted with pure Prussian blue, which will be found to give great air and depth to it. The shadows of the clouds may be very slightly warmed with a little light red. In the nearer objects of the landscape, very thin and transparent washes of their daylight colours may be used over the neutral tint. The reeds are tinted with a light green, and the deep shadows of the nearest are made with dark olive green, with burnt umber, to give it gloominess and force. The sails of the custom-house boat are touched with a little light red and gamboge, and the colours of the sailors' jackets are barely indicated. We have used the masts of the cutter in the bayou, and the Spanish and American look-outs, and the flag-staff of the barracks, with much effect to break the straight horizontal clouds: the sails of the boat answer the same purpose on the bank of reeds on the left; and the splashing of the water on the bow of the boat, the streaks of light in its wake, and the dancing of the moonbeams on the disturbed surface of the river, break and soften the otherwise formal reflection of the moon itself. The morale of scenes like this should always be attended to:—the bustle of a quay, the confusion of a busy street, would ill become the presence of the moon-but the long, low and almost interminable reeds of the Mississippi, the nightly piping of the myriad insects which teem within them, and which the imagination almost hears, the solitary buildings, the tall look-outs, the dark shadows under the banks, disturbed only by the rippling of the boat as it cuts the water under the influence of the light breeze, serve to give the mind at once the impressions which usually accompany a moonlight scene. PLATE XIV. The scene here represented, in the Highlands of the Hudson, is one frequently occurring on the banks of the river. The steam boat has stopped, and its boat has just landed some passengers near the beacon, lit upon the beach. The whole of the distance is here finished in neutral tint. The foreground is worked up in warm colours and afterwards tinted with a strong tint of light red and Sienna. A little attention will enable the pupil to see the principles and mode of colouring here pursued, without further explanation. sºlº º nº lºº. Nº PLATE XV. In the explanation of a preceding plate, we have gone in detail into the principles of water, when introduced into a picture, and after describing the mode of colouring the present plate, we will again resort to Warley, for his remarks upon subjects of a similar character. Neutral tint forms the basis of the picture. The extreme hills on the right are tinted with Prussian blue—the nearer bank with warm green—slightly varied with light red for the ploughed land and cultivated fields. The palisades are warmed with a little lake and light red, giving a transparent gray, well suiting their distance, when laid on the neutral tint. The vegetation is tinted with olive green, very light. The sails of the nearest vessel are, after being shadowed, tinted with light red and burnt Sienna, and the same co- lours predominate on the beach. The remainder of the colouring explains itself. The pupil will here see the system of contrast exemplified, as well as the manner of carrying the eye into the distance by such contrasts. The topsail of the near schooner derives great strength from being relieved against the white cloud—the sloop loaded with hay, raises its white sail against the dark rocks behind it; the schooner on the right, smaller in size, intersects the green shore beyond; the smaller vessel under the palisades serves as the measure of their height, and stands out from beneath their shadow; and away, far off, a tiny sail serves as a resting place for the eye, after its journey from the foreground. Speaking on this subject, Varley says, “In colouring such subjects of sunshine as this example affords, the following considerations should be attended to. “First the light part of the clouds, near the sun, should be the whitest portion of the picture, and the clouds above them should be neutral in their tint, and gently warmed with burnt Sienna and Venetian red in their under parts, which, thus warmed, will harmonize the clouds with the whitish light against which they relieve, and at the same time represent the reflection of warm colours from the earth. “Those forms, which are introduced as shadows in the clouds, should invariably be cooler than the lighter parts, and should be laid on in full and sharp tints; by which means the forms may be evident without hardness or harshness, terms generally and almost univer- sally confounded with sharpness; whereas hardness consists not in the decision, but in its depth being too great for the distance at which it is placed, and particularly in the inflexible continuation of the same tint and depth, from one end to the other, of a length of line and surface. By these means a faint tint, though not hard in the general view of the picture, may yet be hard when contemplated by itself. but the great difficulty of managing sharpness consists in the necessity of good and masterly forms, as the true sharpness of edge exposes all imperfections of form in a greater degree. Those who are inexperienced, conscious of their weakness in this point, endeavour to 46 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. shelter themselves by looseness and indecision of form, and by what is usually termed fuzzy edges; and even when they have obtained a degree of power over forms, they still retain an error in making the commencement and determination of the same, equal in decision: whereas every tint and form which begins full, sharp and decided, should terminate reversely. But if each tint preserves an active form. then must the gradation be preserved in a series of forms, diminishing or increasing in brightness, and varying in their line from small to large, or the reverse. - “In a distant range of mountains, which demands a length of line nearly of the same depth, the introduction of clouds, vapours and rays of light (to intercept and break those lines) should be resorted to; but when the line of a nearer hill, (as is frequently the case in imperfect and bad performances) preponderates in length, and endangers the unity of effect, by dividing the picture in nearly two equal portions, then will it be expedient to divide the effect of light and shade on the hill; so that if the base should be dark and gray, the upper portion should be in light and warm against the gray of the sky, by which means the length of line will apparently be lessened, and instead of a continued division, the light of the sky will break into the upper part of the hill, which relieves by colour and not by shadow, and the lower portion of the hill should relieve gently against a portion of distance and sky, which is subdued in tone. “By these means the preponderance and decision of line being evaded, the eye can pass over it from the sky to the foreground; where it may then meet with an opposition of light and shade, from some rock or other object, which from its great strength, will, by superse- ding all other oppositions, give unity and breadth to the rest.” The following remarks of our author apply particularly to the present plate. Speaking of river scenes Varley says, “The general character of flatness and lightness of subjects of this class, demanding relief by qualities of an opposite nature, renders the introduction of vessels, of great importance, the height of which gives an agreeable contrast to the flat lines of the horizon and shore, and whose depth of colour or shade, gratefully contrasts with the lightness of the sands, middle tint and lightness of the clouds. “As scenes of this description without accompaniments, exhibit a prevalence of horizontal lines, that lead the spectator's eye from right to left, it becomes the more essential to direct the eye from the consequences of these lines, by foreshortening the vessel, so that sentiments of its length should carry the mind with it into the picture; and this principle of division from horizontal lines may be sup- ported by reflections in pools of water, which add also the quantity of shade, without increasing the heaviness attendant on dark objects, of the same magnitude as the object and the reflection together.” This principle of leading the eye into the canvass or picture, we have before explained. In another place Varley says, “In views near rivers it will be advisable to introduce a shoal, or bank of earth, on which the spectator could stand to view the scene. Even in sea pieces far from land, the remains of a wreck or boat is useful in the near part of the picture.” PLATE XVI. The interest of scenery at sea must always depend, in a great measure, upon the introduction of vessels, and the combinations of light and shade upon the waves and clouds. The ship, in the present plate, has backed its maintopsail, which giving to that sail an angle different from the foretopsail, enables us to relieve one against the other, by throwing a deep shadow upon the latter; the former being relieved against the dark mass of clouds above the horizon. Particular attention must be paid to the outline of the ship in this picture, as well as in the last; for upon this depends the whole effect; and after it has been drawn in pencil, a fine pointed brush is used in colouring the ropes—not a pen, as might be supposed—this last giving a harshness to the rigging, which should be avoided. The colouring of this picture explains itself—the green of the wave being composed of indigo and gamboge and a very little lake, and gently decreasing in strength towards the horizon, where it fades into neutral tint, in which blue predominates. The streak of light behind the ship is of great service in relieving it from the water. Warley says, “In this subject, the masts are relieved against soft and rolling clouds, the massy forms of which are useful in supporting a breadth of light, where the thinness of the ropes and masts would have appeared insufficient. This principle is useful in most cases where straggling thin lines and forms appear against the sky. *Large, round and reddish coloured clouds should be adopted for the purpose of affording a suitable relief to the sober whitish, or blacked drab colour of sails, which could not so well be brought forward, and separated from the sky, without an excess of depth in the clouds beyond. “It must be observed that yellowish clouds will not harmonize with dark gray shadows, for the natural order of conducting light into dark is from white to yellowish, then from yellow to reddish tint, and from these last, to dingy reddish, and then into neutral dark tones: for as red is the fullest colour, and black the absence of all colour, they act in this instance as a diversity rather than a contrast, owing to the depth of the red which is equal to middle tint.” º- º - - - º º - -- º º º !. º º " - . ºy º nº lºººººººº- PLATE XVII. The representation of winter closes our work. The scene, which we have here selected, is simple, as being best suited to our purpose. The feeling of cold is always increased by solitariness; and the lone mill and the stooping figure, here introduced, are not with- out their effect in producing an impression on the mind favourable to the consideration of the subject. With the exception of the mill, the evergreens, the trunks of the trees, and the path, the whole of this picture is finished with neutral tint; and the colours used ex- plain themselves on inspection. G E N E R AL R. E M A. R. K. S. The following remarks, from various parts of Varley's book, are printed for the benefit of the pupil; as they belong to no one of the preceding plates in particular, we have collected them in this part of our work. Clouds and lowering weather prevent the imagination from roaming far, and generally reconcile the spectator to contemplate what is before him. This treatment becomes necessary, when either the middle distance, or most distant parts, come too high or near in the picture, to belong to the horizon or to partake of its tints. As to the effect of evening subjects, they rarely tell without an extreme distance, or mountains, so small and faint, as to belong to the mass of horizon light, without forming a line, when compared with the deeper shades and forms of the picture. A mass of warm colour may be so contrived, as to represent what is equivalent to light, shade, and middle tint at the same time. It must be remarked, that a gleam in the distance, which, owing to its perspective diminution, occupies but a very narrow space, will often represent a quantity equal in breadth to more than is seen in ten times the same surface nearer to the eye. All the leading lines, ascending and descending, should so balance each other from the different sides of the picture, that a ball, rolling down one of them, should be impelled up on the other side, and so on in succession, till it settled near the centre of the picture. Nothing gives a greater beauty to light and yellow greens, or burnt grass, than the introduction of white objects; the value and weight of each colour, being frequently lost when without them. The lightness and warmth of the foreground, in a coloured drawing, will act as a relief to all the distant parts, which are in sub- dued, neutral, and gray scenes, without having to wade through a mass of black rubbish, with which many, from ignorance or bad exam- ple, load their foregrounds. 52 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. In fine and serene evenings, the true order of harmony is from the blue above, graduating to a faint yellow, which increases its depth till it meets with a reddish horizon tint, which should end deeper, and rather dingy; but whenever the red succeeds the blue, which is contrary to the regular order of harmony, it seems rather to forebode the approach of a stormy morning, and to a correct eye is offen- sive; but the brightness and clearness of the evening, operates so agreeably to many, that they consider the criticism as the result of fastidiousness, forgetful that an artist should not content himself with what is only good, but should always aim to select those effects which are most beautiful, and which are within his compass. The constant variation of the forms of shadows is such, that most painters of landscapes have, with the exception of a few leading lines, consulted their general impressions, rather than confine themselves to the minute imitations of them; except such as express the variety of the surfaces on which they are thrown; and then even the thickness of a reed, so far from being neglected in the variation of the shadow which crosses it, should have the latter exaggerated rather than omitted. Therefore, instead of the sweeping and instanta- neous method so often adopted, in throwing shadows over roads, the pupil should rather moderate the quickness of his pencil to the motion of a beetle in crossing the same, who having to mount over pebbles and the gentlest elevations, and descend into the smallest hollows, will well describe the irregularity of line, most common to shadows on such surfaces. It will be found, that most objects, if lofty, should have their upper portions in light, as being above the shadows of any other objects; and as the great and general shadows on such objects as churches, cathedrals, and towers, are mostly produced by clouds, they should be softened into the lights: for any distinct form of shadow might overpower the effect of delicate ornament, and parts which are but gently relieved. The improvement in shadows being thrown on the lower parts of the buildings, is this, that by leaving the warmth on the upper parts, which are generally most attractive, it leads the eye to them, and relieves them better against a cool or neutral sky; while the neutrality of colour on the lower portions and bases, not only assists the grandeur, by making them appear at a greater distance from brick houses, and other objects over which they rise, and on which so much locality of colour should be thrown, as by contrast will impart an impression of unity and simplicity, which will add much to the stateliness of the edifices which tower above them. As the cheerfulness of sunshine is best expressed by the display of sunbeams, a gentle degree of mist might be introduced for their production; but as this kind of atmosphere may, at times, not reach more than a hundred feet in height, it may admit of a moderate degree of decision, in the forms of clouds and other objects in the upper portion of the picture: but that part of the same kind of atmos- phere, through which we see the distance and horizon, will, as it contains several miles in space, render the lower part of the sky more flat and uniform in its tints, with very little variety or distinction of forms. PROGRESSIWe DRAWING. 