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R OM E:
ITS RULER AND ITS INSTITUTIONS.








ITS RULER AND ITS INSTITUTIONS.
BY
JOHN  FRANCIS  MRAGUIRE, M. P.
D. &  J. SADLIER  &  CO., 164 WILLIAM  ST.
BOSTON:-128 FEDERAL STREET.
MONTREAL:-CORNER OF NOTRE-DAfME AND ST. FRANCIS XAVIER STS.
1860.








TO
THE 1HON. AND RIGIIT REV. GEORGE TALBOT,
DOMESTIC PRELATE AND
PRIVATE CHAMBERLAIN OF HIS HOLINESS PIUS IX,
THIS VOLUME  I.S
f    t ifatt4
BY  THE AUTHOR,
AS A TESTIMONY OF RESPECT FOR HIS OCHARACTER,
AND OF GRATITUDE FOR HIS KINDNESS.








PRE FA C E.
Tins volume has had its origin in a series of letters,
which I wrote from Rome, in the belief that the subjects of which they treated, and the information which
they afforded, would prove of interest to a large circle
of readers. The result justified the anticipation; for
the letters were extensively copied in this country, as
well as in various places in America, and were reprinted
in more than one European language. The interest
which they excited-or, more correctly speaking, which
the information afforded by their details excited-was
evidenced by almost innumerable applications made to
me, to publish them in some more enduring and permanent form. Many of these applications were urged
upon me with a weight of personal authority which I
could not attempt to resist; and I therefore resolved to
comply with a desire in which I thoroughly sympathized, and the motive of which I perfectly understood,
— namely, a wish to encounter, by a representation of




viii                 PREFACE.
the true state of things in Rome, that system of falsehood and misrepresentation which has been too generally adopted with reference to all matters connected
with the government and institutions of the Papal
States: which system of falsehood and misrepresentaation is not owing to the circumstance of the nation and
government being Italian, but of both being Cat/holic,
and of the latter being that of the Head of the Catholic
Church.
At a considerable sacrifice of time, and no small interference with pressing public duty, I resolved, not on
reprinting my letters, but upon using them  as the
groundwork of a volume in which the subjects to
which they referred, but briefly treated, might be dealt
with more fully and more deliberately; ample materials for their development being at my disposal, the result of what I myself saw, or what I could gather fiom
public documents of undoubted authority. Scarcely,
however, had I commenced my task, when I felt convinced of the necessity of giving a brief but a sufficient
sketch of the career of the reigning Pope, principally
with a view of recalling to the recollection of the
reader the remarkable events of the early years of his
pontificate, and exhibiting the causes that of necessity
arrested the progress of those great political reforms of
which he was the author, but which evil men sought




PREFACE.                   iX
to use to their own advantage, if not to his destruction.
A casual conversation with a friend, whose mind tenaciously retained all recent impressions made by the
partial statements of the enemies of the Pope, and the
traducers of his government, but from which every recollection of the events of 1848 and 1849 had utterly
faded, determined me to carry out this resolution, and
commence the volume with a personal and historical
sketch of the career of Pius IX. This I have done at
greater length than I had at first intended, but perhaps
not so fully as the nature of the subject required. At
any rate, I trust I have done sufficient to enable the
reader to behold, in his true character, one of the best
of men, and most beneficent of rulers; and to estimate,
at their right value, the accusations which have been
made against him, as a reformer of the one day, and a
reactionist of the next.
The letters to which, as I have said, this volume owes
its origin, I have but sparingly used; or where I have
used them, I have added to them considerably,-so as
to render each of the more important subjects as full as
I could afford to make it in a single volume. For instance, I have devoted a considerable portion of the
book to a sketch of the Educational institutions of
Rome,-a subject respecting which much misconception exists in these countries.
A*




x                    PREFACE.
To one portion of this book I feel it right to direct attention,-namely, to the AAppediax. I do so for two
reasons. In the first place, it contains, in the official
Report furnished by the Count de Rayneval, the French
Envoy at Rome, to the iMIinister for Foreign Affairs in
Paris, the most authoritative and conclusive refutation
of the charges urged against the Government of the
Pope; and affords an amount of valuable inolrmation,
on various points, of which it is essential that the public of these countries should be apprized. This document first appeared in its English form in the _Daily
Neews of the 18th of March, 1847; and while adopting
this translation, I can vouch for its accuracy, as I have
closely compared it with the original French, subsequently published in that journal. In no material respect does the one differ from the other; the translation, in every respect, substantially conveying  the
meaning of the original, and giving all its figures and
facts with scrupulous fidelity. I had been in previous
possession of documentary evidence, proving the truth
of the statements macle in this remarkable State Paper,
and had even embodied many of them in my letters;
but, on its appearance in the -Daily News, I was at
once convinced that I would be more likely to serve
the cause which I had at heart, by abandoning what
I had written, and adopting the dispatch of the French




PREFACE.                  Xi
Ambassador, who wrote, not only under a sense of
official responsibility, but from a personal knowledge,
derived alike from his long residence in Rome, and the
facilities which his position afforded him of arriving at
the real state of things. To this dispatch I would direct the attention of every reader who desires to ascertain the truth with respect to the Papal Government.
I direct attention to the Appendix for this second
reason, —namely, that the reader may learn, from
sources of unquestionable authority, that we ourselves
have very many and very important reforms to effect,
both at home and in our government abroad, before we
venture to become the self-appointed censor of other
nations; —that, in a word, we should cast the beam out
of our own eye, before we cast the mote out of our
brother's eye.
In the chapters on the public institutions of Rome,
I have been indebted, in some measure, to the able and
philosophic work of the late Cardinal Morichini; which
obligation I have acknowledged in more than one place.
This valuable work was given to me in Rome, as containing the best and fullest information on the subjects
with which I desired to become acquainted; but my
letters merely contained descriptions of what Isa~w, as
I had no time, while in that city, to devote to reading.
But for a fuller account, such as I now pretend to give,




xii                 PREFACE.
of the institutions which I then described, a reference
to a work of the very highest authority became a matter of necessity.
I shall only add, in conclusion, the expression of a
sincere and heart-felt hope, that this volume may have
the effect of removing from the minds of many honest
and well-intentioned readers, the dark veil with which
ignorance and prejudice have obscured the truth,-and
that these pages may enable the conscientious of every
communion to comprehend the character and appreciate the virtues of one of the best of Men, one of the
most beneficent of Rulers, and one of the most illustrious of Popes.
J. F. AML
LONDON, July, 1857.




CHAPTER I.
Introduction.-The Pauline Chapel.-The Cardinals.-The Pope.
Page 1
CHAPTER II.
The Pope: his Birth and Education. —He studies for the Ministry. —His
Malady cured.-His First Mass. —Goes to Chili.-Instance of his
Charity to an English Officer.-Returns to Rome.-Is created Archbishop of Spoleto. -Difficulties of his Position.- Appointed Cardinal Bishop of Imola. —His charitable and pious Works.-Is elected
Pope.................................  18
CHAPTER III.
Plus IX. ascends the Throne.-Grants an Amnesty.-Terms of the Amnesty.-Enthusiasm of the People.-Machinations of the Revolutionists.-Their Policy and Objects.-Mazzini's Address to the Friends
of Italian Liberty.-Difficulties of the Pope's Position.-The Pope as
a Reformer.-Instances of his Affability and Goodness.-His Interest
in the Education of Youth.-The Pope no Nepotist..  8.....  34
CHAPTER IV.
Alarm of Austria at the Acts of the Pope.-Popular Demonstrations
artfully promoted.-Proclamation against them.-Occupation of Ferrara by the Austrians.-Mlilitary Enthusiasm of the People.-Inauguration of the Council of State.-Its Creation an Evidence of the
Pope's desire for Reform.-The Pope explains his intentions.-Address from the Council.-Foreign Sympathy.-The Pope's Generosity
to Ireland. —His Appeal in her behalf.-State of Europe...... 54




xiv                       CONTENTS.
CHAPTER V.
The Year of Revolutions.-Great excitement in Rome.-Further Reforms demanded.-Opening of the Roman Parliament.-The War of
Independence.-Its disastrous Result.-Count Rossi Prime Minister.
-His Assassination resolved upon...................... Page 73
CHAPTER VI.
Assassination of Count Rossi. —Dispatch of the French Ambassador. —
Inhuman Rejoicings.-Assault on the Pope's Palace. —The Pope's
personal Liberty at an end.-No Excuse for this Violence.    81
CHAPTER VII.
The personal Liberty of the Pope at an end. —He resolves to abandon
Rome.-His Flight from the Quirinal.-He reaches Gaeta.-His Reception by the King and Queen of Naples.................. 89
CHAPTER VIII.
The Flight of the Pope supposed to be the Downfall of the Papacy.Former Popes driven from Rome. —Pius VI. and Pius VII.-General
Cavaignac's Letter.-Testimony of the " Times."-Addresses pour in
on the Pope. —Offers of Hospitality........................  96
CHAPTER IX.
Confusion in Rome at the Flight of the Pope.-IIis Protest from Gaeta.
The Constituent Assembly convoked.-Arrival of Mazzini. —State of
Rome.-Pius appeals to the Catholic Powers.-H-is Appeal responded
to.....................................................   108
CHAPTER X.
Profane Rites in St. Peter's.-Atrocities of the Republic.-Delusion of
the Republicans.-Lord Palmerston's Advice.-Appeals to France
and Eng]and.-Armed Intervention indispensable........... 118




CONTENTS.                            XV
CHAPTER  XI.
The French occupy Civita Vecchia, and march on Rome.-First Assault unsuccessful.-Bravery of the Besieged.-Rome surrenders.The Pope's Grateful Letter.......................... Page 126
CHAPTER  XII.
The Pope's Edict published in Rome.-Another Amnesty.-Rome reassumes its old Appearance.-General Reaction.-The Pope's Return announced.-His Journey.-He re-enters his Capital. —Enthusiasm of the People....................................... 133
CHAPTER XIII.
Disastrous Effects of the Revolution.-The Pope's Efforts to remedy
them.-His  daily Life.-His Audiences.-Petitions.-The Pope's
Charity.-His Munificence................................ 141
CHAPTER XIV.
Instances of the Pope's Charity. -More Instances.-Curious Applications.-Protestant Opinions of his Character. —He gives Audience to
a Negro Slave.-His Affability to Students.-The Holy Father a
Pedestrian.-Pio Nono and Father Mathew.-Public Bakeries and
Model Lodging Houses established by the Pope.............. 151
CHAPTER XV.
Personal Courage of His Holiness.-His Presence of Mind in the I-Jour
of Danger.-I-is Visits to the Cholera Hospitals.-Not afraid of his
Subjects.-Evidence of his Fearlessness..................... 166
CHAPTER XVI.
The Roman Hospitals.-La Consolazione.-San Giovanni di Calabita. —
San Galicano.-San  Giacomo.-Santissima Salvatore.-Santissima
Trinita di Pellegrini..................................... 172
CHAPTER  XVII.
Great Hospital of Santo Spirito.-Its Extent and Importance.-Its
Foundling  Hospital.-Foundlings not necessarily illegitimate.



Xvi                      CONTENTS.
Reasons why legitimate Children are sent in.-Average Mortality.'
— tate of the Hospital. —Treatment and Training of the Foundlings.
— Hospital of San Rocco.-Advantages of these Institutions, especially in preventing Infanticide.-Asylum for Lunatics...Page 187
CHAPTER XVIII.
The Roman Prisons-In a State of Transition-Beneficial Change in
their Management-Religious versus Lay Officials.-The Termini.The Prison for Women. —The Solitary Cell.-Influence of the Nuns.
-Reformatory of Santa Maria della Misericordia.-Reformatory
della Vigna Pia.......... 208
CHAPTER XIX.
Prisons of San Michele.-The Cellular and Silent Systems long prac
tised in Rome. —The Political Prison very unlike an Italian Dungeon...................................................  224
CHAPTER XX
Asylum and Prison of the Good Shepherd.-Singular Influence of the
Nuns over the Prisoners.-Model Prison of Fossombrone.-The Pope
a Prison Reformer.-His Advice to Bishop Wilson............ 230
CHAPTER XXL
Houses of Refuge. —Charitable Associations for the Defence of the
Poor and the Imprisoned.-Society of S. Giovanni Decollato. —Society della Morte.......................................... 241
CHAPTER XXIL
Education in Rome.-The Old Calumny against the Catholic Church
refuted by the Educational Institutions of Rome.-Its Schools more
numerous than its Fountains.-Elementary Education.-Gratuitous
Education originated by Ecclesiastics.-Religious Orders devoted to
the Gratuitous Education of the Poor.-The Brothers of the Christian Schools.-Their admirable System of Education.......... 252




CONTENTS.                        XVll
CHAPTER XXIIL
The Roman Night Schools.-The Deaf and Dumb.-Asylum  of Tata
Giovanni.-San Michele, a School of Industry and Art....Page 262
CHAPTER XXIV.
Female Education.-Ample Provision for it.-Colleges and SeminariesEnglish and Irish Colleges.-The Propaganda.-The Roman College.Educational Statistics of Rome.-Its high Educational Standard 275
CHAPTER XXV,
Universities in the Papal States.-Their Courses and Museums.-Valuable Libraries.-Admission gratuitous.-Elementary Instruction.Communal Schools.-Number of Students in the Universities.-The
Church not afraid of the Diffusion of Education.-Mr. Macaulay
quoted...............................       288
CHAPTER XXVI.
Relief of the Poor.-Poverty not treated as a Crime.-Vagrancy and
Imposture sternly dealt with by the Popes.-Efforts to suppress idle
Mendicancy.-Modes of Relief.-Commission of Subsidies.-Charitable Institutions.-Industrial Relief....................... 295
CHAPTER XXVIL
Dowries.-Monte di Pieta.-The Roman Savings Bank.-Its Origin, its
Operations, and its Success.-Its Deposits a Proof of increasing
Prosperity..............................................    308
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Religious Character of the Roman People.-Attendance in the Churches.
-Roman Churches not merely Local.-Attendance at the Forty
Hours' Adoration.-Religious Retreat for the Poor.-Festivals of the




Xviii                     CONTENTS.
Church.-The Pope at San Carlo.-The Monastery of the Passionists.
-Church of St. Clement.-Church of St. Isidore......... Page 316
CHAPTER XXIX.
St. Peter's.-Description of it by Gibbon and Byron.-My own Impressions.-Those of Eustace, of Porsyth, Hilliard, and Madame de StaSL.
The Pope at the Tomb of the Apostles.-Ascent of the Dome. -A
Glance into the Church.-Glorious View from the Top........ 330
CHAPTER XXL
The Fine Arts.-Why they are specially fostered in Rome.-The Church
their uniform Friend.-Pius IX. a Liberal Patron.-Discoveries of
Ancient Painting.-Valuable Restorations of Works of Modern Art.
-Churches restored. —Church of St. Agnes, and Church of St.
Paul..................................................   340
CHAPTER XXXI.
Pius IX. a Preserver of the Pagan Antiquities of Rome,-The Coliseum
and the Popes.-Great Repairs effected by Pius VII. and Pius IX.
-Devotions of Friday and Sunday.-Visit to the Coliseum by Moonlight.-Preservation of Pagan Antiquities.-Sums expended on Arts
and Antiquities......................................... 350
CHAPTER XXXII.
The Catacombs. -TInstitution of the Commission of Sacred Archbeology
by the Pope.-The Catacombs proved to be the Burying-places of
the early Christians.-Cardinal Wiseman's "Fabiola........... 366
CHAPTER  XXXIIL
The Papal Government not opposed to Material Progress.-Railways.Reasons why they have not hitherto existed.-Four principal Lines
in progress or projected.-Gas.-The Roman Works.-Gas first




CONTENTS.                         XIX
started in Rome. —Eloctric Telegraph, its Use and Success.-Great
Public Works inexpensively conducted.-Utility combined with
Charity.............................................Page 371
CHAPTER XXXYIV.
The Pope a Commercial Reformer. —Steady Progress towards Free
Trade.-We should not judge a small and feeble State by the Standard of a great and powerful Empire. —Singular Minuteness and
Accuracy of Roman Statistics.-Material Progress stimulated by
Rewards.-Proportion of Priests to Laymen.-The former preferred
to the latter.-The Smallness of the Salaries of Public Officials 388
CONCLUDING CHAPTER,
Summary of the foregoing Chapters.-The Pope ever merciful.-Not a
single Execution for a purely Political Offence.-England ought not
to encourage Anarchists.. —Recent Attempts of the Mazzini Party.England imitates Russia when she interferes with the Independence
of small States. —The Pope's recent Tour through his Dominions.Its Character and Objects misrepresented.-Its real Purpose.-Liberality, Charity, and Clemency of the Holy Father.-The Temporal
Sovereignty of the Popes.-Its Importance to the Dignity of the
Papacy and Independence of the Church................... 397
APPENDIX
State of Education in Great Britain...........................413
How Lunatics are treated in Scotland.........................421
British Administration in India.......................... 425
Report from the Count De Rayneval, the French Envoy at Rome,
to the French Minister for Foreign Affairs................... 432
The Christian Schools...............................  450




— XggP y1S                     CONTE ~NT,o
fea~sturelment of the Base Line for ), Ioio'anoTetimfl a Survey, by lnithler
Seehfi..P...nr...........   452
Polert;y ht. IT)ondoln treated worse taan Csrmoo                              55
Englissh  risonss not yet perfect BIodeds................... 4 56
Criminal Statissti es of the Papal States.......    060........... 4057
The (jataconbs,   o.o o o..o.o oo o o.o...  o o o......    461..F:xtract of a     Le'[ter from Naples.       00.........DO..OOUO.  470




ROME:
ITS RULER, AND ITS INSTITUTIONS.
CHAPTER I.
Introduction.-The Pauline Chapel.-The Cardinals.-The Pope.
To no other city on the earth does the stranger direct
his steps with feelings of a more varied character, or
with a livelier anticipation of what awaits him on his
entrance, than to Rome. No doubt, a more sacred and
solemn awe fills his mind, and bows down his inmost
soul, as, from some wild path amidst the mountains of
Judea, he catches the first glimpse of the towers of
Jerusalem-at the sight of whose holy walls the stern
Crusader burst into a passion of tears, and smote his
mailed breast in a paroxysm of humility and sorrow.
Jerusalem is a place of one great and all-absorbing
interest, being the theatre of that sublime sacrifice by
which man's redemption was accomplished; and every
nodding tower and mouldering pillar of that once proud
city is sacred in the eyes of the Christian of even
ordinary sensibility. But Rome, while abounding in
sources of that deep and solemn interest which Jerusa1




2             ROME AND ITS RULER.
lem inspires, is also replete with attractions of a totally
different kind, and offers countless objects of admiration, and subjects for inquiry and reflection, to the
scholar and man of taste, the antiquarian and the philosopher. And dull must be the mind and cold the heart
of him who does not experience some stir, or feel some
throb, as he approaches for the first time the venerable
walls, and passes beneath one of the ancient gateways,
of the Eternal City. For was not this the seat and
centre of that universal empire, which embraced within
its circle the remotest boundaries of the known earth?
-was not this the proud capital of that haughty race
whose banners glistened and whose arms triumphed in
every clime, and whose laws were reverenced as -well
by civilized nations as by savage tribes? —was not this
the instructress as well as the conqueror of mankind?
It is the Rome, too, of a wider dominion and a more
glorious rule than that of the greatest of the Cmsars.
If Rome were not the birthplace of Christianity, it
was its nursing mother. It was the seat of the Apostles; the theatre of their trials, their sufferings, and
their glory.  One beholds, passing before him, as it
were visibly to the sight, the long centuries of that
momentous war waged between truth and error, between the powers of light and darkness.  And, in spite
of the vulgar dwellings, inelegant and mean, that surround him  as he stands within the walls of mnodern
Rome, he witnesses, in imagination, the solemn rites
and splendid worship of that polished and attractive
system of Polytheism, which, though despised by the




INTRODUCTION.                 3
enlightened, and scoffed at by the philosophers, still
appealed, and not in vain, to the passions of a degenerate people, through its deification of the weaknesses
and vices of human nature,-that claimed, as yet, the
allegiance of a populace so long accustomed to its
pomp and splendour, and whose temples and shrines
rose on every side, in all the magnificence of their
costly material, and the more inestimable beauty of
their design and execution. He beholds, also, the infant Church of the True Faith hiding its timid head
beneath the very highway over which the scornful
polytheist strode,-crouching in cell, and crypt, and
dark and tortuous labyrinth-and, when venturing
above the earth, its asylum and its refuge, appealing
wicked and infamous to the Roman gaze, spite of the
courage and fortitude of its apostles and its martyrs.
He beholds this patient, fearless spouse of Christ weeping tears of blood, as,
"Butchered to make a Roman holiday,"
her children are torn by the jaws of ravening beasts,
consumed by fire, or fall beneath the more merciful
sword. IIe sees the red soil of the amphitheatre gradually losing its hue of carnage, and blooming with
mysterious beauty, as there steals into the hearts of
the thoughtful and the good a conviction of the purity
of the Nazarene's faith-which, to the wonder of the
scorner and the scoffer, imparts strength to tottering
age, fortitude to tender youth, and the courage of the
hero to the feeble virgin. He beholds how the statues




4               hROAME ANi) ITS RETI EIl   
and irmages of the gods, so long the worshipped of
the masters of the world, identified with the trioi-u  pis
and the glory of a mighty race, were, at first9 care.lessly regarded, next despised, then detested, —-.low
the crushed andL trampled Church of the Catacombs
enmerged from  the darkness to the light of dayi, no
longer loatlhed and execrated as the foe of bu:nmuanity,
and. the teacher of all wickedness; buat hailed with enth-usiasim  by a softened people, and protected. by the
authority: but still more by the devotion, of princes
and rulers, — and how, at length, and after long ages
of persecution and of obloqbuy, the Cross rose above
the temple and the shrine, to be bailed f:ont thence
forwalrd  and through regions unknown to the arms
or philosophyv of Rome, as the symbol of nman.'s sal
va tion.
And here grew  into maturity a power and a sovereignty greater than that of the Coesars-ithe power of
the Papacy, and the sovereignty of the Chu-rch.  B- apI
tized in. blood, and cradled in adversity, the Papacy
grew into sttrengthb the citadel and the strong'hold of
the Faith.  Fr'om the modest throne of thel first rulers
of the Churchil  to the tribunal of the tyrant, there was,
for centuries, but a step; and froom  thence to'the stake
and the scaffold, the road wvas but too well defined by
the bloody footprints of their heroic  predecessors.
AV'ave after wave broke in fury against the rock on
which God placed His Church.  Now heresy assailed
her; nrow schism  sought to rend her asunder; now it
was tie rude and warlike savage frorm the forests of




INTRODUCTION.                 5
Germany that menaced her; and now it was the fierce
and frantic Arab that, bursting with flaming scimitar
upon the countries which, once provinces of Rome, had
yielded a willing allegiance to the spiritual supremacy
of the Popes, ravaged the very shrines and altars of the
Apostles. But, watched over by God's providence, we
behold the enemies of the Church become her friends,
her assailants her protectors, her haughty revilers her
humble and submissive children; till we see her striking
her foundations deeper and deeper into the hearts of
nations, and extending her beneficent dominion wider
and wider over the face of the earth.
Then the chief events in the history of the Papacy,
from the days of Charlemagne to those of Napoleon,
pass before the mind in all their brilliant or gloomy
colouring, as peace presided over the halls of the Vatican, or evil men sought the ruin of the successors of
Peter. And there stand out firom the shadowy background the striking figures of such illustrious Popes as
Gregory the Great, Julius the Second, Leo the Tenth,
Sixtus the Fifth, and those later Popes, Pins the Sixth
and Pius the Seventh, whose sorrows and sufferings
but added increased splendour to their virtues.
All kinds of associations, Pagan and Christian,
crowded in confusion upon my excited memory, as I
entered Rome, for the first time, on the morning of the
81st of October, 1856, the vigil of the great festival of
All Saints. My great desire, paramount to all otherswhether the gratification of curiosity or of taste-was
that of seeing with my own eyes things of which I




6             ROME AND ITS RULER.
had, and I say it not without shame, imperfect, if not
altogether erroneous notions.
This is not to be wondered at, when it is considered
that the sources of information respecting all matters
Roman are tainted at the very source; and that the
great body of the Catholics of these countries gener1ally depend, certainly have hitherto almost exclusively
depended, upon Protestant writers for what little they
know of the Pope, and of his venerable capital.
For instance, judge the Pope by the prevailing belief
of Protestant England, derived from the representations
of its press, its platform, or its pulpit; and one beholds
in him a combination of the temporal despot, and the
spiritual impostor, at once the scourge of an afflicted
people, and the arch-priest of Satan. Protestant credulity regards him as one whose mission and policy it is to
enslave alike the bodies and the souls of men, by fettering their civil liberty with tyrannous restrictions, and
darkening and stunting their intellect by the denial of
a liberal education. In their profound ignorance of the
truth, many, even fair-minded and in all other respects
enlightened people, look upon the Holy Father-even
the gentle and merciful Pius-not merely as the stern
oppressor of his own hapless subjects, but the cause of
every evil which afflicts the various nations into which
Italy is divided. In their eyes, it is the Vatican which
casts its baleful shadow over the fair face of the Italian
Peninsula, and shuts out from that beauteous land and
its gifted races the light and warmth of national freedom. Nay, why should not this be so, when the great




INTRODUCTIONT.               7
object of the tyrant and impostor, who sitteth on the
Seven Hills of the modern Babylon, is, according to the
ravings of the fanatic enemies of the Church, to trample
upon the liberties of all free countries, and make of
kings and princes his footstools?  The ambition of
Rome, say they, never sleeps; it is as dangerous now
as in the days when its thunders hurled monarchs from
their thrones, and brought the haughtiest warriors as
suppliants to its feet. Nor was it a Julius or a Sixtus
that was alone to be dreaded; for did not a Barbarossa
meekly hold the stirrup of the mule on which an Alexander, then a weak and infirm old man, rode through
the streets of Venice? Those who read the history of
the dark and middle ages with calm and unimpassioned
judgment, and are not swayed by bigotry, or bewildered
by mere names, must recognize the advantages, to the
peace of nations and the progress of civilization, which
had been conferred by this very influence. But that
power, so often omnipotent for good, in those dark and
troublous times, when might was right, and laws were
far more often written in blood than ink, is now a
thing of the past; being in latter years, when every
country has its own well-ordered system of government, and when a well-defined compact exists between
nations, by which the weak are protected from the aggression of the strong, as unnecessary as its existence is
imaginary.
It will be my grateful task to exhibit to the reader a
portraiture, feeble it may be in its execution, but faithful in intention, of a modern Pope-whose whole life




8             ROME AND ITS RULER.
approaches nearer to the Divine model than that of any
living man. And this I shall endeavour to do in a subsequent place.
To behold Pius IX. was my most anxious desirewhich I soon took occasion to gratify; for I was not
many hours in Rome before I formed one of a considerable number of persons, mostly strangers from various
countries of Europe, mixed up with ecclesiastics of different nations and orders, and students of the principal
Roman Colleges, that were assembled in the great hall
opening into the Pauline Chapel, the Pope s private
chapel in his palace of the Quirinal. No sooner were
the folding-doors flung open by the officers on duty,
than, with an eagerness which nearly degenerated into
a rush, the well-dressed crowd possessed themselves of
every vacant place.
It was curious to note the manner and bearing of the
lay portion of the strange congregation thus gathered
together from almost every principal nation of the
world. Generally speaking, it was respectful, and even
pious; but in not a few instances curiosity was evidently
combined with a supercilious contempt " for the whole
thing." The French, Spaniards, Austrians, and Italians,
were grave and collected, and so were several of the
English; but some of the latter evidently went to the
Pope's Chapel as they had gone the previous night to
the Opera, to hear the music, or to " do " it, as they
would the Coliseum, or the Baths of Caracalla. I have
a lively remembrance of the remarks of one young and
well-dressed Englishman, who combined in an extraor



THE PAULINE CHAPEL.               9
dinary degree, ignorance, irreverence, and comicality;
and of the singular patience of the intelligent and
courteous ecclesiastic from whom he sought information, or to whom he freely imparted his own views and
opinions of what he beheld. But none so devout and
so collected as the English convert, whose identity one
might discern at a glance. While others held, or used,
an opera-glass, he was engaged in his missal, or absorbed in his devotions.
Novelty as well as picturesqueness were imparted to
the groups around me by the variety of the costume and
appearance of students of different colleges, monks and
friars of different orders, and priests of different countries and races. The greater number of the ecclesiastics
had their hair closely cut, and the face and chin scrupulously shaven; while others rejoiced in beards of patriarchal grandeur, descending even to the breast. Some
were clad in the graceful black and white robes of the
Dominican, some in the black dress of the Jesuit, some
in the dark frock and embroidered emblems of the
Passionist, and others in the coarse brown woollen garb
of the Franciscan. Skin of every hue, eyes of every
form and colour, features of every variety, marked,
even to the most careless observer, striking distinctions
of country, clime, and race, and illustrated the universality of that Church which has endured for nearly two
thousand years, and of which Rome is the seat and
centre, as it was the great nursing mother. Look at
these students, and you will behold how the youth of
Asia and Africa, as in the early ages of Christianity,
1 *




10            ROME AND ITS RULER.
come to learn the great truths of religion from the teacher
of all nations; and how the Greek, whose ancestors
gave to Rome her arts and her philosophy, is now clad
in the academic costume of that most celebrated of
Roman Colleges, the Propaganda. And though speaking the same language, their marked variety of accent
betrays the respective countries which have sent these
youths of fairer complexion and of larger stature; and
proves that England and Scotland, as well as Ireland,
are still indebted to the liberality of Rome for the
training of a portion of their Priests.
On this day, as on the next morning, and on several
subsequent occasions, I had the good fortune to occupy
a position which afforded me an opportunity of making
myself acquainted with the personal appearance of the
Cardinals, who, with the exception of those immediately
in attendance on the Pope, took their respective places
some time previous to the commencement of the ceremonies. And taking them all, as they sat in dignified
composure, the greater number of them absorbed in
meditation, or devoutly reading their breviaries, a more
imposing and venerable-looking body of men, or a
nobler collection of intellectual heads, it would be difficult to imagine. Let me particularize a few of them.
That tall white-haired old man, who combines the
apostolic sweetness of the late Archbishop 2Murray with
the patriarchal dignity of the late venerable Dr. Egan,
Catholic Bishop of Kerry, is Cardinal Tosti, for many
years past the accomplislled and liberal protector of
that noblest of Roman institutions, the Ospizio of San




THE  CARDINALS.               11
Mfichele. A single anecdote will best describe the
man.
When the Pope and Cardinals had left Rome, after
the assassination of Count Rossi, and the attack on the
Quirinal, Cardinal Tosti remained at his post at San
S3lichele. Several of the revolutionists paid him a visit,
to congratulate him on his courage and devotion.
"Sirs, I refuse your praise," was his answer: " I am
no more afraid of you than were any of my colleagues
who are gone away. It was through love and obedience
to the Holy Father that they followed himi into exile.
The same motives prevent my leaving this establishment; for he has desired me not to abandon so many
unfortunate persons sheltered here. Besides, I am a
Roman, and you are not. I shall remain at Rome
without fear. If you give me a blow of a stiletto, it
will only shorten my life two or three years, for I am
already seventy-two."
This was in 1848; since when many additional years
have rolled over that noble head, without dimming the
fire of the eye that speaks of the bright intellect within.
On the same bench sits the Capnchin Cardinal; and
only that the face is not so full of colour, nor the eye
so keen, you might fancy that the Cardinal with the
sweeping grey beard and the brown habit, now so
absorbed in mental prayer, was Julius the Second,
who had just walked out of the immortal canvas of
Raphael. Hlie was the Pope's confessor, is Superior
of the Capuchins, and was made Cardinal a year or
two ago. When the Pope was at Gaeta, this venerable




1.2           ROAME AND ITS lrUITER.,
old Tman, not to compromise others, put up the Pope's
decrees upon St. Peter's with his own hand.
The Doininican, in the white robes of his illustrious
order, is Cardinal Gaudi, of most agreeable countenance
and active carriage, and whose graceful and kindly
manners, as I afterwards had a personal opportunity of
knowing, harmonized with his attractive appearance.
It is not long since that he came to Rome firom Piednlont, where his abilities as professor had given him
great distinction. The Pope lately raised him fiom the
rank of simple priest to that of Cardinal.
On the same bench, and very near to where I stood,
sat Cardinal Barnabo, Prefect of the Propaganda, with
whose name the Catholics of the United Kingdom have
been familiar of late. With head solid and compact,
eye sharp and keen, gesture lively and active, the Prefect of the Propaganda looked to be, what he is, in the
fullest vigour of his faculties, of body as of mind.
That dark, little man, whose face, thoroughly Italian,
has an expression of such religious goodness, is Cardinal
Altieri. IHe is a prince by birth, and has held many
offices in the State.
Cardinal Picoluomini, the relative of the new queen
of the lyric stage, whose high spirit is fully equal to her
musical and dralmatic genius, is that heavy, feeble man,
of large firalne, massive head and dark countenance,
who limps with difficulty to his seat.
Then besides Cardinal Reisach, whose fair and florid
complexion denotes his Germain origin, there are Cardinals Barberini andl Medici; the latter about the finest




THE CARDINALS.                 13
type of the Italian that could well be imagined, and
whose marked and striking profile seemed especially
suited for a medal or a coin.
A whisper is circulated-" Here is Antonelli;" and
a visible stir may be observed as the celebrated Cardinal Secretary of State, and Prime AMinister of the
Government of Pius IX., makes his appearance.
That sallow, intensely Italian face; those great black
eyes, never at rest; those parted lips, that show the
glittering teeth; the jet-black hair; the worn yet defiant look, so full of intelligence, power, and pride, can
belong to none but Antonelli. His very walk is a
kind of stride, that speaks, as it were, of the superabundant energy of one of the most remarkable men of
the day-a man relied on by many as a minister of
high courage, and eminent ability, but dreaded and detested by the revolutionary party.
Cardinal Ferretti, Grand Penitentiary, whose benign
expression well accords with his gray hairs, is also
amongst the remarkable personages of the Papal Court.
This distinguished Cardinal is the cousin of the Pope,
and was his prime minister previous to the revolution.
He is simple in his habits, saintly in his life, and eminent for his apostolic zeal. When Cardinal Bishop of
Rieti, it happened that robbers broke into one of the
churches of that city, and stole friom thence the pyx,
adding to the guilt of their sacrilege by carrying off its
sacred contents. Upon being apprised of this abominable outrage, the Cardinal, accompanied by his clergy, walked through the streets with feet bare, and




14            ROME AND ITS RULER.
ropes round their necks, and thus proceeded in penitential procession to the market-place, where he delivered a most moving discourse on the affecting text —
" They say to her: Woman,, why weepest thou?  She
saith to themn: Beccause they have taken away my lord:.
and I know not where they have laid him."-John, xx.
13. The pyx was restored that night, its sacred contents untouched.
Another face, eminently Italian, attracted my attention. It was full of intelligence and animation, and
good and kindly in its expression. It was that of the Substitute Secretary of State, ilMonsignor Berardi, a man of
considerable ability and excellent administrative talent,
who understands several European languages, and is
thoroughly conversant with the social and political conditions of most countries.
And on this, as on subsequent occasions, I recognized
with pleasure the fair and familiar countenance of MIonsignor Talbot, whom the Catholics of London may well
remember for the unaffected piety and untiring zeal with
which he discharged the laborious duties of one of the
most important of its missions; and who is known to
the "English" strangers in Rome as one of the most
obliging and courteous of their countrymen. And his
confidential position in the Papal Court, as one of the
four principal chamberlains of his Holiness, affords him
many opportunities of rendering them  valuable and
timely service.
A hush now suddenly falls on the assembly, awing
into silence the whispered comments of the strangers,




THE POPE.                  15
who seek for information of the obliging ecclesiastics
that surround them; for the Pope is about to enter.
From the door at the left-hand side of the altar-in
itself most simple in its decoration-there issues forth
a varied and brilliant procession of the Prelates and
Princes of the Church, in the midst of whom appears
the imposing person and sweet and engaging countenance of Pius the Ninth, who is conducted by attendant dignitaries to the throne at the right, or Gospel
side. To me, as indeed to every stranger present, the
Pope was the great object of attraction-his every look
and gesture being fraught with interest, even to the
unbeliever and the scoffer —but how far deeper to the
Catholic worshipper from a distant land, who recognized
in the mild and noble figure before him the venerable
head of his Church, the spiritual sovereign of the
greater portion of the Christian world, whose authority
is affectionately acknowledged and willingly obeyed in
every country upon which the sun shines.
The features of Pius IX. have been for many years
familiar to the people of most countries, through portrait and bust; and are more remarkable for gentleness, mildness, benevolence, and a rare sweetness of
expression, than for any other quality or character.
A face more calculated to win confidence and inspire
affection I have never seen. One snmile from that
tender mouth, one soft beam  from  those mild blue
eyes, and even men would come as children'to his
knee. Though the very opposite of those stern and
haughty Pontiffs which the Protestant imagination may




16            ROME AND ITS RULER,
picture to itself, as it thinks of a Hildebrand or a Julius, I could not conceive a manner or a bearing more
full of true dignity than that of the Holy Father, as he
sat enthroned amidst the Princes of the Church, or
rose to intone the vespers-which he did with a musical
and sonorous voice —or to impart the apostolic benediction. I have elsewhere seen many pious priests in
the performance of their sacred functions; but never
before did I behold a countenance more expressive of
profound piety, or so illumined with that heavenly
brightness which outwardly manifests the working of
the spirit within. It seemed, as it were, suffused with
a light from above. Heart and mind and soul appeared
to be absorbed, as they really were, in the ceremonies
in which he assisted; and not for a second's space did
his attention wander from  his devotions. ile communed as truly with his God, in the mlidst of that
splendid crowd, and with hundreds of eager eyes riveted
upon him, as if he were kneeling in his private chamber,
and asking for another day of strength to meet the
difficulties of his exalted but perilous position. I do
not write this as the result of a single impression, but
of one which several other opportunities only tended
to confirm the more strongly. For on some seven or
eight subsequent occasions I had the good fbrtune to
be present when the Pope assisted in person at various
ceremonies of the Church, more or less grand and imlpressive; and on each occasion I was struck by the
same rapt piety, the same devout abstraction, the same




THE POPE.                  17
beautiful expression of that holiness which irradiates
the human face as with beams of celestial light.
The most prejudiced person who beholds the Holy
Father engaged in any act of devotion, must give
him credit for genuine piety; but the stranger who
is accustomed to regard everything Catholic with distrust, if not with aversion, compensates himself for
his involuntary admiration of the bearing of the Pope,
by a belief in his bigotry as a priest, and his despotic
tendencies as a politician and a sovereign. Even Catholics of these countries, forgetting or overlooking the
events which rendered the first years of the Pontificate
of Pius IX. so full of profound and startling interest,
not unfrequently fall into strange errors with respect
to his character and career as a temporal ruler. It is
well, on this account, that a brief history of those
events in which Pius IX. bore so prominent a part,
should form a portion of a volume which is chiefly
written with the intention of encountering unjust prejudice, and removing injurious misconception.
Let us therefore follow this good and holy man
throughout his whole career, in every stage of his life,
from the hour when, as a boy, he first quitted the side
of his affectionate and pious mother, to the moment
when, in the ripe maturity of manhood, we at length
behold him clothed with the highest earthly authority,
and offering up to God, as a willing sacrifice, the sorrows and afflictions of a loving but lacerated human
heart.




1i              ROME AND ITS RULER,
CHAPTER 11.
The Pope: his Birth and Education.-He studies for the Ministry.-His
Malady cured.-His First Mass.-Goes to Chili.-Instance of his
Charity to an English Officer.-Returns to Rome. —Is created Archbishop of Spoleto.-Difficulties of his Position.-Appointed Cardinal
Bishop of Imola.-His charitable and pious Works.-Is elected Pope.
GIOVANNI MARIA MASTAI FERriETTI was born in Sinigaglia on the 13th of May, 1792, of the Count Jerome
and the Countess Catherine Solazzi of the same city.
In 1803, being then in his eleventh year, he was
placed by his parents in the college of a religious body
called Scolopii, at Volterra, which was then justly celebrated for its course of studies, and the wise system
of instruction pursued by its gifted conductors.  The
noble aspect of the youth, the sweetness of his disposition combined with the firmness of his character, the
vivacity and liveliness of his discourse, as well as the
talent which he displayed, soon gained for him  the
love and esteem, not only of his companions, but also
of his masters.  lie was so distinguished in his studies,
that, on the occasion of the aunt of the present Einperor of France, Eloise Baciocchi, then  Queen of
Etruria, visiting Volterra, and being received by its
students, he was selected to preside at what is termed
"an  academy  in  verse,"  which  was given in her
honour, and in the name of his fellow-collegians.
In 1808, while yet pursuing his collegiate course,




STUDIES FOR THE MINISTRY.          19
he was seized with violent fits of epilepsy. Nevertheless, in the following year, and in accordance with
the desire of his pious mother, he received the first
tonsure at the hands of Monsignor Tecontie, the bishop
of Volterra; and in the October of the same year he
hastened to Rome to complete his ecclesiastical studies.
This was to him the more pleasing, as his mother's
wishes were wholly in accordance with his own aspirations, which ever tended to the ecclesiastical state;
whilst hlie was also aware that nowhere as in Rome can
those studies and those preparations, which train the
mind and heart for the sacred duties of the priesthood,
be so well attended to and completed.
In the Capital he lived with his uncle, a canon of
the Vatican Basilica; but the latter being obliged to
fly from Rome, in consequence of the sad events which
shortly afterwards ensued, the young Mastai also, in
1810, retired from that city. In 1812, on account of
his distinguished birth, he was summoned to join the
guard of honour in Milan; but an exemption was accorded him because of the distressing disease to which
he was then subject. From this simple fact seems to
have been derived the report, which has been so
currently received, but which is devoid of all reality,
that Count Mastai presented himself to Pius VII. in
Rome, with the intention of embracing a military life,
and solicited admission to the ranks of the Noble
Guard. In truth, Mastai never adopted the military
profession, nor did his disposition prompt him to such
a career.




20            ROME AND ITS RULER.
He continued in his native city till the return of
Pius VII. to his States. When that sorrow-stricken
Pontiff passed through Sinigaglia, Mastai had the
honour of being presented to him, and soon after
hastened once more to Rome, where he witnessed, in
May, 1814, the enthusiastic reception given by the
citizens to the Holy Father in the Piazza del Popolo.
The Ecclesiastical Academy having been reopened,
Mastai attended its schools, but as a layman, the disease with which he was still affected preventing his
aspiring to sacred orders. But God, who intended
him for the ministry, inspired him, by inward impulse,
not to despair of attaining that ardently desired state;
and, reassuming the ecclesiastical dress, he commenced
soon after his theological studies, under the direction
of the distinguished Professor Joseph Graziosi. The
attacks of his malady becoming less violent, though
still of occasional recurrence, he was admitted to minor
orders.
In 41818, Monsignor Odescalchi, who afterwards laid
aside the purple, to become a member of the order of
Saint Ignatius, and was then a Prelate of the Court,
invited him to take part in a mission which was about
being given in his native province of Sinigaglia.
Throuigh the anxious solicitude of the Pontiff, after his
return to. Rome, bands of zealous missionaries were
everywhere scattered throughout the provinces, to reawaken the spirit of religion, which was well-nigh extinct in the breasts of the people, in consequence of the
disorder which had so long and so universally prevailed.




HIS MALADY CURED.             21
In this mission to Sinigaglia, together with the abovementioned Prelate, was engaged the Bishop of Maccerata, Monsignor Strambi, whose cause for beatification
is now being proceeded with. Mastai, inasmuch as his
ecclesiastical orders allowed him, engaged in the mission with singular zeal, and with the most happy results;
and returning to Rome, much improved in health, he
asked for and obtained a dispensation to be promoted to
the holy orders of sub-deacon and deacon, and was ordained sub-deacon on the 18th of December, 1818. His
aspirations were not yet satisfied; but looking forward,
ever more and more anxiously, to the priesthood, he
solicited from the Holy Father a further dispensation,
which was also granted, but with the condition that,
when offering the Holy Sacrifice, he should be assisted
by another clergyman. The Pontiff had shown himself
so loving and paternal towards him, that he resolved to
ask for a special audience, in order, if possible, to have
even this condition removed. In this audience the
Holy Father, with his usual benignity, taking him
affectionately by the hand, said-" Yes, we will grant
you even this favour, as I believe that for the future
you will be no longer affected with your disease." And
so indeed it has happened; as from the close of the
year 1818, to the present day, a period of nearly forty
years, he has never once been subject to it! Thus did
Divine Providence guide the lips of the Holy Father,
to whom one might almost imagine was disclosed the
future destiny of the youthful Levite, who then knelt
before him in earnest supplication. On the festival of




22            ROME AND ITS RULER.
Easter, 1819, Mastai celebrated Mass for the first time,
having chosen the church of St. Anne dei Faligrnami
for that purpose. His special motive for this selection
was, that in an adjoining orphanage he had hitherto devoted himself to the care and maintenance of about 100
poor orphans, whom he personally instructed in their
catechism and religious duties, while at the same time
they were prepared, by a suitable training, for various
branches of useful industry; so that being thus made
good Christians, they might also one day become valuable members of society.
In 1823, a Canon of the Cathedral of St. James, in
Chili, having come to Rome to solicit from the Pontiff a
representative of the Holy See in that remote republic,
Mastai was invited by Cardinal della Genga, then Vicar
of Rome, and afterwards by Cardinal Gonsalvi, to take
part in that mission with Monsignor Muzi, afterwards
Bishop of Castello.  At that time such distant journeys were not viewed without just alarm and wellfounded apprehensions of danger; and the Countess
his mother wrote to Cardinal Gonsalvi, Secretary of
State, entreating him most forcibly not to permit her
son to undertake this remote mission. Butt Mastai,
nowise affected by those dangers which a fond mother's
fancy so readily conjured up, received the invitation as
a voice from heaven, summoning him to a new and
wider field of labour. Wherefore, yet ignorant of the
solicitations of his parent, he presented himself to the
Holy Father, who said to him,-" The Countess your
mother has written to the Secretary of State to prevent




EMBASSY TO CHILI.              23
your journey; but we have written to her, in answer,
that you will surely return safe from this mission."
This occurred in the month of June, 1823; and the
prediction of the Pontiff was verified to the letter, as
about three years afterwards Mastai revisited his friends
in Sinigaglia; the Apostolic Delegate having, in consequence of the breaking out of a revolution in Chili,
deemed it more prudent not to delay longer in that
country. While on his route to Chili, he was obliged to
stop at Monte Video and other places in South America;
and wherever he stopped he lost not a moment in exercising his ministry, to which he also untiringly devoted
himself during the two years that he spent in Santiago.
Besides devoting all his time and all his talents to
preaching, instructing, and confessing, he gave to the
poor, and applied to charitable uses, the means of which
he was possessed; so that, when afterwards made Archbishop, he had to sell some property belonging to him
in Rome, in order to pay for the Bulls which are expedited on those occasions.
A circumstance of which I lately became aware is
too characteristic of the illustrious object of this sketch
not to be mentioned in connection with his mission to
Chili. As the Apostolic Delegate and his companions
and suit were on their way to the capital, they had to
put up at a miserable wayside inn, far remote from any
other human habitation. In this comfortless abode
lay an English officer, tossing and writhing on a bed
of sickness, many thousand miles away from home and
friends. The sad condition of this unhappy gentleman,




24            ROME AND ITS RULER.
a stranger and a "heretic," became known to the
Italian ecclesiastics; one of whom charitably remained behind his companions to watch by the sick
man, whom he nursed with all the tenderness of a
mother or a sister. Nor did he leave his side till he
had the satisfaction of seeing him restored to health
and strength. The Italian priest who so stopped by
the wayside, to minister to the sick stranger, was
Mastai Ferretti, now Pius IX.*
In December, 1825, on his return to Rome, he was
appointed, by Leo XII., to the presidency of the
vast ospizio of San Michele. The prudence and solicitude with which he discharged the laborious functions of that office are yet gratefully remembered by
those who were then acquainted with the institution,
and formed a prelude to the noble works which he
was afterwards to achieve in a wider and more glorious
field. After having for twenty months presided over
this ospizio, the same Pontiff destined him to the
Archiepiscopal See of Spoleto, which was the Pope's
native diocese.
In this city the new Bishop founded a large orphanage for poor children intended for the mechanical arts;
and in this labour of practical charity we may recognize
the same untiring zeal, in ministering to the wants of
the helpless and indigent, which had already marked
his early priesthood. His work was the more praiseworthy, as being established, not as a mere temporary
institution, but as one that in future times and for
* The name of the British officer was Miller.




DIFFICULTIES OF HIS POSITION.        25
future generations was to relieve the destitute orphan,
and remain a perpetual monument of his benevolence
and charity.
Nor was he at this early period of his career without
experiencing those more public difficulties which, in a
terribly aggravated form, were to cast so sad a gloom
over the first years of his Pontificate. In 1831 some
disturbances were excited through the States, which,
however, with the aid of the Austrian troops, were
soon repressed. This was a trying conjuncture for our
Archbishop, as about 4,000 insurgents, who, on the
approach of the Austrians, had abandoned the siege
of Civita Castellana, took up their quarters in Spoleto.
No immediate succour could be hoped for; but still
Mastai did not abandon his flock, or lose courage in the
emergency. Nay, partly by entreaties and expostulations, and partly by promising some few thousand scudi
to the troops, he so far succeeded with them as to induce
them to return to their allegiance, and yield up their arms
to the constituted authorities. These, including many
thousand stand of muskets, and five pieces of cannon,
were transmitted to Rome. This indeed was one of
those sweet and grateful triumphs which, throughout
all times, men of his kind have won over passion, and
even despair. At this same period, the authorities of
the Provinces of Perugia and Spoleto having fled,
Cardinal Bernetti, the then Secretary of State, entrusted to the Archbishop their double functions,
which, during the disturbances, he was ad interim
obliged to discharge. The band of insurgents was'2




26            ROME AND ITS RULER.
headed by a certain Tercognani, to whom his followers
gave the title of General; yet such was their distrust
of him, that, on the distribution of the above-mentioned
sum, many of the under-officers, with those whom they
commanded, declared that they would not receive it
from his hands; and asked to have it distributed by
the Archbishop-a proof of how his uprightness of
character and his disinterestedness were known and
valued by all, even the armed foes of those institutions
which he represented by his office, and defended by his
authority.
We may here incidentally remark that, Spoleto being the capital city of the province, a self-constituted
committee arose in it during the revolution, and assumed to itself the entire and uncontrolled management of affairs. One styled himself Minister of War,
another of the Interior, and so forth. Their sphere of
action was however every day more and more circumscribed, as each principal city of the province claimed
for itself a like independence. Things were carried on
in the same manner in Perugia and the other provinces.
This may serve as an illustration of the difficulties
which are at every step to be found in the cherished
scheme of a union of the Italian States.
In the January of the ensuing year an earthquake
laid desolate a great part of the province; and thus a
new field was opened up to the charity of the good Archbishop. Everywhere he hastened to the relief of those
who were the most distressed, especially visiting and
comforting those districts whose inhabitants had no




APPOINTED CARDINAL BISHOP OF IMOLA.   27
shelter left save what was afforded them by rudely
constructed huts. Tilhe faithful Pastor suffered in his
flock, and made their misfortunes his own. We have,
in our own times, seen heavier calamities fall upon a
portion of a proud empire, whose statesmen and whose
press treat with contempt the rule of ecclesiastics; but,
notwithstanding the pride and power of that empire,
we beheld its innocent and unoffending subjects dying
like mangy dogs upon the public highways, while efforts, clumsy and unsympathizing, were being tardily
made for their relief. It had been well for Ireland if,
in the days of her tribulation, a Mastai had presided
over the councils of her rulers-or if there had been
less of the spirit of Political Economy, and more of
the spirit of the Gospel.
It pleased the Sovereign Pontiff Gregory XVT. to
translate the subject of our memoir, in the Consistory
of December, 1832, from the Archiepiscopal See of
Spoleto to the Episcopal See of Imola, in which he was
successor to Cardinal Iustiniani, who had resigned its
charge. In this see he was decorated with the purple,
being reserved in petto in the Consistory of the 23d of
December, 1839, and proclaimed Cardinal on the 14th
of December, 1840.
In Imola he promoted many useful and permanent
institutions. Amongst others, a college for ecclesiastical
students whose means did not allow them to complete
their studies in the Episcopal Seminary; and an orphanage, or rather a society for the guardianship and
maintenance of about thirty children of the poorest class




28            ROME AND ITS RULER.
destined for the mechanical arts, who were provided
with their daily food, and likewise received two good
suits of clothes in the year, one for winter and the
other for summer.  On festival days these children
were assembled by certain ecclesiastics in a small
chapel, and there carefully instructed in the doctrines
of the Church and in the knowledge of their religious
duties. The same ecclesiastics also superintended their
daily conduct, when they were sent to the shops of the
city, to learn or pursue their different trades. To the
care and management of the Sisters of Charity, the good
Bishop entrusted a conservatorio of female orphans;
and, in the same establishment, founded two female
schools, one for girls of the poorer class, and the other
for those of the more wealthy. He also entrusted the
public hospital to the same Sisters; and, adjoining it,
lie erected an asylum for those who were deprived of
the use of their noblest faculty.
Having accomplished these and other works, so congenial to his tender and compassionate natiure, Cardinal
IMlastai crowned them by one of still holier humanity. To
found arefuge for female penitents had long been the
object of his fondest wishes. To his mind was always
present the touching spectacle, to use his own expressive
words, of the "lost daughters of the world soliciting
admission to the fold of Jesus." For those unhappy
beings his heart bled; and to afford them an asylum from
the horrors of a life of misery and a death of despair, he
freely sacrificed his every available resource. Out of
his own private means he purchased and suitably fitted




HIS CHARITABLE WORKS.              29
up a house for the reception of a number of these poor
outcasts, as also for the accommodation of some nuns of
the noble order of the Good Shepherd, who, at his urgent
request, were sent from the parent house at Angiers, to
take charge of the institution. That day was a proud
one for Cardinal Mastai that witnessed the arrival of
four Sisters at his palace; which he placed at their disposal, until their future abode was fully prepared for
their reception. With indescribable joy he welcomed
the good Sisters, whom he had so anxiously implored to
come to his assistance in his work of charity; and the
simple Nuns were filled with gratitude, at first not
entirely divested of embarrassment, at the attentions
lavished upon them by a Prince of the Church, who
himself waited upon them while they sat at his table,
and ministered to their wants with more than the
humility of a servant. The feeling of delight with
which Cardinal MIastai witnessed the accomplishment
of an object long dear to his heart may be understood by
the following letter, which he addressed to the Superior
of the House of Angiers:"Very Reverend Mother General, - Your Reverence
must already have received from your dear daughters the
details of their happy arrival at Imola; but it is proper
that I should myself inform you of this event, and, at the
same time, that I should express to you the great consolation that I experience in seeing myself enriched with this
little troop of sacred virgins, who in a few days will open
the mission for the salvation of so many poor wandering
sheep. I feel certain that, with the grace of God, they will
reconduct them to the fold of the Prince of Pastors, Jesus




30             ROME AND ITS RULER.
Christ. May eternal praise be given to this God of Mercies;
and I beg your Reverence to accept the assurance of my
deepfelt gratitude. I have the consolation of having them
with me in my palace. I have great reason to thank the
Lord, who holds in his hands the hearts of men: but it appears to me that he has placed those of your daughters, not
in his hands, but in his own heart. I will not fail to render
them every assistance in their wants; and from that thought
I pass to the pleasure of assuring you again that I am, with
deep esteem, the affectionate servant of your Maternity,
+ JEAN MARIE, Cardinal MASTAI,
" Archbishop.
"Imola, 14th September, 1845."
Thus did the wise Prelate seek, by his new institutions, to provide for the wants and necessities of his
flock; and it is difficult to know which most to admire,
the solicitude of the Pastor, or the generosity and
benevolence which prompted such works, embracing
all classes, and excluding none from their beneficent
operation.
To preserve in the ecclesiastics of his diocese the
spirit of their holy vocation, he opened a house for
spiritual exercises, where, at stated times, a portion of
the clergy devoted themselves for ten days to retreatan arrangement which, though immediately affecting the
clergy, yet exercised a beneficial influence on all his
flock, as it more fitly prepared for the duties of the
ministry those who were to be their religions guides.
He also repaired some churches, restored the episcopal
residence, and completed the front of the cathedral
church, which had hitherto remained unfinished.




HIS COURAGE.                31
An incident that occurred in the February of 1846,
evinced the noble courage with which the Prelate was
endowed, and the singular efficacy which Providence
communicated to his words. One evening of the Carnival, a little before dusk, the Cardinal was making
his accustomed visit before the altar of the Holy Sacrament in the Cathedral, when the sacristan rushed
towards him, crying out, " to hasten for God's sake, as
murder was being perpetrated in the sacristy." Invoking the Divine aid, the Cardinal at once arose,
and hastening to the spot, found there, lying upon
a form, a youth of about twenty years of age, who
having been dangerously wounded by a bayonet thrust,
had just taken refuge in the sacred building. The
Cardinal had scarcely reached the sufferer, when three
armed men rushed in, with the wicked intention of
completing their deed of blood. But nowise dismayed by their naked weapons, and their looks of deadly
hate, Mastai boldly confronted the assassins, and, presenting his pectoral cross, described to them the enormity
of their crime, and commanded them to retire. His
words, so full of courage, and uttered as with the
authority of one commissioned by Heaven, struck terror into their breasts, and were silently and almost unconsciously obeyed.
IMlastai was now about to quit the scene of so many
pious labours, and so many works of charity and love,
for a splendid destiny, the grandest and the loftiest
which man can be called on to fulfil on this earth; but




32             ROME AND ITS RULER.
one ever fraught, if not with perils and sorrows, at least
with the gravest anxieties and the profoundest cares.
In the beginning of June, 1846, being then engaged
with a considerable number of his clergy in a spiritual
retreat, he received the announcement of the death of
Gregory XVI. Immediately on the receipt of the sad
intelligence, he hastened to the episcopal residence, and
having celebrated the last obsequies of the deceased
Pontiff; at once proceeded to Rome, unconscious of the
fate which there awaited him. HIe arrived in the Capital
on the evening of the 12th of June; and in forty-eight
hours afterwards he and his Brethren of the Sacred
College entered the Conclave. On the 15th, the testing
of the votes commenced: the evening of the 16th saw
him unanimously chosen; and on the morning of the
17th, the election of Pius IX. was proclaimed to the
Christian world.
It was in these words, so truly characteristic of his
modest and humble nature, that the newly-elected
Pontiff announced his elevation to his brothers at Sinigaglia:" ROME, 16th June, at 3 past 11, P. M.
"The blessed God, who humbles and exalts, has been
pleased to raise me from insignificance to the most sublime
dignity on earth. May His most holy will be ever done.
I am sensible to a certain extent of the immense weight
of such a charge, and I also feel my utter incapacity, not
to say the entire nullity of my powers. Cause prayers to
be offered, and you also pray for me. The Conclave has
lasted forty-eight hours. If the city should wish to make any




IS ELECTED POPE.                   33
public demonstration on the occasion, I request you will take
measures-indeed, I desire it-that the whole sum so destined
be applied to purposes which may be judged useful to the
city, by the chief magistrate and the council. As to yourselves, dear brothers, I embrace you with all my heart in
Jesus Christ; and, far from exulting, take pity on your brother, who gives you all his apostolic blessing."
2*




34              ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER 111.
Pius IX. ascends the Throne.-Grants an Amnesty.-Terms of the Amnesty.-Enthusiasm of the People.-Machinations of the Revolutionists.-Their Policy and Objects.-Mazzini's Address to the Friends of
Italian Liberty.-Difficulties of the Pope's Position.-The Pope as a
Reforlner.-Instances of his Affability and Goodness. —Iis Interest in
the Education of Youth.-The Pope no Nepotist.
NIEVER did sovereign ascend the throne with a heart
more full of love for his people, or with a more fervent desire of contributing to their welfare and happiness; and rarely, if ever, did sovereign enter upon a
path so abundantly bestrewn with embarrassments and
with difficulties.  Devoted to the Church, of which he
was chosen to be head and protector, Pio Nono was not
the less the fiiend of rational liberty, and the advocate
of enlightened progress.  Thoroughly acquainted with
his native country, and conversant with its interests
and its wants, he resolved, from  the first hour of his
Pontificate, to so use the power entrusted to him by
Heaven, as to remedy the evils which he knew to exist,
and put an end to abuses of which he could not be unconscious. Convinced that no attempt at reform could
be successful so long as pains and penalties for former,
transgressions were still enforced against a considerable
number of his subjects, who had been connected, more
or less prominently, with revolutionary disturbances in
the reign of his predecessor; and also feeling the ut



PIUS IX. ASCENDS THE rI'ItONE.           35
most compassion for those who suffered, whether in mind
or body-Pius IX. resolved to signalize his accession to
the throne by. an act of glace which should shed a light,
as if from above, upon many sorrowing homes and despairing families. There were those who counselled the
Pope to moderate his generosity within the limits of
prudence, and to have a care how he included in a general pardon many men whose past career was no reliable
guarantee for their future loyalty.  But these cautious
advisers spoke to one whose soul was overflowing with
love and compassion, and who yearned to embrace his
entire people within the arms of a fond father.  And,
accordingly, on the 16th of July, just one month after
his election, Pins IX. published the following decree
of amnesty:"Pius IX. to his faithful subjects: salutation and apostolic
benediction.
" In these days, when our heart is moved to see public joy
manifested at our being raised to the Pontificate, we cannot
refrain from a feeling of grief in thinking that a certain number of families are unable to participate in the common joy,
because they bear the pain of some offences committed by
one of their members against society, against the sacred rights
of the legitimate Prince.
" We now desire to cast a look of compassion on the inexperienced youth which has been led away by deceitful hopes,
in the midst of political discord, where it has been rather the
seduced than the seducer. It is for that reason that we wish
to stretch out the hand, and offer the peace of the heart to
those misguided children who will evince sincere repentance.
Now that our good people has shown towards us their affection, and their constant veneration for the Holy See, and for




846               ROME AND ITS rULEIR.,
our person, we are persuaded that we may pardon without
danger..  We, therefore, ordain that the commencement of
our Pontificate shall be solemnized by the following act of
sovereign grace:"1. There is granted to all our subjects who are undergoing punishment for political offences a remission of their
sentences, provided that they make in writing a solemn declaration,* on their honour, that they will not in any manner
or at any time abuse this grace, and will for the future fulfil
the duties of good and faithful subjects.
" 2. Those of our subjects who have fled to foreign countries in consequence of political crimes, may profit by the
present resolutions in making known within the delay of one
year to our Apostolic Nuncios or other representatives of the
Holy See, their desire to profit by this act of our clemency.
"3. We equally pardon those who, for having taken part
in any conspiracies against the State, are under political suriveillance, or may have been declared incapable of holding
municipal offices.
"4. It is our desire that all criminal prosecutions for
political offences which have not yet received definitive
judgment should be instantly put a stop to, and that the
prisoners be set at liberty, unless any of them may demand
the continuation of their trials, in order that their innocence
may be proved.
"5. There shall not be included in the provisions of the
preceding articles the small number of ecclesiastics, of mili* The following is the form of the required declaration:-"], the
undersigned, acknowledge the receipt of a singular favour in the generous and spontaneous pardon which the indulgence of the Sovereign
Pontiff, Pope Pilus IX., and my lawful sovereign, has accorded me for
the part which I may have taken in any manner soever in the attempts
which have disturbed public order and attacked the lawfully constituted authority in his temporal dominionis; promise, upon my word of
honour, not to abuse in ally way, nlor at any time, this act of his sovereign clemency, and pledge myself, besides, to fulfil faithfully all the
duties of a loyal subject."




TERMS OF THE AMNESTY.                37
tary officers, and employ's of the Government, who have
been already condemned, or have fled, or are now under trial
for political offences. With regard to those we reserve our
decision until we shall have obtained information as to their
particular position..
"6. There are also excluded from the present amnesty
crimes and ordinary offences, which are subject to the jurisdiction of the tribunal.
"We are anxious to feel a confidence that those who will
avail themselves of our clemency will know how at all times
to respect their duties and their honour. We hope, moreover, that their minds, softened by our pardon, will lay
aside their civil hatreds, which are always the occasion
and the effect of political passions, in order to draw closer
those bonds of peace by which God desires that all the
sons of the same father shall be united; but if our hope be
deceived, it would be with bitter pain that we should call to
mind that, if clemency be the sweetest attribute of sovereignty, justice is its first duty.
"Given at Rome this 16th day of July, 1846, in the first
year of our Pontificate.
(Signed)      "PIUS  P. P. IX."
This noble evidence of the great heart of Pins was
hailed with ecstacy by a people already fascinated by
the sweet countenance and modest deportment of their
new ruler. Vivas rent the air; blessings and prayers followed his steps; flowers were cast beneath his feet; and
almost instinctively forming themselves into impromptu
processions, one of the most excitable and demonstrative
of the Italian people proceeded through the streets of
Rome, with music and banners, to pour out before the
palace of their sovereign an enthusiasm which appeared
to know no limit, and which could with difficulty find




38            ROME AND ITS RULER.
an appropriate utterance. And the solid earth seemed
to rock, and the very heavens to tremble, as peal
after peal of wild and frenzied cheering burst from
mighty masses of the populace, whllen, yielding repeatedly to the fond importunity of his subjects, the
Pope came forth on the balcony of the Quirinal, and
with graceful gesture imparted to them the Apostolic
benediction. Gratitude, with pardonable vehemence,
sought a natural expression in the language of hyperbole; and even the pen, more sober and less impetuous
than the tongue, became the vehicle.of the most impassioned exaggerations.
Very many of the political prisoners, who soon
flocked into Rome, not content with signing the
pledge of honour-the only condition imposed by the
terms of the amnesty-added, of their fiee accord,
such gratuitous vows as these:-" I swear by my head,
and the heads of my children, that I will, to the death,
be faithful to Pius IX."-" I swear to shed all
blood for Pius IX." —' "I renounce my share of Paradise if ever I betray the oath of honour which binds
me to Pius IX."
But amidst this frenzy of enthusiasm there were many
who were far from being content. The representatives
of despotic Powers witnessed with alarm and apprehension these popular ovations, but still more the beneficent
acts to which they owed their origin. The cries and
cheers that rang so frequently through the streets and
squares of the Eternal City, in homage of the illustrious promoter of reform and exalted friend of rational




ENTHUSIASM OF THE PEOPLE.           39
liberty, sounded harshly in the ears of ministers and
statesmen grown gray in the service of despotism.
And ominously, too, did these wild accents fall upon
the startled souls of those who, with a full knowledge
of the fickle and impulsive people by whom they were
uttered, and a sad experience of events still recent,
shuddered as they anticipated the license to which such
gatherings, processions, and demonstrations, were ultimately, and not remotely, to lead. To their alarmed
fancy, the dagger of the anarchist gleamed darkly beneath the flowers of the festival. Nor were their fears
without a cause. For, mixed up with the masses, consisting mainly of the honest and the well-meaning,
and ostentatiously parading their enthusiasm and their
gratitude, were men who, without feeling the slightest
sympathy with the public joy, or the least reverence for
the sovereign whose reign was inaugurated by a deed
of gracious mercy, were even then planning how best
to turn all this enthusiasm and all this rejoicing to their
own purposes-which aimed, not at the amelioration of
existing institutions, but at their overthrow.
The disciples and followers of Joseph IMazzini were
even thus early at their work. And never was a more
subtle and crafty policy mapped out for the guidance
of a political confederation. A few extracts from the
writings of IMazzini, and one or two of the more active
members of his party, many of whom the amnesty permitted to enter Rome, will most fittingly display their
intentions, and the nature of the means through which
they sought to carry them into execution.




40              ROME AND ITS RULER.
One of the most ardent of those who protested their
gratitude to the Pope was Joseph Galletti, of Bologna,
whose sentence of capital punishment, for his participation in the conspiracy of 1845, had been commuted
into imprisonment for life, and the door of whose
dungeon had just been flung open by the general pardon. This document had been alleged against him on
his trial:" Our enemies are many: first of all the clergy, the nobility, many proprietors, lastly government employes.  At the
cry of liberty, shall be instituted in every city revolutionary
committees, which shall make sure of the said persons the
most suspected, and whose liberty or survival might bring
great detriment to the cause. As a rule for the sentences of
the committees, two sorts of persons are to be distinguished.
1. Those who are indifferent to the cause, but have committed no excess against its partisans, and are attached to government through love of quiet. For these you must use all
zeal to interest them. 2. Those who, employes or not, have
openly shown themselves our enemies, upsetting us in every
way; and these chiefly shall be deprived of life. The manner of arrest, without violence and by night: put in prison
and slain. You must use in that the greatest prudence and
secrecy, giving out then either that they are hid, or exiled,
or imprisoned provisionally. And all that not to excite tumults
and awaken horror, as happened in the Septemberings.
Their deaths to be speedy, and without torment."
Ricciardi announced that"To acquire independence needs revolution and war: to
put aside all considerations originating in the progress of
knowledge, civilization, industry, increase of riches, and public prosperity..... The fatal plant, born in Judaea, has only
reached this high point of growth and vigour because it




POLICY OF THE REVOLUTIONISTS.             41
was watered with waves of blood. Would you have an
error take root among men, put fire and sword to it. Would
you have it fall, make it the object of your gibes... The
question is not of a popular assembly, fluctuating, uncertain,
slow to deliberate: but there needs a hand of iron, which
alone can rule a people hitherto accustomed to differences
of opinion, and, what is still more, a people corrupted, enervated, made vile by slavery.... Soon a new era will begin
for men, the glorious era of a redemption quite otherwise than
that announced by Christ."
But the best exponent of the process by which revolution was made a science, is Joseph AMazzini.  In his
address of October, 1846, issued from Paris to the fi'iends
of Italy, he says:
" In great countries it is by the people we must go to regeneration; in yours by the princes. We must absolutely
make them of our side. It is easy. The Pope will march
in reform  through principle and of necessity; the King of
Piedmont through the idea of the crown of Italy; the Grand
Duke of Tuscany through inclination and irritation; the
King of Naples through force; and the little princes will
have to think of other things besides reform. The people
yet in servitude can only sing its wants.  Profit by the
least concession to assemble the masses, were it only to testify
gratitude.  Fetes, songs, assemblies, numerous relations established among men of all opinions, suffice to make ideas
gush out, to give the people the feeling of its strength, and
render it exacting.... Italy is still what France was before
the Revolution: she wants, then, her Mirabeau, Lafayette, and
others. A great lord may be held back by his material interests, but he may be taken by vanity.  Leave him the chief
place whilst he will go with you. There are few who would
go to the end.  The essential thing is, that the goal of the
great revolution be unk-nown to them:  let us never let them see




42              ROME AND ITS RULER.
more than the first step. In Italy, the clergy is rich in the
money and faith of the people. You must manage themn in
both those interests, and as much as possible, make their influence of use. If you could create a Savonarola in every
capital, we should make giant strides. The clergy is not the
enemy of liberal institutions. Seek, then, to associate them
to this first work, which must be considered as the obligatory
vestibule of the temple of Equality. Without the vestibule
the sanctuary remains shut. Do not attack the clergy, neither in fortune nor orthodoxy.  Promise them liberty, and
you will see them march with you.... In Italy the people is
yet to be created: but it is ready to tear the envelope which
holds it. Speak often, much, and everywhere of its misery
and wants. The people does not understand; but the active
part of society is penetrated by these sentiments of compassion for the people, and sooner or later acts. Learned discussions are neither necessary nor opportune. There are
regenerative words which contain all that need be often repeated to the people. Liberty, rights of man, progress,
equality, fraternity, are what the people will understand,
above all when opposed to the words, despotism, privileges,
tyranny, slavery, &c. The difficulty is not to convince the
people: it is to get it together. The day of its assembly
will be the day of the new era....  Nearly two thousand
years ago, a great philosopher, called Christ, preached the
fraternity which the world yet seeks. Accept, then, all the
help offered to you. Whoever will make one step forward,
must be yours till he quits you. A king gives a more liberal
law; applaud him, and ask for the one that must follow. A
minister shows intention of progress; give him out as a
model. A lord affects to pout at his privileges; put yourself
under his direction: if he will stop, you have time to let him
go: he will remain isolated and without strength against you,
and you will have a thousand ways to make unpopular all
who oppose your projects. All personal discontent, all deceptions, all bruised ambition, may serve the cause of progress by giving them a new direction..... The army is the




MAZZINI'S ADDRESS.                 43
greatest enemy to the progress of socialism.  It must be paralyzed by the moral education of the people. When once
public opinion has imbibed the idea, that the army, created to
defend the country, must in no case meddle with internal
politics, and must respect the people, you may march without
it, and even against it, without danger....  The clergy has
only half of the social doctrine. It wishes, like us, for brotherhood, which it calls charity. But its hierarchy and habits
make it the imp of authority, that is to say, despotism. We
must take what good there is, and cut the bad. Try to make
equality penetrate the Church, and all will go on. Clerical
power is personified in the Jesuits. The odium of that name
is already a power for the socialists. Make use of it....
Associate! associate! every thing is in that word. The secret societies give irresistible strength to the party that can
call upon them. Do not fear to see them split: the more the
better. All go to the same end by different ways. The secret will be often violated: so much the better: the secret is
necessary to give security to the members, but a certain transparency is needed to inspire fire in the stationary. When a
great number of associates, receiving the word of order to
spread an idea and make it public opinion, shall be able to
concert a movement, they will find the old building pierced
in every part, and falling, as if by miracle, at the least breath
of progress. They will be astonished themselves, to see flying before the single power of opinion, kings, lords, the rich,
the priests, who formed the carcass of the old social edifice.
Courage, then, and perseverance!"
The transparency of danger to which Mazzini alludes, has been unveiled by Cantalupo of Naples:"1. The society is formed for the indispensable destruction
of all the Governments of the Peninsula, and to form a single
State of all Italy, in republican form.... 30. Members who
will not obey the orders of the secret society, and those who
unveil its mysteries, shall be poignarded without remission.




44              ROME AND ITS RULER.
31. The secret tribunal shall pronounce the sentence, pointing
out one or two associates for its immediate execution. 32.
The associate who shall refuse to execute the sentence shall be
held perjured, and as such put to death on the spot. 33. It
the victim succeed in escaping, he shall be pursued incessantly
in every place; and the guilty shall be struck by an invisible
hand, were he sheltered onf the bosom of his mother, or in the
tabernacle of Christ.... 54. Each tribunal shall be competent not only to judge guilty adepts, but to put to death all
persons whom it shall devote to death."
This was the policy, these were the proposed means
of action, of the men who recognized in Mazzini their
apostle and leader; and a policy more ruinous to true
liberty and substantial progress, it were impossible to
imagine; or means more crafty, or more treacherous,
not dishonesty itself could invent.
Ielre, on the one hand, was the large-hearted, highsouled Pontiff, abounding in love for his people, anxious
to redress their grievances, to remove every just cause
of discontent, and to confer upon them the largest
amount of fieedom compatible with safety and the
preservation of interests-sacred not merely in his own
eyes, but in the estimation of the Christian world;and, on the other, a band of insane revolutionists, who,
gathered from different parts of the Italian Peninsula,
were sworn to subvert and destroy all forms of government that stood in the path of their reckless ambition,
or that stopped short of the realization of their utterly
impracticable schemes.  These men were the worst,
because the most insidious, enemies that a reforming
ruler could have combined against him; for their fixed




DIFFICULTIES OF THE POPE'S POSITION.    45
and settled plan of action was, as may be seen by the
instructions of their teacher, to flatter and cajole, to
seduce and corrupt, every individual or class that could
serve their purpose,r-to inflame the public mind by
exciting the most extravagant hopes of changes which
could never be soberly contemplated,-and to turn
against the Pope and his government, as instruments
of destruction, the very reforms which he voluntarily
conceded!
These were the worst enemies of the Pope, as of
true liberty; but they were not the only enemies with
whom he had to contend. Austria, that held in her
grasp some of the fairest portions of Italy, experienced
even more alarm than indignation, as she beiheld the
noble attitude of Pius IX., and saw how the spirit
emanating fiom the Vatican was kindling a new and
dangerous fire in the breast of a down-trodden people.
Wily in her councils, powerful in her arms, and mighty
in her resources, Austria was, from the very outset, the
most formidable enemy of reforms which she had every
reason to dread. Naples, too, viewed with jealousy the
onward progress of the Pope, and subsequently attempted to hide from her people the knowledge of measures which he had conceded to his subjects. Smaller
Powers also regarded with dismay the march of reform,
and trembled for their feeble though cherished tyrannies.
Nor was France, which was in a short time to be the
theatre of one of the most remarkable revolutions recorded in her history, believed to be altogether sincere in her professions of approval and admiration




46            ROME AND ITS RULER.
of the benevolent acts and reforming spirit of the
Pope.
Nor is it difficult to heighten the picture of the almost insurmountable difficulties which surrounded the
path and followed the footsteps of Pius IX.  The
alarm of many of the Cardinals was great, but, taking
all circumstances into consideration, by no means unfounded. They remembered the amnesty of 1831,
which had only given the opportunity for violent pirotestations and fresh plots; and they could not believe
that the amnesty of 1846 would be productive of more
fortunate results. The Pope held his first Consistory
on the 27th of July; when Cardinal Macchi, in replying to the allocution, thus pointed out the apprehended
danger:"We think, at the same time, to what tempests the
Church is exposed, and by what license and effrontery
of opinions men, unbridled to every mischief, leave
nothing untried to deprave manners with wicked boldness, to precipitate the ignorant into the abyss of error, to overthrow every power, and even the Catholic
Church itself, if that were possible."
Yet, notwithstanding the complicated difficulties of
his position, Pius boldly persevered in his mission of
clemency and reform. He personally inquired into and
improved the administration of the public departments;
he rigorously examined into the management of hospitals, prisons, and religious institutions, and compelled
such changes as he deemed advisable; he punished
fraud and extortion, especially if practised on the poor,




THE POPE AS A REFORMER.            47
with the sternest severity; he promoted employment
by useful works, and stimulated industry by encouragement and reward; he introduced reforms into the collection of the public revenue, and the management of the
finances; he remitted taxes which pressed upon the
necessities of the bulk of the population, and diminished such as interfered with their comforts; he granted
" concessions" to companies for establishing railways,
and aided the introduction of gas; he opened the
public offices to deserving laymen; he permitted the
establishment of a press, whose freedom was guaranteed by a mild system of censorship-and, to render
more effective, as well as permanent, the reforms which
he himself introduced, he announced, by his circular
of the 19th of April, 1847, his intention of calling
together a Council, chosen by the various provinces,
to assist him in his administration, and give its opinion
and advice on all matters of government connected
with the general interests of the country.
And with all these labours he combined a sweetness
and a simplicity that won the hearts of the good, and
excited a love and a veneration that would have overcome all but the malice and the machinations of his
relentless foes, who were busily occupied with their
work of "regeneration."  He was to be seen, to the
amazement of the sticklers for etiquette, and to the
delighted wonder of the people, walking through the
streets, clad in a plain garb, and sparingly attended.
Sorrow had not then robbed his cheek of its freshness,
or dimmed the mild lustre of his soft blue eye; and,




48              ROMFE AND ITS:RULERI
as he passed through his capital, an alnost adoring
populace received with ecstacy the benedietion of the
Pontiff, and the sweet smiles of their 1ruler and their
father.  Children ran to hiim with eagerness, and artlessly made known to him  their wishes; vhich were
ever sure to be complied with.  One clay he went
on foot fronm the Quirinal, to say Alass at tile convent
of the Visitandines of St. Francis cle Sales.  On leaving the church, a little child wenllt up to him, -and said,
~' Art thou the Pope?"  Yes, -my little friend, I an,"
replied His HIoliness.  "I have no father," said thle
little fellow.      Then I will be a fati-er to you," was
the characteristic answer of the Pope, as he embraced
the clhild.  The promise so given was fully redeemnedl;
for inquiry having satisfied the Holy Father of the
truth of the child's statement, lhe gave orders to have
him  carefully educated and provided for, in his name
and at his sole charge.
Several anecdotes are told of the Pope's gentleness
and familiarity with children. Amrongst others, the following is not the least characteristic.     One day a little
fellow, all in tears, attempted to make his way through
the ranks of the Swiss guards, to present a petition.
The Pope, hearing the noise, inquired as to its cause,
and sent for the petition. It was in these words: —
"MVfost Holy Father, my imother is old and infirm.  I
am too young to support her life and mine. Our landlord, a bad man, will turn us out to-morrow if we don't
pay him  the four scudi we owe him.  Deign to lend
them. I will pay you when I am bigger."  "What is




INSTANCES OF HIS GOODNESS.        49
your name, my good child, and how old are you?"
asked the Pope.'"I am Paul; and I am ten years
old."  "What trade is your father?" "He's waiting
in Paradise for us these ten years," answered the little
fellow, with an accent of touching emotion. "And
your mother?" inquired the Pope. "She embroiders
and prays from mlorning to night." Having asked the
child where he lived, and been told, the Pope desired
him to come on the next day, and that he would give
him what his mother wanted. In the mean time inquiries were made, which proved that the statement of
the child was correct: and when he came again, the
Pope gave him ten scudi. "I did not ask you for
ten," said the little fellow, and he gave back six.
"Take them again, my good child," said the Pope,
"and tell your mother I will look after her for the
future."
Not content with giving alms in the street, or to
those who applied to him personally or by petition,
the Pope himself visited many an abode of poverty,
and ministered to the wants of its occupants with his
own hand. The same hand smoothed the pillow of the
sick in the public hospitals (which he always visited
without the possibility of his intentions being previously made known), and administered to the dying the
last consolations of religion.
One night a person, in a lay habit, entered one of
the public hospitals, and being attracted by the groans
of a patient, approached the bed on which he lay. The
pufferer was a poor French artist, who, feeling that he
3'




50            ROME AND ITS RULER.
was dying, was most anxious to have the services of a
priest. The almoner was looked for in vain; but the
Pope-for it was he-administered the last Sacraments
to the poor man, who died in his arms. Next day the
almoner was dismissed.
Other institutions were visited in the same manner,
and their abuses laid bare to the vigilant eye of one who,
even in the most wretched of criminals, recognized a
brother. Gentle and merciful to every form of suffering,
whether the malady were of the soul, the mind, or the
body, the Pope was inexorable to those who oppressed or
defrauded the helpless or the poor; and many salutary
examples-were given, by fine or by dismissal, to officials
in charge of the various public institutions, who were
soon made to know that the least offence against charity or justice would not go unpunished. And no class
of his subjects excited in his breast a livelier compassion
than the poor imprisoned debtors, many of whom, no
doubt, were the victims of their own folly and extravagance, but many more of whom were victims of the
fraud or the tyranny of others. To these his visits
were indeed those of an angel of mercy; for his hand
flung open their prison door, and his generosity supplied them with the means of commencing a new
career.
Ever alive to the great importance of educating the
young-a duty to which he had already devoted so
many years of his life-the Pope was determined to
see with his own eyes how his wishes in that respect
were carried out; and scarcely a week passed in whichk




THE POPE'S INTEREST IN EDUCATION.       51
he did not make one of his unannounced and unexpected visits. These visits were made by night as well
as by day.
On a day in March, 1847, two priests, who had come
in a hired carriage, asked permission to see the schools
in a certain street. The teachers were rather annoyed
at being disturbed; and one of them said, " Certainly
the Pope would not like strangers to be admitted to
the school exercises without an order."  " You are
mistaken," said the Pope, throwing open his cloak.
He then took a seat, inquired into every thing, examined the pupils, and distributed prizes to the deserving.
On another occasion he desired to witness for himself the operation of the Night Schools, which had been
specially established for artisans and others who, being
employed during the day, could not attend the ordinary schools; and leaving the Quirinal at night, in a
hired carriage, and attended by one of his chamberlains, the Pope was enabled to judge for himself of the
value of these, the most interesting, if not the most
useful, of the Roman schools.
As an instance of the manner in which he corrected
abuses and administered justice with his own hand,
may be mentioned the following.
Shortly after his accession, as he was going into the
garden of the Quirinal, a soldier on diuty held out a
regulation loaf. The Pope took it, and found it to be
bad. " Do you always get bread like this?" asked the
Holy Father. "Always, your Holiness," replied the




52           ROME AND ITS RULER.
soldier. "Well, we will look to it." Next day he
asked for a loaf of the bread, and found it just the
same. lie sent for the purveyor, and had him at once
arrested and sent to prison, to be tried for the fiaud.
He was one day at the Police Palace, when, on looking out of the window, he observed a number of country people, who were kept waiting an hour for their
passports, while the person in charge was lunching.
The Pope sent for him, and after administering a sharp
rebuke, added:-" Now you must give these poor
people fifty pauls (about a pound English money) for
the time you have robbed them of." " But I have not
got fifty pauls," remonstrated the official. "Here they
are," said the Pope; " and they shall be struck off
your salary."
To love and serve his people, to render them good
and happy, was the sole thought of Pius.
Fondly attached to his own family, he yet resolved,
from the first moment of his election, that the natural
weakness of human affection should not in the slightest
degree interfere with his duty to his subjects; and,
accordingly, it was soon made known to his brothers
and nephews, that any hopes of preferment, to which
his election to the Pontificate might have given birth,
were vain and illusory. It is said that he warned one
of his nephews, a young officer in the army, that he
must not expect promotion at the cost of others; and
exhorted another, who was living without an employment, to retire to Sinigaglia, from the ostentation of
Rome. And to this policy, so widely different from




THE POPE NO NEPOTIST.            53
that which we see practised in every court of Europe,
Pius IX. has adhered to this hour. Not a single member of his family holds a public position or office,' either
in the Papal States, or at any foreign court; and so far
from his election to the throne having served his family, it has more or less injured them-inasmuch as they
have been compelled, in consequence of his elevation,
to assume a greater state, and at a necessarily increased
expense. In this most important respect Pius IX. has
only followed the example of Gregory XVI.  How
splendidly does such conduct contrast with the policy
pursued by every other sovereign of whom we know
any thing.




