FRONTISPIECE.
DIOGENES SEEKING AN HONEST MAN.




FAMOUS MEN
_S.'-. -!
OF ANCIENT
lli  TIMES.
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY BROWN & TAGGARD.








FAMOUS MEN
or
ANCIENT TIMES.
BY THU AUTHOIR 1
PETER PARLEVY'S TALES.
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY BROWN & TAGGARI,
25 & 29 CORNHILL.
1860.




BY S. G. GO(,ODRICH,,Y
i  In the Clerk's Office of the District 
PRESS OF GEORGE C. RAND & CO.




PREFACE.
TIrE reader of these pages will perhaps remark, that
the length of the following sketches is hardly proportioned
to the relative importance of the several subjects, regarded
in a merely historical point of view. In explanation of this
fact, the author begs leave to say, that, while he intended to
present a series of the great beacon lights that shine along
the shores of the past, and thus throw a continuous gleam
over the dusky sea of ancient history,-he had still other
views. His chief aim is moral culture; and the several
articles have been abridged or extended, as this controlling purpose might be subserved.
It may be proper to make one observation more. If the
author has been somewhat more chary of his eulogies upon
the great men that figure in the pages of Grecian and Roman
story, than is the established custom, he has only to plead in
his vindication, that he has viewed them in the same lightweighed them in the same balance-measured them by the
same standard, as he should have done the more familiar characters of our own day, making due allowance for the tinmes
and circumstances in which they acted. He has stated the
results of such a mode of appreciation; yet if the master




iV                     PREFACE.
spirits of antiquity axe thus shorn of some portion of their I
glory, the writer still believes that the interest they excite is 
not lessened, and that the instruction they afford is not
diminished.  On the contrary, it seems to him  that the
study of ancient biography, if it be impartial and discriminating, is one of the most entertaining and useful to which
the mind can be applied.




CONTENT S.
PAGB
MOHAMMED,.           ~   ~....      7
BELiSARIUS......  25
ATTILA).....                                       60
NERO,.........           68
SENECA,....   74
VIRGIL,.....                                         83
CICERO,..       ~   ~   ~   ~   ~          ~.      95
JULIUS CSA,...... 130
HANNIBAL,.....145
ALEXANDER,....... 157
ARISTOTLE,....... 183
DEMOSTHENES,.......                                197
APELLES,........                                    209
DIOGENES.......                                       213
PLATO,......218
SOCRATES,.......                                  229
ALCIBIADES.......       244
DEMOCRITUS,........252
PERICLES,......... 256




Vi                     CONTENTS.
PACE
ARISTIDESn..261
ZAsor,...    264
SOLON,.... 271
LYCURGES)......                         277
HOMER,....282
CONFUCIUS,.....         291




FAMOUS MEN OF ANCIENT TIMES
MOHAMMED.
THIS individual, who has exercised a greater influence upon the opinions of mankind than any other
human being, save, perhaps, the Chinese philosopher
Confucius, was born at Mecca, in Arabia, A. D. 570.
He was the only son of Abdallah, of the noble line
of HIashem and tribe of Koreish-descendants of Ishmael the reputed progenitor of the Arabian race.




8                 MOHAMMED.
The Koreishites were not only a commercial people,
and rich by virtue of their operations in trade, but
they were the hereditary guardians of the Caaba, or
Kaaba, a heathen temple at Mecca. The custody of
thik sacred place, together with all the priestly offices,
belonged to the ancestors of Mohammed.
The Mohammedan authors have embellished the
birth of the prophet with a great variety of wonderful
events, which are said to have attended his introduction into the world. One of these is, that the Persian
sacred fire, kept in their temples, was at once extinguished over all Arabia, accompanied by the diffusion
of an unwonted and beautiful light. But this and
other marvels, we leave to the credulity of the prophet's followers.
Mohammed's father died early, and his son came
under the guardianship of his uncle, Abu Taleb. He
was a rich merchant, who was accustomed to visit
the fairs of Damascus, Bagdad, and Bassora —three
great and splendid cities, and Mohammed often accompanied him to these places. In his twelfth year,
Mohammed took part in an expedition against the
wandering tribes that molested the trading caravans.
Thus, by travelling from place to place, he acquired
extensive knowledge, and, by being engaged in warlike enterprise, his imagination became inflamed with
a love of adventure and military achievements. If
we add to this, that he had naturally a love of soli.
tude, with a constitutional tendency to religious abstraction; and if, moreover, we consider that in his
childhood he had been accustomed to behold the wild
exercises, the dark ceremonies, and hideous rites of




MOHAMMED.                  9
the temple of Caaba —we shall at once see the elements
of character, and the educational circumstances, which
shaped out the extraordinary career of the founder of
Islamism.
It appears that Mohammed was remarkable for
mental endowments, even in his youth, for, in a religious conversation with a Nestorian monk, at Basra,
he showed such knowledge and talent, that the monk
remarked to his uncle, that great things might be
expected of him. He was, however, attentive to business, and so completely obtained the confidence of his
uncle, as a merchant, that he was recommended as a
prudent and faithful young man, to Khadijah, a rich
widow, who stood in need of an agent to transact her
business and manage her affairs. In this capacity
he was received, and so well did he discharge his
duties, that he not only won the confidence of the
widow, but finally obtained her hand in marriage.
This event took place when he was about twenty-five
years old, Khadijah being almost forty.
Mohammed was now rich, and, though he continued to carry on mercantile business, he often retired
to a cave, called Heva, near Mecca, where he resided.
He also performed several journeys to different parts
of Arabia and Syria, taking particular pains to gather
religious information, especially of learned Jews and
Christians.
For some time, Mohammed, who lived happily
with his wife, confided to her his visits to the cave
Heva, professing to enjoy interviews with Heaven
there, by means of dreams and trances, in which ie
met and zonversed with the angel Gabriel. There is




10                 MOHAMMED.
little doubt that his habits of religious retirement and
gloomy reflection had unsettled his judgment, and that
he now gave himself up to the guidance of an overwrought fancy. It is probable, therefore, that he
believed these visions to be of divine inspiration;
else, why should he first communicate them, as realities, to his wife?
Soon after this, he informed other members of his
family of his visions, and, being now about forty years
old, assumed with them, the character and profession
of a prophet. Several of his friends, particularly his
wife, and his cousin Ali, a young man of great energy
of character, yielded to the evidence he gave of his
divine mission. Having been silently occupied about
three years in converting his nearest friends, he invited some of the most illustrious men of the family of
Hashem  to his house, and, after conjuring them to
abandon their idolatry, for the worship of ONE GoD,
he openly proclaimed his calling, and set forth, that,
by the commands of Heaven, revealed through the
angel Gabriel, he was prepared to impart to his countrymen the most precious gift-the only means of
future salvation.
Far from being convinced, the assembly was struck
silent with mingled surprise and contempt. The
young and enthusiastic Ali, alone, yielded to his pretences, and, falling at his feet, offered to attend him,
in good or evil, for life or for death.  Several of the
more sober part of the assembly sought to dissuade
Mohammed from his enterprise; but he replied with
a lofty fervor, that if the sun were placed in his right
hand, and the moon in his left, with power over the




MOHAMMED.                  11
kingdoms they enlighten, he would not, should not,
could not hesitate or waver in his course.
Ihflamed by the opposition he met with among
this assembly, Mohammed now went forth, and, wherever he could find crowds of-people, there he announced his mission. jIn the temples, in the public
squares, streets, and market-places, he addressed the
people, laying claim to the prophetic character, and
setting forth the duty of rejecting idolatry, for the
worship of one God. The people were struck with
his eloquence, his majesty of person, the beautiful
imagery he presented to their minds, and the sublime
sentiments he promulgated. Even the poet Lebid is
said to have been converted by the wonderful beauty
and elevation of the thoughts poured forth by the professed prophet.  The people listened, and, though
they felt the fire of his eloquence, still they were so
wedded to their idolatries, that few were yet disposed
to join him.
To aid in understanding the revolution wrought by
Mohammed, it may be well to sketch the condition
of the Arabians at that period. The original inhabitants of Arabia, though all of one stock, and occupying a peninsula 1200 miles in length by 700 in width,
had been, from time immemorial, divided into a variety of distinct tribes. These constituted petty communities or states, which, often changing, still left the
people essentially the same. In the more elevated
table lands, intersected by mountain ridges, with
dreary wastes consisting of sandy plains, she people
continued to pursue a roving life, living partly upon
their flocks of camels, horses, and horned cattle, and




]12               MOHAMMED.
partly upon the robbery of trading caravans of other
tribes. The people of the plains, being near the water, settled in towns, cultivated the soil, and pursued
commerce.
The various tribes were each governed by the oldest or most worthy sheik or nobleman. Their bards
met once a year, at Okhad, holding a fair of thirty
days, for the recitation of their productions. That
which was declared to be the finest, was written in
gold and suspended in the great temple of Mecca.
This was almost the only common tie between the
several states or tribes, for, although they nominally
acknowledged an emir, or national chief, they had
never been brought to act in one body.
The adoration of the Arabians consisted chiefly in
the worship of the heavenly luminaries; but they had
a great variety of deities, these being personifications
of certain powers in nature, or passions in mankind.
They were represented by idols of every variety- of
shape, which were gathered around the ancient temple of Caaba, at Mecca, a large square edifice, considered as the central point of religion, and the favorite
seat of divinity. Their worship was attended with
the most horrid rites and shocking ceremonies: even
children were sacrificed to the idols, and one of the
tribes was accustomed to bury their daughters alive.
Except that they fancied the souls of the departed to
be transformed into owls, hovering in gloom around
the grave, it does not appear that they had the least
idea of a future state of existence.
Such was the state of religion among the native
Arabians. Among the foreign settlers in the towns




MOHAMMDID.               13
there were a few followers of the Greek and Roman
philosophy; tLe Christians were never numerous.
These latter were divided into a variety of sects, and
those belonging to the Greek church, advocated monasteries, and were addicted to the worship of images,
martyrs and relics. Some of these, even elevated the
Virgin Mary into a deity, and addressed her as the
third person in the Trinity.
Mohammed, while he no doubt looked with horror
upon this state of things, having studied the Bible,
and clearly comprehended its sublime revelation of
one God, conceived the idea of uniting the people of
his native land under a religion of which this fundamental principle should constitute the basis. His
purpose was to crush idolatry, and restore the lost
worship of the true God. How far he was sincere,
and how far he was an impostor, we cannot venture
to affirm. It is probable that he was a religious enthusiast, deceived by his own fancies, and, perhaps,
really believing his own visions. At the outset of
his career, it is likely that he acted in good faith,
while he was himself deluded. When he had advanced so far as to see power and dominion offered to
his grasp, it is probable that his integrity gave way,
and that thenceforward we are to consider him as
under the alternate guidance of craft and fanaticism.
Several of the nobles citizens of Mecca were finally
converted by Mohammed. Khadijah was now dead,
and the prophet had married Ayesha, the daughter
of Abubeker, a man of great influence, and who exercised it in favor of his son-in-law. Yet the new faith
made little progress, and a persecution of its vataries
II. -2




14                MOlIAMMED.
arose, which drove them to Abyssinia, and caused
Mohammed himself to fly for safety to Medina. This
flight is called the Hegira, and, taking place in the
year 622, is the epoch from which Mohammedan
chronology is computed, as is ours from the birth of
Christ.
At Medina, whither his tenets had been carried by
pilgrims, Mohammed was received with open arms.
He was met by an imposing procession, and invested
at once with the regal and sacerdotal office. The
people also offered him assistance in propagating his
faith, even by force, if it should be required. From
this moment, a vast field seems to have been opened
to the mind of Mohammed. Hitherto, he may have
been but a self-deceived enthusiast; but now, ambition appears to have taken at least partial possession
of his bosom. His revelations at once assumed a
higher tone. Hitherto he had chiefly inculcated the
doctrine of one God, eternal, omnipotent, most power-.ful and most merciful, together with the practical
duties of piety, prayer, charity, and pilgrimages. He
now revealed, as a part of his new faith, the duty of
making war, even with the sword, to propagate Islamism, and promised a sensual paradise to those wh3
should fall in doing battle in its behalf. At the same
time he announced that a settled fate or destiny hung
over every individual, which he could not by possibility alter, evade, or avert.
He now raised men, and proceeded, sword in hand,
to force the acknowledgment of his pretensions. With
alternate victory and defeat, he continued to prosecute
his schemes, and at last fell upon the towns and cas



MOHAMMED.                165
ties of the peaceful and unwarlike Jews.  These
were soon taken and plundered. But the prophet
paid dearly for his triumph. A Jewish female, at the
town of Chaibar, gave him poison in some drink, and,
though he survived, he never fully recovered from
the effects of the dose.
Thus advancing with the tribes settled in his own
country, the power of the ambitious apostle increased
like the avalanche in its overwhelming descent.
Mecca was conquered, and yielded as well to his faith
as to his arms. He now made expeditions to Palestine and Syria, while his officers were making conquests in all directions.  His power was soon so
great, that he sent messages to the kings of Egypt,
Persia, and Ethiopia, and the emperor of Constantinople, commanding them to acknowledge the divine
law revealed through him.
At last, in the tenth year of the Hegira, he proceeded on a farewell pilgrimage to Mecca.  The
scene was imposing beyond description.  He was
attended by more than a hundred thousand of his
followers, who paid him  the greatest reverence.
Everything in dress, equipage and imposing ceremony that could enhance the splendor of the pageant,
and give it sanctity in the eyes of the people, was
adopted. This was the last great event of his life.
Mohammed had now become too powerful to be
resisted by force, but not too exalted to be troubled
by competition. His own example in assuming the
sa.red character of an apostle and prophet, and the
brilliant success which had attended him, gave a hint
to others of the probable means of advancing them



10                MOHAMMED.
selves to a similar pitch of dignity and dominion.
The spirit of emulation, therefore, raised up a fellowprophet in the person of Moseilama, called to this day
by the followers of Islam "the lying Moseilama," a
descendant of the tribe of Honeifa, and a principal
person in the province of Yemen.
This man headed an embassy sent by his tribe to
Mohammed, in the ninth year of the Hegira, and then
professed himself a Moslem; but on his return home,
pondering on the nature of the new religion and the
character and fortunes of its founder, the sacrilegious
suggestion occurred to him, that by skilful management he might share with his countryman in the glory
of a divine mission; and, accordingly, in the ensuing
year he began to put his project in execution. He
gave out that he, also, was a prophet sent of Heaven,
having a joint commission with Mohammed to recall
mankind from idolatry to the worship of the true God.
He, moreover, aped his model so closely as to publish
written revelations resembling the Koran, pretended
to have been derived from the same source.
Having succeeded in gaining a considerable party,
from the tribe of Honeifa, he at length began to put
himself still more nearly upon a level with the prophet
of Medina, and even went so far as to propose to Mohammed a partnership in his spiritual supremacy.
HIis letter commenced thus: " From Moseilama, the
apostle of God, to Mohammed, the apostle of God.
Now let the earth be half mine and half thine." But
the latter, feeling himself too firmly established to
stand in need of an associate, deigned to return him
only the following reply: "From Mohammed, the




MOHAMED.                  17
apostle of God, to Moseilama, the liar. The earth is
God's: he giveth the same for inheritance unto such
of his servants as he pleaseth; and the happy issue
shall attend those who fear him."'
During the few months that Mohammed lived after
this, Moseilama continued, on the whole, to gain
ground, and became at length so formidable, as to
occasion extreme anxiety to the prophet, now rapidly
sinking under the effects of disease. An expedition,
under the command of Caled, the " Sword of God,"
was ordered out to suppress the rival sect headed by
the spurious apostle, and the bewildered imagination
of Mohammed, in the moments of deliritum, which
now afflicted him, was frequently picturing to itself
the results of the engagement between his faithful
Moslems and these daring apostates.
The army of Caled returned victorious. Moseilama himself, and ten thousand of his followers, were
left dead on the field; while the rest, convinced by
the shining evidence of truth that gleamed from the
swords of the conquerors, renounced their errors, and
fell quietly back into the bosom of the Mohammedan
church. Several other insurgents of similar pretences, but of minor consequence, were crushed in ike
manner in the early stages of their defection.
We have now reached the period at which the
religion of Mohammed may be considered as having
become permanently established. The conquest of
Mecca and of the Koreishites had been, in fact, the
signal for the submission of the rest of Arabia; and
though several of the petty tribes offered, for a time,
the show of resistance to the prQphet's  ms,-tey




18                MOHAMMED.
were all eventually subdued. Between the taking of
Mecca and the period of Mohammed's death, somewhat more than three years elapsed. In that short
period he had destroyed the idols of Arabia; had
extended his conquests to the borders of the Greek
and Persian empires; had rendered his name formidable to those once mighty kingdoms; had tried his
arms against the disciplined troops of the former, and
defeated them in a desperate encounter at Muta.
His throne was now firmly established; and an
impulse given to the Arabian nation, which induced
them to invade, and enabled them to conquer, a large
portion of the globe. India, Persia, the Greek empire, the whole of Asia Minor, Egypt, Barbary, and
Spain, were eventually reduced by their victorious
arms. Mohammed himself did not indeed live to see
such mighty conquests achieved, but he commenced
the train which resulted in this wide-spread dominion, and, before his death, had established over the
whole of Arabia, and some parts of Asia, the religion
which he had devised.
AId now, having arrived at the sixty-third year of
his age, and the tenth of the Hegira, A. D. 632, the
fatal effects of the poison, which had been so long
rankling in his veins, began to discover themselves
more and more sensibly, and to operate with alarming
virulence. Day by day, he visibly declined, and it
was evident that his life was hastening to a close.
For some time previous to the event, he was conscious
of its approach, and is said to have viewed and awaited
it with characteristic firmness. The third day before
his dissolution, he qrdered himpself to be corrjed o




MOHAMMED.                 19
the mosque, that he might,- for the last time, address
his followers, and bestow upon them his parting
players and benedictions. Being assisted to mount
the pulpit, he edified his brethren by the pious tenor
of his dying counsels, and in his own example taught
a lesson of humility and penitence, such as we shall
scarcely find inculcated in the precepts of the Koran
"If there be any man," said the prophet, "whom
I have unjustly scourged, I- submit my own back to
the lash of retaliation. Have I aspersed the reputation of any Mussulman? let him proclaim my fault
in the face of the congregation. Has any one been
despoiled of his goods? the little that I possess shall
compensate the principal and the interest of the debt."
" Yes," replied a voice from the crowd, " thou owest
me three drachms of silver! "  Mohammed heard the
complaint, satisfied the demand, and thanked his
creditor that he had accused him in this world, rather
than at the day of judgment. He then set his slaves
at liberty, seventeen men and eleven women; directed the order of his funeral; strove to allay the
lamentations of his weeping friends, and waited the
approach of death. He did not expressly nominate
a successor, a step which would have prevented the
altercations that afterwards came so near to crushing
in its infancy the religion and the empire of the Saracens; but his appointment of Abubeker to supply
his place in the function of public prayer, and the
other services of the mosque, seemed to intimate indirectly the choice of the prophet. This ancient and
faithful friend, accordingly, after much contention,
became the fi -rt Caliph of the Saracens, though his




20               MOHAMMED
reign was closed by his death at the end of two
years.
The death of Mohammed was hastened by the
force of a burning fever, which deprived him at times
of the use of reason. In one of these paroxysms of
delirium, he demanded pen and paper, that he might
compose or dictate a divine book. Omar, who was
watching at his side, refused his request, lest the
expiring prophet might dictate something which
should supersede the Koran. Others, however, ex.
pressed a great desire that the book might be written;
and so warm a dispute arose in the chamber of the
apostle that he was forced to reprove their unbecoming vehemence. The writing was not performed,
and many of his followers have mourned the loss of
the sublime revelations which his dying visions might
have bequeathed to them.
The favorite wife of the prophet, Ayesha, hung
over her husband in his last moments, sustaining his
drooping head upon her knee, as he lay stretched
upon the carpet; watching with trembling anxiety
his changing countenance, and listening to he last
broken sounds of his voice. Has disease, as it drew
towards its termination, was attended at intervals
with most excruciating pains, which he constantly
ascribed to the fatal morsel taken at Chaibar; and as
the mother of Bashar, his companion who had died
upon the spot from the same cause, stood by his side,
he exclaimed, " 0 mother of Bashar, the cords of my
heart are now breaking of the food which I ate with
your son at Chaibar." In his conversation with those
around him, he mentioned it as a special prerogative




MOHAMMED,                 21
granted to him, that the angel of death was not allowed to take his soul till he had respectfully asked permission of him, and this permission he condescendingly granted. Recovering from a swoon into which
the violence of his pains had thrown hi m, he raised
his eyes towards the roof of the house, and with faltering accents exclaimed,  "0 God! pardon my sins.
Yes, I come among my fellow-laborers on high!"
His face was then sprinkled with water, by his own
feeble hand, and shortly after he expired.
The city, and more especially the house of the
prophet, became at once a scene of sorrowful but
confused lamentation. Some of his followers could
not believe that he was dead. "' How can he be dead,
our witness, our intercessor, our mediator with God?
He is not dead. Like Moses and Jesus, he is wrapped
in a holy trance, and speedily will he return to his
faithful people." The evidence of sense was disregarded, and Omar, brandishing his scimitar, threat..
ened to strike off the heads of the infidels who should
affirm that the prophet was no more. The tumult
was at length appeased, by the moderation of Abubeker. "Is it Mohammed," said he, "or the God of
Mohammed, whom ye worship?  The God of Mohammed liveth forever, but the apostle was a mortal
like ourselves, and, according to his own prediction,
he hath experienced, the common fate of mortality."
The prophet's remains were deposited at Medina,
in the very room where he breathed his last, the floor
being removed to make way for his sepulchre, and a
simple and unadorned monument was, some time after,
emeted over them. The house itself has long since




22                 MOHAMMED.
mouldere'd, or been demolished, but the place of the
prophet's interment is still made conspicuous to the
superstitious reverence of his disciples. The story
of his relics being suspended in the air, by the power
of loadstone in an iron coffin, and that too at Mecca,
instead of Medina, is a mere idle fabrication. His
tomb at the latter place has been visited by millions
of pilgrims, and, from the authentic accounts of travellers who have visited both these holy cities in disguise, we learn that it is constructed of plain mason
work, fixed without elevation upon the surface of the
ground. The urn which encloses his body is protected by a trellis of iron, which no one is permitted
to pass.
The Koran or Alkoran, meaning the Book, is a collection of all the various fragments which the prophet
uttered during the period in which he professed to
exercise the apostolic office. They were originally
written on scattered leaves, but they were collected
by Abubeker, two years after Mohammed's death.
They are in the purest and most refined dialect of
Arabia, and are distinguished by extraordinary graces
of style.
The Koran furnishes not only the divinity, but the
civil law of the Mohammedans. It professes to contain the revelation of God's will by Gabriel to Mohammed, and through him to mankind. One of the
books gives an account of the translation of the
prophet by night to the third heaven, upon a winged
animal, named Alborak, and resembling an ass, where
he saw unutterable things. The great doctrines of the
Koran, as before stated, are the existence of one supreme




MOHAMMED.                 23
God, to whom alone adoration and obedience are due.
It declares that the divine law was faithfully delivered
by Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Christ. It
declares the immortality of the soul of man, and the
final judgment, and sets forth that the good are to
dwell in everlasting bliss, amid shady and delicious
groves, a. d attended by heavenly virgins. The hope
of salvation is not confined to the Moslem, but is extended to all who believe in God and do good works.
Sinners, particularly unbelievers, are to be driver
about in a dark burning hell, forever.
The practical duties enjoined by the Koran, are the
propagation of Islamism, and prayers directed to the
temple of Mecca, at five different periods of the day,
together with fasting, alms, religious ablutions, pilgrimages to Mecca, &c. It allows a man but four
wives, though the prophet had seventeen, and it is
curious to add that all were widows, save one. It
strongly prohibits usury, gaming, wine and pork.
We cannot deny to Mohammed the possession of
extraordinary genius. He was a man of great eloquence, and the master of a beautiful style of composition; and he possessed that ifajesty of person,
which, united to his mental qualities, gave him great
ascendancy over those who came into his presence.
He lived in a dark age, amid a benighted people; yet,
without the aids of education, he mastered the religious systems of the day, and took a broad and sagacious view of the moral and political condition of
the people of Asia. He conceived the sublime idea
of uniting, by one mighty truth, the broken fragments
of his own nation, and the destruction of idolatry by




24                MOHAMMED.
the substitution of the worship of one God. It is true,
that he sought to accomplish these ends by unlawful
means-by imposture, and the bloody use of the
sword; we must admit, also, that he was licentious'
and although we cannot fail to condemn his character.
we must acknowledge the splendor of his abilities and
allow that while he imposed on his followers, he
established a faith infinitely above Paganism, and
sprinkled with many rays of light from the fountain
of Divine Truth.