53 The real climax of dazzling brightness consists of a small portion of the purest white, which is the colour of the sun, and of the bright clouds near it, at mid-day. It is a most exquisitely beautiful effect in nature, when, in the midst of a quantity of gray or bluish reflected light, an additional degree of variety is produced by the reflection of any warm yellowish object, or cloud; for the centres of all things which are cool, are benefited by a warmth of tint, and all warm ones, by coolness or neutrality. The old dirty remains of painting on ships and barges is much improved by the paint being partially worn off, so that in the midst of a red, a dusty neutral colour should appear; and that a light bluish colour should be broken by a somewhat yellowish reddish colour of a first ground, or the raw wood, being in small spots or breaks seen through. One of the greatest perfections of colouring seems to exist in the alternate succession of colour and neutrality, adapted to the light and shade of the picture, so as to keep the bright colour on lights, and browns and deep grays on shadows and middle tints. Red is par. ticularly injurious when mingled with shadow; but valuable in distinct objects, which come against or in the midst of shadows; for this reason, in the midst of a pure gray or greenish shadow reflected in water, the reflection of a reddish house, or the warm painted colours of a vessel or figure, afford a most valuable variety or diversity, for it is observed by painters, that the influence of a red object, is such as leaves an impression on the eye or memory, which is in a degree carried to other parts of a picture, so as to balance the coolness or absence of colour, in the other portions of the same. But it must be observed, that red should, when relieved in figures, against a distant gloom or a depth of shade, be generally treated as a half tint; for a figure that hath a red waistcoat, or a woman with a red cloak, to relieve with strong effect, requires the point of opposition between the dark shade and colour, to be heightened by the appearance of a white handkerchief, or the white sleeves of a shirt, which should intervene. The extreme difficulty which most young artists experience, is to dispense with some portion of the cool tint which they see pre- vailing in nature, and which then creates no offence to the eye of taste, owing to the general diffusing of the light, and the air tones, which are generally overlooked in small distances; therefore they are apt to get several cool tones nearly of the depth of shade, which in nature would, in relation to a dark near object, appear only as a middle tint. Now as the weight and quantity of cool or warm colour, does not depend on the space alone which it covers, but in its intensity and depth, it will shew the necessity of flatness and purity of tint, and good forms in water colour paintings; for it is a general practice with beginners, and many others, when they have had an excellent 54 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. gray or silvery tint in their brush, to lay it so uneven on the paper, or so wrong in form, that they are tempted to repeat the same tint over again, in order to hide the faults. Instantly these two right tints become a wrong one, and too cold; and therefore, it is best in those instances to sponge the first tint down, and renew it again only to the right depth; and all washes and tints in water colours, should be acted on by the paper beneath, which should in some degree be seen through, even in the darkest masses; for the quality and beauty of this tint is lost, whenever the colour is so thick as totally to hide the ground on which it is laid. But the transparency will generally exist in the deepest first tints, which are laid smooth or flat, as it usually requires two or three washes to destroy or hide effectually the ground underneath; and as the weakness of the gray tints admits of the warmth which exists in paper, (though generally called white.) being seen through. It may be found that the greatest portion of a picture may be painted with light gray tints, like the tone of mist, without looking cold. The method of partially intercepting one object by another, in order to subdue it, for the sake of elevating a third object, is one of the most valuable expedients in the art, and is very prevalent in the works of the great masters. Thus if a mountain and a castle excite too equal an interest, by bringing a very small portion of the foliage of a tree over a part of the building, the latter becomes subdued, and the mountain acquires an additional importance and distinction; but if the architectural object constitutes the subject, then, by intercept- ing a portion of the mountain, the building will receive the spectator's principal attention; especially if the summit of the mountain be partially obscured or enveloped in clouds. White foreground animals should have warmish and yellowish colour gently mingled with shadows, with the whiter portions in the higher lights alone; for pure gray shadows belong, more properly, to the shadow of snow or distant white objects; and as faintish red or flesh colour is an agreeable variety to whitish colours, these tints may be frequently found in the under parts of cows, from their chins to their teats; and it is better that palish gray tints, in portions too light to appear as offensive spots, should intervene betwixt the white and the reddish tints. This principle is also useful when applied to other subjects; as when the red tiles are prevented from clashing with the white plaster front of a cottage, by the intervention of grayish or neutral toned rafters, or shadows from the overhanging tiles. THE THEORY OF EFFECT. The generally received meaning of the word effect, is that scientific arrangement of form, of light and shade, and of colour, by which an artist skilled in its rules renders his representations of nature more striking, attractive, and beautiful, than he, who equally clever in the mere imitation of objects, is at the same time totally ignorant of the principles of effect; for the student must not suppose that a per- ſect representation of an object in nature is sufficient; no—he must also learn to know whether that object be in a good state of light and shade, colour, &c. before he makes a drawing of it; and should he never be able to see it in that state, he must supply the deficiency from his own imagination according to those rules which every artist of merit possesses, I might say intuitively, as there are many who, at the same time that they are capable of producing a very good effect, are also unable to say by what rules it is produced. Effect consists in the proper admixture and skilful union of the two opposite qualities of which it is composed, and which are called contrast and harmony; should either of these exceed too much the power of the other, the effect will be bad; for should contrast predo- minate too powerfully, it will be disturbed, scattered, crude, and want repose; and should too much harmony prevail in the picture, the effect will be tame, spiritless, monotonous and poor. By contrast is meant opposition or difference of either form, light and shade, or colour; as for example, in regard to form: a round object forms a contrast to a square object, because the one is different or in opposition to the other, inasmuch as the shape and form of each object, are, in no ways, the same; by the same rule light is the contrast of shade, and red of green. By harmony is meant the unity, agreement, or sameness, of either form, light or shade, or colour: thus a picture, in which a same- ness or similarity of shapes and lines, of light or of shade, and of colour, prevail, the whole will possess a great deal of harmony with but little effect. ON CONTRA ST. On Forms. Whateven form is different to another is a contrast to it. Forms are made by lines and by light and shade. An horizontal line is contrasted most strongly by a perpendicular line. A line is contrasted by any other line which is not parallel to it, and which, if continued, would intersect it; thus in fig. 1, the line A B, is a contrast to CD, because if continued to E, it would intersect the line CD. ºb Fig. 1. *> id A straight line is intersected by any irregular or crooked line, as also by any curved line; in fig 2, the straight line of the bridge is contrasted by the irregular line of the mountains, as well as by the curved line of the arches. line. A straight line is also contrasted by any angle, as in fig. 3, where the pyramids form a contrast to the straightness of the horizontal PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. 61 A curved line is contrasted either by a straight line or a curved line placed in an opposite direction, as in fig. 4; the dome of the building is contrasted both by its straight sides and the line of the clouds, which curve in a different direction. A serpentine line is best contrasted by any straight line as in fig. 5; the line of houses forms an opposition to the windings of the river. Long objects may be contrasted by short ones, as in fig. 5, the long line of buildings is opposed by the clump of trees which come against it, whilst the straight line of the top is contrasted in all its length by the irregular line of the mountain behind. A heavy form is contrasted by a light one, as the heavy form of the post in fig. 6, is contrasted by the lightness of the weeds which grow near it. Any smooth, flat surface, such as water, ice, clear sky, &c. may be contrasted by the opposition of any rough, massive form. Thus, in fig. 6, the smoothness of the water is contrasted by the rough irregular form of the lump of stone introduced into the foreground. (52 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. Forms which are square and hard are best contrasted by those objects which are soft and round: as the square tower in fig. 7, is relieved by the soft, round rolling clouds which it stands against. - - --> The rugged forms of rocky mountains may also be contrasted by the softness of large rolling clouds, as in fig. 5. Large objects are contrasted by smaller objects, as in fig. 8, the large tree is rendered more conspicuous by the introduction of the smaller ones placed near it, and whose lightness of form gives value to its weight. A very low, horizontal line, increases the height of any upright object, as in fig. 9, where the figure is rendered of a most gigantic size, by representing the horizontal line not much higher than the ankle. ON THE CONTRAST OF LIGHT AND SHADE. We may divide light and shade, or chiaro-scuro, into light, which springs immediately from the object which gives the light, as the sun, moon, candle, &c.; reflected light, which is first received on one object, and then thrown back on to another; shade, which is caused by the part of the object which is in shade being in such a situation that it cannot receive the light; and shadow, which is the absence of light, (on a part which ought otherwise to receive the light,) by the intervention of an opaque object, as in figure 6, where a shadow is thrown on a part of the ground which would be in light like the rest, were it not for the post, which being opaque, prevents the light from reaching that part of the ground, and thus causes that absence of light which constitutes shadow. Note.—Shadows always fall in a direction from the object which gives light, as the sun, moon, &c. Reflected light is always thrown in a different direction to the real light, and for that reason almost always falls on the shade sides of objects, by which they are rendered lighter than their shadows, as in fig. 6, where the post is lighter than the shadow cast by it. It is for this reason that the bottom of the shade sides of objects are generally lighter than the top, as receiving the reflected light more powerfully; it is also occasioned by the contrast of the dark shadow which springs from it, as every dark object is rendered lighter by the contrast of any darker object coming against it, in the same manner, that every object is rendered darker by the contrast of any light. er object, every degree of light and shade possessing only a relative value, as the same strength of colour in one part of a picture consti- tutes a bright light, whilst in another part it forms a deep shade. It is also a custom, in describing a picture in regard to effect, to divide all the different degrees of light and shade into the light, the dark, and the middle tint, of which latter there is generally the most in a well-painted picture, as the middle tint includes the generality of shade as well as all the reflected lights. We shall now proceed to explain the nature of the contrast of light and shade. Light is the contrast of shade, and shade is the contrast of light. A dark shade is a contrast to a lighter shade; and vice versa. A bright light is a contrast to any other light which is not so bright. Small and agitated lights are best contrasted by large dell flat shades. In the same way, a mass of building which is in shade, may be relieved and contrasted by perforations, which admit the light, as in fig. 10, where the dark side of the ruined abbey is relieved, and rendered less heavy by the windows through which is seen the light of the evening sky. 64 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. The strongest contrast to a light is by making that light the only light in the picture, all the rest being in shade. A square flat shade is best contrasted by any small irregular lights, as in fig, 11, the squareness of the dark tomb is contrasted by the light leaves of the bramble which hang over it. Every light or shade may be contrasted by a light or shade of a different form, according to rules given for the contrast of form. O N H A R M. O. N. Y. Every line is in harmony with another when it runs parallel with it, whether it be a straight or a curved line: thus, in the annexed figure, there exists a perfect harmony in the lines of the two mountains which follow one another, and in the straight lines of the two rows of houses, and square lump of stone, in the foreground, and the straight lines of the water. From this example, the student will readily perceive what is meant by harmony of forms;–in the same way, the harmony of light and shade exists in a picture where the lights or the shades are of the same degree of strength throughout. With regard to the harmony of colours the same simplicity exists, and consists in a sameness of tints which pervade the whole of a picture. Thus, when a drawing or painting exhibits a general tone of green, red, yellow, gray, &c. it possesses a great deal of harmony, for a colour bears the greatest harmony towards itself, as red to red, after which those colours which have the greatest mixture of red in them, such as orange, red grays, &c. The above explanations, though short, will be fully sufficient to shew the meaning of harmony: the proper union of which, with the rules of contrast, constitute what is generally termed effect. THE COLOURS. BLUE is the shade of the distant hill, Of the sky, and the stream, when the wind is still: The glorious depth of the Purple's shade, And the strength of the GREEN by Blue, are made; While of all the colours from Nature's mint, The Blue is the pride of the Neutral Tint. LAKE is the blush upon beauty's cheek, The fading light of the sunset streak; The purple mist on the mountain side, Is formed by the Lake with Blue allied; And hill and tower from the foreground break. And sink into distance, touched with Lake. Say, what were Green, if GAMRoge were not.— The hemlock grove or the vine-clad grotº– Each varying tint, from the darkest hue. To the leaf, which deprived of sun light, grew. Would turn but a cold, dull shade to heaven. Without the warmth by Gamboge given. Burnt UMBER produces the shadow dark Of the foreground rock, and the dented bark; It deepens the Green of the hemlock's shade, And lends a gloom to the twilight glade: Too warm for the mists which in distance slumber, The nearest the eye is the home of Umber. WERMILion tints the boat's bright streak, And joins with Lake on the peach's cheek. It shines on the flag—on the soldier's breast– Or waves in air on the nodding crest; But never can mix with the tender hues, Which sun lit skies o'er the land diffuse. There is SEPA too, from the depths of ocean, Where the cuttle fish hides with its hue his motion; The warm soft tint o'er the landscape thrown, When the painter uses a shade alone;— Whose touch of life in the foreground set, Retains its strength when no longer wet.