5P,4            ROME AND ITS RULER,
CHAPTER IV.
Alarm of Austria at the Acts of the Pope.-Popular Demonstrations
artfully promoted.-Proclamation against them.-Occupation of
Ferrara by the Austrians.-Military Enthusiasm of the People.Inauguration of the Council of State.-Its Creation an Evidence of
the Pope's Desire for Reform.-The Pope explains his Intentions.Address from the Council.-Foreign Sympathy.-The Pope's Generosity to Ireland.-His Appeal in her behalf.-State of Europe.
THE jealousy of Austria became more marked, and
her remonstrances more urgent, if not more overbearing in their tone, as the liberal intentions of the Pope
were fully disclosed. The following passage from the
Tiimes of the 28th of March, 1847, is important, being
a just appreciation of the public conduct of Pius IX.,
and of the difficulties which foreign cabinets-that of
Austria especially-were determined to throw  in his
way:-' The opposition of Austria has been constant and intense
from the moment of his election. The spectacle of an Italian
Prince, relying for the maintenance of his power on the affectionate regard and the national sympathies of his peoplethe resolution of the Pope to pursue a course of moderate
reform, to encourage railroads, to emancipate the press, to
admit laymen to offices in the State, and to purify the law,
but, above all, the dignified independence of action manifested
by the Court of Rome, have filled the Austrians with exasperation and apprehension.'There is not the least doubt that
the Cabinet of Vienna is eager to grasp at the slightest pretext for an armed intervention south of the Po. If such a




POPULAR I)EMONSTRATIONS PROMOTED.           55
pretext does not occur, it is but too probable that it may be
created; and any disturbances calculated to lead to such a
result would at once betray their insidious origin. Meanwhile the Pope is menaced in Austrian notes, which have
sometimes transgressed the limits of policy and decorum;
and the minor Princes of Italy are terrified by extravagant
intimations of hostile designs entertained against them by
the national party, headed by the Pope and the house of
Savoy, in order to persuade them that their only safeguard
is the Austrian army. These intrigues may be thought necessary to the defence of the tottering power of Austria south
of the Alps, for every step made in advance by Italy is a
step towards the emancipation of the country."
It will be shortly seen that the apprehensions to
which the bearing of Austria gave rise were fully justified by her subsequent acts.
In the meantime, however, the plan of promoting
demonstrations was systematically persevered in; and
thus was cunningly devised a kind of out-door tribunal,
to which the daily course of the government was submitted, and by which its particular acts were applauded or condemned. The advice of Mazzini was followed to the letter-" Profit by the least concession to
assemble the masses, were it only to testify gratitude.
Fetes, songs, assemblies, numerous relations established
among men of all opinions, suffice to make ideas gush
out, to give the people the feeling of its strength, and
render it more exacting."  Care was taken to gain over
the more prominent of the leaders of the populace,
by working on their vanity; and amongst those was
Cicerouachio, who, vain, noisy, and good-natured, was
easily persuaded that he was an orator, and who, fore



56            ROME AND ITS RULER.
most in the expression of his boisterous homage to the
Pope, soon became distinguished as a leader of each
tumultuous ovation, and eventually as the blind instrument of his crafty flatterers.
Let it not be supposed that the Pope was either intoxicated or deluded by the shouts and cries, the
crowds and the processions, the music, the banners,
and the flowers, that were ready to greet his appearance on every possible occasion. IHe could not but be
conscious that-even supposing there were no lurking
enemies plotting his ruin, and whose policy it was to
excite and inflame an ardent and impulsive peoplesuch a state of feeling, as was naturally created by
those constant and almost daily provocations to popular excitement, must be unsuited to a due appreciation
of that rational freedom and those progressive reforms
which it was his object to promote. Besides, placards,
of a nature calculated to excite the worst apprehension
of what the future might bring, began to make their
appearance onI the walls of Rome; and in the provinces, the tumultuous gatherings, which, according to
Mazzini, were to teach the people "its strength," and
render it "more exacting," had been attended with
serious disturbance.
To check an evil which was becoming too formidable to be any longer endured, and also, if possible, to
moderate expectations which were artfully stimulated,
a proclamation was published on the 22d of June,
1847, by Cardinal Gizzi, in the name of tile Pope; in
which his Holiness, after alluding to the reformns which




CARDINAL GIZZI S PROCLAMATION.            57
he had felt it his duty to introduce, declares that he
intends to persevere in the same course, but to observe,
in doing so, wisdom and prudence. The proclamation
went on to say:
"His Holiness is firmly resolved to pursue the course of
amelioration in every branch of the public administration
which may require it, but he is equally resolved to do this
only in a prudent and calculated gradation, and within the
limits which belong essentially to the sovereignty and the
temporal government of the head of the Oatholic Church-a
government which cannot adopt certain forms which would
ruin even the existence of the sovereignty, or at least diminish that external liberty, that indeppendence in the exercise
of the supreme primacy for which God willed that the Holy
See should have a temporal principality. The Holy Father
cannot forget the sacred duties which compel him to preserve
intact the trust that has been confided to him."
The Pope then enumerates some of the reforms and
amneliorations that he had introduced, and the proclamation adds:"The Holy Father has not been able to see without deep
regret that certain restless minds are desirous of profiting by
the present state of things to promulgate and endeavour to
establish doctrines and ideas totally contrary to his maxims,
or to impose upon him others entirely opposed to the tranquil
and pacific nature, and the sublime character, of the person
who is the vicar of Jesus Christ, the minister of a God of
peace, and the father of all Catholics, to whatever part of
the world they may belong; or finally to excite in the minds
of the people, by speeches or writings, desires and hopes of
reforms beyond the limits which his Holiness has indicated.
As these persons are in small number, and the good sense
and rectitude which govern the great majority of the people
3*




58              ROME AND ITS RULER.
have hitherto rejected these insinuations and counsels, the
Holy Father feels assured that they will never find a welcome among the people. But it is more easy to imagine
than to describe the grief felt by his Holiness at some
horrible acts which have taken place in various provinces,
and which are in open opposition to the peace and concord
which he was desirous of establishing among his beloved
subjects, when, in the early days of his glorious pontificate,
he pronounced the sweet word of pardon. Another subject
of grief for his Holiness has arisen from certain assemblages
of the multitude, which, under a pretext of scarcity of corn
or other wants, have taken place in divers parts of' the state,
to the disturbance of public order, and sometimes with menace
against personal security."
Cardinal Gizzi then says that the Pope does not confound these meetings with assemblies which have taken
place for the manifestation of gratitude for the benefits
which he has bestowed on the people, and that his
I-Ioliness is deeply sensible of such demonstrations,
and implores God to bestow the most perfect blessings
upon the reforms which he has granted.  But hie
adds:"The paternal heart of his Holiness suffers deeply at
seeing entire populations and individuals incessantly put to
expense for public demonstrations, artisans abandoning their
labour to the injury of their families, and youths, destined
to study, losing time which is precious to them. The heart
of his Holiness would suffer still more if this state of things
were to continue. The first year of his pontificate is over,
and in this period of time the Holy Father has been able
fully to appreciate the love, gratitude, and devotedness of
his well-beloved subjects. He now asks a proof of their
praiseworthy sentiments; and this proof must consist in the




THE AUSTRIANS OCCUPY FERRARA.           59
cessation of all unusual popular meetings on whatever occasion, and all extraordinary manifestations, except those for
which, anterior to the present notification, permission had
been received from the competent authorities."
The effect of this proclamation was to check an enthusiasm that was rather dangerous than serviceable,
and to restore, in some measure, sobriety to the public
mind, which had become bewildered by a succession
of undue stimulants. It, no doubt, for a time chilled
the feeling of the people, who, on sonle occasions subsequent to its publication, received the Pope with a
coldness and silence that presented a remarkable contrast to the absolute frenzy of rejoicing with which
they had hailed his appearance a few weeks before.
But who, looking at the real state of things, as they
are now presented to their consideration, will say that
this proclamation was not absolutely indispensable, in
order to dispel delusions which it would have been in
the highest degree mischievous to encourage, even by
silence? If the result were to create a sentiment of
disappointment and mistrust, its intention was honest,
and its necessity imperative.
In a short time after (on the 17th of July), the difP
ficulties of the Pope's position were increased by the
aggressive conduct of Austria, and the circumstances
to which it gave rise.  On the miserable pretext of
protecting the Sovereign of the Papal States against
conspirators, the city of Ferrara was occupied by Austrian troops, 1,500 strong, arrayed in order of battle,
with artillery and lighted matches. The general in




60             RWIIOME AND ITS IRULER.
command acted under strict orders fioml Marshal Radetski, then in Milan.  This gross violation of the
rights and dignity of an independent sovereign was
met by a spirited protest from Cardinal Ciacchi, the
Apostolic Legate of the city and province of Ferrara,
and an indignant demand on the part of the Pope's
Government, through Cardinal Ferretti, the new Secretary of State, for the withdrawal of the invading
force. The bold attitude thus assumed by the Governmnent, as well as the natural irritation created by the
insolent and menacing conduct of Austria, in a moment excited the military ardour of the nation, and
added to the hatred in which the foreign occupants
of the soil of Italy were held by every true Italian.
Though neither within the province nor the disposition
of Pius IX. to act the part of an aggressor, still, as a
sovereign, he had rights to maintain, and, as a patriot,
a country to defend; and, in the spirit of the one and
the other, he resolutely prepared, if negotiation should
fail, to meet the invader with his own weapons. The
people nobly responded to their ruler; and even the
cloistered monk was not insensible to the martial ardour of the hour, but proclaimed his readiness to don
the harness of the warrior, and wield the sword of the
flesh against the enemy. A little while ago, and the
cry was for fiurthler refobrms -now  it was for battle
with the Austrians; and the press, to which liberty
had been conceded, did its utmiost to stimulate to the
highest point the ardour of tile nation. All the disposabl]e troops were ordered to the fi'ontiers; and the




COUNCIL OF STATE INAUGURATED.        61
National Guard was organized throughout the States
with the utmost activity, and its banners were blessed
with all the solemnity which religious ceremonial could
impart. Something like the old spirit of Rome blazed
out for the moment. In this critical emergency the
bearing of the Pope was worthy of his position and
the occasion. Thus writes the gifted contributor to a
London Journal,* who witnessed what he described.
"Mlieantime Pius, overwhelmed with the cares of his
new position-isolated, so to say, among the crowned
heads of Europe-has a heart and confidence in the
God of justice, which nothing can daunt. He is fully
prepared for every emergency."  The face of Pins
says another eyewitness, "beams with the calm of a
good conscience."
Even the Jews shared in the enthusiasm of the hour,
and offered the homage of their gratitude to the Pope,
who had not only relaxed the severity of the laws
which had so long pressed upon that unhappy race,
but had recently allowed them to appoint a successor
to their late High Priest, then twelve years dead. On
the occasion of the induction of the new High Priest,
the ceremony was concluded by a hymn for the Pope,
written in the choicest Hebrew.
The difference with Austria was ultimately arranged
without the necessity of coming to blows.
On the 15th of November, 1847, the Council of State,
promised by Pius in his circular of the 19th of April,
was solemnly inaugurated, amidst the enthusiasm of
* The Daily News.




62              ROME AND ITS RULER.
the people, the earnest wishes of the moderate, the apprehensions of the timid, and the evil expectations of
the designing, whose hopes were not in reform, but in
revolution —not in gradual development or judicious
progress, but in anarchy and confusion.
The object of calling together the Council of State,
as well as its composition and division, are explained
in the following Proprio iJfotu promulgated by the
Pope on the 15th of October, a month previous to its
assembly:" When, by our circular of the 19th of April last, we announced our intention to choose and call to Rome respectable
persons, from each province of the Pontifical dominions, our
object was to form a Council of State, and thus endow the
Pontifical Government with an institution justly appreciated
by the other European Governments, and which, in former
times, constituted the glory of the States of the Holy See, a
glory due to the genius of the Roman Pontiffs. We are persuaded that, when assisted by the talent and experience of
persons honoured with the suffrages of entire provinces, it will
be easier for us boldly to take in hand the administration of
the country, and impart to it a character of utility, which is
the object of our solicitude. This result we are certain to attain. Our fixed determination, combined with the moderation of the public mind, must enable us to reap the fruit of
the seed already sown. We will thus show the entire world,
through the medium of our voices and the press, and by our
attitude, that a population inspired by religion, devoted to its
prince, and gifted with good sense, knows how to appreciate
a political blessing, and express its gratitude with order and
moderation. This is the only price we demand in recompense
of our constant solicitude for the public welfare, and we confidently hope to obtain it. Trusting in the aid of Divine
Providence, and wishing our sovereign resolutions to be exe



THE COUNCIL ORGANIZED.                63
cuted, we have decreed the following of our own accord, having duly considered the matter, and in virtue of our supreme
authority:4 ORGANIZATION OF THE COUNCIL OF STATE.
"The Council of State is to be composed of a cardinal-president, a prelate, vice-president, and 24 councillors, named by
the provinces, and who are to have fixed salaries. Each province will return a councillor, Bologna 2, and Rome and its
vicinity 4.
" The second paragraph relates to the mode of election and
nomination of the councillors.
"They are to be divided into four sections:-first, of legislation; second, of finance; third, of internal administration,
commerce, and manufactures; fourth, of the army, public
works, prisons, &c.
" The Council is instituted to assist the Pope in the administration; to give its opinion on matters of government, connected with the general interests of the state and those of the
provinces; on the preparation of laws, their modification, and
all administrative regulations; on the creation and redemption of public debts; the imposition or reduction of taxes;
the alienation of the property and estates belonging to the
Government; on the cession of contracts; on the customs'
tariff, and the conclusion of treaties of commerce; on the
budget of the State, the verification of the accounts, end general expenditure of the administration of the State and provinces; on the revision and reform of the present organization
of district and provincial councils," &c.
Let us not try this new concession, which was but
the forerunner of one still more ample, by a false standard; for any such mode of judging of its value or its
importance would be manifestly as fallacious as unjust.
We cannot attempt to test it by a comparison with the
free constitution of these countries, or of any country




64            RtOME AND ITS RtULER.
in which popular institutions have long been established. Let us, instead of forming any comparison
between it and our thoroughly defined representative
system, which has been the growth of ages, and the
splendid result of an unwearied and persistent struggle
of the popular element against the claims and encroachments of the kingly power and the aristocratic influence,
regard it in its true light-as a bold innovation on the
established system of Papal government, and as an eminently venturous step in the path of political change.
Surely there was enough of power in this Council of
State, if wisely and honestly directed, to bring about
the most beneficial results, by effecting improvements
in the laws and in their administration, and by a resolute attention to the development of the material resources of a land teeming with natural wealth, and a
people abounding in energies of which they were almost unconscious. A great reform in itself, it was intended to be the basis of reforms far more comprehensive. It was a mighty instrument, fashioned by the
hand of a benevolent monarch-one with which the
true patriot might have effected miracles in the way of
substantial and enduring, not vain or shadowy, improvemnents in all the social and national interests of
the Papal States. But, alas! this instrument, intended
for good, was turned against the breastof its author.
That was a day of carnival in Rome which witnessed
the arrival at the Quirinal of the members of the Consulta-consisting of the President, Cardclinal Antonelli;
the Vice-President, Monsignor Amici; and the twenty



THE POPE EXPLAINS HIS INTENTIONS.           65
four Provincial Deputies-and beheld them take their
places in the Hall of the Throne, where they first assembled to offer their homage to the Sovereign; who,
in reply to an address from the President, spoke these
words, which were perfectly in accordance with the intentions he had from the first expressed:"I thank you for your good intentions, and as regards the
public welfare, I esteem them of value. It was for the public good that since my elevation to the Pontifical throne I
have, in accordance with the counsels inspired by God, accomplished all that I could; and I am still ready, with the
assistance of God, to do all for the future, without, however,
retrenching in any degree the sovereignty of the Pontificate;
and, inasmuch as I received it full and entire from my predecessors, so shall I transmit this sacred deposit to my successors. I have three millions of subjects as witnesses, that I
have hitherto accomplished much to unite my subjects with
me, and to ascertain and provide for their necessities. It was
particularly to ascertain those wants, and to provide bettel
for the-exigencies of the public service, that I have assembled
you in a permanent council. It was to hear your opinion
when necessary, to aid me in my sovereign resolutions, in
which I shall consult my conscience, and confer on them with
my Ministers and the Sacred College. Anybody who would
take any other view of the functions you are called to.fulfil
would mistake materially, as well as he that would see in the
Council of State I have created the realization of their own
Utopias, and the germ of an institution incompatible with the
Pontifical sovereignty.'
His Holiness, having pronounced those last words
with some vivacity and not a little heat, stopped a moment, and then, resuming his usual mild manner, continued in the following terms:



66             ROME AND ITS RULER.
"This warmth and those words are not addressed to any
of you, whose social education, Christian and civil probity, as
well as the loyalty of your sentiments and the rectitude of
your intentions, have been known to me since the moment I
proceeded to your election. Neither do those words apply
to the majority of my subjects, for I am sure of their fidelity
and their obedience. I know that the hearts of my subjects
unite with mine in the love of order and of concord. But
there exist unfortunately some persons (and though few, they
still exist), who, having nothing to lose, love disturbance and
revolt, and even abuse the concessions made to them. It is
to those that my words are addressed, and let them well understand their signification. In the co-operation of the deputies I see only the firm support of persons who, devoid of
every personal interest, will labour with me, by their advice,
for the public good, and who will not be arrested by the vain
language of restless men devoid of judgment. You will aid
me with your wisdom to discover that which is most useful
for the security of the throne and the real happiness of my
subjects."
The Pope took leave of the Deputies in these words:
"Proceed, with the blessing of Heaven, to commence
your labours. May they prove faithful in beneficial
results, and conformable to the desires of my heart."
Amidst the heartfelt rejoicings of the population,
and surrounded or accompanied by all that could gratify the eye or excite the imagination, the procession
wound its imposing splendour through the streets
which lay between the Quirinal and the Vatican.
Brilliant tapestries; fluttering banners, emblematic
and distinctive; gorgeous equipages; glittering uniforms of infantry and cavalry; costumes of all kinds,
many of them  in the highest degree picturesque



ADDRESS FROM TIlE COUNCIL.              67
these, added to a dense mass of ardent and enthusiastic
people, formed one of those magnificent pageants of
which Rome, above all other cities, has ever been prolific. Religion lent its sacred aid, in the greatest of
its earthly temples, to render solemn and memorable
the inauguration of the National Council.  From beneath the dome of St. Peter's, the Deputies proceeded
to the chamber allotted to them in the Vatican, and
there formally commenced their labours.
Of the address drawn up, in answer to the speech
of the Pope, the following passages, with which it concludes, exhibit, at least, a clear perception of the motives of the sovereign, the magnitude of the work to
be accomplished, and the means by which it could
alone be successful:"But the accomplishment of an undertaking so great and
so difficult will require much study, time, and calmness. We
confide in the continuance of the noble tranquillity of which
your subjects have given so many proofs. The y will patiently await the salutary fruits of the seeds which you have
sown with a generous hand.
"Your work, Holy Father, has not been undertaken to favour exclusively one order of citizens; it embraces all your
subjects in a common bond of love, and that love is such
that your example is admired and followed by the other sovereigns of Italy, united with their subjects in the alliance of
principles, passions, and interests.
"We have often seen reforms, imposed by popular exigencies, developing themselves amidst tumults and collisions.
Their conquest costs tears and blood. But, amongst us, it is
the first and most venerable authority of. all which wishes to
initiate us in the progress of civilization. That authority
itself directs the minds in a peaceable and moderate move



68             ROME AND ITS RULER.
ment, and guides us towards the supreme end, which is the
reign of justice and truth on earth."
While these events were passing in Rome, the sympathies of every generous nation were drawn towards
the occupant of the Chair of Peter. And on the opposite shores of the Atlantic, in the chief cities of the
UInited States, masses of men met to express their
admiration of the acts of the illustrious reformer.
Amongst the most remarkable of the meetings which
took place, was that held in the month of December,
1'847, in the "'Tabernacle," New York, at which many
of the leading statesmen of America gave the warmest
expression to their sympathy and admiration.  The address and resolutions were proposed by Puritans, and
the descendants of Puritans; and though Catholics
attended the meeting in numbers, they refirained friom
taking any prominent part in the demonstration, with
the wise intention of rendering it the more striking
and effective.  The fourth resolution exhibits a thorough consciousness of the obstacles with which Pins
had to contend, and the dangers by which he was menaced:
" Resolved,-That we present our most hearty and respectful salutations to the Sovereign Pontiff for the noble part he
has taken in behalf of his people; that, knowing the difficulties with which he is surrounded at home, and the attacks
with which he is menaced from abroad, we honour him the
more for the mild firmness with which he has overcome the
one, and the true spirit with which he has repelled the other."
Nor was Ireland, even in the midst of her sorrows




GENEROSITY OF THE POPE TO IRELAND.    69
and her tribulations, insensible to the claims which the
Holy Father had upon her sympathies; for fresh in her
gratitude was the recollection of the generous hand
that had been extended towards her from the Vatican,
and of those urgent appeals which were made, in her
behalf, to the compassion of Christendom. No sooner
had the cry of a distressed nation reached the ear of
Pius IX., than it found a ready echo in his benevolent
breast; and not only did he at once send, out of his
small means, a munificent contribution towards the
fund for its relief, but caused the churches of Rome to
resound to the earnest solicitations of his clergy in the
same cause of suffering humanity. The Pope's feelings in behalf of Ireland are best conveyed in his own
expressive words. On the 8th of February, 1847, a
number of English, Scotch, and Irish gentlemen, then
residing in Rome, and who had formed themselves into
a Committee for the collection of subscriptions, waited
on his Holiness for the purpose of expressing their
thanks for his liberality.  " We desire," said the Chairman of the Committee (Mr. Harford),"to express to your Holiness our lively acknowledgment for
the benevolent and spontaneous manner in which you have
signified to us, through Dr. Cullen, your charitable and generous intention of contributing a thousand scudi to the same
object. We also beg your Holiness to permit us to express
our conviction, that the sentiment which at this moment animates our hearts will be deeply felt, not only by the English
now in Rome, but in every portion of the British empire."
To which, with every appearance of the most genuine emotion, the Pope replied:



70              ROME AND ITS RULER.
"It affords me great consolation to see so many benevolent
gentlemen from every part of the United Kingdom engaged
in so excellent a work of charity, exerting themselves to
arrest the progress of famine, and striving to alleviate the
dreadful distress of their brethren in Ireland.  Were the
means at my command more extensive, I should not limit
myself to the little I have done in a cause in which I feel the
warmest sympathy. To supply the want of a larger contribution, I shall pray with fervour to the Almighty, beseeching him to look with mercy on his people, to remove the
scourge that afflicts them, and to give peace, happiness, and
abundance to the country."
But the Pope, in his Encyclical Letter of the 18th
of Malrch, so fully expressed  the compassion with
which he witnessed the increasing distress of Ireland,
and his knowledge and appreciation of the religious
fidelity of its people, as well as of their attachment to
the Holy See, that a passage fiom  that document becomes most appropriate in this place. It is as follows:
"  Being moved by this example' of our predecessors, and at
the same time, by the inclination of our own will, when first
We learned that the kingdom of Ireland was involved in a
great dearth of corn, and a scarcity of other provisions, and
that that nation was suffering from a most dreadful complication of diseases brought on by want of food, We instantly
applied every means, as far as in us lay, to succour that
afflicted people. Therefore, We proclaimed that, in this our
city, prayers should be poured forth; and We encouraged
the clergy, the Roman people, and those who were sojourning in the city, to send assistance to Ireland.  By which
means it was arranged, that partly by money cheerfully sent
by ourselves, and partly by that which was collected in Rome,
assistance, as far as the necessities of the time permitted,




HIS APPEAL IN HER BEHALF.               71
could be forwarded to our venerable brethren the Archbishops
of Ireland, which they may distribute according to the conditions of the respective localities and of their suffering people. But letters are still brought to us from Ireland, and
accounts are daily related to us respecting the calamities
mentioned above still continuing in this island-nay, even increasing-which afflict our mind with incredible grief, and urgently impel us again to afford assistance to the Irish nation.
And what effort ought We not to make to raise up that nation
now suffering under such a disaster, when We know how great
the fidelity of the clergy and people of Ireland is, and always
has been, towards the Apostolic See-how, in the most dangerous times, their firmness in the profession of the Catholic
religion has been conspicuous-by what labour the clergy of
Ireland have toiled for the propagation of the Catholic religion
in the remotest regions of the world; and, finally, with what
zeal for piety and religion the Divine Peter, whose dignity (to
use the words of Leo the Great) is not the less in an unworthy heir, is among the Irish nation honoured and distinguished
in our humble person!"
By the Pope's personal contribution, as well as
through his instrumentality, a sum  of about 12,000
scudi was collected, and sent to the suffering poor of
Ireland.
With such an evidence of his compassion and goodness before their eyes, it is no exaggeration to say,
that by no people were the steps of Pius in the path
of social and political amelioration watched with a
more intense and eager gaze than by the Irish, especially those of them whose religious sympathies harmonized with their love of rational liberty.  The Pope
had also testified his marked respect for the memory
of O'Connell, that renowned champion of the Churchl,




72            ROME AND ITS RULER.
whose heart, according to his dying wish and desire,
had been brought to Rome, as a last attestation of his
attachment to the Holy See. The vestments used on
the occasion of the solemn obsequies had been sent
from the Papal Chapel, by the special orders of his
Holiness.
Catholic Ireland felt towards the Pope as a child towards a father.
Towards the close of 1847, disturbances were commencing to break out in Messina; insurrection was rife
in Palermo; and disaffection was hourly making itself
manifest in Milan. These were the first heavings of
that universal earthquake which was, ere long, to burst
forth in the principal capitals of Europe.  Accounts
from all parts of the Italian Peninsula heralded a year
of storm and convulsion.




THE YEAR OF REVOLUTIONS.              73
CHAPTER V.
The Year of Revolutions.-Great excitement in Rome.-Further Reforms demanded.-Opening of the Roman Parliament.-The War of
Independence.-Its disastrous Result.-Count Rossi Prime Minister.
-His Assassination resolved upon.
THE year 1848 opened gloomily upon the political
world, almost every country in Europe being rife with
discontent, and ready for revolution. In Rome events
were fast hastening to a crisis; and each new account
of risings throughout the Italian States or elsewhere but
added to the daring of the extreme party, now actively
represented by the press, chiefly in the hands of refugees, and by the clubs, which had lately sprung into
existence, and had already become the focus of intrigue, and the organs as well as the promoters of
violence.  By both, the crafty policy of Mlazzini was
persistently inculcated, and every opportunity availed
of to encourage the fetes, songs, processions, and gatherings of the masses, so cunningly relied on as a means
of stimulating popular excitement, keeping the public
mind in a state of feverish impatience, teaching the
people its strength, and rendering them " more exacting."  None but utterly revolutionary measures could
keep pace with such a state of feeling as was artfully
fostered by the enemies of rational reform. The deliberations of the Consulta were rudely intruded upon by
4




74:           ROME AND ITS RULER.
the mob-leaders, and changes demanded with a manner
not always free from menace. To add to the perils of
the hour, the diversion of large numbers of the people
from their customary pursuits led to the very consequences against which the Pope, in his proclamation
of the 22d of June of the previous year, had so prophetically warned his subjects. With the abandonment of industry, idleness became general, and poverty
and distress followed as a matter of necessity; nor were
frequent acts of violence and bloodshed wanting, to impart a darker aspect to the position of affairs.
It was, then, upon a population so inflamed, that the
news of the terrible insurrection which had broken out
at Palermo, burst with electric influence. These tidings
were quickly followed by still more startling intelligence-that a free constitution had been granted, ostensibly of his own accord, but in reality through fear,
by the King of Naples; that movements of a revolutionary character were apprehended in Austria and
Prussia; that barricades had been erected in the streets
of Paris, and that a Republic was established on the
ruins of the Orleans dynasty. From this moment the
audacity of the press, the clubs, and the mob-leaders,
knew no bounds; and even the most upright and wellintentioned ministers, who were constantly appearing
upon and disappearing from the political stage, were
reluctantly compelled to flatter where they could not
hope to control.
The accounts from Paris produced the most intense
excitement; and, in a short time after they were circu



THE ROMAN PARLIAMENT.                75
lated through Rome, the people proceeded in an immense crowd to the Quirinal to demand the promised
constitution; to frame which, with safety to the grave
interests of the Church-which the Pope was specially
bound to protect-seemed to their impatience a matter
of trifling difficulty. In answer to a subsequent and
more formal demand, the Pope gave the following
reply:"The events, I will not say which succeeded each other, but
which have hurried on to a conclusion, justify the demand
addressed to me by the senators in the name of the magistrates and the council. Everybody knows that I have been
incessantly engaged in giving the government the form claimed
by those gentlemen and required by the people. But everybody must understand the difficulty encountered by him who
unites two supreme dignities. What can be effected in one
night in a secular state cannot be accomplished without mature
examination in Rome, in consequence of the necessity to fix a
line of separation between the two powers. Nevertheless, I
hope that in a few days the constitution will be ready, and
that I shall be able to proclaim a new form of government,
calculated to satisfy the people, and more particularly the
Senate and the Council, who know better the state of affairs
and the situation of the country. May the Almighty bless
my desires and labours! If religion derives any advantage
therefrom, I will throw myself at the feet of the crucified
Jesus, to thank him for the events accomplished by his will,
and I will be more satisfied as Chief of the Universal Church
than as a temporal prince, if they turn to the greatest glory
of God."
The promise thus given was speedily fulfilled; and
on the 5th of June the Roman Parliament was opened
by a speech, read by Cardinal Atlieri, in the name of




76            ROME AND ITS RULER.
the Pope; in which, after expressing his satisfaction
at having succeeded ill introducing into his states the
political reforms demanded by the times, his Holiness
directed the attention of the Chambers to matters of
pressing interest and growing emergency. The sittings
were then declared to be opened. And thus was a
new field offered to the activity of the party who
looked upon all reforms with contempt, and regarded
the most generous concessions but as a means to an
end. The two Chambers contained many sincere patriots, earnestly devoted to their country, their sovereign, and their church; but their prudence and
their good sense were soon overborne by the violence
of those whose vanity or whose reckless ambition carried them on to every excess.
In the meanwhile the flame of insurrection had burst
out in other capitals, to which the startling events at
Paris had given a wild impulse. The revolution at
Vienna gave new confidence to the patriots of Italy;
and, after a noble struggle, the Milanese compelled
the Austrians to evacuate their beautiful city. A republic was also once more proclaimed in Venice.
The Pope was not insensible to the generous influence of the hour, and no one could more sincerely
desire to witness the triumph of Italian independence
than he did. To accomplish this great object he made
several efforts, unfortunately in vain, with a view of
combining the different states into a common national
league; but while he met with a cordial concurrence
in some instances, his proposal was received with cold



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.           77
ness and jealousy in others. Naples, Tuscany, and
other states, entered with alacrity into the scheme;
but the Sardinian Government refused to send delegates to Rome, and suggested a Congress in the North
of Italy-a proposition not calculated to overcome the
natural apprehensions entertained by the governments
of the South of the ambitious views of Charles Albert.
Had the scheme of an Italian League, under the presidency of the Pope, been carried into effect, it would,
in all human probability, have effected the freedom
of Italy; and while saving Rome from the machinations of anarchists, have consolidated the reforms
granted to the Papal States. But such was not to be.
It would be an unnecessary task, and besides one
quite foreign to the purpose of this volume, were I
to follow through its vicissitudes the short War of
Independence, that, commencing with an enthusiasm
to which no class, and scarcely any individual, was
insensible, ended in defeat and disappointment, and
a more effectual riveting of the chain by which Austria held her Italian provinces in bondage. The Romans, who, on the 24th of March, witnessed the departure of General Durando from their ancient gates,
at the head of a brave but not too well disciplined
army, and who thought of the old times, as, with
music and banners, their youth marched to resist the
foes of their country, ere long received the tidings
of their having capitulated at Vicenza; from which
place, but three weeks before, they had gallantly repulsed the Austrians. General Durando had, in the




78            ROME AND ITS RULER.
first instance, exceeded his instructions, which were,
to proceed to the frontiers, and act on the defensive;
and in an address, whose exaggeration the circumstances of the moment may explain rather than justify, pledged the Pope to a crusade of exterminations
against the Austrians, as the enemies of " the Cross
of Christ."  The Pope's repudiation of this unwise
address excited intense agitation in Rome; but Pins
resolutely adhered to his proclamation, in which, while
professing his devotion to the cause of Italian independence, he at the same time declared that he could
not, as Pontiff, proclaim war against a Christian power.
However, Dulando was ordered to co-operate with
Charles Albert; and the unhappy result of the brief
Roman campaign gave rise to a stormy debate in the
Roman Commons, in which the most opposite opinions were expressed as to the conduct of the war and
the courage of the officers in command.  But the
armies of Rome and Piedmont had other enemies to
contend with besides the Austrians; for in the camps
both of Durando and Charles Albert, the emissaries
of the republicans were ever actively engaged in sowing the seeds of suspicion and distrust, and amongst
the very troops which, if these men were sincere in
their devotion to the cause of Italian liberty, they
should rather have stimulated and encouraged.
The defeat of Charles Albert under the walls of
Milan put a termination to the war, the gallant monarch being compelled to retire within the boundaries
of his own dominions. And although the King had




COUNT ROSSI PRIME MINISTER.         79
done all that man could have done, under the circumstances in which he was placed; and though the terms
of the capitulation were honourable to him and favourable to the people of Milan, whose persons and property it protected, the treatment which he received!rom the rabble, urged. on by the false and cowardly
anarchists, was disgraceful in the extreme. But these
men, wherever they appeared, proved themselves the
worst foes of Italian freedom.
Meanwhile the press, the clubs, and mob-leaders of
Rome had become more violent; while a new and
more dangerous element was added to the already sufficiently excitable populace, by the return of numbers
of reduced or disbanded soldiers, of questionable character, but of singular aptitude for riot and disturbance.
Each hour the people-in reality the mob-grew more
conscious of its strength, and consequently " more exacting" in its demands. In such a sad state of things
there was only one chance for the cause of constitutional
liberty against the dictation of the clubs and the lawless violence of an infuriated populace; and that was
in the energy and determination of a minister of liberal
policy and firm purpose.
And such a minister did Pius IX. call to his councils
in the person of Count Rossi, whose abilities, as a
trained and practised statesman, were only excelled by
his sincere desire to see Italy restored to peace and
tranquillity, and the enjoyment of national prosperity
as well as true fieedom. It was not in a moment like
that at which things had now arrived, that a man of




80            ROME AND ITS RULER.
his stamp would lightly assume a position so abounding in difficulties, and undertake a task so fraught with
hourly peril. A solemn consciousness of duty, and a
chivalrous anxiety to be of assistance to a noble but illused sovereign, alone induced Count Rossi to undertake the conduct of the government. To the anarchists-those who looked for the overthrow of the Pope's
authority, and the erection of a Red Republic upon its
ruins —no minister could be more hateful than Rossi;
and, accordingly, his first vigorous efforts to restore
order, and put a stop to a condition of things which no
government could permit without a virtual abdication
of its functions, were answered by a yell of rage from
the revolutionary press, and by the ferocious denunciations of the clubs. Nowise daunted, Rossi persevered
in his good work; which was so happy in its results,
that in the course of some three weeks-for he had assumed the direction of affairs on the 16th of Augusthe succeeded in the now difficult task of inspiring confidence in the breast of a bewildered public, and renewing hopes of ultimate success in the minds of those
who had long since surrendered themselves to despair.
With such a man there was therefore left but one
mode of dealing, and that mode was speedily resolved
upon. The dagger of the assassin was now to do its
bloody work, not in the darkness of night, when Nature, as it were, flings a cloak over the murderer, but
in the blaze of the noon-day sun, and in the presence
of hundreds of spectators.




ASSASSINATION OF COUNT ROSSI.            81
CHAPTER VI.
Assassination of Count Rossi.-Dispatch of the French Ambassador.Inhuman Rejoicings.-Assault on the Pope's Palace.-The Pope's
personal Liberty at an End.-No Excuse for this Violence.
As if to prove to the world how unfitted for representative institutions were a people whom crafty or
designing men had systematically trained into licentiousness, the day selected for the abominable deed of
blood, which was to put an end to all hopes of constitutional liberty, was that appointed for the reopening
of the Chambers; and the appropriate place selected
for the brutal murder was the very entrance to the
Cancellaria, in which the Parliament held its sittings.
Let the pen of the horrified and indignant Ambassador of France (the Duc d'Harcourt) describe an act
which evoked one universal shout of execration in
whatever country it was heard  of. The following
dispatch was laid before the National Assembly of
France, preparatory to the debate on the proposed
expedition to Civita Vecchia: —
" RoME, November 16.
" MONSIEUR LE MINISTRE,-I have already had the honour
of announcing to you by the telegraph that M. Rossi, Minister of the Interior, was assassinated yesterday, at one o'clock,
as he was alighting from his carriage to enter the Chamber
of Deputies. He was stabbed in the throat, and died immediately. The murderer was not arrested, nor was even




82              ROME AND ITS RULER.
any attempt made to seize him. Some gendarmes and National Guards, who were on the spot, did not interfere. The
populace remained mute and cold. It was with difficulty
that the Minister's servant could find any one to help him
in carrying the body of his master into a neighbouring
room. The Assembly, on the steps of which the murder
was committed, continued undisturbedly to read its minutes,
and not a word was mentioned of the incident during the
whole sitting. In the evening, the murderers and their adherents, to the umount of several hundreds, with flags at their
head, fraternized with the soldiers at their barracks, and none
of the magistrates came forward to act. The Director of
Police, although urged to take some energetic measures, refused to interfere, and withdrew.-This morning the whole
of the ministry resigned. It is difficult to conceive any new
combination possible, or any chance of re-establishing order,
after what has passed. Such is the position of the successors
of the ancient Romans! Having no packet immediately at
my disposal, I have resolved to send this dispatch overland.
Accept, &c.,                            " HARCOURT."
The Ambassador did not add the revolting fact, that
the assassins, their accomplices, and their abettors,
travestied those ftes which it was the policy of the
advocates of revolution to encourage; and, gathering
together all that was foul or frenzied of the population,
passed in procession through the streets, till they arrived beneath the windows of the house in which lay
the ghastly form of its murdered owner, and there insulted, with inhuman shouts and songs of hellish triumph, the agony of the living, and the solemn repose
of the dead.
"Long live the hand which poignarded Rossi!" was
the benediction pronounced upon the assassin.




ASSAULT ON THE POPE'S PALACE.            83
That night of the fatal 15th closed in blood; but the
morning of the 16th dawned on a day of horror and
sacrilege, in which the guilt of the previous day was
far exceeded in atrocity.  The ministry of Count Rossi
having been destroyed in his person, it was now determined, by those who instigated, or were resolved to
profit by, his assassination, to force a ministry of their
own selection upon the sovereign. The second dispatch from the Duke d'Harcourt, an eye-witness to the
infamous outrage, thus describes the manner in which
the well-instructed rabble exhibited their "strength:"ROME, Nov. 17.
"MONSIEUR LE MINISTRE,-I have had the honour to give
you the account of the murder of M. Rossi. Yesterday we
had a continuation of these excesses, which will make you
regret, perhaps, not having given, at a certain time, some
support to the Sovereign Pontiff. It would be difficult to
witness a more sad spectacle for the nation, than that of
which we have been ocular witnesses. Towards two o'clock
a rather large crowd of the people went to the Quirinal with
a programme, known beforehand, and which issued from the
presses of the Popular Club. This programme demanded
the dismissal of the Ministry, the formation of another, the
formation of a Constituent Assembly, a solemn declaration
of war, &c.-There are in the interior of the Quirinal 100
Swiss, who are alone charged with the personal guard of the
Pope, with a few gardes du corps. When the Swiss saw this
hostile demonstration, they closed the doors and prepared for
a defence. The diplomatic corps had time to enter the
palace, and offer to the Pope its moral support against the
violence that might be attempted against him. The assemblage at first uttered menaces to obtain admission, and seeing
that their desire was not complied with, they endeavoured to




84             ROMIE AND ITS RULER.
burn down the principal door. A few musket shots from the
Swiss, and their decided attitude, soon forced the aggressors
to retire to a distance. Up to this time only the populace
had interposed; the attack, therefore, did not last long, and
the populace were beginning to disperse when we witnessed,
to our great surprise, an unexpected spectacle. The civic
guard, the gendarmerie, the line, and the Roman legion, to
the itumber of some thousands in uniform, with music and
drums, came and ranged themselves in order of battle on the
square of the Quirinal, and were there joined by a few of the
people who had remained, and began to fire at the windows
of the Palace. Some balls penetrated into the apartments,
and one killed a prelate who was in his chamber. As the
Swiss continued to display a bold attitude, and it was thought
that a determined resistance would be offered, cannon was
brought to batter down the doors of the Palace of the Pope,
who is mildness itself, and who had only a hundred Swiss to
defend him. It is generally thought that there were only a
few hundred plotters, who had laid the plan of this conspiracy.
There were near the Pope, during the whole of the day, only
the diplomatic corps. The Pope, all this time, showed much
sang froid and firmness; but as it was impossible to oppose
resistance,-and, besides, as he was less able and disposed
than anybody to shed blood-it was necessary to do whatever was demanded by his own troops, who besieged him in
his palace. Negotiations were entered into, and a list of
ministers was proposed to him, at the head of which figure
MMI. Mamiani, Sterbini, Galleti, &c. This he accepted, protesting, however, against the violence which was practised,
and declaring that he would refer to the Chambers the other
measures which were demanded of him. The authority of
the Pope is now absolutely null. It exists only in name, and
none of his acts will be free and voluntary.
" HARCOURT."
The statement. of the French Ambassador omits the
fact, of which perllaps lie was not aware at the time lie




FIRMNESS OF HIS HOLINESS.            85
wrote his dispatch, that the motley rabble amongst
whom, to their shame, men who called themselves soldiers were mixed up, had proceeded in the first
instance to the Chamber of Deputies, and insisted on
several members of that body accompanying them, as
their organ and mouthpiece, to the Palace of the Pope.
To his eternal honour be it recorded, the insulted Sovereign declared, in spite of the hoarse and savage
shouts which reached his ears, that "he would not
grant any thing to violence."  This was his reply to the
second demand made by the dishonoured Deputies, in
the name of a frenzied mob. But the brutal violence
to which his Holiness eventually, though under protest,
did yield, will be even more fully understood from the
following passages of a letter which appeared in the
D)aily News, written by a gentlemen whose communications to that journal excited the greatest attention at
the time:"At this stage of the proceedings it was evident that the
die was cast. From the back streets men emerged bearing
aloft long ladders wherewith to scale the pontifical abode:
carts and wagons were dragged up and ranged within musketshot of the windows to protect the assailants in their determined attack on the palace; the cry was,'to arms! to
arms!' and musketry began to bristle in the approaches from
every direction; faggots were produced and piled up against
one of the condemned gates of the building, to which the
mob was in the act of setting fire, when a brisk discharge of
firelocks scattered the besiegers in that quarter.
"The multitude began now to perceive that there would
be a determined resistance to their further operation, but
were confident that the Quirinal, if not taken by storm, must




86              ROME AND ITS RULER.
yield to progressive inroad. The drums were now beating
throughout the city, and the disbanded groups of regular
troops and carabineers reinforcing the hostile display of
assailants, and rendering it truly formidable. Random shots
were aimed at the windows, and duly responded to; the outposts, one after another, taken by the people, the garrison
within being too scanty to man the outworks. The belfry
of St. Carlino, which commands the structure, was occupied.
From behind the equestrian statues of Castor and Pollux a
group of sharp-shooters plied their rifles, and about four
o'clock Monsignor Palma, private secretary to his H.oliness,
was killed by a bullet penetrating his forehead.
"As if upwards of 6,000 troops of all ranks were not
considered enough to reduce the little garrison of a couple of
dozen Swiss, two six-pounders now appeared on the scene,
and were drawn up and duly pointed against the main gate,
and, a truce having been proclaimed, another deputation
claimed entrance and audience of the Pope, which the monarch ordered to be allowed. The deputation were bearers
of the people's ultimatum, which was a reproduction of the
five points before stated, and they now declared that they
would allow his Holiness one hour to consider; after which,
if not adopted, they announced their firm purpose to break
into the Quirinal, andput to death every inmate thereof, with
the sole and single exception of his Holiness himself."
Who will attempt, on rational grounds, to account
for this abominable outrage?  If, indeed, the palace
assailed with such savage fury had been the dwellingplace of some foul tyrant, stained with the blood of his
people-of some hardened monster, to whose ears the
cries and groans of his subjects were as sweet music
-of some wretch, dead to every good and generous
emotion, and whose greatest delight it was to oppress
and trample upon those unhappily subject to his sway,




NO EXCUSE FOR THIS VIOLENCE.        87
-then might the world comprehend and account for
the dark doings of this day of shame and terror. But
the monarch thus brutally outraged, was the best as
well as the most exalted of living mlen,-in whose
breast ever welled a fountain of love, and charity, and
compassion,-whose every thought, firom the moment
that he rose in the morning, till he last knelt to his God
at night, was of doing good-how he could improve
and elevate his people-how he could promote their
temporal and eternal interests-how  he could most
effectually minister to the necessities of the poor, the
suffering, and the sick-how he could most securely
train the young in intelligence and virtue, raise up
the fallen, and restore the erring to the right path.
IIis was a brow that never contracted in resentmenthis an eye that never flashed with anger-his a mouth
that never uttered words of scorn or contempt; but,
ever gentle, ever merciful, ever good, Pius IX. seemed
born to attract towards him the hearts and win the
confidence of mankind. But the base and bad took
advantage of those qualities which command the respect of the good, and despised the gentle and benign
sovereign for the lack of that sternness and that rigour
which they could alone appreciate, but which formed
no element in the sweet character of the Vicar of
Christ.
The plotters had done their work too effectually to
allow of hope for their return to reason. The moderate
were shocked at the excesses perpetrated in the prostituted name of liberty; but they were powerless in




88              ROME AND ITS RULER.
this h!our of frenzy, nor could their voice'be hea rd
in the wil.d Storm of popular' cor. notion.  The power
of the Pope -was utterly paralyzed, and Iris personal.
saftety in danger. To repeat the wordcs of the Dluko
d'TaIareouri'he authority of the 7P ope is now  absolutely  a1.  It, exists onrly in n:ame, an,md  nonze of'
i,,s rCtR  e ac  wd freie and voluntmCary."'9




HIS HOLINESS MEDITATES FLIGHT.          89
CHAPTER VII.
The personal Liberty of the Pope at an End.-He resolves to abandon
Rome.-His Flight from the Quirinal.-He reaches Gaeta.-Htis Reception by the King and Queen of Naples.
SucJH being the case-all power and authority being
centred in the very men who had been all along
plotting his overthrow, and who now gloried in their
achievement-there was but one course left to the
outraged sovereign —namely, fight; and this he was
soon induced to adopt. One consideration more than
another was powerful with the Pope-that the direction of those affairs which related to the Church was
not only interfered with, but was rendered wholly
impossible.
At first, he was doubtful as to the course which he
should take, or the resolution to which he should come;
and in this state of suspense he remained for two or
three days, when he received a letter from France,
from the Bishop of Valence. In this letter the Bishop
acquainted His Holiness that a little silver case having
come into his possession, which had served Pius VII.,
of blessed memory, to keep therein a consecrated particle, in order that he might have the most Holy Sacrament as a solace during the sad exile to which
tyranny and infidelity had condemned him; he was




90            ROME AND ITS RULER.
happy to have it conveyed to Pope Pius IX., as a
memorial of one of his holy predecessors, and as an
object perhaps not useless during the events that were
taking place in those days. On the receipt of this
precious memorial, the Pope no longer delayed, or
hesitated as to the course which he should take; and
he accordingly resolved upon abandoning IRome. At
first, he deliberated upon what place to select for his
stay; but as the Spanish Court had offered him their
hospitality, and as the Ambassador, Signor Martinez
della Rosa, assured him. of the immediate arrival of a
steamer belonging to that nation in the harbour of
Civita Vecchia, the Pope thought that this would be
an opportune means whereby to effect his escape. But
the Spanish steamer being retarded from day to day,
and the state of affairs in Rome becoming more and
more alarming, the Pope intimated to the Spanish
Ambassador that he purposed setting out at once,
and that orders might be given to the captain of the
steamer, when he should arrive at Civita Vecchia, to
sail to the port of Gaeta, whither he had determined
to proceed. The intended flight had been already
communicated to upwards of fifty persons, ecclesiastics
and seculars, and everything was in readiness for its
accomplishment. It took place in the following manner:
Count Spaur, Minister of Iis Majesty the King of
Bavaria, wished to take upon himself the duty of accompanying the Pope on his secret journey. Meanwhile, the Palace of the Quirinal, which had witnessed




HIS FLIGHT FROM THE QUIRINAL.        91
the savage assault of the 16th, was surrounded on all
sides by armed men, and guarded by a great number
of sentinels; so that the escape of the Pope seemed
to be a matter of impossibility-at least, beyond his
power, or that of his faithful fiiends, to accomplish.
But Providence was on the side of the good, and
against the wicked.  It was about the dusk. of the
evening when, in pursuance of the plan that had been
adopted, the Duke of Harcourt, whose dispatches have
been quoted, came to visit the Pope, leaving his carriage at the foot of the stairs by which all those who
are about to have an audience with the Holy Father
must ascend. After a short communication with the
Duke, the Pope asked him to remain in his cabinet, in
order that he himself might retire to another apartment, and, laying aside his white robes, assume the
dress of an ordinary priest. This humble toilet was
completed in a few minutes; and the hIoly Father,
who throughout preserved the greatest calmness and
tranquillity of mind, took his leave of the Duke, who
was deeply affected, but who was compelled to remain
awhile in the cabinet, in order to give the fugitives
time to pass through the secret apartments, and descend into the Cortile by another staircase.  The
Cavalier Filippani a Romnan, who had a carriage in
readiness in the Cortile, accompanied the Pope through
the spacious halls along which they had to pass, their
footsteps lighted only by a single taper, which was
borne by the Cavalier. As they passed through one
of the apartments, the taper was suddenly extinguished,




92            ROME AND ITS RULER.
and both the Pope and his attendant were left in total
darkness. To proceed further without light was impossible; so Filippani was obliged, in order to re-light
the taper, to return to the same cabinet in which the
French Ambassador had been purposely left waiting.
On seeing Filippani return, the Duke was seized with
astonishment and terror, believing that some untoward
occurrence had occasioned the extinction of the taper,
and deranged the entire plan of escape; but his mind
was immediately relieved, and his apprehensions of
danger removed, by the assurance that it had occurred
through mere accident. All cause of apprehension
was not yet over; for just as the Pope was about
stepping into the carriage prepared for him, a domestic, accustomed to show respect to his illustrious
master, and totally forgetful of impending danger, cast
himself upon his knees to receive the blessing. Fortunately, however, he instantly arose upon a sign to
that effect being rapidly made to him.
The Cavalier Filippani got into the carriage along
with the Pope, and the carriage crossed the Piazza and
Cortile of the Quirinal, which was full of guards, whose
attention was so engaged at that very moment-one
might almost say miraculously so-that they did not
perceive who it was that passed; and Pius thus escaped,
through the midst of armed men, from the palace in
which he had been held and treated as an actual
prisoner. Iaving passed the Piazza del Quirinale,
the carriage descended by the Via delle tre Canelle
into the Piazza degli SS. Apostili, and having traversed




HE REACHES GAETA.              93
a portion of the Corso, proceeded through different
streets to the Coliseum, and thence by the Via or
Strada Labicana, from whence the Pope arrived on
foot at the monastery of SS. Marcellino e Pietro, where
Count Spaur, with another conveyance, was awaiting
him. Having passed through the adjoining gate of
S. Giovanni, he arrived without any mishap at the
gate of Albano, and, in accordance with the plan
previously arranged, went somewhat out of his way
by the so-called Gallerie di Castel Gondolfo, where he
was to meet the post-chaise which was to carry him to
Gaeta, and which fortunately was there in readiness
to receive him. The Pope descended from the conveyance in which he had arrived, and rested against
a paling during the short space of time in which they
were adjusting his trifling baggage; and at this very
moment three gendarmes on patrole happened to pass
by, and halted between the carriage and the Pope.
But he calmly saluted them, by wishing them "a good
night." His dress, that of an ordinary priest, saved
him from their recognition. Count Spaur now mounted to the box seat; and the Holy Father, with the
Countess and her son Maximilian, then about the
age of eighteen, and a Bavarian priest, D. Sebastian
Liebel, entered the carriage. At dawn, on the 25th,
they arrived safely at Fondi, and continued their route
to Mola di Gaeta, where they met Cardinal Antonelli
and Count Arnan, Secretary to the Spanish Embassy;
whose exertions and zeal, in conjunction with those
of the Ambassador Martinez della Rosa, cannot be




94           ROME AND ITS RULER.
too highly praised, directed as they were to assist the
Supreme Pontiff in this afflicting emergency.  Here
the Pope rested for some hours, and then, accompanied
by the same retinue, proceeded to the neighbouring
Gaeta, expecting that he should there find the diocesan
Bishop.  Before parting, however, he wrote a letter
to the King of Naples, and Count Spaur offered himself to be its bearer. In this letter the Pope informed
King Ferdinand, that, having been compelled to abandon Rome, he felt himself bound to announce to him
that he had entered his kingdom; but that he did not
wish, by his presence, to cause him the least trouble
during the stay which lihe would be obliged to make,
whilst waiting for the vessel which should carry him
to Spain. The nuncio of the Pope, who had left the
King a little time before, returned again to the Royal
Palace with the Bavarian Minister, who about midnight presented to his Majesty the letter of which he
was the bearer. Scarcely had the King read it, when,
with a promptitude and alacrity that displayed alike
his generosity and attachment to the Vicar of Christ,
he gave orders that a vessel should on the instant be
got in readiness, and such matters placed in it as his
own mind suggested would be most necessary to sulpply the wants of the Pope and the companions of his
exile. Then he himself, with the Queen and the entire
Royal family, going on board, sailed immlediately for
Gaeta, where the vessel arrived about mid-day. In
the meantime, thePope, not having found the Bishop
at his residence, betook himself to an humble inn,




HIS RECEPTION BY THE KING OF NAPLES.   95
without having been recognized; and there he passed
the night. On the King's arrival at Gaeta, he caused
the Queen to be conveyed to one of the palaces, and
then taking another route, in order to escape the observation of the curious crowd, prevailed upon the
Pope to leave his humble dwelling unobserved, and
come to the Royal palace; which invitation, warmly
and affectionately urged, was accepted by the Holy
Father. On the Pope's arrival at the palace, he was
met by the Queen, who received him, on bended knees,
at the foot of the staircase. Much affected at this reception, the Pope gave his blessing to the good Queen,
and, raising her up, he ascended the stairs in company
with her, and conversed with her Majesty until the arrival of the King, who could not speak through emotion, as he beheld the illustrious fugitive beneath his
roof, and thought of the indignities and outrages which
he had endured. And it must be said, in justice to
the King of Naples, that he maintained throughout
the entire of the Pope's long stay in his dominionsa period of nearly seventeen months-the same generous solicitude for his comfort, and the same veneration
and affection which he displayed fiom the very first
moment, when he found the loftiest Majesty of the
Christian world sheltered in a lowly iin, a fugitive
froml the rage of enemies who had turned his capital
into a Pandemonium.
Before referring to subsequent events, it may be well
to say something of the feeling which the flight of the
Pope excited, wherever the sad story was heard.




96             ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER VIII.
The Flight of the Pope supposed to be the Downfall of the Papacy.Former Popes driven from Rome-Pius VI. and Pius VII. —General
Cavaignac's Letter. —Testimony of the " Times."-Addresses pour in
on the Pope.-Offers of Hospitality.
"THE Pope has fled —the Papacy is at an end I"
This was the cry which, uttered by the vainglorious
revolutionists of Rome, was repeated, with more or less
of exaggeration, by every thoughtless enemy of the
Church.  From press, and platform, and pulpit, the
ominous announcement rang forth-" The Papacy is at
an end!" Bigots piously congratulated each other as
they met, on the happy overthrow of the too long-endured abominations of the Vatican. Never more was
the Scarlet Lady to sit upon the Seven Hills of the
modern Babylon! The reign of Antichrist was at an
end! The miserable fabric of pasteboard and paint had
been swept to everlasting ruin by the strong breath
of Public Opinion! Let "alleluias" ascend to heavenl,
for man'was once more free!  Such were the tidings
of gladness which thrilled the soul of the fanatic, and
led astray the judgment of the shallow. People who
thus rejoiced in what seemed to be the filifillment of
their own prophecies, knew little of the Church, little of
her history, and much less of the political agencies by




FORMER POPES DRIVEN FROM ROME.         97
which, for a longer time than any existing monarchy
has endured, Providence has protected the Papacy,
and guarded fiom spoliation its temporal possessions.
Pius IX. was not the first Pope who was compelled
to leave Rome, whether through the ingratitude of a
deluded people, or the hostility of a foreign foe; nor,
in all human probability, will he be the last. Of the
past, let a few instances suffice to show, that, although
Popes have been driven from their- Capital, not only
was the Papacy untouched, and its temporal possessions
secure, but that persecution gave new life and imparted
greater energy to the Church.
Gelasius the Second was forced to leave Rome by
the Emperor Henry the Fifth, and to fly for refuge to
France-a country even at that period (A. D. 1118) offering a ready asylum to the Sovereign Pontiffs. On
his journey, all the nobility and clergy of Provence
came to meet him; and the King of France fell prostrate at his feet.
Eugenius the Third, like our Pius, was compelled to
leave Rome through the conduct of his people, instigated to rebellion by Arnold da Brescia; and in his
flight this Pontiff was met by deputations representing
the majority of the bishops and people of Armlenia, who,
shaking off tile Nestorian heresy, became reconciled to
thie Clhurlch.
Alexander the Third was exposed to the outrages of
the faction of the Emperor Frederick (13arbarossa)-to
escape whose furiy the venerable Pontiff wandered a
fugitive through Italy, France, and Germany. But his
5




98             ROME AND ITS RULER.
long exile was one continued ovation. The princes and
people of all Christian nations rivalled each other to do
him honour. Messages and gifts flowed in from the
King of Jerusalem, and even from Emanuel Coinnenus,
Emperor of Constantinople, who was a supporter of the
Greek heresy; and the Kings of France and England
esteemed it an honour to wait upon the illustrious exile.
The Catholic Bishops of all countries, including St.
Thomas of Canterbuty, tendered him their homage, and
addressed him letters of affectionate sympathy. And,
finally, a league was formed, by the Venetians and the
different cities of Lombardy, to protect him against
Frederick; who, at last, was forced to throw himself as
a suppliant before the outraged Pontiff, and, upon his
knees, to beg for mercy and pardon. This struggle,
one of the most protracted and perilous which the Papacy ever had to encounter, terminated in the establishment of the See of Rome on a much firmer basis
than before.
Coming down to late times, we behold Pius VI. exposed to danger and persecution, and eventually dying
in exile. He is compelled to deliver up, by extorted
treaty, ilportant portions of his possessions, and to siubmit to see the priceless treasures of art with wvhich lihe
had enriched his galleries, made the spoil of the conqlueor. His capital is occupied by a French armnyhis authority is superseded-a Republic, on the model
of that of France, is established in its stead; and because he will not acknowledge the usurpation. lie is
compelled to leave the Vatican, and seek shelter in a




PIUS VI. AND PIUS VII.           99
convent near Florence, in which he is allowed to remain
but a short time. Treated like a criminal, and transmitted from fortress to fortless, Pius VI. at last yields
up a life of suffering, most heroically endured. Still
the Papacy was not destroyed, nor was its temporal
sovereignty at an end.
In Venice, not in Rome, was his successor, Pins VII.,
elected. Alike in name, he was also similar to him in
his sufferings. There are many yet living who renmember the persecutions to which this saintly Pope was
subjected. The policy of the Directory was to uproot
the Papacy-that of Napoleon was to maintain it, but
in complete subjection to his authority. "All Italy,"
said Napoleon, writing to Pius, in the year 1805, "must
be subject to my laws. Your situation requires that
you should pay me the same respect in temporal, which
I do you in spiritual matters. You are sovereign of
Rome, but I am its emperor. All my enemies must
be its enemies. No Sardinian, English, Russian, or
Swedish envoy may be permitted to reside at your
capital."  The reply of Pius to that extraordinary
being who already aimed at universal dominion, and
whose star of destiny then rose high in the'ascendant,
was dignified and firm; the more so, that his position
placed him at the mercy of the conqueror. Pins thus
writes:" Your Majesty lays it down as a fundamental principle that you are Sovereign of Rome. The supreme
Pontiff admits no such authority, n-or any power superior in teim-poral matters to his own. There is no




100           ROMIE AND ITS RULER.
Emperor of Rome. It is not thus that Charlemagne
treated our predecessors. The demand to dismiss the
envoys of Russia, England, and Sweden, is positively
refused: the father of the faithful is bound to remain
at peace with all, without distinction of Catholics or
heretics."
Every one acquainted with the events of those times
knows how Buonaparte gradually stripped the Pope
of his dominions —how the excommunication boldly
launched at him by Pins, was resented by the armed
invasion of his palace, and the seizure of his personhow for years he was kept as a prisoner in the fortress
of Fenestrelles, and, when ultimately brought to Fontainebleau, compelled to submit to terms which seemed
to place the independence of the Church beneath the
armed heel of the conqueror, and render the Vicar of
Christ the subject, if not the slave, of an earthly monarch. Still the Papacy was not at an end; and Rolme
once again hailed with grateful affection its long-suffering and saintly sovereign, Pius VII. And, as in previous instances, the trials and humiliations to which
the august Head of the Church was subjected, only
drew more strongly towards the Chair of Peter the
sympathy and allegiance of the faithful throughout the
Christian world.
Look now to the last instance in which foolish men
beheld the downfall of the Papacy.
"Pius IX. has seen the last of Roloe," said one eyewitness of the events of 1848. "We have beheld the
end of the reign of the Popes," said another. And




GENERAL CAVAIGNAC'S LETTER.          101
thus writes one of the inspired madmen of the hour"The RIepublic is erected on the ruins of the throne of
the Popes, which the shout of all Europe, the maledictions of all people, and the spirit of the Gospel, have
trampled in the dust."  The wretch who wrote this
lied and raved at the same time.
Every generous nation of the earth sympathized
with the illustrious victim of human fickleness and ingratitude; and from the midst of every Catholic people
came the most ardent expressions of homage and devotion. The sovereigns and princes of Europe wrote to
Pius in terms of the greatest respect and affection;
and the chief Catholic Powers vied with each other
for the honour of receiving himr  within their dominions.
The most eloquent orators in the French Assembly and
the Spanish Cortez, while eulogizing his virtues and
enumerating his many acts of liberality, enforced the
necessity of the Pope having absolute independence in
the government of his territories.
It was in the following language, so earnest and so
full of warmth, that the heroic Cavaignac, theon at the
head of the French Iepublic, wrote to his Holiness, in
the very hour which was declared by false prophets to
be that of his " downfall:""PARIS, Dec. 3.
"VERY HOLY FATHER-I address this dispatch and another
from the Archbishop of Nicea, your Nuncio to the government of the Republic, to your Holiness, by one of my aidesde-camp.
"The French nation, deeply afflicted at the troubles with




102             ROME AND ITS RULER.
which your Holiness has been assailed within a short period,
has been moreover profoundly affected at the sentiment of
paternal confidence which induced your Holiness to demand,
temporarily, hospitality in France; which it will be happy
and proud to secure to you, and which it will render worthy
of itself and of your Holiness. I write to you therefore in
order that no feeling of uneasiness or unfounded apprehension
may divert your Holiness from your first resolution. The
Republic, the existence of which is already consecrated by
the mature, persevering, and sovereign will of the French nation, will see with pride your Holiness give to the world the
spectacle of that exclusively religious consecration which your
presence in the midst of it announces, and it will receive you
with the dignity and the religious respect which becomes this
great and generous nation. I have felt the necessity of giving
your Holiness this assurance, and I heartily desire that your
arrival may take place without much delay.
"It is with those sentiments, Very Holy Father, that I amn
your respectful son,
" GENERAL CAVAIGNAC."
And on the following Christmas Day the diplomatic
body, then assembled at Gaeta-and including the
Russian Anmbassador at Naples-waited on the Pope,
and thus addressed His Holiness through the Ambassador of Spain:" Holy Father, on this solemn day, consecrated by religion,
the diplomatic body performs a duty in laying at the feet of
your Holiness its most respectful and sincere homage. Having witnessed the virtues which your Holiness displayed in
circumstances too striking ever to be forgotten, we are happy
to express on this occasion the same sentiments of admiration
and devotedness, as unalterable as the virtues they inspire.
In wishing your Holiness the peace and happiness of which
you are so worthy, we are only faithful interpreters of the




TESTIMONY OF THE "TIMES."             103
wishes of our Governments, who all take a lively interest in
the fate of the Sovereign Pontiff, whose cause is too just, too
holy, not to be protected by Him, who holds in His powerful
hand the destinies of nations and kings."
While that section of the public press of these countries, which represents the extreme anti-Catholic portion of the population, laboured to prove that the flight
of the Pope was not only the destruction of his temporal sovereignty, but the ruin of his spiritual influence, there were somle writers who, either fairer or
more far-seeing, took quite a different view of the real
position of Catholic affairs. Amongst those who did
not suffer their judgment to be blinded by their prejudices, was a writer in the Timnes of December 4th; a
passage from  whose able and generally well-toned
article on the great event of the hour, is a striking testimony against the ravings of bigotry:"It is a matter of history, however singular and unwelcome such an assertion might sound, that in the very hour of
his flight and his fall, Pius IX. was and is more entirely and
essentially pope and head of the Latin Church than many
hundreds of his predecessors have been amidst all the splendour of the Lateran. Personally the deposed Pontiff has
exhibited to the world no common share of evangelical virtues; and though his political abilities proved inadequate to
execute the moderate reforms he had entered upon, from the
unworthiness of his subjects and the infelicities of these
times, yet the apparition of so benignant and conscientious a
man on the Papal throne, in the midst of the turmoil of
Europe, has forcibly struck the imagination and won the
affection of the whole Roman Catholic population of Europe. Accordingly, at a crisis when every other constituted




104            ROME AND ITS RULER.
authority has been more or less shaken, and every other
institution tried, the Romish hierarchy has, in all countries
where it exists, extended its influence, and more displayed its
power."
At no period of his Pontificate did Pins IX. command a greater degree of influence througllout the
Catholic world than during his stay at Gaeta.  With a
lowlier reverence, and a more profound devotion, Catholic nations bowed before the venerable Father of the
Church; no longer enthroned amidst the splendours of
the Vatican, but an exile, driven from his capital by
violence and treason. Declarations of attachment, professions of admiration and sympathy, offers of assistance, and presents of money, poured in upon the Pope.
And it may be here properly remarked, that of the vast
sums which he has since expended in works of utility
and charity in Rome, the larger portion was then derived fiom the generous and spontaneous offerings of
the faithful.  In every living language did sympathy
convey its sweet consolation to the wounded heart of
Pius.  And perhaps one of the most touching letters
received by the Holy Father was one sent to himn by a
Lutheran Protestant,, named Clhristian Freytag, of Lubec, enclosing thirty ducats, and concluding in these
words: —
"Permit me, Holy Father, who amn penetrated with
the most profound respect fori your holy person, to continue my prayers for you to our Saviour, Clhrist Jesus.
I)eign, in return, to bless my faimily, whio, altllough
PIrocesta'nt Lutherans, implore for you the choicest




ADDRESSES TO TIHE POPE.             105
blessings fiom the hands of our Fathller in Ifeaven, who
Fimself is Love and Holiness."
Addresses poured in upon the Royal Exile fiom the
Archbishops and Bishops of Martinique, Oregon, Agra,
the Mexican Confederation, Auckland, Bosnia, (in the
Ottomanl Empire), Japan, Lilna, Melbourne, Porndicherry, Sydney, Santiago;  and, without enumerati~ng
the places or dioceses throughout the world from which
there flowed one great tide of sympathy, it is enough to
say, that on whatever spot of the earth a Catholic altar
was raised, or in which a Catholic comlnll ity existed,
there was experienced a filial sense of horror at the
outrages perpetrated on the lHoly Father-and that
the entire Church felt aggrieved in the sacred person
of the Supreme Pontiff.
But in no country dlid thle events which terminated
in the flight of the Pope excite a more profound feeling of reoret, or a keener sense of indignation, than in
Ireland; and by no people was attaclhment to the  el'son of the Pope, and devotion to tlle HIoly See, more
ardently and emphatically  exl)ressed, than by the
Catholic population of' tilat country.  Loving liberty
with plassiolnate ardour, and sympathizing wTith every
generous effort ma(le by the oppressed nations of Europe to shake off the yoke of the stranger, they looked
witlh horror upon the brutal alnd sacrilegious out-rages
with which the most illustrious, as well as the miost enlightenedl and well-intentioned reformer of the age, had
been rewarded for his large and liberal concessions.
They had followed every step of his political progress
5*t~




106             ROME AND ITS RULER.
with the deepest interest, enhanced by a consciousness
of tile dangers which lie had to encounter, and a knowledge of the complicated obstacles that lay in his path;
and they sickened with disgust as they read of the
murcder of the Pope's minister, and the assault upon
-thle Quirinal.   For, independently of the ingratitude
Awhich such atrocities evinced, they saw how the dagger and tile bullet of the assassin struck at that very
Liberty whose prostituted  name  he invoked.  The
people of Ireland well knew that such excesses, whicll
delivered up Rome to a reign of anarchlly, afforded a
ready excuse to every despotism, and a plea against all
concessions to popular demands.
At any rate, at no time in the history of the Church
did a sentiment of imore complete identity exist, than
that which now bound so many wide-spread nations
and races to the Chair of Peter.  Thle rock on which
the hand of God had placed tile Chlurch was never
stronger than in this hour, when the storln howled,
and the waves of hulman passion dashed a(gainst it in
their fiury.  Neither was the Papacy at al endl; nor
were its tempolral power and possessions to be torn
firom it. For —such was the will of Providence- tle
descendants of the same race that, through their sovereig'n Charlemagne, restored the keys of the cities
of the Exarchate, which were torn fromn the grasp of
the Lombard invader, and placedl them  on tile altar of
St. Peter, were, in a few brief montlis from the hour
of tile flight of Pius, to lay at his feet the keys of his
liberated capital.  And, most wonderful dispensation




OFFERS OF HOSPITALITY.           107
of Providence! the same nation that would have blotted out the Papacy under the Great IRevolution, or
held it in bondage beneath thle armed power of the
First 1Napoleon, now ruslhed to its rescue under a Republic, whose President gloried in the fact that lie
was the nephew of the very Enmperor who had held
in captivity the sacred person of Pins VII. And yet
there were those who shouted-" The Papacy is at an
end!"
During the Pope's sojourn at Gaeta, that port was
fiequented by vessels firom many nations-includiln,
France, Portugal, Spain, Piedmont, and America,who sent deputations to the Holy Father, offering hiln
their hospitality, and the homage of their respect. The
Protestant King of Prussia placed at the Pope's disposal a castle in his own dominions; and on the part of
Enlgland, Admiral Parker carle twice' to Gaeta, o-firing him an asylum in the island of Malta. 13But overcome by the cordial and generous reception whlich thle
King of Naples had given him, and by the desire
which that monarch expressed of his remaining in his
territory, Pi~us resolved upon doing so, more especially
as the vicinity of Gaeta to Rome afforded just grounds
for its being preferred to the other States.




1()8              ROME AND I'TS RU:IJEJR.
CHAPTER IX.
Confusion in Rome at the Flight of *lhe Pope.-His Protest from Gaeta.
— The Constituent Assembly convoked.-Arrival of Mazzini.-State
of Rome.-Pius appeals to the Catholic Powers. —His Appeal responded to.
IT is not necessary to enter into a detail of the events
which followed the departure of the Pope; nor to justify a course which, though irritating  to a ministry whllo
had been absolutely forced upon his IIoliness with f1ire
and sword, was inevitable, if' the personal freedom  of
the Sovereign were to be preserved.  "Thlle Pope," sai(
the proclamation of this bewildered mlinistry, " cedilng
to fatal counsels, quitted Rome this night."  Rifle-bullets, scaling ladders, combustibles, anid pointed cannon,
must have n-iemat "fatal counsels;"  forI to these the
I-oly Fatller certainly did yield.  Thle protest madle ly
the Pope at Gaeta will sufficieittly describe whlat took
place siice  his qnitting    Rome onl thle 25tht of Novemnb)ei.  It also brietfv refers to tile efforts whliclih le had
made to satisfty the lernands anid promote tlhe lap)piness
of his subjects.  r'lis protest was nmade on the 17tlh of
December:": Raised by Divinoe lispensnation in a mlnner alhnost Iliraculous, in spite of our unworthiness, to thc Sovereign Pontificate, one of my first cares was to endllavour to estalish a
union  between the subjects of the temporal state olf' ille




rTHE POPE7S PROTEST.               109
Church, to make peace between families, to do them good in
all ways, and, as filr as depended upon us, to render the state
peaceable and flourishing.  But the benefits which we did all
in our power to heap upon our subjects, the wide-founded instituitions which we have granted to their desires, far, as we
must in all candour declare, from  inspiring that acknowledgment and gratitude which we had every right to expect, have
occasioned to our heart only reiterated pain and bitterness,
caused by those ungrateful men whom  our paternal eye
wished to see daily diminishing in number.  All the world
can now tell how our benefits have been answered, what abuse
has been made of our concessions, how, by lenaturalizing
them, and perverting the meaning of our words, they have
sought to mislead the multitude, so that these very benefits
and institutions have been turned by certain men into arms,
with which they have committed the most violent outrages
upon  our sovereign authority, and against the temporal
rights of the Holy See.  Our heart refuses to repeat in detail the events which have taken place since November 15,
the day on which a minister who had our confidence was barbarously murdered by the hand of an assassin, applauded with
a still greater barbarity by a troop of infilriated enemies to
God, to man, and to every just political institution.  This first
crimne opened the way to a series of crimes committed the following day, with sacrilegious audacity.  They have already
incurred the execration of every upright mind in our state, in
Italy, and in Europe; they have incurred execration in all
parts of the earth.  This is the reason why we can spare our
heart the intense pain of recapitulating them here.
" We were constrained to withdraw fronm the place in which
they were committed —from  that place where violence prevented us from  applying any remedy, reduced to weep over
and deplore with good men those sad events, and still more
lamientable want of power in justice to act against the perpetrators of these abominable crimes.  Providence has conducted us to this town of Ga eta, where, finding ourselves at full
liberty, we have, against the authors of the aforesaid attempts




110              ROMEE AND ITS RUTIEIR.
and acts of violence, solemnly renewed the protests which we
issued at Rome at the first moment, in the presence of the
representatives accredited to us of the courts of Europe, and
of other and distant nations.  By the same act, without in any
manner departing from  the institutions we had created, we
took care to give temporarily to our states a legitiinate governmental representation, in order that in the capital and
throughout the state provision should be made for the regular
and ordinary course of public affairs, as well as for the protection of the persons and property of our subjects.  By us,
moreover, has been porrogued the session of the High Council and the Council of Deputies, who had recently been called
to resume their interrupted. sitting.  But these determinations
of our authority, instead of causitrg the perturbators and the
authors of the acts of sacrilegious violence of which we have
spoken to return into the path of duty, have urged them  to
make still greater attempts.  Arrogating to themselves the
rights of sovereignty, which belong only to us, they have, by
means of the two councils, instituted in the calpital an illegitimate governmental representation, under the title of Provisional Supreme Junta of the State, which they have published
by an Act dated the 12th of the present month.  The duties
of our sovereignty, in which we cannot fail, the solemn oaths
with which we have, in the presence of God, promised to preserve the patrimony of the Holy See, and to transmit it in all
its integrritv to our successors, obliges us to raise our voice
solemnly, and protest before God, and in the face of the whole
universe, against this gross and sacrilegious attempt.  Therefore we declare to be null, and of no force or effect in law, all
the acts which have followed the violence committed upon us,
protesting above all that the Junta of State established at
R'ome, is an usurpation of our sovereign powers, and that the
said Junta has not and can not have any authority.  Be it
known, then, to all our subjects, whatever may be their rank
or condition, that at Rome, and thlroughomut the whole extent
of the Pontifical State, there is nut and can not be any legitinmate power which does not emanate expressly fr'on us; that




CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY CONVOKED.            111
we have by the sovereign nzotu propria of the 27th November,
instituted a temporary commission of government, and that to
it alone belongs exclusively the government of the nation during our absence, and until we ourselves shall have otherwise
ordained.                            "PIUs PAPA IX."
This protest, when published  in Rome, was torn
down and trampled upon; and the "Supremle Junta,"
in the belief, or on the plea, that by such a course
alone could the horrors of impending anarchy and dissolution be prevented, called on the ministry to present
to the Chalmber of Deputies a project of law for the
convocation of a Constituent Assembly.  This proposal
was adopted; and a Roman journal of the day thus
describes the intended character of the new constitution:
"It consists of fifteen articles, and explains the mode of
election and qualification of the members and electors.  The
elections are to be by electortal colleges.  This Bill for the
summoning of a Constituent Assembly at Rome, as presented
to the Roman Parliament, proposed to enalct that the election
to the Assembly should take place on the 25th of January,
by universal suffrage and ballot; that the Assembly shoulld
be of two hundred members, paid at the rate of two crowins
a d(ay, without property qualification; and, finally, that the
Assennmly should meet at Rome on the 5th of February."
The Constituent Assembly, thus chosen  and thus
constituted, was formally opened on the clay appointed; and its first act was to declare the Roman Republic, and depose the Pope.  One of the most prominent
actors on this occasion was Sterbini, who, having come
to Rome after the publication  of the amnesty with




R12  OME AND ITS RULER.
which Pius IX. inaugurated his reign, and taken advantage of the relaxation of the laws relating to the
press, established the Contemnporaneo, under the affectation of promoting moral and social reforms; and increasing in audacity as time progressed, and as "the
people" grew more and more "exacting," he became
the promoter of disaffection, and tile organ of sedition.
There were some men of character and prudence in
the Assembly, such as Miamiani, who endeavoured to
prevent, if possible, the adoption  of this extreme
course; but they were overborne by the vehemence
of those who had nothing to lose, and everything to
gain; by the ardour of the young, the rash, and the
inexperienced; and by the cries and shouts of the gallery-thle Roman "' Mountain," which was to be fiom
henceforwarcl the chief power of the Assembly, aInd
the capricious despot wh]lose approval was to be proi)itiated by gross flattery, or by coward submission to
its violence.
The same "M'Mountain" thundered forth its loudest
peal of welcome, as Mazzini, ill a lnonth after the
opening of the Constituent Assembly, was conducted
to a seat of honour beside the Presidenlt.  Tle willdest
exultation filled tile breasts of his disciples and followers, as the High Priest of Insurrection at length
arrived, to witness the splendid result of his ml-aclinations, and enjoy the short-lived triumph of' an ilnpralcticable republic.  From  the Capitol of Rome-once
again to be the Teacher, if not the Mistress of the




STATE OF ROME.                113
world-was freedom  to be proclaimed to the whole
human race!
But soon did those who assumed the task of governing a people whom they had systematically educated
to a disgust of every restraint whatsoever, begin to
appreciate the difficulties of their position.  Having
themselves given a flagrant example of disregard for
the respect which is clue to legitimate authority, it
was not to be expected that their influence with an
excited and turbulent populace would be of much
avail. In vain were pompous proclamations, appealing to republican virtue, placarded on the waEls; in
vain did orators, once demagogues and incendiaries,
now preach peace and patience, and expatiate, in stilted phrases, on the beauty of. order. These fine words
did not stay the uplifted hand of the assassin, or scare
the noonday robber fiom his spoil. Rome became the
attraction and refuge of the scattered vagabondage of
Italy; and the peaceful portion of the population beheld, with consternation, their city, their property, ald
their lives, at the mercy of lawless wretches, whose
utterly desperate fortunes fitted them for every deed of
violence and rapine. [Now indeed might the wellintentioned deplore the loss of a mild and benevolent
sovereign, the recollection of whose light and gentle
rule rendered the iron pressure of a brutal yoke more
odious and intolerable.  Industry paralyzed, tlrade destroyed,  eimploynient hopeless, credit annihlilated,
houses untenanted, hotels deserted, and the streets




114            ROME AND ITS RULER.
swarming with an idle, starving, and desperate population, Rome presented a miserable spectacle to the
civilized world, notwithstanding her enjoyment of
her newborn freedom, and her emancipation firom
the thraldoin of a "priestling," as one of the orators of the Assemnbly indecently described the Supreme Pontiff.
In such a state of things, what course was left to the
Pope but to demand aid fiom the Catholic Powers,
and obtain, through armed intervention, the restoration
of his dominions? W as lie to return alone to the captivity fiom which he had almost miraculously escaped,
and trust himself to the tender mercies of a rabble
brutified by idleness, by turbulence, and by crimne?
Or was he to submit himself to the disposal of tle men
who, since the very hour when they availed themselves of his freely-bestowed pardon, had been plotting
his downfall?  In all probability, had Pius IX. been
rash enough to return to Rome, or not to have fled
froll Rome, the world might have heard, with new
horror, that the Vicar of Christ was the occupant of a
dungeon in the fortress of St. Angelo.
The Pope appealed, wisely appealed, to the great
Catholic Powers, and demanded their armed assistance. This he did by his Cardlinal Secretary of State
(Antonelli), in a note of singular ability and power,
dated fiom Gaeta, the 18th of February, 1849. In it
were recapitulated the reforms and concessions that he
had granted, as well as the various machinations by




APPEAL TO THE CATHOLIC POWERS.            115
which his efforts were neutralized, and the good he
intended was converted into sources of evil.
The document is one of considerable length; but
the following passages will sufficiently describe its
character, and indicate its purpose:" After the most iniquitous malversations to reward their
accomplices, and get rid of honest and God-fearing menafter so many assassinations committed under their guidance
-after having let loose rebellion, immorality, irreligionafter having seduced the imprudent youths, desecrating even
the places consecrated to public worship by converting them
into dens of most licentious soldiery, formed of runaways and
criminals from foreign countries-the anarchists wished to reduce the capital of the Catholic world, the See of the Pontiff,
to a sink of impiety, destroying, if they could, all idea of
sovereignty for him who is destined by Providence to govern'
the Universal Church; and who, precisely to exercise freely
his authority over all the Catholic world, enjoyed as an estate
the patrimony of the Church. At sight of such desolations
and massacres the Holy Father could not but be profoundly
grieved, and at the same time moved to weep over his faithful subjects, who claimed his aid and his succour to be delivered from the most atrocious tyranny.
"The decree called fundamental, emanating on the 9th inst.
(February) from the Roman Constituent Assembly, is an act
which is the essence of the blackest felony and most abonlinable impiety.  It declares, principally, the Pope deposed by
fact and by right from the temporal government of the Roman State; it proclaims a Republic; and by another act is
decreed the confiscation of the armoury of St. Peter.  His
Holiness, seeing that it disgraces his supreme dignity of Pontiff and Sovereign, protests before all the sovereigns, before
all nations, and before the Catholics of the entire world,




116             ROME AND ITS RULER.
against this excess of irreligion, against so violent an attempt,
which despoils him of his sacred and incontestible rights.  If
a proper remedy is not applied to this state of things, succour
will arrive only when the States of the Church, at present a
prey to their most cruel enemies, will be reduced to ashes.
"The Holy Father having meanwhile exhausted all the
means in his power, obliged, by his duty to the Catholic
world, to preserve in its entirety the patrimony of the Church
and the sovereignty which is annexed to it, so indispensable
to maintain his liberty and independence as Supreme Chief
of the Church herself, moved by the sighs of his faithful subjects, who loudly implore his aid to deliver them from the
iron yoke of tyranny which they cannot endure, addresses
himself to the Foreign Powers, and in a particular manner
to those Catholic Powers who, with such generosity of soul
and in so glorious a manner, have manifested their firm intention to defend his cause. He has confidence that they will
concur with solicitude, by their moral intervention, to re-establish him in his See, in the capital of his dominions, which
have been piously allotted for his support in full liberty and
independence, and which have been guaranteed by the treaties
that form the basis of European nationality.
" And since Austria, France, Spain, and the kingdom of the
Two Sicilies, are, by their geographical position, in a situation
to be able efficaciously to concur by their armies in re-establishing in the Holy See the order which has been destroyed
by a band of sectarians, the Holy Father, relying in the religious feeling of those powerful children of the Church, demands with fiull confidence their armed intervention to deliver
the States of the Church from this band of wretches, who, by
every sort of crime, have practised the most atrocious despotism1."
To this appeal, which it pained the heart of Pius to
make, but which the madness of his enemies rendered




APPEAL RESPONDED TO.             117
a matter of necessity, the Catholic Powers responded
with a generous alacrity, and a filial ardour; and, ere
many weeks had passed, Rome witnessed the approach
of the army of France-this time come, not to assail
the Papacy, nor to rifle of their priceless treasures the
galleries and temples of the Eternal City; but to restore to the Pope his venerable Capital, and rescue its
people from the horrors of anarchy and confusion.
Some few instances may best represent the state to
which the special friends of human liberty had succeeded in bringing things in Rome, the centre of their
Model Republic.