BELISARIUS.
Tins celebrated general, to whom the emperor Justinian is chiefly indebted for the glory of his reign,
was a native of Germania, on the confines of Thrace,
and was born about the year 505. It is probable that
he was of noble descent, liberally educated, and a
professor of the Christian faith. The first step ill his
military career was an appointment in the personal
guard of Justinian, while that prince was yet heir
apparent to the throne.
II — 3




26                 BELISARIUS.
The Roman or Byzantine empire, at this period,
embraced almost exactly the present territory of the
Turkish dominions in Europe and Asia Minor, with
the addition of Greece-Constantinople being its capital. Italy was held by the Goths; Corsica, Sardinia
and Barbary in Africa, by the Vandals.
Justin I., an Illyrian peasant, having distinguished
himself as a soldier, had become emperor. His education was of course neglected, and such was his
ignorance, that his signature could only be obtained
by means of a wooden case, which directed his pen
through the four first letters of his name. From his
accession, the chief administration of affairs devolved
on Justinian, his nephew and intended heir, whom
he was reluctantly compelled to raise from office to
office, and at length to acknowledge as his partner on
the throne. His death, after a languid reign of nine
years and a life of nearly fourscore, left Justin;an
sole sovereign in name, as well as in fact.
In order to appreciate the life and actions of Belisarius, it is necessary to inderstand the character of
the new emperor, during whose long reign his great
exploits were performed. The first act of Justinian
on ascending the throne,'was to marry a dissolute
actress, named Theodora, who, though licentious,
avaricious, cruel and vindictive, soon acquired an
almost complete control over him. His mind was
essentially feeble and inconstant, and, though his
Christian faith was doubtless sincere, it was less fruitful of virtues than of rites and forms. At his accession his treasury was full; but it was soon exhausted
by his profuseness, and heavy taxes were imposed,




BFDLISARIUS.                27
offices pnit to sale, charities suppressec, private fortunes seized, and, in short, every act of rapacity, injustice and oppression, practised by his ministers, to
support the wasteful magnificence of the court.
The troops of the empire at this period were by no
means what they had been in the time of Scipio and
Casar.  They consisted, to a great extent, of foreign
mercenar;es, and were divided into squadrons according to their country; thus destroying all unity of feeling, and annihilating that national spirit which once
made the Roman arms the terror of the world. These
hired troops, which greatly outnumbered the native
soldiers, marched under their own national banner,
were commanded by their own officers, and usually
followed their own military regulations. The inefficiency of such mingled and discordant forces, is obvious; yet it was under such a system that Belisarius
entered upon his military career.
With a feeble and corrupt government, an ill-appointed and trustless army, the Roman empire was
still surrounded with powerful enemies. It is scarcely
possible to conceive of a great nation in a condition
of more complete debility and helplessness, than was
the kingdom of the Camsars, at the period in which
Belisarius appears upon the active stage of life.
Kobad, king of Persia, after a long cessation of hostilities, renewed the war toward the close of Justin's
reign, by the invasion of Iberia, which claimed the
protection of the emperor. At this period, Belisarius,
being about twenty years of age, had the command
of a squadron of horse, and was engaged in some of
the conflicts with the Persian forces, on the borders




28-                BELISARIU8.
of Armenia. -.In conjunction with an officer namedSittas, he ravaged a large extent of territory, and
brought back a considerable number of prisoners.
On a second incursion, however, they were less
fortunate; for, being suddenly attacked by the Persian forces, they were entirely defeated. It appears
that Belisarius incurred no blame, for he was soon
after promoted to the post of governor of Dara, and
the command of the forces stationed there. It was at
this place that he chose Procopius, the historian, as
his secretary, and who afterwards repaid his kindness
by a vain attempt to brand his name with enduring
infamy.
Soon after Belisarius obtained the command of
Dara, Justinian came to the throne, and enjoined it
upon his generals to strengthen the defences of the
empire in that quarter. This was attempted, but the
Persians baffled the effort. Belisarius was now appointed general of the East, being commander-in-chief
of the whole line of the Asiatic frontier. Foreseeing
that a formidable struggle was soon to ensue, he
applied himself to the raising and disciplining an
army. He traversed the neighboring provinces in
person, and at last succeeded in mustering five and
twenty thousand men. These, however, were without discipline, and their spirit was depressed by the.
ill success that had long attended the Roman arms.
In this state of things, the news suddenly came,
that 40,000 men, the flower of the Persian army,
commanded by Firouz, was marching upon Dara.
Confident of victory, the Persian general announced
his approach, by the haughty message that a bath




ELt:aRIUS.                29
should be ready for him at Dam the next evening.
Belisarius made no other reply than preparations for
battle. Fortifying himself in the best manner he -was
able, he awaited the onset; exhorting his men, however, by every stimulating motive he could suggest,
to do honor to the name and fame of Rome.
The battle began by a mutual discharge of arrows,
so numerous as to darken the air. When the quivers
were exhausted, they came to. closer combat. The
struggle was obstinate and bloody; and the Persians
were already about to win the victory,.when a body
of horse, judiciously stationed behind a hill by Belisarius, rushed forward, and turned the tide of success.
The Persians fled, and the triumph of Belisarius was
complete. They left their royal standard upon the
field of battle, with 8000 slain.'This victory had a
powerfill effect, and decided the fate of the campaign.
The aged Kobad, who had conceived a profound
contempt for the Romans, was greatly irritated by the
defeat of his troops.  lHe determined upon a still
more powerful effort, and the next season sent a formidable army to invade Syria. Belisarius, with a
promptitude that astounded -he enemy, proceeded to
the defence of this province, and, with an inferior
force, compelled the Persian army to retreat. Obliged
at length, by his soldiers, against his own judgment,
to give battle to the enemy, he suffered severely, and
only avoided total defeat by the greatest coolness and
address. Even the partial victory of the enemy was
without advantage to them, for they were obliged to
retreat, and abandon their enterprise. Soon after this
event, Kobad died, in his eighty-third year, and his
3*




s,0                BELISARIUS.
successor, Nushirvan, concluded a treaty of peace
with Justinian.
The war being thus terminated, Belisarius took up
his residence at Constantinople, and here became the
second husband of Antonina, who, though the child
of an actress, had contracted an exalted marriage on
account of her beauty, and having filled a high office,
enjoyed the rank and honors of a patrician. While
thus raised above the dangerous profession -f her
mother, she still adhered to the morals of the stage.
Though openly licentious, she obtained through her
bold, decided, and intriguing character, aided by remarkable powers of fascination, a complete ascendancy
over Belisarius. It is seldom that a man is great in
all respects, and the weakness of the general whose
history we are delineating, was exhibited in a blind
and submissive attachment to this profligate woman.
A singular outbreak of popular violence occurred
about this period, which stained the streets of Constantinople with blood, and threatened for a time to
hurl Justinian from his throne. The fondness of the
Romans for the amusements of the circus, had in no
degree abated. Indeed, as the gladiatorial combats
had been suppressed, these games were frequented
with redoubled ardor. The charioteers were distinguished by the various colors of red, white, blue, and
green, intending to represent the four seasons. Those
of each color, especially the blue and green, possessed
numerous and devoted partisans, which became at
last connected with civil and religious prejudices.
Justinian favored the Blues, who became for that
reason the emblem of royalty; on the other hand, the




BELISARIUS.               31
Greens became'the type of disaffection. Though
these dangerous factions were denounced by the statutes, still, at the period of which we speak, each party
were ready to lavish their fortunes, fisk their lives,
and brave the severest sentence of the laws, in support of their darling color. At the commencement of
the year 532, by one of those sudden caprices which
are often displayed by the populace, the two factions
united, and turned their vengeance against Justinian.
The prisons were forced, and the guards massacred.
The city was then fired in various parts, the cathedral of St. Sophia, a part of the imperial palace, and
a great number of public and private buildings, were
wrapped in conflagration. The cry of "Nika! Nika! "
Vanquish! Vanquish! ran through every part of the
capital.
The principal citizens hurried to the opposite shore
of the Bosphorus, and the emperor entrenched himself within his palace. In the mean time, Hypatius,
nephew of the emperor Anastatius, was declared em.
peror by the rioters, and so formidable had the insurrection now become, that Justinian was ready to
abdicate his crown. For the first and last time, Theodora seemed worthy of the throne, for she withstood
the pusillanimity of her husband, and, through her
animated exhortations, it was determined to take the
chance of victory or death.
Justinian's chief hope now rested on Belisarius
Assisted by AMundus, the governor of Illyria, who
chanced to be in the capital, he now called upon the
guards to rally in defence of the emperor; but these
refused to obey him. Meanwhile, by another caprice




e32               BELISARIUS.
the party of the Blues, becoming ashamled of their
conduct, shrunk one by one away, and left Hypatius
to be sustained by the Greens alone.
These were dismayed at seeing Belisarius, issuing with a few troops which he had collected, from
the smoking ruins of the palace. Drawing his sword,
and commanding his veterans to follow, he fell upon
them like a thunderbolt. Mundus, with another division of soldiers, rushed upon them from the opposite
direction.  The insurgents were panic-struck, and
dispersed in every quarter. Hypatius was dragged
from the throne which he had ascended a few hours
before, and was soon after executed in prison. The
Blues now emerged from their concealment, and,
falling upon their antagonists, glutted their merciless
and ungovernable vengeance.  No less than thirty
thousand persons were slain in this fearful convulsion.
We must now turn our attention to Africa, in which
the next exploits of Belisarius were performed. The
northern portion of this part of the world, known to
us by the merited by-word of Barbary, hardly retains
a trace of the most formidable rival and opulent province of Rome. After the fall of Jugurtha, at the
commencement of the second century, it had enjoyed
a long period of prosperity and peace-having escaped the sufferings which had fallen upon every
other portion of the empire. The Africans in the fifth
century were abounding in wealth, population, and
resources. During the minority of Valentinian, BonIface was appointed governor of Africa. Deceived by
lEtiu3 into a belief of ingratitude on the part of the
government a home, he determined upon resistance;




BELISARIUS.              -~s
and, with this view, concluded a treaty with the Vandals in the southern portion of Spain.
These, embarking from Andalusia, whose name
still denotes their former residence, landed at the
opposite cape of Ceuta, A. D. 429. Their leader was
the far-famed Genseric, one of the most able, but most
lawless and bloody monarchs recorded in history.
Of a middle stature, and lamed by a fall from his
horse, his demeanor was thoughtful and silent; he
was contemptuous of luxury, sudden in anger, and
boundless in ambition.  Yet his impetuosity was
always guided and restrained by cunning. He well
knew how to tempt the allegiance of a foreign nation,
to cast the seeds of future discord, or to-rear them to
maturity.
The barbarians on their passage to Africa consisted
of 50,000 fighting men, with a great crowd of women
and children. Their progress through the African
province was rapid and unopposed, till Boniface, discovering the artifices of AEtius,- and the favorable disposition of the government of Rome, bitterly repented
the effects of his hasty resentment. He now endeavored to withdraw his Vandal allies; but he found it
less easy to allay, than it had been to raise, the storm.
His proposals were haughtily rejected, and both parties had recourse to arms. Boniface was defeated, and
in the event, Genseric obtained entire possession of
the Roman provinces in Africa.
Carthage, which had risen from its ruins at the
command of Julius Caesar and,.been embellished by
Diocletian, had regained a large share of its former
opulence and pride, and rnigI t be considered, at the
c




3X3 BELISARIUS.
time of which we speak, the second city in the west
ern empire. Making this his capital, Genseric proceeded to adopt various measures to increase his
power, and, among others, determined upon the creation of a naval force. With him, project and performance were never far asunder. His ships soon rode
in the Mediterranean, and carried terror and destruction in their train. He annexed to his kingdom the
Baleariic islands, Corsica and Sardinia; the last of
which was afterwards allotted by the Vandals as a
place of exile or imprisonment for captive Moors;
and during many years, the ports of Africa were what
they became in more recent days, the abode of fierce
and unpunished pirates.
With every returning spring, the fleet of Genseric
ravaged the coasts of Italy and Sicily, and even of
Greece and Illyria, sometimes bearing off the inhabitants to slavery, and sometimes levelling their cities
to the ground. Emboldened by long impunity, he
attacked every government alike. On one occasion,
when sailing from Carthage, he was asked by the
pilot of his vessel to what coast he desired to steer"Leave the guidance to God," exclaimed the stern
barbarian; " God will doubtless lead us against the
guilty objects of his anger!  "
The most memorable achievement of Genseric, the
sack of Rome in 455, is an event too much out of the
track of our narrative to be detailed here. We can
only pause to state, that, after spending a fortnight in
that great metropolis,and loading his fleets with its
spoils, he returned to Africa, bearing the Empress
Eudecia thither, as his captive.  She was, at length,




BELISARI t(o.            It1
released, but one of her daughters was compelled by
Genseric to accept his son in marriage.
The repeated outrages of the Vandal king at length
aroused the tardy resentment of the court of Constantinople, and Leo I., then emperor, despatched an army
against him, consisting of nearly one hundred thousand men, attended by the most formidable fleet that
had ever been launched by the Romans. The commander was a weak man, and being cheated into a
truce of five days by Genseric, the latter took advantage of a moment of security, and, in the middle of
the night, caused a number of small vessels, filled with
combustibles, to be introduced among the Roman
ships.  A conflagration speedily ensued; and the
Romans, starting from their slumbers, found themselves encompassed by fire and the Vandals. The
wild shrieks of the perishing multitude mingled with
the crackling of the flames and the roaring of the
winds; and the enemy proved as unrelenting as the
elements. The greater part of the fleet was destroyed, and only a few shattered ships, and a small number of survivors, found their way back to Constantinople.
A peace soon followed this event, which continued
uninterrupted till the time of Justinian.  Genseric
died in 477, leaving his kingdom to his son Hunneric.
About the year 530, Gelimer being upon the Vandal
throne, Justinian began to meditate an expedition
against him. His generals, with the exception of
Belisarius, were averse to the undertaking. The same
feeling was shared by many of the leading men about
the court, and in an assembly, in which the subject




36                  BELISARIUS.
was under discussion, Justinian was about to yield to
the opposition, when a bishop from the east earnestly
begged admission to his presence.
On entering the council chamber he exhorted the
emperor to stand forth as the champion of the church,
and, in order to confirm him in the enterprise, he
declared that the Lord had appeared to him in a
vision, saying, " I will march before him in his battles,
and make him sovereign of Africa." Men seldom
reject a tale, however fantastic, which coincides with
their wishes or their prepossessions,  All the doubts
of Justinian were at once removed; he commanded a
fleet and army to be forthwith equipped for this sacred
enterprise, and endeavored still further to insure its
success by his austerity in fasts and vigils. Belisarius was named supreme commander, still retaining
his title as General of the East.
In the month of June, A. D. 533, the Roman armament, consisting of five hundred transports, with twenty
thousand sailors, and nearly the same number of soldiers, became ready for departure.  The general
embarked, attended on this occasion by Antonina and
his secretary, the historian Procopius, who, at first,
had shared in the popular fear and distaste of the
enterprise, but had afterwards been induced to join it
by a hopeful dream. The galley of Belisarius was
moored near the shore, in front of the imperial palace,
where it received a last visit from Justinian, and a
solemn blessing from the patriarch of the city. A
soldier recently baptized was placed on board, to secure its prosperous voyage; its sails were then unfurled, and, with the other ships in its train, it glided




BELISARIUS..37
down the straits of the Bosphorus, and gradually
disappeared from the lingering gaze of the assembled
multitude.
With a force scarcely one fourth as strong as that
which was annihilated by Genseric, about seventy
years before, Belisarius proceeded upon his expedition.
Having touched at Sicily and Malta, he proceeded to
the coast of Africa, where he landed. in September,
about one hundred and fifty miles from Carthage, and
began his march upon that city. He took several
towns, but enforcing the most rigid discipline upon
his troops, and treating the inhabitants with moderation and courtesy, he entirely gained their confidence
and good will. They brought ample provisions to
his camp, and gave him such a reception as might be
expected rather by a native than a hostile army.
When the intelligence of the landing and progress
of the Romans reached Gelimer, who was then at
Hermione, he was roused to revenge, and took his
measures with promptitude and skill. He had an
army of eighty thousand men, the greater part of
whom were soon assembled, and posted in a defile
about ten miles from Carthage, directly in the route
by which Belisarius was approaching. Several severe skirmishes soon followed, in which the Vandals
were defeated.
The main army now advanced, and a general engagement immediately ensued.  In the outset, the
Vandals prevailed, and the Romans were oil the eve
of flying, defeated, from the field. A pause on the
part of Gelimer was, however, seized upon by Belisarius to collect and rally his forces, and with a united
I. -4




38                 BELISARIUS.
effort he now charged the Vandal army. The conflict was fierce, but brief: Gelimer was totally defeated, and, with a few faithful adherents, he sought safety
in flight. Knowing that the ruinous walls of Carthage could not sustain a siege, he took his way to
the deserts of Numidia.
All idea of resistance was abandoned; the gates
of Carthage were thrown open, and the chains across
the entrance of the port were removed. The Roman
fleet soon after arrived, and was safely anchored in
the harbor. On the 16th September, Belisarius made
a solemn entry into the capital. Having taken every
precaution against violence and rapacity, not a single
instance of tumult or outrage occurred, save that a
captain of one of the vessels plundered some of the
inhabitants, but was, obliged to restore the spoil he
_,ad taken. The soldiers marched peaceably to their
quarters; the inhabitants continued to pursue their
avocations; the shops remained open, and, in spite of
the change of sovereigns, public business was not for
a moment interrupted! Belisarius took up his quarters in the palace of Gelimer, and in the evening held
a sumptuous banquet there, being attended by the
same servants who had so lately been employed by
the Vandal king.
With his usual activity, Belisarius immediately
applied himself to the restoration of the ruinous ramparts of the city.  The ditch was deepened, the
breaches filled, the walls strengthened, and the whole
was completed in so short a space as to strike the
Vandals with amazement. Meanwhile, Gelimer was
collecting a powerful army at Bulla, on the borders




BELISA. S39
of Numidia, at the distance of four days' journey
from Carthage.
Having placed the capital in a proper state for defence, at the end of three months from its capture,
Belisarius led forth his army, leaving only five hundred troops to guard the city. Gelimer was now
within twenty miles of the capital, having raised an
army of one hundred thousand liren. No sooner had
the Romans taken up their march toward his camp,
than they prepared for battle. The armies soon met,
and Belisarius, having determined to direct all his
endeavors against the centre of the Vandal force,
caused a charge to be made by some squadrons of the
horse guards. These were repulsed, and a second
onset, also, proved unsuccessful.
But a third prevailed, after an obstinate resistance.
The ranks of the enemy were broken; Zazo, the
king's brother, was slain, and consternation now completed the rout of the Vandals. Gelimer, under the
influence of panic, betook himself to flight; his absence was perceived, and his conduct imitated. The
soldiers dispersed in all directions, leaving their camp,
their goods, their families, all in the hands of the
Romans. Belisarius seized upon the royal treasure
in behalf of his sovereign, and in spite of his commands, the licentious soldiers spent the night in debauchery, violence and plunder.
Gelimer fled to the mountains of Papua, inhabited
by a savage but friendly tribe of Moors. He sought
refuge in the small town of Medenus, which presented a craggy precipice on all sides   Belisarius returned tb Carthage, and sent out various detachments,




40                 BELISARIUS.
which rapidly subdued the most remote portions of
the Vandal kingdom.
Immediately after the capture of Carthage, he had
despatched one of his principal officers to Justinian,
announcing these prosperous events. The intelligence
arrived about the time that the emperor had completed
his pandects.* The exultation of the monarch is
evinced by the swelling titles he- assumes in the preamble of these laws.  All mention of the general by
whom his conquests had been achieved, is carefully
avoided; while the emperor is spoken of as the
"pious," "happy," "victorious," and " triumphant! "
He even boasts, in his Institutes, of the warlike fatigues
he had borne, though he had never quitted the luxurious palace of Constantinople, except for recreation
In some of his neighboring villas.
While the Roman general was actively employed
at Carthage, Pharus was proceeding in the siege of
Medenus, which had been begun immediately after the
flight of Gelimer. Pent up in this narrow retreat,
the sufferings of the Vandal monarch were great, from
the want of supplies and the savage habits of the
Moors. His lot was likewise embittered by the recol'
lection of the soft and luxurious life to which he had
lately been accustomed.
* These were a digest of the civil law of Rome, made by the
order of Justinian, and have been preserved to our time.
They contained five hundred and thirty-four decisions or judgments of lawyers, to which the emperor gave the force of law.
The compilation consists of fifty books, and has contributed to
save Justinian's name from the contempt and reproach which
had otherwise been heaped upon it.




