3
PRE-MALTHUSIAN DOCTRINES OF POPULATION:
A STUDY IN THE HISTORY OF ECONOMIC THEORY










STUDIES IN HISTORY, ECONOMICS AND PUBLIC LAW
EDITED BY THE FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE OF
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY


Volume XXII


[Number 3


PRE-MALTHUSIAN DOCTRINES
OF POPULATION:
A STUDY IN THE HISTORY OF ECONOMIC THEORY
BY
CHARLES EMIL STANGELAND, Ph.D.,
Sometime University Fellow in Economics


New gork
THE COLUMBIA      UNIVERSITY PRESS
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, AGENTS
LONDON: P. S. KING & SON
1904





COPYRIGHT, 1904,
CHARLES EMIL STANGELAND





PREFACE


THIS study does not purport to develop any original
theory or doctrine. Its aim is to present in as clear a
manner as possible the theories and doctrines advanced prior
to the publication of Malthus's Essay in 1798. So far as
possible, the theories treated have been expressed in the
authors' own words; for the sake of clearness, however,
it has often been necessary to resort to paraphrase. Where
explanation and criticism have seemed necessary, these have
been included in the body of the text.
The history of the theories of population has been
treated more or less cursorily by certain German writers,
such as Von Mohl, Roscher, Wappius, Elster, and Jolles.
Gamier wrote his excellent work, Du Principe de Population, about fifty years ago, and more recently Lucien
Schine and others have followed in his steps. In the
works of Bonar there are valuable suggestions, and several English monographs have treated certain aspects of
the subject. Apart from these studies-all somewhat fragmentary-there is no review of the literature bearing on
population such as the historical importance of the subject
seems to demand.
With regard to the general method pursued in this study,
a few words of explanation may be in order. Although
the author has much respect for the method which condenses opinions and generalizes upon them, he has not
deemed it adequate to the present task. Gamier, for ex395]                                       5





6


PREFACE


[396


ample, gives a broad view of early ideas on the subject,
but his work lacks completeness and definiteness.  Von
Mohl, on the other hand, endeavors to place before the
reader the exact ideas of individual writers, necessarily in
a very abbreviated form; and this is in general the plan
which has here been followed. Such a method has inevitably involved a somewhat mechanical style and a certain
redundancy in matter; but, on the whole, this has seemed
to be the most satisfactory plan.
In the preparation of this study emphasis has been laid
especially upon the economic aspects of the question; but
in giving a history of the development of doctrines of
population it is impossible wholly to ignore other sides of
the matter.  This idea is well expressed by Professor
Wagner: 1 " Aber sie [the population question] greift auch
iiber die wirthschaftlichen Fragen nach allen Richtungen
hinaus; sie beriihrt ebenso auch physiologische, anthropologische, politische Probleme." 2
That a considerable pamphlet literature, as well as works
bearing only indirectly on population, has been omitted is
not to be denied; but an investigation covering so vast
a range would require a more detailed and extensive work
than the present one aims to be.
The title, " Pre-Malthusian," may seem to be an arbitrary expression, and it is one of the objects of this study
to indicate why it might be so regarded; but this accords,
at any rate, with general impressions on the subject. There
is at least as much justification for grouping together all
theories of population prior to the Malthusian theory as
there is for referring to the theories of value before Adam
SGrundlagen, p. 446.
*See also Rfimelin, Sch&nberg's Handbuch, vol. i, pp. 827-8.





3971


PREFACE


7


Smith or theories of rent since Ricardo. And says Jolles: 1
" Chronologisch betrachtet wird jede Geschichte der Bevolkerungslehre in zwei Epochen zerfallen: in die vormalthusianische und die nachmalthusianische."  Giuseppe Majorana,2 Heinrich Soetbeer 8 and others hold to the same view.
The author wishes the first two chapters to be regarded
rather as an introduction to the succeeding chapters than
as complete surveys of the fields treated in them.  His
studies have convinced him that there is room  for much
more extensive investigations in these fields.
In conclusion, he would gratefully acknowledge his indebtedness to Professors Seligman and Clark for detailed
suggestions as to the matter; he is, moreover, greatly obliged
to them for perusing the work while still in manuscript
form, as well as for suggesting various improvements. He
has also profited by consulting Professor Giddings concerning certain controverted points. From Professor Folwell, of the University of Minnesota, under whose tuition
the work was originally undertaken, the author received
much kindly aid and many valuable suggestions. He is
also under deep obligations to Dr. A. S. Johnson for aid
in preparing the manuscript for the press.
New York, 28 March, 1904.
1Conrad's Jahrbucker, 1886, p. 193.  Principio della Popolazione.
3 Die Stellung der Sozialisten zur Malthus'schen Lehre.










ERRATA.
P. 20, line i i: for elots read kelots.
P. 25, note 2: for Nikaia read Nicomachaia.
P. 30, line 3: for uxorum read uxorium.
P. 32, lines 3 and 13: for maritandibus read maritandis.
P. 81, line i6, and p. 82, notes I and 3: for Guy C(arleton read Guy Carleton
Lee.
P. 97, line I: for war read peace.
P. 99, line 4: the title referred to is Monarchia sancti Romani Imperii sive
Tractatus de 7urisdictione imperiali... et pontificia.
P. ioo, line 8: for clerus read cleri.
P. 189, note I: for reprekendum read reprehendendum.










CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION.........................             13
CHAPTER I
CLASSICAL DOCTRINES
I. The Attitude of the Greeks, as shown in their Political Institutions and in their Laws, Philosophy and Literature.
~ I. The individual and the state.............  18
2 2. Ideals and practices................  18
~ 3. Plato........................      22 -~  4. Aristotle.......................  25
~5. References to population in non-philosophic writings.. 26
~ 6. The later schools of philosophy.......... 28
II. The Attitude of the Romans towards Population.
~ I. Imperialism and population............ 29
~ 2. The laws of Julius and Augustus Caesar; The lex Julia et..Papia-Poppaea................. 30
~ 3. Changes in the lex Julia et Papia-Poppaea, and its abrogation.......................  36
~ 4. The attitude toward population in Latin literature..  38
CHAPTER II
RELIGIONS AND POPULATION
I. Oriental and Ancient Religious Doctrines.
I 1. Phallism and increase.................        40
$ 2. The early religions of India..............  44
~ 3. The teachings of Confucius and Buddha.........     46
~ 4. Zoroastrianism and Mohammedanism.........          48
5 5. The religions of Egypt, Greece and Rome.......     5o
$ 6. The religion of the ancient Hebrews in its bearings Ion
the population question................         52


3991


9





IO                        CONTENTS                         [4oo
PAGE
II. The Primitive Christian and Medieval Conception of Marriage,
with its Relation to Increase in Numbers.
~ I. Saint Paul and early asceticism.......... 55
~ 2. The patristic writings................          60
(a) The Ante-Nicene fathers............       61
(b) The Post-Nicene fathers.......... 68
(c) Saint Thomas Aquinas...........            76
~ 3. Formal regulations of the Church concerning marriage. 78
CHAPTER III
FIRST MODERN VIEWS: FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH
TO THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
~ I. General view of the period..................          88
~ 2. The first group.......................                  go
~ 3. The German Reformation..................95
~ 4. German writers of the first part of the seventeenth century.  98
~ 5. The publicists and other writers of the Romance group.... 102
~ 6. Modern English writers before the Restoration....... I.. o
CHAPTER IV
THE MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION
~ I. Introductory..........................  118
1 2. Methods of encouraging increase...............       123
(a) Placing disabilities on celibates........... 123
(b) Encouraging marriage directly........... 125
(c) Encouraging fecundity............... 128
~ 3. Immigration and emigration................            132
SCHAPTER V
MERCANTILIST AND OTHER WRITERS, PARTICULARLY IN ENGLAND
AND FRANCE, 1660-1748
$ I. General survey.......................                 138. 2. Graunt, Petty and Hale....................  140
S3. English mercantilists....................        149
~ 4. Some other English writers................           I164
~ 5. De Witt, Spinoza and Ustariz................ 168
S6. Some typical writers in France............... 172
5 7. Finelon, Melon and Cantillon..............  176
S8. Conclusion.........................   182,





401 ]                     CONTENTS                           II
PAGB
CHAPTER VI
THE CAMERALISTIC AND OTHER GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION
FROM PUFENDORF TO SUESSMILCH
~ I. The general position.................... 185
~ 2. German  scholars......................  187
~ 3. The nationalists and mercantilists..........194
~ 4. Leibnitz and Wolff.......................... 206
~ 5. Lau and Suessmilch.......................... 211
CHAPTER     VII
THEORIES OF POPULATION IN FRANCE, 1748-1776
~  I. General survey.......................  224
~ 2. Forerunners of Malthus.........................    225
~ 3. Philosophic and speculative writings................ 237
~ 4. Miscellaneous writings................... 244
~ 5. The Physiocrats................................. 254
CHAPTER VIII
ENGLISH, ITALIAN AND GERMAN DISCUSSIONS, 1749-1775
~ I. The period in general.................... 266
~ 2. Tucker, Franklin and Alcock................ 267
~ 3. The Hume-Wallace controversy.................... 275
~ 4. Caldwell, Short, Fergusson and Steuart............... 281
~ 5. Italian  theories.......................  29o
~ 6. German doctrines..................... 299
CHAPTER IX
THEORIES OF POPULATION IN THE LAST QUARTER OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
~ I. General survey of the period................. 308
~ 2. The last German representatives of the Volksvermehrungspolitik..........................  309
~ 3. German precursors of Malthus............... 315
~ 4. French  theories......................  321
~ 5. Italian  theories.......................  330
~ 6. English writers from Adam Smith to Chalmers....... 338
CONCLUSION........................................ 351










INTRODUCTION


IT is generally conceded that the problems of population are among the most serious with which man has to
deal. Says Francesco S. Nitti, in his suggestive Population and the Social System (p. 2):
All the other questions of economic science, whether those regarding distribution, or those concerning the production of
wealth, are secondary as compared with the problem of population, or, rather, are but aspects, as it were, of one vast prism.
A brilliant Italian economist (Messedaglia: L'Economia Politica
in relazione colla So'ciologia e quale scienza a sk. Rome, 1891,
p. 8) says that this is the most momentous and difficult economic problem, always of present importance; it is the problem
which, as Rossi well said, "concerns everything, morals and
politics, national and domestic economy."
But Nitti adds: " Before Malthus, economic theorists had
not studied the question of population at all, or had thought
that the duty of sovereigns and states consisted in procuring an increase of population by every means in their
power." This, however, is a mistake, as a perusal of even
Nitti's own work will show; and the present study will
prove that Nitti's statement is merely an expression of a
general impression, which stands in need of revision.
Wagner and Riimelin are inclined to regard population
as something more than a mere branch of economics, and
as an independent science coordinate with political economy.
Though the study of population problems is often spoken
403]                                       13





14


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[404


of as peculiar to modern thought, we find, as a matter of
historical fact, that it has occupied the attention of thoughtful men in nearly all ages.  To its influence, often unavowed, sometimes not even clearly recognized, we can
trace a great part of the rules, customs and ceremonies of
early peoples. Where war is common we find, as a rule,
that custom and law are favorable to increase in numbers;
and this we may ascribe to the consciousness that with
numbers usually goes strength, and with superior strength
in battle go the spoils of war. But when war ceases to
be the normal state of man, and when tribes or nations renounce the policy of mutually endeavoring to ruin each
other and begin to seek the means of subsistence in production and exchange, the doctrine that a large population is
always the summum bonum of the state ceases to be regarded as true. It is gradually recognized that there is
no necessary harmony between the " principle of population " and the resources offered by the environment. The
consequent alternative is presented of solving the problem
either through the destructive action of the forces of nature
or the regulative influence of human reason.
Even in the earliest times the importance of movements
in population was recognized, and social customs were developed which subordinated the animal impulses to the needs
of the social unit. But theoretical investigations of population became possible only after the life of the state or
society in general was subjected to a scientific treatment;
and a definite and rational population policy became possible only when a state awoke to the consciousness of itself
as an organic entity superior to the aggregation of individuals of whom it was composed.
-'" The study of population doctrines, theories or principles
I involves the history of morals and marriage, the ideals and





405]


INTRODUCTION


15


S*7
purpose of the state, religious and philosophic systems.
The history of population is intimately connected with the
social, economic, political and religious history of man.
Society exercises pressure on the individual by religious,
moral and legal sanctions, sometimes quickening and sometimes retarding the growth of population.' Because population is a question involving so many phases of human
life and ideals, and may thus be viewed from non-economic
as well as from economic standpoints, the writer believes
that much light may be thrown upon it by such works as
Westermarck's History of Human Marriage, Lecky's History of European Morals, and Lea's work on Celibacy.
The doctrines of population    prevailing  at different
periods may be shown to be closely related to prevalent
conditions. Professor Wagner admirably expresses this in
the following words:
Man wird dabei aber doch in der Regel den Einfluss der concreten Verhiltnisse des Bevalkerungswesens, der geringen oder
grossen Volkszunahme, Volksdichtigkeit, der Zeit- und Landesverhiltnisse, auch der wirthschaftlichen, politischen (Wehrkraft!), welche das Eine oder Andre wiinschenswerth oder
bedenklich erscheinen lassen, ferner auch den Einfluss der
jeweiligen Verwaltungspolitik in Bezug auf die Bevl6kerung
(Ein-, Auswanderungsrecht, Zugrecht, Eheschliessungsrecht,
begiinstigende oder hemmende legislative und administrative
Maassregeln) auch auf die Ansichten der Theoretiker nicht
verkennen k6nnen.2
Malthus had but a meagre acquaintance with preceding
writings on population. In the preface to the third edition
of the Essay he distinctly acknowledges his indebtedness
SCf. Marshall's Principles of Economics, vol. i, bk. iv, ch. iv.
2 Grundlagen, p. 454.





16


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[406


in formulating his "principle" to Hume, Wallace, Adam
Smith, and Price; and in another passage he remarks:
In the course of this inquiry, I found that much more had been
done than I had been aware of when I first published the
Essay. The poverty and misery arising from a too rapid increase of population had been distinctly seen and the most
violent remedies proposed so long ago as the times of Plato
and Aristotle. And of late years the subject has been treated
in such a manner by some of the French economists, occasionally by Montesquieu, Sir James Stewart, Mr. Arthur Young
and Mr. Townsend, as to create a natural surprise that it had
not excited more public attention.
Nitti's statement (p. 4) that the phenomena which suggested to Malthus " his terrible law" occurred only with
the birth of modern industry is true only in a limited sense,
as this essay will prove.
The doctrines of population that were advanced before
the nineteenth century may be grouped according to the
characteristics of the general body of thought of which
they are part. If arranged chronologically they appear in
about the following order:
I. The primitive attitude, usually taking the form  of
religious veneration of the procreative powers.
II. The Greek view, which held the sexual relation in
strict subordination to the ends of the city-state.
III. The Roman population policy, which constantly endeavored to stimulate the increase in population, with a
view to the indefinite expansion of the Roman state.
IV. The mediaeval Christian conception of sexual relations, which emphasized the moral superiority of celibacy.
V. The attitude of the humanists, emphasizing the need
of regulation of population, in imitation of classical views.





407]


INTRODUCTION


17


VI. The individualistic and anti-ascetic attitude of the
Reformation.
VII. The mercantilist attitude, favoring increase of population as a prerequisite to national power.
VIII. The scientific attitude toward population, based
upon study of the relation between population and the
food supply.
In modem times two leading tendencies, which may be
regarded as broadly typical, are exemplified by the optimistic fatalism of Luther on the one hand, and by the
rational pessimism of Malthus on the other. It would not
be correct, in the opinion of the writer, to speak of pure
Malthusianism as having existed much before the time of
Malthus. Restriction of population was, indeed, often advocated and practiced; but not until the most recent centuries was this done on approximately the same grounds
as those on which Malthus based his doctrine. Doctrines
of population must be interpreted in the light of the times
in which they are enunciated.





CHAPTER I


CLASSICAL DOCTRINES
I. The attitude of the Greeks as shown in their political
institutions and in their laws, philosophy and literature.
~ I. The Individual and the. State.   The theories of
population of the ancients and the policies based thereon
are most easily understood with reference to their ideals
of the state. These ideals found their purest expression
among the Greeks. In Greek life the individual found his
raison d'etre and the satisfaction of his truest nature only
in the most intimate connection with the social organization and in obedient subordination to it. Man was regarded as essentially a "political animal," and not in any
sense as an isolated, independent unit. The individual was
simply a part of the state. The state took upon itself the
guidance and regulation of its citizens even in the minor
details of life.' The regulation of marriage and procreation was a matter always considered of prime importance.2
~ 2. Ideals and Practices. In ancient Sparta in particular we find a pronounced example of political communism. Here we notice especially the absence of family life.
Marriage was emphatically made a means by which the
SCf. Aug. Souchon, Les Thiories Economiques dans la Grkce AnJique, p. 44.
SZumpt, Ueber den Stand der Bevdlkerung und die Volksvermehrung
im Alierthum, p. 3 et seq.
i8                             [40


18


[408





409]


CLASSICAL DOCTRINES


19


individual should serve the ends of the state. Although
marriage was naturally sanctioned by religion, it was not
a religious institution, nor was it an institution intended
primarily for the satisfaction of natural and personal desire. It was clearly an institution of law and politics, intended to furnish the state with inhabitants, citizens, without whom the state could not exist.1
The view that the real purpose of marriage is the procreation of children is perhaps more apparent in Spartan
policy than elsewhere. Wars frequently decimated the population, and it therefore became of vital importance to the
community to obtain a new supply of men, of young citizens. The Spartans especially, but also the Cretans and
others, endeavored to attain this end by severe regulative
means.   Every Spartan was compelled to marry.       Celibacy was punished by public sentiment and by written law.
Bachelors suffered many legal and political disabilities..
The youth were not required to pay to old bachelors the
respect which custom otherwise paid to old age, and minor
indignities were suffered by those who were persistent
in their celibacy. The state did not merely make marriage practically compulsory. Pollux speaks not only of a
ypao ayaglov and a 6di"07 Aya/iov, but also of a di~ Bptyauiov and
racoyaftov.'  The laws would not permit the continued postponement of marriage, nor would they permit marriage
according to individual inclinations, unless, of course, these
agreed with state regulations. The prime requisite was that
a marriage should be good in the sense of the expressed
1Cf. Robert Pihlmann, Die Uebervdlkerung der antiken GrossstSdk,
pp. 7-8, 152, 153; also Malthus, Essay, bk. i, chs. xiii, xiv.
'Plutarch, Lycurgus, x5.
s Bk. iii, 48; cf. Filangieri, Leggi Polidtihe ed Economiche, p. 24.


/





20


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[4Io


purpose of the law; that is, it should be one likely to produce children of sound mind and body.
Greek marriages do not seem to have been very fruitful,
and in Sparta fathers who had three or four sons were
publicly rewarded.' According to Plutarch, the fruitfulness of marriage was sought even at the sacrifice of legitimacy of offspring.2
With the development of navigation, the Greeks established colonies which furnished asylums for excessive numbers. We do not find any great fear of over-population in
Sparta, except so far as concerned the increase of the'elots
or slave population. Infanticide and abortion were, however, frequently resorted to, and the exposure of newlyborn children who were deformed is, of course, too well
known to need discussion here.4
At Corinth, Pheido limited the population in an absolute manner, though in this, as in other similar instances,
only when the population, undisturbed by wars, had increased substantially. The Cretans considered it a necessity to hold population in check by law.5
Spartan ideals of population are well summed up by
Xenophon.6   He mentions with approval the fact that Lycurgus perm'itted and approved the exposing of infants
who were unfortunate in their birth and were deformed, in
order to make the population stronger physically and mentally and to avoid overburdening and impoverishing par'Aristotle, Politics, bk. ii, 9.  2 Op. cit.
SCf. Bertheau, Essai sur les Lois de la Population, pp. 213-5. See
Morley's Ideal Commonwealths, p. 29.
TIbid., pp. 30-31.    Bertheau, p. 218.
'Lacedemonian Republic, bk. i. Morley, in the preface to his edition of Ideal Commonwealths, speaks of Lycurgus as " the half mythical
or all mythical Solon of Sparta."





411]


CLASSICAL DOCTRINES


21


ents, and consequently the state, with useless or superfluous
offspring.  He " reckoned the matter of procreation of
children of the greatest consequence to free women;" he
enjoined, moreover, that marriage should be consummated
when the body was in full strength, as he considered this
conducive to the rearing of robust and manly offspring.
The case was somewhat different in Athens. There was
more room for personal initiative and the development of
individuality. There was no such rigid regulation of the
acts of citizens as in Sparta, and marriage was certainly
less public in nature and in purpose than among the Lacedemonians. But there were laws against celibacy in Athens
also,1 and there were similar, though less stringent, customs and laws to promote the fruitfulness of marriage.2
The political regulation of marriage and its relation to
population varied in nature as well as in the strictness of
enforcement. In times of peaceful development, in which
population naturally increased rapidly, such regulation became less important. When population increased too rapidly the ordinary recourse was to colonization. To avoid
the evils of over-population the highest wisdom  of the
Greeks suggested, besides, late marriages. And in Athens
as in Sparta, and generally among the ancients, exposure
and abortion were resorted to, though these practices were
probably often not due to the simple desire of limiting the
population.8
Malthus conjectures, partly on the basis of analogous
conditions prevailing elsewhere, that the practice of infanticide or exposure had prevailed in Greece from the earliest
'Pollux, viii, 40.  'Plutarch, Solon, 20.
'Bonar, Malthus and his Work, p. 114.





22


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[412


ages.' It seems probable that a later statement of his is
correct: " When Solon permitted the exposing of children,
it is probable that he only gave the sanction of the law to
a custom  already prevalent."   It is possible, as Malthus
also says, that Solon's idea here was based on a theory
similar to that advanced by Malthus.     The custom   may
owe its origin largely to the desire of preventing excessive
numbers, with resulting popular suffering and discontent;
and since, in the case of Greece, the territory seemed definitely limited, to keep the population.as nearly as might be
in accord with the means of subsistence.
~ 3. Plato.  It has often been remarked that every political philosopher necessarily bases his system upon the body
of thought which is the peculiar product of his age. The
genius of a great thinker may create a system which is far
superior to current ideals; yet he does not escape the influence of his mental environment. In the abstract theories
of ancient philosophers respecting the functions of the state
in regard to marriage and. population we recognize much
that is a reflection of the social life of the time.2 This is,
to a certain extent, exemplified in the views of both Plato
and Aristotle.
In his Utopian state Plato endeavored to picture civic
harmony in its perfection. All personal ends were to be
subordinated to the common good.8       The upper classes
should sacrifice property and family to the interests of the
' Malthus, Essay, Third Edition, p. 275; cf. Montesquieu, Esprit des
Lois, bk. xxiii, ch. xvii.
s Cf. Karl Hildebrand, Geschichte and System der Rechts- and Staatsphilosophie, vol. i, p. Iz; Gustav Billeter, "Einige Bemerkungen,"
etc., in Zeitschrift, fir Social- and Wirthschaftsgeschichte, vol. vi;
Plato, Crito, 12, 13.
SJowett's Plato, RQPublic, Bk. v.





413]


CLASSICAL DOCTRINES


23


whole society, the state. In Plato's ideal commonwealth
marriage was to be not a matter of personal preference and
desire, but simply a means of propagating the race.
Only those who were in the best age were to be permitted
to rear children-the women from the ages of twenty to
forty, the men from the ages of twenty-five to fifty-five.
Plato argued that the same principles of selection which
have done so much to improve the stock of domestic animals should be applied to the improvement of the race of
men.' The government should decide what persons might
pair with one another, and it should so regulate pairings
that the state would be neither too populous nor too thinly
peopled. A passage in the Laws suggests a method whereby
natural inclinations might be enlisted to aid in the proper
selection of mates, with a view to physical improvement
of the race.2
All children were to be examined for physical defects,
and only those of healthy and vigorous constitution were
to be reared; the weak and crippled were to be exposed
" in some mysterious, unknown place, as they should be." 8
This should also be the fate of any offspring resulting from
illegal unions and from such unions as had occurred at
unsuitable age periods.
In the Laws, Plato abandons in a measure the population policy advocated in the Republic, substituting a system more in accordance with the practical needs of the
time and the possibilities of Greek life. Community of
women and children, possessions and property, is here also
represented as desirable, but as attainable only by "gods
1 Op. cit., vol. iii, p. 154.
'Laws, vi; cf. Plutarch's Lycurgus (Morley), pp. 26-27.
'Republic, bk. v, 7.





24


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[414


and sons of gods." A state which is, in Plato's view, not
the best, but as nearly ideal as circumstances allow, must
satisfy itself with equality in definite orders or classes.'
This city-state should consist of 5,040 citizens, and land,
houses and property in general should be equally divided
among them. Each citizen should be obliged to keep his
property intact, neither diminishing nor increasing it, and
it should be transmitted unchanged to his heir.2 He should
bequeath his property to that son whom he had held most
dear; the remaining sons were to be provided for either
by voluntary arrangements or by the state, or they were
to go into families having no children. The women should
be married between the ages of sixteen and twenty, and
the men between the ages of thirty and thirty-five. Marriage within these periods should be compulsory.8
It should be one of the chief du(ties of the state to watch
critically all movements of the population.  The state
should indicate to the citizens what they were to do and
should observe closely whether there were too many or
too few children born, and, so far as possible, should find
means whereby the number of citizens might remain continually 5,040. Plato regarded this as quite feasible. There
were private means of checking increase (infanticide, exposure, abortion, etc.) in unions of too great fecundity,
and also of stimulating fruitfulness when occasion demanded. In case numbers should become excessive, however, Plato advised recourse to colonization. And if population should seriously dwindle, immigration would be a
remedy.4 In order to forestall any such necessities newlymarried couples should be watched and expected to rear
'Laws, vi (Jowett, v, p. 153).        'Laws v, 740.
I Laws, iv, 721; vi, 785.  'Laws, v, 741.





415]


CLASSICAL DOCTRINES


25


children. If after ten years a marriage should prove unfruitful, a separation should take place.
Plato's discussion, so far as his doctrines of population
are concerned, is obviously based not upon any broad view
of human society, but upon his ideal of a city-state. It is,
therefore, too much to say, as does Malthus,1 that " Plato
fully saw the tendency of population to increase beyond
the means of subsistence." In constructing his ideal state,
Plato realized that with the practical communism involved
in that state and the consequent removal of individual responsibility for offspring, control of population by the state
would be the only adequate means of avoiding the disasters
of excessive numbers.   Accordingly it is obvious that
Plato's theory was not identical with that of Malthus: the
former based his ideas on a theoretical, communistic citystate; the latter derived his theories from the actual conditions of the modern national state.
~ 4. Aristotle. In contrast with Plato's view that the
sole purpose of marriage is the rearing of offspring, Aristotle expressly emphasized the moral value of the institution.2 Men and women marry not simply for the purpose
of bringing children into the world, but in order to spend
their lives with one another, sharing, in a measure, all joys
and sorrows. But Aristotle was at least as emphatic as
Plato in declaring that the law-maker should regulate conjugal life by making certain rules to guide citizens in their
marital relations. Property and population should be so
regulated that the proportion of property which each citizen
held would be sufficient to support him and his family;
and as the amount of property was limited, the number
of children should be regulated with even greater strictness


1Essay, Third Edition, p. 279.


'Ethica Nikaia, viii.





26


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[4x6


than Plato suggested.1 It should be ordained when and
with whom marriage should be permitted." The age was
to be so determined that too great discrepancies might not
exist between husbands and wives, in order that the sexual
powers of married couples might correspond. That this
end might be best attained, a husband should be his wife's
senior by about twenty years, and no unions should be
permitted women before their seventeenth or men before
their thirty-seventh year. The lawgiver should take measures to prevent elderly couples from bringing offspring into
the world, since such offspring are, as a rule, physically
and mentally deficient.
Aristotle also advised exposure of all deformed children.
Furthermore, in case a woman who already had such a
number of children as the law allowed, became pregnant,
he regarded abortion as a necessary recourse. This might,
however, be avoided if the paternal property, when divided
among the heirs, would be large enough to furnish all with
adequate support."
As in the theories of Plato, we note that Aristotle's
theories of population are based upon the city-state, to
which all individual interests and desires are strictly subordinated.
~ 5. References to Population in Non-philosophic Writings. In Hesiod's Theogony we find the opinion expressed
that if woman and marriage are not essentially evils to be
endured, they represent nevertheless good largely tempered
with evil.' The prevailing view, however, seems rather to
have been that expressed by Sophocles in the Antigone.'
'Politics, ii, 5, 6, 7, 9.    'Ibid., vii, 16.
S Ibid., vii, 16.
*Vv., 6oo-612.       Vv., 875 e seq.





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27


To live and die childless was one of the most humiliating
misfortunes -the destinies could inflict.
Oh, the guilty bed
Of those from whom I sprang! Unhappy offspring,
I go, accurs'd, a virgin and a slave...
Ne'er shall I taste of Hymen's joys, or know
A mother's pleasure in her infant race;
But friendless and forlorn, alive descend
Into the dreary mansions of the dead.'
Among other writers we find traces of the pessimistic
view of marriage. This is apparent in Aristophanes, especially in the Thesmophoriazusae.     The frequently cited
misogynism of Euripides well exemplifies this view. The
fact that the most celebrated Greek philosophers lived in
celibacy, especially after the time of Socrates, is significant.2
Herodotus, on the other hand, writes approvingly of the
practice of the Persian kings of rewarding fecundity by
an annual distribution of rewards to those subjects who
had large numbers of children." Thucydides remarks upon
the disadvantages of large masses of population centred in
cities, particularly upon the tumults and changes to which
they are liable. Among later writers Strabo speaks of the
necessity of rearing children to take the place of those who
have fallen in wars; and he describes also the desire for
offspring which was felt by both sexes, in Lacedemonia, a
desire which he shows was based on both private and public grounds.'  Plutarch's favorable references to the alleged
laws and customs of the early Greeks, in his lives of LySSee Franklin's Sophocles; cf. v. 928, Electra; cf. also Genesis, xxx,
23.
SCI. also the story of Thales in Plutarch's Solon.
SHistory, i, 199; iv.                     'Bk. vi.





28


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[4i8


curgus and Solon, have already been mentioned. Justin 1
takes a stand similar to that of Strabo. He says that the
Lacedemonians sometimes went to what would be considered immoral extremes, in multitudine, in their desire to
keep up the population, which continued wars threatened
seriously to diminish and weaken.
~ 6. The Later Schools of Philosophy.   Epicurus, according to some ancient writings, seems to have regarded
family life as largely superfluous.2  Though this is undoubtedly an exaggeration, it is true that his system of
philosophy advised the wise, as a rule, to refrain from
marriage and the rearing of children. It appears that he
regarded parental love as not natural or inherited. Parents
were not, however, to endeavor consciously to withhold
parental love. Love for offspring was regarded merely as
a hindrance to the philosopher's highest thought, an idea
which in modified form   was later developed by Catholicism.8
The Stoic doctrine regarded marriage with favor, and
taught that the rearing of offspring was one of the duties
of man. The sincerity of the Stoic advocacy of marriage
is somewhat questionable, since it does not appear that the
practice of the Stoic teachers corresponded at all with
their theories.4 The Cynics of the later Empire recommended a complete renunciation of civic and domestic ties
and a life spent wholly " in the contemplation of wisdom."
The Egyptian philosophy which soon afterward appeared
in Greece anticipated still more closely the monastic ideal.'
SBk. iii, ch. 4.   *Cf. Epictetus, Epicurus, i, 23.
*Eduard Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen, vol. iv, Erster Abschnitt.
4 Sue. Demonax, 55. Cf. Herford, The Stoics as Teachers, p. 53.
SLecky, op. cit., i, p. 328; ii, Iog.





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29


II. The Attitude of the Romans toward Population
~ i. Imperialism and Population. The Roman ideal of
the state involved conquest, power and empire. The Greek
idea of perfection might be realized through artistic and
intellectual development within the confines of a small
and self-limited state; the Roman ideal included universal
domain. These differences in political ideals explain to a
very large extent the differences in the Greek and Roman
views of. the problem of population. The Romans needed
increasing population; new soldiers were always required
to fill the ranks depleted in the wars of conquest. Hence
we find that, like the Greeks, the Romans attempted to
regulate marriage by law, but it was always the aim of the
Roman legislator to stimulate increase of population, never
to limit it.
Marriage was declared to exist fundamentally and primarily for the sake of rearing offspring-liberum    quaesundum gratia.'   The rearing of legitimate offspring was
regarded as the duty of all citizens.2 But in spite of this
general view of marriage and its purpose, the marriages
of the upper classes, at any rate, do not seem to have been
very fruitful, as we infer from the often rapid extinction
of many patrician families.8
Even in the early days of the Republic the censors endeavored to encourage marriage, with a view to increasing
the number of people. Sometimes rewards or immunities
1 Cf. Moritz Voigt, Das Civil- und Criminalrecht der XII Tafeln,
vol. ii, pp. 679-80. See Voigt, Lex Maenia, 131. Mommsen, Rdm.
Gesch., vol. i, ch. v: " Eigenes Haus und Kindersegen erscheinen dem
r6mischen Biirger als das Ziel und der Kern des Lebens;" also Staatsrecht, vol. ii, p. 379.
' Voigt, ibid., p. 245, note.
SNiebuhr, Rdm. Gesch., vol. i, pp. 417 et seq. and vol. ii, p. 312.





30


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


1420


were granted to those who accepted the obligations of
matrimony and parenthood; at other times penalties, as, for
example, a special tax (aes uxorum) was imposed on persistent bachelors. After 164 B. C. the population of Rome
seems to have been either stationary or somewhat declining, and the unfavorable census returns caused much regret. The censor, Quintus Metellus, urged that laws be
passed compelling citizens to marry.'  "If, Romans," he
is said to have argued, " we had the power of living without wives, we should all be free from that trouble; but
nature has so disposed it that we can neither live very
commodiously with them, nor without them    exist at all,
and we must then provide rather for perpetual security
than for transient pleasure."  The attitude of Metellus is
the more remarkable since he was reputed to be a happy
paterfamilias; but it is probably characteristic of the prevalent Roman views.2
Valerius Maximus says that the censors Camillus and
Posthumius levied a fine on citizens who grew old in single
life,8 and Plutarch, in the life of Camillus, relates that " as
the wars had made many widows, he obliged such of the
men as lived single, partly by persuasion and partly by
threatening them with fines, to marry the widows."
~ 2. The Laws of Julius and Augustus Caesar; the Lex
Julia et Papfia-Poppcfa. The moral state of the populace
in the early Empire was admittedly a very low one; of
this the writings of the times give us quite full evidence.
Marriage was but lightly regarded, and virtue and marital
fidelity were often rather matters of tradition than of fact.
1Livy, Epitome, lix: "censuit, ut cogerentur omnes ducere uxotes
liberorum creandorum causa." Cf. Aulus Gellius, Nodes Afticae, i, 6, 2.
'Cicero, Tuscularum Disputationum, i, 35, 85.
'Val. Max., ii, 9, i.





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31


Luxury and ambition, vice and power, exercised a most
baneful influence on social and political life. These conditions demanded serious attention, and both Julius and
Augustus enacted laws that were expected to restore health
to the body politic. Later emperors also attempted to encourage population by law.
Julius, it is said,' prohibited women of twenty-four who
were unmarried and childless from wearing precious metals
and jewels and from using litters, and he rewarded those
who had large families. In the agrarian law (de agro
campano dividendo) he ordained that Campanian lands
should be held only by citizens having at least three children.
But it is the laws of Augustus that are of by far the
greatest importance in this connection. Dion Cassius tells
us that Augustus caused the speech of Metellus to be read
before the Senate and that he added to it the following:
While sickness and war snatch away so many citizens, what
must become of this state if marriages are no longer contracted?
The city of Rome, of which we are justly proud, does not
consist of its houses, its porticoes and public edifices; it is the
men of Rome that constitute the city. We must not expect to
see, as in our ancient fables, human beings spring forth out
of the earth to perform the work of the state. Your celibacy
is not owing to the desire to live alone...You seek only
to enjoy irregularities undisturbed... My only object
is the perpetuity of the state. I have increased the penalties
of those who disobey; and as to rewards, they are such that
I believe virtue has never received greater. For less will
a thousand men give life itself; and yet will not these persuade
you to take a wife and provide for children? 2
S Grand Dictionnaire Universel, art. " Population." Suetonius, Julius Caesar, 2o.
*Bks. liv, 15; Ivi.





32


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[422


Of the laws of Augustus bearing on our subject the
three following are the ones of importance: (i) Lex Julia
de adulteriis et de pudicitia; (2) Lex Julia de maritandibus
ordinibus; (3) Lex Papia et Pofpfea; all of which are
sometimes referred to collectively as the lex (or leges)
Julia et Papia-Poppeea.'    Though they were far more
comprehensive than other laws had been, it is evident, as
Tacitus remarks,2 that they are founded on older regulations made by the people, the senate or the censors.
Augustus was extraordinarily thoroughgoing and persistent in his population policy, although he met with strong
opposition. It was in the year 18 B. C. that he first came
before the senate with the lex Julia de maritandibus ordinibus, and, as we infer from  Cassius, its direct object was
to prevent celibacy, particularly that vicious celibacy which
was so frequently to be observed, and to encourage marriage and the rearing of children. He was successful in
getting the senate's approval; 8 but the opposition of the
people, whose consent was necessary, was too great, and
in the face of the cry which arose against the proposals he
could not enact his law.4 He succeeded in carrying through
only the law de pudicitia, in which provision was made
for severe penalties for adultery and illicit relations with
free-born girls. But Augustus never gave up his original
purpose and plans;' his desire was by means of the law to
1They derive their names from the consuls M. Papius Mutilus and
Q. Poppaeus Secundus. Cf. Paul Meyer, Der Rdmische Konkubinat
nach den Rechisquellen, etc., pp. 20-24.
'Annales, iii.
2 Says Zumpt (Ueber den Stand der Bevdlkerung im Alterthum, pp.
41-42): " Wahrscheinlich weil die meisten durch ihr vorgeriicktes Alter
gesichert waren."
*Cf. Suetonius, Augustus, 34: "prae tumultu recusantium perferre
non potuit."





4233


CLASSICAL DOCTRINES


33


secure the continuance and increase particularly of the
old citizenship and the patrician families. He took the
matter up again, after a lapse of several years, introducing the bill in amended form, removing or mitigating
the harsher penalties and increasing the rewards; but
even so he was able to carry it through only by allowing
a three years' grace (from 4 A. D. to 7 A. D.), afterwards extended to six years. Finally, after certain other
changes were adopted, the      composite lex Papia et
Poppfea was enacted (Io A. D.),' though, as Cassius
ironically remarks, neither of the consuls to whom   the
law owes its name was married or had children.2
The law divided Roman society into three classes:
first, unmarried (caelibes); secondly, parents (patres et
matres); thirdly, the childless    (orbi).  Its purpose
was to encourage marriage and legitimate fecundity
among the dominant classes; to counterbalance the advantages which childlessness seems to have had in the
minds of all people who had property and were able to
live in comparative ease; to check the prevailing and
growing licentiousness of the time. Its principal provisions may be summarized as follows:3
I. Marriages between persons of senatorial rank and
persons of servile origin were discouraged, though concubinage was permitted. This regulation was obviously
intended to prevent an admixture of undesirable blood
with that of the politically and economically controlling
class.
1 Muirhead, Historical Introduction to the Private Law of Rome
(Edition, 1886), pp. 303, 304; Rudorff, Rdm. Rechtsgeschichte, vol. i,
p. 69; Puchta, Institutionen (tenth edition), vol. I, pp. 296, 297.
'Dio Cass., Ivi, 1-Io.
*Rudorff, op. cit., pp. 64 et seq.; Puchta, op. cit.; Muirhead, op. cit.,
P. 304.





34           DOCTRINES OF POPULATION           [424
2. The laws were so modified that severe disabilities
were placed on those who were of marriageable age and
remained celibate. Betrothals were taken into consideration only in case there was a possibility of marriage
within two years; e. g., it was required that the fiancee
be at least ten years old. According to the lex Papia a
widow was allowed one year, and a divorced woman
one-half year (later one and a half years) in which to
marry. Absence was considered a valid excuse only
when due to state business, after return from which one
year's grace was granted.
3. Special privileges in public and private law were
given to those who were married and had several children. Among these may be reckoned the preference in
rank at the monthly changes of the fasces given to the
married consuls who had children; the exemption from
public burdens of those who had a certain number of
children (three in Rome, four in the remaining parts of
Italy, and five in the provinces); the right accorded to
matrons who had the jus liberorum of wearing distinctive garments and ornaments, and their exemption from
the limitations of guardianship.' Finally, the jus liberorum exempted praetors and propraetors from the drawing of lots for their respective jurisdictions, and gave
them a right of selection.2
4. Other important provisions had to do with inheritance. Disabilities were imposed upon unmarried persons, and upon persons who though married were childless, as regarded all inheritances and bequests from persons not of kin-i. e., not related by blood within the
sixth degree nor closely connected by marriage. Hus'Gaius, i, 145, 344.
'Gellius ii, 15, 4; Tacitus, Annales, ii, 51; Mommsen, Rdm. Staatsrecht, ii, p. 207.





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35


bands and wives could, as a rule, inherit the entire estate
one from the other only when they had a certain number of children. When they were childless the share that
could be inherited was primarily limited to one-tenth.
To inherit fully from third parties not cognati or affines,
it was necessary for a man to be a pater (married,
with at least one legitimate child), and for a woman
three (if a freedwoman, four) children were required. A
caelebs could not inherit at all from persons not of kin
unless he married within one hundred days. Married
but childless persons not of kin to the testator could
inherit only one-half of what was bequeathed them.
Property which could not be inherited on account of
incapacity was called caducum. It went primarily to
heirs or legatees named in the same testament if these
were capable of taking, otherwise it fell into the state
treasury.
It is undoubtedly true, as most writers agree, that
these laws were a practical failure as far as their intent is
concerned.' Marquardt says that
the conditions were not bettered by the Julian laws; Rome and
Italy in the time of the Empire sank to the lowest moral degradation; the bold immorality and shamelessness of the court as also of
the higher classes generally, the break-up of the family, the continu1Das Privatleben der Rdmer, in Handbuch der rdm. Alterthimer
von J. Marquardt und Th. Mommsen, vol. vii, pp. 79, 80. Cf. Stille,
Die Bevdlkerungsfrage in alter und neuer Zeit. Tacitus, Annales, iii, 25.
Pliny, Epistula, iv, 15. Of the lex Julia de adulteriis Zumpt says (loc. cit.
in note): " Es ist nicht zu verschweigen, dass die lex Julia das infamste
Mittel der Chikane wurde, wie allemahl die Gesetzgebung, wenn sie die
Stelle der Moralitit vertritt. Fiir die tyrannischen Regierungen, welche
Tacitus beschreibt, waren die crimina adulterii ein bereites Mittel
hervorragende Manner und Frauen zu stiirzen."  Cf. in general
Bertheau, op. cit., pp. 226, 227; Beloch, op. cit., p. 503; Cassius, op.
cit. See also Muirhead, p. 382; Rudorff, p. Io.





36


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[426


ance of vicious celibacy, the public prostitution, the mass of unnatural vices which ruined both mind and body and which the
ancient tongues seem best able to depict [cf. Valerius Maximus VI,
I, 9], the ease with which earnest as well as frivolous writers of the
time move about in this filth, all characterized the darker side of
the times; and it were an ungrateful task to dwell long on the
matter.
~ 3. Changes in the Lex Julia et Papia-Pofppea, and
its Abrogation. As these laws contained such a multiplicity of preferences they came under succeeding emperors to have special applications, so that at times certain groups or persons were freed from the disabilities
provided in the original laws. Not until the reign of
Constantine were all of the more important provisions
abrogated; but several changes were made during the
principate. To check such matchmaking as was obviously intended for the purpose of evading the law, a
Senatus Consultum was enacted under Tiberius (19 A.
D.); and the S. C. Persicanum (34 A. D.) increased the
severity of the law by declaring that men over sixty and
women over fifty who married were not thereby to be
freed from any disability.' This sweeping enactment
was modified by the S. C. Claudianum2 and the S. C.
Calvisianum. Nero found it necessary to lessen the
rewards of informers.3 Evasion of the law by simulated
adoption was checked by the S. C. Memmianum            (63
A. D.). The marriage of a senator's daughter with a
freedman, which under the Augustan legislation gave no
capacity, was declared void by a S. C. on an Oratio
'Tacitus, Annales, iii, 28: " exolvi plerique legis nexus."
'Suetonius, Claudius, 23: "capiti Papiae Poppeae legis a Tiberio
Caesare, quasi sexagenarii generare non possunt, addito, abrogavit."
SIbid., Nero, Io: "praemia delatorum Papiae legis ad quartas redegit."
CY. Puchta, op. cit., vol ii, p. 451.





427]


CLASSICAL DOCTRINES


37


Impp. Marci et Commodi.         Trajan gave assistance to
impoverished parents of the highest classes to enable
them to rear children.' Caracalla modified the fiscal
application of the law;2 and Severus, at about the same
time, extended the time and age for marriage.
By the time of Constantine the influence of Christianity
had already begun to show itself in imperial legislation.
The Christian religion of the period did not approve of
second nuptials, and it honored celibacy as a meritorious sacrifice.    The celibates of the early Church were
zealous and often able men, and their resistance resulted
in the abrogation of the disabilities placed on celibates.s
From this time on we continually find traces in legislation of Christianity dnd its ideals. Justinian not only
made permanent the removal of disabilities on celibates,
but he honored and rewarded the type of Christian priests
who followed the rule of celibacy; and instead of granting
privileges to those who contracted a second marriage, he
granted privileges to those who did not.4 Almost the
same provisions concerning population are found in
Justinian's laws as in those of Constantine.5 A new
SPliny, Panegyrica, 26: sub te liberos tollere libet, expedit.
SHunter, Roman Law, p. 67.
SThe decree by which Constantine revoked the old penalties is preserved in an article of the Theodosian Code under the title, De infirmandis poenis coelibatus et orbitatis. " In jure veteri coelibes habitantur imminentibus legum terroribus liberentur, atque ita vivant ac si
numero maritorum matrimonii foedere fulcerentur sitque omnibus aeque
conditio cohessendi quod quisque mereatur. Nec vero quisquam orbus
habeatur: proposita huic nomini damna non nocent." Cod. Theod.,
bk. viii, tit. 16 (ca. 320 A. D.). Constantine formally embraced
Christianity in 325 A. D., the year of the Council of Nicea, which he
attended. Cf. Muirhead, op. cit., p. 382.
'Novellae, 127, cap. vii; 118, cap. I.
5 Codex, lib. viii, tit. 58.





38  *


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[428


decree permitted the union in marriage of those of
senatorial rank with enfranchised or lower classes-an
innovation due to the spirit of Christianity." The reign
of Justinian then completes the history of the Julian
laws,2 excepting so far as they have been imitated in
modern times.
~ 4. Attitude toward Population in Latin Literature.
The earliest writers of the Republic regarded marriage as
an institution whose sole object was the rearing of offspring-liberum quaesundum causa, as Ennius expresses
it.3  Plautus expresses the same idea.     Towards the end
of the Republican period the agricultural writer, Varro,
remarks on the desirability of a numerous progeny.4 In
his Carmen Saeculare, Horace makes a covert but hopeful allusion to the Julian laws.5 Livy is emphatic in his
declaration that offspring are important to the state and
desired by the individual.6 Pliny the younger expresses
the typical Roman desire that the state should possess
as many citizens as possible.7
The Graeco-Roman, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, refers
in the Roman Antiquities to the advantages of having
1Codex, lib. v, tit. 4, 23; Novellae, 89, cap. xv; 117, cap. vi.
2" Et quemadmodum in multis capitulis lex Papia ab anterioribus
principibus emendata fuit, et per desuetudinem abolita: ita et a nobis
circa caducorum observationem invidiosum suum amittat vigorem, qui
et ipsis prudentissimis viris displicuit."  Codex, lib. xvi, cap. 51. Cf.
Digest, lib. xxii, tit. 2.
SAndrom. ap. Fest.; cf. Plautus, Captivi, 4, 2, log.
'Ap. Macrob. Saturn., I, 16.
SVv. 17-20, "Diva producas subolem patrumque prosperes decreta
super jugandis feminis prolique nove feraci lege marita.
*Lib. i, cap. 9: "In societate fortunarum omnium civitatisque et quo
nihil carius humano genere sit liberum fore."
'Epistola, vii, " Cupis enim patriam nostram omnibus quidem rebus
augeri, maxime civium numero."





429]


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39


many children, and expresses his disapproval of celibacy.'
Valerius Maximus, in several parts of his work, mentions
the measures taken by censors to increase the number of
marriages and the desirability of enforcing such laws as
those passed by Augustus,2 for unless people married
with a serious purpose-creandorum liberum causa-the
state would soon show signs of weakness.
Tacitus contrasts the purity of the Germans in their
conjugal life and the severity with which they punished
adultery and similar crimes with the general laxity existing in Roman society. In the Annals he refers to the
Julian laws and says that they were not able to remedy
existing conditions.3 The policy continued to be, he
says, to increase the penalties for celibacy and thereby
increase the revenue. Marriage could not, however, be
brought into fashion. To be without children was regarded as a state productive of the greatest advantages;
the extravagances of the time made the rearing of children a burdensome expense.
SLib. ii, cap. viii and cap. xviii.
'Lib. ii, 9; vii, 7: " Aera poenae nomine eos, qui ad senectutem coelibes pervenerunt, in aerarium deferre jusserunt." Cf. Aulus Gellius,
op. cit.
'Annales, lib. iii, 25; Germania, xviii.





CHAPTER II


RELIGIONS AND POPULATION
I. Oriental and Ancient Religious Doctrines
~ I. Phallism and Increase. In early patriarchal society
social rank was largely determined by number of children
and dependents; moreover, it was regarded as essential to
have sons to carry on the name and to perform the rites
of the dead. Such considerations made marriage among
primitive peoples an institution of vast significance. Injunctions similar to Jehovah's command, " Increase and
multiply," are found in the religions of practically every
ancient nation. For this almost universal attitude toward
population an explanation may be found in the fact that
the early nations were in a state of almost continuous hostility; always menaced and menacing. They were organized not only for peace and industry, but for war and
conquest. Under such circumstances it was natural that
the constant need of men should have been reflected in
religion, custom and law.
In another connection Professor Patten says that
in fighting clans it was necessary to offer every inducement to
child-bearing. Festivals, feasts and social gatherings were designed to provoke the passions. Under such conditions the
first thought of every woman was not to guard her chastity,
but to escape barrenness. Chastity became a dominant motive only after economic welfare had progressed so far that
the clans began to   disintegrate... There is probably
40                                          [430





431]


RELIGIONS AND POPULATION


41


some truth in the assertion that a woman is more fruitful if
she enters sexual relations very young and indulges in amusements that create sexual excitement. At least savage races act
on these assumptions and incorporate them in their religion.
The gods that primitive women worshipped most eagerly were
those that prevented barrenness, and these gods were sure to
demand of women licentious acts as a means of securing their
favor. The sacrifice of chastity was an early form of worship,
and  sacred  prostitution  is an  element in primitive religions.
I.. When    Christianity  was introduced; the   old  festivals
with which much licentiousness was associated were not abolished, but were continued   under other names. This was the
conscious policy of the Church, and was commanded by Pope
Gregory.1
While unable to vouch for the correctness of Professor
Patten's statements, the writer thinks that they are undoubtedly well founded.2      Herodotus describes Babylon'History of English Thought, pp. 132, 133.
2It should be noted that generation is not attributed to its natural
causes among certain of the most primitive types of mankind existing
to-day. Procreation is attributed to extra-human causes, such as the
influence of some bird, some deity, etc. The author has been unable to
decide to his own satisfaction whether such a condition is due to degeneration or excessive profligacy, or whether the instances mentioned by
Spencer and Gillen (The Native Tribes of Central Australia, passim)
and a few others indicate a general stage in man's development. In the
face of these instances, however, it would certainly be unscientific, at
present, to make a general statement to the effect that primitive man
was able to appreciate the causality in the generative process. But, in
a more cultured stage, phallic worship seems to stand partly in a certain
relation to the veneration of sex as the causal foundation of procreation,
Man then appeals to a deity or deities not only to further reproduction
by granting fertility to his kind, but also to increase or make certain
the means by which he subsists. When his social instincts become sufficiently developed he lives not only in a small circle, as in a form of
family; but the group widens, and he realizes instinctively that in numbers there is better protection for him and his as against other groups





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ian rites that involved universal sacrifice of female chastity;' and in parts of Cyprus this custom also prevailed.
According to Strabo, there was a law in Armenia requiring a similar sacrifice.2 Again, in the valley of the Ganges
virgins were compelled before marriage to pay similar
homage to a divinity,3 and the same custom is distinctly
traceable elsewhere.4
While it would be going too far to claim, as some
writers do, that all, or even most, religions had a purely
phallic origin, it cannot be controverted that so-called
phallic ideas have played a great part in very many early
and animals. His social nature enables him thus more easily to increase
and survive. Only those tribes whose sexual life was of such a character as to be favorable to fecundity would long survive. This would seem
to necessitate a certain measure of purity, if the phrase is permissible in
this connection; and this purity as well as advancing culture would tend
to make a truer comprehension of the reproductive process appear. In
criticizing Westermarck's theory of non-promiscuity, Spencer and Gillen say: "The first explanation offered [by Westermarck] is that in
certain instances the practice was evidently associated with phallic worship, as, for example, when in the valley of the Ganges the virgins had
to offer themselves up in the temples of the Juggernaut. This implies
a social development very different from, and much more advanced
than anything met with among Australian natives.... It is doubtful
how far phallic worship can be said to exist among them." Pp. Ioo,
xoI. Cf. Letourneau, The History of Marriage and of the Family,
chap. i, ~ i. Westermarck and McLennan, however, agree that " the
farther back we go the less we find of such [phallic] worship in India;
the germ only of phallic worship shows itself in the Vedas and the gross
luxuriance of licentiousness, of which the cases referred to are examples, is of later growth."  P. 72, Westermarck, History of Human
Marriage. Cf. Ploss, Das Kind, Zweites Kapitel, "Das Mutterhoffen."
J. A. Dulaure, Des Divinilts Genratrices ou Culte du Phallus chez les
Anciens et les Modernes, pp. 161-166, 256-258.
SBk. i, chap. 199.
SBk. xi; cf. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, p. 72.
*Lubbock, Origin of Civilization, pp. 537, 538.
4 Westermarck, op. cit.





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religions and religious ceremonies. The reproductive,
fructifying, natural powers naturally aroused the awe and
reverence of man.
During a certain stage of human development, religion was but
a recognition of and a reliance upon the fructifying powers
throughout nature, and in the earlier ages of man's career, worship consisted for the most part in the celebration of festivals at
stated seasons of the year, notably during seed time and harvest,
to commemorate the benefits derived from the grain field and vineyard.1
Among the Assyrians, the supreme god Bel was also
styled the procreator; and his wife, the goddess Mylitta,
represented the reproductive principle of nature and received the title of queen of fertility.  Other deities, such as
the Vul (the male) and Shala, or Sarrat (the female), had
a similar significance. According to Ptolemy, the phallus
was the object of religious worship among the Assyrians
and Persians. The Jews did not escape this worship, and
we find that their women made phalli of gold and silver."
Among the Hindus the lingam and yoni received religious
reverence, and so also among the Romans the phallus and
KTlc.  Among the Tuetons and Scandinavians the god
Fricco, corresponding to the Priapus of the Romans, was
adored in phallic form; and instances might be multiplied.3
SGamble, The God-Idea of the Ancients, p. II. Cf. Tylor, Primitive
Culture, vol. i, p. 295, and Max Miiller, Origin and Growth of Religion,
P. 279.
2Ezekiel, xvi, 17.
3 See Westropp and Wake, The Phallic Idea in the Religions of Antiquity, pp. 27 et seq.; also R. P. Knight, An Account of the Remains
of the Worship of Priapus; M. Caird, The Morality of Marriage, p. 34;
Clifford Howard, Sex Worshif; Edmund Buckley, Phallicism in Japan,
PP. 5 et seq.





44        ~DOCTRINES OF POPULATION                  [3
Mr. Clifford Howard, who attempts to give a summary
of investigations along these lines, says11 that phallism is
at the basis of many of our most sacred symbols and customs, and he concludes:
While the highest development of phallicism was reached by the
ancient Egyptians, Hindus, Assyrians, Greeks and Romans, whose
records and remains abound in evidences of the phallic basis
of their elaborate mythologies and religious celebrations, the existence of this early form of religion is to be found in every part
of the globe inhabited by man. Babylon, Persia, Hindustan,
Ceylon, China, Japan, Burmah, Java, Arabia, Syria, Asia Minor,
Egypt, Europe, Mexico, Peru, etc., all yield abundant evidence
to the same effect and point to a common origin of religious
beliefs.'
~ 2. The Early Religions of India.     The Vedic singers
often express the wish to beget sons of their own flesh.3
A common prayer was that a marriage might be blessed
by a numerous off spring. As a part of the marriage ceremony, the ancient groom was accustomed to murmur to
his bride a number of traditional verses; for example. such
as "I am he, thou art she.4 Come, we two will go forth;
O0p. cit., chap. i.
The writer is not in a position to judge concerning the correctness
of his statement that " sex worship was the universal primitive religion;" but researches in the history of religions would hardly corroborate
such a declaration. Cf. Wake (OP. cit., P. 78), who takes a position
like the one quoted. He traces the story of the "fall of man," the
story of the flood (the dove and its return to the ark), circumcision,
etc., to what he considers their phallic origin. And he holds " the fundamental basis of Christianity more phallic than that of any other religion now existing."
a1 The place of these could not be filled by adoption. Kaigi, The RigVeda, pp. x5, 16.
4'Cf. the Quando t& Gaius, ego Gaia, of the Romans.





4351         RELIGIONS AND POPULATION                45
we will beget us posterity; many sons will we get us;
they will reach a great age." On reaching their new
home the newly-married couple were greeted with admonitions and good wishes, having in the main reference to
increase of the family: " Children and children's children
grant, Prajapati;" " Within the home may man and beast
increase and thrive;" "Ten children grant and spare to
her as an eleventh her dear spouse;" "Take five steps
for offspring," etc.'
Brahminical doctrines attach the greatest importance to
male descendants, but after the continuity of the male line
was assured by the birth of a grandson, the devidja was
directed to abandon home and family, to betake himself
to the forests to lead the life of a vana frastha. The
straddha, or periodic oblations to the dead, could be performed only by male posterity, and its omission plunged
the whole line of dead ancestors from the abodes of happiness to those of sorrow." Woman was regarded as sexually impure, but fruitfulness was nevertheless esteemed
most desirable. Polygamy was approved, possession of
many wives being a sign of social eminence. The generative power was considered divine in its nature.3
There was a strong strain of asceticism in pure Brahminism. Celibacy was held in high honor and chastity
was inculcated as a religious duty. In reference to chastity it is said: "Many thousand of Brahmins, having
avoided sensuality from their early youth and having left
Monier Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, pp. 363, 364.
2Laws of Manu, bk. iv, strophe 257.
8 Sacred Books of the East, edited by Max Miiller, vols. xliii, pp. 32,
369, 370; xliv, p. 313; xli, p. 354. Westermarck, op. cit., p. 489, says
that the polygamy of the ancient Hindus seems to have been due
chiefly to the fact that men dreaded the idea of dying childless.





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no issue in their families, have ascended, nevertheless, to
heaven." "And like those abstemious men, a virtuous wife
ascends to heaven, though she have no child, if after the
decease of her lord she devote herself to pious austerity."'
But " reprehensible is the father who gives not his daughter in marriage at the proper time," for " children are the
cause of happiness in this world and after death."
Penalties were provided for adultery and abortion;' but
a form of polyandry was evidently permitted: "If a man
have no children, it is possible for him to get this desired
blessing by permitting connections between his wife and
his brother or other relative;" and the offspring resulting
from such a union was regarded as the husband's, for we
read that "the seed and the fruit belong to the owner of
the field."3
~ 3. The Teachings of Confucius and Buddha. The
doctrines of Confucius, like those of many other religions,
express the idea, so favorable to increase, that a father
whose children are condemned to live in celibacy dies without honor, and a son failed in his first duty if he did not
beget children to perpetuate his name and family. This
is in agreement with the Confucian system in general,
which was a reaction against Brahminism. In the LikM4
we find that the express purpose of marriage is "to secure
the continuance of the family line," and that "the ceremony of marriage is the root of the other ceremonial observances."5 The young wife was expected to assume
'Institutes of Hindu Law or the Ordinances of Manu (Calcutta,
1794), chap. v, vv. 159, 16o, p. 143. Cf. Biihler (S. B. E., vol. xxv),
pp. 196, 197, 332, 328.
S Biihler, pp. 205-216, 315-320, 184.
'Laws ofManu, bk. ix, strophe 59. Cf. Ploss, Das Weib, vol. i, p.
572.
'S. B. E., vol. xxvii, pp. 35 and 56.  Ibid., pp. 428-434.





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the place of a mother in the family; divorce was allowed
in case the wife proved sterile.'
Buddha Gotama founded a religion which enjoins the
strictest celibacy on its sacerdotal class. His teaching was
that all ideas of marriage and a happy home-life must needs
be abandoned by all wise men, by all who aimed at becoming philosophic Buddhists. This contrasts with the Biblical
doctrine that " it is not good for man to be alone."2 Although perfect sanctity demanded chaste celibacy, the rule
against marriage was naturally admitted to be inapplicable
to the great majority of human beings; and none of this
great number could be wise men in the Buddhist sense or
partake of perfect sanctity. This doctrine was, however,
violated even by those who clung to it in theory. Monier
Williams says that there is evidence that in northern countries the strictness of this teaching was soon relaxed.3 In
Tibet and Ceylon there are to-day many temples inhabited
by priests of this system who live in a loose celibacy, as a
means of mortification preparing them to enter more
readily into the "Great Whole."   And
it is known that at the present time the lamaseries in Likkin and
Tibet swarm with children of monks, though called their nephews
and nieces. And, far worse than this, Buddhism ultimately allied
itself with Tantrism, or the worship of the female principle, and
under its sanction encouraged the grossest violations of decency and
the worst forms of profligacy.'
Celibacy was then, and is still, an important element in
practical Buddhism. The general asceticism which it in' Legge, Chinese Classics, vol. i, p. 1o6.
2 Genesis, ii, 18.
Buddhism in its Connection with Brahmanism and Hinduism.
'Ibid., p. 152.





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culcates is well illustrated in a chapter on " putting away
desire" in the Life of Buddha.'     Here Buddha proves
himself exemplary indeed, in that he resists all the allurements of love. He says: " Women, though naturally weak,
are high and potent in the way of ruling men. What may
not their arts accomplish in promoting in men a lustful
desire?" His position seems to be one of pure and austere
morality, but the pendulum of his enthusiasm swings too
far. His teachings contain more asceticism than did
mediaeval Christianity, and if carried out they would operate as a most potent check on the increase of population.
His extreme views were and are followed by the priests
alone, and that, too, often according to the letter and not
according to the spirit of his injunctions.2
~ 4. Zoroastrianism and Mohammedanism in Their Relations to Population. The sacred books of Zoroaster, the
Zend-Avesta, are full of religious effusions favoring those
conditions which encourage marriage and make the race
productive.3 " I prefer the paterfamilias to the childless,"
said this religious teacher of the Perso-Iranians, and in
Persia even to-day sterility is considered a terrible misfortune.4  The marriage song found in the Zend-Avesta
is a eulogy of the procreating powers and their proper use.
Zoroaster's whole teaching is unquestionably emphatically
favorable to increase and against those things which would
SIn World's Great Classics, The Sacred Books of the East, p. 314.
'Westermarck, op. cit., p. 425, says that Buddhist monks regard marriage simply as a concession to human frailty and it is therefore made a
civil contract, but it is nevertheless commonly connected with some religious ceremony, often being celebrated with the assistance of a lama,
thus receiving a sort of religious sanction.
' Cf. Grand Dictionnaire Universel, art. "Population."
* Blavatsky, A Master Key to the Mysteries; Nietsche, Thus Spake
Zarathustra.





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retard it. Children were a man's strength and honor, and
necessary to success and the truest happiness.'
In the fourth chapter of the Koran, Mohammed expressly
teaches that polygamy is permissible. It is undoubtedly
true that the sensual receives a great deal of emphasis as
well as approval in Mohammedanism.     It is demanded,
however, that respect be paid to women, especially to wives
and mothers. Mohammed lays great stress on the giving
of dowries to women, and he gives instructions regarding
inheritances, from which women are not excluded, but receive smaller portions than men.2
The encouragement held out to large families by the
Mohammedan religion have been counterbalanced by the
warlike habits and the polygamous marriage arrangements
of the people holding this faith. Polygamy is ordinarily
considered less fruitful than monogamy, and for this reason
Mohammedanism tends indirectly, if not to diminish, at
any rate to multiply population less rapidly than do Christian doctrines, for example. The theoretical influences of
the religion have strongly favored increase. According to
Lady W. Montague, " The women of this religion are
taught to believe that they best insure their future happiness by employing themselves in making young Mussulmen, while those who die unproductive perish in a reprobate state." 8
"The promise of Paradise to every man who had ten
children," says Malthus, " would but little increase their
1S. B. E., vol. xxxi, pp. 190-192.
*The Qur'dn, translated by E. H. Palmer, pt. i, chaps. i-xvi (In S.
B. E.).
SRoscher, Political Economy, vol. ii, "Population;" George Ensor,
Inquiry Concerning the Population of Nations, p. 7.