118             ROIME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER X.
Profane Rites in St. Peter's.-Atrocities of the Republic.-Deltsion
of the Relepublicanis.-Lord Palmnerston's Advice.-Appeals to France
and England -Armed Intervention indispensable.
THE Triumvirs —ilazzini, Arnm anelli, and Saffi-determined  to celebrate the great festival of Easter with
all the religious pomp Awhich could be obtained in the
absence of the Supreme Pontiff; and, accordinlly,
they commanded the Canons of St. Peter's to prepare
for the same magnificent worship which the Pope had
nsually celebrated, and which had hitherto attracted
the Catholic faithllful froin all parts of the world to the
centre of Catholic nnity.  The good priests, loyal to
their duty as ministers of God, refilsed to play thle
igno minious part of political shovwmen, more especially
in this sad  hour of the Churchls desolation.  Compelled  by the honourable refusal of tlhe Canons to
look elsewhere for a celebrant of rites which, to ilany,
had an air of impiety, the Triunvirs were content to
avail themselves of the assistance of a priest alleged
to be under interdict, and who celebrated pontifically
at one of the four altars of St. Petter's, at which only
the Pope and tile Dean of thle Sacred College, appointed by Papal Bull, are autllorized to offer the
Holy Sacrifice.  Tile sublime church was dressed in




PROFANE RITES.                119
all its festal splendoul; but instead of the Pope, the
Cardinals, and the Prelates, there were present the
Triumvirs, the Deputies, public officials, and  the
Clubs; while the Tuscan, Swiss, American, and English consuls also graced the motley assembly by their
presence. 2Military music was substituted for the glorious chaunt of the Papal choir. At the conclusion
of the Mass, the presumptuous priest went in procession to the great balcony, from  which on that day
twelve-month the Holy Father had given his benlediction to his people; and, bearing the Blessed Sacrament in his hand, and surrounded by the banners of
the Republic, lie imparted his blessing to a kneelilng
multitude, amidst the pealing of bells and the roar of
cannon.  Mazzini, too, presented himself to the deluded people, who shouted for hiln, and the liberty
which, through him and his followers, they then enjoyed.  This solemn mockery, according to one of
the organs of the revolution, was the festival of thle
"New Pasch."  "The Vicar of Christ was wanted,"
said the writer, who added, "but not by our fault;
and, though lie was away, we had the people and
God."  For their courageons resistance to the comnmlands of the Triumvinvs, the Canons were condemned
to pay each a fine of 120 scudi; not indeed solely for
this offence, but also for having refused to sing tlle
ice Deunct   for the Republic! The reason given for
tlhis sentence was, "'That the Canons had gIrievously
offended the dignity of religion, and excited scandal;
and that it was the duty of the government to preserve




120            ROME AND ITS RULER.
religion from contamination."* Their punishment was,
however, a very trifling one, when compared with that
which was inflicted on the Provost of the Cathedral
of Sinigaglia, who was murdered on the 21st of Mlarch,
1849, for having guiltily refused to sing Te Dewm for
the proclamlation of the Republic!
The celebration of the festival of Corpus8 Doimini
was even more glaringly- profned: the Republican
leaders playing a still more prominent part, to the indignation of the faithful.
In times of civil commotion, when the authority of
the executive is subservient to the caprice or fury of
the populace, all kinds of excesses may be calculated
upon with certainty; for in such moments it happens,
either that acts of individual ferocity pass for proofs of
a zeal perhaps too exaggerated in its manifestation, or
that those entrusted with the administration of the laws
find themselves too weak to arrest, or too much cornpromised to punish, their perpetrators.  The short-lived
Roman Republic nwas not unfruitful of monsters, some
of whom, for savagery and blood-thirstiness, would not
have suffered by comparison withL the most ferocious
"Reds"' of the Reignl of Terror, in the first Fren1ch
Revolution. Amongst those who earned for themselves an infatnous notoriety was Lambianchi,  who appeared to have had a special mission-lnamely, to hunt
dclown and kill all kinds of ecelesiastics.  This mild
patriot was indignant at the absurd leniency of the
* Stato Roonmno, book v., cap. 6.




ATROCITIES OF THE REPUBLIC.        121
government, that released, after a short imprisonment,
a number of priests and civilians, whom, on account
of their dislike to the Republic, he had sent as prisoners and criminals to Rome. In the estimation of this
zealot, hostility to the Republic was the greatest of all
offences, and, as such, richly merited death. I-Ie was
then stationed on the confines of Naples, on duty with
the Revenue Police; and from thence he had forwarded his prisoners to Rome, in the full belief that the
bullet or the sword was to be the reward of their monstrous guilt. Disgusted with what he held to be the
criminal weakness of the authorities, he swore that in
future, not only would he act the part of the officer of
justice, but that of judge and executioner. And he
kept his oath with exemplary exactness; for when, on
his return to Rome, he encountered, on the road of
Monte lMaria, the parish priest, Father Sghirla, a Dominican, he slew him on the spot, and afterwards made
a boast of his meritorious act! Having commenced
so happily, he determined to render still greater service
to the Republic. He took up his residence near Santa
Maria, in Trastevere; and having "suspected" that
priests and monks were conspiring the ruin of the Republic, he prowled about in quest of his prey, and,
having succeeded in seizing several, shut them up in
San Callisto, and commenced slaughtering them at his
pleasure. It is not known how many such proofs he
thus gave of the strictness of his republican principles;
but he himself afterwards boasted that they were " very
many." Neither are the names of his victims accu6




122           ROME AND ITS. RULER.
rately known; but amongst those who thus fell by the
hand of this monster, was another Dominican, Father
Pelliciajo, the priest of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.
It was said that fourteen were found half-buried in the
convent garden: but it is certain that, having information of these assassinations, the government sent its
officers to save the prisoners who remained alive, and
that twelve were rescued in spite of the resistance of
the executioners. Those who were thus rescued were
either priests or monks.*
A still bloodier tragedy was enacted in the noonday,
on one of the most public spots in Rome, and in the
presence of a considerable multitude.  Two unfortunate men had been seized, and were conducted into
IRome in the midst of a threatening mob. They were
clad as vine-dressers, but the cry was raised that they
were Jesuits! To be a Jesuit was to be an enemy of
the Republic, and to be an enemy of the Republic was
to deserve death. Shouts and imprecations rose on
every side; eyes flashed and daggers gleamed; furious
hands were thrust forth to clutch the innocent victims
of popular rage.  "At them! At them!"-" Kill,
kill!"-" They are Jesuits!"-were the cries with
which the sanguinary mob lashed itself into frenzy;
and, on the Bridge of Saint Angelo, the wretched victims were literally torn to pieces by blood-thirsty savages.-an immense multitude being spectators of the
tragedy!
To this public butchery might be added a long list
* Farini, Stato Romano.




DELUSION OF THE REPUBLICANS.         123
of atrocious murders at Rome, Ancona, Sinigaglia, 13ologna, and throughout the Papal States.
Notwithstanding the affectation of respect for religion
which the Government, or the Triumvirs, exhibited, they
made no successful effort to check the fury of the unbridled and licentious faction which held dominion in
the streets, and which lost no opportunity of inflicting
injury upon the priests. While hymns of liberty were
sung, and greetings of brotherhood were interchanged,
dwellings were broken into, villas were plundered, property was stolen, and every opportunity was availed of
for violence or rapine. No doubt, the Government desired, and in many instances made attempts, to restrain
this lawlessness; but what could it do against numbers
-especially against those who had been too well taught
the lesson of their "strength?"  Besides, its energies
were now required for the defence of the Capital against
the advancing armies of indignant Christendom?
Perhaps the strangest delusion common to this period,
was the belief entertained of the stability and permanence of the Republic, and of the sympathy and support'
which it was certain to receive from the principal nations of Europe, if not from their governments. The
Rome of the Popes being, according to the boastful assertion of the revolutionists, as much a thing of the past
as the Rome of the Coesars, the Rome of the People was
now to have its career of glory and renown. These enthusiasts saw the future from the historic hill of the
Capitol; but an English minister, not averse to foreign
commotion, viewed it from a less elevated position, but




124           ROME AND ITS RUILER.
through a clearer atmosphere. Lord Palmerston, then
Foreign Minister, assured those who successively waited
upon him on behalf of the Republic, that it was advisable to come to terms with the Pope, for that it was certain he would be restored in spite of all opposition. This
was the advice which he offered fiom the beginning;
and even after a gleam of transitory success, the result
of the repulse of the French in their first serious assault
on Rome, had flung a ray of hope over the fortunes of
the Republic, the same advice was more emphatically
urged by his Lordship, with the assurance that, no matter what might be the form of government in France,
even should it be that of a Red Republic, still France
would restore the Pope to his dominions, under some
title, or name, or colour.
The French Assembly as well as the English Parliament were addressed in a manifesto issuing from the
Roman Assembly, who began at length to understand
that the Catholic Powers would not refrain from active
interference in the Pope's behalf. The Roman Republie was, indeed, willing to recognize the spiritual jurisdiction of the tHoly Father, but unwilling to restore his
temporal authority; which latter would be much better
retained in the hands of the Triumvirate-Mazzini, Armanelli, and Saffi. What the power of the Pope, for
the free exercise of his spiritual authority, would be under the rule of those gentlemen, and coexistent with the
revolutionary zeal of the Assembly, the tyranny of the
gallery, the activity of the clubs, the ferocity or enthusiasm of the press, and the sanguinary and unchecked




ARMED INTERVENTION INDISPENSABLE.   125
license of the streets, it would be absurd to speculate
upon. In fact, in such a state of things, the Pope would
be nothing better than a state prisoner, at the mercy of
a reckless faction, the more insolent because of their
success; and the dearest interests of the Church would
be hourly imperilled through the machinations or the
violence of its most inveterate opponents.
As matters stood, mere negotiation was useless; and
nothing but the sword could put an end to the complicated difficulties of the question. If the Pope were to
be restored, it should be as an independent sovereign,
not as a puppet or a slave.
The other Catholic Powers eagerly responded to the
appeal from Gaeta; but to France, the eldest born of
the Church, belongs the glory of restoring the Vicar of
Christ to his throne of the Vatican.




126            ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XI.
The French occupy Civita Vecchia, and march on Rome.-First Assault
unsuccessful.-Bravery of the Besieged.-Rome surrenders.-The
Pope's grateful Letter.
ON the 25th of ApriI, 1849, the French squadron
anchored before Civita Vecchia; and on the day following, at noon, that city was occupied, without resistance, by 1800 men of the expeditionary army.  On the
28th, General Oudinot commenced his march on the
capital; and on the 30th, the armies of the two Republics first came into hostile collision.
The Triumvirate and the Assembly had not been idle
in the meantime, but had adopted every available means
of preparation.  They endeavoured to render the venerable walls of Aurelian capable of resisting a nodern
foe; they organized bands of volunteers, in aid of the
regular military force which had been gathered together; they drilled and they disciplined all who could or
would bear arms; they excited the passions of the populace by animated appeals; and, by placards and manifestoes, distributed along the line of the ]'rench march,
they sought to enlist the sympathies of their republican
assailants in behalf of a republican cause. The first attack of the French general was not successful; and his
retreat, which was accompanied by severe loss, was




FIRST ASSAULT UNSUCCESSFUL.           127
hailed with frantic joy by those who favoured the new
order of things.  The fabric of the Roman Republic
was now cemented by the blood of its defenders, who
died in vanquishing the armed ambassadors of Despotism! The attention of the civilized world was fixed on
the victorious standard waving from the Castle of St.
Angelo; and the Rome of the People was to prove itself worthy of its ancient fame as the Rome of the
Cesars i
The story of this first assault was thus given in a
letter from Toulon, dated the 4th of May, and which
was published at the time:"It is known that after having organized Civita Vecchia,
of which the command had been given to Colonel Blanchard,
of the 36th, General Oudinot took up a position within a few
leagues of Rome, hoping, no doubt, that the presence of the
expeditionary corps would determine a movement against the
Triumviral Government. His expectations were not realized.
A company of the first battalion of tirailleurs, sent on to the
gates of Rome, having been received with musket shots, retired in good order, and soon after part of the division advanced and penetrated without much difficulty into the enceinte of the capital, of which the streets were barricaded;
but they were received by a well-fed fire of musketry, and a
storm of missiles from the windows and roofs of the houses.
The 20th of the line, which was in the front, was severely
treated; a company of voltigeurs of that regiment was almost totally destroyed. At last, seeing the impossibility of
continuing a struggle which became fatal, General Oudinot
ordered the retreat, and the expeditionary corps occupies at
this moment a strong position near Rome. We had about
200 men killed, of whom some are officers; amongst them




128           ROME AND ITS RULER.
is M. Farras, aide-de-camp of General Oudinot, and several
hundreds wounded."
The victory inspired the republicans with increased
confidence in that dashing soldier of fortune, Garibaldi,
to whom the command had been entrusted. Oudinot,
taught not to despise the valour of the Italians, at once
demanded of his government strong reinforcements for
his little army.  In the meantime more fervent appeals were made to the defenders of Rome and its
populace, to resist the stranger, and thus not only
cover the new-born Republic with immortal glory,
but save Rome from the reimposition of an authority
which, as the orators of the Assembly and the press
declared anew, was contrary to the Gospel, and execrated by mankind. The enthusiasm of the mob was
kept alive by such agreeable diversion as hacking and
hewing to pieces some three or four superfluous carriages of the Cardinals, which had been left after the
remainder had been converted into street barricades.
The work of demolition having been completed to the
satisfaction of the mob, the fragments were borne in
procession to the Piazza del Popolo, and there, amidst
shouts, yells, and savage rejoicings, converted into a
flaming bonfire. But, this time, the shouts of triumph
and hymns of rejoicing had not the same terrible meaning as when, a few months before, they were heard
beneath the windows of the room  in which lay the
body of the murdered Rossi. The pay of the soldiery
was increased, bread was distributed, rewards were
freely promised; and those whose dwellings were in




BRAVERY OF THE BESIEGED.          129
reach of the enemy's fire, were allowed to occupy the
deserted palaces and other great houses which were
beyond the range of the French artillery. The grim
portraits of the mailed and ermined ancestors of those
princely families, whose mansions were thus occupied,
might be supposed to frown down upon the strange
intruders, who strutted amidst their splendid galleries,
so rich in treasures of immortal art, with more than
the pride of genuine possession.
A skirmish with the Neapolitans, in which the indefatigable Garibaldi was successful, further increased
the confidence of the revolutionary party in Rome.
Some slight subsequent successes added to that general's fame, and brought to his ranks an accession of
desperadoes, whose influencing motive was far more
that of plunder than of glory.  Well might Rome
look with apprehension on these her new defenders!
The struggle which followed certainly did honour to
the courage and endurance of the besieged. On the
12th of June, the investment of the city was complete;
and on the 29th of the same month, in consequence of
the continued refusal of the Assembly to yield, the
final attack was made. From  the 24th to the 29th,
the struggle had become more deadly, the French
steadily gaining the advantage, but not without the
utmost exertion, the defenders performing miracles of
valour. Some young men who had thrown themselves
into the Casino Barberini were surrounded by the
enemy, and all slain, after a struggle so obstinate and
furious, that one is said to have received no less than
6*




130           ROAME AND ITS RULER.
twenty-five wounds, - honourable testimonies of his
courage. The legion known as the Medici were particularly distinguished by their heroism; for though
numbers of that corps were buried beneath the ruins
of the Vascello Palace, which fell on the 26th, the
survivors stood out valiantly against the foe. Other
strong places fell on the 27th and 28th beneath the
furious fire of the French artillery; but such was the
desperation which the struggle with the "foreigner"
had enkindled in the fiery Italian heart, that the
wounded crawled firom the hospitals, to assist, with
their feeble arms, in the hopeless task of defending
the crumbling walls of the Rome of the Cesars. On
the night of the 29th, the roar of the artillery mingled
with peals of thunder; and the flashes of the guns
gleamed more redly by contrast with the white glare
of the flaming lightning. On the-morning of the 30th
the fate of Rome was decided. The Frencllh rushed
through the breach, and were there met by the defenders; when a desperate hand-to-hand conflict ensued, the officers giving an example to their men,
fighting with muskets, and even striking with their
clenched hands. Four hundred of the besieged were
bayoneted on the bastion which they defended with
such resolute valour; and such was the determination
"to do or die," that many of the artilleryimen  were
found lashed to their guns, which they would  not
abandon in life, and which they grimly guarded in
death.*
* Farini.




ROME SURRENDERS TO THE FRENCH.           131
It was Garibaldi himself who declared, in reply to
the Assembly, that all further attempts at defence
were useless; and as this opinion coincided with the
feelings or apprehensions of the majority, negotiations
with the victors were decided upon, notwithstanding
the opposition of Alazzini, who now saw his short-lived
authority at an end.  Oudinot would listen to no terms
short of unconditional surrender; and on the 2d of
July he entered Rome with his army, Garibaldi having quitted it on the previous night with some 5,000
men.
The French General at once sent the tidings of his
victory to Gaeta, by Colonel Niel, who was intrusted
with the grateful duty of laying the keys of the liberated city at the feet of the Supreme Pontiff; who
thus expressed, in an autograph letter, the gratitude
which he felt to the gallant victor, and to the great
and generous nation whose valour and whose fidelity
to the Holy See he so well represented:" MONSIEUR LE GENERAL,-The well-known valour of the
French arms, supported by the justice of the cause which
they defend, has reaped the fruit due to such arms —victory.
Accept, Monsieur le General, my congratulations for the
principal part whicrh is due to you in this event-congratulations not for the blood which has been shed, for that my
heart abhors, but for the triumph of order over anarchy, for
liberty restored to honest and Christian persons, for whom it
will not henceforth be a crime to enjoy the property which
God has divided among them, and to worship with religious
pomp, without incurring the danger of loss of life or property.
With regard to the grave difficulties which may hereafter
occur, I rely on the Divine protection. I think it will not be




132            ROME AND ITS RULER.
without use to the French army to be made acquainted with
the history of the events which occurred during my Pontificate; they are traced out in my allocution, with which you are
doubtless acquainted, but of which I nevertheless send you a
certain number of copies, in order that they may be read by
those whom you may think it useful that they should be acquainted with them. This document will sufficiently prove
that the triumph of the French army has been gained over
the enemies of human society, and will of itself awaken sentiments in the mind of every right-thinking man in Europe,
and in the whole world. Colonel Niel, who, with your honoured dispatch, presented to me the keys of one of the gates
of Rome, will hand you this letter. It is with much satisfaction I avail myself of this opportunity to express to you my
sentiments of paternal affection, and the assurance that I continually offer up prayers to the Almighty for you, for the
French army, for the government, and for all France.
" Receive the Apostolic benediction, which I give you from
my heart.         (Signed)         "PIUS, P.P., IX.
"GAETA, July 5."
Thus terminated a contest which the Catholic world
deplored with anguish, yet in the result of which it
could not but rejoice; for Rome, the Eternal City, the
Seat of the Apostles, the cradle in which the Church
of God was rocked amidst the storm and fury of Pagan
persecution, was restored to the venerable successor of
Peter-the good, the holy, the benevolent Pius. Those,
too, who loved rational liberty, not license, were glad
that the tyranny of the clubs and their organs of the
press was at an end; and that a stop was put to the
system  of spoliation and outrage which had so long
spread terror through the streets of the Capital of the
Christian World.




THE POPE'S EDICT.-ANOTHER AMNESTY.   133
CIAPTER  XII.
The Pope's Edict published in Rome.-Another Amnesty.-Rome reassumes its old Appearance.-General Reaction.-The Pope's Return
annonnced.-His Journey.-He re-enters his Capital.-Enthusiasm
of the People.
ON the 20th of September, 1849, the Papal Commission, which consisted of four of the Cardinals, published an edict of the Pope, dated from Portici the
12th of the same month; by which his Holiness granted a Council of State-to give its advice on all projects
of law before being submitted to the sovereign sanction, and on all questions of importance in every
branch of the public administration-a Consulta for
finances-Provincial Councils-and in which was confirmed the existing municipal institutions.  The two
concluding articles announce important reforms, and
proclaim an amnesty:"Art. 5. The reforms and improvements will extend to
the judicial order, and to the civil, criminal, and administrative legislation. A commission will be named to examine
this question immediately.
" Art. 6. Finally, being always inclined to indulgence and
pardon by the inclination of our paternal heart, we still wish
to be clement towards the men who have been drawn into
treason and revolt by the seduction, the hesitation, and perhaps also the weakness of others.  On the other hand, taking
into consideration what is required of us by justice, which is




134             ROME AND ITS RULER.
the foundation of kingdoms, the right of others violated or
set aside, the duty incumbent on us of protecting you against
a renewal of the evils which you have suffered, and the obligation of keeping you from the pernicious influence of the
corrupters of all morality, and the enemies of the Catholic
religion, which, being the inexhaustible source of all good and
social prosperity, was your glory, and caused you to be remarked as the elected family which God favoured with his
more particular gifts, we have ordered that an amnesty
should be published in our name for all those who are not
excepted in this decree of amnesty.
"Such are the dispositions which, in the presence of God,
we have thought it our duty to publish. for your good. They
are compatible with your dignity, and we are convinced that,
being faithfully executed, they may produce that good result
which is the honourable wish of wise minds. The good sense
of all of you who aspire to do good, in proportion to the evil
they have suffered, are to us our ample guarantee. But let us
be careful to put our confidence in God, who, even in the
midst of his just designs, never fails in mercy.
" Given at Naples, in the suburb of Portici, on the
12th of September, 1849, fourth year of our
Pontificate."
Accompanying this edict, was a notification from
tile Papal Conlllissioners, in which were explained the
terms and limnitations of the amnesty announced in
Article 6:"To those who have taken part in the last revolution in
the Pontifical States is granted the pardon of the penalty to
which they shall be liable for the political offences for which
they shall be responsible. The members of the Provisional
Government, the members of the Constituent Assembly who
have taken part in the deliberations of that Assembly, the
members of the Triumvirate, and of the Government of the




ROME REASSUMES ITS OLD APPEARANCE.   135
Republic, the chiefs of the military corps, all those who, having already on former occasions enjoyed the benefit of the
amnesty granted by his Holiness, have forfeited their word
of honour in joining in the late political movements; in fine,
those who,, in addition to political offences, have rendered
themselves gu'ilty of other crimes provided against by the
laws now in force, are excluded from the benefit of this amnesty. The present amnesty does not imply the maintenance
in the employment of the Government, or in provincial or
municipal posts, of those who have rendered themselves unworthy of them by their conduct during the late events.
The same reservation is applicable to the military and employes of all arms."
Rome now began to breathe freely, as one who
awakes from a horrible dream, in which images of
terror mingle in wild disorder, and to whose startled
soul the light of morning brings a delightful consciousness of security.  The streets began, by degrees, to
assume their wonted appearance, and the shops their
former air of business.  Workmen were again employed in various branches of industry; and even the
cleansing, painting, and decoration of palaces, villas,
hlotels, and lodging-houses, absorbed a considerable
amount of labour. The churches were again visited,
and even thronged by worshippers; for the observance
of religious duty was no longer regarded with suspicion, nor was piety to be classed in the same category
with treason. Ecclesiastics once more freely walked
through the streets; for, though fierce eyes might
flash, and dark brows gather in a frown, as the religious habit was recognized by the scattered and panicstricken disciples of' revolution, its wearer had no




136           ROME AND ITS RULER.
longer an apprehension of being rushed upon by a
noon-day murderer, or torn limb from limb by infuriated bloodhounds. The painter again resumed his
pencil, and the sculptor his chisel; for Rome was once
more an object of attraction to people of distant nations-to the religious, to the curious, to the idle, to
the wealthy-almost every one of whom, by whatsoever motive attracted within its walls, was sure to
benefit one or other section of the community, whether
by daily expenditure, by purchase, or by the giving of
an order for the execution of some work of art. The
population, which recent events had caused to dwindle
down to that of a third-rate Italian city, began to flow
in with a daily increasing stream; and by the latter
end of the year 1849, or the commencement of 1850,
the Corso was again instinct with life; and equipages
of all kinds, from the hackney-carriage of the stranger
and sight-seer to the chariot of the prince, once more
rattled and flashed through the streets and public
places of Rome.
Many there were, no doubt, who regretted the absence of that license which they had enjoyed during
the brief existence of the Republic, and who looked
with disgust upon the restoration of order; but the
vast majority of the population —even including those
who had been seduced from their allegiance by specious words, wild hopes, or a restless craving for
change-longed earnestly for the return of the Pope,
the recollection of whose gentle virtues and paternal
disposition was now only the more enhanced by his




GENERAL REACTION.            137
trials and his sorrows. The reaction in favour of a
restoration to the old order of things-or to the rule of
the Holy Father-was rapid, and pervaded all classes;
for, independently of the anxiety to behold once more
that familiar countenance, which never looked but with
love upon the people, there was no class, no interest,
no industry, that had not suffered from the wild and
stormy period which, commencing with the flight to
Gaeta, did not end till the Pope's government was
fully restored. To have him once more in his own
palace, was now the most anxious wish of his people;
and this feeling was frequently expressed through deputations earnestly praying his return.
If Pius IX. appeared to some rather reluctant to
hasten the moment of his return, it was not to be wondered at if he were so; for, living in tranquillity, in
one of the most beautiful spots of the earth, with the
lovely Mediterranean sparkling and murmuring beneath the balconies of his palace, and the delightful
influence of a delicious climate wooing his spirit to
peace, he might well have looked back with horror to
that dreadful day when the Quirinal was besieged by a
furious mob, whose savage cries were even more fearful than their murderous violence.
At length, however, the time of the Pope's return
was announced to an expectant people, and great was
the joy which it caused.
If manifestations of popular enthusiasm could have
satisfied the heart of Pio Nono, he had ample cause for
congratulation in his progress through the Neapolitan




138           ROME AND ITS RULER.
and Roman States. From his departure from Portici
on the 4th of April, to his arrival in the great Square
of the Lateran, his journey was one continuous triumnph. The people, clad in their. holiday attire, met
himn everywhere with beaming eyes, with blessings,
and with shouts of joy; flowers were strewn beneath
his feet by beautiful maidens and graceful youths;
banners, bearing mottoes expressive of' welcome and
homage, rustled in the gentle breeze; the prince vied
with the peasant in testifying veneration and love for
his person; and as his carriage passed along through
city or through highway, multitudes reverently knelt
to receive his benediction.
So long as the journey was performed in the Neapolitan dominions, the Pope was accompanied by his
generous host, Ferdinand, King of the Two Sicilies,
who thus gracefully terminated his hospitality, the munificence of which was only surpassed by its delicacy.
A very simple but beautiful description of illumination welcomed the arrival of the IHoly Father at Terracina. ]No sooner had the sun sunk beneath the waves,
than the sea seemed at once lit up, as if by enchantment. Millions of orange-rinds had been converted
into lamps, with oil and wick; and these being simultaneously lighted and set afloat, the effect of the sudden and strange illumination was beautiful, beyond the
power of language to describe.
In his own dominions, his welcome was even more
enthusiastic than that given by the lively and impulsive Neapolitans; for here there was an atonement to




THE POPE RE-ENTERS ROME.         139
be made, and a bitter memory to be wiped out. At
Frosinone, Velletri, and along his route, great preparations were made to receive the Sovereign befittingly; and at the former place houses had been pulled
down to widen the street through which he was to pass.
The Church, no longer widowed, but now joyful as a
bride, everywhere assumed her brightest attire, and
put forth her most imposing pomp, to express the
gratitude and exultation with which she hailed the
return of Christ's Vicar to the Chair of Peter.
At Velletri, where his reception was equally splendid and enthusiastic, the Holy Father was met by
General Baraguay tIilliers, who had come thither to
offer him his homage.
The crowning spectacle of the whole was witnessed
on the 14th of April, when Pius IX. presented himself
to his now repentant capital. The whole population
had been from an early hour in the streets, and every
spot was occupied from which the first glimpse of the
Holy Father could be obtained. Amidst the waving
sea of human beings, through which French and Roman troops with difficulty preserved an open space,
Pius made his entry. Such was the enthusiasm now
manifested, that one unacquainted with the Italian
character might have supposed that the population
had suddenly gone delirious.  And yet many who
now, with wild and vehement gesture, called down
blessings on the Holy Father, had, not very long before, as wildly and as vehemently shouted, "Long live
Mazzini!"-nay, perhaps, had yelled their coarse im



140          ROME AND ITS RULER.
precations against the Pope on the 16th of November,
1848, because he -would not accept a revolutionary
ministry at the demand of an armed mob. But now,
flowers, and smiles, and blessings were flung over the
past; and those were a small minority who did not
feel genuine satisfaction at beholding the return of
their good and gentle Sovereign. With illuminations,
and music, and joyous cries, were renewed, at night,
the rejoicings of the day.
The exulting strains of the lie Deum-that glorious
anthem of kings and conquerors-which now echoed
through the superb dome of St. Peter's, were answered
from the Churches of Christendom; for the Catholic
world rejoiced in the triumph of good over evil, of
order over anarchy.




EFFECTS OF TIEE REVOLUTION.          141
CHAPTER XIII.
Disastrous Effects of the Revolution.-The Pope's Efforts to remedy
them. —His daily Life. -His Audiences. -Petitions. —The Pope's
Charity.-His Munificence.
RETURNED to his dominion, Pius IX. strenuously devoted himself to the difficult duties of his position, and
endeavoured, by the application of wise remedies, to
repair the injury which had been inflicted on the
Papal States — in their trade, their industry, their
finance, as well as in their intellectual progress and
moral condition-by the fury and paralysis of the Revolution. In its paper money and its debts, the Republic left a legacy of serious embarrassment to the
Pope; but this difficulty has at length been happily
and completely overcome; and the finances of the
Pontifical Government may now stand comparison
with those of many prosperous European States. To
educate youth, to reform the criminal, to comfort the
sick, to protect the widow and the orphan, to shield
old age fiom want, to encourage industry, to reform
abuses, and to re-awaken in the hearts of his people
the spirit of religion-these have been the principal
cares of Pius IX. since the hour of his return to Rome.
And to these duties, to which he was equally impelled
as a temporal sovereign and a spiritual father, were




142           ROME AND ITS RULER.
added those of the Supreme Pontiff, who has to watch
over the widely-spread branches of the Catholic Church
throughout the world, and to apply to the wants and
necessities of each such remedies as its condition and
its circumstances demand. It was not to be supposed
that the revolutionary embers would not, now and
then, emit a sullen spark; but though plot and conspiracy have since then been attempted and detected,
the feeling of the people-even of the fickle populace
-is, year by year, becoming more in favour of the
Pope, and less in favour of those wild schemes which
brought such misery and suffering upon the country.
If, as yet, Pinus IX. has not renewed the experiment
withl which he commenced his reign, let those who
read the story of the past say, if the present system
— of gradual reform and steady amelioration-should
not be preferred to a more ambitious achievement,
when attended with a more certain risk?
Let us now inquire more minutely than we have
as yet done into the character of the Holy Father;
and we shall behold his simple and laborious lifehis universal benevolence-his active and unceasing
charity-his enlightened liberality-his splendid mlnificence-his great and continual efforts to render
Rome the chief object of attraction to the pious, the
polished, the learned, and the philosophic, of every
civilized nation of the earth. Judge, fiom his daily
life, how different is the real Pope fiom the imaginary
portraiture which fiction has drawn, and which prejudice has accepted.




THE POPE S DAILY LIFE.           143
He rises before six o'clock, and celebrates Mass every
morning in the year. Not content with this act of
priestly devotion, he hears another Mass. He then
gives audience to his Secretary of State, on matters of
public importance, and next to his Major Domo, on the
affairs of his household. He next receives the letters
addressed to him, which, as I shall have reason to show,
are of the most varied character. These he carefully
reads, and places in the hands of his Private Secretary,
for further information, or to be at once acted upon. as
the case might require. At ten, his audiences, properly
so called, commence, and generally last till two. Ite
then dines, his fare being of the simplest kind. At three
he frequently drives out, his excursion usually occupying till five. At five the audiences are resumed, and
continue till nine, or even to ten, at night. The audiences being over, he then reads his office, just as any
ordinary priest, and retires to a bed as simple and plain
as belongs to the humblest student in Rome. Besides
special audiences, which may occur at any moment,
each day is set apart for those of a particular kind, and
the transaction of certain classes of business, connected
either with the internal administration of the Papal
States, or appertaining to those no less grave matters
which demand the constant consideration of the Supreme Pontiff. The various fixed audiences which are
given at present on each day in the week, may be thus
particularized:MONDAY.
Morning.-His Eminence the Secretary of Memori



144            ROIME AND ITS RULER.
als, and the Mlinister of Arms. The first Monday of the
month, the President of the Academly of Noble Ecclesiastics, and the Secretary of Regular Discipline, who
has audience also on the third nMonday.  The second
Monday, tile Promoter of the Faith. The fourth ~Monday, the Advocate of the Poor.
Euven(/ng.-Cardinal Prefect of the Segnatura, Secretary of the Council, Admrinistrator and Secretary of St.
Peter's, and the Secretary of Briefs to Princes.
TUESDAY.
lforarzingy. —Cardinal Secretary of Briefs, Cardinal
Pro-Datario, and the Under Datario.  On the first and
third Tuesdays of the month, the Cardinal Visitor of the
Apostolical Ospizio of San Michele, and  lonsignor thle
Almon er.
Evening. —The Miaster of the Apostolic Palace, and
MIonsig. the Commendatore di S. Spirito.  The second
Tuesday of every month, MIonsig. President of the Consulta, which is one of the principal tribunals of Romie.
WEDNE:SDAY.
Kiorning.-MIinister of the Public Works, Minister
of the Interior and of the Police, and Minister of Finance.
EevLiyng. —AMosig. the Assessor of the Holy Office,
AMonsig. thle Secretary of the Consistory, Monsig. Secretary of Ecclesiastical Affairs, and MIonsig. Secretary of
Latin Letters.
TIIuJRSDAY.
/ornzing.-Congregation of the Holy Office.




FIXED AUDIENCES.               145
Eveninqy.-lonsig. the Auditor of His Holiness, and
the Secretary of Briefs to Princes.  Every first Thursday evening, the Secretary of Holy Rites.
FnIDAY.
i3lorning.-Cardinal Secretary of Briefs, Cardinal
Pro Datario, and Under Datario, Cardinal Secretary
of Memorials, and Monsig. Secretary of Sacred Rites.
Eveziny. —Cardinal Penitentiary, and Monsig. Secretary of Bishops and Regulars.
SATURDAY.
lMorning.-M]inister of the Interior and of the Police,
and;Minister of Finance.
Evening.-Cardinal Vicar of Rome, Monsig. Secretary of Latin Letters, MAonsig. Secretary of the Apostolic
Visit. The last of these on the third Saturday of every
month.
SUNDAY.
Evening.-Moonsig. Secretary of Propaganda, Mlonsig. Auditor of His Holiness, and Monsig. the Secretary
of Studies.
Before the above-mentioned morning audiences commence, the Holy Father receives, about half-past eight
o'clock, every day of the year, his Emninence the Secretary of State, or, in his place, Monsig. the Under Sec.
retary of State.
These are the audiences which are fixed and settled
as I have particularized; and, I venture to say, they do
not allow of much leisure time to His Holiness.
It may be asserted, with perfect truth, that the Pope
7




146            ROME AND ITS RULER.
is the sovereign who, of all others in the world, is the
most accessible to his subjects. Even the humblest applicant may approach his person; nor is the blackest
criminal in the States debarred from the privilege of
addressing him by petition. Hence the innumerable
claims for audiences; and hence the flood of appeals,
on every imaginable subject, that pours in on His Holiness, either directly, or through a multitude of channels, official or otherwise. A petition to the Pope is no
idle mockery, but an appeal that, in one shape or other,
is certain to reach the ear, if not touch the heart, of the
most merciful and benevolent of living men. No matter for what offence a prisoner may have been incarcerated, that prisoner may appeal directly to the Pope;
and no officer or person in charge of a prison dares to
stand between the criminal and the seat of mercy. As
in all other places in the world, but perhaps more peculiarly in southern countries, there are crimes, even
terrible ones, which are almost wholly the result of
passion and excitement; and if, upon inquiry through
the proper channel, which inquiry is unfailingly made,
the Pope feels convinced that mercy may be beneficially extended, it is so extended, and the punishment
either greatly lessened, or a free pardon granted. As
I shall have to treat elsewhere of the public prisons of
Rome, which I have personally examined in. detail, I
shall not further allude to this portion of the subject at
present, but content myself with the statement of a fact,
which will afford the best idea of the real value of this
privilege of petition,-that no fewer than from 50 to 60




PETITIONS.-THE POPE'S CHARITY.        147
pardons are granted by the Pope every month of the
year, —and therefore, that from 600 to 700 persons, who
have been condemned for various offences, are annually
restored to fieedom by the exercise of that noblest prerogative of Princes, mercy.
The charity of the Holy Father is also hourly appealed to, and scarcely ever in vain. If he walk
through the streets, hands may be seen stretched
forth, holding letters of supplication-perhaps complaints of injustice, or of wrong inflicted, but more
generally appeals for alms; and these are taken by
one of the Noble Guard (a few of whom accompany
His Holiness), and are afterwards handed to himself
personally. Then the post-office is a constant means
of communicating directly, and without any intermediate agency, with the Pope; and there is no letter or
petition which he receives, be it from the humblest,
the meanest, or the most guilty, that he does not read,
and into the subject-matter of which he does not inlquire. The official channels of communication are the
following. The Cardinal Prefect of Subsidies receives
communications on matters immediately connected
with his office, as well as Upon others; and he has a
fixed day in every week for an audience of the Pope,
to whom he refers them. The Cardinal Secretary of
Memorials also receives petitions, as well as complaints, on almost every subject respecting which appeal or remonstrance could be made. Every petition
is examined by his Secretaries, then referred to him,
and by him submitted to the Pope, of whom he has an




148            ROMIE AND ITS IRULER.
audience every Tuesday and Friday.  Then there is
M'onsignor the Almoner of the Pope, who has crowds
of petitioners at his door, and who has appointed days
for hearing and receiving appeals, which are similarly
transmitted as all the rest. Monsignor the Almoner
accompanies the Pope when he goes abroad, and invariably brings with him  a bag of money, for distribution among the poor who may be met with on the
way..The Minister of the Interior discharges the
fiunctions of the Minister of Grace and Justice, which
latter office is merged in the former; and this officer is
likewise -made the medium  of appeals for mercy.
Then there are the Secretary of State, and the Under
Secretary, whose duty it is to receive, inquire into,
and submit petitions to His Holiness. The Cardinal
Vicar is also an important channel of conmmunication;
so is every Cardinal, each of whom, according to his
particular position, has constant claims made upon his
influence; so are all who hold offices about the person, and may be said to have the ear, of His Holiness,
-so also are the Parish Priests, to wholn vast nunmbers, especially of the poor, first address their complaints, or make their necessities known. Through
these and other channels the people commulnuicate wiil
their Sovereign, the poor and the needy with a collpassionate and bountiful benefactor. I stated an inportant fact, which strikingly illustrated the value of
the privilege of petition to the prisoller, and the mel'cifull and clement disposition of the Pope; and I shall




HIS MUNIFICENCE.              149
now mention one which as conclusively displays his
benevolent and charitable nature. Since his accession
to the Pontificate, in 1846, Pius the Ninth has spent,
in charitable and pious works, no less a sum than
1,500,000 scudi-a sum  fabulous in amount, whlen
taking into consideration the extent of his p-rivale resources. These consist of 355 scudi a month, or about
4,200 scUtdi in the year; which would be about equal
to ~1,000 a year of English money. What a revenue
for a Sovereign Prince! How, then, it may be asked,
were the 1,500,000 scudi obtained?-from what source
was this enormous fund derived? The answer, which
I have elsewhere anticipated, is significant, and affords
a lesson to those who foolishly imagine that the Papacy
would be destroyed the moment that, by revolution or
plunder, the Pope should be deprived of his temporal
power; that is, of his sovereignty over the Papal States.
The greater portion of this wealth, which the Pope so
generously devoted to works of piety and charity,
poured in upon him at Gaeta, while he was an exile
fiom his country and his throne —poured in upon the
Father of the Christian Church friom all quarters of
Christendom, at the very moment when thoughtless
persons were frantically shouting out-"Thlle Papacy
is at an end!"  There are those in Iomne and througlhout the States who long for a change of govelrnmentfor any change, by whlich they mlight hope to realize
their dreams, or accomplish their personal objectsand who, therefore, are hostile to the existing state of




150           ROME AND ITS RULER.
things; but in the great breast of the people-the
mass of the people-there exists a sincere loyalty to
the throne and person of the Pope, and a profound
conviction of those virtues which adorn his character
as a Man, a Ruler, and a Priest.




INSTANCES OF HIS CHARITY.            151
CHAPTER XIV.
Instances of the Pope's Charity.-More Instances.-Curious Applications.-Protestant Opinions of his Character.-He gives Audience
to a Negro Slave.-His Affability to Students.-The Holy Father
on foot.
As a proof of the benevolent and merciful character
of His Holiness, I stated that he distributed, during
his reign, no less than 1,500,000 scudi in pious and
charitable works, at the same time mentioning that his
own private income did not exceed 4,200 scudi, or
about 10001. a year. Perhaps I might illustrate, by an
interesting fact, that intense love of the poor, and sympathy for the suffering, which the Holy Father has
invariably displayed.
Shortly after his return to Rome, from his temporary
exile at Gaeta, the Queen of Spain sent him, as a mark
of her respect, a splendid tiara, which was valued at
50,000 scudi-a very large sum, even when represented
by English rmoney.  The Pope accepted the princely
gift, but gave immediate orders that its value, to the
full amount, should be distributed to the poor, to the
aged, and the sick, and in such a manner and through
such channels as would be certain to produce the most
beneficial results.
I have heard of numbers of instances of the impul



15 2           ROMrE AND ITS iRULER.
sive generosity with which he respondcls to appeals to
his compassion, all equally indicative of the charity of
his disposition.
In the month of October last, a poor family fell into
distress, in consequence of the illness of one of its principal members, and were unable to bear up against the
expenses in which they necessarily became involved.
In their affliction they appealed to the Pope-applied
by petition; and the answer, after inquiry made into
the facts of the case, was a prompt gift of 50 scudi.
Similar appeals, daily and hourly made, produce similar or even greater results.
A little time before that, a certain person applied to
the Holy Father for an office of so:me importance, that
would have been of the greater consequence to him,
fiom the reduced circumstances into which lie and his
family had fallen.  Unfortunately, the office rwhich was
in the gift of the Holy Father, had beenr previously
promuised to another; but so keenly did the Pope feel
for the disappointment which a refuisal must inevitably
inflict oni his suitor, that he sent him 1000 scudi as a
compensation for his loss, and as a means of relieving
his necessities.
Not more than a few days previous to my arrival in
Romle, a venerable pensioiner, who had once held somle
small office, not being able to providce hiuiself with certalill comforts suited to his extremne age and ailing condiiton, Avithout involving himself inextricably in debt,
app)lied to tlhe Pope for assistance, and to hlis surprise,
at once received eiy/ht yearcs' amount of his.pension in




MORE INSTANCES OF HIS CHARITY.        153
advance,/ although no insurance company in the world
would have valued his life at more than a year's purchase.
I had an opportunity of witnessing the manner in
Twhich the alms given from the private purse of the
Holy Father are distributed, and the gratitude with
which they are received. Speaking on one occasion to
a kind friend, to whose courtesy and whose intelligent
mnode of communicating information I had been equally
indebted, on a subject interesting to us both-namely,
the character of the Pope, and especially his charity
and benevolence-lhe suddenly said,-" Perhaps you
would have no objection to discharge for nme a little
commission with which I have been intrusted. It is to
give a small sum fr'om I-lis Holiness to a poor family.
The father, an old man, sent a petition some time since
to the Quirinal, imploring assistance; and, on inqquiry
being made, the case was found to be a deserving one."
We-for I was accompanied by a young Irish clergyman —immediately expressed our willingness to act as
temporary almoners of the Papal bounty; and the sumn
of 15 scudi-more than 31.-was handed to us. At
our earliest convenience, we proceeded to the house,
whllichl was in one of the narrowest streets of the citythe very description of street that Tacitus tells us was
considered the most agreeable to the Rornans of his
day, with lofty houses on each side, affording ample
protection against the raging heat of the noonday sun.
Ascending massive stone steps, which seemed to go to
the top floor of the building, we came to the landing'7*




154            ROMIE AND ITS RULER.
indicated in our instructions.  The door was freely
opened to our summons; and on entering, we were at
once convinced that the necessity was as pressing as
the aid was timely. There was nothing of that squalid
poverty which as often exhibits the absence of all selfrespect as the presence of intense destitution; on the
contrary, the apartments, while most scantily furnished,
were scrupulously clean. But the head of the family,
a fine venerable old man, who might have sat to a
painter as a model for one of the Apostles, was past
the years of labour; and a daughter seemed, fiom the
supernatural brightness of her eye, the peculiar hollowness of her cheek, and her wasted mouth, to be far on
the road to a happier world. We explained the object
of our visit, and produced the little roll of gold pieces
with which we had been intrusted. The glitter of the
gold brought happiness to the heart of that poor family,
for it spoke of unaccustomed comnforts and momentary
abundance; and food and clothing are positive happinJess to the poor. In an ecstacy of gratitude, the
mother and her children flung aside the needle-work
with which they had been employed, rulshed to us,
seized our hands, and kissed them with graceful gestures; at the same time murmuring blessings on the
head of their good and merciful Father and Pope.
We felt convinced that the family, thus temporarily
relieved, would be cared for by one of those noble
charitable confriaternities which abound in Romne, and
are the glory of the Church.
I was told of a somewhat curious application made




CURIOUS APPLICATIONS TO HIS HOLINESS.  155
to the Pope by a pool' countryman of my own. Writing to His Holiness firom  England, he informed him
that he had lost the use of his limbs, and that he
wished him, as the successor of St. Peter, to bid him
"Stand up and walk," as St. Peter did to the lame
man, as recorded in the Acts of' the Apostles. This
singular letter was referred to the Pope, who immediately sent ten dollars to the writer, at the same time
informing him that he had not the miraculous powers
of Saint Peter.
And in an audience with which I was honoured by
the Holy Father, I had a good opportunity of understanding the strange and varied character of the petitions poured in upon him daily, to the very necessary
exercise of his exhaustless patience.  In the course
of the audience, the Pope took up a large package
or bundle of papers from the desk-table by which lihe
stood for the whole time, and, with a smile full of
singular sweetness, not however unmingled with lnumour, he said, —" These are all I have got this morning."  And surely they were sufficient, and rather
more than a first-rate London barrister could conveniently " read up" before going to court.  Two or
three of the documents were, in fact, as bulky and
voluminous as chancery briefs.  And the most voluminous of these was the contribution of a lady, wlho
evidently desired to take the Holy Father into her
confidence upon the most delicate of all questions to
her sex-marriage. Her inclinations tended decidedly
in that direction; but there were " difficulties"' in the




156            ItO-IE AND ITS IU:LER.
way —and with these she managed to fill sheet after
sheet of respectably-sized paper.  The Pope read several passages of this formidable petition, and glanced
at its various heads, and then laid it aside with a meaning smile, and a gesture expressive of more than a
suspicion of his correspondent's state of mind.  Another petition was for no less a sum  than 150 dollars;
and this "very moderate demand," as, with quiet hulm)our, the Holy Father termed it, appeared to be based
tupon no other justification than the alleged fact, tllat
such a su-nm would be just then particularly convenient
to the petitionerl.  But therle were others, praying for
mercy, or asking for assistance in case of real distress.
And as the good Pope glanced at these, a look of
tender compassion chased away for the moinent the
sweet smile that played about his rnmonth, and the liglt,
of genuine humour that sparkled in his mild blue eye.
It evidently was an easy matter to touch the heart of
Pius IX.  These petitions were to be handed over to
a confidential secretary, by whom  a r'snaze of their
contents was to be prepared for the futnre inspectionI:
ald decision of tlhe Pope.  And this lie explained in
tile simplest and most unaffected manlner-iml flct,:s
it' lie were the equal of tlhose wiho  thlrn regtrded blitn-1
with revereniiail homage, tile Ilore profound becaiiso,
of his viilrtues, of hlis pure and noble nature, tllan on
account of his exalted temporal rank, as the first of
Clmristian Sovereigls, or of' is sublimne spiritual dignity, as Vicar of (Cirist.
I could fill a volurne withl  well-antlhenticated ficts




OPINIONS OF THE POPE'S CHARACTER.    157
illustrative of the tender and compassionate disposition of one who, in this as in many other respects, is
recognized by all who know him  to be a type and
model of the noblest of Christian virtues. Let it not
be imagined that my information is by any means exclusively derived from  those whose personal veneration for the Holy Father riight be considered to influence their judgment.  Such is not the fact; for I
have heard English Protestants, who have not a single
feeling in common with the religion of which he is tlle
head, and whose prejudices are strongly opposed to the
form of government now existing in Rome, speak of
the Pope with the utmost respect and veneration. A
most intelligent Englishman, of the class I indicate,
was speaking to me with respect to certain reforms
which he deemed absolutely necessary —not great organic changes, but reforms in administration-and lie
wound up by saying: "But as for the Pope, I verily
believe there is not a kinder, or better, or purer man
living oil the earth —there can be only one opinion
about him."
Then as to his personal bearing, even to the hulmblest, no other Sovereign approaches him in this respect. No matter what may be the object for which
an audience is soughlt of the Pope, whether of business
or charity-to prefer a charge, or obtain a favour -no
matter for what it may be, the same kindness and courtesy are exhibited to all persons, and on all occasions.
A most relnarkable case in point occurred in the
course of the last year, which, in its simple and unaf



158            ROAME AND ITS RULER.
fected goodness, puts to shame those exhibitions of mock
sympathy for the poor African Slave in which it is the
fasllion now-a-days to indulge.  A family of French
extraction brought with them from New Orleans a female slave of pure African blood. Had this poor woman desired to do so, she might have made herself free;
for long before the cry for the emancipation of the
Negro was heard in England, a Pope had declared that
in the Roman States "no slaves could be."  Having
been brought up a Catholic, she wished to be confirmed;
which she eventually was, in the chapel of the French
Nuns of the Sacred Heart, by Archbishop Bedini.  It
afterwards occurred to her mistress that it would be a
great comfort to the good creature if she were allowed
to stand somewhere so as to get the Pope's blessing as
he passed. His Holiness was informed of the matter;
to which he replied, -"I will think about it."  The
next day, a papal dragoon was seen riding up and down
thle Via Condotti, making inquiries at various places
for " Madelnoiselle Marguerite," for whom lie had a
letter of audience with the first Sovereign of the world!
Not finding MIademoiselle MIargluerite in the Via Condotti, the dragoon became somewhat perplexed how to
execute his commission.  At last he said to himself," 1Oh, this is one of' those French or English devotees,
and tley will know something of her at the convent of
Trinita di MIarti."  To that convent he accordingly proceeded, and was there told that his letter would be safely
delivered to the right person.  At the appointed hour,
the sable-visaged Margulerite found herself in the midst




IE GIVES AUDIENCE TO A NEGRO SLAVE.   159
of a company of the high-born, the rich, and the beautifutl, who were waiting to pay their Easter homage.
The Pope was long and privately engaged.  But when
he was at length fi'ee, the first name called was that of
"Miademoiselle Marguerite."  One may imagine the
feelings of awe and reverence with which the poor despised child of Africa prostrated herself at the feet of
the successor of Peter. A voice of touching sweetness
and gentleness soon inspired her with confidence. ";My
child," said the Pope, "there are many great people
waiting, but I wish to speak to you the first. Though
you are the least upon earth, you may be the greatest
in the sight of God."  He then conversed with her for
twenty minutes.  He. asked her about her condition,
her fellow-slaves, her hardships.  "I have many hardships," she replied; " but since I was confirmned, I have
learned to accept them  as the will of God." IHe exhorted her to persevere, and to do good in the condition in which she was placed; and lie then gave her his
blessing.  tHe blessed her, and blessed " all those about
her;" so that this poor despised slave carried with her
friom  that memorable interview, greater courago and
stironger fortitude to bear up against her yoke of sufferinmg and huiuiliatlon.
A beautilful feature in the character of Pins IX. is
his benignity. From  it springs that thoughtful consideration for the feelings of others which ever distinguishes hiin, and of which an instance has been given
in the case of one whom prejudice-aye, and prejadice
deep-rooted in the breasts of those who boast of their




160            RO'IME AND ITS RULER.
Christianity —accounts, if not actually infamous, at
least destined by nature for persecution and degradation.
To children especially he is gentleness itself.  I-Ie
delights to engage them  in conversation, as he meets
them in his walks outside the city, or in its more retired districts.  But he never fails to inquire as to
their knowledge of the catechism, and their progress in
education; and if he finds that the object of his scrutiny is ignorant, or in dangel of falling into anl evil
course, either through having bad or negligent parents,
or frorr being unprotected, he at once gives orders to
one of his attendants,-which orders ensure to the
child the benefit of a good education, or the protection
of a safe asylum.
To students he is as affable and familiar as he was
in his bishopric of Imola, or while yet a simple priest.
Irn the early part of last Autumn lie had a nlumnber of
the students of every ecclesiastical college in Roime to
dine with him.  This was an act of condescension altogether unusual, as the Pope almost invariably dines
alone; but such is the special kindness whlich lie feels
towards the students of the Irish College, that llorle of
their body enjoyed the distinction tllan of any other
college, that is, in proportion to their relative numbers.
One afternoon, I was returning from  a ramble over
the charming Pincian Hill, fiorm  whose various elevations exquisite views of Rome and the country b)eyond
it may be enjoyed, when the friend who accompanied
me cried out,-" See! there is the Pope!"  I accord



THE POPE A PEDESTRIAN.             161
ingly looked in the direction to which he pointed my
attention, and I saw a figure clad in a white cloth sutane, with a cape and belt of the same colour, and
wearing a wide-brimmed crimsom  hat, adorned with a
gold cord, which encircled it, and which terminated in
large tassels of the same costly material. At each side
walked two persons, dressed as the students of the
Apolonari College; and behind came three or four
officers of the household, one of whom acted as Almoner, as is the customn when the Pope goes abroad.
These were followed, at some distance, by a few of the
Noble Guard; and then two carriages of a plain description, the one for HIis Holiness, the other for his attendants.  My fiiend and I did not hesitate long about
forling part of the coite'ge that accompanied the illustrious pedestrian from  the foot of the Pincian lHill,
across the Piazza del Popolo, through the gate of the
same name, and for nearly two miles along the Flaminian Way, which the prevalence of a strong wind had
rendered more than usually dusty.  Divested of the
splendid robes in which I last beheld the Pope, and
clad in the simple dress which I have described, his
figure appeared stout and robust, but by no means unduly full for a man of sixty-three —which is about his
age at present.  I-Ie walked vigorously and well, fireely
using his arms as those do who desire to give the benefit of the healthful exercise to all their limbs.  As lie
was descending the hill, he met a group of students of
the Propaganda, amongst whom I instantly recog'nized
one of the dark faces which I had previously seen in




162           ROMRE AND ITS RULER.
the Pauline Chapel. The Pope at once stopped, and
conversed with them for a few moments. In the same
way he spoke to some children who had been enjoying
themselves in innocent sport, but who, on being addressed by the Holy Father, evinced towards him respect, not bashfulness. For two miles, or even more,
he stoutly pursued his way along the road, walking in
the very centre of it, and little regarding the dust
which rose before a breeze that was robbing many a
tree on each side of its russet leaves. Every human
being whom he met on his way knelt to receive his
blessing. There was no exception whatever-old as
well as young, rich as well as poor, the rude driver of
the quaint-looking market-cart, as well as the noble
equestrian —all knelt as he approached, and with an
utter disregard of the mode or place in which they
knelt. I particularly remarked that a group of gentlemen, some of whom were named to me as members of
well-known noble families, at once dismounted, and
knelt with just the same alacrity as the very poorest.
The latter had more than one motive for their act of
homage; for they knew that the Almoner, or his substitute, was among the attendants of the Holy Father,
and that he bore with him a purse, which had been replenished specially for them, and whose contents were
in rapid process of distribution. The dress of the
Holy Father was different indeed from that in which I
beheld him on several previous occasions; but there
could be no change in the unalterable mildness and
benevolence which nature and character had impressed




PIO NONO AND FATHER MATTHEWV.         163
upon his features. There was nothing in that face to
awe or repel, but everything to attract. In its general
character-I do not mean its lines and curves, but its
spirit-there is in the face of Pius IX. much that
would recall to the memory the sweet countenance of
another most benevolent Priest, the illustrious and
lamented Father Mathew.  1NTor is the resemblance
merely external; for, in considerateness and kindness
of manner to all persons, without distinction of rank;
in compassion and tenderness for the poor and the suffering, and in unfailing gentleness to youth, there is
much similarity of character and disposition between
these two great and good men. In their boundless
charity-the desire to convert their every possession
into the means of relieving others-I can see a still
stronger and more touching resemblance.
The Pope, as might be supposed, receives many
beautiful and costly presents, not alone firom  the faithful, but even from  those who, while they regard his
church with aversion, admire his character, and do
honour to his virtues.  Amongst other presents received, not long since by the Holy Father, was a sumptuous saddle, studded with precious stones, and enriched
with all the barbaric magnificence of the East. This
costly gift was the offering of the present Sultan, who
has fiequently, and in many ways, manifested his personal respect for the Pope. By the sale of its gems he
was enabled to carry out a favourite work of charity.
With their produce he fed and clad and consoled the
poor. The Queen of Spain also sent him a gorgeous




164           ROME AND ITS RULER.
golden chalice, which blazed with jewels; but the Pope
had it divested of its precious stones, broken up, and
sold-and with the proceeds he was enabled to establish in Rome additional public bakeries, in which bread
is sold to the poorer classes at a low price. There
were, last year, six of such valuable institutions established in the most convenient districts of the city; and
not only do they confer an immediate benefit on those
for whose especial use they are intended, but they also
confer great good on the community generally, by
helping to keep down the price of this imost important
article of daily food. From  many causes, the past
year has been one of serious privation in most parts of
Italy, as well as in Rome and throughout the Papal
States. The vintage has been generally unfavourable,
owing to the continual prevalence of that mysterious
blight which has for years ravaged the wine-producing
countries of Europe; the grain crops have also suffered
materially; and oil, which is an article of primary necessity to the Italians, has increased immensely in
value, in consequence of the more than partial failure
of the olive.
In connection with the public bakeries, there may
be mentioned another work of benevolence commenced
by the Pope, out of compassion to the poorer classes.
He has lately caused to be constructed a number of
small houses, in which the working man, or the poor
family, can have a good accommodation, and even considerable comfort, at small expense. This attempt is,
in Rore as in most other places in which it has been




PUBLIC BAKERIES AND MODEL HOUSES.   16G
made, only in its infancy; but it is to be made on a
larger scale, according as circumstances render it convenient or possible. These houses have been erected
at the sole cost of the Holy Father, and out of his private purse.




166             ROME AND ITS RULE1R.
CHAPTER XV.
Personal Courage of IIis Holiness. —His Presence of Mind in the Hour
of Danger. —His Visits to the Cholera Hospitals.-Not afraid of his
Subjects.-Evidence of his Fearlessness.
I SHALL have ample occasion to exhibit still fuirther
the merlcifil. disposition, as well as the enlighltened
character, of Pius IX.; but it may not be out of place
to refer to one trait in his character, for wllich, owing
to misrepresentations of its real nature, many people
may not give him  credit-namely, cou'icaye.  In moments of the greatest danger, lie has displayed a calmnness aiid a presence of mind that arle not always associated with the more vulgar quality of mnere phIlysical
bravery.  Mild and gentle as lie is by nature, there is
no danger which he would not face, when called upon
by a consciousness of duty to do so.  Rleineinber how
boldly lie braved, and how  effectually lhe awed, thle
furious assassins in the sacristy of tle Catllcdral of
Imola.  Also, how, amidst the hIorItrors of the fearfiul
16th  of Noveniber, 1848, lie  lainltained his positionl
with lnshrinking courage, declalring tlhat   lie would
yield nothing to violence."  If, at leilgthll, lie did acffect
to yield, it wNas to save his fiitlliful gitallds ald lpelsonal
attendants fioin beilng butlchlled, anld  tlie streets of
his capital from  being deluged with innocent blood.




INSTANCES OF THE POPE' S COURAGE.    167
Again, during his flight, he exhibited a coolness and a
coulage which those interested in his safety could with
difficulty emulate.  And bravely, too, on another critical occasion, but one of a far different kind, did his
nerves withstand a shock that made many a stout heart
tremble at the time. This was on the 12th of April,
1855, when the flooring of a hall in the Ml\onastery of
St. Agnes gave way beneath the unaccustomeed weight
of some hundred and fifty persons; and Pope, cardinals, prelates, generals, soldiers, monks, and students,
were whirled through the yawning ruin, amidst falling
beams, fragments of masonry, and clouds of dust. Not
a few were hurt, some more or less seriously, by the
fall and the consequent crush; but the Pope was untouched-his escape, under the circumstances, appearing to be something miraculous.  Not the least miracle
was the wonderful presence of' mind which he displayed
at such a fearful moment. By cheerful words he dispelled the panic with which nearly all were seized.
Andi in gratitude to God for such an escape, he invited
thiose who were unhurt to follow him to the churchl;
where, in a full and firln voice, lie intoned a thanksgiving to the Almighty for His great mnercy.
I sthall not dwell upon his courage in blraving the
peiils of the Cholera Hospital; for there is n(:ot to b)e
fotund a Roman Catholic Priest wNho, hlowecve7r natulirlly tilllid or apprehellsive lie may be, is not, at any
mnomnent ready to incur the dalnger of visilnig' and administering to the sick, lno Imatter b)y whlat malignllant
disease they mnight be stricken down, and whetlier in




168            ROME AND ITS RULER.
the wards of an hospital, or in the fetid atmosphere of
a garret or a cellar. But the difference between the
two cases is this-the Priest goes to the cholera hospital in the discharge of his duty; but the Pope did so
with the view of allaying the wild apprehensions of his
people, and giving an example of fearlessness to others.
Indleed it would be impossible to describe the dismay
and horror of the lower classes of the Rloman people at
the last visitation of this terrible disease. As the poor
were in general its victims, and as the rich mostly
escaped-just as has been the case in all other places
-it was madly supposed that there was a hellish colspiracy of the rich against the poor! They even fancied that the doctors were bribed to addminister poisoned medicines to the class marked out for sacrifice.
In moments of terror men and women go balckl to
childhood, and are slaves to its wildest credulity.  The
subject of the cholera swallowed up all other topics,
and entirely  absorbed the pablic mind.  " Who is
dead to-day?-how many cases since last night?" were
the questions almost universally asked. In a word,
the panic was at its height.  And such was the mortal
terror'caused by the spread of this disease, pronounced
to be " contagious," that the nearest and dearest ties of
affection and blood were appealed to in vain, and the
sick were fled from in dismay.  In the midst of this
panic, when all who could have done so had left
Rome, the Holy Father himself publicly visited tlhe
great hospital of Santo Spirito; and going fioln bed to
bed, he blessed and consoled the patients, taking many




HE VISITS TIEE CHOLERA HOSPITALS.    169
of them by the hand; and, with the utmost tenderness
and compassion, lie assisted one man in his last agony.
I-e then visited the convalescents, and spoke to them,
and blessed them, and cheered them  by his gentle
voice and hopefll words. A few days afterwards he
went to the female cholera hospital at St. John Lateran, and there imparted consolation to the last mnoments of a poor Jewess, who actually died in his arms.
On another occasion he visited the French soldiers
who were attacked by the disease, and in the same
pious offices displayed at once his compassion and his
courage. Of course these visits produced a profound
sensation and most beneficial effect throughout Rome;
and in a short time the wild panic subsided, and the
community was restored to tranquillity and confidence.
It has been f'ieely and fretquently stated that the life
of the Pope is in constant danger from his own subjects, and that he dares not venture abroad. That he
does go out, and that, too, in the most public places in
Rome, I was a witness of on more than one occasion.
HIe is frequently to be seen walking on the Pincian
Hill, and on some days even in the streets of the city.
But lhe necessarily prefers more retired and less populous districts, for other reasons than those of apprehension or mistrust; for he is so hemmed in by the people,
asking his blessing, imploring alms, or presenting petitions, that it is with the utmost difficulty he can make
his way through the crowd which his appearance in
the more populous districts is at once sure to attract.
Certainly, one thing is true beyond doubt,-that, if




170           ROME AND ITS RULER.
any of his people be so utterly abandoned as to entertain evil designs against the sacred person of their
Sovereign, they have numberless opportunities of
carrying their designs into execution, or, at least, of
making the attempt with every probability of success.
At any rate, if danger exist, the Pope looks and acts
as if it did not exist; and that it does not, is the conviction of those who are best acquainted with the feelings of the people. On the contrary, the Holy Father
is personally beloved by his subjects; and any outrage, or even insult, offered to him would be followed
by summary vengeance from the hands of those who
witnessed it. To give a striking instance of the confidence which the Pope manifests in his people-or of
his fearlessness-I may mention that, having gone, a
short time since, by chance, into a field in which five
battalions of Roman infantry were going through their
exercises, he allowed them  to fire blank cartridge
right in his face; although there was a report then
rife in Rome, that the Papal army was full of "dangerous democrats."
Gentle, merciful, compassionate, and paternal, Pius
is; but there is no sacrifice which lie would not he
prepared to make, no danger which he would not
cheerfully encounter, in the vindication of the truth,
or in the discharge of what lie felt to be his duty.
"I am prepared to go to-morrow to the Catacombs, as
many of my predecessors have done, if the interests of
the Church of God require it," were words whichl he
uttered in my presence; and with suchl simple dignity,




NOT AFRAID OF HIS SUBJECTS.        171
such an unconscious nobleness of gesture, such a quick
flushing of the face and lighting up of the eye-fthat
there rose -up before my mind those fearless martyrs
of the,early Church, who, though holy and gentle and
mild as Plus, could yet meet the sword of the slayer
without the betrayal of a single emotion of human
weakness.
The Pope's immediate connection with the principal
institutions of Rome will still further illustrate the benignity of his nature, and the paternal character of his
rule.




172             ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XVI.
The Roman Hospitals. —La Consolazione.-San Giovanni di Calabita.-'
San Galicano.-San Giacomo.-Santissima Salvatore, — Santissima
Trinita di Pellegrini.
I HAVE ever held the belief, that no institutions reflect greater credit on a ruler, or a higher honour on a
country, than really good and efficient hospitals, to
which the poor may have immediate recourse, without
a sense of personal degradation, and with full confidence
in the ability and zeal of those by whom they are managed.  It cannot be said that the greater portion of the
magnificent hospitals of Rome are the work of the present Pope; for, were it true, it would be a sad reflection
on his illustrious predecessors. But this I can assert, from
having beheld the result with my own eyes, as well as
instituted minute and repeated inquiries,-that Pius IX.
has not only added largely and munificently to those
valuable monuments of the zeal and hum anity of former
Popes, and in several instances out of his own private
resources, or such means as were at his immediate disposal; but that he has Inost rigorously reformed the
whole system, and brought it, or is engaged in bringing it, to a condition as near perfection as it is possible
to render institutions of human origin.  Some hospitals
have been entirely, and others almost wholly, rebuilt;




THE ROMAN HOSPITALS.             173
more have been added to, so as to double the extent of
their accommodation; new and improved arrangements
have been adopted in many-and in all the influence
of a vigilant eye is plainly manifest, even to the most
casual visitor. I use no mere phrase, when I allude to
the influence of this well-known vigilance; for the administrators of the Roman hospitals have already had
frequent proofs of the watchfulness of I-Is Holiness, in
visits unannounced and unexpected. It is his invariable practice not to give the slightest notice of his intention to visit those institutions until he is actually seated
in his carriage, and is leaving the gates of the palace;
and he only then communicates his intention to one of
the noble Guard, who rides on before, not to announce
the Pope's coming, but in order that the gates might
be at once opened on his arrival. In this manner lihe
has visited and inspected all the hospitals of Rome; and
many of the improvements and reforms already adopted, or in actual progress, are the valuable results of
those visits, and the fruits of the experience thus acquired. Nor have the visits of His Holiness been alone
made at times when the health of the city was good,
and no danger could have been apprehended; for, as I
have elsewhere stated, when cholera broke out in Rome,
and the usual alarm accompanied its mysterious and
appalling presence, the Pope publicly visited the hospitals then open for the treatment of this terrible disease:
and this he did, not merely to allay the terror of the
people, but to excite to greater activity the zeal and
self-devotion of those who were then entrusted with




174            ROME AND ITS RULER.
their care, from the most distinguished physician down
to the humblest attendant.
The result of the munificent additions which the Pope
has made to the hospitals of Rome, as well as of the
constant solicitude with which lie watches over their
management, is this-that not only is the amplest accommodation now offered for the treatment of every
possible form of human malady, but there are means
ever at hand to meet any exigency which could arise;
such, for instance, as the prevalence of a dangerous epidemic. The first hospital which I visited will sufficiently illustrate the power of expansion that may be
said to be common to all the hospitals of Rome.
LA CONSOLAZIONE.
This was  ca Consolazione, built very close to the
Tarpeian Rock, which place of tragic interest has now
almost to be looked for, though not in vain; as nearly
thirty feet of the once dreaded precipice are yet visible
above the constantly encroaching soil. Still Byron
might well have asked"C......  where the steep
Tarpeian? fittest goal for Treason's race,
The promontory whence the Traitor's Leap
Cured all ambition,"
This hospital, which was founded and afterwards enlarged by Caesar Borgia, was the smallest of the many
through which I went, and yet, to me, its size appeared
very great; for the chief ward in the establishment for
the men was about 200 feet in length, and contained




LA CONSOLAZIONE.              175
62 beds. To this great hall the present Pope lately
added a new wing, in which 16 beds were placed,
ready for use; but of the 78 beds then made up, and
ready at a moment's notice, not more than 21 were
occupied. Such, however, is the great width of the
principal hall, or ward, that a double row of beds
might be easily placed at each side, as is done in the
great hospital of Santo Spirito, and to a certain extent in the other hospitals. The width being about
40 feet, two rows of beds at each side-the head of
the second bed being placed up to the foot of that
next the wall-would not occupy more than 24 or
25 feet, thus leaving a great passage, of at least 15
feet, in the centre; so that in this hospital there might,
at any moment, be 156 beds ready for the reception
of patients. It was at the time entirely devoted to
surgical cases, such as fractures, wounds, burns, &c.
I carefully noted that, not only was the building lofty
in proportion to its length, and thoroughly ventilated,
but that a most liberal allowance of space was preserved between each bed-generally, an average of
5 feet. Of course, the curtailment of this space between the beds would still further add to the power
of accommodation, in case of necessity.  The beds
looked good, clean, and comfortable, and the entire
building partook of the same character; although, to
the eye of one accustomed to timber flooring, a dull
red brick, or tile, while eminently useful in a warm
country, does not at first sight make the most favourable impression.  Six secular clergymen constantly




176            ROiME AND ITS RULER.
reside in a house attached to the hospital, which is
also attended by Jesuits, and other religious orders.
A number of novices are likewise in unceasing attendance upon the sick. In this, as in all the Roman hospitals, there is a little Chapel-the altar of which is
visible fiorom every side-in which mass is daily offered
up for the benefit of the patients, who also assist at
the rosary, and other religious exercises. It is scarcely
necessary to remark how much this salutary provision
for the comfort and consolation of the sick aids the
efforts of human skill in the favourable treatment of
disease, and to what extent it assists in the operation
of the cure. To the patient, whose body is tortured
by pain, or whose mind is prostrated by the effects of
the malady, the consolation of hourly spiritual ministration is a blessing great beyond expression,-such,
indeed, as those in rude health cannot by possibility
appreciate. It is at a moment of the kind that the
gentle voice reaches his heart, and the word of whispered counsel touches his inmost soul.
The hospital for women is divided by a street from
that of the men. It had 24 beds in ilmmediate readiness, besides ample resources in case of necessity; but
of the beds so prepared, not more than 9 were then occupied.  The low wailing moans of one poor woman,
whose breast had been fearfully scalded, and who had
been only that day taken in, were most painful to
hear.  The unhappy sufferer evidently struggled with
her anguish; but it fiequently overmastered her, and
a sharp cry occasionally testified to its severity. A




SAN GIOVANNI DI CALABITA.          177
religious community had the charge of this branch
of the hospital, and several of its members were busy
about the beds of the patients, or employed in various
duties necessary for their comfort. The beds were neat
and well kept, and the place quite clean.
SAN GIOVANNI DI CALABITA.
This hospital particularly interested me, it being intended for a class of cases entitled to the greatest sympathy, and for which, in my judgment, every state, or
government, should make the most ample provision,namely, those afflicted with temporary maladies. It is
built on the island of St. Bartholomew, in the Tiber,
and upon a most appropriate site —the very spot on
which, in Pagan times, stood an hospital attached to
the temple of Esculapius. It was founded in the Pontificate of Gregory XIII., in 1581; and is under the
care of the Brothers of St. Jolln of God, an order
specially instituted by its holy founder for attendance
on the sick. This order, which is of Spanish origin, is
popularly known by the name Benefratelli, from the
fact of their lhaving, on their institution in iRome, gone
abont soliciting almis, and using the words-" Fcate
bene fratelli per l'amizor di Dio"-" Brethren, do good
for the love of God."  Seven of the brothers were in
the hospital as I entered, and were engaged in attendance on the sick. The principal hall is about 200 feet
in length, and contained fifty beds in a state of immediate preparation; but of this number not more than
8*




178           ROME AND ITS RULER.
sixteen were occupied at that time. One of the patients, a singularly interesting young man, a native of
Switzerland, whose malady was an affection of the
chest, was surrounded by the female members of his
family, whose holiday attire imparted a cheerful aspect
to the place. He was evidently of a somewhat better
class, and, in conversation with a friend by whom I
was accompanied, he expressed himself most grateful
for the attention which he had received. The capability of expansion, according to circumstances, was as
manifest in this as in the other hospitals. I found the
beds to be neat, comfortable, and well ordered.
An adjoining hospital, for women, was in the care of
a number of Italian nuns. Not more than eighteen of
the beds were then occupied, though the great hall in
which they were placed might be easily made to accommodate five times that number of patients. Yet
another hall, or ward, had been recently added to it
by the present Pope.
SAN GALICANO.
The Hospital of San Galicano is interesting in many
respects, but in this respect more than in any otherthat it exhibits in a very striking manner, the adlnirable solicitude which the Church evinces towards the
young. This hospital was established for, or is devoted to, the treatment of cutaneous diseases of all
kinds. Originally, it was an hospital for leprosy-a
disease of which, happily, little is now known in Rome.




SAN GALICANO.                179
It was founded in 1722 by a pious priest, Emnilio Lami;
was enlarged in 1754 by Benedict XIV.; and owes
many of its improvements to the benevolence and
vigilance of Pius IX. Its present accommodation is
for 60 men, 54 women-, and 30 boys-in all 144; but
the number of patients at the time of my visit did not
exceed 104, of which number the boys constituted
more than one third. The latter were then engaged in
play, in a spacious yard; and if I were to judge of
their condition by their vivacity, I might safely predict for them a speedy restoration to health. The disease seemed principally to have assumed, with themn,
the character of " scald," as they all wore on the head
a close-fitting linen cap.  Their dress was dark and
serviceable, and decidedly comfortable. Some persons
may deem it a great calamity, that the treatment of
the disease with which these children are afflicted generally extends to the term  of a year, or even a year
and a half; but their ideas might undergo a change, if'
they learned that the education of the young patients
was as strictly looked to as if they were attending a
seminary, instead of being the inmates of an hospital.
The boys are placed under the care of the Brothers of
St. John of God, by  llhomn they are tallglt reading,
writing, and arithmetic, and are thoroughly gl'oundled
in catechism  and Christian doctrine. In fact, they
undergo a course of education and a course of physic
at one and the same time; and when they leave the
hospital cured, they also leave it educated. The same
may be said of the girls; with this difference, that, in




180            ROMIE AND ITS RULER.
addition to the literary and religions instruction which
they receive, they are also taught useful work of various kinds. At the time I visited the institution, I saw
about thirty girls, whose ages varied from  three to
fourteen years, receiving instruction in catechism friom
one of the Sisters of Charity, to whose management
they are happily entrusted.  Some of the children had
been sent in from the country, for the advantage of the
better treatment which the hospital affordedl, and,
being the offspring of poor parents, living in remote
and sequestered districts, were generally ignorant at
the time of their admission; but, thanks to the care
taken of them  by their excellent teachers, they were
then progressing in intelligence as in health. Old and
young hear Mass every morning, and attend the rosary
and other devotions during the day. The two establishments-male and female-presented a pleasing appearance of neatness and cleanliness, valuable as a
remedial adjunct, but perhaps still more valuable in its
influence on the tastes and habits of its youthful inmates.  I was shown the separate bath-rooms for the
children of both sexes. In the boys' department there
were six baths of white marble, over one of which was
carved the ominous word "Le.prosia';" but as tlhere
had been no case of that frightful malady in the hospital for two years before, that bath enjoyed a state of
fortunate exemption fiom use.




SAN GIACOMO.                181
SAN GIACOMO.
The most beautiful of the Roman hospitals, though
not the largest in its accommodation, or the Vastest in
its extent, is that of San Giacomo, in Augusta. It is
likewise one of the noblest monuments of the munificence and humanity of Pius IX.  Originally founded
in 1339, by the executors of Cardinal Pietro Colonna,
in compliance with his testamentary wishes, it was ilnproved and enlarged in the present century by Pius
VII. and Leo XII. It was instituted for the poor who
were afflicted with ulcers, or other loathsome diseases
that rendered them objects of aversion; and in 1515
Leo X. specially destined it for the treatment of leprosy and syphilitic diseases. But the whole building
was splendidly restored by Pins IX.-in fact, was reerected. Completed in August, 1856, it was in full.
operation when I visited it in the following November;
and, from  the perfection of all its arrangements, as
well as fiomn the care taken to provide for the cure
and comfort of the patients, it may be termed a model
hospital.
The length of the great hall is 340 feet; and, as I
entered it at an hour when the day was drawing to a
close, it seemed to ine something wonderful in its extent. But viewed at any time, or under any circumstances, it would be impossible to behold a mnore imnposing, or a nobler hall. Its width as well as its loftiness
are in proportion to its length; so that there may at
any time be two rows of beds at each side, and still an




182            ROME AND ITS RULER.
ample space preserved between the outer rows.  In the
centre there is laid down, for the entire length of 340
feet, a pavement of pure white marble, fully six feet in
width, and of fine quality.  A  light gallery divides
the height of the walls on each side; its object being
to afford greater facility in the management of the
windows.  This hospital had been opened with 108
beds, but it then contained 130, and at any moment
might be made to accommodate 200. In case of an
emergency, the lower hall, over which the one I describe has been elected, could be at once restored to
usefulness; whereas now it is abandoned for the new
and beautiful building. There is a large staff of experienced physicians and surgeons, besides twelve or fourteen attendants, also professional men, but some of them
with a reputation yet to achieve. Three visits daily
are regularly paid to all the patients in tile hospitalthe first in the morning, the second at noon, and the
third in the afternoon.  As the surgeons went their
rounds on the occasion of my visit, many a wound or
ulcer was bared, and inany a mnoan was uttered, as tlhe
attendant dressed it under the direction of the head
surgeon, or lie hilnself, rapidly and with practised hland,
used thle knife, or applied the caustic. This institution
is called the Hospital of Incturables; but while, unhappil)y, a large proportion of its inmates may come within
that miserable category, tile term incurable would not
apply to others, the fornmer rules of admission having
been relaxed, for purposes of greater utility. Its spiritual care is entrusted to the Brothers of St. Jo~hn of




THE DYING BOY.                183
God, who are likewise assisted by members of other
religious orders.
A short time previous to my visit, the Pope had
carefully gone through this hospital, and personally
examined into all its details. ILe went to the bed-side
of the patients, inquired into their condition and the
nature of their malady, and blessed, consoled, or admonished them. I was shown a most interesting-looking boy, who was at the moment engaged in reading
his prayer-book, by the light of a lamp; and as the
light fell upon his youthful features, wasted by sickness,
and spiritualized by an expression of intense piety, a
painter might have borrowed from his countenance and
attitude an idea of angelic purity and sanctity. He
was suffering -from an aggravated spine disease, and no
hope was entertained of his recovery. The compassion
of' the Pope had been greatly excited by the sweet and
gentle resignation with which the little fellow bore his
sufferings; and tears of tender pity fell from the eyes
of the Holy Father upon the pale cheek of the child, as
he kissed him and pressed him in his paternal arms,
after he had confessed and absolved him.  There
seemed, as it were, a radiance of holiness around the
sweet head of that dying boy.
In another part of the building, there is a department for women, but, though of nearly equal accommodation, not at all similar in its construction and
arrangement. And here, as in the hospital which I
have described, surgical cases are relieved irrespective
of the age, country, or religion of the patient. Several




184            ROME AND ITS RULER.
charitable congregations of both sexes minister to the
religious wants of the suffering. This hospital was a
favourite resort of St. Philip Neri.  And very fiequently, at the present day, many of the unhappy
females who are driven, by their vicious lives, to seek
relief within its walls, owe their thorough reclamation
to the exertions of pious ladies-many of them of the
noblest families of Rome-who constantly attend it.
Besides this hospital for women, there is the important one of
SANTISSIMO S ALVATORE.
This great hospital, which consists of two piles of
buildings, separated by the street leading from  the
Lateral to the Coliseum, was founded in 1216 by Cardinal Giovanni Colonna, and was at first called after
St. Andrew, but soon after by its present name, fiom
the confiaternity to whose care it was committed. This
confraternity was composed of twelve noble Romlans,
who had charge of the Chapel called Saneta Sanctorum, near the Lateran Palace.  The hospital is chiefly
intended for women requiring medical treatment, and
receives patients of any country, age, rank, or religion.
It has also a male department, principally for those
who have suffered friom  violent accidents; and the
average number of beds in both is over 500.  Great
care has been taken of late years in the management
of this hospital, which is now remarkable for its cleanliness and neatness.  Its ordinary or smallest staff consists of two principal physicians, and one princilpal




HOSPITAL FOR PILGRIMS.            185
surgeon, with two assistant physicians, and two assistant surgeons; besides its attendants and dressers. The
regular visits are made twice a day; but professional
assistance is to be had at any moment of the day or
night.  A  religious order called CUrcferi, from  the
red cross borne on its habit, attends to the spiritual
wants of the patients.
In 1821 Pius VII transferred to this hospital a community of Sisters of Charity who had dedicated themselves to visiting the sick in another district. Leo XII.
and Gregory XVI. were both conscious of the value
of this noble order, and conceded important privileges
to it. The vows (those of poverty, chastity, obedience,
and hospitality), last only for a year, and are renewed
at the end of that time; but when the Sisters attain
the age of forty, they can make the vows perpetual.
The cost of a patient in this hospital averages a shilling a day of our money.
SANTISSIMA TRINITA DI PELLEGRINI.
This hospital was founded by St. Philip Neri in
1550. It is destined for the relief of pilgrims, and is
used for convalescents fiom the other great institutions.
It contains about 500 beds, and affords relief to more
than 11,000 persons in the year. The institution of the
Jubilee, which has been the great source of pilgrimage
to Rome, originated, in the year 1300, with Bonifhce
VIII., and serves to bind Catholics of all nations by
the closest ties to the See of Rome. At first, it was to




186           ROME AND ITS RULER.
have taken place every hundred years; but Clement
VI., whose seat of government was at Avignon, shortened the period, and ordained its celebration in the
year 1350; and it was further shortened to a quarter
of' a century in 1475, by Paul II.  St. Philip Neri, in
1550, founded the Confiaternity of the Holy Trinity,
to succour and relieve pilgrims, and also to receive
convalescents from  the other hospitals.  Paul IV.
granted the confraternity a convenient building for an
hospital, and Clement XII. added refectories in which
about 1000 persons can receive their meals at the same
time. In Jubilee years the number of pilgrims is immense; and even in ordinary years, especially at Easter,
it is considerable. To be received, they must have
come from a distance of at least sixty miles, and have
brought with them certificates fiom their bishop and
parish priest to the effect that their journey was for
visiting the Holy Places. Italians are entertained for
one day, Ultramontanes two, Portuguese five, and so
on. In the Jubilee of 1825 the number of pilgrims
who received hospitality was 263,592: and the expenses of that year, under this head, amounted to
64,644 scudi.
Passing over a number of smaller hospitals, and all
those which may be described as private, I come to the
most important, if not the most interesting, of all.