* - All colours, except this one, look less spirited and forcible when dry, than when first laid on 56 THE COLOURS. And what were the lights of the sunset sky— The pale cold Greens which in distance lie, Without the painter's worst provoker, The muddling tint of Yellow Ochre; Which flies from the foreground it ne'er could grace, And finds in the distance its fitting place. WENETIAN RED is the rival proud, Which Light Red meets in both earth and cloud: And, conqueror too, we see it smile In the Neutral Tint or the broken tile; And the Indian Ink from each hue will fly To Venetian Red, its lone ally. Bright Bunst SIENNA thou warmest thing Which Earth to the painter's box can bring.— Thou pride of the Autumn's gorgeous Green, Thou chief in the foreground of every scene— One touch of thee, and the darkest shade A hue of life and of joy is made. Cold Raw Sienna and UMBen Raw! With you in our brush we but seldom draw: Two selfish colours, that ever refuse Smoothly to mix with their sister hues:– "Tis the rail and the earthy bank, alone, That take from the Umber's tint their tone. There's the misanthrope hue of INDIAN INK, From which the colours of Nature shrink: There is Roy AL YELLow, whose strength will hide The darkest shade it is plac'd beside: And to make a spot of neglected light, There's the sloven's cake of cold FLAke White. There is Neutral Tint, Lake, Yellow and Blue, The rolling storm cloud's shadowy hue- The shifting mist on the mountain's breast– The wave's dark shade 'neath its foaming crest.— The magic cloak o'er the landscape thrown, Which makes the distance “Enchantment's" own. Such, such are the tints which, in Warley's hand, Turn a spotless sheet to a sun-bright land, And keep from destruction the weltering flood Of Summer's sunshine on Summer's wood. Such, such are the means, which Art has given To mimic on paper the tints of Heaven. E. WAN BLos. AN EXPLANATION OF TECHNICAL TERMS, AND ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTIONS. WITH BRIEF ELUCIDATIONS, THAT THEIR IMPORT MAY BE MORE FULLY AND CLEARLY UNDERSTOOD. ..] Tint, signifies a colour reduced to a fluid by mixing it with water in the following manner. Dip the cake into a little water, and rub it in a saucer, till you have got off as much of the colour as you think proper. Then with a pencil mix it well, adding water as you find it necessary. Tint is likewise used occasionally in its ordinary signification, implying difference of colour or hue. ..] Tint passed over, or laid in, implies, that it is spread evenly with a pencil thus: Dip the pencil into the tint, pass it gently on the edge of the saucer, and then spread it over your drawing by slow movements, keeping a regular supply of colour in the pencil, till the space is covered. To keep the pencil equally charged is highly essential, and may be thus ascertained. If too much be taken, it will ſlow loosely, and prevent your describing any shape with correctness: if too little be taken, the pencil will pass over the part without yielding its proper force of tint. ..] Tint floated, or washed, is applied chiefly to broad spaces, and requires to be done with expedition thus: With the pencil nearly full commence at a part where the suddenness of the application is of least consequence, and spread the wash, observing to keep it full at the edge till the space is covered. Sºftening off, is applied to the edge of a wash reduced gradually, while in its floating state, till no appearance of it remain. It is effected by continuing the floating edge with a pencil just sufficiently wet with fair water to make the hair retain its true shape, occa- sionally touching the water with the pencil, as the facility of using it is impeded by its becoming too dry. Blending, is where Tints gradually unite with each other. It is produced by softening off one tint to the right, over one previously softened off to the left. Touching, is the application of heavier Tints, to produce force, spirit, &c. Cutting in, is the filling a space with exactness. Hatching, is the passing of a number of touches or marks side by side of each other. Marking, is the giving of shape, &c. Kept quiet. Repose. Stillness, these different terms are applied to a part undisturbed by useless light or violent colouring. 6-1 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING. The principal, is that object, or part of a Landscape by which the eye is first attracted. Warm, Hot tints are those that approach to yellowness or to redness. Cool Tints, are those approaching to blueness. Neutral Tints, are those which do not from their force, or colour, destroy the effect or harmony of the adjoining tints. Lights, are those parts of objects which are so placed as to receive the greatest degree of brilliancy. Half Tint, is applied to denote that part of an object which is situate obliquely with respect to the light, or more generally the in- termediate between the light and the shade. Shade, is that part of an object which is directly opposite to the part receiving the light. Keeping, is the so ordering of the Colours, with respect to force and tint, that every thing shall appear in its proper place, and at its due distance, in the Landscape. Thus if any colour be too glaring, the object on which it is, will be brought too forward, and be out of keeping. The END. 463 38, 34933 - T -- IB.A. iſ a CD Iſ Nyſ (O R. His º, ), 2 º zº , , ( %/ º/ ( – º, (. %, * – ºn U CAS” PROGRESSIVE DRAWING BOOK, PART III. P E R S P E C T IV. E. isstaccross for corrisa rue frostispiece—the eye is a sufficient guide in copying landscape, but as the minute detail of perspective requires mathematical correctness, the learner must proceed with his rules, squares and dividers. The line of sight must be drawn first in copying the frontispiece—it is the centre line of the three on the margin. The distance of the highest point of the capital of the column and the lowest point of the base of the monument from this line must then be found, and lines drawn from these through the upper and lower lines of the margin, (which should be transferred to the copyist's paper) will give the vanishing points, and ought tomceton the line of sight. These points being established the rest must be determined by correct measurement. išaltimort: PUBLISHED BY FIELDING LUCAS, JUN-R, No. 138 MARKET STREET. John D. Toy: PRINTER. PREFACE. The following Treatise on Perspective, forms the third part of Lucas's Progressive Drawing Book. As the object has been to offer the best models and the latest improvement in the art, without regard to originality, Varley's Treatise, which stands first among the practical essays on perspective, is reprinted here. In doing this the compiler thinks that no excuse is necessary—one part of his object being to place the expensive English works upon the subject, within the reach of an American learner. In the execution of the plan the simplest methods are chosen; and as it is intended, not as a scientific, but as a practical work, it may be the more acceptable; the objects inserted being among those most frequently attempted, and placed in those points of view in which they are generally seen in nature. As the various parts of the science help to explain each other, the whole may be considered as one example included in a single sheet. Its object is not to teach the Pupil to draw from Plans or Measurements, which is the practice of Architectural and Mechanical Draughtsmen; for the use of whom most works on Perspective, hitherto published, have been written; but for those, principally, who draw by their eye from nature, and others, who departing from the geometrical proportion of the objects before them, from choice or error in judgment, feel the necessity of making one part of the object consistent with the other in its perspective delineation. In works of this nature, the matter must fully occupy the attention of those who desire to profit by them; therefore, the frequent repetition of terms, and the digressions necessary to render them more intelligible, are not so likely to offend as in works of taste or fancy. PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. PERSPECTIVE is the art of drawing outlines of objects in nature, as they would appear to the spectator on a plane of glass, set upright between himself and the objects, and viewed by him from a point exactly in the centre, where the rays of vision meet, between the two sides. DEFINITIONS. HoRIZONTAL LINES. The Horizontal Line is the proportion of height between the top and bottom of the plane, or picture, at which the spectator views the same. It would, in most cases, look formal if placed across the middle of the picture, so as to divide it in half; therefore, Claude Lorraine has generally made it about one-third the height of the picture from the ground line, or bottom of the plane or picture, and which is the most natural appearance for open landscape, where the sky and trees are pre-eminent in the space they occupy. Point of SIGHT. Gasper Poussin frequently placed his horizon about one-third from the top of the picture, which inclined it to a bird's-eye view, where the land appears much larger in space than the sky. On the centre of this line, all the lines of objects which go direct from the spectator, vanish; which place is called the point of sight, and those lines which go obliquely from him, vanish on other points of the same line. This line is the height of the spectator's eye; therefore, above it, no pool of water, nor any surface which is level can be seen; and, on it, all objects, however large, vanish in a point. 6 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. NATURAL, HORIZON. The natural horizon, formed where the sea and sky meet, owing to the convexity of the earth, is a little below the perspective horizon, which is in distance infinite; but, in the horizon of the sea, the distance is, to a person standing on shore, about five miles; and, therefore, the tops of vessels can be seen beyond it; and, on a mountain, 3,000 feet in height, this horizon is about 60 miles in distance: and far beyond this, mountains may be perceived, and this horizon, rises of course, to the height of the mountains on which the spectator stands. WANISHING Point. Therefore, to point to an object on the floor where you stand, you must lower your hand; and, if it were at the farthest end of the room, to direct your hand to it, you must raise it: if it were at five miles distance, to point at it, the hand must be raised to the height of your eye, and, if a line of objects were as many miles in length, equally extended on the ceiling, to point from the objects over your head to those in the greatest distance, you must lower your hand to the height of your eye. In the same manner, the sides of the room, right and left, would, as they receded from the spectator, incline to the centre of the end of the room, at a point the height of his eye, provided he stood in the centre between the two sides of the room, looking directly down towards the end of it. Like- wise, if a spectator, with a long string in his hand, were to look at the reflection of his own eye, in a perpendicular looking-glass opposite to him, and his friend were to hold the other end of the string against the glass, so as to intercept the spectator's view of his own eye therein; if the latter were to raise his end of the string so as to make it parallel to the upper or lower line of the right or left side of the room, where they meet with the ceiling or floor, the line of each side of the room would appear to go down into his eye in the glass; through which place, the horizontal line would be drawn, if it were a picture; on which, at the place where he views his eye in the glass, is the point of sight, which is always in the middle of the picture: because no one would hold a frame, or glass, before him, to see a view through, without placing it so that his own head should be in the centre; and it must be observed, that if he should move, wherever his eye would appear to him in the glass, there would be the point, to which the two sides of the room would vanish. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Figure A. Plate 1, represents the outline of a building, the drawing of which should be commenced on the following principles: having, first, agreeably to your taste, if designing by your eye, or a guiding rule, if sketching from nature, determined and drawn in the order in which they are numbered, the lines, No. 1 and 2, which are the highest horizontal lines, and on which, as their inclinations to their vanishing points are greater than any of the other lines, the first perspective appearance of a building generally depends: next, proceed with No. 3, 4, and 5, observing that, as No. 4, is the longest and nearest perpendicular line, it is more proper to determine its length, first, as at C and B, it being more convenient to mark on that the measure of the window, &c. and by it to determine the hori- zontal line, which is the height of the spectator's eye from the point B. Attention must be given to the proportion of the objects mark- ed on the line 4: for, if the whole length of this line, from B to C, were thirty feet, and the height of the spectator's eye only five feet, the horizontal line could only intersect it at one sixth of its height; and for forming a ready judgment of the height of the horizontal line, the draughtsman may suppose his own figure as at B, provided the ground he stands upon to view the picture be level with the bottom of the house where the figure stands, at B; but, should the spectator stand upon a hillock five feet in height, the horizontal line would then be ten feet in height, and intersect the line 4, at one third of its height; and, if he should be in a hollow, five feet below the bottom of the house, the horizontal line would then cross the bottom of the house at B, the spectator's eye being five feet in height from the ground whereon he stands. Having drawn the horizontal line according to the above instructions, continue the direction of the line No. 1, till it meets with the horizontal line, which it will do at the point 7, which being the vanishing point of the whole of the surface. BCFG, will enable the draughtsman, by drawing the line No. 9, from the point B to the point 7, to determine at the point G, the perspective height of No. 3. This being completed, continue the line 2 till it meets the horizontal line on the other side of the building at S, by which means the vanishing point for that side of the building is found; and, by drawing a line from that point, to the bottom corner at B, the perspective length of No. 5, is determined in the same manner as 3, on the other side. Then, in order to find the point of the gable end H, first find the perspective centre of the line No. 2, by drawing the diagonal lines 11 and 12, from the corners C and D, to B and E; then, from the corner C to K, raise the proportion which the height of the gable bears to the line 4. This geometrical height being determined at K, draw the line 13, from thence to the vanishing points; then draw the perpendicular line 14, from the diagonal centre J: and, where it intersects the line 13, at H, is the true perspective height of the roof at that place. s PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. In sketching from nature, the diagonal and the vertical line 14, are all that are necessary: for by the last method, should the gable be drawn higher or lower than the real or apparent height, it would not exhibit any perspective distortion, whereas the gable might be drawn exactly true in height, but, by wanting a right centre, be very offensive to a correct eye. The draughtsman may now proceed to find the relative perspective distances and situations of the windows, &c. between the points C and F at the top of the building, by the following rules. First, draw a horizontal line L. from the point C; then choose a point on the horizontal line, such as N, that it may give good intersections on the upper line No. 1, to such lines as may be drawn from it; then draw the line 0 through the point F till it intersects the line L, at M. The space on the line from M to C, must then be considered as the geometrical length of the house; and as this whole geometrical measure, M and C. exactly corresponds in length with the whole perspective space between F and C, when viewed from the point N, so will a line drawn from a division of half of the geometrical space, M and C, to the point N, give on the perspective line No. 1, the perspective half, and so on with any other proportion, set off on the geometrical line and drawn to N. The corresponding