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numbers, though it might greatly increase their misery;"
and Mr. Bonar adds:
It could only increase their numbers if it increased their food
and it could not increase their food without changing their
warlike habits into habits of industry. Failing this, it simply,creates a constant uneasiness (through want and poverty) that
multiplies occasions for wars. Fortunately for himself, the
Arab often proportions his religious obedience to the extent
of his resources, and in hard times, "when there is a pig at
hand and no Koran," he thinks best to eat what God has
given him.2
~ 5. The Religions of Egypt, Greece and Rome.        The
Egyptian worship of Isis and Osiris endowed sex characteristics with a mystic significance and made the process
of reproduction   a subject of religious veneration.     In
Egypt the act of generation was consecrated to Khem, as
in Assyria to Vul and in India to Siva; in Greece in the
primitive age to Pan and in later times to Priapus, and in
Italy to Mutinus.8 Renouf remarks that " no historical
connection can be admitted between the Egyptian and the
Indo-European doctrines of the necessity of marriage, and
all doctrines of religious celibacy may very probably turn
out to be historically independent of one another." '   CerSOp. cit. second edition, p. 94, seventh editi on, p. 65.
Bonar, Malthus and his Work, p. iII.
SWestropp and Wake, op. cit., pp. 28-29. Colonel Tanin (in Secret
Museum of Naples) says that "the reverence as well as worship paid
to the phallus in the early ages had nothing in it which partook of indecency, but of reverential religion. The indecent ideas attached to the
phallic symbol were, though it seems a paradox to say so, the result of
a more advanced civilization verging towards its decline, as we have
evidence at Rome and Pompeii."
4 Renouf, Origin and Growth of Religions as Illustrated by the Religion of Ancient Egypt, pp. 150-151.





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tain celibate doctrines prevailed also in Europe, but the
general religious tendency seems always to have been one
of great veneration for the reproductive powers.
The Greek and Roman religions clearly manifest the
veneration in which the reproductive forces were held. We
need only recall the worship of Venus and Priapus and the
festivals connected with it to convince ourselves of a potent
relation between their religious and their sexual life.
The liberalia and the bacchanalia were festivals in honor
of Venus, Priapus and Bacchus, and for the purpose of
worshiping the reproductive and amorous nature given by
them to man. In the month of April, when the fertilizing
powers of nature begin to operate and the reproductive
forces manifest themselves, a festival in honor of Venus,
the goddess of sexual love, took place at Rome; in it the
phallus was carried in a decorated car and led in a procession of Roman matrons to the temple of Venus outside
the Colline Gate, and presented to the goddess.1    The
Orphic and Eleusinian Mysteries, so closely connected with
the sexual, are said by Herodotus to be of Egyptian origin.
Venus and Diana personified the great maternal principle.
The dances and festivals of Bacchus were scenes of sensual
pleasure and indulgence.
The Roman desire for offspring was closely connected
with the necessity of continuing the family worship. Voigt,
in speaking of the manus of the paterfamilias, says:
On the other hand there are a great many duties connected with
SThis, says Westropp, op. cit., pp. 24 et seq., is only symbolizing the
idea expressed by Vergil in the Georgics (II): " Vere tument terrae, et
genitalia femina poscunt; Turn pater omnipotens fecundis imbribus
aether Coniugis in gremium laete descendit et omnes Magnus alit,
magno commixtus corpore, foetus." Cf. Arnobius, vol. vi, p. 471,
Ante-Nicene Fathers.





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such a position of power... So we find that one of his
nearest duties was by entering marriage and performing his
marital duties to have a care for the procreation of a numerous,
legitimate progeny; for, as the purpose of the marriage institution is typically expressed in the familiar liberum quaesundum gratia, the begetting of children is not only a political but
also a sacred duty, since it is the sons of the family who continue the sacra familiariax1
And we see that in this respect also the classical religious
ideas did not diverge from the typical ancient form.
~ 6. The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews in its Bearings on the Population Question. The position taken by
the Israelites, as shown in their religion, is perhaps clearer
than that of any other people, as indicated in sacred books.
The general view recognized the advisability of following
the injunction given to Adam and Eve in Paradise: "Be
fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth." 2 Unfruitfulness was regarded as a serious misfortune. This is
indicated in such stories as that of Rachel:3
And when Rachel saw that she bare Jacob no children, Rachel
envied her sister; and said unto Jacob, Give me children or
I die. And Jacob's anger was kindled against Rachel: and
he said, Am I in God's stead, who hath withheld from thee
the fruit of thy womb? And she said, Behold my maid Bilhah,
go in unto her; and she shall bear upon my knees, that I also
may have children by her. And she gave him Bilhah her handmaid to wife: and Jacob went in unto her. And Bilhah conceived and bare Jacob a son... And God remembered
Rachel, and God hearkened to her, and opened her womb. And
she conceived, and bare a son; and said, God hath taken away
my reproach.


'Op. Cit. 9 P. 244.


* Genesis, i, 28.


*Ibid., xxx, 1-28.





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In this story we see reflected with exceptional clearness
the desire of women in a primitive age to avoid barrenness
above all things. Chastity, in the modern sense, was of
small consequence.'
The laws of Moses, as is well known, permitted polygamy, " for the hardness of their hearts," and that it was
common among the higher classes even a cursory acquaintance with the Scriptures will reveal. The laws against
adultery were severe. The hygienic prescriptions were of
wide effect and undoubtedly wholesome.2
The prophetic promises of Jehovah to the patriarchs,8
that their seed should be as numerous as the sands of the
shore or as the stars in the heavens, also indicate the great
sanctity of offspring and the desire for great numbers.
The Jews shared this feeling with all tribes or nations in
similar positions. It was to be expected that they should
regard great populousness as indissolubly connected with
national prosperity. David's counting of the people was
due to the desire to gain a more accurate estimate of the
nation's strength in fighting men.4
The possibility of becoming an ancestor of the Messiah
was of no small importance; it imparted a peculiar dignity
to marriage and parentage.5
The Jewish ideals were naturally in severe opposition
'Cf. Deuteronomy, xxv, 5-6.
2 Found in various parts of the books attributed to Moses. Cf. also
Judges, xiii, 14; Exodus, xx, 14; Leviticus, xviii, 20.
3 Of course the writer cannot take cognizance here of such statements
as that of Renan, that " there was no Abram and there was no Isaac,
and Jacob was the name of a tribe." It is not necessary to regard socalled higher criticism for the purpose here in mind.
4II Samuel, xxiv.
ICf. Genesis, iii, 15; in general, G. S. Goodspeed, Israel's Messianic
Hope to the Time of Jesus.





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to any celibate or monastic development.    Populousness
was obviously of great advantage to them and always desired.1 There were, however, some remarkable exceptions
among the Essenes, who had founded a monastic society
whose members abstained from marriage. But even they,
in general, considered succession to be of the greatest
moment.2
NOTE.-Of the passages in the Old Testament bearing upon
this question, the following will be of interest:
Genesis xxviii, 14: And thy seed shall be as the dust of the
earth; and thou shalt spread abroad to the west, and to the
east, and to the north, and to the south; and in thee and in
thy seed shall all the families of the earth be blessed.
Deuteronomy xxvi, 5: And he went down into Egypt and
sojourned there with a few, and became there a nation, great,
mighty and populous.
Proverbs xiv, 28: In the multitude of people is the king's
glory: But in the want of people is the destruction of the prince.
Proverbs xvii, 6: Children's children are the glory of old
men; and the glory of children are their father's.
Psalm cxxvii, 3-5: Lo, children are an heritage of the Lord;
and the fruit of the womb is his reward. As arrows are in
the hand of a mighty man, so are children of the youth.
Happy is the man that hath his quiver full of them: they shall
not be ashamed, but they shall speak with the enemy in the gate.
Ecclesiastes iv, 8: There is one that is alone, and he hath
not a second; yea, he hath neither son nor brother; yet there
is no end of all his labor, neither are his eyes satisfied with
riches. For whom then, saith he, do I labor, and bereave my
soul of good? This is also vanity, yea, it is a sore travail.
Jeremiah xxii, 30: Write ye this man childless, a man that
shall not prosper.
1 Lecky, op. cit., p. o18.
'Cf. Westermarck, op. cit., p. 379. See also Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (new edition), p. 380.





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The following verse indicates an early realization of the
dependence of a people on the subsistence the land will produce; and that when the limit is about reached the natural
resource is migration:
Genesis xiii, 6: And the land was not able to bear them that
they might dwell together: for their substance was great, so
that they could not dwell together.
II. The Primitive Christian and Mediaeval Conception of
Marriage, with its Relation to Increase in Numbers.
~ I. Saint Paul and Early Asceticism. Christianity was
a reaction against a rigid system of traditions, and its
aim was to raise men to higher ethical and moral ideals.
It was, furthermore, a protest against the immoral conditions developed in the early Roman Empire and the unsatisfactory and incomplete philosophies of the time. That
it was more than this the writer does not deny, but it was
these conditions which seem most to have affected the matter
which is here treated.
Whether Christianity and Malthusianism are in opposition to one another, as Sadler asserts,' or not, is a question
We shall not attempt to decide. But such a view would
seem far-fetched, to say the least, for Christianity is essentially unworldly in its ideals, whereas Malthusianism deals
with an intensely human problem.
Christianity, even in its primitive development, was too
cosmopolitan in its nature to permit of narrow, national
prejudices to anything like the extent so common in the older
religions. But Christianity was more than cosmopolitan;
it contained also an extra-mundane philosophy of life and
destiny which ennobled existence, but which also carried
to extremes. If we survey the early patristic literature in
1Law of Population, vol. i, p. 387.





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an effort to gain some idea of the relations between Christianity and the state, we notice a spirit which is in contrast
with the old classical theories concerning the state and the
individual.  We do not find that "man is a political animal," but that his real home is in another world and his
mission celestial; all earthly countries and institutions are
of secondary importance. Justin, for example, says that
"every foreign land is our country and we are aliens in
every country." 1
It was but natural that under these conditions an element
of asceticism should appear in the religion. Concerning
this Nitti says:
All the primitive Christian sects, those which carried their
idealism furthest, abhorred matrimony; the Manicheans 2 utterly condemned it, the Eucratists, the Docetists, the Marcionites, all recommended chastity... It is true that
Christianity has honored and sanctified matrimony, but it
has preferred chastity. The apostles, the saints, the men whom
the churches venerate have nearly all been chaste, and, in every
case, have only reached perfection when they attained chastity.
In all lives of the saints, the most meritorious actions and those
most generally praised refer to chastity and the resistance to
the temptations of the flesh... But Christianity, and
later Catholicism, losing its primitive ascetic fervor, adapted
itself to places and times. With the disappearance of mysticism the Christian religion was, and still is, among modem
peoples, a stimulus to fecundity. Indeed, not infrequently
among the poor, a belief in providential aid leads to the contracting of matrimony and the avoidance of celibacy and
fornication.'8 gI\k *,
'Ad Diogenem, cap. 5, 6. Cf. Chrysostomus, Homily 17, "to the
people of Antioch;" also Homily 28, in Letter to the Hebrews.
2 Cf. Augustin, On Continence, chap. xxii.
' Op. cit., pp. 119-12o.





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Karl Kautsky, in a discussion of the inefficacy of the
Julian laws and of the depopulating tendency of the Empire, says   that this tendency was aided by Christianity
with its asceticism, which checked marriage and the rearing of offspring. The oriental origin of the religion, he
thinks, only increased the ascetic fanaticism; and though
the fall of the Empire was not caused by Christianity, it
was hastened by it. With some bitterness he remarks that
Christianity not only increased existing evils of society,
but it hid from     knowledge their existence.     With   the
spread of Christianity the interest in worldly affairs greatly
decreased, and this was not least true of interest in politicoeconomic subjects.   Abstinence was preached solely for religious reasons. Kautsky thinks that Christian writers during the whole of the Middle Ages did not understand, or
at any rate appreciate, the influence of population on the
welfare of the people.2
But, on the other hand, Lecky says that the Church,
"with unwavering consistency and with the strongest emphasis," contrasting sharply with existing conditions, condemned infanticide and abortion and divorce and licentiousness of all kinds.3 All this, with the charity which it
inculcated, could not but have had many desirable effects.
The question naturally arises, on what basis do the tenSDer Einfluss der Volksvermehrung auf den Fortschritt der Gesellschaft, p. 17.
3 Cf. Lucien Sch6ne, op. cit., p. 62: " On est ainsi promptement transporte loin des excitations A la multiplication de l'espece rencontrees
jusqu'alors dans l'etude de l'antiquite. Les sectes qui surgirent dans les
premiers siecles de l'&re Chretienne s' en sont encore davantage eloignbes.
-Another French writer (Encyclopedie de Diderot, art. " Population ")
puts the case thus: " Le pere le plus religieux et le meilleur sera celui
qui fera le moins pour multiplier sa famille. II n' a pas proprement pour
effet de peupler la terre, son vrai but est de peupler le ciel."
S Op. cit., p. 24.





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dencies and teachings of the Church rest? The answer is
found in the content and in what was believed to be the
intent of the teachings of Christ and his apostles. The
fact that Christ and many of his disciples were celibates
and that Mary was always associated with virginity could
but lend a great deal of sanctity, among primitive Christians, to ideals of chastity. Christ's sympathy for women
and his love of children, his moral teachings, his doctrine
that men should not worry excessively about the future
and that men should work if they are to eat, his honoring
a wedding by his attendance, do not indicate any ascetic
ideas concerning marriage or offspring. To the writer it
seems that he advocated prudence without too much speculative forethought.
The main foundations for the celibate practices and doctrines of early Christianity are undoubtedly to be found in
the sentiments expressed by Saint Paul:
It is good for a man not to touch a woman. But, because of
fornication, let each man haveshis own wife and let each woman have her own husband... But this I say by way
of concession, not of commandment. Yet I would that all
men were even as I myself. Howbeit, each man has his own
gift from God. But I say to the unmarried and widows, It
is good for them, if they abide even as I... And if a
virgin marry, she hath not sinned. Yet such shall have tribulation of the flesh... He that is unmarried is careful
for the things of the Lord, how he may please the Lord: but
he that is married is careful for the things of the world...
So then he that giveth his own virgin daughter in marriage
doeth well; but he that giveth her not in marriage shall do
better.1
The following passages are of the same tenor:
11 Corinthians, vii.





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Romans ix, 13: For if ye live after the flesh ye shall die: but
if ye through the Spirit do mortify the deeds of the body ye
shall live.
Colossians iii, 5: Mortify therefore your members which
are upon the earth; fornication, uncleanness, inordinate affection, evil concupiscence, and covetousness, which is idolatry.
I Thessalonians iv, 3: For this is the will of God, even
your sanctification, that ye should abstain from fornication.
I Timothy v, 3: Honor widows that are widows indeed.
I Timothy v, I1-14: But for the younger widows refuse: for
when they have begun to wax wanton against Christ, they
will marry;... I will therefore that the younger women marry, bear children, guide the house, give none occasion
to the adversary to speak reproachfully.
Sentiments similar to the above are expressed by others
also; for example:
Matthew xix, 12: For there are some eunuchs, which were
so born from their mother's womb: and there are some eunuchs,
which were made eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which
have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of Heaven's
sake. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it.
I Peter ii, 11: I beseech you as strangers and pilgrims, abstain from fleshly lusts, which war against the soul.
We should, perhaps, expect that the early followers of
the Nazarene, in the ardor of a new and pure faith, when
thus exhorted, to fall into some unreasonable ascetic excesses. Their environment, too, would naturally tend to
make the most devoted adherents revolt, sometimes extravagantly, against prevalent immorality. It seems to the writer
that the ordinary, modern Protestant interpretation of
these exhortations as meaning simply a strong advocacy
of chastity in the general sense of purity is more in accord





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with the intent of New Testament doctrine as a whole than
the one maintained by the primitive Church and the Church
Fathers. The position taken by the latter is, however, probably in truer agreement with the literal content of the
writings of Saint Paul. The fact that Christ, like so many
early religious teachers and philosophers, was a celibate,
and Mary was always spoken of as " the Virgin," also
furnishes ground for the position taken by the Church.
~ 2. The Patristic Writings. The study of the population question in the quite extensive literature left us by
the Church Fathers involves necessarily a consideration of
their opinions on chastity and marriage. These matters
are all treated from a religious standpoint and as parts of
one great theme, namely, the sexual. The ideas expressed
by these writers, as well as those appearing in later clerical
expositors of the Faith, naturally reflect most strongly
purely Christian doctrines, but the influence of Roman
social and institutional life and thought and of the philosophic literature of the Greeks is also apparent.
It would be a very difficult matter to determine what
the political and economic effects of these views were. A
more complete knowledge of Roman history than the world
yet possesses would probably be necessary before a final
and satisfactory answer to this question could be given.
The unworldly point of view involved a theoretical disregard of marriage. What is more, marriage was often
spoken of as unclean and as a kind of animalism to be
avoided; so that celibacy and virginity were considered as
possessing greater sanctity than any other condition. Matrimony and family life were, however, regarded as generally necessary and permissible. As Lecky says:
the object of the ascetic was to attract men to a life of virginity, and, as a necessary consequence, marriage was treated





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as an inferior state... In general it would be difficult to
conceive of anything more coarse and more repulsive than the
manner in which they regarded it.1
But in justice to the patristic attitude, it must not be forgotten that the circumstances of the times seemed to warrant a great deal of what we find in their opinions. Family
life was, as we know, at a very low ebb, and too often all
matters connected with the sexual life of the people were
in reality synonymous with uncleanness and debauchery.
(a) The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Opinions seem to grow
more and more severe, until they find their most extreme
expression in the Nicene and Post-Nicene writings. In
the most primitive period of Christianity, Lecky says,
there are two facts connected with it which every candid student must admit. The first is, that in the earliest period of
the church, the privilege of marriage was freely accorded to
the clergy. The second is, that a notion of the impurity of
marriage existed, and it was felt that the clergy, as pre-eminently the holy class, should have less license than laymen.2
Lecky's statement finds some verification in the general
tone of Ignatius's Epistle to Polycarp, in which he says:
" It becomes men and women to marry and to form their
union with the approval of the bishop, that their marriage
may be according to the Lord and not according to their
own lust." 3 The same spirit runs through the First Apology of Justin the Martyr.   " But as for us," he says,
we have been taught that to expose newly-born children is the
1'O. cit. * O. cit., vol. i, p. 325; Cf. Westermarck, op. cit., p. 151.-_
8 Chap. v. Found in volume i of The Ante-Nicene Fathers, edited by
Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson.
SChaps. xxvii-xxix.





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part of wicked men; and this we have been taught lest we do
any one injury... first, because we see that almost all
so exposed (not only girls but also the males) are brought up
to prostitution; and again (we fear to expose children) lest
some of them be not picked up, but die, and we become murderers...But whether we marry, it is only that we may
bring up children; or whether we decline marriage we live continently.
Irenaeus strongly disapproves of the opinion of those who
declare that marriage and procreation are of the devil.1
Clement of Alexandria says that to despise marriage is
wrong, though purity and chastity are always commendable; and vice is to be abhorred. Again and again he
asserts that a life of chaste wedlock is not to be accounted
imperfect. Marriage may result in good or in evil; if the
laws of matrimony are not transgressed it is well. Marriage has its purpose and was blessed by God.        If the
parties to a union are continent and rear children so that
they become good men and women, they are not to be considered blameworthy.2 He refuses to accept the extreme
declarations of those who regard marriage as wrong,8 and
in all marital relations he advises purity, temperance and
continence.
1Against Heresies, bk. i, ch. xxiv, sec. 2: "nubere et generare a
Satana dicunt."
SPaedagogus, cap. x: " Quaenam de procreatione liberorum tractanda
sint: Tempus autem opportunum conjunctionis solis iis relinquitur considerandum, qui juncti sunt matrimonio; qui autem matrimonio juncti
sunt iis scopus est et institutum, liberorum susceptio: finis autem, ut
boni sint liberi."
8Stromata, lib. iii, cap. xvii: " Qui nuptias et generationem malas
asserunt et dei creationem et ipsam evangelii dispensationem vituperant:
duas extremas opiniones esse vitandas: primam illorum qui creatoris
odio a nuptiis abstinent; alteram illorum qui hinc occasionem arripiunt
nefariis libidinibus indulgendi."





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Theophilus of Antioch says that chastity is not a mere
outward form; it is largely a matter of purity of heart.
Marrying a divorced woman, he thinks, is only a more
tolerable form of adultery.'
Athenagoras, in his Plea for the Christians, makes the
following statement:
Therefore having the hope of eternal life, we despise the
things of this life, even to the pleasures of the soul, each of
us reckoning her his wife whom he has married according to
the laws laid down by us, and that only for the purpose of having children. For as the husbandman, throwing the seed
upon the ground, awaits the harvest, not sowing more upon
it, so to us the procreation of children is the measure of our
indulgence in appetite. Nay, you would find many among us,
both men and women, growing old unmarried, in the hope
of living in closer communion with God. But if the remaining
in virginity and in the state of an eunuch brings nearer to God
while the indulgences of carnal thought and desire leads away
from him, in those cases in which we shun the thoughts much
more do we reject the deeds.2
And he adds that a second marriage is but little better
than a specious adultery.
In his dissertation against Marcion, Tertullian, "the
founder of Latin Christianity," eloquently defends marriage as holy, and carefully discriminates between Marcion's doctrine of the impurity of marriage and his own
Montanism.8 In regard to his own position he says: " We
do not reject marriage, but simply refrain from it;" and
he would defend it " whenever hostile attacks are made on
I Theophilus to Antolycus, chap. xiii. On Chastity.
2 Chap. xxviii.
I Cf. Adolph Harnack, Die Chronologie der alt-christlichen Litteratur
bis Eusebius, vol. i, pp. 363 et seq.





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it as a polluting thing, to the disparagement of the Creator.
For he bestowed his blessing on matrimony also, as an
honorable state, for the increase of the human race." 1
And in his epistle to his wife 2 he says also: " We do not,
indeed, forbid the union of man and wife, blessed by God
as the seminary of the human race and devised for the
replenishment of the earth, and therefore permitted, yet
singly" (monogamously). He condemns inordinate passion and its exercise. " There is a great difference between a cause and a fault, between a state and its excess."
He is emphatic in advising control in conjugal life. God
did not only say, " Be fruitful and multiply," but also
" Thou shalt not commit adultery" and " Thou shalt not
covet thy neighbor's wife."
He admonishes virgins especially to use veils, " for all
ages are perilled in your person; but we also admonish
you women of the second degree of modesty, who have
fallen into wedlock, not to outgrow the discipline of the
veil;" which is simply an expression of his abhorrence of
the immodest costumes affected in the degenerate society
of the time.
He reverts   to Saint Paul in saying that marriage
is good, but celibacy is better: "What, however, is better
than this good we learn from the apostle who permits marriage but prefers abstinence." He considers such rigid
continence possible, for " though the flesh is weak, we read
that the spirit is strong." '
The love of offspring as an excuse for marriage, he
says, is idle.
For why should we be eager to bear children, whom when we
1 Chap. xxix.  ' Bk. i, chap. ii.  " To his wife, chap. iii.
'Ibid., chap. iv.





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have them, we desire to send before us to glory;... desirous as we are ourselves to be taken out of this wicked world.
0.. To the servant of God, forsooth, offspring is unnecessary... Whether it be for the sake of the flesh, or
of the world, or of posterity that marriage is undertaken, none
of these necessities, so-called, affects the servants of God.1
In some of the treatises attributed to Cyprian we find
chastity most highly lauded. In the one entitled, Of the
Discipline and Advantages of Chastity, we read: " Chastity is the dignity of the body, the ornament of morality,
the sacredness of the sexes, the bond of modesty, the source
of purity, the peacefulness of home, the crown of concord,"
etc.2 He declares that " Chastity maintains the first rank
in virgins, the second in those who are continent, the third
in case of wedlock;" and " Virginity is the triumph over
pleasures; virginity has no children; but what is more, it
has contempt for offspring: it has not fruitfulness, but
neither has it bereavement; blessed that it is free from the
pain of bringing forth, more blessed still that it is free
from the calamity of the death of children."
In writing On Virginity, Methodius mingles his conceptions of the evolution of human marriage with his ideas
concerning the attainment of perfection, in the following
manner:
For the world, while still unfilled with men, was like a child,
and it was necessary that it should first be filled with these, and
so grow to manhood. But when thereafter it was colonized
from end to end, the race of man spreading to a boundless
extent, God no longer allowed man to remain in the same
ways, considering how they might now proceed from one
point to another, and advance nearer heaven, until having at' To his wife, chap. v.
'Pp. 588-589, especially, Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. v.





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tained to the greatest and most exalted lesson of virginity they
should reach to perfection; that first they should abandon the
intermarriage of brothers and sisters and marry wives from
other families; and then that they should no longer have many
wives, like brute beasts, as though born for the mere propagation of the species; and then that they should not be adulterers;
and then again that they should go on to continence, and from
continence to virginity, when, having trained themselves to
despise the flesh, they sail fearlessly into the peaceful haven of
immortality.1
In the second discourse on the same subject, he defends
the procreation of children against allegations of impurity.
He says:
Now the sentence and ordinance of God concerning the begetting of children is confessedly being fulfilled to this day, the
Creator still fashioning men,... and we must not be
offended at the ordinance... from which moreover we
ourselves have our being... Wherefore, if God still
forms man, shall we not be guilty of audacity if we think of
the generation of children as something offensive? 2
But nevertheless virginity is a better state than matrimony,
and it is to be commended and cultivated as much as conditions and the frailty of humanity will permit.8
Lactantius is probably more ascetic in his writings than
any of his more prominent predecessors or contemporaries.
This is apparent especially in the chapter on matrimony
and continence of The Divine Institutes.4    Animalism  of
'Discourse i. On Virginity.  'Discourse ii, chaps. i and ii.
'lbid., chap. vi.
'Lib. vi, cap. xxiii. "De tactus voluptate et libidine atque de matrimonio et continentia: Cum excogitasset Deus duorum sexuum rationem,
attribuit iis, ut se invicem appeterent, et conjunctione gauderent. Itaque ardentissimam cupiditatem cunctorum animantium corporibus ad




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all kinds, and particularly sexual sensualism, are reprehensible.  Though the passions are strong, they must be coerced. Obscenity and sexual instincts are of man's lower
nature, and it is a Christian's foremost duty to be on
guard lest his desires become his master. In the epitome
of the Divine Institutes he continues his discussion along
the same lines. The passion of sexual desire, he says, is
implanted in man for the procreation of offspring; "but
they who do not fix its limits in the mind use it for pleasure only.   Thence arise unlawful loves, adulteries and debaucheries; thence all kinds of corruption." This passion
must, therefore, be kept within bounds and directed into
the right course, in which, though it be vehement, it cannot incur blame. Purity is, however, not only of the body;
it is primarily of the mind; and evil thoughts leading to
dangerous desires are to be avoided. In general, his teaching is that of one advocating a really strict continence with
endeavors to avoid all thought of this world's idle pleasures. He does not, however, pass the limit already defined
in this matter-namely, that marriage is to be permitted,
and is good if rightly, that is continently, used.1
miscuit ut in hos affectus avidissime ruerent, eaque ratione propageri et
multiplicari genera possent. Quae cupiditas et appetentia in homine
vehementior et acrior invenitur; vel quia hominum multitudinem voluit
esse majorem, vel quoniam virtutem solis hominibus dedit, ut esset laus
et gloria in coercendis voluptatibus, et abstinentia sui..... Sicut autem
dedit nobis oculos Deus, non ut spectemus, voluptatemque capiamus, sed
ut vidiamus propter eos actus qui pertinent ad vitae necessitatem, ita
genitalem corporis partem quod nomen ipsum docet, nulla alia causa
nisi efficienda sobolis accepimus."
1Divine Institutes, bk. vi, chap. xxiii. "Praeterea non tantum adulterium esse vitandum, sed etiam cogitationem; ne quis aspiciat alienam,
et animo concupiscat: adulteram enim fieri mentem. Mens est profecto qui peccat... in hac crimen est, in hac omne delictum." Cf. Dissertation on the Workmanship of God or the Formation of Man, cap.
xii. De utero, et conceptione atque sexibus; also Epitome, chap. lxi.





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In the so-called Constitutions of the Holy Apostles 1 we
find sexual relations discussed. All extra-matrimonial relations and all unnatural vices are severely condemned.2
For you ought to know this, that once marrying according to
the law is righteous, as being according to the will of God,
but second marriages, after the promise, are wicked, not on
account of the marriage itself, but because of the falsehood.
Third marriages are indications of incontinency. But such
as are beyond the third are manifest fornication."
Origen's treatment of marriage and celibacy are simply
reflections of the admonitions contained in the writings
of Paul and Matthew. In the Commentary on Matthew,
he speaks of " some laws given by concession to human
weakness;" thus it happens that marriage, though not evil,
is a " concession." 4
(b) The Post-Nicene Fathers.    There seems to be a
more substantial agreement concerning the comparative
merits of marriage and virginity among the writers in the
centuries immediately following the Nicene Council of 325
A. D. than before this time; but the general position taken
indicates but little advancement.
Of all the early writings by the Church Fathers, those
of Eusebius indicate the most complete insight into sexual
problems as affecting population.  His opinions are expressed most fully in his Oration on Constantine.    He
ridicules the pagan belief in procreation among the gods.5
"God," says Eusebius,
bade the race increase, and each healthy region of the world,
S"A compilation, the material being derived from sources differing
in age," vol. vii, Ante-Nicene Fathers.
'Bk. vi, sec. v, chap. xxviii.  SBk. iii, sec. i, chap. ii.
SChap. xxiii.            'Chap. iv.





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as far as the bounds of the circumambient ocean, became the
dwelling-place of men; while with this increase of numbers the
invention of the useful arts went hand in hand. Meantime the
various species of the inferior animals increased in due proportion.1
A little farther on he continues:
Vice has its origin from nature, not from fate, and virtue is the
due regulation of natural character and disposition..,
The events which befall men are consequent on. the term of
their lives... Hence pestilence or sedition, famines and
plenty, succeed in turn, declaring plainly that these things
are regulated with reference to our course of life. For the
Divine Being delights in goodness... Or do not the
proportion and alternate succession of land and water, serviceable, the one for husbandry, the other for the transport of
such foreign products as we need, afford a clear demonstration of his exact and proportionate providential care? 2
In these remarks of Eusebius it is, perhaps, not difficult
to discover resemblances to the confidence of Luther in
God's foreseeing care and to the "Divine Order" of
Suessmilch, as well as to a kind of fatalistic pessimism
which seems associated with Malthusianism; but to say that
Eusebius comprehended the problem of population in any
but an incomplete and incidental way would be to read
modern theory into his lines.
In answer to a question concerning the proper use of
marriage and the procreative power, Athanasius states that
this is " that lawful use which God permitted when he
said, 'Be fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth,'
and... which the apostle approves in the words, 'Marriage is honorable and the bed undefiled.' He is blessed


1 Post-Nicene Fathers (Schaff), chap. v, vol. i.


'Chap. vi.





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who, being freely yoked in his youth, naturally begets children." There are two ways of attaining God's blessing:
"the one ordinary, called marriage; the other angelic and
unsurpassed, namely, virginity." 1
In his City of God, that imposing personality of the
early Church, Saint Augustine enters into quite a detailed
consideration of the sexual problem. He attempts, first,2
to show how sin, resulting from the fall, has brought about
a weak shame in regard to all matters concerning procreation. The sexual desire is, he says, like anger, a passion,
and is not subject to reason, at least in some of its phases.
He argues that
it is now necessary, as it was not before man sinned, to
bridle anger and lust by the restraining influence of wisdom.... But that blessing upon marriage which encouraged
man to increase and multiply was given... in order that
the procreation of children might be recognized as part of the
glory of marriage and not of the punishment of sin.
Saint Augustine discusses the question of procreation also
from a quasi-physiological point of view.8
The same topics are treated also in his moral treatises.
In the one On Continence,' he opposes the teachings of
the  Manicheans, who     held  extreme   views in   regard
to the utter impurity of marriage.   In the Good of Marriage, he says:
And on this account it is good to marry because it is good to
1 Letter xlviii.  2Bk. xiv, chaps. xvi et seq.
'In apology for the necessarily frank nature of his arguments, Augustine remarks: "Whoever, then, comes to the perusal of these pages
with unchaste mind, let him blame his disposition-let him brand the
actings of his own impurity, not the words which necessity forces us to
use."-City of God, bk. xiv, chap. xxiii.
4 Chap. xxii.





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beget children, to be a mother of a family: but it is better not
to marry... When we gather that, even in the first
times of the human race, chiefly for the propagation of the
People of God, through whom the Prince and Savior of all
people should both be prophesied of, and be born, it was the
duty of the saints to use this good, marriage, not as to be
sought for its own sake, but necessary for the sake of something else: but now whereas... there is on all sides from
all nations an overwhelming fullness of spiritual kindred, even
they who wish to contract marriage only for the sake of children are to be admonished that they use rather the larger
good of continence.
He adds, further, in the same treatise that what food is
to the conservation of man, the gratification of passion is
to the continuance of the race. Regarding barrenness he
says: "When married persons know that they shall not
have children, yet it is not lawful for them to separate
even for the sake of children and to join themselves to
others;" which is in contrast with the practice of the Spartans and Romans. He remarks, further, that "Marriage
itself, indeed, in all countries is for the same cause of
begetting sons, and of what character soever they may be
afterwards, yet for this purpose was marriage instituted;"
which statement is probably partly based on the liberorum
quaesundum causca, as well as on Biblical tradition. His
conclusion is that "Marriage is a go6d and may be defended by sound reason against all calumnies." The following reminds one of Tolstoi: " But I am aware of some
that murmur, 'What if all men should abstain from sexual
relations, whence will the human race subsist?'... I
answer, much more speedily would the City of God be
filled and the end of the world hastened." '


SOn the Good of Marriage, chap. x.





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In general, Augustine is of the same opinion as Saint
Paul, to whose writings he frequently refers. He says
that mothers can find compensation for the loss of virginity by bringing up their children into virginity. " Mary
had both virginity and fruitfulness:... for what is wanting to you [virgins], let your virginity, that hath been
preserved, be a consolation; for others, let the gain of
children make up (in a measure) for lost virtue." ' But
still " no fruitfulness of the flesh can be compared to holy
virginity." 2
Chrysostom lays stress on the quotation from the First
Epistle to Timothy, to the effect that woman should be
saved through child-bearing,3 and his whole discussion is
based on the relation of sex to the welfare of the soul.
Woman, he says, will be saved " if she continue in faith
and charity and holiness with sobriety." But again, virgins are to be held in the highest estimation.
In his treatise On Virginity, Gregory of Nyssa treats
the subject in the usual moral and ecclesiastical manner.
The fundamental idea embodied in the treatise is briefly
this: The spirit must be freed, in order to be drawn to the
Divine Being; to be so freed, a virginity of body and soul
is necessary. In theory his idea of virginity is disinterestedness in the world, and by means not necessarily the same
as celibacy. In the world as it is, however, this is usually
the only practical solution. Like all the Fathers, he saw
in celibacy a visible imitation of Christ, and sought in it
to put away forever all secular distractions and dissipations. He goes further than Athanasius in this and gives
us a most dismal picture of the woes of married life and
I On the Good of Marriage, chap. vii.
* On Holy Virginity, vol. iii, p. 419, Post-Nicene Fathers (first series).
*I Timothy, ii, II-I5; Chrysostom, Homily ix, On Timothy.





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of the disappointments incidental to the rearing of children. Though he does not blame the marriage state itself,
his views are, in fact, very unfavorable to it and to propagation.'
Jerome differs from his predecessors in little but in
mode of expression. He says: "I do not detract from
marriage when I set virginity before it. No one compares
a bad thing with a good. Wedded women may congratulate themselves that they are next to virgins.... He who
desires to replenish the earth may increase and multiply
if he will." He believes that God's command is one which
has been fulfilled in its original intent, so that it is not
necessary to regard it; it is better instead to have regard
for increasing our spiritual well-being. He also speaks of
the diversions of the married woman and the great inconveniences involved.2
Gregory Nazianzus says that "a man can have no
fairer prize than a good wife, nor a worse one than her
opposite." 8 But he adds, of the married and unmarried
states, " the latter is higher and more divine and more
difficult, while the former is more humble and more safe."
In his treatise On the Gospel, he says that marriage is,
nevertheless, a good and really necessary thing, " for there
would be no celibate if there were no marriage."
Cyril's views are simply echoes of those expressed by
others. He urges the excellence of virginity and the fact
that its purpose is to honor purity. Marriage is not to be
despised, for it is permissible for all, and indeed advisable
for many and necessary for others. It is a good but
troubled state.4
'Chap. iii.                   2 Letter xxii, section g9.
a On the Death of his Father.  4 Lecture xii.





74            DOCTRINES OF POPULATION              [464
Basil writes of the beauties of virginity, the evils of
unchecked passion, and the duties and laws of marriage.1
Ambrose says that
not only has the apostle laid down this rule concerning a bishop
or priest, but the Fathers in the Nicene Council added that no
one who has contracted a second marriage ought to be admitted among the clergy at all. For how can he comfort or
honor a widow or exhort her to preserve her widowhood and
the faith pledged to her husband, which he himself has not
kept in regard to his former marriage? 2
He likens virgins to angels, and urges parents to train
their children to virginity, and he sets before them the
troubles arising from their desire to have grandchildren.
Still he defends marriage "against heretics who oppose it." '
In his Ecclesiastical History, Hermias Sozomen takes it
upon himself to defend monasticism against those who were
opposed to the absorbing and, as they regarded it, the destructive character of this manner of life. Like nearly all
his contemporaries in the Church, he supported its virtues.
He is a full believer in the philosophy which nurtured him,
and its attempts to enthrone the spiritual over the material
find in him a most zealous supporter.
In referring to Constantine, Sozomen speaks of an
ancient law (the Lex Julia) by which those who were unmarried and childless suffered disabilities; the object of
which law had been to increase the number of people.
" The emperor," he continues,
perceiving that this enactment militated against the interests of
' Letter to a Fallen Virgin, and Letter cxcix, To Amphilochius concerning the Canons.
SLetter lxiii.    ' Concerning Virgins, chaps. vii, ix.





465]          RELIGIONS AND POPULATION                  75
those who remained in a state of celibacy and childless for the
sake of God and deeming it absurd to attempt the multiplication of the human species by the care and zeal of man (since
nature always receives increase or decrease according to the
fiat from on high), made a law enjoining that the unmarried
and childless should have the same advantages as the married.
He even bestowed peculiar privileges on those who embraced
a life of continence and virginity.1
In a similar ecclesiastical history, Socrates speaks of
a discussion concerning the advisability of bishops having
conjugal relations with their wives whom they had married
while laymen, and argues: "All men cannot bear the practice of rigid continence; neither, perhaps, would the chastity of the wife be preserved." 2
Passing to a writer of the sixth century, Dionysius
Exiguus, we find him in agreement with those of the earlier
periods. He maintains that man should not yield to the
strength of his passions, which, though natural, are to be
subdued and used solely for purposes of procreation. If
a man's passions are not bent to his will by wisdom, he
resembles the beasts, who act according to their instinctive
desires alone.8 He reverts to the divine command, crescite
et multiplicamini et implete terram, and declares that it has
been fulfilled and men now, consequently, live without
marrying and begetting children. It is now, indeed, better
not to marry.'
1Bk. i, chap. xii, especially.       'Bk. i, chap. xi.
SLibri de Creatione Hominis, cap. xix: " Ea namque quibus brutorum
vitam ad conservationem sui munita est, ad hominis translata conservationem, passionum initia facta sunt. Furore namque conservantur bestie, quae carne viscuntur; quaecumque vero lasciva sunt, genus suum
propagatione multiplicant."
4Ieid., chap. xxiii. Found in Traditio Caiholica, vol. i, pp. 378 et
seq.





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Gregory the Great's opinions do not seem tinged with
such strong asceticism as those of many of his predecessors.
He is careful not to despise married people, but advises
them to remember their spiritual life and not let it be
hidden because of their temporal blessings. Husbands and
wives, he says, are to be admonished that they are joined
together for the sake of producing offspring, and he warns
them against taking undue advantage of their marital
privileges.1
(c) Saint Thomas Aquinas.    The considerable literature
written by clerics of the later centuries of the Middle Ages
shows in all essential details a thorough agreement with
the opinions of the Fathers of the periods preceding and
following the Nicene Council, and for this reason it would
be a thankless task to carry the investigation further in
this particular. But the writings of Saint Thomas deserve
some attention here.
Saint Thomas saw that numerous families could contribute to the strength of a state, and considered it well for
the government to bear this in mind.2    The fact that he
takes a broader and in certain respects a more intelligent
view of such a matter seems due at least partly to the influence of Aristotle. But, of course, he did not let this
conflict with his ideas concerning celibacy. Certain men
must be celibates, for the sake of the general welfare, as well as for religious purposes.  The multiplication of the species is a duty of the multitude and not of
the individual, said he.  It suffices when some take on
themselves this care; it is not necessary for all. The race
must not only preserve itself, but it must develop spiritually
SPastoral Life, chap. xxvii.
'De Regimine Principum, lib. iv, cap. ix: "Quae familia plus multiplicatur, in prolem, amplius cedit ad firmamentum politiae."





467]          RELIGIONS AND POPULATION                  77
as well as physically.  It is then proper and conducive to
the general interest when a part of the members of society
assures the perpetuity of the race, while another, abstaining from sensual pleasures, gives itself to the furthering of
the spiritual good of all. Celibacy is the better condition
for those who would elevate their spirit to the love and
contemplation of things spiritual and divine. This division
of vocations is then in accord with the best social interest
and with Providence.
Regarding the celibacy of the apostles and Christ's position, he admits that celibacy was an innovation on the rules
of the primitive Church, which he endeavors to explain
by the superior sanctity of the early Christians, rendering
them superior to the asceticism requisite to the demands
of purity in more degenerate ages. He remarks that Christ
required no separation between Peter and his wife.' His
position was, however, in agreement with the teachings of
the mediaeval Church.2
Aquinas's discussion of sexual relations is partly of
quasi-physiological character, not unlike that of Augustine,
as well as theological in its fundamental point of view.
He refers, for example, to the active and passive elements
in procreation, and the differences between some plants and
animals and man in this respect. The more complicated
development of sexual functions in man as compared with
1 Summa Theologica, ii, Quaestio 186, art. 4, sec. 3: "et ideo Petrum
quem invenit matrimonio junctum, non separavit ab uxore; Joannem
tamen volentem nubere a nuptiis revocavit."
'Ibid.: " Nec tamen quia antiqui patres perfectionem animi simul
cum divitiis et matrimonio habuerunt, quod ad magnitudinem virtutis
pertinebat, propter hoc inferiores quique debent praesumere se tante
esse virtutis ut cum divitiis et matrimonio possunt ad perfectionem pervenire.... Nam illi patres si tempus fuisset continentiae et paupertatis
servandae studiosius hoc implessent."





DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


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the lower animals is due, he thinks, to the higher purpose
for which man is destined by God's will. The differentiation in sex is not only natural, but is so ordained by the
Creator for the express purpose of generation and the continuance of the race.1 Finally, he says, it is as a result
of original sin that conception must now take place at the
cost of virginity.
The treatment which Saint Thomas accords this subject
is in toto simply an attempt to point out the connection
of ethics and Christian theology with procreation.
~ 3. The Formal Regulations of the Church Concerning
Marriage and Celibacy.    The late Professor Schaff, in his
History of the Christian Church,2 says that mediaeval Christianity is not a direct continuation of the Ante-Nicene
Christianity in conflict with the heathen world, but of the
Post-Nicene Christianity in friendly union with nominally
Christian states. This fact has an important bearing on
the greater stringency of celibate regulations and the development of monastic ideals and practices. To a very
great extent, the Church was seconded in its efforts to
emphasize the importance of celibacy by the power of the
secular state from   the time of Constantine, and down
through the Middle Ages. Whether it is an exaggeration
'Summa Theologica, ii, Quaestio xcii, art. i: "Necessarium fuit feminam fieri, sicut Scriptura dicit, in adjutorium viri; non quidem in adjutorium alicujus alterius operis, ut quidam dixerunt, cum ad quod libet
-liud opus convenientius juvari possit vir per alium virum quam per
mulierem sed in adjutorium generationis." See also Quaestio cxviii, art.
ii, and Quaestiocxix, art ii. In general, cf. Karl Werner, Der heilige
Thomas von Aquino, pp. 455 et seq.; Victor Brants, Esquisse des The-,ories Economiques aux xiiie et xive Si.cles, pp. 237, 238; Lucien
Sch6ne, op. cit.; Kautz, Die Gescichte der Entwickelungder NationalOkonomik in der Literatur, pp. 212 et seq.
SVol. iv, pp. 374, 375.





469]         RELIGIONS AND POPULATION                79
to say, as does Dr. A. C. Coxe,1 that "the conversion of
Constantine introduced the most marvelous revolution in
human empire, in practical thought and in the laws and
manners of mankind ever known in the history of the
world," or not, it is undoubtedly true that this event was
one which in many respects marks an epoch in the history
of civilization.
In the regulations adopted by the Seven Ecumenical
Councils and in smaller synodal conventions we find detailed regulations touching nearly every phase of sexual
relations, both inside and outside of marriage, some of
which apply also to offspring. We shall refer to a few
only. Wherever these matters are mentioned it is always
noticeable that a far greater stringency was deemed necessary for the clergy than for laymen.2
The Ancyran Council of 314 A. D. forbids presbyters
and deacons sexual indulgence.8 The Council of Neocaesarea (between 315 and 325 A. D.) ruled that "If a
presbyter marries he shall be deposed from his order; if
he commits fornication or adultery, let him be expelled
and be put to penance." A woman who marries two
brothers is to be disciplined, and punishments are provided
for adultery, etc., and consecrated virgins are strictly forbidden to marry.4 After the Council of Nicea, the Greek
as well as the Latin Church accepted the principle that
whoever had taken holy orders before marriage should not
be married afterwards.   The Council of Nicea is quite
explicit in regard to the character of women whom clerics
1Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. vii, preface to Lactantius.
2 In general, cf. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, vol. xiv.
STraditio Catholica, Tomus Unus (Dionysius), Canon xxxiv: " Hi
qui in clero sunt presbyteri, vel diaconi et a carnibus abstinent."
* Canon xxxiv of Basil and canon xvi of Council of Chalcedon.





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[470


might have as housekeepers (mulieres subintroductae).
But the Council of Gangra defends marriage: " If any one
of those who are living a virgin life for the Lord's sake
shall treat arrogantly the married, let him be anathema." *
Monks and virgins are prohibited from marrying by the
Council of Chalcedon, indicating that* the contrary had
been practiced to some extent."   The Quintisext Council
of Trullo (692 A. D.) placed more extensive restrictions
on the marriage of clerics.    But as John Fulton says:
"Marriage was no impediment to ordination in the Church
of the East, even as a bishop, and bishops, priests and
deacons, equally with other men, were forbidden to put
away their wives under pretext of religion;" 4 that is, the
marriage of clerics was forbidden but a married clergy
was tolerated."   At the Council of the Lateran      (1139
A. D.), Innocent II declared that marriages of clerics were
not true marriages; a similar rule had been made by the
Emperor Justinian in the year 530. Innocent also declared
that the children of such unions were spurious (spurii).
The Church was always careful to maintain the position
taken by Saint Paul and the early Fathers that the virgin
1Canon xx (Dionysius): "Vetuit omnino magna synodus, nee liceat
episcopo, nee presbytero, nee diacono, nee ulli penitus eorum qui sunt
in clero, extraneam (subintroductam) habere mulierem: nisi forte aut
matrem, aut sororem, vel eas tantum personas quae omnem suspicionem
effugiunt."
2 Canon lxix, ibid.: " Si quis virginitatem servans propter Dominum
se supra conjugatos extollat, anathema sit."
* Canon cxciv, ibid.: " Virginem quae se Deo Domino dedicavit, similiter monachos, non licere matrimonio conjungi." The Council of
Gangra was convened between 325 and 381 and the Council of Chalcedon 450 A. D.
' Index Canonum, p. 29.
SFor a tolerably full discussion see Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,
vol. xiv, pp. 365 et seq.





471]


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and celibate state was one of greater sanctity than that
of marriage. This is repeated expressly in a canon of the
Council of Trent (1542, 1545, 1563).1
In the so-called Penitential Books of the eighth and ninth
centuries, compiled by bishops and others, we find many
passages regulating morals generally, and sexual relations
in particular.   " Almost every diocese," says Professor
Schaff,2 "had its own penitential book, but the spirit and
the material were substantially the same in all."     These
books had, through the power of the clergy, undoubtedly
a great influence on the people, and particularly in their
conjugal and moral life. Restraint of passion and desire
was thus directly inculcated.3
" The position of the Canon Law in regard to the cure
of souls was very firmly maintained in mediaeval Europe,"
says Guy Carleton,4 " and here the most important part
of the law was the law of matrimony, which in many countries is still intimately connected with Canon Law." 5 The
Church claimed jurisdiction over all such matters on the
ground that marriage was one of the " seven sacraments."
' Concilium Tridentum, sessio xxiv, canon x: "Si quis dixerit, statum
conjugalem anteponendum esse statui virginitatis vel coelibatus, et non
esse melius et beatius manere in virginitate vel coelibatu, quam jungi
matrimonio, anathema sit."  Cf. also Catech. Rom. ex decretis Concilii
Tridenti, pars ii, caput viii, de sacramento matrimonii, 13: "Atque una
etiam haec causa fuit, cur deus ab initio matrimonium instituterit.
Quaere sit, ut illorum sit scelus gravissimum, qui matrimonis juncti,
medicamentis vel conceptum impediunt, vel partum abigunt: haec enim
homicidarum impia conspiratio existimanda est."
'History of the Christian Church, vol. iv, pp. 374-375.
' In The Ancient Laws and Institutes of England from the Seventh to
the Tenth Century, and in many other similar collections, the influence
of the Church's teaching is clearly apparent also.
SHistorical Jurisprudence, sec. iv, chap. xii, Canon Law.
SCf. Vogt, Kirchen und Eherecht der Katoliken und Evangelischen
etc., contents.





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It was held to be connected in all essential details with
divine revelation, and as the Church in principle has ever
taken a standpoint against sin, it was particularly prompt
in regulating those matters which might lead to carnal sins.
" The result was an elaborate system, which is remarkable
for its keen insight into sexual relations, while it is also
repellant by its extreme particularity." ' In case one of
the parties to a marriage was guilty of gross violations of
its privileges, no divorce a vinculo was allowed; but there
might be a legal separation a mensa et thoro, which, however, did not include the right of either party to remarry.
But, as in existing law very generally, the prohibition of
divorce did not preclude the dissolution of such relations
as were, in the guise of marriage, legally void from  the
beginning, on account of some defect in the act by which
such unions were to have been established, or because of
other impediments. In Canon Law, as in the decrees of
the Councils, which formed its basis to such a large extent,
marriage was prohibited to certain orders, and it was controlled in the case of all. Impediments consisted in consanguinity and affinity of the parties, religious vows or
differences, and sin or crime, such as adultery, the ground
for these resting on Mosaic prescriptions and more strictly
Christian doctrines.2
In modern times the influence of the Corpus Juris
Canonici is still apparent, especially in its provisions relating
to marriage. This is particularly true, of course, in countries
whose religious life is dominated by the See of Rome,
" but even in England and in the United States the common law of marriage is directly derived from the Canon
Law." 8
'Carleton, ibid.
'See Leviticus, chap. xviii and Deuteronomy, chap. xxvii.
SCarleton, op. cit.





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In his Principles of Economics,' Marshall remarks that
in England as elsewhere the religious orders were a refuge for
those for whom no establishment could be provided; and religious celibacy, while acting in some measure as an independent
check on the growth of population is in the main to be regarded
rather as a method in which the broad, natural forces tending to restrain population expressed themselves, than as an
addition to them.
Francesco Nitti says, and we believe with some truth,
that " among all the religions of civilized people, Catholicism is the least favorable to fecundity." 2
Opinions regarding the general efficacy of the policy of
the Church with reference to sexual problems seem to
vary according to the religious standpoint of the writer.
Few are able to rise to a higher level.
Henry T. Finck comments on the matter in the following bitter and certainly unjust way:
The pathologic attitude of the mediheval mind was at first a natural reaction against the incredible depravity and licentiousness that prevailed under the Roman Empire. But the reaction went to such preposterous extremes that the resulting
state of affairs was even more degrading and deplorable than
the original evil. It was like inoculating a man with leprosy
to cure him of small-pox. It was bad enough to treat marriage as a farce, as did the later Romans among whom there
were women who had their eighth or tenth husband, while
one case is related of a woman who was married to her twentythird husband, she herself being his twenty-first wife;, while
the public looked on this as a match in a double sense, the survivor being crowned and feted as champion. But a thousand
'P. 263, fourth edition.            0p. cit., p. 123.
SSeneca, De Beneficiis, iii, 16.





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[474


times worse was the mediaeval notion that marriage was a crime.
And this preposterous notion... was foisted on the
world by this fanatical priesthood in whose hands Christianity
was unfortunately placed for centuries to be distorted, vitiated
and utilized for political, criminal and selfish purposes.'
Finck's statement is clearly based on but limited knowledge and deep prejudice; it is at least in some details
untrue or exaggerated. The Church never declared marriage a crime, nor did any of its followers. From a certain standpoint its position is easily defensible. In fact,
it is the writer's belief that Finck and similar modern
writers show in their olwn way a more unreasonable fanaticism than the Church's most devoted followers. It is true,
however, as Lecky says,2 that the Roman, the late Egyptian
and other forms of asceticism were exaggerated by the
Montanists, the Novatians, the Gnostics and Manicheans, as
well as the Docetae, on the outskirts of, but not among
the true followers of, the Church of Rome. Not one of
the influential writers of the Church advocated such extreme
doctrines as is sometimes charged.
Max Nordau gives expression to his opinion on the subject, and it is, perhaps, as unprejudiced and in general as
correct a concise statement as can well be found. He says:
When early Christianity condemned sexual love it destroyed
its own work, it sentenced mankind to annihilation...
The doctrine of love for one's neighbor conquered humanity,
because it appealed to its most powerful instinct, the impulse
for the preservation of the race. The doctrine of celibacy on
the contrary would have prevented the spread of the new religion completely, if it had not been for the fact that
' Romantic Love and Personal Beauty, pp. 92-93.
' O. cit., p. Io0.





475]


RELIGIONS AND POPULATION


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it appeared at a time when society was thoroughly corrupt,
when licentious egoism alone was ruling supreme, and the
relations of the sexes, diverted from their purpose of reproducing the species, had become degraded into all sorts of selfish enjoyment alone... so that it seemed an abomination
to the conscience of the good... When Christianity was
no longer the reaction from the moral corruption of ancient
Rome,...the dismal doctrine of celibacy was forced
into the background.1
Among the most devoted defenders of the restraint taught
by the Church we find the Vicomte Alban de VilleneuveBargemont. " Catholicism," he says, " far from exciting
imprudently the principle of population, on the contrary
moderates and regulates it.... In the beginning of the
world," he continues, following the arguments of the
Fathers of the early Church,
the Creator said to man and woman in blessing them, " Increase and multiply." But later, the new law, appropriate to
a society already formed, counselled abstinence from marriage
as more advantageous, and Saint Paul seems to address himself to the poor of our own day when he speaks those words
so full of meaning, that persons who marry imprudently shall
suffer afflictions and evils, "but I would spare you."  These
words of him whom the Catholic Church calls the great
apostle and which are at the foundation of both civil and religious institutions, wherever in Europe the church has been
influential, are above the need of apology.2
1 The Conventional Lies of Our Civilization, p. 299. Cf. Degeneration, passim, and D. S. Jordan, The Blood of the Nation, pp. 33-34 et
passim.
' " Si l'on approfondit les causes du celibat des pretres et des ordres religieux, et l'origine des honneurs qu'il rend A la virginite et a la continence (abstraction faite du rapport religieux et du merite d'une vie de
saintete, des preuves et des sacrifices recommandes aux Chretiens), on y





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[476


Another defense of the Catholic position, which Roscher
styles " remarkable but unsuccessful,"   is found in Charles
Perin's De la Richesse dans les Societes Chretiennes.2
Says Perin:
Catholic morals and institutions give to the problem of population the only solution which offers society prosperity, strength
and permanence, by regulating the development of all natural
and legitimate tendencies. Chastity in all conditions of life
is made a rigorous obligation. It is by preaching chastity in
marriage as well as in celibacy that the Catholic Church assures the fecundity of races, while she would restrain their
expansion within proper limits... Absolute continence
in marriage the church regards as perfection; but the church
knows the weakness of human nature and attempts to control
it in a practical manner... The Church inculcates also
a respect for human life by its spirit of charity toward the
weak, and thus too it assures the preservation of infants resulting from fruitful unions, legitimate and illegitimate. It is
through the influence of Catholic morality that infanticide, etc.,
permitted in the pagan cities of antiquity has become a crime.
It is true that the ideals of the Church were often far
removed from its practices. Mediaeval celibacy was too
often rather immoral than moral; but this was simply an
evidence of what, in the language of the Fathers, was the
" frailty of the flesh." With all these shortcomings adtrouvera une haute pensee d'ordre social et une rare et sublime prevoyance de l'avenir.... Que deviennent done les allegations des philosophes modernes et des economistes de l'ecole anglaise qui tant6t s'elevent contre le celibat des pritres et des institutions qui exigeaient des
voeux de chastete perpetuelle, tant6t reprochent au clerge catholique
d'encourager imprudemment des mariages et la population?" Economie Politique Chritienne, Du Celibat.
'Political Economy (Lalor), vol. ii, p. 345.
SVol. i, chap. iv.





477]           RELIGIONS AND POPULATION                      87
mitted, however, it seems that there can be no doubt that
the restraint of desire always inculcated was closely allied
to a more worldly prudence and forethought, and that
this phase of the teachings of the Church is at least partly
"to be regarded as a method in which the broad natural
forces tending to restrain population expressed themselves." 1
x Marshall, loc. cit. See also Luigi Cibrario, Della Economia Politica
del Medio Evo, fifth Italian edition, vol. ii, pp. 45-57; Joseph Rambaud,
Histoire des Doctrines Economiques; Thomas Sanchez, Disputationes
de Sancto Matrimonii Sacramento, lib. iv; Henry Lea, History of
Christian Celibacy; Lecky, History of European Morals, index; Guerrier de Dumast, Origine de tous nos Pkils; Garnier, Du Principe de
Population, p. 323; F. Laurent, ltudes sur I'Histoire de l'Humaniti,
vol. iv, pp. 191-214.





CHAPTER III


FIRST MODERN VIEWS: FROM       THE BEGINNING OF THE
SIXTEENTH TO THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
~ I. General View of the Period. The aim of the writer
in this and the following chapters is to, present a review
of modern doctrines and theories which have a bearing on
population. These are expressed mainly by the theologians
and philosophers and by the political and sociological
writers. The acts of statesmen and the laws of kings and
parliaments and the calculations of early statisticians are
treated only as they throw light on the mental attitude of
the period. Marriage and morals, health and poverty, emigration and regulation are considered only in their relation,
more or less direct, to current opinion concerning problems
of population.'
The sixteenth century is one of awakening. The opening of the Orient after the Crusades, the discovery of new
routes to India and America, the inventions of powder,and printing, the revival of letters and philosophic speculation had all been instrumental in broadening the national
as well as the individual horizon. Art and science, trade
and manufacturing received a new impetus.
' Cf. Schmoller, Zur Geschichte der national-dkonomischen Ansichten
in Deutschland wdhrend der Reformations-Periode, in Zeitschrift fir
die gesammte Staatswissenschaften, 1860, pp. 668 et seq., pp. 692-712
et seq.; also Wiskemann, Darstellung der in Deutschland zur Zeit der
Reformation herrschenden national-dkonomischen Ansichten, pp. 3-46,
88, et passim.
88                                        [478





479]


FIRST MODERN VIEWS


89


But beneath the surface of this new and glorious exterior we find great and growing evils, affecting the general well-being of the people. The wealth and luxury of
cities, the great profits of merchants and princes gained
through an extensive system of monopolies, the pomp and
ceremony of the Church with its vast array of monks and
nuns, contrasted sharply with the misery of the peasants
and the lowest classes in the cities. And these circumstances
naturally left their impress upon the writings of the period.1
The economic views of the sixteenth century do not show
any great advance over mediaeval conceptions.   The religious and moral point of view still prevailed largely. The
communistic tendencies, encouraged by religion, appear in
the favorable reception of such a work as More's Utopia;
but the uprisings of peasants in England and Germany exercised little direct influence upon later economic thought.
Opinions on population are based on theological foundations even among those whose political views were revolutionary.  While Catholicism  still firmly maintained its
asceticism, defending chastity in its extreme form of celibacy and regarding marriage as a pardonable human frailty
and necessity, we see the Reformers condemning, also on
theological grounds, celibacy as physiologically and morally
wrong and commending marriage. Both the Catholic and
the Protestant side regard the matter of population and
subsistence as one regulated by a wise and benevolent
Deity. Not the least significance of the Reformation was
its demand for a more satisfactory solution of the sexual
problem.2
SCf. Cunningham, The Growth of English Industry and Commerce,
vol. i, pp. 345 et seq.
" Jolles, Die Ansichten der deutschen national-dkonomischen Schriftsteller des 16 und 17 Jahrhunderts uiber Bevdlkerung (Conrad's Jahrbicher, 1886), p. 194 et seq.





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[480


~ 2. The First Group. Egidio Colonna (1247?-1316)
wrote his work entitled Li Livres du Gouvernement des
Rois before the period here considered, but it was not
published until 1473. In the discussion on wife and children in the first part of the second book he presents an
essentially non-economic view. He is not ascetic, however, and says that a man should have a wife and children,
for this is natural. He advocates monogamy. To marry
too early is imprudent and likely to be injurious to the
children to be born and to impair the mutual happiness
of the married. All children should be well cared for.
Franciscus Patricius, the bishop of Sienna (1529-1597),
and one of the foremost of the leaders in the later humanistic movements, expresses fears of over-population and
shows some insight into the relations of population to the
means of subsistence.' He would restrict the right of citizenship of foreigners resident in the country to a limited
few, and in general all encouragement of immigration was
to be avoided. He speaks of the advantages of locating
cities on navigable rivers or near their mouths. The land
near rivers is almost always the most productive, and cities
so situated could carry on commerce to greater advantage.
Commerce and productive soil are the two great means of
providing the necessities for large populations, which were
to be desired as long as all could be provided for. This,
however, was difficult.  Cities also have disadvantages.
Their large populations often consist of ignorant masses,
who are likely to discuss dangerous matters and raise disturbances.2  His attitude and some of his remarks bear
the mark of Greek influence.
SDe Institutione Reipublica, lib. vii, 12: " incolarum siquidem multitudo periculosa est in omni populo."
SOp. cit., lib. vi, tit. iv; lib. vii, tit. xii; cf. Roscher, Geschichte der
National-Oekonomik in Deutschland, pp. 141-142.





481]


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91


The question as to whether celibacy might not compromise the preservation of the race was considered in the
Songe du    Vergier (Somnium     Viridarii), whose author
seems to have been Raoul des Presles (1514-1583). The
treatment is in the form of a discussion between a cleric
and a soldier. The soldier takes the position that the practice of the Church is detrimental, and the cleric in defending it employs the following line of argument: Humanity is to-day of sufficient numbers to make social life
symmetrical, and the abstention of some from procreation
cannot imperil its future. Virtue consists in the golden
mean and in determining according to reason what this
may be under given circumstances. When the race was
in its infancy sound reason counselled against celibacy;
and, by the same token, when the race had so increased that
the earth could not well nourish more, reason and nature
counselled continence. In practically all modern states the
last condition has been reached; hence restraint in the
forms of celibacy and continence is not only permitted
but is very commendable indeed.       For the comfortable
preservation of mankind one cannot advise celibacy alone
nor unrestrained procreation.1
1 "Et hoc specialiter debet concedi in hominum multitudine, natura enim
facit de possibilibus quod melius est: et non habundat in superfluis nec
deficit in necessariis. Constat autem quod humana naturae propter
complexionis subtilitatem et operum sibi debitorum multitudinem et per
consequens organorum corporalium diversitatem tot ac tantae sunt indigentie, quos natura non suppleuit, sed rationem, quam dedit homini ut
suppleret, reliquit quod unus homo vel duo aut centum vel pauci non
sufficerent ad hanc replendam indigentiam. Pluribus enim indigentiis
indigemus, quorum artifices adinuicem permittentes pro suis operibus
aliorum; propter quod concludi potest, quod sicut in toto mundo, sicut
si erat in primaeva constitutione mundi sive in aliquo climate non esset
hominum multitudo sufficiens ad indigentias supplendas regula natura
et recta ratio non prohibent abstinendum ab actu venereo: et virginitatem prohibent seu inhibent. Quia nihil eorum quae praeter naturam





92


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


1482


Niccolo Macchiavelli (0469-1527) is perhaps the first
to express ideas of modern tone on population.         Kautz
places him. first among the mercantile writers of Italy; 1
and in his views on population his nationalist bent is as
apparent as in his general treatment of political subjects.
In The Prince 2 he says: " I think those princes capable of
ruling who are capable, either by the numbers of their
men or by the greatness of their wealth, to raise a complete
army and bid battle to any enemy that shall invade them."
But Macchiavelli has not given himself to that olne-sidecliess
so characteristic of later mercantilist writers.  He teaches,
sunt, est bonum et sic bene infertur quod velle frangere integritatem
corporis antequam sit opportunum... tene unum extremum vituperabile. Nolle etiam frangere pro necessitate humani generis solvanda et
multiplicanda tempore defectus, tenet aliud extremum similiter nolle
frangere et frangere velle cum circumstantiis debitis tenet mediatatem
quae est virtus moralis.... Posset et esse tanta multitudo, quad si ulterius exerceret, terra non esset sufficiens ministrare cibum hominibus,
propter quad illo tempore naturae vis et ordo permitteret imo juberet
continere.... Hic attendendum, quad loquendo de jure positivo etiam
antiquissimo non procedunt illa quae dicta sunt. Sed loquenda de jure
naturale, primaevo corruptam naturam humanam per peccatum primorum parentum procedere possent: quia ex illo antiquo jure nullus coitus
fuit damnatus. Sed postea humano genere multiplicatia supervenit damnatio et approbatio. Stat tamen quo lex positiva civilis approbat concubinatus, et ex hoc non accedit ad naturam vera prudentiae humanae
etiam lege divina circumscripta: quad pater ex supra demontratis. Nam
ex dictamine rectac rationis unus homo debet jungi uni mulieri indivisibiter non pluribus: haec autem est conjunctis matrimonialis, non concubinativa. Lex ergo canonica concubinalem reprobans, et solam matrimonialem conjunctionem approbans, accedit ad veram prudentiam
humanam: et etiam circumscripta lege divina. " Excerpts from chapters
298-300. The above posset et esse, etc., and the references to prudentia
kumana are among the very first modern indications of Maithusianism.
Goldast (fMonarchia, vol. ii) attributes this Sonnium Virdiarii Consilaria regia de jurisdictione regia et Sacerdotati to Philotheus Achillo;
but cf. Brants, op cit., p. 242 and Ad. Franck, Riformateurs et Publicistes, vol. i, pp. 20Q et seq.