HOSPITAL OF SANTO SPIRITO.           187
CHAPTER XVII.
Great IH-ospital of Santo Spirito.-Its Extent and Importance.-Its
Foundling Hospital.-Foundlings not necessarily illegitimate.-Reasons why legitimate Children are sent in.
SANTO SPIITO.
To go through this magnificent hospital, which is not
only the greatest but the most ancient of the existing
Roman hospitals, was the work of several hours.  It is
said that it owes its orgin to the patriotic charity of a
Saxon King, who, having abdicated his throne and become a convert, took up his abode in Rorne in 728,
and there founded an hospital for the relief of his
countrymen. It was restored by Innocent III., who
confided it to the Brothers of the order of S. Spirito,
from which it derived its name.  To enlarge and enrich it, was the grateful task of many successive Popes.
Benedict XIV., in 1751, added a museum and anatomical theatre: Pius VI. endowed the museum liberally with the choicest specimens; and Pius VII. added
dissecting rooms, baths, and many other requisites.
The present Pope has made this noble institution the
object of his special solicitude, and effected the most
important reforms in its management and administration.  Amongst the most valuable  of the reforms
effected by Pius IX., was the appointment of twenty
Capuchin Priests to its spiritual assistance. To render
their connection with the hospital complete, he had a




188            ROME AND ITS RULER.
house built for them within the enclosure; so that at
all hours, of the night as well as of the day, some
members of the body might be in the wards, and in
attendance on the sick. A community of Sisters of
Charity also aid in the pious work, as well as manage
the working details of the vast institution-which, besides the hospital for the sick, also contains an hospital
for the reception of deserted children, and a conservatorio for children of the same class, who, after being
nursed outside, are restored to its care. The magnitude of the hospital, properly so called, may be best
understood when I state that there were 780 patients
in its extensive wards on the day that I passed through
them; that there is accommodation for twice that
number; and that in case of an emergency-sullch as
might arise from the sudden outbreak of disease-it
could be made to receive 2000 patients! I took the
number then in the hospital from the register, which
was courteously exhibited to me by the Sister in whose
charge it was, and by whom it was kept in a manner
to excite admiration even in a London banker. Two
of the Sisters were at the same desk; and both kept.
an account of every article given out of the storerooms, or supplied from the kitchen-itself a curiosity
-and, in fact, of every detail connected with the daily
management of the vast establishment. In another
part of the building, the Prelate in charge has his
apartments, and to him the officers in charge comfiunicate all necessary particulars, as well as receive
orders and instructions at his hands. My application,




HOSPITAL OF SANTO SPIRITO.         189
to be permitted to go through the different departments, found him in the midst of his affairs, giving
audiences and dispatching business-business involving the welfare of not less than 2000 human beings.
No sooner was the request made than it was granted,
and orders were at once given that every part of the
immense establishment should be thrown open to my inspection —a permission of which I fully availed myself
The halls in this hospital are of enormous size, and
afford space to two rows of beds on each side, leaving
from fifteen to eighteen feet in the centre. Here, as in
other hospitals which I-had seen, the beds were clean
and comfortable; and such was the effect of good ventilation, that I failed to perceive the least unpleasantness of odour, such as is a matter of common occurrence even in hospitals of great pretension. The same
remark I can safely make of the other Roman hospitals which I visited; and in a quick perception of
offence to the sense of smell, I am too painfully acute
for my own comfort. I did not consider the mortality
by any means in excess, but rather the contrary; for
in an hospital of 800 patients, many of whom, both
medical and surgical, had been received in a bad state,
the deaths for the last three days were but eleventhat is, four on the first day, four on the second, and
three on the day of my visit. The medical and surgical staff is fully in proportion to its requirements,
care being specially taken that professional aid may
be had at a moment's notice, during every hour of
the four-and-twenty. It would be quite unnecessary to




T[u             ROME AND ITS RULER.
represent in detail the several features of this hospital;
and it will therefore be sufficient to say, that they are
adapted to the great ends proposed —the comfort, the
consolation, and the cure of the patient.
I must not, however, omit referring to its really fine
museum, abounding with the most beautiful preparations, natural as well as in wax, of all parts of the
human frame, and exemplifying the effects of various
kinds of disease on its principal organs.  I was particularly struck with some preparations which displayed
in the most startling manner the virulence of what I
may unprofessionally term the poison of cholera.  Two
or three of the great organs of the human body were,
in one place, represented in their normal or healthful condition; and similar organs, whicll, having discharged their separate functions regularly and healthfully before they were blasted by this fell disease, were
shown dried, like leather, and shrivelled up to a tenth
of their original size.  But a further and still more
strliking illustration of the terrific power of the disease was exhibited in the skull and great bones of a
patient who had fallen a victim  to it in 1853 —wllich
were as blue as if they had been purposely dyced of
tlhat colour.  Thle poison had not only withered llup cartilage and muscle, but had penetrated to thle very bone.
Curiously enoughl, these preparations, as well as tlle
otlher interesting olbjects that elliiclled  ie museunin,
were pointed out to me by one who hlad covered  lijnself with distinction, by the skill, humnanity, and untiring zeal which  lie displayed in his treatment of




THE FOUNDLING HOSPITAL.           191
cholera patients in the year to which I refer.  At
that time Dr. Ceccarelli was a young man in his profession; but such was his skilful treatment of the disease, that he effected many cures which at the moment
appeared wonderful. At length, he himself yielded to
its force, and the effects of almost matchless exertion;
but to the bedside of the now illustrious patient rushed
numbers of his brethren, to watch over a life eminently precious to humanity and science; and ere long
the Holy Father had the satisfaction of rewarding,
with his own hand, merit and worth to which he was
keenly and gratefully sensible.  The particular preparations of which I have spoken bore upon them
the name "Ceccarelli;" but it was not until I had
parted from  my courteous guide, that I learned b~
whom I had been accompanied.
In another part of the building is a great military
hospital, the hall or corridor of which seemed of enormnous magnitude. It was much occupied, but entirely
by Italian soldiers.
I was most anxious to judge for myself of the condition of the Foundling Hospital, which, as I have stated,
forms an important branch of this vast institntioi, for
I had heard different opinions as to its inanlcgerrent.
A kindly, clheerfill-looking Sister was directed to act as
olur guide; and she at once led the way, tlhroungli many
courts and corridors, to that part of the %muilding.
Tlhe average number of children received durling the
year is about 900; but of these, not more than 600, or
two-thirds, are illegitimate-the remaining 300 are the




192            ROME AND ITS RULER.
offspring of poor and needy, perhaps in some instances,
of heartless parents, who, from various causes and Imotives, adopt this ready mode of providing for them, or
getting rid of them.
If it happen, as it very often does with people in the
humblest condition of life, that their family exceeds
their means of supporting them, one of the children is
committed to the wheel of the Foundling HIospital of
Santo Spirito-it might be, with some mark on its dress,
by which it could be registered in the hospital, and its
identity afterwards proved; in case, for instance, of its
being claimed by the parents, which is by no means of
uncommon occurrence. Another fi'equent cause of having recourse to this institution, for the maintenance of
legitimate offspring, is, either the delicacy of the mother, or the delicacy of the child.  The mother has no
nourislhment to give the infant, and she is too poor to
provide a nurse for it; therefore she sends it, or bears
it, to an asylum where that aliment, which nature has
refused to her, will be provided for it.  Or it is a rickety, miserable little thing fiom its birth, stunted, inalformed, or so delicate that, in the rude ihut of its parents,
it has no chance of ever doing well; then, too, in its
case, the wlheel of the hospital is a safe resource, and
wTith parents of hardcl hearts takes tile place of mainy an.
evil suggestion, such as is too often present in tile homes
and the breasts of the destitute.  Fre(luently, the parent
is known to argue that the infirml or rnalforinecl child,
who is thus got rid of, has the best chance of recoverTy,
and certainly of being provided for, whlere eminent




WHY PARENTS ABANDON THEIR OFFSPRING. 193
medical attendance is always to be had, and where the
greatest care is taken of the training and future interests of the foundling. It may be said, that this facility
of getting rid of legitimate offspring leads to a disregard
for the manifest obligations of a parent's duty; but to
this fair objection I can only offer a preponderating advantage,-that it does away with that awful proneness
to infanticide which distinguishes other countries, but
pre-eminently England.  In England, a mother-a
mother by lawful wedlock, too-is starving, or her
poverty has assumed a degree which renders her desperate; and she makes away with her children secretly,
or slays them more openly, and consummates her frantic guilt by destroying her own life. [No cases of this
nature occur in the Papal States; not because intense
poverty is not experienced there by classes as well as
individuals, but that the State has afforded a means of
provision which leaves no room for fierce suggestion
and terrible temptation. It may also happen that a
man's wife dies in giving birth to a child, or fromn some
other cause; and that the poor bewildered father, not
knowing what to do with the helpless little creature,
consigns it to the shelter of the Foundling Hospital,
which, he well knows, is under the protection of the
State, and managed by a body of religious women whose
lives are devoted to its duties. These are some of the
causes which induce the parents of legitimate offspring
to adopt this mode of providing for them. As to the
causes which influence the parents of illegitimate offspring to rid themselves of the living evidences of
9




194           ROME AND ITS RULER.
their shame, they are too obvious to be particularized.
The number of 900 may seem very great, as representing the annual average received; but it should be
stated that the hospital of Santo Spirito affords an asylum not only to the foundlings of Romne, but to those
of the provinces of Sabina, Frosinone, Velletri, and the
Comarca, and also districts on the borders of the kingdom of Naples.
Not more than fifty of the children recently sent in
were in the house when I went through it; the remainder had been sent off to the country, for the benefit of
better nursing, and a more healthful atmosphere, than
the city could furnish. Several of the wretched little
beings were known to be the children of wedlock, from
certain precautions taken by those who had sent them
in; and, from the state in which I saw but too many of
them, I could well understand the pressure under which
their parents had acted. Some of them were evidently
suffering from transmitted disease; others were shrouded
from the light, their sight being grievously affected;
more were evidently passing away to a happier world,
and lay still and cold in the cot, or feebly moaned in
the arms of a nurse; while not a few were exhibited
with pride by their nurses, and crowed and bawled
as merrily and lustily as if they had been born heirs to
princes, and were cradled in royal luxury. One special
" bambino" was really a noble fellow, and, were it not
that he was swathed and strapped and bandaged, so
that he resembled a juvenile mummy, he might have
fairly rivalled any authentic feat of the Infant Hercules.




AVERAGE MORTALITY.              195
I had heard a great deal of the mortality of this institution, and was quite prepared to have such statements confirmed; but, taking all circumstances into
consideration, especially the condition in which the
children are sent in, the actual percentage of deaths
was far less than I had been led to anticipate, and,
in fact, had been informed it was. I made particular
inquiry on this head, and was informed, on the best
possible authority, that, of late years —during which
much has been done by the present Pope for the
better management and administration of the hospital
-the mortality did not exceed ten per cent. Had it
been much more, it could not have been a matter of
reasonable surprise. For only imagine a poor little
being brought, in a basket, a distance of sixty miles
or more, under the rays of a burning sun, or in the
depth of winter, perhaps in the midst of rain and
snow; and then judge in what condition it must be
ere it reaches the wheel of the hospital!
The nurses are kept with great care, and never leave
their young charge. They are well fed, and well paid,
and every inducement is held out to them to discharge
their duty honestly and faithfully. The constant presence of one of the Sisters is a guarantee for as much
care and attention as can be expected from snucl a
class to such a class-from the mercenary hireling to
the miserable foundling, the offspring of shamne, or, at
best, the child of poverty. I should not report truly,
however, if I did not state, as the result of my visit,
and a by no means careless inspection, that the nurse



196            ROME AND ITS RULER.
ries were in good order, that the cots of the children
were clean, and that all the other requisites for such
an establishment were ample and comfortable. The
beds of the nurses were also neatly made up; and the
women themselves looked to be healthy, and competent for their task. Still I would defy any-one, who
had not a heart of iron, to pass unmoved througll the
rows of cots, in which many a pale and sickly little
face unconsciously appealed to his compassion, and
from which there came low, feeble moans, that were
but too eloquent of pain. For my part, I felt more
acutely when passing through those dormitories, occupied by their miserable little tenants, than I did when
witnessing the'grown man shudder as the surgeon's
knife touched his shrinking flesh, or as the sharp
shriek of agony gave evidence of torture too great
for human nature to endure in silence.
Some particulars with respect to the reception and
care of the foundlings may be added. But, first, as to
the origin of the system.
The protection of exposed or abandoned children,
whether the offspring of lawful wedlock or the firuit
of illicit connection, has occupied the attention of the
Church from its earliest ages, and was made the subject of discussion in various councils so far back as tile
fourth century.  In this aspect:, as in many others,
Christianity offered a striking contrast to Paganism;
the one so full of tenderness and compassion, the other
selfish, stern, and remorseless.  Constantine, the first
Christian Emperor, evidently with a view of prevent



TREATMENT OF THE FOUNDLINGS.          197
ing the system of child-murder, which was common at
the time, and which had long existed in more polished
Greece, made known his desire to assist those who,
from their poverty, or other cause, could not support
their children. The first regular asylum for exposed
infants was established in Milan, in the year 795, in
the house of an archbishop, who left his wealth for
its support, with the direction that the children should
be maintained till the age of seven, and then taught
a trade. Innocent III., in the twelfth century, collected all abandoned children, either legitimate or of
poor or unnatural parents, in the place where he
opened an hospital for the sick. A similar institution was established in Paris, in 1638, by that Prince
of Humanity, St. Vincent de Paul; and in the following century London followed the merciful example.
Particular care is taken in noting down every thing
connected with the reception of the child. Of course,
the day of the year and month are noted, as well as
the very hour; and, if the person bringing the child
have no difficulty in telling them, also the name and
origin. The official in charge makes a slight incision,
in the shape of the cross of Santo Spirito, on the right
foot, and introduces into it a dark dye, in order to render the mark indelible. The child is then carried to
the nursery, where it is taken charge of by the Superior, who examines the clothes, to ascertain if there be
any mark, writing, coin, medal, or ribbon: and if
there be any such, she makes a note of it, which she
fastens to the clothes. In fine, every particular by




1]98           ROME AND ITS RULER.
which the identity of the child can be described, is
carefully put aside and registered. If there be no certificate of baptism, the little one is carried to the
church, and there baptized conditionally. The nurseries consist of three rooms, capable of containing fifty
beds for the nurses; and each bed has two cradles near
it. Two of the rooms are for the healthy children, and
one for the sick.
The children are not long retained in the hospital,
the rule being to send them to the country as quickly
as possible. In fact, on certain days nurses apply for
the children, bringing testimonies from the Parish
Priest and Deputy, as to age, health, and capability,
and also as to the birth and death of their own children; in order that they should not ask for their own
offspring, and support them at the expense of the institution. The nurse receives a present of clothes, marked
with the cross of S. Spirito, and is paid at the rate of
one scudo a month for fourteen months. Then commences the nursing a pane, which lasts till twelve years
for boys, and ten for girls. For the first six months of
the dry-nursing, the pay is sixty bajocchi a month, and
after that forty bajocchi till the end. Morichini, firom
whom I take these particulars, states that it is remarked
in Rome that nurses entertain a greater affection for
boys; which is principally accounted for because of
the advantage to be gained from the boy when he
grows up, in case of the family adopting him. It even
frequently happens that the foundling is the most
cherished member of the poor family into which he is




TRAINING AND EDUCATION OF THE GIRLS.  199
received. The boys, when they return from their nurses, are sent to the orphanage of the City of Viterbo,
called S. Maria della Providenza, where, for a certain
monthly pension, they are maintained, clothed, educated, and instructed in some trade or art, until the age of
twenty-one, when they are dismissed with a present of
ten scudi. If the boy be taken by any person, he must
be educated and trained in the same manner, and until
the same age, when, having received the allotted sum,
he may remain in the family, or go where he pleases.
The girl who is kept by a family must be maintained
decently till she is married, or enters a convent; and
in case of her marriage, which is her usual destiny, she
receives a certain sum of twenty scudi; but as there
are various dowries established for illegitimate girls,
she may receive even one hundred scudi-a small fortune in Italy. The girls are restored to the institution
after being nursed, and form a great establishment,
amounting to somewhat about 600 in number. Their
dowry, on leaving the conservatorio for the home of a
husband, is one hundred scudi.
The manufacture of wool and hemp was introduced
at a very early period into this institution; and since
then all kinds of feminine work, including sewing, embroidery, lace, &c.
If my visit to the infant dormitories occasioned a
feeling of sadness, a walk through the department for
the grown female foundlings replaced it by one of real
satisfaction. The entire establishment was a model of
neatness and good order, and its numerous inmates




200           ROME AND ITS RULER.
seemed to be cheerful and happy. In one large and
airy room, a number of girls were prosecuting their
daily studies; in another, they were employed at work
of different kinds; and in a third, they were receiving
religious instruction from one of the nuns, between
whom and their pupils the strongest affection subsists.
Carefully watched over, well instructed, usefully trained,
and provided with a suitable dowry on their quitting
the asylum, it cannot be said but that the hand of charity has done what it could to compensate the foundling
for the want of a parent's love, if not to efface the ignominy of an origin of shame. Formed and trained by
such holy and gentle teachers, and brought up in the
practice of every virtue, it certainly is not the fault of
the institution, or of its system of management, should
the foundling of Santo Spirito, in her married life, not
be a good wife and a good mother-the virtuous companion of her husband, and the watchful guardian of
her children.
7HOSPITAL OF SAN RoCCO.
In connection with the Foundling Hospital, which
has been alluded to at such length, may be noticed the
remarkable hospital of San Rocco.
It was originally established in the year 1500, with
50 beds, partly for medical and partly for surgical
cases; but, in the year 1'70, Clement XIV. devoted it
exclusively to its present purpose-a lying-in hospital,
in which female frailty is hidden from the scorn of the
world, and by which the honour of families is protected.




HOSPITAL OF SAN ROCCO.           201
It has one great hall, and several chambers, one of
which is for births. The average number of beds is
about 20, but these may be increased if necessary.
Each bed has its curtains and a screen, by which it is
effectually separated from the other beds, and, of
course, from  their occupants.  Those who present
themselves for admission are received without any
question being made; and should they wish to cover
their faces with a veil, so as to preclude the possibility
of recognition, this measure of precaution is permitted
them. In the register of the hospital the patient is
alone distinguished by a number. To insure the secrecy so desirable in an institution of the kind, no one
is allowed to enter its walls save the physicians, midwives, nurses, and attendants. When recovered, the
patient can leave the hospital without any apprehension of danger, as the door does not open on a public
road, but near an unfrequented way. Those who dare
not admit their condition, without ruin to their character, are received a considerable time before the period
of delivery; ard, if not poor, they pay a small pension,
which is increased if they desire better accommodation.
The children are sent to Santo Spirito; but those
mothers who desire to reclaim  their offspring at a
future time, put some distinguishing mark upon them,
by which they could be afterwards recognized. Morichini, who wrote in 1841, states that the average number of annual admissions, from 1831 to 1840, was 165.
Generally, the applicants are received from seven to
eight days before the time of delivery, and are kept
9*




202            ROME AND ITS RULER.
until as long after as may be necessary; but some have
been known to have remained but a few hours! The
average time, however, is from four to five days in all.
This, like the other charitable institutions of Rome, is
partly supported by its own revenues, and partly by
the State. I was informed that, in nearly all respects,
its condition at present is similar to what it was ten or
twenty years since.
I know it will be said, by people who look at only
one side of the question, that such institutions as those
last described necessarily lead to immorality, inasmuch
as they afford a ready as'ylum to shame, and a convenient oblivion of its consequences. No doubt, there
would be much force in this objection,.if it could be
viewed by itself only. But, on the other hand, is there
not a road thus left open to moral and social redemption, which is closed against the frail one in other
countries? —and are not greater and more terrible evils
obviated, not by the toleration, but by the prudent recognition, of the one evil?  The State, by its support
of S. Spirito or S. Rocco, does not proclaim its toleration of immorality, and its consequences; but it wisely
admits their existence, and the utter impossibility of
their total prevention; and it meets them  in a manner
equally consistent with wisdom and humanity. It; indeed, the State did no more than merely establish a
foundling hospital, or a secret lying-in hospital, the
soundness of its policy might be questioned. But it
does more-it openly discourages and denounces viceit banishes it friom the streets and highways-it preaches




ADVANTAGES OF THOSE TWO INSTITUTIONS. 203
against it-it educates against it-it takes numberless
precautions against it. Still, in spite of every effort which
religion can inspire, or human wisdom adopt, it is impossible to guard against the commission of certain offences;
and, acting on this admitted fact, it is even commonly
prudent to render them as little hurtful to society generally as possible. The great object of human laws should
be rather the reformation than the punishment of the
offender; and, applying this principle to the particular
evil with which we now deal, let us ask, whether is the
open acknowledgment of unchastity more calculated to
deprave the woman who makes it, or the hiding of her
shame, through such means as these institutions offer to
her in her hour of misery? Is it nothing that the lionour of a family, hitherto without stain, should be saved?
-is it nothing that the unhappy woman, oftentimes the
victim of another's treachery, or of her own unsuspecting innocence, should have the means of redeeming her
character, if not of recovering, by a future of penitence
and virtue, her self-respect? Is it nothing that the innocent offspring should be rescued from the desperation
of its mother's frenzy, and the mother frimn the damning guilt of its murder? Shame and despair are fearful prompters to a weak woman, who hears, in her
anguish, the fiery hiss of the world's scorn, and beholds
its mocking finger pointing her out as a lost one. And
many a tender and gentle woman, whose soft white
hand never before inflicted injury on a living thing,
has, in a moment of mental agony and moral bewilderment, clutched, with a grasp of frenzy, the neck of ier




204            ROME AND ITS RULER.
infant, and crushed out its little life in the mad hope
of hiding one crime by the commission of a greater.
No, no; the austere virtue which turns away its offended eyes from the infant dormitories of S. Spirito,
and the closely-curtained beds of S. Rocco, is a mere
prude, wanting alike in wisdom and in charity.
HOSPITAL FOR LUNATICS.
Adjoining the great hospital of San. Spirito, is situate an extensive hospital, or asylum, for lunatics, divided into two branches, one for male and the other
for female patients. It is subject to the authority of
the prelate in charge of San. Spirito, but it enjoys a
separate administration. To Father Lanez, the second
General of the Jesuits, it principally owes its origin,
in 1548; and amongst those holy men who assisted in
the good work, was the illustlrious 13oromeo, upon
whom  every institution of a charitable nature possessed an irresistible claim. At an early period it was
placed uncp-.':e charge of a religious confraternity,
with thle sanction and approbation of Pius IV. The
present hospital may be yet improved in the extent of
its accolmmodation, or its patients may be fittingly transferred to a building which would have the advantage
of a rural position, and of extensive grounds. But, so
far as the treatment of the inmates is concerned, there
is nothing at present to be desired. For many years
past, the mode of treatment has been that which humanity suggests, and of wlliclh reason approves.  Gemtleness and persuasion have long taken the place of




HOSPITAL FOR LUNATICS.            205
that barbarous coercion, and that cruel system  of restraint, which were at one time universal, more through
ignorance of the real nature of the malady, than from
any want of compassion for the condition of its unhappy victims. In Rome, restraint, which is most
sparingly applied, is used only in particular and extreme cases, and then only when paroxysms of fury
are apprehended, which might be dangerous to the patient as well as to others; and then, instead of irons,
and chains, and handcuffs, a strap or a waistcoat is
alone employed. The beds are of a good description,
their covering being specially attended to in the colder
months of the year. The dress of the patients is in
every way sufficient, and their diet is generous in its
quality and its quantity. They are carefully visited
every day by the medical staff of the hospital, which
consists of men of the highest reputation for their skill
in the treatment of the disease. Religion is also employed with great success, as a means of tranquilizing
the mind, and assisting the progress of the cure. The
patients attend mass daily, and join in other religious
exercises; and during lucid intervals, they are instructed in spiritual matters by a number of clergymen,
who constantly visit the institution. To a community
of Sisters of Charity is intrusted the management of
*the hospital; and these nuns attend both departments
-that for men, as well as that for women. Morichini
states that the institution was visited in 1835 by the
late celebrated Dr. Esquirol, who had applied all his
life to the study of the disease, and the best mode of




206           ROME AND ITS RULER.
its treatment; and that this distinguished authority
spoke highly in praise of the system then adopted, and
of the generallananagement of the hospital.
However, since then there have been considerable
improvements attempted and carried out: and whatever might be said of the Roman Lunatic Asylum
some years since, it may now be spoken of in terms of
just approval. The present Pope has carried out very
important reforms in its management, through the aid
and assistance of the gentleman now at the head of the
institution. Dr. Gualandi, of Bologna, specially visited
the hospitals of France and England, some years since,
with the view of inquiring into their management, and
studying such improvements in the treatment of the
disease as modern science had invented, or experience
had proved to be those most successful. He returned
to Rome, after a prolonged tour and careful inspection
of the principal hospitals of the two great countries
mentioned; and, on his arrival, he presented himself
to the Pope, and laid before the Holy Father his plan
for the managemlent of the Roman hospital. This plan
was at once adopted by the Pope, who placed its author
at the head of the institution, with full authority to
carry it into immediate operation. Dr. Gualandi availed himself of the permission thus given to him, and at
once effected some very important changes. He dismissed several of the officials, and replaced them by
persons of approved humanity and intelligence; and
in many other ways he carried into execution his own
designs and the benevolent wishes of Pins IX.




HOSPITAL FOR LUNATICS.          207
It may be mentioned, that throughout the Papal
States there are some of the best asylums for insane
persons which are to be found in Europe. For instance, that of Perugia is spoken of in the highest
terms by all who visit it: and in Ferrara the treatment
is the mildest that can be imagined-in fact, there
appears to be no restraint whatever, save that which
the gentlest authority imposes. In Bologna, Ancona,
Faenza, Pesaro, and Macerata, the treatment of lunatics is equally humane and intelligent. At any rate, it
may be safely said, that there is no suggestion which
may be made to the Pope, having for its object the
improvement of these institutions, and the amelioration
of the condition of their inmates, that will not command his sympathy and insure his co-operation.
The Brothers of St. John of God, amongst their
other good works, devote themselves to the care of the
insane, and are very successful in their management of
them.
I have referred only to the Public Hospitals of
Rome in the foregoing chapter; but, besides those,
there are several private institutions, also affording a
large amount of relief. The total accommodation
which the entire of the Roman hospitals is capable of
affording, under ordinary circumstances, is not far
from 5,000 beds. The average number of beds daily
occupied may be set down at 2,000. But this average
number either diminishes or increases, according to the
time of the year, and the state of the public health.




208             ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XVIII.
The Roman Prisons —In a State of Transition-Beneficial Change in
their Management-Religious versus Lay Officials.
I MUST premise that it is not my intention to attempt
an elaborate account of the Roman Prisons; I desire
rather, by a description of a few of those institutions,
to exhibit the value of an important change recently
made in the character of their management, and the
practical and successful efforts of Pius IX. towards
a steady reform in the system of their government.
Some of the prisons are old, and not well adapted to
an improved system  of classification, or to the carrying
on of such works as are regarded as a useful aid to the
reformation of the prisoner.  But the spirit of progress
is manifested in various ways; for instance, in the
alteration of an inconveniently constructed buildingin the enlargement of one found to be too small for
a judicious separation of certain classes of offenders
-or in the erection of new and really splendid institutions, in which all the modern improvements are
adopted, or about to be so. In more than one instance
I witnessed the alterations actually being carried out;
and I visited and went through the different departments of prisons which had been completed but a




ROMAN PRISONS IN A STATE OF TRANSITION. 209
short time before. In a word, it may be said, with the
most perfect truth, that the prisons of Rome are in
a state of transition; and that, in a very short time,
every such institution will experience the advantage
of that wise and humane policy which characterizes
the rule of Pius IX. If the stranger who visits Rome
do not find all its prisons in the same condition in
which he might wish to see them, he must, in the
first place, recollect, that the resources at the disposal of the state are but small, and that the income of
the sovereign is less than that of a third-rate country
gentleman in England; and he must remember, in
the second place, the confusion and trouble caused
by the Revolution of 1848, and its subsequent events
-by which many useful public undertakings were
entirely suspended, and many valuable reforms rendered for a time impossible. Indeed,, with such causes
for discouragement, the wonder is, not that so much
remains to be done, but that so much has been accomplished. Besides, it should be borne in mind, that the
most important changes effected in the prisons of the
United Kingdom  are of recent date; and that their
condition, not very long since, was a cause of scandal
and reproach to a people calling themselves Christianl.
Even at this day, in spite of the enormous wealth of
England, and her unlimited facility of applying public
money to the erection of such institutions, the prison
system of England will not for a moment stand comparison with that of Belgium. Nor must it be forgotten
* See Appendix.




210            ROME AND ITS RULER.
that England, as well as other countries, is indebted to
Rome for the improvement of the separate system —
which dates so far back as the pontificate of Clement XL, fully a century and a half since. And those
Reformatories, too, which are so recent in this country,
are of old date in Rome; in which city, under various
denominations, many such now exist, and have existed
for a considerable period. In many of the schools and
orphanages of Rome are to be seen the best possible
models of the modern " Reformatory;" for in them the
youthful vagrant, or incipient criminal, is rescued from
ignorance, idleness, and vice, and trained to knowledge, industry, and virtue.
The important change in the Roman prisons, which
I propose as the principal object of the present notice,
is the gradual substitution of members of religious
orders for the ordinary staff of jailors, turnkeys, and
guards-which change also fitly typifies the substitution of persuasion for force.
In all humane systems, the thorough reformation of
the criminal ought to be the great object aimed at.
Punishment, no doubt, is essential, as a means of deterring others from the commission of similar offences,
as well as arresting the offender in his career of guilt;
but unless the improvement of the prisoner be insisted
upon as an object of primary importance, it were
better, perhaps, for society that he was got rid of altogether —for he is restored to it hardened, corrupted,
and desperate, and thus unfitted for any useful or
creditable employment. To effect the reformation of




SUBSTITUTION OF RELIGIOUS MANAGEMENT. 211
the unfortunate criminal is certainly the first wish of
the paternal heart of Pius IX.; and, with this object
in view, he has of late entrusted several of the prisons
of Rome to the sole and unrestricted management of
religious orders. Jailors and turnkeys, however excellent many of them personally may be, are not usually
inspired by very pure or lofty motives in the discharge
of their functions. To suppose they were, would be to
expect too much from human nature. So the prisoner
is docile, and does not give much trouble, they are
satisfied. Besides, their first duty is to retain in safe
custody those committed to their charge; their next is
to compel a rigid compliance with the prison rules;
and, satisfied in these respects, they generally think of
little else. The mere stipendiary-save in rare and
noble instances-serves mechanically, and from  the
hope of pecuniary reward, or personal advancement;
or if he display unusual and remarkable activity and
zeal, it is mostly from the same impelling motive. But
the religious serves out of pure charity, and from the
love of God. Thus, while the one is a jailor, and
nothing but a jailor, the other is a fiiend and a benefactor. The whole and only object of persons devoted
to a religious life is to serve God, by doing the greatest possible good to their fellow-creatures, no matter
how degraded they may be, no matter into what depths
of physical misery or moral depravity they may have
fallen. It does not require much penetration to determine which of those two classes of persons is the more
calculated to inspire the prisoner with confidence, and




212           ROME AND ITS RULER.
thus achieve the very first step towards real, not mock,
reformation.
In the first prison which I visited, I had the opportunity of understanding the value of the substitution of
the new system for the old. This was a prison for
women, called
TmV TERkINI.
The door was opened by a Lay Sister of the order,
to which the control of the establishment has been
entirely confided. The order is that of the Seurs de
Providence, one of those noble institutions of which
Catholic Belgium has been so gloriously fruitful. It
is specially devoted to the care of jails, hospitals, and
schools; its mission being to reclaim the erring, to succour and console the sick, and to enlighten the ignorant.
I had the advantage of an introduction to the Rev.
Mother, whose honest, kindly, and most intelligent
countenance was a passport to immediate confidence.
Under her guidance, we-for I was accompanied by
friends, some of whom were deeply interested in the
object of the visit-were conducted through the building. We first passed into a great open space, in which
the prisoners are allowed to take exercise and recreation at regulated hours. And if those who have
formed to themselves fearful notions of Italian prisons
and Italian "dungeons," had only stood within that
vast enclosure-certainly two English acres in extent —
and beheld it so warm and cheerful as I saw it, overhung by a cloudless sky, and lit up by a bright sun,




THE PRISON FOR WOMEN.            213
their preconceived notions would have received some
what of a shock; for a place more unprison-like I
never beheld. A few of the prisoners were at that
moment sauntering about this open space; others were
in the chapel; more were confined in the infirmary;
but the great body of them were assembled in a vast
apartment, arranged in the manner of an ordinary
school, and were engaged in various descriptions of
female work, and the making and repair of the clothes
of the inmates, to the fabrication of the most beautiful
and costly varieties of lace. Three or four Sisters superintended the employment of the prisoners, and completely controlled them by their presence. When I
first visited the prison, no regular uniform had been
attempted, although it was in immediate contemplation, and was to have been adopted in a few days;
and, therefore, had I been suddenly introduced, without having previously known the nature of the establishment, I should have at once pronounced it to be an
industrial school for adults, under the superintendence
of a religious community-so little did there appear of
any system of punishment, or even of restraint. But,
here and there, among those silent rows of quiet-looking women, there were some whose hands had once
been red with blood, and who, in their forced seclusion from the world, were then expiating the gravest
offences against the laws; offences prompted, in most
instances, by fierce and sudden passion. I was pointed
out two in particular, who had been guilty of " assassination;" and their dark and sullen features were in




214           ROME AND ITS RULER.
terrible harmony with their crime. For three years
the Sisters have had the management of this institution, with its average of more than two hundred inmates; and beyond their own unaided influence, and
the protection of a solitary sentinal, who keeps guard
over the gate, there is no means of controlling this
large body of women, who in Ireland would certainly,
and with propriety, be classed as " able-bodied." There
was some difficulty experienced at first, and not a little
serious danger either. In fact, there was a regular rebellion on the occasion of the Nuns undertaking the
management, as the prisoners fiercely resisted their
authority. To such lengths did the prisoners proceed,
that one of the Sisters was thrown down by them, and
another was struck violently on the face. Fortunately
for the cause of order, and the future peace of the
prison, the presence of mind displayed by the Sister
who had been struck, speedily put an end to the
tumult.  She quietly said to the excited woman by
whose blow her cheek had been reddened-" You have
slapped me on the one cheek; now slap me on the
other," at the same time deliberately turnig her cheek
to her furious assailant. In an instant, there were two
parties in the prison, whereas there was but oile a
moment before. The gentleness and courage of tlie
Sister were irresistible in their appeal to the better
plart of their rude nature, and a majority at once
ranged themselves on the, side of order; and from that
mlomlent to the present, the authority and influence of
the Nuns have been complete and undisturbed.




THE SOLITARY CELL.              215
At the time of my visit, there was but one of the
prisoners in solitary confinement.  Her immediate
offence was that of striking another prisoner. On our
expressing a wish to see the cell and its inmate, it was
cheerfully complied with. The bolt of the exterior
door was withdrawn, though not without some difficulty, by the small hand of the Sister who accompanied the Superior; and, as we entered the cell,
which was well lighted, we saw a young woman sitting on a low  bed, working, with a cushion and
bobbins, at a fine description of lace.  She at once
respectfully stood up, and smiled brightly at the Reverend Mother, who addressed some words of remonstrance to her in a frank and kindly manner. Her
features were regular and her eyes peculiarly bright,
imparting to the face the appearance of one liable
to strong and violent excitement. One of the party
interceded for her with the Superior; and upon his
intercession having been favourably received, his hand
was eagerly and respectfully seized by the liberated
captive, and kissed after the fashion so common in
Italy when acknowledging an obligation. In answer
to an inquiry as to the nature of her offence, we were
informed that she had assassinated some person in
a monment of terrible excitement.  But I afterlwards
learned that she was a married wolnan, and that,
having discovered, under peculiar and aggravating circumstances, that her husband was unfaithful, she suddenly caught up a knife that lay within her reach, and
stabbed his paramour to the heart. We did not per



216           ROME AND ITS RULER.
haps expect such a revelation; but the impulsive
manner and easily-lighted-up countenance of the woman made one readily comprehend with what rapidity
the mind might have prompted and the hand executed
even a deed of blood. Indeed she afterwards thanked
the Superior for having placed her in solitary confinement, and thus afforded her time for reflection; for
such was the frenzy roused in her by her quarrel with
the fellow-prisoner whom she struck, that she said she
could no longer control her passions, and that, had
she not been forced away, she would certainly have
done her a mortal injury.
We were shown through the various dormitories,
which were of immense size, lofty, airy, and welllighted. In one room, which was over 40 feet square,
there were but 18 beds, neatly arranged, and cleanly
in their appearance, as well as comfortable in their
materials; and in another, which was 60 feet in length
by 40 in width, there were not more than 25 beds.
The infirmary, chapel, and refectory, were large in
proportion, and kept in a condition of perfect cleanliness,-the necessary result of such superintendence,
and such control as the wisdom and humanity of His
Holiness had provided for this important institution.
When it was first handed over to the Nuns, a few of
the prisoners were in a state of great ignorance, some
of them being unable to read. ]But since then their
proficiency in reading and writing, as well as in useful
and ornamental needlework, has been most remarkable; and their conduct has also been allnost uniform



INFLUENCE OF THE NUNS.           217
ly good. The Superior stated that nothing could be
more edifying than the piety of their demeanour when
assisting at the death-bed of a fellow prisoner, or their
eagerness in sharing in the religious ceremonies appointed for that solemn moment. In fact, a dozen
feeble women, acting under a sense of religious obligation, and animated by tender compassion for human
misery in its most painful form, have succeeded in
acquiring the most salutary control over more than
200 of their ruder fellow-creatures, not a few of whom
are expiating offences of great enormity, and who perhaps at one time recognized no law but that of their
fierce and untutored natures. It is unnecessary to say
that religion is the potent agent by which gentleness
and docility are insured, and amendment is being
steadily accomplished.
The influence of the Nuns was submitted to a severe
test in carrying out, on a subsequent day, the change
of dress which had been in contemplation at the time
of my first visit. Then, as I have stated, their dress
might have led a stranger to suppose that the institution was a school, or a factory, rather than a prison;
and not only were many of the prisoners possessed of
clothes, but also of various other articles. Indeed I
had particularly remarked the number of boxes or
trunks in some of the dormitories. The time being
come for the meditated change, it was announced that
from a certain day-then named-the prisoners should
cease to wear their ordinary clothes, and were to assume a regular costume instead; and that they should
10




218           ROME AND ITS RULER.
likewise surrender every thing which they possessed.
To prepare for the new state of things, the Sundaythe day previous to that of the intended changewas to be celebrated as a festival, in a religious as well
as in a more mundane sense; and such was the influence which the devotions of the day produced upon
their minds, that, although some of the unhappy women wept bitterly as they parted with their clothes, or
surrendered their little effects, the most complete and
perfect obedience was manifested by all, without an
exception. The costume was universally assumed, and
boxes and money were quietly yielded up. One of the
prisoners surrendered eighty-three dollars, which she
had kept in a belt, till then concealed about her person. The Nuns looked forward to the enforcement
of the new rule with considerable apprehension, not
knowing how the prisoners would receive it; but,
happily, the result has afforded another and striking
instance of the power and influence of an authority
which, while commanding respect, also inspires affection. Even this prison is still only in a state of progress; and many other reforms-especially a separate
system of cells for sleeping-are in contemplation, and
will be adopted with as little delay as possible.
The Brothers of Mercy have got the control of a
prison for men in the adjoining building, but only for
the last twelve months; and though some of the officers of the former staff are still retained, the tlheee
brothers to whom its care has been entrusted, would
not, as they stated, be in the least degree afraid of




REFORMATORY OF SANTA BALBINA.          219
having it left entirely to their own custody and management. Their influence-the influence of a mild
and gentle, but firm rule —is already most wonderful,
and productive of the best results, in the improved
tone, manner, and feeling of the prisoners.  This prison, at the time I visited it, was undergoing considerable material alterations, mainly undertaken for the
more easy and speedy adoption of a better system;
but, so far as it was possible, in the condition of evident
transition in which our visit found it, even industrial
and literary training was sedulously promoted. The
moral improvement of the prisoner is, of necessity, the
first object, and is never, under any circumstances,
neglected. The brothers under whose care this prison
is placed belong to a Belgian community, established
by a distinguished ecclesiastic, Canon Scheppers, of
Malins, who has'been recently appointed one of the
Chamlnberlains of His Holiness; though his sense of
duty may to a certain extent render his appointient
an honorary distinction.
SANTA BALBINA.
A number of the same valuable brotherhood preside
over. -An interesting institution, intended for the reiornliation iof juvenile offenders, and vagrants of the
worst class —the prison of Santa B1albina.  Visiting
it after the hours appointed for labour or study, I
saw several of the boys in the play-ground,   a large
open space, in which they roamied about freely, and
indulged in harmless sport; but under the watchliul




220            ROME AND ITS RULER.
eye of a brother, whose manner towards them was
of that paternal kind which, while exciting confidence,
also commands respect and ensures obedience. The
entire number of young prisoners was 97 on the day
I went through the institution.  But, really, the term
"prisoner" does not exactly describe their condition,
save so far as they are under a certain restraint, and
cannot leave until permitted to do so. They are all
taught to read and write; many of them are employed
in a vineyard and garden belonging to the establishment; and the rest are occupied in various industrial
pursuits, suited to their state in life.  The rule by
which they are governed, and which they cheerfully
obey, is that of all others best calculated to effect their
reformation. The separate cell system is in a great
measure carried out in this prison; the extensive dormnitories being divided by rows of small apartments,
perhaps about 6 feet by 5, wired in at the top, and
in front.  By this arrangement ventilation and thorough separation are obtained at the same time. This
plan has been also adopted in the Catholic Reforlmatory now in operation at HIammersmith.  The boys
much prefer this separate system to that of open dormnitories, the idea of the little room being theire own,
as well as the duty of keeping it in order, in so.lle
degree exciting a feeling of self-respect. The Brothers
say " they can do any thing" with the boys; such is
the influence which they possess, and, above all, the
confidence which their motives inspire, even in the
breasts of the most corrupted. The severest punish



ANOTHER REFORMATORY.             221
ment, unless for an attempt at escape, is confinement
for a short period; and it may be mentioned that there
is but one " guardian" attached to the prison, and that
he is stationed at the outer door. The Brothers have
been connected with this asylum for three years.
Another of the many reformatories existing in Rome
may be here fittingly introduced. It is that of
SANTA MARIA DELLA IMISERICORDIA.
This institution owes its origin to the humanity of
a private individual, Paola Campa, who established
it in the year 1841. It combines in it many interesting features; being at once an orphan asylum, a reformatory, and a school for agriculture. Its worthy
founder, nowise dismayed by the smallness of his
neans  which had been saved from his income in
a public office-or by the failure of other attempts,
determined to gather together a number of poor abandoned orphan children —in fact, vagrants —and to
educate them in religion and virtue, and in a knowledge of agriculture; for the general complaint was,
that too many poor boys had been reared to trades.
IHe selected a salubrious part of the suburbs, in which
he procured a vineyard of three rubbica, to which he
added seventeen more-in all, twenty. Complete success crowned his charitable efforts; for in a very short
time there were 147 boys of various ages, from five to
eighteen years, in the institution; 103 of whom had
been sent by the Police authorities, 33 by the Comnmission of Subsidies, and the rest by private indivi



222            ROME AND ITS RULER.
duals. The first were paid for by the police, at the
rate of 20 scudi a year each; private persons paid at
the rate of 24 scudi for those whom they sent in; and
some of them were at the entire charge of the generous founder himself. The number of boys was limited
to 200, as a single rubbia of land only gives work
to 10 pupils. The boys are divided into small companies, each of which has for its head an agriculturist
of experience and good conduct, who never leaves his
pupils, but sleeps with them in their dormitory, eats
with them at the same table, and instructs them in the
field. The other officers have separate duties, and all
are presided over by an ecclesiastic, as Superior. The
pupils are taught catechism, reading, writing, arithmetic, and the principles of agriculture; and their
practical training includes the cultivation and management of vines, olives, corn and vegetables, meadows, and grass fields. They likewise have bees, silkworms, and also a few cattle for their instruction in
pastoral occupations. And, in order to stimulate their
zeal, a portion of the profits is reserved for them, and
placed in the savings bank, there to increase by interest. They rise early, arrange their dormitories, assist at Mass, and then eat their first meal; and after
singing pious hymns, they go in companies to their
work, under the escort of their respective chiefs. The
principal meals are taken in common in the refectory,
and are eaten in silence, a good book being read during
the time. Bread is fireely given them while at work,
little time being allowed for idling; but on festival




REFORMATORY DELLA VIGNA PIA.          223
days, after the performance of their religious duties,
they are suffered to indulge in harmless sports in the
beautiful and varied grounds of the institution, which
is near the Villa Albano, whose trees shelter it from
the hot wind. Watched over day and night (the dormitories being well lighted); controlled by a discipline
at once mild and firm; and constantly occupied in
rural labour, in study, in pious practices of religion,
and in healthful recreation-it may be easily understood that punishment is rarely necessary, and that
reformation is the certain result of a system which
developes the finest qualities of the mind and heart,
and finds a free scope for the energies of the body.
MoRICHINI gives a touching instance of the affection
entertained by the boys for their benefactor. On the
cDcasion of CAMPA returning to the institution, after
his recovery fiom a severe fit of sickness, the boys, by
a spontaneous impulse, formed a circle round him, and
on their knees offered an Ave to the Virgin MVother,
the Protectress of the Institution, in thanksgiving for
his safety.
Pius IX. has established more than one of this class
of institutions; and amongst others, a valuable and
flourishing one for vagrant children of more tender
years, who receive in it a religious, a literary, and an
agricultural training. To found and maintain this reforinmatoly, which is known as that della T7igna Pia,
the Pope devoted to it three vineyards, his own private
property. This single fact is indicative of his zeal for
the instruction and reformation of the young.




224             ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XIX.
Prisons of San Michele.-The Cellular and Silent Systems long practiced
in Rome.-The Political Prison very unlike an Italian Dungeon.
AT San Michele, one of the greatest establishments
in Rome, embracing within its vast extent a grand
college, an hospital, more than one asylum for the poor,
and three prisons-there is a prison for males, in which
the separate system has been strictly carried out for
150 years, or since the time of Clement XI. In some
respects it is very similar to the modern military prisons of Ireland, one of the most perfect, if not best managed, of which is that of Cork.  In all cases that it can
be enforced, the silent system is maintained; but there
are times when speaking is allowed, and occupations, —
for instance, particular descriptions of work,-during
which it cannot be judiciously prevented. The cells,
as in the military prison to which I have referred, rise
tier over tier, or story above story-all looking into,
and lighted by, a vast hall, in which various kinds of
industrial employment are carried on. The prisoners
eat their food in their cells; and as I entered the great
hall of the prison, I beheld theni walk quietly and
silently fiom their cells to where an officer was serving
out to each a fair allowance of a soup that looked well
to the eye, and that a curious fiiend assured me was not
at all unpalatable to the taste. On Sundays they are al



THE CELLULAR AND SILENT SYSTEMS.    225
lowed to talk to each other for half an hour. They rise
every morning at half-past five o'clock, dress, and arrange their cells; at half-past six, they attend Mass; they
then breakfast; at half-past seven, they proceed to their
various occupations, always of an industrial kind, at
which they continue till half-past eleven; they then get
their dinner, and remain in their cells till half-past one;
when they resume their work, which lasts till five. At
five they sup; after which they immediately attend
school, which lasts till half-past seven; when instruction of a religious nature is given, and the night prayers
are said. They then return to their cells, into which
they are shut up till the next morning commences another day of melancholy drudgery, irksome, no doubt,
but by no means unilnproving.  Several of the prisoners had been sentenced to various terms of imprisonlment, some even for life; but the greater numnber, if
not all, of this class had their sentences conmmuted to
twenty years on the occasion of the last anniversary of
the Pope's accession to the throne.
This prison was designed and constructed by the
celebrated architect Carlo Fontana, at the command of
Clement XI., by whom it was originally intended for
the reformation of a more youthful class of offenders.
Each cell is twelve palms in length and ten in width,
and is lofty in proportion. An iron balcony runs before each row of cells, the upper rows being reached
by a circular or winding, stairs.
It will be perceived that the separate and the silent
systems, which are now regarded in these countries as
10e




226            ROME AND ITS RULER.
modern inventions in prison discipline, are carried out
in a Roman prison whose origin dates back a century
and a half; and that both those systems are applied
within rational and humane limits —neither being
maintained as a matter of inflexible rule, but both being judiciously modified and departed from, equally to
the advantage of the prisoner and the institution.*
Four Brothers have the sole charge of this prison.
By one of them, a young man of gentle manner and
prepossessing appearance, I was conducted through its
various departments, the details of which he explained
with equal courtesy and intelligence.
TuE POLITICAL PRISON.
Passing over the prison for women, which forms part
of the vast collection of buildings, I may refer to that
in which persons convicted or accused of political
offences were then confined. To this department of
the building I turned with considerable anxiety, being
desirous of judging, by what I should myself see, how
far the statements of certain of the English journals,
with respect to the treatment of political prisoners,
were true or false. I expected, at the least, to behold
gloomy and noisome cells; to see the victims of Papal
tyranny lying on scanty bundles of straw  flung on
stone couches, and to hear the clanking of the galling
fetter and the ponderous chain. In fact, to realize the
* The illustrious Howard specially procured a plan of this prison for
his great work; it being, as he says, " different from any I had before
seen."




THE POLITICAL PRISON.           227
picture of a "Roman dungeon" which English writers
have made familiar to my mind, the prison into which
I was about being admitted should, as nearly as possible, resemble those fearful dungeons that are shown to
the stranger in Venice, and which, in their horrid
gloom  and tomb-like aspect, speak with terrible eloquence of the mysterious tyranny of its departed Republic. But as the guardian turned the key, and flung
open the door of the great hall of the prison, my thickcoming fancies and dark associations were at once dispelled. For, instead of gloom, and horror, and noisome
dungeons, I beheld a large, well-lighted, well-ventilated,
and-could such a word be properly applied to any
place of confinement - cheerful-looking hall.  Thle
bright sun streamed in through several windows,
placed rather high fiom the ground, on one side of this
vast hall; and on the other side, and facing the light,
the cells were constructed, row above row, their doors,nd windows opening into this large enclosure. There
was no clanking of chains to be heard, but, instead,
the hum of conversation, as some twenty or twentyfive men were, at the moment, either walking up and
down, or engaged in a game of dominoes. They all
wore their ordinary clothes, and might have passed for
a number of persons who had been confined for debt.
A glance into the interior of the cells of this Roman
dungeon was quite sufficient to show that, not only had
they ample air and light, but that they differed from
ordinary cells in the great superiority of their size and
arrangement.  In size alone, they were considerably




228            ROME AND ITS RULER.
larger than the cells of an ordinary prison. They also
differed from the ordinary cell in a much more remarkable manner; for in those into which I looked, there
were drinking-glasses of different kinds, some ornaments, and other articles not to be expected in such
places. So far as a sense of delicacy would permit of
my doing so, I saw enough to discredit the statements
which I had been accustomed to read; and to convince
me, that, at least in this prison-the only prison in
Rome in which political prisoners were then detained
-there was no feature, whether of degradation or of
cruelty, which could in any way justify those descriptions of " Italian dungeons" so familiar to the public
of the United Kingdom.  I passed through a room, or
ward, of considerable size, in which there were several
men, the greater number of whom  were sitting on
their beds; which beds appealed to be of the description usually found in a public hospital. Light and air
were fully supplied to this as to the other compartment
which I have described.
This prison is entirely in the hands, and under the
ilnaiagenment, of the police.  At the time of my visit,
somreewhere about the middle of last Novemlber, the
nmlllber of prisoners within its walls was under fifty;
and of this nunmber but a small proportion was undergoiulg punishment for what are, in Romne, classed under
the head of purely lpolitical offences.  At filrst, I was
unable to understand the distinction between offeneces
"ptrely political," and offenllces "ariisin.g out of poa'tyspl-rii."  It was, however, a distinction easily explain



TEE POLITICAL PRISON.            229
ed. The former class of offence is defined by its own
terml, and comprehends conspiracies and other attempts
against the sovereign authority of the state. But the
other class of offences has its origin in the vehemence
of party-feeling, and the quarrels and violence to
which it leads. Perhaps I could not better indicate
the character of those offences, as a means of distinguishing them from such as are purely political, than
by a reference to those outrages to which party-spirit
annually leads in the North of Ireland, and which,
though arising out of party-spirit, are not purely political in their character, and in no way imply an attempt against the government. Where such offences
involve injury to property, and even to life, as they
very frequently do in the Roman States, they must be
punished, or society would at once become disorganized. And this class of offenders formed more than
two-thirds of the entire number suffering punishment,
or under arrest, for offences in any way arising out of
politics.  In fact, at the time of my visit to Rome,
there were not more than 70'" purely political" offenders in all the prisons of the States; while of the other
class, who had committed offences "arising out of
party-spirit," the gross number was about 200 —which
figures exhibited a very different state of things fiom
what, ill common with the general public of these
countries, I had been led to believe.*
* See Appendix.




230             ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XX.
Asylum and Prison of the Good Shepherd.-Singular Influence of the
Nuns over the Prisoners.-Model Prison of Fossombrone. —The Pope
a Prison Reformer.-His Advice to Bishop Wilson.
I WOULD desire to notice somewhat in detail one of
the most interesting of the Roman reformatory institutions-the Asylum and Prison of the Good Shepherd.  It is a splendid establishment, of immense
size, quite modern in its construction, being one of the
many grand monuments which the Pope has erected
during his reign.  There formerly existed here an institution for female penitents, who had voluntarily
sought an asylum  from  the misery and horror of a
profligate life, which was under the direction of a
community of Augustinian Nuns; but within the last
three years the vast building erected by Pius IX. has
been completed, and handed over to. the Nuns of the
order of the Good Shepherd, twenty of whom entirely
govern and control its three distinct and separate departments,-one  called  the Preservation  Class-the
other, the Voluntary Penitents-the third, the Prison
for those condemned to various terms of confinement.
At the time I visited the institution, there were sixty
of the first class, fifty-five of the second, and sixty



VOLUNTARY PENITENTS.            231
five of the third-in all 180. There was not even a
sentinel stationed at the gate, as is almost universally
the case with establishments in which condemned persons are detained; and not a single man, or indeed
guard of any kind, was to be seen within the walls.
The exterior door was opened by one of the Nuns,
who summoned the Superioress; by whom, personally,
every portion of the vast building was readily and
courteously exhibited, and fully explained.
In the first large apartment which we entered, there
were assembled between thirty and forty of the young
persons comprehended in the Preservation Class, and
whose ages ranged from four to upwards of twenty
years. Several of them were orphans; others were
children of parents then in prison for offences of various
kinds; and a few were the children of depraved parents,
from whom they were rescued by being placed in this
asylum. Special care is taken that no really bad characters are admitted into this part of the establishment,
lest they should have an opportunity of corrupting
those old enough to receive the moral contagion; and,
indeed, the appearance and manners of the girls, as they
stood silently and respectfully before one of the Sisters,
from whom they were then receiving religious instruction, was calculated to impress even the casual visitor
with an idea of their innocence. They were nearly all
pleasing-looking, and not a few had faces full of actual
beauty, and that of the true Roman type. These children and young girls are taught to read and write, to
make up accounts, to be expert in plain and other work;




232             ROME AND ITS RULER.
and it is scarcely necessary to add, that their moral and
religious training is the first care of their gentle and
affectionate guardians.  Mlany of the girls wore collars
of merit suspended round their necks, and to some of
them was delegated the authority of MIonitresses. Their
dormitories, through which I passed, were large, lofty,
cheerful, admirably ventilated, and kept in a state of
the most perfect neatness.  A well-kept and sufficiently
spacious garden is attached to this branch of the establishment, for the exclusive use of this class-a hig'h wall
separating the garden appropriated to tile second class,
or Voluntary Penitents.
Perhaps the term Voluntary Penitent does not strictly
apply to the entire of this second class; for a considerable nlumber of them  had been brought in by their
parents, in the hope of checking them  in a course of
folly or of guilt.  The rest had, of their own choice,
sought a refuge in the asylum; and a number of both
were then in the infirmary ward.  Should a parent desire to place an erring daughter in this asylum, application is made to the Cardinal Vicar, within whose
jurisdiction it is, and, upon his consent being givenl,
compulsion might be had recourse to, in case resistance
were attempted.
A description of the daily existence of tlis class of
inmates may be interesting, as illustrative of the systeml
adopted fbr their reformation.' -x They rise in slumnmIel at
five, and in winter at half-past five.  After a short timne
* A similar system is adopted, perhaps with some modifications, in
most of the Houses of ltefuge in ioome.




THE PRISON.                233
spent in mental prayer, they hear Mass, and then commence work-always of a useful and profitable character. During their work they frequently sing pious
hymns, which lighten their labour, and keep the mind
away from thoughts which it would not be well to encourage. IBefore breakfast-which is invariably eaten
in silence —they make an examination of conscience;
and, during the repast, a chapter of a good work is
read. One of the Sisters overlooks this as well as the
other meals, which always commence and terminate
with prayer. After dinner, the Penitents enjoy an
hour of innocent recreation, a Sister being present.
They are not allowed to speak in whispers, nor are they
permitted to indulge in vain or idle discourse, much less
to allude to improper or dangerous subjects. After
recreation, prayers, reading, and study, follow. They
then resume work, at which they continue till the time
arrives for saying the rosary, which is said in common.
At half-past six or seven, they sup, equally in silence,
and during the reading of a pious book. Another hour
of recreation follows; and at nine o'clock they say their
night-prayers, and retire to rest. Silence is observed in
the dormitories, and indeed always, except during the
hours of recreation. The Penitents do not speak to any
visitor, other than a father, mother, guardian, or person
who has placed them in the institution, except in- the
presence of a Sister. They practice humility, obedience, and mortification; they have the use of good
books; they confess weekly, and communicate monthly; they control even their gestures, and comport them



234            ROME AND ITS RULER.
selves with grave and modest demeanour. When going
from one place to another, they walk two and two; they
call each other. " sister," and they each serve in their
turn. The profit of their work is all their own.
In each dormitory, as in all the dormitories of the
establishment, one of the sisters has her bed placed;
so that, as a lamp is kept burning throughout the
night, her watchfulness over her charge may be said
never to cease.
The third compartment is the Prison, which has its
chapel, its refectory, its work-rooms, its hospital, its
dormitories, its schools, and, of course, its kitchen. In
the hospital, there were several wretched women, of
different ages, expiating, in Various stages of physical
suffering, their career of vice. The women in this side
of the building were all prisoners, having been condemned by the tribunal of the Cardinal Vicar to various terms of imprisonment, from six months even to
twenty years. The only woman then condemned for
this latter period was remarkable for her tall stature,
and a certain wildness of the eye. Her offence was
that of infanticide —a very rare and exceptional crime
in the Papal States, and one which excites peculiar
horror when it does happen. It may also be said that
it is one to which the precautionary policy of the
government allows no kind of excuse; for the establishment of a great Foundling Hospital affords an
easy opportunity of disposing of illegitimate offspring,
otherwise than by assassination, as is too commonly
the case in England. Upon this important question




INFLUENCE AND AUTHORITY OF THE NUNS. 235
the most opposite opinions are entertained-some holding that the facility of getting rid of the shame and the
burden of maintaining the offspring of illicit connection is an incentive and a boon to immorality; while,
on the other hand, the singular infrequency of the
crime of child murder is triumphantly appealed to as
the result of a policy as merciful as it is indispensable.
Several of the women, then in the prison, had been
condemned for periods of five, and even ten years. In
the infirmary ward were somle elderly women, who had
been detected keeping houses of bad character, and
ensnaring young girls to their destruction; and these
venerable sinners had been each condemned to impriso.nment for a period of five years. One old and rather
repulsive-looking woman, who had been convicted of
selling her own daughter to infamy, was undergoing a
sentence of imprisonment for ten years. I mention the
offence and the punishment, as indicating the vigilance
and rigour of the tribunal presided over by the Cardinal Vicar, who, as the Guardian of Morals, takes cognizance of all glaring instances of their infiaction.
Among the other prisoners, were wives against whom
charges of incontinence had been made and proved by
their husbands. Considering, then, the character of
many of the prisoners, it was a matter of amazement to
learn with what facility they were controlled, and to
see the flimsy nature of the locks by which alone the
doors of the work-rooms and dormitories were fastened.
I examined several of them with curiosity; and, on
drawing the key from the lock of one of the principal




236           ROME AND ITS RULER.
wards, I found it was just about the size of that used
for an ordinary bed-room of a private house in England or Ireland! In each dormitory was placed the
bed of the Nun, little more than its curtains distinguishing it from the beds of the prisoners. In one
dormitory I counted as many as twenty-eight beds.
And to maintain authority over, and ensure the obedience of, their twenty-eight occupants, there was but
that one Sister; unless the aid of a "'guardian"-one
of the prisoners, raised to that rank for good conduct-might be relied on in case of necessity. Put
though some difficulty had been experienced in the
commencement, when the institution was first handed
over to the Sisters, none whatever is felt at present;
for the rudeness and even violence of the past has
altogether disappeared, and the entire of the prisoners
are remarkable for their docility and ready obedience
to the orders of the Nuns. The Superioress stated
that there never was an attempt made to escape; and,
on being asked what she could in case a number of
the prisoners determined to set themselves fiee, she
answered, with a quiet little shrug,-" There would
still be no fear, for the majority, being well disposed,
would at once take part with the Sisters."
In this prison it is deemed unnecessary to adopt
the separate or cellular system, from the fact that one
of the Nuns is always on the watch, and may at a
moment obviate any inconvenience which could arise
from a number of the prisoners sleeping in the same
apartment. In conclusion, I may safely assert that, in




THE POPE A PRISON REFORMER.          237
all respects, this prison-in which the same industrial,
literary, moral, and religious training is carried out as
in the other two departments of the establishmentwill stand comparison with the very best in the United
Kingdom. Of itself, it is an admirable illustration of
that reformatory spirit of which PIus IX. is the origin
and the inspiration.
The grand new prison near Fossombrone may be
also incidentally referred to. It is now ready for 250
inmates, and is to be rendered capable of containing
500. This will be the Model Prison of the States, in
which every improvement that experience has proved
to be useful, or that humanity can suggest, will have a
fair trial. In the other prisons there is change as well
as progress; but in this there will be the most perfect
adaptation of the means employed to the object to be
accomplished. The penitentiary system, which combines cellular separation at night, and silent work under inspectors by day-and which has been in operation in the prison of San Michele since the year 1704
— will be applied to adults in the new institution of
Fossombrone. The construction of this prison is an
additional evidence of the humanity and reformatory
zeal of Pius IX.
It would be only tedious if I were to refer to the
other prisons in Rome, especially as I have given sufficient to justify my assertion, that they are in a state of
transition, and the expression of a confident hope that,
in the course of a very short time, they will be inferior
in no respects, save in the expense of their construc



238            ROME AND ITS RULER.
Lion, maintenance, and management, to the boasted
prisons of England. I do believe that in some respects
they will be vastly superior in their results; above all,
in the great work of reformation-in the real improvemont of their unhlappy inmates, whose guilt is, in the
RPoman States, as in other countries, most fiequently
caused either by poverty and ignorance, or by temptations against which poverty and ignorance are but a
poor protection. To no subject has the Pope devoted
more attention than to this most important one of the
treatmrent of criminals; and the gradual changes which
are being effected, or which are already planned, have
been entirely inspired by the zeal and lhumanity of His
Holiness, whose chief, as well as most enthusiastic,
agent in the good work is his principal Chamberlain,
Monsignor de Merode,* the brother-in-law of the Count
de Aontalembert.  Monsignor Talbot, who also holds
the office of Cllamberlain to HIis HIoliness, is equally
most zealous and earnest in the great work of prison
reform.  So that the Pope has the advantage of tile
assistance and sympathy of two men who are singularly suited to the promotion of this great and hulnaile
object; for while MIonsignor de Meoclde Ihas had extensive experience of the prison-systemn of  Belgi uli,
wlichl is perhaps superior to that of' any in the worldl,
AonIosi glor Talbot is thoroughly acquainted with] all
those improvements which have been recently adopted
in Ellgland. The former distinguished person has the
* See Appendix.




THE POPE'S VISITS TO THE PRISONS.       239
official charge of the Roman prisons; while the latter
visits them several times in the week, but in a capacity
more immediately spiritual. The Pope was not satisfied with hearing of the state of those institutions, and
he resolved to see with his own eyes into their actual
condition.  Accordingly, in October, 1855, he made
several visits to the Roman prisons, going through
their different departments, the dormitories, the cells,
the workshops, the infirmaries, and the kitchens, in
which he carefully examined into the quantity and
quality of the food distributed to the prisoners. And
of these he asked various questions-as to the offence
which they had committed-the length of their imprisonment-and the manner in which they were treated.
This visit was one of entire surprise to the authorities,
and at the time excited the greatest interest throughout Rome, as no such visits had been made since the
year 1824, when Leo XII. personally inspected the prisons in the same manner.  Many of the reforms which
are being carried out, as well as those which are now
in contemplation, are in a great measure the fiuit of
tlat memorable inspection.
In concluding my notice of the Roman Prisons, I
may repeat, t]lat, while the greater nuimber of those
institutions would bear no comparison to t-llhe mnagnificent and costly establlishments of England, they are, in
general, in a state of Iopeful trcansZtiOb,o  not to costliness and magnificence, but to more practical efficiency,
and more certain success. It would be strange, indeed, if the condition and treatment. of the prisoner




240           ROME AND ITS RULER.
did not command the attention of one of the most
benevolent of men, whose feelings with reference to
this unhappy class were touchingly expressed on the
occasion of his giving a final audience to Bishop Wilson, when that prelate was about to return to his distant diocese.-" Be kind, my son," said the Pope, " to
all your flock at Hobart Town, but be klindest to the
condemned!"




HOUSES OF REFUGE.                 241
CHAPTEIR XXI.
]louses of Refuge.-Charitable Associations for the Defence of the Poor
and the Imprisoned.-Society of S. Giovanni Decollato.-Society
della MIorte.,
ROME also possesses several Houses of IRefuge for
women, who have left the prison or the hospital, and
who anxiously desire to atone, by a future of virtue,
for the crime and scandal of the past.  Some of these
date so far back as the time of Leo X., in 1520; and
others have associated with them the illustrious names
of St. Ignatius of Loyola, St. Charles JBorromeo, and
St. Philip Neri, who have either been their founders
or their patrons.  Similar institutions, of a recent date,
have had their origin in the charity of a Pope, a cardinal, a simple priest, or even a lay person of either
sex.  And as a founder, promoter, or patron of such
charities, Pius IX. has, to say the least, equalled even
the most munificent of his predecessors.
In connection with the Roman Prisons may be noted
some few of the more remarkable charitable associations which have been founded for the comfort and relief of their unhappy inmates. The first of those to
which I refer is that for the11




242           ROME AND ITS RULER.
DEFENCE OF THE POOR AND IMPRISONED.
To protect the poor, and defend the weak against
the aggressions of the strong, has been at all times a
leading principle of the Church; which has given
birth, in Rome as elsewhere, to many institutions animated by her spirit, and devoted to her cherished objects. The Arch Confraternity of St. Ivo is one of
these. But so early as the year 563, Gregory the
Great instituted seven difensori in different portions
of the city; and in 1340 the College of the Procuratori assumed the title of "diritti de' poveri.'"  Urban
VIII. instituted the office of Advocate of the Poor in
civil cases, to which a noble citizen was nominated.
The Congregation of St. Ivo, which was established in
the beginning of the 16th century, was thus called
after its founder, a saint of that name, who, a lawyer
by profession, had consecrated his life to the gratuitous
advocacy of the poor, especially orphans and widows.
The society consisted of advocates and prelates of the
Sacra Rota, who met on Sundays in the Church of S.
Paolo Decollato; and who, after having performed
their religious duties, assembled at an appointed place,
and listened to the questions which the poor submitted
to their consideration. When convinced of the justice
of a case, they at once undertook its defence. The society was created into an arch confraternity by Paul
V., in 1616. It has a Cardinal Protector, and a Prefect, who is a prelate of the Curia Ronana. The




DEFENCE OF THE POOR AND IMPRISO- ED.  243
members of the confraternity are all lawyers. The
defence of each case is intrusted to a brother, aftel it
has been inquired into, and the poverty of the client
clearly established. The society pays all its expenses;
for, besides having small-but sufficient revenues at its
disposal, it commands the gratuitous services of the
procurators and advocates who are members of its own
body. It defends the causes of poor strangers as well
as others. Many great and illustrious names have been
enrolled in this noble association. which has received
special honours and privileges from various Popes.
The Arch Confraternity of S. 7irlnamo cdelict Ccurilc
also undertakes the defence of prisoners and poor persons, especially widows. It has the adiministration of
a legacy left by Felice Amadori, a noble Florentine,
who died in the year 1639. This confraternity owes
its origin to Clement VII., while he was still Cardiial
Giulio de' Medici. It was raised to the dignity of an
arch confraternity by Leo X., who conceded to it the
Church of St. Girolamo, in 1524. -It has b)een, since
then, an object of peculiar interlest to successive Pontiffs, from whom it has received important privileges,
all tending to increase its usefulness to the poor and
the distressed. The principal objects of their solicitude are persons confined in prison; and these they
visit, comfort, clothe, and fiequently liberate, either by
paying the fine imposed on them as a penalty for their
offence, or by arranging matters with their creditors.
They have access to all the criminal offices in Rome,




244             ROXME AND ITS RULER.
and thus ascertain the number and amount of penalties
imposed.  With a wise charity, they endeavour to simplify and shorten causes; and they employ a solicitor,
who assists in arranging disputes, and thus putting an
end to litigation. Some of the most important prisons,
including the New Prisons, have been confided to their
superintendence; and, besides examining the food of
the prisoners daily, they defend their interests and
maintain their rights with the zeal of humanity and
religion. This confraternity embraces the flower of
the Romnan Prelacy, of the Patrician order, and of the
Priesthood. Like.most of the other charitable bodies,
it possesses revenues of its own, and is further assisted
in its pious work by assistance from the State.
A  kindred confraternity is that of Pieta de Carceratac which was founded in 1575 by a French Jesuit,
who, on going to confess prisoners, ascertained their
great want of charitable assistance. It was raised to
an arch confiraternity by Gregory XIII.; and Sixtus
VY  endowed it with peculiar privileges. The Church
of St. John, in the district of Pigna, was conceded to
it by the former Pontiff. The members visit, comfort,
exhort, and give alrms to the prisoners; they also give
food and clothing, pay debts, and endeavor to reconcile creditors. This confraternity consists of persons
of rank, both lay and clerical, to whom  is freely permitted the privilege of visiting the prisons.  The Capitoline Pirison is specially intrusted to their pious ministrations; and those condemned to the 6"galleys" are
objects of their merciful compassion.




MORICHINI'S ACCOUNT.           245
ARaC CONFRATERNITY OF S. GIOVANI DECOLLATO.
Morichini gives an interesting account of this confraternity, whose mission is one of singular charity,-to
bring comfort and consolation to the last moments of
the condemned. It appears that on the 8th of May,
1488, some good Florentines, then in Rome, considering that those who died by the hand of justice had no
one to visit and comfort them in their last hours, instituted a confraternity which was at first called -Della
Migsericordia, and afterwards by its present name, from
the church of their patron.  Pope Innocent VIII.
granted the society a place under the Campidolio, in
which they erected a church to St. John the Baptist;
and heye they were allowed to bury the remains of
those who had been executed.  Their objects were
sympathized with, and their efforts assisted, by successive Pontiffs. Tuscans only, or their descendants to
the third generation, are received into the society.
On the day previous to the execution of a criminal,
they invite, by public placard, prayers for his happy
passage to the other life. In the night of that day, the
brothers, some half dozen in number, including priests,
assemble in the church of S. Giovanni di Fiorentini,
not far from  the New  Prisons.  Here they recite
prayers, imploring the Divine assistance in the melancholy office which they are about to perform. They
then proceed to the prisons, walking, two by two, in
silence, some of the brothers bearing lanterns in their




246           ROME AND ITS RULER.
hands. On entering the chamber called conforteria,
they assume the sack and cord, in which they appear
to the prisoner as well as to the public. They divide
between them the pious labours. Two perform  the
office of consolers; one acts as the sagrestcano; and another makes a record of all that happens from the moment of the intimation of the sentence to that of the
execution. These dismal annals are carefully preserved.
At midnight the guardians of the prison go to the cell
of the condemned, and lead him, by a staircase, to the
chapel of the conforteria. At the foot of the stairs, the
condemned is met by the notary, who formally intimates to him the sentence of death. The unhappy man
is then delivered up to the two "comforters," who embrace him, and, with the crucifix and the image of the
Sorrowful Mother presented to him, offer all the consolation which religion and charity can suggest in that
terrible moment. The others assist in alleviating his
mlisery, and, without being importunate, endeavour to
dispose him to confess, and receive the Holy Communion. Should he be ignorant of the truths of Christianity, they instruct him in them in a simple manner. If
the condemned manifest a disposition to impenitence,
they not only themselves use every effort which the
circumstances of his case render necessary, but call in
the aid of other clergymen. The other members of the
confraternity employ the hours preceding the execution
in the recital of appropriate prayers, and confess and
communicate at a mass celebrated two hours before
dawn. Clad in the sacco, they proceed, two by two, to




BURIAL OF THE POOR.            247
the prison, the procession being headed by a crossbearer with a great cross, and a torch-bearer at each
side, carrying axtorch of yellow wax. The procession
having arrived'at the prison, the condemned descends
the steps; the first object which meets his gaze being
an image of the Blessed Virgin, before which he kneels,
and, proceeding on, does the same before the crucifix,
which is near the gate that he now leaves for ever.
Here he ascends the car which awaits him, accompanied by the "comforters," who console and assist him
to the last; and the procession moves on to the place
of execution, the members of the confraternity going in
advance. Arrived at the fatal spot, the condemned descends from the car, and is led into a chamber of an
adjoining building, which is hung with black, where
the last acts of devotion are performed, or, if he be impenitent, where the last efforts are made to move him
to a better spirit.' The hour being come, the executioner bandages his eyes, and places him upon the
block; and thus, while supported by his confortori, and
repeating the sacred name and invoking the mercy of
Jesus, the axe descends upon the criminal, and human
justice is satisfied. The brothers then take charge of
the body, lay it on a bier, and, carrying it to their
church, decently inter it. Finally, they conclude their
pious work by prayer.
THE CONFRATERNrrITY   DELLA MOtTE."
Freqluently, towards night, does the stranger in Rome




248           ROME AND ITS RULER.
hear in the streets the sad chaunt of the  Jisorere; and
on approaching the place whence the solemn sounds
proceed, he beholds a long procession of figures clad
entirely in black, and headed by a cross-bearer; many
of the figures bearing large waxen torches, which fling
a wild glare upon the bier, on which is borne the body
of the deceased. It is the Confraternity della _iorte,
dedicated to the pious office of providing burial for the
poor. It was first instituted in 1551, and finally established by Pius IV. in 1560. It is composed mostly of
citizens of good position, some of whom are of high
rank. The members are distinguished by a habit of
black, and a hood of the same colour, with apertures
for the eyes. When they hear of a death, they meet,
and having put on their habits, go out in pairs; and
when they arrive at the house where the body lies, they
place it on a bier, and take it to a church, singing the
fiYserere as the mournful procession winds through the
streets. Even should they be apprised of a death which
had occurred twenty, or even thirty, miles distant from
RIome, no matter what may be the time or the season,
the burial of their poor fellow-creature is at once attended by this excellent society. In the Pontificate of
Clement VIII., a terrible inundclation was caused by the
rise of the Tiber —a calamity ever to be dreaded, and
ever attended with the greatest misery and danger to
the poor; and the brethren were seen employed, as far
as Ostia and Fiumicino, in extricating dead bodies from
the water.




CHARITY TO AN IRISH PRIEST.        249
Another confraternity-della Perseveraqnza-which
is composed of pious men, visit and relieve poor strangers who are domiciled in inns and lodging-houses, and
minister to their different wants. This confraternity
was established under Alexander VII., in 1663; and
besides its duty of ministering to the necessities of the
living, it also provides decent sepulture for the deadpoor strangers being in both cases the objects of their
special care.
A fatal accident, which occurred near Tivoli, in September, 1856, afforded a melancholy occasion for the
exercise of the charity of ohe of those institutions, and
severely tested the humanity and courage of its brotherhood. An Irish clergyman, whose name it is not
necessary to mention, was unfortunately drowned while
bathing in the sulphur lake below Tivoli. After three
days, the body was recovered; but it was found to be
in an advanced state of decomposition, in a great measure owing to the highly impregnated character of the
water. The members of the confiaternity delclla  iorte,
established in the Church of the Carita, in Tivoli, laid
the body in a coffin, which they had provided for the
purpose; and though the day was intensely hot, and
the odour from the body was in the highest degree
offensive, they bore it, for a distance of five miles, to
the Cathedral, where, after the last offices of religion
being paid to it, it was buried in the grave set apart
for the deceased canons of the church. Here were a
number of men, the majority of them artisans, encoun11"




250           ROME AND ITS RULER.
tering this fearful danger, and undergoing this perilous
toil, beneath the raging heat of an Italian sun; not only
without hope of fee or reward, but freely sacrificing
their day's employment to the performance of a pious
work. The number of the brethren to whom this duty
was allotted was twenty-four; and they relieved each
other by turns-those not engaged in bearing the body
chanting sacred hymns, the dirge-like tones of which fall
upon the ear of the stranger with such solemn effect.