parts in the perspective line, F and C, found by the above means, require the same number of perpendicular lines, drawn downwards from the intersections on the above line, and which will represent the perspec- tive width of the windows, &c. The situation, with regard to the height and length of which, must be determined on the principal and nearest corner line No. 4, it being the most convenient line on which the perpendicular measure of those objects may be marked, as at No. 15 and 16, from whence, two lines being drawn to the vanishing points 7, by intersecting the above mentioned vertical lines, give the true height of the top and bottom lines of the windows. It is here necessary to observe, that the point N, on the horizontal line, might have been more to the right, or to the left, without making any difference in the proportion of the intersections on the line No. 1. provided the line drawn from it is continued through the corner F: for had it been more to the right, and in consequence, intersected the line L. at a greater length from C; yet, as the measures of the windows, &c. must then have been adjusted so as to bear the same relative proportion to the line L, as they now do in the example, the intersection on the line 1, then becoming more oblique, would have caused the intersections on the line 1, to come exactly the same as they now are: Proceed with the building, Figure B. Plate 1, in the order with which the Figure A commenced, which may be imitated in its principle with ease, until you come to line 13, as their figures and significations so far correspond; and the only differences which may be found, consist in the diagonal being used on the left side of the building, instead of the right; on which last, the diagonal in the Figure A is placed; and, in the line No. 1, being a little higher at the point C, than the line 2 would be, if carried to that corner, owing to the difference in the designs of the buildings only; and differing in No. 13, where the height, which, in Example A, is set off from C to K, is not used; but the first slant, CH, of the gable, depends on the judgment, and by intersecting, when so drawn, the PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 9 vertical line No. 14, already drawn, determines its own height. Now, it must be carefully remembered, that all lines which, like the hands of a dial, are level with the side of the building on which they are fixed and are horizontal, vanish at the same point at which the top and bottom lines of that building must vanish; and if, when thus horizontally placed, the farthest point from the spectator is lifted up, as the hand of a clock must be when altered from 9 to 11 o'clock, while the spectator stands on the side on which the figures for 3 o'clock are placed, this line must, if continued, vanish upwards, so as to find a point in a line, exactly vertical to the vanishing point of the side of the building on which it is placed, and which vertical line should be previously drawn, as at P, which is on a line vertical to the vanishing point No. 7, on the horizontal line; but should the hand of a clock be moved downwards from nine o'clock to seven, it would then vanish exactly at the same distance below the point No. 7, as the former vanished above it, at the point P; consequently, the line HR, must express as truly the line HF, as the line CP, determines the centre part, HC; but, as the point F had been previously determined, by the line C, drawn to the vanishing point No. 7, the use of the point R is superfluous, for the nearest building; but, if you had to represent a long series of houses, with gables of the same geometrical height and width, continued in the same line, its use would then be manifest, as, by first drawing the line H 7, to regulate the height, you have only to rule from the farthest corner F, which has been determined, up to the point P; then, from where it intersects the line H 7, as at No. 17, draw another line down to the point R, and where it intersects the line, No. 1, 7, it gives another corner, as at T, to proceed with for the other buildings, as U, V, &c. But the principal use of this rule, and its general importance, consists in its determining how much more the roof on the right hand inclines to the left, at D 2, than at CH, by going to the point P, as the neglect of this rule, is not only visible in works of beginners, but in publications for instruction, wherein the line 2 and D, are made discordant with HC, as in the little erroneous outline marked AB, Plate I, which two lines, instead of meeting upwards, as in the point P, in the Example B, Plate I, would, if continued, meet below the building. The side of the chimney, bounded by the line K. vanishes to 7; that bounded by L. vanishes at the point 8, as K is parallel to the side of the building of which No. 1, is the upper line under the gable, and L is parallel to the right-hand side of the building. The deviating from this rule, is apparent in the figure CD, Plate I; when the line of the chimney, marked X, goes upwards instead of down- wards, to a vanishing point, such as No. 7, in the Example B. Plate I. The great use of the diagonal lines, in finding the true perspective centres of gables, &c. is manifest by observing the continual errors of those unacquainted with them; and in the Figure CD. Plate I, is an example accompanied with the usual error, wherein you may perceive the perpendicular line from the point of the gable R, which, instead of falling through the point at Y, nearer to the line S than to T, is, in this outline, the reverse; and this error is more remarkable, as we may suppose, that the only fault, resulting from ignorance, would be to place the point of the building as in reality it is in nature; that is in the geometrical, instead of the perspective centre, and 3. 10 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. not, as is frequently the case, to double the error, by making the nearest half of a surface less than the farthest; but, this error is so prevalent, that it is often perceived, even in the cottages of Teniers, but the fault is in a measure concealed by his other excellencies. The next fault, proceeding from the neglect of the principles in the Example B, Plate I, may be perceived in the building CD, Plate I, where the point O rises, instead of falling lower than the corresponding point, at the top of the line T, whereas it should have inclined downwards, on the principle of FC, in the Example B, Plate I. The farther use of the diagonal lines may be seen in the windows of the front of the house, Figure B, Plate I, and particularly in the windows of the tower end of the body of the church, Figure C, Plate I, where, having first drawn the nearest line of the windows No. 15, from the part where it intersects the diagonal, near to No. 12, you must draw a line to the vanishing point No. 7, and through the place where it intersects the other diagonal line No. 11, draw the farthest window line, to No. 13, by which means both the window lines No. 13 and 15, will be at the same perspective distance from the centre. If a line, as No. 16, near the church window, does not intersect any part of the diagonal, continue the line upwards or downwards: till it meets with the diagonal; from thence draw a line to the vanishing point No. 7, which will intersect the line No. 11; then, from the intersection, draw a perpendicular line, upwards or downwards, as may be required; and it will give the true perspective place for the counterpart of No. 16, in the other side of the window, and equidistant from the centre; but the top and bottom of the line must be determined by drawing two lines from the upper and lower parts of the line 16; and between both ends of the dotted line, at 17, is the true perspective length, at that place. In the front of the building B. Plate I, the width of the first window being determined accord- ing to taste; lines drawn to No. 7, from the two places where it intersects the diagonal, No. 12, give the corresponding intersections. For finding the situation of the tops of the spires, flagstaffs, &c. which are in the centres of the towers on which they are placed, the method used by many artists is to draw the perpendicular line for them exactly between the two outside lines of the tower on which they stand, as at figure 0, Plate 1. It is in the general views given of towers so near the truth, that it is used for expedition; but the following is the method for those who wish to do it according to the rules. To find the true perspective situation of the weathercock, Fig. C. Plate 1, which must be over the perspective centre of the tower, the learner should first draw a line from the farther and upper corner of the right-hand side of the church, down to the vanishing point 7; then, from the farther and upper corner of the left-hand side of the buildings, draw another line to the vanishing point 8, out of the picture; by this method, these two lines, which could not be seen in nature, as they are at the back of the church tower, will, where they intersect each other, give the corner which is at the back of the building, and from which a line should be drawn to the nearest and highest corner of the tower of the church, for a diagonal; and it must be remarked, that as these two corners, although opposite, appear very near each other, this line will be very short; then, from the farthest corner, on the left-hand, draw another diagonal line to the farthest corner PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 11 on the right-hand, and from where these two intersect each other, draw a perpendicular line to the height required for the weathercock, which will be in its true situation, when placed upon this line. But, at R, in the figure M. Plate II, this method is practised from the lower lines of the building; but, as the intersections are more oblique at the bottom of a building, the above method is preferable, as a small error will throw the centre out of its right place; but in the figure R, Plate II, the top line S, being horizontal, which makes it what is called Parallel Perspective, the centre T, found by this rule, is not exactly between the outsides 0 and W. This method, although agreeable to the rules of perspective, yet giving the appearance of distortion, should be generally avoided. Figure C, Plate I, in the Example of the church spire, which has eight sides, in order to place them equally on each side of the church tower, you must suppose the latter had been built no higher than the line 0; determine, according to judgment, the bottom of the line of the spire P, with regard to its distance from the line No. 4, then the line P, if continued, would have come to the front of the building at 0; then, from the corner, formed by the line 1 and 2, draw a diagonal line through the point, where the line P stops at 0, till it touches the line 3, through which place, at T, from the vanishing point 7, draw a line to R, which determines the true point to which the other diagonal line, from the upper corner at No. 1, should be drawn; then, from the point R, draw another line from the right-hand side of the church to the vanishing point 8, which point would reach, on the horizontal line No. 6, about thirteen inches and a quarter from the line 5, which is equal to the space from the top of the round tower 0, to the bottom corner line which bounds the plate on the right; and, consequently, would require the addition of a slip of paper fixed to the right-hand side of the picture, beyond which it reaches, except it is begun on a larger sheet of paper, which will do without joining. This measure can only be used for a copy of the same size. The line so drawn, from R to the point out of the picture, would intersect the line 5, at S, and from the points R and S, the other two diagonal lines must be drawn; and RS, by vanishing in the same horizontal line as RT, though in a different direction. makes the point S correspond with T in height, as S and T are in reality equidistant from R, though the perspective appearance makes them vary, and their geometrical height from the ground are exactly the same. These points being determined, and the diagonal drawn, next draw a short line from 0 towards the point 7, and the intersection made by it, on the opposite diagonal, will be the true place to rule the line v of the spire to; then, from where the line, passing through O. comes to the corner line 4, continue a similar line to the point out of the picture, and where they intersect the diagonal, on the right-hand side of the church, are the points, which exactly correspond in situation to those on the left-hand side, and to where you must rule the two remaining lines of the spire y and a faintly, after they pass below the top line of the tower; for, where the drawing is finished, this latter portion of lines must not be seen. But in this Example, they are dotted, that the method of finding may be remembered. Fig. D, Plate 2, represents a bridge. Here, as usual, the top line of the bridge, No. 1, is first begun and carried to C. from whence the line 2, which goes out of the picture, commences. The Figure, as before, determines the height of the horizontal line at 6, the 12 PRACTICAL PERSECTIVE. T - bottom line of the bridge, at B, having been previously determined; and, it must be remarked, that if the ground is level, it matters not whether the Figure stands near to or far from the bridge, as the head will always be on the horizontal line, though the place of the feet may vary. But, for readiness of judging the relative height, the Figure placed close to the house, in Example A, Plate I, is best; then having drawn the horizontal line 6, from the corner 5, continue the top line No. 1, down till it meets with the horizontal line at point 7, then, from B, draw the bottom line at the water's edge to the same point 7; then, agreeably to your judgment, draw the space which the span of the arch occupies, by making the two perpendicular lines 9 and 10; then draw a line from the corners, to the vanishing point 7, for the height of the inside line to the top of the arches; then, from the corner formed by the lines 8, 9, 10, and the bottom line from B to the vanishing point 7, draw the diagonal lines 11 and 12, and, in the centre, where they intersect each other, draw the perpendicular line upwards, till it intersects the line 8, and determines the key-stone of the arch, at 14, and downward, till it reaches the line which determines the lower part of the bridge, at the point F, which point is not only useful to find the true directions of the sides of the key-stones, but of all those round the line of the arch, and is of much importance, as many arches are spoiled by only one or two divisions of these stones being drawn to different points; and from this point F, two lines may be drawn to the corners above, where the two diagonal lines have just been drawn; then draw the line q, from the point at the key-stone, down to the point G, at the water's edge, and another line from 14 down to the point E. This will serve, in part, as a guide to draw each side of the arch by; then draw, by your eye, the farther side of the arch 17 from the point 14, down to G, and through where the arch intersects at o the line 15, drawn from F. You must draw a long line from the vanishing point 7; and where it intersects, at P, the line 16, which is the counterpart of 15, there is the point through which the corresponding nearer part of the arch, from 14, must be drawn in its progress to the point E. The Example G, Plate II, will more fully explain these rules; and the principal object is to make one line of an arch consistent with the other, though both may vary a little from the object in nature, and which, to beginners, is one of the most difficult things to accomplish without Perspective; and here the principle of the rim of the cart-wheel, Plate II, will be useful in drawing the rim of stones round the arch, where, as in the wheel, the upper part of the rim retains its relative height or width; and though the viewing the arch or wheel in front would make the rim appear equal all round; yet the side view would only operate in the sides to make them narrower; but, in the cart-wheel, and in the barrel, Plate II, this difference from the arch must be observed, that, as the surface of the rims inclines inwards with a chamfer, the nearest rim in the wheel at r, which, in a flat surface like the bridge, would be the largest, as being nearest, is here the narrowest, and the view might be so oblique as to hide it entirely, and yet leave the other side to view. This is often seen in the side view of Gothick arches. This rule