' Of. Cit., pP. 264.


' Chap. v.





483]             FIRST MODERAT VIEWS                  93
for example, that agriculture as well as industry and trade
contribute to a nation's wealth and welfare.'  He urges
a more intensive cultivation of land, and seems to see that
trade is able to contribute to peace between nations.2 He
commends diligence and frugality as the best means of
avoiding economic disaster.  He would reduce the large
standing armies, for they are often the means of a nation's
empoverishment.
In his History of Florence, Macchiavelli seems to realize
that a population may increase beyond the capacity of a
limited territory to support it.
The people who inhabited the northern parts beyond the Rhine
and the Danube, living in a healthy and prolific region, frequently increased to such vast multitudes that a part of them
were compelled to abandon their native soil and seek a habitation in other countries. The method adopted, when one of
these provinces had to be relieved of its superabundant population, was to divide into three parts, each containing an equal
number of nobles and people, of rich and poor. The third
upon whom the lot fell then went in search of new abodes, leaving the remaining two-thirds in possession of their native country... The migrating masses destroyed the Roman
Empire.8
He remarks elsewhere that an excessive population will be
diminished by want and diseases,4 being thus one of the
first of those who are more strictly precursors of writers
like Malthus.
In several parts of his Utopia, Sir Thomas More (1478 -1535) refers to problems incident to marriage and proSDiscorsi, ii, 2.             2 Ibid., i, 55.
SBk. i, chap. i. Cf. Gibbon, History of the Rise and Fall of the
Roman Empire, vol. i, chap. ix, who says that Macchiavelli derived this
description from Paul Diaconus.
'Discorsi, ii, 2, 5. Cf. Malthus' sEssay (third edition), pp. 123,124.





,94           DOCTRINES OF POPULATION                [484
creation.'  The influence of Plato is not least apparent
here. The cities of the Utopians are composed of families
which are small groups of persons nearly related to one
another.  A   very important matter of concern in these
cities is that they be kept from increasing " above measure," and in this connection he says:
Lest any city should 'become either too great or by any accident
be dispeopled, provision is made that none of their cities may
contain more than six thousand persons besides those of the
country round. No family may have less than ten nor more
than sixteen children, but there can be no determined numbers
of children under age. This rule is easily observed by removing some of a more fruitful couple to any other family that
does not so much abound in them. By the same rule they
supply cities that do not increase so fast from others that 'breed
faster; and if there is any increase over the whole island they
draw out a number of their citizens from the several towns, and
send them over to a neighboring continent, where...
th'ey fix a colony... Such care is. taken of the soil that
it. becomes fruitful enough to supply provisions for all, though
it might -otherwise 'be too narrow and barren.
More here indicates the restriction which want places on.
increase, and of exceptional causes of depopulation he mentions "cgreat pestilent plagues." He continues that
if any accident has so lessened the number of inhabitants of
any of their towns that it cannot be made up from other towns
of the island, without diminishing them' too much...the
loss is to be then supplied by recalling as many as are wanted
from the colonies.2
' See especially chapters on " Their Living and Mutual Conversation,
Their Traffic," "ITheir Trades and Manner of Life," and on "Their
Slaves" and "'Marriage."1
I utdfrom Morley's Ideal Commonwealths.





485]            FIRST MODERN VIEWS                 95
More shows some appreciation of "positive checks" to
increase. His remedies for too great populations indicate
however, that his view was limited and of classical origin.
In regard to marriage he says that women are not to
be married before they are eighteen and men not before
they are twenty-two years of age. He advocates great care
in the choosing of mates; and for the welfare of the individual as well as society all unchastity should be severely
punished.
S~ 3. The German Reformation.    The most significant
literary contribution to this movement in its relation to
marriage is that of Luther's (1483-1546) Sermons.' He
breaks away from the doctrines of the Church, and both
in deed and in writing protests against the celibacy of the
priesthood. He says that no man is able to live virtuously
without a wife unless he is naturally or artificially impotent. Not one in a thousand, he says, is an exception.
Some may think that marriage would be desirable, but
hesitate, asking themselves the question, " How shall I
provide for a family? I have nothing; how can I take
a wife to me and get provision with nothing from which
to draw?"  This questioning hesitancy is the greatest hindrance to marriage and is the cause of all moral diseases
of sex. What shall a man do then? he queries; and his
answer is that this is only an indication of a lack of faith
in God's goodness.
God has shown how sufficiently he cares for us, when he
created heaven and earth, all animals and plants, before he
created man. He shows us thus that he will always provide
food and shelter sufficient for our needs. It is only necessary
that we work and do not remain idle; we shall assuredly to


' Prediglen iber die Ehc.





96


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[486


both clothed and fed... From all this we draw the conclusion that whoever finds himself unfitted to remain chaste
should make arrangements betimes and get some work and
then dare, in God's name, to enter into matrimony. A youth
should marry not later than his twentieth year, and a maiden
when she is between fifteen and eighteen years old. Then
they should remain upright and serious and let God provide
the way and means by which their children shall be nourished.1
From the modern point of view such teaching, tending
as it would to multiply population without regard to means
of subsistence, is opposed to both prudence and sound
morality. It is to be borne in mind, however, that Luther's
views, like the original Christian aversion to marriage,
were the product of circumstances. The Reformation naturally reacted against what in practice had too often become an immoral celibacy. The counter-tendency which
Luther represented was fraught with the gravest consequences; and the evils and dangers it entailed were, perhaps, not less serious than those which it was designed
to check.2
Two other writers of this time, though not of the same
type as Luther, deserve mention.      Ulrich von Hutten
(1488-1523) ascribed the want prevailing at the time to
'Cf. Eberlin von Gunzberg's advice: "Alsbald ain megtlein ist XV
jar alt, es und ain knab XVIII sol man sy sysammen geben zu der ee,
es wl6 dann ains williglich keutsch sein.-Jolles, op. cit.
'It seems hardly possible to accept Roscher's opinion (op. cit., p. 58)
that Luther "wirklich in einer aufstrebenden Zeit lebte, wo das rasche
Wachsen des Unterhaltsraumes jede Angst vor Ueberv6lkerung fern
hielt" and that Luther's doctrine is based even partly on a desire to increase population. Contemporary writers like Hutten and Franck von
Word express fears of too great populousness, a fact which makes
Roscher's conjecture improbable.





487]              FIRST MODERN VIEWS                      97
an excessive populousness and to we.q     Sebastian Franck
von W6rd (1500-1545?) viewed unrestrained increase in
population   with  apprehension.    Excessive   increase, he
thought, was especially to be feared among the Germans,
whose very name he connects etymologically with productiveness.2 The exceptional fertility of the Germans was
particularly noticeable among the Suabians and Bavarians.
Even the effects of sanguinary wars and internal disturbances soon disappeared, the gaps being so quickly filled by
generation.   The only resource which von        Word, like
Macchiavelli and More, conceived for a population which
had reached the limit set by natural environment were war
and pestilence,8 or emigration.
SUlrich de Hutten, equitis Germani, Ad Principes Germanos ut
Bellum Turcis innehant Exhortatoria, 1518, p. 4: Igitur cui maxima
sit comeatus inopia et populosissima, sit hoc tempore Germanise quid
votis omnibus optandum erat, ut esset foris bellum quo istam exponeremus multitudinem; divinitus accidit (....) ut bellandi contra Turcos
causa esset et necessitatos esset, etc.
'Germanise chronicon von des ganzen Teutschland, p. 89: es wird a
germino Germania genent.
8 Schwoben und Beyern. Die leuder geben aller welt volck gnug, und
ist dannoch allzeit mit solchen iiberfluss besetzt, dass dirffer und stett
zerrinnen wollen, und die glitter und herberg in ein sollich aufschlag
kommen, dass kaum hiher mag, das ich halte wo nit Gott den Krieg
scheidet und ein sterbend drein kompt das wir wider einmal, wie vor
etwa durchs los oder anderweg aufgemustert, wie die Zigeuner... Nun
seind doch allein wie man sagt hundert mal tausent baurn allenthalb um
der auffrur umbkommen, niemand mangelt keins menschen, sonder alle
flecken so voller leut das niemand bei in Kan einkommen. Es ist
nichts dann kind iiber kind in ganzem Teutschland, sonderlich in
Schwaben, und ist ein wunder wann jemant ein unfruchtbare Schwaben
findt. Also das von Teutschen, sonderlich von Schwaben von fremden
nationen, so sie drum neiden, ein sprichwort ist entstanden, Schwaben
und b6s gelt fiirt der Teufel in alle welt. Ist nun die opinion dess hoch
erleuchten philosophi Hermetis Tressmegisti war, das kein unfruchtbarer der Kein vatter oder mutter ist oder wird, selig mag werden, so
seind die Teutschen vor allen ander Volkern ein gotselig volk.-Op.
cit., pp. 89 et seq.





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~ 4. German Writers of the First Part of the Seventeenth
Century. From the Reformation we enter upon the period
of the Thirty Years' War, or, more correctly for our purpose, we pass from the theological period into the beginning of the cameralistic, which reaches its climax in the
time of Frederick the Great and forms the transition to
the modern development of German economic theory. In
this period, covering the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, two general classes of writers are distinguishable:
the learned writers, using Latin as their literary medium,
and a group writing in the vernacular, popular and practical in aim. To the so-called "learned" writers belong
mostly the juristic and philosophical savants following more
or less closely Campanella, Macchiavelli and Bodin. The
popular group is somewhat later in appearance, and in it
the influence of Hobbes and Grotius is often discernible.
In a rather concise and systematic form Jacob Bornitius
presents the prevailing doctrine of nearly all writers of the
next two centuries in Germany in his Partitionum Politicarum Libri IV.1   A population increases, he says, either
by natural growth or by immigration.2 Increase, not only
of families but of property and territory, is of course to
be desired. To encourage increase he recommended various rewards in the form   of tax exemptions and special
privileges for heads of families, and he would place certain
disabilities on married but childless couples, and provide
certain punishments and inconveniences for bachelors. He
would invite immigration by making agricultural conditions better and improving the facilities for trade and
manufacturing and by advertising the good qualities of the
SFirst published in Hannover in 1608. See pp. 115 et seq.
*"Vel ex sese vel aliunde; intus augetur populus familiarum incrementa.'





Q0-.1


RIF ST MODERN VIEWS


40oj.iVi A.IV. ~LV u Lrv V3            99
climate and the favorable opportunities for labor; in fine,
he would increase population and encourage immigration
by making the country prosperous.1
The Monarchia sive Romani Imperii sive Tractatus of
Melchior Goldast (1578-1635) was published three years
after appearance of Bornitius's work,2 and contains the
Somnium Viridarii of Raoul des Presles, which has already
been treated.
A writer whose work is also representative of a large
number of learned political discussions is Hermann Latherus von Husum    (1583-1640). His work bears the title
De censu, Tractatus Nomico-Politicus.3  Calling to his support the authority of Bodin and Botero, he, too, urges
the advantages of the greatest possible population.    In
this connection he comments favorably on the reign of
Elizabeth, who had welcomed exiled Protestants to England and in this way had brought great prosperity to the
country. This recommendation of encouraging immigration has a general bearing, but it includes also ideas based
on religious tolerance as well as of political advantage.
His desire to increase the income of the public treasury
finds support in his doctrine of population.4
In speaking of marriage, Latherus declares himself in
favor of rewarding fecundity, a position typical of most
followers of Bodin and supporters of the nationalist, mercantilist movement which in nearly all European countries
S"Pax publica et privata; virus cultus; Dei et vera religio, quae ad
verum Deum ducit; justitiae et juris observantia; artium et scientiarum
studia et scholae florentes, in quibus animus excolitur."
SMelchioris Goldasti Waiminsfeldii, etc., Hanoviae, MDCXI.
s First published in Frankfurt a. M. in 1618, several editions following.
'" Quis enim rerum omnium ita nescius ignorat, quod multitudine
subditorum tributa, census aliaeque pensitationes respondeant et copiosam fisco accessionem adiungat."-Cap. vi.





100


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[490


had, by the seventeenth century, grown to great strength.
In support of his propositions he refers copiously to classical literature and experience, especially Roman, and includes some quotations concerning the depravity of women,
adding, however, by way of consolation, that this should
not discourage any one from marrying: we are all sinners.
In closing this part of his discussion he eulogizes the divus
Lutherus and attacks the caelibes clerus.'
Christopher Besold (1577-1638)', a learned jurist of this
troubled period of German history, entertains similar views
in his Discursus Politicus de Incrementis Imperiorum 2 and
in the Politicorum  Libri Duo,8 and to a small extent in
his other works.   Hippolytus a Collibus (1561-1637), to
whom Besold refers with approval, is of the same school,
as is evidenced in a work entitled Incrementa Urbium sive
de Causis Magnitudinis Urbium.4         Besold says that a
nation's growth is dependent on its natural resources and
industry. Population is multiplied where trade flourishes
and the soil is productive and well cultivated, which conditions also always attract foreigners. The state should,
therefore, make every effort to insure equity and liberty
and salutary conditions generally.5   Besold also refers to
classical writers, and advocates the Roman practice of rewarding marriage and fecundity and placing disabilities on
celibates.  No land should be left unoccupied, and if necesI Lib. iii, sec. 1-2; see also p. 465, and De Aerario publico, cap. iii.
2 First published in Strassburg, 1623.
SFrankfurt a. M. 1618.
* Hannover, 16oo; cf. Roscher, op. cit., p. 144.
5 Lib. ii, cap. viii, sec. 27: "Naturalis Reipublicae amplicatio est ubi
praedominatur natura; quamvis industria accedit; eaque est vel populi
multiplicatio vel territarii cultura. Populi multiplicatio, aut fit per
civium propagationem," etc. See also chap. i, De Tribus Domesticae.





491]


FIRST MODERN VIEWS


IOI


sary for its best cultivation, foreigners should be encouraged to settle.'  Luxury and vice in women, as well as in
men, is detrimental to increase. Divorce is to be narrowly
limited, and second marriages should not be encouraged as
should first ones, since they are not so fruitful.
Another German scholar of this period who discusses
population is Georg Schonborner von Schonborn          (578 -1637). He seems much impressed by the disadvantages of
great populations when concentrated in cities.   A congested
population in a great city, he says, is the cause of confusion
and mad uprisings. Roscher believes that this view is
characteristic of conditions prevailing before and during
the Thirty Years' War, and it is a reflection of those conditions.2  Jolles criticizes this view and says that Schonborner's work is mainly a revision of Aristotle's view,
and is based, therefore, on the idea of the ancient citystate, and that consequently Schonborner's work does not
mean to disapprove of populousness in rural districts. But
these views really supplement one another.    The conditions
prevailing at the time especially impressed this part of
Aristole on Sch6nborner's mind.3
1De Aerario Publico (1626), cap. iii, sec. 5. Cf. Kaspar Klock (1583 -1655), DeAerario, Nuremburg, 1651, p. 7o4: "Nemo magis videtur de
republica bene mereri, quam qui plurimis liberis abundat; quare foecunditas praemio, sterilitas poena afficienda est." Also, "Matrimonium
violare maximum facinus est; proximum non contrahere." Georg
Obrecht (1547-1612), one of the most noted German jurists of this time,
made several valuable suggestions in regard to securing information
concerning the number of people and their wealth in Finff Underschied6
licke Secreta Politica, Strassburg, 1617, pp. 189 etseq.
' Roscher, Geschichte der National-Oekonomik in Deutschland, p.
148, Jolles, op. cit., p. 2oo; Aristotle, book viii.
" " Non satis probe prospectum videtur civitatibus populosis; quoniam
confusionem munerum civilium introducit multitudo civium: atque; illi
ipsi intra eadem moenia degunt, ita inter se ignoti sunt, moribusque;





102


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[492


~ 5. The Publicists and Other Writers of the Romance
GrPc.p.   The national ambitions of all statesmen of this
period are typified in the Commonwealth of the great
French minister Jean Bodin      (1530-1597).    It did not
occur to him to fear over-population; on the contrary, he
saw all good in great populousness. He was enthusiastic
over the Julian laws on marriage, and largely to their revocation he ascribed the moral degeneration and the final
fall of the Roman Empire.      To him   the most populous
countries were always necessarily the richest and strongest
and the most favorable to the development of art, science
and industry.1   But Bodin's views were not founded on
a close acquaintance with the peasants and other lower
classes, and he failed to see their lives and struggles in
a broad humanitarian light. In his consideration of the
different classes he had no independent place for the peasants, but regarded them apparently as an appendage to
the corn-dealers, bakers, butchers, etc. In agreement with
his general theory he considered the restrictions placed on
population in the theoretical writings of the Greek philosophers as inadvisable: "That which cannot be spoken
of without great impiety, that the goodliest creature which
God hath made should not only be made away after it is
born, but also destroyed in the mother's womb." 2
aliquantum discrepantis, ut pene alii esse videantur. Inde periculis
communibus ingruentibus animorum sequitur distractio et seditio. An
fructuosa sit tanta civium copia, viderunt ii, qui habenas populosissimarum civitatum moderantur mediocri itaque; civium numero contenta
civitas felicius efflorescat: si tamen jam multi radices egerunt, non ideo
exscindendi, sed potius in classes digerendi curiisque; et collegiis distribuendi sunt." From Politicarum Libri, vii (Ex officina Typ. Nicola
Sartorii), lib. iii, cap. xxxviii, p. 280. First published in 161o.
1 Bks. v, 2; vi, 2.
SBodin's Commonwealth (Knolles), pp. 67o, 671.





493]


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103


He objected to Sir Thomas More's idea that there should
not be less than ten nor more than sixteen children in a
family, "as if he could make nature obey his orders."
He disapproved also of any Utopian communism on the
ground of its probable bad effect on population. Rather
than an absolute equality, he would have us aim at a distribution of wealth which would strengthen the middle
classes who are neither rich nor poor, and which would
not tend to multiply and weaken the poor. Such causes
of poverty as confiscations and excessive taxation should
be removed, as should also such causes of great opulence
as the intermarriage of the very rich.
Henri IV showed a great deal of insight, for a French
king, when he said: " The strength and riches of kings
consist in the number and opulence of their subjects."'
His minister, the Duc de Sully, Maxmilian de B&thune
(1560-1641) sought to encourage population in every way,
and recommended especially that agriculture and stockraising be developed to strengthen and enrich the country
and people.2
Philippe de Bethune, le comte de Selles et Charost (died
1649), a younger brother of Sully, wrote The Councillor
of Estate about this time.3  He said: " Every one agrees
that to make a state powerful it must be rich, riches being
the sinews that support it."  Abundance of goods for the
maintenance of men are obtained (i) from the earth which
yields grains, wood, minerals, drugs, etc.; (2) from manu1 Cf. Nouveau Dictionnaire d' Economic Politique, art. " Population."
'Says M. Walowski, Memoires de 1' Acadhnie, 1855, vol. iv, p. 33:
"II est cependant facile de reconnaitre que si Louis XIV doit une
partie de sa gloire a Colbert, Sully doit une partie de sienne & Henri
IV."
sTranslated by Edward Grimeston, London, 1634.





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DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[494


factures; and (3)' from commerce with strangers. Statesmen " strive in vain to increase an estate by the manuring
of the land and peopling of the towns, if they do not provide to husband it, and to favor the generation... of
children; being the only means we have of our own to
people both countries and towns." Polygamy, said this
publicist, is comparatively unfruitful. Concerning the good
side of clerical celibacy he remarked: "A  single life is
seemly for men of the church, and there must be some;
but it seems necessary to cut off, or at least to hinder
thereafter, this infinite number which unfurnish the state
of men." 1
Antoyne de Montchretien (1576-1621) was of the same
opinion as Bodin and Sully. In his Traicte de l'Oeconomie
Politique he wrote:
Your majesty possesses a great state of fine situation, abounding in riches, flourishing with people, powerful in its good
and strong cities, invincible in war, and triumphant in glory.
Its territory is capable of supporting an infinite number of
inhabitants out of the fertility of the soil which nourishes and
of the animals which furnish clothing.2
But though the riches of the state might be immense and
the number of people great, it was essential that means
should be found for employing the people, since neglect
in this matter resulted in the greatest evils. To perform
this function great intelligence on the part of those who
direct estates and public affairs was requisite. The state
should pay more attention to the development of industry
and thereby check the emigration of those who go to
'P. 327; see also pp. 141, 143, 321-326.
'Th. Funck-Brentano's edition, p. 23. The first edition is that of
Rouen, 16i5.





.  '


]TCr T"T' i f  Tr  )AT T r rT7TXTc4


495J1           AF-i3  ILu.RVU I MDRIVYIVW          105
Spain, England, Flanders and Germany to seek employment. Neglect of this had resulted in much unnecessary
pauperism. Industry, said Montchretien, is the mother of
men, and commerce should be encouraged in every possible way.'
The Italian Giovanni Botero (1540-1617) was one of the
first to study the question of population in a broad, scientific manner. From the time of Plato and Aristotle until
after the Reformation we find very few who look at the
problem in any but a limited or prejudiced manner. The
Greek ideal of having the ablest procreate and survive had
elements of great scientific importance in it.  But the
Roman view was one-sided, and the theological conception
of the Church did not lead to a thorough investigation of
any but the moral phase of the question; while the position
of Luther on the one hand and of the later national writers
on the other were either essentially non-scientific or were
based on a political point of view. In those early modern
non-theological discussions in which the nationalist spirit
is subordinated we find at last ideas indicating a clearer
conception of the population problem, as distinct from the
one involved in marriage and offspring or the poverty of
individual persons.
Botero's discussion is found in a work entitled Delle
Cause della Grandezza delle Citta.2  It seems to contain
the essentials of the Malthusian doctrine. He says that
a population, after increasing for some time, cannot continue to increase at the same rate, while it may stand still
or even decrease. He declares that it is a mistake to base
1Pp. 24-28.
1 Ragione di Stato, libri x, con tre Libri delle Cause della Grandezza
delle Citta, di Giovanni Botero, Benese, Venezia, 1592. The edition
used in this study is that published in Rome in 1628. It is regrettable
that it is not included in the Classici Moderni Italiani.





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DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[496


retarding forces on the results of war and pestilence alone;
for the populations of the world have always suffered from
such things. The ultimate cause limiting population is
limitation of the means of subsistence. The virtus generativa is stronger than the virtus nutritiva and is in conflict with it.1 The first or generative force is as strong
as in the beginning; men are as capable of procreating
now as in the time of David or Moses; but the nutritive
forces of nature are limited and cannot supply a continually
increasing population, though the limits thus fixed are not
definite.  The additions to existing population would be
without end and every city and state would increase beyond measure if it were not for the fact that limited supplies also place limits to the increase of people. It is certain that nothing in the world has caused so much strife
and war and bloodshed as the great struggle for subsistence. The cannibalism    of the Indians, the slave-trade of
Guinea, the robberies of the Arabs and Tartars, the Viilkerwanderungen, long and fearful wars, the everlasting haggling in the courts-all are due in the last analysis to the
limitations of the means of subsistence.  This, then, is the
primary check to population. The sterility of soils, bad
climates, diseases and epidemics are secondary.2 Colonies
do not depopulate the mother country, for the places of
1" Diciamo dunque che l'aumento delle citta procede parte dalla virtfi
generativa degli uomini e parte dalla nutritiva di esse citta: la generativa senza dubbio che sempre e la stessa, almeno da 3000 anni in qua.
Onde, se non vi fosse altro impedimento, la propagazione degli uomini
crescerebbe senza fine e l'aumento delle citta senza termine; e se non
va innanzi bisogna dire che ci6 procede da defetto di nutrimento e di
sostegno. Ora il nutrimento si cava o dal contodo della citta nostra o
da' paesi altrui; e se la citta ha da crescere, bisogna che le vettovaglie
li sieno portate da lungi." In libro iii, pp. 73 et seq.
' See also libro i, cap. ii. Cf. G. Jandelli in La Filosofia delle Scuole
Italiane, vol. xviii, pp. 158 et seq.







7ý V ý Irnow% -M Ar -% ý ý - % 7 Irv v Vývlrr 04


497]             FIRST MODERN VIEWS                 107
the colonists are soon filled by the operation of the virtus
generativa.
Though Botero realized that sufficient subsistence was
necessary for a population, he thought that a people should
be as numerous as possible, for this is to the state's advantage. He would make the laws favorable to marriage,
but he would not offer premiums for numerous offspring.
Governments should not permit great discrepancies in the
ages of marrying couples, as this is not conducive to fruitfulness. Population is increased, as far as this is possible,
by increasing the number of births, the preservation of infants and the prolongation of life.  Finally, he recommended an effective system of public aid for the poor.
We see, then, that Botero was a strong nationalist in advocating increase, but that he showed a far deeper insight
into the problem  than his average contemporary or successor.
In Tomasso Campanella's.(1568-1639) City of the Sun 1
we find a partial reversion to the ideals of Plato and Aristotle. He laid stress on the matter of taking great care
in forming those unions from which offspring result. He
wrote: "We exhibit a studious care for our breed of
horses and dogs, but neglect the breeding of human beings."  He proposed that the state should regulate all
sexual relations systematically, and the rearing of children
should be carefully attended to. The procreation of children should "-be managed for the good of the commonwealth and not private individuals.... Children are bred
for the preservation of the species and not for individual
pleasure, as Saint Thomas also asserts..... The breeding
of children has, then, reference to the commonwealth, and
'Civitas Solis, published for the first time in 1637. See Morley's
Ideal Commonwealths.





0%


_ _ II_ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___


io8            DOCTRINES OF POPULATION                 [498
to individuals only as constituents of it." The fact that
Campanella was intimately connected with the Church
seems to be reflected in his wish to discourage "the love
born of eager desire" and to encourage only that more
rational Platonic affection "born of friendship."  His philosophy is based on the belief that men should " follow
nature and the books of God." l
Joannes Mariana (1536-1623) was one of the first Spaniards to give expression to mercantilist ideas, and this he
did in a work not unlike Bodin's, entitled, De Rege et
Regis Institutione.2  He advocated that articles imported
from any foreign country should be subjected to a heavy
duty.   This would not only prevent the exportation of
much money, but since people would naturally, whenever
possible, go where they could best sell their products, if
the tariff on imported goods were so high as to destroy
their profits, they would come to Spain and, as inhabitants
of the country, avoid these duties and-a matter of great
importance-they would increase the population."
The treatment of the question by the Spanish publicist
Saavedra-Faxardo (1584-1648), though incidental in char' Campanella treated population in what was intended as a more practical manner in A Discourse Touching the Spanish Monarchy, " newly
translated into English, London, 1654." In this work he said, "Let
him (the King) raise himself a treasure of his subjects' bodies, by causing them to multiply by frequency of marriage, to which they are to be
encouraged by honours, enticements," etc.. Another reason why the
King should see to it that the daughters of his subjects marry is to prevent their falling into vice, which is apt to occur in cases of involuntary
celibacy. He advised the King to permit his soldiers in other countries
to "seize upon women and carry them away with them by force...
for the intermixture of races would do good." Pp. 70, 71, 86.
SJoannis Marianae Hispani e Societate JesuDe Rege et Regis Institutione, libri iii, anno 1605, Moguntiae. The first edition appeared in 1598
SLib. iii, cap. vii-x; cf. various chapters in Historia de Espafa.





499]


FIRST MODERN VIEWS


lo9


acter, is yet more complete than that of Mariana. It is
found in his Idea Principis Christiano-Politici.'  The densest population had been observed in the wealthiest and relatively most powerful countries, and in this Saavedra thought
he had sufficient data for a wide generalization. As was
generally the case, the thought of military conscription and
fiscal advantages carried great weight in this connection.
Like Sir William   Temple and other later writers, he believed that great populousness made it necessary for the
people to be diligent and saving, which was, of course,
in its favor.  He speaks of the ancient notions regarding
the significance of population, especially those of the
Romans, and of the ancient plan of encouraging procreation by laws against celibacy. Like so many other writers
of the time, he considered that the king's strength lay
chiefly in the number of his subjects, which properly interpreted was true.2
The state was not completely developed in its strength,
according to Saavedra, if the plebeian element alone was
encouraged to increase; it was necessary to take measures
to prevent the nobility from becoming weak; and the king
should give this his attention, so that the best families
might not disappear.   He should prohibit dowries, at least
1Idea Principis Christiano-politici Centum Symboli expressa, a Didado Saavedra-Faxardo, Equit.... Bruxelles, MDCXLIX. First
edition published in 1640.
2" La fuerza de los Reynos consiste en el numero de los vasallos.
Quien tiene mas es mayor Principe, no el que tiene mas Estados:
parque estos no se defienden ni ofenden por si mismos, sino por sus
habita dores, en los quales tienen un firmisimo ornamento; y asi dixo el
Emperador Adriano, que gueria mas tener abundante de gente el
Imperio que de riquezas; y con razon: parque las riquezas sin gente
llaman la guerra, y no se pueden defender; y quien tien muchos vasallos
tiene muchos fuerzas y riquezas. En la multitudo de ellos la dignidad
de Principe, y en la depopulacion sa ignominia." Vol. iii, pp. 38 et seq.





IIO


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


150o


large ones, because of their bad effects. The number of
customs and religions which might be permitted in the
country should be as narrowly limited as feasible. Such
differences were harmful, this being especially apparent in
the domestic life of the people.
Saavedra indicates two causes of depopulation, internal
and external. The first, and main one, is the internal,
which consists in excessive tributes, faulty cultivation of
the soil, neglect of the arts and the sciences and commerce,
and a too great number of holidays. Bad laws of primogeniture and similar regulations which cause dissatisfaction and suffering should be avoided. The king's court
ought to set the people a good example in matters relating
to frugality and good sense in the administration of affairs.
Excessive luxury and pomp on the part of the rich often
lead to poverty and dissipation among the poor. The main
external causes of depopulation are wars 1 and emigration
to colonies. The latter is, however, not harmful if it is
in moderate proportions.
~ 6. Modern English Writers before the Restoration.
A great dread of over-population appeared in England at
the close of the sixteenth and in the first half of the seventeenth century. Wretchedness and poverty seem to have
been more widespread, or at least more apparent, at this
time than ever before or afterwards. It was also in this
period that the well-known Elizabethan poor law was enacted. To relieve the painful conditions existing colonial
projects were recommended, and it was in these years that
the first colonies were planted by the English in America.
The superfluity of people was a matter of complaint in
the days of Raphael Holinshed (died I580?), as is seen
1 " La guerra es un monstruo que se alimenta con la sangre humana,"
P- 43.





501]            FIRST MODERN VIEWS                  III
in the following excerpt from his chronicles&  There were
some men
affirming that we had already too great store of people in
England; and that youth, by marrying too soone, do nothing
profit the countrie, but fill it full of beggars, to the hurt
and utter undooing (they saie) of the commonwealth....
Certes, in some men's judgment, these things are but trifles
and not worth regarding. Some also do grudge at the great
increase of people in these daies, thinking a necessary brood
of cattell farre better than a superfluous augmentation of
mankind.1
The same fear of over-population is evidenced also in
the writings of George Cock (died 1679).
They who could not maintain a wife might not marry, for a
license they could not have, the bishops taking care enough
with their officers that the poore might not have lawful
favor of a license, lest their hospitality might be changed or
impaired by their maintenance, and their publicly denouncing
the banns of marriage the first time. The parish, for like
reason, hindered the second, if any cause were; and usually
none were permitted marriage till the man were thirty-five
at least and the woman thirty.2
This was in the reign of James I. Cock goes on to say
that the rules were very often laxly enforced, so that
many coupled from the ages of fourteen to eighteen on
the part of the women, which had bred multitudes of
" weak and tender poore."
Sir Walter Raleigh (1552?-i618) is one of those writers
1Vol. i, p. 344.
2 Cf. See George Cock, English Law or a Summary Survey, etc.,
p. 50. Barrington's Ancient Statutes, p. 395.





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DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[502


who, like Botero, are in a strict sense to be regarded as
precursors of Malthusianism. His opinions on the subject
of population are to be found mainly in his Discourse of
War in General and in the History of the World. In his
Discourse he says:
When any country is overlaid by the multitude which live
upon it, there is a natural necessity compelling it to disburden itself and lay the load upon others, by right or
wrong, for (to omit the danger of pestilence, often visiting
them which live in throngs) there is no misery that urgeth
men so violently unto desperate courses and contempt of
death as the torments and threats of famine. Wherefore, the
war that is grounded on general, remediless necessity, may
be termed the general and remediless or necessary war.'
In the History of the World, Raleigh expresses the
opinion that the earth would not only be full, but overflowing with human beings, were it not for the effect of
hunger, pestilence, crime and war, and of abstinence and
artificial sterility.2 He remarks elsewhere that Spain had
not become depopulated by her many colonies, but contained as many people then as it had theretofore, that is,
always as many as the land could nourish. If Edward III
had attained his purpose to conquer France, he says, England would be as full of Englishmen as ever, though many
should have migrated across the Channel. In extraordinary times wars and plagues keep down population; but
in times of peace and quiet many refrain from marrying
because they fear they will not be able to support their
children, while some marry rich old women, which natSWorks of Sir Walter Raleigh, Political, Commercial and Philosophical (Edited by Thomas Birch, London, 1751), vol. ii, p. 25.
'See especially bk. i, ch. viii, sec. 4.





503]


FIRST MODERN VIEWS


113


urally retards increase. The general who leads an army.to a war which kills many, sometimes does a service greater
than he knows by relieving a congested country of its too
great numbers; for a state can have so great a population
that it becomes sick. Even when the means of subsistence
are in plenty and more than could readily be consumed,
still there remains a lack of proper methods of distributing
them.
The views of Lord Bacon (1561-1626) fall into the
same class as those of Raleigh. In his Essay Concerning
Seditions and Troubles he says:
The first remedy or prevention is to remove, by all means
possible, that material cause of sedition whereof we spake,
which is want and poverty in the state. To which purpose
serveth the opening and well-balancing of trade, the cherishing of manufactures, the banishing of idleness, the repressing of waste and excess by sumptuary laws, the improvement
and husbandry of the soil, the regulating of prices of things
vendible, the moderating of taxes and the like. Generally,
it is to be foreseen that the population of a kingdom (especially if it be not mown down by wars) do not exceed the stock
of the kingdom which should maintain them.
He adds that the nobility and clergy should not be permitted to increase in undue proportion to the common
people, " for they bring nothing to the stock." 1 In the
Essay on the True Greatness of the Kingdom he says also:
Let states that aim at greatness take heed how fast their
nobility and gentlemen do multiply, for that maketh the
common subject grow to be a peasant and a base swain... This which I speak of hath been nowhere better seen


1 Works (Boston edition, 186o), vol. xii, p. 127.





1I4


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[504


than by comparing England and France; whereof England,
though far less in territory and population, hath been, nevertheless, an overmatch; in regard, the middle people of England make good soldiers, which the peasants of France do not.
In the same essay he states that a kingdom's greatness
consists essentially in population and breed of men, strong
and able to bear arms. Other qualities, such as good
government and " the commandment of the sea" are, however, also necessary. He mentions the ill effects of enclosures, which deprived the country of much tillable land,
which "bred a decay of people, and by consequence a
decay of towns, churches, tithes and the like." 1 In another place he observes that "there be many tokens in this
realm  rather of press and surcharge of people than of
want and depopulation." 2
In the New Atlantis, Bacon took occasion to dwell on
the benefits of chastity and condemned heartily the licentiousness prevalent in European cities. Marriage should
not be permitted until a month after the first interview of
the contracting parties. Great care should be exercised in
the selection of mates, but such ideas as those set forth in
More's " feigned Commonwealth " he deems unsuitable.8
In the Leviathcm  and the De Cive of Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679) we also find an appreciation of the dependence of population on subsistence. The nutrition of a commonwealth, Hobbes says in the chapter on the " Nutrition
and Procreation of a Commonwealth," depends on the
abundance of the materials of wealth, the fruits of the land
and the sea, given by nature freely or in exchange for
'History of King Henry VII, Works, vol. xi, p. 143.
' Observations on a Libel. Cf. also Essays on Irish Colonies and The
Prolongation of Life.
Cf. Utopia and New Atlantis (ed. St. John, x85o), pp. 143-144.





505]


FIRST MODERN VIEWS


115


labor, including those resources which enable a country
to purchase supplies from foreigners. It depends secondly
on the distribution of these material goods in accordance
with the laws of property. It depends also on the preparation or " concoction " of those goods, which must be
converted into such materials as can be transported and exchanged for what may at any time be used for purposes
of subsistence.'
In the essay on the Citizen, Hobbes refers to the subject
again, but this time especially regarding the perpetuation
of a commonwealth. Population depends on food, and
a country may not be able to provide for all its citizens.
In such an event the excess should be transported to lands,
preferably colonies, less fully peopled. This would lead
not to a lessening of the numbers already in the mother
country, but to a better cultivation of the soil in the new.
In the end, however, "if the earth be too strait" for the
feeding of its inhabitants, he sees no recourse but war.2
Adam Moore, in his book entitled Bread for the Poore,'
is thoroughly impressed by the misery of the lowest classes.
He wished to provide some remedies for the painful conditions existing. " How fearful and desperate," he said,
"is your want of bread upon the least defect of a harvest."   He did not think the state should endeavor to
stop "the fountain of their flowing issue," that is, of the
" unemployed wherein this land so infinitely aboundeth,"
in order to relieve their want. The state should rather
reform the conditions under which they must exist; and
he continues:
For albeit God hath commanded man to increase and mulChapt. xxiv.             2 Chapt. i, ~~ 13, 15, et passim.
SPublished in London, 1653.  *Pp. 3, 30, 31, 39, especially.





xI6


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[506


tiply and to fill the earth, ordaining matrimony free and lawful to all, we (supposing he hath not given enough to feed
us), though not by our command verbally, yet by our act
really, stop that issue of his blessing by preventing the poore
of needful habitations, whereby, indeed, their increase is much
hindered.'
James Harrington (6I11-I677) thought that population
increased naturally very slowly; and even in his ideal conmonwealth of Oceana 2 it increased by only one-third in
forty-one years. He endeavored to indicate the relations
which urban and rural populations sustain to one another.
The more mouths there be in a city, the more meat of necessity must be vented by the country, and so there will be more
corn and more cattle, and better markets; which, breeding
more laborers, more husbandmen and rich farmers, bring the
country so far from a commonwealth of cottagers that, where
the blessings of God, through the fruitfulness of late years
with us, rendered the husbandman unable to dispute precedence with the beggar's bush, his trade thus uninterrupted
in that his markets are certain, goes on with increase of
children, of servants, of corn and of cattle.... The country thus growing more populous and better stocked with
cattle, which also increases manure for the land, must proportionately increase in fruitfulness,
and enable a larger number of inhabitants to find subsistence.8
Harrington would encourage marriages and showed that
1 Sadler (Law of Population, vol. i, p. 40), commenting on this, says:
"One deliberate deed of this nature is sufficient to make a human
monster, a multitude of such,-a political economist!"
SPublished in 1658.
SP. 279 (edition of Toland, London, 1771).





507]           FIRST MODERN VIEWS               117
he had no fear of any over-population, which had been
characteristic of practically all English writers up to his
time; he was, in fact, in regard to matters concerning
population entirely in agreement with the spirit of mercantilism. He would grant exemption from taxes to a
man who was the father of ten legitimate children, partial
exemption to him who had five; and if a man had been
married three years or was over twenty-five years of age
and had no child lawfully begotten he should pay double
taxes. Finally, he would establish a Council of Trade to
study diligently and apply to the processes of trade all the
best methods known, in order that remedies might be applied where mistakes, affecting population in a harmful
way, had been made.





CHAPTER IV
THE MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION
~ I,. Introductory. The mercantile system of politico,economics was substantially, indeed almost entirely, favorable to large and increasing populations. The period in
which this system. was supreme in most European countries (from the middle of the -sixteenth to the middle of
the eighteenth century) was notable on account of the formation and growth of great states, whose governments
were becoming more and more powerful and expensive.
These governments required both men and money for the
maintenance of large and, in part, permanent armies, and
for the support of splendid and costly -courts.. Taxation
grew as the demands of the governments increased. Each
nation worked for its own power and preponderance, and
the rulers soon came to regard economic supremacy as
necessary for the attainment of political pree~minence.
Manufactures and commerce made denser populations possible by opening new fields for enterprise.  Hence they
were encouraged by governmental favor and patronage.
Kings desired full treasuries., and it did not take them long
to discover that in order to insure their power they needed
men as well as money; and so we find the desire for
wealth (" money ") contemporaneous with the oft-expressed
wish for many subjects.
Local and personal economic regulations gave way to the
state and national economid policies which we usually group
118                                     [ 5o8





509]  MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION


119


together under the term  mercantilism. In the place of
narrow  and particularistic conceptions of economic welfare, we meet with conceptions based upon large and increasingly compact organizations, competing with one another and with opposing commercial and political ideals.'
Economic plans and practices assumed a broader basis in
sympathy with the national differentiation and emulation
which was taking place at the time.
Since the theories represented by the mercantile system
were based very largely on the view that a nation's wealth
consisted in the amount of precious metals in its possession,
the aim of politicians in every state was to increase the
amount of gold and silver in the nation. If these metals
could not be supplied from mines within the domains of
the king, it was thought that they could be obtained by
maintaining a continuous favorable "balance of trade;"
that is, the politics of the time aimed at so regulating
trade that more goods should be exported than were imported, the difference in value being necessarily paid in
the precious metals, thus adding to what was considered
the essence of national wealth. But even such a balance
necessitated the production of articles suitable for export
trade, and this demanded many men skilled in manufacturing trades; so that in order to bring this system or
theory of trade to its practical realization it was considered
desirable by means of laws, advice and suggestion to increase. the number of working people.   The greater the
population the more could be produced, was the prevailing
dogma; and the more there was produced th,more there
remained for exportation; and the greater the resultant
1Cf. Schmoller, The Mercantile System, p. 64. Cf. also article on
"Bev1lkerung" in the Deutsches Staatswdrterbuch by Bluntschli and
Brater; and Bevdlkerungswissenschaftliche Studien aus Belgien by J. E.
Horn, vol i, pp. 14-16 et passim.





120


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[5io


balance the greater was the amount of gold and silver
which had to be imported. The nation would thus be
enriched and the national treasury filled; and in the minds
of statesmen and kings, jealous of one another's commercial and military strength, this was most ardently to be
desired. Such a condition not only indicated a nation's
commercial prosperity, but it made the country more powerful in the time of war.
Economic well-being was believed to depend very largely,
if not exclusively, on governmental regulation, and the
governing powers deemed it their duty, therefore, to enact
laws whose enforcement would conduce to this end. Says
Filangieri:.
Let us turn over the dusty and numberless volumes in which
the chaos of European legislation is comprised, and we shall
find no one government that has not reserved some prerogative for the fathers of families; that has not granted privileges and exemptions to those citizens who have given a
certain number of children to. the state; that has not provided some express laws to increase the number of marriages.
Most of these laws bear a more or less direct resemblance
to the Julian laws of the early Empire, and they seem
often to have been conscious imitations of them.
In the works of writers from about the time of the
famous minister of Louis XIV, Colbert, to the middle of
the following century, and even later, when the influence
of the mercantile spirit was especially strong, we note a
remarkable agreement as to the advisability of enlarging
the numbers of people, by encouraging marriage, taxing
bachelors and placing limitations on them generally, and


' Science of Legislation (London, x792), chapt. i, p. g9.





511]  MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION


I21


of offering rewards and granting immunities to fathers of
numerous offspring, in spite of the fact that the efficacy
of many of these schemes had been disproved many times
before (as they have since) by experience as well as by
the logic of philosophers. Indeed, it was believed, often
with an enthusiasm bordering on the fanatical, that a
nation's strength could depend on practically nothing else
than money and populousness.
Some recent writers on the history of economic theory,
however, seem to think that the mercantilist writers agreed
entirely in advocating increase and means of increasing
population; but a careful perusal of the works of mercantilist writers, the earlier ones in particular, will reveal some
divergencies, though these are usually slight. Politics and
literary discussion had a reciprocal influence, not necessarily leading to a complete harmony of ideas and practices.'
Roscher says that the mercantilists, whom he, like Ingram, treats as a school, displayed an exaggerated care
for mere numbers of people. This statement seems, however, to neglect the circumstances under which this care
was given expression.    Men certainly were of importance to the continued strength    of competing    empires.
We do not now accept their theories, but we could
not expect to find scholars of that time supporting plans
of national aggrandizement with the more finished theories
of political economy two hundred years later.    Nor are
the views favorable to increasing population confined to
those who in a limited sense are called mercantilists. The
'Wagner (Grundlagen, p. 452) says: " Ich michte den Satz von
Elster, 'die gekennzeichnete Bevolkerungspolitik des 17. und x8.
Jahrhunderts stiitzte sich auf die herrschende Bevolkerungslehre jener
Zeit,' eher umkehren, mindestens ihn in dieser umgekehrten Fassung
fiir richtig halten. Denn wie gewohnlich auf solchen Gebieten haben
Theorie und Praxis sich freilich wohl auch hier gegenseitig beeinflusst."





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DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[512


writings of the time, whether the authors accepted the
essential tenets of the system  or not', almost without exception advise statesmen to encourage fecundity by all possible (and impossible) means.'     The Bevolkerungspolitik
and -teories of the time relating to population are, in a
word, parts of the monarchical desire for national greatness as well as of the trend toward commercialism. It
might be contended that this favorable attitude toward increasing populousness was not a necessary part of mercantilism, but the writer believes unsuccessfully; for as
matters of history we must admit that in the period of
mercantile ascendancy this position was held with great
unanimity by writers whose works typify the spirit of mercantilism. There is at least a real, if not a necessary, connection.2
In the practical politics of the seventeenth and eighteenth
S centuries we notice that the general desire for increase was
held in check by the efforts to reduce the number of
paupers.   The sanest thinkers approved only of that class
of workers who were not likely to become a burden to
the state, and they disapproved of an excessive number
of well-to-do idlers and of those given to luxurious dissipation. This is seen to a great extent in the development of ideas regarding poor laws in England and in
many parts of the continent.8      There were, in general,
' Cf. Roscher, Geschichte der National-Oekonomik in Deutschland,
p. 239; Ingram, History of Political Economy, p. 39. Bonar (Philosophy and Political Economy, p. 132) says: " Not only the adherents of
the Mercantile policy, but nearly all economical writers before the
Physiocrats, were more or less tainted with these fallacies."
' Cf. Francesco Mengotti, II Colbertismo, passim.
'See Staatslexikon (Adolph Bruder), art. "Bevolkerung," and
Garnier, op. cit., p. 314; and Pashley, Pauperism and the Poor Laws,
passim.





513]  MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION


123


two classes, besides the wealthy and governing one: the
class which had the comforts and some of the luxuries
of life, and the large proletarian and peasant element
which lived at about the verge of subsistence. The best
efforts of statesmen seem, then, to have been to increase
the first class as much as possible and to regulate and to
increase the second only within reasonable bounds.
~ 2. Methods of Encouraging Increase. It was generally considered advisable and possible to increase the birthrate and thus increase population by the following methods:
(a) By placing various disabilities on celibates. Those
who married of their own accord were often given sundry advantages. In certain countries some offices were
to be held only by married men. In some countries certain trades were practically forbidden to bachelors except
by special permission from the regular authorities and on
payment of certain fees or licenses. In the reign of Elizabeth, for example,1 we find that it was enacted that "every
badger-lader, kidder-carrier, buyer and  transporter of
butter and cheese, corn or grain shall be licensed, unless
he be a married man." In many of the German states
there was a so-called Hagestolzenrecht, or laws unfavorable to bachelors, providing that the property of those who
died unmarried, without leaving surviving parents or
brothers or unmarried sisters, should be confiscated to the
state treasury.  Marriage was often made a necessary
qualification for holding office. The Hagestolzenrecht was,
however, gradually abolished, but in Hanover it continued
in force until 1732.2
'Moser, Von der Landeshokeit in Ansehung der Unterthanen
Personen und Vermdgens (Frankfurt a. M. 1773), P. 112 et seq. See 5
Eliz., c. 12, s. 4. Cf. Ensor's Inquiry, p. 14.
" Roscher, Political Economy, vol. ii, p. 347.





124


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[5i4


Celibacy was not held in high esteem in Spain, even in
the later Middle Ages, except in the case of the clergy.
Edward Gans cites several instances which indicate this.
unmistakably. Unmarried men suffered disabilities in regard to holding public office in most of the larger, and
probably in the smaller, Spanish cities and towns.' This
policy was carried out more systematically in the Edict of
1623. The same thing appears to have been true of most
European countries. The famous French law of Colbert,
in the reign of Louis XIV, in 1666, and others had a
similar intent.
In the reign of King William III there was issued a
pamphlet by "a person of quality" advocating a tax on
bachelors, and on April 22, 1695, the king signed his approval of " An Act for granting his Majesty certain Rates
and Duties upon Marriages, Births and Burials, and upon
Widowers and Bachelors, for the Term   of Five Years,
for carrying on the War with Vigour." Ordinary bachelors and widowers above twenty-five years of age were
to pay one shilling annually; dukes guilty of remaining
single were to pay twelve pounds, ten shillings, and marquises ten pounds.2  But this law placed a tax on marriages and births, as had a similar law of Elizabeth, which
imposed an assessment of fifty pounds on dukes on their
marrying; and this double desire of adding to the amount
in the treasury and of checking the marriage of the very
poor was somewhat self-contradictory.  Similar resolutions are found also in the American colonies at about the
same time and later. In 1758, for example, the assembly
of Maryland resolved that unmarried men over twenty-five
1 Das Erbrecht in weltgeschichtlicher Entwickelung, vol. iii, pp. 401:ee John Ashton, Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne, taken
from Original Sources, p. 24.





515]  MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION


125


years of age, as well as widowers of the same age who
were childless, who had at least a hundred pounds in
property, should pay five shillings annually, while those
of three hundred pounds in property should pay twenty
shillings, and so on in proportion to their means. These
taxes were to pay for the support of foundlings whose
numbers had recently increased.
(b) By encouraging marriage directly. The Spanish
Edict, which was passed in the reign of Philip IV, and
which is in harmony with the ideas of Saavedra-Faxardo
and publicists of the time generally, ordained that those
who married between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five
should be relieved from all taxes and public burdens, till
they attained the age of twenty-five. A dowry fund was
also provided from   which sums were to be taken and
given to young women who wished to marry. The law
was, no doubt, enacted because of a considerable diminution in the population at about this time.'
The most notable instance of extensive regulations of
this nature is that found in the French law of 1666, to
which reference has already been made.2     This law  was
a conscious adaptation of the Roman Lex Papia et Poppaea,
as is seen by a perusal of the preamble.8  It decreed that
whoever married before his twentieth year should be ex1Cf. Inama-Sternegg, Die Quellen der historischen Bevdlkerungsstatistik (Statistische Monatschrift, vol. xii), p. 442; Conring, Examen
Rerum politicorum Totius Orbis, pt. i, de Hispania.
2"Portant concession de privileges et exemptions a ceux qui se
marient avant ou pendant leur vingtieme annie jusqu' a 25 ans, et aux
peres des families ayant dix & douze enfants."
'" En effet nous ne sourions approuver que les Romains, ces sages
politiques qui ont donne des lois a toute la terre, aient accordi des
recompenses aux peres qui donneroient des enfants a 1' Ftat," etc. Cf.
Schone, op. cit., pp. 153-155.





126


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[516


empt from  taxation until his twenty-fifth; that any one,
except priests, who had ten legitimate children living
should be exempt from taxation during his entire life;
that a nobleman having ten children living should have
a pension of one thousand livres, and one who had twelve
children living should receive a pension of two thousand
livres. Persons not of the nobility were to receive half
these amounts in like instances. The law seems to have
been intended also to check the increase of priests and
monks, since they did not further the increase of population.1
Though this law   continued in force only until 1683,
parts of it were often incorporated in later regulations.
Roscher's comment here seems to sum up the matter very
well: "Such    premiums are, indeed, superfluous.   No
nobleman would desire twelve children simply to obtain
a pension of two thousand livres." 2   These premiums
may have afforded relief in the case of poor but numerous
families, but it can hardly be believed that they could have
had any of those desirable effects at which they aimed.
It was probably the realization of this fact which led to
the revocation of the law.
A few of these old privileges were continued by Louis
XV, and it is related that on the birth of his son he gave
orders that six hundred maidens should be married at the
expense of the state's treasury, and he contributed something to the dowry of each-all this with the naive purpose of increasing the number of people."   In ordinary
times he ordained that marriage should exempt his subSCf. ibid., pp. 142, 147-148.
'Political Economy, vol. ii, p. 348. See Isambert, Recueil des Lois
Franfoises, vol. xviii, pp. 90 et seq., 190; vol. xiv, p. 413.
'Schone, op. cit.





517]  MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION


127


jects from military conscription. Madame de Pompadour
says, in her Memoires, that she once prevailed on the king
to apply six hundred thousand livres, designed for a fete
in celebration of the Duke of Burgundy's marriage, to the
marriage portions of poor young women.
In England there had also been numerous laws whose
aim was to encourage marriage. George Ensor mentions
a law olf Edward VIII which ordained that lords should
not remain in possession of their female wards if they did
not arrange for the marriage of the latter by the sixteenth
year.1 In the fifth year of Elizabeth, a William Harper
gave a sum " for the marriage of poor maids... and
the remainder to be distributed to the poor, at the discretion of the body corporate." 2
There was a law in Prussia requiring people to marry
before the age of twenty-five, and providing aid for newlymarried couples. This was revoked by Frederick William
in 1721.'  The Empress Theresa of Austria, breaking away
from tradition, permitted soldiers to marry, that they, as
well as others, might aid in increasing the population, and
especially the military class. This was in 1767, and in the
following year she encouraged marriage by increasing the
pay of corporals, sergeants and common soldiers by three
kreutzers a day for each legitimate child. The Annual
Register comments on this favorably: " This encouragement of matrimony among the non-commissioned officers
and soldiers of her army, so contrary to general practice,
may well deserve the attention of other powers." * This
edict of Theresa was evidently also intended to act as a
SOp. cit., p. 41.  See The Annual Register, 1765, p. 95.
SElster (Handwdrierbuch der Staatswissenschaften, Edition I89g, art.
"Bev1okerungswesen "), p. 473; Roscher, op. cit., p. 348, note.
'1768. p, 35; 1767, p. 5.





.0ý


128           DOCTRINES OF POPULATION               [518
remedy for many of the dissipations and vicious practices
developed in military camps. Frederick the Great sought
to increase the number of marriages by shortening the required mourning period to nine months for widows and
three months for widowers.'
Similar laws existed in Russia, Switzerland and Italy,
and practically everywhere in Europe. On the birth of an
heir to some royal or noble family it was quite usual for
the father to express his satisfaction partly by aiding
dowerless girls to marry.2
(c) By encouraging fecundity. This method was, of
course, consequent on the encouragements to marriage, or
it was at least so intended. The Spanish and French laws
have already been mentioned, and these, like most laws encouraging marriage, contained express or implied provisions
rewarding fecundity. The French law which granted rewards for ten or twelve children legitimately begotten,
also provided that these rewards were to be withheld if
such children became priests, monks or nuns.    Laws of
this nature sought generally to prevent unfruitful unions,
due to excessive differences in the ages of those marrying
or to other obvious causes. Male offspring were considered more worthy of reward than female, as is seen, for
example, in the section of the Spanish law which grants
exemption from taxation for six legitimate male children.
Even as late as 1796, two years before the first appearance of Malthus's Essay, we see Pitt urging the English
Parliament to come to the aid of fruitful but impecunious
families:
1 Mylius, Corpus Constitutionum Marchicarum, continuatio III, no.
xxii, p. 179. Cf. Elster, op. cit., p. 473 et seq., and Roscher, of. cit.,
p. 348, note.
2 Cf. Annual Register, 1767, p. 66.





l^


519]   MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION            I4~
Let us make relief in cases where there are a number of
children a matter of right and honor, instead of a ground:
S   of opprobrium and contempt. This will make a large family
a blessing instead of a curse; and this will draw a proper
line of distinction between those who are able to provide for
themselves by their labor and those who, after having enriched their country with a number of children, have a claint
upon its assistance for support.1
(d) By making the punishments for illegitimate birthsless severe or by removing such punishments entirely, and
by providing hospitals for foundlings.  In commenting
on the reaction against Calvinistic and Puritan tendencies,
Professor Patten makes some very suggestive remarks on
the social and moral life of England in the time when
mercantilism  was predominant.   The games connected1
with the May-pole and other festivals gave occasion for
much sexual immorality, which he thinks the public policy
tacitly approved.
The key to the situation lies in the once universal notion that
the popular sports and amusements, by exciting the sexual
passions, promoted the growth of population. The loss of
virtue that the Puritans denounced in the May games was
to the ruling class an argument in their favor. The nobleman who debauched the wives and daughters of his tenantry
did not think he did wrong; on the contrary, he told himself.
that he was doing the nation a service.... Malthus..
had to convince not only the ruling class, but the clergy;
for every one believed that the illegitimate children even of
a pauper were a national blessing, helping to make the nation
greater and more prosperous.... It must be admitted that
there were some reasons why statesmen should desire an increasing population. The great plagues were coincident with
SHansard's Parliamentary Debates, vol. xxxiii, p. 710o.





3.o


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


11520


the rise of Puritanism. Labor had grown scarce and high.
The burden of this change fell on the upper classes.1
-Professor Patten's ideas here undoubtedly involve some
-exaggeration, but that this was the real, though tacit, feeling of the governing class is, it would seem, generally
correct.
One of the most obvious exemplifications of this attitude
is found in Iceland in the eighteenth century. The island
'iad been very considerably depopulated because of various
internal misfortunes, so that the king of Denmark deter';nrned by statute that no disgrace should fall on any rfiaiden
who had as many as six children.2 A greater leniency in
regard to illegitimacy in Prussia is seen in many writings
of the period following the Thirty Years' War, just as in
England after the plagues. Fecundity becomes of such
importance that, as in less civilized times, virtue is not
-considered so desirable as when population is about as great
-as it can comfortably become. This was the theory on
which Frederick the Great acted when he decreed that no
-fallen woman should be required to, suffer the usual penance, and later when he provided punishments for those
who should, by word or deed, try to make the life of such a
woman more painful than it was.8 Such regulations were
also intended to lessen the temptations to commit abortion:and infanticide, which lessened, it was thought, the possible
number of people.
It may be remarked parenthetically that Frederick was
'History of English Thought, pp. 137, 138.
'Cf. Elster, op. cit., p. 473.
*Novum   Corpus  Constitutionum  Prussico-Brandenburgensium
praecipue Marchicharum, lii, p. 1245. Zachariae, Vierzig BiFcher von.State, p. 112, note.





521]  MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION


131


heartily in favor of the Volksvermehrungspolitik in general. He says, in fact, that "cet axiome est certain, que
le nombre des peuples fait la richesse des etats," ' and this
idea runs through many of his enactments and writings.2
In 1741 he writes to Voltaire that he " regards men simply
as a herd of deer in the park of a great noble, which has
no other function than to people and fill the enclosure."
He seems to have realized that a population depends on
the food supply, but the idea was not consistently held.
He believed, for example, that large armies did not draw
any strength from the agricultural or industrial pursuits
or lessen the total product, for the peasants remaining in
the fields and the laborers in the towns and cities were
sufficient to perform the necessary labor, so that the men
in the armies were not needed for other purposes. If there
were more in these occupations there would be a superfluity of people, who could not live except by begging or
robbing-certainly a naive conception. For such reasons,
he thought, the V6lkerwanderungen of the past occurred.
In his day he believed that the population in the northern
parts of Europe was less than it had formerly been; but
population could, nevertheless, increase very much under
the then prevailing conditions. The use of luxuries had
increased, and this had given occasion for many industries, which afforded a living to many who would otherwise have been obliged to emigrate, as had been the necessary custom in primitive times. Altogether we may say
that Frederick had but incomplete theories concerning the
object of his desires-populousness.8
'Oeuvres de Frederic le Grand, iv, p. 4.
2 Cf. Mimoires de 1763 jusqu'd 1775, vol. vi, p. 82: "Surtout considerant que le nombre des habitants fait la richesse des souverains."
8 Oeuvres, xxiv, p. o56; also ix, p. 196.





132


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


1522


The establishment of foundling asylums in this time by
Francke and others has considerable significance.  They
were, primarily, the outgrowth of altruistic motives, but
the saving of lives for the political purpose of increasing
the number of people, on whom the king's strength depended, was a ground for state support. We find this.
plainly expressed in many political works of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
George Ensor says of Gustavus III of Sweden that he
" was a great populator." 1  He established apothecary
shops, lying-in hospitals, foundling homes and the like.
The same policy was pursued in Switzerland, and in fact
generally throughout Europe. The Annual Register says
of Catherine of Russia, that
The present empress of Russia has founded an orphanhouse in Moscow, which the beginning of this month (May,
1765) portioned out twenty-five couples that had been brought
up in it, giving each of them fifty rubles. It is said, with
the same view of increasing population, that the punishment
of adultery has been changed in that country from severe
penance (it was formerly burying alive up to the waist) to
an ordinary fine.2
The historian Tooke relates that Catherine and other Russian rulers of the eighteenth century had built hospitals,
medical colleges, foundling asylums and orphanages with
the same view in mind.8
~ 3. Immigration and Emigration. In the political literature generally-though there are exceptions-and in the
statutory regulations of those times we find that to enI O. cit., p. 163.             2 1765, P. 95.
' View of the Russian Empire in the Reign of Catherine the Second,
vol. ii, pp. 166-168 et passim.





523]  MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION


133


courage immigration and to prevent emigration en masse
in all cases and in individual instances quite commonly,
were considered policies consistent with national aggrandizement and essential to it.
(a) The Spanish edict of 1623 promised those who
settled in the country and engaged in some productive
trade exemptions from direct taxation.  Inducements to
intending immigrants were also offered in various German
states, particularly in Prussia and Austria.  The Great
Elector issued a patent in 1685 which permitted refugees
from France, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
to immigrate to Prussia, where they were aided in colonizing. In like manner, in 1688, he welcomed emigrants
from the Palatinate; and in 1721, 1726, and 1736 many
evangelical subjects of the grand-dukes of Salzburg and
Bohemia were received by Prussia.1 Frederick also gave
a great variety of special rights and privileges to immigrants, especially to such as were likely to be of greatest
value to the state-merchants, skilled artisans, etc. They
were not only relieved for long terms of years from the
payment of taxes, but they were often given land, if agriculturists, and aid in finding desirable places of settlement.
Sometimes, it seems too, that they were given financial
aid in the form of loans. Similar encouragements were
offered in Brunswick, Hessen-Hamburg, Wurtemburg and
Bavaria, while in some provinces even more specialized
forms of aid than the ones mentioned were employed.
In Austria, in 1781, the empress Theresa granted her
famous patent of tolerance, which gave to non-Catholic
immigrants and residents practically the same important
political rights as were enjoyed by Catholics. Its purpose
'See Appendix to Corpus Constitutionum, op. cit., vol. vi; also vol.
1, p. 403.





134


DOCTRINES OF POPULA TION


[524


was not, however, based simply on tolerance. It encouraged the immigration of trained mechanics and professional men and artists by granting them the privilege of
leaving the country without paying the special fees, or
Abzugsgeld, and by giving them the rights of masters in
their trades. Money aids were also provided. Regulations of this kind must have had a beneficent influence on
the industries of the country;1 and the religious tolerance
which often furnished the suggestion for such laws was
seconded by the desire to increase the population.
In Russia, Peter the Great had pursued similar policies
in his relations with the Swedes, and later Catharine II
made great efforts to encourage settlements along the
Volga, especially in 1762, 1765 and 1783.     Tooke says
that Catharine " applied millions of rubles to increase the
population from without." 2 So early in her reign as 1762
she published a manifesto inviting foreigners, upon advantageous terms, to come and settle in her dominions, and
Tooke continues:
If their means be not competent to the journey, they will
be furnished with money by the Russian ministers and residents at foreign courts. Exemptions from taxes for a stated
time,... five,.. ten,... or twenty years,...free dwelling for a half year,... these invitations and advantages
have drawn a great multitude of foreigners, particularly Germans, into Russia.3
(b) The fact that there were also laws to check emi'Elster, op. cit., says: "Es ist gewiss uns zur Geniige bekannt, dass
durch diese Politik nicht nur die Bevolkerung in den betreffenden
Lindern vermehrt, sondern dass vielfach auch die gewerbliche Entwickelung in erfreulicher Weise gefordert worden ist."
" Op. cit., p. 241.            'P. 243.