BELISARIUS.               41
During their dominion in Africa, the Vandals had
declined from their former hardihood, and yielded to
the enervating influence of climate, security and suc.
cess. Their arms were laid aside; gold embroidery
shone upon their silken robes, and every dainty from
the sea and land were combined in their rich repasts.
Reclining in the shade of delicious gardens, their
careless hours were amused by dancers and musicians, and no exertion beyond the chase, interrupted
their volup'uous repose. The Moors of Papua, on
the contrary, dwelt in narrow huts, sultry in summer,
and pervious to the snows of winter.  They most
frequently slept upon the bare ground, and a sheepskin for a couch was a rare refinement. The same
dress, a cloak and a tunic, clothed them at every
season, and they were strangers to the use of both
bread and wine. Their grain was devoured in its
crude state, or at best was coarsely pounded and
baked, with little skill, into an unleavened paste.
Compelled to share this savage mode of life, Gelimer and his attendants began to consider captivity, or
even death, as better than the daily hardships they
endured. To avail himself of this favorable disposition, Pharus, in a friendly letter, proposed a capitulation, and assured Gelimer of generous treatment
from  Belisarius and Justinian.  The spirit of the
Vandal prince, however, was still not wholly broken,
and he refused the offers, while acknowledging the
kindness of his enemy. In his answer he entreated
the gifts of a lyre, a loaf of bread, and a sponge, and
his messenger explained the grounds of this singular
petition. At Medenuis, he had never tasted the food of
4*




42                BELISARUBS.
civilized nations, he wished to sing to music an ode
on his misfortunes written by himself, and a swelling
on his eyes needed a sponge for its cure. The brave
Roman, touched with pity that such wants should be
felt by the grandson and successor of Genseric, forth.
with sent these presents up the mountain, but by no
means abated the watchfulness of his blockade.
The siege had already continued for upwards of
three months, and several Vandals had sunk beneath
its hardships, but Gelimer still displayed the stubborn
inflexibility usual to despotic rulers, when the sight
of a domestic affliction suddenly induced him to yield
In the hovel where he sat gloomily brooding over his
hopeless fortunes, a Moorish woman was preparing, at
the fire, some coarse dough. Two children, her son
and the nephew of Gelimer, were watching her progress with the eager anxiety of famine. The young
Vandal was the first to seize the precious morsel, still
glowing with heat, and blackened with ashes, when
the Moor, by blows and violence, forced it from his
mouth. So fierce a struggle for food, at such an age.
overcame the sternness of Gelimner. He agreed to
surrender on the same terms lately held out to him,
and the promises of Pharus were confirmed by the
Roman general, who sent Cyprian as his envoy to
Papua. The late sovereign of Africa reentered his
capital as a suppliant and a prisoner, and at the sub-'2rb of Aclas, beheld his conqueror for the first time.
With the capitulation of Gelimer, the Vandal was
was at an end. There now remained to Belisarius
but the important task of making the conquered countries permanently useful to the Romans. But, while




BELISARMUS.               43
occupied in this design, his glory having provoked
envy, he was accused to Justinian of the intention of
making himself king over the territories he had conquered.  With the weakness of a little mind, the
emperor so far yielded to the base accusation as to
send a message to Belisarius, indicating his suspicions. The latter immediately departed from Carthage, and, taking with him his spoils and captives,
proceeded to Constantinople.
This ready obedience dissipated the suspicions of
the emperor, and he made ample and prompt reparation for his unfounded jealousy. Medals were struck
by his orders, bearing on one side the effigy of the
emperor, and on the other that of the victorious general, encircled by the inscription, Belisarius, the glory
of the Romans. Beside this, the honors of a triumph
were decreed him, the first ever witnessed in the Eastern capital.
The ceremony was in the highest degree imposing.
The triumphal procession marched from the house
of IBelisarius to the hippodrome,* filled with exulting thousands, where Justinian and Theodora sat
enthroned. Among the Vandal captives, Gelimer was
distinguished by the purple of a sovereign. He shed
no tears, but frequently repeated the words of Solomon, " Vanity of vanities: all is vanity." When he
reached the imperial throne, and was commanded
to cast aside the ensigns of royalty, Belisarius hastelied to do the same, to show him that he was to
undergo no insult as a prisoner, but only to yield the
customary homage of a subject. We may pause for
* A space where the chariot races were exhibited.




44                 BELISARIUS.
a moment to reflect upon the caprices of fortune,
which had raised a comedian, in the person of Theodora, to s.e the successor of Genseric and Scipio
prostrate as slaves before her footstool.
Both the conqueror and captive experienced the
effects of imperial generosity.  The former received
a large share of the spoil as his reward, and was
namned consul for the ensuing year. To the Vandal
mobarch, an extensive estate in Galatia was assigned,
to which he retired, and, in peaceful obscurity, spent
the remainder of his days.
We must now turn our attention to Italy. Theodoric the Great, the natural son of Theodomir, king
of the Ostrogoths, became the master of Italy toward
the close of the fifth century. The Gothic dominion
was thus established in the ancient seat of the Roman empire, and the king of the Goths was seated
upon the throne of the Caesars.
Theodoric has furnished one of the few instances
in which a successful soldier has abandoned warlike
pursuits for the duties of civil administration, and,
instead of seeking power by his arms, has devoted himself to the improvement of his kingdom by a peaceful
policy.  Upright and active in his conduct, he enforced discipline among his soldiers, and so tempered
his general kindness by acts of salutary rigor, that he
was loved as if indulgent, yet obeyed as if severe.
He applied himself to the revival of trade, the support
of manufactures, and the encouragement of agriculture.
At the death of this great monarch, in 526, his
grandson, Athalaric, then only ten years of age, be



.BELISARIUS.               45
came king.  Aftef a nominal reign of eight years he
died in consequence of his dissipations, and was succeeded by Theodatus, the nephew of Theodoric.
This prince having attained the throne by the murder
of Amalasontha, the widow of Theodoric, Justinian
regarded him as an usurper stained with an atrocious
crime, and therefore determined to drive him from
his throne.
Accordingly, a force of twelve thousand men was
despatched to Italy under Belisarius. Landing at
Catania, in Sicily, they surprised the Goths, and had
little difficulty in reducing the island. Fixing his
head quarters at Syracuse, he was making preparations to enter the heart of Italy, when a messenger
came to inform him that a serious insurrection had
broken out at Carthage. He immediately set out for
that place. On his arrival the insurgents fled, but
Belisarius pursued them, overtook them, and, though
their force was four times as great as his own, they
were completely defeated in a pitched battle. Return-.ng to Carthage, the Roman general was informed by
a messenger from Sicily that a formidable- mutiny
had broken out in his army there. He immediately
embarked, and soon restored his troops to order and
discipline.
The rapid conquest of Sicily by Belisarius struck
terror into the heart of king Theodatus, who was weak
by nature, and depressed by age. He was therefore
induced to subscribe an ignominious treaty with Justinian, some of the conditions of which forcibly display the pusillanimity of one emperor, and the vanity
of the other. Theodatus promised that no statue




46                 BELISARIUS
should be raised to his honor, wi.hout another of Justinian at his right hand; and that the imperial name
should always precede his own in the acclamations
of the people, at public games and festivals: as if the
shouts of the rabble were matter for a treaty!
But even this humiliating compact was not sufficient for the grasping avarice of Justinian. He required of Theodatus the surrender of his throne,
which the latter promised; but before the compact
could be carried into effect, he was driven from his
throne, and Vittiges, a soldier of humble birth, but
great energy and experience, was declared his successor. Establishing his head quarters at Ravenna,
the Gothic king was making preparations to sustain
his cause, when Belisarius, who had taken Naples,
was invited to Rome by Pope Sylverius. Taking
advantage of this opportunity, he immediately advanced, and triumphantly entered the " eternal city."
Rome had now been under the dominion of its
Gothic conquerors for sixty years, during which it
had enjoyed the advantages of peace and prosperity.
It had been the object of peculiar care, attention, and
munificence, and had received the respect due to the
ancient mistress of the world. Still, the people at.arge looked upon their rulers as foreigners and barbarians, and desired the return of the imperial sway,
seeming to forget that they were preferring a foreign
to a native government.
Belisarius lost no time in repairing the fortifications
of Rome, while he actively extended his conquests in
the southern parts of Italy. His military fame was
new a host, and most of the towns submitted, either




BELISARIUS.               47
from a preference of the Byzantine governmernt, or
respect for the military prowess ( f the Roman general.
The great achievements of Belisarius strike us with
wonder, when we consider the feeble means wit}
which they were accomplished. His force at the outset of his invasion of Italy did not exceed 12.0QO
nen. These were now much reduced by the bloody
siege of Naples, and by his subsequent successes,
which made it necessary to supply garrisons for the
captured towns.
Vitiges, in his Adriatic capital, had spent the winter in preparations, and when the spring arrived, he
set forth with a powerful army. Knowing the small
force of Belisarius, he hurried forward towards Rome,
fearing only that his enemy should escape by flight.
The genius of Belisarius never shone with greater
lustre than at this moment. By numerous device>
he contrived to harass the Gothic army in their march,
but owing to the flight of a detachment of his troops
whom he had stationed at one of the towers, to delay
their progress, they at last came upon him by surprise.
He was at the moment without the city, attended
by only a thousand of his guards, when suddenly he
found himself surrounded by the van of the Gothic
cavalry. He now displayed not only the skill of a
general, but the personal courage and prowess of a
soldier. Distinguished by the charger whom he had
often rode in battle-a bay with a white face —he
was seen in the foremost ranks, animating his men to
the conflict. " That is Belisarius," exclaimed some
Italian deserters, who knew him. "Aim at the bay!"
was forthwith the cry through the Gothic squadrons




48                 BELISARIUS.
and a cloud of arrows was soon aimed at the conspicuous mark.  It seemed as if the fate of Italy was felt
to be suspended upon a single life —so fierce was the
struggle to kill or capture the Roman leader.
Amid the deadly strife, however, Belisarius remained unhurt; and it is said that more of the army
fell that day by his single arm, than by that of any
other Roman. His guards displayed the utmost courage and devotion to his person, rallying around him,
and raising their bucklers on every side, to ward off
the showers of missiles that flew with deadly aim at
his breast. Not less than a thousand of the enemy
fell in the conflict-a number equal to the whole Roman troop engaged in the battle.  The Goths at
length gave way, and Belisarius, with his guards, reentered the city.
On the morrow, March 12th, A. D. 537, the memorable siege of Rome began. Finding it impossible,
even with their vast army, to encircle the entire walls
of the city, which were twelve miles in length, the
Goths selected five of the fourteen gates, and invested
them.  They now cut through the aqueducts, in
order to stop the supply of water, and several of them,
having never been repaired, remain to this day, extending into the country, and seeming like the " outstretched and broken limbs of an expiring giant."
Though the baths of the city were stopped, the
Tiber supplied the people with water for all needful
purposes. The resources and activity of Belisarius
knew no bounds: yet he had abundant occasion for
all the advantages these could supply. The relative
smallne:s of his force, the feebleness of the defences




BELISARIUS.                 49
the fickleness and final disaffectior of the people, the
intrigues of Vittiges, and his vastly superior army
constituted a web of difficulties which would have
overwhelmed any other than a man whose genius
could extort good from evil, and convert weakness into
strength.
For a whole year, the encircling walls of Rome
were the scenes of almost incessant attack and dafence.  The fertile genius of Vittiges suggested a
thousand expedients, and the number as well as courage of his troops enabled him to plan and execute n
variety of daring schemes. Yet he was always baffled by his vigilant rival, and his most elaborate
devices were rendered fruitless by the superior genius
of the Roman general. At last, on the 21st of March.
A. D. 538, foreseeing that Belisarius'was about to
receive reinforcements, and despairing of success in
the siege, Vittiges withdrew his army, suffering in
his retreat a fearful massacre, from a sally of the
Roman troops.
Vittiges retired to Ravenna, and Belisarius soon
invested it. While he was pressing the siege, Justinian, probably alarmed by the threats of the Persian
king, entered into a treaty with the ambassadors of
Vittiges, by which he agreed to a partition of Italy,
taking one half himself, and allowing the Gothic king
to retain the other portion. Belisarius refused to rat-;fy this treaty, and soon after, was pressed by ihe
Goths to become their king.  Vittiges even joined in
this request, and Belisarius had now the easy opportunity of making himself the emperor of the West,
without the remotest fear of failure.  But he was
D     ii.-5




50                 BELISARIUS.
too deeply impressed with his oath of allegiance, to
allow him to entertain a treacherous design toward
his sovereign, and he rejected the tempting offer.
The merit of his fidelity under these circumstances,
is heightened by the consideration that he had refused
the ratification of the treaty, and was well aware that
reproach, or even hostility, might await him at Constantinople.
Soon after these events, Ravenna capitulated, and
Belisarius became its master. His fame was now at
its height; but this only served to inflame the envy
of his rivals at Constantinople. These, insidiously
working upon the suspicious temper of Justinian, induced him to command the return of Belisarius to
Constantinople. With prompt obedience, he embarked
at Ravrenna, cearrying with him his Gothic captives
and treasure. After five years of warfare, from the
foot of Etna to the banks of the Po, during which he
had subdued nearly the same extent of country which
had been acquired by the Romans in the first five
centuries from the building of that city, he arrived at
Constantinople.
The voice of envy was silenced for a time, ando
Belisarius was appointed to the command of the army
now about to proceed against th& Persians. The captive monarch of the Goths was received with generous
courtesy by the emperor, and an ample estate was
allotted to him in Asia. Justinian gazed with admiration on the strength and beauty of the Gothic captives-their fair complexions, auburn locks, and lofty
stature. A great number of these, attracted by the




BE D'SARIUS.               51
fame and character of Belisarius, enlisted in his
guards.
In the spring of the year 540, Chosroes or Nushirvan, the Persian king, invaded the Roman provinces in the east. The next year Belisarius proceeded
against him, and took his station at Dara. Here,
instead of a well-appointed army, he found only a
confused and discordant mass of undisciplined men.
After various operations, being baffled by the treachery or incapacity of his subalterns, he was obliged to
retreat, and closed a fruitless campaign, by placing
his men in winter quarters.
Being recalled to Constantinople, he went thither,
but took the field early in the spring, with the most
powerful army he had ever commanded. Nushirvan
advanced into Syria, but, thwarted by the masterly
mancEuvres of Belisarius, he was at last obliged to
retreat.  Soon after, the Roman general being again
recalled by Justinian, the most fatal disasters befel
the Roman army.
During these Persian campaigns, the political security, as well as the domestic happiness of Belisarius,
were shaken by the misconduct of his wife. She
had long been engaged in an intrigue with Theodosius, the young soldier newly baptized as an auspicious
omen in the galley of the general, upon his departure
for Africa.  Though told of this, Belisarius had been
pacified by the protestations and artifices of Antonina;
but while he was absent in Asia Minor, she, being
left in Constantinople, pursued her licentious career
with little scruple.
THer son Photius, a gallant young soldier, being a




_52               BELISARIUS.
check upon her conduct, became the object of her
hatred. While at the distance of a thousand miles,
during the Persian campaign, he still experienced the
malignant influence of her intrigues, and urged by a
sense of duty to his step-father, made him acquainted
with his mother's depravity. When she afterwards
joined her husband on the frontier, he caused her to
be imprisoned, and sent Photius towards Ephesus to
inflict summary punishment upon Theodosius. The
latter was taken captive by Photius. and borne to
Cilicia.
Antonina, by her'convenient intrigues in behalf of
Theodora, had laid her under great obligations, and
obtained the greatest influence over her. The empress, therefore, now interfered to save her friend.
Positive injunctions were sent to Cilicia, and both
Photius and Theodosius were brought to Constantinople. The former was cast into a dungeon and tortured at the rack; the latter was received with distinction; but he soon expired from illness. Photius,
after a third escape from prison, proceeded to Jerusalem, where he took the habit of a monk, and finally
attained the rank of abbot.
Belisarius and Antonina were summoned to Constantinople, and the empress commanded the injured
husband to abstain from the punishment of his wife.
He obeyed this order of his sovereign.  She next required a reconciliation at his hands; but he refused to
comply with a demand which no sovereign had a
right to make. He, therefore, remained at Constantinople, under the secret displeasure of Theodora and




BELISARIUS.               63
Justinian, who only wanted some plausible pretext to
accomplish his ruin.
The invasion of Nushirvan, in the ensuing spring
impelled the terrified emperor to lay aside his ani
mosity, and restore the hero to the direction of the
eastern armies; but in this campaign, his former
offenre was aggravated, and the glory of saving the
East vas outweighed by the guilt of frankness. Justinian was recovering from a dangerous illness; a
rumor of his death had reached the Roman camp,
and Belisarius gave an opinion in favor of the emperor's nearest kinsman as his successor, instead of
acknowledging the pretensions of Theodora to the
throne. This declaration inflamed with equal anger
the aspiring wife and the uxorious husband.
Buzes, the second in command, who had concurred
in these views, was confined in a subterranean dungeon, so dark that the difference of day and night was
never apparent to its inmate. Belisarius himself was
recalled, with flattering professions of confidence and
friendship, lest resentment should urge him to rebellion; but on his arrival at Constantinople, the mask
was thrown aside; he was degraded from the rank
of general of the East; a commission was despatched
into Asia to seize his treasures; and his personal
guards, who had followed his standard through so
many battles, were removed from his command.
It was with mingled feelings of compassion and
surprise, hat the people beheld the forlorn appearance
of the general as he entered Constantinople, and rode
along -the streets, with ti small and squalid train.
Proceedirg to the gates of the palace, he was exposed
5*




54                 BELISARIUS.
during the' whole day to the scoffs and insults of the
rabble. He was received by the emperor and Theodora with angry disdain, and when he withdrew, in
the evening, to his lonely palace, he frequently turned
round, expecting to see the appointed assassins advancing upon him.
In the evening, after sunset, a letter was brought
him from Theodora, declaring that his life was gr-anted and a portion of his fortune spared at the intercession of his wife, and she trusted that his future
conduct would manifest his gratitude to his deliverer.
The favorable moments of surprise and gratitude were
improved by Antonina with her usual skill. Thus,
by the artifices of two designing women, the conqueror
of armies was subdued, and Belisarius once more
became the duped and submissive husband.
A fine of three hundred pounds weight of gold was
levied upon the property of Belisarius, and he was suffered for many months to languish in obscurity. In
544, however, he was appointed to the command of the
war in Italy, whither he soon proceeded. Here, in
his operations against far superior forces, he displayed
the same genius as before, and in February, 547, he
again entered Rome. He pursued the war with various fortune; but at last, finding his means entirely
inadequate to the necessities of the contest, he begged
of the emperor either reinforcements or recall. En.
grossed by religious quarrels, Justinian took the easier
course, and adopted the latter. Thus, after having
desolated Italy with all the horrors of war for several
years, he now abandoned it, from mere weakness and
caprice.




BELISARIUS.                 55
Belisarius returned to Constantir ople, and for several years his life affords no remarkable occurrence.
He continued in the tranquil enjoyment of opulence
and dignities; but, in the year 559, various warlike
tribes beyond the Danube, known under the general
name of Bulgarians, marched southward, and desolated several provinces by sword, fire, and plunder.
Zabergan, their enterprising leader, having passed the
frozen Danube in the winter, detached one portion
of his army for the pillage of Greece, and the other
against the capital.
So sudden and bold an aggression filled Constantinople with helpless and despairing terror.  The
people and the senators were agitated with fear, and
the emperor sat trembling in his palace.  In this
general confusion and affright, all eyes were turned
with hope to the conqueror of Africa and Italy.
Though his constitution was broken by his military
labors, his heart was- alive to the call of his country,
and Belisarius prepared to crown his glorious life by
a last and decisive battle.  He resumed his rusty armor, collected a handful of his scattered veterans, and
in the return of martial spirit he seemed to shake off
the weakness of decrepitude.
Sallying from the city with three hundred mounted
men, he met Zabergan at the head of two thousand
cavalry.  Selecting a favorable position, he withstood
the onset, and, seeming to recover the powers of his
youth, he astonished all around him by his intrepidity
and skill. After a severe and bloody struggle, the
Pilgarians were driven back in the utmost disorder;
four hundred e1ll on the fielfl. and Zabergan himself




56                   BELISARIUS.
escaped with difficulty. The whole army of barbarians, amounting to many thousands, were seized with
contagious fear, raised their camp, and retreated to the
north.
Belisarius was preparing for a close pursuit, when
again his enemies awaked the suspicions of Justinian
by suggesting that he was aiming at popular favor
with disloyal views.  The enthusiastic praises of his
heroic conduct, by the people, turned even the emperor's heart to jealousy, and he chose rather to purchase the departure of the barbarians by tribute, than
to permit Belisarius to obtain new laurels by chastising their audacity.
From this period, Belisarius continued under the
displeasure of Justinian, whose suspicious temper
seemed to grow more virulent as his faculties sunk in
the dotage of years.  In 563, several conspiracies
against the life of Justinian were detected, and under
torture, some of the domestics of Belisarius accused
their master of participation.  This testimony, disproved by the long life and the habitually submissive
loyalty of Belisarius, was sufficient for his conviction.
He was stripped of his fortune, deprived of his guards,
and detained as a close prisoner in his palace.
The other conspirators were condemned and executed; but, in consideration of the past services of
Belisarius, the decree of death was changed for that
of blindness, and his eyes were accordingly put out.*
* This portion of the story of Belisarius has been the subject of controversy. It has been doubted by Gibbon and other
historians, whether the infliction of blindness upon Belisarius




BELISARIUS.                  57
He was now restored to liberty, but, deprived of all
means of subsistence, he was compelled to beg his
bread before the gates of the convent of Laurus.
There he stood with a wooden platter which he held
out for charity, exclaiming to the passers-by, " Give a
penny to Belisarius the general! "
The affecting scene was long impressed upon the
recollection of the people; and it would seem that this
spectacle of persecuted merit aroused some dangerous
feelings of indignation and pity, and he was, therefore,
removed from public view. Belisarius was brought
back to his former palace, and a portion of his treasures was allotted for his use.  His death, which was
doubtless hastened by the grief and hardships of his
Lot, occurred in 565; and Antonina, who survived
him, devoted the remains of her life and fortune to
the cloister.
In person, Belisarius was tall and commanding;
his features regular and noble. When he appeared
in the streets of Constantinople, he never failed to
attract the admiration of the people. As a military
leader, he was enterprising, firm, and fearless. His
conception was clear, and his judgment rapid and
decisive. His conquests were achieved with smaller
means than any other of like extent recorded in history. He experienced reverses in the field; but never
and his beggary, were not mere traditionary fables., But Lord
Mahon, in his excellent life of the great Roman general, from
which wfe have drawn the preceding account, appears to have
established their authent'.ity. The beautiful tale c( Belisarius
by Marmon -1, is fictitioas in many of its details.