EDUCATION IN ROME.                  251
CHAPTER XX I I.
Education in Rome.-The Old Calumny against the Catholic Church
refuted by the Educational Institutions of Rome.-Its Schools more
numerous than its Fountains.-Elementary Education.-Gratuitous
Education originated by Ecclesiastics.-Religious Orders devoted
to the Gratuitous Education of the Poor. -The Brothers of the
Christian Schools.-Their admirable Systemr of Education.
THE old and long-standing calumny against the Catholic Church is, that she hates, because she dreads, the
light; and that darkness being her congenial element,
and indeed essential to her safety, it has been, as it ever
will be, her policy to discourage the policy of education, and thus retain the human mind in a convenient
state of intellectual tw-ilight.  This is no worn-out and
obsolete accusation, which one has to search for in some
musty volume, or dig out of some rust-eaten record of
a past age.  On the contrary, it is the one most frequently made at this very day, by those who desire
to misrepresent the Church; and it is the one, of all
others, most readily credited by the Protestant public
of these countries.  Now, if this accusation-that the
Church is the friend of ignorance, and the enemy of
education-be at all tlrue, to no betterlplace within the
wide circle of Christendom could we look for the exemplification of this barbarous and benighting policy, than




252            ROME AND ITS RULER.
to Rome; for there, not only has the Pope to maintain
his spiritual supremacy by tile force and power of ignorance, but his temporal power has also to be upheld
by the same potent agency. Therefore, schools ought
to be very rare in Rome, and systematically discouraged by its ruler and his government. Or, if they exist
in any nuihber, they should be such only as were intended for the training of ecclesiastics, whose chief object would be the perpetuation of the same state of popular debasement, which, according to the calumny, is
the very foundation and stronghold of the influence and
authority of the Church,-its influence and authority
over the darkened mind of man. If London, Liverpool,
and Manchester swarmed with schools and seminaries
of every kind, and suited to every want and necessity
of the population; and if these schools were flung open
gratuitously to the children of the poor, so that there
ought not to be an ignorant child left in either of those
great communities, it,might be said, with justice, that
London, Liverpool; and Manchester were marching on
the high-road of civilization, and were entitled to the
respect and admiration of all other communities. If the
samlne can be said of Rome) is not Rome equally entitled
to the same admiration and the same respect? Let us
see if Rome really merit praise on this account.
It may be said of Rome, that she possesses, even at
this day, and notwithstanding the ruin of many of the
magnificent aqueducts of the olden time, a greater
number of public fountains, fromn which her population
may draw an abundant and unceasing supply of the




ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.            253
purest water, than any other city in the world. And
yet her schools are more numerous than her fountains,
and quite as accessible to all classes, from the youth of
her nobility to the offspring of the porter and the woodcutter; and not more pure and unpolluted is the spring
from which the young intellect draws its first nourishment in the seminaries of the " modern Babylon," than
are those streams which bring health and daily comfort
to the poorest of her people. Pass through its streets,
and at every turn you hear the plash, plash, of water,
falling gratefully on the ear; and so may be heard the
unmistakeable hum and buzz of the regional and the
parish schools. But these, great in number as I shall
show them to be, form but a small portion of the educational institutions of calumniated Rome.
First, of Elementary Education.
Until the year 1597, when the illustrious Saint,
Giuseppe Calasanzio, opened the first gratuitous school
for the poor, which he did in the neglected district of
Trastevere, elementary education in Rome was entirely
in the hands of the masters of the regionary, or district, schools, who were then partly paid by the State,
and partly by a small weekly stipend from their pupils.
Miserable, however, as the payment of the regionary
teachers was, they stoutly resisted the benevolent exertions of the Saint in favour of gratuitous education; nor
could he have overcome the many difficulties which
were placed in his path, and which were attributable
to various causes, if he were animated by a less ardent
zeal, or were endowed with a less energetic spirit. In




254            ROME AND ITS RULER.
the course of his charitable ministrations to the poor, he
saw that which we all see at this present day-n-amely;
that ignorance was the fiuitful source of misery and
vice; and, Catholic Priest as he was, he resolutely
girded his loins to encounter that very evil of intellectual darkness which hie believed to be the worst
enemy of the Church.  His eTfforts were attended with
the success which they merited; and to those efforts,
followed, as they have been, to this hour, by the exertions and sacrifices of numnberless successive benefactors
of youth, are due that noble system of gratuitous instruction which forms one'of the most striking and
hopeful features of modern RIman civilization.
Leo XII. placed the elementary schools under the
control and jurisdiction of the Cardinal Vicar; and,
by his bull of 1825, the private schools, otherwise the
regionary schools, were subjected to a strict system
of supervision. These latter are held in the private
houses of the masters, who, if the number of their pupils happen to be sixty-beyond vTwhich number no one
school can contain —must empl-Joy the services of an assistant; the calculation being9 that one teacher cannot
properly attend to more than thirty scholars.  The
course of education varies in different schools, according
to the age, condition, or necessities of the pupils.  In
general, besides the usual system of reading, writing,
arithmetic, and catechism, are included the elements
of the Italian and French lngulages, Latin grlamnmar,
geography, sacred and profamle history, &c. The religious education of the child is never overlooked in these




REGIONARY SCHOOLS.                  255
schools, though under the management of laymen; for.
not only do the pupils attend mass every morning, but
there are various religious practices observed during the
day.. Punishment, which is strictly limited to beating
on the hand with a small rod, is rarely administered,
and is in many schools absolutely dispensed with.  The
masters must submit themselves to an examination, in
order to test their competency; and the duty of making this examination is entrusted to a Committee of
Ecclesiastics, delegated by the Cardinal Vicar.* The
same Committee likewise exercise a general superintendence over the schools, their discipline, and their
system of education.  In case of the illness of a master,
a substitute, paid by the State, attends in his place;
and the State also contributes an annual sum to provide rewards for deserving pupils.  The number of the
regionary schools is rather on the decrease than otherwise; but this decrease is owing to a cause in the highest degree favourable to a more widely-diffused system  of education-namely, the increase of gratu'itous
schools.  The average, for some time past, has been
somewhere about 50 schools for boys of the private
* It would be advisable if the example of Rome had been followed in
England; for it appears, by the last Census Report, that such an examination of teachers as I have above referred to, is much required in the
private schools of the latter country. Mr. Horace Mann says"In the case of 708 out of 13,879 schools. the returns were respectively signed by the master or mistress with a mnark. The same is
noticeable with respect to 35 public schools, most of which had small
endowments." Mr. Mann truly remarks, that "the efficiency of a
school depends unquestionably more upon the efficiency of the teacher
than upon any other circumstance."




25 6           IROME AND ITS RULER.
and paying class, with 80 masters and assistants, and
less than 9,000 scholars. Thle exact number of regionary schools at present is 49.
The saintly founder of the gratuitous schools was actively assisted by other ecclesiastics-who were equally
determined foes to ignoralnce; and before God called
him to his reward, in the ripeness of a glorious old age,
he had the happiness of beholding many free schools
crowded with the children of the poor, and the organization of a number of religious and charitable associations devoted to their care.
From  those "Pious Schools" many others sprang;
and now, in every part of Rome, there are gratuitols
elementary schools suited to the wants and necessities
of the population, with systems of education adapted to
various occupations and different branches of industry.
Among the most prominent and successful conductors
of elementary education, are the Fatherls Scolopi, the
Fathers Somaschi, the Fathers of the Christian Docetrine, and the Cdhristian Brothers-all of whom  have
a number of flourishing schools under their charge.
There are then the Parish Schools, one of which, at
least, is to be found in every parish of Rome. These
schools are under the immlediate control and direction
of the Reetor, or Parish Priest, who uses his best influence to induce the attendance of pupils.  These
schools alone afford a vast educational provision for
the children of' thle poorer class.
Besides these, there are several schools in the care
of societies of various kinds, but whose chief object; is




THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.           257
the education of youth. Of these, may be mentioned
the Society degli Asili d' Infanzia, which has two
asylums, or educational establishments, for boys; one
in Trastevere, and the other in Regola. Also, the Society of Private Benefactors, amongst the principal of
whom is Prince Doria; and they have an admirable
institution entirely maintained at their own charge.
The Roman Conference of the Society of St. Vincent
de Paul has lately opened a flourishing school for the
education of boys; and it is certain to use every exertion to extend the sphere of its operations.
The Christian Brothers, or Brothers of the Christian
Schools, have taken strong root in Rome, and are there,
as in all other countries where they have been established, amongst the most zealous and successful of the
teachers of youth. To the Catholic reader of these countries, more especially of Ireland, their wonderful success, in elevating the tone and character of the working
classes, is well known; and in Rome, their reputation,
for the possession of all those attributes which can constitute zealous and conscientious teachers, is fully as high
as it is elsewhere. These men are the very chivalry of
the intellectual army of modern times; and yet their
order is one of the many educational institutions which
have sprung from the bosom of the Catholic Churchthe reputed friend of darkness, and champion of ignorance! Some notice of the origin of this order may
fitly introduce an allusion to their success in Rome.
The Christian Schools of France owe their origin to
the zeal and piety of the Abbe de la Salle. This distin



258            ROME AND ITS RULER.
guished ecclesiastic was born at. Rheims on the 30th of
April, 1651, of parents of the highest respectability.
Resolving to devote himself to the service of religion,
he accepted a canonry in the Cathedral of Rheims, and
at a suitable age, was raised to the priesthood.  Seeing
the spiritual destitution of the children of the poor, and
the very inefficient means for their instruction which the
existing schools afforded, he determined on devoting to
their reformation all the tinme which his other duties
left at his disposal. HIe assembled a small number of
teachers, induced them  to adopt a kind of community
life, presided at their studies, and used every effort to
qualify them for the discharge of their important and
onerous obligations. He soon found, however, that his
new undertaking would demand all his time and attention. IHte therefore resigned his canonry; sold his patrimony, and  distributed its proceeds to the poor;
brought the teachers to reside with him in his own
house, and laboured with them in the conducting of
the schools. The fruits of his teaching soon became
manifest; the schools attained a high reputation, and
numerous applications poured in on the good Abbe for
communities of such efficient teachers. A noviciate, or
I-Iouse of Probation, was established, in which the junior members of the society were educated and trained
to their respective duties; and in a very short period the
Institulte spread itself throughout the principal parts of
the kingdom.
Rules and constitutions for its permanent government were now drawn up; religious engagements for a




THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.          259
limited time entered into; and the title of "Brothers of
the Christian Schools" adopted. In 1702 the saintly
founder sent two of his brothers to Rome, in order to
form an establishment in the Holy City. His object in
doing so was (according to his own declaration) to place
his Institute under the auspices of the Holy See; to
have more ready access to the feet of Christ's Vicar,
for the approbation of its rules and constitutions; to
attach it for ever to the imperishable and infallible
Church; and to give testimony of his inviolable attachment to the Centre of Unity, at a time when so many
were found ready to limit its prerogatives, and question
its authority. The undertaking was, after some time,
successful. An establishment was formed. Another
was given by Pope Benedict XIII., by whom the society was approved and confirmed in 1715. From that
time it continued to flourish until the disastrous period
of the Revolution, when the decrees of the National
Assembly, which proscribed religious societies, compelled the brothers to disperse, and scatter themselves
throughout the kingdom. Some took refuge in Italy,
and were received into the houses existing in that country; but the success of the French arms in that peninsula deprived them of even this protection. Of the
numerous establishments which had been possessed by
the society, two only, those of Ferrara and of Orvietto,
now remained; and to their existence was owing the revival of the body, when the decree of the French Consul
permitted the brothers again to assemble in community.
In 1801 they opened an establishment in Lyons.




260              ROME AND ITS RULER.
Other establishments followed. In 1815 they reassumed the religious dress; and from that period to the
present, they have been increasing in numbers and
efficiency, diffusing blessings around them in every
locality which has been favoured with their pious and
edifying labours.*
Actively patronized by successive Popes, including
Leo XII. and Pins IX., the brotherhood, having been
reinforced from France, greatly extended the sphere of
their labours. They now, in 1857, possess five houses
in Rome; in each of which there are 500 pupils, or, in
all, 2,500. They have, besides, a school for the sons of
the French soldiers; and also a boarding-house for boys
who are intended to fill situations in shops and other
places of business.
Morichini bears the highest testimony to the value
of these schools, and commends the zeal and ability of
the masters, and the docility and affection exhibited by
the scholars. Indeed, he goes so far, in his praise of the
schools of the Christian Brothers, and of the manner in
which they are conducted, as to assert that the boys
have been known to go home grieving when the following day happened to be a holiday! If this be so, never
was there a more eloquent tribute offered by pupils
* By the latest returns we find that in France they have 1,235 schools;
in Belgium, 28; in Savoy, 37; Piedmont, 33; Pontifical States, 29;
United States of America, 30; Levant, 10; Prussia, 4; Malaysia, 2;
Switzerland, 1; England, 2. Number of Brothers, 7,000; number of
pupils, 300,315.
The schools of the Christian Brothers in the United Kingdom (not
included in the above) afford education to somewhere about 30,000
boys.




THEIR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.             -261
to their teachers.  The Brothers do not confine their
labours exclusively to their own schools, but attend to
some others which have been lately established, either
by the act of the, Pope, or by the assistance of private
individuals.
Kay (the Travelling Bachelor of Cambridge), in his
Education of the Poor in England and Europe, published in 1846, says of the educational system of the
Brothers of the Christian Schools:"The education given in their schools is very liberal, and
their books very good. The Brothers consider that if they
neglect to develop the intellect of their pupils, they cannot
advance their religious education satisfactorily; they consequently spare no pains to attain the former development,
in order that the latter, which is the great end of their teaching, and of all instruction whatsoever, may not be retarded."*
To many of the Roman monasteries there are colleges or schools attached, in which the students, during
their course of study, assume the dress of the order,
without, however, becoming members of it. Thus the
Benedictines, at S.- Calisto; the Regular Canons, at S.
Pietro in Vinculi; and the Greek Basilians, at Grotto
Ferrata, in the neighbourhood of Rome, whose schools
are frequented-by many children fiom Rome.
Adjoining the Mainertine Prison, there is a School.
of Design for those who are preparing for any branch
of the carpenter trade. This school is of very ancient
date, and was founded by the Arch Confraternity of
St. Joseph..
* For a practical illustration of their system of education, see Appendix.




262             ROMIE AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XXIiI.
The Roman Night Schools.-The Deaf and Dumb —Asylum of Tata
Giovanni. —San Michele, a School of Industry and Art.
PASSING over a number of other day-schools, to which
allusion might be profitably made, we comne to a class
of schools which, owing their origin to the charity of a
humane and religious mechanic, are increasing yearly
in number and in usefulness.  These are the NightSchools, which are specially intended for and devoted
to the education of young artisans, and others engaged
in various laborious pursuits, and who, firom their constant employment dluling the day, are deprived of the
ordinary means -of intellectual and moral instruction.
In fact, no other class of pupils can obtain admission to
thenm save those so circumstanced as I describe.  These
schools are thirteen in number; eleven being nidIer
one institution, and two under separate institutions.
Each school consists of four classes, the number of
pupils attending each school being, at the lowest estimnate, about 120; which would give a total attendance of pupils at not less than 1,600. These schools
alre sustained by various means and resources — by private contributions, by grants through the Commission




THE NIGHT SCHOOLS.              263
of Supplies, and by certain ecclesiastical funds temporarily conceded to tlenm by the present Pope; taken
from the treasury of the Dataria Apostolica, and fromn
the Office of Briefs and Memorials.  Amongst the
benefactors of those valuable institutions, Iiis IIoliness is the principal; he gives to them 120 scudi annually, out of his private purse.  The example of the
Pope is imitated by the cardinals, the nobility, the
clergy, and other classes of the community.
The ordinary teaching comprises reading, writing,
and arithmetic; with a knowledge of the principles of
design and practical geornetry, both of which latter are
applied to the ornamental, useful, and mechanical arts.
Eight years of age is the earliest period at which a
boy can enter the school, but he may attend it until he
is established in life. In their mere educational character and results, these schools will stand a fair comparison with schools of a somewhat similar but more arlmbitious character in France and Belgium; but in one
respect-the moral and religious training of the young
workmyan —the Roman Tlight School stands by itself
In most of the schools elsewhere, religion is not even
thought of; but in Romne it is made a primary consideration; and the most efficacious means are adopted,
especially through religious societies, or congregations,
under the guidance of clergymen, not only to ensure
to the Night Scholar a thorough knowledge of the
principles of his religion, but to induce him  to the
fulfillellnt of its obligaltions.
The cost of each school is about twenty scudi per




264           ROME AND ITS RULER.
month, or 240 scudi a year. Thlis sum serves to procure oil for the lamps, paper, ink, and books-all of
which are given gratuitously to the scholars. The
principal items of expense are the rent, the furniture,
and the salary of the "guardian."
The first of those schools was established in the year
1819, by a poor artisan, Giacomno Casoglio, a carver
in wood, who gathered together a few idle boys who
were playing on the banks of the Tiber, and whom
he induced, by kind words and little presents, to follow him  to his home. There he communicated to
them what little he himself knew of the rudiments of
secular knowledge, and also instructed them in the
truths of religion. He was aided in his pious efforts
by some good ecclesiastics, who threw themselves with
ardour into the work; and, ere long, the humble artisan had many imitators, who excelled him in knowledge and influence, though they could not in charity.
In 1841, the number of schools was eight, and of
scholaris 1,000; but, in 1856, the schools had increased
to thirteen, and the scholars to 1,600. Pius IX., from
the first year of his pontificate to the present time, has
ever evinced the greatest anxiety for the spread and
progress of those schools, the number of which he has
personally assisted to extend. And not only does he
contribute liberally to their support, but he has on
several occasions visited them, without having given
any previous notice of his intention; and minutely inquired into their system of education, their discipline,
and their operation, and also examined several of




DEAF AND DUMB.                265
the pupils, the best of whom he distinguished by rewards given with his own hand.
It may be added, that the utmost care is taken by
the masters that the pupils do not ramble about the
streets at the conclusion of their studies. In general,
they are accompanied to their homes by the masters,
as is the custom in the Pious Schools. Examinations
are held every year, with a public distribution of prizes
by the hands of eminent persons; and the prizes are
always of a useful character, so as to assist the humble parents of the pupils. The elder boys are conducted to the public hospitals, and there encouraged
to the pious duty of ministering to and comforting the
sick. In fine, every effort is made by those who are
entrusted with the management of these schools, as
teachers, directors, or superintendents, to fit the pupil
for a life of industry, honesty, piety, and active benevolence.
DEAF AND DuIm.
Rome, among its other educational institutions, possesses an admirable one for that most afflicted class, the
deaf and dumb. It owes its origin to the benevolence
of an advocate, Don Pasquale di Pietro, who established it in the year 1794, on the system so successfully
adopted in Paris. It has since, with the consent of the
family of the founder, been taken in charge by the
Congregation of Studies, and is now under the protection of the Cardinal President of the Commission of
12




266           ROME AND ITS RULER.
Subsidies, and of a deputy, and is managed by a competent staff. Every improvement which science and
humanity have invented or devised for the benefit of
these sufferers, has been adopted by the conductors of
the Roman institution; and with such success, that the
utmost admiration is excited by its public examinations, in which the pupils display the greatest intelligence, and a thorough knowledge of the many subjects embraced in a system of education in the highest
degree liberal and comprehensive. They are even instructed in various branches of the sciences. Persuasion is the only means used to obtain obedience, there
being no punishment or disgrace other than that involved in the loss of a reward. This institution was
lately visited by the Holy Father, to the'intense delight of its inmates.
There are three colleges or seminaries for artisansnamely, those of the Termini, Tata Giovanni, and San
Michele. The two latter deserve special notice. First,
the
ASYLUM OF TATA GIovNrNI.
Princes and prelates, great merchants and successful
professional men, have not been, as we have already
shown, the only founders of institutions for the relief of
suffering humanity, the shelter of the widow and protection of the orphan, or the education of the ignorant;
for, in all ages of the Church, and in all Catholic countries, we find the Divine spirit of benevolence animat



ASYLUM OF TATA GIOVANNI.          267
ing some poor, unknown, and perhaps despised person,
to undertake and successfully accomplish a great work
of charity. And it would be difficult, indeed, to find a
more signal instance of energy and humanity than was
displayed by an illiterate journeyman-mason, by whose
more familiar name one of the most useful of the Roman educational institutions of Rome has been long
known. The history of its foundation is this:Towards the close of the last century, there worked
at the sacristy of the Vatican Basilica, as a mason, an
humble and illiterate, but religious man, Giovanni
Borgi, who, after his day's toil, was in the constant
habit of attending the sick in the hospital of Santo
Spirito, which lies in the same direction. Indeed, such
was the zeal with which he performed this office of
charity, that he spent entire nights by the bedside of
the sick, and frequently fell asleep over his work in the
day. On one evening, as he accompanied a procession
of a religious confraternity through the city, his attention was attracted to a number of wretched boys whoni
he saw lying on the steps of the Pantheon, and crouching under the benches of the fowl market near that
building, after having wandered about all day, barefooted and in rags. These were partly vagrant children,
who had run away from their parents; children whom
their parents had abandoned; or poor orphans, who
were utterly destitute. Commiserating their unhappy
state, Borgi took some of them to the ground floor of
the house in which he himself resided; and having clad




268           ROME AND ITS RULER.
them, with the aid of alms which he collected, he apprenticed them to useful trades. Two good ecclesiastics having observed his conduct with admiration, assisted him, as well by counsel as by money. The little
asylum soon afforded shelter to forty boys, when it was
removed to a convenient house, one of the friendly
priests paying the rent. It was now assisted by a society, which was formed to aid it, and which, by voluntary subscription, contributed more than one hundred
scudi a month for its support. Thus aided, its organization was further developed in 1784. Giovanni called
the boys "' sons," and they called him " Tata," which is
a vulgar word for father; and hence the name of " TaCa
Giovanni," given to the institution. Pius VI. highly
approved of the good work, and having purchased for
the institution the Palazzo Ruggia, became its principal protector, and was most kind to Giovanni-who
now frequently took up idle and dissolute youths by
force; which so alarmed the beggars, that one had only
to say to the importunate —" Fly, fly! here is Tata Giovanni!" in order to scatter them at once. The institution was now increased to 100 boys. They rose at an
early hour, heard mass, and then received a loaf of
bread, after which they went to their respective shops;
to which TXTA firequently went round himself; in order
to inquire how his " sons" were going on. At the Ave
Macrial he stood at the entrance door, with a bag in his
hand, into which the boys dropped what they had
earned during the day. Though ignorant himself,
TATA knew the value of learning; and he induced a




ASYLUM OF TATA GIOVANNI.          269
number of benevolent persons, lay and clerical, to teach
the boys in the evening. The school lessons were followed by the rosary; and then came the frugal supper
at which, through humility, Princes of the Church frequently served as the attendants of these poor children.
The rule of TATA was strict; nor had the proverb,
"Spare the rod and spoil the child," a more firm believer than himself. His care of the boys was unceasing. He walked through their dormitories all night,
and did not seek repose till the morning. During this
time he did not by any means neglect the sick at Santo
Spirito; and if he could not contrive to go himself to
the hospital, he was sure to send some of the older pupils to perform that office of charity. TATA, though
strict, was also considerate; and frequently, especially
on festival days, accompanied his "sons" to the country, where-though old, short, and thick-set, blind of
one eye, and his quaint head covered by a scratch wig
-he was not ashamed to join in their sports. After
fifteen years of sublime perseverance, this good man
died; but not until he saw his labour crowned with
success, and his cherished institution established on a
firm and lasting basis. The work, so nobly begun, was
well followed up by patrons of rank and influence; and
though the place was changed, and another institution
amalgamated with it, it preserves to this day the familiar name of its founder, Tata Giovanni. The plan of
sending the boys out to work having been found inconvenient, workshops were formed in the establishment;
but the old system was again restored. TATA, rude and




270            ROME AND ITS RULER.
illiterate as he was, was endowed with great good
sense; and in no respect did he more strikingly manifest this fine quality than in the wisdom with which he
allowed the boys to select the trade to which they
had the greatest inclination, for which they evinced
the greatest aptitude, and that best suited their capacity and strength. The soundness of this principle is
practically recognized by its continued adoption. At
twenty years of age, the inmates of the asylum are dismissed; and not only are they well educated, carefully
trained, and thoroughly practiced in their respective
trades; but they have, in their savings-being the surplus over a certain daily charge for their support-the
means not only of providing tools and instruments necessary for their calling, but for the purchase of clothes,
a bed, and other necessary articles. Besides the elementary studies, in which the boys are thoroughly
grounded, they are also taught geometry and the principles of design. Well may the orphan boy bless the
memory of that poor ignorant mason, who, under a
rough exterior and even repulsive manner, concealed a
heart of the tenderest compassion and the loftiest charity. May the name of TATA GIOVANNI be long honoured
o.n this earth.
Pius IX., while yet a simple priest, presided over
this admirable school, from motives of the purest charity, and in order to do good to a class for whom he
ever felt the profoundest sympathy. It was his ordinary custom to dine off the humble fare provided for
the boys, as he sat at the head of their table.




SAN MICHELE.                271
SAN MIOHELE.
San Michele, now a Conservatorio di Belle Arti, is
one of the most interesting institutions in Rome, and
will amply repay the trouble of a visit. Besides training a number of boys to different branches of the purely mechanical arts, it frequently contributes to the
great world of art some of its most distinguished ornaments. For instance, it was a former pupil of San
Michele who lately completed the beautiful monument
to Gregory XVI., now in its place in St. Peter's, and
which no one can regard without a feeling of genuine
admiration, for the exquisite grace of the figures that
adorn it. In the vast and comprehensive seminary the
visitor may observe its pupils engaged in the most varied and opposite pursuits. Here, they are learning
some simple handicraft-there, the highest branches of
art. In one hall, a number of boys are weaving carpets, of the most costly texture and elaborate design;
in another department, other classes are cutting cameos,
engraving on steel and copper, or engaged in modelling a bust or a group, or chiselling it into its enduring
form out of the pure marble of Carrara. You leave
the hall where some incipient Canova is learning the
first principles of his immortal art, and, passing to another part of the building, you hear the quick stroke
of the carpenter's hammer, or see, drying in the open
air, a piece of cloth that has lately received its colour
in the dye-vat. The wise principle of this noble institution is to allow the boy to adopt the pursuit most




272           ROME AND ITS RULER.
congenial to his tastes, or best suited to his capacitynot compelling the youth who feels within him an instinctive longing for the beautiful in art, to toil and
drudge at some mere mechanical pursuit; nor training
another to the profession of an artist, instead of conferring on him a purely mechanical trade. The illustrious
Howard, who speaks of "this large and noble edifice"
with admiration, remarks that when he visited San
Michele, there were in it about 200 boys-" all -learning different trades according to their different abilities
and genius."
To secure admission to this institution, a boy must be
an orphan, a native of the Roman States, and not over
twelve years of age. Occasionally, boys are admitted
for a small pension, not exceeding sixteen or seventeen
shillings a month; and for this small sum they are fed,
clothed, and given a sound literary education, a trade,
or perhaps a profession. Intercourse is freely allowed
with their relatives, so that family ties, where they exist, should be kept up. The education given to the
boys is that which best adapts them to the situation in
life which they are destined to fill. Besides other
branches, music is carefully taught; and perhaps the
stranger, who visits Rome, could enjoy no greater treat
than that afforded on the occasion of the great festival
in honour of the Patron Saint of the institution, when
the choir, entirely composed of the pupils, performs
the splendid music selected for the day, which is celebrated with unusual pomp.
The boys seemed to be happy and contented, as, in



SAN MICHIELE.               273
deed they well might be; for the treatment which they
receive from their superiors is kind and affectionate in
the extreme. Persuasion, not force, is the rule of the
institution. That they were fine healthy-looking little
fellows, I can say with certainty; and the manner with
which they replied to such observations as were addressed to them by the ecclesiastic who kindly conducted me through the greater portion of the vast
building, was frank, self-possessed, and most respectful
-which manner was in itself a good test of the training of the pupil, and the conduct of the master.
To understand the value, or the result, of that artistic
training which the higher classes of the pupils receive,
one had but to pass through the stately apartments of
the Cardinal Protector, the learned and venerable Tosti.
These apartments principally consist of a number of
halls and galleries, enriched by a splendid collection of
works of art and articles of vertu-a great number of
the former having been executed by the pupils of the
institution. Besides paintings and engravings, many
of evident merit, were some beautiful busts, groups,
and bas-reliefs. A lovely little chapel, all of the purest
marble, was also the work of their hands. Amongst
the most exquisite of the works of art, not of modern
execution,  was a group in silver, representing the
scourging of the Redeemer in the hall of Pilate. It
stood about nine inches high, and one glance was sufficient to tell that it came from the hands of a master;
for genius was stamped upon it most unmistakably.
The artist was the famous Benvenuto Cellini.




274           ROME AND ITS RULER.
Writing of this noble institution, Morichini justly
says:-" The hospital is a perfect polytechnic school, a
perfect conservatory for arts and trades, and which the
genius of the Popes had established a century in advance of the most cultivated nations of Europe."
In another branch of the same establishment, there
is an extensive conservatory for girls, who are gratuitously maintained, and taught every thing necessary to
their future condition. They are carefully trained in a
knowledge of the more domestic duties.




FEMALE EDUCATION.                275
CHAPTER XXIV.
Female Education.-Ample Provision for it.-Colleges and Seminaries.
-English and Irish Colleges. —The Propaganda.-The Roman College.-Educational Statistics of Rome, —Its high Standard.
IT is not necessary to refer again to the system of
education carried on in prisons, reformatories, and even
hospitals for the treatment of disease; sufficient has
been shown, in the Prison of S. Michele, the Reformatory of Santa Balbina, and the Hospital of San Galicano, to prove that the education of the young is considered in Rome as a matter, not of secondary, but of
primary importance.
Nor is it advisable to go through a list of the schools
for female children, which are intended for those of
every class and condition in life, from the daughter of
the prince, to the poor deserted child of the street. The
conservatories alone would make a long list, to say
nothing of the public schools under the care of the
Maestre Pie, one of which, at least, is to be found in
every parish. There are several other religious orders
specially devoted to the instruction of youth, including
the following: —the Ursuline, the Presentation, the
Sacred Heart, the Divine Love, the Providence, the
S. Giuseppe, and the Holy Name of Jesus.  In fact,




276           ROME AND ITS RULER.
it may be said, that wherever there is a convent of
nuns, there is also attached to it a school for some one
class or other of female children. Not a few of the institutions for girls were originally intended as reformatories, or asylums for the protection of young persons
in danger of growing up in ignorance or vice. For instance, that known as 11 Borrorneo was founded by
Cardinal Borromeo, who purchased a house on the
Esquiline, and placed in it many poor abandoned girls
who were so utterly destitute, that they were commonly called "censiose," or ragged. So that the "'ragged
school" is by no means of that recent origin which, in
England, many persons suppose it to be. The children
maintained in this institution, as in all the conservatories, are trained up in izndustry, as well as instructed
in the usual course of knowledge suited to their position. Indeed, industrial training is a necessary element
in the education which girls receive in all such institutions; as the profits of their work go in some degree to
meet the charge of maintaining the establishment; the
rest being generally supplied either from revenues attached to the original foundation, or by a contribution
fiom the State, administered by a particular commission, or controlling body. A favourite form of Ronman
charity is that of establishing asylums for children "in
danger," no matter whether the danger arise firom their
orphan condition, or firom the neglect of careless or the
exalmple of bad parents; and at the present day, there
are to be found zealous clergymen, benevolent laymen,
and charitable woimen, ready to imitate the holy ex



COLLEGES AND SEMINARIES.           277
ample of a Borromeo or a Neri. When I come to
give the total of scholars of all ages and both sexes, it
will be seen that the education of the female child is
as carefully provided for as that of the boy.
I now proceed to notice, or rather enumerate, the
educational institutions of a higher class.
The colleges or seminaries for the higher studies are
the Orfani, the Panfili —for ecclesiastics friom  the
estates of the house of Doria-the Capranica, for Romans or the natives of some dioceses of the Marche;
the Seminary of St. Peter, the Roman Seminary, the
Seminario Pio; the secular Colleges of Ghislieri, Clementino, Nazareno, and Borromeo, specially for the
sons of the nobility.
The Seminario Pio was founded and endowed by
Pius IX., out of hAs private purse, and may be mentioned as another proof of his zeal for education. The
students of this ecclesiastical seminary are chosen, by
examination, from the dioceses of the Papal States.
The result is, that the best student of each diocese is
enabled to perfect his education in Rome, and thus
carry back to his native place somewhat of the apostolic spirit of the Holy City.
Besides' these, there are the colleges of the Benedictines in S. Calisto, and of Regular Canons Lateran, in
S. Pietro in Vinculi.
The following are colleges for foreign ecclesiastical
students:The Propaganda; and the colleges of the English,




278           ROME AND ITS'RULER.
Irish, Scotch, Greek, Belgian, French, German, and
Hungarian nations.
The English College was founded and endowed by
Gregory XIII.; but the funds are not equal to the
support of more than 20 or 25 students. However,
Pius IX. has recently joined to this institution a new
college founded by liimself, and bearing his own name.
The Collegio Pio must not be confounded with the Seminario Pio, mentioned above.  The Collegio Pio has
been established by the Pope, not alone to meet the
growing wants of the Catholic Church in England, but
to provide a place of study for the numerous converts
that of late years have quitted the Protestant Church,
and returned to the venerable Church of their fathers.
A new French college has also been established by.the present Pope;'and it is probable that, before long,
n6:-American college will be also opened in Rome. By
-such acts as these does Pius IX. exhibit, as Supreme
Pontiff,.'* his care for all the churches."
The number of pupils in the Scotch College is not
very great at present; but it is progressing.
The students of the Irish College are steadily increasing in number. Of this fact I was myself a witness.
On my first visit to the ecclesiastical college of my
own nation, the number of students was forty-six; but
before I left Rome it was increased to fifty-four, by accessions from various dioceses in Ireland. Indeed, I
had travelled to Rome with two students whom I accidentally met on the platform of the railway in Paris;




THE IRISH COLLEGE.             279
and they were from the diocese of Cloyne, in the county
of Cork.
My first visit to the college found the students just
terminating a "retreat," which was conducted by a
priest of the order of the Passionists, whose picturesque
convent forms so prominent a feature on the Celian
Hill. I was introduced into a long narrow chamber,
from  which the bright sun was excluded by dark
blinds, and which, indeed, received its only light from
the candles burning on the altar. The students, who
were clad in the usual academic costume, were seated
in silent rows, listening with the most profound attention to the eloquent exhortations of the Passionist, who
appeared to put forth all his fervour and all his impressiveness in his concluding appeal. His voice was rich
and melodious, and adapted itself to every style; and
his action was eminently natural-that is, it corresponded with the words which he uttered, and the
emotion which he felt. In fact, he was an orator,
appealing, too, to the most favourable audience-to
young, pure hearts, glowing with piety, and full of
enthusiasm  for the sacred profession to which they
aspired. The devotions of the day were concluded
by the students approaching the altar, and, kneeling
before a large cross, which lays at its steps, kissing the
feet of the image of the crucified Redeemer,-an act
of pious homage, not to the insensible ivory, but to the
Divine Being, whose sublime charity and compassion
for fallen man it visibly and strikingly represented.
The more I saw of this college-and I was a frequent




280            ROME AND ITS RULER.
visitor-the more I was impressed with its discipline,
its management, and its system of education. Certain
portions of the necessary course are taught within its
walls; but the students also attend the lectures of the
Roman College, and the Propaganda. In a short time
they become thoroughly acquainted with the Italian
language, which is indispensable to them as a medium
of instruction. The gravity and decorum of the students, as they walk, in groups of ten or twelve, through
the streets of Rome, is only exceeded by their piety
and collectedness in their devotions, whether performed
in the adjoining church of St. Agata, or in whatever
church they happen to visit. Indeed, they are fortunate in their superiors, the Rector and Vice-Rector;*
than whom  it would be difficult to find two men of
gentler nature, of a solicitude more truly paternal, or.
who are more profoundly impressed with a sense of
their great responsibility.  The natural consequence- is,
that the students honour and love their superiors. For
certain months in the summer they reside altogether
at the establishment in the country; and, at other
times, a visit to the vineyard which the college possesses outside the city affords them the opportunity of
healthful exercise.
The church attached to the Irish College was that
appropriately selected as the resting-place of the heart
of Daniel O'Connell; and a very graceful mural monu* Monsignor Kirby and the Rev. Dr. Moran. The latter, a scholar
of distinguished merit, is nephew to the Most Rev. Dr. Cullen, the predecessor of Dr. Kirby, and now the Catholic Archbishop of Dublin.




THE PROPAGANDA.              281
ment-erected at the sole cost of Charles Bianconi, to
the memory of his illustrious friend-marks out the
spot, and commemorates the fame of the great champion of Catholic liberty. This monument was one of
the first works which brought the artist Benzoni into
notice, and assisted him to attain the deservedly high
position which he now enjoys.
There are several Irish students in the famous Propaganda; and the Irish branches of the Dominican, Augustinian, and Franciscan orders, have each a house in
Rome.
The Propaganda, as is well known, is the celebrated
college in which students intended for foreign missions
are educated. Here meet all nations, and are spoken
all tongues; and from this great institution annually go
forth brave and devoted soldiers of the Cross, not a few
of whom seal with their blood their fidelity to the faith
of the Gospel. This college has its own staff of professors, wvho deliver lectures of the highest character,
which are attended by students of many other colleges.
At the annual Polyglot Academy held this year, the
pupils recited compositions in no less than forty-four
different languages. Fourteen of these were Asiatic,
four African, twenty-four European, and two Oceanic.
The last were spoken by natives of Uvea and Tonga.
All nations and all races of the human family are represented in the pious and heroic youth of this great
Catholic University, which strictly fulfils the sublime
mission of the Church, to " go and teach all nations."
The public schools are the Roman College, the Ap



282           ROME AND ITS RULER.
polinare, and, so far as rhetoric, the College of St.
Maria in Montecelli. - Of one only of these-the Roman College-a brief notice is required.
To give anything like a complete account of the
IRoman College would require a separate treatise in
itself. A sketch of a single Faculty will, however, give
some idea of the extent of its curriculum, and of the
method of instruction. As it is upon the Faculty of
Philosophy that the character of a university will be
generally found to depend, it will be convenient to
take it in this case as an example. This Faculty is
conducted by nine professors. The course of instruction extends over a period of three years, and includes
the following subjects:
LoGIC AND MATHEMATICS,    MORAL PHILOSOPHY,
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS,  PHYSICO-CHEMISTRY,
MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS,    ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY,
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION,   ASTRONOMY,
DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS, 
In the first year of this course of Philosophy, the
student has to attend lectures on two subjects; Logic
and Metaphysics, and Elementary Mathematics. There
are three lectures, of an hour each, every day; two
being devoted to the Logic and Metaphysics, and one
to the Mathematics. In the second year of Philosophy, the student attends four courses of lectures;
Moral Philosophy, Physico-Chemistry, and Mathematical Physics for an hour each every day, and Analytical
Geometry for half-an-hour every second day. In the
third year, the student attends three courses,-the Phi



THE ROMAN COLLEGE.              283
losophy of Religion, Astronomy, and the Calculus;
lectures being delivered on each of these subjects
every day.
From this statement it will be seen that, as far as
the machinery of professorial instruction is concerned,
the faculty of philosophy in the Roman College is superior to that of any university or college in Great
Britain or Ireland, not excepting Oxford or Cambridge.
In some of the universities lately established in this
country, great stress is laid upon the importance of
mathematical studies. Yet we find that even in these
institutions, such, for instance, as the Queen's University in Ireland, a single professor is expected to teach
every branch of mathematics; whilst in the Roman
College there are in general four distinct chairs appropriated to mathematical subjects. It is worthy of remark that many of the text books are written by the
Jesuits themselves. Some of these are well known in
England; such as the Principia Calculi Differentialis
et Integralis, itemrue, Calculi Differentiarumrn finitarum: auctore Andred Carcfa. S. S.
The metaphysical course is very extensive. It is
principally devoted to a critical examination of the various theories of Psychology. The British writers who
attract most notice are Locke and Reid; but the greater
part of the Psychological course appears to be devoted
to combating the fallacies of the German metaphysicians.
The course of Astronomy possesses many points of
interest. In the first place, it is based, to a great ex



284           ROME AND ITS RTJLER.
tent, on the lithographed treatise which the late celebrated Father De Vico prepared for his class. This
gives it a marked character of originality. In the second place, many brilliant discoveries have of late years,
as well as centuries ago, been associated with the name
of the Collegio Romano; and its observatory has long
been acknowledged to be one of the best in Europe.
In studying that important part of Astronomy which
treats of the measurement of time, the student remembers with pride that it was to the founder of the College, to Gregory XIII., we owe the correction of the
Calendar. The extent of the astronomical course may
be judged from the fact, that it enters fully into such
questions as the Lunar Theory, the stability of the Solar
System, the Secular and Periodiec Variations, the effect
of a resisting medium, and the figures of the planets;
all these questions, as a matter of course, requiring a
familiarity with the highest branches of mathematics.
In the course of Physico-Chemistry, after going
through Chemistry proper, and the theories of Light
and Heat, the class is occupied with experiments in
Electricity, Magnetism, and Galvanism. These experiments are, however, but of secondary importance; the
main part of the lectures in these latter subjects being
devoted to discussing the investigations of Ampere,
Arago, Faraday, &c., and developing the several formulme which bring magnetism and electricity into the
domain of mathematics.
The Roman College is entirely under the manage
ment and in the hands of the Jesuit Fathers, who fill




EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS.           285
the different chairs in such a manner as to maintain the
high reputation of that illustrious order. In the Appendix of this volume is given one more proof of the
services which members of this body have conferred on
the cause of science. I allude to the measurement of
the base line, for a trigonometrical survey, by Father
Angelo Secchi.*
The great University, the Sapienza, closes mly list of
institutions for public instruction in Rome. This college was founded in the year 1244, by Innocent IV.,
and has been entirely remodelled in the course of the
present century by Leo XII. The present Pope has
added to the number of its chairs.
Cardinal iMorichini states that, in 1841, there were
in Rome 27 institutions and 387 schools for the instruction of the children of the poorer portion of the public.
Of these, 180 were for children, or infants, of both
sexes; and, of the remainder, 94 were exclusively devoted to males, and 113 to females. The total number
of scholars in elementary schools amounted, at that time,
to 14,157. Of these, 3,790 were of the infant class;
and of those of more advanced years, 5,544 were males,
and 4,823 were females. In gratuito.us elementary
schools, 7,579 received their education; namely, 3,952
boys, and 3,627 girls. In schools paying a s3mall pension, there were 1,592 males, and 1,196 females-making a total in such schools of 2,788. Of the 387 schools
referred to, 26 belonged to religious communities of; See Appendix.




286            ROME AND ITS RULER.
men, and 23 to religious communities of women.
The rest belonged to, or were conducted by, seculars.
In addition, 2,213 children, of both sexes, learned the
rudiments of education in special conservatories and
hospitals.
The figures which are given exclude students in the
universities and higher colleges. Including these, however, with the classes already mentioned, the student
population of Rome, as compared with the total population of the city, was, in the year 1842, as one in eight.
BBut since then, as I have shown, the schools and the
scholars have considerably increased. For instance,
not to go beyond the Night Schools and the schools of
the Christian Brothers, the increase is very marked
since the time when Morichini wrote. The schools of
the former description have increased from eight to
thirteen, and their scholars fiom 1,000 to 1,600.- Besides, the present Pope has himself established a number of schools for children of both sexes, and does all in
his power, by pecuniary aid as well as by other -modes
of encouragement, to promote new schools throughout
the Papal States, and to enlarge, or otherwise imnprove,
those already in existence. He also impresses on his
clergy a duty which they zealously perforrn —that of
urging parents to send their children to school, and thus
take advantage -of that great humanizing agent which
is brought to the very doors of the humblest and poorest. So that, it may be fairly asserted, if a single Roman child grow up iii ignorance, or without the benefit
of a sound and useful education, the fault lies with the




EDUCATIONAL STANDARD  VERY  HIGH.                287
parents of the child, and not with the government of
Pius IX., or with those institutions which redound so
much to the honour of the Eternal City. If, then, the
educational standard were one in eighit when Morichini
wrote, it must now  closely approximate to one in six,
which is, perhaps, the highest standard at which any
State can reasonably hope to attain.*
* Mr. Horace Mann, in his celebrated Report attached to the Census
Tables of 1851,-which Report was published in March, 1854,-says, at
page 21:-" Most competent writers are now inclined to assume that
one in eight would be a satisfactory proportion, after making due allowance for practical impediments." At the same time, Mr. Mann adverts to the opinion of Mr. Edward Baines-the acknowledged leader
and organ of the voluntary party-who, after a careful course of reasoning, says that one in nine would be a proportion quite as high as
the condition of society in England would permit. One in eight is,
therefore, the highest educational standard at which any party, even
those holding the most advanced views, aspire. In 1851, one in eight
and a third was the nominal educational position of England.
For conclusive information as to the real or nominal character of
elementary education in Great Britain, the reader is referred to the
Appendix.




288             ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XXV.
Universities in the Papal States.-Their Courses and Museums. —Valuable Libraries.-Admission gratuitous.-Elementary Instruction.Communal Schools.- Number of Students in the Universities.-The
Church not afriaid of the Diffusion of Education.-Mr. Macaulay
quoted.
HAVING given a general idea of the educational resources of Rome, it may be well to add some few particulars with respect to the provision made for the instruction of youth throughout the Pontifical States;
inasmuch as it must tend to show, to those who are
believers in that imaginary policy of intellectual darkness attributed to the Church, that in the very dominions of the Church, where the Church may be said to
possess more direct influence and authority over temporal matters than in any other part of Christendom, it
preserves its influence and maintains its authority in
spite of the intelligence it persistently awakens, and
the knowledge it so anxiously and laboriously promotes.
There are seven Universities in the Papal Statesnamely, those of Ferrara, Bologna, Urbino, Macerata,
Camerino, Perugia, and Rome. In each there is taught
a complete course of Theology, Jurisprudence, Philosophy, Medicine and Surgery, besides other branches.
The Universities of Rome and Bologna are of the first




THE PAPAL UNIVERSITIES.           289
class, and in these is taught, in addition, a complete
course of mathematics. They are also supplied with a
number of other chairs which do not exist in the universities of the second class. It is the rule, I believe,
that in the first-class universities there must be thirtyeight chairs; but in Rome there are forty-five, and two
additional chairs were recently instituted.
The secondary as well as the first-class universities
are supplied with museums of a comprehensive character, illustrating the various sciences, such as zoology,
mineralogy, anatomy, chemistry, mechanics, &c.; and,
as for the museums of the first class universities, it may
be said, with justice, that they rival those of any European capital, in the variety and value of their collections. Thus, for instance, the museum  of mineralogy
in the Roman University, as well as its collection of
birds, excel, in their completeness and extent, those of
any other Italian city. The same may be said of the
museum of Bologna, some idea of the magnitude and
value of which may be afforded by the fact, that its
anatomical collection contains 60,000 preparations!
Each university is also supplied with an ample
library, in some of which may be found works of great
antiquity and of rare value. In the two great universities there is an excellent observatory, well provided
with the best, the newest, and most costly instruments.
Four of the universities-those of Rome, Perugia,
Bologna, and Ferrara-possess each a chair of Agliculture; and in order that experiment and piactice
might be combined with theory, certain grounds are
13




290            ROME AND ITS RULER.
attached to each of these universities, for the practical
study of this most valuable and ancient of all the
sciences.
The admission of the student to the University is
gratuitous, the salary of the professors being either at
the expense of the State, or, as in some of the secondary institutions, at that of the Province, or provided for
out of special funds destined to the purpose. At one
period only is there any charge made to the university
student, though by no means in the majority of cases;
and that is, on his attaining to and taking out his
academical degrees-namely, of Bachelor, Licentiate,
and Doctor; and the entire cost for all the degrees does
not exceed 60 scudi, or about 131. And in many instances, especially where the student is in a humble
position of life, and cannot afford this very moderate
charge,. it is either partly or wholly remitted. It is
also remitted in cases of signal merit, as where the student reaches to the honours of the Laureate.
Then, with respect to elementary instruction, the amplest provision is made for it; for not only in the firstclass cities, but in general in all cities-in Ireland we
should call them towns-containing from 2,000 to 5,000
inhabitants, there is a Gymnasium, or a Lyceum, for
the instruction of youth. In the gymnasium are taught,
besides other matters, reading, writing, arithmetic, elementary philosophy, and the principles of jurisprudence; and, as an invariable rule, the boys are well
grounded in a knowledge of their religion. Some of
these institutions are under the care of religious bodies,




GENERAL PROVISION FOR EDUCATION.    291
specially devoted to the instruction of youth; others
are conducted by secular priests; and more are confided to laymen. The appointment of teachers belongs
generally to the local municipality, and is made with
the approbation of the bishop of the diocese, and the
sanction of the Congregation of Studies, to which department belongs the superintendence of all the educational institutions of the Pontifical States. The iRoman
College may be termed the Gymnasium of Rome; but
besides the arts or sciences above mentioned, there is
also taught in it a complete course of theology.
To those institutions, as to the universities, the students are admitted withozut any charge whatever, and
they can enter them with the utmost facility.
They attend Mass every morning, and are instructed
in catechism, either every day, or on certain fixed days,
according to their class. On festivals, they assemble in
their societies, or congregations, when they approach
the sacraments, and receive religious instruction from
their spiritual director; and every year, towards Easter, they make a spiritual " retreat" for some days.
Where the gymnasium, or lyceum, does not exist,
there is to be found a Communal School, for boyswhich Communal School may be seen, not merely in
every small town, but even in every village. Similar
schools are established for girls, conducted by the
laestre Pie, and other religious orders devoted to
the promotion of education. It may be again repeated, that all these schools are wholly gratuitous; the
State, or the respective municipality, defraying the




292           ROME AND ITS RULER.
charge, where it is not otherwise provided for by old
foundations, or by special funds.
Even from the incomplete list of educational institltions which I have given, it may be supposed that the
number of'students receiving a first-class education in
the great Universities and in the principal Seminaries
is considerable. By the latest returns, I find that the
number of this class of students amounts to 28,899-a
vast number indeed, especially when contrasted with
the smallness of the aggregate population of the Papal
States. Attending the Roman University, the number
is 1,051-that of Bologna, 1,050 —Mlacerata, 1,313Perugia, 1,137-Pesaro and Urbino, 5,178-Ferrara,
3,706. Then Ancona has 2,515 scholars of the higher
grade, and Ascoli, 2,253-and so on, until the gross
number of 28,899 is made up.
These details, imperfect as they are, render utterly
ridiculous the accusation levelled, by malice or by prejudice, against the Catholic Church, which is said to
owe the preservation of its authority to the ignorance,
and therefore to the mental debasement, of its followers.
If the Church be really afraid of the general diffusion
of education, she must be said to adopt an extraordinary mode of evincing her alarm. You apprehend
that a' certain enemy has a design on your life —that
he meditates your destruction with a deadly weapon.
Prudence tells you to avoid him, or to deprive him
of the means of effecting his purpose. At any rate,
whether you fly or resist, there is one thing which,
unless you be an idiot, youi do not do,-you do not




ENLIGHTENMENT ANXD THE CHURCH.         293
yourself select the weapon, and place it in his hand,
with an invitation to its murderous use. If the Church
dreaded the light, how comes it that it is she who
draws back the veil which shrouds the intellect, and
reveals to the inquiring spirit of youth the choicest
treasures of knowledge, human and divine? Trace her
history throughout all ages in which she has exercised
influence over man, and you ever find her the most
zealous as the most successful promoter of education,
and, above all, dispensing it with unstinting liberality
to those classes of the community who have been considered even of late years, and in many states, and by
many statesmen, as not entitled to its advantages. One
proposition, however, is clear beyond question-if the
progress of enlightenment be so certain to ensure the
downfall of the Church, and necessarily of the Papacy,
as we are- confidently told it is, then Rome is deliberately, and with great trouble, devoting both herself
and the Pope to destruction.
But to those who look to the progress of human enlightenment as the means of insuring the destructioh
of the Church, may be commended the following deliberate statement, written by Mr. Macaulay, who certainly is not open to the charge of partiality on the
side of the Catholics:"We often hear it said, that the world is constantly becoming more and more enlightened, and that this enlightenment must be favourable to Protestantism, and unfavourable
to Catholicism. We wish that we could think so. But we
see great reason to doubt whether this is a well-founded ex



294             ROME AND ITS RULER.
pectation.  We see that during the last two hundred and fifty
years the human mind has been in the highest degree active;
that it has made great advances in every branch of natural
philosophy; that it has produced innumerable inventions
tending to promote the convenience of life; that medicine,
surgery, chemistry, engineering, have been very greatly improved; that government, police, and law, have been improved, though not to so great an extent as the physical sciences. Yet we see that, during these two hundred and fifty
years, Protestantism has made no conquests worth speaking
of. Nay, we believe that, as far as there has been change,
that change has, on the whole, been in favour of the Church of
Rome. We cannot, therefore, feel confident that the progress
of knowledge will necessarily be fatal to a system, which has,
to say the least, stood its ground in spite of the immense pro.
gress made by the human race in knowledge since the days of
Queen Elizabeth."




RELIEF OF THE POOR.               295
CHAPTER XXVI.
Relief of the Poor.-Poverty not treated as a Crime.-Vagrancy and
Imposture sternly dealt with by the Popes.-Efforts to suppress idle
Mendicancy.-Modes of Relief.-Commission of Subsidies.-Charitable Institutions.-Industrial Relief.
IT is no exaggeration to assert, that the wants of the
poor are nowhere more effectually relieved than in
Rome.  Charity, springing from the very bosom of the
Church, where it has ever existed pure and undefiled,
flows through numberless channels upon those whose
wants, whose necessities, and whose sufferings, render
them objects deserving of sympathy and compassion.
And though its seeming superabundance may, and not
unreasonably, be supposed to inflict a certain amount
of injury on the community, by rendering the humbler
classes less self-reliant than they would be under a different state of things; still, no one can deny that relief
-food, clothing, and shelter-is successfully applied to
all who stand in need of such assistance.  Indeed, one
often hears it made a matter of creditable pride, that
so great a calamity as a "death from starvation" is one
of those things never heard of in Rome, or in the Papal
States. Morichini only follows the example of other
writers, when he says, at the conclusion of one of his
chapters-" Thanks be to God! we did not know that




296             ROME AND ITS RULER.
any one died of hunger in Rome, even in the worst
times."  And the same grateful boast is commonly
made use of by those who defend the government and
institutions of the States of the Church from the accusations of prejudice or of ignorance. It would be well
if the same could be said of more prosperous countries,
and more powerful nations.*
It certainly does appear to be a matter next to an
impossibility that any one should die of starvation in
Rome; for not only are the most ample resources applicable to every human want, and to which the poor
may have immediate access; but there exist all kinds
of charitable associations, devoted to the sacred duty
of feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, visiting the
sick, and comforting the afflicted. Then there are
many well-known public institutions, always open to
the poor person in distress, and from whose doors want
and destitution are never driven by surly porters, representing rather the selfishness of the rate-payer than
the charity of the Christian.  Besides, as a general
rule, one, of course, admitting of exceptions, the Italian
Catholic does not feel any hesitation in making known
his wants to his neighbour-to his fellow-man-or in
asking for his assistance. In these countries, and especially in England, poverty is certainly not regarded
* I could not, avoid regarding, as -rather a curious coincidence, the
fact, that, just after I looked over my note-book, in which I had specially recorded this boast, which is so frequently made to the stranger
visiting Rome, I glanced through the " Times" of the same day (Feb.
21st, 1857), in which I saw it stated that three persons had died of
starvation, on the previous day, in one district of London!




POVERTY NOT REGARDED AS A CRIME.   297
with a sentiment of reverence, as it is in Rome.  There,
voluntary poverty is held a virtue; and therefore, natural or accidental poverty cannot be treated as a vice.
*The Church that has canonized beggars will not imprison the poor in a workhouse, merely to spare the
sensitive nerves of the fastidious.
But though poverty is not regarded as a crime in
Rome, as I have heard it stated, on competent authority, it is elsewhere,* still there is no sanction whatever
given to mere vagrants and impostors-those who simulate woes with a view  to extort alms from  the benevolent. No doubt, the giving of alms in the streets, and
at the doors of churches, does something to encourage
* In the Times of Friday, June 26th, Mr. Alderman Copeland is reported to have said, in his place in the House of Commons, on the
previous night-" That his experience, as a citizen of London and a
magistrate, had long convinced him that here (in London) poverty was
regarded as a crime,-and treated as a crime."  The question before tile
House was on a motion, by Viscount Raynham, in reference to the administration of the Poor-law in certain metropolitan workhouses.
This statement, so deliberately made by Mr. Alderman Copeland, and
which Sir John Pakington hoped was " rather the expression of warm
feeling than of deliberate conviction," is thoroughly confirmed by the
Editor of the London Standard, in an article of that paper of the 2d of
July. The writer says:"That the large amount of the prison element in the discipline and
management of workhouses has been fruitful of evil; it has produced
the impression that poverty itself is a crime.  Workhouse authorities
regard every applicationfor relief as an attempt to swindle; every workhoulse inmate as a rogue and a vagabond.  No wonder is it that the only
principle of management, if principle it can be called, is to render the
workhouse as forbidding as possible, as much like a prison as is compatible with a workhouse.  On this principle they allow the inmates to
grow up idle and disorderly, because labour is of itself a relief. *    *X 
Unlike the true Christian principle of sound legislation, workhouse
management is not'a terror to evil doers,' but a terror to those who do
well. The bold, the unscrupulous, and the incorrigible find their account in it; and the Devil finds his, too."
See Appendix for a proof that poverty is treated worse than crime.....




298           ROME AND ITS RULER.
the lazy and the indolent to prefer a life of mendicancy
to a life of honest labour. But, to obviate this evil,
the most rigorous measures have been adopted by successive Popes, from the time of Pius V., in the sixteenth
century, to Pius IX., in the nineteenth, to suppress vagrancy, and defeat and punish imposture. Even the
mildest pontiffs and the holiest saints have sternly set
their faces against loose and disorderly beggars, while
their hearts overflowed with compassion for real suffering. St. Charles Borromeo issued a severe edict, prohibiting mendicancy in the churches of his arch-diocese
of Milan; for in his time the importunities and au-dacity of the beggars, who swarmed in the churches,
was such, in Milan as well as in Rome, that great scandal was thereby caused to religion. Gregory XIII.,
Sixtus V., and subsequent pontiffs, vigorously struggled
with this evil; and to their efforts, as well as to those
of private individuals, inspired by their example, are
owing many of the public asylums and orphanages that
flourish in the present day, and which, at the time of
their original foundation, were intended for the succour of the aged and infirm, or for the protection of
destitute and abandoned children, who would otherwise have grown up in ignorance and vice. Gregory
XIII. provided the monastery of St. Sixtus for the reception of the destitute; and Sixtus V. assigned some
houses near the Ponte Sisto to form an asylum for the
relief and seclusion of mendicants. Innocent XII.
issued bulls for the suppression of that mendicancy
which fostered idleness and led to disorder; while at




IMPOSTURE STERNLY DEALT WITH.        299
the same time he extended the means of affording relief to the really deserving, by founding one general
institute, calling it, Os8izio Generale di Poverti Invalidi. The pontifical palace of the Lateran was assigned
to some as an asylum; while others-those who were
married and had families-were relieved in their own
houses. The magnificent institution of S. MSichelewhich, as I have before stated, now combines within
its walls a school of art and trade for boys, a conservatory for girls, two asylums for men and'women, and
three prisons, including that for the reformation of the
young-mainly owes its origin to the determination of
Clement XI. to imitate the example of his energetic
predecessors, and free Rome from the evils of importunate and turbulent mendicants. Pius VII., Leo XII.,
and Pins IX. have followed in the same path-each
founding one or more institutions for the reception of
the really destitute; and also either increasing the
number, or adding to the accommodation, of the existing orphan asylums, industrial schools, and reformatories. It has been the constant practice of the Popes,
from the time of Sixtus V. to the present, to send foreign vagrants to their own country, and, by stringent
measures, to compel those capable of work to do so.
The same has been done by the present Pope, who,
while full of compassion for undoubted distress, is as
much opposed as any of his predecessors to that sturdy
idle mendicancy which is so demoralizing wherever it
is tolerated.
To render the relief of the meritorious poor more sys



300           ROME AND ITS RULER.
tematic and effectual, Leo XII. established, in 1826,
the Commission of Subsidies; and to this body is entrusted the management of the greater number of the
public charities, and the administration of revenues
which had previously been distributed through a number of channels. This important body is composed of
a Cardinal President, and fifteen other members-including the Treasurer General of the Camera, and the
Almoner of the Pope. Twelve of the " deputies" preside over the distribution of alms in the city. These
deputies are nominated by the Pope, and chosen partly
from  the prelacy, and partly from  the nobility, and
hold office for six years. The city is divided into
twelve districts, or regions, and each region is still
further subdivided into parishes; each parish having
its own organization, consisting of the parish priest and
two parochial deputies (a citizen and a dama di caritaC),
who are nominated by the Cardinal President, and
hold office for three years. These parochial congregations, with a physician and a surgeon, form the congregazione regionaria, at whose meetings one of the deputies of the Commission presides. All these give their
services gratuitously, but each of the district associations has a secretary and a bailiff or steward, both of
whom  are paid. The Commission also has its necessary staff, who are likewise paid for their services.
The alms are given personally, and by domiciliary
visits-by which means the really poor are known.
The motulproprio of Leo XII. divided these alms under
different heads —ordinary, extrlaordinary, and urlgent;




COMMISSION OF SUBSIDIES.          301
and not only do they include money, granted for periods of six and even of twelve months, but also clothing, beds, and working tools. All these articles are
manufactured in the asylum of Santa Maria degli Angeli, which is a house of industry, in the best sense of
the word, and one of those many institutions which owe
their origin to the wise efforts of late Popes to substitute useful labour for idle mendicancy. These articles
are stamped, and cannot be sold or bought, under a
penalty of ten days' imprisonment, and the forfeiture
of the article. Applications for relief are sent in to the
parochial deputies, and addressed to the Cardinal President. The case is at once visited, in order to test the
truth of the statement; and a report upon its merits is
made to the parochial congregation, or to the district
prefect. The granting of "urgent" aid, or aid in clothing, and like matters, is in the power of the latter; but
applications for other descriptions of relief are discussed
by the parochial congregation, who transmit them to the
district congregation, with a recommendation as to the
quality and amount of the aid to be given. These are
again examined by the district congregation; and the
prefect presents the deserving cases to the Commission,
by whom finally the proposed aid is approved. Assistance is also given by the Cardinal President directly,
or through the Parish Priests.
The reports presented by the Commission to the
Pope are documents of much importance, as they not
only contain an audit of their expenditure, but supply
information respecting the moral and material condi



802           ROME AND ITS RULER.
tion of the poor, and offer valuable suggestions as to
the best mode of their improvement.
But there are those in Rome, as in other cities, who
are "ashamed to beg," and who would rather endure
the greatest extremity of want than make their distress
known to others.  With some, especially those who
have seen better days, pride is the influencing motive
of this reserve; with others, that bashfulness and timidity which so frequently accompany decent poverty.
The sympathizing spirit of charity overlooks not, but
specially considers, this class of sufferers; and the
Church has, from time to time, given birth to associations whose object it is to seek out the poor who blush
to make their wants known, and who hide their misery
from the gaze of the world. Rome boasts of many
such institutions. Amongst them, may be mentioned
the Arch-Confiaternity of the Twelve Apostles; the
Congregation called " Urbana," firom  Pope Urban
VIII.; and the Congregation of Divine Piety.
The first-mentioned association employs a number of
physicians, who visit the sick whom the members have
found to stand in need of such succour. They also provide professional assistance for the defence of the poor;
and they specially protect orphans and widows, and
procure a safe shelter for girls "in danger."  They
likewise arrange disputes and reconcile enemies. The
brothers, who are called " deputies," are all of noble or
wealthy families, and include some lawyers.
The second, besides performing many works of piety,
devote themselves to the assistance of poor nobles who




CHARITABLE ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE POOR. 303
have fallen into distress, and to whom they allow a
monthly stipend.
The Congregation of Divine Piety was founded by
Giovanni Stanchi, Priest of Castel Nuovo, in 1679.
This noble society seeks for objects deserving of its
charity; and when convinced, by visit and inquiry, of
the existence of real distress, it relieves the individual,
or the family, by the most timely succour —sometimes
by food; sometimes by money and food; sometimes by
a present of beds and clothing; and sometimes by the
payment of an arrear of rent, or by the redemption of
articles pawned through the pressure of want. Its
largest aid is given when it is apprised of the urgent necessity of a poor and respectable family. These special
alms are administered through four members, who are
not required to give an account of the sums confided to
them, so that the names of the persons assisted might
not appear on the register. In many instances, succour
comes unexpectedly to a reduced family, who never
know their benefactor; so that they have only to thank
Divine Providence for their timely relief. An unknown person presents himself at the house of a family
in distress, makes the offering, and disappears. Well
might the society be called by the beautiful and expressive title of "Divine Mercy."
Morichini says truly, there is not a religious association or institution that does not dispense relief-not a
convent or monastery that does not give some kind of
food —not a noble or wealthy house that has not its
fixed assignment for the poor.




304           ROME AND ITS RULER.
But one of the most important branches of the
charity administered to the poor of Rome, is the employment afforded by certain "public works," which
are principally undertaken with a view to the industrial relief of those who would otherwise be idle, if
not utterly destitute.  These works are undertaken
even more for this charitable object, than for the purpose of beautifying the city, or maintaining in preservation the remains of the ancient monuments;
though, as I shall show in a subsequent chapter, the
Pope devotes the greatest attention to the safety of
objects so dear to the scholar and the man of taste.
The stranger may behold a number of men, certainly not of the able-bodied class, languidly wielding the pickaxe, or slowly trundling the wheelbarrow,
at the base of some ancient monument; removing obstructions, directing dangerous streamlets into a safe
channel, and carting away rubbish which centuries
had accumulated,-thereby frequently revealing to
modern curiosity a choice bas-relief, or more valuable
inscription. These workmen form a considerable portion of the number to whom employment, of various
kinds, but generally with the same object in view, is
thus mercifully afforded.
This system of industrial relief is by no means of
modern invention, having been originally established
and adopted by Sixtus V. and Innocent XII. The
French Administration made use of it with considerable
advantage, as well as a means of employment as of restoring to view many half-buried monuments of ancient art.




INDUSTRIAL RELIEF.            305
Leo XII. also employed the same means towards the
same ends; and Gregory XVI. greatly increased the
annnal sum devoted to this creditable purpose. But
Pins IX. has still further improved on the liberality of
his predecessors, as witness the many important works
which he has of late years undertaken and carried out.
In the winter the pressure is greater than in summer;
employment, through private enterprise, being more
general in the latter period of the year, when the wants
of Italian life are fewer, and the poor are enabled to
eke out a subsistence by selling fruit and other small
merchandise. Healthy and able-bodied men are not
employed on these works, unless they are proved to be
in absolute want; such employment being reserved for
those whom private persons would not be likely to select, and who, in fact are really fitting objects for assistance. Masons and bricklayers are found to be the most
frequent applicants for this species of relief; while carpenters, smiths, hatters, and shoemakers, are very rarely
so. A period of severe pressure, which diminishes the
means of employment afforded through private enterprise, necessarily advances the value of this resource to
the really industrious; and according to the necessity of
the moment, so is the amount of employment increased.
A certain proportion of this means of employment is
reserved for those who have come out of prison, and
have not been able to find work in the ordinary way.
These are under the surveiglance of the police, and are,
at first, paid a smaller sum for their labour than is given
to all others; but if it be found that they conduct them



306            ROME MAND ITS RULER.
selves properly, and do their work diligently, they are
then put -upon a level with the rest, and receive the
usual pay, which is fifteen bajocchi a day. This would
be a miserable rate of compensation in these countries,
but it is not so in countries where the wants of life are
few, and where they are cheaply provided for.
]Besides the numerous asylums in which old age and
infirmnity are sheltered, there are hospitals provided for
temporary relief; such as those of S. Galla and S. Luigi,
which receive all those who have no other place of
shelter during the night.
I had an opportunity of seeing a number of old men
sitting down to a comfortable repast in the refectory of
the noble asylum of S. Michele. The hall was of considerable size, with tables ranged on each side. The
tables were decently furnished with linen and other
requisites; and before each old gentleman was placed a
most excellent dinner, consisting of soup, meat, vegetables, and bread, with a fair proportion of wine. And
composedly and respectably sat those old gentlemen
before their meal-not one which was grudged to them
by selfish ratepayers and pinching "' guardians of the
poor,"9 but to which they felt, because they had been so
taught, that age and infirmity gave them an indefeasible
right. There was no badge of degradation-nothing
to denote that they were outcasts from  "respectable7"
society;-on the contrary, such was the grave composure and dignity of those " ancient Romans,9 that a
stranger who beheld them might have readily supposed
that he was in the dining-hall of a hotel, and not in the




LICENSED MENDICANTS.                307
refectory of a poor-house. From what I saw of their
manner to my guide-one of the clergymen having the
care of the establishment-I could well understand
how different, in its influence on the mind and heart of
the recipient, is that charity which springs from the love
of God, and that which is the offspring of mere State
expediency. The one cherishes the best feelings of the
heart; the other chills and deadens, if it do not kill,
them.*
My gradually diminishing space will not admit of
any further reference to this subject. I shall only add,
that the severity of the laws against street mendicants
has been relaxed, since the year 1837, in favour of certain invalids and infirm persons, who procure a license
and a badge.  They are to be met with in most places
in Rome, as, indeed, others who have not obtained this
legal statu s; but I cannot say that I have found them
unduly importunate.  At any rate, if a stranger happen to express a feeling of annoyance at the prevalence
of the practice of soliciting alms, he is very likely to
be reminded of the words of the Redeemer, who said,
in reply to the hypocritical remonstrance of Judas,
when Mary anointed the feet of Christ, "For the
poor you have always with you; but me you have not
always" (John xxii. 8).
* I find, by referring to the great work of John Howard, the philanthropist, who visited Rome towards the close of the last century, that
he was favourably impressed by this institution. He thus writes:"Adjoining to another court are apartments for the aged and infirm,
in which were 260 men and 226 women. Here they find a comfortable
retreat, having clean rooms and a refectory. I conversed with some of
them, and they appeared happy and thankful."




308            ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XXVII.
Dowries.-Monte di Pieta.-The Roman Savings Bank —Its Origin, its
Operations, and its Success.
AMoNG the other charities of Rome, those which have
been established, whether by associations or individuals,
for giving dowries to young girls, especially orphans,
are peculiarly interesting. This has at all times been
deemed a work of great merit; and hence we find
Popes, cardinals, princes, nobles, merchants, lawyers,
and others, bequeathing funds, with the object of making an honourable provision for those who, without
such provision being made for them, might be exposed
to danger, if not to destruction. The number of dowries now given in Rome, of which there can be any
public record, is about 1200 annually; and this has
been the average for the last fifteen or twenty years.
In the year 1789 there was published a little volume
on this subject, in which it was stated that the sum
which was then annually distributed was 60,000 scudi;
which gross sum, at an average of 40 scudi each dowry, would provide 1500 portions-then, as now, given
to young girls on their marriage, or on their entering a
convent. To this pious work several confraternities, or
religious associations, are entirely devoted. Of these,




DOWRIES.                 309
the Arch-Confraternity of the Hfoly Annunciation might
be mentioned. In the year 14560 a society, consisting
of 200 Roman gentlemen, was formed; the first motive
of this association being, by the practice of piety and
good works, to do honour to the Annunciation of the
Blessed Virgin. It was then united to the Church of
S. Maria, now commonly known as the Minerva, from
its having been built on the site of an ancient temple
erected to the worship of the Daughter of Jove. In
1486 the society was dedicated to the gathering of alms,
with a view to the portioning of poor girls, so as to save
them from danger of seduction. It was constituted an
arch-confraternity by Gregory XIII. in 1581; and Pope
Urban left it heir to his wealth. As early as the year
1600, it portioned 200 girls annually, the greater portion of whom received 50, and some 100, scudi. In
1T00 it gave about 400 portions; and at this day the
average is about the same, at a gross disbursement of
16,000 scudi. It still consists of Roman gentlemen, a
certain number of whom are ecclesiastics, the Cardinal
Vicar being its Protector. The objects of its bounty
must be of good character, and born in wedlock; but
this latter condition is overlooked in special cases. And
in order that its charity should not be given to an undeserving person, a probation of three years is insisted
upon, during which time the girl is watched over by
the society; nor is the dowry given until the moment
when she becomes a wife or a religious. This period
of probation is of great advantage to the girl herself,
as well as to the community generally.




310            ROME AND ITS RULER.
The arch-confraternity just described is not of so ancient a date as the arch-confraternity of Gonfalone,
from which sprang several others, also dedicated to the
same objects-the protection of poor girls, whom they
assisted to establish in life.
Morichini states that there were, when he wrote, no
less than thirteen institutions or associations in Rome
by which dowries were provided. And in his work he
alludes to no fewer than sixty-two, by which relief, of
one kind or other, was administered.
Pius IX. has at all times esteemed this giving of
dowries to young girls a great charity; and has accordingly expended, and continues to expend, a considerable portion of his private means in the good work.
This description of charity is very common throughout Italy, and is practised to a considerable extent by
noble and wealthy families and by pious individuals.
Sums of money are commonly bequeathed for this
purpose; and the bridal festivities of the rich are
gracefully availed of as a fitting occasion of conferring
happiness on the poor.
A brief notice of what was intended as a useful
charity may be here added: theMONTE DI PIETA.
This institution, which was originally established so
early as the year 1539, when it received the sanction
of Paul III., was intended as a remedy against the
prevailing evil of usury. Extinguished in the troubles
which marked the close of the last century, it was re



MONTE DI PIETA.              311
suscitated in 1803, by Pius VII. The loan was then
limited to one scudo, or frown; in 1814 it was increased
to thi'ee; but from that time it was extended to fifty,
and ultimately it has had no fixed limit. The office is
opened at an early hour, and is not closed till all the
business is done. The loan is always one third less
than the value of the article pledged; and articles of
gold and silver are estimated at their intrinsic value,
the work of the artist not being taken into consideration. Each loan or pledge is carefully registered, and
the goods are laid aside in large halls specially adapted
to the purpose, and arranged with the utmost care for
their safety and preservation. The goods are retained
from six to seven months; after which time, if the interest (which is limited to 5 per cent.) be not paid, they are
sold in canto; and if there be any surplus after the loan
and interest, it is kept for the persons who have pledged
the articles. Pledges to the valze of a crown are received
and renewed gratuitously, and without interest; which
is, of course, intended for the accommodation of the
poor, who avail themselves of it very freely. These
free pledges frequently amount to a considerable number daily. They increase in October and in the time of
the Carnival, and diminish at Christmas and in August.
The daily loans amount to nearly 4,000 crowns, and
the capital in circulation amounts to more than half a
million of crowns. The number of pledges at the time
when MoRICHINI wrote, was more than 100,000; and
the annual revenue derived from the transactions of the
institution was then about 40,000 scudi. ~ All kinds of




312           ROME SAND ITS RULER.
articles, with the exception of those belonging to pub
lie institutions, and which are'marked, are received;
and it frequently happens that objects of the greatest
value are deposited as pledges, more for the sake of securing their protection, than with a view to pecuniary
convenience. In all respects the arrangements are admirable, and excite the interest of those who witness the
operations of the institution; which is administered by
a prelate, a treasurer-general, and a confraternity.
In natural connection with the Xionte di Pieta, may
be noticed the
Cassa di Risparmio, or Savings Bank.
Savings Banks are of comparatively recent origin;
the earliest-that established in Hamburg-dating no
further back than the year 1778. Before the close of
the century, the example of Hamburg was followed in
several Eu-ropean countries, England included. The first
in Italy was established in Milan in 1823; but it was not
until the year 1836, when the experiment had been satisfactorily tested in many other places, that it was attempted in Rome. In that year, four Roman gentlemen
of rank met together to discuss the subject in all its
bearings —the advantages and dangers of such an institution, and its adaptation to the genius and character of
the people. Satisfied of its usefulness as a promoter of
industry and frugality, they resolved on the attempt to
establish it in Rome, and drew up rules for its management. They secured the Prince Francesco 13orghese as
its President, and obtained the sanction and assistance




THE ROMAN SAVINGS BANK.          313
of Gregory XVI., who highly approved of its princi
ples. No sooner was the public announcement made
of the intention to establish the bank, than one hundred
associates were enrolled, including the first names of
Rome. A Council of twelve persons, was next formed,
including the- President, Vice President, the Secretary,
five Councillors, a Director, an Auditor, a Cashier, &c.
A popular explanation of the object of the bank, its advantages, and its usefulness, was drawn up by the Secretary, Monsignor Morichini, one of its four originators,
and was generally distributed. The President (Prince
Borghese) gave rooms in his own palace; by which act
he increased the confidence already created in the public mind. On Sunday, the 4th of August, 1836, the bank
was solemnly opened; and its rapid success was the
best reward of its benevolent promoters, and the best
commentary upon the soundness of their judgment.
The bank is opened on Sundays and Wednesdays at nine
o'clock in the morning, and is not closed until the business is at an end. Deposits are received on Sunday,
and drawn on Wednesday. The sum received at one
time may range from one paolo, or five-pence, to 20
scudi, or somewhat more than 41. Interest, at the rate
of 4 per cent., is paid on deposits of more than 20 bajocchi, or a little more than tenpence. Payment of interest is made twice a year, in June and December. If
the interest be left undrawn, it is also liable to interest.
A notice of fifteen days is required for drawing sums
above 10 scudi; but any demand under that sum is
paid at once. The Council assemble twice a month to
14




314           ROME AND ITS RULER.
discuss the affairs of the bank, and are especially solicitous as to the best mode of investing the money deposited, respecting which some difficulty may at times be
experienced. The accounts are published annually. As
a means of realizing funds, current accounts are opened
with persons of wealth and approved character. The
public funds that offer a European guarantee, and afford a ready facility of purchase and sale, are another
means of investment. Mortgages, at a moderate rate
of interest-a boon to many an encumbered proprietor, who thus is enabled to exchange a heavy liability for one easy to bear-also afford a means of investment. Shares are likewise bought in approved
projects, according to the best discretion of the Council. The sum contributed by the persons who associated with the purpose of establishing this valuable institute, was 5,000 scudi; and with this small sum and the
moneys of the depositors, it was almost immediately in
successful operation. Monsignor Morichini, its original
Secretary, gives an account of what it did within the
period of six years from the day it was opened. The
deposits for that time amounted to 1,653,659 scudi; and
the money taken out amounted to 769,852 scudi. Tile
number of pass-books issued was 16,364, in which
158,647 deposits had been entered. The cancelled
pass-books were 6,249. For an entirely new institution,
this was a highly successful result. The comparatively
low rate of interest prevents speculation, which, if encouraged, would interfere with the manifest intentions
of the founders, and risk public confidence in its useful



PROOF OF INCREASING PROSPERITY.        315
ness. But several benefit and charitable societies use
the bank as a legitimate means of increasing their income, and extending their utility.
The Roman Savings Bank, though established only
twenty years since, has already received about four
millions of scudi, or nearly one million of our money,
in deposits. For the year 1856 there was an increase
in the number of depositors and in the amount of deposits over those of 1855. The increase in the number
of depositors was 216-and in the amount of deposits,
80,000 scudi. These figures are of themselves no trifling indication of increasing prosperity.




316            ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Religious Character of the Roman People.-Attendance in the Churches.
-Roman Churches not merely Local.-Attendance at the Forty
Hours' Adoration.-Religious Retreat for the Poor.-Festivals of the
Church.-The Pope at San Carlo. —The Monastery of the Passionists.-Church of St. Clement.-Church of St. Isidore.
AN erroneous notion with respect to the religious
character of the Roman people, is commonly entertained by strangers who casually visit the churches of
Rome. They imagine, because they do not behold the
churches crowded with worshippers, that therefore the
Romans are not a religious people.  As a general rule,
the idler in Rome is not an early riser; while, in order
to be able to form a fair idea of the devotional character of the people, he should be so; for it is at the very
hour when he is still buried in peaceful slumber, that
the people are to be found in great numbers in the
parish churches, or in those attached to the convents,
and are even seen crowding round the rails of the altar
as communicants. This description applies to the week
days, but of course in a much greater degree to the
Sunday. Before commencing the business of the day,
the shop-keeper and the trader punctually attend Mass;
and the workman sanctifies his coming toil by the same
pious practice. Strangers almost invariably go to the




ATTENDANCE IN THE CHURCHES.        317
High Mass, to witness the more imposing ceremonial,
and enjoy the treat which the fine singing affords; but
the Roman people go at the earliest hours to the " low
Mass" —the feeling of religious obligation being, with
them, a sufficient inducement. Thus the great churches, such as the Gesu and the MIinerva, may be seen
crowded at an early hour in the morning by devout
congregations; and so many other churches, which, on
many accounts, are held in special favour-for example, the Church of the Capuchins, in the Piazza Barberini. Besides, notwithstanding the occupation of the
people during the hours of business and labour, it is
almost impossible for a visitor to enter any one of the
300 or 400 churches of Rome, no matter at what hour
of the day, without perceiving at least two or three
persons kneeling before the altar of the Blessed Sacrament; which altar is indeed as conspicuous from the
worshippers who are absorbed in devotion before its
rails, as by the lights which are constantly kept burning upon it. I myself must have visited very nearly
one-half of the Roman churches, and certainly all
those considered the most remarkable; and I have
never seen any one church entirely destitute of worshippers; whereas, on many occasions, 1 have seen
considerable congregations both at Mass and at Ves
pers. But, after all, how is it possible that any number of the churches of Rome could appear to be well
filled? Remember, the population, according to the
last census, was about 172,000, and that the number of
churches is between 300 and 400; and that amongst




318          ROME AND ITS RULER.
them are included St. Peter's, St. Paul's, Santa Maria
Maggiore, the Lateran, Santa Croce, and a number of
other stupendous buildings. Why, it would require a
far larger population than London possesses to fill the
churches of Rome; half a dozen of the largest of
which might hold every-man, woman, and child of the
population in the midst of which they are erected.
" But why," asks the utilitarian, in the true parochial
spirit, "has Rome so many churches, when there are
no congregations to fill them?" The answer is, the
Roman churches are not local churches, for local purposes, and local wants; they belong to Catholic Christendom-to the Church of the whole world-and not
to Rome alone. From the fourth to the nineteenth
century, the great churches of Rome have been the
splendid evidences of the piety and liberality of rulers
and of nations; and, even at this day, the contributions
of the faithful throughout the wide extent of the earth
have assisted Pius IX. to bring to a state of completion
the great Basilica of St. Paul's, which, originally commenced by Constantine, and finished by Theodosius
and his son Honorius, has risen from the ashes of the
great-fire of 1823 in almost unparalleled grandeur and
magnificence. All the churches of Rome have been
erected with the great and paramount object of giving
glory to the Supreme Being; but many have been
founded with the additional object of honouring the
Virgin Mother of God, and the apostles and martyrs
of the Church-of commemorating those glorious deeds
by which the religion of the Gospel was firmly estab



ROMAN CHURCHES NOT -MERELY LOCAL.   319
lished, and recording those signal events by which the
Church was protected from the violence or the machinations of her enemies. Surely, St. Peter's is not a
mere Roman Church-but the Church of the Christian
World; for beneath its sublime dome repose the bodies
of the two greatest of the Apostles-Paul and Peter.
Thus many of the churches, which the utilitarian may
deem superfluous and unnecessary, rise above the hallowed relics of some saint or martyr, whose preachings,
whose labours, or whose sufferings, caused them to belong, not to any country or to any race, but to the
world and mankind. And where, more fittingly than
in Rome, could Catholic piety have erected, or Catholic
munificence have adorned, such splendid memorials to
the honour of the heroes of God's Church? In fact,
in the Christian temples of Rome, you may trace the
chequered history of the Church throughout all ages,
from the gloomiest days of its persecution, to those of
its proudest triumphs and most splendid conquests.
Popes, emperors, kings, princes, cardinals, and bishops,
as well as empresses, queens, and princesses, have ever
sought, through the magnificence of architecture, the
charms of painting, and the more spiritual beauty of
sculpture, as well as by the lavish use of the rarest and
most costly productions of nature, to render Rome, as
it were more visibly and strikingly to the eye of the
stranger, the Centre of Catholic Unity —the City of
Holy Places.
The immense number of churches in Rome may be
further accounted for by the many parishes into which




320           ROME AND ITS RULER.
the city is divided; each parish having a church of its
own; by the fact, that to each convent or monastery a
church is almost invariably attached; and, also, by the
number of national churches belonging to Catholic nations in various parts of the world.
But I was alluding to the devotion of the modern
Romans. To really understand the religious character
of the people, one ought to see them at the devotion of
the Quarant Ore, or the forty hours' adoration. The
spectacle is most impressive,r-the church, purposely
darkened, crowded at all hours with kneeling worshippers-the outlines of the building dimly traced, and
the congregation but faintly illumined, by the lights
which burn on the altar on which the Blessed Sacranment is exposed. Then the deep, earnest devotion, the
reverent air, the prayerful attitude, so humble and so
pious, must satisfy any one who is not an arrant scoffer,
that those who kneel before that altar do so in the
spirit of the liveliest faith and the sincerest piety. The
prince and the peasant meet here on a perfect equality; the one receiving new impulses to that charity in
which the Roman noble so truly proves himself to be
a son of the Church-the other borrowing strength and
fortitude to meet and endure the difficulties of his lot
in life.
Space will not permit of my alluding to, much less
dwelling upon, the many means by which a religious
spirit is cherished amongst all classes of the people;
and I shall only therefore attempt, by a single illus



RELIGIOUS " RETREAT"  FOR THE POOR.   821
tration, to afford the reader an idea of that solicitude
which is ever felt for their spiritual welfare.
About forty years ago, Michelini, a curate in the
Trastevere, obtained, for the purpose of prayer and
temporary retreat, the family house of the Ponziani,
which was then a granary. In this retreat the poor
prepare themselves for their first communion, by a
seclusion of eight days; during which time they are
provided gratuitously with every necessary, and ministered to and instructed by ecclesiastics who shut themselves up so long as the retreat lasts. Seventeen of
these retreats, to sixty persons each retreat, take place
in the year; so that each year 1020 Christians are
fully prepared for the greatest act of their spiritual
life; and these are not the rich-who enjoy the possessions of the world - but the poor.  Pius IX.
evinced his interest in this most valuable charity, by
presenting himself unexpectedly, about three years
since, and administering communion to the temporary
inmates of the building. The whole thing is beautiful.
A  cheerful little court, for recreation, adorned with
plants and orange trees; and the modest refectory at
the side. Upstairs, the wards, plain and exquisitely
neat, each with a bed for a priest who presides, and
over the door the name of a saint. Several chapels for
the different exercises, one set apart for the Communion,
and a room for an hour's conversation-all singularly
tasteful and attractive. In one of the chapels arle beheld an eloquent testimony to the efficacy of this good
work-the pistols, stilettoes, and knives, voluntarily
14*




322           ROME AND ITS RULER.
abandoned. In this house of touching kindness, food,
lodging, instruction —everything, as I have said, is
gratlitous; given by the devotion of the priests, and
the alms of the faithful. We have praise for the hospital and for the well-ordered prison; but in such an
asylum  as this, the poor find a greater mercy-the
silent supernatural bringing of man's soul to God.
A corresponding place for women is established at
San Pasquale.
To prepare the young for their First Communion has
ever been one of the most cherished objects of the Pope,
who has done much to render its influence more lasting on the mind and heart of the youthful communicant. It is his frequent habit to administer the SacIament to them himself.
The Festivals of the Church afford the religious people of Rome abundant opportunities of indulging their
piety. I had an opportunity of witnessing the celebration of several, and at the same time of convincing
myself of the devotional character of the modern Romlans.
On Tuesday, the 4th of November, the Feast of St.
Charles Borromeo, I formed one of a vast crowd who
had assembled in and about the Church of San Carlo,
in the Corso, to witness the imposing spectacle of his
HIoliness coming in state to that fine church. Having
heard and read so much as to the indifference of the
Romans to such spectacles, to which use too had rendered them so familiar, I was amazed at the eagerness so vigorously manifested, not by strangers, but by




THE POPE AT SAN CARLO.           323
citizens, to catch a glimpse of the Holy Father. To
me, who witnessed it for the first time, the whole pageant was as striking as impressive; nor was its effect
diminished, but greatly enhanced, by the graceful and
elegant manner in which the inhabitants of the palaces
and houses on each side of the Corso evinced their respect for the Pope. From every window and balcony
was suspended a piece of drapery, or tapestry of some
kind; and, in many instances, judicious contrast and
tasteful arrangement added much to the general effect.
The picturesque street, so full of architectural variety
-the eager crowd, including the representatives of
many countries, attracted to Rome by various motives
-the uniforms and accoutrements of the troops that
lined the streets-some French, some Italian, some
Swiss-infantry as well as horse-the flashing of the
gorgeous equipages of the cardinals-the clash of arms,
and the grand burst of two full bands,' as the more
magnificent state coach of his Holiness, preceded and
followed by his guards, was driven to the door, and he
himself alighted in the midst of a kneeling crowd, to
whom he imparted the apostolic benediction,-all seen,
too, beneath a beautiful Italian sky and a bright Italian
sun, formed a picture brilliant and striking to any eye,
but one in the highest degree interesting and impressive to a Catholic fiom a distant land.
The appearance which the interior of the fine Church
of San Carlo presented, was most imposing. It was
decorated, according to the custom on such occasions,




324            ROME AND ITS RULER.
with a rich drapery of crimson damask, with a gold
border, relieved by a blended drapery of white silk
similarly ornamented. With this drapery, the piers,
pillars, and pilasters, were concealed; and where arches
occurred, they were gracefully festooned with the same
elegant material-the effect being further heightened
by flowers tastefully disposed, and by a profusion of
wax-lights in every variety of candelabrum. The
swelling notes of the grand organ, the glorious burst
of the full choir, consisting of the best singers of
Rome, and the splendid ceremonials with which the
Church did honour to one of the most illustrious of
her children-all realized to the eye and to the imagination a grand picture of Catholic worship.
I was rather surprised to hear it said that this visit
of the Pope's was only in mezzo gala, or half state.
The rush to witness the departure of the Holy Father
was quite equal to that which marked his arrival.
During my stay in Rome, I was present at many
celebrations of the great annual festivals, and in some
of the most interesting of its churches. For instance,
the Church of St. John and Paul, belonging to the
Passionists; the Church of St. Clement, belonging to
the Irish Dominicans; and the Church of St. Cecilia,
in Trastevere, to which is attached the convent of the
Benedictine Nuns.
The monastery and church of the Passionists are replete with interest. The body of the "Blessed Paul,"
the founder of the order, lies under an altar of one of




THE MONASTERY OF THE PASSIOlISTS.   325
the side chapels, and could be seen, through the glass
covering in front, on the day of the festival. I was
shown the rooms, or cells, which he occupied during
his lifetime, and in which are preserved with religious
veneration, not only his missal, his crucifix, and his
chalice, and the furniture of his little oratory, but even
the smallest and most insignificant article of daily use.
The hair-shirt which he wore, and the instruments of
" discipline" which he used, were eloquent evidences
of his mortification and self-subjection.
The grand ceremonies of the day are, on most occasions of the kind, followed by a repast, in which, out of
special honour to the festival, some departure is permitted from the simplicity, if not austerity, of the
general and almost invariable rule.
The appearance of the refectory of this monastery, in
which the entire of the community, nearly eighty in
number, and several guests-including the cardinal
celebrant, some foreign bishops, and a few lay gentlemen-were assembled, was very striking. The same
silence was strictly observed during the meal on this
day as on ordinary occasions. Some two or three of
the brothers were of very advanced age, and of the
most venerable aspect, their silver hairs imparting a
more spiritual beauty to features refined by study, and
wasted by vigil and mortification. A modern painter
could here have found living studies for saints and
martyrs of other days; nor would he have looked
in vain for the bloom  and fulness of manly beauty
amongst those dark-robed soldiers of the faith.