525]  MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION


i35


gration, often practically forbidding it, placed the different
countries in somewhat the same position in relation to one
another as players in a game where one must lose in order
that the other may gain. This was not always the case,
however; for when a country was seemingly overstocked
with people, emigration could relieve the misery prevailing, while it added to the population of a more prosperous
district or country. When people fled from one country
to another for religious and not for economic reasons,
however, the case was clearly one in which the first country would lose. It was the general policy to direct emigration to colonies where the emigrants would gain inri
prosperity themselves, while enriching the mother country,,
instead of adding to the strength of a rival government.
In the Spanish edict we find again that, in strict accord
with these ideas, it was forbidden any one to leave the
kingdom  cumr familia: et bonis.'  Colbert took steps tiO
check emigration in 1669, but the edict of this year was
for the greater part simply a renewal of provisions in the
Code Michau of 1629. These regulations were not suecessful in stopping the egress of persecuted Huguenots, so
other penalties were added in 1682 to those already existing.  In 1685 it was decided that ship-captains, merchants or sailors who aided Huguenots to leave should be
liable to fines of three thousand livres, or corporal punishment. The death penalty even was soon afterwards made'
the punishment for aiding in the escape of any intending
emigrants, and half the property of such persons was
given to the informer.2
Frederick William of Prussia passed stringent laws, irr
1721, forbidding any of his subjects to leave the country
' Cf. Conring, Examen Rerum, etc., iv, p. 71 et seq.
'C. A. Schmidt, Geschichte von Frankreich, vol. iv, pp. 447, 453 -




.36


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


1526


with* the intention of remaining away permanently. The
death penalty was deemed proper if any one induced a
peasant to emigrate, and two hundred thalers was given
to the one who arrested an emigrant.' In Bavaria, and in
Switzerland  also, emigration   was strictly  prohibited.
JFrederick the Great made it a criminal offense, with severe
[punishments, for laborers and peasants to leave the counxtry. In 1768 a general edict against emigration was pro-;mulgated.  Only those having special permission could
leave, and such permission, it is almost needless to remark,
could practically not be obtained by the peasantry or the
working class generally.2  Austrian regulations of 1781
endeavored to check emigration, especially in certain of
the more skilled trades, such as the Bohemian glassworkers. In 1784 a more sweeping law was enacted to
thie effect that all emigration without permission was illegal,:and as punishment therefor it was provided that all the.property of the guilty person be confiscated, and if his;attempt were frustrated he was liable to three years' im-.prisonment.8
We might pick out several English statutes to show that.tle English practice and theories regarding these matters
did not greatly. diverge from those of continental counvries. An example is found in the reign of Charles I,
1637, in "A   proclamation against the disorderly transporting His Majesty's subjects to the plantations within
the ports of America," which enjoins
Officers and ministers of his several ports in England, Wales
* Roscher, Political Economy, vol. ii, p. 353. Roscher says (p. 350),that Frederick William also spent ca. 5,ooo,ooo Thalers in establishing
immigrants.
* Cf. v. Berg, Verordnungen, p. 72 et seq.
-Elster, op cit., p. 475.





527]  MERCANTILE SYSTEM AND POPULATION


I37


and Berwick, that they do not hereafter permit or suffer any
persons being subsidy men or of the value of subsidy men to
nnbarque themselves in any the said ports thereof, for any of
the said plantations, without license from His Majesty's commissionares for plantations.
The English rules do not seem to have been quite as
strict as those on the continent, possibly because limits to
population were seen in the size of the island. Moreover,
few Englishmen emigrated, except to the colonies, and a
satisfactory number of immigrants came to the country
without the employment of special inducements.1
The governmental efforts to keep the population of the
country within the territorial limits of the state were natoral, and they were supported by the majority of writers
on political and economic affairs before 1750; but there
were some writers who opposed such attempts. Among
them, as we should expect, we find the name of Pufendorff; Benjamin Franklin, Beccaria and Mirabeau opposed
these restrictions, as did also Huber and Bentham.
The Volksvermehrungspolitik and the mercantile and
growing national spirit were, then, contemporaneous and
mutually supported each other. The literature bearing on
the matter will be treated in detail in the next two chapters.
'On the regulation of immigration by the American Colonies, see E.
E. Proper's Colonial Immigration Laws (Columbia University Studies
in History, Economics and Public Law, vol. xii, no. 2), chapts. ii
and iii.





CHAPTER V


MERCANTILIST AND OTHER WRITERS, PARTICULARLY IN
ENGLAND AND FRANCE, 1660-1748
~ I. General Survey.   In the writings of this period
we find that the political, national, mercantile point of
view is the prevalent one. This holds true whether the
form of treatment is statistical, literary, philosophic, economic, or simply political.   All writers agree with the
established maxim that numbers mean strength and prosperity, with no more reservation, as a rule, than we find
in the beginning of the seventeenth century in England.
But the general treatment is more thorough.1
In the beginning of the reign of Charles II we note
the development of "Political Arithmetic," especially in the
works of Graunt and Petty. Comparisons of the birth and
death rates were made and the causes of variations were investigated, thus furnishing the first mathematical foundations
for the consideration of population problems. Though some
calculations had been made before this time, it seems that
these studies form the beginning of that group of writings
which, like those of Cumberland, Hume, Wallace and
Suessmilch, estimate the increase and decrease of popula1 Cf. Wagner, op. cit., p. 451: "Eine halbwegs wissenschaftliche
Behandlung der Bevblkerungsfragen beginnt kaum vor dem 17. Jahrhundert und gelangt erst mit der Herrschaft des Mercantilismus in
Theorie und Praxis zu einer gewissen Bedeutung und methodischen
Ausbildung."
138                                         [528





529]   MERCANTILIST AND OTHER WRITERS


I39


tion in exact figures, endeavoring therefrom to form definite conclusions. They are continually referred to by succeeding writers.
Then we have that large group of writers who wrote
essays on commerce, beginning with Mun and Fortrey and
continuing in one form  or another indefinitely-that is,
the more purely mercantilist writings. The writers sought
to discover those causes which hinder increase and to suggest governmental remedies, besides dissuading the people
from those personal habits and vices which form barriers
to multiplication.  In general, these writings reflect the
desire for national preeminence, but often with some
attempt at a moral consideration of the problems involved.
No great appreciation of that misery among the masses
due partly to faults in the politico-economic system is ordinarily apparent, but still there is some advance in this
particular.
A mixed group of English writers is that composed of
Dugard, who looks at the matter of increase from the
standpoint of the individual, and of de Mandeville'?who
in literary form gives evidence of Malthusian ideas; of
Cumberland, who makes mathematical estimates on theological bases, and of Berkeley, who, displaying no great
comprehension of population problems, accepts the prevalent nationalist ideal.
The writers of France and other continental countries are
for the most part thoroughly mercantilistic. The philosopher Spinoza and the statesman de Witt are spokesmen for
the Dutch commercial spirit, as also is the great ecclesiastic
Bossuet of the French. The poet Fendlon is of the same
type. The French mercantilists show no perceptible advance until the time of Melon.   The Spaniard Ustariz
displays some originality, but Law varies only so far as
his monetary theory suggests. Cantillon shows more in




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sight into the problem than any writer not strictly English
or German.
~ 2. Graunt, Petty and Hale.     Captain John Graunt's
(1620-I674) work entitled, Natural and Political Observations upon tle Bills of Mortality, was first published in
1662.1   He tried to show   the rate of increase in rural
districts as compared with cities and to indicate what are
the natural and special checks to it. The population of
London increases by procreation much less rapidly than
that of the surrounding country; its increase is due chiefly
to immigration. " We come to show," he says,
why although in the country the christenings exceed the
burials, yet in London they do not. The general cause of this
must be, that in London the proportion of those subject to die,
unto those capable of breeding, is greater than in the country;
that is, let -there be an hundred persons in London and as many in
the country; we say, that, if there be sixty breeders in London,
there are more than sixty in the country, or else we must say,
that London is more unhealthful or that it inclines men and
women more to barrenness than! the country.2
He continues on the next page that,
As for unhealthfulness, it may well be supposed, that although
seasoned bodies may and do live near as long in London as,elsewhere, yet newcomers and children do not; for the smoaks,
1 A reprint of the fifth London edition is found in C. H. Hull's.Economic Writings of Sir William Petty, vol. ii. Professor Hull
reaches the following conclusion regarding the disputed authorship of
Graunt's work: "The Observations were published over Graunt's
name. Everything about them, as well as everything known of his
life, was consistent with the assumption that he wrote them; he had
-the incentive, the opportunity, time, and, in the minds of his contemporaries, the ability." Vol. i, p. li.
2 Pp. 61-62 (fifth edition).





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stinks and close air are less healthful than that of the country....    As for the causes of barrenness in London, I say, that
although there should be none extraordinary in the native air
of the place; yet the intemperance in feeding, and especially
the adulteries and fornications, supposed more frequent in
London than elsewhere, do certainly hinder breeding.
He thinks that, in a general way, the more populous a
place the more unhealthful it is apt to be, and this accounts
for the varying death-rates as between London and the
country roundabout.1
Graunt notices the differences in the numbers of males
and females born; males exceed the females, according to
his tables, on an average of " about a thirteenth part." 2
This observation gives him an opportunity to discuss the
problem of marriage. " The Christian religion," he remarks, "prohibiting polygamy is more agreeable to the
law of nature, that is, the law of God, than Mahumetism
and others that allow it; for one man having many women,
or wives, by law, signifies nothing, unless there were many
women to one man in nature also." " Moreover, although
a man be prolifick fourty years, and woman but five and
twenty, which makes the males to be as 560 to 325 females,
yet the causes above mentioned [wars, accidents, colonies,
plagues] and the later marriage of the men reduce all to
an equality." 3 The celibacy prevalent " in Popish countries." hinders the multiplication of the people, for where
there are ten men-so runs his argument-to ten marriageable women, and two of the former are celibates,
two women (polygamy being prohibited) must remain
unmarried, and, as is often the case, they as a consequence
drift into promiscuity and vice, which is unproductive and


1 pp. 65-66.


2 Pp. 65-66.


sP. 67.





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leads to " abortions or secret murthers." 1 His conclusion
reads thus: " From what hath been said appears the reason
why the law is, or ought to be, so strict against fornications and adulteries; for if there were more universal liberty, the increase of mankind would be like that of foxes
at best." 2
The population of London, " by the ordinary proportion
of breeding and dying," doubles in sixty-four years, this,
however, with the aid of immigration; while the increase
in the population of the country as a whole is much slower.
The explanation is " that many breeders leave the country,
and that the breeders come to London from all parts of
the country, such persons breeding in the country only
as were born there." '  He calculates further, " according to this proportion, one couple, viz., Adam and Eve,
doubling themselves every 64 years of the 5,6Io, which is
the age of the world according to the Scriptures, shall
produce far more people than are now in it." His conclusion here is quaint and interesting, if nothing more:
" Wherefore the world is not about one hundred thousand
years older, as some vainly imagine, nor above what the
Scriptures make it."   This great possible increase has
been held in check by the hindrances already referred to.
On the basis of his study he gives the following usual:advice:
Now forasmuch as princes are not only powerful but rich according to the number of their people (hands being the father
as lands are the mother and womb of wealth) it is no wonder
why states by encouraging marriage and hindering licentiousness advance their own interest as well as preserve the laws of
God from contempt and violation.5


1 P. 69.    2 P. 70.    8 Pp. 85 and 59.


4 P. 86. `~ P. 70.





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Graunt is evidently able to see that population has a
tendency to increase at a geometrical ratio, but that it is
opposed by such "positive checks " as wars and plagues
and  the like.   Of "preventive checks"       or prudential
motives he has slight conception, probably for the reason
that the circumstances at the time, just after the plague,
made over-population unthought of and increasing numbers most desirable.'
The main work of Sir William         Petty   (1623-1687)
which has a direct bearing on population and the one on
which his reputation mainly rests, is his Political Arithmnetick, or a Discourse Concerning the Extent and Value
of Lands, People, etc., first published     in  London    in
i690.2  In the first chapter of this work he makes the
statement-one rather in advance of his time-" that a
small country and few people may, by their situation,
trade and policy, be equivalent in wealth and strength to
a far greater people and territory." He believes that improved methods in the carrying trades in particular conduce to this. He shows how intensive cultivation may increase the yield of an acre or make the value of its produce twenty times greater than it is, to the great advantage of the country's inhabitants. The increase in numbers, being thus encouraged and made possible, aids in
the establishment of greater national strength.
Petty was strongly impressed by the desirability of in1 Cf., for extended general discussion of Graunt's work, Hull, op. cit.,
vol. ii, pp. 387 et passim; and vol. i, pp. xxxiv-liv; see also Godwin's
Inquiry, p. 174.
2 See article in Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy; Hull's
Introduction, op. cit., and an article in the Quarterly Journal of
Economics, vol. xiv; Bevan's study in Publications of the American
Economic Association, vol. ii, no. 4; Godwin, op. cit., passim; Malthus, op. cit., p. 8, et passim.





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creasing population. An increase of people he considered
the surest sign of advancing prosperity; but he recognized
the fact that an addition to the number already existing,
in-order to be beneficent, must be accompanied by a corresponding increase in the efficiency and productivity of
labor and in natural resources. He understood the importance of division of labor in augmenting production.
Cloth, he says, must be cheaper when one cords, another
weaves, another draws, another dresses, and others press
and pack, than when all these operations are performed
by the same hand.'
Like Conring, his German contemporary, he was one
of the earliest staunch advocates of genuine religious freedom. He pointed out the evil effects of persecution, which
injured and weakened the state by drawing away to other
countries many good inhabitants, and by consequently
diminishing the revenues.  This last drawback is one
which he, like all writers with the mercantilist ideas, regarded as of exceedingly great importance. Governmental
"tythes increase within any territory, as the labor of that
country increases, and labor does, or ought to, increase as
the people do;" and the product of this additional labor
force enables the country to feed " many mouthes" more
than static conditions would allow.
Petty's Treatise of Taxes and Contributions,2 which appeared in 1662, indicates quite clearly his views concerning the importance of populousness. Populousness had a
direct relation to the state's revenues-the more people, the
greater the revenues, the stronger and more prosperous
I P. 224 (cf. Hull's edition).
2 Cf. Locke's Consideration of Lowering of Interest, in which he
says that numbers of men are better than extent of territory; where
there are many hands much work is done and wealth created.


I





535]     MERCANTILIST AND OTHER WRITERS            14
the country.  In this Treatise' he says: "Fewness of
people is real poverty, and a nation wherein are eight millions of people are more than twice as rich as the same
scope of land wherein are four; for the same governors,
which are the great charge, may serve near as well for
the greater as the lesser number." The passage does not4
however, indicate a very complete insight into the administrative features of government. The remark that punishments should not be such as disable a man for work
is based on his general population theory: " Why should
not thieves be rather punished with slavery than death?".
Petty figures the loss due to the plague as follows:
"That Ioo,ooo persons dying of the plague above the
ordinary number is near seven millions loss to the kingdom; and consequently how   well might 70,000 ~ have
been bestowed in preventing this centuple loss." He adds
that some regarded the mortality by the pest as
but a seasonable discharge of its pestilential humours; to clear
which difficulty, I say,... If the plague discerned well
between the well and the ill-affected to peace and obedience
or the bees and the drones, the fact would determine the question: but if it destroy promiscuously the loss is porportionable
to the benefit we have by them that survive.
That is, he thought that plagues eliminate the fit as well
as the unfit, and hence they are to be avoided by all means,
for their total effect is weakening.
According to Petty's calculations, which are rather arbi-,trary in character, but nevertheless in a way quite plausible, population tends to increase at a geometrical ratio,.
1 Pp. 17-18; in Hull, op. cit., vol. i, p. 34.
2 Political Arithmetick, p. 9J.





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but the period of doubling varies according to the circumstances-age of the world, existing population, and attendant circumstances. Thus, he calculated that when populousness is general there might be, say, twenty-four births
to twenty-three burials, letting about one in every fifty die
per annum, this would allow doubling in about twelve
hundred years.   In intermediate stages of populousness
the rate of doubling will be more rapid.  Let there be
seventy-five births to every six hundred people, with only
fifteen burials per annum, leaving a net gain of sixty. At
this rate per six hundred people, he says (not with mathematical accuracy, however), the said six hundred people
may double in ten years. This indicates a possible variation in doubling periods of from ten to twelve hundred
years.
The condition of things in England he regarded as a
compromise between these extremes. Referring to " my
Lord Hale's Origination of Mankind " and other calculations, he wrote:
upon which supposition there must dye 15 per annum out of
the above mentioned 600, and the births must be 162, and
the increase one and two-thirds or five-thirds of a man, which
number compared with I,8oo thirds of 600 men gives 360 years
for the time of doubling (including some allowance for wars,
plagues and famine, the effects thereof, though they be terrible
at times and places where they happen, yet, in a period of
360 years, and no great matter in the whole nation).1
Ie concluded that
If the people double in 360, that the present 320 millions
1 An Essay Concerning the Increase of Mankind (1682), pp. 13-21;
found also in Hull, op cit., vol. ii, pp. 463 et seq.





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computed by some learned mean... to be upon the face
of the earth, will within the next 2000 years, so increase as to
give one head for every two acres of land in the habitable
part of the earth. And then, according to the prediction of
the Scriptures, there must be wars and great slaughter.
His progressive rate of increase he explains by
supposing the eight persons who came out of the Ark, increased by a progressive doubling in every o1 years, might
grow in the Ioo years after the flood from 8 to 8000, and that
in 350 years after the flood (when abouts Noah died) to one
million and by this time, 1682, to 320 millions which by
rational conjecture are thought to be now in the world.1
'The following is his "table showing how the people might have
doubled in the several stages of the world." " It is to be noted," he
adds, " that in this table we have assigned different numbers of years
for the time of doubling in the several ages of the world."-P. 21.


I


Period         Year
of Doubling.   After Flood.
I...-.
10.....
20...*.
30......
40......
n o1 years. -     50o*****
60......
o70.....
8o......
90......
L   120******
n 20 years.      140......
1 4o......
n 30 years.  {   I720...O.   200......
n 40 years.      240......
n 50 years..290......
n 6o years.      350......


No.
of People.
8
16
32
64
128
256
512
I,024
2,048
4,o96
8,ooo and more.
16,000
32,000
64,ooo
128,000
256,000
512,000
I,o00,000 and more.


I:
I'
I
I:
I1





148           DOCTRINES OF POPULATION                  [538
In the judgment of a writer in Palgrave's Dictionary
of Political Economy, Sir Matthew      Hale's (1609-1676)
Primitive Origination   of Mankind     is "not very valuable." 1 From the point of view of the present study it
must be said that the work is a notable one. It was published in 1677, the year after the author's death. As a
student of population problems, Hale ranks with Graunt
and Petty, being far more thorough than his average contemporary.   He endeavors by various calculations to prove
that every human population is able in a comparatively
short period of time to increase very remarkably; he says,
in fact, that this increase tends to occur at a geometrical
rate, thus directly anticipating by more than one hundred
years one of Malthus's propositions.      According to his
reasoning, a population may double itself in thirty-five
years; but as at this rate of increase the number of people
would long since have passed beyond the limits set by the
means of subsistence, he explained the really comparatively
small population as due to the working of certain checks,
such as famines, wars, floods, pestilence and earthquakes;
and he cited historical instances in support of his assertion.  But in spite of all these checks, he said, population
does and will increase. A weak point in his work is his
Period       Year      No,
of Doubling.  After Flood. of People.
In 70 years.   420......  2,000,000
In 1oo years.  520......  4,000,000
In 190 years.  710o.....  8,ooo,ooo
In 290 years.  I,ooo...... 16,ooo,ooo Time of Moses.
In 4oo years.  1,400.    32,000,000 Time of David.
In 550 years.  1,950..... 64,000,000
In 750 years.  2,700...... 128,000,000 About Birth of Christ.
In I,ooo years. 3,700oo..... 256,000,000
In 1,300 years. 4,000.o *** 320,000,000
1 See art., "Matthew Hale."





w


539]     MERCANTILIST AND OTHER WRITERS               149
failure to draw any definite conclusions from his reasoning. He uses his study to prove his real purpose in writing the treatise, namely, that mankind has not existed
from eternity.1
~ 3. English Mercantilists.  In Thomas Mun's (1571 -1641) famous little essay on England's Treasure in Forraign Trade, we discover no attempt to develop a theory
of population. The ordinary mercantilist maxim is tacitly
accepted, and Mun's allusions to population always make
this evident. Like Hale's work, Mun's treatise was published posthumously; according to the title-page, "first
published by his son in the year 1664." 2
" Pomp and buildings," wrote Mun, "apparel and the
like cannot impoverish the kingdom; if it be done with
curious and costly works upon our materials and by our
own people, it will maintain the poor with the purse of
the rich, which is the best distribution of the commonwealth." '  In general, however, he was opposed to luxurious indulgences and "unnecessary wants," especially
for goods which are imported:
This great plenty, which we enjoy, makes us a people not only
vicious and excessive, wasteful of the means we have, but also
improvident and careless of much other wealth that shamefully we lose... whilst in the meantime great multitudes
1A less important writer, but one whose work, entitled An Estimate
of the Degrees of Mortality of Mankind Drawn from the Tables of
the City of Breslaw (1691), is not unfrequently mentioned by succeeding writers on population, was Edmund Halley (1656-1742). He
made use of the mortality records of the city of Breslaw to prove
that population tends to continue stationary. Cf. Buffon later.
2Glasgow, 1755, and reprinted in Professor Ashley's Economic
Classics, New York, 1895.
3 P. 81.





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of our people cheat,... beg,... perish, which by
this means and maintenance might be much increased to the
further wealth and strength of these kingdoms.1
He condemned with emphasis the habits "of late years,
of besotting ourselves with pipe and pot, in a beastly manner, sucking smoak and drinking healths, until death stares
many in the face."
In A Discourse of Trade unto the East Indies,2    Mun
refers to the evil effects of debauchery in increasing mortality. In regard to the lack of prudence, he says, " And
thus the number of those is great who, having the charge
of wife and children, are notwithstanding altogether without means and artes to procure their maintenance; whereby
some of them wanting grace, do run a desperate course
and have untimely ends."
The fishing trade should be the recourse of people out
of work, " for in that business there is means enough to
employ both rich and poor."      States which have not
sufficient treasure laid up are in difficult straits in time
of war:
but a mighty prince, whose dominions are great and united,
his subjects many and loyal, his countries rich both by nature
and traffique, his victuals and warlike provisions plentiful and
ready, his situation easy to offend others and difficult to be
invaded, his harbors good, his navy strong, his alliance powerful, and his ordinary revenues sufficient royally to support the
majesty of his state, besides a reasonable sum which may
be advanced to lay up yearly in treasure for future occasions:
shall not all these blessings (,being well ordered) enable a
1 Pp. 98-99.
2 Pp. 29-31 (London, 1621); found in McCulloch's Select Collection
of Early Tracts on Commerce, London, 1856.





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prince against the sudden invasion of any mighty enemy, with-..
out imposing those extraordinary and heavy taxes?..
Yea, verily, it cannot otherwise be expected.1
This seems to be one of the best summaries of the prevalent ideas of national strength, involving as it does " subjects many and loyal."
The above quotation is elucidated by the following one,
which indicates a natural realization of the dependence of
armies and people on food supplies:
A small state may lay up a great wealth in necessary provisions, which are princes' jewels, no less precious than their
treasure, for in time of need they are ready, and cannot otherwise be had (in some places) on the suddain, whereby a state
may be lost,... for although treasure is said to be the
sinews of the,war,2 yet it is so because it doth provide, unite
and move the power of men, victuals, and munition where
and when the cause may require; but if these things be wanting in due time what sha-ll we then do with our money? 3
In too great plenty and power lurk dangers, says Mun,
for as they
doe make a nation vicious and improvident, so penury and want
doe make a people wise and industrious:4 concerning the last.
of which I might instance divers commonwealths of Christendom who... purchase great wealth and strength by
their industrious commerce with strangers, amongst which
1 Pp. 86-87, England's Treasure.
2 Cf. Bacon, " Men are the sinews."
8 Op. cit., p. 95.
4 An opinion also frequently expressed by his German contemporaries.





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the United Provinces of the low countreys are now of fame
and note...
Samuel Fortrey's (1622-1681) treatise on England's Interest and Improvement 2 is a sophistical apology for the
prevailing economic system. Writing in strict accord with
the spirit of mercantilism and the English gentry, he says:
" Two things appear to be chiefly necessary to make a
nation great and powerfull;- which is, to be rich and popufous." "  To increase the country's population he would,
with but slight restriction, encourage the immigration of
industrious, foreigners, who should be given the rights and
privileges of Englishmen. They would increase the num6er of people, add to the industrial life and bring wealth
with them.   To meet the objection that England "has
already more people than are well employed," he would
have manufactures and other profitable employments rightly
encQuraged.  The establishment of manufactures would
lead, by competition, to getting foreign goods for smaller
prices and furnishing a " better price and vent " for domestic products,
Enclosures, according to Fortrey, could not check increase, because they made all the remaining land, especially,
of greater value, thus adding to the total wealth. "Corn,"
he says, "would be nothing scarcer by inclosure, but the
rather more plentifull, though a great deal less land were
filled; for then every ingenious husband would onely plow
that land that he found most fitting for it, and that no
longer than he found it able to bring him a profit." Since
enclosures, then, increase the amount of subsistence, he
t Op. cit., p. zoo.
2 London, 1.673; first published in 1663; in McCulloch's Tracts.
SP. 218.





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remarks that "how    increase and plenty can depopulate
cannot well be conceived." 1
We notice no variation from the general type in the
views of Sir William Temple (1628-1699).2 In his view
The true and natural ground of trade and riches is the number of people in proportion to the compass of the ground they
inhabit. This makes all things necessary to life dear, and
that forces men to industry and parsimony. These customs
which grow first from necessity become with time to be habitual to a country. And wherever they are so that place must
grow great in traffic and riches, if not disturbed by some
accident or revolution, as of wars, of plagues, or famines, by
which the people come either to be scattered or destroyed.
*.. People are multiplied in a country by the temper of
the climate, favorable to generation, to health and long life;
or else by the circumstances of safety and ease under the
government, the credit whereof invites men over to it, when
they cannot be either safe or easy at home. When things
are once in motion trade begets trade as fire does fire; and
people go much where people have already gone.8
In another place Temple says, also: "I conceive the
true and original ground of trade to be great multitudes
of people crowded into small compass of land, whereby all
things necessary to life become dear, and all men who have
possessions are induced to parsimony; but those who have
none are forced into industry and labor, or else to want." '
He gives Ireland as an example of little industry, and
1 P. 229.
2 Works, London, 1814, vols. i and iii.
- An Essay upon the Advancement of Trade in Ireland, in Works,
vol. iii, pp. 2-3.
SOf Their Trade and of Their Forces and Revenues, Works, vol.
i. p. 164. Both treatises were first published between 1672 and I68o.





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consequently of scarcity of people, while Holland is a
product of opposite conditions.  Holland's populousness,
he thought, was, however, also largely due to the " civil
wars, calamities, persecutions and oppressions, or discontents, that have been so fatal to most of their neighbors
for some time before, as well as since, their stage began." 1
But trade, says Temple, does not always increase a
country's well-being, there being indeed "a trade that impoverishes a nation," meaning by this, of course, that which
results in an unfavorable balance.  This he explains by
referring to the case of a peasant who comes to town and
continually buys more than he sells, which makes him
poorer; with nations it is the same. Unfavorable balances
drain a country's strength, i. e., wealth, and hence population decreases or increases but slowly.   A   nation's
strength lies in its wealth primarily and in its people
secondarily. This idea, namely, that a people is dependent on wealth (that is, what wealth can procure in provisions'of all kinds), Temple did not clearly understand.
His mercantilism clouded his senses, as we see from his
remark that wealth increases the country's strength and
enables the government on necessary occasions to use it to
procure mercenaries and not to depend entirely on the
citizens for its defense. The social and economic aspects
of the problem were subordinated to the commercial. In
general, it may be said that he regarded populousness as
usually a sign of economic and political welfare, and as a
part of his doctrines he would encourage marriage and
fecundity by taxing bachelors. He would encourage the
immigration of skilled mechanics and artisans.2
A tract bearing the title, Britannia Languens; or, A
1 Op. cit., vol. i, p. 166.
2 Op. cit., vol.,i, p. 175 et seq.; et passim.





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Discourse of Trade, written by William Petyt (1636 -1707), was published in i68o.' Though Petyt's is a work
of about the same nature as Temple's essays on commercial subjects and other "tracts of commerce," it shows an
insight unusual for his time into those aspects of the population problems not directly involved in mercantilism.
Foreign trade, according to this discourse, will advance
the values of lands by necessitating a vast increase of
people, " since it must maintain great multitudes of people
in the very business of trade, which could not otherwise
be supported."2  Continuing in the usual strain, the
author wrote: "Forraign trade, managed to the best advantage, will make a nation vastly stronger than naturally
it was, because money and people do ordinarily make
national strength." 3 By manufactures, too, a nation may
support many more inhabitants than it can by simply tilling the soil and raising cattle," and " women and children
may ordinarily get good livelihoods in manufacture." '
In accord with the prevailing view, he held that the exportation of money, unless carefully watched and compared
with what is imported, is apt to make a people " idle and
vicious; whereof the further consequence is that the ordinary exportation of money must inevitably depopulate a
nation."  To this he added that "the odds in population
must also produce the like odds in manufacture; plenty of
people must also cause cheapness of wages, which cause
cheapness of the manufacture; in a scarcity of people wages
must be dearer, which must cause the dearness of the
manufacture." The statement that a large population will
cause a fall in the price of manufactured articles, supple1 In London; found in McCulloch's Tracts.
2 P. 291 (McCulloch).         3 P. 293.  4 P. 300.





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mented and probably did not contradict, in the writer's
mind, Temple's idea that populousness made the necessaries of life dear. Manufactured articles were evidently
regarded by Petyt as comforts and luxuries, while Temple
apparently referred to agricultural products on which sustenance mainly depends.
In referring to the social and moral aspects of the problem, Petyt declared that effete luxury, quackery in medicine, increase of inns and ale-houses and the like were bad,
and bred poverty and created conditions favorable to the
development of vice, which necessarily does harm to a
country's population, in that it leads to sterility. Production must keep pace with consumption or else conditions
are developed which discourage marriage and lead to vice.
Another and well-known writer on commerce at this
time was Sir Josiah Child (1630-1699).   He published
his Newv Discourse of Trade in 1668.'   His thesis was
that population always remains proportionable to trade and
industry.  His statement that a lack of men will cause
a rise in wages, which will in turn, in a short time, lead
to a denser population, is one which Adam Smith copied
about a hundred years later.  In a chapter concerning
"-Plantation" he laid down the following four propositions:
i. That lands though excellent, without hands in proportion, will not enrich any country.
2. That most nations in civilized parts of the world
are more or less rich or poor proportionately to the paucity
or plenty of their people, and not to the sterility or fruitfulness of their lands.
3. That whatever tends to the depopulating of a country tends to its impoverishment.
1 " A new edition," London, 1775, is the one to which the writer
has had access.





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4. That colonies have not decreased the population of
England, as some say they have of Spain.
To prove the first proposition, he cited the instances of
Palestine, Granada, and Andalusia, which, though " prodigiously fertile, are all in miserable poverty."  The
second he thought became evident on observing the prosperity of the populous Seven United Provinces; England,
Italy, France and Spain were rich and populous in the
order named. The third had to be granted if the other
two were, and in order to obtain great populousness he
advised good general laws, as well as good laws relating
to industry and trade. In regard to the fourth, " As every
one knows, New England was originally inhabited, and
hath since successively beenl replenished, by a sort of people
called Puritans,... and had there not been a New England found for some of them, Germany and Holland probably had received the rest; but Old England, to be sure,
had lost them all." Virginia and the Barbados were first
peopled, he says, "by a sort of loose, vagrant people,... who probably could never have lived at home to do
service for their country, but must have come to be hanged,
or starved, or died untimely of some of those miserable
diseases that proceed from want or vice.", In this view
Malthusianism is in some measure anticipated.
In a tract bearing the title, England's Great Happiness,
etc., published anonymously in 1677,' the following passage occurs:
You cry up the Dutch to be a brave people, rich and full of
cities, that they swarm with people as bee-hives with bees;
1 P. 171 et passim.
2 In McCulloch's Select Collection of Early English Tracts on Commerce; see p. 263.





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if a plague come they are filled up presently and such like;
yet they do all this by inviting all the world to come and live
among them.   You complain of Spain, because their inquisition is so high, they'll let nobody come and live among them,
and that's the main cause of their weakness and poverty...
Will not a multitude of people strengthen us as well as the
want of them weaken Spain? Sure it will.
McCulloch thinks there is little in the tract which would
need mending, " except, perhaps, the style."
Sir Charles Davenant (1656-1714) is the last of the more
important English mercantilists of the seventeenth century
whose works we shall treat. His Discourses on the Publick Revenues and on the Trade of England were published in 1698.2  In the main, he was in harmony with
current notions, but he is distinguished by greater moderation than was usual. He wrote, for example, that "the
wealth of all nations arises from the labor and industry
of the people; a right knowledge, therefore, of their numbers is necessary to those who will judge of a country's
power and strength." 8 He made a shrewd guess that
" the sin David committed in numbering Israel might
probably be this, that it looked like a second proof of
rejecting theocracy to be governed by mortal aids and
humane wisdom." 4 He held that it was not sufficient, how-,ever, to know the bare numbers; the character of the people
as regards its employment must also be known, and their;material resources and capabilities must be considered.
A nation might be " impoverished by bad government,
1 McCulloch's Select Collection of Early English Tracts on Com-.merce, p. x.
2 See his Works published in London in that year.
aVol. i, p. 17.              * Ibid., p. 18.





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by ill-managed trade, or by other circumstances "-facts
which were generally recognized. Such conditions would
cause
the interest of poney to be dear and provisions to be low; rents
will everywhere fall, lands lie untilled, and farmhouses will
go to ruin, the yearly marriages and births will lessen and
the burials increase,... and the inhabitants will gradually
withdraw themselves from such a country.
But where the lower classes were well-fed and clothed and
fairly well at ease, as in England most of the time, they
would propagate and increase rapidly. He estimated that
before 17oo, England had doubled in population about
every four hundred and thirty-five years, and that the next
doubling to eleven million would then not take place until
about six hundred years later, or until the year 23oo. The
net annual increase in his time he figured at nine thousand
out of a total of twenty thousand. This reduction from
the total to the net increase was due primarily to four
causes: (i) plagues and mortalities; (2) foreign and civil
wars; (3) sea accidents; (4) emigration to plantations.
Many other things were also of detriment to numerical
increase.  Large cities tended to increase more slowly
from births within their limits than country districts, if
indeed they increased at all.  London would even have
decreased by about two thousand per annum had it not
been for newcomers; because, though the proportion of
"breeders" was larger in cities, the inhabitants were
shorter-lived and each urban marriage produced fewer
children than a rural one. These conditions were due,
first, to "the more frequent fornications and adulteries;"
secondly, the " greater luxury and intemperance;" thirdly,
"' the greater intenseness in business;" fourthly, " the un




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healthfulness of the coal smoak;" fifthly, "the greater
inequality in the ages between husbands and wives;"'
sixthly, the shorter duration of life in cities as compared
with the country. In most of this, as will be noted, only
a restatement of current opinion is found, with but slight
modifications.
To promote population-and, of course, his point of
view being national, this meant in England-civil liberties should be guarded and " the legal constitution firmly
preserved."  Immigration should be encouraged, for
An accession of strangers well-regulated may add to our
strength and numbers; but then it must be composed of laboring men, artificers, merchants and other rich men, and not of
foreign soldiers.... All armies whatsoever, if they are
large, tend to the dispeopling a country, of which our neighbor
nation is a slufficient proof, where is one of the best climates in
Europe.... For children do not proceed from intemperate
pleasures taken at random, but from a regular way of living.
Marriage should be encouraged, says Davenant, as it was
among the Jews and the Romans; no " fine" should be
laid " upon the marriage-bed," as was really the case in
England. Such fines or taxes discourage marriage and
hinder propagation among the working classes.     Influenced probably by the recent French example, he held
that privileges and exemptions should be granted as rewards for producing many children.     Since males and
females, in his estimate, were in the proportion of about
twenty-eight to twenty-seven, or about equal, polygamy
should always be prohibited, as contrary to the " law of
1 Vol. i, pp. 15-35, An Essay on the Probable Methods of Making a
People Gainers in the Balance of Trade.





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nature."   Measures should be taken to prevent illegifimacy, as it is a part of vice, which is not favorable tor
marriage or increase.
Daniel Defoe (1661-1731) is a most ardent supporter
of the idea that trade makes a country flourish, and increases population and national strength.1  " Now, whencec
is all this poverty of a country?" queries Defoe.
'Tis evident 'twas want of trade and nothing else..
Trade encourages manufacture, prompts invention, employs
people, increases labor and pays wages... As the number of people increase, the consumption of provisions increases.. As the consumption of provisions increase,
more lands are cultivated.. In a word, as land is employed the people increase of course and... the prosperity of a nation rises and falls just as trade is supported
or decayed.2
People must have provisions, and the demand for them
causes trade; so that trade increases population and growing population increases trade.8  In the following passage
is a vague statement of Adam      Smith's later proposition
that the demand for men necessarily increases the supply
of men.
'Tis by their multitude, I say, that all wheels of trade are set
on foot, the manufacture and produce of the land and sea are
finished, cured and fitted for the markets abroad; 'tis by tire
largeness of their gettings that they are supportedeand by the
1 See especially Extracts from a Plan of English Commerce, being
a Compleat Prospect of the Trade of This Nation. Second edition,
London, I730; reprinted in McCulloch's Select Collection of Scarcer
and Valuable Tracts on Commerce, London, 1859.
2 Ibid., pp. 112-113.           8 Ibid., p. 114.





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[5S52


'largeness of their manufacture the whole country is supported;
by their wages they are able to live plentifully, and it is by
their expensive, generous, free way of living that the home
consumption is raised to such a bulk, as well of our own, as of
foreign production, if their wages were low and despicable, so
would be their living; if they got little, they could spend
but little and trade would presently feel it.'
Prosperity thus depends upon wages and employment, and
on well-being depends the increase of numbers.
A- full state treasury was, in Defoe's view, of greater
importance than mere numbers of men, especially in time
of war. He says: " If they have more money than their
neighbors they shall soon be superior to them in strength,
for money is power, and they that have the gelt (as the
Dutch call it) may have armies of the best troops in
Europe and generals of the greatest experience." 2  But
since the treasury is dependent on prospering commerce,
and trade and people are mutual supports of one another,.trade should by all means be encouraged and the welfare
and employment of the people firmly established.
Another writer-whose theories of trade are arguments
to prove the dependence of population especially on foreign trade-is William   Richardson.  One of the worst
effects of the decline of trade is that it decreases the
",stock," or number, of people.
For as employment lessens, the most industrious rather than
starve here will fly to other countries, where trade can maintain them; so the consumption of these being taken away, the
market at home must grow less, and of course rents must fall;
1 McCulloch's Select Collection of Scarce and Valuable Tracts on
Commerce, p. 14o.
2Ibid., p. 136.





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yet the farmers' charges must grow greater, for the fewer
the hands, the higher the wages are.1
He continues: "This must in the end break him          [the
farmer] and produce all the consequences following that
misfortune." This makes his former statement more plausible; for in this way, he says, pauperism would necessarily
be increased and others would suffer greatly.
A populous country is desirable, for " 'tis men that trade
that bring in money; therefore, the fewer they are, the
less money will be brought in, and the less money the less
rent can be given for land."    To remedy such bad conditions as check increase, and in consequence general welfare, he makes five proposals: (I) to lay a tax on consumers of luxuries and to make all ports free; (2) to
abolish monopolies; 2 (3) to withdraw     bounties on exported grains and to erect public corn magazines in every
county; (4) to discourage idleness; (5) to pay off the
public debt as fast as possible or to change its form. The
most important of these was his proposal to establish free
ports, by which he means the right of importation or exportation of goods " without paying customs or fees."
This would bring foreign merchants and others to England, for they will " settle where business can be transacted with so little trouble."  These would furnish more
employment for the poor and increase domestic as well
as foreign trade, and the whole would " increase the stock
1See An Essay on Causes of the Decline of Foreign Trade, etc.,
London, 1744; reprinted by McCulloch, op. cit., pp. 212 et seq. It
should be remarked that "the authorship of this work has been
questioned even to this day. By some it is ascribed to Richardson,
by others to Decker, with the probabilities in favor of the former"
(Seligman, Incidence of Taxation, second edition, p. 57).
2Cf. Adam Smith.





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[554


of the people." Employment being thus given to the poor,
they would not only be prevented " from deserting the
country, but would be preserved from want and disease,
consequently from death; by their industry they will procure themselves a comfortable maintenance, and thereby
be enabled to marry and raise families." In his opinion
the abolition of monopolies would lead to many benefits,
among which would be that
it will increase the stock of people. This is a consequence of
encouraging trade and employing the poor, as has been proved
before; to which may be added that all times of scarcity produce distempers which carry off great numbers of people,
whereas this will prevent that calamity, consequently preserve
many lives; and the better the means of living are in any
country, the more people will be drawn in to partake of them.
~ 4. Some Other English Writers.   For the sake of
convenience we shall group together a number of writers
in the same section, though there is no apparent connection between the writings of any two of them either in
regard to method or content. Dugard discusses the problem from the personal standpoint. Bishop Cumberland's
work is theological, but based on mathematical calculations.  De Mandeville's is a case sui generis.  Bishop
Berkeley's essays revert to typical mercantile remedies for
depopulation.
Samuel Dugard's (1645?-I697) little book, nepi noAv raraia;
or, A Discourse Concerning the Having Many Children,
appeared in 1695. The typical objections to this, he says,
may be summarized under five heads: (i) the hindrance
that many children are to great undertakings; (2) a free
and generous way of living may thereby be "maimed and
cut short;" (3) the anxieties of parents; (4) the afflic




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tions that arise because some among many " will not prove
well;" (5) the danger of a man's "name sinking into
meanness by reason that where there are many children
there is no likelihood that a plentiful provision can be
made for them all;" also,
where there are more brought into a miserable world, larger
food is thereby afforded unto Death; which things were looked
upon to be either so ill in their nature or so deplorable in all
their prospect that they were thought a plea strong enough
for an abstinence even from marriage and the procreation of
-children.1
In these sentences many of the most important details
of the Malthusian position are explicitly stated, but, strange
as it may seem, Dugard was so enthusiastic in his approval
of populousness that he considered them scarcely worthy
of reply. Instead he made several counter-propositions, to
the effect that children are a blessing and a strength; that
the begetting of children was honored in ancient times and
sanctioned by God, in Genesis and elsewhere. And, like
Luther, he declared that God will not send more mouths
than may be fed with the bread he sends. His arguments
are then either sentimental or religious. It seems strange
that a writer with an evidently keen insight into certain
phases of this problem of population as related to happiness
should in his ardor so pervert his reason as to fail to appreciate in some degree the importance of prudence.
Richard Cumberland's (1631-1718) speculations are contained in the volume entitled, Origines Gentium Antiquis-.simae; or, Attempts for Discovering the Times of the First
Planting of Nations.2  His estimates of ancient populaI Pp. 7 et seq.
2 London, 1724; see especially Tract iv, Concerning the Possibility





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tiofns are founded mainly on Biblical data.       His work is
of no value per se, except for the fact that it forms in a
way a link between Petty, Graunt and Hale and the later
writings of Hume and        Wallace, which in turn      furnish
suggestions for Price, Wales and Howlett in the last part
of the century, culminating in Malthus' Essay and formulae.    Cumberland comes to the absurd conclusion that
within three hundred and forty years after the Biblical
flood there were about 3,333,333,330 people living in the
world.    To account for discrepancies and decreases, he
dwells upon the influence of famines and wars. WVithout
such restraining factors the increase of mankind would be,
in long periods, almost incalculable.
William   Derham's (1657-1735) Physico-Theology; or,
A   Demonstration    of the Being     and Attributes of God
(1713), reminds one of Suessmilch's Gottliche Ordnung,
which appeared some thirty years later. In a chapter on
"The balance of animals, or the due proportion in which
the world is stocked with them," he said:
of a sufficient Increase of Men from the three Sons of Noah to a Number large enough to found all the Nations mentioned in the oldest credible Histories. Cf. William Whiston's A New Theory of the Earth,
London, 1725; he thought that before the Deluge population had increased at a geometrical progression, but that unfavorable circumstances of various kinds had since reduced the total number of people
in the world to a mere fraction of its former size. The work is
amusing, but of small value. William Maitland published a History
of London in 1739; it is of some value to the antiquarian, but not for
the purpose of the present writer. Abraham Moivre's Annuities upon
Lives or Valuation of Annuities appeared in 1726, and a similar work,
Theodore Simpson's Doctrine of Annuities and Reversions, was published a few years later. Leonard Euler's Richerches sur la Mortaliti
et la Multiplication du Genre Humain also had special reference to
life insurance, but was of some use to writers on population. James
Hodgson published The Valuation of Annuities, etc., in 1747.





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The whole surface of our globe can afford room and support
only to such a number of all sorts of creatures; and if by their
doubling, trebling, or any other multiplication of their kind
they should increase [out of proportion to their means of subsistence] they must starve or devour one another. The keeping, therefore, the balance is manifestly the work of the divine
wisdom and providence.
What is true in regard to other animals, in this instance
is also true concerning man and his possible increase.
Bernard de Mandeville (1670?-i733), in a somewhat
naive and amusing way, shows that he had a broad conception of the growth of population. Society was originally necessary that men might protect themselves from
wild animals.   There is a very strong tendency in the
human being, as well as in other animals, to increase. This
increase would in a short time become excessive if it were
not for physicians and apothecaries (?!), wars by sea and
land, wild beasts, hanging and drowning, and " an hundred casualities together."  These retarding influences,
with sickness and want, " are hardly a match for one invisible faculty of ours, which is the instinct which men have
to preserve their species."  Nature has wisely provided
against the greater mortality of men, due especially to war,
in giving birth every year to more males than females.
He said he based this statement on the " Bills of Births
and Burials in the City and suburbs."      Obviously de
Mandeville realized that population is checked in its increase by various means. His statement is not full, but
it contains the essential ideas of more recent population
theories.
George Berkeley (1685-1753), in his Essays towards
1 The Fable of the Bees (London, 1706), pt. ii. See vol. ii, pp. 284
et seq., London edition, 1739.





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Preventing the Ruin of Great Britain,' says that the numper of people is both a means and motive to industry, and
the state should therefore be interested in nothing more
than in the production of many competent citizens. The
ipeople should be encouraged to propagate, "by allowing:some reward or privilege to those who have a certain
-number of children; and, on the other hand, enacting that.the public shall inherit half the unentailed estates of those
who die unmarried of either sex." 2 Industry is the "natural and sure way to wealth; this is so true that it is unnecessary for industrious people to want the necessaries of
life." s Berkeley simply follows the prevailing view, with
the one exception that he would let the state inherit.half
fte unentailed property of unmarried women as well as
-f. bachelors.  He apparently fails to appreciate the fact
thfat. all people, however willing, are seldom able to find
employment by which they may supply their needs. He
speaks of frugality * of manners in living, which is " the
nourishment and strength of bodies politic." It is by frugaiaty that they grow and subsist, until corrupted by luxury,
flie natural cause of decay and ruin.  He agrees with
Bacon and Macchiavelli that strong men, and not money,
are.the true sinews of war and a nation's strength in times
of peaceful industry.
1 5. De Witt, Spinoza and Ustariz.  Though different
Jin nationality and method, these three writers agree thor"oughly regarding population as the king's or the state's
nmainstay and strength.
In the work on the True Interest and Political Maxims,of the Republic of Holland, written partly by the Dutch
a published in 1721; see Works.  2 P. 67.  3 P. 69.. " Cf. Temple's "Parsimony."





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statesman, Jan de Witt (1625-1672),1 we find a good description of the commercial policy of that prosperous country in the later part of the seventeenth century.  Though
accepting the general principle of mercantilism in its relation to population, de Witt declared that it was necessary
that populations should be free politically and religiously,
and they should not be made to suffer from bad economic
institutions, such as " monopolizing companies and guilds."
These would be particularly prejudicial to Holland's interests. He did not ignore the fact that a people is dependent
on the amount of the available means of subsistence. In
the case of Holland, he says that commerce, trading, fisheries and colonial enterprises must be fostered, for without
these aids the country could not adequately support its
population.2  Since the country did not rely on its own
food products for maintenance, the population and wealth
of the state should be continually and concurrently increased
by encouraging fecundity, and the immigration of all people
who wish to engage in productive enterprises.   Nothing
should be done to weaken the four great pillars of Dutch
society; namely, manufacturing, fishing, traffic and freighting of ships; they should especially not be weakened by
any form  of taxation. "All inhabitants who seek their
profit and livelihood from other countries ought more to
be favored than those who in this country live on their
fellow-inhabitants;" that is, those engaged in foreign trade
should enjoy greater privileges than those engaged in
domestic business.
1 Translated by John Campbell, London, 1746. Professor Seligman
remarks that the real author of the Maxims was Pieter De la Court,
though De Witt did write one or two chapters. "The original Dutch
edition was published anonymously in 1662." See The Shifting and
Incidence of Taxation, second edition, p. 34, note.
2Chapters v-xvi.





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[560


Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) discusses the importance
of population briefly in his Tractatus Politicus.'      In his
general political philosophy and in its application to the
present subject he stands in a certain relation to Macchiavelli and to Hobbes, and in general it may be said that he
belongs to that English school of publicists of the time
whose spirit was continued later by Bentham       and Austin.2
He is related also to the natural-rights movement.        Concerning the meaning of a population to the state he takes
the usual and, when properly       understood, quite correct
opinion: "Nam     imperii-et consequenter jus civium   numero
aestimanda est." 3    The strength and welfare of a state
depend on its numbers and territorial extent, and on its
wealth, industry and freedom; these are its best defense
against internal dissensions and external foes.4
A work not unlike that of de Witt was that written by
the Spaniard, Don Geronymo de Ustariz (died 1750), the
Theory and Practice of Commerce and Maritime Affairs."
Some people said that Spain had been losing people. If
1 Opera (edition, Bruder), vol. ii.
2 Cf. Sir Frederick Pollock, Spinoza, His Life and Philosophy, p. 309.
8 Tractatus Politicus, chap. vii, ~ 18.
4 Cf. chap. vii, ~ I6: " Quod cives eo potentiores, et consequenter
magis sui juris sint, quo majores urbes, et magis munitas habent,
dubio caret: quo enim locus, in quo sunt, tutior est, eo libertatem suam
melius tueri, sive hostem externum, vel internum minus timere possunt, et certum est, homines naturaliter securitati suae eo magis consulere, quo divitiis potentiores sunt. Quae autem urbes alterius potentia, ut conserventur, indigent, aequale jus cum eo non habent; sed
eatenus alterius sunt juris, quaetenus alterius potentia indigent. Jus
enim sola potentia definiri in 2 cap. ostendimus." Chap. ii, ~ 18:
"Hoc jus, quod multitudinis potentia definitur, imperium appellari
solet."
5 Translated by John Kippax, London, 1751. It was first printed
in Spanish in 1724, but was destroyed and then reprinted in 1742.





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this, perchance, were true, he advised that the poor laws
should be changed and idlers made of use and profit instead of being a source of expense, and that orphans should
be employed to prevent their perishing from want. When
trade began to flourish and people were sure of employment, large numbers of Catholics from abroad would come
to the country, and they, by intermarrying, would surely
and safely increase the number of inhabitants. The continued progress of manufactures and commerce was the
means which would best insure the increase of people and
wealth, as was proved by the cities of Holland, especially
Amsterdam.1
He did not think that colonies had depopulated Spain,
for those parts of the country which had sent most away
were still growing and remained the most populous.
The very persons that passed over to the Indies were for the
most part children, or destitute of fortune and a decent livelihood, and incapable of maintaining a family and might never
have married in these kingdoms,... and had they remained ait home and married both themselves, their wives and
children were in danger of perishing for want; so that they
would leave behind them little or no posterity.2
A prime reason why legislators should have a care for
the welfare and employment of the people was that a negligent policy would produce a diminution in revenues, for
the people would not be able to buy and consume such
articles as " flesh, wines, oils, " etc., on which the principal taxes were laid.  He referred approvingly to Vauban's Dixme Royal, to Scriptural passages favorable to
increase and to the Roman laws on marriage. Finally, he


1 Chapter xi.


2 Chapter xii.





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held that taxes should not be levied on the necessaries of
life, but on things that served as luxuries or curiosities,
or for " ornament and pomp."    He objected, moreover, to
the oppressive practices of the tax collectors; " for oftentimes they lay heavier burdens than the revenue itself."
~ 6. Some Typical Writers in France.      In this group
we have placed the great bishop Bossuet and three economists classified by Daire as financiers. The spirit of mercantilism or nationalism runs through the writings of
them all.
Jaques Benigne Bossuet (1627-1704) discussed the subject very concisely in a work entitled, Politique tiree des
propres Paroles de l'Ecriture Sainte.'   In strict accordance with the title of the treatise he says little that is original, but refers to the Bible to show that great populations
are to be desired, and when once obtained, to be preserved
by means of good laws and institutions.2     He says that
" the true riches of a kingdom are its men," and in the
following section advocates certain means of augmenting
their number. The prince should hate all idleness, for it
will corrupt the morals of his people and result in brigandage.   It produces pauperism, which should be banished
from a well-governed state. To rid a state of mendicancy
it is necessary to find employment for all who can work;
this should be the aim of governors. It is especially necessary to encourage marriage, to make the education of children happy and easy, and to check all illicit unions.8 God
1 In Oeuvres, Paris, 1852, vol. i, p. 457.
2 "Concluons done, avec le plus sage de tous les rois: 'La gloire
du roi et sa dignite est la multitude du peuple: sa honte est de le
voir amoindri et diminue par sa faute.'"
S" La fidelite, la saintete, et le bonheur des mariages est un interet
public, et une source de felicite pour les etats."





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favored and blessed the fruits of legitimate marriages, and
it was man's duty to teach his offspring modesty and frugality and to teach them a reasonable mode of conduct,
for in all this lay the great foundation of riches. Thus
we see that Bossuet's ideas are expressed in religious
phrases, and though in agreement with state ambition, they
are not extreme, and in so far as they treat the matter, quite
reasonable.
The Marechal de Vauban (1623-1707) makes his position clear in his well-known Essay for a General Tax or a
Project for a Royal Tythe.'    The king's revenues, says
Vauban, ought to be distinguished from those of his subjects, though they all come from the same fountain. It is
well known that it is the people who cultivate, gather, and
keep together the king's resources; the duties of his officers
are simply to impose and collect the revenues.
And, therefore I think it were more proper to say that the
providence of the soil, of trade and of industry is the rent
and income of the people, and people are the true revenues
of the king; it being from them that princes draw all their
revenues and it is them they dispose of and employ in all
their affairs. It is the people that pay and do everything, and
who freely expose themselves to all manner of danger for the
preservation of 'the life and wealth of their prince. Their
heads, hands and legs are all employed in his service; nor
can they marry and get children without bringing evident advantage to him; for thereby an addition is made to the number of his subjects.... What makes it the more the
king's interest to use them well, is, that he is their king and
his happiness and prosperity are so indispensably and insepar1 English edition, London, 1710; found in Daire's Economistes Financiers as Projet d'une Dixme Royale; first edition, 1707.





174           DOCTRINES OF POPULATION                [564
ably linked to their welfare that nothing but death can separate them.1
A writer in whose work interest is reviving among
students of political economy in France is Le Pesant de
Boisguillebert (1646-1714)-2   In the first chapter of his
Detail de la France he says that the wealth of every country is in proportion to the fertility of its territory, which
enables a population to gain a sufficiency of the necessaries
of life. In the following chapter he states that one of the
main reasons for the power of France is that there are all
sorts of these necessaries in abundance, whereas in some
neighboring countries such favorable conditions are not
always to be found. Those countries are therefore compelled to buy of France, while the latter country is in no
such position of dependence; this results, of course, in a
good balance, which accounts for France's affluence.
In the first part of a Traite des Grains, Boisguillebert
shows how the working classes are made happy or miserable as the prices of produce are high or low. His argument here does not, however, take into full consideration
all the phases of the problem. Of course, it is clear that
if the peasant lives mainly on his own produce and the
price of that surplus which he sells is high, he is better off
than if the price were low.    Such considerations should
lead the government so to regulate the commerce in grains
that the price remaiA at a satisfactory level. Among the
means available to accomplish this, Boisguillebert mentions
1 P. I75.
2 Says Daire (op. cit.), p. 157: "Boisguillebert est le premier anneau
de cette chaine de savants qui s' est formee successivement, jusqu' a
nos jours par les noms illustres de Quesnay, de Smith, de J. B. Say,
de Malthus, de Ricardo et de Rossi."





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the encouragement of the foreign export trade, besides
various domestic arrangements. This is of direct importance to the government as such and not only to peasants,
for unless the poor have the necessaries of life they cannot
contribute so much to the nation's strength or to the
national treasury as they otherwise would. Free exportation should be permitted except on extraordinary occasions.1  Famine is often largely attributable to a low price
for agricultural produce, under French conditions.  The
exportation of grains and foodstuffs does not cause a lack
of supplies at home, for their value with a profit is received in return. From the fall of Adam it has been necessary for man to work that he might eat, and recognizing
this the government should make such laws as make employment as easy as possible to secure.2
Though Boisguillebert's arguments often lack completeness, it must be said that he displays a greater sympathy
with the people and knowledge of their problems than other
French writers up to his time.
John Law (I67I-1729)1 held that commerce and trade
depend on money, and the increase or diminution of the
number of individuals depends in turn on trade and commerce. If there be too much commercial activity in proportion to the number of " effective individuals," more
people are attracted to the places or countries where such
conditions are to be found. Domestic trade is of importance, but foreign commerce is the most decisive factor
1 Seconde Partie.
2 Cf. Dissertation de la Nature des Richesses, chaps. iii and v (Daire,
op. cit.).
S He was born in Edinburgh and died in Venice, but as his life
and activities centered in France, the writer has preferred to place
him among the French "financiers."





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determining general welfare, and consequently the number
of people possible. It is bad for a nation to buy dear and
sell cheap. Law's ideas in general may be said to be in
harmony with the commercial policy of the time; but his
views on population are a little too much involved with his
chimerical monetary theories to be very clear.    His real
conception of the matter was probably simply this, that
wealth, including sufficient means of subsistence, would enable a people to increase by immigration as well as by
propagation.1
~ 7. Finelon, Melon and Cantillon.     In spite of their
differences in other respects, these writers may properly be
classed together in their appreciation of the dependence of
people on the food supply, and in their partial rejection
of the old ideas concerning the superior importance of industry and trade and their emphasis on the importance of
labor and land.
The famous poet FranCois de Fenelon, archbishop of
Cambray (1651-1715), embodies his views on population,
as on so many other matters, in poetical form in the Telemachus. To increase the number of people was in his
mind of supreme importance; but this increase was possible only in so far as the country could provide subsistence.2   To encourage marriage he advised the king to
1 See his Money and Trade, p. 16 (London, 1720); found also in
Daire, op. cit., p. 455.
2 Cf. the following lines from the Rev. John L. Ross's blank verse
translation:
And to augment their numbers bend thy thoughts
New unions to promote. The kingly power
Is not distinguished by a realm's extent,
But subjects' numbers, and their jealous care
T' obey their monarch. A domain though small
Obtain but fertile.-(Lines 121-126.)





567]       MERCANTILIST AND OTHER WRITERS                   I77
lessen the taxes. He says that most men desire to marry,
and that poverty, due always to a variety of circumstances,
is the main hindrance to it and to increasing population.
His opinion seems to be that though subsistence fixes limits
to increase, yet this limit is not stationary, and may always
be extended by improving the laws and by governmental
regulations designed to relieve the condition of the masses,
particularly of the peasants. His optimism was not of a
very searching kind, however, for he remarked that if
laborers were relieved from excessive taxation they would
be able to support their wives and children, " for the earth
Are these two thingsA numerous people and well-cultured fields
For their support-not justly to be viewed
As the essential basis of thy power?-(Lines 107-110.)
Next their numbers ascertain,
And what proportion commonly is borne
By husbandmen. We then must needs enquire
The amount of corn, wnine, oil and other fruits,
The produce of your lands in average years;
Hence we shall information shortly gain
Whether your country can subsist with ease
All its inhabitants, and further yield
A surplus to maintain a proper trade
With foreign countries.-(Lines 560-568.)
Let us, therefore, now withdraw
All the superfluous craftsmen from the town,... And them employ these barren plains and hills
To cultivate.-(Lines 842-846.)
'.*.. Thus, in course of time,
The whole unoccupied lands will teem
With vigorous families-tillers of the soil.-(Lines 88o-882L)
The Telemachus was forbidden publication by the king, who was
offended by what he regarded as too personal allusions; but it was
surreptitiously published in Paris in 1699 and in The Hague in x7ol.
The title-page informs us that it was originally intended for the use
of "H. R. H., the Duke of Burgundy, Dauphin of France."





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is not ungrateful." In his mind the two most important
things in this connection were industrious habits and low
taxes. He did not think, as did so many, that easy circumstances would corrupt the people; for an abundance would
be speedily reduced by increased numbers of marriages and
the inducements to offspring. This would have the effect of
spurring laborers again to the struggle for existence, or,
as he puts it, " to supply their frugal needs," which would
check profligacy. In regard to possible over-population
he considered colonization a convenient resource; and colonies would " extend the sovereign power and limits of the
state." 1
We observe in Fenelon's lines most, if not all, of the
fundamental ideas of the modern population doctrine,
especially as seen in Malthus and Ricardo.  Population
tends to increase when not checked by poverty or circumstances which bring into operation the " preventive check."
An increase in prosperity is soon rendered safe, for laborers
will increase to the point where want drives them to work.
In this we have the germ of the " iron law " of wages.
The Essai Politique sur le Commerce of Jean Francois
Melon (died 1738) was published a number of years after
Fenelon's death, in 1734. In it the author speaks of the
effects of monastic orders on population, which he considered, on the whole, detrimental.  Though he would not
prohibit their existence, he thought it would be well to
prevent persons by law from entering them and taking
vows of celibacy before their twenty-fifth year.2 In times
of peace it was not possible for citizens to engage in the
business of soldiers, and since the policy of the country
I Cf. lines 883, 944 et seq., 986 et seq., 1010-1027 and 1038-1042.
SChap. iii, De I'Augmentation des Habitants.





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was against idleness, the state should so regulate matters
that all could obtain employment either in manufactures
or in agriculture. When this was not practicable the surplus, or that part which tended to remain unemployed,
should become seamen; some could go to colonies. He
held it to be better policy to encourage marriage, to provide some assistance for fathers of numerous families, and
to rear orphans and foundlings than to engage in conquests; war is more expensive than systematic internal improvement. " To demand a living without working is a
crime, because it is a continual robbery of a nation," and
mendicancy should not be tolerated.
But while Melon considered it desirable that a country
should have as many people as it could support, he realized
the possibility of over-population.  In his sense of the
term, over-population is simply the inability of the country
to provide that subsistence which is necessary for life.
Where comforts and luxuries are common there is no
excess of people.  In speaking of the "peoples of the
north," he says that their institutions favored fecundity to
such an extent that they finally increased so greatly that
they were obliged to leave their native climes for the sake
of nourishment.  They were dependent almost solely on
the soil for support, and had no extensive trade and industries to aid them.  Intensive cultivation of land and
careful industry would enable a country to support a larger
population than at first glance might seem possible. Switzerland was an example of what wise policies and diligence could do for a people.'
Richard Cantillon's (1685?-1734) Essai sur la Nature
du Commerce en Gendral was probably first published
x The Essai is found in Daire, op. cit.; see pp. 674-677 especially.





i8o


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[570


after the author's death.1 His main thesis regarding the
increase of population is stated thus in the title of the
fifteenth chapter of this work: "La multiplication et le
decroissement des peuples dans un etat dependent principalement de la volonte, des modes et des fagons de vivre
des proprietaires."
The earth, is the source or matter from which we derive all
riches; the work of men is that which gives form to the produce; and riches itself is nothing else than the nourishment,
conveniences, comforts and luxuries of life.2
Cantillon states explicitly that the number of laborers,
artisans and others who depend on their work for a living
is naturally proportionate to the need of them.3 He explains the dependence of men on subsistence by taking
village conditions as a basis.  If the laborers in such a
village rear many sons and some of these sons do not find
other means of employment than those of their parents,
there will soon be too many laborers for the cultivation
of the land, etc., on which the village depends. It will be
necessary then for some of the superfluous adults to go
elsewhere in search of a living. If they try to remain with
their kinsfolk they will either not marry for lack of means,
or if they do marry, their children will perish miserably
and they themselves will suffer by hunger, as is seen daily
in France. On account of the inevitableness of such effects,
he believed that villages, and consequently the country,
always increase slowly, unless the means of subsistence are
abnormally increased for some time. The number of people
1 Reprinted for Harvard University, Boston, 1892. Cantillon was
born in Ireland. See Dictionary of National Biography.
a Pp. 2-2.       a Cf. Wealth of Nations, Bk. i, chap. viii.