58                  BELISARIUS.
did he fail without strong and sufficient reason. His
superior tactics covered his defeats, retrieved his losses,
and prevented his enemies from reaping the fruits of
victory. Never, even in the most desperate emergencies, was he known to lose his courage or presence
of mind.
Though living in a barbarous and dissolute age,
Belisarius possessed many shining virtues. In the
march of his armies, he would avoid the trampling
of the corn-fields, nor would he allow his soldiers
even to gather apples from the trees without making
payment to the villagers.  After a victory, it was his
first care to extend mercy and protection to the vanquished.  The gift of a golden bracelet or collar
rewarded any valorous achievement among his troops;
the loss of a horse or weapon was immediately supplied from his private funds; the wounded ever found
in him a father and a friend. To all, he was open
and easy of access, and by his courteous demeanor
often comforted, where he could not relieve. From
his generosity, one would have deemed him rich;
from his manners, poor. His private virtues promoted
and confirmed the discipline of his soldiers. None
ever saw him flushed with wine, nor could the charms
of his fairest captives overcome his conjugal fidelity.
But the most remarkable feature in the character
of Belisarius is his steadfast loyalty, and the noble
magnanimity with which he overlooked the suspicious
meanness and ingratitude of his sovereign.  It is
Impossible to find in history another instance of an
individual so strongly induced to rebellion by treacherous treatment or the part of his country, and the




BELISARIUS.               59
opportunity of placing a crown upon his head without the risk of effectual opposition, who refused, from
patriotic motives, the double temptation.
That Belisarius had faults, is not to be denied. His
blind submission to his wife displayed great weakness,
and led him into most of the errors which are charged
upon his public career. In his last campaign in Italy,
his wealth having been exhausted by an enormous
fine, he endeavored to repair his losses by imitating
the rapacity universally practised by other commanders of that period. He thus inflicted upon his memory
a serious stain, and showed that, however he was
exalted above the age, he was still a man. His whole
career affords a striking moral, coinciding with the
emphatic language of Scripture, " Put not thy trust
in princes."




ATTILA, KING OF THE HUNS
THIS renowned barbarian was the son of Mandras,
and of a royal line. He served in the army of his uncle, Roas, who was king of the Huns. At his death,
in 433, he succeeded him, sharing the throne with
his brother Bleda. The Huns at this period were
very numerous and warlike. They extended over the
southern part of Russia, and a considerable portion
of the present empire of Austria. Attila's kingdom
lay between the Carpathian mountains and the Danube, and was called Pannonia.
At this period, the Roman empire had been for
more than a century. divided into the Eastern and
Western empire. Theodosius II. was now emperor
of the former, and Constantinople its tapital, while




ATTILA.                     61
Valentinian III. was emperor of the latter, and Rome,
or Ravenna, the seat of his government.
Both branches of the Roman empire were now
sunk in the lap of luxury. They were spread over
with splendid cities, and enriched with all the refinements of art, and all the spoils gathered from every
quarter of the world. These offered a tempting inducement to the fierce and hungry barbarians of the
north.  Alaric* had shown the way to Rome a few
years before, and taught the weakness of the queen of
the world. Constantinople was not likely to be an
inferior or more inaccessible prize. Attila's dominions bordered upon those of the two empires, and the
distance to either capital was not more than five or
six hundred miles.
Among the first achievements of the two brothers,
they threatened the Eastern empire with their armies,
and twice compelled the weak Theodosius to pur* Alaric was one of the most eminent of those northern
chiefs who successively overran Italy, during the decline of the
Western empire, and the first who gained possession of impe.
rial Rome. He learned the art of war under the celebrated
emperor of the East, Theodosius, who curbed the depredations
of the Goths. At his death, Alaric became their leader, and
overran Greece, A. D. 396. In the year 403, he entered Italy
iwith a powerful army, but was defeated, and retired to his
own country. In 410, he again entered Italy, besieged and took
Rome, which he entered at midnight, and gave it up to plunder
and pillage for six days. He now led his troops into the southerl provinces of Italy, but died suddenly while he was besieging
Cozenza. He was buried in the channel of the river Bucentc,
in Naples, that his remains might not be found by the Roman<.
To perform the burial, the water of the river was turned out
of its course.
II.  6




62                  ATTILA.
chase peace on humiliating terms. They then ex
tended their dominions both east and west, until they
reigned over the whole country from the Baltic to
the Caspian Sea.
Attila was regarded by the Huns as their bravest
warrior, and most skilful general.  He performed
such feats of valor, and success so uniformly attended
nis career, that the ignorant and superstitious people
were inclined to think him more than mortal. He
took advantage of this feeling, and pretended that he
had found the sword of their tutelar god, and that
with this he intended to conquer the whole earth.
Being unwilling to hold a divided sceptre, he caused
his brother Bleda to be murdered, and when he gave
out that it was done by the command of God, the
event was celebrated with the greatest demonstrations
of joy.
Being now sole master of a warlike people, his
ambition made him the terror of all the surrounding
nations. It was a saying of his own, that no grass
grew where his horse had set his foot, and the title
of the "Scourge of God" was assigned to him, as
characterizing his career. He extended his dominions over the whole of Germany and Scythia. The
Vandals, the Ostrogoths, and a part of the Franks,
acknowledged his sway, and both the Eastern and
Western empires paid him tribute. Historians tell
us that his army amounted to 700,000 men.
Having heard of the riches of Persia, he directed
his march against it. Being defeated on the plains
of Armenia, he turned back, to satisfy his desire of
plunder in the dominions of the emperor of the East.




ATTILA                  63
Regardless of existing treaties, he laid waste the
whole country from the Black Sea to the Adriatic.
In three bloody engagements, he defeated the troops
sent against him by Theodosius. Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, were overrun by the savage robber,
and seventy flourishing cities were utterly destroyed.
Theodosius was now at the mercy of the victor
and was obliged to sue for peace. One of the servants of Attila, named Edekon, was tempted by an
agent of the emperor to undertake the assassination
of his master, on his return to Pannonia; but, at the
moment he was about to accomplish his object, his
courage failed him, he fell on his knees before Attila,
confessed his criminal design, and disclosed the plot.
Constantinople trembled at the idea of Attila's revenge; but he was contented with upbraiding Theodosius, and the execution of Crisapheus, who had
drawn his servant into the scheme.
Priscus, a Roman historian, who was an ambassa
aor to Attila in the year 448, gives an interesting
account of the king and his people. He found the
palace in the midst of a large village. The royal
edifice was entirely of wood: the houses of the Huns
were also of wood, sometimes mixed with mortal
made of earth. The only stone building was a set
of baths.  The wooden pillars of the palace were
carved and polished, and the ambassador could discover some evidence of taste in the workmanship, as
well as barbarous magnificence in the display of rich
spoils taken from more civilized nations.
They were soon invited to a sumptuous entertainment, in which the guests were all served upon uten



6 4                 ATTILA.
sils of silver and gold; but a dish of plain meat was
set before the king on a wooden trencher, of which
he partook' very sparingly. His beverage was equally
simple and frugal. The rest of the company were
excited into loud and frequent laughter by the fantastic extravagances of two buffoons; but Attila preserved his usually inflexible gravity. A secret agent
in the embassy was charged with the disgracefill
task of procuring the assassination of this formidable
enemy. Attila was acquainted with this, which was
the real object of the mission, but he dismissed the
culprit, as well as his innocent companions, uninjured.
The emperor Theodosius was compelled, however,
to atone for his base attempt, by a second embassy,
loaded with magnificent presents, which the king of
the Huns was prevailed upon to accept. Theodosius
died not long after, and was succeeded by the more
virtuous and able Marcian.
Attila was at this time collecting an enormous
ariny, and threatened both divisions of the Roman
world at once. To each emperor he sent the haughty
message, "Attila, my lord and thy lord, commands
thee immediately to prepare a palace for his reception! " To this insult, he added a demand upon the
emperor for the remainder of the tribute due from
Theodosius. Marcian's reply was in the same laconic
style: " I have gold for my friends, and steel for my
enemies!"
Attila determined to make war first on Valenrtinian.
Honoria, the emperor's sister, who had been guilty
of some youthful error, and was consequently confined
in a convent had sent Attila a7 ring, offering to become his wife.  It was to claim her and half.he




ATTILA                  65
empire as hex dower, that Attila professed to be making these formidable preparations. At last, he appeared to accept the excuse of Theodosius for not
allowing his sister to become his wife, and speedily
marched with a prodigious force to the westward.
He set lit in midwinter, and did not pause till he
reached the Rhine. Having defeated the Franks, he
cut down whole forests to make rafts for his army to
cross the river, and now, throwing off the mask, entered Gaul, a dependency of Rome.
The horrors of his march it is scarcely possible to
describe. Everything was destroyed that came in
his way. Before him were terror and despair; behind.
a broad track marked with desolation, ruin and death.
He proceeded in his victorious career, till he reached
the ancient town of Orleans.  Here an obstinate
defence was offered. The combined armies of Rome,
under the celebrated E.tius, and the Goths under Theodoric, attacked him here, and compelled him to raise
the siege. He retreated to Champaign, and waited
for them in the plain of Chalons. The two armies
soon approached each other.
Anxious to know the event of the coming battle,
Attila consulted the sorcerers, who foretold his defeat.
Though greatly alarmed, he concealed his feelings,
and rode among his warriors, animating them for the
impending struggle. Inflamed by his ardor, the Huns
were eager for the contest.  Both armies fought
bravely. At length the ranks of the Romans and
Gauls were broken, and Attila felt assured of victory,
when, suddenly, Thorismond, son of Theodoric, swept
down like an avalanche from the neighboring heights
E        6*




66                  ATTILA.
upon the Hurs. He threw them into disorder, spread
death through their ranks, and Attila, pressed on all
sides, escaped to his camp with the utmost difficulty.
This was the bloodiest battle ever fought in Europe,
for 106,000 men lay dead on the field. Theodoric
was slain, and Attila, who had gathered his treasures
into a heap, in order to burn himself with them in
case he was reduced to extremities, was left unexpectedly to make his retreat.
Having returned to Hungary and reinforced his
army, he proceeded to repeat his demand for the hand
of Honoria. He mastered the unguarded passes of
the Alps, and, in 452, carried devastation into the
north of Italy. At last he approached the city of
Rome, when a supplicatory embassy met him, Pore
Leo I. being at its head. The eloquence of the pon.
tiff, united to prudential considerations, prevailed, and
the city was saved; Attila returning to his home
beyond the Danube. The Romans looked upon this
preservation as a miracle, and they have preserved a
legend that St. Peter and St. Paul appeared to the'
barbarian, and threatened him with instant death, if
he did not accept the proffered terms.
Attila now soothed himself by adding the beautiful
Ildico to his numerous wives, whom he wedded with
all due ceremony. On this occasion he gave himself
up to licentiousness, but in the morning after his marriage, he was found dead in his tent, and covered with
blood, Ildico sitting veiled by his side. The story
went abroad that he had burst a blood-vessel, and died
in zonsequence, but a common suspicion is entertained that he was stabbed by his bride.




ATTILA.                 67
The news of Attila's death spread terror and sorrow among his army. His body was enclosed in
three coffins,-the first of gold, the second of silver,
and the third of. iron. The captives who dug hi.
grave were strangled, so that the place of his burial
might not be known.
In person, Attila was marked with the Tartar
characteristics, from which he, as well as the people
of -his kingdom, were descended. He was low in
stature, broad-chested, and of a powerful frame. He
was dark complexioned, with a few straggling hairs
for beard, a flat nose, large head, and small eyes. No
one could look upon him, and not feel that he had
come into the world to disturb it. The number of
persons slain in his battles amounted to hundreds of
thousands, yet to so little purpose, that his empire
was immediately dismembered upon his death.




NERO.
CLAUDiUS CASAR NERO was son of Caius Domitius
Enrnobarbus and Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus and wife of the Emperor Claudius, after the
death of her first husband; He was adopted by the
Emperor Claudius, A. D. 50, and when he was murdered by his wife, four years after, Nero succeeded
him on the throne. He possessed excellent talents,
and was carefully educated by Seneca and Burrhus.
The beginning of his reign was marked by acts- of the




NERO.                   69
greatest kindness and condescension, by- affability,
complaisance and popularity.  The object of his administration seemed to be the good of his people;
and when he was desired to sign his name for the
execution of a malefactor, he exclaimed- "I wish to
heaven I could not write!" He appeared to be an
enemy to flattery, and when the senate had liberally
commended the wisdom of his government, Nero
desired them to keep their praises till he deserved
them.
But these promising virtues were soon discovered
to be artificial, and Nero displayed the real propensities of his nature. He delivered himself from the
sway of his mother, and at last ordered her to be
assassinated. This unnatural act of barbarity shocked some of the Romans; but Nero had his devoted
adherents; and when he declared that he had taken
away his mother's life to save himself from ruin, the
senate applauded his measures, and the people signified their approbation. Even Burrhus and Seneca,
Nero's advisers, either counselled or justified his conduct.  Many of his courtiers shared the unhappy
fate of Agrippina, and Nero sacrificed to his fury or
caprice all such as obstructed his pleasures, or stood
in the way of his inclinations.
In the night he generally sallied out from  his
palace, to visit the meanest taverns and the scenes of
debauchery in which Rome abounded. In his nocturnal riots he was fond of insulting the people in
the streets, and on one occasion, an attempt to offer
violence to the wife of a Roman senator nearly cost
him His life.- IIe also turned actor, and publicly ap



79                  NERO.
peared on the Roman stage, in the meanest characters.
He had an absurd passion to excel in music, and to
conquer the disadvantages of a hoarse, rough voice,
he moderated his meals, and often passed the day
without eating.
The celebrity of the Olympic games having attracted his notice, he passed into Greece, and presented
himself as a candidate for the public honors. He
was defeated in wrestling, but the flattery of the
spectators adjudged him the victory, and Nero returned to Rome with all the pomp and splendor of an
eastern conqueror, drawn in the chariot of Augustus,
and attended by a band of musicians, actors, and stage
dancers from every part of the empire.
These private and public amusements of the emperor were comparatively innocent; his character was
injured, but not the lives of the people. His conduct, however, soon became more censurable; he was
guilty of various acts which cannot be even named
with decency. The cruelty of his nature was displayed in the sacrifice of his wives Octavia and Poppea; and the celebrated wI'ters, Seneca, Lucan, Petronius, &c., became the victims of his wantonness.
The Christians did not escape his barbarity. He had
heard of the burning of Troy, and as he wished to
renew that dismal scene, he caused Rome to be set on
fire in different places. The conflagration became
soon universal, and during nine successive days the
fire was unextinguished. All was desolation; nothing
was heard but the lamentations of mothers whose
children had perished in the flames, the groans of
the dying, and the continual fall of palaces and buildings.




NERO.                  7|
Nero was the only one who enjoyed the general
consternation. He placed himself on a high tower
and he sang on his lyre the destruction of Troy; a
dreadful scene which his barbarity had realized before
his eyes. He attempted- to avert the public odium
from his head, by a feigned commiseration of the suf,
ferings of his subjects, and by charging the fire upon
the Christians. He caused great numbers of them
to be seized and put to death. Some were covered
with the skins of wild beasts, and killed by dogs set
upon them; _others were crucified; others were
smeared with pitch and burned, at night, in the im'r
perial gardens, for the amusement of the people!
Nero began to repair the streets and the public
buildings at his own expense. He built himself a
celebrated palace, which he called his golden house,
It was profusely adorned with gold ahd precious
stones, and with whatever was rare and exquisite;
It contained spacious fields, artificial lakes, woods, gart
dens, orchards, and every device that could exhibit
beauty and grandeur. The entrance to this edifice
would admit a colossal image of the emperor, one hundred and twenty feet high; the galleries were each a
mile long, and the whole was covered with gold. The
roofs of the dining halls represented the firmament, in
motion as well as in figure, and continually turned
round, night and day, showering all sorts of perfumes
and sweet waters. When this grand edifice, which,
according to Pliny, extended all round the city, was
finished, Nero said that he could now lodge like a
man!
His profusion was not less remarkable in all his




72                   NERO.
other actions. When he went fishing, his nets were
made with gold and silk. He never appeared twice
in the same garment, and when he undertook a voyage, there were thousands of servants to take care of
his wardrobe. His continued debauchery, cruelty, and
extravagance at last roused the resentment of the people.. Many conspiracies were formed against him,
but they were generally discovered, and such as were
accessory, suffered the greatest punishments. One
of the most dangerous plots against Nero's life was
that of Piso, from which he was delivered by the
confession of a slave.  The conspiracy of Galba
proved more successful; for the conspirator, when
he was informed that his design was known to Nero,
declared himself emperor. The unpopularity of Nero
favored his cause; he was acknowledged by the whole
Roman empire, and the senate condemned the tyrant,
that sat on the throne, to be dragged, naked, through
the streets of Rome, whipped to death, and afterwards
to be thrown from the Tarpeian rock, like the meanest
malefactor. This, however, was not done, for Nero,
by a voluntary death, prevented the execution of the
sentence. He killed himself, A. D. 68, in the thirtysecond year of his age, after a reign of thirteen years
and eight months.
Rome was filled with acclamations at the intelligence of this event, and the citizens, more strongly to
indicate their joy, wore caps such as were generally
used by slaves who had received their freedom. Their
vengeance was not only exercised against the statues
of the deceased tyrant, but his friends were the objects
of the public resentment, and many were crushed to




NERO.                  73
pieces in such a violent manner, that one of the senators, amid the universal joy, said that he was afraid
they should soon have cause to wish for Nero. The
tyrant, as he expired, begged that his head might not
be cut off from his body and exposed to the insolence
of an enraged populace, but that the whole might bc
burned on a funeral pile. His request was granted,
and his obsequies were performed with the usual
ceremonies.
Though his death seemed to be the source of universal gladness, yet many of his favorites lamented
his fall, and were grieved to see that their pleasures
and amusements were terminated by the death of the
patron of debauchery and extravagance. Even the
king of Parthia sent ambassadors to Rome to condole
with the Romans, and to beg that they would honor
and revere the memory of Nero. His statues were
also crowned with garlands of flowers, and many
believed that he was not dead, but that he would soon
make his appearance and take a due vengeance upon
his enemies. It will be sufficient to observe, in finishing the character of this tyrannical emperor and
detestable man, that the name of Nero is, even now,
the common designation of a barbarous and unfeeling
oppressor.
-




LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA.
THIS individual, whose "Morals" are so familiar to
us, was born at Corduba, in Spain, six years before
Christ. His father was a rhetorician of some celebrity, and a portion of his works has come down to
our time. While Lucius was yet a child, he removed
from Corduba to Rome, which henceforward became
his residence. The son, possessing very promising
talents, received the greatest care and attention in
respect to his education. He was taught eloquence
by his father, and took lessons in philosophy from the
most celebrated masters. According to the custom
of those who sought to excel in wisdom and knowledge, he travelled in Greece and Egypt, after- completing his studies, and his work entitled Qucestiones
Naturales showed that he made good use of his op.
portunities during this excursion; it also proves that
he was master of the science of his time.
Young Seneca was fascinated with the philosophi.
cal speculations of the Stoics,* to which sect he became
* The Stoics were the followers of Zeno, a Greek philosopher
of Citium. They professed to prefer virtue to everything
9lse, and to regard vice as the greatest of evils. They required




SENECA                     75
devotoe. He even adopted the Lustere modes of life
they inculcated, and refused to eat the flesh of animals; but when the emperor, Tiberius,* threatened
to punish some Jews and Egyptians for abstaining
from certain meats, at the suggestion of his father, he
departed from this singularity. In compliance with
his father's advice, who urged upon him the necessity
of devoting himself to some kind of business, he
adopted the profession of an advocate.
As a pleader, Seneca appeared to great advantage,
and consequently excited the envy of Caligula, who
aspired to the reputation of an orator. Apprehensive
an absolute command over the passions, and maintained the
ability of man to attain perfection and felicity in this life. They
encouraged suicide, and held that the doctrine of rewards and
punishments was unnecessary to enforce virtue upon mankind.
* Tiberius succeeded Augustus Caesar, as emperor; at his
succession he gave promise of a happy reign, but he soon disgraced himself by debauchery, cruelty, and the most flagitious
excesses. It was wittily said of him by Seneca that he was
never intoxicated but once, for when he became drunk, his
whole life was a continued state of inebriety. He died A. D.
37, after a reign of twenty-two years, and was succeeded by
Caligula.
Fcr a brief period, Rome now enjoyed prosperity and peace;
but the young emperor soon became proud, cruel and corrupt.
He caused a temple to be erected to himself, and had his own
image set in the place of Jupiter and the other deities. He
often amused himself by putting innocent people to death; he
attempted to famish Rome, and even wished that the Romans
had one head, that he might strike it off at a blow! At last,
weary of his cruelties, several persons formed a conspiracy
and murdered him, A. D. 41. History does not furnish another
instance of so great a monster as Caligula.




76                   SENECA.
Of the consequences, he changed his views, and became a candidate for the honors and offices of the
state. He was made praetor, under Claudius, but)
being charged with a shameful intrigue with a lady
of rank, he was banished to Corsica. Though his
guilt was not satisfactorily proved, he continued for
five years in exile; during which period he wrote a
treatise on Consolation. In this, he seems to draw
contentment and peace from philosophical views, and
one would fancy that he was elevated by these, above
the evils of his condition. Yet, unhappily for his
reputation in respect to consistency and sincerity, history tells us that, at this period, he was suing to the
emperor in the most abject terms for restitution.
Claudius * at length married Agrippina, and Sen
eca, being recalled, was made preceptor of Nero, the
son of Agrippina, who was destined to become emperor. From the favorable traits of character displayed by the pupil of the philosopher in the early
part of his career, it might seem that Seneca's instructions had exerted a good influence over him.
But an impartial scrutiny of the events of that period
has led to the probable conclusion that he was a pander to the worst of Nero's vices. It is certain that
he acquired immense wealth in a short period of time,
and it appears that this was obtained through the
munificence of his royal patron.  The latter was
avaricious and mercenary, and was likely to part with
his money only for such things as ministered to his
voluptuous passions.
* Claudius succeeded Caliula in 41, and, after a reign of
thirteen vears, he was poisoned by his wife, Agrippina.