326           ROME AND ITS RULER.
An agreeable hour,. spent in cheerful conversation,
filled up the interval between the conclusion of the
meal and the commencement of Vespers-to which
crowds of people, clad in their holiday attire, might be
seen coming from different directions. I greatly enjoyed a saunter in the delightful shade of the gardens
of the monastery, and still more the grand and varied
prospect spread out before me, as I stood at the boundary wall overlooking the Colosseum, the warm travertine stone of which glowed like amber in the bright
sunlight. One of the brothers, Father Luigi, had
known and loved a dear and valued friend of minethe late lamented Frederick Lucas, the distinguished
member for Meath; and our mutual friendship and respect for that brave-hearted champion of the Church
united us in sympathy, as we spoke of his courage, his
manliness, and his genius.
The Church of St. Clement seemed to wake up to
life, as, on the day of the high festival, its ancient
tribune was crowded with priests of every rank, from
the cardinal to the deacon, and as gorgeous vestments
contrasted with the pale cold marble of its beautiful
choir. A Cardinal-bishop celebrated the High Mass;
and a grand choir chanted the solemn and majestic
music in a manner that, far from  distracting the attention, inspired that devotional feeling which it is the
intention, or should be the object, of sacred music to
assist in producing. The epistle and gospel were read
from the marble pulpits, or arnbones, which occupy




THE CHURCH  OF ST. CLEMENT.                   327
each side of the choir, and which, with the choir itself,
are of great antiquity.
I subjoin a description of this remarkable church,
written many years since, by Eustace, in his Class8ica1
Toztr; and merely add, that the tribune is enriched
with mosaics of the thirteenth  century, and that the
Chapel of the Passion is adorned with the fine frescoes
of Masaccio-most important, not only for their intrinsic merit, but as exemplifying the history of the art.*
X This church is thus fully described by Eustace:"The church of St. Clement, in the great street that leads to St. John
Lateran, is the most ancient church in Rome. It was built on the site,
and was probably at first one of the great apartments of the house of the
holy bishop whose name it bears. It is mentioned as ancient by authors
of the fourth century (St. Jerome, Pdpe Zozimus, &c.), and is justly
consideied as one of the best mnodels that now exist of the ancient form
of Christian churches. It has frequently been repaired and decorated,
but always with a religious respect for its primitive shape and fashion.
In front of it is a court with galleries, supported by eighteen granite
pillars, and paved with pieces of shattered marble, among which I observed several fragments of beautiful verde antico. The portico of the
church is formed of four columns of the same materials as the pillars of
the gallery, and its interior is-divided into a nave and aisles by twenty
pillars of various marbles. The choir commences about the centre of
the nave, and extends to the steps of the sanctuary; there are two pulpits, anciently called ambones, at each side of the choir. A flight of
steps leads to the sanctuary or chancel, which is terminated by a
semicircle, in the middle of which stands the episcopal chair, and on
each side of it two marble ranges of seats border the walls, for the
accommodation of the priests; the inferior clergy with the singers occupied the choir. In front of the episcopal throne, and between it and
the choir, just above the steps of the sanctuary, rises the altar, unencumbered by screens, and conspicuous on all sides. The aisles terminated in two semicircles, now used as chapels, called anciently Exedircs
or Cellce, and appropriated to private devotion in prayer or meditation.
Such is the form of St. Clement's, which, though not originally a basilica,
is evidently modelled upon such buildings; as may be seen not only by




328              ROME AND ITS RULER.
A splendid entertainment evinced the hospitalitythe national hospitality-of the kind-hearted prior and
his most interesting community.  It was partaken of
by a goodly company, including cardinals, prelates,
and many foreign ecclesiastics and laymen.
The fine library of this convent is much used by the
community, which consists of several students as well
as priests; and from the intelligence and cultivation of
the former, I could well judge that the Irish branch of
the illustrious order of St. Dominick, which boasts of
so many eminent divines, is not likely to degenerate in
the present age.
The Church of St. Isidore, attached to the convent
of the Irish Franciscans, was fast approaching to a state
of restoration as I was about leaving Rorne.  I had
no opportunity of seeing this beautiful church; but
I have since learned that its restoration and embellishment do equal credit to the zeal and energy of the
community, and to the liberality of the faithful. One
of the good priests told me, with feelings of the liveliest gratitude, of his interview with the Holy Father, to
whom he applied for assistance in the undertaking;
the description given of them by Vitruvius, but also by several other
churches in Rome, which, having actually been basilica, still retain their
original form with slight modifications. The same form has been retained or imitated in all the great Roman churches, and indeed in almost all the cathedral and abbey churches in Italy; a form without
doubt far better calculated both for the beauty of perspective, and for
the convenience of public worship, than the arrangement of Gothic
fabrics, divided by screens and terminating in gloomy chapels."




THE POPE AND THE IRISH FRANCISCANS.  329
and of the kindness with which he was received-the
sweet simplicity of the good Pope-the warm interest
which he manifested in the object of the applicationand the generosity with which he contributed even to
the last scudo then in his possession.




330              ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XXIX.
St. Peter's.-Description of it by Gibbon and Byron.-My own Impressions.-Those of Eustace, of Forsyth, Hilliard, and Madame de Sla]l.
— The Pope at the Tomb of the Apostles.-Ascent of the Dome.-A
Glance into the Church.-Glorious View from the Top.
THOUGH this volume is written with a far different
object from that with which a guide-book is compiled,
still it might seem to many readers an unpardonable
omission, if a work in any way referring to iRome did
not contain some allusion to the Queen of ChurchesSt. Peter's.
This sublimest of temples was perhaps never better
described than by the most majestic of modern prose
writers, and the greatest of poets-Gibbon and Byron.
The former describes St. Peter's as-" the most glorious structure that ever has been applied to the lse of
religion." And in this noble apostrophe does the Childe
pour forth his admiration: —
"But thou, of temples old, or altars new,
Standest alone-with nothing like to theeWorthiest of God, the holy and the true.
Since Zion's desolation, when that He
Forsook his former city, what could be,
Of earthly structures, in his honour piled,




ST. PETER'S.                   331
Of a sublimer aspect? Majesty,
Power, glory, strength, and beauty-all are aisled
In this eternal ark of worship undefiled.
Enter: its grandeur overwhelms thee not;
And why? It is not lessened; but thy mind,
Expanded by the glories of the spot,
Has grown colossal, and can only find
A fit abode wherein appear enshrined
Thy hopes of immortality; and thou
Shalt one day, if found worthy, so defined,
See thy God face to face, as thou dost now
His Holy of Holies, nor be blasted by His brow."
An extract from a diary which I kept while in Rome,
and in which I hurriedly jotted down the impressions
of each day, will best convey the feelings with which I
for the first time approached and quitted St. Peter's:"The Church of Churches, the great Christian Temple, was first to be seen —seen before the eye rested on
any other object, whose interest was of the present or
of the past. St. Peter's-the true type of Christian
Rome- of its greatest glory and widest sovereigntyof its piety and its splendour, its religion and art-St.
Peter's, to which the longing of the Catholic heart is
instinctively directed.
"As I approached this glorious fabric-across the
wide area half-enclosed within the outstretching arms
of the magnificent double colonnade, which adds to its
external splendour, and which of itself is unrivalled by
any similar construction-my eye grasped it in too
eagerly, with too great a desire to be astonished-to
feel amazed at its stupendous proportions; and, I must
confess it, I at first felt disappointed.  In vain I was




332           ROME AND ITS RULER.
told that the figures which surmount the attic of the
front were nearly twenty feet high, and that they stood
150 feet from the ground. Still I experienced a sense
of disappointment, because, as I approached the building, the dome gradually sank from my view, and the
facade, though vast in extent, being 368 feet wide, is
more heavy and monotonous than striking. But as I
crossed the threshold, and stood within a vast hall,
stretching nearly 200 feet on either side, and saw that
this was only the vestibule of the temple-and yet
larger than many great churches-the true idea of St.
Peter's began first to break upon me. With a slower
step and a deeper reverence, I entered the church itself.
Again, though but for a moment, a sense of disappointment came across my mind. My eye glanced so rapidly to the tribune, which bounds the view, that I lost
all idea of distance, although the bronze figures which
support the chair of Peter were about 600 feet from the
place where I then stood. I was involuntarily thinking
of the limited nature of the works of man, however vast
his conceptions or mighty his means of realizing them;
but man himself assisted in dispelling a thought injurious to the sublime genius of Michael Angelo. A few
French soldiers w7e scattered over the church, and the
vastness of the nriajestic structure dwarfed them into
mere atoms. The fact is, the very perfection of its
proportions, the harmony of all its parts, the freshness
and beauty of its colouring, and the bright clear atmosphere, so different from the religious gloom which




ST. PETER7S.               333
forms one of the leading characteristics of Gothic temples-prevent St. Peter's from producing on the mind
that immediate impression of its vastness, which its
enormous length and its noble height might be supposed to do. Gigantic as it is, it is too beautiful to astound, and too bright to awe, the mind of the beholder.
But as you walk up the glorious nave, spanned over by
its lofty arched roof, rich in carving and blazing with
gold, and approach the wide circle of the uplifted dome,
and your eye springs giddily into its sublime elevation,
— then do you really comprehend the glory of St. Peter's, and then do you bow in homage before the grandeur of human genius. With a sense of relief, I dropped
my gaze upon the marble pavement beneath my feet;
but a glance at the wide-spreading transepts did not do
much to weaken the impression which the unrivalled
splendour of the dome had produced. I quitted the
temple with even greater reverence than I entered it."
That first visit, which I thus faintly attempted to describe, I followed up by at least ten more; and each
time that I walked through the building, the more was
my admiration increased-more by the grandeur of its
dimensions and the harmony of its proportions, than
by its beauty of detail. It would require a volulne to
do justice to the works of art that enrich this temple;
the monuments, the bas-reliefs, the groups of statuary,
and the mosaics-from the striking figures which adorn
the dome, to the copies of some of the finest works of
the great masters, which overhang the various altars.




334             ROME AND ITS RULER.
IRaphael's Transfiguration glows in the enduring brilliancy and vivid colouring which the finest mosaic
could impart to the greatest and last work of that most
illustrious of Italian painters.
Few have ever stood beneath the dome of St. Peter's
without having felt the enthusiasm which the place inspires. Eustace visited Rome more than half a century
since, and, in his Classical Tiour, he thus describes the
impression which it made upon his mind:"As you enter you behold the most extensive hall ever
constructed by human art, expanded in magnificent perspective before you; advancing up the nave, you are delighted
with the beauty of the variegated marble under your feet, and
with the splendour of the golden vault over your head. The
lofty Corinthian pilasters with their bold entablature, the intermediate niches with their statues, the arcades with the
graceful figures that recline on the curves of their arches,
charm your eye in succession as you pass along. But how
great your astonishment when you reach the foot of the altar,
and, standing in the centre of the church, contemplate the four
superb vistas that open around you; and then raise your eyes
to the dome, at the prodigious elevation of 400 feet, extending like a firmament over your head, and presenting, in glowing mosaic, the companies of the just, the choirs of celestial
spirits, and the whole hierarchy of heaven arrayed in the presence of the Eternal, whose'throne, raised above all height,'
crowns the awful scene."
A  far severer critic, the accomplished but cynical
Forsyth, who made his Italian toum: somewhat about
the same time, indulges in a burst of enthusiasm, as
rare as, in this instance, it was fully justified by its
object:



THjE DOME OF ST. PETER S.            335
"The cupola is glorious. Viewed in its design, its altitude,
or even its decorations; viewed either as a whole or as a
part, it enchants the eye, it satisfies the taste, it exhausts the
soul. The very air seems to eat up all that is harsh or colossal, and leaves us nothing but the sublime to feast on: —a
sublime peculiar as the genius of the immortal architect, and
comprehensible only on the spot. The four surrounding cupolas, though but satellites to the majesty of this, might have
crowned four elegant churches."
And Hilliard, whose Six Mornths in Italy* I regretted
not having seen till after my return from Rome, writes
with no less enthusiasm than his predecessor Forsyth,
whom he fully equals in his appreciation of art and his
grace of description, without being in any way marred
by the repelling harshness of his unsparing censure.
The elegant and fair-minded American writer thus
treats of this matchless work of human art:"The pilgrim is now beneath the dome. The spirit of
criticism, which has hitherto attended him with whispers of
doubt, goes no further. Astonishment and admiration break
upon the mind and carry it away. To say' that the dome of
St. Peter's is sublime, is a cold commonplace. In sublimity
it is so much beyond all other architectural creations, that
it demands epithets of its own. There is no work of man's
hand that is similar or second to it. Vast as it is, it rests
upon its supporting piers in such serene tranquillity, that
it seems to have been lifted and expanded by the elastic force of the air which it clasps. Under its majestic
vault the soul dilates. To act like the hero-to endure
like the martyr —seems no more than the natural state of
man.'
* John Murray, London.




336            ROME AND ITS RULER.
So majestic, so holy, did St. Peter's appear to Madame de Stahl, that she represents Corinne and Oswald
hushed into silence as they enter the temple, and first
comprehend its sublimity.*
I had an excellent opportunity of appreciating the
vastness of St. Peter's, on the 18th of November, when
the Pope attended at High Mass in the Canon's Chapel.
The knowledge of the intended presence of the Holy
Father had drawn together a considerable number of
persons-many of them mere spectators, but more of
them devout and earnest worshippers-sufficient in all
to form an average congregation for an ordinary church.
And yet they seemed a mere handful in that enormous
structure, as, at the conclusion of the Holy Sacrifice,
they divided at each side of the nave, to make way for
his Holiness, who, heading a long and splendid procession of ecclesiastics, proceeded to offer up his prayers
before the tomb of the Apostles. In fact, the many
hundreds of persons then present only fringed the marble pavement of the mighty nave. How beautiful the
piety of the Pope! What an expression of devotionof sublime, prayerful devotion-lit up his whole face,
as he thus knelt before the tomb of the Prince of the
Apostles, in " the most glorious church that has ever
been applied to the use of religion!" Not the marble
figure of his saintly predecessor, Pius VI., which the
* "La tout commande le silence: le moindre bruit retentit si loin,
qu'aucune parole ne semble digne d'etre ainsi r6p6t6e dans une demeure presque 6ternelle."-Corinne, ou EL'Italie.




ASCENT OF THE DOME.            337
chisel of Canova has represented in a kneeling posture
before the entrance to the tomb, was more replete with
the sentiment of holiness, than were the unconscious
attitude and absorbed air of the living Pope.
In company with seven other visitors, I made the ascent of the dome, even to the ball of the cross which
surmounts it. I thought the view down into the church
from the lower gallery, by which the interior of the
dome is encircled, sufficiently trying to the nerves; but
that from the upper gallery, into which a little door
opened from the winding stair, was literally enough to
take away the breath. The eye dived down into a fearful depth, comprehending with difficulty that the mitelike things that crept over the floor were full-grown
men and women; and that the toy-like decoration, beneath the centre of the dome, was the baldachino which
rose above the high altar to the height of 100 feet!
No building in the world could convey an idea of such
gigantic altitude as St. Peter's, when seen from the
upper gallery in the interior of the dome. I confess I
was happy to exchange this position for the still loftier
but far more agreeable one afforded by the balcony at
the base of the tower from which the cross springs into
the air. And, save from the summit of a mountain,
where can one behold so glorious a prospect as is here
spread out on every side?  Rome, living and dead, lies
beneath, expanded like a map, with every line, marked
by nature or by man upon its seven hills, distinct and
legible to the eye —its Christian temples and its Pagan
15




338             ROME AND ITS RULER.
ruins-its venerable walls, traceable for many miles
over the varying surface of the soil-the grand old
Tiber, sweeping majestically by the base of the Castle
of St. Angelo, and gleaming like silver beneath the
noon-day sun, as it winds through the purple brown
of the desolate Campagna-desolate for more than a
thousand years, since the villas and temples of the Republic and the Empire were made the prey of the ferocious Hun, the brutal Vandal, and the scarcely less
savage and ruthless Lombard.*  The eye leaps across
this barrier of desolation, which encircles Rome with
its girdle of ruin, and dwells with delight upon the distant Apennines, upon whose wooded sides or naked
cliffs beautiful shadows chase each other, as if in sport
-upon the picturesque outlines of the Alban and the
Sabine hills, famous in Roman story-and is caught
by the bright line of light where dance and sparkle the
waters of the Mediterranean.
A dapper little French soldier amused me much by
the eagerness with which, at every stage of our ascent,
he scribbled his name in pencil upon various parts of
the building. His labours for the benefit of an admiring posterity only terminated in the ball!
To other works I must refer the reader for a descrip* Nothing can be more unjust, or mbre untrue to history, than to
charge upon the Popes that which was completed more than a thousand years since. Even in the sixth century its ruin was consummated.
Gibbon says of that time:-" The Campagna of Rome was speedily reduced to the state of a dreary wilderness, in which the land is barren, the
waters are impure, and the air is infectious."




TIME AND COST OF CONSTRUCTION.      339
tion of this great monument of human genius, which,
begun by Constantine in the fourth century, and recommenced in the fifteenth, employed the genius of
the greatest architects, and the energies and resources
of the most vigorous Popes, and consumed, in its erection, nearly three hundred years, and twelve millions
of money.




340            ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XXX.
The Fine Arts-Why they are specially fostered in Rome-The Church
their uniform Friend.-Pius IX. a liberal Patron.-Discoveries of
Ancient Painting.-Valuable Restorations of Works of Modern Art.
-Churches restored.-Church of St. Agnes, and Church of St. Paul,
Is Roimne, the Fine Arts possess a special importance;
and the question -of their encouragement is not to be
determined on data similar to those on which it is
founded in other countries. Many thoughtful men
have of late inquired, whether some governments have
not devoted too much attention to Arts, which, being
but the ornaments of life, have a tendency to distract
the mind from the more earnest duties and the more
evident realities of citizenship.  On the other hand, it
has been urged that, in an age evidently utilitarian, and
when mankind seems to be devoted to material interests, almost to the exclusion of other considerations —
in an age when faith has waned, and reason has not
grown-it is the duty of the State, by its fostering care,
to cherish Art, as the power which, next to Religion,
has the greatest tendency to elevate the human mind,
and preserve men from being made the mere tools of
an unresting industry, or the mere slaves of an insatiable greed of gain.
But whatever may be thought of the abstract ques



THE FINE ARTS.               341
tion, it must be admitted that in Rome there are special
circumstances which make the cultivation of the Fine
Arts there a matter of peculiar importance; whether
we examine the question from a higher point of view,
or descend to the level of the most vulgar and merely
commercial considerations.
So far as we can judge from what monuments remain
to us, the Plastic Arts have had two great developments; the age of Phidias, and the age of Raphael.
By a coincidence, remarkable, but not difficult to account for, Rome is especially associated with both eras.
It was the sepulchre of the ancient, it was the cradle
of modern art. Thither were- carried, amidst the spoils
of Greece, those marbles which, even by the comparatively rude conqueror, were estimated beyond their
weight in gold; and thither strayed, probably, the last
students of an art which had in their native land attained a perfection never before approached, never
since reached; and which, by a kind of inspiration,
seems, in its ideal of the human form, to have surpassed the beauty of Nature herself. In Rome especially, these masterpieces, hidden beneath the debris
of the imperial city, rested only to be disinterred, and
to prove the existence of a perfection which, but for
their evidence, would be as little conceived as the proportions of a MIlegatherium. By an accident, fortunate
but not singular, these relics were discovered principally in the age which possessed, of all others, the men
best calculated not only to feel their beauty, but to
rival it. Here, then, grew up Modern Art-here was




342           ROME AND ITS RULER.
formed the greatest of its schools, and here its greatest
triumphs were attained.
To Rome there had been transplanted whatever of
most value ancient art possessed-in Rome had grown
up modern art, there to attain its highest perfection;
and, therefore, for centuries, the student has turned his
steps to the banks of the Tiber, if he sought to draw
some kindred inspiration from the greatest works of
painting or of sculpture. And not alone the professional student, but the scholar and the man of taste,
sought in Rome the highest types of that ideal perfection to which the schools of Greece and Italy attained.
Again, Rome was the Queen City of the Church,
which had always reckoned the arts amongst her handmaids. A religion which recognized sentiment, as well
as reason, could never be content with a bald ritual, or
a bare temple; and the same principle which introduced music into the ceremonies of the Church, admitted with welcome within her portals sculpture and
painting. The principle which gave to the Sistine
Chapel the "Miserere," gave also the "Last Judgment"-that principle of sacrifice which bids man to
dedicate to the temple of his Creator whatsoever is
most precious, not merely gold and jewels, but those
gems beyond price, in which the loftiest inspirations
of the noblest minds have been stamped in an enduring form, to communicate their refining and elevating
influence, not to a day, but to generations.
Thus Rome, from several causes, has become especially the great art-capital of the world. Thousands of




ROME THE ART-CAPITAL OF THE WORLD.  343
pilgrims flock thither with that object alone; and even
the bitterest enemies of the Church must visit her
Cathedral City, if they wish to see or to study the
greatest monuments of the plastic arts. For these reasons, the Fine Arts in Rome should command the attention of the State, and their encouragement becomes
in its way a minatter of industrial importance. Out of
the crowds of pilgrims who come to the Tiber, few
leave its shores without some memento of their visit,
memorials on which Artists are always engaged; and
hence there is a larger proportion of the population of
Rome dependent upon the exercise of art, as a profession, than in any city of the world. In whatever way,
therefore, we view the abstract question of government
endowment of the Fine Arts in other countries, it must
be confessed that in Rome, at least, it is founded on
sound economical principles.
And indeed in almost all ages of the Church the
same principle prevailed; as well when great wealth
and power enabled it to be a munificent patron-the
only patron which the true Artist should condescend
to acknowledge-as when its limited resources allowed
it to do little more than manifest its feelings of paternal care.
The present Pope has been eminently remarkable
for the zealous care which he has devoted to the preservation of objects of Antique Art, and for the encouragement which he has given to artists of the present day. It would be far too long to enter upon a
detail of the many services which he has thus render



344           ROME AND ITS RULER.
ed. It will be sufficient if we take as an example the
year 1854, and point to some of the objects to which
attention was devoted in that year. - We select them
from the official report of the Minister to whom such
subjects were referred.
In this year the Pope established in the Academy of
Bologna a new professorship of Elementary Architecture, including the study of Ornament and Decoration;
and granted to the Roman Academy of St. Luke ten
medals of gold, each of the value of 25 scudi, to be
distributed amongst the professors who, besides the
stated instruction in the schools, should devote the
greatest attention to the progress of the students in the
study of the figure and of drapery. IIe also presented
to the Academy a series of casts from the Egina sculptures and the marbles of the Parthenon. These were
probably obtained from the British Museunm, and were
necessary to complete the illustrations of ancient art.
To antiquities, the Pope has devoted special attention; and some fortunate discoveries, which have recently taken place in Rome, have enabled him to make
most valuable additions to museums already so rich.
Amongst the most valuable and the rarest of the relics
of the classical art, are the remains of the ancient painting. The nature of the art itself has necessarily made
its works less stable than those of sculpture; but, even
making due allowance for this, it is still remarkable
how very few of the classic paintings have escaped destruction. The Egyptian paintings, or picture-writings,
can claim a much earlier antiquity than the times of




DISCOVERY OF ANCIENT PAINTINGS.    345
the Roman Empire, and yet many of them have been
discovered in a state of almost marvellous preservation;
whilst the Greek and Roman paintings that have been
rescued are singularly rare. Indeed, if we were to except those found in Pompeii, they might almost be enumerated fiom recollection. Rome itself contained only
those called " the Aldobrandini Nuptials," the frescoes
of the Baths of Titus, of the Pyramid of Caius Cestius,
and those discovered in the Columbaria of the Appian
Way. But Pius IX. disinterred from the Via Graziosa
a series of ancient paintings, which are certainly the
most valuable that have ever been discovered. They
are seven in number, and represent several scenes in
the adventures of Ulysses, described in the 10th and
11th books of the Odyssey. They are especially interesting for the reason, that some of the scenes are
identical with those represented in a celebrated painting by Polygnotus at Delphi, which has been described
by Pausanias; and it is conjectured that the paintings
may have been. copies from  some greater original.
They have followed the tradition of probably the earliest artists, by having, like those also of the Byzantine
and early Christian schools, the names of the several
actors in the scene attached to the figures. The perspective, the colours, and the cornposition, are all very
remarkable, and the paintings have been greatly improved by careful and judicious restorations. When
first discovered, they were almost hidden by a thick
coat of mould, and also much injured by scratches
caused by the demolition of the walls above them.
15*




3436          ROME AND ITS RULER.
This mould was completely removed, and all the
scratches carefully filled up with colour, accurately
matched with the ancient portion of the pictures. Two
out of the number having been found in much better
condition than the rest, these greatly assisted the artists
in their work, which stopped short at the barest restoration, and avoided that point where a vicious effort at
renovation is attempted, which always detracts from
the value and authority of ancient monuments. The
work was one of great difficulty, and was conducted to
the most complete success, as the pictures can now be
easily seen and studied. They have been placed in the
library of the Vatican, which can boast, in addition to
its other treasures, of possessing the most perfect and
the most interesting relics of the painting of the classic
ages.
The works of the great masters of Modern Art have
likewise been the objects of the Pope's solicitude, and
especially those earlier works over which centuries
have not passed without leaving traces behind.
In the magnificent Duomo of Orvieto important
restorations have been made, although only the most
urgent of these works were undertaken. The paintings
which adorn the Chapel of the Santissimo Corporale,
representing the miracle of Bolsena, and subjects connected with it, and which are so remarkable from being
representations, in a great part, of contemporary scenes,
giving the costumes of the period, and even portraits
of those who took part in the ceremonies when Urban
TIV. translated the relics from Bolsena to Orvieto, have




RESTORATIONS OF MODERN PAINTINGS.   347
been carefully and delicately restored. These paintings
carry us back to the time when the Feast of the Corpus
Domini was instituted, and the Office for it composed
by Saint Thomas of Aquin, who was then Professor of
Theology at Orvieto.
One of the chapels of the Church of Santa Maria
sopra Minerva possesses sonme characteristic pictures of
Filippino Lippi, which were threatened with destruction by damp, caused by the bad state of the roof of
the church. At a considerable expense, however, the
necessary repairs and restorations were made, and some
of the most precious works of one of the founders of
modern art thus preserved for posterity.
In the Church of the Convent of Monte Falco, in
like manner, the paintings by Benozzo Gozzoli, representing scenes in the life of St. Francis, were in danger
of being utterly destroyed. The apse of the church,
which contained these precious relics of early art, had
been shaken by an earthquake, and it was feared would
soon crumble into ruin. But the liberality of Pius IX.
was exercised in its restoration, and the works of Gozzoli are saved.
Another early work is to be found in the Church of
Santa Maria de Toscanella, namely, "Lthe Last Judgment," which is supposed to have suggested to 3Michael
Angelo the picture in the Sistine Chapel; and this, too,
has been the object of silnilar care.
The celebrated mosaics in the churches were in many
places loosened from the walls, and would have suffered
serious inj ury if steps had not been taken for their pres



348           ROMlE AND ITS RULER.
ervation. Perhaps, of all works of art, there are no
others which can be so perfectly restored as mosaics.
The inode in which they are put together makes it
comparatively easy, although expensive, to replace any
portions that are lost, unless the damage extends over a
large area of surface. The churches of Ravenna have
now those rare and brilliant works restored to all their
pristine beauty.
The Church of St. Bernard, at the Baths of Diocletian, that of Santa Maria degli Angeli, and that of
Saint Mark, at Rome, as well as that of San Girolamo
at Forli, have also undergone extensive repairs; and,
in a word, there has been no notable work of sculpture,
or painting, or architecture, in the Roman States,
which has not had extended towards it a saving hand,
whenever the lapse of time and the wear of centuries
has threatened to deface the characters in which the
genius of past ages strove to perpetuate its inspiration
for posterity.
It would be an unpardonable omission not to include
the restoration of the Church of St. Agnes, and the
greater work of the completion of St. Paul's, which
is second only to St. Peter's, and, therefore, one of
the noblest existing Christian temples.
The former work was undertaken by Pius IX., in
gratitude to God for his marvellous escape, in April,
1855, when the floor of the hall in the adjoining convent gave way beneath him  and his court.  This
church, which now exhibits a fine specimen of the




ST. AGNES AND ST. PAUL'S.        349
richest type of modern decorative art, was reopened
for public worship in the January of the present year.
The latter work-the completion of St. Paul's-may
be regarded as one of the most extraordinary efforts
of modern times, when the vastness of the undertaking
is considered, together with the short time in which it
has been accomplished, and the interruptions caused
alike by political convulsions and financial difficulties.
To this grateful duty Pius IX. has devoted immense
sums, and an energy which piety alone could inspire.
The magnitude of this glorious edifice may be in some
degree appreciated by its measurement; but no figures,
no language, can convey an idea of the majestic effect
produced by the four rows of lofty granite columns
which divide the aisles from the nave. These rows of
magnificent columns stretch along the marble pavement
for more than 300 feet —the length of the nave-and,
in spite of their regularity, impress upon the mind of
the beholder the idea of a fbrest of pillars. The length
of this grand church exceeds 400 feet, while the width
of the transepts is not less than 250 feet. Had I space
at my command, I might well devote more than one
chapter to this glorious basilica; but necessity compels
me to confine myself to this simple allusion to it, and
merely to add that, by his munificence and his energy,
Pius IX. has completely identified his pontificate with
its splendid restoration.




350            ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XXXI.
Pius IX. a Preserver of the Pagan Antiquities of Rome.-The Coliseum
ind the Popes.-Great Repairs effected by Pius VII. and Plius IX.Devotions of Friday and Sunday. —Visit to the Coliseum by Moonlight.
No one who has visited Rome, and looked around
him even with the most careless glance, but must have
admitted that Pius IX. has done much for the preservation of those Pagan remains which form  one of the
great attractions of the Eternal City. Deprived of the
care and protection of the Popes, the monuments of
Pagan Rome would soon cease to exist. The'law of
decay is as inexorable as it is universal; and the very
most that we can do, is to arrest its progress for a time.
To this universal law the most sublime creations of the
strength, the skill, and the genius of man must alike
submit. Its ceaseless tooth eats into the hardest bronze,
and crushes the densest marble. But while the wisest
precaution can only delay for a time a fate which is
inevitable,, neglect precipitates ruin, and ensures the
destruction of even the most gigantic monuments of
human pride and power.
Perhaps man never reared a more stupendous structure than the Coliseum-stupendous, not merely in its




TIE COLISEUM AND THE POPES.          351
size, but in its materials; and yet, were it not for the
taste of successive Popes-Pius VII., Leo. XII., Gregory XVI., and Pius IX.-that most striking, most interesting, and most impressive of all the monuments
of Pagan Rome would now be a mass of shapeless
ruin; indicating, perhaps, by a solitary arch, that here,
some seventeen hundred years before, stood the Flavian
Amphitheatre, on whose sands the Church of God was
baptized in the blood of its apostles, its confessors,'and
its martyrs. To the Christian, not even the Catacombs,
in which the faithful prayed and preached, is more
replete with interesting associations, than the arena
whereon the persecuted of centuries confronted their,
tyrants, and died amidst the open mockery or silent
sympathy of the Roman people, still masters of the
world. Even before a wise and pious policy had Consecrated the Colisoum to the purposes of religion-an
act for which posterity is indebted to the piety of Benedict XIV., in 1750-its soil was sacred in the estimation of every human being who believed in the Gospel,
and knew  that within the encircling walls of this
mighty structure was written the grandest page of the
history of the Christian Church. Approach it how you
may, and enter it at either end of its vast ellipse, you
cannot fail to understand your obligation to the Popes,
for the preservation of this noble monument, so replete
with real and living associations. In other times, and
it might be, in some instances, under the pressure of
urgent necessity, the Coliseum was treated as a vast
quarry, from which the warlike and quarrelsome baron




352            ROME AND ITS RULER.
drew the means of maintaining his power, or of overawing his neighbours; and from which, in less remote
periods, princely families borrowed ready materials for,
their sumptuous palaces. So that, from actual pillage,
as well as from the ceaseless action of time, a great
portion of the mighty structure has been destroyed;
and at one side it has been reduced by more than a
third of its original height. On the other side the
original line is still almost unbroken.
If you enter at one end, you perceive that Pius VII.
hais reared a barrier against further ruin, in the shape
of an enormous mass of splendid masonry, which rises
from the base to the top of the outer wall. Look again,
and you will at once perceive that, had he not done so,
that rent which, some twenty feet from it, extends from
the very top to the third arch, would have been certainly fatal to an immense portion of the building, and
probably brought down, or materially endangered, a
vast mass of the majestic outer wall, with all its wealth
of pillar and of arch. Such was the imminent peril in
which this end of the outer frame, or shell, of the
building was placed, that several arches had to be built
up with brick, in order to afford it sufficient support,
notwithstanding the enormous buttress to which I have
referred. Then, at the other end, Pius IX. reared
another gigantic buttress, thus placing a limit to further decay-it may be for centuries to come. *Besides
this most important undertaking, he has effected many
beautiful restorations-namely, reproducing in travertine, or in brick, the same colour as the old material,




THIE COLISEUM.               353
several arches, with their simple and- chaste but most
beautiful decorations-so that you may examine here,
in its primitive perfection, in its clear lines and fine detail, what, just next to it, you behold worn and almost
indistinct from the tooth of the destroyer. Pius IX.
has done much more than this,-he has improved on
the example of his illustrious predecessors, and enabled
the visitor to ascend the better preserved or loftier side
of the building, to within some 20 or 30 feet of the top,
or about 125 feet above the present level of the arena.
The ascent is easy and perfectly safe, and the view from
the platform, or terrace, to which it leads, is superb.
The galleries, the many flights of steps, as well as all
other parts of the building, are maintained in a state
of scrupulous cleanliness, worthy no less of the dignity
of the sublime structure, than of the purposes to which
it has been dedicated for more than a century.
On the very spot upon which many a martyr stood
in the days of the more cruel of the Cesars, the Cross is
now reared aloft, and, following the beautiful outline
of the arena, are placed in niche-like altars, representations, in fresco, of the various stages of the Passion. At
half-past three o'clock, on Fridays and Sundays, a procession may be seen winding its way beneath the entrance arches, preceded by a cross-bearer and two acolytes. A Franciscan Friar, clad in the coarse brown
habit of his order, with sandalled feet, and the white
cord encircling his waist, walks in front, supported at
each side by two members of a religious confraternity,
whose ordinary dress is completely shrouded in a gown




354           ROME AND ITS RULER.
and cowl, which leave nothing visible save the feet and
the eyes. Other members of the confraternity follow.
They are succeeded by a procession of women, many
of whom are ladies of high position. Three go in
front, with a cross-bearer in the centre —and, as they
walk, they chant, in simple but not unmelodious tones,
the hymns belonging to the particular devotion which
they perform. The Franciscan then ascends the platform, from which he delivers a short but most impressive discourse, which is listened to with the greatest
attention by the congregation, usually consisting of
about one hundred persons of both sexes-the men
standing on the one side, and the women on the other.
Beside the preacher, is placed the large crucifix, with
which he is enabled to produce a powerful effect, in
addition to that created by his own earnestness and eloquence. The concluding appeal is invariably heard
and responded to by a kneeling audience. The sermon concluded, the procession is again formed, and
goes the circuit of the arena, chanting sacred hymns
while in motion, and stopping at every altar, in order
to recite the appropriate prayers belonging to each Station of the Cross. Even the most indifferent cannot
hear those pious strains, echoing between the arches
and along the corridors of this great monument of Pagan pride and cruelty, without emotion, certainly not
without some association of the past. The gorgeous
rites and solemn sacrifices to false gods-the heaving
multitude, thirsting for innocent blood-the cruel or the
cowardly emperor, the author of relentless persecution,




VISIT BY MOONLIGHT.            355
or the slave of a wicked priesthood or a base apprehension-the fearless and holy martyr, sustained alike by
the example of those who died before him, and his hope
in that immortality which awaits the just;-these visions of the past acquire a momentary shape and form,
as, to the excited imagination, the ruined arches are
restored to their pristine beauty, and the myriad
benches, which they once supported, again rise, tier
above tier, from  the reddened sand of the arena, to
within a few feet of the lofty cornice. That mind must
be barren indeed which may not realize some picture
of the past, in such a place, and under such influences.
I had frequently indulged a ramble through the
building by day, and had spent hours in the enjoyment
of the delicious pictures-of ruin, convent, and vineyard, of dark cypress and tall pine-framed in by some
one of the open arches of the building; and also of the
wide-spreading landscape beheld from the highest platform to which the visitor can ascend; but, like every
stranger, I was anxious to afford myself a still greater
treat-a view of the Coliseum by moonlight. To this
I was by no means impelled by a romantic yearning,
but simply because the grand old ruin presents a peculiarly beautiful and impressive aspect when beheld by
that solemn and mysterious light.
At length, a more than usually favourable night afforded the desired opportunity, when two friends and
myself started on our appointed pilgrimage. As we
walked through the silent and almost deserted streets
of the city, the moon began to make her wished-for ap



356.         ROME AND ITS RULER.
pearance, flooding a solitary piazza with light, or turning into a shower of silver the spray of some ceaseless
fountain, and brightening up house-top, turret, and
dome —every thing beyond a strongly-marked line of
deep, dark shadow. Even our harvest moon shows but
a feeble splendour when compared with the full radiance of an Italian moon, as she slowly climbs up the
dark blue vault of an Italian heaven. We passed by
the Forum Trajanum, upon whose lofty pillar the moonlight fell with grand effect; and in whose well-enclosed
space, at a depth of some twenty feet beneath the level
of the modern highway, the outlines of long extinct
temples are marked by unequal fragments of columns,
resting on marble pedestals. To this work the present
Pope mainly contributed. Proceeding through the Via
Alessandrina, we passed into one of the vast halls of the
Basilica of Constantine, or Temple of Peace, which,
without the support of a single pillar, lift on high their
enormous arches; and on whose sides and roof, like
flakes of snow on a dark mountain, fragments of marble still gleam, giving evidence of a once costly incrustation. We passed through the three silent halls of
this vast ruin, and thus came out on the Forum Romanum, in which much of what is yet left of Pagan
Rome is fast mouldering into dust. The moon lit up
this vast burial place of the past, shedding a mournful
splendour over shattered porticos and lonely columns,
mutilated fragments of what were once proud temples
-casting a veil of brightness upon ugly mounds and
hideous chaos that marked the spot on which a palace




VISIT BY MOONLIGHT.          357
once lifted its superb front to the heavens —and
making plain to the eye where the modern so-called
Capitol was joined to the remnant of the venerable
pile, which, in the hour of Rome's greatness, looked
down upon many a glorious structure, then gleaming
in all the pride of its marble beauty. We passed
beneath the Arch of Titus, abhorred by Jews, and so
on to the Coliseum —the increasing light showing
clearly what portions of the Forum had been excavated
by the Pope-what had been railed off-what pillars
had been propped or supported-what monuments were
still afforded a lingering existence, for the delight of the
artist, the speculation of the antiquary, or the theme
of the moralist.
As we approached the entrance of the Coliseum, the
clash of arms, and the sharp " Qu(i ive" of the sentry,
were a guarantee for the safety of a spot which, without such protection, might have furnished unpleasant
materials for an Italian adventure.  The moon was
slowly pursuing her way up the blue sky, and gradually
rising, foot by foot, to the height of the unbroken wall
of the building, now and then peeping in through arch
or window, and, while leaving most of the vast interior
in sublime shadow, making all she shone upon nearly
as bright and distinct as if beheld at mid-day. The
massive stone, the broken pillar, the jagged column of
masonry, which had formerly supported the platform
of the seats —the frayed brickwork, which time had
worn away till one could almost imagine it transparent
-the uneven line of the lesser wall-the bush gently




358           ROME AND ITS RULER.
waving in the night wind-the deep arch and its noble
outline, — every object at which the moon peeped,
through opening after opening in the vast side on which
she shone, was traced out with exquisite distinctness,
decay thus clothing itself in transitory beauty. Patiently we awaited the higher elevation and full splendour
of the chaste Dian, enjoying each new effect, as she
sported with the venerable ruin, and imparted to its
grim antiquity a youthful flush-mocking but delightful illusion. Higher and higher -she soared, flinging a
fuller light, extending her bright conquest over a wider
domain; when, as she topped the giant wall, and exhibited herself to us, prosaic mortals, with somewhat
of the splendour which shed its radiance on the sleeping Endymion, a troop of envious clouds, evidently enamoured of her beauty, and that lay as it were in ambush, closed in on her, shrouded her, and took her
captive,-at any rate, she was snatched from our longing gaze; and so we made the best of our melancholy
way back, considering the clouds to be " no better than
they should be."
I have only incidentally hinted at some of the other
services which the Pope has rendered to the antiquities
of Pagan Rome; and indeed it would occupy more
space than I can venture to devote to the subject, to
give even a mere enumeration of the monuments which
he has preserved by various means. For instance, it is
a private house which obstructs the view of an ancient
temple, or hides a beautiful frieze, rich with bas-reliefs;
and the house is purchased and taken down.




PRESERVATION OF PAGAN ANTIQUITIES.   359
In the town of Cori, there still exist valuable remains
of a temple erected to Castor and Pollux; but the frieze
and a portion of the columns were partly concealed by
a house. The house has been taken down, and these
fine specimens of ancient art restored to view. At Tivoli, the temple of Vesta and the House of the Sybil are
now partly hidden by a portion of the Church of St.
Martin; but the ground is being purchased for a paro
chial church, in order to have the old church taken
down, and these precious remains seen on every side.
It had long been regretted that the beautiful Arch
of Trajan at Beneventumn, a Papal town in the midst of
the Neapolitan dominions, was partly hidden by soime
mean houses which were built up against its sides, and
concealed part of the architecture. For several years the
intention had been expressed of removing these incumbrances from, perhaps, the finest specimens of the later
classic art. It was, however, reserved for the present
Pope to carry out this improvement, so long proposed.
The adjoining houses were purchased and taken down,
and a portion of the arch, which had hitherto been hidden, was discovered to contain some choice bas-reliefs,
which were as fresh and sharp as they were in the day
when they received the last touches of the sculptor's
chisel. Thus was not only a beautiful example of architecture freed from  the mean objects which concealed it, but the operation disclosed some sculptures
which have not been exceeded by any belonging to
the second epoch of classic art at Rome.
The ancient gate of Perugia and the Theatre of




360           ROME AND ITS RULER.
Ferentum have also had considerable sums expended
on their restoration.
The Pantheon, which owes its alhnost miraculous
state of preservation to its fortunate conversion into a
Christian temple nearly a thousand years since, has
been freed, in a great measure by the present Pope,
from the vulgar incrustation of mean buildings which
had been built up against its eastern side. It has been
carefully protected from further encroachment, by a
wall and iron palisade; the old level has been also exposed by excavation; and the whole building is kept
in excellent condition.
Several of the great arches which fbrm so striking a
feature in the antiquities of Rome, including those of
Constantine and Septimus Severus, have been protected
from a most formidable danger, which menaced their
safety —namely, the accumulation of water flowing
down from the Celian and Esquiline hills. The water
has been carefully diverted into safe channels, and the
foundations of those grand and striking monuments
have been thus effectually rescued firom injury.
Then every foot of the Forum  Romanum speaks of
the solicitude of His Holiness for the preservation of its
precious relics. He has undertaken and completed
many costly excavations; brought to light the base of
several beautiful pillars; adopted precautionary measures to uphold tottering walls and ruined porticos; and,
perhaps most valuable work of all, has had collected,
and perfectly restored, splendid pieces of the firieze and
cornice that once adorned the front of the temple of




PRESERVATION OF PAGAN ANTIQUITIES.   361
Castor and Pollux. For greater safety, as well as for
the convenience of modern artists, these fragments have
been taken to the tabulariuim of the Capitol, there
cleaned up, adjusted, and re-arranged-so that the
visitor might easily imagine that the whole was the
work of yesterday, and intended for a building then in
actual process of erection. No monument, or fragment,
that I have seen, presents to the mind so vivid an idea
of the splendour as well as the exquisite beauty of the
great Pagan temples, or of the genius and wealth lavished on their decoration. One actually beholds them
again gleaming in the sunlight, in all their freshness,
in all their rich yet chaste and elegant ornament, with
their smallest detail visible to the eye. These restorations are a noble benevolence to the arts, and far outweigh the value of the more commonplace improvements which the Pope has made in the Forum, by the
planting of four rows of trees leading from the Arch of
Titus to the Arch of Septimus Severus.
The Pope has also lately unveiled the long-hidden
mystery of the Appian Way, which stretches for miles
beyond the walls of Rome, and was the famous promenade of the ancients, who beheld, on either side, the
proud tombs of their ancestors. In the process of this
great work of excavation, many rare and beautiful
things have been discovered, all of which have been
carefully placed in the public museums, to enrich still
further collections unrivalled in interest, and almost inappreciable in value. There, as in other places where
it exists, the old Roman way has been carefully guard16




362           ROME AND ITS RULER.
ed from destruction. I cannot say much for the personal comfort to be derived from passing over a quarter
of a mile or so of this particular monument of Roman
greatness. It may have been all smooth and pleasant
enough to the chariots that bore the great, the wealthy,
and the beautiful, in the days of the Csesars; but as I
am no fanatical stickler for mere antiquity, I should
prefer a jaunt on a moderately well-repaired county
high-way in Ireland. At any rate, credit must be
given to the Pope for the preservation of those interesting relics of the past..
The Consular Way, which conducted to the Temple
of Jupiter on Monte Cave, and was known as the Via
NUwin is, has been saved from destruction; so have
the ancient ways in the district of Grotta Ferrata; and
express orders have been given to the Presidents of the
Provinces to watch over their preservation, and protect
them from injury by every available means in their
power.
The grand circular tomb of Cecilia Metella, which is
about twice the size of one of the Martello Towers
in Ireland, is now fully exposed to view, sufficient of its
marble ornaments and incrustations being left to show
what it was in the days of its pride.
For miles along the Appian Way, each side is strown
with disinterred ruins; a very few still exhibiting indications of past magnificence, but the greater number
being only remarkable for their shapeless deformity, or
melancholy decay.
I should exhaust my remaining space, did I give a




PRESERVATION OF PAGAN ANTIQUITIES.   363
list of the excavations undertaken-of the precautions
adopted in the shape of wall and buttress-of the valuable ruins actually purchased from private persons-of
the restorations accomplished-of the additions made
to the collections of Greek and Roman medals-of
bronzes and marbles placed in the Vatican and the
Capitol; all the work of Pius IX.
The Etruscan Museum was lately enriched with some
valuable bronzes, amongst the rest with a colossal torso,
which is believed to have been the statue of an athlete.
Some of the smaller works are a good deal in the Egyptian manner, and are very valuable contributions to an
historical gallery of art.
Water is a dreadful enemy to the old monumentsit saps the foundations of arch, and wall, and pillar;
and destroys, by the damp which it creates, every trace
of painting in fresco. The tomb of Tarquin has been
recently saved from the destroyer, the waters being prevented from penetrating the interior, and injuring the
old Etruscan figures which adorn its walls. The gate
and the steps by which to descend have also been restored.
Much has been likewise done for the Baths of Diocletian, to preserve portions of them from the utter ruin
which has overwhelmed so many of the once famous
palaces and temples of the COesars.
Amongst the excavations and discoveries lately made,
might be mentioned those on the Palatine HIill, where,
in the Palatine Garden,, other traces of the Imperial
Palace have been made visible, together with fragments




364           ROME AND ITS RULER.
of richly sculptured friezes, as well as part of the old
walls of ERomulus brought to light. In the Vineyard
of the Jesuits, on the Aventine, there has been discovered and disinterred a fine portion of the old walls
of Rome, built by Servius Tullius, and constructed of
massive square blocks of tufa. To preserve this most
singular relic of a remote age from destruction, the area
on which it stands has been purchased from the Jesuits,
who have been compensated for the expense incurred
in the excavation.
Amongst the other discoveries, the result of recent
excavations, may be likewise noticed the subterranean
passage by which the emperors went from the Celian
Hill to the Flavian Amphitheatre, more generally
known as the Coliseum.
The Columbaria of the Codini Vineyard are well
known. They now present the most perfect examples
of the urn-burial of the ancient Lomans. They have,
as far as possible, been restored to the condition in
which it is supposed they might have been seen in the
time of the Coesars. The vaults, which were ruinous,
have been rebuilt, the Pope having expended a considerable sum for these works. The cinerary urns have
been replaced in their niches, the paintings judiciously
restored, the marbles and epigraphs again put in their
original places, and the three vaults opened to the visitors, who can now see, at a glance, the mode in which
the ancient Romnans cared for the ashes of their dead.
In fact, on the mere antiquities alone, not at all including purchases for the galleries, no less a sum than




PRESERVATION OF PAGAN ANTIQUITIES.   365
14,000 scudi was expended in the year 1855. The
gross expenditure of the year 1856 on works connected
with ancient and modern art, including renovations of
various kinds, amounted to 244,000 scudi. For the
year 1857, a much smaller sum is proposed, because of
the pressure resulting from the general failure of the
harvests; but so dear to the Holy Father is the work
of restoring and preserving the monuments of Pagan
antiquity, as well as of Christian art, that 60,000 scudi
have been demanded for the present year.
I feel I have by no means done justice to the subject; but I venture to think I have stated sufficient to
show that Pius IX. has, in his respect for the mrouldering but still beauteous remains of ancient art, and for
those monuments which help to illustrate one of the
most interesting and important pages in the annals of
the human race, displayed the enlightened liberality of
a princely disposition, and the refinement of a scholar
and a man of taste.




366            ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XXXII.
The Catacombs.-Institution of the Commission of Sacred Archaeology
by the Pope.-The Catacombs proved to be the Burying-places of
the early Christians. —Cardinal Wiseman's " Fabiola."
IT would be an unpardonable omission not to allude
to the eminent service which Pius IX. has rendered to
the Church, through the successful labours of the Commission of Sacred Archaeology; by which a flood of
light has been flung into the inmost recesses of the
Catacombs, to the confusion of the scoffer, and the
more profound conviction of the conscientious inquirer.
This Commission has been established by the present
Pope, by whom all its expenses are defrayed.
Their success has realized the most sanguine anticipations; for not only have they discovered, and opened
for inspection, new and extensive catacombs, but their
investigations have established, by a variety of the most
conclusive proofs, the identity of the Catholic Church
of this day, with the Church of the early Christiansthe Church of the Catacombs.  The paintings, carvings, and inscriptions found in these burial-places of
the early Christians, and which bear date as well during as after the persecutions of the Emperors, afford
the most eloquent testimony to the Sacraments of the
Church, and to its fundamental doctrines,-the Real




THE CATACOm0BS.             367
Presence in the Eucharist-the doctrine of the Holy
Trinity-of Prayers for the Dead-the Invocation of
Saints-as well as proofs of the honours paid throughout all ages to the Blessed Mother of God.
The correct maps and plans of these subterranean
cemeteries demonstrate the utter absurdity of the notion of their ever having been intended for any other
purpose than that of affording a place of sepulture, and
equally of prayer and sacrifice, to the persecuted Christians. To divest the Catacombs of a dangerous importance, it has been the fashion to represent them as
sand-pits, opened for the obtainment of a valuable ingredient for the manufacture of cement. But the plan
of the sand-pit and the plan of the catacomb-as
shown, for instance, in the splendid work of M[. Perret,
for which the world is indebted to the imperial liberality of the French Government-are as different as
two things could possibly be. The plates in these
noble volumes exactly represent what I have myself
remarked; for while nothing can be more unequal, irregular, and capricious, than the excavations of the
sand-pit-nothing, on the contrary, can be more regular, more precise, and more mathematically correct,
than the arrangement of the catacomb. Besides, the
catacomb is hewed out of a material too hard for cement, and too soft for building purposes-sufficiently
soft to admit of its being worked with facility-sufficiently hard and consistent not to require the aid of
props for the sustainment of the roof, and the preservation of the sides. It is quite true, that the persecut



368           ROME AND ITS RULER.
ed Christians frequently made the entrance to their
cemeteries and places of worship in some remote recess
of a deserted sand-pit; by which two objects were obtained-seclusion from the eyes of their enemies, and
the facility of disposing of the produce of their excavations, without the liability of exciting suspicion.
The thousands of inscriptions already brought to
light, many of which now enrich the Christian Museum
of the Lateran, and also the Vatican, would of themselves be conclusive testimony to prove that the catacombs were places of Christian sepulture. But if any
evidence were required beyond the well-known hatred
and contempt in which the Pagan Roman held the
Christians, who, according to Tacitus, " were branded
with deserved infamy," to prove that no Pagan would
suffer a member of his family to be buried in the same
place with members of an "abominable and impious
sect," who were convicted "for their hatred of human
kind," it is had in sufficient abundance in the columbaria-which were, beyond question, devoted to Pagan
sepulture, —that is, to the reception of the ashes of those
whose bodies had been previously burned. One of
these latter burying-places, certainly not much more
than twenty feet square, might contain the ashes of a
thousand persons; for not only are the urns disposed in
small niches, placed in rows over the entire face of each
side, but, through the means of a solid block of masonry, occupying the greater part of the centre of the
chamber, and rising to the level of the main walls,
four additional faces are presented-each of which con



CARDINAL WISEMAN'S " FABIOLA."       369
tains an allotted number of niches, or pigeon-holes, for
the reception of the urns, with a marble or other slab
inserted into the wall, either beside or above it, on
which are cut the name or names of the person or persons whose ashes there rest.
I shall not pursue this subject farther, but merely
say, that the recent discoveries, for which the world is
indebted to the piety and liberality of the present Pope,
have been of inestimable service to the cause of truth.
Indeed, these irresistible voices, issuing from the tombs
of the saints and martyrs of the Church of God, have
recently brought many good and pious Christians of
other communions to her fold.
With the permission of the distinguished author, I
have added to the Appendix of this volume a valuable
chapter on this subject, taken from a work of far less
pretensions than that of M. Perret, to which I have
alluded, but one which has done more than could be
well described, to awaken interest in those silent resting-places of the dead. I allude to that admrirable
work from the eloquent pen of Cardinal WisemanFaCbiola-a work which, to the most admirable portraiture of the faithful of the early Christian Church-the
holiness and heroism of its martyrs and confessors-the
purity of their lives, and their fortitude in facing death
-has superadded to it the interest of a romance, and
the fascination of a poem. With the impressions of
this charming volume fresh in his memory, the visitor
to the Catacombs needs no guide-book, no chattering
cicerone, —lis imagination fills the void, and lights up
16*




370               ROME AND ITS RULER.
the darkness.  He beholds those little chapels crowded
with hushed worshippers, and the pastor-perhaps one
of the martyr-Popes-offering up the Holy Sacrifice
of the Eucharist on the tomb of a predecessor who has
already sealed his fidelity with his blood; or he hears
the flying feet of the betrayed congregation, and the
shouts of the pursuing soldiery. I certainly confess
my obligations to the author of Fabiola,  for emotions
of solemnity and awe which otherwise I could not have
experienced, although the Catacombs are necessarily
replete with associations of a nature at once tender and
sublime. But this volume imparts, as it were, a living
interest-the interest of awakened human sympathyto their galleries, their crypts, and their altars.*
The extent of the Catacombs already known to exist,
may be estimated fiom the calculation, based upon the
measurement of some of the more important ones, that
there are about nine hundred miles of galleries in all
these burial-places; and that they "may be believed to
contain almost seven millions of graves."t
* Perhaps no work in modern literature has had such a world-wide
circulation as Cardinal Wiseman's Fabiola. It has been reproduced in
almost every European language, and has been published in various
parts of America. There are no less than five different Italian translations of it —two French-two German-three Spanish-one Dutchone Polish —one Hungarian-one Flemish —and one Swedish. In Milan
alone there have been 17,000 copies sold, and in England somewhere
about 20,000. Of all versions of this. beautiful book, 100,000 copies
must have been sold up to this moment.
f For a most satisfactory account of the Roman Catacombs, I would
refer the reader to an admirable little volume, by the Rev. J. Spencer
Northcote, M. A., and published by Dolman., The writer has himself
devoted the most patient attention to the subject, and also uses such
materials as are supplied from the very best sources.




NOT OPPOSED TO MATERIAL PROGRESS.    371
CHAPTER XXXIII.
The Papal Government not opposed to Material Progress.-Railways.Reasons why they have not hitherto existed.-Four Principal Lines
in progress, or projected.-Gas.-The Roman WAorks.-Gas first
started in Rome.-Electric Telegraph, its Use and Success.-Great
Public Works inexpensively constructed.
IT has been too much the fashion to attribute to the
Papal Government systematic hostility to material as
well as to intellectual progress. England, with her
network of railways, points contemptuously to the primitive modes of travelling  still the rule in  the Papal
States, and cries out-" Lo! the result of priestly government!"  Now nothing can be more unfair or unjust
than the inference sought to be drawn from  the admitted fact, that, as yet, railway communication does not
exist to any extent in the States of the Church.  Not
many years since, railways were a novelty in England,*
* At a time like the present, when a railway speed of 30 miles an
hour is considered rather " slow," and 50 miles an hour is " nothing
wonderfill,"-it is rather amusing to read of the horror with which no
less an authority than a writer in the " Quarterly" contemplates any
rate of progression greater than nine asiles an hour; beyond which'
maximum speed, safety, according to the oracle, was out of the question. This remonstrance, which, however laughable it reads at the
present time, must have had great effect in its day, is quoted in the
Life of George Stephenson, by S. Smiles:" What (said the reviewer) can be more palpably absurd and ridieu



372               ROME AND ITS RULER.
the country of the largest capital and most resolute enterprise of any in the world; and she must not be surprised if it require a very great effort on the part of
countries with small means and but moderate enterprise to obtain them.  The resources of the Papal States
are not of themselves sufficient to the construction of
extensive lines of railway; nor, as yet, is the speculative enterprise of the people equal to the risk of so great
an undertaking.' So that railways have to be constructed for Rome, by foreign speculators, and with foreign
capitalo  And in this very fact lies the explanation of
that seeming want of energy, and that imaginary opposition  to improvement, of which we have  heard  so
nmucho.  Now what is the real state of things?  That
railway projects in the States have been made matters
of the merest speculation, as a means of raising sums
of money for their projectors.  Thus, companies have
been establishedc-on paper; and, concessions have been
granted to their originators.  But, while many of these
schemes lhave broken  down, from  the inability of the
parties to carry them  out; in other instances, those who
have obtained  concession, have sold it-and  thus the
project has been handed from  one set of speculators to
lius tlhain the prospect held out of locomotives travelling twice as fast
as stoge-conclies?  We should as soon expect the people of Woolwich
to suffer themselves to be fired off upoin one of Congreve's ricochet
rockets, as trust themselves to the mercy of such a machine going at
such a rate. We will back old Father Thames tagainst the Woolwich
railway for any sum. We trust that Parliament will, in all railways it
may:nuetion, limhit the,speed to eig/ht or nine miles an hour, qvhich, sue
entirely agree with A1r. Sylvester, is as gireat a.s can be ventured on qwith.safety."




WHY RAILWAYS DID NOT PREVIOUSLY EXIST. 373
another, to the indignation of the Government, and the
disgust of the people. I have proofs before me of this
being the fact; but it is not my duty to introduce names
in such a case. There is, besides, another and sufficient
reason why railways have not been established before
this-namely, the Revolution of 1848, and the long
time which elapsed before confidence was restored to
the public mind, or before speculators of other countries could rely upon the continuance of that tranquillity
which is essential to the success of such undertakings.
From the first hour of his reign, Pius IX. was desirous
of encouraging the introduction of railways, and he
adopted such means as were alone in his power, in order to carry his wishes into effect. And, ere long,
he will have the satisfaction of beholding important
lines of communication connecting his capital with Naples and with Tuscany, with the Mediterranean and
the Adriatic. Railways are projected northward, to
the Tuscan frontier; southward, to the Neapolitan
kingdoml; westward, to Civita Vecchia, connecting
Romne with the Mediterranean; and eastward, to Ancona, and along the coast of the Adriatic. The railway
from Rome to Ceprano, on the Neapolitan frontier, is
already finished as far as Frascati; and the Neapolitans are at work on their end of the line, fiom Capua to
Ceprano. The line to the Tuscan fiontier is to join that
firom Sienna to Florence. A considerable number of
the shares in the line to Ancona have been ieserved,
by the Pope's desire, for his people; and, stimulated
by the example of the Holy Father, whose name heads




374           ROME AND ITS RULER.
the list of contributors, prelates, princes, religious orders-in fact, all classes-have entered into this national undertaking with an ardour amounting to enthusiasm. The same applies to the other lines. Then the
works on the line to Civita Vecchia are being vigorously proceeded with; so that in a short time that port
is likely to become one of considerable importance.
Between Ancona and Bologna the line of railway is
also being constructed. It is definitely traced between
Case Bruciate and Ancona, as well as between Faenza
and Bologna. And, indeed, the Holy Father has had
the satisfaction of witnessing the progress of these latter
works, during his recent tour through his dominions.
The severity of the weather did not prevent him from
quitting his carriage, inspecting the operations, and
addressing words of kindness and encouragement to the
people employed.
Gas being a dangerous " innovation" upon oil, tallow,
and wax, of course the Pope, to be consistent, must have
been vehemently opposed to its introduction.  But
the fact is quite the other way; and though there have
been many and grave difficulties in the path of the
intelligent and energetic representative of the English
company by which Rome is now lighted, that gentleman has, to my knowledge, ever found his best resource
in the practical good sense and genuine kindness of the
Holy Father.
I well remember my first visit to the Roman gasworks. In company with a friend, I crossed the Tiber
for the purpose of seeing some remarkable ruins, not far




THE ROMAN GAS WORKS.           375
from the Trastevere side of the Ponte Rotto, including
the beautiful little circular Temple of Vesta, with its
graceful peristyle of pillars, but most abominable roof
of red tiles; the temple of Fortuna Virilis; the Arch of
Janus Quadrifrons; and the Palace of the Caesars.
We had clambered up, through tangled pathways and
shattered steps, to an extensive platform, or floor, formed
by the roofs of a series of arched halls, then stuffed with
hay and straw, but once belonging to the palace of the
Caesars. From this lofty elevation-perhaps a hundred
feet above the main road below —a splendid view was
obtained; but on nothing more strange and curious did
the eye rest, than upon what lay almost immediately
beneath. It was an immense oblong space, half of
which was occupied by a thriving and well-stocked
cabbage-garden, and the other by the buildings and
premises of a gas-works. At the former end was distinctly traced the semi-circular termination of a circus,
with its slanting bank, on which rows of seats had once
been constructed. The top appeared to be about six
feet above the soil; but originally, it might have been
as high as forty. Indeed, Mr. Shepherd, the manager
of the gas-works, told me that, when sinking a foundation for the gas-tank, he had to go down a depth of
thirty-five feet, and that it was only at that depth that
he came upon the original soil-in fact, to the very sand
of the arena. Here, then, were cabbages growing, and
a gas-chimney smoking, many feet above the ancient
level of the Circus Maximus; and vines, fig-trees, and
pot-herbs flourishing in luxuriant vigour above the




376           ROME AND ITS RULER.
broken arches and ruined halls of the Palace of the
Chasars!
All was activity in the works, which appeared to be
admirably constructed. Amidst the gloom, and vapour,
and flame of the retort-house, a number of half-naked
figures, swarthy and bearded, were seen hard at work,
charging the retorts-drawing out the red coke, and
inserting great long scoops, full of firesh coal. These
mlen were all Italians; not more than one foreigneran Englishman of experience-being employed on the
premises. This visit led to an introduction to Mr.
Shepherd, who may be said to be the founder of gas in
Rome; and from conversations with that gentleman, I
learned many interesting particulars with respect to
the origin and progress of the undertaking.
Mr. Shepherd obtained the " concession" in 1847, but
under disadvantageous circumstances, the result of competition, and of a prevailing idea that gas could be made
for something "next to nothing."  The Revolution of
1848, however, put an end to all undertakings in Rome,
as indeed to every description of continental enterprise.
Some difficulties occurred, after the restoration of order,
with respect to an arrangement of termns on a new
basis; but a personal appeal to the Pope put an end to
opposition, notwithstanding that learned men had pronounced against the noxious vapours of the manufacture, and prophesied all manner of frightful results to
the health of the city. Even the procurement of a site
was a matter of time and trouble-such were the appirehensions entertained of the deleterious and poisonous




GAS FIRST " STARTED" IN ROME.       377
nature of the foul breath hereafter to be vomited forth
into the mild air of Rome, by that modern monster, a
gas-house chimney. At length he succeeded in purchasing the Circus Maximus-or rather the soil that
exists some thirty-five feet above the sand on which,
some fifteen hundred years ago, the swift chariot was
whirled to the goal. This site of ancient magnificence
had been for cenrturies the receptacle of the sweepings
and rubbish of Rome; and for years past, its dedication
to the more profitable purpose of a market garden had
clothed it with a grateful though humble verdure.
After undergoing many difficulties, and conquering
many obstacles, Mr. Shepherd ultimately obtained a
modified contract, and manfully set to work-being
bound to light certain streets within a period of eighteen mnonths. I remember asking him if the Pope were
at any time opposed to the introduction of gas; and his
answer was in these words:-" No; on the contrary, I
found in His Holiness not only a friend to progress, but
a patron to the judicious innovator."
The difficulties of the undertaking were greatly enhanced by the immense distance from which a large
proportion of the "plant" had to be obtained. However,
the purifying apparatus, the lamp-posts, brackets, and
such matters, were all cast in Rome. At length, the
hour of triumph arrived; and on the night of the 6th
of January, 1854, the Corso blazed with unusual light,
not to say to the rapture, but the actual frenzy of the
Roman populace. Fortunately for the Signor Shepherd,
he was not in the way, or he would certainly have




378            ROME AND ITS RULER.
received the unwelcome honours of a popular ovation.
But enthusiasm found a safe vent in several poetic effusions, in which the author of this nocturnal splendour
was compared with a considerable number of the heroes of mythology. Still, there were those who entertained the firm conviction that Romne was to be scourged
by the deadly vapours emanating from the gas-chimney,
and who regarded poor Signor Shepherd as a very dangerous person. The fact is, the Romans are peculiarly
susceptible in this respect: and such is the rarity of the
atmosphere, that even perfumes are not tolerated in a
ball-room. However, all apprehensions were soon set
at rest by the moral courage of Prince Doria, who determlined on preparing a surprise for the numerous
company expected to attend the annual ball in favour
of an institution for the education of poor children, of
which Princess Doria is one of the directresses. The
Prince consulted with Mr. Shepherd as to the possibility of having the riding-school of the palace lit with gas
for the occasion; and, although gas was only 1" started"
for the first time on the night of the 6th of January,
there sparkled, on the night of the 14th of February,
amidst the brightest foliage and the loveliest statuary,
some 1,200 jets of the dreaded light?  Of course, the
spectacle of these lights suddenly bursting into bright
and pure flame, was hailed with a simultaneous outburst of applause; and as for the savans-why they had
to give in. Mr. Shepherd was in ecstasy, for there was
not the slightest unpleasantness of smell, although the




PROGRESS OF CONSUMPTION.          379
heat was very great. To use his own words-" I felt
that evening that gas was a reality in Rome."
From  that moment success was certain: orders
steadily coming in from all classes, from the noble to
the seller of lemonade in the street. The hotels and the
cafes at once adopted this brilliant innovation, and the
shops gradually abandoned the candle and the oil-lamp.
The following figures exhibit the progress which the
consumption has made up to the present time:Public Lights.    Private.
Commenced January 1854 with 200   -    525
January 1855  " 247   -   1,510
January 1856  " 280   -   2,379
January 1857  " 393   -   4,227
May 31, 1857 " 456   -   4,642
This progress is in the highest degree satisfactory,
and promises speedily to reward the enterprising projectors by a far greater dividend then the five per cent.
which they now receive.
Immediately after the first lighting of the Corso, Mr.
Shepherd had an audience of the Holy Father, who received him with marked kindness, and instituted the
most minute inquiries with respect to the undertaking,
and promised to visit the works; but without notice
and without ceremony. This the Holy Father did in a
few days after, when his stay was protracted far beyond
the ordinary limits. His inquiries were numerous, and
much'to the point; he examined every part of the apparatus minutely, and expressed himself pleased to find
that, with the exception of the head workman, all the




380           ROME AND ITS RULER.
people employed were natives. He asked Mfr. Shepherd how he had managed to make workmen of them
in so short a time —if he fofind them willing and intelligent-and whether he thought he could depend
upon them permanently' The Pope listened attentively to the characteristic reply-" Your Holiness, I pay
them well, and expect a day's work in proportion.
Having served my time to my profession, I am fully
capable of directing others; and, lastly, I invariably
adopt a policy which I consider indispensable in the
management of workmen-I unite firmness with kindness; and if a man do not appreciate these, I discharge
him irrevocably."  "Ah!" said the Pope, "unfortunately these two qualities are too seldom united."
The next day, Monsignor de MIlerode, the Pope's
principal Chamberlain, called upon Mr. Shepherd, and,
in the name of His Holiness, presented him with a
splendid gold medal, and his son with one of silver.
He also gave to each of the workmen a golden scudo.
But the Pope was not satisfied with exhibiting personal kindness to the representative of the company;
he gave orders to have the Quirinal and the Vatican
lit with gas; which was done as speedily as the requisite fittings could be prepared. Some of these are positive works of art, for which special designs were made,
and models taken. The lamps on the principal staircase of the Vatican are very beautiful-in fact, worthy
of the place; and, considering their great beauty, the
cost of each-~T5 —is rather moderate. The consump



LIGEHTS FOR THIE " MADONNA."       381
tion of gas in the Vatican for a single month, in winter, is somewhat about ~40.
As yet, the price is rather high to the consumer; but
English coal has not cost much under ~3 per ton, when
laid down in Rome. Fortunately Mr. Shepherd is enabled to use a certain proportion of Tuscan with English coal; by which arrangement much expense of production is saved, and the consumer is enabled to have
his gas even at 11s. 6d. per thousand feet.
I have introduced this subject merely to show the
absurdity of the charges made against the Holy Father,
as the alleged foe to progress; and I may conclude with
the mention of two facts-the one most creditable to
the honourable character of the people-the other full
of significance to those who entertain vague notions of
"converting" the Italians. When I was in Rome, the
"bad debts" of the gas company amounted to Jve
pence!-and at this moment I doubt if they exceed
that amount. The other is, that in the books of the
company, there appears a very considerable item set
down to lights "for the Madonna." In every house, in
every shop, at every street corner, is to be seen a picture or figure of the Virgin MIother; and in place of
the taper, or the oil-lamp, that formerly burned before
these most suggestive representations, may now be seen
the pretty bracket, with its trinity of brilliant lights.
The great invention of the present age is the Electric
Telegraph; and its use, either by a government or a
people, is taken as an indication of progress, while its
non-use is as fieely set down to a blind enmity to all




382           ROME AND ITS RULER.
improvement whatever. It has therefore been alleged
that the Pope would not consent to its introduction into
his States; he being, according to the stupid slander of
the day, necessarily opposed to all modern "innovations.7"  But this allegation is as true as many more;
for not only has his Holiness established this mode of
communication throughout many parts of his dominions, but he has set an example to all other governments, by rendering it the medium of promoting scientific investigation.
To procure meteorological data, an active correspondence has been carried on by telegraph. At Ancona,
the Commune gave funds to Professor Zazzini to improve his observatory; and the Government added the
necessary means to erect two magnetic observatories,
one at Ancona, the other at Civita Vecchia. Similar
works have been undertaken, or improved upon, in Urbino and Pesaro; in which latter city Signor Guidi has
constructed a complete meteorological observatory in
his own house. Professor Respighi at Bologna, Professor Botter at Ferrara, and other scientific nien throughout the States, have actively concurred; so that, in a
late statistical work, the Government of the Pope have
been enabled to publish the meteorological observations
of the previous six months, with plans indicating the
barometrical changes, and the currents of the wind.
Very few of the great states of Europe or America
have directed government effort to these subjects; yet
through the whole of Italy-from the Two Sicilies, the
Roman States, Tuscany, and Lombardy, to Turin



THE MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH.             383
every important town has its meteorological observatory.
By the latest returns, it appears that four hundred
miles of telegraph have been laid down; but since
tlese were published, several hundred miles in addition
have been projected, or are in course of actual construction. The expense of the four hundred miles then
completed had been estimated at 15,0001.; but the
work was completed for considerably less-a result
from which English engineers might derive a valuable
hint. As a commercial speculation, the result has been
eminently successful; as the revenue obtained firom
22,383 messages, sent during the year 1856, produced
to the Government a net revenue of 18,780 scudi.  Decrees have been issued this year, authorising the erection of lines of telegraph fiom Irrome to various new
districts; and the Pope has given orders for the construction of telegraphic stations in all the principal
places ttnloughl  which he has passed in his tour, and
which had not alteady llad the advantage of this valnable means of communication.  So that, in a very short
time hence, the subjects of his Holiness are certain to
be as well off in this respect as those of any European
lnonarch.
I shall content myself with a very brief allusion to
other important works which the Pope has undlertaken,
as well with a view to the material improvement of his
kingldom, as with the immediate object of affording
emnploynment to his people.
In the Roman States several of the great roads are




384           ROME AND ITS RULER.
not charged immediately on the locality through which
they pass, but are classed as National Roads, and are
maintained at the expense of the State.  Amongst
these, the Appian Way is one of the most remarkable;
being the main entrance fiom the south into the ancient
city. Much of this great highway, which has been
dignified with the title of Regina VYiarum, had fallen
into disuse, and become in many places almost imupassable. The present Pope determined to restore it to its
ancient usefulness, and even to improve upon what had
been considered the grandest highway ever made by
that dominant nation of antiquity, which has left in all
the countries it conquered, enduring memorials of great
public works, and, above all, of roads which, for the
grandeur of their design, have never been surpassed.
Amongst the improvements which Pius IX. made
on the Appian Way, the most remarkable is the great
viaduct which he has raised across the deep valley
which lies between Albano and Ariccia. This great
* bridge, which is nearly a thousand feet long, and nearly two hundred feet in height, is composed of three
rows of arches-the upper range comprising eighteen,
the centre twelve, and the lowest, which is in the valley, but six arches, of an average span of about thirty
feet. The lower piers are about twenty-five feet thick,
with a depth of nearly sixty feet, and the roadway on
the summit is thirty feet in the clear.
But a most remarkable fact with respect to this bridge
is the very low cost at which it was executed; the
economy of its construction being altogether unparal



PUBLIC WORKS ECONOMICALLY EXECUTED.  385
leled by any similar construction in England, notwithstanding all the mechanical aids for diminishing labour
which our engineers have at their disposal. This enormous structure, containing over 100,000 cubic yards
of masonry, was executed at a cost of 35,0001., or about
Ts. the cubic yard-a price which, if compared with
the cost of any similar work in this country, will be
found wonderfully below our standard.
Other viaducts, on a smaller scale, were also constructed on the Appian Way, beyond Ariccia. On the
Aurelian Way and Flaminian Way, works of a similar character were also executed; being in all cases
the completion of works which even the great engineering genius of ancient Rome had left possibly undesigned, but at all events unaccomplished. We may
instance, as one of these works, a bridge over the
river Metaurus, which was contracted for at somewhere about 20,000 scudi.
Throughout the Roman States, hydraulic engineering is a matter of great importance. In many places
the lands are subject to being flooded, unless the banks
and beds of the rivers are carefully attended to; and,
accordingly, very large sums are devoted to such purposes, as well as to securing an efficient system of irrigation of the low lands. If these works be added to
the operations necessary for the partial drainage of the
Pontine Marshes, it will be perceived that the public
works of this class form an important item in the expenditure of the State. For many centuries the ques
tion of the drainage of the Pontine Marshes has occu17




386          ROME AND ITS RULER.
pied the attention more or less of the governors of
Rome. And we have often wondered that, among the
numerous projects proposed to capitalists by English
engineers, one so near home has been neglected. If
practicable, and it is hard to say what is impossible for
modern engineering skill and capital to effectj it would
restore to cultivation what would become perhaps one
of the richest district in the world. Of course, the
difficulty of the unwholesome climate will present
itself to every mind; but it seems not unlikely that,
by selecting a proper season of the year, and other safeguards, this great tract may be won from the waste.
The question seems worthy of examination by those
who are competent to pronounce on such matters; and
the works already in existence would contribute much
to facilitate the undertaking. It is surely not more
removed from probability than the project now so successfully accomplished, of pumping out the lake of
Haarleem, and converting its large expanse into dry
land-a work which would have been impossible without the aid of the steam-engine.
Some of the navigable canals of the Roman States
are also maintained by the Government; and to works
undertaken by the Communal and Provincial authorities, we find that the Roman Pontiff is ever ready to
lend a helping hand, his contributions being in many
cases of very large amount.
Were it necessary, I might give a long list of works
undertaken by the Pope mainly with a view of affording employment to the inhabitants of districts which




UTILITY COMBINED WITH CHARITY.       387
have suffered distress from the failure of the vine or the
olive. But two instances in point will suffice to exhibit
the paternal solicitude of the Holy Father. He has
lately given a sum of 50,000 scudi, out of means at his
own disposal, for the formation of a new road fromn
Castel Grandolfo to Marina  Such a mode of expenditure combines several advantages; it affords relief to a
distressed population-it diminishes crime, including
brigandage, which is principally caused by povertyand it improves the country, by adding to the means
of its internal communication. The Holy Father has
granted a lesser sum, and with similar objects, for constructing a road from Ponte Lucano to Tivoli. He has
likewise placed considerable sums at the disposal of
the local authorities, with the purpose of employing
the labourers of the poorer villages in some work of
public utility. Thus, while manifesting the sympathy
of a father, Pius IX. also exhibits the practical wisdom
of a ruler.