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MERCANTILIST AND OTHER WRITERS


i8i


tends to equal, to press on, the means of subsistence.'
And it is so with plants and animals; they would increase
indefinitely were it not for the limits set by room and
nourishment. In China the number of people is incredibly large, but when they have an unfruitful year they die
of hunger by the million.
" All classes and all the people of a state subsist and are
enriched through the proprietors of lands." There is no
one except the king and the proprietors who can live in
independence; all the rest are either workers or entrepreneurs. If the king and the proprietors did not rent their
lands and permit men to work no one could obtain food
or clothing. Thus, in his view, the increase of the people
in a state like eighteenth-century France " depends principally on the will and habits of the proprietors." Proprietors should, then, enable peasants to marry while young
and to raise children by promising them land and work
by which they can support families, and "without doubt
the people will multiply as long as the land continues to
support them."   Men will marry young when they know
they can support their wives and offspring; if they married
otherwise they would suffer hunger, disease and death.
Cantillon's work is perhaps as good an example of careful study of economic conditions as can be found among
French writers up to his time. In his discussion of the
population problem he is unquestionably superior to any of
his predecessors or contemporaries in France.2
1 Chap. ix and chap. xv.
2A. Deparcieux (1703-1768) is of only indirect importance in
this study. His Essai sur la Probabilite de la Durie de la Vie
Humaine appeared in 1746. It has been of some value and is known
mainly because of the results he obtained from his investigations of
the mortality records of a French province and a Roman Catholic
order.





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~ 8. Conclusion. The common characteristic of writers
in England and France in this period appears to be the fact
that practically all look at the masses as so many possible
breeders of human kind, almost as if they were so many
animals whose owner would naturally be enriched by their
increase.  This is especially apparent in all strongly
national writers, who desired the largest population possible and who attempted to formulate practical plans for
realizing their ideal.  The writers themselves were, of
course, removed, sometimes far removed, from the sufferings and experiences of the peasants and the proletariat,
so that it is not often that a sympathetic and, at the same
time, intelligent appreciation of their lot is expressed. Let
the people increase; they will be kept busy by the force
of circumstances; if not, they will starve.
It is not maintained, however, that humane considerations were quite disregarded. Governments should by all
means seek to prevent want. It was regarded as not only
desirable, but imperative that provision be made for the
employment of all. The most practicable resource was in
the development of foreign trade. In this, however, not
the least sympathy for other peoples is shown. Compared
with modern ideals, the nationalist attitude was supremely
selfish. Thus there arose the economic struggle for subsistence and survival among the growing nations.  This
was the matter of overwhelming importance; on it depended the well-being of the individuals in any given state
or society. The balance-of-trade theory was a natural part
of the equally natural egoism which made each nation consider its own preservation and preeminence of more importance than that of any other. Of the welfare of mankind as a whole, and not the English or French or other
part of it, there was no discussion. The underlying doctrine was, either tacitly or explicitly, that the nation which





573]   MERCANTILIST AND OTHER WRITERS


183


became the strongest in material goods and in men would
survive; the nations which lost in the economic struggle
would have their populations reduced by want, or they
would be forced to resort to war, in which their chances
of success would be small. The war, however, would kill
many and make the condition of the survivors more
tolerable.
There was, then, even among the most ardent supporters
of mercantilism, an understanding of the importance of
food supplies and of the other necessaries of life. Probably in all the writers reviewed there was a realization
(though this was not always expressed) of the limits thus
placed on increase. Often the limit was not clearly defined; indeed, it was generally regarded as more or less
elastic.  Greater industry, more intensive cultivation of
land, better trade regulations were always possible as
well as desirable, and they enabled more people to find
employment, obtain wages, subsist and propagate their
kind. Herein lay the importance of wise governmental regulation. The government, it was thought, had always in
its hands the panacea for most economic ills, except those
incident to plagues and other natural catastrophes entirely
or mainly beyond human control. But some conception
of hygienic principles made it clear to a few that plagues
could be averted or checked by a better sanitary control
on the part of the government.
The reasoning concerning the effect of commerce and
trade on population sometimes ran in a circle or was otherwise inconsistent, as when, for example, in the opinion of
some, trade increased people and people increased trade.
This was apparently true in the typical instance so frequently referred to, namely, that of the Dutch Republic;
but the underlying economic forces which tended to bring
about such a happy state of affairs received very inade




184


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[574


quate attention, owing partly, if not wholly, to the fact
that the view was always limited by the national horizon.
The first appearance of modern scientific methods in the
study of population is seen in the observations of birth and
death rates and in the more thorough investigations concerning the effects of immorality and luxury on the people.
The fact that war and famine and like evils checked the
growth of population was naturally understood by thoughtful men in all times. Thus we see that among the writers
of the preceding period, Raleigh and Bacon in England
arid Botero and others elsewhere, this was quite forcibly
stated, and in earlier times, too, some realization of the
importance of these and other factors enters into the treatment of the problem. But in the later part of the seventeenth and in the first part of the eighteenth century we
find for the first time a fully-expressed comprehension of
all the main physical factors which must be considered.
The psychological forces were then, as now, not fully understood. We do find all the essential elements of the later
so-called Malthusian doctrine discussed, although the questionable ratio of increase of subsistence to increase of population, advanced by the English cleric, finds no strict
parallel in these earlier writings.





CHAPTER VI


THE CAMERALISTIC AND OTHER GERMAN LITERATURE ON
POPULATION FROM PUFENDORF TO SUESSMILCH
~ I. The General Position. The German writers of this
period were either statesmen or scholars; in some cases the
two were combined in one person. They were, as a rule,
privy and state councillors, or university professors of
medicine or of jurisprudence and cameralia. One group,
best represented by Pufendorf, was composed of learned
men, writing in the usual academic Latin, theoretical rather
than practical in the aim and content of their work. Their
significance, however, was great; their influence went out
from the universities and all over Germanic Europe and
beyond. The more practical group of writers, whose leading representative was perhaps the Austrian Becher, clearly
reflects the national spirit in all its writings, and, as in other
countries at this time generally, this spirit ran along the
paths of mercantilism.  The philosophers Leibnitz and
Wolff are also of no small importance in this connection,
for, though sharing the prevalent ideas in regard to population, they both made contributions to the subject. Lau's
is as good a systematic treatise on German mercantilist
tendencies as can be found, while Suessmilch is one of the
very greatest writers on population in the history of the
study.
In general, it may be said that these German writings
5751                                     185





186


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


L576


form a more systematic group of discussions on our theme
than those of any other country, possibly excepting England. But, though English writers did include Graunt and
Petty and Davenant, it would not be fair to say that their
work was of so painstaking a character and displayed as
analytical an insight into the matter as did the writings
of Conring and Pufendorf, Becher and Lau, and Suessmilch. Taken together these constitute a fine group typifying German characteristics in scholarship, not the least
important of which is thoroughness.  On the whole, it
would seem that they contributed at least as much as the
investigators, scholars and publicists of any other country
in this period.
It is true that a fairly scientific and complete comprehension of the population question was developed by the
English writers, and to a lesser extent by the French, and
it would be difficult to determine where the first modern
conceptions took root.  The growth of opinion in one
country seems as a usual thing to be paralleled in others,
while in certain short periods its literary expression is
more complete and better in one place than in others.
Petty's work in statistics was a precursor of many others
in the following century, as was Conring's; but with all
its limitations, depending to a certain extent only on a
pious theological point of view, we must say that Suessmilch's work is the most thorough and the most valuable
undertaken up to this time. There were incongruities of
argument among the Germans, as among the English and
French, and at times it may be admitted that their enthusiasm led them to greater extremes. Their approval of a
Volksvermehrung policy is more defensible, because of
the devastations caused 'by the Thirty Years' War, and it
was naturally believed that increasing populousness would





577]      GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION                    187
tend to aid the country in bringing about increased strength
and prestige.1
~ 2. German Scholars.      Toward the close of the seventeenth century the famous work of Samuel Freiherr von
Pufendorf    (1623-1694), De Jure Naturae et Gentium,
brought into prominence the conceptions embodied in the
caption "natural law." 2      A   certain spirit of freedom    is
apparent in this work, which, however, is at times obscure
owing to the formal legal method of presentation.           The
same tendency is seen in more concise form         in the work
whose English title is The Whole Duty of Man According
to the Law    of Nature."
In the last-named work,4 in a chapter on the duties of
1 Cf. Wagner, op. cit., pp. 451-452: "Die vorherrschende, wenn auch
nicht ausnahmslose, Ansicht ist schon im 17. Jahrhundert, besonders
in dessen 2. Halfte, namentlich in Deutschland, und wird im 18. Jahrhundert immer mehr eine der Volksvermehrung, grossen Volkszahl
und Dichtigkeit giinstige; im ganzen, zumal in Deutschland, in Uebereinstimmung mit dem   Bediirfniss, den Anschauungen und der Verwaltungspolitik der Praxis, namentlich im Zeitalter des aufgeklirten
Absolutismus Die eng zusammeningende Bevolkerungs- und Wirthschafts- und Culturpolitik in der 2. Halfte des 17. und im 18. Jahrhundert war ein notwendiges Ergebniss der gegebenen Verhiltnisse
nach den furchtbaren Zerriitungen des 30 jahrigen und anderer Kriege.
In dem wirthschaftlichen Musterlande der Zeit, in den Niederlanden,
sah man auch die wirthschaftliche Vortheile grosser und dichter Bev6lkerung, wobei freilich, wie im Betreff der gesammten wirthschaftlichen Entwicklung, der richtige Einblick in den Causalzusammenhang
zwischen Bev6lkerung und Volkswirthschaft nicht immer bestand.
Die Gefahren zu grosser Volkszahl, zu rascher Zunahme, wurden zeitweise von einzelnen Theoretikern wie Praktikern nicht verkannt."
2 The first edition appeared in 1672; the second in 1684. Pufendorf
was for a time professor in Heidelberg, and later at the Swedish university of Lund.
3" By that famous civilian Samuel Pufendorf, now made English
by Andrew Tooke," etc. London, 1735.
4 Bk. ii, chap. ii.





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the marriage state, Pufendorf says that it is certain that
that " ardent propensity" for each other found to be in
both sexes was not implanted in them by the all-wise
Creator merely that man might obtain the satisfaction of
a vain pleasure, " but that hereby married persons might
take greater delight in each other's company, and that both
might with the more cheerfulness apply themselves to the
necessary business of propagation." The obligation under
which men lie to contract matrimony may be considered
with respect either to mankind in general or to their particular stations and relation in the world. From the point
of view of the welfare of mankind, the propagation of
mankind neither can nor ought to be kept up by promiscuous and uncertain relations, but is to be limited by the
laws of wedlock.   Men, considered as individuals, are
under the moral obligation to enter the matrimonial state
when a convenient occasion offers itself; " whereto not
only a mature age and an ability for generation work is
necessary,... but there ought beside to be a capacity of
maintaining a wife and the posterity he shall bring forth,
and that the man may be such a one as is fit to become
the master of a family." ' Pufendorf continues by saying
that there may be exceptions to this rule, which justify
celibacy; as, for example, in the case of the man who " betakes himself to a chaste single life, finding his constitution accommodated thereto, and that is capable in that,
rather than in the married state, to be useful to mankind
or the commonwealth; especially, also, if the case be so
that there is no fear of want of people." There should not
be much freedom in divorce, lest this "give encouragement
to either party to cherish a stubborn temper; but rather
that the irremediable state of each might persuade both to


SP. 197.





579]


GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION


i89


accommodate their humors to one another and stir them
up to mutual forbearance."      In all of these views except
the last we note a sharp contrast with the position held by
Luther.
In the first work mentioned, Pufendorf expresses himself
in about the same manner.        All sorts of vice should be
held in check, for they are in every way a detriment to the
race. Though he deprecated the evils traceable to clerical
and other forms of celibacy, he did not condemn it without reservation, as we see in the quotation above; with
but few exceptions a man is of greater use to the race and
the state if he uses his procreative powers properly.' Governmental regulation and encouragement of marriage should
always take into consideration the general principles already
expressed. A system of rewards he regarded as preferable
to one providing positive penalties.2
1 De lure Naturae, etc., lib. vi, chap. i, ~ 7: "Non reprehendum
illorum caelibatum qui probabiliter praevident, sese in caelibe vita ad
quam per continentiam exigendam habiles sese deprehendunt, plus
humano generi aut civitati suae utilitates posse praestare, quam
uxoratos."
2 Ibid.: "Matrimonia autem contrahendi occasio non ex sola aetate
aut generandi aptitudine intelligitur sed ut copia quoque; sit decentis.
conditionis, nec non facultas alendi uxorem et prolem nacituram; ac
ut mas quoque; sit idoneus ad gerendum partes patris familias..
Igitur est non modo non est necessarium, sed stultum insuper, juvenes
animum ad uxores adplicare, qui sibi suisque nil nisi strenuam esuritionem possunt polliceri, ac civitatem mendicabulis sint impleturi, aut
qui ipsi supra pueros parum sapiant." ~ 8: "Et hisce judicandum
est, quidam potestates legibus civilibus competat circa adstringendam
aut tollendam matrimonii contrahendi necessitudinem. Igitur extra
controversiam est, posse legislatorem civilem ad ineundum matrimonium pro imperio adigere per aetatem et constitutionem corporis
habiles, et queis facultas se uxoremque et prolem alendi. Nam cogere
aliquem, ut liberos procreet in spem esuriendi inhumanum; inopi
autem vulgo civitates implere inconsultum est. Esti nollius videatur
praemiis, aut subtractione commodorum quorundam, quam poenis positivis heic uti."





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Pufendorf opposed restrictions to emigration, and in this
he departed from ordinarily accepted doctrines. This was
in accord with his general theory of natural rights. He
believed in full freedom of movement, and in this connection praised the old Roman view that each should be free
to come and go at will, mentioned by Cicero in his oration
for Balbus. Pufendorf contended that people should be
permitted to leave the country whenever they chose, and
especially if the country appeared to suffer from  overpopulation. There might, however, be circumstances, as
in times of war, when restrictions of movement would be
necessary for the general welfare, and hence proper and in
accord with natural general interests.
Regarded as a whole, Pufendorf's theories are reasonable. He favored populousness, as far as it was consistent
with the country's welfare. He advised prudence on the
part of the married or those contemplating marriage. He
would check the increase of vice and other conditions of
living which must prove harmful.
The famous Strassburg     professor, Johann  Heinrich
Boecler (1611-1672), treated questions bearing on population in a work based largely on Aristotelian ideas, entitled
Institutiones Politicae.'  The numbers of people, he said,
are influenced by four factors: (i) fortune or accident;
(2) natural fecundity; (3) laws which encourage propagation, such as those determining the marriage age and
punishing adultery and other forms of immorality; (4)
immigration. TImmigration should be encouraged by all
legitimate means, but not by kidnapping men as was the
1 First edition, Strassburg, 1674; third edition, 1704. Boecler was
for several years also a professor of history at the Upsala University
in Sweden. While he was professor at Strassburg, Seckendorff was
one of his students.





GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION


191


custom of the Turks. The best way to increase population was to make living comfortable for the masses. This
could be done by various governmental regulations, among
the more important of which were encouraging trade,
reasonable governmental expenses, numerous educational
and philanthropic institutions, prosperous courts and benevolent government.
All classes, Boecler held, should subordinate themselves
to the national welfare and raise no objections to good
general rules of conduct; but great care should be taken
not to favor one class or increase its well-being disproportionately or at the cost of others. He admitted the possibility of over-population, and advised careful observation
of the movements of population.    In the event of any
really painful pressure on the means of subsistence he
recommended the usual recourse of emigration to colonies.'
Hermann Conring (1606-i68I) was for some time a
professor of medicine at the University of Helmstedt and
had been the Leibcart of Queen Christine of Sweden.
When he died he was a royal privy councillor of the Danish king.  His work, bearing the title, Examen Rerum
Publicarum Totius Orbis, is the most extensive and wellrounded work on political conditions by any German writer
of the time. He is known not only as a publicist, but is often
spoken of as the founder of modern statistical study.
His work, which was first published in 1677, is systematic and critical, but cannot be said to be quite reliable in
its details.2  He lays special stress on the desirability of
1 Lib. i, chap. vi: "Ne multitudo exuberet supra vires regionis aut
si omnino exuberet, quemadmodum demigrationibus coloniisque ad
modum reducatur."
2 Found in Johann Wilhelm Goebel's edition, published in Brunswick, 1730, vols. iii and iv. Cf. Wappius, Allgemeine Bevolkerungsstatistik (Leipzig, i86I), Part ii, pp. 548 et seq.





192


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[582


large populations on account of their military value, thus
manifesting his nationalistic point of view.  Wealth and
extensive dominions and large numbers of people are effective checks to foreign insolence and invasion.    A  large
population means not only great strength in war, but a
full treasury in time of peace. Conring was careful, however, to point out that there were limitations upon beneficent
increase of population. Large cities, such as Rome, Corinth and Carthage, had proved the disadvantages of enormous populaces; they had been characterized by vice, licertiousness and seditions.
His main discussion of the subject is found in a chapter
on Spain. All writers, he says, agree that Spain had decreased in population. The causes of this decrease in population, and consequently in general prosperity, are given
as the following:
I. The Spaniards are less fruitful naturally than the
peoples of northern Europe. This superior fruitfulness of
the latter peoples accounts for their reputed early migrations.1
2. The inland districts of Spain had suffered from a lack
of the necessaries of life; in Conring's opinion these interior
parts of the country were not suited for the support of
great multitudes.
3. The Spaniards were guilty of too loose sexual relations and much immorality,2 which always harms a population.
4. Spain had sent out an excessively large number of
1 Cf. Malthus, op. cit., chap. vi.
2 "Ruunt adhuc pueri propemodum in venerem et excussis immaturis viribus deinde quoque ad amplificandam sobolem sunt inepti.
Nec uxoribus juncti a pellicibus et concubinis, quas magnis alunt
sumtibus, abstinent.... Scortationes immane quantum foedant Hispaniam et ea ibi olim fuit, et adhuc hodie et lupanarium multitudo,





583]     GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION                  193
men to her colonies. His statement that more Spaniards
were living in America than in the mother country is, of
course, an exaggeration.1
5. The frequent wars and naval disasters with which
the Spaniards had been afflicted were another cause of depopulation.
6. The Inquisition and the many trials and severe punishments for heresy had driven people from the country.
It is here that Conring recommends the general introduction of religious liberty.2
Conring criticized the Spanish edict of 1623,8 especially
its first provision, which granted all who married between
the ages of seventeen and twenty-five exemptions from all
direct public burdens, particularly from    taxation.   Such
a policy would not be at all effective in relieving misery; it
would, on the contrary, have rather the opposite effect, for
the inducements offered might lead poor people to marry,
who would receive aid when they least needed it. Unless
a man became a father of a family of at least six male
children, according to the second provision, he would derive no practical good from his marriage, and would,
moreover, suffer for his original indiscretion, as would his
whole family. Both provisions were harmful in their aoqualis non reperitur in tota Europa. Ubi impune licet scortari, ibi
plerumque est hominum paucitas; ubi autem multa sunt lupanaria
ibi est hominum multitudo." In cap. de Republica Hispania, op cit,
pp. 69-72. Cf. Roscher, Geschichte u. s. w., p. 258.
1 But cf. ante, pp. io6, 170.
2 Says Oskar Jolles, op. cit., p. 206: "Conring ist ein grosser Verteidiger der Glaubensfreiheit und seine sch6nen Worten: nulli homini
competit auctoritas viam et modum perveniendi ad aeternam salutem
praescribendi, kennzeichnen ihn in dieser Hinsicht als einen nicht
unwiirdigen Zeitgenossen des grossen Kurfiirsten."
a Ante, pp. 125, 133.





194


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


1584


tual operation, though under a better and revised scheme
the second might do some good. He approved of the provisions for dowries for poor girls.
Emigration, Conring held, in opposition to the movement represented by Pufendorf, should, as a general rule,
be prohibited and immigration as strongly encouraged.
Those who immigrate should be aided in their first endeavors to take up agricultural and industrial pursuits.
Conring was emphatically opposed to the toleration of
vice, which he regarded as a corollary of celibacy.  He.advised the prohibiting of the further establishment of
-cloisters, the occupants of which he regarded as thoroughly
useless.1  In these matters Conring agrees entirely with
Luther. If all the monks in Spain, he said, were to marry
and make proper use of their procreative faculty, they could
easily add one hundred thousand people to the population
in one year's time, which would be of no mean significance
for a country in Spain's condition.2 To increase the fecundity of Spanish women he, like Campanella,s advised them
to contract marriages with men from the countries of
northern Europe.4 In general, the relations of the sexes
should be most carefully regulated and guarded, lest vicious
conditions and consequent disastrous habits of life weaken
the nation's people and check its increase.
~ 3. The Nationalists and Mercantilists.  Ludwig von
Seckendorff (1626-1692) was for a time chancellor of the
Halle-Wittenberg University and privy state councillor.
S" Quae nulli vel ecclesiae vel reipublicae usui."
' Cf. De Maritimis Commerciis, chap. 136 (Goebel, vol. iv, p. 919).
3 See ante, p. o08, note.
* "Si connubiae Hispaniae mulieres contraherant cum viris ex septrionalibus populis."





585]     GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION                I95
His first important work, Teutscher Furstenstaat, appeared
in 1655, while the author was still a young man, and is a
good exemplification of the strong national spirit generally
characteristic of the writings of German scholars after the
Peace of Westphalia.   Seckendorff's work breaks away from
the prevalent cameralistic scholarship, in that it is not so
largely based on historical data and references, and is written in the language of the people.'  Seckendorff wished to
separate his work from the learned theoretical writings of
many of his contemporaries and make its influence felt in
wider circles. Still he had great respect for the valuable
works intended exclusively for the use of scholars.
A later and more mature product of his mind was the
Christenstaat, published in 1685.   In this work especially
he considered the significance of population.   A Christian
as well as national feeling is seen in all its pages.
From Christianity and Christian charity flows that solicitude
of God-fearing governors for their subjects, that they may get
all possible encouragement and profit in obtaining their subsistence and performing their business, and that their numbers
may increase rather than diminish, for the nation's greatest
treasure consists in a well-nourished population.   Such a
population not only ensures peaceful relations with foreign
countries, but is itself the gauge of governmental power in
the amount of taxes, fees and contributions of all kinds which
it returns to the national treasury.2
1 See preface to fifth edition (Frankfurt a. M., 1678): "Er habe
die Zuversicht, dass hiermit mehr Personen und sonderlich denen,
welche sich nicht eben unter die Gelehrten rechnen, gedienen seyn
wurde;... die Gelehrten aber vor sich selbst das meiste weiters
bedenken und nachsuchen k6nnen, wiewol die Materia also beschaffen,
dass man sie mehr aus Erfahrung als aus den Biichern suchen mussen."
2 P, 433.





I96


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[586


Seckendorff was in favor of religious freedom and advocated giving asylums to industrious refugees, but he did
not believe that such emigrations en masse as took place in
his day were traceable to religious persecution alone; there
was a strong desire for a betterment of economic conditions
also. He urged the regulation and improvement of the
sanitary conditions of the country by laws, which would
lengthen life by lessening disease.  The country's industries, and particularly the monopoly companies, should be
controlled, in order that people might more easily obtain
the necessaries of life and thus be enabled to make more
comfortable provision for their families.' All these measures would add to the total number of people, and therefore to the nation's power.
Like others, he saw a limit to the possible increase, and
remarked that young men would find it advisable to go
into foreign military service or to emigrate to countries
where economic conditions were better when the nunmrer
became too large.  When a country reached this point
numerous children could not be regarded as a blessing in
the majority of cases, for they would necessarily suffer
from insufficient food. His position regarding the establishment and management of foundling homes is in the
nature of a compromise. Some thought that such institutions should be erected in order to prevent the loss of life
among illegitimate infants by infanticide and otherwise,
while others declared that such homes were simply adjuncts
to vice and a means of relieving it of its natural consequences, a view often repeated in much later times. Seckendorff advised the establishment of such homes for the
sake of the great number of unfortunate children whose
parents were very poor or prevented from supporting their
I Pp. 238-239.





587]     GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION              197
offspring by various misfortunes. This would save many
lives, while vice would not be made more comfortable.
Seckendorff's position, in brief, favors great populousness, but only up to the limit set by the possibility of obtaining comfortable maintenance for all. He advised prudence in all matters relating to matrimony and opposed all
toleration of vice, which he regarded as deleterious in every
respect.
An interesting work, entitled Geldmangel in Teutschland
und dessen griindliche Ursachen, was published in Bayreuth
in 1664. The author's name, according to the title-page,
was Gottlieb Warmund.      This is, however, evidently a
pseudonym.1 The author held that the scarcity of money
in Germany was due to the long wars, which had ceased
only a few years before, and which had been the immediate
cause of an alarming diminution of inhabitants and devastation of villages and cities. He points out the economic,
fiscal and military advantages incident to great populousness. " It is clearly evident," he says, "and experience
has proved, that the more populous a country and a city
is, the greater the trade and traffic which must be attracted
thither, and by means of this both money and riches are
gained and remain in the country."     Under the circumstances it is not surprising that he could hardly admit the
possibility of over-population. Certain heavy excises or contributions might have undesirable effects.2  War and other
abnormalities would, of course, bring about irregularities,
1 Cf. Jolles, op. cit., p. 220.
2 The following excerpt is of interest and value as indicating the
conditions on which this writer's theories were formed: "Das Vornehmste aber als unsere andere Ursache ist die grosse augenscheinliche Verminderung der Einwohner in Teutschlande, welche der lange
Krieg verursacht. Denn man hatte der in den Schlachten und blutigen
Treffen gebliebenen vergessen k6nnen. Es wiirden aber vieler Oerter





I98


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[588


which were deplorable in their effects; but in time of peace,
with industry properly encouraged, people could increase
indefinitely; the greater the increase, the better for all concerned.
Three great Austrian writers of the latter part of the
seventeenth century form a sub-group: Becher, Schroeder
and Hornegk. They are all ardent mercantilists and protectionists and supporters of Austrian national ambitions.'
Johann Joachim     Becher (1625 2-I685) was for some
time the Leibmedikus of a German prince and a professor
institutionumn   medicinae at Mayence.      His two greatest
political works are a Politische Discurs an den eigentlichen
Ursachen des Auff- und Abnehmens der Stadt, Laender
und Republicken, in Specie; wie ein Land Volckreich und
Nahrhafft zu machen, etc., first published in 1668; and
Psychosophia oder Seelen-Weisheit, first published in 1678."
Of these two works the last named gives the more complete
discussion of the subject. Although much of the discussion of the earlier work is copied almost verbatim       in the
later, substantial additions are made in the Psychosophia.
die Linder, Stadte, Schlosser und D6rfer ganz verwiistet, niedergerissen und eingeischert, die Einwohner nieder gemetzelt, die davon
kamen mussten verlaufen, und sturben hernaoh meistenteils von Hunger, Gramnis, auch an b6sen Krankheiten.... Ihrer Viele hatten
wegen der grossen Bedriingniss einen Abscheu vor dem Ehestande
und wolten sich in die Beschwerlichkeit des Hauswesens nicht stekken." Geldmangel, etc., pp. 67-68.
1 Cf. Handw6rterbuch  (Elster), art. "Schroeder": " Er [with
Becher and Hornegk] bildet das Dreigestirn von Minnern welche als
entschiedene Anhanger des Merkantilsystems, hauptsichlich im  17.
Jahrhundert in Deutschland, besonders aber in Oesterreich," etc.
2 Also given as 1635-1682.
8 The editions used by the present writer have been: Discurs, Frankfurt a. M., Zweyte edition, 1673; Psychosophia, Hamburg, Vierdte edition, 1725.





589]     GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION               19g9
Becher best introduces his discussion in the Discurs.
Man is the material of which the state consists; he is not
only a political animal, but an animal sociabile who seeks
society, as is also stated in the Scriptures, " It is not good
for man to be alone." This fact makes other men necessary, and in order that they may be born God created the
female sex and instituted marriage, the end of which is
to " be fruitful and replenish the earth."     Everything,
therefore, which weakens human society should be done
away with or punished. If then, says the author, he were
to define a city or state he would say that it was a populous
society provided with nourishment.1   One person is as unable to make a society as a single swallow to make a summer, and three or four menials do not make a village or
city.  The more populous a city, the more powerful it is;
and it follows that the most important maxim of a state
must be to make its people many and comfortably nourished.2
This maxim accepted, it is important to consider by what
means populousness may be brought about.        Population
depends on the food supply, and it follows that the necessaries of life should be made as accessible as possible to
peasants, laborers and small dealers.    It is necessary to
protect the labor of the country from foreign competition
1 "Eine volckreiche nahrhaffte Gemein." P. I.
2 "Die vornehmste Staats-Regul, oder maxima, einer Stadt oder
Lands seyn soll, volckreiche Nahrung; denn damit eine Versammlung
bestehen k6nne, muss sie zu leben haben, ja eben das letztere ist einr
Anfang dess erstern: die Nahrung sag ich ist ein Angel, oder Hamen,
wodurch man die Leut herzulocket, dann wann sie wissen, wo sie zu.
leben haben, da lauffen sie hin, und je mehr hin lauffen, je. mehr
konnen von einander leben; und das ist der andere fundamental StaatsRegul, nemlich um ein Land populos zu machen, dem selbe gute
Verdienst und Nahrung zu verschaffen." P. 2.





200


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[590


or invasion; therefore, domestic goods and domestic labor
should always be used in preference to foreign goods or
labor. Trade should be so manipulated that the greatest
advantage comes to the country.'         This necessitates a
strictly protective system.
The best interests of all classes demand freedom of trade
and religious freedom, and few, if any, imposts should be
laid on the necessaries of life.  The people should have the
right to consume what goods they wished and no restrictrons should be placed on the work done in any trade, all
thiis being, however, subject to the proviso that no harm is
thereby done to the society as a whole.      Monopolies are,
as a rule, to be discouraged, if not entirely forbidden, for
they tend directly to diminish population.      Polypolia are
also not to be encouraged.       By this he means that too
many persons should not be permitted to engage in a
single trade in a single city, for this overcrowding in any
industry or trade results in painfully small pay for all.2
Perhaps it was because he thought that, according to the
old German saying, " Alle gute Dinge sind drei," he added
1 "Wann die Kaufleute lieber fremde Waaren als inlandische verhandeln, lieber fremde als einheimische Handwercksleute verlegen,
und denen Geld g6nnen wollen, so dienets nicht zu Erhaltung nahrhaffter Gemeinde. Wann die rohe Giiter in die Fremde gefiihret, dort
verarbeitet, und wieder in Land gebracht, hingegen den inlindischen
Muster und Handwercksleuten das Brodt nicht gegonnet wird, so ist
es wieder nicht gut. Wann man fremde Waare ins Land lisset die
man selbsten darinnen besser, oder so gut haben kan, und also die
Bauren verderbet, so ists lauter Schaden." Psychosophia, p. 107.
SE. g., "Wann in einer Stadt hundert Schluster eben genug zu
thun haben und ehrlich auskommen konnen, es wolten sich aber
wegen zugelassener Freyheit noch drey hundert fremde Meister dahin
setzen, so wiirden diese -die anderen verderben, und alle zu Bettlern
werden. Nun ware der Stadt ja besser, ein hundert ehrliche nahrhaffte Biirger, als vierhundert Bettler zu haben." Ibid., p. Io8.





591]     GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION                201
a third condition which was to be avoided--propolia. He
seems to have meant by this that urban populations should
be concentrated.   If they were scattered over a large district the advantages of community life were greatly lessened.
Becher says there are seven general modes of making a
living: (i) agriculture; (2) manufactures and manual
labor; (3) commercial pursuits; (4) scholarship;        (5)
personal service or holding offices of all kinds; (6) military
life; 2 (7) winning enough by inheritance, marriage or lottery to live independently on the interest of one's capital.
In all these ways of getting on, one thing is always of
supreme importance, and that is parsimony (Sparsamkeit).'
Regarding celibacy, he says that there are occasional philosophers or theologians who from love of wisdom and
higher things refrain from marriage, and this cannot be
considered blameworthy.     They are comparatively few in
number, however, and usually have friends or brothers who
continue their race.  In general, the married state is preferable, for the unmarried do not contribute to the population
of the state, and introduce a vicious life into the community
in which they live. 4 Marriage should not be entered upon
unless a careful inquiry concerning the individual's ability
1 "Das vierte Art von Nahrung ist Studiren, wiewol nun solches
ein misslich Werck ist, und wenig reiche Gelehrte gefunden werden,
so hilfft es doch manchem fort, und kan ein Man, der lesen, schreiben,
rechnen und seine Sprachen kan, allezeit besser als ein anderer fortkommen. In summa, ein gelehrter Mann ist auch ein ernehrter Mann."
Ibid., p. 121.
2A proverb, says Becher, runs, "Junger Soldat, alter Betler," but
since the soldier has defended the fatherland he deserves good treatment and respect.
8 I. e., " dass man sich nach der Decke strecke."
4 Psychosophia, p. 254; but see also p. 255.





202


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[592


to support a family has first been made. " Marriages which
occur between persons very different in age are usually for
ulterior motives, especially for money, and as a rule no
children can be expected; they should be prohibited by
law." The husband should be as nearly ten years older
than the wife as possible.
Foundling asylums are necessary in every reasonably
well-ordered state, says Becher.  In this he differs radically from both Seckendorff and other writers. Such homes
should be erected and intended for the reception of illegitimate children with the avowed purpose of lessening the
temptation under which fallen women struggle to commit
either abortion or infanticide.  Prostitution he believed
to be a necessary evil,' and the establishment of foundling
homes he regarded as a necessary result of this condition.
Monogamy, in Becher's opinion, is the only practicable
form  of sexual union under European conditions.    His
argument here is dependent on his ideas favoring great
populousness, but always with the careful reservation that
increase be limited to the comfortably-situated bourgeoisie
and be not of the poorest proletarian character. Population must not be increased at the expense of added misery.
Monogamy is not only the form prescribed by the Scriptures, but it rests, moreover, upon sound natural and political bases. European peoples are very fruitful; many an
ordinary man has as many as twelve children.     "What
would happen," asks Becher then, "if such a man had
many wives instead of one?"   There are in most places a
sufficiently large number of people; a larger multitude
1 "Welches alles verhiitet werden kan wan da frey stehet uneheliche Beyschlaferinnen zu halten seine Lust mit ihnen zu biissen:
gibts dann Kinder, so werden solche in den Findel-Hiusern aufferzogen." Psychosophia, p. 254.





593]  GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION


203


would lead to wars, in which the excess would perish. In
Asia conditions are not so; neither men nor women are so
fruitful; so that even when a man has several wives it is
not often he has as many children as a German peasant
with one wife.   The weak point in Becher's argument that
polygamy would increase population unduly is the fact that
he forgets that if one man had many wives, where the
sexes were approximately even in number, this would necessitate many men remaining single.
Becher discussed briefly what Malthus termed moral restraint or the preventive check-prudence.1      While he deplored the too frequent hard times, which have this as one
result and emigration as another, he regarded it as inevitable in the case of man, who is a rational animal; in the
case of animals this prudence would not be apparent, but
an instinctive tendency to migrate to more favored localities would also exist in them.
It is true that Becher was in favor of populousness, but,
as we have seen, within reasonable, that is natural, limits.
His general position is sometimes clouded or shortsighted,
as when he opposes the introduction of inventions which
reduce the labor necessary for a certain piece of production.2 This was a fallacy, however, of which writers since
S" Es gibt... Teutschen welche... weder kecklich heyrathen
noch geheyrathet, aus Mangel der Mittel und Furcht das Gezeugte zu
ernehren, offters ihrer ehelichen Pflicht sich enthalten;... und das
sich schwer in Teutschland zu ernehren, daher nicht allein keine
fremde Nationen dahin kommen, die sich darinnen niederlassen, sondern auch aus Mangel der Mittel der Nahrung lauffen unsere Hochteutsche selbsten hinauss in andere Laender." Discurs, p. 1187. Cf.
Jolles, op. cit., p. 217.
2"Alles dasjenige, ja sogar auch diejenige kiinstliche inventiones
verbiten, durch welche man in der Arbeit die Menschen erspahrt, als
da sind die Band- und Strumpffmiihlen, auch andere dergleichen instrumenta." Discurs, p. 309.





204


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[594


his time have been guilty, and the plausibility of the argument, especially the fact that the economic friction and consequent immediate suffering incidental to this phase of
dynamics, renders it effective among labor unionists to-day.
Another rather peculiar statement which, were it not for
the weight of his general argument, which is based on
nourishment (volckreiche Nahrung), would tend to make
him seem an extremist, is that the reason for beheading a
murderer is the fact that he has limited the population by
his deed, and the reason for treating a thief similarly is that
he deprives others of their portion of goods.1
Wilhelm Freiherr von Schroeder (died 1689) is perhaps
the best type of the Austrian protectionist school in this
period. His main work bears the title Fiirstliche Sclatzund Rentkammer, etc., and was first published about
I675.2 He wished to encourage manufactures and home
industry generally. The greater the development of domestic industry, the greater the population could become. For
this reason all importation of luxuries in dress and the like
should be checked by high import duties; dress goods and
fineries from Paris, which the ladies so inconsiderately insisted upon having, should be prohibited. In the development of home manufactures two matters were of greatest
importance: the abolition or restriction of monopolies,
which checked population by placing artificially high prices
on the necessaries of life, and the employment of foreign
labor and bachelors. The last was a most baneful custom,
for bachelors and immigrants were wanderers and contributed little to national strength, giving little to the state
S"Warum schligt man einem Morder den kopf herab, und hencket
einen Dieb? Allein darum, dass der erste die Populositit, der andere
die Nahrung der Gemeinde mindert." Discurs, p. io6.
2 The edition used is the one which was published in Leipzig, 1713.





595]  GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION


205


treasury and preventing married men from        working for
the support of their families.'
Becher had a faithful supporter and a follower in his
nephew, Philipp Wilhelm      von Hornegk     (1638?-1712?),
whose principal work, Oesterreich. iiber Alles vann es nur
will (first published in Nuremberg in 1684)," is one of
the clearest and most concise expressions of German mercantilism. His views are, as a whole, like those of Seckendorff and Becher, or rather they are the result of a combination of these two writers. He was an ardent patriot,
and his wish that Austria be " above all" is the foundation of his argument. He lacks that cosmopolitanism which
we discern in Pufendorf and, to a lesser extent, in Becher.
Hornegk desired the greatest possible attention paid to
the cultivation of land, and said that many states-and this
was most true of Austria-could support two or three times
as many people as they then had.     He attributed the comparative scarcity of people to various circumstances, the most
importance of which were "wars and reformations," 3 which
is, of course, simply an allusion to devastations due to
the Thirty Years' War.    Manufactures increase the number
of occupations, which enable young men to make money
and to marry earlier than a simple reliance on agriculture
1 "Wo restringirte Manufacturen sind, da kann man unm6glich die
Theurung verhindern und restringirte Manufacturen machen den
numerum der Einwohner weniger." (P. 346.) "Dieweil diese Gesellen
meistentheils unverheyrathete Leute seyn miissen... wird die Multiplication der Menschen im Lande, welche doch validissima monumenta regni sind, gehindert." P. 347.
2 Edition used, Regensburg, 1712.
3 "Krieg und Reformation seynd die beyde Grundursachen gegenwilrtigen Uebelstands... und gleichwol ist vieler Orten der Elende
Anblick noch so frisch, ob ware der Feind erst gestern oder vorgestern abgezogen." Pp. 72 et seq.





206


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[596


would permit. But both agriculture and industries were
to be watched and regulated as the best interests of the
people demand. His objection to monopolies, like that of
his contemporaries, was based largely on their abuse of
power, which made the condition of the masses more arduous, and hence by checking marriage hindered increase.
The same objection, he says, might be urged against those
crafts which had too many restrictive regulations.
~ 4. Leibnitz and Wolff.  Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz (1646-1716) was not only one of the greatest German
philosophers, but was a political economist as well, and as
a statistician he forms the link which connects Conring
with Suessmilch. He was one of the first to lay stress on
statistical investigation, and his analyses of statistical material are suggestive and form the basis of many later developments along these lines.1 He acknowledged indebtedness to Petty, but developed independently a plan of investigation.2  He speaks of a "topographia politica oder Beschreibung des gegenwartigen Zustandes des Landes."  This
should be carried out in order that information concerning
the relative amount of material goods and food supplies as
compared with the number of people might be known, and
state action taken accordingly. Population could thus be
understood and increase encouraged more intelligently.
Like all his contemporaries, he would have the state enx Jolles, op. cit., p. 223, remarks: "Bemerken wollen wir, dass sich
schon manche von uns fiir v6llig modern gehaltene wirthschaftliohe
Probleme bei Leibnitz beriihrt und besproohen finden. Wir nennen
hier nur seinen Vorschlag von Arbeitsimtern, sowie seinen Entwurf
einer staatlichen Unfallversicherung."
2 See Essai de quelques Raisonnemens nouveaux sur la Vie humaine
et sur le Nombre des Hommes, in Works (Klopp), first series, vol. v,
pp. 326-337; also p. I8.





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courage marriage when conditions warranted it, for the
true power of a kingdom consists in the number of men.
Where there are men, there is substance and strength. Where
men are most diligent and laborious and saving of their goods,
there all are safest; and manufacturing especially is to be considered the most useful occupation in accomplishing this result.1
Leibnitz rejected the current ideas of the imagined bad
effects of inventions.  They add to the nation's productive
capacity.   They save time and effort and augment the
power available.   This must necessarily cause an increase
in population by expanding the limits of subsistence.     His
discussion is incomplete but suggestive, as well as exceptional for his time.2
The government should take all things into account in
making laws intended to further the general welfare.       All
possible means of encouraging and increasing the productivity of agriculture, as well as of manufactures, should be
studied. The country had suffered much in both branches
of industry during the long wars, and it was necessary for
Germany even more than for other countries to pay attention to the details of its industrial life. By such means
and by the frugal and busy habits of the people would the
1 Guhrauer's edition, vol. ii, p. 312.
2Discussion d'une Question utile et curieuse, in Works, vol. iv, pp.
391 et seq.: "Je croy qu'il y en aura qui s'etonneraient d'abord, qu'on
peut mettre en question: s'il faut se servir des avantages qu'on a en
mains, mais ces avantages peuvent estre compenses. D'autres desavantages, de sorte qu'il faut peser pour voir de quel coste penche la
balance.... Les avantages qu'on retire de ces machines sont a I'egard
du pays dont il s'agit en particulier. L'avantage du genre humain en
general est l'augmentation de son pouvoir. Or le pouvoir de quelcun
est augmente, quand il peut faire plus d'affect, avec moins de peine,
moins de frais, moins de personnes et moins de temps."





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1598


strength of the nation, as indicated by the numbers of
citizens and their wealth and the funds available in the
state treasury, again become great.  This was Leibnitz's
ambition and desire.  He endeavored to turn his patriotism into channels which would do his king and people the
most good.'
Like Suessmilch later and Becher among his predecessors, he came to the conclusion that polygamy could not be
approved on the ground that it would increase population.
It could not remedy the scarcity of people existing, for, as
elsewhere in Europe, the number of women was about the
same as the number of men.2     Nature then dictated a
monogamous form of marriage, which, if well regulated,
could not fail to be most favorable to increase.
The opinions on population from the end of the Thirty
Years' War to the beginning of the eighteenth century were
unanimously favorable to the greatest possible increase.
To attain this end it was ordinarily considered best to
encourage marriage and to better economic conditions,
that fecundity might be possible and permanent in its results. For the same reason sanitary regulations and improvements were advocated. Commerce, manufactures and
agriculture should be developed and, when necessary, protected against foreign competition. These were the main
methods of increasing the number of people.   If these
matters were not attended to, the limitations to population,
apparent in the lack of work and food, would result in
national weakness.  Immigration should be encouraged
when the native laborers themselves were in comfortable
circumstances; otherwise their addition would increase the
1 Cf. Pfleiderer, Leibnitz als Patriot, passim.
2 Works (Klopp), vol. i, p. 337.





599]  GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION


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prevailing poverty and discontent. Leibnitz was the last of
the great scholars of the seventeenth century and the forerunner of much of the thought relating to population problems in the eighteenth.
The political philosopher Christian Wolff (1679-1754)
was, like Seckendorff before him, for some time a chancellor of the university at Halle. His Verniinftige Gedanken von dem gesellschaftlichen Leben der Menschen was
published in 1721.' He favors the Bevilkerungspolitik of
those times, but with reservations; the inhabitants should
be "neither too many nor too few."
For the general welfare, the state should have a care that
the number of people does not exceed the limits which the
total product of the state, with possible importations, sets.
People must have nourishment, clothing and shelter; the
state must see to it that the citizens are provided with these
necessaries. If this is not done begging will result; this
should be both limited and prevented by laws.2
Prosperity is the matter of first and essential importancein every really strong nation.  "Where everything goes
well and people make good livings, there every one wishes
to go; and where the opposite is true, no one demands
entrance and those who are there long to get away." 1
Marriage, increase and immigration stand thus in a direct;
relation to prosperous conditions. It is the duty of the
state to see to it that there are as many subjects as the
general welfare and security demand, and for this reason
the emigration of persons should not be permitted when the
state will suffer in these respects.  This, he says, is in
agreement with the general principle that community life
is a human necessity; man is a political and social animal;


1 At Halle.


2~ 279.


8S 275.





210


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[600


no one should, therefore, be permitted to leave a community if those remaining would suffer thereby.
The number of people is obviously increased either by
procreation or the settling of people from other countries;
in the long run, the population is also made larger by a
lengthening of the average life. It is, therefore, clear that
good sanitary regulations as well as prosperity are necessary.  Contagious diseases must be prevented, and all
known methods of furthering the common health must likewise be employed.'  Where an increase in population is
specially desirable, economic conditions should be made so
favorable that a man could marry at an early age and be
in a position to support a wife and children.  It is not
sufficient that women be fruitful in marriage; the children
that are born must be insured life and health and the needed
training. Marriage in its monogamous form is the best
for propagation and for the maintenance of virtuous living.
Adultery and all vice should be prevented by all means
possible, and polygamy in any form is not to be thought of.
Wolff's theory of population is, then, based on general
welfare; his desire for great numbers depends on his view
tfat wealth and national strength are concomitants of density of population. Power, he says, consists in money, in
the army which a state is able to keep, and in the greatest
amount of employment; but above all in a rich and populous state; in such a state there is always more money, and
a larger army is possible than where money and people are
wanting. But, he adds, with some confusion of thought,
It is easy to see which is preferable,-money or people.
Wealth is superior to number of subjects; for where there is
enough money an army can always be maintained and when


1~ 275 et passi.m





6oi0]


GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION


21I


necessary foreign mercenaries can be hired to defend the
country. If there is no money with which to support an army,
a multitude of people is of small service.
His argument here is clearly a pure piece of academic speculation, and is based on the narrow assumption that the political ambitions of the king are of greater importance than
popular well-being. The argument is based on the presumption that the people are naturally unfaithful to the
king and must be bought. Wolff failed to realize that a
healthy but poor people could in his day, as in earlier times,
combine, and when there was a real bond of sympathy, do
more than wealthy governmental organizations with unsympathetic citizens.
Wolff's discussion in its entirety is of about average insight.  His theory that increase depends on marriage,
fecundity, longevity and immigration, which are possible
only in good times, is one whose basis is sound.
~ 5. Lau and Suessmilch. One of the best examples of
the Volksvermehrung spirit of eighteenth century Germany
is found in the sharp analysis of Theodor Ludwig Lau, in
his Aufrichtiger Vorschlag von gliicklicher, vortheilhafftiger, bestdndiger Einrichtung der Intraden und Einkiinffte
der Souverainen und ihrer Unterthanen, first published in
I719.1 His work is quite in keeping with the ideas of the
time: "on the multitude of people depend the power and
wealth of the state." 2 Power depends on population, because where many people live many soldiers are easily enlisted and " formidable armies" can be placed in the field.
Wealth depends on the same, because where there are many
people there is always much trade, and industries and
1 Frankfurt a. M.
2 Das erste Capitel, ~ i.





212


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[602


varied occupations are necessary results. These are fruitful sources of money and money value.1
Population may grow through natural increase and
by immigration.2   Natural increase is made possible by
timely and frequent marriages, quick changes from widowhood to matrimony, and a " copious and rich procreation
of children."  These are made feasible by certain rewards
in money and money value for labor, privileges and immunities to parents and notable preferences to fathers as
compared with bachelors. Increase is hindered by the following conditions:  (i) the great number of unmarried;
(2) severe spiritual and temporal punishments for fallen
women and illegitimacy; (3) the too great license given
to houses of ill-fame; (4) the lack of means with which
to begin housekeeping. Increase is lessened by still other
causes: (I) contagious and fatal diseases and pests; (2)
persecution on account of religious conviction; (3) banishment; (4) wars and general conditions of uncertainty;
(5) heavy contributions and taxes; (6) the supremacy of
force over law; (7) expensive goods and want; (8) violent military compulsion; (9) foreign enlistments; (Io)
the enlistment, emigration and sale of regiments for the
use of foreign powers; (I ) great emigration of native
subjects.
When statesmen are aware of the evil effects of such
unfavorable circumstances, they should use their power and
influence to prevent or counteract them. Commerce, manufactures and agriculture should all be carefully protected
1 "Das Reichtum, in regard, dass viele Menschen vielen Handel und
Wandel, Gewerbe und Handthierungen verursachen, welche gleich
fruchtbaren Miittern, eine Abundantz von Geld und Geldeswerth erzeugen." ~ iii.
2 ~~ i-xi.                   3 ~ xiii.





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GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION


213


and   encouraged.    Whenever possible, wages should         be
made as high as the employers could afford; for with
"money and money value" laborers must live; without
these they are tempted to emigrate or to beg and become
worthless outcasts, and are unable to take care of families.
Want is always detrimental to increase and is the fountain
of vice. A king should govern his country with the same
solicitude with which a father rules his household.
In Lau's opinion a certain regulated form of polygamy
is advisable; it is at least far better than the existing system of brothels and breaking of marriage vows.        It would
lead, he thinks, in contrast with Leibnitz and others, to an
increase in population and would lessen the deplorable
effects of vice.'
Johann Peter Suessmilch (1707-1767) was one of Frederick the Great's military chaplains, a man of scholarly
attainment but of comparatively       humble position.      His
great work, Die Gittliche Ordnung, was first published in
1741, several editions appearing later.2      Throughout the
work his teleo-theological point of view      is apparent; but
this seldom does it any real harm, though it lends a relig1 ~~ vi-vii.
2 The full title is Die Giittliche Ordnung in den Veradnderungen des
menschlichen Geschlechts aus der Geburt, dem Tode und der Fortpflanzung derselben erwiesen. The edition of 1742 seems to have been
an unauthorized but unrevised reprint of the edition of 1741. The
original edition contained the germ and essentials of all the later
and greatly expanded editions. The second edition proper, or that
of 1761-1762, and that of 1742, are the ones used in this study, though
the writer has had access also to one printed after Suessmilch's
death.  Suessmilch was for a time a student at the Halle university
while Wolff was the chancellor; this probably explains the presence
of a preface to the first edition written by that philosopher. The best
and most complete English study of Suessmilch is that by Dr. Frederick S. Crum, published by the American Statistical Association in
1901.





214


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[604


ious tone to many of his conclusions, which are based on
the mortality and birth-rate tables of Graunt, Petty, Struyck,
Kerseboom 1 and others, as well as on his own extended
investigations in Brandenburg.    This work is the first
attempt at a complete and scientific treatment of population, and there are ideas in it of as permanent value as any
of those contributed by Malthus in his Essay. It is Suessmilch who, in spite of the insufficiency and chaotic condition
of available material, was first able to present a complete
view of the apparently accidental character of sex and age
conditions and movements of population in general, and to
show that, when they were considered in large groups over
long periods, they presented very regularly recurring features.
Everything is arranged according to definite numbers and proportions. Men are born and men die, but always in a certain
ratio. Children are born, sons and daughters promiscuously,
but without violation of the order once chosen by Providence.
Men die at first sight irregularly as regards age, but upon full
observation in accordance with fixed proportions.2
The birth-rate is always normally greater than the deathrate, but the difference between the two varies according
to circumstances. The average rate in all countries and
all years covered by his observation is about thirteen births
to every ten deaths. The rate in Prussia was higher than
elsewhere, being sixteen or seventeen births to ten deaths,
1 Nicholaas Struyck's Utreekening der Kanssen, etc., appeared in
1716; Wilhelm Kerseboom published a Verhandeling tot een proeve,
om te weeten de probable Menigte des Volks in de Provincie van
Holland en Westfriesland in 1738, and Preuve interessante et sensible,
etc. (Part xiv, Nouvelle Bibliotheque) in 1743.
2 Preface, p. 21 (edition of 1742).





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GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION


215


while in England it had been: as low as eleven to ten. It
is this difference which is the cause of increase. In the
last analysis the only limit to this increase is that fixed by
the size of the inhabitable parts of the earth; if the world
were as large as Jupiter or Saturn, the births could be
two or three times as frequent as the deaths, instead of
being in most cases not one and one-half times as numerous.1
The actual or possible rapidity of doubling cannot be
determined without considering the special effects of wars
and plagues in particular, and these are quite uncertain
matters, so that all calculations must remain proximate and
cannot be regarded as reliable predictions. Several writers,
with whose works Suessmilch was acquainted, as Graunt
and Petty, Nichols, Scheuchzer and Wiedeburg, had endeavored to determine the time required for the doubling
of population. In every instances they had failed to give
due consideration to the full importance of variations,
in the rates of increase, between cities and rural districts.  London, for example, had annually about one
thousand deaths in excess of its births, and had consequently no natural increase.  This suggests the importan-ce of migrations to city   populations.2  Suessmilch
regarded it as a safe estimate that the normal period
of doubling is about one hundred years. In England, as
Graunt had indicated, the increase was only sufficient to
double the population in about two hundred and seventy
years, while Petty's calculations varied in the proportion
of 10:1200 or I:120, with the resultant compromise for
conditions in his time of a doubling every three hundred
and sixty years.3
In the first edition he estimated the population of the


1 Pp. 2-5.


2 P. Ix.


8 p. 12.





216


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[606


world as 950 millions, but "in round numbers I,000 millions;" in the second edition he placed the figures at I,o8o
millions.1 If a fair portion of the earth's surface be regarded as habitable, he thought it probable that 4,000 millions could live on it, perhaps even 5,000 millions. If increase took place at the rates given in his estimate, population could increase for two hundred years without trouble.
If it doubled in two hundred and seventy years, as in
Graunt's estimate, at least five hundred years must elapse
before even a proximate limit would be reached. But these
limits could not be regarded as certain or definite; agricultural and mechanical improvements were possible and altogether likely, so that the limits to increase might be indefinitely extended.
Suessmilch disagreed with Struyck, who thought that
though births ordinarily exceeded deaths, wars and pestilence had such a strong counteracting effect that popula-.ions remained practically stationary. Struyck's observations were based on the limited material afforded by
populous French cities whose conditions could not be
regarded as typical.
Like Frederick, whose faithful admirer he was, the author
of the Divine Order desired greater populousness.   His
investigation makes him optimistic concerning both the desirability and the possibility of increase; fears of overpopulation he regarded as not worthy of attention. Population not only should increase, but it can and does. It
should not, however, increase more rapidly than adjustments for it could comfortably be made. Improvements
in the modes of production, especially in agriculture, such
as the redeeming of waste and swamp lands and the irrigation of deserts, would greatly increase the food supply,
1 P. 75. See also second edition, vol. ii, pp. 177, 222.





607]


GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION


217


as in Egypt and elsewhere. With more intensive cultivation, the yield of land could be increased even a hundredfold.'
The fact that wars and pestilence often befell countries
where there was not the least over-crowding was an evidence that they were not intended necessarily as checks to
increase; these might be at times God's way of punishing
people for their sins. Increase was variable, and regulated
by God's wisdom and prescience. If it were necessary that
increase be less rapid, two-thirds or more of the children
might be caused to die, whereas the normal rate was not
so great; or still less than the ordinary number might die
if the population were too thin. God regulated population
according to the supplies he had given.2 When numbers
became large the rate of increase lessened and a more intensive cultivation of land made productivity greater, so
that conditions remained as favorable as before.
In the second edition, Suessmilch refers to several calculations made since the first publication of the Giottliche
Ordnung, among which are those of Euler and Whiston,
and Hume and Wallace, and he makes out a geometrical
table of possible increase, but, like Petty's, his periods are
of varying length, becoming greater as population increases.3  Though arbitrary in character, his calculations
seem to correspond roughly with historical data and lead
to more reasonable conclusions than the purely geometrical
ratio of Malthus.
It is the duty of statesmen, says Suessmilch, to encourage
population, because it is the means of happiness, security,
power and wealth,' and the happiness of the masses is in
proportion to their number. It was, moreover, the Crea

'p. 70.


2p* 99..        Vol. i, p. 396.


SIbid., ~ 205.





218


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[608


tor's intention that man should "be fruitful and replenish
the earth."  All unreasonable or unnecessary checks to
population should be removed. Suessmilch's general attitude here is, then, one in hearty sympathy with the mercantile doctrine. This is emphasized in his discussion of
increase.
There are four great and powerful natural checks to the
increase of the human species, besides the general one involved in the limited space and undetermined productivity
of the soil and the effects of a normal death-rate. If increase had actually resulted in the doubling of population
in one hundred years "the earth would long since have
attained the measure of its inhabitants" (das Maas seiner
Einwohner). This would have led to later marriages and
less fecundity, so that deaths and births would have been
about equal, with the consequence that population would
have remained stationary. This was not the case; countries once populous were then empty.  "Where is the
power and glory of Carthage, Thebes, Babylon or Nineveh?"' The answer is found in the frightful ravages of
wars, pestilences and other violent disturbances.
(a) Pestilence causes abnormally high death-rates, as
was seen in Augsburg in 1535, when the total number of
deaths for the year increased from the normal number of
thirteen hundred to thirteen thousand, and in Danzig in
1602, when the rate was octupled. He cited the plagues in
Hamburg in 1710 and in Copenhagen in 1711, as well as
many others. Pestilence often carried with it as many as
half of the inhabitants, not only in cities, but in whole
provinces.  Whether pestilences or wars were the more
destructive was to be determined according to the particular circumstances.  Some wars had changed whole dis1 Vol. i, p. 313.





609]    GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION           219
tricts into deserts, being accompanied by all sorts of barbarities. War had often taken away more than half the inhabitants, while pestilence had swept away from one-twelfth
to one-half of the people. Plagues, like wars, affect adults,
and separate husbands and wives, but they also cause children to perish, and they are the cause of deficiency in the
growing labor force of the country.  People in the marriageable age are lessened, which often necessitates immigration.'
(b) "War is a real monster, a disgraceful blot on
reason and humanity, and especially on Christianity."  War
robs the state of many of its best citizens, generally those
in the prime of life, from whom a numerous and strong
progeny might have been expected. But it is not battle
alone which robs life; the indirect evils incident to camp
life kill many people. Not only soldiers, but their attendants also, must suffer.  Marriages are broken and many
women are forced into a permanent widowhood. Through
the divine provision the sexes are equal, or approximately
so in the marriageable period of life; wars destroy this
equilibrium, and the want of men resulting prevents many
women from marrying.    Agriculture, trade and industry
are often disastrously affected by war, and as this diminishes the means of subsistence (Mittel zum Unterhalte),
fecundity is lessened. By the barbarity which is a part of
war, and by the hunger and disease induced by it, a country
may be put behind as much as fifty years. This was all
evidenced by the Thirty Years' War.
(c) Starvation is one of the very worst and most effective checks to increase. When crops fail, either because of
drought or too much rain, or other misfortunes, want cuts
down men as a sickle does the grain. Of this there are so
I Vol. i, pp. 314-330.





220


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[61o


many historical examples that no special mention need be
made of them. Governments should provide store-houses
and always be on guard against such calamities.
(d) Earthquakes and floods do great damage and destroy much life, but as compared with the preceding checks
to increase they are of small importance.
Besides the above means of limiting population there
were artificial methods of preventing procreation, such as
polygamy; of this existing facts in Turkey and elsewhere
were ample proof. Polygamy destroys the natural form
of sexual union, necessitating the existence of either vice
or celibacy or eunuchism, all of which are detrimental to
increase "and should be abhorred." 1 What eunuchism is
to the East, celibacy is to the West in the states under the
control of the Roman See.
The spirit of exaggerated perfection became apparent even
in the time of the Apostles. It was forgotten what man was,
and what his purpose and destiny in the world were; and
the intention of the Creator was lost sight of. People wished
to be more than men; they would be angels.
But, as Suessmilch remarks, such ideas had been common
among certain schools of philosophy and non-orthodox
Christian communities. Such unreasonable notions, when
carried into practice, could not fail to hinder increase and
foster many evils, such as vice and illegitimacy. In France
alone he estimated that there were 500,000 celibate clerics.
The unmarried state of soldiers acted also as a check to
population. Soldiers were not only forced by circumstances
to remain single or away from their families, but they
suffered from the dissipations and the consequent misery


1 Vol. i, pp. 362-372.





6I I ]  GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION


221I


that accompanies army life.  Lest the effects of all this
should become too painful, the state should provide for the
wives and children and others dependent on soldiers for
their maintenance.1
" That state is on the way to populousness and the greatest common happiness in which all who have attained
mature age can marry and where no hindrances are to be
found." Of course, the greater the number of those living
became, the greater became the checks to marriage, and
fecundity became less, fewer being born in proportion to
those that die.  But a state must prevent no one from
marrying, be he clergyman, soldier or civilian. The two
most important elements in national life were agriculture
and industry. 2 Agriculture is most productive when each
peasant has a piece of land large enough to support himself and his family and to give the state treasury its share,
besides being able to buy what necessaries of life his land
does not provide. He should not have too large or too
small a plot, for excess can do him no good. Factories
are important, but a state can do without many, if it must,
when its agriculture is well cared for.
Prices of necessaries should not be too high, for this
would prevent many from marrying who but for prudential motives might otherwise do so. A man should always
consider whether he would be able to support a family; if
he were conscientious and found it impossible, he would not
marry. The state should use its efforts to remedy such
conditions. 3
Luxury and unnecessarily high standards of living were
harmful and operated against marriage and fecundity.
1 Vol. i, p. 425.
2 " Selbige sind der Pflug und der Weberstuhl." Ibid., p. 426.
8 Ibid., p. 439.





222


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[612


Contrary to much modern opinion, Suessmilch thought that
" it is fortunate when the peasant remains satisfied with his
accustomed food, drinks and clothing." 1 In other words,
he failed to see that while vanity, luxury and the desire for
show restrain men from marrying and so check increase,
they furnish the spur to his ambition which leads to higher
standards of living; or if he did realize this, he disapproved of it. His objection was founded primarily on
the fact that it lessened increase, especially in cities; among
peasants and the lower working classes it was of no great
effect.1
The state should maintain the married state in honor,
and not tolerate vice or concubinage.   Marriage between
persons of too great disparity in age should be prohibited,
and maternity hospitals should be erected to lessen the fears
of child-birth.  Immigration should be encouraged and
emigration should be restricted so far as possible. Freedom of conscience and religious conviction he regarded as
necessary.
Unlike Malthus, Suessmilch came to an optimistic conclusion. Indefinite improvements in agriculture and industry were possible, and this made over-population a matter
so far in the future, if it ever occurs, that it need cause no
concern. In this his theory is like that of Professor J. B.
Clark;2 but, unlike the latter, he disapproved of those incentives to higher grades of living furnished by ambition.
The effects of higher standards he believed would lead to
weakness, as luxury leads to debauchery. This he feared
1 "Die Auflagen beschwereten keinen so als den Bauer und Handwercksmann, gleichwohl sehe man fast keinen unverheyratheten unter
ihnen. Die so sich aus Furcht, um nicht arme Kinder zu haben, nicht
verheyratheten, wiren solche die gerne in der Welt was vorstellen
wolten." P. 50 (edition of 1742).
2 Cf. e. g. The Philosophy of Wealth, pp. 98 et seq.





613]    GERMAN LITERATURE ON POPULATION         223
particularly among the peasants and the common laborers
of the cities, who constitute the masses. His aim was to
procure populousness which meant strength rather than
higher standards--quantity rather than quality. This questionable standpoint is due primarily to his fundamental
maxim, that populousness is the summum bonum of the
state, a point of view perhaps more natural for a monarchist of the eighteenth than for a democrat of the twentieth
century.