SENECA.                 77
The possessions of Seneca were enormous. He
had several gardens and villas in the country, and a
magnificent palace in Rome. This was sumptuously
furnished, and contained five hundred'tables of cedar,
with feet of ivory, and all of exquisite workmanship.
His ready cash amounted to about twelve millions of
dollars. It appears certain that such riches could not
have been acquired by means of Seneca's precepts;
and the' inference of many of his contemporaries, as
well as of posterity, has been, that the virtue which
appears so lovely in his pages was but the decorous
veil of avarice, vice, and crime.
For a period after his accession to the throne,
Nero's conduct was deserving of praise; but he soon
threw off all regard even to decency, and launched
forth upon that career which has made his name a
by-word and reproach for all after time. Seneca,
being accused of having amassed immense wealth by
improper means, became greatly alarmed; for he
knew-the tyrant so well as to foresee that, under color
of this charge, he was very likely to sacrifice him, in
order to obtain his property. Pretending, therefore,
to be indifferent to riches, he begged the emperor to
accept of his entire fortune, and permit him to spend
the remainder of his days in the quiet pursuits of philosophy. The emperor, with deep dissimulation, refused this offer-no doubt intending in some other
way to compass the ruin of Seneca.
Aware of his danger, the philosopher now kept
himself at home for a long period, as if laboring under
disease. Some time after, a conspiracy for the murder of Nero, headed by Piso, was detected. Several
7*




78                  SENECA.
of the most noble of the Roman senators were concerned, and Seneca's name was mentioned as an
accessory. Nero, doubtless glad of an opportunity to
sacrifice him, now sent a command that he should
destroy himself.
It has been a question whether Seneca was really
concerned in the conspiracy of Piso.  The proof
brought against him was not indeed conclusive, but
it is obvious that his position might lead him to desire
the death of the tyrant, as the only means of safety.
to himself; and Seneca's character, unfortunately, is
not such as to shield his memory against strong suspicion of participation in the alleged crime.
Seneca was at table, with his wife, Paulina, and
two of his friends, when the messenger of Nero arrived. He heard the words which commanded him
to take his own life, with philosophic firmness, and
even with apparent joy. He observed that such a
mandate might long have been expected from a man
who had murdered his own mother and assassinated
his best friends. He wished to dispose of his possessions as he pleased, but his request was refused.
When he heard this, he turned to those around who
were weeping at his fate, and told them, that, since he
could not leave them what he believed his own, he
would leave them at least his own life for an example
-an innocent conduct, which they might imitate, and
by which they might acquire immortal fame.
Against their tears and wailings, he exclaimed with
firmness, and asked them whether they had not
learned better to withstand the attacks of fortune and
the violence of tyranny. As for his wife, he attempted




SENECA.                 79
to calm her emotions, and when she seemed resolved
tq die with him, he said he was glad to have his
example followed with so much constancy. Their
veins were opened at the same moment; but Nero,
who was partial to Paulina, ordered the blood to be
stopped, and her life was thus preserved.
Seneca's veins bled but slowly, and the conversation of his dying moments was collected by his friends,
and preserved among his works.  To hasten his
death, he drank a dose of poison, but it had no effect,
and therefore he ordered himself to be carried to a
hot bath, to accelerate the operation of the draught,
and to make the blood flow more freely. This was
attended with no better success, and, as the soldiers
were clamorous, he was carried into a stove, and suffocated by the steam. Thus he died, in the 66th year
of the Christian era.
The death of Seneca has been loudly applauded, and
has sometimes been pronounced sublime; but this is
owing to an ignorance of the time, and inattention to
Seneca's own doctrines. With the Stoics, death was
nothing; "It is not an evil, but the absence of all
evil." This was their creed. With such principles,
there could be no fear of death, and consequently, we
find that courage to die-if it be courage to encounter
that which is not an evil-was common in Seneca's
time. "At that period of languor and luxury," says
M. Nisard, "of monstrous effeminacies, of appetites
for which the world could hardly suffice-of perfumed
baths, of easy and disorderly intrigues, there were
daily men of all ranks, of all fortunes, of all ages,




80                   SENECA.
who released themselves from their evils by death.
How was it possible for them to avoid suicide, with
no other consolation than the philosophy of Seneca,
and his theories on the delights of poverty?
"Marcellinus* is attacked with a painful but curable malady. He is young, rich, has slaves, friends,
everything to make life pleasant: no matter, he conceives the fancy of the pleasure of dying. He assembles his friends; he consults them as if he were going
to marry. He discusses with them } is project of suicide, and puts it to the vote. Some advise him to do
as he pleases; but a Stoic, a friend of Seneca's, then
present, exhorts him bravely to die. His principal
reason is that he is ennuy-. No one contradicts the
Stoic. Marcellinus thanks his friends, and distributes
money to his slaves. He abstains for three days
from all food, and is then carried into a warm bath,
where he quickly expires, having muttered some
words on the pleasure he felt in dying.
"This pleasure was so little of an affectation, so
much had it become the fashion, that some of the
austere Stoics thought themselves bound to place certain restrictions upon it. They committed suicide
from ennui, from idleness, from want of patience to
cure themselves of their ills, —for distraction-much
in the same way that they killed each other in duels,
under Cardinal Richelieu."
Viewed in this light, Seneca's death had nothing
in it of the sublime: he yielded but to a fashion; he
only practised what was common. If he sincerely
* Seneca, Es. lxxvii.




SENECA.                  81
believed his professed creed-that deatl. is the absence
of all evil —he neither evinced courage nor dignity;
if he did not believe, then his conduct displayed but
the skilful acting of a part, and under circunmstatces
which mark him with the deepest hypocrisy.
It is impossible to deny that Seneca's worlis are
filll of wisdom, though they fall far short of the Christian's philosophy. In his treatise upon benefits, for
example, we have the following passage: —
" The good will of the benefactor is the fountain
of all benefits; nay, it is the benefit itself, or, at least,
the stamp that makes it valuable and current. Some
there are, I know, that take the matter for the benefit,
and tax the obligation by weight and measure. When
anything is given them, they presently cast it up-' What may such a house be worth? such an office?
such an estate?' as if that were the benefit which is
only the sign and mark of it, for the obligation rests
in the mind, not in the matter; and all those advantages which we see, handle, or hold in actual possession, by the courtesy of another, are but several modes
or ways of explaining and putting the good will in
execution. There needs no surbtlety to prove that
both benefits and injuries receive their value from the
intention, when even brutes themselves are able to
decide this question. Tread upon a dog by chance,
or put him in pain upon the dressing of a wound;
the one he passes by as an accident, and the other,
in his fashion, he acknowledges as a kindness. But
offer to strike at him-though you do him no hurt at
all-he flies;n the face of you. e,'en for the mischief
that you oarely meant him."
F




82                    SENECA.
This is all just and true: it makes the heart the
seat of moral action, and thus far coincides with the
Christian's philosophy. But if there be nothing after
death, what sanction has virtue?  It may be more
beautiful than vice, and consequently preferable, just
as a sweet perfume is more desirable than an offensive odor.  It is good taste, therefore, to be virtuous. Still, each individual may choose for himself,
and without future responsibility, for all alike must
share the oblivion of the tomb.  The insufficiency of
this philosophy to ensure virtue, is attested by the life
of Seneca, as well as that of most of his sect. It resulted in the grossest hypocrisy; an ostentation of
virtue, covering up the practice of vice.




VIRGIL.
MANTUA, the capital of New Etruria itself built
three centuries before Rome, had the honcr of giving
birth to Publius Virgilius Maro. This event happened on or near the fifteenth of October, seventy
years B. C., or during the first consulship of Pompey
the Great and Licinius Crassus.  Who his father
was, and even towhat country he belonged, has been
the subject of much dispute. Some assert that he
was a potter of Andes; but the most probable account
is, that he was either a wandering astrologer, who
practised physic, or a servant to one of this learned
fraternity. It is observed by Juvenal, that medicus,
magus usually went together, and that this course of
life was principally followed by the Greeks and Syrians; to one of these nations, therefore, it is presumed, Vilgil owes his birth. His mother, Maia, was of
good extraction, being nearly related to Quintilius
Varus, of whom honorable mention is made in the
history of the second Carthaginian war.
It appears that all due attention was paid to young
Virgil's education. He passed through his initiatory
exercises at Mantua; thence he removed to Cremona,




84                   VIRGIL.
and afterwards to Milan. In all these places he prosecuted his studies with the most diligent application,
associating with the eminent professors of every
department of science, and devoting whole nights to
the best Latin and Greek authors. In the latter he
was greatly assisted by his proximity to Marseilles,
the only Greek colony that maintained its refinement
and purity of language, amidst the overwhelming influence of all the barbarous nations that surrounded
it. At first, he devoted himself to the Epicurean
philosophy, but receiving no satisfactory reason for
its tenets from his master, the celebrated Syro, he
passed over to the academic school, where physics
and mathematics became his favorite sciences; and
these he continued to cultivate, at leisure moments,
during his whole life.
At Milan, he composed a great number of verses
on various subjects, and, in the warmth of early youth,
framed a noble design of writing an heroic poem, on
the Wars of Rome; but, after some attempts, he was
discouraged from.proceeding, by the abruptness and
asperity of the old Roman names.
It is said that he here fornned the plan ar d collected the materials for his principal poems. Some
of these he had even begun; but a too intense application to his studies, together with abstinence and
night-watching, had so impaired his health, that an
immediate removal to a more southern part of Italy
was deemed absolutely necessary for the preservation
of his existence. He fixed upon Naples, and visiting
Rome in his way, had the honor, through the interest
of his kinsman and fellow-student, Varus, of being




VIRGIL.                  85
introduced to the emperor, Octavius, who received
him with the greatest marks of esteem, and earnestly
recommended his affairs to the protection of Pollio,
then lieutenant of Cisalpine Gaul, where Virgil s patrimony lay, and who generously undertook to settle
his domestic concerns. Having this assurance, he
pursued his journey to Naples. The charming situation of this place, the salubrity of the air, and the constant society of the greatest and most learned men of
the time, who resorted to it, not only re-established his
health, but contributed to the formation of that style
and happy turn of verse in which he surpassed all his
cotemporaries.
To rank among the poets of their country, was, at
this time, the ambition of the greatest heroes, statesmen, and orators of Rome. Cicero, Octavius, Pollio,
Julius Caesar, and even the stoical Brutus, had been
carried away by the impetuosity of the stream; balt
that genius which had never deserted them in the
forum, or on the day of battle, shrunk dismayed at a
comparison with the lofty muse of Virgil; and, although they endeavored, by placing their poems in
the celebrated libraries, to hand them down to posterity, scarcely a single verse of these illustrious authors
survived the age in which they lived. This preponderence of fashion, however, was favorable to Virgil;
he had for some time devoted himself to the study
of the law, and even pleaded one cause with indifferent success; but yielding now to the impulse of the
age and his own genius, he abandoned the profession
and resumed with increased ardor the cultivation of
II -8




that talent for which he afterwards became so distian
guished.
Captivated at an early age by the pastorals of Theocritus, Virgil. was ambitious of being the primitive
introducer of thsat species of poetry among the Romans. His first performance in this way, entitled
Alexis, is supposed to have appeared when the poet
was in his twenty-fifth year. Palremon, which is a
close imitation of the fourth and fifth Idyls of Theocritus, wa- probably his second; but as this period of
the life of Virgil is enveloped in a considerable degree
of obscurity,-few writers on the subject having
condescended to notice such particulars as chronological arrangement,-little more than surnase can be
offered to satisfy the researches of the curious. The
fifth eclogue was composed in allusion to the death
and deification of Caesar, and is supposed to have
been written subsequently to Silenus, his sixth
eclogue. This is said, to have been publicly recited
on the stage, by the comedian Cytheris, and to have
procured its author that celebrity and applause to which
the peculiar beauty and sweetness of the poem so
justly entitled him.
The fatal battle of Philippi, in which Augustus and
Antony were victorious, at once annihilated every
shadow of liberty in the commonwealth.  Those
veteran legions, who had conquered the world, fought
no more for the dearest rights of their country. Having been once its protectors, they now became its
ravagers. As the amor patria no longer inspired them,
the treasury of the Roman empire proved inadequate
to allay their boundless thirst for wealth. Augustus,




-VIRGIL.                    87
therefore, to silence their clamors, distributed among
them the flourishing colony of Cremona, and, to make
up the deficiency, added part of the state of Mantua.
In vain did the miserable mothers, with famishing
infants at their breasts, fill the forum with their numbers, and the air with their lamentations; in vain did
the inhabitants complain of being driven, like vanquished enemies, from their native homes. Such
scenes are familiar to the conquerors in a civii war;
and those legions, which had sacrificed their own and
their country's liberty, must be recompensed at the
expense of justice and the happiness of thousands.
Virgil, involved in the common calamity, had recourse
to his old patrons, Pollio and Mecmnas;* and, supported by them, petitioned Augustus not only for the
possession of his own property, but for the reinstatement of his countrymen in theirs also; which, after
some hesitation, was denied, accompanied by a grant
for the restitution Df his individual estate.
Full of gratitude for such favor, Virgil composed
* Mecamnas, a celebrated Roman, who distinguished himself
by his liberal patronage of learned men and letters. His fondness for pleasure removed him from the reach of ambition,
and he preferred to live and die a knight, to all the honors and
dignities that the Emperor Augustus could heap upon him.
The emperor received the private admonitions of Mecaenas in
the same friendly way in which they were given. Virgil and
Horace both enjoyed his friendship. He was fond of literature,
ana from the patronage which the heroic and lyric poets of-the
age received from him, patrons of literature have ever since
been called by his name. Virgil dedicated lo him his Georgica
and Horace his Odes. He died eight years B. C.




88                   VIRGIL.
his Tityrus, in which he has introduced one shepherd
complaining of the destruction of his farm, the anarchy and confusion of the times; and another rejoicing
that he can again tune his reed to love amidst his
Aocks; promising to honor, as a superior being, the
restorer of his happiness.
Unfortunately for Virgil, his joy was not of long
continuance, for, on arriving at Mantua, and producing his warrant to Arrius, a captain of foot, whom lhe
found in possession of his house, the old soldier was
so enraged at what he termed the presumption of a
poet, that he wounded him dangerously with his
sword, and would have killed him had he not escaped
by swimming hastily over the Mincius. Virgil was,
therefore, compelled to return half the length of Italy,
with a body reduced by sickness, and a mind depressed by disappointment, again to petition Augustus for
the restoration of his estate. During this journey,
which, from the nature of his wound, was extremely
slow, he is supposed to have written his Moeris, or
ninth eclogue; and this conjecture is rendered more
probable by the want of connexion, perceivable through
the whole composition-displaying, evidently, the disorder at that time predominant in the poet's mind.
However, on his arrival at Rome, he had the satisfaction to find that effectual orders had been given in
his behalf, and the farm was resigned into the hands
of his procurator or bailiff, to whom the above pastoral
is addressed.
The Sibylline Orales, having received informat?;!r,
from the Jews that a child was to be born, who should
be the Spvlour of the w)rld, and to whom  nations




VIRGIL.                 89
and empires should bow with sul:nission, pretended
to foretell tha: this event would occur in the year of
Rome, 714, afier the peace concluded between August'is and Antony. Virgil, viewing this prophecy
with the vivid imagination of a poet, and willing to
flatter the ambition of his patron, composed his celebrated eclogue, entitled Pollio, in which he supposes
the child, who was thus to unite mankind and restore
the golden age, to be the offspring of Octavia, wife of
Antony, and half sister to Augustus. In this production, the consul Pollio, Octavia, and even the unborn
infant, are flattered with his usual delicacy; and the
rival triumviri, though a short time before in open
hostility, have the honor of equally sharing the poet's
applause.
While Pollio, who seems to have been the most
accomplished man of his age, and is celebrated as a
poet, soldier, orator and historian, was engaged in an
expedition against the Parthini, whom he subdued,
Virgil addressed to him his Pharmaceutria, one of
the most beautiful of all his eclogues, and in imitation of a poem of the same name, by his favorite
author, Theocritus.  This production is the more
valuable, as it has handed down to posterity some
of the superstitious rites of the Romans and the
heathen notions of enchantment.  Virgil himself
seems to have been conscious of the beauty of his
subject, and the dignify of the person whom he was
addressing; and, accordingly, has given us, by the
fertility of his genius and the brilliancy of his imag —
ination, some of the most sublime images that are to
be found in any of the writings of antiquity.
8*




90                   VIRGIL.
By the advice, and indeed at the earnest entreaty of
Augustus, Virgil, in his thirty-fourth year, retired to
Naples, and formed the plan of his Georgics: a design as new in Latin verse, as pastorals, before his,,were in Italy. These he undertook for the interest,
and to promote the welfare, of his country. As the
continual civil wars had entirely depopulated and laid
waste the land usually appropriated for cultivation,
the peasants had turned soldiers, and their farms
became scenes of desolation. Famine and insurrection
were the inevitable consequences that followed such
overwhelming calamities.  Augustus, therefore, resolved to revive the decayed spirit of husbandry, and
began by employing Virgil to recommend it with all
the insinuating charms of poetry. This work took
up seven of the most vigorous years of his life, and
fully answered the expectations of his patron.
Augustus, having conquered his rival, Antony, gave
the last wound to expiring liberty, by usurping the
exclusive government of the Roman empire.  To
reconcile a nation, naturally jealous of its freedom, to
this, seems to have been the grand object of Virgil,
in his AEneid. This poem was begun in the forty-fifth
year of the author's life, and not only displays admirable poetical genius, but great political address. Not
an incident that could in any-way tend to flatter the
Roman people into a submission to the existing government, has escaped his penetrating judgment. He
traces their origin to the Trojans, and makes Augustus a lineal descendant of.ZEneas. At the command
of the gods they obey him, and in return are prom.
ised the empire of the world.




VIRGIL.                 91
So anxious was Augustus as to the result of this
poem, that he insisted upon having part of it read
before the whole was completed. Gratitude, after
threats and entreaties had been used in vain, at length
induced its author to comply; and, knowing that Octavia, who had just lost her son, Marcellus, would be
present, Virgil fixed upon the sixth book, perhaps the
finest part of the whole JEneid. His illustrious auditors listened with all the attention which such interesting narrative and eloquent recitdl demanded, till
he came to that beautiful lamentation for the death of
young Marcellus, and where, after exhausting panegyric, he has artfully suppressed the name of its object, till the concluding verse:
"' Tu Marcellus eris."
At these words, Octavia, overcome with surprise and
sorrow, fainted away; but, on recovering, was so
highly gratified at having her son thus immortalized,
that she presented the poet with ten sesterces for each
line; amounting, in the whole, to about ten thousand
dollars.
Having at length brought his ABneid to a conclusion, Virgil proposed travelling into Greece, and devoting three years to the correction and improvement
of his favorite work. Having arrived at Athens, he
met with Augustus, who was returning from a victorious expedition to the East, and who requested the
company of the poet back to Italy. The latter deemed
it his duty to comply; but, being desirous to see as
many of the Grecian antiquities as the time would
allow, went for that purpose to Megara. Here he




92                   VIRGIL.
was seized with a dangerous illness, which, from neglect, and the agitation of the vessel in returning to
Italy, proved mortal, at Brundusium. Thus the great
poet died on the twenty-second of September, nineteen
years B. C., and at a period when he had nearly completed his fifty-second year. He expired with the
greatest tranquillity; and his remains, being carried
to Naples, were interred in a monument, erected at a
small distance from the city; where it is still. shown,
with the following inscription, said to have been dictated by him on his death-bed:
Mantua me genuit; Calabri rapuere, tenet nune
Parthenope; cecini pascua, rura, duces.
In his will he had ordered that the ZEneid should
be burnt, not having finished it to his mind; but Augustus wisely forbade the destruction of a performance
which will perpetuate his name, as one of the greatest
of poets. It was, therefore, delivered to Varius and
Tucca, Virgil's intimate friends, with the strictest
charge to make no additions, but merely to publish it
correctly, in the state it then was.
In person, Virgil was tall, and wide-shouldered, of
a dark swarthy complexion, which probably proceeded
from the southern extraction of his father; his constitution was delicate, and the most trifling fatigue,
either from exercise or study, produced violent headache and spitting of blood. In temper he was melancholy and thoughtful, loving retirement and con
templation. Though one of the greatest geniuses of
his age, and the admiration of the Romans, ho always
preserved a singular modesty, and lived chastely  lhen




VIRGIL.                  93
the manners of the people were extremnely corrupt.
His character was so benevolent and inoffensive, that
most of his cotemporary poets, though they envied
each other, agreed in loving and esteeming him. He
was bashful to a degree of timidity; his aspect and
behavior was rustic and ungraceful; yet he was so
honored by his countrymen, that once, coming into the
theatre, the whole audience rose out of respect to him.
His fortune was large, supposed to be about seventy
thousand pounds sterling, besides which he possessed
a noble mansiqn, and well-furnished library on the
Esquiline Mount, at Rome, and an elegant villa in
Sicily. Both these last, he left to Mecaenas, at hi,
death, together with a considerable proportion of hi;
personal property; the remainder he divided between
his relations and Augustus,-the latter having introduced a politic fashion of being in everybody's will,
which alone produced a sufficient revenue for a
prince.
The works of Virgil are not only valuable for their
poetic beauties, but for their historical allusions and
illustrations. We here find a more perfect and satisfactory account of the religious customs and ceremonies of the Romans, than in any other of the
Latin poets, Ovid excepted.  Everything he mentions is founded upon historical truth.  He was
uncommonly severe in revising his poetry-and often
compared himself to a bear that licks her cubs into
shape.
In his intercourse with society. Virgil was remarkable; his Iriends enjoyed his unbounded confidence,
and his library and possessions in Rom- were so




94                  VIRGIL.
liberally offered for the use of those who needed
them, as to seem to belong to the public. Amiable
and exemplary, however, as he was, he had bitter
enemies; but their revilings only served to add lustre
to his r.ame and fame.