3S8             ROME AND ITS RULER.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
The Pope a Commercial Reformer.-Steady Progress towards Free
Trade.-We should notjudge a small and feeble State by the Standard of a great and powerful Empire.-Singular Minuteness and Accuracy of Roman Statistics.-Material Progress stimulated by Rewards.
-Proportion of Priests to Laymen.-The former preferred to the
latter.-The Smallness of the Salaries of Public Officials.
EVEN in the first year of his pontificate, the present
Pope exhibited his anxiety, not alone for political reforms compatible with public safety, but for the relaxation of those laws by which trade and commerce had
been hitherto restricted. Accordingly, he then effected
considerable changes in the customs tariff, by which
the duties payable on a variety of articles were greatly
diminished.  The results of these wise changes having
been sufficiently tested, more extensive alterations were
carried into effect last year; and this year, the duties
on silk, linen, cotton, and woollen goods, have been
considerably reduced. For instance, the 100 Roman
pounds' weight of silk textile fabrics, which used to
pay by the late tariff an import duty of 269f., will now
pay but 161f.  The duties on the same weight of woollens have been reduced from 107f. to 80f.; and the
duties on cotton cloths, lately at 64Tf., are now reduced




PROGRESS TOWARDS FREE TRADE.        389
to 32f.; and on articles of fashionable attire, of which
France possesses nearly the entire trade, the duty has
been lowered from 400f. to 200f.
The Pontifical Government have been induced to
make these further changes in the right direction by
the striking results of the alterations effected in the
duties on imports, by the new tariff which came into
operation on the 1st of June, 1856. The results of the
new and old systems were exhibited by returns showing the imports for the last six months of 1855 under
the old tariff, and for the corresponding six months of
1856 under the new tariff. As in all countries in which
a wise and liberal system has been adopted, the increase
in the amount of the imports has been great in proportion to the extent to which the duty has been diminished.  Thus, the duties on colonial produce were
dimished by one-half; and the imports of sugar show
an increase from 12,000,000 lbs. in 1855, to 26,000,000
lbs. in 1856; while the imports of coffee were doubled
in the same time-from 2,000,000 lbs. in 1855, to
4,000,000 lbs. in 1856. And in many other articles,
including machinery, paper-hangings, carpets, &c., a
similar improvement is evident.
If we, in these countries, will only look back but a
very few years, and remember with what difficulty the
friends of Free Trade succeeded in forcing their views
even upon the popular branch of the legislature, and
what a long and severe struggle it cost them before
their efforts were crowned with final success, we must
give credit to the Pope's government for its marked




3890          ROME AND ITS RULER.
progress in the same direction; the more marked and
the more creditable, inasmuch as there was in the
Roman States no popular element to set in motion,
and no powerful press to advocate, to excite, or indeed
to overawe.
Much has been said and written of the misery and
wretchedness of the population of the Papal States;
but any one who will honestly inquire into the true
state of the case, will find that industry is making
steady progress, and that the material condition of the
people is decidedly improving. The increase in the
consumption of the two articles just referred to-sugar
and coffee-would alone afford an indication of increased comfort. But it is idle for the people of Enggland to contrast the condition of iheir country with
that of a small and feeble state, which, moreover, has
been terribly scourged, by war and revolution, several
times within the present century~ They should remember that they inhabit an island on whose free soil
no foreign foe has set his foot for many centuries-that
for nearly two hundred years they have not heard the
voice of civil strife-that the wars in which they have
been engaged, have never brought fire to their rooftrees, or steel to their breasts-nay, that not even the
boom of a hostile gun has echoed along their shores.
Therefore, when they see a government contending
against great difficulties, some even chronic in their
character, and struggling to bring about social and material reforms, they should not regard such efforts with
derision, or thwart them by a reckless sympathy with




PROGRESS ENCOURAGED BY THE POPE.    391
those whose object is not reform, whether political or
social-but the overthrow of all established order, and
the substitution of anarchy for civil government.
I might exhibit the anxiety of the Pope's government to promote industry, to foster manufactures, to
stimulate invention, to direct the energies of the people
to useful and profitable enterprises; but my allotted
space has been already exceeded, and there are yet a
few matters which imperatively claim some notice,
however brief. I shall therefore merely say, that, in
statistical works before me, I have ample proofs of the
creditable anxiety of the Pope and his ministers to develope the material resources of the Papal States; and
also of the wonderful accuracy and minuteness of detail
by which the annual official reports issuing from the
various public departments, into which the administration is divided, are characterized.* By these I perceive
that useful inventions are rewarded with honorary distinctions and substantial advantages, and that energetic
measures are being taken to promote the manufacture
of certain staple articles of consumption. For instance,
to encourage the manufacture of woollen cloths, premiums to the value of between 8001. and 9001. were bestowed in the year 1854. This system may be open to
* Take an instance in point-the agricultural statistics-which are
given with extraordinary precision. The production for every province
is given of every kind of agricultural product. They are almost confusing from their minuteness; and, assuming the details to be correct,
they exceed in accuracy the statistical returns of any kingdom. There
seems to be scarcely a tree planted of which there is not an account
taken. The number of Olives and Mulberries planted have gone on in



392               ROME AND ITS RULER.
objection on some grounds; but, at any rate, its existence is a proof that there is no lack of interest in such
purely mundane matters on the part of this "Priestly
government."
And here, properly, may be said a word as to the
real character of a government which is made the theme
of such unsparing animadversion, and on account of
which the population of the Papal States are assumed
to be entitled to the compassionate sympathy of the rest
of the world. A general idea prevails that the Priests
absorb all the offices in the State, and that, in a word,
they have the entire administration of the country in
in their own hands.  But what is the real fact?  One
which unthinking revilers of the Papal Government
will hardly consent to credit,-namely, that the proportion of ecclesiastics to laymen, taking into account
every department of the public administration, is not
greater than  one ecclesiastic to  eighty  laymen!   It
would be quite unnecessary for me to repeat here the
figures which will be found in detail in the Dispatch of
creasing, and the planting of several kinds of trees is stimulated by a
bounty. The total number of trees planted, from 1850 to 1854, was
574,880. In 1854 the following are the numbers of trees planted:Pines, Firs, and Larch........................  6,079
Olives....................................  27,720
Mlulberries................................ 385,279
Chestnuts...........................  18,341
Elms......................................  5,079
Alders, Poplars, &c.......................... 70,073
Oranges....................................   200
Almonds.................................    100
162,871




ECCLESIASTICS PREFERRED TO LAYMEN.   393
the French Ambassador, given in the Appendix; and
I shall therefore content myself with asking the attention of the candid reader to the valuable explanation
afforded by M. de Rayneval on this head; and quoting
the following most significant statement, which effectually disposes of those fine declamations in which it is
the custom to indulge with respect to this " monstrous
feature" in the government of the Pope.  M. de Rayneval says:"But here a curious fact presents itself to our consideration.  The provinces administered by laymen, amongst others
those of Ferrara and Camerino, are sending deputation upon
deputation to the government for permission to have a PRELATE
appointed. The people are not accustomed to lay delegltes.
Thley refuse obedience and respect to these latter.  They acc.rse
themrL of confining their interest to their own families; and
there is nothing, even to their wives, which does not give rise
to questions of precedence and etiquette. In a word, the government which, to satisfy this pretended desire of the popLulation to be presided over by laymen, reserved a certain numnber of places for them, finds this disposition opposed by the
population themselves."
It is all well to assert that the layman necessarily
feels a profounder sympathy with his fellow-man than
the ecclesiastic, whose mind is bent in one particular
direction; and that therefore a churchman is unfitted
for the administration of public affairs.  Without entering into the abstract question, whether the practice of
piety is not rather calculated to stimulate than destroy
the best and holiest sympathies of man's nature, let us
take, for instance, the administration of his diocese of
1,,/~




394           ROM-E AND ITS RULER.
Imola, or his archdiocese of Spoleto, by Cardinal Mastai Ferretti (now Pius IX.,) in which he combined temporal with spiritual authority; and how was it possible
I ask, that any mere layman could excel him in his desire to promote the welfare and happiness of his people,
or could vie with him in his all-sacrificing generosity?
He founded hospitals, orphanages, schools, asylums for
the penitent; he built churches, promoted public works,
and encouraged a spirit of industry in the young of both
sexes; and most of these works were accomplished by
the cheerful sacrifice of his own personal income, and the
willing surrender of his private means. However benevolent or munificent a layman may be, he cannot, if
he have a family to provide for, attempt to follow such
an example as that of Cardinal Mastai Ferretti, while
but yet a Prince of the Church. Therefore, the fact
stated by MI. de Rayneval does no discredit to the
shrewdness and good sense of those who so urgently petition to have an ecclesiastic substituted for a layman.
Independently, however, of the alleged desire of the
people to be ruled over by ecclesiastics, it is absolutely
necessary, for the government of the church, that its
bishops and cardinals should be versed in public affairs.
Besides, it is notorious that ecclesiastics, by choice and
from necessity, by training and cultivation, are far in
advance of other Italians in education and general
knowledge.
If, indeed, it be true, that the priests " have it all in
their own hands," it is rather remarkable how very
moderately they contrive to pay themselves, even when




SALARIES OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS.         395
they fill the highest offices of the State.  Thus, for
instance, the Cardinal-Secretary of Foreign Affairs has
the magnificent salary of 2821.! Seven Nuncios, or
ambassadors to foreign courts, have each, for the snpport of their respective establishments and their own
income and expenses, but 1,4801. The Minister and
Secretary of the Interior each receive 2141. The President of Rome and the Comarcha, 2661. The 3M'ihister
of Public Instruction (a Cardinal) has no salary; but
the Minister of Grace and Justice receives one of 2221.
The Prefect of the tribunal of the Segnatura enjoys
what, in Rome, is a considerable income, 4681. Twelve
Auditors of the Rota, a tribunal of great importance
and the highest character, have each 2541. The President of the Civil Tribunal, 2661. President of the Consulta, 4001.  Eighteen  criminal judges, each 1281.
The Cardinal-Vicar (Patrizzi), and who, in fact, is
the Pope's alter ego-4661.  The Minister of Coinmerce, 4441. The Minister of Public Works (a Cardinal) has no salary. The Minister of Arms (a secular), 4001. Minister of Police, 874. —of Finance, 8881.
Cardinal Secretary of Briefs, 4941.-Cardinal Penitentiary, 4401. —Revisor of Marriages (a secular) 6001. I
must not forget the 128 Prison Chaplains, ecclesiastics
of course, who receive salaries ranging firom 81. to 101.
a year! That there is no attempt on the part of ecclesiastics to monopolise the offices in the State, is tolerably well proved by the proportion of one ecclesiastic to
eighty laymen, as stated by M. de Rayneval; but if
further proof be required, it is had in the statistics of




396            ROME AND ITS RULER.
the Ecclesiastical Offices, which, without a charge of
unfairness, might belong exclusively to ecclesiastics.
Thus, while there are but 161 ecclesiastics employed
in these offices, at salaries amounting to 36,120 scudi,
there are 316 laymen employed, with salaries amounting to 61,836 scudi. It may also be seen, by referring
to M. de Rayneval's despatch, that the term "6 Prelate"
does not necessarily imply a person in holy orders; but
that, on the contrary, in many instances, the Prelate is
in no respect distinct from the layman, save in the
mere assumption of a certain ecclesiastical costume.




LIBERAL INTENTIONS FRUSTRATED.            -397
CONCLUDING CHAPTER.
Summary of the foregoing Chapters.-The Pope ever merciful.Not a single Execution for a purely political Offence.-England
ought not to encourage Anarchists. - Recent Attempts of the
Mazzini Party.-England imitates Russia when she interferes with
the Independence of small States.-The Pope's recent Tour through
his Dominions. —Its Character and Object misrepresented.-Its real
Purpose.-Liberality, Charity, and Clemency of the Holy Father.The temporal Sovereignty of the Popes. —Its Importance to the
Dignity of the Papacy, and Independence of the Church.
I FEEL but too conscious that I have not done anything like justice to the subject which I proposed to
myself in this volume, and that I have every reason to
claim the indulgence of the reader for the manner in
which I have performed my task.  But, on the other
hand, I feel perfectly satisfied that I have done sufficient to convince the honest and the fair-minded, that
calumny and misrepresentation have been busy with
the affairs of the Papal States; an.d that there is no
justification whatever for that fierce outcry which has
been raised in these countries against the temporal
government of the Pope.
We have seen, by the history of the first years of the
pontificate of Pius IX., how the liberal intentions of the
Holy Father were frustrated by the machinations of




398              ROME AND ITS RULER.
wicked men, whom  no kindness could propitiate, no
concessions could satisfy; but whose sole object was
the overthrow of all existing institutions, and the establishing of a state of things incompatible with the good
government of the People, the dignity and even safety
of the Sovereign, and the independence of the Church.
We have seen how the chalice of bounty, presented to
his subjects by the Pope, was dashed to the ground by
the hands of assassins; and what miseries and horlrors,
what anarchy and abomination, followed fast upon the
short-lived triumph of the enemies of true liberty. We
have also seen how sedulously the Pope has endeavoured to heal the wounds which those evil days have
inflicted, an11d with what paternal car-e he has been employed in promoting the material and mloral well-being
of his people.  And, unless we wilfully shut our eyes
to the truth, we must admit that the future of that
people is safe in the hands of a ruler so merciful, so
benevolent, and so just.
It is true, the assassin was rightly made to pay, with
his guilty life, the penalty of his atrocities; but, save
for the violation of those sacred laws of God, which all
communities reverence, no man's blood reddened a scaffold in the Pope's dominions.*  And since the date of
X M. Thiers declared, in his report to the French National Assembly
13th Oct., 1849, "France has not found the Holy Father less generous
or less liberal than he was in 1847; but circumstances are unhappily
chlanged."
And on the 18th, Thuriot de la Rosiere spoke the whole truth in these
eloquent words-" To my thinking, the mind of Pius IX. is by nature
so full of clemency, and, if I may say so, so in love with pardoning,




THE ENGLISH PRESS.               399
the Revolution, so deeply damning to the personal
honour of the amnestied of 1846, the Pope has repeatedly indulged his clement disposition, by restoring
to the country which they afflicted, and the position
which they forfeited, those who were the prime movers
and instigators of rebellion. The fear is not, that Pius
IX. will not prove sufficiently merciful and compassionate to those who have raised their armed hands
against his authority, but that he may, fiomn an excessive generosity, permit the return of men who are the
sworn enemies of rational liberty, and the deadly foes
of the Church-who would overthrow the throne and
the altar, and substitute in their place a Red Republic,
and a Goddess of Reason.
With these enemies of social order the people of this
empire ought to exhibit no sympathy whatever; for, to
them, sympathy is encouragement, and encouragement
is justification. Yet the English Press indulges in the
coarsest attacks upon the character and rule of certain
Italian monarchs-the Pope and the King of Naples
affording a never-failing inspiration to its writers. Thus,
by the most culpable misrepresentations and distortions
of fact, the public mind of this country is unjustly inflamed against these governments, and an outcry is constantly raised from hustings and from platform. Even
the House of Commons is not free from the frenzy of
that he needed the example, the experience of the abominable abuse
made of it, ever to be able to bring into a soul so nurtured in sweetness and clemency, some sense of rigour."
See also the Dispatch of M. de Rayneval, in Appendix.




400            ROME AND ITS RULER.
the hour; and statesmen are found wanton and reckless
enough to lend themselves to the unworthy task, not
alone of exciting the prejudices of their own countrymen against friendly and inoffensive states, but of lashing into active fury the vindictive passions and deadly
hatred of the lurking conspirator. To the heated imagination and perverted vision of the Italian refugee, the
hour of fancied emancipation is ever at hand; and, from
time to time he sharpens with eager haste the dagger
consecirated "'to the downfall of tyrants"-meaning
thereby all who are opposed to his views, and who detest his principles. Scarcely has magnanimous England hurled her denunciation against "' Italian despots"
-scarcely has some disappointed politician, no longer
minister, vented his malice fi'om a back bench-scarcely has a Minister of the Crown given strength to calumny, and force to falsehood, by their reckless repetition-than we hear of new conspiracies, new plots, new
attempts at assassination.
It has been too much the custom to slur over the
crime of the assassin, and to palliate attempts at murder, by blackening the character of the intended victim. For instance, a knife or a bayonet is levelled
against the breast of the King of Naples-one of the
most foully libelled of living men —and we are at once
favoured with thrilling narratives of his judicial atrocities; yes, and by the very press which calls upon England to crush in blood and ashes the flames of Indian
* See Appendix.




ATTEMPTS OF MAZZINI'S PARTY.      401
rebellion, and by which every resistance to the authority of its own country is characterized as an inexpiable
offence. When the dagger gleams in Naples or in
Rome, it is the sovereign or his government that is in
fault. What, then, shall be said of the late insane and
infamous attempt, not alone upon the peace of the Neapolitan dominions, but upon the tranquillity of the dominions of the King of Sardinia! Remember, here was
a Model King and a Model Government —here was a
Representative Constitution-here was a bold outspoken Parliament-here, in fact, was an Italian Great
Britain! Well, I assume, for argument's sake, all this
to be true-that the king, the government, and the institutions of Sardinia, are all which they are represented to be. But being so, how can the recent attempt at
Genoa be accounted for, save on this reasonable assumption-that the party which recognizes Mazzini as its
leader are the enemies of all governments and of all institutions; and that the regis of a free constitution is no
protection against the torch of the incendiary, and the
dagger of the anarchist. This late evidence of their
revolutionary impartiality should open the eyes of people whose prejudices have hitherto led them blindfold,
and teach them the folly of encouraging, whether by
palliation or approval, these pestilent enemies of true
freedom. Reason seems, at length, about dawning on
the public mind of England; and we now behold the
sublime figure of the Triumvir of the Roman Republic
dwarfed to very mean proportions indeed. It is by




402           ROME AND ITS RULER.
the Times of July 23d, 1857, that Mazzini is thus described:" We regard him as an incendiary, whose murderotus
designs expand in proportion to his own sense of security, but who has no such regard for the safety of his
dupes."
But, let me suppose the Papal Government, or the
Government of the King of Naples, to be as bad as the
most reckless assertion describes it as being-by what
right, I ask, could we attempt to interfere in the affairs
of either country? Especially since we have laid down
the rule of non-interference so strictly in the case of
Russia, which sought to meddle in the affairs of Turkey.
Turkey was a weak and a semi-barbarous government,
whose existence in the midst of Christian states was
somewhat of an anomaly; nor was its internal administration entitled to peculiar respect from European nations. But, said we, of this weak, decrepid, and not
well-administered state, " Here is a member of the great
family of nations-an independent state —attempted to
be bullied and overborne by a great power, which
assumes the right of interfering with its internal administration, and dictating to the Sultan what he shall
do, or shall not do, with his subjects. This gross violation of the independence of a friendly sovereign we
cannot permit: and, rather than endure it, we are prepared to encounter all the horrors and calamities of
war."  And England did go to war, and did sacrifice
the lives of thousands of her people, and millions of
her treasure, in vindication of this principle-the su



ENGLAND IMITATING RUSSIA.         403
preme authority of Turkey over its own subjects, and
its independence of all external control. This principle
was defined by protocols, vindicated by steel, and sealed
with the best blood of the bravest European nations.
Why, then, is it to be abandoned in the case of an
Italian state? What is there peculiarly sacred in the
Turk that does not exist in the Italian?-what should
excite our sympathy for the MVlahometan that should
not also command our respect for the Christian? When
we revile, traduce, and outrage an Italian monarch br
government, are we not doing that which we reprehended in Russia?  When we interfere between a
Catholic sovereign and his subjects, and when we attempt to bully and browbeat a small state, are we not
committing that very offence against the law of nations
for which we punished Russia with fire and sword?
Or, is it because the Pope, or the King of Naples, is
the sovereign of a 8small state, that we therefore violate
our own rule, to the injury of either? Now Russia is
a pure despotism, and so is Austria; and certainly the
existing institutions of France do not meet with our
approval. But do we attempt to interfere with the
fiee action of the sovereigns of either of these great
empires? Nay, let them rain down all manner of persecutions on the heads of their devoted subjects; let
them imprison, scourge, strangle, if they so please; let
them inflict any and every atrocity which it has entered
into the mind of man to conceive-and yet will we
venture to interfere?  No; we do not usually violate
our principles in opposition to the whisperings of our




404           ROME AND ITS RULER.
prudence. But where we have little to fear, our forgetfulness is as extraordinary, as our meddling is rash,
insolent, and unwarranted.
Again, do we lash the misdeeds of Protestant Rulers, 
or continually denounce the misgovernment of Protestant States? The King of Naples is guilty of one grievous sin in the eyes of many in these countries-he is
devoted to the Church of his fathers, which is also the
Church of his people. And the Pope is the Head of
that Church. Now if either happened to be other than
he is-were he a Lutheran or a Calvanist-anything
but a Catholic-is it not probable that we should commence to recognize virtues where we hitherto beheld
defects, and even hold up to public respect the very
government which we now so recklessly condemn?
Does not the conduct of England, in reference to these
two Italian governments, lay her open to the double
charge of cowardice and bigotry? And should a great
and mighty state risk her honour even by the semblance of a policy which cannot entitle her to the
respect of other nations?
No matter what course the HIoly Father may adopt,
with a view of improving the condition of his people,
it is certain to be made the subject of misrepresentation.
As an instance in point, the Pope this year resolved
on making the tour of his dominions, for the purpose
of seeing with his own eyes, and hearing with his own
ears, what were his people's wants. And yet the Holy
Father is described, by certain writers, as a mere pup



THE POPE'.S TOUR.            405
pet or tool, whose natural good qualities are rendered
pitiable by his weakness, and who is compelled to do
just what his cunning advisers require of him, and
that alone. Nothing can be more unjust or untrue
than what has been written on this head. The journey
of his Holiness is no pleasure excursion, no mere holiday trip, no piece of state pageantry, to dazzle by its
splendour and distract by its excitement; it is a grave
act, deliberately resolved upon, and undertaken with a
grave and solemn purpose. Pius IX. has seen too
much, experienced too much, suffered too much, to
love mere idle display, or to encourage, much less take
delight in, f6tes and popular ovations. He has too
vivid a recollection of the flowers and felicitations of
his early Pontificate, not to estimate at their just value
the shouts and rejoicings of an excitable population.
It is true the Pope has offered up his prayers in
the cathedrals of the cities through which he has passed
-that he has knelt at altars beneath which moulder
the bones of the saints and martyrs of the Churchthat he has visited holy shrines, and walked through
historic cloisters-that he has inspected pictures of
world-wide celebrity, and admired sculptures that recall
the grace and grandeur of the antique; it is true that
he has left a chalice of gold on one altar, and a precious
reliquary on another —that he has given so many
hundred scudi for the poor in one place, and so many in
another; it is true that he has here founded a school,
there a convent, and there an hospital; it is true that
he has given orders for the completion or restoration




406           ROME AND ITS RULER.
of shrines, churches, and even cathedrals. But it is
also true that he has left, or ordered to be given, large
sums of money for building or improving a prison, for
constructing a main road, for defending or deepening a
harbour, for erecting a telegraphic station, or for the
promotion of some other material object, the utility of
which every one must equally appreciate. Thus, for
instance, he has given 20,000 scudi towards a new
prison in Perugia.  At Ancona, he has promised
348,000 towards the arsenal, and the extension of the
walls of that city. At Pesaro, he laid the first stone of
a new fort, and promised 80,000 dollars for the work.
Towards the improvement of the prisons of Faro, Forli,
and Pesaro, he promised a grant of 60,000 dollars. He
has given orders for the construction of telegraphic
stations at Terni, Spoleto, Sinigaglia, and a great numnber of other places. These items are quoted at random,
and merely with a view to illustrate the manner in
which the Pope has prosecuted his journey, and the
nature of some few of the many public works which he
has encouraged by his liberality.
There is not a prison, an hospital, or a school, which
has not been inspected, either by himself personally, or
by his orders; and it was the first duty of Monsignor de
Merode, on his arrival in every city or town, to visit
its prison, thoroughly examine into all its details, and
specially report upon it to the Pope.   Monsignor
Talbot is also with the Holy Father, and, by inquiry
and suggestion, aids in the good work of laying the




HE GRANTS ADDITIONAL PARDONS.        407
foundation of speedy reforms in the charitable, educational, and industrial institutions of the Papal States.
Prince Hohenlohe and Monsignor Borromeo also
share in the duty of inquiring into and making reports
upon every subject which it is of importance to have
thoroughly understood by the Holy Father —to whom
personally these reports are given.
Monsignor Berardi is represented as a kind of spy
upon the actions of the Holy Father; but this able
public servant is one of the most faithful and de-voted of the subjects of his illustrious Sovereign, and
one of the most zealous of reformers, whose ability and
whose intelligence are only excelled by his anxiety to
promote the material prosperity, as well as the moral
welfare, of his countrymen. The progress of the Holy
Father through his dominions has been no holiday
work to this most laborious of officials, whose presence
and services are besides essential to the due transaction
of the public business.
Up to the month of June, no less than 30,000 petitions had been received by the Pope, in the course of
his tour; and how many more he will have received before he returns to Rome, it would be impossible to say.
But certainly there has been nothing hidden by the
people from the eyes of their Sovereign.
To those in prison the Pope has exhibited his characteristic clemency, by granting six months' "grace" to
all save the worst characters, whose speedy liberation
would be a great evil to the community. To political
prisoners he has been equally compassionate. To the




408            ROME AND ITS RULER.
middle of June, he had liberated, or "graced," twentyfoul of this class of offenders. To four, who were exiles,
he granted permission to return to Rome; to three he
has remitted part of their punishment; and seventeen
he has entirely liberated. Previous to his leaving Rome,
the Holy Father had given freedom to two men, who
were, to say the least, among the most prominent of the
Republican party, —namnely, Sturbinetti and Galeotti.
Well might my honourable friend the member for
Dundalk, when writing in answer to some of the many
misrepresentations of this remarkable journey, say"That progress has indeed been a glorious triumph, not
like those of the ancient Romans, accompanied by the tears,
the slavery, and the blood of the vanquished; but a triumph
befitting the Vicar of Christ, adorned by universal, unalloyed
rejoicing, unbounded munificence, true Christian charity and
devotion, and the warmest paternal and filial affection."
One other point, and I have done.
There are those who, with the utmost coolness, propose the separation of the temporal from the spiritual
authority of the Pope-who, in fact, ask the Pope to
be content with being Head of the Church, and to
relinquish his dominion as a temporal sovereign. They
say the two characters are incompatible, the one with
the other.; and that the spiritual authority being that
which he is alone bound to maintain, he should abandon
the temporal.
In whose hands is the temporal sovereignty to rest?or by what possible arrangement is the independence of




THE POPE'S TEMPORAL SOVEREIGNTY.   409
the Holy See to be maintained, supposing the Pope
willing to abdicate his authority and functions as a
temporal ruler? Is there to be an authority superior
to his in the Papal States? If so, his freedom is lost,
and the action of the Church is more or less interfered
with. When the Revolutionary Government reigned
in Rome, the Pope was a prisoner in his own palace of
the Quirinal. Or, would it be for the advantage of the
Church-meaning thereby the Catholic Church throughout the world, whether in Protestant or in Catholic
States-that its Head should be the dependant of any
European Sovereign, whether of Naples or of Spain, of
Austria, or of France? Would his removal to Vienna
or to Paris promote his independence, and enhance his
authority? No, no; it is for the advantage of the
Church, that the Pope should remain what he is, and
what his predecessors have been for a thousand years
-a temporal sovereign, recognized as such, acting as
such, and dealing with other sovereigns as such. Being such, his ambassadors represent him, in his double
capacity, in the principal Courts, and protect and promote the interests of the Church in all those countries
to which they are accredited. The Bishop of Rome
would have as little right to send his representative to
Madrid or Vienna, as would the Archbishop of Paris;
but, as a temporal sovereign, the Pope deals with all
other sovereigns as an equal; and as temporal sovereign and Supreme Pontiff, he combines a two-fold authority, the one supporting and enhancing the dignity
of the other.
18




410           ROME AND ITS RULER.
It is true, the Church may be momentarily affected
by convulsions in Rome; but it would be permanently
endangered by any state of things which would place
its Supreme Head as a dependant on any sovereign, or
on any state, Catholic or otherwise. It is not necessary to quote instances in point; but not only was it
the fact, that the action of the Church was well-nigh
paralyzed while Pinus VII. was held in captivity by Napoleon, but it was insinuated that certain acts of Pius
IX., in his spiritual capacity, were influenced by his
residence at Gaeta, although he was there the honoured
guest of the most delicate of hosts. It is quite a different state of things where certain Catholic Powers unite
in the common object of guaranteeing the Pope's temporal independence; for, in doing so, they assist in securing his spiritual authority, and thus preserving the
freedom of the universal Church.
What was said of the temporal power of the Papacy,
at the Council of Basle, in the 15th century, applies
equally well in the 19th: —  Virtue without force is
but slightly respected; and the Pope, wit]hout the patrinzony of the Church, would be merely the servant of
kings and princes."
But, after all, what proposition is more absurd, than
this of the Pope abandoning his sovereignty'as a tenmporal ruler!  To abandon that which has been transmitted through thirteen hundred years, from the foundation of the Western Empire; that which has passed
through the barbarism of the dark, and the strife of
the middle ages; that which has outlived the storms




TEE TEMPORAL SOVEREIGNTY.             411
and convulsions which have shattered so many thrones,
uprooted so many dynasties, and even scattered so
many races of men! Nations and empires have risen
into existence, flourished, and passed away, since there
reigned in Rome that Leo whom Gibbon so magniloquently describes;* or even since Pepin's mailed hand
tore the Exarchate from the clutch of the Lombard,
Astolphus; and the ambassador of the French ruler, in
his master's name, presented the keys of the liberated
cities before the tomb of St. Peter.  " Their temporal
power," says Gibbon, "is now confirmed by the reverence of a thousand years; and their noblest title is the
free choice of a people, whom they had redeemed from
slavery."  To maintain their power, and preserve their
independence-an independence essential to the sacred
interests confided to their charge-the Popes have sustained a gallant struggle through long ages of difficulty
and of trial; and although mighty powers have been
repeatedly arrayed against them, still, thanks to an allwise Providence, they have. succeeded in baffling all
their adversaries, beating back all their enemies, and
preserving, whole and untouched, to the second half of
the nineteenth century, that dominion which a Pepin
and a Charlemagne restored to them in the ninth.
The trials and the sorrows of many a sainted pre* Of Leo IV., the Saviour of Rome, Gibbon says:"This Pontiff was born a Roman; the courage of the first ages of
the Republic glowed in his breast; and, amidst the ruins of his country, he stood erect, like one of the firm and lofty columns that rear
their heads above the fragments of the Roman Forum."




412           ROME ANDI) ITS RULER.
decessor have fallen to the lot of the illustrious Pope
who now sits in the Chair of Peter. But though gentle as the lamb, and mild as the dove, Pius IX. is not
wanting in that fortitude which calmly endures adversity, and that quiet resolution which encounters and
overcomes the greatest difficulties; and in his hands is
held, as a sacred trust, that temporal inheritance which
he well knows to be essential, not so much to the dignity of the Papacy, as to the freedom and independence of the Church of God.




APPENDIX.
STATE OF EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN.
PERHAPS it is consistent with the imperfection of human nature, that
nations should depreciate the exertions made by other nations in the
path of improvement, while they exaggerate their own efforts in the
same direction. If any nation be more prone to this weakness than
another, it is the British nation. But the special objects of its unwise
depreciation are the Catholic nations of Italy, and, before and beyond
all others, the States of the Church. That England is a mighty, powerful and progressive country, not her most prejudiced enemy can deny.
But while she supplies the world with her manufactures, and she carries
her commerce into every sea; while her railways form a perfect network of intercommunication, and the largest ship ever constructed is
now ready to be launched into the Thames, she is not progressing
equally in other respects. Her material progress is that of a gianther intellectual and moral progress is that of a dwarf. Education is not
keeping pace with the manufacturing or the commercial greatness of the
country.  On the contrary —if the deliberate statements, the official
reports, of public officers are to be relied upon-education is retrograding, not advancing. Indeed, the case may be put still more strongly
-namely, that unless some vigorous measures be adopted, and speedily,
too, we shall behold the increase of England's material prosperity become
a source of misery and evil such as wise and thoughtful men regard
with the gloomiest apprehensions. The demand for labour-infant
labour -thins the school; and the necessities or the greed of the parent
render the "education" which the child receives rather nominal than
real. Children stay a shorter time in school, and leave it at an earlier
age, than ever; and this evil which is a fundamental one, is every
year on the increase. No doubt the State is not idle; neither are the
friends of education less active than before; but the fact is, education
for the mass of the people is not progressing as it ought, and bears not
the most remote approach to the material prosperity of the country.




414                        APPENDIX.
Mr. Marshall, one of her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools, says, in his
General Report for 1855, published 1856:" It seems a kind of unreality to vaunt the improved qualifications of
teachers, however reasonable the boast may be, when we have ascertained the character of their pupils, or to enumerate complacently the' square. feet'-a considerable arithmetical calculation-which make up
the ever-increasing'area' of school-buildings, when we know how fitfully and vagrantly they are tenanted."
Such, in fact, is the manifest growth of the evil referred to, that nearly
all the Inspectors hint at-if they do not suggest-a compulsory system
of education for Great Britain.
Mr. Macaulay, in the HIouse of Commons, called attention to the fact
that, "from the registers of marriages, we find that out of 130,000
couples married in the year 1844, more than 40,000 of the bridegrooms
and more than 60,000 of the brides could not sign their names, but made
their marks.  Therefore, one-third of the men and one-half of the
women who are supposed to be in the prime of life, and who are destined
to be the parents of the next generation, cannot sign their names.
What does this imply?  The most grievous want of education."
We shall now see if things have materially improved since then.
That there seems to be no national love of edfucation, the reports
concur in showing. Mr. Marshall says, "The children themselves
are naturally slow to appreciate the value of education, and their
parents often either profoundly indifferent, or stubbornly hostile."
The Rev. D. S. Stewart, in his report for 1855, says:"I have no hesitation in saying that in the counties which I have
visited in the year to which this report refers, I have not met any instances of that laudable anxiety for education which is at times soflatteringly ascribed to our woerking classes.  I have found the parochial clergy
in many places tending to relax their efforts to make schools effective,
on account of their inability to overcome the indifferenece of the labouring
people. I could also point out examples of schools built in anticipation
of a large attendance of children which are almost deserted."
Mr. Marshall gives a striking instance in point of the conflict carried
on between material and educational progress-between the factory
and the school-room:"During the last year more than one very painful example of the
inevitable triumph of factories over schools, whenever they come into
conflict, has fallen under my observation. Such cases appear to me
worthy of record. At Cheadle, in Staffordshire, where there are very
beautiful schools erected by the munificent liberality of the late Earl of
Shrewsbury, and where two years ago there was a very large attendance
of children attracted by teaching of an unusually high order, I found at




STATE OF EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 415
my last visit that the numbers had dwindled away to less than one halt
The explanation will be anticipated. In the interval a factory had been
established, and the energetic proprietor had gained an easy victory
over the devoted but defenceless teachers. Wages had made short
work of education. The prospect of a few shillings extra per week was
an irresistible bait, and the young scholars, reluctant victims of a
cheerless but inevitable lot, had fled en masse from the school to the
mill. The parents, no doubt, were enriched by the weekly gains of
their children, but the district fatally impoverished by the irremediable loss
of all that wise instruction, skilful training, and edifying example would
have conferred upon it. It is only the disciples of a very rigid school
of political economy who can exult in such a change as this. I think it
may even be doubted whether, in the long run, the material well-being
of the population will be promoted by it. Augmentation of income is
no benefit in itself, if coarse, wasteful, and unthrifty habits accompany
it; and surely where discipline and instruction are banished, the whole
troop of dirm facies, inimicaque numina, may be expected to come
thronging in their place."
Nor, if we are to rely on the authority of the Rev. W. J. Kennedy,
in his report for the same year, does the system of education appear to
be entitled to very high praise. He says:" I confess I think there is truth in the statement that those who leave
our National schools deteriorate intellectually rather than improve; and I
do not think this is satisfactorily accounted for merely by the early ago
at which they leave. I think there is a serious defect both in the end
(rito~) and means of our schools. I incline to the opinion that the aim
of our National school should be, to give the boy, not knowledge, but
power to acquire knowledge; that we should think more how we can
make him, not an educated boy, but a self-educator. We should not
load him with facts about common or uncommon things, but develope,
by some well-chosen studies, his understanding and his thinking faculties. I fear that at present, even in our better schools, our National
school-boy skims over too many things, that all is too superficial with
him, and made too easy for him. He is not subjected to those exercises,
those wrestlings of the intellect, those trials and struggles and fierce
persevering battles of the mind with intellectual difficulties, out of which
combats alone issues that intellectual being who thenceforward feels
that he has attained a certain elevation from which he can. never be
displaced; that he had got a power within himself for coping with and
mastering' almost any intellectual study.     
"The result to which I come is this: that the present course of our
elementary schools, being too supe)jficial, embracing too many subjects,
and those not the best subjects, does not so develop the minds, even of
those children who stay longest in school, as to induce and enable them
generally to continue their education at their leisure hours; but that,
infact, they retrograde as intellectueal beings."
The Rev. H. L. Jones, writing of the schools inspected in Wales,
calls on the four Bishops of the Established Church to unite at once, if
they wish to rescue religious education from utter extinction:



416                       APPENDIX.
" Before concluding my report. I cannot help alluding to a more important subject, which I have touched on in previous years-the
religious education given in parochial schools. I wish to allude to it
only in a few words, and as delicately as possible, and yet as strongly.
It is my deliberate conviction-a conviction which I am bound to
express to your lordships —that, unless religion in the parochial system
of Welsh education is tofall away, instead of advancing, the immediate
and united action of thefour bishops is imperatively necessary. Anarchy
and neglect and incapacity are not the means whereby the righteous
cause of this all-important branch of instruction is to be promoted.
Whether the children come of parents who belong to the Church, or of
those who belong to the different religious denominations, the result is
the same for all. These three sources of evil are of more frequent
occurrence than they should be; and some means of obviating them
must be found, or religious instruction will suffer greatly from the
result."
But it appears that the mill, and the factory, and the workshop, are not
to be held accountable for empty schools and bad attendance beyond a
certain point: for, even in England, there is a vast proportion of
children equally without employment and without education. The Rev.
H. Moseley states this with great clearness in his Report for 1854:"It has been customary to assume that the children of the poor are
not sent to school because they are sent to work; and we find an excuse for
this in the poverty of the parents.  There can be no greater error; and
the census has come very opportunely to disabuse our minds of it. It
tells us that, of the children between the ages of three and fifteen who
are not at school, there are 978,179 boys, and 1,283,840 girls who are not
at work, beingforty per cent. of the total number between those ages of
the former, and fifty-three per cent. of the latter.
" The number between those ages not at school because they are at
work, is comparatively a small proportion. It is 381,776 boys, and'
218,055 girls, being 16 per cent. of the whole number of the former,
and 9 per cent. of the latter. It is difficult to understand that the
children of the poor who are not at school, and not at work, should be
anywhere else than in the streets, where we know that the ranks of
juvenile delinquency are filled up. Out of every 100 children in this
country of an age to go to school 57 remain withoeut education, for no
other assignable reason thans that their parents are indifferent to it; and 16
per cent., because the children are required to support themselves at a
time when it was intended that they should be provided for by the
labour of their parents."
Alluding to the short time during which children remain at school,
the same gentleman says: —
"Thus what is gained, on the one har.d, by the improvement of the
schools, is lost, on the other, by the earlier age at which the children
are takeln away fiom them; and your lordships' efforts for the education of the people are practically defeated; there being probably as
many people as ever in this country, in proportion to the whole popula



STATE OF EDUCATION  IN  GREAT BRITAIN.   417
tion, who are growing up unable to read and write.  Every other impediment appears in process of removal but this. We seem to be in the way
of getting schools, which if they were duly appreciated by the poor
would, perhaps, be adequately maintained, and we are getting excellent teachers; but in this respect no progress is being made."
In a note, he thus qualifies the assertion which he makes in' the foregoing:"I do not mean people who, when they were little children, began to
learn to read; but who, as men and women, were capable of reading
well enough to be able to derive profit and instruction from reading.
I doubt whether the number of these, in proportion to the rest of the
community, is increasing,"
The Rev. F. Watkins concludes an able and thoughtful report, for
1855, in terms which, if employed by any other than a conscientious
public officer, bound to speak the truth, would be set down as a gross
libel upon the English people. Such a statement, coming from such a
source, ought, at least, to make those who read it somewhat more merciful to the shortcoming of other nations, even though they happen to
be Catholic nations. The Rev. Mr. Watkins says:" But it is impossible for any earnest man to be satisfied with even
the most intelligent instruction if it produce no higher results, if it have!l(rely an intellectual or commercial value, and bring forth no fruits in
the mnoral and religious life. The operations of your Lordships' Comnmi:tee leave now been continued for fifteen years.  For the last ten
years those of your Minutes which have had the most tendency to improve the position of the teacher and elevate both his character and
attainments, to form and support a class of efficient assistance to him,
and furnish his school with all appliances and means for its great objects, to aid in all those points where assistance is most needful, have
been acting upon and penetrating into the elementary education of the
country. In that space of time at least three school-generations have
passed away and entered upon their work in life.  We are justified,
therefore, in looking for results not instructional only, but educational;
-results such as thiese,'greater steadiness of conduct in young people,
more truthfulldess both of word and action, more thoughtful obedience to
parents and all in authority, mqore cheerful contentlment in the state to
which God as been pleased to call them; in short, a more truly religious
life in the humble but hearty  endeavour to do their duty towards God and
towards sman. If there be little or none of this higher life, then there is
little or no education. And if you ask of those who are best able to
judge of the moral and religious state of the rising generation, if you
ask of the clergy, of magistrates, of manufacturers, of officia people
whose position gives them information on this important subject, or of
those-a-now not few-earnest men who devote their time and their
talents and their wealth to the redress of social evils and the well-being
of their fellow-countrymen, the answer is not often satisfactory.  You
hear of a few isolated cases of improvement, you hear of many going
1 8*




418                        APPENDIX.
on in the old and broad way.  On all sides you hear of the-little regard
paid by young people to parental authority, of the great love of dress,
and carelessness about running into debt, of pleasure-seeking at cost of
time, money, and character; above all, of the increase of drunkenness,
that fruitful mother of all other vices. It is impossible, my lords, to
hear all these constantly reiterated statements, and to be convinced of
their general accuracy, without feeling that, whatever may have been
earnestly and rightly attempted towards the education of the working
classes, there is but, little really yet done; enough, perhaps, to show us
the way by which further attempts may be successfully and more
speedily made, but altogether insufficient to satisfy any one who does
not wilfuliy shut his eyes and stop his ears to the sights and sounds of
the every-day life of the working classes of this great country."
A few extracts from the reports presented to Parliament this Session
(1857) will enable the reader to understand whether there has been
any considerable improvement within the last year.
The Rev. F. Cook, in his General Report on the Schools inspected in
Middlesex, says:"It is, however, obvious, that in no one district is the attendance
sufficient, either as regards the age to which the children remain, or the
time during which they are under instruction in thie same school, to
enable a fair proportion of them to receive a systematic education in
the elementary subjects, much less in the mental training and moral
discipline which are acknowledged to be indispensable.  This fact is
the more painful, inasmuch as the retsurns represent the condition of the
BEST schools in every part of Engyland.
"In London, moreover, as I have before remarked, a vast stratum of
ignorance, misery, and vice, underlies- that portion of the population
from which our National Schools are recruited.  The evil is enormous;
so far from diminishing, it increases steadily. Every year witnesses the
absorption of a large number of young children into the vortex of crime,
or vice and destitution, which appals the philanthropist, and seems to
present hopeless embarrassment to statesmen.
"It cannot be doubted, looking at the returns for the last six years,
that the number of boys and girls under instruction to the age of 13 or
14, is far below a fair standard.  It shows no tendency to increase."
Rev. H. W. Bellairs, reporting on the schools inspected in the counties of Worcester, Warwick, Oxford, Gloucester, Hereford, and Monmouth, complains that the early removal of children from school continues in the same proportion as before; and declares his opinion, that
no measures which do not meet the question of early removal from
school, will produce a general system of education for the poor. He
adds:



STATE OF EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 419
e' Juvenile labour, or the indifference of careless and dishonest parents,
are the causes of our schools being so imperfectly filled; and, until
some remedy or mitigation of this evil be found, it is hopeless to expect
those results for which so many persons are crying out."
He quotes an extract from a letter written by the Rev. G. S. Bull,
Rector of St. Thomas', Birmingham, who writes:" One of the chief hindrances to education is the mischievously early
removal of children-say of mere infants-to our workshops, warehouses
or factories.  Many leave us before they can do more than spell their
Maker's name, and repeat His Ten Commandments, or the simplest
truths of the Gospel."
Rev. F. Watkins, writing of the schools of the County of York, states
that the number of children in attendance at the schools has fallen ofr
within the last, as compared with the previous year; that while, in
1855, the attendance reached to 63 per cent. of the accommodation provided, it fell off to 61 in 1856. He also complains of the increasing
evil, of the early age at which the children leave, and their short stay
in, the schools.  "'LTe evil," he says, "is not only not arrested, but it
is increasing."  And he adds, " It is a radical, deeply seated, and widely
spreading evil, not at all confined to any district, but nearly, if not rquite,
as mischievous i;n ALL pa}rts of the country."
Yorkshire contains rather more than one-tenth of the whole area of
England and Wales, and not quite one-tenth of the population.
Rev. E. Douglas Tinlings, in his report on the schools in Dorset,
Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, says, "The greatest difficulty which
we have to combat in the elementary schools, is the early age at which
the children are removed from school, an evil which certainly does not
diuminish."
Rev. W. I. Kennedy, reporting on the schools of Lancashire and the
Isle of Man, makes this remarkable statement:
" This absence of real interest in the education of the people, appears
to me to be one of the most real anzd irnportant ficts of our time,  and
yet one which is not duly perceived.  Y'e truth, as I believe, is, that
comlparatively few persons in Lancashire /feel any real corcern to see the
people at large educated. A few persons make a good deal of noise on
the sulject; and a still fewer nunlbcer carry on the work liberally and
zealously, though without talk and noise; but the mass of personas are
still hostile, or at best cicdi erent on the matter.  A pusblic feeling for
education has yet to be created."
This latter sentence Mr. Kennedy himself marks in italics.
With one more authority, the case is concluded.  The Rev. T. Wil



420                       APPENDIX.
kinson, in his report on the Episcopal Schools of Scotland, has the following:" It appears to be the general impression, that this evil (the short
time during which children stay at school) is on the increase. It is aggravated by every fresh demanadfor juvenile labour, AND SEEMS LIKELY TO
GROW WITH THE MATERIAL PROSPERITY OF THE COUNTRY; until parents in
general become sufficiently enlightened to purchase education for their
children at the cost of some present sacrifice."
The Educational Conference, suggested by some of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools in their reports to the Council of Education, was
formally opened on Monday, June 23 of this year. It was presided
over by His Royal Highness the Prince Consort; from whose address
the following passage is taken. Speaking from official sources-the
most recent which could be had-he gives a gloomy picture of the
boasted juvenile education of England. The Prince Consort, in fact,
states that, out of 4,908,696 children between the ages of three and fifteen, there are nearly three millions who receive no instruction whatever.
Here are his own words:
"But what must be your feelings when you reflect upon the fact,
the inquiry into which has brought us together, that this great boon
thus obtained for the mass of the people, and which is freely offered to
them, should have been only partially accepted, and, upon the whole, so
insufficiently applied as to render its use almnost valueless?  We are told
that the total population in England and Wales of children between the
ages of three and fifteen being estimated at 4,908,696, only 2,046,843
attend school at all, while 2,861,848 receive no instruction whatever. At
the same time an analysis of the scholars with reference to the length
of time allowed for their school tuition shows that 42 per cent. of them
have been at school less than one year, 22 per cent. during one year,
15 per cent. during two years, 9 per cent during three years, 15 per
cent. during four years, and 4 per cent. during five years. Therefore,
out of the two millions of scholars alluded to, more than one million
and a half remain only two years at school. I leave it to you to judge
what the results of such an education can be. I find, further, that of
these two millions of children attending school only about 600,000 are
above the age of nine. Gentlemen, these are startlingfacts, which render it evident that no extension of the means of education will be of anIy
avail, unless this evil, which lies at the root of the whole question, be
removed, and that it is high time that the country should become thoroughly awake to its existence and prepared to meet it energetically.
To impress this upon the public mind is the object of our conference."
I shall only ask, in conclusion, have we no glass to repair in our own
house, before we venture to throw stones at other people's houses?




IOW  LUNATICS ARE TREATED  IN  SCOTLAND.  421
HOW  LUNATICS ARE TREATED IN  SCOTLAND.
THE following extracts from the "Report by Her Majesty's Comrnmissioners appointed to inquire into the State of Lunatic Asylums in
Scotland," which has been presented to Parliament this Session, exhibit
a state of things that, if it were told of the Papal States, of Naples,
or of any Catholic country, would draw forth one universal outburst of
Protestant execration, and be adduced as a conclusive proof of the
baleful effects of Popery.
It would be a gross injustice not to state that the Commission, from
whose report the extracts are taken, owes its origin to the benevolent
enterprise of an American lady, Miss Dicks, who visited Scotland in
1855. Scotland may thank this female Howard that so terrible a cause
of reproach, especially in such an age as this, is about being put an end
to by legislation.
The Report deals with chartered asylums, licensed houses, poorhouses, and prisons. It appears that the licensed houses are the worstmanaged of all. That they are so will cease to be a matter of astonishment when the following description of the " proprietors" of such establishments is considered:
"Thus, at Musselborough, we found one proprietor whose previous
occupation had been that of a victual dealer; another had been an
unsuccessful baker; another had been a gardene?r; and the last person
who had obtained the sheriff's sanction for a license, was a woman keeping
a public-house, who had taken a second house for the reception of lunatics,
with the view, as we were told by her daughter, of keeping both for a
while, and continuing that which should prove the most successful speculation."
As a specimen of the provision made for the " sick, feeble, and aged,"
this passage will suffice:" Few or no arrangements are made for the proper treatment of the sick,
feeble, and aeqed inmnates. They share the very scanty and insufficient
accommodation provided for the able-bodied, and when, from sickness
or debility, they are unable to sit up on the forms without backs that
are provided, they are kept in bed, and ultimately die in the dormitories
in the midst of the other patients; and, in some cases, after death the
body is carted to the burial-ground, and there interred without any religious ceremony whatever."
Ecclesiastical management may be a very bad thing: but in what




422                        APPENDIX.
institution in which monks, nuns, or priests have the smallest authority,
would such a state of things as is here described be tolerated?"Notwithstanding any regulations to the contrary, we have reason
to think that, in most of the licensed houses, the attendants have the
power of applying restraint at their discretion.  In almost every house,
we found handcuffs, leg-locks, gloves, straps, and strait-waistcoats, and these
not in the custody of the proprietor or medical attendant, but hanging
up in the wards, or in the rooms of the attendants, who were evidently
without any check as to their application, showing that the practice of
restraint is still very prevalent."
Instrumental restraint appears to be the grand specific for the treatment of the malady:" Instrumental restraint is in very general use in all the pauper-houses,
and not unfrequently also in the houses for private patients. There are
houses in which some of the paupers are constantly manacled, either with
the view to prevent their escape, or to keep them friom attacking the
attendants or patients. The strait-waistcoat is in daily use."
The proprietors-for instance the unsuccessful baker, the speculating
public-house keeper, or the broken-down gardener-allow to themselves
the amplest discretion in the use of the remedial agents:"In some houses, two medical gentlemen are in the habit of attending,
each taking charge of a certain number of patients; but generally the
proprietor orders the shower bath, seclusion, or mechanical restraint, to be
applied at his own discretion, without even consulting them. The consequence is, that mechanical coercion is applied and continued in these
houses to a considerable and much greater extent than is known to the
medical officer."
The beauty of the modern treatment for mental alienation is further
exhibited:
"That a certain number of the patients, male as well as females, were
stripped naked at night, and that in some cases two, and in one case
even three of them, were placed to sleep in the same bed-frame, on loose
straw, in a state of peafect nudity."
Delicacy is thus sufficiently provided for:"Frequently, also, there is no proper separation of male and female
patients, who are placed in adjacent apartments approached by the same
stair or passage, who use the same airing-courts, and are not even provided
with. separate water-closets."
A kind of democratic impartiality is manifested in the treatment of
different classes of patients:"We have, in our descriptions of the various houses, noticed several




IOW  LUNATICS ARE TREATED  IN  SCOTLAND.  423
instances where the accommodation was inferior to what the patients'had a right to expect for the sums paid on their account. As examples,
we may here mention two of the worst cases that came under our cognizance. Two male patients were confined in Hillend Asylum, near
Greenock; both had occupied respectable positions in life, and the payments made for them were respectively ~53 11s. and ~35 per annum.
These sums should have secured them comfortable accommodation; but
at the time of our visit they shared a small bedroom with a third patient, and for months had slept together, entirely naked, in a miserable
trough-bed, upon a small quantity of loose straw."
The influence of religion is not esteemed of very particular importance, even in workhouses, as a means of assisting the cure of the insane:"There are some houses, such as that of the Abbey Parish, Paisley,
in which no clergyman ever visits the insane wards, and in which the patients never attend any religious service. At Falkirk, also, they have no
religious exercises, except when the governor reads prayers, which he
does, perhaps, every second Sunday."
Restraint appears to be popular in the poor-houses:" As a general rule, the attendants are not in sufficient number to insure the proper treatment of the patients, and the consequence is, that
personal restraint is habitually had recourse to ina almost all the houses.
The strait-waistcoat and leather muffs are generally left in the keeping
of the attendants, to be applied at their discretion. The Burgh Parish
Poor-house, Paisley, is the only house in which we did not find instrumental restraint in use. A practice prevails in some workhouses, as in
a'few of the licensed asylums, of fastening the hands behind the back, by
which much unnecessary pain is inflicted on the patient."
Here is an instance of rough treatment inflicted on a woman, and in
one of the Queen of England's jails, too:"As an example, may be mentioned the case of a woman who was
brought from Orkney to the Edinburgh Asylum, in March, 1856, in
charge of a sheriff-officer; and who, on her arrival, was found to be in
a state of great exhaustion, having about six ribs broken on each side of
the sternum. According to the patient's declaration to the Procurator
Fiscal of Edinburgh, the injuries were caused by the attendant in the
jail at Kirkwall putting his foot on her breast to enable him to secure
her with straps or ropes. It was said that she had then been very violent and destructive."
The extracts from the report may be fittingly concluded with the
following cases, which it would be difficult to parallel in any country:"A case is detailed in the last report of the Perth Asylum.' Patients,' it is there said,' have been brought to us tied hand and foot.
One young woman, who was perfectly quiet and affable on admission




424                        APPENDIX.
had been tightly strapped to a window-shutter for several days prior thereto. Her wrists, fingers, and ancles were cedematoes, and covered with unhealthy ulcerations; and she has since lost the use of a finger by suppuration into, and disorganization of, the joint, induced by pressure of
the ropes with which she was bound.'
" The report of the Montrose Asylum for 1855 contains similar statements:'Several cases, as formerly,' it tells us,' have been brought to
the house, under restraint, all of which have had their liberty granted
at once, without difficulty or danger.  One of them a married female,
deserves notice. A strong piece of wood was inserted bit-wise between the
teeth, and firmly secured by a strong cord tied behind the neck. The reason assigned was, that the patient had severely bitten her tongue.
"' The instrument of torture was at once removed, with great relief
to the sufferer. On its removal, both angles of the mouth were ascertained
to be in a state of ulceration, from the pressure of the wood, and the
tongue presented afetid and sloughing mass to the depth of an inch. The
patient was in so anaemic and exhausted a condition as to render recovery almost hopeless. She has, however, done well. She still labours
under a certain degree of mental depression, and some impediment of
speech, from the loss of so large a portion of the unruly member.' "
It should be added, as a matter of justice, that the Report, from which
these extracts are taken, was most ably used by a Scotch member (Mr.
Ellice), in a speech of great force and deserved effect, delivered in the'House of Commons, on the 29th of May, 1857.
The Times of the 30th thus concludes a stinging commentary on the
debate of the preceding night:"Such is the picture which Mr. Ellice, relying on the Report, gives
of the present treatment of Lunatics in Scotland,-a country which,
though blessed with two C'hurch Establishments, a body of stipendiary
sheriffs, and a judicial bench quite out of proportion to the work it has to
discharge, seems to have known nothing of these abominations."




BRITISH  ADMINISTRATION  IN  INDIA.              425
BRITISII  ADMINISTRATION  IN INDIA.
IF England were to be judged by her administration of her Indian Empire, it would go hard with her; for, notwithstanding that she is an
eminently Christian and enlightened nation, it were impossible that the
inhabitants of the different provinces into which that vast empire is
divided, could be much worse off, if at all worse off, under their former
chiefs and princes, whom it is the policy of our times to describe as
everything savage, barbarous, ruthless, and bloodthirsty. How far this
misrule-sufficient instances of which shall be adduced-is attributable
to the supineness of the British public, it is now unnecessary to inquire;
but one thing is pretty certain, namely, that if they devoted the same,
or anything like the same, attention to the affairs of India-for the
happiness and prosperity of whose inhabitants they are answerable before man and God —that they do to the internal affairs of other countries, such as Naples or the Roman States, it would be better for the
millions of India, and more creditable to themselves.
It is not necessary to grope back half a century for evidences of
wrong and oppression-nor would it be fair or just to do so; the more
especially, if the wise and vigorous administration of the present time
were obliterating the traces of remote disorder. But let the reader
judge of the existing state of things in two presidencies of India-Madras
and Bengal-as described, not by tourists or romance writers-not by
the pen of hostility and prejudice-but in authentic documents, emanating from official sources, and published by order of Parliament.
The application of torture, no matter in what country or for what
purpose it is applied, is repugnant to the feelings of every humane and
enlightened man; but torture is not one whit the less odious and revolting, because it is practised on the person of a wretched and'defenceless
Indian peasant. Let us see if this inhuman and barbarous cruelty be
really practised upon British subjects I That torture is applied, freely and
constantly applied, as a means of collecting revenue, extorting bribes,
and eliciting evidence, is placed beyond question by the following evidence taken from the "Report of the Commission for the Investigation
of Alleged Cases of Torture at Madras;" which report was printed by
an order of the House of Commons, July, 1855.
This "Blue Book" extends to over 300 pages, and teems with the
most startling facts; but the following selections will suffice to give an
idea of the general character of the entire. The evidence of two
Protestant'Clergymen may be quoted, in the first instance:



426                         APPENDIX.
"The Rev. II. A. Kaundinya, missionary of Mangalore, details instances in police cases from his personal knowledge:"' I lived formerly in the neighbourhood of a police-office, and saw
daily that the prisoners were beaten, flogged, and ill treated. I know also
for certain that, for the purpose of extorting confessions from women, a
disgusting application~ of red pepper is sometimes employed.'
The Rev. L. Verdier, of Tinnevelley, heard flogging going on; he
writes as follows:"Flogging is used in many places: once I have myself heard it
from inside my house at Callivoolum, in the talook of Vulleyore, and it
was so severe 1 could hardly take my dinner on account of the sensation
it caused me. It is about five years since the fact I relate now took
place."
Mr. A. M. Simpson, a merchant of Tripasoor, mentions a cruel
case, of which he was a personal witness, but which occurred " so long
back" as the year 1845:" I mentioned it, however, to justify my belief that the practice does
exist It occurred in the coach-yard attached to the cutcherry of the
tahsildar of Burdwai (in the Cuddapah district), in the presence of the
tahsildar and curnums of the village: I there saw at least a dozen ryots,
who were in arrears of kist, undergoing the ordeal.  They were all
ranged in the court-yard, under a meridian sun, in the hottest period of
the year (if I recollect rightly, in the month of May). They all had
heavy stones placed either on their heads or on their backs between the
shoulders. Tiheir bodies were bent double, and several of them were kept in
that position standing on one leg, the other being raisedfrom  the ground
by means of a string going round the neck and round the big toe. I was
in the cutcherry probably for two hours, certainly more than one, and
none of them  were released fromr this painful position during that
time."
It is not necessary to add more than the following evidence, given
by eye-witnesses, in order to prove to the fact of torture being administered to British subjects:Mr. Fischer, the mootadar or proprietor of Salem, writes.as follows:"Of the habitual use of violent and illegal means of more or less severity by the native revenue servants of Government, in the collection
of' revenue in every district of this presidency, with which I have
become acquainted, I am constrained to make of my own knowledge
positive acfirmation.  But I am not prepared to depose to specific acts,
and which can be substantiated, of violence or torture; for this simple
and I submit sufficient reason, that I have not been accustomed to take
notes thereof, though accident has often made me a witness of such
doings."
Lieutenant Tireman of the Commissariat, writes that he heard and




BRITISH ADMINISTRATION  IN  INDIA.              427
saw a native undergoing torture, but when in the Road Department he
was thrown much among natives, whom he frequently questioned, and
one and all spoke of it as a matter of course.
The Commissioners sum up in these words:"Such a body of evidence from credible, and nearly all European,
eye-witnesses, is to our minds conclusive. It has been adduced, it will
be observed, from all parts of the Madras territories."
The report contains the statements of several natives, who had
personally suffered torture, inflicted upon them either with a view of
collecting-rather extorting-revenue, or eliciting evidence. Rungial
Chatty, states:"We are treated in this way every year, and occasionally we are
made to cross our fingers, when the peons seize the tips and squeeze
them together, which gives great pain. Some of the men were kept in
a stooping posture, by the peons holding down by the hair lock, whilst
others are placed astride on their backs. Occasionally the peons twist
their ears, and make them walk backwards and forwards. In the
absence of the male branch of the family, they take the female to the
cutcherry."
The following is taken from the statement of Subapathy Pillay, in
which he gives an account of the cruelties inflicted on his brother, in
his presence:" On his arrival at Doorgum, instead of taking him to the chavady,
they took him to the traveller's bungalow, outside the village. I was
taken there myself. There they asked him where he got the cloth;
he said he purchased it at Sooboo Chetty's shop; they then told him
that if he would confess that he ad- Sooboo Chetty stole the cloth
they would let him go; they tied his legs, hung him. up with his head
downwards, put powdered chilly in his nostrils, and put an iron wire in his
penis; they passed a strong tape round his waist, and tightened it. There;s as a crowd assembled; this was in the daytime; the windows were
opened; many people could see; he called on two or three persons
standing by to bear witness: he was then taken to the chavady. At
night he was again beaten. I was present."
Let the Commissioners now describe the different modes of torture,
inflicted, be it remembered, on British subjects, and in the second half
of the nineteenth century. The milder system is employed to " collect"
the public revenue:"The descriptions of violence commonly in vogue for revenue and
private extortion purposes which have been spoken bf in the course
of this inquiry are as follows: keeping a man in the sun; preventing
his going to meals, or other calls of nature; confinement; preventing
cattle from going to pasture by shutting them up in the house; quartering a peon on the defaulter, who is obliged to pay him daily wages; the




428                        APPENDIX.
use of the kittee anundal; squeezing the crossed fingers with the hands;
pinches on the thighs; slaps; blows with fist or whip; running up
and down; twisting the ears; making a man sit on the soles of his
feet with brickbats behind his knees; putting a low-caste man on
the back; striking two defaulters' heads against each other, or tying
them together by their back hair; placing in the stocks; tying the
hair of the head to a donkey's or buffalo's tail; placing a necklace
of bones or other degrading or disgusting materials, round the neck,
and occasionally, though very rarely, more severe discipline still.
"That the'anundal' (in Telugu'gingeri'), or tying a man down
in a bent position by means of his own cloth, or a rope of coir or
straw passed over his neck and under his toes, is generally common at
the present day, is beyond dispute; and we see no reason to doubt
that the kittee (in Telugu' cheerata') is also in frequent use. It is a
very simple machine, consisting merely of two sticks tied together at
one end, between which the fingers are placed as in a lemon squeezer;
but in our judgment it is of very little importance whether this particular form of compression be the one in ordinary use or not, for an
equal amount of bodily pain must be produced by that which has
superseded the kittee, if anywhere it has gone out of vogue, the compelling a man to interlace his fingers, the ends being squeezed by the
hands of peons, who occasionally introduce the use of sand to gain a
firmer gripe; or making a man place his hand flat upon the ground,
and then pressing downward, at either end, a stick placed horizontally
over the back of the sufferer's fingers."
But the sublime of atrocity is reserved to further the ends of justice!
Such a catalogue is enough to make the blood freeze with horror.
Surely, such a damning reproach as this ought to be wiped away from
the British name, before we venture to point the finger at any other
government or country:"Among the principal tortures in vogue in police cases, we find the
following: twisting a rope tightly round the entire arm or leg so as to
impede circulation; lifting up by the moustache; suspending by the arms
while tied behind the back; searing qwith hot irons; placing scratching
insects, such as the carpenter beetle, on the navel, scrotum, and other
sensitive parts; dipping in wells and rivers, till the party is half suffocated; squeezing the testicles; beating with sticks; prevention of sleep;
nipping the flesh with pincers; putting pepper or?red chillies in, the
eyes, or introducing them into the private parts of men and women;
these cruelties occasionally persevered in until, death sooner or later
ensues."
So much for torture; which, according to Lord Dalhousie, in a letter
dated the 22d of Sept., 1855, is practised " in every native state of
India, and in every British province."  And now with respect to the
state of the police and the administration of justice in Bengal.
On Thursday, the 11th of June, 1857, a debate took place in the
House of Commons, on the motion of the hon. member for Perth (Mr.
Kinnaird), who proposed the following resolutions:



BRITISH  ADMINISTRATION  IN  INDIA.              429
"That, -from representations made to this House, there is reason
to believe that the present administration of the Lower Provinces of
Bengal does not secure to the population the advantages of good
government, but that the mass of the people suffer grievous oppression
from the police, and the want of proper administration of justice: that,
in the opinion of this House, it is desirable that her Majesty's Government should take immediate steps with a view to the institution
of special inquiries into the social condition of the people; and to
ascertain what measures have been adopted in consequence of the
oppression under which a large proportion of the inhabitants of the
Lower Provinces are now said to be suffering, more especially with
reference to the system of landed tenures, the state of the police, and
the administration of justice; and also that such report be laid upon the
table of the Hoouse."
In the course of his statement, the hon. member laid down this fair
proposition, one that must meet with general concurrence:"This House would agree with him that a Government that did its
duty should at least secure to the subjects of the Government these four
things: —, the administration of justice; 2, security to life and property; 3, protection to all classes, poor as well as rich; 4, and lastly,
exemption from excessive taxation."
Mr. Mangles, Chairman of the East India Company, was on this occasion the spokesman and organ of the Court of Directors; and he thus
admitted the whole case:
"Bengal, which was perhaps the oldest British possession in India,
was, as regarded the affairs of internal administration, in a very bad condition, and the East India company would spare no pains or expense to
remedy the present state of things."
But having admitted all that was urged on the other side, he gently
pleaded in extenuation of the disgraceful fact, by appealing to the
character of the miserable race who were to be ruled. In a word,
they were some thirty millions of " monkeys."  Mr. Mangles thus heaps
up evidence against the Bengalees:"With respect to the opinion of Mr. Dorin, he could only say that he
was perfectly ready to support the statement that the inhabitants of
Bengal were an extremely timid people, and that their want of energy
was so great that it was very difficult to provide for them any institutions likely to prove of advantage to them, inasmuch as they had not
the spirit necessary to maintain their own rights. Mr. Marshman, who
knew Bengal well, represented the task of endeavouring to deal with
the people of that province as only to be compared to carving in rotten
wood, while Mr. Macaulay described the Bengalee as being devoid
of courage, and his physical organization as feeble and effeminate.
There were very few Bengalees in the Indian army, and, indeed, the
general impression was, that.one might as well enlist a monkey as a
Bengalee for a soldier. Such, then, was the material upon which the




430                       APPENDIX.
Government of Bengal had to work, and he should appeal to the candour of that House to say whether the task of providing a good government for such a people was not one in which great difficulty was
involved."
This miserable apology was thus answered by Lord John Russell,
who justly said:"Then comes Mr. Dorin, and he, differing from Mr. Halliday, says it
is a laNw of nature in such a population as this, that there should be
nothing but tyrants and slaves; and he seems very tranquilly to make
up his mind that there are tyrants and slaves in that community, and
that tyrants and slaves there must ever be. I should say, no doubt,
that the timid and unwarlike character of the population has been the
great means by which we have been enabled to conquer that country
and establish over it thie government of Great Britain, and that we have
no right after that to turn round on them and reproach them with their
timidity, and say we do not mean to give you that full protection which
is necessary and desirable."
It appears from official documents, relied on in the debate, that the
Police committed one-fourth more murders and robberies than the rest of
the population.
I have now before me a " minute" of the Hon. F. G. Halliday, Lieut.
Governor of Bengal, on this subject; and it fully corroborates the
description of the state of things given in the statement of Mr. Kinnaird, who mainly relied on the representations of certain missionaries.
The Village Watchmen are thus represented:"They are all thieves or robbers, or leagued with thieves and robbers,
insomuch that when any one is robbed in a village, it is most probable
that the first person suspected will be the village watchman."
Mr. Halliday quotes from the report of the Commission of 1837, and
then shows that nothing practical has been done in the way of remedy
for the twenty years which have intervened since then-:"'The most urgent necessity exists for a thorough revision throughout
the country.  The establishment (of village watchmen) is described
not only as utterly useless for police purposes, but as a curse instead
of a blessing to the community. It is even a questiosn whether an order
issued throughout the country to apprehend and confine them would not do
more to put a stop to theft and robbery than any other measure that could
be adopted.'"
" Various plans have been proposed for amending this state of things,
and a good deal of paper has been covered with written discussions
regarding them, but nothing has ever been done; so that many persons
have come to think it a thing impossible to do any good in that direction, and have ceased from all effort accordingly."
Mr. Halliday, in the two following paragraphs of his minute, gives a




BRITISH  ADMINISTRATION  IN  INDIA.                431
pitiable picture of the manner in which criminal justice is administered
to a population of thirty millions of British subjects, and of the increase
of heinous crime in consequence:" That a very small proportion of heinous offenders are ever brought to
trial is matter of notoriety. It now appears that half of those brought
to trial are sure to be acquitted.  Is it to be expected, then, that the people should have confidence in our system, or that they should show alny
desire to assist the police, knowing, as they do, from experience, the
miserable results to be obtained?
" I must say that this appears to me the weakest point of our whole
system, and that which most loudly calls for an effectual remedy, No
doubt the badness of the police and the inefficiency of the tribunals act
and re-act on each other, and both are concerned in bringing about the
deplorable existing consequences. But until, the tribunals are reformed,
I can see no use in reforming the police, and I think it will be money
thrown away to attempt the latter, unless we are determined vigorously to insist on the former.  Wre have been hitherto debating aboeut
both for many years without much practical efect, and in the meantime,
to take only one crime, and only the seven districts round about Government House, we have seen dacoities increase from 82 in 1841, to 524
in 1851! It is true that under a special agency this has since been reduced to 111 in 1855. But the operations of this agency have shown
more than anything else the utter inability of our ordinary institutions
to cope with the enormous social evil that is ever rising up in defiance
before it."
Comment on the foregoing is unnecessary. Or if it be required, it
may be given in one sentence from an article in which the Times of
Saturday, June 13th, referred to the debate of the previous Thursday:
"The solid fabric of British power weighs on them (the people of
India), but does not shelter themn."
Since the foregoing was put into the printer's hands, the British
Public have had a far more startling commentary pronounced upon the
administration of affairs in India-in the revolt of the native troops at
Meerut, where they massacred their officers; and in the subsequent
capture of the ancient city of Delhi by the mutineers, and the barbarous slaughter of Europeans which followed. These disastrous events,
which certainly are not the most conclusive evidences of wise and paternal government, occurred in the early part of the month of May of
the present year.




432                      APPENDIX.
"REPORT FROM THE COUNT DE RAYNEVAL, THE FRENCH
ENVOY AT ROME, TO THE FRENCH MINISTER FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
(Copy.)
"Rome, May 14, 1856.
"MONSIEUR LE CoMTE. At this moment the situation of the Pontifical
States pre-occupies more than ever the different cabinets of Europe,
and particularly the government of the Emperor, in the twofold point
of view of the interests of Catholicism, and of the armed protection
with which France and Austria surround the holy chair. This question is contemplated under so many different aspects, it is so perverted
by the spirit of party, it excites in one sense and another such vehement
passions, that a truthful and impartial review of the facts appears not
inopportune.
" Though the accusations brought against the pontifical government
may be greatly exaggerated, it is undoubtedly vulnerable on one side; its
territory is occupied by foreign troops, and it is questionable whether
it can dispense with this support. Every independent state is expected
to suffice for itself, and to be able to maintain its internal security by
its own forces. The Court of Rome is reproached with falling short of
this reasonable expectation; the cause of its weakness is inquired into,
and it is generally believed to be the discontent awakened among its
subjects by a defective administration.
"The real cause of the weakness of the pontifical government is a
much more complicated one, and is, in fact, connected with quite a
different class of ideas; but, it is a much more convenient and rapid
mode of arriving at a conclusion to complain of the administration, than
laboriously to interrogate the history and the tendencies of the Italian
race. The discomfort and discontent of the populations arise more especially from the fact that the part played in the world by Italy is not
that of their visionary aspirations. This sentiment of nationality has
been sensitively alive at all epochs, and the temporal power of the
Papacy has constantly been considered the main obstacle to its gratification. During the last two centuries the general prosperity of the pontifical system, and the abundant resources which flowed to Rome from
all parts of the world, silenced complaint. But the great changes which
have taken place in Europe during the last fifty years have dried up
the sources of Rome's affluence.  The Church has been compelled to
remain contented with the revenue derived exclusively from its own
territory. Hence discomfort, which, increasing from year to year, leads
the minds of men by an easy process to discuss and attack the acts of
their government. The Papacy, protected till this time by a great
prestiqe, begins tofsnk in the estimatiqn of the people. The last traces
of the ancient ecclesiastical sovereignties have disappeared from the rest
of Europe. Our fathers, accustomed to the sight of these sovereignties,
saw nothing singular in them. In the eyes of the new generation one
government of this kind, left alone in the world, becomes an anomaly.
Criticisms on this score multiply. At the same time the constitutional
system, which easily seduces the people, has gradually established itself




COUNT DE RAYNEVAL'S REPORT.                      433
in a majority of states.  Men ask themselves whether it is conformable
to the genius of the age, whether it is respectable to obey a priest, and
perpetuate a superannuated system. Besides, hWv would it be possible
to establish a system of liberty and free disc*sion, in presence of a
power which lays claim to infallibility in spiritual matters, and rests
exclusively on the principle of authority? How create a powerful Italy
so long as the peninsula is divided into two distinct parts by a state,
neutral from the necessity of its nature, and isolated from all European
conflicts? How play a great part when the centre of Italy is in the
possession of a Sovereign who does not wear a sword?  Other causes,
not less powerful, have encouraged these hostile tendencies. Italy had
always wielded the sceptre, not, indeed, of war or politics, which are
not exactly in its line, but at least of civilization, science, and art. All
felt that this sceptre was falling from her hands. The hundred voices
of the press daily informed the Italians of the progress of their neighbours, and proved to them that they had been outstripped in many
points. If-thanks to the blindness of national self-love-this sentiment
has not yet become universal, at least a great part of the population
feels itself threatened in the last entrenchments of its legitimate pridea new and terrible grievance for which to hold the governments responsible. In the meanwhile the loudly'avowed tolerance of several cabinets for the complaints made by the populations, was not, it must be
confessed, one of their least encouragements.  At present it is the most
active of all, and the one to which the hopes of all those turn who wish
for something different front what they possess. On a soil thus prepared, insurrections and revolutions could not fail to germinate with
facility. They turned the country topsy-turvy, and left deep traces.
The momentary victory obtained over the Papacy completely stripped
it of its prestige.  It was no longer the sacred ark against which no
effort could prevail.  In vain it heaped concessions upon concessions;
the very principle of its existence was called in question. The idea of
its ceasing to exist became familiar.  Hostile passions derived new
strength from the consciousness of a probable success where, till of late,
success would have seemed impossible; more than ever the national
vanity attributed its wounds to an administration marked out for attack
by the peculiarity of its character. The prejudices against what is
called a government of priests reached their culminating point.
"' It is necessary at this stage to offer a few remarks on the peculiar
genius of the Italians. The most prominent feature of the national
character is its intelligence, its penetration, its quick comprehension of
everything. This precious gift, which Providence has disseminated over
Italy much more profusely than elsewhere, and which still shines with
all its pristine lustre, is dearly purchased, except in a few remarkable
exceptional cases, by the utter want of such qualities as energy, strength
of mind, and true civil courage.  It is seldom that the Italians are seen
firmly united amongst themselves. Always suspecting each other, they
are continually separating;- no one has any confidelnce but in himself;
they remain isolated.  Hence they have no commercial or manufacturing associations; no common understanding; no combination either
in private or public affairs.  With such dispositions they are destitute
of the essential element of public power; they are totally devoid of organized strength.  Armies-which are knit together by the reciprocal
confidence of the soldiers, and obedience to the general-are impossible.
The ranks are complete on parade; but in the hour of danger the chiefs
19




43S4                       APPENDIX.
are accused of treason, and the soldiers have no reliance on each other.
This defective equilibriunm of intellect and character of:tthe italians is
the key to their whole history, and explains the state of political infirmity in which they-:have remained, in comparison with the other
peoples of Europe. Left to themselves, they have never been able to
do anything but debate in public p)laces; give the victory ultimately
to extreme parties; wear themselves out in fruitless agitations; divide
and subdivide themselves to infinity; and yield up their country to the
first occupants-Frenchmen, Spaniards, or Germans.  Every nation
pays the penalty of its own defects; but how is it possible to make it
comprehend that its inferiority is attributable to itself, and not to its
government?
"It is the fashion to take the Piedmontese for Italians, and to quote
them as an example of what may be expected from the Italian populations.
" This is a great error.  The Piedmontese are an intermediary population, containing much more of the Swiss and French element than the
Italian.  One fact is sufficient to convince me of this.  It is that they
possess that true mnilitary and monarchical spirit which is unknown to
tile rest of Italy. The Italian mind with respect to policy and admninistration is by nature directed towards middle terms, accommodations.
The interpretation is considered to be above the law itself. Following
religiously the traditions which have been preserved of ancient Rome,
jurisprudence is a governing principle.  This tendency is met with
everywhere. It has occasionally a very happy influence on the progress of great affairs, but in practice it leaves to government a very
great latitude, and takes away from the authority of the law in the
eyes of the governed, encouraging them in a singular manner in all
manceuvres which nmay spare them from the rigorous application of
rules. An inflexible law would be odious to them; an administration
keeping close to the letter of the law, without compromise, would
appear in their eyes insufferably harsh. Let us examine the possible
wishes and tendencies of the population at this moment. They formalize their complaints much more than their plans. With respect to their
plans, it may be said that they are almost as numerous as individuals.
In the lower depths of society, Carbonarism is kept up; it still continues
to make recruits. The dagger here is still held in honour. The end to
be attained is the upsetting of every social hierarchy.  The followers
of Mazzini form already a class in some degree above these. The universal republic, the unity of Italy, constitutional government, war
against Austria, is their programme. They say that they are a numerous body, and are ready to act, but they never keep their word.
Directed by the committees of London and Geneva, their watchword
for the present is quiet and inaction, until the return of their chiefs by
means of an amnesty, and the departure of the foreign troops, give them
an opportunity of operating with a chance of success. This section extends to a certain portion of the middle class. This class, and the higher
classes in general, are tormented with the desire of taking a part in
public affairs.
"The example of Piedmont is turning their heads.  A constitution
l'AISqlai.se is in their eyes marvellously adapted both to the manners
and wants of the country.  They desire for themselves and for their
country a great line of action.  They look upon themselves as disinherited. Convinced that the presence of the Pope is an invincible ob.




COUNT DE RAYNEVAL'S REPORT.                      435
stacle to the realization of their projects, they earnestly pray for the
annihilation of the pontifical power. The greater portion of the memsbers of this party have coalesced with the followers of Mazzini, leaving
it to the nation to decide between the two parties after the victory
is obtained. Refusing to go as far as the English constitution, there is
a certain number of individuals who profess attachment to the pontifical government, and at the same time overwhelm it with their attacks,
pretending that they limit their desires to the obtaining of a better
administration.  They are not a~ble to define exactly what they mean
by this. In their eyes every~,ing- depends upon government, even to
the,proper maintenance of thlier own houses, and the direction of their
own affairs.  If ente rises everywhere reserved for the efforts of
private industry are, iio dleveloped in the Roman territory, the reason is
that the governmeit] places obstacles in the way. Attributing all the
acts of the administration to motives exclusively personal, and such as
are founded on the basest calculations of interest, they believe that
public affairs and the profit derived from conducting them, are in the
hands of a small number of monopolists, who exhaust the resources of
their country for their own advantage.  They dream  of nothing but
dishonesty and collusion. Taxed, as they are, more lightly than the
majority of European countries, they complain that they are crushed
under the weight of fiscal imposition.  At the same time, they complain
of the State for not undertaking great works which it is their duty to
undertake themselves. Ignorant of the first principles of political
economy and administration, they enunciate systems utterly opposed to
the lessons of experience, when they are compelled to formalize a project.  Finally, they profess to have a great fear of the Mazzinians, and
at the same time are opening the door to them.
"Lastly, there is a party which attributes every evil to the abandonment of ancient errors. If we could return, they say, to the ecclesiastical regime pure et simple, as it existed formerly, excitement would be
appeased, and every difficulty would disappear.
"Between these parties there is a numerous crowd very indifferent
to everything else but their own prosperity, fond certainly of grullm blig,
but friends of order, and living on good terms with the pontifical
government.  Anywhere else such a party would furnlish the government with a good point d' appui; but ill mm country in whlich the spirit
of enterprise, and the energy necessary for any resistance whatever, are
(absolutely unknllown; where the only universal rule is laisser faile,
with the reservation of the right of complaining when tile thinlo is
done, instead of beforehand, how can such friends be trusted, and how
can the destinies of the state be placed solely in such hands?  -Iere is
the grand difficulty.  No government can dispense with material assistance, and this condition cannot be fulfilled in. the Roman States.
Whichever of the whole number of parties has the luck to triumph, it is
an indubitable fact that it will see forming around it, as lhas already been
proved, the same assemblage of complaints which is directed againlst
the present government.  The same difficulty which the actual government experiences in finding points d'appui in a land which is not able
to furnish them, will be experienced by every party which gains power;
The party which limits its wishes to reforms when inlcapable of defending itself, on account of no one being willing to compromise him
self in its defence, will give place to the colnstitutional party: this will
in turn yield to the Mazzinians, which, thanks to measures of violence




43tA                        APPENI)IX.
oni their part, and carelessness on the part of others, will remain definitely masters of tle situation.  This will represent accurately the
inevitable marlch of events whenever the present equilibrium is again
disturbed.
" Pius IX. showed himself full of ardour for reforms.  lIe himself put
his hand to the work.  Every one is acquainted with the catastrophe
which ensued. What happened then would be reproduced exactly in
our days.
"Here, then, we have a nation deeply divided, animated with burn
ing ambition, without any one of those qualities which mlake the great
ness and the power of other nations, stripped of energy, devoid of
military spirit, as well as of the spirit of association, knowing nothing
of the respect due to law or to social superiorities: and this nation,
being discontented with its lot, accuses its rulers, who are in reality
bone of its bone and flesh of its flesh.  How can we dare to hope that,
to tmreet the clifficulties of so complicated a situation, it is sufficient
merely to inltroduce a few reforms into the pontifical administration?
Verily such a remedy appears little adapted to the disease, and it is not
easy to see what alleviation even it might produce. If the populations
had a real cause of complaint against the pontifical administration, and
if their wrongs were founded upon the single cause, the receipt would
be excellent; but I have enumerated at length the true causes of the sad
condition of the populations, and I have not been able to see that anywhere these causes were in direct connection with the mere mode of
administration. Fundamentally, the very principle of government is
tile point in dispute, and not the mode of putting it in operation.
"What grave reproaches can be made against the pontifical government, and what an idea is formed of the men who compose it?  Is
it possible that they are devoid of that intelligence which is so richly
scattered over their nation?  Can it be that they have so small a sense
of their duties and interests as to place, of their own accord, an
obstacle in the way of the prosperity of their country?  It surely would
not be just to condemn them blindly, and without a rigid examination
of their conduct.  It is a general opinion that the pontifical adminish
tration is placed entirely in the hands of the priests.  It is asserted
that the priest, whose lot it is to defend the intelests of I-leaven, understands nothing of the interests of earth; that, having no family of his
own, he is utterly indifferent as to the prospelity of the country; that,
dwelling apart from  society, lie cannot understand the true wants of
society; that the esporit de coilps is more powerful with him than the
feeling of nationality, and so on.  People are unwilling to believe that
the priest employed in the civil service by the Court of Rome ha1s no
sacerdotal character during the greater portion of his tinme, and that; ftar
fiom monopolizing the whole of the administration, he lhas but a small
share in it-he is in a minority.  I have often asked ardent opposers
of the Roman rule what was their valuation of the number of priests
employed in the administration.  In answer to my question the number was generally stated to be about 3,000.  No credit was given to nme
whlen I showed, with the proofs in my hand, that, putting them  altogether, the number did not exceed a hnndred, and that the half of these
pretended priests were not in orders.  It is nevertheless upon data of
such falsity that are founded grave charges which are accepted by the
public as undeniable.
"At a time when the character of the pontifical government gavo




COUNT DE RAYNEVALe'S REPORT.                   437
rise to no ground of objection, the Church understood thoroughly that
the part of the priest destined for the altar, and that of the administrator of public affairs, might possibly clash on some occasions. The
Church then opened the door to the lay element, by the institution of
the Prelature, and reserving for it a certain number of places even in
the Sacred College. The Prelature increases and receives continual
augmentations from a class of men who are specially destined for administration. Certain conditions of education and fortune are imposed
upon these men. But lately, they have performed their duties entirely
at their own expense, and thus lightened the weight of the budget.
"So important a position as this yielded to the incumbent a few
years back only 600 scudi annually. Since then, in order to render
such offices accessible generally, the emolument has been increased in
a moderate degree. The Roman prelates are not at all bound to enter
into holy orders. For the most part they dispense with them. Can we
then call by the name of priests those who have nothing of the priest
but the uniform? Is Count Spada, brother-in-law of Pdre Beauveau,
a more zealous or a more skilful administrator now than when, in the
costume of a priest, he officiated as Minister of War?  Do Monseigneur Matteuci (Minister of Police), Monseigneur Mertel (Minister of the
Interior), Monseigneur Berardi (substitute of the Secretary of State)
and so many others who have liberty to marry to-morrow, constitute a
religious caste, sacrificing its own interests to the interests of the country, and would they become all of a sudden irreproachable if they were
dressed differently? If we examine the share given the prelates, both
priests and non-priests, in the Roman administration, we shall arrive at
some results which it is important to notice. Out of Rome —that is,
throughout the whole extent of the Pontifical States, with the exception
of the capital- in the Legations, the Marshes, Umbria, and all the
provinces, to the number of eighteen, how many ecclesiastics do you
think are employed? Their number does not exceed fifteen-one for
each province, except three, where there is not one at all. They are
delegates, or, as we should say, prefects. The councils, the tribunals,
and offices of all sorts, are filled with laymen. The number of these
latter amounts to 2313 in the civil service, and 620 holding judicial
employments-in the whole 2933; so that for one ecclesiastic in office
we have 195 laymen. Is it possible for the most prejudiced intellect
not to recognize that an ecclesiastical power which has reduced to so
low a figure the number of the men of its order who are the depositaries
of power throughout the whole extent of its territory has already reached
its lowest limits? Who will believe that this is an intolerable Abuse,
and that the danger will cease when this small number of prelates shall
disappear from the scene?  But here a curious fact presents itself to
our consideration. The provinces administered by laymen, amongst
others those of Ferrara and Cnamerina, are sending deputation upon
deputation to the government for permission to have a prelate appointed.
The people are not, accustomed to lay delegates. They refuse obedience
and respect to these latter. They accuse them  of confining their
interests to their own families, and there is nothing even to their wives
which does not give rise to questions of precedence and etiquette. In
a word, the government which, to satisfy this pretended desire of the
populations to be presided over by laymen, reserved a certain numberof places for them, finds this disposition opposed by the population
themselves.