CHAPTER VII


THIEORIES OF POPULATION IN FRANCE, I748-I776
~ I. General Survey. It is a matter of no small importance that the fifty years intervening between the first
appearance of the Esprit des Lois and the first edition of
the Essay on Population gave birth to a literature on population more extensive and more thorough than all previous
writings on the subject. This literature indicates, for the
first time, a widely accepted view which contained the elements of the modern doctrine. The greater attention given
to the question was undoubtedly incidental to the reawakening of political and philosophic thought, especially in
France.  The general economic condition of the masses
was, if not more intolerable than before, at least more fully
understood. It was this, in great part, which led to the
numerous protests against the despotic regime of an aristocracy which had too commonly refused to give heed to
the misery of the multitude, and which at best was too
far removed from the poor to realize their needs and to
devise proper remedies for the popular wretchedness.
There were, however, thinkers who understood the conditions of the time, and these devoted themselves to a more
careful study of population and the production and distribution of wealth than had been made in earlier periods.
Such study often resulted in protests against what seemed
the unnecessarily harsh conditions forced on the people
by inhumane administrative practices.  The energy of
224                                    [614





615]  THEORIL. OF POPULATION IN FRANCE


225


economists and philosophers was expended in devising
schemes whereby the lot of the third and fourth estates
might be bettered. To accomplish this, however, it was
seen that not only were administrative reforms necessary,
but a more intelligent comprehension of fundamental economic problems was essential. The greater emphasis laid
upon agriculture as a means of production on which all
depended led the Physiocrats into errors, but they made at
least an effort to solve the pressing problem, of the cause
of poverty and to devise remedies for it. The Physiocrats
appreciated better than did earlier writers the fact that
population needs food and that agriculture was here a
matter of greatest importance.
In the first group of writers considered in this chapter
we find a most careful treatment of population, and the
writers of this group are among the real precursors of
Malthus, or, more exactly, they are the best exponents of
Malthusianism among the French writers of the third
quarter of the eighteenth century. The second and third
groups are composed of writers whose treatment is either
philosophic and speculative or devoted to discussions protesting against the evils to which the people were subjected. The last group is composed of the economistes, or
Physiocrats, who, as Higgs says,' "were not merely a
school of economic thought; they were a school of political action. Kings and princes were among their pupils.
The great French Revolution itself was influenced by their
writings. And the force of their work is still not wholly
spent."
~ 2. Forerunners of Malthus.  The writers who most
deserve to be so styled are Montesquieu, the Marechal de
Saxe, the Comte de Buffon, and John Briickner. The first


1 The Physiocrats, p. 4.





A'^


226           DOCTRINES OF POPULATION                 [616
two write from the historical point of view, while the writings of Buffon and Briickner are written from the biological standpoint and suggest the theories of Darwin as well
as those of Malthus.
Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755) treats the subject well,
especially in its historical aspects, in the twenty-third book
bf the Spirit of the Laws.'
The females of brutes have an almost constant fecundity; but
in the human species, the manner of thinking, the character,
the passions, the humor, the caprice, the idea of preserving
beauty, the pain of child-bearing and the fatigue of a too numerous family obstruct propagation in a thousand different
ways.2
This short passage suggests many considerations, the force
of which has too often been ignored by even more modern
writers.3 Concerning the strength of the physical tendency
leading to marriage he writes: " Wherever a place is found
in which two persons can live commodiously, there they
enter into marriage. Nature has a sufficient propensity
to it, when unrestrained by the difficulty of subsistence." '
He adds also: "A rising people increase and multiply extremely. This is because with them it would be a great
inconvenience to live in celibacy and not to have many
children; the contrary of which is the case when a nation
is formed."
L-Published in 1748. English translation by Thomas Nugent, found
in World's Great Classics (New York, 1894).
2Bk. xxiii, chap. i.
s But cf. e. g. Giddings, Democracy and Empire, pp. 170 et seq.;
"Principles of Sociology, pp. 335 et seq., et passim. The Darwinian and
Spencerian contributions to the subject are reflected in most recent
scientific discussions of the problems of population.
4 Ibid., chap. x.





- A


617]     THEORIES OF POPULATION IN FRANCE           227
Like many other writers, Montesquieu believed that ancient nations were extremely populous and that a depopulation from which the world had not recovered had taken
place.' In a chapter "on the laws of the Romans relating
to the propagation of the species," he declares that there
is much worthy of imitation in their laws:
Statesmen should take the same measures throughout the
whole extent of the Empire, which the Romans took in.a part
of theirs; they should practise in their distress what these
observed in the midst of plenty; that is, they should distribute
land to all families in want, and procure them materials for
clearing and cultivating it.
This is one of the recourses which a state also has when
it has become depopulated "by particular accidents, by
wars, pestilence or famine."   Those who survive such
calamities are apt to be industrious, and population in
ordinarily healthy conditions will soon fill the gap; but this
evil is " almost incurable, when the depopulation is prepared beforehand by interior vices and bad government." 2
Where there is an agrarian law such as the Romans had,
the country may be extremely well peopled, though there are
but few arts. Manufactures and arts are necessary, because
land is unequally divided. The owners of land receive more
for their produce than is necessary for subsistence, so they exchange with artificers, who are thus enabled to live. Thus
arts become very necessary in peopling a country,"
especially under modern systems of unequal distribution of
lands and property.
Ibid., chaps. xvii, xix.            2 Ibid., chap. xxviii.
s Ibid., chap. xv.





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The necessity of providing regulations to effect an increase of population must be determined according to circumstances.
There are countries in which nature does all; the legislator
then has nothing to do. What need is there of inducing men
by laws to propagation when a fruitful climate yields a sufficient number of inhabitants? Sometimes the climate is more
favorable than the soil; the people multiply and are destroyed
by famine; this is the case in China. Hence a father sells his
daughter and exposes his children.1
Montesquieu advises that great discretion be used in
providing hospitals and other aids for the poor. Such institutions should be administered with care, for they are
apt to be abused as at Rome, " where the hospitals placed
every one at his ease, except those who labored, except
those who were industrious, except those who had land,
except those who were engaged in trade." 2   In another
place he adds that the alms given to a naked man in the
street do not fulfil the obligations of the state, which owes
every citizen a certain subsistence, a proper nourishment,
convenient clothing and a manner of life not incompatible
with health. Celibacy is condemned on the usual grounds.
Hermann Maurice de Saxe (1696-1750)8 treats the subject of population very shrewdly in a work entitled, Reveries or Memoires upon the Art of War, first published six
years after his death.' In a chapter of " Reflections upon
the Procreation of the Human Species," he refers to war
as "a means for the destruction of the human race," and
1 Ibid., chap. xvi.                 2 Ibid.
a Hermann Moritz, Graf von Sachsen, was a Frenchman in his
activities.
SIn Paris; an English edition appeared in London in 1757.





619]    THEORIES OF POPULATION IN FRANCE          229
suggests methods for facilitating increase. There is no
doubt in his mind that "the people, almost innumerable,
who inhabited Asia, Greece, Tartary, Germany, France,
Italy and Africa, have diminished in proportion as the
Christian religion has been propagated in Europe, and the
Mahometan in other parts of the world." Some change in
the institutions established by the Church, particularly in
regard to asceticism and a life-long monogamy is demanded.
These institutions prevent frequency of marriage,
and the flower of a woman's youth is often spent in waiting for
a husband; but nature during this time is unwilling to be deprived of her dues, and commits trespasses by which the
generative faculties become at length enervated; debauchery of
every kind takes place.... Add to this that a woman
who bears no children to one husband might notwithstanding
to another, because married couples frequently grow irksome
to one another, and live in a perpetual state of discord and
uneasiness: in short the whole system is repugnant to the
law of nature.
His opinion here is in direct opposition to that of Pufendorf, who considered divorce a thing to be prevented except in extreme cases. This difference of opinion is due
to the fact that to Saxe the increase of population is something to be desired more than the preservation of institutions which would, even to a small extent, tend to retard
increase; whereas Pufendorf's position was more conservative.
Legislators should discourage debauchery and sterility;
and reverting to the old ideas concerning the encouragement of fecundity, he says: " Mothers should be given an
independent part of the family income [say a tenth], and
when they have ten children they should be rewarded by a
pension of a hundred crowns; and they should receive a





230,


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[620


pension of five hundred for fifteen, and a thousand for
twenty children."  The most effectual means of peopling
the world would be through the enactment of a law providing that " no future marriage should endure more than
five years," but to be renewable for a like period if the
persons concerned should so desire; otherwise they should
separate and have children with other mates. " All the
theologians in the world," he says, " would not be able to
prove any impiety in this system, because marriage was
instituted by divine authority on no other account than
for that of propagation."
Though he considered the Christian religious tendencies
unfavorable to fecundity in rendering marriage indissoluble and admitting of only one wife, he believed that
The Mahometan religion, is as bad in assenting to a plurality;
for out of the great number that are married to one man,
there is generally but one who is in possession of his affections,
and the others, who are converted into his slaves, remain
useless with regard to propagation.
If marriages were contracted on the basis of natural inclination and were not strictly monogamous, they would be
more productive, and many unnatural and harmful vices
would be obviated.
~At the end of his discussion Saxe indicates how the
race might increase at a geometrical ratio in generations
of -about thirty years' duration; thus two in the first would
result in four in the second, eight in the third generation,
and so on. But where marriages are happy it would not be
unreasonable to suppose that a more rapid rate would be
possible, providing that religion furnished no hindrance
and affection had proper sway and the laws of nature were
regarded; thus there might be three men and three women





62i]


THEORIES OF POPULATION IN FRANCE


2.31y


to begin with, who would produce 18 children, and these
in turn would have 54, and so on.      In the world as it is,.
such a rapid increase is prevented by various misfortunes
ahd vices.'
In his well-known Natural History,2 the Comte de Buffon (I707-1788) expresses some theories which are funr
damentally correct, but which would now       need a revision.
as far as the exact conclusions and details are concerned;
He regarded man's life, like that of other animals, as dependent on circumstances and environment.        In a discussion on the multiplication of "the hare," 8 he takes occasion to show the parallel position of man in his efforts to
increase.  The over-peopling of certain parts of the earthf
led to the destructive wars and migrations of the Normans,
Huns, Goths and others.: In long periods of time thesd
devastations become of no importance, for the gaps are
soon filled.
Nature in general is always the same: its movements are per.formed on two steady pivots, unlimited fecundity and. those
innumerable destructive forces which reduce the product of
1 The English translator, who is anonymous, refers to the checks
of epidemic and venereal diseases and plagues. The worst hindrance'
to increase is, however, "that contagious malady which reigns' at
present; by which I mean luxury: formerly it was confined to the
palaces of the great, but now it prevails even in cottages; and it is
that which multiplies our wants, and renders children a burden to'
their parents, because their maintenance and education become therebyt
attended with extraordinary expenses. We were much happier in.
those times when plainness and frugality were not accounted dishonorable: the son of a peasant is now brought up with more pride
and delicacy than a prince" formerly. P. 190, English edition of 1757
j 2 Translated by William Smellie in twenty volumes, London, I812.
The work was undertaken and completed between the years 1749 and
1767.
s Vol. v, pp. 88 et seq.





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DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[622


this fecundity to a determined measure and preserve at all
periods nearly an equal number of individuals in each species.
S.. In estimating the whole human species that ever existed, the number of men, like that of all other animals, ought;at all periods to be nearly the same, since it depends on the,equilibrium of physical causes.... Whatever care man
may bestow on his own species he will never render it more
numerous in one place but at the expense of diminution in:another. When any portion of the earth is overstocked with
mren, they disperse or destroy each other, and often establish
such customs and laws as give too great a check to this excess.
After commenting on the infanticide of China, and the
celibacy of France and other Catholic countries, he says
that this rule is universal, that "the same restrictions are
laid upon man without his perceiving it as are laid upon
the other animals: we cherish or multiply, neglect or destroy our species according to the advantages or inconveniences which result from them."  Since, then, physical
causes are permanent, "the number of the human species,
as well as that of other animals, must likewise remain constant and unalterable." Human beings or lower animals
may multiply to excess, but when they do, " their number
is diminished by the same power that produced them."
Buffon's theory can hardly be called " static," for he
recognizes the possibility of increase up to the limit set by
the means of subsistence; and he says that population has
increased a great deal since the time of the Romans, mainly
on account of the greater destruction of ferocious beasts,
with which man had to contend in his early struggles for
survival.  He believed, too, that as man's industry develops, mankind becomes more powerful and better able to
resist animals and other destructive natural forces.  His
theory amounts, then, simply to this, that when population





623]   THEORIES OF POPULATION IN FRANCE


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has reached its natural limits and if progress ceases, population cannot increase.   In actual societies, however, there
are changes, and improvements are always occurring, so
that population can and does increase. It is, however, finally determined by and dependent on nature. These ideas
are very incompletely expressed, but they are developed
sufficiently to allow us to see that Buffon had an intelligent
and well-rounded theory of population.1
A  work which has never been specially noticed, as far
as the present writer knows, by any one except Karl Marx,
and which should rank with that of Suessmilch as regards
the value and systematized form     of its contribution to the
subject of population, is one by another Lutheran clergyman, John Briickner (1726-1804), with the title Theorie
du Systeme Animal, which appeared in 1767.2          It is not
strictly original, nor is its exposition entirely complete;
like most products of the human mind, it is dependent on
its environment and is a product of the time.     The author
refers to both Montesquieu and Buffon, and to several books
on travel and philosophy, from which he obtained the fun1 Ibid., vol. vi, pp. 185-187; vol. ii, p. 409.
2 Marx says: " Sollte der Leser an Malthus erinnern, dessen Essay
on Population 1798 erschien, so erinnere ich, dass diese Schrift in ihrer
ersten Form (und die spateren Ausgaben stopften nur Material in
das alte Schema und fiiten neues, aber nicht von Malthus entdecktes,
sondern nur annexirtes zu) nichts als ein schiilerhaft oberflachliches
und pfaffisch verdeclamirtes Plagiat aus Sir James Steuart, Townsend, Franklin, Wallace u. s. w. ist und nicht einen einzigen selbst
gedachten Satz enthilt. So Brickner, Theorie du Systeme Animal
(A Leide chez Jean Luzac MDCCLXVII), worin die ganze moderne Bevolkerungstheorie ersch6pft ist." Vol. i, p. 641, note (second edition).
The work was printed anonymously, and in the following year an
English translation appeared with the title, A Philosophical Survey of
the Animal Creation. The work is now extremely rare. See Bibliotheca Britannica and Dictionary of National Biography, sub nomine.





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damentals of his theory; but for its time, the work is at
least as original as that of Malthus was in his.
In a section on " la loi qui ordonne la multiplication des
animaux," he says that all animals, including man, will increase as far as natural conditions and artificial circumstances will permit.    In  discussing  the "consequences
necessaires de la loi de la multiplication," he remarks that
as carnivorous animals live on other animals, they are all
cut down to their " just proportions" when they increase
too rapidly.  The vegetable kingdom is likewise held within
bounds by natural forces.1   That man is restricted in his
multiplication is painfully evident in all large cities especially, where the poor, that is to say the great majority of
the inhabitants, are huddled together in miserable quarters
and in gutters, resulting in a very considerable loss annually.
There are some, says Briickner, who believe that a people:
can never be too numerous and who speak of increase as
if it always contributed to general happiness, and who consequently continually urge the sovereign to encourage multiplication. The truth of the matter is, however, often far
different, depending on the country and circumstances. In
a free and enlightened nation, which has great natural advantages and which is protected from the invasion of less
fortunate neighbors, increasing numbers are a good. Such
a country has a flourishing agriculture, and commerce and
manufactures and arts and sciences are under the protection of good laws and institutions; this enables its people
1 "Car dans le monde animal, comme dans le veg&tatif, les especes
ne sauraient subsister que dans une certaine proportion avec l'etendue
de terrain qu'elles occupent: des lors que le nombre de leurs individus
excede cette proportion, elles decroissent et deperissent; parce que
partout, oi il y a surabondance de vie, il y a disette de nourriture."
P. 79.





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to make profits by exchange and to import supplies from
elsewhere, thus extending the natural limits of increase.'
In countries not so circumstanced increase is worse than
useless; it is, as a matter of fact, impossible, and any
attempt in this direction can but result in adding suffering
and an increased number of deaths.2       Savages and barbarians who live by the chase need a vast territory in order
to subsist, and even then the pressure of hunger is usually
so strong that they drift into habits of violence, rapine and
murder.
Coercive forces exist and are necessary in restricting the
numbers of all species. If this were not true, the result
would be nothing less than a final extinction of all life, and
this would happen in a comparatively short period of time.
Such obstacles to increase are, then, of the greatest utility
and furnish the basis for all progress.'     The retarding
forces are obviously more direct among primitive peoples
with simple economies than among highly civilized nations,
which have indefinite means of supplying themselves not
only with necessaries, but also with comforts and luxuries.
The wiser the governmental regulations are, the more happy
and prosperous will a nation be, and among its people
primary warfare will play but an insignificant role.    The
two great checks to increase among more advanced peoples
as well as among savages are, (i) the want of food, leading usually to strife and war, and (2) pestilence and famine, " maux affreux."
1 P. 81.
2 "Tels sont encore les pays, oi l'air, la nourriture, la maniere de
vivre fait multiplier les families, mais dans lesquels la manque de fertilite empeche la population, comme on voit a la Chine." P. 82.
8 Pp. 94 and 145 et seq.
4 " La guerre a ses horreurs sans doute; mais il s'en faut bien qu'elle
presente un spectacle aussi terrible que la peste ou la famine." P. iii.





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DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[626


The cultivation of the' arts and sciences tends to prevent
wars and famines, "and perhaps pests," but at the same
time, while holding these evils at a distance, it brings other
more insidious evils which, though less prompt in their
action, tend effectually to check increase; such as luxury,
idleness, sensuality, and the decay of morals,  The studious
and sedentary.habits of life developed by large numbers of
people in civilized countries also have their drawbacks
(though these are not necessarily harmful), on account of
the greater stress laid on the spiritual as compared with
the physical side of life.  Civilization is always accompanied
by the establishment of many painful and dangerous occupations, such as mining and navigation, which either increase mortality or check fecundity in one way or another.1
This is nature's method of maintaining the equilibrium of
population in the various stages of its growth and intellectual development. The principle here suggested is one
indicating the importance of psychological influences as
affecting the tendency of population to increase, a point
which, even at the present time, has not been thoroughly
investigated.
Nowhere in his work does Bruickner refer directly to the
effects of prudence on moral restraint, but it seems evident
that he takes for granted a justifiable hesitancy in entering
the matrimonial state or a checking of fecundity where a
lack of necessaries is likely to be felt, this hesitancy being
confined to the more civilized people. The absence of any
explicit discussion of this particular point and the fact that
1 " Que l'on considere bien tous les effets que produisent les arts et
sciences dans la societe et I'on verra que, si d'un c6te ils multiplient
I'espece humaine, de l'autre ils portent en eux comme de poisons caches,
qui en retardent les progres, et qui servent de correctifs a 1'exces de
leurs influences." P. 113.





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no attempt is made to state in mathematical form the conflict between natural forces and human desire are Bruickner's main differences from Malthus. The conclusions and
theories of both are, however, essentially alike.
~ 3. Philosophic and Speculative Writings; Voltaire,
Rousseau, Morelly and Mably.    Voltaire's  (1694-1778)
writings on the question of population are marked, like
nearly all his work, by a characteristic shrewd satire and
insight. His main discussion is found in the Dictionnaire
Philosophique.2  He says that "the principal point is not
to have a superfluity of men, but to render those we have
as little unfortunate as possible." He objects to the views
of Wallace and others regarding depopulation since ancient
times, and says: " I believe that even Germany, France and
England are more populous at present than they were then."
Cumberland's estimate of the enormous increase in the centuries immediately after the Deluge he declared absurd.
In the Essai sur les Moeurs,8 he remarks:
We repeat that men do not multiply as easily as is generally
believed. A third of the infants die before they are ten
years old.  Calculators of the propagation of the human
species have observed that rarely favorable conditions are
necessary that a nation may increase by a twentieth in a hundred years; and it very frequently happens that a population
may diminish instead of augmenting. Certain wise chronologists have supposed that a single family, after the Deluge,
who always occupied themselves in propagation and whose
children did the same so increased that in two hundred and
fifty years the earth contained more inhabitants than it does
to-day.  Neither the Talmud nor A    Thousand and One
1 His real name was Franqois Marie Arouet.
2 Pp. 795 et seq. (Paris edition, 1838), sub verbo "Population."
a In Oeuvres Completes, Tome Seizieme (Paris, 1785).





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[628


Nights contains anything more absurd. It is not possible to
bring forth population by mere strokes of the pen.1
Voltaire refers to the disastrous effects of war, and
praises those who provide the country with subsistence by
their labor:
Why should men abandon to hatred, to debasement, to oppression and to rapine this great number of laborious and innocent men who cultivate the earth every day of the year to enable you to eat the fruilts thereof; while, on the other hand,
men respect, dine and courtesy to the useless and often very
wicked man who lives but by their labor and who is rich
only through their misery? 2
Under the caption " Pourquoi " he asks a series of other
striking questions, particularly applicable to conditions in
the France of the eighteenth century, but which could well
be asked also regarding much of the social and economic
injustice of the present.
Regarding the theories of a geometrical increase or progression he has the following to say: " All such calculations concerning this pretended multiplication are foolish
chimeras. If a family multiplied in this fashion the earth
would not have the wherewithal to nourish the people
within two hundred years."  He adds that when a country
has large numbers of idlers who are lodged, nourished,
clad and amused by those who labor, it- is certain that the
country is fully peopled; but this statement can hardly be
accepted except in conditions similar to those under which
Voltaire lived. The numerous privileged " idlers" contrasted with the peasants, whose manner of living indicated that they existed on the verge of subsistence.


I Essai, Tome Premiere, p. 258.


SDictiotsmaire, loc. cit.





-629]


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In the Essai he speaks of the effects of commerce and
industry on human longevity. Among primitive peoples,
who are robust and laborious and simple in their modes of
living, people ought to enjoy a more regular health and
longer life than in the unsanitary environment of modern
cities; but that even they could live three or four hundred
years is a ludicrous assumption: "C'est un miracle tresrespectable dans la bible, mais partout ailleurs c'est une
conte absurde." Increase in numbers and long life are dependent directly on nature, the action of which is " like
the Fates who were always spinning and cutting. Nature
has been entirely busied with births and deaths."
Though the opinions of Voltaire obviously are primarily
protests against the evil conditions of the time, and though
his statements pass from the scientific to the emotional,
there is much in them that is suggestive and valuable, and
as a whole they are modern and reasonable.
Jean Jacques Rousseau's (1712-1778) views on population were intimately related to his general political theories.
He devoted at least two chapters of the Contrat Social
(published in 1762) to the subject.' The end of political
association is the conservation and prosperity of the members composing the political group, and the sign of prosperity is the number of people.
All things being otherwise equal, that government under
which, without strange means, without naturalizations, without colonies, the citizens increase and multiply is infallibly the
best; and that government under which a population diminishes is the worst. Calculators, this is your business,-count,
measure, compare.
Rousseau came dangerously near falling into the common
1 Bk. iii, chap. ix (translated in World's Great Classics).





240


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[630


error of the old nationalists; it was not, however, unpardonable to make such a mistake when speaking in general
terms. People saw that rich nations were always populous, and usually regarded populousness and wealth as interdependent.  Rousseau was careful to add the saving
clause, " all things being otherwise equal;" and with this
allowed, it would be difficult to object to his doctrine.
A body politic may -be measured in two ways, says Rousseau, namely, by the extent of its territory or by the number of its people;
and there is a suitable relation between these two modes of
measurement according to which the state may be assigned
its true dimensions. It is men that constitute the state, and it
is soil that sustains men; the due relation, then, is, that the
land should suffice for the maintenance of its inhabitants,
and that there should be as many people as the soil can sustain.
In this proportion is found the maximum power of a given
number of people; for if there is too much land the care of it
is burdensome, and the cultivation is inadequate, and the
produce superfluous, which is the proximate cause of defensive wars. On the other hand, if there is not enough land,
the state is at the mercy of its neighbors for the needed additional quantity of produce; this is the proximate cause of
offensive wars.1
It is impossible to determine a fixed ratio expressing the
most advantageous proportions between the extent of land
and the number of men, on account of differences in fertility, nature of products, climate, etc. " People may inhabit a small area on the seacoast, even among rocks and
sands that are almost barren, because fishing can, in a great
measure, supply the deficiency of the products of the earth."


1 Bk. ii, chap. viii.





63I]


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241


Such a concentration near the sea also enables the inhabitants the more successfully to repel pirates, and it is much
easier to relieve any threatening over-population by sending the superfluous population to colonies. Peace is necessary for prosperity and increase; wars, famines and seditions
weaken or overthrow nations.
We see that Rousseau's views on population are really
not much more than a repetition of the views of other
writers; but though he was inclined to regard populousness
as of more significance than was justifiable, he was able
to see that there are limits to increase determined by the
amount of land and its products or by the possibility of
importation, and that a disregard of the relation of population to its food supply will result in great misery.
The Code de la Nature by Morelly is one of the early
French efforts to develop a feasible communistic theory.
It was published for the first time in 1755.1 Just as the
views of Rousseau on population are a part of his general
political theories, so the views of Morelly on the same
matter are inextricably bound up with his communism, the
fundamental principle of which was " to receive according
to one's needs and to work according to one's ability;" a
system which he thought would obviate practically all the
ills created or fostered by the system   of private property.2
1 Villegardelle, the editor of Paris edition of 1841, says: "Le philosophe Morelly appartenait A ce cercle borne de penseurs profonds que
le milieu du dix-huiti'me siecle vit s'eteindre sans bruit et sans gloire
S.. qu'ils n'addressaient qu' a un petit nombre de lecteurs des idees
sociales qui nous arrivent par-dessous deux revolutions et trouvent
encore en retard notre siecle progressif." P. 5. See Dictionnaire de
l'Economie Politique, sub nomine Morelly.
2 P. 27. See also p. 53: "Le monde est une table suffisamment
garnie pour tous les convives, dont tous les mets appartiennent, tant6t
a tous, parce que tous ont faim, tant6t a quelques uns seulement, parce
que les autres sont rassasies; ainsi personne n'en est absolument le
maitre, ni n'a droit de pretendre d'etre."





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In the fourth part of the Code, Morelly drew up a sketch
or " model of legislation which conforms to the intentions
of nature."  "As the nation shall increase the minor divisions and cities shall also increase." New cities should be
added when the total population had expanded sufficiently
to permit it without detriment to those already existing.
Public magazines for the storing of necessities, etc., should
'be built by the state, and from these the fathers of each
family should be apportioned what they really needed.
Each city should be so located that the territory around it
would be sufficient not only for the subsistence of its inhabitants, but for the employment of those who could till
-the soil. If a certain city were located in a sterile part of
the country, it should occupy itself especially with the arts
and manufactures, and should be provided with foodstuffs
from cities located in agricultural districts. Every citizen
between the ages of twenty and twenty-five should be compelled to engage in agricultural labor when this was possible.
Every citizen should be compelled to marry on reaching.maturity, unless there were some natural obstacle, and celibacy should be permitted only after a person was forty
years of age. In the beginning of each year there should
be a public festival of marriages; all the marriageable
young people should meet, and in the presence of the senate
of the city each youth should choose a maiden and, having
obtained her consent, take her for his wife. The marriage
period should be ten years, after which divorce should be
allowed in case either party so desired; divorce should not
be encouraged, however, except for good reasons; after
one year's time the divorcees should be permitted to marry
others in similar positions.  At the time of the annual
-festival mentioned above, an enumeration of the citizens,should take place; if there were found to be too many





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people, the excess should be sent to less populous cities or
be used to establish new ones. When the cities arrived at
a stage in which the births and deaths were about equal,
an effort should be made to keep them in a kind of status
quo.'  Such a scheme would result in the greatest common happiness and the least debauchery.
Morelly's ideas were obviously very Utopian and fanciful. There is not much in them of practical value, but
they suggest that a more equitable distribution of wealth
and better methods of managing labor and production would
make the condition of the masses more tolerable.
Another writer who thought that he discerned in communism an escape from many earthly economic woes was
the Abbe Gabriel-Bonn6t de Mably (1709-1785). He referred to the problems relating to population in two of his
chief works, Thdories Sociales et Politiques (first published
in 1763) and De la Legislation ou Principes des Lois
(1776). Though his thesis was the desirability of a communistic state, he did not wish population to increase unduly; a population might be too large as well as too small.
It is limited, but not definitely, by the amount of cultivatable land. In order to make this limit as comfortably expansive as possible, common property would be far preferable to private; for all land would then be used and to the
greatest advantage.2 A community of property would also
do away with many evils strictly attributable, in their most
painful forms, to the system, of private property, such as
evil ambitions and avarice, and population would be more
comfortable, for increase would not cause that suffering
which it often does under a regime of private property.8
1 See "Lois oeconomiques," iii; "Lois ediles," v, and "Lois conjugales," pp. 152 et seq.
2 Thdories, pp. 28 et seq.      Ibid., p. 37.





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Rather than try ineffectually to limit or regulate population, so that it might remain in certain happy proportions,
it were far better, says Mably, to cultivate all land as advantageously as possible, which would lead to an enormously increased production of food and other necessaries,
with the consequence that the race would be much happier;
this would, moreover, be in harmony with natural conditions and tendencies.'  At present there are two great
classes, the rich and the poor; the one revels in abundance
or luxury, while the other suffers misery and want, which
necessarily not only checks increase but depraves.
Mably has no completely developed theory of population.
His conclusions are about the same as Morelly's and based
on similar premises; the great remedy for the misery caused
primarily by want and hunger is to be found in a common
ownership of the means of production especially, with a
just distribution of goods and necessaries.
~ 4. Miscellaneous Writings. Claude Jacques Herbert
(1700-1758), whose Essai sur la Police Generale des Grains
was published in 1754,2 says in regard to the increase of
mankind:
It is evident that their number would augment to infinity, were
it not for physical, political and moral obstacles. It is sufficient to know that men are always abundant where they
find suitable conditions, and that countries have been successively well or poorly peopled according to the nature of the
government. Palestine and Egypt which sent out such innumerable armies have been long since practically deserted;
but Holland and England, formerly thinly populated, are be1 " Mais j'ajoute que les hommes n'avaient jamais etabli la propriete,
la terre serait aussi cultiv6e et aussi peuplee qu'elle peut l'etre. Le
bonheur ne multiplie-t-il pas les hommes?" Ibid., p. 37.
2 In London; there were Paris and Berlin editions in 1755.





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coming filled with more subjects every day. Laws and usages
favorable to cultivation, and consequently to populousness,
cause this difference; and it is easy to see that states are really
not peopled according to their natural rates of propagation,
but on account of their industry, their productions and
institutions.
Like most writers on population, Herbert refers to the
ravages caused by wars and pestilential diseases. The natural fecundity of the race is, however, so strong that it
tends always to revive and to fill all gaps caused by such
misfortunes. These scourges are less harmful than vices
which weaken a nation by imperceptible degrees, and the
fall of any nation is imminent if remedies are not applied
to that languor which weakens agriculture. The subjects
are scattered and they perish so gradually that it is not
perceived. Everything which tends to discourage the cultivation of the soil, tends to depopulate and impoverish
the country.
Men indeed multiply in proportion to the fertility of the soil
and the advantages and resources produced by their labors.
Their first care is for the necessaries; when they find that
which satisfies their wants, there is no worry which effectually
opposes their augmentation. The colonist has no apprehensions concerning the increase of his family when he foresees
that he has the ability to sustain it.1
And population and commerce increase a nation's strength,
but they are finally dependent on agriculture.
Herbert's views are very similar to those of Montesquieu,
but are not so fully and carefully developed.
FranCois Louis Veron Duverger de Forbonnais (1722 -18oo), the last of the great French mercantilists, did not
1 Pp. 319-325 especially.





246           DOCTRINES OF POPULATION              [636
pay much attention to the relation of subsistence to population, and the dangers of over-population were in his
estimation so slight that they deserved no attention. In his
Recherches et Considerations sur les Finances de France
(1758) he praised Colbert's edict of 1666:
This minister, who should merit so well from humanity, seems
to have endeavored to extend the field of his beneficent acts, by
encouraging population by a law which we regard as one of
the finest monuments of his administration, but which could
have been improved in its practical enforcement.'
Forbonnais treated population in its relation to production in his Principes Economiques.2  That which one produces above his personal wants is a superfluity, which is,
however, far from useless, for it may be exchanged for
other desirable things. In order to produce such a superfluity a population must be active in producing the necessaries and luxuries of life, and thus be enabled to give an
equivalent for what it receives and consumes, and every
man who has a superfluity should find a useful consumer.
In this way a population becomes at once a means and producer of-riches. Where people have something useful to exchange there population increases and work and production
and consumption flourish. All are rich by the reciprocity of
needs and the mutual utility of exchange."
Forbonnais's ideas, then, amount to this, that population
and industry are interdependent; and commerce should be
encouraged, for in exchange those gains which result in
common prosperity and populousness are found. He owed
1 P. 391.           2 In Daire's collection, vol. xiv.
8 Pp. 176-177.





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many of his ideas directly to a study of Mun, Davenant
and Petty.'
The Recherches sur la Population des Gendralites d'Auvergne, de Lyon, de Rouen, et de quelques Provinces et
Villes de Royaume (1766) of M. Messance are important,
perhaps, chiefly from the statistical point of view; but the
author indicates what his general conception of the question of population is in a chapter, " des families nombreuses."  He held that the laws of 1666 did not diminish
the number of celibates nor increase the birth-rate. Marriage depended on the will and character of men; their
preferences could not be subordinated to the will of the
legislator; and the fecundity of marriage depended on
causes, largely physical, and absolutely independent of the
will of those who were most immediately concerned; it
was above human laws. Men were naturally inclined to
perpetuate their species; those who preferred celibacy to
marriage had in all ages been very few, and this was true
in his day. Increase depended on the excess of births over
deaths; but deaths and births and the continuance of life
were dependent on a variety of circumstances, some not
easily controlled or understood.
The Abbe Etienne Bonn6t de Condillac (1714-1780) devoted a few pages of his work, Le Commerce et le Gouvernement, to our subject. In a chapter entitled "De 1'
Emploi des Terres," 2 he says that "the same production4
are not equally suitable for the subsistence of all kinds of
animals, and consequently if lands are used to produce that
which can nourish a large number of horses, they cannot
nourish as many men as they otherwise could."  The size
1 Cf. Daire, Melanges, vol. xiv, p. I69. See also Dictionnaire de
l'Economie Politique, sub nomine.
2 Daire, Melanges, vol. i, pp. 340 et seq.





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of a population depends directly on the kind of products
raised and their amount; and as men consume more or
less in accordance with their wants, a population must.diminish if the wants increase and the ability to supply
them does not increase proportionately; that is, where there
is a high standard of living the population cannot be as
large as it would be under lower standards.  Means of.augmenting the desired and needed productions must be
-discovered if population is to remain comfortable and increase.
In a word there is never a greater quantity of inhabitants in a
country than it is able to nourish; the population would be
less, all other things being equal, if each person began to
consume more than usual; <it would be still less if a part of the
land were consecrated to producing things from which men
received no nourishment.
In deciding on the nature of the things to be produced,
it is necessary that the needs of the ordinary laborer be
tonsidered, or his class will greatly diminish in numbers.
If a laboring man finds that it will be impossible for him
to supply the needs of a family, because of a diminished
production of the necessaries of life and higher prices, he
hesitates, or even refuses, to marry; or, if married, his
family is not numerous, so that he adds little or nothing
to national strength. He concludes that "the employment
of lands becomes different as the multiplied wants multiply
the articles for consumption, and this results necessarily in
a diminution or slow growth of population." 1
There is much that reminds one of Adam Smith in Condillac's view, and his theory that that prudence which results in part from higher standards of living tends to re1 Pt. i, chaps. xxiv-xxv.





639]   THEORIES OF POPULATION IN FRANCE


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tard increase in population especially, if not counterbalanced by other and favoring conditions in production, is
one which Malthus did, perhaps, not fully appreciate.
A writer who is not very well known, but whose work
is of value in showing the conditions in France which
caused a great deal of misery and injustice and checked
the country's increase, is Henri de Goyon de Plombanie
(--    8o8). His L'Homme en Societe, ou nouvelles vues
politiques et economiques pour porter la Population au plus
haut degre en France was published in 1763.1 It is clearly
a protest against existing evils, which the author considered remediable and which were at. the root of all the misery and poverty which had so effectually checked increase.
Goyon wished to call particular attention to agriculture
and the improvement of the conditions of the peasants;
for, he says,
if agriculture decays everything languishes with it; and the
want of food stuffs, the first necessity, carries with it mortal
blows for the state. Without industry there can be no commerce, and without commerce there can be no industry; but
without work there can be no agriculture and consequently
no men.2... Agriculture, the mechanic arts, domestic
and foreign commerce, riches, population and the military
forces on land and on sea are the true objects on which
governments should fix their attention;... but agriculture leads to the truest source of the power and riches of a
state, which is a numerous population.'
The class of cultivators had too long been neglected, but
in his time, says this writer, it was beginning to receive
1 Anonymously, in two volumes, at Amsterdam.
2 Vol. ii, p. 236.           3 Vol. i, p. 14.
* Ibid., p. 15.





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more attention,' and deservedly so.2 A new administrative division of the country is suggested which should entail a better division of land and a more reasonable division
of the people in different occupations, especially as between
urban and rural labor.     This would do away, in large
measure, with unjust inequalities, and mendicancy would
be made unnecessary.
A large portion of this work deals with luxury, which
he thought had too often been unreservedly condemned by
moralists. It is true, he thought, that an insufficient cultivation of land, as well as a too great luxury, is detrimental
to increase, but there is another side of the question. The
demand for luxuries causes commerce to flourish and furnishes employment to a multitude of men, who would otherwise be forced into idleness, to the weakening of the state.
The taste for luxuries augments our desires and needs,
and it incites to ambition, which is the principal motive of
human activity.    It is true that luxury is often based on
vanity and folly-but such is man; we cannot change his
instinctive passions by denunciations or arbitrary regulations.  Statesmen should endeavor to guide this force or
instinct along paths where it will do the least harm    and
the most good.     To prohibit luxuries would only excite
the desire for them, and in depriving many of the means
of livelihood would cause them to die of starvation.    The
1 Vol. ii, p. 255.
2" Cette classe d'hommes que nous estimons grossiers et rustiques,
est, a proprement parler, le principal appui de la couronne. Par leurs
travaux infatigables, ils soutiennent la vie, et fournissent la subsistence a tous autres ordres de l'etat, et des matieres premieres pour nos
fabriques et nos manufactures. Par leur fecondite ils peuplent continuellement nos villes, en remplaCant les vuides occasionnes par un
luxe desordonne; ils nous donnent des soldats et des domestiques en
quantiti." Vol. i, pp. 51-52.





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possession of luxuries and the desire for them, however
great the incidental evils may be, prevent at once two
great inconveniences: idleness and excessive multiplication.
Luxury is really an evil only when the desire for it leads
those in power so to oppress the poor agriculturists and
laborers that they are deprived of their dues and the necessaries of life.
Country life is more favorable to increase than life in
cities, on account of the greater salubrity of the air, the
wholesomeness of the food, the healthfulness of physical
exercise, and the general simplicity so favorable to health
and longevity.  Well-regulated foundling asylums should
be provided in cities, especially to save illegitimates, and
dowries should be given to those of both sexes reared in
them.   Military service and taxes should be made more
tolerable, and vice should be limited and regulated, for
whether men or women participate in it, it is "contraire
a la population."  All these suggestions are made with the
primary purpose of aiding increase, " pour porter la population au plus haut degre."
Another and very modest writer, who, though not a
Physiocrat, deemed agriculture of greatest importance in
maintaining and increasing a population, is Pierre Poivre
(1719-1786).   His views are found most concisely expressed in a little work entitled Voyages d'un Philosophe,
ou Observations sur les Moeurs et les Arts des Peuples
(1768).   The needs of a people, he says, depend on a
variety of circumstances, such as diversity in climate.
Manufacturing must not be neglected; 'but agriculture is
the occupation on which all are finally dependent, for from
the fields at least part of the necessaries must be obtained.
Agriculture flourishes according to the degree of civilization and the advancement in good government; and as
people depend on agriculture, it becomes of supreme im




252


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


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portance for legislators to be careful and wise in their laws
affecting the farmers.
The Systeme Social, ou Principes Naturels de la Nature
et de la Politique (1773) of Paul Henri Thiry, Baron
d'Holbach (1737-1789), is, like Goyon's work, a covert
protest against the evils of French maladministration.   He
says:
The advantages of a great population are vaunted on every
side and efforts are made to produce it. We fail to see that
in the nature of things a population must proportion itself to
the bounty of Ithe government, the wisdom of the laws, the
fertility of the soil, the industry of the inhabitants, and to the
liberty and security which the people enjoy. An unjust government already has too many slaves; it gives birth to beggars, vagabonds and malefactors; it enriches one class at the
expense of others; it discourages the cultivator; it discourages industry by its enormous imposts; it renders the fertility
of the soil useless: far from  being able to attract new inhabitants, it forces the old ones to resort to continual emigrations. A country badly governed has always too many people.1
Land furnishes a nation that which satisfies its real needs,
and manufactures give opportunity for other desirable
work.   Commerce is useful in enabling a country to obtain those necessaries or luxuries which nature may refuse
it.  Money is useful in this way, for when once obtained
it is a potent good;2 an abundance of money obtained by
1 Pt. iii, chap. iv.
SIbid.: "L'argent n'est que la representation d'un bonheur en puissance; il ne devient bonheur r6el que pour ceux qui ont appris l'art
d'en faire un bon usage; il n'est qu'un mal pour ceux qui ne savent
qu'en abuser; une nation bien gouvernme, dont les terres sont bien
cultivees, et dont la population est nombreuse, est assez riche et ne
doit pas craindre ses ennemis."





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trade will make a nation prosperous and strong, for it can
buy those things on which people subsist and increase.
The Abbe Guillaume Thomas FranCois Raynal (1711 -1796) referred to the problems involved in increase in several parts of L'Histoire Philosophique des Etablissements
et du Commerce des Europeans dans les deux Indes (1770).
Populations on continents, said Raynal, are limited in the
same way as those on islands, though in the former case
the matter is more complicated.    In all cases population is
regulated by the amount of available subsistence.    When a
country becomes too populous, colonies are useful in receiving the excess as well as enriching the mother country.
The luxury which is generally incidental to great prosperity has debilitating effects, which retard increase.  A   fair
measure of prosperity is, however, favorable to populousness; want and bad institutions check the' growth of a
country.'
The Marquis de Chastellux (1734-1788) discussed the
relation of agriculture to population in his work entitled,
De la Felicite Publique, ou Considdrations sur le Sort des
Hommes.     The size of any population, he said, must depend primarily on the state of agriculture.2 Modern agriculture and the appliances and inventions connected with
it are far superior to those of ancient times, and the amount
1 See the English translation, London, 1788, vol. I, p. 7 et passim.
2 "Je nomme l'agriculture avant la population, parce que, s'il arrive
qu'une nation peu nombreuse cultive avec beaucoup de soin une
grande quantite de terres, il en resultera que cette nation consomme
beaucoup, et qu'elle ajoute a l'aliment necessaire a la vie, I'aisance et
la commodite qui en font le bonheur. Si au contraire, l'accroissement
du peuple est en proportion avec celui de I'agriculture, qu'en peut-on
conclure, sinon que cette multiplication de l'espece humaine, comme
celle de toutes les autres especes, vient uniquement de son bien-etre?"
P. 120 (edition nouvelle, 1772).





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of food produced is consequently much greater, which permits greater populousness.   Population cannot increase
beyond the limits of its subsistence.
He entered into the Hume-Wallace controversy, and said
that he did not believe the increase of population in moder
times was due to commerce and manufactures, but to
superior agricultural methods; other industries depend on
agriculture, which is then the fundamental occupation.
Chastellux advocated greater equality and less favoritism
in industry and agriculture; this would make the people
happier and enable them to increase with greater comfort.1
~ 5. The Physiocrats. The leading motive of the economistes was not, as it had been with so many of their
predecessors, to increase the riches of merchants and fill
the exchequers of kings; but it was to diminish the suffering and degradation caused by extreme poverty. It is
not till the later years of the eighteenth century that we
begin to hear many strong voices declaring that populousness is not always the greatest good. As we know, this is
the period in which the Physiocrats were most influential.2
Though there seems to be no very definite relation between
Physiocratic doctrines, as such, and the newer and more
rational manner of looking at the question of population,
the years which mark the ascendancy of this school correspond closely to the time of the reaction against the old
views, which almost invariably lay stress upon the advantages of living in a populous country.
It often seems to the historian that a certain time was
ripe for the promulgation of a particular doctrine and yet
1 Pp. 147, 172 et passim.
2 Mr. Higgs says that the origin of the Physiocratic school dates
from an interview between Quesnay and Mirabeau in July, 1757. The
Physiocrats, p. 25.





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there was no one to proclaim it, or else, if it were proclaimed, it passed unnoticed by the majority of scholars
and the generality of the people. This seems to have been
the case in the second half of the eighteenth century in
regard to population.  Both Quesnay and Mirabeau, as
well as many others, had stated with considerable clearness
the dependence of population on subsistence, but all this
had been but little noticed; and so when Malthus published
his Essay the doctrine struck men as something entirely
new.
The general doctrines of the Physiocrats did not necessarily involve this new point of view; some of the writers
of this school do not seem to have fully appreciated its
meaning, nor was it peculiar to them; most writers of the
time refused to accept the old views. Still there seems to
be a natural connection between this school and the newer
doctrine. The economistes throw away the postulates of
the old mercantilist writers in regard to the balance of
trade and the superiority of commerce and manufactures
to agriculture, and this naturally would lead to a study of
the capacity of agriculture to support people, and of the
relation between the productiveness of agriculture and population. The Phyciocrats stood in a position from which
they could the more readily and correctly investigate the
problem. They could see the disadvantages of large populations which had not sufficient agricultural produce to
support them, while the mercantilists were not so apt to
perceive any drawbacks here, for their attention was so
largely devoted to commerce and essays on commerce that
they failed to give adequate attention to agriculture in its
relation to humanity and human needs.
Francois Quesnay's (1694-1774) famous Analyse du Ta6 -leau Economique appeared in 1758. In maximes xxv and
xxvi he says that we should be less attentive to the increase





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DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


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of population than to the increase of wealth, for the country's resources are certainly greater when the people are
well-to-do and when agriculture is prospering than when
the population is great but suffering from want of food.
Population depends on the means of subsistence and tends
to overtake, if not to exceed them.1
In his essay on Le Droit Naturel, he defines natural
right as " the right which man has to things conducive to
his enjoyment," which includes the right to the means of
subsistence, which are the foundation of society.       It is
ignorance which leads to the enactment of positive laws
unfavorable to the best annual production, the largest net
product. In the Tableau Economique he also makes his wellknown division into classes, the sterile, the proprietary and
the productive. The last cultivates the land, bringing forth
annual returns in food products and supplying the means
of subsistence.  Subsistence he defines as goods which are
necessary for those who can enjoy them usefully for their
preservation and happiness.     In the sixth observation on
the Tableau Economique he speaks of the importance of a
proper distribution of salaries, which have a direct bearing
on general welfare and the increase or diminution of population.
In the Maximes Gendrales du Gouvernement, he says
1 "La propagation n'a des bornes que celles de la subsistence et elle
tend toujours a passer au dela; partout il y a des hommes dans l'indigence."  Maxime xxvi. Oncken (Geschichte der National Oekonomik, pp. 379 et seq.) says: "Es driickt unverkennbar den bourgeoismissigen Charakter der Lehre Quesnays aus, wenn der Streit damals
dahin erledigt wurde, 'il faut prealablement des richesses pour accroitre
la population et des richesses.' Es folgt daraus, 'que le gouvernement
doit Etre plus attentif A l'accroissement des richesses qu'A l'accroissement
de la population,' denn die Reichtiimer sind es, welche den Menschen
Arbeit verschaffen, und nach der Arbeitsgelegenheit reguliert sich die
Bevblkerung."





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that rich inhabitants should be prohibited from taking their
wealth out of the country; and in the Dialogue sur le Commerce he remarks that though a state may be able to count
a large number of rich merchants who are engaged in
maritime commerce, the country itself may remain poor.
Merchants care more for their personal gains than the welfare of the masses; the nation's wealth becomes concentrated in a few hands, while the large productive class
remains in poverty, and consequently unable to increase.
Quesnay, like Malthus and many others, believed that
population is measured by the riches of the country, when
the latter are equitably distributed. A large population is
desirable, but with this limitation, that the people must be
comfortable.  While Malthus practically denied the right
to subsistence, Quesnay defended it; but as a prudential
measure he advocated that men be not allowed to marry
before they are twenty-five and women not before they are
twenty years of age.1
The well-known work of the elder Mirabeau (Victor
Riquetti, le inarquis de, 1715-1789) entitled, L'Ami des
Ho.qnes, ou Traite de la Population, appeared in 1755.
Only a small part of the work is devoted to the subject
indicated by the sub-title. In so far as the work discusses
population, it takes the ground that a large population is
a desirable thing for the state; this needs no proof; it is
important to discover the means which make people increase and prosper as well as the means of preventing the
opposite. But Mirabeau is emphatic in his statement that
population is dependent on the food supply: " La mesure
de la subsistence est celle de la population." 2 Agriculture
should, therefore, be encouraged in every way; we depend
on it primarily for the necessary food and desirable in

1 See Oncken's Oeuvres de Quesnay.


2 L'Ami, chap. ii.





258


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


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crease. It is not correct to regard the real causes of any
diminution in people as due to the unmarried state of monks
and nuns, or to wars, or to the great number of soldiers,
or to emigration; the true cause lies deeper-in the neglect
of agriculture and of the peasant class.
Mirabeau clearly failed to see the real significance to
popular welfare of labor-saving devices. He says that the
man who keeps a beast of burden, when he could use four
men instead, is " an enemy of the people." He condemned
the luxury of the age, because it meant the diminution olf
that which is so valuable a constituent of society-a wellfed working class. Probably his position regarding this
matter was amply justified in the light of the conditions prevailing. He does not seem to understand the force of the
arguments urged by Goyon on the other side.
On the whole, it may be said that Mirabeau's discussion
in the L'Ami des Hommes is incomplete and, from     the
point of view of this present study, unsatisfactory, in spite
of the fact that he had a grasp of the fundamental relation
of population to subsistence.
The Philosophic Rurale, ou Economic Generale et Politique de l'Agriculture supplements what both Quesnay and
Mirabeau say in their own works; in general, it is perhaps
the best exposition of Physiocratic doctrines.1
All political, economic and moral knowledge should aim
at the encouragement of multiplication and the preservation of those born. This should be the especial care of the
sovereign and the end of the science of social government.
This must be attended to, not with blind partiality, but with
a charity based on correct principles. There is an inviolable law of nature that propagation is without limits ex1 Published in Amsterdam, 1768. According to Dupont, Quesnay
wrote the seventh chapter.





649]   THEORIES OF POPULATION IN FRANCE


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cept as it is checked by the amount of subsistence; all laws
must be made on the basis of this principle.1
Man has three great needs-subsistence, conservation,
and perpetuation of his kind; but of these three the first
is imperative and    indispensable.    Of the three general
kinds of society, nomadic or barbbarous, agricultural, and
mercantile, the first is the one which is made to feel most
keenly the limits set by nature to increase.    The merchant
class in any country gives a value of exchange and quality
of riches to the products of the agricultural class; both
commerce and the culture of the soil are necessary in order
to permit the proper distribution and handling of the products on which life depends.     The strength of a nation in
time of war depends primarily not on the number of men,
but on the amount of accessible subsistence materials; and
it is not by the number of men that the strength is to be
determined, but by the ease and comfort in which the inhabitants live.  To the means of subsistence there are no
exact limits, and consequently the possible increase of population must remain indeterminate.2
Similar views are expressed by Mercier de la Riviere
"I1 resulte de cette loi inviolable de la nature que le principe de
la propagation est sans bornes, et que celui de sa realite est astreint
aux bornes de la subsistence. Il s'ensuit de la que 1'espece vivante,
a qui la subsistence fut donnee avec la plus d'abondance, et par
pr6ference a tous les autres, dut etre ou devenir I'espece terrestre la
plus nombreuse. Telle est la regle invariable de la population." Philosophie Rurale, p. 3.
2 "Les bornes physiques de la population invinciblement assujetties
a ses productions, acquerront la meme extension. C'est ainsi seulement qu'il faut etre populateur. Nous avons done le denombrement
de la population d'apres une masse determinde de revenus. Augmentez
les revenus, la population s'etendra a mesure. Lorsqu'une nation tombe
dans le depirissement, la population y excede toujours les richesses."
Ibid., p. 70.





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(1720-1794) in his essay entitled L'Ordre Naturel et Essentiel des Sociedts Politiques. He says that
when a government operates in such a way that the cultivation of land tends continually to approach its best possible
state, the progressive abundance of production always precedes the progressive increase of population. Men are born to
be happy; and as the highest possible degree of productivity
will always remain unknown, it follows that the highest possible degree of prosperity which a well-ordered nation can attain is a measure which no person can conceive. But in a
state with a poorly managed government, where cultivation
is in a progressive state of degradation, there will always
necessarily be found more men than the products can supply,
because the diminution of the mass of productions will precede population and drag it down; the earth will then be covered
by a great mass of unfortunates destined to a continual misery
which will destroy many of them. We see this now and we
should try to remove the cause. Laws against mendicancy
are vain when conditions are so deplorable. When the salaries
are not sufficient to satisfy the needs of men, the disease is
felt by every part of the body politic. Statesmen should use
their efforts to bring about a favorable balance between consumption and production.1
Riviere believes that in a well-governed state population
will not increase faster than the means of subsistence. He
did not consider what was later termed " diminishing returns;" if he thought of it at all, he believed it was merely
a possibility of the remote future.
Dupont de Nemours (1739-1764), in the Abrieg      des
Principes de l'Economie Politique, says that production
should be so ordered that it suffices for the nourishment of
all people. He adopts Quesnay's division into classes, the


1 Chap. xxxiii; see also chap. ix.





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productive agricultural class being the one on which the
nation relies for its food.  The most advantageous production is that which yields the largest produit net and
which is oif the greatest benefit to the cultivator, and which
also supplies by a proper distribution the needs of the
greatest number. In a similar way the expenditure which
results in the greatest produit net is of the greatest profit
to the tiller of the soil, for it increases production by making cultivation more careful and intensive. In every case
expenditures of wealth and labor should be such as will
result in nourishing the greatest number of people, and
they should consequently be employed in the most useful
lines. The resultant increase in the means of subsistence
and general well-being brings with it an increase in national
revenues.
The right of subsisting (le droit de subsister) is invariably united by the natural order with the duty of working
(le devoir de travailler); the right to riches imposes likewise a duty of working for the interests of the society
through which the riches have been obtained. The classe
sterile has its uses, but not in production, for it is not able
to subsist without that which it receives through the proprietors by the labor of the producers, the tillers of the
spil; therefore, the real interests of these unproductive
classes are the same as those of the producers, and all should
work in harmony to procure the greatest net product, with
the consequent possibilities of increase and happiness.
Dupont continues his discussion in De l'Origine des Progres d'une Science Nouvelle.   The spontaneous products
of the earth and sea do not in themselves suffice for a
numerous population, nor are all the enjoyments of which
men are capable procurable in this way. " It is in man's
1 Sections 3 and 4 (in Daire's Physiocrats).





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nature to perpetuate his species, to procure himself pleasures and to flee sufferings and privations."  Thus there
arises the conflict between his desire to increase and his
efforts to be happy and comfortable; to escape the evil
effects of the conflict, he endeavors to increase production,
especially by improvements in cultivation.1
Guillaume Franqois Le Trosne (1728-1780) writes about
"needs and the means of satisfying them " in some chapters of De l'Int'rct Social (1777). Man is endowed with
needs which are renewed daily, " and he is imperiously and
indispensably forced to satisfy them under pain of suffering death."  The Creator knew this, and not only made
man a creature possessing needs, but he endowed man with
intelligence and strength, and made the earth fruitful.2
Value depends on population and the general well-being
of the people. In a nation which has been impoverished
by a poor administration, contrary to natural order, two
causes concur to deprive productions of that value to which
they would otherwise naturally attain. First, population
is less, because it always proportions itself to the means of
subsistence, although it rather exceeds this than sinks below it. Secondly, there is a great number who desire to
live well and consume products, but who are reduced to
painful privations.  By this Le Trosne evidently means
that when conditions are generally bad, people become
fewer and poorer, which makes the effective demand for
1 L'Origine, etc., ~ 2. Schelle (Du Pont de Nemours et l'Ecole
Physiocratique, p. 377) says: "Du Pont eprouva une vive satisfaction
en voyant un penseur de premier ordre defendre et developper des
idees que lui-meme et ses amis avaient indiquees plus des quarante
ans auparavant. Malthus avait tendu un peu trop le corde dans le
sens du pessimisme; Du Pont le tendait peut-etre un peu trop dans
le sens inverse."
2 Chaps. i, ii.





653]    THEORIES OF POPULATION IN FRANCE           263
goods less, with the consequence that money values become
lower.1
Nicholas Baudeau (1730-1792) discusses the relation of
production to population in a manner similar to Quesnay's,
adopting the triple division into classes, showing the interdependence of each on the others, but with the agricultural
class as the one on which all are finally dependent. The
tendency of population to press on the food supply is
recognized.2
Turgot's (Anne Robert Jacques, 1727-1781) treatment
of the population question is at least as valuable as those
of Quesnay and Mirabeau. In his essay Sur le Commerce
(i753)," he says that the strength of a state, all things being equal, is the possession of the greatest possible number
of people.  A thinly peopled country is a poor country,
and such a country cannot provide means for its defense
or men to combat with its enemies without great loss to
its agriculture and industry. The riches and the value of
the land in a country depend on the number and increase
of its inhabitants.
But labor is the true mainstay of a nation's wealth, and
wealth is the foundation of natural strength when it is not
too concentrated. Every citizen has a right to share in the
benefits of national wealth, and consequently he must have
the right to labor, le droit au travail.' In his expose of
the motives behind the famous edict of 1776, by which he
attempted reforms to alleviate the condition of the laboring
1 Chaps. xi, xii.
2 Introduction a la Philosophie Economique, ~ 2; Explication du
Tableau Economique, chap. iii.
8 Section vii. In Daire's Oeuvres de Turgot avec les Notes de
Dupont de Nemours.
4 Sur le Commerce, section viii.





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classes, he says: " God in giving man needs has made it
necessary for him. to work, and has made the right to work
the property of every man; this right is primary, and the
most sacred and undeniable of all." 1
The multiplication of inhabitants increases the revenue
of proprietors, for it increases the prices of products through
the greater demand for them and it raises rent through the
greater competition for land. The improvement of land
depends also on the increase of people, since the greater
numbers lead to higher prices, which induce men to a more
intensive and careful cultivation.  Proprietors are then
more willing and able to expend sums for improvements on
account of greater prospective profits.2
In his leading work, Reflexions sur la Formation et la
Distribution des Richesses (1766), Turgot divides society
into productive and stipendiary classes.  Regarding the
wages of workers of all classes, he says that they are determined by a competition among them and by their needs
of subsistence. The agricultural laborer is the only one
whose work is really productive of riches. Turgot's doctrine of the tendency of wages to a minimum implies the
tendency of population to a maximumv-an " iron law."
This tendency it is which effectually restrains increase. A
laborer cannot long continue to work for less than is necessary to support him and his family. If he does, he and
his family must naturally suffer from hunger and disease,
which can but check increase in that particular family. If
such cases are common, the population of the country as
a whole remains stationary or diminishes.8
In conclusion, we may say that practically every French
i Quoted by Garnier, op. cit., p. 288.
2 Sur le Commerce, sections ix, x.
3 Re.lexions, ~~ vi, vii.





655]    THEORIES OF POPULATION IN FRANCE         265
writer of this period recognized the dependence of population on the food supply and its tendency to press upon
or exceed the means of subsistence. It was generally believed that most of the evil effects of this inevitable tendency
could be avoided by better administrative regulations, or
that they could at any rate be removed into the indefinite
future.





CHAPTER VIII


ENGLISH, ITALIAN AND GERMAN DISCUSSIONS OF POPULATION, 1749-1775
~ I. The Period in General. The English writers of this
period fall into three more or less distinct groups. In the
first we may put Tucker, Franklin and Alcock. Tucker
represents the old mercantile position in all his discussions;
while Franklin's is probably the most scientific review of the
relation of population to its environment that we can find
in the English literature of the time;-Malthus acknowledged his great debt to Franklin. Alcock's treatment of the
problem is a protest against the evil effects of the poor laws.
The next group is the one of which Hume and Wallace
were the main representatives. The controversial character
of their studies is based on learned researches in classical
literature regarding the size of the populations of antiquity,
Hume maintaining in opposition to such writers as Cumberland and Montesquieu that ancient populations were not
so great as the latter writers supposed, Wallace on the other
hand accepting their conclusions.
The last English writers of the third quarter of the eighteenth century, and whose works appeared almost simultaneously, were Short, who advocated especially stringent
regulations of vice with the view of increasing population
through marital fecundity; Caldwell, who emphasized the
importance of industries in maintaining populousness; and
Fergusson and Steuart, who should be reckoned among
the real precursors of Malthus.
266                                       656





I


657]        ENGLISH, ITALIAN AND GERMAN              267
The Italian professors and publicists who entered the discussion of the question of population had generally as clear
an insight into the matter as English writers. The first
of the Italian writers of this period, the mercantilist Galiani,
may be likened to Tucker, while the last one, the Milanese
Cervua, made an incomplete study not unlike that of Thomas
Short. The other Italian writers 'were influenced to some
extent by Cantillon and the Physiocrats, and in general they
may be regarded as accepting the elements of the modern
doctrine.
The German writers reflect very largely the spirit and
policy of Frederick the Great. They favored the greatest
population possible, and in some cases refused to entertain
any ideas of over-population. Their efforts were directed
toward the discovery of the causes limiting population with
a view to determining practical remedies.
~ 2. Tucker, Franklin and Alcock.     Throughout the
whole of his life Josiah Tucker (1713-1799) advocated the
increase of the population of Great Britain.'  His position
is stated in his Brief Essay on Trade in 1749 and continued
to be apparent in practically all of his works. This is especially clear in his Elements of Commerce and Theory of
Taxes (1755); his arguments here may be summarized under the following heads:
I. Populousness is necessary to the highest development
of civilization. A desirable division of labor is impossible
where population is scarce.
2. Populousness is necessary for successful trades.
3. Populousness tends to prevent that tyranny over tenants
1 By far the best and most comprehensive study of Josiah Tucker,
and not least in regard to his views of population, is that of Dr. W.
E. Clark, entitled Josiah Tucker, Economist (Studies in History,
Economics and Public Law, vol. xix, no. i, pp. 104-120). The present
summary is based largely on this work.





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which is often developed in thinly populated districts where
a few owners control the land.
4. Numbers of people are the strength of commerce, as
industry is its riches.
5. Increase of people causes rents to rise.
6. Populousness makes various improvements, such as
good roads, possible.
7. Populousness brings about a constant supply of goods,
which enables families to subsist and increase.
Like so many of his predecessors and contemporaries,
Tucker had no fear of over-population. 'Poverty, he held,
is largely remediable and the increase of population, with all
that it implies, tends to better the condition of the mass of
laborers. He says, " it is impossible there can be a want of
labor [that is, employment for labor] but where there is
want of industry on the one side or the other. For the
more hands there are employed, the more implements they
will create for other hands." 1
He opposed duties and excises on goods, since they raise
the prices which must be paid by parents for the support of
themselves and their offspring. Care should be taken in sending men to the colonies, lest by so doing the country's population be dimiinisfhed, with consequent damage to industry. The
vices and debauchery of the rich and the nobility are to
be deplored; prostitution of large numbers of women is one
of the most effective bars to increase. He speaks with
considerable feeling against the vices of unmarried men,2
and urges the government to pass laws compelling bachelors
over twenty-five years of age to pay " treble king's tax,poor tax, window tax, and the taxes upon coaches till they
'An Impartial Inquiry into the Benefits and Damages... of Lowpriced Spirituous Liquors (I75I), p. 33.
2 See e. g. A Brief Essay, etc., pp. 404-408 (McCulloch's Collection).





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ENGLISH, ITALIAN AND GERMAN


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marry; that widowers between thirty and fifty if they have
no children shall pay double."  Such a policy he thinks
" would certainly be attended with many good consequences,
both as to the morals and commerce of the nation;" for of
ten thousand prostitutes it is fair to estimate that they are
not as fruitful as fifty young married women; " by which
means the state is defrauded of an increase of upwards of
199 subjects out of 2oo00 every year." Marriage should be
encouraged by granting special privileges to married men;
divorce should be permitted when the adultery of one of the
parties had been proved. If such suggestions were adopted
Tucker thought that his ideals in regard to population could
be attained, at least to a very considerable extent.
To sum up Tucker's conclusions we may quote the following excerpt from the end of the Elements:
A set of politics which promotes industry and discourages vice
0.. puts mankind into a capacity of increasing their species
without bringing misery on themselves or entailing it upon
their posterity... the several parts of the great commercial system do indeed mutually support and strengthen each
other, inasmuch as populousness hath a natural tendency to
promote industry and good morals and these in turn naturally
create populousness.
Benjamin Franklin's (1706-1790) chief contribution to
the subject is found in his Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind and the Peopling of Countries (I75I).
This essay is short, but as McCulloch says, " The circumstances on which the increase or diminution of population
depend are succinctly and accurately stated."'
He says that tables of marriages and births giving their


1 Literature of Political Economy, p. 253.





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DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


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proportions to the number of deaths and the number of inhabitants in populous cities are not applicable to rural districts, nor will observations made in Europe apply to conditions in America.1  People increase in proportion to the
number and fertility of marriages compared with the number of deaths; this proportion becomes greater in proportion
to the ease of supporting a family. " When families can be
easily supported, more persons marry and earlier in life."
Many economic conditions operate against early marriage
in cities and in old countries, young men not being able to
obtain work sufficiently lucrative to permit such action.
Luxury is also more common in cities and old countries,
which necessitates large bodies of servants,who are not in
a position to marry.
Europe is almost fully peopled and can therefore increase
but little and slowly; but in America land is so plentiful and
cheap that a diligent laboring man can in a short time accumulate enough to live comfortably and support a family on
his own land; and if he looks into the future, considering
how his children when grown are to be provided for, he sees
that there is more land to be obtained on condition of labor
and with comparative ease. Hence marriages in this new
country are generally earlier and more frequent than in
Europe and the older parts of the world. "And," he says,
if it be reckoned there [tin Europe] that there is but one
marriage per annum among Ioo persons, perhaps we may
reckon two; and if in Europe they have four births to a
marriage (many of their marriages being late), we may reckon
eight, of which, if one-half grow up, and our marriages are
made, reckoning one with another, at twenty years of age, our
peoplle must at least be doubled every twenty years.
1 Works (Sparks), vol. ii, pp. 311 et seq.; see especially ~ i.