CICERO.
MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO was born on the 3d of
January, 107, B. C. His mother, whose name was
Helvia, was of an honorable and wealthy family; his
father, named Marcus, was a wise mnd learned man
of fortune, who lived at Apulia. This city was




96                   CICERO.
ancieitlv of the Samnites, now part of the kingdom
of Naples. Here Cicero was born, at his father's
country seat, which it seems was a most charming
residence.
The care which the ancient Romans bestowed upon
the education of their children was worthy of all
praise. Their attention to this, began from the moment of their birth. They were, in the first place,
committed to the care of some prudent matron, of
good character and condition, whose business it was
to form their first habits of acting and speaking; to
watch their growing passions, and direct them to their
proper objects; to superintend their sports, and suffer
nothing immodest or indecent to enter into them, that
the mind, preserved in all its innocence, and undepraved by the taste of false pleasures, might be at
liberty to pursue whatever was laudable, and apply
its whole strength to that profession in which it should
desire to excel.
Though it was a common opinion among the
Romans that children should not be instructed in letters till they were seven years old, yet careful attention was paid to their training, even from the age of
three years. It was reckoned a matter of great importance what kind of language they were first accustomed to hear at home, and in what manner their
nurses, and even their fathers and mothers spoke,
since their first habits were then formed, either of a
pure or corrupt elocution. The two Gracchi were
thought to owe that elegance of speaking for which
they were distinguished, to their mother, Cornelia,
who was a very accomplished woman, and remarkable




CICERO.                   97
for the purity of her diction, as well in speaking as
writing.
Young Cicero experienced the full advantage of
these enlightened views, in his childhood. When he
was of sufficient age to enter upon a regular course
of study, his father removed to Rome, and placed him
in a public school, under an eminent Greek master.
Here he gave indications of those shining abilities,
which rendered him  afterwards so illustrious.  His
school-fellows carried home such stories of his extraordinary powers, that their parents were often induced
to visit the school, for the sake of seeing a youth of
such endowments.
Encouraged by the promising genius of his son
Cicero's father spared no cost or pains to improve-it
by the help of the ablest professors. Among other
eminent instructors, he enjoyed the teaching of the
poet Archias. Under this master, he applied himself
chiefly to poetry, to which he was naturally addicted
and made such proficiency in it, that, while he was
still a boy, he composed and published a poem, called
Glaucus Pontius.
After finishing the course of juvenile studies, It
was the custom to change the dress of the boy for that
af the man, and take what they called the manly
gown, or the ordinary robe of the citizen.  This was
an occasion of rejoicing, for the youth thus passed
from the power of his tutor into a state of greater liberty. He was at the same time introduced into the
forum, or great square of the city, where the assemblies of the people were held. Here, also, they  were
G         IL-9




98                  - CICERO.
addressed by the magistrates, and here all the public
pleadings and judicial transactions took place.
When Cicero was sixteen years old, he was introduced to this place, with all customary solemnity.
lie was attended by the friends and dependants of
the family, and after divine rites were performed in
the capital, he was committed to the special protection of Q. Mucius Scaevola, the principal lawyer as
well as statesman of that age.
Young Cicero made good use of the advantages he
enjoyed.  He spent-almost his whole time in the
society of his patron, carefully treasuring. up in his
memory the wisdom that fell from his lips. After
his death, he came under the instruction of another
of the same family-Scoevola, the high priest, a person remarkable for his probity and skill in the law.
The legal profession, as well as that of arms and
eloquence, was a sure recommendation to the first
honors of the republic; for it appears to have been
the practice of many of the most eminent lawyers to
give their advice gratis to all that asked it. It was
the custom of the old senators, eminent for their wisdom and experience, to walk up and down the forum
in the morning, freely offering their assistance to alwho had occasion to consult them, not only in cases
of law, but in relation to their private affairs. At a
later period, they used to sit at home, with their doors
open, upon a kind of throne, or raised seat, giving
access and audience to all who might come.
It is not surprising that a profession thus practised
should be honored among the Roman people, nor is
it wonderful that Cicero's ambitious mind should have




CICERO.                  (9
been attracted by so obvious a road to honor and preferment. But his views were not satisfied w'th being
a mere lawyer. He lesired especially to be an orator; and, conceivirg that all kinds of knowledge
would be useful in such a profession, he sought every
opportunity to increase his stores of information. He
also attended constantly at the forum, to hear the
speeches and pleadings; he perused the best authors
with care, so as to form an elegant style; and cultivated
poetry, for the purpose of adding elegance and grace
to his mind. While he was thus engaged, he also
studied philosophy, and, for a time, was greatly pleased
with Phaedrus, the Epicurean, who then gave lessons
at Rome. Though he retained his affection for the
amiable philosopher, Cicero soon rejected his system
as fallacious.
It was always a part of the education of the young
gentlemen of Rome, to learn the art of war by personal service, under some general of name and experience. Cicero accordingly took the opportunity to
make a campaign with Strabo, the father of Pompey
the Great. During this expedition, he manifested
the same diligence in the army that he had done in
the forum, to observe everything that passed. He
scught to be always near the person of the general,
that nothing of importance might escape his notice.
Returning to Rome, Cicero pursued his studies as
before, and about this time, Molo, the Rhodian, one
of the most celebrated teachers of eloquence of that
age, coming to the city to deliver lectures upon cratory, he immediately took the benefit of his instructions, and pursued his studies with ceaseless ardor.




100                  dICERO.
His ambition received an impulse at this time, from
witnessing the fame of Hortensius, who made the
first figure at the bar, and whose praises fired him
with such emulation, that, for a time, he scarcely
allowed himself rest from his studies, either day or
night.'He had in his own house a Greek preceptor, who
instructed him in various kinds of learning, but more
particularly in logic, to which he paid strict attention.
He, however, never suffered a day to pass, without
some exercise in oratory, particularly that of declaiming, which he generally performed with some of his
fellow-students. He sometimes spoke in Latin, but
more frequently in Greek, because the latter furnished
a greater variety of elegant expressions, and because
the Greek masters were far the best, and could not
correct and improve their pupils, unless they declaimed in that language.
Cicero had now passed through that course of discipline, which, in his treatise upon the subject, he
lays down as necessary for the formation of an accomplished orator. He declares that no man should pretend to this, without being acquainted with everything
worth being known, in art and nature; that this is
implied in the very name of an orator, whose -pofession is to speak upon every subject proposed to him,
and whose eloquence, without knowledge, would be
little better than the prattle and impertinence of children.
He had learnt grammar and the languages from
the ablest teachers; passed through the studies,-of
humanity and the polite letters with the poet Arch*i~




CICERO.                101
been instructed in philosophy by the principal philosophers of each -sect-Phaedrus the epicurean, Philo
the academic, Diodorus the Stoic-and acquired a
thorough knowledge of the law from the greatest
jurists and statesmen of Rome-the two Scavolas.
These accomplishments he regarded but as subservient to the object on which his ambition was placed,
-the reputation of an orator. To qualify himself,
therefore, particularly for this, he had attended the
pleadings of the greatest speakers of his time, heard
the daily lectures of the most eminent orators of
Greece, constantly written compositions at home, and
declaimed them under the correction of these masters.
That he might lose nothing which would in any
degree improve and polish his style, he spent the
intervals of his leisure in the comnpany of ladies, especially those who were remarkable for elegant conversation, and whose fathers had been distinguished
for their eloquence. While he studied the law, therefore, under Scmvola, the augur, he frequently conversed with his wife; Laelia, whose discourse he says
was tinctured with all the eloquence of her father,
Lwlius, the most polished orator of his time.  He
also frequented the society of her daughter, Mucla,
as well as that of two of her granddaughters, who all
excelled in elegance of diction, and the most exact
and delicate use of language.
It is impossible not to admire the noble views which
Cicero had formed of the profession to which he was
to devote his life. Nor can we withhold praise for
the diligence, energy and judgment with which he
trained himself for entering upon the theatre of his
9*




102                  CICERO.
ambition. If in all respects he is not to be regarded
as a model for imitation, still, his example is thus far
worthy of emulation to all those who seek to enjoy a
virtuous and lasting fame.
Thus adorned and accomplished, Cicero, at the ago
of twenty-six years, presented himself at the bar, and
was soon employed in several private causes. His
first case of importance was the defence of S. Roscius,
of Ameria, which he undertook in his twentv-seventh year; the same age at which Demosthenes distinguished himself at Athens.
The case of Roscius was this.  His father was
killed in the recent proscription of Sylla, and his
estate, worth about ~60,000 sterling, was sold, among
the confiscated estates of the proscribed, for a trifling
sum, to L. Corneliut Chrysogonus, a young favorite
slave, whom Sylla had made free, and who, to secure
possession of it, accused the son of the murder of his
father, and had prepared evidence to convict him; so
that the young man was likely to be deprived, not
only of his fortunes, but, by a more villanous cruelty,
of his honor also, and his life.
The tyrant Sylla was at this time at the height of
his power.  Fearing his resentment, therefore, a,
well as the influence of the prosecutor, the older ad
vocates of Rome refused to undertake the defence of
Roscius, particularly as it would lead them into an
exposure of the corruptions of the age, and the misdemeanors of those high in rank and office.
But Cicero readily undertook it, as a glorious oppor
tunity of enlisting in the service of his country, and
giving a public testimony of his principles, and his zeal




CICERO.                10
for that liberty, to the support of which he was willing to devote the labors of his life. In the management of the cause, he displayed great skill and admirable eloquence. Roscius was acquitted, and Cicero
was applauded by the whole city for his courage and
address. From this period he was ranked as one of
the ablest advocates of Rome.
Having occasion in the course of his pleading to
mention that remarkable punishment which their ancestors had contrived for the murder of a parent-that
of sewing the criminal alive into a sack, and throwing
him into a river-he says, "that the meaning of it.
was, to strike him at once, as it were, out of the system of nature, by taking him from the air, the sun,
the water, and the earth; that he who had destroyed
the author of his being, should lose the benefit of
those elements whence all things derive their being.
They would not throw him to the beasts, lest the contagion of such wickedness should make the beasts
themselves more furious; they would not commit
him naked to the stream, lest he should pollute the
very sea, which was the purifier of all other pollu.
tions; they left him no share of anything natural,
now vile or common soever; for what is so common
as breath to the living, earth to the dead, the sea to
those who float, the shore to those who are cast up?
Yet these wretches live so, as long as they can, as
not to draw breath from the air; die so, as not to
touch the ground; are so tossed by the waves, as not
to be washed by them; so cast out upon the shore,
as to find no rest, even on the rocks."
This passage was received with acclamations; of




104                 CICERO.
applause; yet, speaking of it afterwards himself.
Cicero calls it'" the redundancy of a juvenile fancy,
which wanted the correction-of his sounder judgment;
and, like all the compositions of young men, was not
applauded so much for its own sake, as for the hopes
which it gave of his more improved and ripened talents."
The popularity of his cause, and the favor of the
audience, induced Cicero, in the course of his plea, to
expose the insolence and villany of the favorite,
Chrysogonus, with great freedom. He even ventured
some bold strokes at Sylla himself. He took care,
however, to palliate these, by observing, that through
the multiplicity of Sylla's affairs, who reigned as
absolute on earth as Jupiter in heaven, it was not
possible for him to know everything that was done by
his agents, and that he was perhaps forced to connive
at some of the corrupt practices of his favorites.
Soon after this trial, Cicero set out for the purpose
of visiting Greece and Asia, the fashionable tour ofthat day with those who travelled for pleasure or improvement. At Athens he spent six months, renewing
the studies of his youth, under celebrated masters. He
was here initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries, the
end and aim of which appear to have been to inculcate the unity of God and the immortality of the soul.
From Athens, he passed into Asia, where he was
visited by the principal orators of the country. These
kept him company through the remainder of his tour,
frequently exercising themselves together in oratorical exhibitions. They came at last to Rhodes, where
Cicero applied to Molo, and again became his pupil




CICERO.                106
On a public occasion he made an address, at the end
of which, the company were lavish of their praises.
Molo alone was silent, till, observing that Cicero was
somewhat disturbed, he said, "As for you, Cicero, I
praise and admire you, but pity the fortune of Greece,
to see arts and eloquence, the only ornaments which
were left to her, transplanted by you to Rome."
Soon after Cicero's return from his travels, he
pleaded the cause of the famous comedian, Roscius,
whom a singular merit in his art had recommended
to the familiarity and friendship of the greatest men
~f Rome. The case was this.  One Fannius had.nade over to Roscius, a young slave, to be trained
for the stage, on condition of a partnership in the
profits which the slave should acquire by acting, The
slave was afterwards killed, and Roscius prosecuted
the murderer for damages, and obtained, by composition, a little farm, worth about 800 pounds, for his
particular share. Fannius also sued separately, and
was supposed to have gained as much, but, pretending to have recovered nothing, sued Roscius for the
moiety of what he had received.
One cannot but observe, from Cicero's pleading,
the wonderful esteem and reputation which Roscius
enjoved-of whom he draws a very amiable picture. "Has Roscius, then," said he, " defrauded his
partner?  Can such a stain adhere to such a man,
who-I speak it with confidence-has more integrity
than skill, more veracity than experience; whom the
people of Rome know to be a better man than he is
an actor, and, v hile he makes the first figure on the
stage in his art, is worthy of the senate for his virtues? "




106                 CICERO.
His daily pay for acting is said to have been about
thirty pounds sterling. Pliny computes his yearly
profit at 4000 pounds; but Cicero seems to rate it at
5000 pounds. He was generous, benevolent, and a
contemner of money; after he had raised an ample
fortune from the stage, he devoted his talents to the
public, for many years, without pay; whence Cicero
urges it as incredible that he, who in ten years past
might honestly have gained fifty thousand pounds,
which he refused, should be tempted to commit a
fraud for the paltry sum of four hundred. We need
but add that the defence was effectual.
Soon after Cicero's return to Rome, he, being about
thirty years of age, was married to Terentia, a lady
of good station in life, and of large fortune. Shortly
after, he was a candidate for the office of qumstor, in
which he succeeded by the unanimous suffrage of the
tribes.
The provinces of the questors being distributed by
lot, the island of Sicily fell to Cicero's share. This
was called the granary of the republic, and this year,
there being great scarcity at Rome, the people were
clamorous for a supply. As it was a part of the duty
of the qumestors to supply the city with corn, a difficult
duty devolved upon Cicero; for, while he was to see
that Rome was adequately furnished, it was necessary
to avoid impoverishing the island   He, however,
acquitted himself with the greatest prudence and
address, displaying courtesy to the dealers, justice to
the merchants, generosity t) the inhabitants, and, in
short, doing all manner of good offices to everybody.
lie thus oltained the love and admiration of the Sicil



CICERO.                107
ians, and, at his departure, they paid him greater
honors than had ever been bestowed, even upon their
own governors.
In his hours of leisure, Cicero pursued his rhetorical studies, making it a rule never to let a day pass
without some exercise of this kind. At the expiration of his year, he left the island, and, on his return
to Rome, he stopped at Baiae, the chief seat of pleasure at that time in Italy, and where there was a perpetual resort of the rich and great, as well on account
of its delightful situation, as for the use of its luxurious baths and tepid waters.
Pleased with the success of his administration, and
flattering himself that all Rome was celebrating his
praises, he reached this place, and mingled amongst
the crowd. What was his disappointment and mortification, to be asked by the first friend he met, " How
long since you left Rome, and what is the news
there? "  "I came from the provinces," was the reply.  "From  Africa, I suppose," said one of the
bystanders. " No, I came from Sicily," said Cicero,
a little vexed. " How, did you not know that Cicero
was qutestor of Syracuse? " said another person present; thus showing his ignorance, while he pretended
to be wiser than the rest. This incident humbled
Cicero for the time, and made him feel that he had
not yet made himself so conspicuous as to live perpetually in the eye of so mighty a city as Rome.
Having now devoted himself to a life of business
and ambition, he omitted none of the usual arts of
recommending himself to popular favor, and facilitating his advancement to the highest honors. " He




1-08                 clcERo.
thought it ibsurd," says Plutarch, " that, when every
little artificer knew the name and use of all his tools,
a statesman should neglect the knowledge of men,
who were the proper instruments with which he was
to work; he made it his business, therefore, to learn
the name, the place, and the condition of every eminent citizen; what estate, what friends, what neighbors he had; and could readily point out their several
houses, as he travelled through Italy."
This knowledge was deemed so necessary at Rome,
where the people expected to be courted by their public men, that every individual who aspired to official
dignities, kept a slave or two in his family, whose
sole business it was to know the name and person of
every citizen at.sight, so that he might whisper them
to his master as he passed through the streets, and
enable him to salute them familiarly, as particular
acquaintances. - Such artifices, which appear degrading in our day, were by no means beneath the practice of one so elevated in his sense of propriety as
Cicero.
Having reached his thirty-seventh year, and being
therefore eligible to the office of edile, he offered himself as a candidate, and was elected by the people.
Before he entered upon its duties, however, he undertook the prosecution of C. Verres, the late pretor of
Sicily, charged with many flagrant acts of injustice,
rapine and cruelty, during his triennial government
of that island. This was one of the most memorable
transactions of Cicero's life, and has given him greater
fame than any other.
In order to obtain the evidence, he proceeded to




CICERO.                 109
Sicily, where he was received with the greatest kindness and favor, though every art was resorted to, by
the agents of Verres, to obstruct his inquiries. On
his return, he found the most formidable preparations
to resist him. Hortensius was engaged for Verres
and several of the leading families had taken his part.
Cicero, however, produced his witnesses, whose depositions overwhelmed the criminal with such proofs
of guilt, that Hortensius had nothing to say for his
client, who submitted without defence to a voluntary
exile.
From  this account, it appears, that, of the seven
orations on the subject of this trial, which now remain
among the works of Cicero, two only were spoken,
and these contain little more than a statement of the
whole case. The five others were published afterwards, as they were prepared, and intended to be
spoken, if Verres had made a regular defence.
From the evidence produced, it appears that every
species of rapine was practised without scruple by
Verres, during his pramtorship.  Cicero estimated
the amount of his plunder at 800,000 pounds sterling,
or nearly four millions of dollars. It is shocking to
read the black catalogue of this man's crimes; yet,
such was the corruption of society, especially among
the higher classes, that Cicero, instead of gaining
favor by his exposure of these abuses, brought upon
himself the hatred and ill-will of the largest portion
of the nobility. They doubtless looked upon the public offices as their inheritance, and did not like to see
the accustomed privileges of the provincial governors
abridged. We may add here that Verres continued
II.-10




} 119                CICERO.
long ih. a miserable exile, deserted and forgotten by
his former friends, and was actually relieved in his
necessities by the generosity of Cicero.  He wa.3
afterwards proscribed and murdered by Mark Antony,
in order to obtain some fine statues, which he had
obtained by robbery, during his government in Sicily,
and which he had refused to part with, even in the
extremity of his poverty.
From the impeachment of Verres, Cicero entered
upon the office of edile, and in one of his speeches
gives a short account of its duties. " I am now chosen edile," says he, " and am sensible of what is committed to me by the Roman people. I am to exhibit
with the greatest solemnity the most sacred sports to
Ceres, Liber, and Libera; am to appease and conciliate the mother Flora to the people and city of Rome,
by the celebration of the public games; am to furnish out those ancient shows, the first which were
called Roman, with all possible dignity and religion;
in honor of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva; am to take care
also of all the sacred edifices, and, indeed, of the whole
city."
The people of Rome were passionately fond of
the public games and diversions, and the allowance for
them being small, the ediles were obliged to supply
the rest.  Many of them, in their ambition to flatter
the people and obtain their favor, incurred such expense in these entertainments, as to involve themselves
in ruin. Every part of the empire was ransacked
for whatever was rare and curious to increase the
splendor of these shows; the forum, in which they
were exhibited, was usually beautified with porticoes,




CICERO.                   111
for the purpose, and these were decorated witl the
choicest pictures and statues, which Rome, and indeed,
all Italy could furnish. Several of the great men of
Cicero's time had distinguished their magistracy by
their magnificence, some of them having entertained
the city with stage plays, in which the scenes were
entirely covered with silver.  Caesar, in the sports
exhibited upon the occasion of his father's funeral,
caused the entire furniture of the theatre tb be made
of solid silver, so that the wild beasts trod upon that
metal.
Unseduced by these examples, Cicero took the
middle course, which was suited to his circumstances.
In compliance with the custom, he gave three entertainments, which were conducted with taste, and to
the satisfaction of the people. The Sicilians gave
him effectual proofs of their gratitude by supplying
him largely with provisions for the use of his table and
the public feasts he was obliged to provide. Cicero,
however, took no private advantage of these gifts, for
he distributed the whole to the poor.
Soon after leaving the office of edile, Cicero was
chosen prmtor; a magistrate next in dignity to a consul. The business of the prietors was to preside and
judge in all causes, especially of a public or criminal
kind. There were eight of them, and their several
jurisdictions were assigned by lot. It fell to Cicero
to hear charges of extortion and rapine, brought
against magistrates and governors of provinces. In
this office, he acquired great reputation for integrity
and impartiality-qualities, in the corrupted state of
Rome, scarcely to be found, either in public or private




1 12                CICERO.
life, among lnen of high stations. While he seemed
fiull of employment as prator, and attentive to his
duties in the senate, Cicero still had a large practice
as advocate. It is evident that nothing but ceaseless
industry and wonderful facility in the despatch of
business, could have enabled him to discharge his
multifarious duties, and with such surpassing ability.
His office of praetor- having expired, Cicero now
fixed his hopes upon the consulship. While he was
aiming at this, and resorting to all the ordinary means
of attaining his object, by flattering the people, allaying the hostility of the nobles, and strengthening his
interest on every hand, he was expending large sums
of money in decorating his several villas, especially
that of Tusculum, in which he took the greatest
pleasure. This was situated in the neighborhood of
Rome, and furnished him  an easy retreat from the
hurry and fatigue of the city. Here he built several
rooms and galleries, in imitation of the schools and
porticoes of Athens, in which he was accustomed to
hold philosophical conversations with his learned
friends. He had given Atticus, a lover of the arts,
who resided at Athens, a general commission to purchase for him pictures, statues and other curiosities;
and Atticus, having a rare taste in these matters, thus
assisted him to embellish and enrich his residence
with a choice collection of works of art and literary
treasures, of various kinds.
Cicero, being now in his forty-third year, became
eligible as consul, and offered himself as a candidate
for that high office. As the election approached, his
interest appeared to take the lead; for the nobles, en



CICERO.                 11l
vious and jealous Af him as they were, were alarmed
by the threatening aspect of the times, and saw the
necessity of en rusting the consular power to strong
and faithful hands.  The intrigues of Caesar, the plots
of Cataline, the ambition of Pompey, seemed to heave
and convulse the elements of society to its foundation,
and portend a storm which threatened the very existence of the state. Thus, by the voices of the people
as well as the favor of the patricians, Cicero was proclaimed First Consul, and Antonius was chosen his
colleague.
This year, Cicero's father died in a good old age,
and he gave his daughter Tullia, in marriage, at the
age of thirteen, to C. Piso Frugi, a young nobleman
of great hopes and of one of the best families in Rome
He was also much gratified by the birth of a son ant
heir to his family.
Cicero had now passed through the usual grada.
tions to the highest honors which the people could
bestow, or a citizen desire. He entered upon his
trust with a patriotic determination to discharge its
duties, not so much according to the fleeting humor, as
the lasting interests of the people. The most remark
able event of his consulship was the conspiracy of
Cataline, which he detected by his sagacity, and de
feated by his courage and address.
Cataline was adapted by art and nature, to be the
leader of desperate enterprises. He was of an illustrious family, of ruined fortunes, profligate heart,
undaunted courage and unw earied industry. He had
a capacity equal to the hardiest attempt, a tongue that
could seduce, an eloquentce to per daade, a hand to
H       10o




114                 CICERO.
execute. His character, compo inded of cortradictory
qualities —of great virtues, mastered by still greater
vices-is forcibly drawn by Cicero himself.
" Vho,' said he, " was more agreeable at one time
to the best citizens? Who more intimate at another
with the worst?  Who a man of better principles?
WTho a fouler enemy to this city? Who more intemperate in pleasure?  Who more patient in labor?
Who more rapacious in plundering, who more profuse in squandering?  He had a wonderful faculty
of engaging men to his friendship and obliging them
by his observance; sharing with them in common
whatever he was master of; serving them with his
money, his interest, his pains, and, when there was
occasion, by the most daring acts of villany, moulding
his nature to his purposes, and bending it every way
to his will. With the morose, he could live severely;
with the free, gayly; with the old, gravely; with the
young, cheerfully; with the enterprising, audaciously;
with the vicious, luxuriously. By a temper so various and pliable, he gathered about him the profligate
and the rash from all countries; yet held attached to
him, at the same time, many brave and worthy men,
by the specious show of a pretended virtue."
Associated in the plot, with Cataline, were about
thirty-five individuals as leaders, some of them senacors, and all of them men of rank and consideration.
Several were from the colonies and the larger towns
of Italy. Among the most important of these per.sons were Lentulus and Cethegus, both patricians,
possessing powerful family influence; the two Syllas.
nephews of the di:tator; Cassius, who was a compet