is of the utmost importance, and should be felt as well as understood, as several persons who have professed the science, when drawing by their eye, have so far failed, that they have, in a side view of a wheel, made the width of the rim equal all round. PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 13 The next thing to be drawn is the buttress, which is of a triangular form; the size of which draw according to your judgment. The space of the buttress, where you intend it should join the bridge, describe by m, for the part nearest to you, and on the other side, which could only be seen by the buttress being transparent, describe by M, on the line 8: then draw from thence two perpendicular lines down to the bottom line. When the farthest line, M, falls to a point a little higher than where the buttress touches the water; then draw the two diagonal lines from m and n, to the bottom corners of the buttresses, and having, by this method found the centre, draw through it the perpendicular line to l, which now determines exactly half the space of the length of the bridge, and two arches from the point 9, to the point 20; now, to find this last point, which hitherto has not been determined, draw a horizontal line M, from the point 9; then, from the point q. or near it, as on the horizontal line 6, draw a line through the point l in the buttress, to the horizontal line above, where it determines the point 18, as the geometrical half of the length proposed, from 9 to 20; then, on the line M, from 1s, set off the same distance, as the point is is from 9; and, to that point 19, rule another line from the same point q, in the horizontal line 6, and where it cuts the line s at line 20, it gives, from m, the true perspective length of the span of another arch of the same size, which must be drawn on the same principle as the first arch; and, for the corresponding length of the space, from 9 to 8, which is expressed by the space from 20 to 21, draw the line J from the centre CE of the bottom of the buttress, through the nearer arch to the points, which here happens to cut at P, the line, which, in its way to the vanishing point 7, cuts the distant arch near 20, and it will give that place for a point, through which a line corresponding with J, and drawn from CE, must pass, which will cut the lines, and give the distance for 21; and, as the narrow space, between 20 and 21, represents the same space as is between 8 and 9, it shews the perspective diminution at that distance. As the buttress is triangular and comes to a sharp edge at the part which projects farthest from the bridge, the top of it, just under 18, is made horizontal; but had it been at right angles with the bridge, the top line would then have vanished to the point on the horizontal line out of the picture on the right hand, and that part of the line which is the farthest from the bridge, would, of course, be the highest. It must be remembered that the line 9, is only placed for a side line, for the convenience of drawing the diagonals, and is not meant to describe the nearer part of the bridge as projecting. If you continue the horizontal line 6, about seven inches and a half out of the picture, on the right hand side, at that place is the vanishing point for the line next the water, under the bridge from G to R, and for the direction of the horizontal division of the stones under the arch, and for all lines which are at right angles with the side of the bridge already drawn. Having determined the width, at R, agreeable to judgment, and drawn it to the point above mentioned out of the picture, draw another line from E to K, which could only have been seen if the bridge was transparent; then, from the point at 14, on the line 8, draw the dotted line to the point K, then, from the vanishing point 7, through the point R, and where it meets with the point K, is the point to where the line of the arch would appear to rest which springs from the point R: and, in the Example, that part of the line which is seen is marked stronger, and the rest 4. 14 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. - - is only drawn to serve as a guide for the true directions, which would be difficult to guess at, without the whole arch was supposed to be seen. Figure E, Plate II, to represent the width of pilasters, arches, &c. round a circular tower. The following method may be used, as the simplest. Having drawn the outside lines of the tower, 1 and 2, next make the point 4 and 5, of equal height from the level ground at its base; then draw a semicircle from those points, as in the Example, and, on the circumference, place the same number of measures of objects as are required in their true geometrical proportions to the semicircle, and from thence draw perpendicular lines downwards, and where they intersect the line 3, it will give the apparent situation, increase, and decrease of the width of windows and other objects, round the tower. It must be observed, that, in order to prevent objects from being distorted, when drawn truly in perspective, it is required by those who are tenacious of the rules of the science, that the spectator should stand at a distance sufficient to enable him to see all the objects on either side of the picture from one point without inconvenience or turning the head to view them; but, for the sake of describing a greater extent of country and objects, few artists, or amateurs of taste, scruple to represent on a flat picture a view inclining to panoramic; and as, in this case, the strict adherence to the rules of perspective would lead to distortion in the tops of circular towers, and objects placed at the extremities of the picture, they are often partially dispensed with in objects so placed. In this case, the two outside lines of a round tower, would, by an artist, be made of equal height, the same as if the tower was seen in the centre of the picture, where the sides are admitted to be of equal altitude as K and 0, Plate II, in the Example of the towers, as this last is the true impression received from the objects, whether on the right or left side of a view, to which the spectator will always turn his head; but, in perspective, as the spec- tator is supposed to view the objects as through a small hole from one point, without turning, and to draw them as from that place they would appear on a plane of glass, interposed between the spectator and the object, the tower at Z0, Plate II, by this method, would ap- pear distorted, as in the Example, and higher at that end which is farthest from the centre of the picture: but, as the best pictures are often viewed by several persons at the same time, the pleasure they afford arises, in part, from the forms of the objects being agreeable to the impression generally received, without regard to the practice of viewing them from one point, as a mechanical draughtsman may do, therefore, anything which might appear contrary to general impression, even to an inexperienced eye, is to be avoided, as nothing is gained to the mind in a picture in which the departure from the general idea is such as to require explanation or defence. It is therefore neces- sary to avoid what would appear as the abuse of perspective, in those works which are drawn with freedom, and where one part of the picture has no objects to support the distortion in another; for it must be remarked, that, as objects at a distance are always seen nearly in their true shape, if a hundred columns were drawn in a right line from the spectator, and of course vanish to the point of sight. the perspective variation or distortions of the curves, at their tops, would be so gradually led on from the distant to the nearer ones, that PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 15 the whole would look consistent; but if, in drawing two columns of equal size, and equally distant from the ground line of the picture, you were to make the one, which was in the centre of the picture, smaller in width than the one which, being near the edge of the pic- ture, is more distant from the spectator, this, though true according to the rules of the art, in a picture where the spectator is supposed to be very near to the centre of a row of objects delineated, would appear to reverse the general practice of the science, and would give the observer a false impression of the size of the objects. Most artists, therefore, when treating of a long front view of a temple, or other building, make all the columns of the same width as they would appear in a geometrical elevation, which last, when well shadowed, is often very satisfactory, considering the simplicity of the means; and it may here be remarked, that Nicolo Poussin, and others, who have practised the higher walks of landscape, blended with architecture, have chosen to represent many of their buildings at a moderate dis- tance, in such a point of view, that they differ little from elevations, their top lines being generally horizontal; and in them the principles of perspective are principally obvious in the different magnitudes of separate buildings, owing to their various distances, rather than in each building being conspicuous in its own perspective variation from its real form. The tower K. Plate II, although true with respect to the equality of height, in the points 1 and 2, is nevertheless given as an ex- ample of error in the sharpness of the top corners, at 1 and 2, instead of which, the curve at the top should melt into the outside lines as in the tower at 0, Plate II; and, as a small variation of line will produce the error, it is more necessary to guard the pupil against it. This fault may be perceived in the towers of many eminent painters of the old school, in several modern productions, and often in en- gravings made from paintings, which have been free from the mistake. Figure G. Plate II, exhibits, on a larger scale, the method of drawing arches, so as to make one side agree with the other; the first curve being drawn by the eye. Begin with the top line, 1 and 2. for the height, and with 3 and 4, next, for the width of the arch; then, 5 and 6 for the bottom lines, 7 for the horizontal line, and s for the vanishing point. No. 9 is a line drawn to give corners for diagonals, and to shew that any divisions, as from 9 to 6, large or small, ruled to the vanishing point, between the two perpendicular lines, 3 and 4, will serve to find the perspective centre of the space between those two lines, by diagonals drawn from the respective corners; as, a, b, e. d, formed by those four lines, 3, 4, 6, 9, &c. and will give, where they intersect, an equally true centre as can be obtained from the longer diagonal, 20 and 21; then draw the lines 10 and 11, and through their centre D. draw the perpendicular line 12, up to the point E. from which point rule the lines 13 and 14; then, as near as you can imitate by your eye, draw the curve g, of the arch; likewise, draw the lines 20 and 21; and through where 21 intersects the curve g. at +, draw the line 17, to the vanishing points, and where it intersects the line 20, it will give the point through which the curve of the arch h, must be drawn; then, from the bottom of the line 12, draw the lines 15 and 16, up to the corners formed by the lines 17, 3, and 4; and through where the line 15 intersects the curve g, at the point P. draw a line from the vanishing point; and where it intersects the line 16, near 0, is the point through which the curve h, must 16 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. be continued from the last point +: then, observe where the diagonal line 11, below, intersects the curve near the corner d, and, through that point, draw the line R, from the vanishing points; and where it intersects the diagonal 10, near c, which is the counterpart line of 11, is the point through which the lower part of the arch is to be drawn down to the corner a: if the learner would wish to be more particular, the greater the number of intersections he chooses to make, so many more points he may get to guide him; but, in general, the two above described, are sufficient. The next thing to be noticed is that the line 19, at the upper part of the side of the door on the left hand, which represents the thickness of the wall, goes to the vanishing points; and, it must be remembered, that this line, and the one which is at the bottom. never vanishes to the same point as that to which the side of the house goes to on which the doors are made, but always to the point where the horizontal lines of the other side of the building vanish; both sides of which we must suppose to be at right angles to each other, which is generally the case. Figure M. Plate II, exhibits the method of drawing from plans; but as that method is not recommended in this work, which rests on the eye and judgment for the commencement of the general proportions of objects, those who are desirous of acquiring a thorough knowledge of it, are recommended to the perusal of several eminent authors, whose aim is to give instructions in the science. A few remarks and examples only are here given to enable those who wish to proceed farther in the science, to attain some idea of the founda- tion and definition of its general principles. Having drawn the lines which bound your picture, draw the horizontal line, No. 1.; in the centre of which, is the point of sight S, at which point all level lines which proceed direct from the spectator, (or in the same direction, if distant from him on either side) and which are called right lines, vanish. The point T, is the point of distance, or transposed place of the eye, and is raised on a vertical line perpendicular to the point of sight S; from these points, the two points, V and U, are at equal distance; this distance is the proportion of space from the spectator's eye to the picture; and if the plate of glass through which he views the picture, be three feet long, and he views the landscape at three feet from the glass, the point of distance must then be of the same length as the picture, as the distances, U and V, make each an angle of forty-five degrees from the spectator's eye, they serve as vanishing points for all lines at that angle, right and left, from the eye; and the point T, for all lines to vanish to, which are elevated from right lines to that angle; and, as an angle of forty-five degrees is the diagonal of a square, if you carry any line to the point of sight from the ground line, (as from K to S.) or any other horizontal line which may be farther in the picture, and then intersect the line ks, by a line drawn from the point V, (but more conveniently from the point U.) to the ground line Wö, as at X, it will give a perspective space, (from its intersection m to K.) which represents the real length from X to K, and form a diagonal line on a perspective square, which line will incline forty-five perspective degrees from the ground line; the sides of all squares, or oblongs, which vanish in the point of sight being represented in the plans as PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 17 perpendicular lines. The length of any line, in its perspective representation, may be determined by drawing a line from the point T. to the extent of the space required to be found; as, for instance, the space from X, on the ground line, to No. 12 at the bottom of the plan; and where, at 13, the line from T intersects the line in the representation, which is drawn from X to the points of sight, is from that intersection to the point X, the representation of the exact quantity of space in perspective, as from X to 12, in the plan; and if an horizontal line be drawn through the point 13, from one side of the picture to the other, it will give, at its intersection, on any lines which are drawn through it, from any part of the ground line WG, to the point of sight, the same length in perspective, one with another; though, by some of the lines being drawn from the ground line, near the edge of the picture, as from G, they will, in representation, appear much longer than the one from X to 13, which is much nearer to the spectator. By these means, it may be perceived, that as the little apparently perpendicular line, under the point of sight, reaches to the horizontal line which intersects the point 13, it must, of course, be as long in reality as the long perpendicular one XV, near it, and of course the same length as from X to 12; but, lying flat under the point of sight to which it vanishes, it cannot incline one way or the other, but its lying down would become apparent as though it had been a walking stick, by its farther end decreasing, owing to its sides vanishing to the point of sight. Lay a rolling or