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He adds that even at this rate the territory of America is
so vast that " it will require many ages to settle it fully." 1
Among the causes tending to retard or diminish populations Franklin mentions six in particular:
I. " The being conquered," resulting in oppression and
heavy taxation, with consequent harder conditions of obtaining subsistence.
2. " Loss of territory;" the smaller the territory the
smaller the population must be.
3. " Loss of trade;" when manufactures are exported they
draw in return subsistence from foreign countries, and the
employment and food thus made available enable many to
marry and raise families.
4. ( Loss of food."
5. "Bad government and insecure property."    People
emigrate from countries where such conditions prevail.
6. " The introduction of slaves," which drives poor white
people out of employment and centers property in the hands
of a few rich proprietors.
Hence the prince that acquires new territory if he finds it
vacant or removes the natives to give his own room; the legislator that makes efficient laws for promoting trade, increasing
employment,... improving of land by more and better
tillage, providing more food by fisheries, securing property;
S.. *and the man that invents new trades, arts or manufactures or new improvements in husbandry may be properly
called fathers of the nation, as they are the cause of the
generation of multitudes, by the encouragement they afford
to marriage.2
Such laws as the jus trium liberorum of the Romans may
hasten the recovery of a population thinned by war or


1 Op. cit., ~ 7.


SIbid., ~ r4.





272


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[662


pestilence, and may bring about the peopling of vacant territory; but they cannot increase a people beyond the means
provided for their subsistence.
There is no bound to the prolific nature of plants or animals,
but what is made by their crowding and interfering with each
other's means of subsistence. Was the face of the earth
vacant of other plants, it might be gradually sowed with one
kind only, as, for instance, with fennel; and were it empty
of other inhabitants, it might in a few ages be replenished from
one nation only, as, for instance, with Englishmen.
He says that not more than eighty thousand Englishmen
had 'been brought to America, but by natural increase they
amounted to more than a million in the middle of the
eighteenth century. By doubling every twenty-five years
-a moderate rate of increase, in his opinion-this million
would in another century result in a greater number of
Englishmen in America than in the mother country. And
he remarks "What an accession of power to the British
Empire by sea as well as by land!" 1
Franklin failed to give the psychological side of the question due attention; but it was natural, from the American
point of view at the time, that increase should be regarded
about as Franklin regarded it. Few writers had been able
to see that the result of progress, greater general culture
and refinement which would come with increase contained
retarding forces in themselves, even though the general
standard of comfort rose or remained stationary. Franklin
does say however, that the size as well as the increase of
population depends largely on the prevailing kinds of occupations. Indians who lived mainly by hunting required


I Op. cit., ~ 22





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vast tracts of land in order to subsist comfortably, whereas a commercial nation could support more people than a
purely agricultural one or one which lived on its herds by
hunting. We can but admire Franklin's ability the more
on reviewing the contents of this essay, which though short
is yet so full of all that which is best in the thought of
his contemporaries on the problems involved in the increase
of mankind.
An interesting essay having a bearing on our subject is
one written by the Reverend Thomas Alcock, (1709-1798)
entitled, Observations on the Defects of the Poor Laws and
on the Causes and Consequences of the Great Increase and
Burden of the Poor (1752). This work brings out the
conflict of ideas involved in the desire to increase the population and at the same time to keep down the poor rates.
The writer maintained that the Elizabethan poor laws
tended to injure industry and frugality. " The fear of one
day coming to want is a strong motive with most people
to be industrious, careful and sober and to make use of
their youth and health and strength to provide," etc. And
the forced and expensive way of relieving the poor " has put
many gentlemen and parishes upon contriving all possible
methods of lessening their number, particularly by discouraging and sometimes hindering poor persons from
marrying." 2
He says that any schemes embodied in bills for the
naturalization of foreigners, to provide " useful hands for
agriculture, manufactures and for the land and sea service,
would only increase the evil by bringing to England a
shoal of ragged foreigners." 3 He says further that
1 Cf. Statutes at Large, Concerning the Provision for the Poor
(London, 1733), pp. 2 et seq:
2 Observations, etc., p. 19.       3 Ibid., p. 20.





274


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[664


when a minister marries a couple, though but a poor couple,
he rightly prays " that they may be fruitful in procreation of
children." But many of the parishioners pray for the very
contrary, and perhaps complain of him for marrying persons,
that, should they have a family of children, might likely become chargeable.
The poor have never ceased from the earth: they have been
found to appear more or less in every age and every country.
Sloth, extravagance, sickness, misfortunes of fire, of storm
or inundation, lameness, blindness, the weakness of infancy
and old age:-these causes have never failed nor ever will
fail to produce in every country poverty and distress among
great numbers.
Among the extravagances of which the poor in England
were guilty Alcock mentions the luxuries of snuff-taking and
tea-drinking. The tea habit was particularly bad for the
poor, for " there is also a considerable loss of time which
attends this silly habit, in preparing and sipping their tea;
a circumstance of no small moment to those who are to live
by their labor." 1 But the worst habit which keeps the poor
in poverty and checks healthy increase is that of dramdrinking. His arguments are echoed in the modern temperance literature:
If we look abroad into the world and, view the havock and destruction which dram-drinking makes among the common
people, amongst whom it chiefly prevails, and consider the
miseries and calamities which it brings, by that means, upon
the nation in general, every thinking well-wisher of his country must be greatly shocked by such a scene.... It consumes the gains and subsistence of people and reduces them
to poverty and want; destroys their health and strength and
makes them unwilling and unable to work and cuts off the


1 Observations, etc., p. 46.





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thread of life before they have lived out half their days;...
and exposes them to vice and corruption... from which follow a great loss of useful hands to our manufactures and
agriculture.1
Alcock desired increase of numbers and he would encourage marriage in the case of those who could comfortably provide for themselves and their children, but not
otherwise; and he would use all means to prevent idleness,
drinking, gaming and vice, which bring men to want and
distress and diminish or waste the means of subsistence.2
~ 3. The Hume-Wallace Controversy. In his Discourse
concerning the Populousness of Antient Nations David
Hume (1711-1776) gives one of the most thorough and
systematic treatises ever written on the problem of population from the historical perspective.3  He aimed to prove
that ancient nations were not so populous as certain estimates had indicated.
In general, we may observe the question with regard to the
comparative populousness of ages and kingdoms implies very
important consequences, and commonly determines concerning the preference of their whole police, manners and constitution in government. For as there is in all men, both
male and female, a desire and power of generation more
active than is ever universally exerted, the restraints which
it lyes under must proceed from difficulties in men's situation,
which it belongs to a wise legislature carefully to observe
and remove. Almost every man who thinks he can main1 Observations, etc., pp. 49-50; cf. also p. 74.  2 Ibid., p. 75.
3 In the Political Discourses, Edinburgh, 1752. Von Mohl says of
this work: " Ohne Zweifel ist die ganze Arbeit das beste was iiberhaupt vor Malthus iiber das Bev6lkerungswesen geschrieben worden
ist (wenn auch in ganz verschiedener Richtung)." Geschichte, etc.,
vol. iii, p. 424.





276


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[666


tain a family will have one; and the human species, at this
rate of propagation, would more than doubl~e every generation,
were every one coupled as soon as he comes to the age of
puberty. How fast do mankind multiply in every colony or
new settlement, where it is an easy matter to provide for a
family, and where men are no way straitened or confined, as in
long established governments? History tells us frequently of
plagues that have swept away one-third or one-fourth part of
a people; yet in a generation or two the destruction was not
perceived.... The lands that were cultivated, the houses
built, the commodities raised, thb riches acquired, enabled
the people who escaped immediately to marry and to rear
families, which supplied the place of those who had perished.
And for a like reason, every wise, just and mild government,
by rendering the condition of its subjects easy and secure will
always abound most in people, as well as in commodities and
riches.1
Later in his essay he speaks more in detail, basing his
remarks on a very thorough study of classical writings. I-He
thinks that slavery, which was practically universal, had a
baneful influence on increase, because there were so many
hardships and restrictions imposed on the slaves. This was
also his main reason for concluding that the ancient slaveholding nations were not so populous as Wallace and others
supposed. Foundling asylums, he held, are desirable in a
restricted sense only; if there are too many or if access to
them, is too easy, vice, which hinders populousness, is encouraged. " Enormous cities" too he views unfavorably;
they are destructive of the general social welfare, begetting
vice and disorder and starving both distant provinces and
themselves "by the high prices to which they raise all provisions." 2 He thought also that small nations are more


1 Pp. 156, i6o.


2P. 183.





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favorable to general well-being than large ones: " When
nations were divided into small territories and petty communities, where each man had his house and field to himself, and each county had its capital, free and independent,
what a happy situation for mankind and how favorable to
population!" ' This idea is obviously Utopian and fails to
take into account the almost inevitable quarrels and wars
which would more than counterbalance the benefits derived
from lower taxation and small personal land-holdings.
Doctor Robert Wallace's (1694-1771) discussion.is entitled.4 Dissertation on the Numbers of Mankind in Ancient
and Modern Times (I753). Besides indicating the relation
between population and subsistence he endeavored to prove
that modern nations are not as populous as the ancient ones,
on account of the detrimental effects of modern commercial
life and the ways of living that have developed with it.
He makes a calculation according to which the human
race would naturally increase in a geometrical ratio in periods of approximately thirty-three years; but in a period of
some twelve hundred years at this rate the numbers become
so incredibly large, that he says, if this had occurred
They must have overstocked the earth before the Deluge.
Such a consequence, therefore, quite inconsistent with fact,
as well as the experience of the world concerning the proportion between births and marriages, must convince us that
mankind cannot be supposed to propagate at so high a rate.
It is certain, however, every marriage must produce more
than one couple; else, reckoning the period of human life to
be Ioo years, there could never be a dozen persons alive at any
one time. Every couple therefore produces more than one
but fewer than two couples. Mankind do not actually propagate according to any constant rule; yet tables of this kind
1 In the Edinburgh edition (the second), 1809.





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(sic) may serve to show how the increase of mankind is prevented by various causes which confine their numbers within
such narrow limits.1
The causes of the existing paucity of inhabitants, he says,
are manifold; but this is not attributable to, a want of prolific virtue, but to circumstances which distress mankind.
Some of these are physical and others are moral. Of the
physical checks he mentions some as constant; such as temperature, climate or barrenness of soil.  More variable
checks are the inclemency of certain seasons, plagues,
famines, earthquakes, floods and inundations of the, sea.
The effects of all of these untoward circumstances can be
lessened, to a certain extent, " by the skill and industry of
men and by wholesome laws and institutions." 2
Moral impediments to increase are those which arise
from the passions and vices of men; such as, wars, poverty,
civil and religious corruption, intemperance, debauchery,
idleness and luxury, and " whatever either prevents marriage or weakens the generative faculties of men or renders
them either negligent or incapable of educating their children or cultivating the earth to advantage."
Among some " general maxims " governing population
he mentions the fact that a rude and barbarous people living
by hunting, fishing or by pasturage and without cultivating
the soil can never be as populous as an agricultural or industrial people. " In every country there shall always be
found a greater number of inhabitants, caeteris paribus, in
proportion to the plenty of provisions it affords, as plenty
will always encourage the generality of people to marry;"
and a fairly equitable and even division of property furthers
the same end. He speaks of the state's supervision and care


1P. 7.


' P. I2 et passim.





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in regard to these matters: "As the number of people in
every nation depends on the number and fruitfulness of
marriages and on the encouragements given to marry,
wherever the greatest care is taken in this respect, the number of people, caeteris paribus, shall be greatest."
Wallace recommended that special attention be paid to
agriculture and fishing,
as mankind can be supported only by the fruits of the earth
and animal food.' Contrary to the usual opinion he thinks that
trade and commerce, instead of increasing, may often tend to
diminish the number of mankind, and may be not a little detrimental on the whole, as they promote luxury and prevent
many useful hands from being employed in agriculture.2
Money is not of such prime importance as the mercantilists
would have us believe:
Men live not on money, but on food... and if, by
greater attention to manufactures than to agriculture, common food become scarce and dear, whatever plenty of money
may be supposed in such a situation, there must be great
discouragements to marry, as it will be impossible to support
families easily.
The studies which Hume and Wallace accorded to population are among the best to be found in the eighteenth century. They agree in the fundamental aspects of the problems involved, but on account of the historical point of view
in both cases they come to different conclusions regarding
a purely academic matter,-the comparative populousness
of antiquity and the present. Hume emphasized the re

I P. i9.


2 Pp. 22 and 25.





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tarding effects incident to a political economy founded on
slavery, while Wallace called attention to the checks developed in a highly industrial community, through luxury
and the unequal distribution of wealth.
William Bell (1731-1816) was awarded a prize by Lord
Townshend on account of a work which entitles him to a
place among English economists-a dissertation on Wha-t
Causes principally contribute to render a Nation Populous,
and what Effect has the Populousness of a Nation on its
Trade? 1 Bell continued the discussion of population from
Wallace's point of view, claiming that modern commerce,
arts and institutions tend to diminish population, for there
"are not any bounds originally prescribed to humane
nature." They divert production, sol that it is not applied
in procuring the necessaries of life, and, through the influx
of money, make the prices of provisions high and render
the support of families difficult; whereas agriculture and
the more useful arts by lowering prices must cause a fall
in wages, but to what extent or in what proportion Bell
regards as " an idle and useless curiosity." 2 To encourage agriculture and the more necessary employments, he
thought that " of all political institutions none seems more
immediately necessary than an equal division of lands."
He proposed, therefore, that the right of primogeniture be
abolished. He recommended a republican form of government as most favorable to increase, and only after population had increased very greatly would he advise the introduction of commerce and that great variety of industries
which produce goods not actually necessary.
This dissertation was attacked by William Temple, "a
1 Published in Cambridge in 1756.
t P. I9.





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clothier of Trowbridge,"'1 in A Vindication of Commerce
and the Arts (1758).2 McCulloch says of this essay, that
" Statements and reasonings similar to those of Bell have
been frequently reproduced, but we do not know that their
shallow sophistry has ever been more completely disposed
of than in this tract " of Temple.3 While Bell regarded
agriculture as the main cause of populousness, Temple, on
the other hand, attributed " populosity " to more varied
causes, such as foreign commerce and immigration, good
climate and the employment of foreign mercenaries; and
he thought that agricultural pursuits and rural simplicity
could not in themselves give a sufficient spur to increase
population, or to produce wealth beyond the customary
necessities and comforts of the workers on land; if these
could be produced by three days' labor, the average laborer
would work only three days, instead of six, in every week.
A great plenty and a great industry must be incompatible,
chiefly for the want of the spur to ambition and the temptation to idleness and debauchery. Bell's view is one taken
from a narrow Physiocratic standpoint, while Temple's is
inspired by a devotion to the advantages of trade.
~ 4. Caldwell, Short, Ferguson and Steuart. The Reverend Sir James Caldwell (1734-1781) discusses the dependence of population on economic organization in An
Inquiry how far the Restrictions laid upon the Trade of
Ireland by British Acts of Parliament are a Benefit or a
Disadvantage, etc.4  Trade, he says, naturally results from
the establishment of civil society, and it is absolutely neces1Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy, sub nomine.
2 In McCulloch's Tracts on Commerce, pp. 481-609.
3 Literature of Political Economy, p. 52.
4 Published in 1766, in Debates Relative to the Affairs of Ireland,
vol. ii, pp. 743 et seq.





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sary for the maintenance of such a society. It is admitted
that the simple necessaries of life depend on agriculture
and the breeding of cattle; but as a consequence of an
advanced and complex social organization, there arises a
social and economic inequality, and if agriculture were then
the only opening for labor, many must needs be out of
employment-in fact, many could not exist at all. But the
rich who are found in such a state demand not only necessaries but also luxuries, and this widens the opportunities
for gaining a livelihood; hence luxuries are necessary, and
the commerce and industries which produce them are not
evil, but necessary and beneficial.
The strength of a nation is not proved primarily by its
populousness, but by its organized maritime and military
strength.  Thus England's strength lies not only in its
trade and people, but in its marine, which protects the
shipping.  Trade thus protected increases and will fully
employ all the people, and this leads naturally to an increase of population; without this protection trade diminishes and numbers decrease.
Caldwell's views were undoubtedly based largely on a
knowledge of the works of Hume and others in the preceding decade, and, in another way, the Comparative History of the Increase and Decrease of Mankind in England
and Several Countries Abroad (1764) of Sir Thomas Short
seems to have been inspired by the same group of writers.
He says: " To make a nation more populous, cities and
towns more healthy, and youth hardier and stronger, these
three things challenge the most careful regard: i. Encourage marriage.  2. Suppress vice and promote virtue.
3. Mend the air." ' Among the causes which retard or


SP. 25.





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diminish increase, he mentions "especially swearing, drunkenness and whoredom, and the increasing consumption of
spirituous liquors, a passion producing madness, wickedness, disease and death."  Luxury in dress and diet, he
says, are also " sure back-doors for diseases and death."
He remarks, in connection with his desire to encourage
marriage, that foundling asylums tend directly to produce
vice, but that orphans' homes to help unfortunate children
are desirable.
For it may be easily made appear how directly opposite to this
design the building and endowing of foundling hospitals is;
and how much they tend to encourage... vices...
(and to discourage virtue and morality), to the weakening and
incapacitating of youth for procreating strong, healthy children and rendering women barren, and in so far depopulating
their country and exposing it to the inroads and attacks of
its enemies, as well as the contempt of its neighbors and
grief of its true and virtuous friends: so nothing can more
reflect honor on the Christian name and reformed religion,
and tend to the encouragement of marriage, among the poor
especially, who are the great strength of every nation, than
the building and endowing of orphan hospitals, for the reception and education of indigent and helpless children, whose
parents by death or by being in the service of their country,
or by long sickness and its consequences, losses, want, decay
of trade, and perhaps at the same time a numerous progeny,
have brought them to want and misery....... Let a tax
be laid on bachelors, and be totally and truly appropriated to
the support of such orphan hospitals.
Short not only suggested that more stringent and intelligent methods of dealing with vice be used, but he believed
that the enclosure of arable lands should be forbidden. This
had an obvious disadvantage, in lessening production and





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possible increase.'     To  diminish   the great mortality     of
cities he advocated better sanitary administration, and then,
if industry were promoted and the purity of -the life of the
people guarded, population would surely increase.2
Doctor Adam Ferguson (1723-1818) expressed very
reasonable opinions regarding population in An Essay on
the History of Civil Society (1767).        He says:
The growth of industry, the endeavors of men to improve their
arts, to extend their commerce, to secure their possessions and
to establish their rights are indeed the most effectual means
to promote population: but they arise from a different motive;
they arise from regards to interest and personal safety. They
are intended for the benefit of those who exist, not to procure the increase of their members.3
1 P. 31.
2 P. 36. Short wrote another work, in which he discussed the death
and birth rates, entitled Ncw Observations on Town and Country Bills
of Mortality. Corbyn Morris's Observations on the Past and Present
State of the City of London was published in 1750. A Swedish writer
and scholar, Pehr Vilhelm Wargentin, made some scientific contributions to the study of birth rates in Kongliga Svenska VetenskapsAcademiens Handlingar, 1754-1755, 1766-1767. See Harald Westergaard's Die Grundzige der Theorie der Statistik, pp. 363-365. According to Westergaard, writing in the Dansk Biografisk Lexikon, a.
Danish economist and clergyman, Otto Diderik Liitken (1713-1788),
announced the so-called Malthusian doctrine a generation before Malthus. He wrote several articles in Pontoppidan's Oekonomisk Magasin, which appeared from 1757 to 1764. Some of the articles were
also included in an independent work entitled, Undersogninger angaaende Statens almindelige Oekonomie (1760) and in an Undersigning om Hindringer for Folkemiingden (1761). This writer's brother,
Frederick Christopher Liitken, however, accepted the older belief in
the efficacy of great populousness, and held that it was not gold
or silver which enriched a country, but "work and men;" and he
wished to increase consumption not by wasteful luxury, but by increasing the population.
3 Essay on Civil Society, p. 214.





675]       ENGLISH, ITALIAN AND GERMAN             285
In this passage Ferguson points out elements in the prolblem which had usually been overlooked by his predecessors.
Of course, it is not quite correct to say that increase of
population does not serve as a motive for economic activity,
since the desire to secure means of supporting a familya motive involving the desire to increase numbers-is one
of the most potent economic forces. This Ferguson apparently denies, while emphasizing the more egoistic motive.
The general tendency to increase he states thus: " Men
will crowd where the situation is tempting, and in a few
generations will people every country to the measure of its
subsistence." 1  This statement is concise, but it merely
expresses what, even in his time, was generally well recognized. He continues:
The statesman who by premiums to marriage, by allurements
to foreigners or by confining the natives at home apprehends
that he has made the numbers of his people to grow is often like
the fly in the fable, who admired its success in turning wheels
and in moving carriages: he has only accomplished what was
already in motion'; he has dashed w'ith his oar to hasten the
cataract; and waved with his fan to give speed to the winds.2
The full force of Ferguson's statement here is one which
was not then, and is perhaps not even yet, fully appreciated
by legislators and the more intelligent public opinion, certainly not by the uneducated.
The increase of mankind made possible by the accumulation and fair distribution of wealth has its limits. " The
necessary of life is a vague and relative term; it is one
thing in the opinion of the savage, another in that of the
polished citizen; it has a reference to the fancy and habits
1 P 26  i Ibd.


1 p. 216.


2 Ibid., p. 217.





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of living."'' If a civilized man fails to get what he regards as necessary, he is often restrained from marrying
and raising a family, whereas a savage with much less
would and could rear a numerous progeny. In a civilized
country where the standard of living is high or rising, the
state's policy should be so to increase industry that the
wealth produced may keep pace with the standard, so that
population can increase. These artificial efforts on the part
of man are necessary to provide subsistence, but nature
has provided for increase by the force of " desires the most
ardent in the human frame."    Industry and arts, then,
must develop out of common prudence and consideration.
" When the possession, however redundant, falls short olf
the standard and a fortune supposed sufficient for marriage
is attained with difficulty, population is checked and begins
to decline," says Ferguson. This cannot be admitted without qualification; it is possible that population might increase in spite of these circumstances, but more slowly,
with a falling standard, or a stationary one.
In his Principles of Moral and Political Science, published several years later than the Essay,2 we find what
are really his summary and conclusions in regard to the
problem. He says:
The number in which we should wish mankind to exist is
limited only by the extent of place for their residence and of
provision for their subsistence and accommodation; and it
is indeed commonly observed... that the numbers of
mankind in every situation do multiply up to the means of
-subsistence..... To extend these limits is good; to narrow
-or contract them is evil; but although the increase of numbers
1 Essay on Civil Society, p. 218.
2 In Edinburgh, I792; see vol. ii, pp. 409-410o.





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may thus be considered an object of desire, and although we
may wish, in every instance, that the people should multiply,
yet it does not follow that we ought to wish the species thus
indefinitely multiplied.
Sir James Steuart's (1712-1780) contribution to the
subject is one of the best among the English writers
of his generation.  It is found in the first book of the
Principles of Political Oeconomy, being an Essay on the
Science of Domestic Policy in Free States (I767). His
treatment "of population and agriculture" is quite extensive, but not from the historical point of view so common
among writers on population.   His aim is " to examine
the natural and rational causes of multiplication." Nor is
his work based on such theological conceptions as Suessmilch's; he declares that it is not his purpose to examine
the supernatural means by which God multiplies the peoples.
Animals multiply in proportion to the food produced
" regularly throughout the year."  If man did not cultivate
the land he would be limited in numbers in a similar way.1
Nature is prodigal in bestowing life by generation.
Several kinds of animals, especially insects, multiply by thousands, and yet the species does not appear annually to increase.
It is reasonable to conclude that what destroys such
vast quantities must be, among other causes, the want of food.
The case with man is similar; his numbers vary according to the indefinitely limited amount of subsistence, but
his ability to increase remains always greater than is needed.
The generative faculty resembles a spring with a loaded weight,
which always exerts itself in proportion to the diminution of


1Pp. I8-i9.





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resistance: 1 when food has remained sometime without augmentation or diminution the spring is overpowered; the force
of it becomes less than nothing, inhabitants will diminish at
least in proportion to the overcharge. If upon the other hand
food be increased the spring will exert itself in proportion as
the resistance diminishes; people will begin to be better fed;
they will multiply, and in proportion as they increase in numbers, the food will become scarce again.2
In his endeavor to express himself somewhat exactly in
terms of related proportions, Steuart ignored the possibility
of varying standards of living; in a general way, however,
he probably took this for granted as a mere qualification
of his principle, not as something which invalidated it.
His general conclusion here is " that mankind have been
as to numbers, and must ever be, in proportion to the food
produced, of the fertility of the climate, and the industry
of the inhabitants." 8
The influence of the Physiocrats is clear when he says
that " agriculture, by multiplying the quantity of the earth's
productions, does evidently tend to increase the numbers of
mankind "; an industrious people will multiply in proportion to the surplus produce of their farmers. The farmers
must have sufficient for their own maintenance, and what
is over this is for the consumption of the rest of the population otherwise engaged, who increase as far as the "superfluity of their farmers" will permit.
He believes, contrary to Hume, that slavery was not unfavorable to population; for slaves were generally of the
lowest type of people, and would often have perished, or
at least would not have increased, had they not been taken
in charge by intelligent masters.
1 Cf. Malthus, Essay (third edition), vol. i, p. 28.
2 P. 20.         8 p. 24.





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Like Adam Smith, and others before him, he saw a relation between the need for labor and its supply. " Scarcity
of hands in the country raises the price of labor," which
will promote propagation, and this in turn will soon bring
the price down to a lower level and slacken the birth-rate.
Regarding the policy of encouraging marriage and
fecundity by laws and regulations, he remarks:
Nothing is so easy as to marry; nothing so natural, especially
among the lower sort. But as in order to reap, it is not
sufficient to plough and sow, so in order to bring up children
it is not sufficient to marry. A nest is necessary for every
animal which produces a helpless brood: a house is the nest
of children; but every man who can beget a child cannot build
or rent a houst
Beggars are a burdensome evil in the state, and to prevent
their multiplication marriages should be regulated especially
in the lower classes. He favors "hospitals for foundlings"
in every part of the country; foundlings should be so bred
that when they left the hospitals they would represent an
injection of good stock into the lower classes. Concerning the effect of machinery on manufactures and the common weal, he says:
The advantage is permanent, and the necessity of introducing
every method of abridging labor and expense, in order to supply the wants and luxuries of mankind is absolutely indispensable. according to modern policy, according to experience
and according to reason.'
His final conclusion is like that of Ferguson: " that
number of husbandmen is best which can provide food for
all the state, and that number of inhabitants is best which
1Pp. 123-124.





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is compatible with the full employment of every one of
them." 1
~ 5. Italian Theories. The Neapolitan Abbe Ferdinando
Galiani (1728-1787) published his Della Moneta in 1749.
In it he says that the true riches of a nation is not the
money which it may possess, but it consists in its number
of prosperous men.  The encouragement and increase of
population may be procured in six main ways: (i) Justice,
liberty and good laws, which render the state pacific. The
practice of correct philosophy and the true religion must
be permitted. Such things can in a measure compensate
for the lack of a good climate, which has been so influential in peopling districts like Lombardy. (2) Military
power, which defends the populace against servitude. (3)
The equitable distribution of favors on the part of the
government, so that commerce be not reduced and mendicancy be not encouraged. (4) A fair equality in riches,
reducing the extent of excessive luxury and the unequal
distribution of inheritances, which necessitates or encourages celibacy and vice. (5) The principle of private property must be upheld or the other things are of no avail.
(6) Agriculture should be particularly encouraged, as on
it depend, to a large extent, commerce and industry, which
usually change only the form or transport the fruits of the
earth.
The opposite of these conclusions tends to diminish population. Vice, war and pestilence also check population.
The Dialogues sur le Commerce des Bleds [Bles] (1770)
supplements the discussion in the Della Moneta.  Here
Galiani says that the true wealth of a country is fundamentally dependent on its number of good and beautiful
1 P. 89.





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women. To support them (and population generally) grain
(food) is required, to supply which two things are necessary, soil and men-agricultural labor.     But as land is
limited, so also must be its product; the amount of labor is
limited by the product which supports it. When all land
is cultivated to the best advantage, the limit to the food
supply, and consequently to the number of men, is reached.
This limit can never be definitely determined, however, for
when agriculture has been carried to its highest point, commerce and manufactures develop and enable men to make
exchanges by which the limit to subsistence is extended.
It should, therefore, be the aim of every good government
to encourage and improve agriculture and to increase commerce and industry; the increase of population, always desirable, is conditioned by these circumstances. Money becomes of great convenience in the trading processes; without it, it would be much more difficult to obtain the imports
desired, especially foodstuffs.  When a country exports
grains, this is an indication that it produces a surplus of
food; reliance on manufactures and trade signifies that its
population is greater than its own soil can support.
The Italian finance minister Giuseppe Palmieri (1721 -1794) treats in several of his works of the conditions on
which population depends.   In the treatise Della Ricchezza
Nazionale he declares that although populousness is desirable, it must be remembered that increase depends on the
times, customs and a variety of circumstances.1 The in1" Quantunque non convenga alla natura della cosa, ne a'presenti
tempi e costumi, ne allo stato attuale delle societa ristringere la quantita del popolo dentro certe confini, pure non pu6 commendarsi il procurarne l'aumento senz' alcun riguardo e senza regola. La quantita
del popolo puo esser egualmente un bene ed un male, e sara l'uno o
l'altro secondo l'arte e la maniera di adoperaralo." P. 329, vol. xxxviii,
Scrittori Classici Italiani, etc.





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crease of population presupposes two conditions: (i) All
individuals should have, or should be able to obtain, some
occupation.   (2) There must be sustenance to provide for
increase.  The greater frequency of marriage induced by
prosperity leads 'to an increase in the birth-rate; greater
care should then be taken of the children, lest an unduly
large number perish.
If at certain times a city or a country does not contain
a sufficient number of inhabitants, immigrants should be
invited to settle.  Useful and industrious citizens are necessary in every community, but their property and maintenance must always be secure.      Ignorance and laziness are
always detrimental.    Unless the state is able to meet its
expenses and unless all have land which they can cultivate,
or have other means of support, every increase of population, whether through births or by immigration, is certain to bring poverty and misery, effective bars to further
increase.
Palmieri treats the problem, also in his Rildessioni sulla
Pubblica Felicita.1   He considers a large, "just population " obtainable without going to' the extremes of the
Julian laws; the sexual instinct in man is so strong that
increase must follow whenever it is possible.2
Antonio Genovesi (1712-1769), one of the leading Italian mercantilists and for some time professor of political
economy in Naples, published his Lezioni di Economia
1 Scrittori Classici Italiani, vol. xxxvii.
2 "L'uomo per reprodursi e moltiplicarsi non ha bisogno di altro
stimolo, che dell'istinto datogli dalla natura [p. 22]... Quantunque
la gran popolazione conduca alla richezza, alla forza ed alla felicita
delle nazioni, non percio deve essere illimitata, ne a tutte e egualmente
favorevole [p. 30].... E il popolo cresce e manca in ragion diretta
dell'occupazione, cosi non puo ne deve eccedere i limiti della medesima.
L'eccesso sarebbe formato da cittadini miserabili o cattivi" [p. 32].





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Civile in 1765.    In this work he devotes considerable space
to a discussion of population.'     Every state, says Genovesi,
is a political body, and it follows consequently that it is
important for the welfare of all that it be as thickly peopled
as circumstances will permit.        In populousness there is
strength, which is the main support of the social organization; in it there is also happiness and prestige.        But the
number of families must always be in the proper proportion relatively to the means of subsistence (giusta popolazione).   It is of the greatest importance that the correct
proportion be determined.       A  country which can support
only five million people and has really only two and a half,
is only half as well peopled as it should be; if it has six
million people it is over-populated by one-fifth; a too dense
population is then as harmful as a too sparse one.2        " Our
statesmen   cry  from   every   side 'population, population!'
1 Scrittori Classici Italiani (Parte Moderna), vol. vii, pp. 122 et seq.
A German translation appeared in 1776.
2 "E qui innanzi ad ogni altra cosa la definire, che ci vogliamo
intendere per giusta popolazione. Un paese, che per la bonta, che per
la sua estensione, pel clima, per la bonta delle sue terre, pel sito, per
l'ingegno degli abitanti, puo alimentare cinque milione di persone, se
non ne nudrisce che due e mezzo, e mezzo spopolati," etc. (Lezioni
di Commercio, p. 57). " Di tutte le nazioni, quelle crebbero piui in
numero di famiglie, in umanita et polizia, e meglio aumentarono i
commodi della vita e i piaceri, le quale si diedero alla coltivazione delle
terre, primo e principal sostegno della vita umana. Primamente, perche
niun'altr'arte non impiegna e alimenta maggior numero d'uomini, quanta
si faccia la coltivazione; e percio niuna e piui atta a mantenere un
maggior numero d'abitanti. Secondariamente, perch la coltivazione
delle terre richiede molte altre arti, che dalla parte loro servano pur
esse a mantenere gran quantita di famiglie. Terzo, perche da niun'
altra cosa possono gli uomini ricavare frutti e cibi confacenti alla vita
nostra e maggior dilleto, quanto dalla terra" (ibid., p. 92). "Le
prim' arti fondamentali di ogni stato e producitrici di sostanze, non
gia di sole modificazioni, sono, coni e detto, queste cunque caccia,
pesca, pastorale, agricoltura et metalurgica" (ibid., p. 97).





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and they forget that too great populousness can become the
terrible cause of depopulation, if it is not regulated according to the principle suggested."  It is necessary for a
growing state to have foreign trade and colonies from
which it can draw extra supplies and to which it can send
its superfluity of men and certain kinds of products; without these recourses such a nation will be obliged to war on
other countries, or its excessive numbers will perish of want
and disease.
The main causes of depopulation, which is to be feared
as much as over-population, are: (i) bad climate, which
is harmful to animals as well as to men; (2) unfertile soil,
which cannot support great numbers; (3) ignorance of
agriculture, the ameliorating arts and commerce; (4)
ignorance and bungling in all kinds of work; (5) exorbitant taxes and the like and a prejudiced judiciary; (6) bad
habits of living and all sorts of vices; (7) frequent epidemics, pests, etc.; (8) continual wars, foreign and civil;
(9) bad civil administration; (Io) celibacy.
A Milanese professor of political economy, Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794), best known by his work Dei Delitti e
delle Pene, discusses the question of population in its relations to industry and agriculture in an Elementi di Economia Pubblica (1769).' He regards political economy as
the art of preserving and increasing national riches and
improving their use. Population and cultivable land are
the two great fundamentals on which commerce, finance,
industry, and political and social organization rest.  The
conditions which are favorable to increase of people he
summarizes under the following heads: (i) Land must be
divided among many and not held by a few rich propri1 The edition used by the present writer is that of Turin, 1852.





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etors.   (2) Arts should be given stability and artisans
should be secured in their employment; transportation
should be facilitated, and industry and manufactures should
be developed.   (3) Products should be distributed with regard to needs and not by caprice. (4) The nature of government should be benevolent (but this, he says, is not
directly in the scope of political economy). (5) Nutrition
must be plentiful; population is limited by the amount of
materials for subsistence available at the time; improvements in agriculture, industry and transportation thus become of vital importance in increasing population.1
Causes of the diminution or checking of population are
various and sometimes extraordinary. In a general way,
they may be classified as physical and moral. The physical
causes comprehend matters concerning the lack of subsistence and well-being.   Unhealthful climates, epidemics and
diseases are physical detriments, but their force can be
diminished by careful attention on the part of doctors and
those in whom sanitary control is vested.   The first moral
cause of checking population is barbarism   and ignorance;
the second is impurity in customs connected with the sexual
life of the people; the third is celibacy; the fourth is the
useless and often harmful luxury of certain classes; the
fifth is emigration; and the last cause is the increase of
cities at the expense of rural districts, with the resultant
increase of vice and misery.
The Milanese count Pietro Verri (1728-1797) was a
1" e da osservarsi moltissimo che la popolazione ha naturalmente
certi limiti al di qua e al di la dei quali non pu6 oltrepassare. L'uomo,
tal quale si conserva e si propaga, e un risultato di quelle cose che sono
atte alla di lui nutrizione. Queste cose sino prodotte dalla terra, e
la terra pu6 crescere la sua riproduzione fino ad un certo segno, ma
non indefinitamente, e 1'uomo ha bisogno dell'aiuto d'altri animali e
della propagazione loro in suo servigio, e questi prodotti." P. 29,





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friend of Beccaria, and their treatment of population is similar.  Verri's Meditazioni sulla Economia Politica appeared
in 1771.1    Like so many writers of this time he devotes
the greater part of his study especially to the relations between human and vegetable productivity. General welfare
demands that population and the annual yield of food supplies must augment in proportion; otherwise population is
not only restrained but great misery arises.2 Physical phenomena, such as inundations, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions destroy many people; but they are not so disastrous
in their effects as contagious maladies caused by want and
misery, which cut populations down to the proportion determined by the annual food supply.     When legislators try
to increase population without considering this rule, they
either fail in their purpose or do much harm.
The prosperity and strength of a state depends on the
increase of chances for employment.     Laborers must have
work in order to obtain wages, by which they procure food
for themselves and their dependents.   The problem of political economy is to discover how laborers may gain livings
most comfortably; in other words, " to increase the annual
production as much as may be with the least labor." 3
Verri's Rellessioni sulle Leggi Vincolanti principalmente
nel Commercio di Grani (1769) contains theories like those
in the Meditazioni.4
1 Scrittori Classici Italiani, vol. xv, pp. 187 et seq., chaps. xxi-xxii.
2 " I mezzo piu sicuro per conoscere l'aumento dell'annua riproduzione in uno stato si e l'accrescimento della popolazione." P. 187.
a " I problema dell'economia politica si e accrescere al possibile
lannua riproduzione col minore travaglio; ossia da la quantita di
riproduzione ottenerla col minimo travaglio; data la quantita del
travaglio ottenere la massima produzione; accrescere quanto piui si
pu6 il travaglio e cavarne il massima effetto di reproduzione." P. 19o.
4 Cf. e. g. the following: " Ma diminuendosi la coltura de grani, con





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Another writer of some note, a protege of the Austrian
emperor and of Frederick the Great, and an admirer and
friend of Condillac, was Giambattista Gherardo d'Arco
(1739-1791), a citizen of Mantua.    In the beginning of a
work, Dell'Armonia Politico-Economica tra la: Citta e il
suo Territorio (1771), the author discusses what ought to
be the balance between the population and the commerce of
a city or territory.  The proper balance is reached when a
population has sufficient territory from   which to obtain
what it needs, agriculture being properly developed and
encouraged.    Agriculture  is fundamental in     supplying
human wants, but all industries have their place in a wellregulated economic system; manufactures and commerce
extend the limits of subsistence.'
Vanity, luxury, ambition, vice, insatiate desire for wealth
often increase the difficulty with which the masses obtain
their sustenance; great wealth and excessive poverty are
alike unfavorable to increase.   A  too great concentration
of people in cities is harmful, because it brings with it a
lack of the necessaries of life for many, as well as unsanitary conditions, both of which would cause a higher deathrate in cities than in the country. Vicious celibacy and all
kinds of strife and warfare diminish the rate of increase.
To increase population, laws should be enacted which
attract commerce and encourage industry, so that the country need not depend solely on its own agricultural resources.
essa deve diminuirsi la popolazione delle campagne, avendo i prati
bisogno dii molto minor numero de'coloni. Sopra una estensione di
terra di trenta pertiche vivono piu di tre persone se si coltiva a grano,
e appena una sola ne e alimentata coltivandosi a prato. La coltura a
prato tende adunque a scemare la popolazione cioe la forza fisica e
reale dello stato, essendo il numero degli abitanti la vera e sola misura
della potenza di uno stato." S. C. I., op. cit., vol. xxiii, p. 130.
1 See pp. 34, 37 et seq., 50, 64 et seq., et passim.





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Small proprietors should be multiplied and the number of
the great landowners lessened.1 One great reason, besides
that of bettering economic conditions, for increasing the
number of landholdings by division is, that this would make
many more persons directly interested in preserving order
and maintaining the state.    When population and industry
strike a balance and when land is well distributed, general
welfare will increase and population will increase with it.
The happiest state is that in which these conditions exist
and which has no cause to fear the effects of opposite conditions.
Francesco Cervua's work, Altree Idee sulla Popolazione,
appeared in 1773. In it he maintains that the most important aim   of political science ought to be to obtain the
largest population possible. One of the greatest hindrances
to this end he sees in the partly necessary and partly voluntary laxity in marital relations, and in moral depravity,
and his endeavors are devoted to examining the causes of
these deplorable conditions.    Purity of morals, regulation
of luxury, restriction of the Catholic priesthood, inculcation of the necessity of divine service, general education
and social betterment are his remedies.    His work contains
valuable suggestions, but the author does not fully grasp
the meaning of the problem in its larger aspects.2
1 "L'accrescimento cosi della popolazione come del commercio, ed
il rispettivo loro miglioramento manifestandosi adunque per effeti
necessarj del bilancio della popolazione e del commercio tra la citta
ed il suo territorio, e tanto l'uno quanto I'altro di codesti bilanci per
forza delle addotte razioni dovendosi riconoscere per prodotti dell'
equabile repartizione delle proprieta, in questa dovra pertanto necessariamente riconstrorsi in principio certo ed infallibile dell'accrescimento della potenza e forza degli stati." Pp. 185-186. See also pp.
124, 136, 144, i73.
2 Cf. Von Mohl, op. cit., p. 471.





et~ab - 11


T7.T/'4T  TOT TT  T T ~A IT  A      T7  T v   I-  J.  ik


6o9J       J1V E LI)1H, 1 /IALIAN AVN GERKMAN      299
~ 6. German Doctrines.    Johann Albrecht Philippi's
(1721-1791) Wahre Mittel zur Vergr6sserung eines Staates
was first published in 1753. In the third chapter he declares that the most effectual means of increasing population is the " state's care and generous support of its
subjects."  The state should be solicitous to facilitate marriages and to establish orphanages, hospitals and similar
life-saving institutions. He praises the Chinese practice of
depending almost exclusively on human labor-" in substituting men for horses "-and thus making the employment
of large numbers necessary. His point of view is so fanatically favorable to large populations that he comes to the
conclusion that labor-saving machinery is an evil, and he
would like to see the art of printing lost, in which case
more people could earn livings by doing the work now done
by presses, etc.' It is not necessary to remark on the general shallowness of these opinions.
If we would know the fundamental maxim of the cameralists, says Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi (died 1771),
all we need do is to express the word population; and he
thinks that their position was the right one. His treatment of the matter is found in the Grundsditze der PoliceyWissenschaft, zum Gebrauch academischer Vorlesungen abgefasset (1756), in the second part, with the caption, "Von
der innerlichen Cultivirung der Lander oder von Vermehrung der Einwohner."   The greatest population goes with
the greatest happiness, except in special abnormal instances;
and as the greatest common happiness is always desirable,
the aim should be to increase numbers as much as possible.2
1 Cf. Von Mohl, op. cit., p. 417.
2 "Aller ausserliche Anbau eines Landes wiirde wenig helfen, wenn
dasselbe nicht genugsam bewohnet und bev6lkert ware. Diese Bevolkerung ist die innerliche Cultivirung, welche der iusserlichen die





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To increase the population, then, he advocates the attracting of immigrants by the following methods: (i) There
should be freedom of trade and industry within the country. No artificial and onerous restraints should be tolerated.  (2) Freedom of conscience and religion.  (3) Commerce and industry should be made to flourish.  (4) Innocent refugees from all countries should be received and
aided.  (5) Foreign mercenary soldiers should be employed
when possible, leaving the natives free to attend to their
business.  (6) Foreigners and natives should be equal in
courts of law, etc.
The native population would increase under the following conditions: (I) Above all there must be a good government. (2) Marriages should be made pure and marrying made easier.   (3) People with inherited diseases or
who are incapable of procreation should not be allowed to
marry.   (4) Vice should be treated with severity, as it discourages marriage and lessens fecundity.  (5) Foundling
homes are beneficent institutions. Illegitimately pregnant
women should be so treated that they would not be tempted
into crime or to keep their condition or the birth of a
child secret.  (6) Celibacy among Catholics should be restricted as much as possible.   (7) Primogeniture rights
should be modified, so that they would not cause so much
hardship and hinder marriage and increase. (8) Emigration should be discouraged.  (9) The government should
endeavor by better sanitary regulations to lengthen the life
of the citizens.  (o1) Dissipation and disease should be
Seele und das Leben geben muss. Daher ist die Vermehrung der Einwohner... ein Hauptaugenmerk bey Cultur der Lander, und gleichwie der Nahrungsstand immer bliihender wird, je mehr Menschen sich
im Lande befinden, so muss man als Grundsatz in dieser Abtheilung
ansehen, dass ein Land nie zu viele Einwohner haben kann." Pp. 56 -57; cf. p. Io.





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prevented when at all possible.  (II) The necessaries of
life should be obtainable with the least possible sacrifice.'
The Roman laws on marriage meet his hearty approval,
but he fails to' see much that is good in the French edict
of 1666.   When a statesman makes a law to encourage
fecundity on the basis of ten or twelve children, he is probably working more for the sake of popularity than for the
common welfare. If a state would do anything in this
matter, it should reward fathers of six children; this number is not too great, and such a law would have an effective, favorable influence.  The rearing of children, says
Justi, is " the only fundamental purpose" of marriage.
Neither nature nor sound sense nor the good intentions of
statesmen can tolerate any other view.  For this reason
laws on marriage should expressly embody this principle.
A country's population is most happy when it is centered
in a comparatively small space, and a million inhabitants
on two hundred and fifty square miles would be more
powerful than when scattered over a thousand square miles.
Europe could support six times as many people as it did.2
The spirit of the politics of Frederick the Great is apparent in its extreme in the Erste Griinde der Cameral-Wissenschaften (1756) of Joachim Georg Darjes (1714-1791).
This German cameralist and professor remarks that population is generally the last, whereas it might fairly be the
first, thing to be considered in any complete treatise on
politics.
Population may almost be said to be the soul of the wealth of
the inhabitants of a state. Many neglect the subject out of a
1 Pp. 64-76.
2 Cf. Rosoher, Geschichte der National-Oekonomik in Deutschland,
p. 455.





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fear lest the country become too populous. It is my purpose
to show the groundlessness of this position. All that is necessary is to establish correct order according to the rules of a
true system of politics.
This " true system " implies a regulation of trade and industry favorable to the masses, bringing good wages and
sufficient employment.     Darjes's idea is the opposite of
laissez-faire; the state should regulate, but always wisely;
the great advantage which the state receives in return for
its careful regulation consists in the greater income to the
treasury, and consequently the greater national strength.
He carries this idea so far that he thinks that even beggars are not undesirable members of a populace.'         Populousness contributes to security and to private and national
prosperity.
Anton Friedrich Buesching (1724-1793) is of the same
general opinion    in  his  Vorbereitung    zur Europaiischen
Lander- und Staatskunde (1759).        To obtain increase he
recommends the usual encouragements to marriage and
immigration, maternity and children's hospitals, great opportunities for labor, reasonable taxes, and religious free1 "Je gr6sser die Anzahl des Volks in einem Staate, in welchem
Ordnung ist, desto leichter kann die Sicherheit des Staats vertheidigt
werden. Und wer wird diesen Satz liugnen, dass ein jeder der sich
in einem Staate, in dem Ordnung ist, befindet, der Cammer jahrlich
etwas einzubringen. Ja, man kann unter dieser Bedingung hievon nicht
einmal einen Bettler ausschliessen. Ich will es beweisen, dass ein
Bettler der Cammer jdihrlich zwey Thaler einbringen k6nne. Er muss
doch wenigstens zwey Pfund Brod haben. Dies wird doch wohl der
Cammer durch die Miihle, durch das Bakken u. s. f. in dem ganzen
Zusammenhange einen Pfennig tragen. Dies ist in einem Jahre I
Thaler, 6 Groschen, 5 Pfennige. Er trinkt doch wenigstens im Jahre
eine Tonne Bier,... und dies wird der Cammer 4 Groschen tragen,"
etc. P. 411.





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dom.    He has, moreover, certain impracticable ideas of
abolishing "carousing and prostitution."
A writer who does not diverge from the typical German
attitude of the time, but whose treatment is among the
most intelligent, is Jakob Friedrich von Bielfeld in his
Lehrbegriff der Staatskunst.'  He tells us:
To preserve society well, it is necessary to have a care for
the increase and maintenance of its members.    The true
strength of the state consists in the numbers of inhabitants;
sound political science teaches by what means this end may
be attained. The first and most natural is by encouragements
to marriage.
Poverty in all its ramifications, says Bielfeld, is the most
destructive force with which man has to contend.    It is
the origin of the unnaturally excessive. continence and parsimony of married persons; it is the cause of emigrations
and epidemics, and of an infinite number of other evils
which injure and depopulate a state. It is necessary, then,
to try to make the subjects of a state not only strong and
healthy, but opulent; but in spite of all precautions there
will always be poor in a country, and the government should
make intelligent efforts to relieve indigence. The establishment of orphanages and other benevolent institutions is
commendable.   Colonies may serve to enrich the country
and increase its general welfare and population, but colonists should be drawn from other countries as well, so that
the mother country be not depopulated to a harmful extent.2 Wars are destructive of "the people, abundance,
riches, arts and sciences." 8
1 The original seems to have been in French, 1760; a Spanish edition appeared in 1767. These two, but not the German edition, have
been used by the present writer.
2 Vol. i, chap. v, sec. xviii.  3 Vol. i, chap. x, sec. iii.





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But a state may have too much as well as too little on
which to rely for its support. There are certain seeming
contradictions here, says Bielfeld; among these are the
facts that a state may become too populous under certain
conditions and that lands will not be as productive of grains
in thinly as in thickly populated countries; that wars, pestilences and other misfortunes are sometimes necessary in
order to reduce the number of people to a proper relation
with the occupations by which they can gain their subsistence; that certain conditions are necessary if a population
is to be comfortably maintained, and these conditions vary
according to such circumstances as the size and requirements of the people.    The Swiss cantons present an example of a country where extreme populousness is not
possible or desirable.  Bielfeld compares the great productivity of England and its ability to support numerous inhabitants with Russia, with its much better climate, soil,
irrigation and rivers, where so many people have only'the
barest necessaries of life, because there is not a numerous
population, relatively to the area. Population depends primarily on the produce of agriculture, and populousness
generally favors greater productivity of the soil as well as
of industry.'  Population depends also on industry.     The
manufactories and shops of London and Paris supply by
exchange the needs of great populations, while Switzerland suffers not only from a faulty physiography, but from
1Vol. i, chaps. xv-xviii. See chap. ii, sec. 34: "Nous parlons ici
de toute la terre prise dans son universalit.... Si toute l'espece
humaine augmentoit en nombre l'abondance des grains augmenteroit
naturellement a proportion. II y aurait plus de bestiaux, par consiquent plus de grains, il y aurait plus de mains d'hommes, par consequent on pourroit donner plus de labours aux champs, on pourroit
peut-etre becher la terre, ou la rigoler, ce qui lui donneroit un degre
de fertilite extraordinaire."





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the lack of a sufficient industrial development. Inventions
should be rewarded in order that industry may be encouraged and improvements for the betterment of all may be
fostered.'
Experience proves that the proportion between the amount
of labor employed in agriculture progresses at the same rate as
the amount of the product, and that the production of grains
may be increased indefinitely if we have more hands to work
on the land.
Bielfeld seems to regard, the possibilities of intensive agriculture as so great that there is practically no occasion to
fear diminishing returns on the amount of labor and capital
expended. If the industry and agriculture of a country
are properly managed, population can increase indefinitely
without suffering, but if the regulations of the state are
not wise or if the caprice of individuals leads to too great
selfishness, the equilibrium in increase is destroyed, with
consequent suffering and a checking of further increase of
population.
An Austrian economist and an opponent of the Physiocrats, Joseph von Sonnenfels (1733-1817), accepts the same
views as Bielfeld and the Prussian cameralists, in the
Grundsdtze der Policey-, Handlungs-, und Finanz-Wissenschaft (1765).   "The increase of society," says Sonnenfels,
includes all the single and subsidiary means which further
general well-being. As soon as an institution, or law, proves
that it is of advantage to the state or, at any rate, not in opposition to it, we can discover that this is also an evidence that it
increases general welfare or is not in opposition to it.


1 Vol. i, chaps. xxiv-xxvi.





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[696


The primary aim of good politics should, therefore, be to
increase population, thereby increasing the prosperity of all.
The best criterion of the expediency of a law is its probable effect on population.' It is the government's business
to increase the population as much as possible, consistently
with the means of subsistence. But the greater the population becomes, the greater becomes the opposition on the
part of foreigners; but at the same time the means of
maintaining security increase in proportion, and the less
need is there of fear concerning domestic troubles. The
more people there are, the more numerous are the ways of
earning livelihoods. The more hands the country has, the
greater is the diligence of all, and the more intensive and
careful the cultivation of the soil. Taxes become less for
each individual, while at the same time the income of the
national treasury grows apace. Thus politics, trade, agriculture, general welfare and the treasury are all benefited
by increasing numbers.
To accomplish this purpose the state should use all the
means in its power to encourage fecundity and preserve
life, as well as make proper commercial laws and treaties.
In this connection Sonnenfels recommends the establishment of maternity hospitals and foundling asylums.   In
harmony with laws enacted by Frederick, he says that
wdmen who give birth to illegitimate children should not
be made to suffer shame, but should rather be rewarded by
ten Reichsthaler "on account of the gift they have made
to the state."
One of the leading Germans having Physiocratic ten1 "Nach diesem Grundsatze wird jede Massregel welche zur Bef6rderung der gemeinen Wohlfahrt ergriffen wird also zu priifen seyn:
ist sie der Bev6lkerung zutriglich; ist sie der Bevolkerung nachtheilig." P. 22.





697]          ENGLISH, ITALIAN AND GERMAN                     307
dencies was Johann Jakob        Reinhard    (1714-1772).      He
thinks that there need be little fear of over-population if
the recommendations of Mirabeau to encourage agriculture
and breeding of cattle are followed; on these the support
and increase of numbers depend.'
1 Vermischte Schriften, vol. i, pp. i et seq. An Oeconomische Encyclopddie, the fourth volume of which was published in Berlin in
1774, contains two articles on population, one on the " Berechnung des
Volkes eines Landes," and the other on " Bev6lkerung." These articles
give a resume of the opinions of several writers from Graunt to Justi,
and endeavor to reconcile the two conflicting theories-that population
is always a good and cannot be too large, and that it is limited by
the means of subsistence-by emphasizing the importance of improvements of every kind. Their main value, however, consists in the
bibliographies appended to each. Encyclopaedic literature on population in the eighteenth century is a reflection of current thought. Cf.
e. g. the French Encyclopedie of 1765, art. "Population."





CHAPTER IX


THEORIES OF POPULATION IN THE LAST QUARTER OF THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
~ I. General Survey of the Period. Practically all writers who discuss the subject, and whose works appeared in
the two decades before the publication of the first edition
of Malthus's Essay, accept the doctrine that population
tends to press on the means of subsistence.
Some of them, as the German writers of the type which
was most thoroughly in agreement with the politics of
Frederick the Great, do not emphasize this side of the
question, and often seem to believe that the opposite is
true, or can be made so by proper administrative and commercial regulations.  But the opinions of the German
writers are now -divided. In the century after the Peace
of Westphalia there were special reasons for desiring to
repeople the country, to add to the national strength in
men and in national treasure; but, as we have seen, the
doctrines of the cameralikts and the national school were
by no means fanatically favorable to increase without limit
and without condition.  At the end of Frederick's reign
and subsequently to it, several writers revolt from the typical cameralist position, and are inclined to see disadvantages, and not unmixed good, in great populousness.
The French writers, as a whole, do not differ essentially
in their theories from the views held by the majority of
essayists of the preceding twenty-five years. The Italian
308                                       698





699]  LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY          309
writers, and especially Ortes, accept principles generally
similar to those of Malthus.
The English writers discuss various phases of the modern doctrine along the lines laid down in the preceding
period.  Adam  Smith is the main representative of the
group, but among them are others to whom (besides Hume,
Wallace and Steuart) Malthus was under greater and more
direct obligations in formulating his " principle."
~ 2. The Last German Representatives of the Volksvermehrungspolitik. Heinrich Ludwig von Hess (1719-1784),
a prominent Prussian councillor-of-state, treated the question of population in two works, in his Staatsschriften
(1772) and in the Freymiithige Gedanken iiber Staatssachen (1775).   Since his aim is the increase of population, his discussion is devoted almost entirely to a consideration of the means to increase popular welfare, which
makes increase practically certain.
In the first place, he held that a ruler must endeavor, by
all means in his power, to avoid war, because shot and
sword, want of food and clothing, and epidemics, all accompaniments of war, often kill more people in one year than
natural increase can replace in fifty years. The quiet and
plenty of peace encourage fecundity, cause marriage and
provide sustenance for children. Even if we assume that
as many children are born in time of war as in peace, it
must be admitted that they cannot replace, for at least
twenty years, the young men whose lives have been prematurely ended.'
In the second place, it is incumbent on the government
to have a care for the preservation of the health of all;
" for health is the foundation on which the weal of the


1 Staatsschriften, pp. 279-281.





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DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[700


state rests;" 1 disease in great numbers of people weakens
the state's capacity of perpetuating itself. The state should
forbid medical quacks and untrained doctors to practice.
Good dispensaries should be provided and drug-shops
should be subject to official visitation.
There should be a sufficient number of maternity hospitals in which prospective mothers might await their
accouclement and be cared for for a proper time afterwards.2 The lack of such institutions and the existence
of an excessive amount of delicacy on the part of women,
he said, had often prematurely opened the gates of death
and had robbed many a child of its right to life. Foundling-houses should be established; even the clergy were beginning to recognize this necessity, said Hess. Immorality
could not be driven out of the world by a refusal to alleviate
the misery inflicted upon illegitimate offspring by it. Hospitals for the general care of the sick should also be maintained to save the lives of valuable citizens.
Marriage should be encouraged by removing the unnecessarily great number of fees demanded by the government, the priest and the church warden. But though virtue
should thus be made easier, it is not advisable to pass laws
to punish men for illicit indulgence.  Such punishments
could but do harm and could not change man's instincts.3
Openly flaunted vice should be checked and punished, however, for it is the prolific cause of disease and debility and
results in a decrease in fecundity.
The police should see that the prices of necessaries are
not too high.   The state should provide for security by
permitting only such judges as administer their business
impartially. A pupillen-collegium should be established for
1 See pp. 281 et seq.              2 P. 291.
a See pp. 305 et seq., 308-310.





701]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY               31
the purpose of taking care of inheritances and the relation
of administrators to wards. Differences of religious conviction should not be allowed to have an unfavorable influence on civil rights; toleration should be strictly guarded.
Foreigners should be attracted by promises of personal advantage, and such promises should be adhered to.        The
government should provide popular amusements, and restrict, in so far as this could be done without infringing on
personal liberty, harmful luxuries. Finally, the state should
see to it that children are well brought up.
Hess also advises the study of the natural sciences as a
means of promoting general welfare by lessening human
ills; investigations of a hygienic nature regarding water,
air, etc., would promote health.  Capital punishment should
be abolished.1
Hess's works contain many valuable suggestions, but
ludicrous error and a prejudiced naivete are so commingled
with the good that the tone and value of this discussion
cannot be said to be high.2
A less erratic and more thorough writer was Johann
Friedrich von Pfeiffer (1718-1787).       His treatment of
our subject is found in the Lehrbegriff sdmtlicher ikonomischer und    Cameralwissenschaften    ( 770-I778), in    a
Grundriss der wahren und falschen Staatskunst (1778),
1 " Ein ohne die allerh6ohste Noth ausgesprochenes Todesurtheil ist
ein unersetzliches Uebel;... er kann einen Menschen umbringen und
er muss desfalls doch nicht zum Tode verdammet werden,... lisst
man aber diesen Verbrecher am Leben, so kann er den Schaden durch
eine zahlreiche Familie oder auch auf eine andere Art gut machen."
Freymiithige Gedanken, p. 232.
1 Von Mohl remarks concerning the Freymiithige Gedanken (op. cit.,
p. 432): "Ist es nicht ein Segen, dass eine solche Albernheit und
Gedankenverwirrung jetzt doch wohl unm6glich in Wissenschaft und
Leben geworden ist?"





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and  finally in the Berichtigungen    beriihmter Staats-,
Finanz-, Polizei- und Oekonomischer Schriften dieses Jahrhunderts (1781).
The state, says Pfeiffer, should give its main attention
to the welfare and the increase of its population.
Population may be encouraged in two general ways, either by
means of its own increase or by attracting foreigners to the
country. The first method is the cheapest, the surest, the most
useful; the second is uncertain, costly and involves many inconveniences.1
Regarding the most suitable age for marriage, he said that
in the male sex it is from the twentieth to the forty-fifth
year and in the female from   the fifteenth to the thirtysixth; "as soon, therefore, as these ages are reached both
sexes should marry." 2
The life of a soldier is unfavorable to increase, because
dissipations too often ruin him in purse and in health.
The celibacy of the Catholic clergy is also harmful; and
young people in good health who remain unmarried are
unjust to the Fatherland.3  He disapproved of polygamy
under ordinary circumstances, but in special cases, such
as, after the number of young men has been reduced by
a half or more through war or other causes, while the
number of young women remained the same, polygamy
should be permitted.4  In times of long-continued peace,
however, when the proportions of the sexes remain approximately equal, this would be harmful to increase; many
young men would be obliged to remain single, and vice
1 Lehrbegriff, vol. ii, part ii, p. 20.  2 Ibid., p. 36.
3 Ibid., pp. 33, 44.
SIbid., p. 40; see also Berichtigungen, vol. i, p. 435.





703]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY              313
with all its evils would grow and act as an effectual check
to increase.
Over-population is not possible if a nation is well situated for commerce, has a good navy, and if it has a flourishing export trade of manufactures. When, on the other
hand, the country is mountainous and given up to wine
culture or cattle-raising, and is surrounded by powerful
neighbors on which it must depend for bread products, it
can easily have too many people; and an isolated community, dependent on its own resources, is limited by the
amount of its own produce.'     Ordinarily, however, these
conditions are not present, and care should be taken to increase numbers, by providing     maternity and   children's
hospitals and the like, and the peasants should not be oppressed by burdensome taxes, etc.      Dowries should be
given to poor girls, and in all cases marriage portions
should be regulated so that they do not prevent marriage
or by their size encourage marriage for ulterior motives.
A  well-proportioned population is inseparable from  the
felicity, the power and the continuity of a state, and "the
foundation of these conditions lies in the increase and maintenance of healthy, diligent, respectable and well-meaning
people." 2  Wars, emigrations and oppressions should be
prevented, and the state should provide the best social, political and sanitary regulations in its ability. The " art of
1 "Lebt endlich eine Nation von aller Gemeinschaft und Verbindung
mit anderen Volkerschaften abgesondert, so kann sie freilich nur eine
bestimmte, der Menge des Getreidebaues proportionirte, Anzahl Menschen erhalten; und auf dergleichen in Europa nicht stattfindenden
Fall, kann ich zugeben, dass man die Grenzen der Bev6lkerung nach
dem Verhaltniss des Getreidesegens, zu welchem man in mittelmissig
fruchtbaren Jahren Hoffnung hat, zu f6rdern alle Krffte anstrengen
muss," etc. Lehrbegriff, p. 47.
2 Ibid., p. 57.





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making gold " is of use only in so far as it promotes " the
great art of providing bread for the people." 1
The famous Prussian minister, Ewald Friedrich von
Herzberg (1725-1795) read a dissertation on population
before the Berlin Academy in 1785,-Sur la Population
des Etats en general et sur celle des Etats Prussiens en
particulier. The work gives evidence that the author was
acquainted with the best existing literature on the subject,
but that he had learned little from    it.2  His argument is
simply a defense of Frederick's policy.     He accepts the
mercantile doctrines in all essentials, and says of the two
hundred thousand Prussian soldiers that they are no burden to the country, as the ignorant rabble would have us
believe, but a real blessing and help to the nation.    The
army does not diminish, but increases population, and by
putting money into circulation enables the people the more
easily to pay their taxes. He believes that the power of
a state lies in the number of the people, and that riches and
happiness depend on the means of satisfying the needs and
comforts of life; but his ideas concerning the attainment
of these ends are so obviously full of error that we wonder
how he could speak of Adam Smith's work as " deep and
classical," and still differ so fundamentally with the latter's
ideas and conclusions.
Herzberg's discussion was probably not regarded even
1 Grundriss, preface.
2 "Les principales nations de l'Europe ont des ouvrages plus ou
moins bons sur la population. Cette partie a ete traite en France par
des hommes celebres tels que Vauban, Boulainvilliers, Deparcieux,
Montesquieu, Mirabeau, Expilly, Messence, et en dernier lieu par Mr.
Moheau,... auxquels on peut ajouter les articles tres-amples de la
population dans l'Encyclopedie et dans le Dictionnaire Universel."
P. 2. He refers also to Petty, Davenant, Hume, Adam Smith, Young
and the Swedish Pehr Vilhelm Wargentin, and others.





705]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY              315
by its author as a complete exposition of the subject; it
was simply a bit of apologetics and politics. Von Mohl
pronounced the work a composition of the views of his
predecessors among German cameralists, deriving its importance largely from the fact that the author was one of
Frederick's most influential ministers, not from   any intrinsic merit.'
Heinrich Jung (1740-1817), a professor at Marburg,
wrote a Grundlehre der Staatswirthschaft (1792),2 in which
he took the same position as Sonnenfels and others of the
same school. A population which is busy and happy is the
foundation of every good political system. The sum of
the happiness of individuals equals the nation's welfare;
great populousness should be encouraged, for it is conducive to the happiness of all. He advocated governmental
aid for women with illegitimate children; if necessary the
government should take charge of their offspring. There
is no excuse for any one's lacking the means to marry;
diligence and industry are all that is necessary, and they
are always possible.
Of the lesser writers of this group we mention only
F. W. Waldeck, whose work, Ueber die Unzertrennlichkeit
der deutschen Bauerngiiter, appeared in 1784. His general
opinion is that "population contains the ground of all
kinds of felicity." 3
~ 3. German Precursors of Malthus.    Christian Wilhelm
1 Von Mohl, op. cit., p. 473. Herzberg's dissertation was short, consisting of only thirty-two pages, and is found in the Memoires de
l'Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres, 1785. See also the
Memoire surl a Rogne de Frederic II, Roi de Prusse, par le Comte
de Herzberg, 27 janvier, 1793.
2 Sub-title: Ein Elementarbuch fiir Regentens6hne und alle die sich
dem Dienste des Staales und der Gelehrsamkeit widmen wollen.
3 P. 1o8.