CICERO.                 115
itor with Cicero for the consulship, and Autronius,
who had obtained an election to that office, but was
not permitted to hold it, on account of his gross briberies.  Julius Caesar was suspected of being also
engaged in the scheme, but it is probable that while
he was willing to see it attempted, hoping to be benefited by the convulsion that might follow, he was
too wary to commit himself by any overt act of
treason.
A meeting of the conspirators was finally held, in
which it was resolved that a general insurrection
should be raised throughout Italy, the different parts
of which were assigned to different leaders. Cataline
was to put himself at the head of the troops in Etruria; Rome was to be set on fire in different places at
once, under the direction of Cassius, and a general
massacre of the senate, with all the enemies of the
conspirators, was to be affected under the management of Cithegus.  The vigilance of Cicero being
the chief occasion of their apprehensions, two'knights
of the company undertook to gain access to his house
early the next moring, upon pretence of business,
and, rushing into his chamber, to kill him in his bed.
But no sooner was the meeting over, than Curius,
one of the assembly, and in the interest of Cicero,
sent him a particular account of aJl that had transpired. He immediately imparted the intelligence to
some of the chiefs of the city, who assembled at his
hcuse that night, and made preparations for the emergency. The two knights came before break of day
to Cicero's house, but had the mortification to find it
carefully guarded.  Cataline had set out in the hope




116                 CICERO.
of surprising the town of Preneste, one of the strongesl
fortresses of Italy, and within -twenty five miles of
Rome; but Cicero's messenger anticipated h:m,
and when the attack was made the next night, he
found the place so well guarded, as to forbid an assault.
Cicer) now assembled the senate at the temple of
Jupiter, in the capital, where they were accustomed
to meet only in times of public alarm, and laid before
them the facts which we have narrated. Cataline had
returned to Rome, and being a member of the senate,
met the charge with profound dissimulation and the
most subtle cunning. Cicero, however, poured forth
upon him such a torrent of invective, and placed his
guilt in so strong a light, that the conspirator became
desperate, made a threatening speech to the senate,
and left the hall. That night, he departed and repaired with expedition to head the forces at -Etruria.
The result of the whole enterprise was, that several
of the accomplices were executed, and Cataline himself fell bravely fighting at the head of those troops
he had induced to join his cause. Cicero received
the thanks of the senate, and the most unbounded
applause at the hands of the people.
Cicero's administration being now at an end, nothing remained but to resign the consulship, according
to custom, in an assembly of the people, and declare
upon oath that he had administered the office with
fidelity. It was usual for the consul, under such circumstances, to address the people, and on the present
Dccasion an immense concourse of people met to hear
the farewell speech of Cicero. But Metellus, one of




CICERO.                 117
the new tribunes, ambitious to signalize himself by
some display of that-remarkable veto power committed to the tribunes, determined to disappoint the orator and the audience.
Accordingly, when Cicero had mounted the rostrum, and was about to address the people, Me-tellus
interfered, remarking that he who had put citizens
to death unheard, ought not to be permitted to speak
for himself.  This was a reflection upon Cicero,
because the associates of Cataline had been executed
by a vote of the senate, without the ordinary trial.
Cicero, however, was never at a loss, and, instead
of pronouncing the usual form of the oath, exalted
his voice so that all the people might hear him, saying, "I have saved the republic and the city from
ruin! "  The vast multitude caught the sounds, and,
with one acclamation, declared, "You have sworn the
truth!"  Thus, the intended affront of Metellus was
turned to the advantage of Cicero, and he was conducted from the forum to his house with every demonstration of respect by the whole city.
It was about this period that Cicero is supposed to
have pronounced his oration, still extant, in defence
of his old preceptor, Archias. He, doubtless, expected
fromn his muse an immortality of fame; for Archias
had sung in Greek verse the triumphs of Marius ovel
the Cimbri, and of Lucullus over Mithridates. He
appears, however, to have died without celebrating
the consulship of Cicero; and Archias, instead of
adding to the fame of the orator, would have been
buried in complete oblivion, had not his memory been
perpetuated in the immortal pages Jf his pupil.




118                 CICERO.
Pompey the Great now returned to Rome, in the
height of his fame and fortunes, from the Mithridatic
war. It had been apprehended that he was coming
back to Rome, at the head of his army, to seize upon
the government. It is certain that he had this in his
power, and Casar, with the tribune Metellus, was
inviting him to it. But he seemed content, for the
time, with the glory he had achieved. By his victories he had extended the boundaries of the empire
into Asia, having reduced three powerful kingdoms
there, Pontus, Syria and Bithynia, to the condition of
Roman provinces, taken the city of Jerusalem, and
left the other nations of the east, as far as the Tigris,
tributary to the republic.
For these great services, a triumph was decreed
him, which lasted two days, and was the most splendid that had ever been seen in Rome. Of the spoils,
he erected a temple to Minerva, with an inscription
giving a summary of his victories: —" that he had
finished a war of thirty years; had vanquished, slain,
and taken two millions one hundred and eighty-three
thousand men; sunk or taken eight hundred and forty-six ships; reduced to the power of the empire a
thousand five hundred and thirty-eight towns and fortresses, and subdued all the countries between the
lake Mceris and the Red Sea."
The spectacle which Rome, at this paiiod, presents
is full of warning to mankind. In the very height
of her pride and her power, holding the whole civilized world in her grasp, she was still torn with
dissensioiis, and corrupted through every vein and
Artery of society. With political institutions favorable




CICERO.                119
to liberty, and calculated to promote public and private
virtue; yet vice and crime stained the character of
public men, while profligacy, in every form, characterized the people at large.
Nor could anything better be expected; for the
genera] policy of the nation was alike wicked and
anwise. Instead of seeking prosperity by the peaceful arts of life, they sought to enrich themselves by
robbing other nations. War was the great trade of
tme state; the soldier was a hero; a successful general, the idol of the nation. The greatest plunderer
received the greatest honors, and glory was proporcloned to the blood spilled and the spoils obtained. A
system so immoral could not fail to debauch the nation, nor was it difficult to see that, from robbing other
countries, the victorious general, having attached the
soldiery to himself by leading them on to booty, would
soon learn to turn his arms against the country.
Such had now become the experience of Rome; and
the natural course of ambition seemed to be to obtain
the command of an army in some of the provinces,
gorge the soldiers with plunder, and, having become
the idol of the troops, to march upon Rome and seize,
by intimidation or force, the sceptre of power. Such
a course had been expected of Pompey, and was soon
after adopted by Caesar.
The triumvirate, consisting of Caesar, Pompey and
Crassus, was now formed, and Cicero yielded, for a
time, to their power. His patriotism and integrity
were obstacles, however, to the  success of their
schemes, and he became the object of their hatred
and persecution. Perceiving the storm that was ready




120                 CICERO.
to burst over him, he threw himself at the feet of
Pompey and begged his protection.  This, however,
was refused; and seeing no alternative but to defend
himself by force, or retreat till the storm had blown
over, he adopted the latter course by the advice of
Cato and Hortensius. He left the city, and attended
by a numerous train of friends, pursued his way to
Sicily.
After his departure, the dissolute Clodius, who had
become tribune, caused a law to be passed, denouncing Cicero in violent terms, and forbidding all persons,
on pain of death, to harbor or receive him. Immediately after, his houses, both in the city and country;
were given up to plunder; the marble columns of his
dwelling on the Palatine hill were carried away by
one of the consuls, and the rich furniture of his Tuscu.
lum villa, by another. Even the ornamental trees of
his plantations were taken up and transplanted to one
of his neighbor's grounds. To make the loss of his
house in Rome irretrievable, Clodius caused the space
to be consecrated to the service of religion, and a
temple to be built upon it, dedicated to the goddess
of liberty!
Nor did the vengeance of Cicero's enemies stop here.
Clodius pursued his wife and children with the same
fury, and made several attempts to gain access to his
son, then six years old, with the intention of putting
him to death. But the child was carefully guarded,
and finally removed from the reach of his malice.
Terentia took sanctuary in the temple of Vesta, but'
she was dragged forcibly out, and insolently examined as to the concealment of her husband's property,




CICERO.                 121
Being a woman oA singular spirit, however, she bore
these indignities with masculine courage.
The desolation of Cicero's fortunes at home, and
the misery which he suffered abroad, in being deprived of everything that was dear to him, soon made
him repent his flight. His suffering was increase.
on reaching Sicily, for there he found his former
friends afraid to receive him, in consequence of the
decree of banishment which had been passed at
Rome, and which forbade him to remain within four
hundred miles of the city. He therefore found it
necessary to leave Sicily, and after various changes
of opinion, he resolved to proceed to Thessalonica, in
Macedonia. Here he took up his residence with his
friend Plaucius, who treated him with the utmost
kindness.
Cicero was so dejected by his misfortunes, that he
shut himself up in his apartments, and.refused to see
all company. When his brother, Quintus, was on his
way from Asia to Rome, Cicero felt incapable of supporting an interview, and did not see him, so deeply
were his feelings affected. At the same time, his
letters to his friends were full of regret, complaint
and despondency. It is obvious that, in this period
of trial, he'displayed great weakness of character,
though it is probable that his affectionate disposition
-.his fondness for his children, and love of his friends
-rendered separation from them an evil almost worse
than death. It would seem, also, that he had so long
enjoyed the homage paid to his talents, had so long
lived in the blaze o. popular favor, that his presen
IT i-1




122                 CICERO.
exile seemed like being deprived of the very light of
heaven.
But the period of his return to Rome was now approaching. Clodius, by a series of the most flagrant
outrages, made himself hated at Rome, and finally
put himself in opposition to Pompey himself. The
people at large were favorable to Cicero, and it was
not long before the senate, with great unanimity,
passed a resolution favorable to his recall. Pompey
urged the measure with ardor. and declared that
Cicero ought to be received with such honors, as
might atone for the sorrows of his' exile.
Preparations were made to obtain the passage of a
law coinciding with the resolve of the senate; but
Clodius, with his slaves and a multitude of hired
gladiators, resisted the tribunes who sought to gain
possession of the market-place, for that purpose. Several bloody encounters followed, and for a time the
streets of Rome were deluged with blood. The dead
bodies were thrown into the Tiber, which were so
numerous as almost to obstruct its channel. Nothing
can better show the greatness of Cicero's reputation,
than the facts now transpiring in Rome. For several
months the attention of the people of that city, and of
Italy, was wholly occupied with the question of his
recall. The ambassadors of kings, the messengers of
princes,-affairs which involved the fate of nations -
were all laid aside, till this absorbing subject could be
disposed of.
The senate, after long deliberation, and in a full
assembly, at last passed a decree for his restoration;
Clodius, among four hundred and fifty, givifig the only




CICERO.                 123
vote against it. When the news reached a neighboring theatre, the air was rent with acclamation.
2Esopus, the actor, was performing, at the time, the
part of Timolean, banished from the coantry, in one
of the plays of Accius.  By a happy change of
a few words, and giving the utmost effect to his
voice, he directed the thoughts of the audience to
Cicero, while he Uttered these sentences, " What, he
who always stood up for the republic! who, in doubtful times, spared neither life nor fortunes-the greatest friend in the greatest dangers-of such parts and
talents! 0 Father —I saw his house and rich furniture all in flames! O, ungrateful Greeks, inconstant
people; forgetful of services,-to see such a man
banished, driven from his country, and suffer him to
continue in this condition! " It is not possible to describe the thrilling effect of these words, or the enthusiasm of the people. When Lentulus, the consul,
who had taken an active part in Cicero's favor, entered the place, they all rose up, stretched out their
hands, and, with tears of joy and loud acclamations,
testified their thanks. Several of the senators coming
into the theatre, were received with the most deafening applause. Clodius also making his appearance,
was assailed by reproaches, threats and curses.
Though a decree was now regularly obtained for
Cicero's return, Clodius had still the courage and address to hinder its sanction by the popular assemblies.
There were several meetings of the senate, and the
whole city was shaken to its foundation with the
question now at issue. All Italy and indeed many
of the remote provinces were thrown into a state of




124-                CICERO.
fernent by the struggle, and the mighty interests of
the empire were postponed till this important question
could be settled. Ptolemy, the king of Egypt, driven
from his kingdom, and seeking protection at the
hands of Rome, even though a lodger in Pompey's
house, could not obtain an audience, till Cicero's
cause was decided.
The greatest preparations were now made for sub
mitting the question to the popular assemblies
Never had there been known so numerous and solemn a gathering of the Roman people as on this
occasion. The whole country seemed to be drawn together. It was reckoned a sin to be absent. Neither
age nor infirmity was thought a sufficient excuse for
failing to lend a helping hand to the restoration of
Cicero. The meeting was held in the field of Mars,
for the more convenient reception of so vast a multitude. It was an august scene. The senators presided
at the polls, to see the ballots fairly taken. The
result was that Cicero was recalled from exile by the:
unanimous suffrage of all the hundreds, and to the
infinite joy of the whole civy!
Cicero, having been advised of the course of events,
had re.turned as far as Brundusium, where he was
met by his daughter Tullia. In a few days he received the welcome intelligence of his recall. Setting out immediately for Rome, -he everywhere
received the most lively demonstrations of joy fromm
tfhe people. Multitudes were drawn together to con
gratulate him on his return. The whole road, from
Brundusium  to Rome, being crowded with men,
women, and children, seemed like one continued




CICERO.                 125
street. Every prefecture, town and colony.hroughout
Italy decreed him statues, or public honors, and sent
deputations to him, with tenders of congratulation.
Cicero himself remarks, that Italy brought him. back
on its shoulders, and that the day of his return was
worth an immortality.
Cicero was now restored to his dignity, but not to
his fortunes. Restitution had been decreed, and the
sum of ~22,000 was finally paid him. This he accepted, though it was scarcely more than half what
he had actually lost. He now attached himself to the
cause of Pompey, but spent several years with little
public employment, being chiefly occupied with his
rhetorical studies and the business of an advocate.
The turbulent Clodius was at last slain by Milo, and
Cicero was thus delivered from his most troublesome
enemy.
The senate now conferred upon him the office of
pro-consul, or governor, of Cilicia, in Asia Minor,
whither he immediately proceeded. He discharged
the duties of this office with ability, and, on his return,
was decreed a triumph.  But he was prevented from
enjoying it by the factious opposition of his enemies.
On his return, he found Rome agitated with serious
disturbances.  The rupture between Caesar and Pompey had taken place, and the horrors of a civil war
seemed to be impending over the republic. In vrain
did he attempt to reconcile  le fierce and haughty
rivals..:Csar advanced upon Rome,. and Pompey was
forced to fly with the consuls and the senate. Cesar
had met Cicero at Formaie, and sought t. gain: him
11 *




126                  CICERO.
over to hi3 cause, but though convinced that he would
prevail in the coming struggle, he felt himself
prompted, by a sense of honor to return to Pompey,
who had served him so effectually during his exile.
After the fatal battle of Pharsalia and the flight of
Pompey, he returned to Rome, where he was graciously received by Caesar.
He now devoted himself to literary and philosophical pursuits, and, soon after, divorced his wife Terentia, an act which has justly subjected him to much reproach. It is true that she was a woman of an imperious and turbulent spirit, expensive and negligent in
her private affairs, busy and intriguing in public mattews. But these qualities were in some degree compensated by her devotion to Cicero, and especially by
the energy with which she had sought to effect his
return during his exile. His letters to her at this
period recognise her efforts in his behalf, and are full
of the most tender expressions of affection and esteem.
It must be remarked that the nuptial bond was
lightly regarded at this period in Rome, and divorces
were so common as to be little thought of. Terentia
was soon after married to Sallust, the historian, by
which it would seem that her separation from Cicero
inflicted upon her no disgrace. Cicero would perhaps have been little blamed, were it not that he
was soon after married to a young lady named Publilia, of whom he was guardian, and who had been
committed to his care by her father's will. She had
a large estate, and this was doubtless Cicero's inducewment to the match, if not to the divorce of Terentia.




CICERO.                 127
It is the suspicion of such motives, in these transactions, that has sullied the fame of Cicero. We may
add here, in respect to Terentia, that she was once or
twice married after the death of Sallust, and lived to
the age of one hundred and three years.
Caesar, having established himself as dictator, Cicero
was induced to assent to his government. Accordingly, he pronounced a famous oration, in which he
mingled as much counsel as panegyric for the despot.
He was rapidly regaining his former consideration,
when the conspiracy of Brutus and his associates terminated the career of the ambitious usurper. Antony
now took Cesar's place, and while he was prosecuting
his designs, Cicero returned to his literary occupations. He went to Greece for a time, but soon returned, and pronounced those famous orations against
Antony, which are called Philippics.
Octavius, known as Augustus Caesar, and the
nephew of Julius Caesar, united his interests with
those of Antony, and having obtained the consulate,
soon gained an ascendency over the senate. Cicero,
in his retirement at Tusculum, saw that the power
having passed into the hands cf desperate men, the
liberty of Rome was no more. He soon heard that
his own name was included among those of the proscribed. He fled immediately to Astura, on the seacoast, where he found a vessel waiting for him.
He here embarked, but contrary winds drovc hiIn
back to the shore. At the earnest entreaty of his
slaves, he embarked a second time, but returned to
await his fate at his country seat near Formaie, declaring, "I will die in my country, which I have




128                  CICERO.
more than once saved." His slaves, seeing the neighborhood already disturbed by the soldiers of Antony,
endeavored to convey him away in a litter, but soon
discovered the assassins, who had been sent to take
nis life, at their heel:. They prepared for resistance,
but Cicero, who felt that death was unavoidable,
bowed his head before Pompilius, the commander of
the murderers, who had once been saved by his eloquence, and suffered death more courageously than
he had borne misfortune.
Thus died Cicero, and with him the liberties of
Rome. The dynasty of the emperors was built upon
the ruins of the republic, and, continuing for five centuries, was finally extinguished in the gloom of the
dark ages. Cicero was killed on the 7th December,
43 B. C., at the age of sixty-three. His head and
hands were severed from the body, by his murderers,
and carried to Antony, who caused the former to be
placed upon the rostra in the forum, between the two
hands. The odium of these barbarities fell chiefly
upon Antony, yet they left a stain of perfidy and
ingratitude upon Augustus, which can never be wipeid
away.
In his person, Cicero was tall and slender, yet his
features were regular and manly. He mingled great
dignity with an air of cheerfulness and serenity, that
inspired both affection and respect. His constitution
was naturally weak, but his prudent habits enabled
hlim to support all the fatigues' of an active and studious life, with health and vigor. In dress, he avoided
singularity, and was only remarkable for personal
neatness and appropriateness of attire. In d(mestic




CICERO.                 129
and socia, life, his demeanor was exceedingly amiable. He was an affectionate parent, a zealous friend,
a generous master. Yet he was not more generous
to his friends than pJacable to his enemies. It was
was one of his sayings, delivered in a public assembly, that "his enmities were mortal, his friendships
immortal."
The moral character of Cicero was not blemished
by the stain of any habitual vice. He was, indeed, the
shining pattern of virtue in an age, of all others, the
most licentious and profligate. His great soul was
superior to the sordid passions which engross little
minds-avarice, envy and malice. His familiar letters, in which he pours out his whole heart, are free
from anything base, immodest or vengeful. An uniform principle of benevolence, justice, love of his
friends and his country, is seen to flow through the
whole, inspiring all his thoughts and words and actions.
The failings of Cicero consisted chiefly in his
vanity and that despondency under adverse circumstances, which seemed:-nworthy of his character.
With these abatements, we must pronounce him a
truly great and good man-the glory of Rome, an
honor to human nature. His works, a large portion
of which are extant, are among the richest treasures
bequeathed to us by antiquity, and there are few
minds so exalted, even with the advantages of our
own time, as not to find instruction in his pages.
I




CAIUS JULIUS CAESAR.
THIS celebrated Roman, famous for his intrigues,
his generalship, his eloquence and his talents, was
born in the year 100 B. C. He was of a good family,
and his aunt Julia was wife of Caius Marius, who
had been consul. We know little of him in his youth,
though it-would seem that he early attracted attention
by his abilities and ambition. At the age of fifteen,
he left his father, and was made a priest in the temple
of Jupiter, the year after. At the age of seventeen,
he married Cornelia, a daughter of Cinna. By this
marriage, and through his aunt Julia, he was allied
both to Marius and Cinna, the two principal opposers
of Sylla, who had acquired an ascendency in Rome,
and exercised his power with fearful and bloody




CESAIR                  131
tyranny. Soon after his marriage, Caesar became an
object of suspicion to the despot; he was stripped of
his office as priest of Jupiter, his wife's dower was
confiscated, and he, being threatened with death,
deemed it prudent to seek safety in flight.
He wandered up and down the country, concealing
himself for a time among the Sabines; but at last he
escaped by sea, and went to Bithynia in Asia Minor,
and sought protection of king Nicomedes.: His stay
at this place was, however, short. He re-embarked,
and was taken, near the isle of Pharmacusa, by pirates,
who were masters of that sea, and blocked up all the
passages with a number of galleys and other vessels.
They asked him only twenty talents for his ransom.
He laughed at their demand, as the consequence of
not knowing him, and promised them fifty talents.
To raise the money he despatched his attendants
to different cities, and in the meantime remained, with
only one friend and two servants, among these people,
who considered murder a trifle. Caesar, however,
held them in great contempt, and used, whenever he
went to sleep, to send them an order to keep silence.
Thus he lived among them thirty-eight days, as if
they had been his guards rather than his keepers.
Perfectly fearless and self-possessed, he joined in
their diversions, and took his exercises among them.
He wrote poems and orations, and rehearsed them to
these pirates; and when they expressed no admirati6n, he called them  dunces and barbarians-nay,
he often threatened' to crucify them. They were
delighted with these freedoms, which they imputed
to his frank and facetious vein.  But as soon as the