parallel ruler to the lines, belonging to the side a square in the plan, and roll it up to the point T: a line then drawn by it down to the horizontal line, will give the point U, for the vanishing point of the lines, and all lines parallel to it, at any distance whatever, right or left, of the spectator; but the lines of the plans, distant from the ground line, must be all continued up to it; first, as the line 11, is from the corner of the square, in order to find the point from which to draw the line 11, in the representation, to its vanish- ing point V, but, as the lines 7 and S, 6 and 5, in the respective plans, are close to the ground line, nothing farther is required but to draw them to their respective points. It may be observed, that as S and d, in one square, and 6 and e in the other, are parallel to each other, they will all vanish in the point U, while the sides 5, e, and 11, being at right angles to the above, will go to the point V, on the other side; which point can be found by a parallel ruler applied to these lines, and carried up to the point T, and a line ruled from thence to the horizontal line, which it will intersect at the point V, in the same manner as was used in finding the point U; and, in whatsoever direction a line may be in the plan, the same method will always discover its true vanishing point: it must be observed, that, generally, the lines in representation, as in this Example, vanish in the contrary direction to the lines in the plans; but if the line 5, had been moved to W, on the left side of the ground line, the line in the plan and in the representation, and the one from T to V, would have been all three expressed in one long line. Figure D0, Plate II, represents three roads. No. 1, is going up hill, and, therefore, vanishes above the horizontal line, and is seen over the head of the figure walking up. No. 2, is a level road, and, therefore, vanishes in the horizontal line; and the head of the figure, which is of the same height as the spectator will be upon the horizontal line 4. No. 3, represents going down hill, vanishes below the 5 1S PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. horizon, and enables the spectator to see over the head of the figure, which, at a little distance from the ground line of the picture, appears very small, as nearly the whole distance from No. 1 to the line 6, may only represent a quarter of a mile; but the half of the space, from 3 to 7, may represent a mile. It must be observed, that the appearance of going down hill, in nature, depends on many auxiliaries, such as the seeing only the upper part of figures, &c. the lower parts being hid by part of the road; and, at a small distance, seeing over the roofs of buildings, which never could be seen to a spectator walking on a level road, and by the road decreasing more suddenly in width in the picture; whereas, in viewing a very steep hill, the road would appear nearly equal in width at each end; the lines of the buildings must, in every case, vanish somewhere on the horizontal line, except those belonging to the sides, which being parallel to the top and bot- tom of the picture, never vanish; in this case, the side which is at right angles to this last, always goes to the vanishing point in the centre of the horizontal line, called the point of sight. Figure OV, Plate II, represents the method of drawing a circle, where, agreeable to the method shewn in the Example M, Plate II, a square is represented in the plan, and the same found in its perspective representation; a circle is then drawn in the plan, and inter- sected by diagonals and lines, which, when found in the representation, will be a guide, as, by the corresponding perspective intersections. the circle can be drawn with ease. But, as a circle seen in perspective is always an oval, without attending to the rules of perspective, a learner may greatly improve himself by constantly drawing ovals of different curves. But as many persons, and even those professing some knowledge of drawing, have disputed its being a perfect ellipsis, it is necessary to state, that their error arises from forming, in their minds, a line which equally and geometrically divides in half the oval, as in Figure V, Plate II, instead of forming a perspective division, and then deciding that the oval must be wrong, because, in nature, the nearer half would have appeared to be larger than the more distant half; whereas, had they but divided it perspectively, as in the Examples OV and M. Plate II, they would have found as much difference between the two halves as their eye required. Example LM, Plate III, is the method to find the depth of reflections in water, if the object stand at the brink of a river: mark off from the base downwards, a space equal to the height of the object, as at No. 1, and this will represent the right measure of the reflection downwards; and if, in still water, the object stand at a distance, as at No. 2, you must still draw downwards from the base the same mea- sure as agrees with it in height, and mark only that part of the reflection which is seen in the water. To draw the Figure 3, which stands on a mount, measure the height of the top of the object, from the base of the mount, exactly under the monument; if you should view it from an eminence, and it should be near, for it must be remembered, that the form of the space a mount covers on the plain where it is raised, is generally a circle, and appearing in perspective, would be seen as an oval, and then the perspective centre of the oval would be the point from which to measure downwards, as much space as there is from the top of the PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 19 monument to this point. In such cases it will frequently be found that the ground will appear so wide, between the water and the monument, owing to its being viewed from a height, that very little or none of the reflection of the object can be seen in the water; but, to a person in a boat, the perspective appearance of the space of ground, would appear so narrow, that even if the object was at a distance, its base would appear nearly to touch the water's edge, by which means you would have almost the whole of the object reflected in the water. With respect to clouds and mountains, their apparent height should be set off downwards from the horizontal line, which the spec- tator must have determined previously; but, it must be observed, that though the knowledge of this method is very useful, yet, owing to the variety of lengths of reflections of the same object, owing to the frequent rippling of water, which renders the reflections very much longer than the objects, few artists ever make a formal application of the rules, as a clear reflection, like a looking-glass, would be gene- rally injurious to the reality of the appearance of the object reflected; but when lengthened, and softened off by rippling, the objects in nature gain effect, both by the difference in the decision and in the proportions of one to the other, and the eye is insensibly led from the faintest part of the rippling, up to the more solid termination of the real object. PP, Plate III, represents a spectator looking through the plane of his picture: the point where the rays from his eyes meet, is the point of sight, and is intersected by the horizontal line; the top of the vertical line is the distance of the spectator's eye, from the pic- ture transposed, and raised from the point of sight; the farther consideration of which is described in the explanation of the Drawing from Plans. GF, Plate III, represents an avenue; and it must be remembered, that it is in such views as these, wherein the path is straight before the spectator, that the point of sight is used, which is in the centre of the picture, and to which all lines, or rows of trees and buildings, going direct from the spectator, must vanish. Figure F. Plate III, is here inserted for practice, and the learner will find it very useful to copy it often. It must be commenced in the same manner as Example A, Plate I. Having determined the length of your building, and horizontal line and vanishing points, draw an horizontal line, 9, from the top of the line 4, and through the farther and upper corner of the building 19, draw a line which intersects the line 9, at 11, from the point N, on the horizontal line, which point, as explained in Example A, Plate I, is fixed there for convenience of intersection, and might have been a little more to the right or left, without making any difference; then determine the situation of the line 10, for the corner of the projection, according to your judgment; then draw a line through the corner 10 of the projection, to the line 9, which gives the point 12; then from the nearest and highest corner of the building, measure the distance to that intersection, and set off the same measure from 11, which will give the point 13; then from the point N, draw another line to 13; and where it intersects the line 2, at 16, is the opposite corner to that of the line 10: but as this corner could not have been seen in this point of view, its use with the corner 10, is this, that by drawing two lines, 20 and 6, from the vanishing point 7, through these intersections, 20 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. the top corner of the line 6, of the projection, may be determined, being drawn long enough to meet the top of the line 14, which line you must place according to your judgment; and, from the corner found by these two lines, 6 and 14, draw a line to the vanishing point 8; and where it meets with the line 15, drawn from the vanishing point 7, through the point 16, is the opposite corner of projection, from which the line 15 must be drawn downwards; but, as the end of the building 19, corresponding in distance from the centre with the line 4, is hid behind the projection, an additional measure is set off, on the line 9, at 18, so as to shew, by an intersection made at 17, by a line drawn from 18 to N on the horizontal line, the perspective appearance of that addition. In Figure 5, Plate III, the learner may see a very useful method of finding the true directions of lines without a vanishing point, or, when the point may be at too great a distance from the picture for the length of your ruler to reach. First, draw the skeleton of the building 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, to your taste; then, from the farther corner, 6 and 7, draw two horizontal lines; then, from the point 11, transpose the length of the nearest line 3, slanting it till it meet the line 10; then transpose any measure of the line 3, (as the space from s to 12) on the line 13, from where it meets the line 10 to 14; then, from the point 14, draw an horizontal line to the line 4, and, to where it intersects it, draw the line 12, and that line will be in a true direction to the same vanishing point as the other lines would go to, were they all continued till they meet; but, to make them all meet in a point, on the horizontal line of your picture, you must first draw that line; and, from where it intersects the nearest line, 3, of the building, slant the measure from that intersection to the points. in a line, till it meet with the line 10; then continue this slanting line as much longer below the horizontal line, as the space is from where it intersects the line 3, to the bottom corner under it; and then, from the end of this slanting line, draw an horizontal line till it meets with the line 4: a line then drawn from the bottom of the building, from the lowest corner of the line 3, through the intersection on the line 4, will vanish on the horizontal line in the same point as the other lines. - The boats. Plate III, are inserted to shew the different appearances which the same objects may make by being viewed from different positions. The tiles, at NO, Plate I, are inserted as a help to those who draw the Example B, Plate I, on a larger scale. The Guiding Rule, GR, Plate III, is formed of two short and thin sticks inclosed in the top of one longer, and fixed with a screw to tighten them, that, when held up by the spectator before a building, and adjusted to the angles which the buildings make to the spec- tator's eye, it will remain without shifting; till, by being laid flat on the paper, it will enable the draughtsman to rule the lines of two sides of the building in their true perspective direction, by which means, the vanishing point can be found almost as true as if the whole had been measured. IK, and Figure T. Plate III, represent the application of the knowledge of perspective to trees, to which the formal application of The principal thing to be attended to is, in making the foremost trees to project more sensibly from those behind; which as the principle is here expressed with rather a formal regularity for the sake of the pupil's memory, may be com- the rules would be impracticable PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 21 pared to the principle of what boys call a Turk's cap. This Example will be found of the greatest use in landscape, as nothing is more common than for learners in landscape to make the outline of the distant part of a wood on a hill, with the same large kind of execution as should be adopted for the front. GH, Plate III, represents three spectators viewing buildings from different heights. Its use is to enforce the principle, that the spectator's eye, being raised or lowered, causes the horizontal line to vary in its height, upwards or downwards. Figure U, Plate III, is inserted to show, that the centre between 1 and 2, found on the line 3, by a line from the point N, agrees with the centre found by the diagonal, as the vertical line drawn upwards from the intersection, meets at the same point on the upper line of the building. Figure P, Plate III, represents the application of the principle of the rim of the cart-wheel, applied to the representation of a river or road, going into a landscape, where, at 1 and 2, the perspective does not affect the width, but only operates on the space from 2 to 3. in proportion as the spectator be high or low. Fig. D. Plate I. is another specimen of wrong perspective, where the top line of the gable, at 6, does not go to the same point as n, at the top of the door, which last should not go down so much, while the line 6 should slant a little more. Example A. Plate IV.-The side of the tower, on which the stick leans, appearing in a somewhat fuller view to the spectator, is wider in appearance than the other side, and its upper line 2, 3, inclines less suddenly to the vanishing point 6, on the right, as seen in the perspective working of the same Example F, alongside of it, than the line 1, 2. This circumstance should be particularly attended to, and the neglect of it, has not only been the cause of considerable error in the works of young and inexperienced persons, but has injured many outlines, by Professors of Landscape, who, in other respects, have sketched with great taste and beauty: for whenever in a drawing the upper lines of the broadest side of a tower, whose sides in reality are of equal dimensions, are made to go downward more than those of the narrower side, it reverses the true principle of perspective appearance, which exhibits the upper corner (of the per- spectively narrowest side) at Fig. 1, in Example A. Plate IV, lower than the corner 3: the former erroneous practice causes the broadest side to appear very much larger than the other, which in reality it is not. In drawing without measuring or laying down plans of the building, the reader is here reminded of the Guiding Rule, which is represented in Plate III, and described in the preceding page. This method is so expeditious, that the true inclination of the lines of twenty buildings might be ascertained by it, before one plan could be laid down for working a drawing by the perspective rules, applied by mathematicians for ascertaining the same. The true relative width of each side of a tower, is easily obtained by making on the edge of a card, or a thin flat rule of light coloured wood, two marks at such distance from each other, as it is intended the full width of the building shall occupy on the sketch: then by holding up the card or rule so that these marks fit the two outside lines of the building, the draughtsman can observe where the nearest corner line as that under 2. 