316


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


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von Dohm    is the first writer of importance among the
Germans of this period who showed hesitancy in accepting
the doctrine that populousness and increase are always desirable. Other writers admitted that there were checks to
increase, but all believed that such restraints, whether moral
or natural, were to be deplored and remedied if the means
in the state's power could do so.
Dohm remarked, in a work on Die biirgerliche Verbesserung der Juden (1781), that
The governtments of all great European states appeared to
agree in the fundamental doctrine, that the continual increase
of popullation was the essential condition on which the general welfare depended. It was believed that civil society
would be most surely upheld and protected from all foreign
foes, that natural products and the elaboration of these by industry would be most effectually furthered, -that commerce
and exchange between nations would be most advantageously
carried on, and finally that,the common weal would be increased, if the state managed to keep its population always increasing. It followed naturally then that the aim of every
civil society,was to attain this desired end.
Dohm was unable to accept this typical view. He held
that this doctrine needed considerable modification and several limitations if it were to be regarded as correct. The
size of every population must be determined by the extent
of the state's territory, as well as by the possibility of extending its natural resources, manufactures and trade.
Population could not increase beyond the means of its support; if these means were capable of indefinite expansion,
the number of people could increase in proportion; an excess could not increase the welfare or strength of the country, but would add to its misery.'
1 Pp. 2-3 et seq.





707] LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY


3P7


In a work entitled De l'Economie Politique Moderne;
Discours fondaimental sur la Population (1786), by Herrenschwand (1730-1796),' we find a good exposition of the
doctrine of population as developed by the best thought of
the century. He says that there are two conditions necessary for human increase, procreation and sustenance.
The race can increase only in proportion,to the amount of sustenance, it matters not how frequent conceptions may be. The
desire to perpetuate seems to be unlimited; the sustenance of
men however has limits. As long as population has not
reached the lIimits olf sustenance it is capable of continued increase; but from the moment in which it reaches these limits,
it ceases to be capable of increase.2
In any consideration of the question of population the
industrial stage of the people must be given attention. The
three chief stages, says Herrenschwand, are represented,
first, by peoples who live solely by the chase; secondly, by
pastoral peoples; and thirdly, by peoples engaged in agriculture. The last stage is practically always characterized
by the growth of commerce and manufactures. The sustenance of peoples in the first stage depends entirely on the
products of the soil.  If nature should prove at times
capricious, they would suffer hunger and die in great numbers. Peoples in the second stage are limited in increase
also directly by the bounty of nature, not so directly as
those in the first, however. The development of agriculture is indicative of human foresight; the products of the
soil, when stored, manufactured or exchanged, provide for
1 Not much is known about the life of this writer. A German
edition of his work (the one the present writer has used) appeared
in Halle, 1794.
2 PP. 4-5.





318


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[708


unforeseen contingencies; and on account of the greater
stock of goods always available, the population is enabled
to increase far beyond the limits set by the more primitive
hunting and pastoral stages. In times of drought or other
misfortunes, the latter are compelled to migrate, or to engage in war and marauding, and they suffer from the
efforts of neighboring tribes or peoples who are in a similar
position.
A noted Gottingen professor, August Ludwig Schloezer
(1735-1809),' is another of the German scholars who refused to admit the claims of the old school of doctrinaires.
His theory of population is not presented in any one work,
but is found in various connections in his voluminous StatsAnzeigen (1-782) and in his Briefwechsel.
" Only twenty years ago," says Schloezer,
every one was crying " population." Experience has proved
that this, like every other principle of political science, has
its limitation. Deserts or half waste lands are peopled- in one
way, and fully peopled, productive districts are peopled in other
ways. It is necessary to have a care for bread as well as for
people; this is the government's business. Bread makes men,
but the reverse is not always true.2
He deplored the effects of vice and referred particularly
to what he deemed the exceptionally bad conditions in
France. Vice causes sterility; and even among the children resulting from illicit unions, he said, only a twentieth
as many as of legitimate children survive. Vice exercises
a baneful effect on population chiefly in three ways: first,
it causes disease; second, it causes practical sterility; and
1 Schloezer was a member of the academies of Munich, St. Petersburg and Stockholm, and was highly regarded by contemporary scholars.
2 Briefwechsel, vol. ix, p. 93.





709]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY           319
thirdly, it is the cause of great infant mortality and crimes
incidental thereto.  Schloezer refers also to the methods
adopted or advocated later by the so-called Neo-Malthusians
in regard to prudence. Such methods, which had permeated to the peasants from the higher classes of the cities,
he considered most reprehensible.1
Populatiorn can increase with good results only where
the manner of living is moral and not uncongenial. The
true measure of a people is not simply the necessaries of
life, but the facility with which ownership in land and employment are procured. The productivity of a country is
not the sure sign of its prosperity; general comfort("Wolleben, I'aisance") and a reasonable distribution of wealth,
especially of landed property, are the truest gauges of the
possibility of populousness.  Great numbers of small and
comfortably situated small proprietors are desirable, and
every one must be given employment; every man has a
right to employment to gain the means of living.2
It is true, as a rule, that the life and strength of a state
depend on the number of its inhabitants, but just as in
the body too much blood is harmful, so also may a population be so excessive in numbers as to cause misery rather
than happiness. The equilibrium  of men with the need
for men and the subsistence available for them must be
constantly maintained. A hungry populace is of no advantage, and unemployed men must perish or emigrate to
*other countries, possibly  strengthening  one's enemies.
Over-population leads to mendicancy in well-governed districts, as in certain parts of Germany; but in ruder coun1 Briefwechsel, vol. iv, p. 136.
2 " Ein gesunder Mensch, der keine Arbeit kriegen kan, ist ein Ankliger der Regierung (und hat das Recht den ganzen Gesellschaftsvertrag, folglich auch 7te Gebot aufzurufen)." Ibid., p. 137.





320


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[710


tries, as in Croatia, it produces great numbers of thieves
and robbers. Just as a too thinly populated country may
be weak for lack of men, so a too thickly populated state
may be weak, because of the misery or the vices of its
citizens; what we need is the golden mean, a population
proportioned to the extent of the domains and the amount
of available means of subsistence.'
Justus Moser (1720-1794), whom Roscher styled the
greatest German economist of the eighteenth century and
the father of the historical school in its relation to legal
studies,2 discussed the problems of population in several
parts of his Patriotischen Phantasien.3    He is one of the
foremost precursors of Malthus in Germany.
Increase in numbers, without due regard to other necessary considerations, was far from being always a good;
a large birth-rate counterbalanced by a large death-rate is
the inevitable result of unreasonable increase and encour-,
agements to marriage;4 crime and vice follow.       Half the
children who are born perish because of such conditions.
If a family continued to receive an additional member every
two years, this would, on an average, give each family ten
children.  If half of these children were daughters and they
1 Briefwechsel, vol. ix, p. 297.
2 Geschichte, etc., p. 50oo.
8 Four volumes, Berlin, 1804.
S" Es ist iiberhaupt jetzt eine wunderliche Welt. Die grossen Herren, diese Zerst6rer des menschlichen Geschlechts, denken auf nichts
als auf Bevolkerung; und wir werden sicherlich nachstens ein philosophisches System erhalten worinn die m6glichste Vermehrung der
Menschen als die grdsste Vorherrlichung Gottes angepriesen wird, blos
um eine Menge menschliches Vieh anzuziehen, welches sie auf die
Schlachtbank liefern konnen. Allein die Bev6lkerung will es wihrlich
nicht ausmachen. Wir ziehen Bettler und Diebe damit an; das ist es
alles." Vol. i, p. 217.





711]  LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY          321
married and brought forth children at the same rate, as
some legislators had apparently desired, the result would
inevitably be great want, debauchery and crime. Virtue,
politics and industry all become demoralized by too great
populousness.
Such a rash increase did not occur in actual societies in
spite of the efforts of law-givers and the useless advice of
certain scholars. Men could see, in a measure, what the
results would be, and this realization acted as a preventive
of such attempted multiplication. Moreover, the positive
hindrances, such as hunger, squalor and disease, never failed
to make excessive increase of this kind impossible. These
had been the cause of the exposure of children in China;
in Pekin especially, this practice had been almost necessarily resorted to; for the Chinese did not fully understand
the importance of prudence.1
~ 4. French Theories. In respect to the subject of the
present study it may be said that the Abbe Theodore Augustin Mann (1735-1809) was the most important writer in
French of this period, although his work has been overlooked or ignored by practically all economists. He was
a true precursor of Malthus, though there is no probability
that the latter was at all acquainted with his writings. His
theories were presented to the Academie imperiale et royale
des Sciences et Belles-lettres de Bruxelles in 1775, 1780 and
1781, and in some scattered writings. Mr. J. J. Thonissen
first called attention to Mann in a communication to the
same academy in 1871, under the heading, Un Prkcurseur
de Malthus; and a summary of Thonissen's review was
presented by Mr. J. Lefort in the Journal des Economistes
in 1876, under the same title. But writers on the history


1 Vol. v, p. 98.





322


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[712


of political economy and encyclopaedists seem to have been
ignorant of the work of this Belgian abbe.1
His first essay was entitled Memoire sur les Moyens
d'augmenter la Population et de perfectionner la Culture
dans les Pays-Bas Austrichiens. He declared that as the
" degree of population is measured by subsistence," where
there are the most products there are also the most men.
The true causes of depopulation and national weakness he
believed to be the decadence olf agriculture on the one
hand, and the growth of great luxury and excessive consumption by classes who neither produce means of subsistence nor increase numbers on the other. He saw obstacles to increase also in the increasing concentration of
property, which does the whole people great harm     in
increasing luxury and vice and in ruining commerce and
agriculture. Large estates and establishments necessitate
many menials, who are unable to marry and are often given
to debauchery.
In the second Mimoire (1780), Mann devotes his attention to the question, Dans un pays fertile et bien peuple, les
grandes fermes sont-elles utiles on nuisibles a l'Etat en general?  He contented himself with the moderate statement
that " a laborious and numerous people, in a country abundantly supplied with its needs, is the riches and fortune of
the state."  The ideal consists in an equilibrium between
the number of consumers and the amount of riches which
active and fruitful labor can produce. Misery, discouragement, disease and vice are the usual lot of superabundant
populations pressed into a narrow space, where labor furnishes insufficient resources and where the excessive num1 Mann was born in York and, after leading a very checkered career,
died in very humble circumstances in Prague. He was a member of
the Academy of Brussels.





713]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY           323
ber of hands establishes a low rate of wages. Suffering
and degradation, but in a less degree, are also common
among barbarous, nomadic peoples, who, though they have
a vast territory, do not employ their efforts in the best
manner.
Is it possible to increase population when a desirable
equilibrium  exists and still maintain general well-being?
On the affirmative answer, said Mann, depends the right
of legislators to desire and encourage increase.  If the
answer is in the negative, it is the duty of the state to
recommend prudence.
In 1781 he read another memoire to the academicians
of Brussels, entitled Redlexions sur l'Economie de la Sociedt
civile et sur les Moyens de la perfectionner.'  He discussed
the significance of the diffusion of useful knowledge, the
division of lands and the development of agriculture, and
the introduction of new branches of commerce and industry in their relations to subsistence and population. Then
he asked: " Is it possible for a population to remain in
equilibrium with the food supply when it is increased to
the greatest possible extent?"  His answer is as follows:
" This equilibrium is evidently impossible among a people
with good morals, because population naturally increases
in an indefinite progression, while the means of subsistence
are necessarily limited by the soil." 2
It would seem that this statement contains the essence
of Malthusianism. Bad morals, as the preventive check,
are necessary, according to both Malthus and Mann, in
order to maintain the equilibrium of population and sustenance. Good morals tend to result in increase, " indefi1 This mdmoire was read December 2o, 1781, and remains in MS.
It is in the Royal Library at Brussels, no. 20389.
2 Mmoires (1781), vol. v, p. xiv.





324


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[714


nitely" according to Mann, in a " geometrical ratio " according to Malthus. Prudence, as a practical force, does
not affect the masses; poverty, with resultant vice and disease, will cut down their numbers.     Thonissen thinks that
of the two statements, Mann's is the more correct, and
" conforms more to the nature of things," though the Malthusian formula is " more scientific in appearance." '   The
present writer is inclined to agree with this estimation;
but there is no doubt that, in spite of the mathematical terminology used by Malthus, his work is a more complete
exposition of the problem.
The Recherches et Considerations sur la Population de
la France, by M. Moheau (1733-1820), was published in
1778.   Moheau declared that the first duty of every citizen
was to enter into wedlock and to beget children. In society
as it is, however, it must be admitted that celibacy in some
individual instances is not reprehensible, but is indeed apparently desirable.   Many men engaged in the military
service find that celibacy is the more advantageous state,
and seem thereby to retain more of those necessary manly
qualities of character and greater physical strength.    The
church, too, has found that the unmarried state is the better
for those devoted to its service.2 The men who have done
1 See Bulletins de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, etc., second series,
vol. 31 (1871), p. 448.
2 "Le premier devoir d'un citoyen est de,subir le joug du mariage;
et un des plus grands services qu'il puisse rendre a la societe est
d'augmenter le nombre des individus qui la composent. Les gens
maries forment la classe des citoyens la plus utile, et parce qu'ils servent
a la reproduction, et parce que les enfans sont des 6tages qu'ils donnent a la patrie." P. 79. But, "on a observe que la plupart des monumens dus a la generosite des particuliers, sont l'ouvrage des celibataires. C'est dans cette classe qu'on trouve les actions du plus grand
courage, le mepris de la vie, les sentimens genereux par lesquels l'homme
semble s'elever au dessus de l'humanite." Pp. 80-81.





715]  LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY          325
most for science and literature have been unmarried and
without children. In the French Academy there have been
three celibates to one married man. But these considerations do not vitiate the general proposition that the generality of men owe it to the state to perpetuate the race.
There are physical, moral and political causes which
affect the population of the state, sometimes favorably, at
other times unfavorably.  The increase is primarily dependent on the excess of births over deaths and emigration.
This excess is often small in cities, but in rural districts it
is usually one-fourth larger, and this enables the whole
population to increase. This is explained by the fact that
cities are not so healthful and vice is apt to flourish in
them. Moheau objected to Franklin's theory that the limits
of population are determined by the number of men the
country can feed and clothe. Such a limitation is applicable to the earth in its entirety, but not to any nation in
particular.  The population may be much greater than
would be possible on the basis of its own agricultural produce, if the inhabitants find supplementary means of subsistence, through industry and exchange, with other parts
of the world.' But Franklin really admitted as much, while
emphasizing the other side of the question.
Jacques Necker (I732-I804) treated the problem in his
two chief works, Sur la Legislation et le Commerce des
Grains (1770) and L'Administration des Finances (1785).
" Political economy," he said,
ought to consider 'the amelioration 'of the conditions of the
masses and is forced to admit that the power of a state does
not rest simply on the magnitcude of 'its riches, but more especiallly on the number of its inhabitants; and if this number


1 pp. 267-274.





326


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[716


is able to increase only wthen there exists a happy harmony between the different classes, population becomes the surest
gauge of the union of felicity and strength.1
Riches and population are two sources of power, but population is a far more certain quantity. Wealth and the
means of subsistence may be acquired in several ways, but
when wealth in the form     of money is concentrated in a
few hands or where wealth is acquired more at the expense
of population, the country cannot be happy.      Population
and wealth should increase in proportion or else wealth
should increase faster than numbers of people; the people
will thus remain happy or their well-being will be increased.
Governments should endeavor to bring about this desired
state of affairs; but this requires continual effort, for the
number of men tends to increase in proportion to the general felicity.2
In actual societies governments have usually failed fully
to accomplish these purposes.   The increase of population
seems to lead inevitably to some misery among the lower
classes; but the amount of misery thus caused varies according to circumstances, and can be alleviated to a great
extent by a more equitable distribution of wealth and public
burdens. The poor are less able than the rich and cultured
to resist their impetuous desires, and the results affect them
more painfully. The pain and misery due to excessive
1 Sur la Legislation, etc., part i, chap. iii. Cf. also the following
(chap. iv): "Les richesses de l'Etat... ne seront compos~es des
biens qui sont essentiellement necessaires a~cette population; on ne
pourra done point comprendre alors sous le nom de richesses, ni la
terre qui nourrit les hommes, ni les avances en outils, en animaux, en
batiments, en denries necessaires pour la semence ou pour la culture;
tous ces genres de biens font comme partie absolue de la population,
car on ne peut separer l'homme de sa subsistence."
2 Chap. vi.





717]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY           327
multiplication, which is due to irresistible desire, cause population finally to check itself; when numbers of men exceed
the amount of subsistence, an increased mortality holds
population in check. This check is, however, seldom, felt
in its full strength; natural scourges and the self-destroying
passions of men almost always arrest natural progress.1
In the Administration des Finances, Necker wrote of the
effects of epidemics, disease in general, the variability of
climate, war and emigration, all of which serve either to
diminish or to retard the growth of population; "but,"
he added,
such is the anniual progress of generation that at the end of a
few years the popullation of an,industrious commercial community will again reach the measure of its subsistence. Thus,
when cultivation increases, when the interior 'means of communication are easy, and when the rich proprietors exchange
the products of their lands for the diverse products of industrial labor, the prinrcipal sources of increasing population,
seem assured.2
Luxury when indulged in to excess, as is so common,
cannot fail to harm and check population. The rich blase
needs his lackeys, and their labor is for the most part
wasted and removed from production; besides his own luxurious and unnecessary extravagances, he consumes enough
to supply many families with food, diminishing the amount
of subsistence available for the consumption of the people
and hindering their increase.' Excessively large military
forces in time of peace also operate against general welfare. They take up considerable quantities of land and
they make no real return for all they consume. Another
drawback to increase is celibacy of every kind. An exten1 Ibid. and chap. vii.  2 Vol. i, petite edition originale, p. 146.





328


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[718


sive system of clerical or other celibacy too often means
a moral decadence, which enfeebles the whole people, checking increase by lowering the proportionate number of births.
The immoral celibacy of libertines is, however, confined
almost exclusively to large cities, as is vice in general, so
that the population is not ordinarily seriously checked by
its existence. It is not so much vice as poverty which restrains increase in the rural parts of the country. Though
the births in rural districts usually far exceed the number
of deaths, the great misery and poverty olf the peasants
cause the rate of mortality among their offspring to be so
high that increase is slow and often only aggravates the
general poverty. The state must seek to remedy these conditions; the causes of a large part of existing misery are
removable.1
One of the best-known speculative treatises on human progress is the Esquisse d'un Tableau Historique des Progras
de l'Esprit Humain(1794)by Marquis de Condorcet(Marie
Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, 1743-1794). The fundamental theory of the book is based on the ultimate " perfectibility of man " and as such involves an optimistic view
of the problems of population.
Condorcet said that man in his endeavors to better his
condition always seeks to augment the means of subsistence,
at least in proportion to his increase in numbers; for man
depends on food and his muliplication is conditioned thereby.
Where wealth decreases there is much consequent suffering
as well as depopulation. This law olf increase is a serious
one. Can man in his progress rise above the evil effects
of the tendency indicated by this law?2 On the answer the
I Ibid., pp. 147-149 et passim.
2 " Mais dans ces progres de l'industrie et du bien-etre, dont il resulte
une proportion plus avantageuse entre les facultes de l'homme, et ses





719]    LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY                  329
foundations for a rational optimism or pessimism must rest.
Condorcet was an optimist.
Our hopes for the welfare of man in the vague Utopian
future must depend on the three following considerations:
the destruction of inequalities among nations; the progress
of equality among the same people; and the true perfection
(perfectionnement reel) of man himself.
All nations ought to advance in civilization until their peoples
become most enrlightened, most free and devoid of prejudices,
along the road indicated     by the French     and the AngloAmericans.    Other peoples laboring under the despotism      of
kings or barbarism   and ignorance will free themselves from
such  bondage.... The      human    species will ameliorate
its own condition by new discoveries in arts and science and,
by a necessary consequence, in the means of individual wellbeing and in general prosperity; intellectual, moral and physical faculties will be perfected. History, experience and observation all justify the belief that nature has not placed a
term to our hopes in these respects.1
In the modern state there are three principal causes which
besoins, chaque generation, soit par ses progres, soit par la conservation des produits d'une industrie anterieure, est appelee A des jouissances plus etendues; et des-lors, par une suite de la constitution
physique de l'espece humaine, A un accroissement dans le nombre des
individus; alors, ne doit-il pas arriver un terme oii ces lois, egalement
necessaires, viendroient A se contrarier? ou I'augmentation du nombre
des hommes surpassant celle de leur moyens, il en resulteroit necessairement, si non une diminution continue de bien-etre et de population,
une marche vraiment retrograde, du moins une sorte d'oscillation entre
le bien et le mal? Cette oscillation dans les societes arrivees A ce
terme, ne seroit-elle pas une cause toujours subsistante de miseres en
quelque sorte periodiques? Ne marqueroit-elle pas la limite oui toute
amelioration deviendroit impossible, et A la perfectibilit' de l'espece
humaine, le terme qu'elle attendroit dans l'immensite des siecles, sans
pouvoir jamais le passer?" Pp. 285-286 (edition of 1822).
1 Ibid., pp. 263-265.





330           DOCTRINES OF POPULATION                [720
hold progress somewhat in abeyance; they are inequality in
riches, inequality in the means of subsistence and inequality
in instruction or education. But these inequalities, said
Condorcet, undoubtedly with a vivid recollection of the
changes of 1789, are disappearing and will continue to become of less and less importance in the future, until the
millenial perfection is attained.'  "Organic perfectibility or
degeneration of species in the vegetable as in the animal
world may be regarded as one of nature's general laws." 2
This law is therefore applicable to the human race. Progress in conservative medicine, the use of better food and
housing, a manner of living which would develop strength
by exercise without destructive excess, and finally the annihilation of the two greatest causes of human degradation,
misery and too great riches,-will prolong the duration of
life and assure health and robust constitution. " Man will
of course not become immortal, but is it not possible that
the distance between the moment in which he commences to
live and that in which he ceases to live may be increased
without limit?" 3
Virtue, enlightenment and freedom, understood in the
broadest sense, are the slowly acting panaceas by which
man is to be saved, according to Condorcet.4
~ 5. Italian Theories. Filippo Briganti (1725-1804), a
Neapolitan, was the author of an Esame Economica del Sistema Civile (1780). A     state is made progressive and
vigorous, said Briganti, by the number of its inhabitants and
1 Ibid., pp. 271 et seq.       2 Ibid., p. 304.
3 Cf. Bacon's Prolongation of Life.
4 Two other French works should be noted: Saint Cyran's Coleul
des Rentes Viageres appeared in 1779, and it resembles the works of
Messance and Moheau in its treatment of mortality records with
applications to insurance. Duvillard de Durand wrote a similar work,
published in 1787 and entitled, Recherches sur les Rentes.





721]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY                  331
the perfection of their talents, that is, by an industrious,
intelligent population. Populousness is the result of two
main causes, which he called physical and moral. Under
physical causes he classified land and water, and under moral
causes are included property and industry, honesty and
temperance; where these matters are given proper attention
a population becomes numerous and strong. Man depends
on subsistence for his living and increase, and it is according to the scarcity or plenty of provisions that a population
is miserable or happy.'    The size of the earth and its productivity place physical limitations on the multiplication of
mankind.
The possible populousness of any country varies according to its natural resources; the possible populousness of
the earth as a whole is not definitely determinable, because
improvements of all kinds and their effect are uncertain.
Some countries produce comparatively little of the direct
means of subsistence; such countries must have small populations, or, if they are populous, they must depend on manufactures and commerce, not solely on the products of their
own soil.   Property and property rights are of particular
importance to a nation relying thus on commerce and exchange; for in times of want they have that which they may
trade for food and raiment.2    Not only a citizen's existence,
S" Si e detto che per moltiplicar la specie umana su la terra prima
convenga seminarvi de'grani e poi degli uomini. E tal detto reviene
all'assioma economico: che la sussistenza sia la misura della popolazione.... 0 che egli ripeta i sussidj della vita dalle classi inanimate
o che li ritrogga dalle classi inanimate sempre dee ricononscere dalla
terra l'alimenta che lo sostiene.... Quest'equilibrio economico tra la
sussistenza a la popolazione, pare che si diffonda in tutte le specie
de'vivente." Scrittori Classici Italiani (Parte Moderna), vol. xxxv,
p. 225.
2 " La proprieta  la prima delle cause morali preparate dalla natura
ad incorrigiar la popolazione. Si la misura della popolazione e la sussistenza, la sussistenza non si possiede senza una ragion privativa sin
mezzi di sussistere." Ibid., p. 269.





ri f "7' D ATrC' M  Dt lTTT A 'T'TiAT


r  ^- -


332           DULCLI IVl. V    rU r    uL IV       L 722
therefore, should be protected, but also his possessions.
Commerce, navigation, the arts and sciences and manufactures facilitate the consumption and practically increase
the production of goods which are necessary for man. The
demand for food products is thus increased and agriculture,
on which man depends for his primary wants, is encouraged.
That which most effectually checks increase is poverty,
which means insufficient means of subsistence. When many
men are out of employment, when the rich consume goods
with reckless extravagance, when the poor develop a kind
of inertia, population tends to remain stationary or even to
diminish. One of the first effects of such conditions is the
tendency of men toward celibacy and consequently toward
licentiousness. The laws of primogeniture often have similar results. Wars are clearly disastrous from this point of
view. Colonies may serve to furnish room for an unemployed surplus population, or they may to some extent depopulate the country, or by the trade to which they give
rise they may enrich the mother country. Colonies are,
however, usually founded because of the desire to dominate
and for commercial reasons. In all considerations of population statesmen should weigh these things, and remember
that a large population does not necessarily imply that
the people are happy.'
In the Scienza della Legislazione (1780) of Gaetano
Filangieri (1752-1788) we find that views very much like
Briganti's are expressed.2  This author says that the true
1 "Perche la prosperita della popolazione non tanta risulta dal numero
excessivo quanto dal numero proporzionato alle circonstanzi locali."
Ibid., p. 319.
2 The work is found in the Scrittori Classici Italiani, vol. xxxii.
The work was partly translated into English in 1794 by William Kendall. The second part, entitled Delle Leggi Politiche ed Economiche,
contains the discussion on population.





723]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY               333
objects of political and economic laws are two, population
and riches. The state has occasion for men, and men must
have means of subsistence; and their number is always proportioned to their happiness.  These two objects which compose national felicity are reciprocal and interdependent. No
encouragements to marriage and fecundity can avail, unless
the obstacles to general welfare be first removed; and " it
is on this rock that the greater part of legislators have
struck." 1  In spite of their encouragements sterility has
continued or procreation has been slow: " In the very bosom
of voluptuousness marriages are rare; a vast grave, in which
a whole generation with all its posterity disappears, is daily
opening, and Eurppe has need of and could contain at least
an hundred million more inhabitants." 2   These encouragements might have been effective or would not have been
needed at all, if some of the fundamental obstacles had been
removed.
The obstacles to which legislators should give their attention are especially,
the distresses of the people and the wretched state of agriculture,; 3 the luxuries of courts and the miseries of the country;
the excess of opulence in the hands of the few and the want
of necessaries in the majority; 4 the small number of proprietors and the immense number of those who are not proprietors; the multiplicity of resources united in a few hands;
1 P. 19, Kendall's translation.              2 Ibid.
3 Cf., " Si e detto ohe tutto quello che tende a render piu difficile la
sussistenza, tende anche a diminuere la popolazione." S. C. I., vol.
xxxii, p. 53.
4 Cf., "Le leggi agrarie sono state sempre le prime leggi de'popoli
nascenti. I1 primo oggetto di questi leggi e stato d'assegnare a ciaschedun cittadino una egual porzione di terreno; il secundo e stato di
procurare che questa distribuzione ricevesse la minore possibile alterazione." Ibid., p. 58.





334


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


1724


the abuse of estates; the caprice of laws 'and the rapacity of
finance; the establishment of,standing armies and the celibacy
of soldiers; the misfortunes which their maintenance occasions
among the people, and the chasm their celibacy leaves in generation; the progress of public incontinence and its origin, poverty, and the sterillity consequent thereupon.1
Other hindrances to increase are the exorbitant and inalienable riches of ecclesiastics. Filangieri opposed the system of
primogeniture for like reasons.
Filangieri's work is one that was typical in its attitude toward the question of population. When thinking of population and increase he was forced to consider popular wellbeing; and he came to the very common conclusion that inequalities, political and economic, and all kinds of vices are
the main causes of infelicity and slow increase of population. A government with the welfare of its citizens at heart
should seek to remedy such conditions and abuses.
The best and most complete treatment of our subject
among the Italian scholars of this time was by the Venetian
monk Giammaria Ortes (1713-1790).      His work should
rank with Hume's Discourse and Suessmilch's Gittliche
Ordnung as among the best works on population before the
publication of the Essay. There can be little question, as
von Mohl also says, that Malthus was ignorant of the existence of this work, which was entitled Riaessioni sulla
Popolazione  delle Nazioni per    rapporto  all'Economia
Nazionale. The Riflessioni of Ortes were published only
eight years before the Essay, but they seem to have been
written between 1775 and 1787.
In this work Ortes has come very close to Malthusianism,
his doctrine being practically identical with that of the
English curate. But we find some curious as well as erron1 Bk. ii, chaps. iii-viii. See also Kendall's translation.





725]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY                 335
eous statements, which lessen the value of the work as a
whole.   He claimed, for example, that no people was richer,
that is, could command more of the means of subsistence,
per capita than any other; appearances to the contrary were
simply evidences of unequal or different distribution.     He
wrote also that a million inhabitants to every five thousand
square miles was about the right proportion; but this he said,
apparently at least, without taking into consideration various
differences in situation, fertility, etc.  His general argument,
however, is inconsistent with this statement.     He believed
that foreign trade did not contribute materially to the means
of living.
The substance or means of a people could and would increase as the people did, if everything was considered; that
is, if the importance of prudence were recognized and mechanical and other improvements(as in agriculture) were not
neglected. But it could not be disputed that population
was regulated by the amount of subsistence obtainable;
a country could not feel permanently secure unless it produced the nourishment needed for its own people.
Ortes, like many other writers regarded the increase of
population as tending to assume a geometrical ratio.1    Ortes
1His ratio ran as follows, beginning with seven persons:
Year.                                   Persons Living.
o.......................................       7
30......................................    14
60..................................          28
90 o.....................................  5 56
120........................................  112
150..............................     224
300................................    7,168
450.........................................   229,376
6oo0.....................................  7,340,032
750...........................  234,881,024
900.......................................  7,516,192,768
See S. C. I., vol. xxxiv, chap. i, p. 26.





336


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[726


was of course forced, by the logic of such a progression,
to see that checks of various kinds entered into the problem.
The check to the increase of animals was lack of food, and
the like;' man's multiplication was restricted by his own
action, by prudence, (ragione).2  The celibacy of the church
was thus not only a beneficial example to the masses, but celibacy whether religious or secular or vicious was the only
practicable refuge for considerable portions of a population
that had approached the limits determined by the individual's
and state's possessions (sostance).
Population, said Ortes, tends to increase with national
liberty and the security of property.3  When a sovereign
imposes too heavy taxes and when wealth is concentrated
in the hands of a few, the remainder being in a state of
miserable poverty, numbers will not increase, or, if they do,
they will ordinarily increase very slowly and with added
misery. The luxury of the few, accompanied by poverty
among the masses, is always detrimental. Forced labor or
servitude or slavery and all forms of oppression check increase, because the conditions of gaining what one needs
are exceedingly severe, and the spur to energy and enterprise furnished by ambition is lacking. Marriage, and consequently fecundity, is discouraged, and vice is given its
opportunity.'
Ortes held then, that population had a tendency to increase at a geometrical ratio; increase in the goods on which
man depended was slower, hence the conflict between man
and nature; man as a rational animal had learned to regulate
increase by reason according to times and seasons. His conS"Generazioni negli animali limitate de forza." Ibid., chap. ii.
2 "Generazioni negli uomini limitate de ragione." Ibid., chap. iii;
see also chap. iv.
8 Ibid., chap. xiv.        4 Ibid., chaps. xv, xvi.





727]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY               337
clusion is the same as that of Malthus: in populous countries
the majority must practice prudence or suffer. The state on
its side should do what it could to relieve this suffering,
and should do away with obvious abuses and unnecessary
burdens.
The last Italian writer on population in this period was
a contemporary of Malthus, Francesco Mengotti (1749 -1830). In his II Colbertismo, a discussion of the mercantile policies, Mengotti comes to the conclusion that it is
the soil which furnishes man's subsistence, and it is therefore of prime importance in its connection with population.1
The amount of subsistence will vary according to the epoch
and such circumstances as the degree of civilization and
culture. When the mass of annual productions is great and
increasing, when industry is stable, when the country is at
peace, when, in fine, the wealth and well-being of all in the
country is increasing, marriages will become more frequent
and the excess of births over deaths will be greater; and with
this increase of population it will be seen that national
power and wealth also increase.   Populousness is therefore
to be desired, and those things which hinder increase or welfare should be removed.
Consumption and production should be made to balance
as nearly as possible; for excess and want are equally harmful. The true riches of a country consist not in silver and
gold; these are the effects of riches, which is a great plenty
of products continually replaced.    A  free competition is
1 "La misura delle sussistenze degli uomini varia secondo 1'epoche
e i periodi differente della societA. I popoli cacciatori e semibarbari
consumano meno dei popoli pastori e questi meno ancora degli agricoltori e manifattori. I bisogni di abitudine, non men prepotente di
quelli della natura, vanno crescendo a grado a grado secondo che la
maggior coltura e l'industria perfezionata affronto un piiu gran numero
di oggetti ai nostri comodi e piaceri," etc. P. 306.





338


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[728


necessary in order to establish harmony between classes.
Agriculture and all productive labor should be encouraged;
for the sustenance they produce is the source of population,
and on it depend the riches, force and independence of the
state. Favoritism  in industry and commerce should be
abolished, and libertinage should be discouraged in every
possible way.'
~ 6. English Writers from  Adam   Smith to Chalmers.
Adam Smith (1723-1790) did not accord any consecutive
treatment to the subject of population, nor is it possible to
piece together a full and systematic exposition from the
cursory remarks on the subject in the Wealth of Nations
(1776).2
In his chapter on the " Wages of Labor "  he discussed
the question more fully than elsewhere. It is the produce
of labor which constitutes the natural recompense or wages
of labor, and hence it is through this that laborers obtain
the means of subsistence. The bettering of conditions of
the lower classes of laborers is to be desired, as they constitute the greater part of every political society, and the
nation's welfare consequently depends on their well-being.
" Poverty," said Smith,
though it no doubt discourages, does not always prevent
marriage. It seems even to be favorable to generation. A
half-starved Highland woman frequently bears more than
twenty children, while the pampered fine lady is often incapable
of bearing any, and is generally exhausted by two or three.
1 Pp. 349-350.
2 Cf. Wagner, op. cit., p. 452: "A. Smith hat die Bevolkerungsfrage
nur gelegentlich gestreift, aber noch keine principielle Stellung zu ihr
cingenommen. Reichtum und iusserste Armut halt er fiir gleich ungiinstig."
* Bk. i, chap. viii.





729]  LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY           339
Barrenness, so frequent among women of fashion, is very
rare among those of inferior station.  Luxury in the fair
sex, while it inflames perhaps the passion for enjoyment, seems
always to weaken and frequently to destroy altogether the
powers of generation.
But though poverty according to Smith is not unfavorable to the generation of children, it usually prevents the
successful rearing of them. " It is not uncommon," said
Smith, " in the Highlands of Scotland for a mother who
has borne twenty children not to have two alive." Excessive generation of children among the poor is then counterbalanced by the enormous infant mortality. In some
places "one-half the children die before they are four years
of age; in many places before they are seven; and in almost all places before they are nine or ten....
Every species of animals naturally mualtiplies in proportion
to the means of their subsistence, and no species can ever
multiply beyond it. But in civilized society it is only among
the inferior 'ranks of people that the scantiness of subsistence
can set limits to the further muiltiplication of the human species;
and it can do so in no other way than by destroying a great
part of the children which their fruitful marriages produce.
High wages tend to increase population, for, besides permitting more marriages, they enable parents to support and
rear their offspring so that a larger proportion will live.
As long as wages continue to advance, population will increase. If wages are low or diminishing, population suffers
and either remains stationary or decreases.
It is in this manner that the demand, for men necessarily
regulates the production of men, like that of any other commodity; quickens it when it -goes on too slowly, and stops it





340


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[730


when it goes on too fast. It is this demand which regulates
and determines the state of propagation in all the different
countries of the world, in North America, in Europe and in
China; which renders it rapidly progressive in the first, slow
and gradual in the second and altogether stationary in the last.
The "increase of stock " raises wages while it lowers
profits, and as the masses are wage receivers, they are benefited and caused to increase thereby. An increase in wealth
and improvements will tend to cause population to increase;
but this increase operates so as to lower wages again.' In
a country which has acquired its " full complement of
riches " which natural and industrial conditions allow, population can increase no more, and both the " profits of stock "
and wages will be low.
In the second part of his chapter on rent, " considered as
the price paid for the use of land,"'2 Smith states that
countries are populous in proportion to the produce which
feeds and supports the people. But that produce which
simply clothes and lodges men does not affect increase;
for life depends primarily on food, and where this is plentiful life increases, and shelter and clothing are obtained with
comparative ease,-at least so easily that they have no really
important effect.
Some of the other theories in the Wealth of Nations have
a relation to the welfare and increase of a people. The
" division of labor" must operate to increase numbers,
for the total volume of production is greater than without
it, and population regulates itself according to wages and
the necessary products which can be obtained by them.
Adam Smith's statement that the demand for men regulates their production seems to take for granted the various


a Bk. i, chap. ix.


2 Bk. i, chap. xi.





731 ]  LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY            341
positive and to some extent the preventive checks of
Malthus, and it implies that men as rational beings use
prudence, as hard times dictate, in regard to marrying and
the number of children they will have. When the most
primitive types or the lowest classes do not use such prudential foresight, the story of the Highland woman is
repeated.
Arthur Young (1741-1820) emphatically objected to the
doctrine that population is the test of national prosperity.
In his Travels in France,' for example, he said that
Of all the subjects of political economy I know not one that
has given rise to such a cloud of errors as that of population.
It seems, for some centuries, to have been considered as the
only sure test of national prosperity. The politicians of those
times, and the majority of them in the present, have been of
the opinion, that to enumerate the people was the only step
necessary to be taken in order to ascertain the degree in which
a country was flouristhing. In my Tour through the North
of England, 1769, I entered my caveat against such a doctrine
and presumed to assert " that no nation is rich or powerful by
mere numbers of people; it is the industrious alone that constitute a nation's strength;" that assertion I repeated in my
Political Arithmetic in 1774.... About the same time
a genius of superior cast (Sir James Steuart) very much exceeded my weak efforts, and, with a masterly hand, explained
the principle of population. Other writers have arisen who
have viewed the subject in its right light; and none of these
have equalled Mons. Herrenschwandt, who, in his Economie
Politique Moderne, 1786, has almost exhausted the subject.
France, said Young, afforded a very good example
of the disastrous effects of too little subsistence for a
1 In John Pinkerton's A General Collection of the Best and Most
Interesting Voyages in All Parts of the World, vol. iv, pp. 428-433.





342


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[732


given population. " Her population is so much beyond
the proportion of her industry and labor that she would
be more powerful and infinitely more flourishing if she
had five or six millions less of inhabitants." This great
populousness he attributed particularly to the " division of
lands into small properties;" but as the people had about
reached the lowest plane on which they could exist and propagate, "the least check to subsistence is attended with
great misery." He thought population tended to increase
even faster than the demand; his idea here being practically
identical with Malthus's ratios and somewhat different from
Adam Smith's view that population regulates itself according
to the demand for labor.
Statesmen often make two great errors, said Young;
viz., encouraging marriage and attracting foreigners. "The
predominant evil in this kingdom is the having so great a
population that she can neither employ nor feed it; why then
encourage marriage?... You have so great competition for food that your people are starving or in misery."
There is no reason why foreigners should be imported while
peasants are starving, thereby simply increasing the severity
of the competitive struggle for work and the extent of want.
The level of wages " probably " depends on "the proportion
there may be between the demand and the hands that supply it; for if many men are wanted, and few to be had, prices
will rise."
In The Farmer's Tour through the East of England
(i770) we find the following statement of his theory:
In spite of the assertions of all political writers for the last
twenty years, who place the prosperity of a nation in the
greatest possible population, an excessive population without
a great amount of work and without abundant productions is
a devouring surplus for a state; for this excessive population





733]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY             343
does not get the benefits of subsistence which, without this
excess, they would partake of; the amount of work is not sufficient for the number of hands; and the price of work is lowered
by the great competition of the laborers, from which results
indigence to those who cannot find work.'
Young's theories regarding population and wages and
general welfare are then in the form of arguments against
the irrational desire for increase without adequate care for
the employment of all. In general his views may be said
to be like those of Malthus, who found Young's works a
great source of information in developing and proving his
" principle."
A Journey through Spain in the Years 1786 and 1787 2
by the Reverend Joseph Townsend (1739-1816) was published in 1791. His statement of his views concerning the
dependence of population on subsistence contains a common
modern argument against the practicability of communism:
Their numbers rmust be limited because their food is so; and
were they to establish a community of goodis, they must either
cast lots 'who should emigrate, or they must all starve together;
unless they chose rather to agree that two only in every family
should marry, and when a cottage became vacant could find
means to settle which of the expectants should unite to take
possession of it.3
In his Dissertation on the Poor Laws (1787) Townsend
1 Ibid., p. 429.
2 "And Remarks on Passing Through a Part of France," in three
volumes. See vol. i, p. 383, et passim.
3 Townsend was here discussing the problems of a Spanish village;
and he remarked in this connection that, as the case of a small community is more easily comprehended, this "may assist us in pursuing
our researches on the extent of population where its combinations are
not quite so obvious."





344


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[734


indicated the peculiar strength of the procreating tendency,
among the lower classes in particular, and the impossibility
of successfully combatting poverty by supporting the poor
through the prevalent system of aids and reliefs. This only
made poverty more endurable and continuous, and caused
the poorest to increase without adequate provision for their
employment and sustenance; so matters became worse. Subsistence does not tend to increase as fast as population, and
is in fact unable to do so; therefore we shall always have
the poor with us. This is a condition we must face; poor
relief does not remedy the evil, it aggravates and increases
it. His arguments indicate the source of some of Malthus's
ideas.
Perhaps the most systematic treatment of our subject
among the English writers of this period is found in the
Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy (1785) by
Doctor William Paley (1743-1805). He believed that the
decay of population is the greatest evil that a state can suffer;
and the improvement of it the object which ought, in all
countries, to be aimed at in preference to every other political
purpose whatsoever.'  Paley devoted the rest of his chapter on population to an explanation of the causes of the
growth and the decrease of numbers. The following excerpt
practically summarizes all his views on the matter:
In the fecundity of the human, as of every other species of
animals, nature has provided for an indefinite multiplication.
Mankind have increased to their present number from a single
pair; the offspring of early marriages, in the ordinary course
of procreation, do more than replace the parents: in countries,
and under circumistances, very favorable to subsistence, the
population has been doubled in the space of twenty years; the
havoc occasioned by wars, earthquakes, famine or pestilence is
1 For whole discussion, see bk. vi, chap. xi.





735]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTVRY           345
usually repaired in a short time. These indications sufficiently
demonstrate the tendency of nature, in the human species, to a
continual increase of its numbers. It becomes therefore a
question which may reasonably be propounded, what are the
causes which confine or check the natural progress of this
multiplication? And the ansiwer which first presents itself to
the thoughts of the inquirer is, that the population of a country
must stop when the country can maintain no more, that is
when the inhablitants are already so numerous as to exhaust
all the provision which the soil can, be madle to produce. This
however, though an insuperable bar, will seldom be found to
be that which actually checks the progress of population in
any country of the world; because the number of the people
have seldom, in any country, arrived at this limit or even approached to it. The fertility of the ground in temperate regions is capable of being improved by cultivation to an extent
which is unknown.
Paley, then, admitted that population depends on food and
that it is limited by the amount produced, as a matter of fact,
while it is not necessarily limited except by the amount of
subsistence producible. The amount that can be produced
is capable of almost indefinite expansion, and it must therefore be admitted that the possible increase is indefinite. He
adds:
Wherever the commerce between the sexes is regulated by
marriage, and provision for that mode of subsistence to which
each class of the community is accustomed can be secured with
ease and certainty, there the number of people will increase;
and the rapidity, as well as the extent, of the increase will be
proportioned to the degree in which these causes exist.
The standard of living, the conditions of industry, the
kind of distribution of wealth, all. have important effects on





346


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[736


population, as reflection will partially reveal. Emigration
is either the sign of over-population or greater inducements
elsewhere. Colonization is a step taken to prevent any
bad effect on the mother country.
Two works which gave rise to a considerable discussion
at this time were An Essay on the Population of England
and Wales and The Observations on Reversionary Payments
(1780) by Doctor Richard Price (1723-1791). The last
work has particular reference to insurance, but the mathematical basis of the work furnishes a foundation for a theory
of increase. The author maintained that population would
increase until it was checked by moral or physical circumstances; when it had reached this limit it would tend to remain stationary on account of a more general practice of celibacy, greater infertility and a greater mortality. Causes
tending to check the growth of population in ordinary times
were: (i) the increase of the army and navy, which necessitated a continually new supply of men; (2) a devouring
capital city, too large in proportion to the country; (3) wars;
(4) emigrations and colonies; (5) the engrossing of farms;
(6) the high price of provisions; (7) the increase in the
consumption of liquors and luxuries; and (8) the increasing
of taxes and public debts.
The increase of population, said Doctor Price, depends
on healthfulness, which is the cause of fecundity. Country
life is much more healthful than city life, hence the greater
birth-rate in rural parts of the country. The remarkably
rapid rate of increase in the American colonies, which had
seldom been paralleled, he attributed to the more healthful
manner of living, as well as to the greater ease with which
necessaries of life were obtainable.
" The state in which mankind increase the most is that
in which they lead simple lives, are most on an equality, and





737]   LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY            347
least acquainted with artificial wants. Luxury in society
renders it rank." 1
Price's works were not a great contribution to the subject;
he accepted the more advanced conclusions of his time, but
in his endeavors to be exact he was often misled into a
pseudo-accuracy by a too confident reliance on his mathematical formulae.
Doctor Price's Essay was as productive of opposition as
was the Discourse of Hume thirty years before. The works
of Howlett, Wales and Chalmers are all more or less closely
related to it. An Examination of Doctor Price's Essay on
the Population of England and Wales (1781) by the Reverend John Howlett (1731-1800), though accepting the fundamental theories of Price, and others holding the same general views, objects to his conclusions. Price like Wallace
thought that population had decreased since former times,
and he based his view on somewhat similar grounds; but
Howlett maintained that cities with their commerce and
industry act as incentives to greater productivity of agriculture; they need and use the surplus created by agriculture.
Because of the increased demand for his produce
the farmer would have double the incentive to cultivate and
improve his grounds; his products in corn and cattle would
every day increase; the tradesman, the manufacturer, the mechanic would share in the general advantage; great additional
numbers, in the meantime, would be constantly employed in
carrying the fruits and riches of the country to the newly
augmented metropolis.2
SSee p. 31, et passim, of An Essay on the Population of England
and Wales; also Reversionary Payments, passim; also Observations
on the Expectations of Lives, the Increase of Mankind, etc., a letter
from Price to Benjamin Franklin, in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1769, pp. 89-125.
2 P. 6.





348           DOCTRINES OF POPULATION               [738
Howlett admitted, however, that great towns, considered
in themselves and without relation to their influence on the
surrounding territory, were prejudicial to increase. The air
is usually less salubrious than in the country; men are more
strongly incited to irregular conduct, to luxury, to intemperance and vice. All these conditions obstruct marriage and
tend to shorten the lives of individuals. But he rejected
Price's view that
great towns do more towards the obstructing the increase of
mankind than all the plagues, famines and wars. I have often
thoughtt with pity and surprize of the zeal with which Sir
Willliatn Petty and Mr. Maitland contended, in opposition to
some French writers, for the superiority of London to Paris,
or any other city in the world. They did not consider that
they were only maintaining that England had a greater evil in
it than any other kingdom.1
As already explained, Howlett thought that the social evils
of cities affecting the birth and death rates disadvantageously
to increase were more than counterbalanced by the favorable effect on the whole country of urban industries and
commerce. 2
William Wales (died 1798) enters the discussion in his
Inquiry concerning the Present State of the Population of
England and Wales (1781). This work does not contain
much that is of value so far as this study is concerned;
like Price's work it is a study in " political arithmetic," and
its main interest lies in the comparison of birth and death
rates, but it contributes nothing new in regard to general
1 Howlett's Examination, pp. 8-9; Price's Observations (Appendix),
p. 63.
2 Cf. also Howlett's Inquiry into the Influence which Enclosures
have upon the Population of England, 1786, in which the author defended enclosures from the viewpoint of population.





739]  LAST QUARTER OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY           349
phases of the question.  Wales suggested a more equitable taxation, so that marriage and increase might be
encouraged.'
The following paragraphs, taken from An Estimate of the
Strength of Great Britain during the Present and Fowur Preceding Reigns (1794), indicate that George Chalmers was
abreast of the most advanced thought on population in his
time:
The Lord Chief Justice Hale formerly and Sir James Steuart
and the Count de Buffon lately considered men as urged, like
other animals, by natural instincts; as directed, like them, by
the same motives of propagation; and as subsisted afterwards,
or destroyed, by similar means.
It is instinct then which, according to those illustrious authors, is the cause of procreation; but it is food that keeps the
population 'full and atccumulates numbers, whether of the fish
of the sea, the fowls of the air or beasts of the field, which are
yearly produced: we perceive however the essential consequence of the last, from the vast numbers that annually perish
for want.
Experience indeed evinces to what an immense extent domestic anirnmals may 'be multiplied, by providing aibundance of
food. In the same manner mankind have been found to
exist and increase in every condition and in every age according to the standard of their subsistence and the measure
of their comforts.2
Chalmers agreed with Hume " that it seems reasonable to
expect that where there are the wisest institutions and the
most happiness there will also be the most people." He
endeavored to adduce historical proof in support of this
statement, by examining the various epochs of English


1 See p. 13 especially.


2 pp. 1-2.





350            DOCTRINES OF POPULATION                  [740
history and the famines and other misfortunes occurring
in them.
Like most writers in the last half of the eighteenth century Chalmers may be regarded as a precursor of Malthus.
The main differences in the opinions and theories of this
time seem to consist in the mathematical expressions of some
and the absence of such expressions in others; and writers
varied somewhat in their conclusions as to the dangers
of over-population. In general it may be said that this was
not feared if the governmental regulations were of a beneficent character. Human prudence would act as a restraint;
really superfluous numbers were to be thought of only in
the vague future.'
I The theories of Godwin and his relations with Malthus have been
quite fully treated by several writers and in encyclopadias and dictionaries, so that the present writer has deemed it unnecessary to include a discussion of them in this study.





CONCLUSION.


The Greek ideal was favorable to a good population rather
than to a numerous one, though in order to keep up numbers, especially after wars, stringent laws, whose purpose
was to encourage marriage and increase fecundity, were enacted. In general the aim of Greek institutions may be said
to have been to permit only the fit to survive as citizens.
Fertility among married women was of course desired, and
attention to the physical capacities of parents was considered
advisable. Plato and Aristotle emphasized proportion and
quality in population. The attitude of the later philosophic
schools was one which regarded marriage and family cares
as necessary evils for the majority.
The Roman political attitude was unquestionably favorable
to increase; but in the later years of the Republic and in the
early Empire in particular, private morals and policy were
unfavorable to fecundity, hence the various laws to regulate
the marital and moral relations of the sexes and the rewards
for fecundity and the favors to patres familiarum, as opposed to celibates.
Primitive men had but vague conceptions of the problem,
-their acts were mainly instinctive,-and in their superstitions or religions we find little that points to phallism. In
more cultured stages certain forms of phallic worship developed, and a veneration of the reproductive power in man
as in nature generally appeared. In the great religions of
antiquity we see systematized regulations of this natural
tendency; but in some cases, usually only in the priesthood
74'                                      35i





352


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[742


and among philosophers, forms of celibacy and asceticism
were advocated and practised. This was evidently the ancient manner of laying stress on spiritual and intellectual
growth, which was hindered by the too great licentiousness
of the many.
With the introduction of Christianity, as a moral and religious force, came an almost violent revolt against current
ideals. Population as such was regarded as of but small
importance; the aim was the moral and spiritual improvement of the living and the saving of the dying; the purpose
was primarily celestial, and mundane only in so far as the
present life was a preparation for the future. The existing
laxity of morals seems to have been the fundamental cause
of the growth of early ascetic tendencies, beginning with
Saint Paul and continuing down the ages in the practices
and doctrines of the Catholic Church. We find that marriage and the perpetuation of the race were often regarded
as inevitable evils; and marriage was often referred to as
impure or at least as inferior to a state of chaste celibacy.
This was the general doctrine, whatever the practice may
have been.
In the humanistic writings we find a reversion to Greek
ideals, but with modifications indicating the influence of
Christianity; and in the German Reformation we see a
reaction against what were considered the untenable--because resulting in immorality-doctrines of the Roman
Catholic Church. It was not only maintained that marriage was desirable in practically every instance, but that it
and the begetting of children were the divinely approved
modes of living. With this reaction there was undoubtedly
a falling away from much of the prudence advocated by the
Church, whatever the total effect may have been.
The publicists of the early modem period were divided
in their opinions concerning the desirability of great popu




743]


CONCLUSION


353


lousness, especially in cities; some, who were influenced by
classical literature as well as by conditions at the time or not
long before, expressed fears of over-population. This was
true particularly in the England of the end of the sixteenth
and the beginning of the seventeenth century.
But from about the time of the Restoration in England,
and from the days of Colbert (but also before, as in Bodin's
Commonwealth) in France, and from the Peace of Westphalia in Germany, and concurrently in most other countries,
with the growing dominance of mercantilist influence and the
increasing rivalry among the nations for political preeminence,-the doctrine that a great and increasing population is always desirable became universally accepted.
Populousness, national wealth and popular welfare were
regarded as interdependent.
Toward the end of the seventeenth and to the middle of
the eighteenth century more rationally developed theories
found acceptance, not as replacing but as supplementing the
ordinary mercantilist, nationalist doctrine. Great populations were still desired, but with the reservation that the
people be comfortable, employed and healthy. Some ideas
of the limitations to increase by the amount of means of
subsistence  obtainable  were  expressed; - governments
should seek to develop commerce first and agriculture
secondly, so that the masses could find employment and
thereby be enabled to increase effectually and without an
unnecessary increase of misery or a too great increase of
pauperism.
From about the middle of the eighteenth century to the
time of Malthus, the modern, so-called " Malthusian," doctrine, that population tends to increase more rapidly than
the food supply, found almost universal acceptance;-among
French writers, by Montesquieu, Brickner and others, besides the Physiocrats and political and philosophical writers;





354


DOCTRINES OF POPULATION


[744


generally; in England and America in the works of Franklin, Hume, Wallace, Steuart, Smith, Paley, Chalmers and
others; in Germany in the discussions of Moser, Schloezer
and Herrenschwand, especially; and among Italian writers
quite generally.
That part of the theory which maintains that population
tends to increase at a geometrical ratio, while the means of
subsistence tend to increase more slowly was announced in
the works of Graunt, Petty, Saxe, Briickner, Mann, Suessmilch, Ortes and several others. This part of the theory
owes its origin mainly to the comparative study of birth rates
and mortality tables of various cities on the continent as
well as of London. Positive and preventive checks to increase were acknowledged by most writers; but it was often
believed that many of these hindrances to increase could be
removed' by wise and benevolent governmental regulations.
The theories of the last fifty years before Malthus are
frequently parts of protests against governmental abuses and
the special privileges and wanton luxury of the rich and
the nobility, with a disregard of the interests and welfare of
the many, the peasants. A more equitable distribution of
wealth as well as more intelligent and better methods of
administration of fiscal burdens were desired. This would
relieve the poor and encourage increase; edicts and laws
which did not take the economic well-being of the people
into account could never effect an increase.
It would entail a somewhat extended discussion of PostMalthusian theories to summarize critically even a part of
the omissions of earlier writers. Suffice it then to say that
the modern, more scientific treatment of the subject was
not possible, though some of the rudiments were suggested
from the psychological as well as from the biological and
socio-economic standpoint. New biological theories and
discoveries and the growing appreciation of the varying





745]


CONCLUSION


355


and perhaps uncertain characteristics of man have naturally led to discussions of a somewhat more satisfactory and
certainly of a less incomplete sort; and industrial changes
have suggested the importance of phases of the problem before unthought of. The problems of race, the "Rassenkampf," have also attracted some attention with the growth
of more recent sociological, anthropological and ethnological
studies. These considerations indicate in a measure also
the force of the writer's contention that the problems of
population as well as the doctrines relating to them, vary,
and must be understood largely in the light of existing circumstances; and enable us to say, as Malthus said in his
time, that " much remains yet to be done."
Even writers who have given the history of doctrines of
population only a cursory study have concluded that
there was no real contribution to the problem in Malthus's
Essay; but Malthus himself modestly recognized this. He
was, however, not satisfied with the statements of conclusions in the few works of his predecessors with which he
was acquainted, and he thought that his work was a better
and more' systematic presentation of the subject than the
world yet possessed, especially in the proposition that population tends to increase at a geometrical, and the means of
subsistence at an arithmetical ratio;-which however does
not give us as valuable information as he supposed.
Malthus's terminology of " positive" and " preventive"
checks does not in reality mean more than the simpler explanations of several earlier writers.
Among the circumstances which contributed to making
Malthus's work notable was the attention given to Godwin's
Political Justice, a work not unlike Condorcet's Esquisse.
Malthus's Essay was in part a reply to Godwin's work, and
the importance of the question at the time, connected in
a way as it was with the Parliamentary debates, drew the





356          DOCTRINES OF POPULATION             [746
attention not only of scholars but of politicians to this controversy and the doctrine as put for-th by Maithus, who displayed more skill than his predecessors in showing the relation of population to general economic doctrines and
problems.
Malthus's work was a great one, written in an opportune
time, and though it cannot lay claim to any considerable
originality as far as the theories presented are concerned, it
was successful in that it showed more fully, perhaps more
clearly, and certainly more effectively than had any previous
attempt, -that population depends on subsistence and that its
increase is checked by want, vice and disease as well as bymoral restraint or prudence.





WORKS BY
THE FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE OF
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.
JOHN W. BURGESS:-Political Science and Comparative Constitutional Law (2
vols.), Boston and London, GINN & COMPANY, 189o-1891. The Middle Period, x187 -1858: The Civil War and the Constitution, 1859-865 ( vols.); Reconstruction and
the Constitution, x866-1877;-American History Sries, New York, CaAabas SCRISNsR's
SONS, 1897, 1901, I902.
RICHMOND MAYO SM ITH:-Emigration and Immigration, New York, CHARLES SCRIsNR'S SONS, 1890. Statistics and Sociology; Statistics and Economics;-Columbia
University Press (MACMILLAN), 1895, 1899.
MUNROE SMITH:-Bismarck, Columbia University Press (MACMILLAN), 1899.
FRANK J. GOODNOW:-Comparative Administrative Law (2 vols.), New York, G. P.
PUTNAM'S SONS, x893; one volume edition, z90o. Municipal Home Rule, Columbia
University Press (MACMILLAN), 1895. Municipal Problems, Columbia University Press
(MACMILLAN), 1897. Politics and Administration, New York, THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 1900. City Government in the United States, THE CENTURY CO., 1904.
EDWIN R. A. SELIGMAN:--Railway Tariffs and the Interstate Commerce Act,
Boston, GINN & COMPANY, 1888. The Shifting and the Incidence of Taxation, Second
Edition, Columbia University Press (MACMILLAN), 1899. Progressive Taxation in
Theory and Practice, New York, THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 1894. Essays ia Taxation, New York, THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 895; Fourth Edition, 1904. The Economic Interpretation of History, Columbia University Press, (MACMILLAN), z90o.
HERBERT L. OSGOOD:-Archives and Public Recorda of New York, published by
THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION, Washington, 19ox. The American Colonies
in the Seventeenth Century. (2 vols.) New York, THE MACMILLAN CO., 1904.
WILLIAM A. DUNNING:-Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction, New York,
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 1898. A History of Political Theories, Ancient and
Mediaeval, New York, THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 1902.
JOHN BASSETT MOORE:-Extraterritorial Crime, Washington, published by the
Government, 1887. Extradition and Interstate Rendition (2 vols.), Boston, T'HE Bos.
TON BOOK COMPANY, 1891. American Notes on Conflict of Laws (accompanying
Dicey's " Conflict of Laws "), Boston, THE BOSTON BOOK COMPANY, 1895. History and
Digest of International Arbitrations (6 vols.), Washington, published by the Government, 1898.
FRANKLIN H. GIDDINGS:-The Modern Distributive Process (in collaboration with
J. B. Clark), Boston, GINN & COMPANY, 1888 The Theory of Sociology, Philadelphia
AMERICAN ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE, 1894. The Principles of
Sociology, New York, THR MACMILLAN COMPANY, 1896; Seventh Edition, igos. The
Theory of Socialization, New York, THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 1897. Elements of
Sociology, New York, THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 1898. Democracy and Empire,
New York, THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 900o; Second Edition, xgox. Inductive Sociology, New York, THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 1901.
JOHN B. CLARK:-The Philosophy of Wealth, Boston, GiNN & COMPANY, 1886,
Second Edition, 1887. The Modern Distributive Process (in collaboration with F. H.
Giddings), Boston, GINN & COMPANY. s888. The Distribution of Wealth, New York!
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 1899. The Control of Trusts, New York, THE MACMILLAN
COMPANY, go90. The Problem of Monopoly, Columbia University Press (MACMILLAN),
1904.
JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON:-Petrarch, the First Modern Scholar and Man of
Letters (in collaboration with H. W. Rolfe), New York, G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 1898
The History of Western Europe, Boston, GINN & COMPANY, 1902.
WILLIAM M. SLOANE:-The French War and the Revolution, American History
Series, New York, CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, i83. The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte
( vols.), New York THE CENTURY COMPANY, 1896. The French Revolution and Religious Reform, New York, CHARLES SCRIBNBR S SONS, 901o.
HENRY ROGERS SEAGER:-Introduction to Economics. New York, HENRY HOLT &
Co., 1904.





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FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
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GENERAL LIBRARY,
UNIV. OF iUCHL.
JAN   8 1905
STUDIES IN HISTORY, ECONOMICS AND PUBLIC LAW
EDITED BY THE FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE OF
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY


Volume XXI]


[Number 3


PRE-MALTHUSIAN DOCTRINES
OF POPULATION:
A STUDY IN THE HISTORY OF ECONOMIC THEORY
BY
CHARLES EMIL STANGELAND, Ph.D.,
Sometime University Fellow in Economies


ew t1o rk
THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, AGENTS
LONDON: P. S. KING & SON
1904





Columbia talnfierSitt
FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Nicholas Murray Butler, LL.D., President. J. W. Burgess, LL.D., Professor of Political Science and Constitutional Law. Munroe Smith, LL.D,.
Professor of Comparative Jurisprudence. F. J. Goodnow, LL. D., Professor of
Administrative Law. E. R. A. Seligman, LL.D., Professor of Political Economy
and Finance.  H. L. Osgood, Ph.D., Professor of History. Wm. A. Dunning,
LL.D., Professor of History. J. B. Moore, LL.D., Professor of International
Law. F. H. Giddings, LL.D., Professor of Sociology. J. B. Clark, LL.D.,
Professor of Political Economy. J. H. Robinson, Ph.D., Professor of History.
W. M. Sloane, L.H.D., Professor of History. H. R. Seager, Ph.D., Adjunct
Professor of Political Economy. H. L. Moore, Ph.D., Adjunct Professor of
Political Economy. W. R. Shepherd, Ph.D., Instructor in History. A. S. Johnson, Ph.D., Instructor in Economics. H. A. Cushing, Ph.D., Lecturer in History.
J. T. Shotwell, Ph.D., Lecturer in History. G. W. Botsford, Ph.D., Lecturer in
History. G. J. Bayles, Ph.D., Lecturer in Sociology. V. G. Simkhovitch,
Ph.D., Lecturer on History. C. A. Beard, Ph.D., Lecturer in History.
SCHEME OF INSTRUCTION
GROUP I. HISTORY AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY.
SUBJECT A. European History, sixteen courses.
SUBJECT B. American History, nine courses.
SUBJECT C. Political Philosophy, three courses.
SUBJECT D. Ancient History, seven courses.
GROUP II. PUBLIC LAW        AND COMPARATIVE JURISPRUDENCE.
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SUBJECT B. International Law, four courses.
SUBJECT C. Administrative Law, seven courses.
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seminar for the training of candidates for the higher degrees. The degrees of
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the University Council. (For particulars, see Columbia University Bulletins of
Information, Faculty of Political Science.) Any person not a candidate for a degree may attend any of the courses at any time by payment of a proportional fee.
University fellowships of $650 each, and University scholarships of $150 each
are awarded to applicants who give evidence of special fitness to pursue advanced
studies. Several prizes of from $50 to $250 are awarded. The library contains
about 370,000 volumes, and students have access to other great collections in the
city.










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