438                         APPENDIX.
"In the city of Rome, the centre of government, the number of prelates, whether priests or non-priests, engaged in the administration, is
necessarily more considerable than in the provinces. Nevertheless, the
numerical superiority in favour of the laymen is still striking, and leads
to the same conclusions.  These are the statistics reckoning by ministerial departments. The office of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, not reckoning those employed abroad, is comprised of 5 ecclesiastics, and 19 laymen.  The principal of these ecclesiastics, such as the
Cardinal Secretary of State and his substitutes, are not priests any more
than the greater number of the prefects who are marked here as ecclesiastics. The Council of State reckons 3 ecclesiastics and 5 laymen. Theo
Ministry of the Interior comprises 22 ecclesiastics, including among them
the 15 presidents of provinces, of whom I have already spoken, and
1,411 laymen.  The Ministry of Finance reckons 3 ecclesiastics against
2,017 laymen.  The Ministry of Commerce and Public Works reckons 2
ecclesiastics to 161 laymen. The Ministry of Police, 2 ecclesiastics to
404 laymen.  The Ministry of War has not a single ecclesiastical functionary.  The Ministry of Justice, including the superior tribunals,
which are of a mixed nature, reckons 59 ecclesiastics to 927 laymen.
This number of 59 ecclesiastics, is divided in the following manner:
"In the Ministry, 1 ecclesiastic, 18 laymen.
" In the Tribunal of the Segnatura (Cour de Cassation), 9 ecclesiastics,
8 laymen.
" In the Tribunal of the Rota (the superior court of civil jurisdiction), 12 ecclesiastics and 7 laymen.
"In the Civil Tribunal, 3 ecclesiastics and 116 laymen.
"In the Tribunal of the Consulta (the superior court of criminal jurisdiction), 14 ecclesiastics and 37 laymen.
"In the Criminal Tribunal, no ecclesiastics and 58 laymen.
" In the Tribunal of the Bishop, 9 ecclesiastics, 17 laymen.
"in the Tribunal of the Apostolical Chamber, 9 ecclesiastics, 16
laymen.
"In the Provincial Tribunals of the First and Second Instance, both
criminal and civil, 620 laymen, no ecclesiastics.
" In the Archives, Chamber of Notaries, &c., 16 laymen, and no ecclesiastics.
"In different offices, 1 ecclesiastic, 6 laymen.
"Fundamentally, the tribunals are the nurseries of the Roman prelates. There it is that they serve their apprenticeship and prepare their
career.
"In order both to surround itself with administrators wearing the
ecclesiastical dress, and to introduce not only into the administration,
but also into the Sacred College, and even to the very throne itself,
those enlightened views gained in practice by experience in business,
and at the same time, as I have already said, to open the door to the
lay element, the Court of Rome has always sought to group around it
a certain number of men chosen with care, who have no desire to be
priests, and to whom a career is opened.  Twelve or fifteen prefects'
places in the provinces would not suffice for recruiting, apprenticeship,
and recompence of services.  The superior tribunals have been reserved
to satisfy this imperious necessity. The total number of ecclesiastics
employed in the interior of the Pontifical States does not exceed the
number of ninety-eight. Against this we find there are 5059 laymen in




COUNT DE RAYNEVAL'S REPORT.                    439
office. This gives fifty-two laymen to one ecclesiastic.*  Leaving out
of consideration the superior tribunals of the capital, some of which,
like that of the bishop, have exclusively ecclesiastical attributes, we
find that there are only thirty-six ecclesiastics employed for the whole
administration of the Pontifical States.
"The employments reserved for this small number of individuals are
not the merely secondary ones. The places which they fill are the
most important, otherwise their influence would be tnil. It is right to
say, also, that in spite of prejudice the ecclesiastical habit still inspires
a certain degree of respect, which aids the action of government. The
people pay no deference to the lay functionary, and do not forgive him
his superiority in rank and office in the same manner as they forgive an
ecclesiastic.
" I have seen formerly, and I see still, lay functionaries exposed to
personal attacks much more violent than those to which ecclesiastics are
liable. This is no-doubt a contradiction, but it is nevertheless an incontestible fact.
" Is it possible to believe that the happiness and the repose of the
populations are powerfully affected by the presence of such a small
number of persons, who, I repeat, have for the most part nothing of the
ecclesiastic but the habit? Evidently the question does not lie in this
direction, because it is not here that we must seek either for the evil or
the remedy. On the side of the opponents, however little they may
understand the true situation of things, the secularization indicated as a
remedy is nothing more now than a trap used to introduce opinion from
without, and to attack the pontifical government in its very principle.
The opponents do not at present dare to say we want no more with the
Pope; the expression of such a wish would occasion alarm. They content themselves with saying we want no more with the priests. This
mitigated formula has the double advantage of appealing to the symp;athies which exist among those populations which know of no other
priests than such as preach and say mass, and at the same time to strike
a blow in the direction of their end, and to prepare the ruin of the temporal power of the Papacy. It is the duty of those who by conviction
and interest are the defenders of the order of things essentially connected with the maintenance of the Catholic unity, and the principle of
authority in the world, to be on their guard against appearances, and
to estimate at their just valuation the exaggeration of the numerous and
ardent adversaries of the greatest and most faithful of the institutions
which the ages have left us.
"After having shown in what consists the pretended exclusively
ecclesiastical character of the Roman administration, it is essential to
examine how it works; and whether in effect its action is so contrary
to the interests of the populations that they have a legitimate cause of
complaint, and of invoking the support of other nations, to put a termination to the evils by which they are overwhelmed.
* Since the date of the official summary from which I obtained all
these details, the development in all the ministerial departments has
been such'that the number of laymen, either actively employed or at
the disposal of the government, has risen to about 8560. The Consulta
is occupied with the task of reducing it to 6000. The number of ecclesiastics remains the same. The proportion in favour of the laics is now
as 80 to 1.




440                       APPENDIX.
"Formerly the ancient traditions of the Court of Rome were faithfully preserved.  Every modification of established customs, every
amelioration, was looked upon with an evil eye, and was considered to
be full of danger. The administration was confided exclusively to the
prelates. The laity were by law forbidden to hold the highest offices
in the state. In actual practice the different powers of the state were
often confounded. The principle of pontifical infallibility was applied
to questions of administration. Society saw the personal decision of
the sovereign overturning the verdicts of the tribunals, even in civil
matters. The cardinal secretary of state, the premier, in the full force
of the word, concentrated in his own hands every power.  Under
his supreme direction the different branches of the administration were
confided to persons who were clerks rather than ministers. The ministers formed no council, and never deliberated together on public
affairs.  The management of the public finances was carried on in
secret. No information was given to the nation as to the expenditure
of its own money. The budget was a mystery, and it was often discovered that it-was not made out, and that the accounts were not
closed. Lastly, municipal freedom, which, above everything else, is
appreciated by the populations of Italy, was restricted within the narrowest limits.
"From the very day when the Pope, Pius IX., mounted the throne,
he made, we are entitled to assert, continuous efforts to sweep away
every legitimate cause of complaint against the public administration of
affairs. I will not content myself with appealing to the commencement
of his reign. Betrayed by the very men whom he had recalled from
banishment, deceived in the most flagrant manner by the lay ministers
who were placed about him in obedience to a principle of complete secularization, and who had no hesitation in publishing to the world that
their sovereign had given his assent to measures which he had in fact
distinctly and formally rejected; carried rapidly along by a system of
pure administrative reform  to the establishment of a constitutional
regime, which being destitute of all real strength, and without the
slightest support from the nation, gave way at once to the republic;
threatened even in the very interior of his palace by an armed insurrection, the Pope had no other resource left, if he wished to preserve his
liberty and independence; than that of leaving his dominions. We must
do him the justice to allow that, in spite of the unfortunate termination
of his attempts at reforms, he never abandoned his projects of amelioration, and has been unceasingly occupied with endeavours to put them in
practice.  I will give a brief sketch of the principal governmental and
administrative acts which have emanated from the Pap)al government.
On his return from Gaeta, Pope Pius IX. proclaimed the principle of
the right of admission of the laity to all offices save and except one
only, that of Secretary of State. This was the first time that the spectacle was seen of the pontifical government choosing counsellors of the
highest dignity from the ranks of the laity. This principle has been
consecrated by the presence of a certain number of laymen amongst
the ministers and the delegates. Already had civil and criminal law
been the object of complete revision. Different codes of procedure in
civil and in criminal cases, as well as a code relating to commerce, all
founded on our own, enriched by lessons derived from experience, had
been promulgated. I have studied these carefully. They are above
19*




COUNT DE RAYNEVAL'S REPORT.                      441
criticism. The Code des Ilypotheques has been examined by French
jurisconsults, and has been cited by them as a model document.  The
Roman law, modified in certain points by the canon law, was held as a
basis of civil legislation.
"The different powers of the.state were carefully separated and defined. Distinct ministerial boards, differing in authority, were created,
each operating within the special circle of its duties. A council of ministers, under the presidency of the Secretary of State, was appointed,
and business was always subjected to the test of discussion. At the
same time, the greatest respect for the independence of the judiciary
power was proclaimed and practised. A council of state, for the preparation of laws, composed of men the most intimately versed in administrative matters, comprising Prince Orsini, Prince Odescalchi, the
Advocate Stoltz, and Professor Orioli, was appointed for the purpose of
enlightening the government, by previously investigating all projects
prepared in the ministerial boards. A council of finance, composed of
members nominated by the sovereign, after a free election by the municipal bodies, was specially appointed for the supervision of the expenditure of the state revenues. This council is only deliberative, or consultative, in the discussion of primary budgets. Unless this were the
case it would be a chamber of deputies. In respect, however, of past
accounts, when the matter is to verify the exact application of the regulations established beforehand by the budget, its decisions have the
force of law. Every year the state accounts, and all the projects which,
whether nearly or remotely, are connlected with finance, are placed before it by the ministers.  For the first time in the history of the Pontifical States, we have seen the head depositaries of power compelled
to give an account of their doings to the representatives of the nation.
For the first time, the public accounts have been properly published at
the commencement of the time of their application, and consequently
subjected to the control of the nation itself.
" Municipal organization has been, at the same time, the object of a
complete reform. Local interests occupy much of the attention of the
Italian mind, and are the object of marked predilection.  It would be
difficult to respond more completely to this want than has been the case
in the new organization.
" The most highly taxed inhabitants of the commune, together with
those who have acquired high degrees in the university, form together
an electoral body, which have the direct nomination of the municipal
councillors. The latter in their turn prepare, by the mode of election,
a list of candidates, from which the government chooses the members
of the provincial council. The latter, in the same way, make a list of
persons from which the Holy Father selects members of the Consulta
of State for Finance.  A great latitude both in the creation and expenditure of resources is left both to the communal and to the provincial councils.
" It is not the representatives of the government who are charged
with the administration of the funds of the commune or of the province. This trust is confided to an executive commission elected by
the council, which it represents, and which remains eln pernmanence
during the whole of the interval between one session and another.
The delegates or prefect have only the power of supervision, and take
no direct part in the management of provincial or communal business.




442                       APPENDIX.
This system has already been the occasion of many ameliorations of all
kinds in the Pontifical States; many roads-an important benefithave been mad'e, and many useful improvements instituted. Nevertheless, in certain points the equilibrium between receipts and expenditure
has been disturbed.  The small towns have taken to building theatres,
and a question is now mooted whether it would not be proper to limit
the discretion left to the municipal power, and extend the supervision
exercised by government authority. At other times, and in every other
country, such reforms and institutions would have been accredited to
their author. In the interior every new concession has had the effect
of creating greater wants. Abroad, these essential changes introduced
into the older order of things, these incessant efforts of the pontifical
government to ameliorate the lot of the populations, have passed unnoticed. People have had ears only for the declamation of the discontented, and for the permanent calumnies of the bad portion of the
Piedmontese and Belgian press. This is the source from which public
opinion has derived its inspiration; and in spite of well-established
facts, it is believed in most places, but particularly in England, that the
pontifical government has done nothing for its subjects and has iestricted itself to the perpetuation of the errors of another age. I have
only yet indicated the ameliorations introduced into the organization
of the administration.  I must mention the acts of the pontifical government and the results obtained.
"Above all, let us remember that never has a more exalted spirit of
clemency been seen to preside over a restoration. No vengeance has
been exercised on those who caused the overthrow of the pontifical government, no measures of rigour have been adopted against them. The
Pope has contented himself with depriving them of the power of doing
harm by banishing them from the land. No imprisonment, no trials
even have taken place, except occasionally in consequence of the obstinacy of certain individuals who, insisting on being tried, have been condemned, and punished by being presented with a passport. As to the
flagrant conspiracies ithich followed the return of the Pope, it was his
bounden duty to take measures against them, as well as against the
assassinations which followed them. These measures were taken in the
most regular manner. The Holy Father never failed to mitigate the
rigour of the sentences. A large number of individuals, the most compromised, obtained their liberty after a certain time without the condition of exile. At the present moment it is difficult to ascertain the
exact number of persons who are forbidden to enter the Roman States
for political reasons; but with respect to the number of those who were
the authors of the revolution of 1849, it is considered that it does not
amount to a hundred. This extreme mildness of treatment, however,
has not availed to prevent the English Parliament from accusing the
pontifical government of cruelty.
"I come now to questions of administration.  We know the cost of
revolutions. The Roman republic met its expenses by creating a paper
currency, which soon suffered considerable depreciation. Tile pontifical
government did not hesitate to recognize these assignats, and undertook
the task of withdrawing them from circulation by buying them up.
The operation was successful, although the sum was very large. It
amounted to 7,000,000 scudi, rather more than the annual revenue of
the state. The same proportion applied to France would have given




COUNT DE RAYNEVAL'S REPORT.                    443
from 800 to 900 millions. The assignats have now totally disappeared
from circulation, and the notes of the Bank of the Pontifical States, the
only notes now current, are of equal value with the metallic currency,
and are generally at par. This remarkable result goes for nothing with
the detracters of the pontifical administration.
"The Roman bank, originally a French foundation, responded but
very imperfectly to the wants of conlmerce.  It was remodelled, and
became the bank of the Pontifical States. It has established branches
in the provinces, has extended the circle of its operations, has given
and still gives great assistance to trade and to the government, and has
shown that it stands on a solid basis, by passing with safety through
many great crises.
"The pontifical government, directing its attention with great propriety to the means of augmenting the revenue derived from indirect
taxation, has revised the custom-house duties. It has lowered the duties
on a great number of articles, and is at this moment preparing a new
measure more complete and more general in its operations.
"Postal and commercial treaties have been concluded with France
and other states upon the widest basis, and in conformity with those
principles which are adopted elsewhere as being in unison with the idea
of progress.
"The system of farming the indirect revenues has been abolished.
The government undertakes the direct management of the salt and
tobacco trade. Important profits have been realized, and the success of
the management is certain.
"In spite of considerable burdens which were occasioned by the revolution, and left as a legacy to the present government; in spite of
extraordinary expenses caused by the reorganization of the army; in
spite of numerous contributions towards the encouragement of public
works, the state budget, which at the commencement exhibited a tolerably large deficit, has been gradually tending towards equilibrium.  I
have had the honour recently of pointing out to your excellency that
the deficit in 1857 has been reduced to an insignificant sum, comprised
for the most part of Unexpected expenses and of money reserved for
the extinction of the debt.
"The taxes remain still much below the mean rate of the different
European states. A Roman pays the state 22 francs annually, 68
millions being levied on a population of 3 millions. A Frenchman pays
the French government 45 francs, 1600 millions being levied on a population of 35 millions. These figures show demonstratively that the
Pontifical States with regard to so important a point inust be reckoned
amongst the most favoured nations. The expenses are regulated on
principles of the strictest economy.  One fact is suffic ient to prove
this. The civil list, the expenses' of the cardinals, of the diplomatic
corps abroad, the maintenance of tile pontifical palaces and the museumls,
cost the state no more than 600,00(0 crowns (3,200,000 francs). This
small sumn is the only share of the public revenue taken by the Papacy
for the support of the pontifical dignity, and for keeping up the princip.al establishments of the superior ecclesiastical administration. We
might ask those persons so zealous in hunting odwn abuses, whether
the appropriation of 4,000 crowns to the wants of the princes of the
Church seems to them to bear the impress of a proper economy exercised with respect to the public revenue.




444                        APPENDIX.
" The organization of the army has been the object of assiduous care.
Not only have the native troops received rewards, and been elevated to
the nmlm ber of 12,0:() menl, but a body of 4,(Y00 Swiss has been raised, and
novel regulations founded on those in use amiong  ourselves have been
promulgated.  The principles of military adllllniitration followed in the
management of our forces have been adopted and put in practice. The
appearance of the Roman soldiers at prlesent elicits praise from all who
have, seen them.  if the government could give them  fidelity and
energy with the uniform and the musket, there would be no need to
apply to foreigners for assistance.  Even in this direction, however, the
government has performed all that was incumbent upon it to do, and if
its success have not been complete, the fault is not in it, but in the very
nature of the national mind. At the same time the state finances have
been reorganized, and in spite of the limited resources of the budget,
numerous sums have been devoted to the encouragement of commerce
and arts. A great number of roads have been opened in various parts
of the country, the port of Terracina has been enlarged, works of
drainage have been executed in the Pontine Marshes. The marsh of
Ostia is now in process of being drained, and viaducts of remarkable
in-lportance have been constructed in several places. Steam navigation
has been introduced on the Tiber; thanks to a good system of towing,
the port of Rome has been visited by a larger number of vessels than
was formerly the case. T'he city has been lighted with gas, electric
telegraphs have been introduced, concessions of railways have been
made.  That of Frascati, which is to be extended to Naples, will soon
be opened.  A negotiation is on foot for an important line, which is to
connect Rome with Ancona and Bologna. The construction of the railway to Civita Vecchia has been granted to a company which will commence operations immediately.
"Agriculture has been equally the object of encouragement by the
government.  Prizes have been established for the encouragement of
gardening and the raising of stock.  Lastly, a commission, composed of
the principal landed proprietors, is now studying the hitherto insoluble
question of draining the Campagna of Rome, and filling it with inhabitants.
" If the Roman people were capable of helping themselves, or even
if they were eager for work, if their ambition was not limited to the
attainment of a restricted income just sufficient to satisfy the primary
wants of nature, without the expenditure of much fatigue, if they were
to profit, as is the case elsewhere, by the facilities offered to them  for
the employment of their energies and pecuniary resources, the country
might spring up rapidly to prosperity. But they allow all opportunities
to escape them, and abandon to foreigners all useful undertakings.  To
make progress in the direction alluded to, the government cannot, it is
clear, substitute its own action for that of private industry.  Neverthele s, there are numerous proofs of public energy to be seen. New buildings, for example, are very numerous; the price of lodgings and food
of all kinds is increasing rapidly.  Commercial relations are extending.
Important profits are being realized in agricultural and financial operations.  Considerable' fortunes are being made.  The condition of the
populations is that of comparative ease. They rush together in crowds
at the first signal of public rejoicing or pleasure. On these occasions
their listlessness, usually carried to excess, is laid on one side. An ap-'




COUNT DE RAYNEVAL S REPORT.                    445
pearance of prosperity strikes the eyes of the least observant.  Gaiety
of the most expansive kind is to be traced on the faces of all. It may
be asked, whether this can be the people whose miseries excite to such
a degree the commiseration of Eurdpe?
"There is, in truth, misery here as elsewhere, but it is infinitely less
heavy than in less favoured climates. Mere necessities are obtained
cheaply.  Private charity is largely exercised.  Establishments of
public charity are numerous and effective. Here, also, the action of
the government is perceptible. Important ameliorations have been
introduced into the administration of hospitals and prisons. Some of
these prisons should be visited, thiat the visitor may admire —the term
is not too strong-the persevering charity of the Holy Father.  I will
not extend this enumeration. What I have said ought to be sufficient
to prove that all the measures adopted by the Pontifical administration
bear marks of wisdom, reason, and progress; that they have already
produced happy results; in short, that there is not a single detail of
interest to the well-being, either moral or material, of the populatio,
which has escaped the attention of the government, or which has not
been treated in a favourabie manner.
" In truth, when certain persons say to the Pontifical government'Folbrm an administration which may have for its aim the good of the
people;' the government might reply,' Look at our acts, and condemn
us if you dare.' The government might ask, not only which of its
acts is a subject for legitimate blame, but in which of its duties it
has failed. Are we then to be told, that the Pontifical government
is a model-that it has no weaknesses or imperfections?  Certainly
not; but its weaknesses and imperfections are of the same kind as are
met with in all governments, and even in all men, with a very few
exceptions.
" The Pontifical government is a government composed of Romans,
acting after the Roman fashion. It mistrusts, fears, hesitates at, dreads
responsibility: it is fonder of examining than deciding. It likes alterations and accommodations. It is deficient in energy, in activity, in
taking the initiative, in firmness, as is the case with the nation itself.
But altlhough we mav be permitted to attack any one who neglects his
duties, it is unjust to impute it as a crime to any one that he has not
the genius of a Sixtus V., of a Colbert, of a Napoleon.
"I ama perp)etually interrogating those who come to me to denounce
what they call the abuses of the Papal government. This expression,
it must be remembered, is now consecrated, and is above criticism or
objection. It is held as gospel. Now, in what do these abuses consist?
I have never yet been able to discover. At least, the facts which go by
that name are such as are elsewhere traceable to the imperfections of
human nature, and we need not load the government with the direct
responsibility for the irregularities committed by some of its subordinate agents. I am  generally told that the custom-houses ask
travellers for a pour boire. This is without doubt a very blameable
custom, but would the secularization of the government cure the
country of a vice deeply implanted in its nature-would it hinder tlie
people from being always ready to hold out the hand? If this.sad
tendency was carried out on a large scale, there would be reason for
alarm; but whatever may be said of the venality of the Pontifical administration, it would be impossible to quote a single authenticated




446                        APPENDIX.
and notorious fact, unless we accept as genuine the current coin of
calumny.  In any case, if we see any one becoming rich it is always
a layman. I have never seen a prelate augment his property by illicit
means. The fortunes which are made, and which may easily be cited,
originate in either banking or agricultural operations.  Nothing  shows
that there is any trading with power, or appropriation of the State
funds.
" To pretend that no act of faithlessness is committed would be irrational.  No country is beyond the reach of such misfortunes; but what
may be maintained is this, that if they take place in the Pontifical states,
they do so on a small scale, and that the public service and public moraiity are not affected by them in a sensible manner.
"'Tlle imperfections of the judiciary system are often cited.  I have
examined it closely, and have found it impossible to discover any serious cause of complaint. Those who lose their causes complain more
lou(lly and more continuously than is the custom  in other places, but
without any more reason.  Most of the important civil cases are decided
in the tribunal of the Itota.  Now, in spite of the habitual license of
the Italian criticism, no one has dared to express a doubt of the profound knowledge and exalted integrity of the tribulnal of the Rota. If
tile lawyers are incredibly fertile in raising objections and exceptionsif they lengthen out lawsuits-to what is this fault to be attributed
except to the peculiarity of the national genius?
"Lastly, civil law is well adminiistered.  I do not know a single sentence the justice of which would not be recognized by the best tribunal
in Europe.
" Criminal justice is administered in a manner equally unassailable.
I have watclhed some trials throughout their whole details.  I'was
obliiged to confess that all necessary precautions for the verifications of
facts, all possible guarantees for the free defence of the accused, including the publication of the proceedings, were taken.  The sentences are
occasionally delayed, the processes are prolonged. These, however, are
inconveniences, not unpardonable crimes.
" When Italian witnesses shall learn to give their evidence without
being intimidated by the presence of the accused and the fear of his vengeance, the delays will be less.  Our French councils of war have the
greatest difficulty in obtaining depositions, and are often forced to
employ severity for this purpose. Against tendencies of this kind the
government can do nothing.
" Much is said of the brigands who, we are told, lay the country
desolate. It has fallen to our lot to pass through the country in all
directions without seeing even the shadow of a robber. It cannot be
denied that from time to time we hear of a diligence stopped, of a traveller plundered. Even one accident of this kind is too many; but we
nmust remember that the administration has employed all the means in
its power to repress these disorders.  Thanks to energetic measures,
tihe brigands have been arrested at all points and punished.  When
in France a diligence is stopped, when in going from London to Windsor a lady of the Queen's Palace is robbed of her luggage and jewels,
such an incident passes unnoticed, but when on an isolated road in the
Roman States the least fact of this nature takes place, the press, eager
for a pretext, prints the news in large characters, and cries for vengeance on the government. On the side of Rome, the attacks which




COUNT DE RAYNEVAL'S REPORT.                    447
have taken place at distant intervals have never assumed an appearance calculated to excite anxiety. In the Romagna organized bands
have been formed, which, taking advantage of the neighbouring Tuscan frontier, easily escaped pursuit, and were for a time to be dreaded.
The government declared unceasing war against them, and after several engagements, in which a certain number of gendarmes were
either killed or wounded, these bands have been in a great measure
dispersed.
"To conclude, we shall be obliged to confess, upon investigation,
that the Pontifical government has not failed in its task, that it has
proceeded regularly in the road of reform and amelioration, and that
it has realized a considerable progress. If agitation is still kept up
the cause of it will be found in the character of the nation itself,
and its afibitious views directed to unattainable objects. We must
recognize, lastly, that the remedy for this sad situation of things is
not to be found in a crowd of measures which, modifying an order of
things perfectly unconnected with the evil, would only make the evil
much greater and more dangerous still by exalting its hopes and by reducing it, already much shaken, to the last degree of impotence and
weakness.
"If the sovereign of the Pontifical States were not at the same
time Head of the Church, his preservation or his ruin would be of
little importance.  But the cause of Catholicism is at stake in this
matter.  For this reason it is that so high a degree of interest is
so justly considered by the great Catholic Powers to attach to the
interior condition of the Roman States. These powers have a profound feeling of the dangers which would threaten themselves even in
the event of a new revolution, and they understand what a reconstruction of the temporal power of the Papacy on a new basis might
cost Europe. Religious passions being unchained simultaneously with
political passions, the gravest, perhaps even the bloodiest, conflicts
might arise.
"The prudence of statesmen induces them to seek for the means of
anticipating and preventing such fatal complications.
"'Attention is naturally directed towards the nature of the concessions necessary to satisfy the populations. Unhappily, these populations
are not to be satisfied. I think I have proved this. By destroying the
Pontifical authority, a numerous party, but not the'whole nation, is
sure to be satisfied. By the establishment of a constitutional regime,
which would appear, however, to be little in harmony with the power
of the Head of the Church, a large number of individuals would be
equally satisfied; but, as I have said, the one party as well as the other
would rapidly allow public business to fall into the hands of the most
violent section. M. Rossi, who wanted neither the necessary talent
nor the good will, had devoted himself to the task of introducing into
the Pontifical States a parliamentary regime. It might have been believed that he might have reckoned on some support. The event teaches
us that he completely failed in obtaining this support. Nobody was
found in thee moment of danger to support or defend him. No voice
was raised to deplore his violent death, still less to invoke vengeance
for the deed.
"It is in the highest degree impossible, in the midst of passions
which are dividing the minds of men, to create a truly popular ad



448                        APPENDIX.
ministration.  But allowing the attempt to be successful, such an
administration would find no more defenders at a critical moment
than Count Rossi found when endeavoring to carry his undertaking
to a successful termination. Simple reforms content no one. I think I
have abundantly shown that this is not the question, and that, besides
this, the movements of the Pontifical government are fiar from being
such as to give occasion for the populations to consider themselves
damaged in their legitimate interests.  Reforms would be momentarily
granted by certain parties only on consideration of the damage and
loss of the popularity which they might inflict upon the Pontifical govern nent.
"We cannot even see to what combination we could have recourse.
A profoulnd investigation of the true situation of things gives no precise indications as to the course to be adopted in this matter.  In what
direction are modifications to be employed?  How far are they to be
carried?  With regard to this point the greatest uncertainty exists.
Now modifications can bear no good fruit unless they are clearly indicated by the nature of things. This is not the case here.  We consequcntly see the spectacle of the most contradictory views being promulgated according to the nature of individual opinions.
" Certain persons who have already succeeded once in depriving the
Holv Father of his tiara, not for their own profit, but for that of the
delnagogues, are accused of entertaining the project of dividing the PI'(ltifical States into two portions, one of which is to be governed by a
delegate of the Holy Father.  Such a combination as this, I confess,
appears to me to present the greatest dangers. There is no doubt that
it would open the door to revolution, and that it would take advantage
of the revolution, attracted by the expectations founded upon certain
success. The population would have less respect for their lay governor
than for the present delegates. They would not risk a crown or a drop
of blood to defend him. At the end of a few months the fall of the
Sovereign Pontiff would be declared at Bologna, an Italian constituent
assembly would be convoked, and war would be declared against Austria. Allowing that the new power would be able to maintain its position, and should succeed in satisfying the populations, what answer
could be given to the other half of the Pontifical States, which will complain of being abandoned, and will ask for their equal share?  What is
to be done if they rise in insurrection to gain their ends, and how can
we doubt that they will resort to extreme measures? Thus, then, will
the Papacy be plundered, its enemies satisfied, and Catholic Europe become a prey to the most dangerous agitations.  In any case, we must
expect that the Pope would meet such a project with the most desperate
resistance.  In reality, if he did not, he would deserve to have a brevet
of radical incapacity decreed to him in the presence of all Europe. He
will never give his assent to such a plan; but whether he were to resist or yield, the Papacy would be struck with a mortal wound, and
this is what the authors of this combination understand very well.
There would be but one remedy. The Italians always. depend for the
completion of their projects on foreign support.  If this support were
to fail them, they would adopt a proper course much more readily than
would be imagined, looking at their actual situation. It would be
necessary, however, that in England and Sardinia the organs of the
press should cease to excite the passions, and that the Catholic powers




COUNT DE RIAYNEVAL'S REPORT.                   449
should continue to give the Holy See evident marks of sympathy. But
how can we hope that enemies, animated with such a spirit as influences
the opponents of the Holy See, would put a stop to their attacks when
they have been made in so remarkable a manner?
" I do not think that all the questions of this world must necessarily
have a definite solution. The Roman question, in my opinion at least,
has none. We can only; exercising a benevolent and attentive protection, avert the dangers of a catastrophe, and prolong a provisional state
of things which has at least the grand merit of preserving Europe firom
innumerable evils.
"Any other order of measures would only precipitate events. If his
Majesty's government, from motives easily comprehended, should desire
to put a stop to the French occupation of the Roman States after a delay of greater or less duration, it would be better at once to abandon
the sluices to the impulse of the torrent than to open them by dealing,
either by means of advice openly given, or by forced combinations, the
coup de grace to the temporal power of the Popes.
"In the presence of the existing agitation of mind in Italy and of the
very lively emotion caused by the publication of the protocols, it is impossible to keep down a profound feeling of anxiety as to the future
destiny of the Papacy.  If care is not taken, Europe will see the most
terrible of problems present itself-terrible, in fact, because it is connected with the deepest and the most ardent passions of.the human
heart.
"The words pronounced by your Excellency in the Conference, the
assurance you have given of the interest which the Emperor's government will not cease to take in the safety of the Pontifical power, are
certain proofs that the true interests of the Church are in no danger in
the present crisis. With such a programme, the most imminent dangers
may be removed, and the catastrophe delayed. This is all that can be
accomplished at the present moment'by human wisdom. Let us continue to give the Papacy the benefit of our protection. Let us decide
deliberately only, and after successive diminutions, on complete evacuation, and only after being well assured that it is possible. Calm will
come by degrees. Finally, if the political and religious tranquillity of
Italy, perhaps even of Europe, should appear to depend solely on thepresence at Civita Vecchia and Ancona of a few hundred men, giving a
moral, rather than a material, support to the Pontifical flag and establishment, but still a support which is sufficient, is it not a hundred times
better to have recourse to this certain remedy, than to attempt to obtain similar ends by ways full of peril?  If in such circumstances the
temporal power of the Papacy should be menaced anew, and if, in spite
of our efforts, grave complications should arise, the responsibility would
then at least rest wholly and entirely on events which are often stronger
than man, and we should not have to reproach ourselves with having
contributed to so fatal a result.
" I thought that I was performing a duty in submitting to the high
appreciation of your Excellency the results of a tolerably long experience and connected study.  The kindness and encouragement with
which you have met my proposal to explain my opinions, have emboldened me to do so without reserve.
" I appeal to the indulgence of your Excellency in reviewing my labours, and beg you to accept the reiterated assurance of my high consideration."




450                      APPENDIX.
THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.
THE system of education adopted by the Brothers of the Christian
Schools, is substantially the same in all countries in which they are
established; and, therefore, an account of a Public Examination of
their pupils in an Irish city affords a correct idea of the character and
success of their teaching in the schools of France or Italy. The following is taken from a newspaper sketch of the Public Examinations of the
pupils of the Cork schools, held in the month of June, 1857. It is
copied from the " Cork Examiner" of the 26th of June:" To give some idea of the scope of these examinations, and the training of which they are the evidence, it will be interesting to glance at
the several subjects proposed.
" The first class brought forward- was a junior class of geometry.
The examination embraced the definition and the principal properties
of the triangle, parallelogram and square. The young fellows answered
with a briskness and accuracy that would put their seniors to shame.
" The geography of America was next introduced.  Its physical features, various climates, and colonization were described. A sketch of
the history of each important state was given; and the manners and
customs of its inhabitants detailed.
"A  catechism  class followed; and the principal doctrines of the
Church explained in a way that many a Catholic Littgrateur or merchant might be puzzled to equal.
"Off filed the young divines, and on came another row of youngsters
with the geography of Ireland bursting fi'om their eager lips. It would
be well if all our Secretaries of State had mastered the physique of Ireland so thoroughly.
"Subjects of composition were now proposed to a group with slates
and pencils. Those subjects were chosen by the audience by lot. The
boys retired a little and set to work. While another class was examined, it was interesting to observe the young heads bent over the slates
-the pauses of thought-the rapid rush of words-again the puzzled
pause-and once more the vehement flow of ideas. At length the time
came to read what they had written; and as each one mounted the
platform, bowed to the audience, and read his improvized essay, the
room rang with applause. The promptness of composition, the felicity
of illustration, the almost invariable purity of diction, and the occasional originality of thought, were rare proofs at once of moral power
and intellectual culture.
"A class of' Christian Politeness' closed the first day's work. Perhaps nothing could better exemplify the ingenious wisdom of the Brothers than the novelty of thus cultivating even the manners of these poor
boys. We looked at the class-book upon this subject with some curi



THE CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS.                   451
osity. It is a well-adapted translation of a work of the Founder of the
Brotherhood-the Venerable DE LA SALLE.  As might be expected, it
is full of good sense and truly' Christian' spirit. The boys had evidently more than a technical knowledge of it. Their deportment
throughout would almost suggest that they were gentlemen; while,
in fact, they were children of poor labourers and the humblest class of
tra-adesmen.
" Next day's Examination opened with a class of Arithmetic. Here
were evinced the complete culture and rapid power that make these
boys sought, and enable them to rise, in almost every counting-house
of the city.
"A class of Sacred History was now rigorously examined, and proved
an affluence of information on the subject.
" Other classes of Catechism, Geometry, Geography, and Composition succeeded, as on the previous day, with results even more gratifying.
"The Laws of Colour and Light, Architecture, Mechanics, the Laws
of Motion, the Mechanical Powers, Mensuration, were amongst the subjects of this day's examination. It was evident that the more difficult
the subject the more thorough was the instruction, and interesting to
observe how each of these topics was so handled as at once to exercise
the highest reasoning powers of the boys, and to be of practical use in
the lives of the future mechanics.
"A class of well-trained Readers agreeably terminated the Exa'mination, which was also varied at intervals during each day, by the performances of the well-known Singing Class of the Schools."
It may be added that the Brothers are established in all the cities
and in the principal towns of Ireland; and also in many of the cities
and large towns of Great Britain. In Cork alone, the average attendance of pupils is 1,300. The number of pupils in the schools in the
United Kingdom may be set down at 30,000. As they never receive,
nor would accept, any assistance from the State, they depend on the
voluntary support of the communities in which they are established, as
well as upon their own private resources, which are freely devoted to
the education of the poor.




452                       APPENDIX.
MEASUREMENT OF THE BASE LINE FOR A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, BY FATHER SECCHI.
IT is now more than a century ago since Benedict XIV. entrusted to Father Boscovich the important task of measuring within the
Roman States an arc of the meridian. In connection with this undertaking of so much scientific importance, a trigonometrical survey
of the States of the Church was commenced by Boscovich and his
colleague Maine, and continued at subsequent periods by other eminent
men of science.
In trigonometrical surveys the operation which is generally first in
order, as it is always first in importance, is the measurement of a base line.
This line is in every sense the base of the whole system, as from it are
calculated all the other lines which by their network form the triangulation of a country. Of the great lines of a survey it is the only one
which is actually measured, except when, at the termination of his
labours, the engineer tries the length of another line, in order to see
how far the calculated differs from the real length; thus applying the
most severe test of the accuracy of his work and of his instruments.
Everything therefore depends on the precision with which this base line is
measured, as any error in its length infects the whole of the survey; and
no matter how exact all the angular measurements may be, still the
original and inherent vice of an erroneous base remains multiplied and
magnified throughout the whole system. Science, therefore, has exhausted every expedient, and provided every safeguard against error
which she could devise in order to insure what, at the first glance,
may seem a very simple task-the accurate measurement of a straight
line of considerable length. The trigonometrical survey which had been
commenced by Boscovich was one which was accounted of remarkable
accuracy for the time when it was executed; but it must be recollected
that all the scientific instruments of 1751 were very different from, and
far inferior to, those which the mechanical skill of the present day can
construct. And doubts were entertained whether the survey founded'
on Boscovich's original measurement was as correct as might be required
in the present age. The first step towards the rectification of the survey was the re-measurement of the base. Boscovich had measured his
line on the Appian Way. That great highway, running for so many
miles in a line almost perfectly straight, presented peculiar facilities for




FATHER SECCHI'S INVENTION.                  453
the operation in question, and it was believed that both the terminal
points of the line measured in the last century could again be discovered, as that next to Rome was well known. However, unfortunately,
all trace was lost of the point near Le Frattocchie. Many attempts
were made, by indirect methods, to determine again the southern extremity of the line which Father Boscovich had measured.
Pius IX., not content with opening again that great Appian Way
with which so many recollections of Roman greatness are associated;
not satisfied with having recovered from its great storehouses so many
monuments of classic art, determined that not only Commerce and
Art, but also Science, should reap some of the first-fruits of his work
of reclamation; and he commissioned Father Angelo Secchi, the Director of the Roman Observatoryeand a worthy successor of Boscovicll,
again to measure the base line on which the Roman survey was
founded, placing at his disposal all the aid which mechanical ingenuity
and the scientific knowledge of modern times could render him. And,
perhaps, no similar operation was ever carried out with so much care
and accuracy. The main objects which it is proposed to accomplish are,
-1st, To rectify and check the several trigonometrical surveys which
have been made in the neighbourhood of Rome, and to complete the
triangulation of the Southern States. 2dly, To determine exactly the
length of the ancient Itinerary Measures. 3dly, To settle some important questions which have arisen amongst men of science relative
to the length of the meridional degree in Italy, the figure of the earth,
and the deviation of the pendulum produced by the attraction of the
mountains.
It would be uninteresting to the generality of readers to describe
the method in which the measurement of the base line was conducted.
Indeed, it would require some acquaintance with scientific instruments
to understand the sources of minute errors, and the methods employed
to prevent them from occurring, or to eliminate them from the work
when they do take place. It is enough to say that it is perhaps impossible to lay down a line mathematically for any considerable length;
and in practice, that the man of science has to observe the deviations
from a true rectilinear path which must inevitably take place both in a
horizontal and a vertical direction, and by the aid of mathematical
science calculate, from what may be called the zig-zag which he has
really measured, the length of the right line that would connect its two
extremities.
The method adopted on the present occasion may be explained in
general terms as follows:The measurement of the line was commenced opposite the tomb
of Cecilia Metella, and its initial point was marked on a small cone




454                        APPENDIX.
of brass fixed to a large block of travertine, which was connected
by a solid mass of masonry with the subjacent rock of lava.  The
cone of brass was placed beneath the surface of the roadway and
afterwards covered by a large block of stone.  The operation of
measurement was commenced by adjusting a vertical microscope over
this cone of brass until the spider line bisected the initial point marked
on it.
A set of five microscopes was then arranged along the line to be
surveyed, at a distance from each other of about 4 metres (13 feet),
and the distance from each to the next was noted by means of a very
accurately graduated rod, of over 4 metres in length, which was placed
beneath each two in succession, and viewed through them. The system
was, in fact, to place the microscopes in nearly a right line, and by
means of the rod to measure the distance between their spider lines. At
each end of the rod was a short vertical staff, and by means of an ordinary
level the difference of height between its extremities was observed.
EacT[ microscope had attached to it a small telescope, which served to
place the succeeding microscope in the right line, or to note its deviation from it. Thermometers were also attached to the apparatus in
order that the correction made necessary by change of temperature
might be noted..The conclusion of each day's labour was marked by
a point connected by measuring into the ground, and the termination of
the base line at Le Frattocchie was marked in a similar way with the
commencement near Rome. So great was the care taken, that in a
whole day, at the beginning of the operation, there were only measured tilrty or thirty-five lengths of the 4 metre rod; but after some
time the progress was more rapid, in some days exceeding 400 yards.
A very useful instrument was employed during the progress of this
operation-it was, in fact, invented for the special purposes of the survey. It has been called by the inventor the Meroscope, and is in fact
a telescope which, by the introduction of an additional lens between
the object and the eye-piece, can be converted into a microscope. It
has been employed in the latter character in observing the finely graduated scales of the measuring apparatus, and is capable as a telescope,
according to Father Secchi, of showing the belts and the satellites of
Jupiter.  An instrument with such an extraordinary range of focus is
quite a novelty amongst optical apparatus, and is as useful as it is new.
The commencement of this great scientific undertaking, which it
will probably take years to accomplish, and which will in all likelihood
embrace the triangulation of all Southern Italy, seems to have been
carried on in a manner worthy of the great object in view. Indeed, it
is remarkable that Italy has in the last half-century produced so many
eminent men of science.  While the arts and literature are far below




POVERTY TREATED WORSE THAN CRIME.  455
the level of her classic eras, science can count perhaps more great names
and important discoveries in Italy than at any former period since the
time of Galileo.
POVERTY, IN LONDON, TREATED WORSE THAN CRIME.
TIIE statement of Mr. Alderman Copeland, given in the note at the
bottom of p. 297, appeared to some who heard it to be a kind of rhetorical flourish; and yet he only stated that " poverty was regarded as a
crime, and treated as a crime." But had he remembered the description of the Casual Ward of the West London Union and its occupants,
as given in the Times of the 20th of February, 1857, he might have
used far stronger language, without the slightest risk of exaggeration.
Now here is a picture of the existing state of things in London; that
proud capital of the United Kingdom, the seat of its Legislature, and
the residence of its Sovereign-whose press and whose people sit in
such stern judgment upon the failings and misfortunes, the imperfectiolns
and shortcomings, of Catholic peoples, institutions, and governments.
It is the Times that holds the pencil, not I:" On Wednesday night, at ten o'clock, the Lord Mayor, the Recorder,
Mr. Under Sheriff Anderton and Mr. Bunning, the City Architect, visited
the establishment for the houseless poor, where they found nearly 1(00
persons, who, after being supplied with food, were accommodated with
shelter for the night.
"They afterwards visited the West London Union, near Smithfield,
and, upon inquiring for the casual ward, were informed that this establishment was at Battle Bridge, a distance of two and a half miles off.
"They immediately repaired thither, and found the building to consist of a large stable, containing fourteen horse-stalls, the only provision
for the lodging of the casual poor, some few men being huddled together round a fire. The place was totally destitute of either straw or
bedding of any description whatever. The poor creatures, in answer to
inquiries made of them, stated that, upon entering the building, a small
portion of bread had been given them, but that it was the custom to
turn themn out in the morning without anything to eat, unless they first
broke a certain quantity of stones, of which there was a large heap in
the yard.
"The Lord Mayor and his friends next entered an adjoining cattleshed, where they found two destitute women huddled together in a rqey,
tying on the bare ground, almost perished with cold, and without either fire
or food.
" These two persons were relieved by the visiting party with a small
sum of money, for the purpose of enabling them to obtain the common
necessaries of life in the morning.
"The visiting party next proceeded to the City Gaol at Holloway,




456                       APPENDIX.
where they found 455 prisoners, snugly ehoused in separate apartmlents,
with an abundance of zwalr  bedding and blankets, and other articles necessary bor the personal comfort of mankind.
"The contrast between the provision for the criminal and destitute
was beyond conception."
ENGLISH PRISONS NOT YET PERFECT MODELS.
IF the following statements, made by two jail chaplains, are to be taken
for granted-and there seems no reason why they should not-it must
be apparent that the pIrison system of England is far from being in
that perfect state which would warrant her to sit in judgment on other
nations.
At the conference at Birmingham, in December 1851, the Rev. T.
Carter, chaplain of the Liverpool jail, said:"Liverpool has one of the largest jails in the kingdom. The commnitments during last year were upwards of 9,500. Of that number,
upwards of 1,100 were juvenile offenders under 16 years of age; and
of these the proportion of recommitments amounted to more than 70
per cent. This one fact must give you some idea of the inefficiencythe utter uselessness-of such institutions as the Liverpool jail for the
reformation bf criminals.  Indeed-and I say it advisedly-if it had
been the object in Liverpool to devise a scheme for the promotion,
rather than the prevention, of juvenile crime, no contrivance could have
been hit upon better calculated to accomplish that object than the
Liverpool jail. And yet that jail has been held up as one of the best regulated in the kingdom!"
Having described how the several classes of prisoners are mingled together; how "as many as five persons are crammed into cells, which,
when designed and built under the direction of Howard, were intended
to hold only one;" and having stated, from his own observation, what
the result of the prison discipline is, he concluded by saying:"I think I have established my position that the Liverpool jail, although singled out for.special comnmrendation by the illspector of Prisons,
is the most e  ectual institution that can be devised for transmitting and
propagating crime."
The Rev. W. C. Osborn, Chaplain'of the Bath jail, having spoken of
the opportunities he has had of knowing the condition and treatment
of the prisons, said: —
"Although the system adopted at Bath is, I believe as good, if not




CRIMINAL STATISTICS OF THE  PAPAL STATES.  457
better, than that adopted elsewhere, yet I must say, that our treatment
of these poor, destitute creatures has been, and is, most cruel, unjust,
and unchristian.    *    *    X    *          X          -*    X
"I cannot help feeling that our conduct towards them is most unjustifiable, and I trust that God will not visit us with His anger for our
treatment of those poor creatures.  We give them justice-justice without mercy —justice without scales, for there has been no measuremnent of
the cruzelty of our treatment of them."
The same speaker strongly condemned the practice of whipping the
prisoners, and very properly remarks, " this system of whipping in our
prisons is not calculated to reform, but to harden."
In August 1856, a paper was contributed by Lord Brougham to the
"National Reformatory Union," which was held in Bristol.  From
that paper, read by the Dean of Bristol, the following passage is
extracted:"It is our highest duty to rescue the people from ignorance and vice
by giving them the inestimable blessing of a sound moral and religious
education; to prevent the growth of crime, while we provide for reclaiming from their vicious courses those who have been led astray-a
cure only to be effected by making the punishment of criminals the instrument of their reformation. That duty we have not discharged. But
if we have planted no schools where habits of virtue may be induced,
stretched forth no hand to extirpate the germs of vice, we have kept
open other schools where vice is taught with never-failing success, used
both hands incessantly to stifle the seeds of virtue ere yet they had time
to sprout, and laid down many a hotbed where the growth of crime in
all its rank luxuriousness is assiduously forced. The infant school languishes which a paternal Government would have cherished; but Newgate flourishes-Jewgate, with her thousaqnd cells to corrupt their youtlhful
inmates, seducing the guiltless, confin ming the depraved."
CRIMINAL STATISTICS OF THE PAPAL STATES.
TiHE following sketch of the criminal statistics of the Roman States is
too necessary to a fair understanding of this important subject to be
omitted from a work of this nature.  It formed part of a letter which I
sent from Rome towards the end of November, 1856, since when the
number of political and party offenders has been greatly diminished
through the clemency of the Pope:"In forming a fair estimate of the state of crime in the Papal
States, as represented by the number now actually suffering punishment for their offences, under process, or awaiting their trial, one consideration should be held distinctly in view,-thbat Rome has no penal
20




458                        APPENDIX.
settlements, such as England and France possess, to which she could
deport the worst portion, or indeed any portion, of her criminals.
Thus, if it be said that Rome has so uiany prisoners in the various
prisons of the Papal States, the number so stated represents the entire;
whereas, if the same be said of France or England, it would not represent anything like the truth; for France has her Cayenne, and
England her Bermuda and her Australian settlements,for the detention
of a large class of offenders.  The Pope's possessions. are limited to
his own States, and beyond their boundary it is impossible for him to
establish a prison or penal colony.  The statistics now before me, and
upon the exactness of which it is impossible to entertain the smallest
doubt, exhibit a steady decrease in crime, so far as that can be evidenced
by the number in prison; and in all countries this is the test and
criterion by which the state of a country, in this particular respect;
is judged of.  In December, 1854, the'number of prisoners-those
awaiting their trial, under process, or actually condemned and suffering purishment-was 12,140. The next year showed a lesser amount
of crime; the number for December, 1855, being 11,656.  In this year
the diminution is even still more perceptible.  I take two months of
the present year, August and September; and not only do I find
that there is a less number in August, 1856, than in December, 1855,
but I perceive that there is a favourable difference between the two
months of the same year.  In August, the number was 10,885; and in
September, 10,777. I can only state, what I have reason to know to
be the fact, that the returns for the months of October and November
exhibit a still more satisfactory diminution in their numbers. These
are distributed throughout the Pontifical States; the proportion in some
of the chief places having been as follows, in September last:-Rome,
1,186-Bologna, 1,338-Ancona, 787-Civita Vecchia, 1,591-Ferrara,
299.
" The returns quoted embrace all kinds of crimes, and all kinds of
accusations; and, amongst the rest, they comprehend a class of offenders who, in some countries,-for instance, in France,-are under the
control as well as sanctioned by the police authorities, and in others
defy almost all authority or restraint whatsoever.  I allude to women
of depraved character, not one of whom is to be met with in the
streets of Rome, which may accordingly be traversed with impunity,
at any hour of the evening or night, by a modest female-without
the risk of having her eyes and ears offended, as they are in too many
cities of our highly civilized empire.  Offenders of this class are at
once made amenable to the law, and committed either to the Termini,
or to the institution of the Good Shepherd, where the most effectual
means of reformation are adopted, and in very many instances with




CRIMINAL STATISTICS OF THE PAPAL STATES. 469
success-both institutions being specially under the care and control
of religious communities.
"In the returns are'also necessarily included all those who, having
been sentenced to imprisonment for life, or for a term of 15 or 20 years,
before the accession of Pius IX., have not as yet been the objects of his
clemency.  So that the 10,777 prisoners who, in September last, were
confined in the prisons of the Pontifical States, give an exaggerated
idea of the actual state of crime; these figures in reality representing
the crime, not of one year, but of many years.
"There has been a notion industriously propagated, for obvious
reasons, that the prisons of the Papal States were filled with political
offenders, the yictirns of arbitrary power and remorseless tyranny.
That there are persons confined for political offences, there canll be no
question whatever-I myself saw prisoners of this class in tilhe prison
of San Michele; but that their number has been immensely exaggerated, tWe real state of the case distinctly demonstrates. Of'purely political offences' there were, two months since, not more than 99, and
since that time the number has been reduced to 70-that is, 29 additional pardons have since been granted through the clemency of the
Pope, in many instances excited by the appeals of those who have since
been its objects. In the early part of October, the number of persons
confined for political offences, and offences which are described or classified as those'arising out of party spirit' —meaning.thereby injury to
the person, acts of violence, frequently stabbing, the result of qularrels
arising fiom party hate or political disputes-did not exceed 338; and
of that number, those undergoing sentence, or held in detention, for'purely political offences' did not exceed 99; which number, as I have
stated, is now reduced to 70, and will be still reduced considerably on
the 1st January, 1857. The gross number has been reduced from  338
to 292. The Pope has granted 47 pardons to'purely political' offenders, fiom the 1st of January, 1855, to the 15th of May, 1856
-that is, either remitted the greater portion of their punishment,
or restored them to full liberty; and within the same period he has
exhibited similar clemency to 65 whose offences arose out of'party
spirit'-making, in all, no less than 112.  From  May to October
he has granted 82 pardons more, of which 29 have been granted
to'purely political' offenders, and the rest to persons coming under
the head of offenders from'party motives.' When the gross number
reached 338 political and party offenders, they.were distributed as
follows: —Ancona. 54-Forte Urbano, 21-Paliano, 208-San MIichele,
43 suffering punishment, and 12 under process.  Now that the number
is reduced to 70'purely political' offenders, and 222 offenders from




460                      APPENDIX.
party spirit,' somewhat of the same proportion is maintained in the
prisons mentioned.
"These statistics would not exhibit the whole truth, unless they also
embraced another class, who are suffering exile in consequence of their
connection with the memorable revolution which compelled his Holiness-himself the first as -well as the most illustrious of reformersto fly from Rome to Gaeta. The number of those who were formally
excluded from the amnesty of September, 1849, was 283; and of those,
200 were members of the Triumvirate, the Constituent Assembly, and
the Provisional Government; and 83 were chiefs of the different
military corps. Of this number, 21 were strangers, and not subjects of
the Pontifical States. Of the 283 mentioned, 59 have received pardon
-that is, 35 of the Constituent Assembly, and 24 military leaders.
Hence, the number of the Pope's subjects so exiled at present is 203.
Some of those have since died; others would not appeal to the clemency
of their sovereign; and more have exhibited such'perverse conduct'
(perversa condotta) that it is not thought prudent to extend pardon to
them.
"There is, lastly, another class, who fled from Rome and the Papal
States after the success of the French, and whose return to the States is
prohibited. These amount in all to 1,273; but, as there were no less
than 629 foreigners among them, not more than 644 are subjects of the
Pope. Subtracting from this number those who were then exiled, as a
commutation of a heavier sentence, or who demanded and obtained
permission to spend the remainder of their lives in foreign countries, in
order, amongst other reasons, to be free from all surveillance, and
amounting in all to 152, it appears that the total number of the Pope's
subjects to whom return, without permission being obtained, is prohibited, is 492. Many of these have fled from punishment for offences
not political; but there can be no doubt whatever that an appeal
made by most of those now in exile, and who could be proved not to
have been leagued in other countries against the throne and authority
of the Pope, would not be made in vain. The whole career of Pius IX.
is in favour of the belief that, could he carry out his own benevolent
intentions, and freely obey the promptings of his noble and tender nature, there is not a good or honest subject of his now in exile to whom
he would not to-morrow grant permission to return to his home and
country. One fact must be mentioned to the honour of Pius IX., as it
conltrasts so strongly with the vengeance which other sovereigns wreak
on their subjects when once rebellion has been crushed,-that there
has Hot been, du'ig his reign, a sitngle person executed for a purely political offence. Try this fact by the actual conduct of other European




THE CATACOMBS.                       461
monarchs, and by what that of the English government would have
been, had the affair of 1848 in Ireland been like that of the Hungarians, the Venetians, or the Sicilians; or had an Irish Secretary of State
been shot in the Castle of Dublin, and Lord Clarendon -been compelled
to fly across the Channel to England for personal safety: test it by such
a standard, and then the clemency of Pius IX. will shine the brighter
by the contrast.
"But while clemency is a noble virtue, especially in sovereigns,
weakness is a folly, and may be as ruinous as a vice; and thus, though
one would ardently desire that every native of the Papal States now in
exile, on account of the part which he took in the revolution of 1848,
should be permitted to return to his home and kindred, provided he did
not come back in the spirit of a revolutionist and an avenger, no rational person could expect that the Pope would be so insensible to the
promptings of ordinary caution and foresight, as to allow men to
return to his States who have been openly declaring their determination to accomplish his overthrow, or have been known to be parties
and promoters of conspiracies towards the same end. If he did so,
he would be more or less than mortal, and would act as no other
sovereign has acted, or is ever likely to act, under similar circumstances."
THE CATACOMBS.
(From Cardinal Wiseman's " Fabiola."
" THE history of the early Christian cemeteries, the Catacombs, as they
are commonly called, may be divided into three portions: from their
beginning to the period of our narrative, or a few years later; from
this term to the eighth century; then down to our own time, when we
have reason to hope that a new epoch is being commenced.
" We have generally avoided using the name of catacombs, because it
might mislead our readers into an idea that this was either the original
or a generic name of those early Christian crypts. It is not so, however: Rome might be said to be surrounded by a circumvallation of
cemeteries, sixty or thereabouts in number, each of which was generally known by the name of some saint or saints, whose bodies reposed
there. Thus we have the cemeteries of SS. Nereus and Achilleus, of St.
Agnes, of St. Pancratius, of Prmtextatus, Priscilla, Hermes, &c. Sometimes these cemeteries were known by the names of the places where
they existed.* The cemetery of St. Sebastian, which was called some* As Ad Nymphas, Ad Ursum pileatum, Inter duas lauros, Ad Sewu
turn Philippi, &c.




462                      APPENDIX.
times Cnemeterian ad Sanctam (jceciliamzr,* and by other names, had
among them that of Ad Catacuhbas.f  The meaning of this word is
completely unknown; though it may be attributed to the circumstance
of the relics of SS. Peter and Paul having been for a time buried there,
in a crypt still existing near the cemetery. This term became the
name of that particular cemetery, then was generalized, till we familiarly call the whole system  of these underground excavations-the
Catacombs.
"Their origin was, in the last century, a subject of controversy.
Following two or three vague and equivocal passages, some learned
writers pronounced the catacombs to have been originally heathen excavations, made to extract sand, for the building of the city. These
sandpits were called arenaria, and so occasionally are the Christian
cemeteries.  But a more scientific and minute examination, particularly
made by the accurate F. Mlarchi, has completely confuted this theory
The entrance to the catacombs was often; as can yet be seen, from these
sandpits, which are themselves underground, and no doubt were a
convenient cover for the cemetery; but several circumstances prove
that they were never used for Christian burial, nor converted into
Christian cemeteries.
"The man who wishes to get the sand out of the ground will keep
his excavation as near as may be to the surface; will have it of easiest
possible access, for drawing out materials; and will make it as ample
as is consistent with the safety of the roof, and the supply of what he
is seeking. And all this we find in the areearia still abounding round
Rome. But the Catacombs are constructed on principles exactly contrary to all these.
"The catacomb dives at once, generally by a steep flight of steps,
below the stratum of loose and friable sand,t into that where it is indurated to the hardness of a tender but consistent rock; on the surface
of which every stroke of the pickaxe is yet distinctly traceable. When
you have reached this depth you are in the first story of the cemetery,
for you descend again, by stairs, to the second and third below, all constructed on the same principle.
" A catacomb may be divided into three parts, its passages or streets,
its chambers or squares, and its churches. The passages are long, narrow galleries, cut with tolerable regularity, so that the roof and floor
are at right angles with the sides, often so narrow as scarcely to allow
two persons to go abreast.  They sometimes run quite straight to a
great length; but they are crossed by others, and these again by others,
so as to form a complete labyrinth, or network, of subterranean corridors. To be lost among them would easily be fatal.
" But these passages are not constructed, as the name would imply,
merely to lead to something else. They are themselves the catacomb
or cemetery. Their walls, as well as the sides of the staircases, are
honeycombed with graves, that is, with rows of excavations, large and
small, of sufficient length to admit a human body, from a child to a
* The cemetery at St. Cnecilia's tomb.
+ Formed apparently of a Greek preposition and a Latin verb.: That is, the red volcanic sand called puzzolana, so much prized for
making Roman cement.




THE CATACOMBS.                       463
full-growvn man, laid with its side to the gallery. Sometimes there are
as many as fourteen, sometimes as few as three or four, of these rows,
one above the other. They are evidently so made to measure, that it
is probable the body was lying by the side of the grave while this was
being dug.
"When the corpse, wrapped up, as we heard from Diogenes, was
laid in its narrow cell, the front was hermetically closed, either by a
marble slab, or more frequently, by several broad tiles, put edgeways
in a groove or mortice, cut for them in the rock, and cemented all
round. The inscription was cut upon the marble, or scratched in the
wet mortar. Thousands of the former sort have been collected, and
may be seen in museums and churches; many of the latter have been
copied and published; but by far the greater number of the tombs are
anonymous, and have no record upon them. And now the reader may
reasonably ask, Through what period does the interment in the catacombs range, and how are its limits determined? We will try to content him as briefly as possible.
"There is no evidence of the Christians having ever buried anywhere, anteriorly to the construction of catacombs. Two principles as
old as Christianity regulate this mode of burial. The first is, the manner of Christ's entombment. He was laid in a grave in a cavern, wrapped up in linen, embalmed with spices; and a stone, sealed up, closed
I-is sepulchre. As St. Paul so often proposes Him for the model of our
resurrection, and speaks of our being buried with Him in baptism, it
was natural for His disciples to wish to be buried after His example, so
to be ready to rise with Him.
"This lying in wait for resurrection was the second thought that
guided the formation of these cemeteries. Every expression connected
with them alluded to the rising again. The word to bury is unknown
in Christian inscriptions.'Deposited ih peace,''the deposition of-,'
are the expressions used: that is, the dead are but left there for a time,
till called for again, as a pledge, or precious thing, entrusted to faithful,
but temporary keeping. The very name of cemetery suggests that
it is only a place where many lie, as in a dormitory, slumbering for a
while; till dawn come, and the trumpet's sound awake them. Hence
the grave is only called' the place,' or, more technically,'the small
home,'* of the dead in Christ.
" These two ideas, which are combined in the planning of the Catacombs, were not later insertions into the Christian system, but must
have been more vivid in its earlier times. They inspired abhorrence of
the pagan custom of burning the dead; nor have we a hint that this
mode was, at any time, adopted by Christians.
"But ample proof is to be found in the catacombs themselves, of
their early origin. The style of paintings, yet remaining, belongs to a
period of still flourishing art. Their symbols, and the symbolical taste
itself, are characteristic of a very ancient period. For this peculiar
taste declined, as time went on. Although inscriptions with dates are
rare, yet out of ten thousand collected, and about to be published, by
the learned and sagacious Cavalier de Rossi, about three hundred are
found bearing consular dates, through every period, from the early
* Locus, loculus.




464                        APPENDIX.
emperors to the middle of the fourth century (A.D. 350). Another
curious and interesting custom furnishes us with dates on tombs. At
the closing of the grave, the relations or friends, to mark it, would press
into its wet plaster, and leave there, a coin, a cameo, or engraved gem,
sometimes even a shell or pebble; probably that they might find the
sepulchre again, especially where no inscription was left. Many of
these objects continue to be found, many have been long collected.  But
it is not uncommon, where the coin, or, to speak scientifically, the
medal, has fallen from its place, to find a moutld of it left, distinct and
clear in the eemenrt, which equally gives its date. This is sometimes
of Donitian, or bther early emperors.
" It may be asked, wherefore this anxiety to rediscover withi certainty the tomb? Besides motives of natural piety, there is one constantly recorded on sepulchral inscriptions.  In England, if want of
space prevented the full date of a person's death being given, we should
prefer chronicling the year, to the day of the month, when it occureled.
It is more historical.  No one cares about remembering the dly on
which a person died, without the year; but the year, without the day,
is an important recollection. Yet while so few ancient Christian inscriptions supply the year of people's deaths, thousands give us the very
day of it, on which they died, whether in the hopefulness of believers,
or in the assurance of martyrs.  This is easily explained.  Of both
classes annual commemoration had to be made, on the very day of their
departure; and accurate knowledge of this was necessary. Therefore
it alone was recorded..
"In a cemetery close to the one in which we have left our three
youths, with Diogenes and his sons*, were lately found inscriptions
mingled together, belonging to both orders of the dead. One in Greek,
after mentioning the'Deposition of Augenda on the 13th day before
the Calends, or 1st of June,' adds this simple address,
ZHCAIC ENKo  KAI
EPITA YnIEPHMwN
"' Live in the Lord, and pray for us.'
"Another fragment is as follows:N. IVN-.IVIBASIN PACE ET PETE
PRO NOBIS
~ S... Nones of June... Live in peace, and pray for us,'
"This is a third:VICTORIA. REFRIGERER [ET]
ISSPIRITVS. TVS IN BONO
"'Victoria, be refreshed, and may thy spirit be in enjoyment'
(good).'This last reminds us of a most peculiar inscription found scratched
in the mortar beside a grave in the cemetery of Pr etextatus, not many
* That of SS. Nereus and Achilleus.




THE CATACOMBS.                           465
yards from that of Callistus.  It is remarkable, first, for being in Latin
written with Greek letters; then, for containing a testimony of the
Divinity of our Lord; lastly, for expressing a prayer for the refreshment of the departed.  We fill up the portion of words wanting, from
the falling out of part of the plaster.
BENE  MERENTI SORORI BON
VIII KAL NOB
AE
OYc                Cr I
XPIC                 P I T OVa
TOYC               TO  Y OVI
ONN                PEOO
Ino             IrEPE -
TEC                 INP
"'To the well-deserving sister Bon... The eighth day before the calends of Nov.
Christ God Almighty refresh thy spirit in Christ.'
"In spite of this digression on prayers inscribed over tombs, the
reader will not, we trust, have forgotten, that Wve were establishing  the
fact, that the Christian cemeteries of Rome owe their origin to the
earliest ages. We have now to state down to what period they were used.
After peace was restored to the Church, the devotion of Christians
prompted them to desire burial near the martyrs and holy people of an
earlier age.  But, generally speaking, they were satisfied to lie under
the pavement.  Hence the sepulchral stones which are often found in
the rubbish of the catacombs, and sometimes in their places, bearinlg
consular dates of the fourth century, are thicker, larger, better carved,
and in a less simple style, than those of an earlier period, pieaced p)olli
the walls.  But before the end of that century, these monuments l)ecolmle
rarer; and interment in the catacombs ceased in the following, at latest.
Pope Damasus, who died in 384, reverently shrunk, as he tells us, in
his own epitaph, firom intruding into the company of the saints.
" Restitutus, therefore, whose sepulchrlal tablet we gave for a title to
our chapter, may well be considered as speaking in the name of the early
Christians, and claiming as their own exclusive work and property, the
thousand miles of subterranean city, with their six millions of slumbering inhabitants, who trust in the Lord, and await I-is resurrection.*
" When peace and liberty were restored to the Church, these cemeteries became places of devotion, and of great resort.  Each of them
was associated with the name of one, or the names of several, of the
more eminent martyrs buried in it; and, on their aniversaries, crowds
of citizens and of pilgrims thronged to their tombs, where the Divine
e So F. Marchi calculates them, after diligent examination.  We may
mention here that, in the construction of these cemeteries, the sand extracted from one gallery was removed into another already excavated.
Hence many are now found completely filled up.
20*




466                        APPENDIX.
mysteries were offered up, and the homily delivered in their praise.
Hence began to be compiled the first martyrologies, or calendars of
martyrs' days, which told the faithful whither to go.' At Rome, on the
Salerian, or the Appian, or the Ardeatine way,' such are the indications
almost daily read in the Roman martyrology, now swelled out, by the
additions of later ages." llAn ordinary reader of the book hardly knows the importance of
these indications; for they have served to verify several otherwise dubious cemeteries.  Another class of valuable writers also comes to our
aid; but before meiltioning them, we will glance at the changes which
this devotion produced in the cemeteries. First, commodious entrances,
with easy staircases, were made; then walls were built to support the
crumbling galleries; and, from time to time, funnel-shaped apertures
in the vaults were opened, to admit light and air. Finally, basilicas or
churches were erected over their entrances, generally leading immediately to the principal tomb, then called the confession of the church.
The pilgrim, thus, on arriving at the holy city, visited each of these
churches,-a custom yet practised,-descended below, and without having to grope his way about, went direct, by well-constructed passages,
to the principal martyr's shrine, and so on to others, perhaps equally
objects of reverence and devotion.
" During this period, no tomb was allowed to be opened, no body to
be extracted.  Through apertures made into the grave, handkerchiefs
or scarfs, called brandea, were introduced, to touch the martyr's relics;
and these were carried to distant countries, to be held in equal reverence.
No wonder that St. Ambrose, St. Gaudentius, and other bishops should
have found it so difficult to obtain bodies, or large relies of martyrs for
their churches.  Another sort of relies consisted of what was called
familiarly the oil of a martyr, that is, the oil, often mixed with balsam,
which burned in a lamp beside his tomb. Often a round stone pillar,
three feet or so in height, and scooped out at the- top, stands beside a
monument: probably to hold the lamp, or serve for the distribution of
its contents. St. Gregory the Great wrote to Queen Theodelinda, that
he sent her a collection of the oils of the popes who were martyrs. The
list which accompanied them was copied by Mabillon in the treasury of
* One or two entries from the old IKalendarinm ]Romans2m will illustrate this:
"iii. Non. lMart. Lucii in Callisti.
vi. Id. Dec. Eutichiani in Callisti.
xiii. Kal. Feb. Fabiani in Callisti, et Sebastiani ad Catacumbas.
viii. Id. Aug. Systi in Callisti."
We have extracted these entries of depositions in the cemetery of
Callistus, because, while actually writing this chapter, we have received newvs of the discovery of the tombs and lapidary inscriptions
of every one of these Popes, together with those of St. Antherus, in one
chapel of the newly-ascertained cemetery of Callistus, with an inscription in verse by St. Damasus:
"Prid. Kal. Jan. Sylvestri in Priscillhe.
iv. Id. (Aug.) Laurentii in Tiburtina.
iii. Kal. Dec. Saturnini in Thrasonis."
Published by Ruinart,-Acta, tom. iii.




THE CATACOMBS.                        467
Monza, and republished by Ruinart.* It exists there yet, together with
the very phials ccntaining them, sealed up in metal tubes.
" This jealousy of disturbing the saints, is displayed most beautifully
in an incident, related by St. Gregory of Tours. Among the martyrs
most honoured in the ancient Roman Church were St. Chrysanthus and
]Daria. Their tombs became so celebrated for cures, that their fellowChristians built (that is, excavated) over them a chamber, with a vault
of beautiful workmanship, where crowds of worshippers assembled.
This was discovered by the heathens, and the emperor closed them in,
walled up the entrance, and from above, probably through the lumwino're,
or ventilating shaft, showered down earth and stones, and buried the
congregation alive, as the two holy martyrs had been before them.
The place was unknown at the peace of the Church, till discovered by
Divine manifestation.  But instead of being permitted to enter again
into this hallowed spot, pilgrims were merely allowed to look at it,
through a window opened in the wall, so as to see, not only the tombs
of the martyrs, but also the bodies of those who had been buried alive
at their shrines. And as the cruel massacre had taken place while preparations w.ere being made for oblation of the holy Eucharist, there
were still to be seen lying about, the silver cruets in which the wine
was brought for that spotless sacrifice. 
" It is clear that pilgrims resorting to Rome would want a hand-book
to the cemeteries, that they might know what they had to visit. It is
likewise but natural that, on their return home, they may have sought
to edify their less fortunate neighbours, by giving an account of what
they had seen. Accordingly there exist, no less fortunately for us than
for their untravelled neighbours, several records of this character. The
first -place, among these, is held by catalogues compiled in the fourth
century; one, of the places of sepulture of Roman Pontiffs, the other
of Martyrs.f - After these came three distinct guides to the catacombs;
the more interesting because they take different rounds, yet agree marvellously in their account.
"To show the value of these documents, and describe the changes
which took place in the catacombs during the second period of their
history, we will give a brief account of one discovery, in the cemetery
where we left our little party. Among the rubbish near the entrance
of a catacomb, the name of which was yet doubtful, and which had
been taken for that of Prntextatus, was found a fragment of a slab of
marble which had been broken across obliquely from left to right, with
the following letters:
NsELI I MARTYRIS
* Acta Martyr, tom. iii.
t S. Greg. Turon, de Gloria Mart. lib. i. c. 28. ap. Marchi, p. 81. One
would apply St. Damasus's epigram on these martyrs to this occurrence,
Carm. xxviii.: Published by Bucherius in 1634.       ~ (Of).. nelius martyr.




468                        APPENDIX.
"The young Cavalier de Rossi at once declared that this was part of
the sepulchral inscription of the holy Pope Cornelius; that probably
his tomb would be found below, in a distinguished form; and that as
all the itineraries above mentioned, concurred in placing it in the ceme
tery of Callistus, this, and not the one at St. Sebastian's a few hundred
yards off, must claim the honour of that name. He went further, and
foretold that as these works pronounced St. Cyprian to be buried near
Cornelius, there would be found something at the tomb whl h would
account for that idea; for it was known that his body rested in Africa.
It was not long before every prediction was verified. The great staircase discovered* was found to lead at once to a wider space, carefully
secured by brick-work of the time of peace, anid provided with light
and air from above. On the left was a tomb, cut like others in the rock,
without any exterior arch over it. It was, however, large and ample;
and except one, very nigh above it, there were no other graves below,
ol over, or at the sides. The remaining portion of the slab was found
within it; the first piece was brought from the Kincherian Museum,
where it had been deposited, and exactly fitted to it; and both covered
the tomb, thus:
CORNELI I MARTYRIS
EP
Below, reaching from the lower edge of this stone to the ground, was
a marble slab covered with an inscription, of which only the left-hand.
end remains, the rest being broken off and lost. Above the tomb was
another slab let into the sand-stone, of which the right-hand end exists,
and a few more fragments have been recovered in the rubbish; not
enough to make out the lines, but sufficient to show it was an inscription in verse, by Pope Damasus. How is this authorship traceable?
Very easily. Not only do we know that this holy Pope, already mentioned, took pleasure in putting verses, which he loved to write, on the
tombs of martyrst, but the number of inscriptions of his yet extant exhibit a particular and very elegant form of letters, known among antiquarians b)y the name of'Damasian.' The fragments of this marble
bear portions of verses, in this character.
"TL'o proceed: on the wall, right of the tomb, and on the same plane,
were palilted two full-length figures in sacerdotal garments, with
glories round their heads, evidently of Byzantine work of the seventh
century.  Down the wall, by the left side of each, letter below letter,
were their names some letters were effaced, which we supply in
italics as follow:
% The crypt, we believe, was discovered before the stairs.
f Of Cornelius Alartyr Bislhop.
t These form -he great bulk of his extant works in verse.




THE CATACOMBS.                       469
SC1+ CORNELI PP   SCi+ CIPRIANI.*
"We here see how a foreigner, reading these two inscriptions, with
the portraits, and knowing that the Church commemorates the two martyrs on the same day, might easily be led to suppose, that they were here
deposited together. Finally, at the right hand of the tomb, stands a
truncate-d column, about three feet high, concave at the top, as before
described; and as a confirmation of the use to which we said it might
be put, St. Gregory has, in his list of oils sent to the Lombard Queen,
Oleum S. Cornelii,' the oil of St. Cornelius.
"We see, then, how, during the second period, new ornaments, as
well as greater conveniences, were added to the primitively simple
forms of the cemeteries. But we must not, on that account, imagine
that we are in any danger of mistaking these later embellishments for
the productions of the early ages. The difference is so immense, that
we might as easily blunder by taking a Reubens for a Beato Angelico,
as by considering a Byzantine figure to be a production of the two first
centuries.
"We come now to the third period of these holy cemeteries, the sad
one of their desolation. When the Lombards, and later the Saracens,
began to devastate the neighbourhood of Rome, and the catacombs were
exposed to desecration, the Popes extracted the bodies of the mo-t
illustrious martyrs, and placed them in the basilicas of the city. This
went on till the eighth or ninth century; when we still read of repairs
made in the cemeteries by the sovereign Pontiffs. The catacombs
ceased to be so much places of devotion; and the churches, which
stood over their entrances, were destroyed, or fell to decay. Only
those remained which were fortified and could be defended. Such are
the extramural basilicas of St. Paul on the Ostian way, of St. Sebastian on the Appian, St. Laurence on the Tiburtine, or in the Ager
Veranus, St. Agnes on the Nomentan road, St. Pancratius on the
Aurelian, and, greatest of all, St. Peter's on the Vatican. The first
and last had separate burghs or cities round them; and the traveller
can still trace remains of strong walls round some of the others.
"Strange it is, however, that the young antiquarian, whom we have
frequently named with honour, should have re-discovered two of the
basilicas over the entrance to the cemetery of Callistus, almost entire;
* "(The picture) of St. Cornelius, Pope, of St. Cyprian."  On the
other side, on a narrow wall, projecting at a right angle, are two more
similar portraits; but only one name can be deciphered, that of St.
Sixtus, or, as he is there and elsewhere called, Sustus. On the paintings of the principal saints may still be read, scratched in the mortar,
in characters of the seventh century, the names of visitors to the tomb.
Those of two priests are thus+LEO PRB IOANNIS PRB.
It may be interesting to add the entry in the Roman calendar:
"xviii. Kal. Oct. Cypriani Africem: Rom-e celebratur in Callisti."
"Sep. 14. (The deposition) of Cyprian in Africa: at Rome it is kept in
(the cemetery) of Callistus."




470                       APPENDIX.
the one being a stable and a bake-house, the other a wine-store. One is,
most probably, that built by Pope Damasus, so often mentioned. The
earth washed down, through air-holes, the spoilation practised during
ages, by persons entering from vineyards through unguarded entrances,
the mere wasting action of time and weather, have left us but a wreck
of the ancient catacombs. Still there is much to be thankful for.
Enough remains to verify the records left us in better times, and these
serve to guide us to the reconstruction of our ruins. The present
Pontiff has done more in a few years for these sacred places, than has
been effected in centuries. The mixed commission which he has appointed have done wonders. With very limited means, they are going
systematically to work, finishing as they advance. Nothing is taken
from the spot where it is found; but everything is restored, as far as
possible, to its original state. Accurate tracings are made of all the
paintings, and plans of every part explored. To secure these good
results, the Pope has, from his own resources, bought vineyards and
fields, especially at the Tor Marancia, where the cemetery of SS. Nereus
and Achilleus is situated; and we believe also over that of Callistus.
The French emperor too has sent to Rome, artists, who have produced
a most magnificent work, perhaps somewhat overdone, upon the catacombs: a truly imperial undertaking."
LETTER FROM NAPLES.
The following extract of a letter lately appeared in the " Cork Constitution," a highly respectable Protestant journal, of strong anti-Catholic
tendencies; and the Editor vouches for the high honour and veracity of
the writer, who thus affords a glimpse at the true state of tdings:" 13th July, 1857.
"We are perfectly tranquil here at present. The landing of a party
of Mazzinisti the Other day was repelled by the peasants, before the
Government could send troops-a proof that the people here will not
revolt.
"Yesterday a friend and myself read a most violent tirade in the'Morning Post' against the Government.  Both of us, having much
to do in the country with the people, know tolerably their sentiments,
and we agreed that the whole was absolutely untrue. Would such a
newspaper, uttering such virulent falsehoods, and expressing itself so
unjustifiably, be allowed to pass through the Post-office in Austria or
Russia?  No.  English papers in those countries are scissored or
blotted. Here not an English paper is prohibited or mutilated, not even'Punch.' Why, then, does Lord Palmerston's paper, the'Morning
Post,' bully the weak Governments, and not attack those powerful
ones whose atrocities are a hundred times greater than those of this
country?
"Lord Palmerston and the'Morning Post' know that the statements they publish are false.  They have received couLnter-statements, but




THE CATACOMBS.                       471
will not publish them, excusing themselves by saying that the parties have
been imposed on, &c.; but when some infamous account is sent them, so
exaggerated, that it may be said to surpass the bounds of probability,
then it suits them, and is inserted.
"This country is undoubtedly capable of great improvement-the
people are too uneducated, but there is material prosperity. The produte of the country is required abroad, and sells for more than is required in imports; therefore the precious metals come in largely to
balance the account, and the country people are rich.
"The total debt is about eighteen millions sterling, on a five per cent.
stock, the price of which is now 110-a tolerable proof of the feelings
of the country.
"If the English Government wished really to be informed of the
state of this country, let it send an impartial man; and I am sure that
prisons and every source of informatign would be open to him.
"The King is as different from what he is represented as possible:
he is mild, benevolent, painstaking, and a very hard-working man, accessible to everybody. But he commits the great error of thinking
that he alone knows how to govern the country. He is his own
minister, and governs by means of heads of departments, called directors, who will not take on themselves the least responsibility, and, as a
consequence, the movement of the Government is too slow, and every
unjust or unpopular act is attributed to the King."
THE END.
New York: Printed and Stereotyped by BILLIN & BROTHER, 20 North William St.