6 22 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. Example A, Plate IV, in the tower, cuts the card or rule, and by making a third mark determine that line, and then transfer these three measures to the drawing: he may next rule the perpendicular lines through each of them, and from the highest corner of the building, as at 2, draw the two top lines, 1 and 3, at the angles already formed with the Guiding Rule, while the piece of wood held by the hand, should be laid on the paper parallel with the perpendicular line under 2: then, by continuing the two lines 1 and 3, they cut through the perpendicular lines, and determine the two corners, near which those figures are. The same stick or card, which, when held horizon- tally, served to take the relative width of the sides of the tower, will, when kept exactly at the same distance from the artist, by a string fastened at one end to its centre, and held by his teeth at the other, enable him, by turning it perpendicularly, and moving it to the near- est corner, to mark off on it all the horizontal measures, from the top to the bottom of the building: but if the rule was not held at the same distance, then the width would not agree with the height. Next, from the bottom of this nearest corner line, at 7, let the draughts- man mark the height of his eye, and draw the horizontal line through it, and then continue the two lines, I and 3, till they intersect the horizontal line at 5 and 6, as in Example F. Plate IV, which gives the two vanishing points for all the horizontal lines of windows and mouldings, on each side of the tower.” Having now got the height and width of the tower and the vanishing points, and having drawn the top and bottom lines to them: the learner may then proceed with the method for drawing the recesses in the centre of each side of the tower; for this purpose he must as at 3, at the upper corner of Example F. Plate IV, draw from thence a line to the vanishing point 5, and another line from the corner 1, to the vanishing point 6. This completes the whole form of the four top lines of the tower; although these two lines could not be seen unless the tower was transparent: then from 1 to 3 draw one of the diagonal lines of this perspective square, and from 2 draw through the corner 12, and continue the line till it reaches the horizontal line, as at 10. Then the learner may make on this diagonal line at 14, a mark for the distance at which he imagines that the angle of the recess within recedes from the outside towers, and which is visible in the small Plan X, Plate IV, below at Y; then from this point draw a faint line to the diagonal line, which proceeds from 1 to 3. in the same direction, as if it were going to the vanishing point 5; then draw the horizontal line 13, at the top of the corner 2, and from the point 10, draw a line through the corner 1, and another through the corner 3, till they reach the line 13, at a and g; then as the whole of this space from 2 to g, answers to the whole of the perspective space from 2 to 3, so will a line drawn from any propor- in order that learners may become familiar with the method of taking measures on a card, they may practise as follows: Let the length and width of a card be so pro- portioned, that when held near to the eye, it may appear to fit into the frame of a window; then, to find the positions of the horizontal bars the learner need only move the card a little on one side and mark them on its edge, and by lowering it so as to see the perpendicular bars, he can mark their places on its upper edge: if the card be laid down upon paper, and its form be drawn by applying a pencil to each of its sides, and the positions of the bars be marked upon it, the complete proportions of the window will be obtained by ruling horizontal and perpendicular lines from the points shewing the relative situation of the bars. PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 23 tion of the real space between 2 and g. give a relative perspective space on the line from 2 to 3: therefore let the proportions which one of the towers bears to the recesses, as from 2 to e, and from f to 3, be marked on the line 13, between 2 and g, and also on the other side from a to 2, as from a and b, and c and 2; then lines drawn from these measures a, b, c, 2, e,f, g, will give the true relative perspec- tive appearances of those divisions on the lines 1 and 2, and 2 and 3. With respect to the point 10, had it been made either on the right or left of the place where it now is, provided it was on the horizontal line, it would still have given the same perspective measures on the line 2 and 3, because the line from 10, always going through the corner 3, up to the line 13, the space between 2 and g, whether enlarged by the point 10 being moved to the left, or rendered smaller by its being moved to the right; yet as the proportions of the measures set off on the line from 2 and g, would have been made either smaller or larger, the result would have been just the same. This circumstance is mentioned and explained in a former part of this work; and the author has here endeavoured to impress it on the memory by repetition; and again to prevent mistakes, it must be remembered, that the horizontal line 13, must be drawn so as to touch the upper and nearer corner of the building, as at 2; and the point 10 must be on the horizontal line in such a place, as to give as direct an intersection as can be obtained, and the line from the point 10, to a and g, must always go through the upper and most distant corners, as at 1 and 3. The utility of the diagonal line 14 and 12, is this, that without it the draughtsman would be unable to determine where the dotted line which belongs to the recess should stop to form a corner, as at 14, answering to the corner 2, in the plan X, Plate IV: for had it exceeded or fallen short of the diagonal at the point 14, on the right side of the tower, it would have caused the corresponding line of the recess on the left side, to have been higher or lower, and then would not only have been wrong in the line of the recess, but would have deranged the perspective of the return line of the tower from 16 to 15, which, if the recess line had been higher, would have made that space too narrow, or if it had been lower, too wide for its perspective situation. The next thing, which is of great importance in drawing, is to distinguish whether the mouldings and perpendicular lines, which project beyond the main tower, overhang the right or the left side of the building, as OV, in Example A, Plate IV. The most general rule which can be given for those who draw these curved corners of mouldings by the eye, (and which is much better done by a free and careful hand, than by rules worked by lines) is always to make the corners overhang the side which is seen least in front, as is the left side of this tower; but at the corner 4, on the right side of the building, from the distance of the farther corner tower, the left side of the same becomes the most visible, or seen rather more in front: therefore, the upright line of the tower just under 4, and the curve of the moulding below, incline to the right side of the line 5: and the knowledge of these particulars is gained from the diagonal lines, such as are worked at Ex. W. Plate IV, where the diagonal line at v, answers to the line which goes from 2 to 10, in the tower, Exam- ple F. Plate IV: now, as the upper lines to the Figure W. Plate IV, represent a flat projection, the same as if it were a lid too large for the box below, the diagonal in passing the corner of this form, (which represents a corner tower;) in proceeding up to t, passes to the left 24 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. beyond the corner lines; and as the line from 10 on the horizontal line, up to f on the line 13 above, in the tower F. Plate IV, is a diagonal line to the more distant corner tower on the right, it will be seen in passing up through the corner at 17, to incline to the right of the long line of the tower under 17, and it explains which way the projections or mouldings should incline. It must be remarked here, that the point 10, which is the vanishing point for the diagonal line from 12 to 14, is not necessarily the point for the divisions on the line 13, to be worked from, (the position of which, as observed before, is optional on the horizontal line;) but is made to serve two purposes to avoid confusion of lines; as a diagonal it must unavoidably fall at that place, by the necessity of its proceeding from the corner 2, through the corner 12. That the learner should be familiar with this variation from the positions of mouldings, he will see one at Example o Plate VI, where the left side of the bracket is seen most in front, and the curve at the corner of the moulding inclines to the right; but in the bracket p, Plate VI, the right side is seen most in front, therefore the curve of the moulding at the corner, inclines to the left. It is of great consequence that these circumstances should be well understood; for after learners have made a proficiency in many other particulars, they are often, from ignorance of these, forced to get over the corners of their mouldings in a bungling or unde- cided manner, representing them as decayed, or covering them with vegetation. The learner should remember, that although the true proportion of a tower and its parts may be obtained, yet if the horizontal lines of the building do not go to their true points, the outline may be rendered distorted and disagreeable; if the perspective and the choice be judiciously attended to, even if the proportions are erroneously represented, it will not appear distorted or inconsistent; but all persons acquainted with perspective can see the distortions arising from a deficiency in perspective truth. In order to find the centre of the recesses, for the purpose of drawing the centre for the windows of the tower by a diagonal, the concealed corner of the recess, which is hidden by the nearer tower, must be found; this may be done by drawing a line towards the vanishing point 5. Example F. Plate IV, from the corner 18, (where a line from e, on the horizontal line intersects the line 2 and 3, in its direction to the vanishing point.) and where this line from 18 intersects the dotted line, which is continued from the stronger line of the recess, is the point and corner from which, if a perpendicular line is drawn down to a continuation of the ground line of the recess, through the inside line of the tower on the right of the point 10, the four corners may be obtained, and the diagonal drawn as in the door-way of the porch in Example C, Plate VI, and the window worked in the same way as the door of the same, and which method is fully explained in the window of the church, in Plate I, of this work. Fig. B. Plate V-The learner, to be enabled to draw this cottage in perspective, must first draw the perpendicular lines 1 and 2, (continuing line 2 down to 4.) as in the perspective working of a somewhat similar building, Fig. D. Plate VI: then let him mark the height of his eye for the horizontal line, as at 5, then from the corner near 3, let him draw the inclinations toward the horizon of the lines 3 and s, according to his taste, if designing, or by his eye or Guiding Rule, if drawing from nature; then by continuing these PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 25 lines to the horizon, they will give him the vanishing points 7 and 6; next let him draw the two perpendicular lines 10 and 11, and next the short line 9 down to the point 7, for the lower portion of the projection of the window, supposing that there is nothing of the form of a bracket below, as in Fig. D. Plate V. Then let two lines be drawn from the line 9, as 12 and 13; and from the corner 16, draw another line to the vanishing point 7, to answer to 9, and where this line intersects the line 13, is the place to draw the line 17, for the farthest post of the cottage porch. Now, in order to make this perspective building below correspond the more with the one above in Fig. B. Plate V, let the line 4, in the middle of the nearer post of the gable, be continued up from the corner 9 near to the tiles, and then let the post be moved a little to the right, and then let the centre line of the same be ruled from the bottom up to the line just below the tiles, and then the farther post should be moved a little to the left; the bracket under the window may next be drawn, and all the front horizontal lines of windows, mouldings, and chimneys, &c. should be drawn to the point 6 on the horizontal line, and those on the right side of the building, should be drawn to point 7. With respect to the point of the front gable, and that of the highest window, they are found by drawing diagonal lines, as in Fig. D. Plate V, and which is more distinctly to be seen in the Fig. S, in Ex. C. Plate VI: it will there be perceived that the method of making one side of that part of a gable, which overhangs the front and supports the tiles) agree perspectively with the other, consists in drawing the perpendicular line from the centre, as at w; in Fig. S. Plate VI, up to the full height of the front of the building, before the tiles and wood-work are laid on; then by drawing a small line at the top of this perpendicular line, (such as the short dotted line at v.) from the vanishing point belonging to the side which is at right angles with the front, as is the point 7, in Fig. D, Plate V, and wherever the draughtsman chooses to terminate this dotted line as that at v, Fig. S. Plate VI, let him draw a line at a, which to be minutely true, should, as seen in the gable t. Example C, Plate VI, not be parallel to the dotted line, (to which it is in reality parallel:) but like all other lines which vanish to some point, it must go up to a point, which would be found by first raising a perpendicular line from the vanishing point of the front, which point is seen on the left hand just above the roof, under the porch; then by continuing the dotted line of the gable upwards till it meets with this line, which in this plate will be about five inches, it will give the point for the line a to vanish, and also the lines at y and k, and all lines of tiles which may in reality be parallel to these lines, and such as are seen vanishing on the gable in Fig. B. Plate V, and likewise in Fig. D, only with this difference, that this last-mention- ed upper roof belongs to a part of the building, which is at a right angle with the gable. The tiles here vanish to a point perpendicular to the point 7, on the right hand, whereas the other was on the left. Now, having drawn the line ºr up to its vanishing point, from where it intersects the short dotted line, draw a perpendicular line for the junction of the two pieces of wood which cover the gable, the height of this may be agreeable to the artist's taste; but it must be observed, that the lines from a to I, must go to vanishing points as much below the horizontal line as the vanishing point for r, k, and y, is above it, and must also be under that point in a perpendicular direction; but as the slanting line of the tiles at 18, in Fig. B. Plate V, is not so much elevated as the roof above, it will not vanish in the same point, but a 7 26 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. little below it; but in the Ex. B. Plate V, as there is but one line 18, there would be no use in finding the points. But were this lower roof to be covered with tiles, it would, as in other cases, be useful, after finding the vanishing point, to draw a few lines at intervals to guide the learner in the general direction, by which means he would have, in a moderate degree, to exercise his faculties, instead of depending entirely on rule. It is a fact useful to be known to all who would wish to evade the exercise of the eye, that some who have for a number of years been eminent as teachers of perspective, have manifested such a feebleness and deficiency, or so great a tameness in true drawing, when delineating by the eye or without rule, that their productions have had in parts a greater resemblance to the works of young practitioners. than to those of masters; while on the contrary, many, with the knowledge of a few general rules, aided by frequent and careful prac- tice in copying by eye from nature or good example, have been able to produce agreeable and graceful drawings, wherein every small deviation from strict perspective, added to the effect. It must be remarked, that as most persons fail in drawing tiles on a roof, the diffi- culty may be traced to the circumstance of their not drawing them very large for practice, and with all the varieties occasioned by the layers of mortar, &c.; for these when added to the true perspective proportion, which may be preserved by a number of perspective squares drawn on the roof agreeably to the spaces which the tiles would occupy, would greatly assist the beginner, who must at first be contented with regular and formal representations of them. Some have erred through ignorance of the art of combination, which requires that all artificial things which are of a common character, and of regular form, should only be partially brought forward: for, in a fine picture, the appearance of accumulated dust and moss, which leaves but a few tiles visible, is peculiarly grateful to the eye, when compared with an uninterrupted repetition of numerous distinct red tiles; it will be found, that though the mere knowledge of perspective will enable a person to draw a new building, nothing but a familiar knowledge and much practice will enable him to draw an aged and lean- ing cottage, which notwithstanding the variation, leaning, and twisting of its lines, shall yet appear in true perspective. Now to find where the junction of the gable roof with the higher roof would appear, let a diagonal line be drawn as under the large gable in Ex. C. Plate VI: then let a perpendicular line like the dotted line b be drawn upwards, till it meets the lower line of the tiles of the higher roof, just over the figures, in Fig. D. Plate V; then draw a line like the dotted line from the vanishing point of the higher roof at 20, to where the perpendicular line from the diagonal touches the tiles, and gives the centre of the gable roof; then continue the upper line of this roof in the direction to the point 7, till it reaches the dotted line on the roof at 19 in Fig. D, Plate V; then having ruled the line of the gable roof, which joins the wall, up to its vanishing point, which is found by ruling the front line of the gable from near to 3, up to its intersection with a line perpendicular to the point 6, and from where this line of roof meets the lower line of the tiles of the higher roof, let a short line be drawn to the point of junction between the dotted line and the gable roof; draw the short line as at 19, which partaking of the slant of both roofs is nearly perpendicular, and by changing the position a little to the left, it would appear quite so: this method will be particularly useful for the learner to practise on a larger scale; for this sort of junction of two roofs is very often PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 27 erroneously delineated by beginners. With respect to the ornaments in the front of the gable, after those on the left hand side are drawn, as a and e. a line passing through them from the vanishing point on the left hand, will give, on the opposite side, as at b and d, the corresponding parts of the ornament in the large gable in Fig. B. Plate V. The method described in the tower in Fig. F. Plate IV, is adopted in the gable in C, Plate VI, in the introduction of an horizontal line 2, set off from the corner of the window-frames 4 and 5: from the point 3, placed at discretion at that part of the horizontal line, a line is drawn through the farthest corner of the window-frame near I, up to the line 2, and as this point of intersection at 6, answers to the same corner of the window, so will the relative proportion of the window-frames to the whole of the line 2, if marked thereon, give the perspective measures on the line 4, if lines are carried from them to 3. The same principle is shewn in the Figure N. Plate V, in which is exhibited the method of finding the perspective decrease of the rafters in the room in Figure E. Plate VI. It must be observed, that a line drawn from the vanishing point formed by the intersection of lines s and z extended to the ſº, Plate VI, carried a little above the line 4, in the gable in Figure C, Plate VI, would regulate the height of the ends of the wooden frame in the front of the gable, so that they should correspond with each other. The gable d. Plate VI, is here given to explain the following circumstance, that when the spectator by standing very near to the build- ing, causes the side of a gable to appear to go down as the side q, rather more than the wood frame does in front, as at r, then, notwith- standing the extent of the projection over the front, the whole of the latter will be seen, but none of the tiles on the roof can then be visible; whereas in the large gable in C, Plate VI, the line of the roof inclines less than the frame of wood in front, so as to shew the tiles, but at the same time the wood in front hides all that portion of the front of the gable between a and the dotted line: in the first the spectator stands almost under the wooden frame, and this must be considered as an inferior choice, especially when the tiles are totally excluded; but were this small gable only part of the picture, which contained others in a more agreeable position as the one in Figure B, Plate V, the concealment of the tiles would not be felt as a deficiency. The vanishing point of the right side of the large gable in Figure C, Plate VI, will be found by continuing the horizontal line about four inches out of the picture from the figure 12, and the centre of the arch under the porch being found by the perpendicular line through the diagonal d, after the right hand side of the door-way is drawn, the corresponding side may be found by a line prºceeding to the vanishing point, from where one portion of the arch on the right hand intersects one of the diagonal lines; by which means the line in its progress to the vanishing point formed by the intersection of liness and z. extended to the ſº, Plate VI, intersects the opposite line of the diagonal, as at 13, in the corresponding perspective place for the left hand side of the arch. In Plate VI, an example is given to explain the effect of light on a mass of stone in the foreground S, (whose sides are at right angles with each other) and on a similar one in the distance. To the inexperienced this example appears as a contradiction to what is the fact in nature; it will serve to shew, that a departure from the strict observance of the rules of perspective, (when adopted by an experienced 28 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. artist, who has arrived at what may be termed years of discretion in art.) may be more conformable to the general impressions in nature. than a strict adherence to them; for as the sun is here represented on the right hand side of the objects, it is generally imagined that it should shine on that side; but the sun, which is here supposed to be rising, in fact is on the other side of the object a little N. East, while the vanishing points of the object is due east, and though each column, when seen at a distance, appears to cast shadows discordant with each other, and which makes it extremely difficult at first view, to believe that the shadow of the distant object is exactly in the same direction, and that its continuation towards the spectator would be in nature in a parallel direction to the shadow of the near one; yet it must be observed, that the vanishing points of all shadows of upright objects, which fall on a level plain, vanish in the horizon directly under the sun, as in this example; but in order to reconcile this apparent inconsistency to the learner, let him suppose that the whole space from the near object to the distant one, included in the lower and upper vanishing lines to the point V, was filled up with shadow, so as to appear like a wall; then it would clearly be perceived that the sun was on the other side of the wall, and the two shadows would then fall into the large mass of shadow of the whole wall; and in this instance the right side will be darker, as it would not receive so strong a reflected light as the front side, which may have at that time a brilliant cloud, lighted by the full and direct rays of the sun, throwing its light full on the front side of this column. But as a matter of taste, an artist might be justified in drawing a separate tower, with the right side in light, though the sun did not ever appear quite so far to the right as the vanishing point V is: for it is a most erroneous practice to paint in pictures objects contrary to taste and general association, and then to expect those who are displeased with them can be reasoned into an approbation of them: whereas the practice of a superior artist is to express nothing, but what is consistent with general impressions, interesting in character, and grateful to the eye, and such as will continue to please, though subject to partial criticism from persons whose views of art are limited, and who are not aware of the distinction which should be made between common and fine art. The Example W. Plate IV, is given for the use of beginners to practise from, by drawing it frequently, as it contains the form of the tops of church and castle battlements, which from their being often mutilated and seen at a distance, are generally very imperfectly treated; but it is requisite for those who wish to represent even the mouldering remains of these objects, to be acquainted with their real and perfect forms, for in most of these ruins a portion of the perfect form may be traced, which while it preserves the character of the object, affords a seasonable contrast to the undefined parts; and, as a matter of taste, it will be generally found adviseable, to represent the middle of any line of moulding as the most decayed, and to keep the more perfect and angular parts for the corners and extremities; and in the tops of gables, as in this object, a curve will be found harmonious, as it breaks a point which is generally disagreeable, and the curve of a tile is frequently observed in gables. Example E. Plate VI, represents the interior of a room with a looking-glass at the end; a person in a position similar to that of the figure here represented, would find that all the lines of carpet, ceiling, table, &c. here represented, which are horizontal and go direct from __ PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 29 the spectator, would vanish between his eyes as reflected in the looking-glass, which place would be to him the vanishing point, and point of sight, and the height of the horizontal line; but the right side of the stool, which goes in an oblique direction from the spectator, van- ishes in the right hand corner 2, on the horizontal line, and this point is always easily found, for having only one line of a level object drawn, which inclines to the right or left, the draughtsman has only to continue the line up to the horizon, and there is the point for any number of lines, which are parallel to the line which is carried up there. Example P. Plate VI, to find immediately the vanishing point for lines which go direct from the spectator. Let him instead of holding his pencil above or below, or to the right or left of his eye, place it in a level direction before him, so that only the circular end can be seen; and wherever it intercepts an object beyond, as it does the centre of the upper point of the door in this gable, it will there give the place for the vanishing point for walls, pavements, &c. which are level in nature, and go direct from the spectator; and this point will be the point of sight also, though as such this last mentioned point can never be brought into use, except in those drawings which are made from plans and measurements—See Fig. M. Plate II. Example G, Plate IV, to find the proportionate width of the sides of the buttresses of a bridge viewed in front. Let the point P be placed at as great a distance below as will enable the spectator to behold each side of every buttress, as 1, 2, 8; for all objects whatso- ever, when seen at a distance, bear a greater resemblance to their real forms than when viewed too near; for instance, had this point been placed higher up, at b, just under the bird, one of the sides of the buttress a could not have been seen. The upper line, at g, might, in the first instance, have been placed on a separate piece of paper, and the measures and real forms of the three sides of the buttresses marked thereon; then, after having fixed the relative distance of the point P. from the line at g, the learner might either receive the intersections on a line, as low as that at d, from which the perpendicular lines might be ruled down to the bridge, as in this plate: or if a very small drawing were required, the horizontal line d, might have been placed below the bridge, and all the intersections received thereon in the same proportion: or if a large outline were required, a line above g, might receive the lines from P. and give the measures for a larger drawing. Example H, Plate V, represents the interior of a room, in which the lines of the further end are horizontal; consequently, the lines and 2, must go direct from the spectator, and vanish in the point of sight, which is here not placed in the centre, as the draughtsman, by standing on one side, exhibits more fully the side of the room most interesting; and although at liberty to look through the centre of his glass or plane, with this view of the room, yet, by then getting the point of sight in the centre, he would by extending the left side of the picture, have left his corners, above and below, in a very unsatisfactory manner, because he could not in the least have varied the line 1, or the floor line below: whereas, if an artist should wish to enlarge his picture, each enlargement should, to be agreeable, present the same uniform meeting at the corners as in Example I, Plate V. The lines on the floor and seats, are given to enforce the perspective operation of lines when applied to the divisions of board and stones in buildings, and also to suggest the decision with which the shadows 8 30 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. which cross a road should be varied when proceeding over steps, banks, and other objects, and which are too often slighted; it must be remarked, that were the side 2, in H, Plate V, the external and left side of a tower, seen out of doors, it would be contrary to nature not to turn round and view both sides going to various vanishing points, and then the point of sight should be in the centre of the picture; as few objections as to the terminations of corners remain in out-door views. But were an horizontal line to be drawn for the right side of this tower 2, it would then be contrary to taste, though conformable to the old practice of what was termed parallel perspective, which admitted taking such a house as is seen on the right corner of the bridge in Example G, Plate IV, and, without any alteration of lines. placing it in the centre of a picture. Fig. K. Plate VI, represents a room where each side vanishes to a separate point. This choice is best when a quantity of objects are placed in a corner to be viewed: for if the spectator look direct into a corner, then both sides of the room near the ceiling, rise upwards from the corner, and if a pencil were held up level before the spectator's eye, above the corner of the room, the left and right side would appear somewhat in the form of the letter W. Example L. Plate V, exhibits the practice of some who, not relying on their own impressions, when exhibiting three sides of a room. conceive themselves in duty bound to reject all horizontal lines in their inside views; and, therefore, though able to view a room naturally as at Example H, Plate V, they are induced to turn their plane or frame (through which, in perspective, a draughtsman is supposed to view his objects) a little round to the right, the same as if they had only to represent the sides d, and e. It now remains for the pupil to practise these examples separately, and on a larger scale, generally adhering to the order in which the lines are numbered, letting the lines by which the examples are worked, be marked only strong enough to be seen: and to make the rules familiar to him, it will be found very useful to practise them, both by memory and by the hand, when at leisure, as the principles may be recalled without the nicely of ruled lines. In this way, the Examples A and B. Plate I, at the commencement. will be found of very great use; and likewise the arches, the nearer part of which being generally difficult to turn, the pupil is advised to practise repeatedly. For this purpose, likewise, the curves in the windows of the tower of the church, Fig. C. Plate I, will be most particularly useful. The END. PERSPECTIVE. - _PLATE L. - - º | ** *g. rig cºd. X. - º T - w - - | - - - | || - | | T || - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - | P E R S P E CTIVE. – - – —l ºnlumor- ºr - - The ºn ºf Lºne ºf ºz. º - - - - - - - - - "º S'''''''''V' ºr v. - 7. \ - - º - - - | - - __ - | Ex-wº - - | | ºr nº-º-º-º: Nºvº. ºn AI, L.) ºn a S : Gich VI. 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