132                 CIESAR.
money was brought for his ransom, and he had recovered his liberty, he manned some vessels in the
port of Miletus, in order to attack these corsairs. He
found them still lying at anchor by the island, took
most of them, together with the money he had paid
them, and caused them to be imprisoned at Pergamus.
After this adventure, Caesar took lessons of Appolonius Molo, of Rhodes, a celebrated teacher of rhetoric;
who had been the instructor of Cicero. He here displayed great talents, especially in an aptitude for eloquence, in which he afterwards excelled. After this,
he served under different generals in Asia, and upon
the death of Sylla, returned to Rome, where he soon
became conspicuous among the aspiring politicians
of the day.
Rome was at this time a republic, in which there
was a constant struggle for ascendency between the
aristocracy and the democracy - between the privileged few and the people. Sylla had placed the
former on a firm footing; for-a time, therefore, Caesar,
who courted the people, took no open part, but looked
calmly on, waiting and watching for his opportunity.
He, however, seized every occasion to please and
flatter the people; he gave expensive entertainments
to which they were invited; he attached to his person
the talented and enterprising young men; he distributed presents, paid compliments, and said a thousand pleasant things, calculated to flatter those whose
favor he desired. He also made public speeches on
various occasions, in all of which he avowed senti.
ments which gratified the plebeians. Thus beginning




CMSAR.                  139
afar off and steadily approaching his object he was
ere long in a situation to realize it. Cato, who had
watched him carefully, discovered his dangerous ambition, but he could not prevent the success of his
schemes.
At the age of thirty-one, he was chosen by the people, as one of the military tribunes, an office which
gave him the command of a legion, or division in the
army.  The year following, he was quaestor, or
receiver of public moneys in Spain; and in the year
68, having returned to Rome, he was chosen edilean office which gave him charge of the public buildings.
In this situation, he had an opportunity to indulge
his taste for magnificence and display; at the same
time, he gratified the people. He beautified the city
with public edifices and gave splendid exhibitions of
wild beasts and gladiators.
He was now thirty-five years old, and being desirous of military glory, he sought a command in
Egypt. He offered himself as a candidate-but failed.
The next year he took his measures more carefully.
The corruption of the voters of Rome, at that time,
was such as to excite our disgust. On the day of
election, there were stalls, openly kent, where the
votes of the freemen were bought, with as little shame,
as if they had been common merchandise. We hardly
know which most to despise, the crafty leaders, who
thus corrupted the people, or the venal voters, who
abused and degraded the dearest of privileges.
Though Caesar was from the beginning a professed
champion of the democracy, yet the manner in which
IL.- 2




134                  C~ESAR.
he- treated those whose support he sought, showed
that his designs were selfish; that he wished to make
the people instruments of his ambition. A man who
will flatter the mass; use false, yet captivating arguments with them; appeal to their prejudices; fall in
with their currents of feeling and opinion, even
though they may be wrong, may profess democpacy,
but he is at heart an aristocrat: he has no true love
for the people; no confidence in them; he really despises them, and looks upon them but as the despicable
tools of his ambition. Such was Caesar, and such is
always the popular demagogue. While nothing is
more noble than a true democrat — a true well-wisher
of the people-and one who honestly seeks to vindi-;cate their rights, enlighten their minds, and elevate
them in the scale of society; so nothing is more
base than a selfish desire to govern them, hidden beneath the cloak of pretended democracy.
The measures of Caesar were now so open, and his
real character so obvious, that we should wonder at
his success with the people, did we not know the
power which flattery exerts over all mankind, and
that when a man of rank and talents becomes a demagogue, he is usually more successful than other men.
It was so, at least, with Caesar., He courted the
populace on all occasions; he distributed mcney with
a lavish hand, particularly among the poorer voters.
After many intrigues, he obtained the office of
praetor, at the end of a sharply contested election.
This office was one of high dignity and trust.  The
prmtor administered justice, protected the rights of
widows and orphan s-presided at public festivals,




CESAR.                 135
was president of the senate, in the absence of the
consul, and assembled or prorogued the senate at his
pleasure. He also exhibited shows to the people, and
in the festivals of Bona Dea, where none but women
were admitted, his wife presided.
In obtaining this office, Caesar achieved a great trrhmph. He also increased his power, and reached a
situation which enabled him still more to flatter the
people.  An event, however, o curred about this
time, which gave him great annoyance. During the
ceremonies in honor of the Bona Dea, at his house, a
profligate person, named Clodius, disguised as a woman, gained access to the festivities. This caused a
great deal of scandal, and Caesar divorced his wife,
Pompeia, whom he had married after the death of
Cornelia.
In the year 63 B. C., a conspiracy, which had for
ts object the subversion of the Roman government,
was detected by Cicero, the orator, then consul. It
was headed by Cataline, a Roman nobleman of dissolute habits, whose life had been stained with many
crimes. His accomplices were men of similar character, who took an oath of fidelity to the cause, which
they sealed by drinking human blood.  After the
disclosure of the plot, Cataline braved the senate for
a time, but five of his associates being seized, he fled
to Gaul, where, having raised some troops, he was
attacked, and fell, bravely fighting to the last.
When the trial of the five accomplices came on in
the Roman senate, there was but a single person who
dared to oppose their execution, and this was Caesar.
His courage, moral or physical, neve- failed him.




136                  C~.SAR.
In policy and war, he often undertook what might
seenll the most desperate schemes, yet the event usually -bore out his judgment, or his skill and energy
generally ensured success.! In the present case, he
failed; though his speech in the senate had a wonderful effect. Even Cicero wavered. As that speech
is handed down by Sallust, it is a masterly performance. It gave Ca3sar a high place as an orator, he
being now regarded as second to Cicero alone.
iThough he did not obtain his direct object respecting
the conspirators, and was driven from his office by the
aristocratic faction, he gained more than he lost, by
/increased popularity with the plebeians.
In the year 60 B. C., when the time was approach
ing for the choice of consuls, Caesar being a candidate
the aristocratic faction saw that they could not defeat
his election; they therefore thought to check him, by
associating with him Bibulus, one of their own party.
When the election took place, Coesar and Bibulus
were chosen.  The latter was rather a weak man,
and offered no effectual obstacle to Caesar's schemes.
On one occasion, he determined to check his colleague,
and for this purpose, resorted to the use of an extreme
power, vested, however, in his hands. It was the
custom, before any public business, to consult the
augurs. These were officers of state, who were supposed to foretell future events.
The augur sat upon a high tower, where he studied the heavens, and particularly noticed comets,
thunder and lightning, rain and tempest. The chirping or flyinlg of birds-the sudden crossing of the
path by quadrupeds-accidents, such as spilling salt,




C.SAR.                  137
hearing strange noises, sneezing, stumbling, &c.-were
all esteemed ominous, and were the means by which
the socthsaycrs pretended to unravel the fate of men
aid of nations. When these gave an unfavorable
report, a consul could stop public business, and even
break up the sittings of the senate. Bibulus resorted
to the use of this power, and not only declared that
the augurs were unfavorable, but that they would be
so all the year! This extravagant stretch of authority was turned to ridicule by Caesar and his friends,
and the baffled consul, in disgust and shame, shut
himself up in his own house. Caesar was now, in
fact, the sole consul of Rome.
l Pompey the Great was at this period in the full
flush of his fame.  His military achievements had
been of the most splendid character.  He was, therefore, a man of the highest consideration, and even
superior to Caesar in standing. The latter, by a series
of intrigues, gained his favor, and these two, rivals at
heart, both yearning for supreme authority in Rome,
entered into a political alliance, which they cemented
by the marriage of Julia, Czesar's daughter, to Pompey. It mattered not, among these unscrupulous politicians, that Julia had long been betrothed to Marcus
Brutus.  Caesar, at this time, also took a wife, named
Calpurnia, daughter of Piso —a political match, which
greatly enlarged his power. Three great men were
now at the head of affairs in Rome —Cesar, Pompey,
and Crassus —and this union is called in history the
First Triumvirate.
Caesar was, however, the master as well of the
senate as of the people. By his influence, an agra
12 *




138                 CMSAR.
rian la'v was passed, for the division of some public
lands ir. Campania, among the poorer citizens, which
he carried by intimidation, Everything gave way
before him; even Cicero, who was in his way, wats
banished. Casar's desire was now to have an army
at his command: this he obtained, being appointed to
the charge of the provinces of Gaul, on both sides of
the Alps, for five years.:i 
From  this time, the history of Rome presents a
striking parallel to that of the republic of France
during Bonaparte's first campaigns in Italy. In both
cases we see a weak republic, torn by contending factions, and rather feeding discontent than seeking
tranquillity., In both cases we see vast provinces of
the distracted republic occupied by a general of unlimited powers-a man of superior, genius, desperate
resolves, and fearful cruelty-a man, who, under the
show of democratic principles and a love of the people, gains a complete ascendency over the soldiers,
that he may lead them on to victory, bloodshed, plunder, and despotism!
We shall not follow Caesar in the details of his
victorious career. It is sufficient to sa) that, in nine
campaigns, he waged war against the numerous tribes
which occupied the present territory of France, Britain, Switzerland, and Germany. Some of these were
warlike and populous nations, and frequently brought
into the field immense armies of fierce and formidable
soldiery. Though often pushed to extremity, by a
series of splendid achievements, Cesar reduced them
all to subjection at last. During this period, it is said
that he fought nearly a thousand battles, captured




C.ESAR..               139
eight hundred towns, slew a million of men, and
reduc d to captivity as many more! If the warrior's
glory is estimated by the blood he sheds, the life he
extinguishes, the liberty he destroys —Cesar's crown
must be one of surpassing splendor.
Though Caesar did not visit Rome during this long
period, he was by no means ignorant of what was
transpiring there. It was his custom to spend his
winters in Cisalpirie Gaul, that is, on the southern side
bf the Alps, about two hundred and fifty miles from
Rome. Here he was able to keep up a correspondence
with his friends, and to mingle in all the intrigues
that agitated the mighty city-the heart of the empire.
Pompey had at length broken through the alliance
with Caesar, and set up for supreme authority. It
was now understood that Caesar had similar views,
and Rome began to look with fear and trembling upon
the issue that was approaching between these powerful rivals. Pompey succeeded in getting certain acts
passed by the senate, requiring Caesar to quit his
army, and come to Rome. The latter saw danger
ir. this, and while he determined to visit Rome, he
resolved that his army should accompany him The
southern boundary of his provinces was a small
stream, called the Rubicon. When Caesar came to
this, he hesitated. To cross it with his troops, was a
declaration of war. Staggered with the greatness of
the attempt, he stopped to weigh with himself its evils
and advantages; and, as he stood revolving in his own
mind the arguments on both sides, he seemed to waver
in his opinion. In a state of doubt, he conferred
with such of his friends as were by, enumerating the




140                 C.ESAR.
calamities which the passage of that river would binmg
upon the wor.d, and the reflections that might be
made upon it by posterity. At last, upon some sudien impulse, bidding adieu to his reasonings, and
plunging into the abyss'of futurity-in the words of
those who embark in doubtful and arduous enterprises
-he cried out, " The die is cast;" and immediately
passed the river.
He now travelled with the utmost rapidity, having
but about three hundred horse and five thousand foot.
The consternation of the whole country was evinced
by the movements visible on all hands-not individuals, only, were seen wandering about, but whole cities
were broken up, the inhabitants seeking safety in
flight. Pompey himself, with his friends, fled from
Rome, and Caesar entered the city, and took posses
sion of the government without opposition.
A senate was hastily assembled, and the forms of
law observed, though in obedience to Caesar's will
He was declared dictator, and then marched to Brundusium, whither Pompey had fled. After many skirmishes, the two armies met on the plains of Pharsalia,
a town of Thessaly, in Greece, and a decisive and
bloody engagement took place. Pompey was defeated,
and, wandering like a distracted man, came at last
to Egypt, where he was treacherously murdered.
Cwesar followed, as the remorseless eagle pursues its
prey, but finding his rival slain, he repaired in triumph to Rome. These events occurred in the year
8 B. C.
After various proceedings, C esar wc b elected consuil for ten years, end declared dictator for life. The




C.ESAR.                 141
mask was now thrown off-the despot stood disclosed.
Forty senators, incensed at his subversion of the constitution of Rome, entered into a conspiracy to take
his life, and, on the 18th of  March, B. C. 44, they
stabbed him, as he was entering the senate chamber.
Proud even in death, Caesar muffled his face in his
cloak as he fell, that his expiring agonies might not
be witnessed.
Thus lived and thus died, Julius Caesar. His talents were only equalled by his ambition. If he sought
glory, it was often by worthy means-by valuable
improvements, and real benefits. Yet he hesitated
not to trample upon life, principles, bonds, rightsupon liberty —his country-everything that stood ir
the way of his towering wishes.
He left behind him an account of his battles, written from day to day, as events occurred. These are
called Commentaries, and furnish a fund of authentic
narrative for history, beside being admired for their
elegance of style. It was after a victory over Pharnaces, king of Pontus, in Asia Minor, that he used
the remarkable words, veni, vidi, vinci —" I came, I
saw, I conquered." They well express the celerity
and decision of his movements. In private affairs he
was extravagant of money; his debts at one time
amounted to eight hundred talents-almost a million of
dollars. These were paid by his friends. In public
concerns he did not appear greedy of wealth. As an
evidence of the activity and energy of his faculties,
it was said that at the same time he could employ
his ear to listen, his eye to read, his hand to write,
alid his mind to dictate. His disposition led him irre



142                  CZESA,.
sistibly to;sek dominion; in battle, he must be a con.
queror; in a republic, he must be the master.  This
leading feature in his character is well illustrated, in
his saying to the inhabitants of a village, "I would
rather'be first here, than second in Rome." His character is delineated by an eminent writer, in the following terms:1" Such was the affection of his soldiers, and their
attachment to his person, that they, who, under other
commanders, were nothing above the common rate of
men, became invincible when Caesar's glory was concerned, and met the most dreadful dangers with a
courage which nothing could rpesist.
"This courage, and this great ambition, were cultivated and cherished, in the first place, by the generous manner in which Caesar rewarded his troops,
and the honors which he paid them. His whole conduct showed that he did not accumulate riches to
minister to luxury, or to serve any pleasures of his
own, but that he laid them up in a common stock, as
prizes to be obtained by distinguished valor; and that
he considered himself no farther rich, than as he was
in a condition to do justice to the merit of his soldiers.
Another thing that contributed to make them invincil
ble, was their seeing Cesar always take his share in
the danger, and never desire any exemption from
labor and fatigue.
" As for his exposing his person to danger, they
were not surprised at it, because they knew his passion for glory; but they were astonished at his patience under toil, so far, in all appearance, above his
bodily powers; for he was of a slender make, fair,




CESAR                   143
of a delicate constitution, and subject to violent headaches, and epileptic fits. He had the first attack of
the falling sickness at Corduba. He did not, however,
make these disorders a pretence for indulging himself.
On the contrary, he sought in war a remedy for his
infirmities, endeavoring to strengthen his constitution
by long marches, by simple diet, by seldom coming
under cover. Thus he contended against his distemper, and fortified himself against its attacks.
" When he slept, it was commonly upon a march,
either in a chariot or a litter, that rest might be no
hindrance to business. In the daytime he visited the
castles, cities, and fortified camps, with a servant at his
side, and with a soldier behind, who carried his sword.
"As a warrior and a general, we behold him not
in the least inferior to the greatest and most admired
commander the world ever produced; for, whether
we compare him with the Fabii, the Scipios, the Metelli —with the generals of his own time, or those who
flourished a little before him-with Sylla, Marius, the
two Luculli, or with Pompey himself, whose fame in
every military excellence, reached the skies, Caesar's
achievements bear away the palm. One he surpassed
in the difficulty of the scene of action; another in the
extent of the' countries he subdued; this, in the numLer and strength of the enemies he overcame; that,
in the savage manners and treacherous dispositions
of the people he humanized; one, in mildness and
clemency to his prisoners; another, in bounty and
munificence to his trocps; and all, in the number of
battles that he won, and enemies that he killed.
In less than ten years' war in Gaul, he took eight




144                 CZESAR.
hundred cities by assault, conquered three hundred
nations, and fought pitched battles, at different times,
with three millions of men, one million of which he
cut in pieces, and made another million prisoners,"
Such was Caesar, one of the greatest, yet worst of
men. It appears that after his death he was enrolled
among the gods. It is evident that a people who
looked upon such a being as divine, must have worshipped power, and not virtue; and that what we
call vice and crime, were, in their view, compatible
with divinity.




- dal-*-_
I A N N I B AL.
THIS great man, a native of Carthage, and son of
Hamilcar Barcas, was born 247 B. C. At this
period, Rome and Carthage were rival powers,
and both seated upon the borders of the Mediterranean Sea. Rome had been in existence about five
hundred years, and had already extended her,conquests over Italy and a portion of Spain. She had
not yet crossed the Alps, to conquer the more northern Gauls or Goths, but she was rapidly advancing in
power; and, about a century after, Greece and Asia
Minor fell before her. Already her proud eagle be.
JT      t.-1




146               HANNIBAL.
gan to spread his wing, and whet his beak for conquest and slaughter.
- Rome was a nation of soldiers; and, paying little
respect to commerce, manufactures and productive
industry, she sought to enrich herself by robbing
other countries-thus building herself up by the very
means which the Goths and Vandals employed, seven
hundred years after, for her destruction. Carthage
was, in most respects, the opposite of Rome; her citizens were chiefly devoted to commerce and manufactures. The Mediterranean was dotted over with
her vessels, and she had numerous colonies in Spain
and along the coasts of Africa.
The city of Rome was the centre of the republic
and the seat of government. Here all the laws were
enacted; here all the military movements and other
affairs of state were decided upon. The city was at
this time nearly twenty miles in circuit, and defended
by a triple range of walls. The number of its inhabitants was several millions.
Carthage was also a vast city, situated in Africa,
about four hundred miles south-west of Rome, the
Mediterranean Sea lying between them. It originated
with a small colony of people from Tyre, a maritime
city in Syria, about a hundred years before Rome was
founded by Romulus. It increased rapidly, and became a flourishing place. The city exercised dominion
over the whole country around. Its government, as
a mixture of aristocracy and democracy; the chief
men ruling on all ordinary occasions, but sometimes
consulting the people.
The Carthaginians were an industrious nation and




HANNIBAL.                147
appear to have had no taste or leisure for the gladiator
fights, the shows of wild beasts, the theatrical exhibitions and other amusements, that excited such deep
intelest among the idle and dissipated Romans. They
were, in many respects, exemplary in their moralseven abstinence from wine being required of the
magistrates while in office.  Their religion, however,
was a gloomy superstition, and their punishments
were cruel. They even sacrificed children to their
rods, in the earlier periods of their history.
Though chiefly addicted to commerce, the Carthaginians paid great attention to agriculture. The rich
men laid out their surplus money in cultivating the
lands; and in the time of Hannibal,. the whole extent
of country around Carthage, which was the territory
now called Tunis, was covered with vast herds of the
finest cattle, fields waving with corn, vineyards and
olive grounds. There were a multitude of small villages scattered over the country; near to the great
city, the whole landscape was studded with the splendid villas of the rich citizens. To such a pitch was
the art of agriculture carried, that one Mago wrote
twenty-eight books upon the subject.  These were
carried to Rome, after the conquest of Carthage, and
greatly increased the knowledge and skill of the Romans, in the science of husbandry.
It was at a period when these two great powers
had already extended themselves so far as to come in
frequent collision, that Hannibal was born. His father
was a general, who had served in Spain and fought
against the Romans in the first Punic war. His mind
was filled with hatred of that nation; and while Hat



148                HANNIBAL.
nibal was yet a boy of nine years old, and about to
accompany his father in his Spanish campaigns, he
caused him to kneel before the altar, and swear eternal hatred to the Romans.
A.sdrubal, the brother of Hamilcar, succeeded, at
the death of the latter, to the command of the Carthaginian army in Spain; at his death, Hannibal, now
twenty-one years old, was made general of the whole
army, as well by the acclamations of the soldiers, as
the decree of the Carthaginian senate. He immediately marched against various barbarous tribes in
Spain, yet unsubdued, and quickly reduced them to
submission.
During the first Punic war, Carthage had lost her
finest colonies-the island of Sicily, as well as the
Lipari isles-all of which had fallen into the hands
of Rome. She had now recovered from the losses
of that war, and Hannibal determined to revenge the
injuries Rome had inflicted upon his country.  Accordingly, he laid siege to Saguntum, in Spain, a
large city subject to Rome, and situated on the Mediterranean, near the present town of Valencia. Faithful to their alliance, and expecting succors from Rome,
the people made the most determined resistance for
eight months. They were at last reduced to such
fearful extremity for food, that they killed their infant
children and fed upon their blood and flesh. Filled
with a horrid despair, they finally erected an immense
pile of wood, and setting it on fire, the men first hurled
their women, slaves and treasures into the blaze, and
then plunged into it themselves. Hannibal now entered the city, but, instead of finding rich spoils, he




HANNIBAL.                149
only witnessed a heap of ashes. -The solitude of that
scene might have touched even a warrior's heart.
The present town of Murviedo, the site of the ancient Saguntum and the witness of these horrid
scenes, still abounds in remains of Roman architecture.
The second Punic war was begun by these proceedings against Saguntum.  Hannibal, who had
determined upon the invasion of Italy, spent the winter in making his preparations.  Leaving a large
force in Africa, and also in Spain, to defend these
points, h3 set out, in the spring of the year 218, with
eighty thousand foot and twelve thousand horse, to
fulfil his project.
His course lay along the Mediterranean; the whole
distance to Rome being about one thousand miles by
the land route which he contemplated. When he had
traversed Spain, he came -to the Pyrenees, a range
of mountains separating that country from Gaul, now
France. Here he was attacked by wild tribes of
brave barbarians, but he easily drove them back. He
crossed the Pyrenees, traversed Gaul, and came at
last to the Alps, which threw up their frowning batt'ements, interposing a formidable obstacle between him
xand the object of his expedition. No warrior had
Lben crossed these snowy peaks with such an army;
and none but a man of that degree of resolution and
self-relionce which will not be baffled, would have
hazarded the fearful enterprise. Napoleon accomplished tlio task, two thousand years afterwards, but
with infinitely greater facilities.
Hannibal, after a march of five months, descended
13*




150                HANNIBAL.
the southern slopes of the Alps, and pourec down
upon the soft and smiling plains of Italy. The northern portion, called Cisalpine Gaul, was peopled with
Gothic tribes, long settled in the country. They were
desirous, however, of throwing off the Roman yoke,
and therefore favored the Carthaginian cause. Hannibal, whose army had been greatly reduced in his
march, especially in crossing the Alps, remained
among some of these people for a time, to recruit,
and then proceeded southward toward Rome.
On the banks of the river Tessino he was met by
a Roman army despatched against him; but, after a
bloody conflict, he was victorious. In a few weeks
he again encountered the Romans, and again he triumphed. Thus, the whole of Cisalpine Gaul tfell
into his hands, and these people, relieved from the
presence of the Roman army, aided him freely with
every kind of supplies.
Rome now presented a scene of the greatest activity. She was not yet softened by luxuries, or corrupted by indulgence; she did not, therefore, yield to
fear, as in after days, when the wild leaders of the
north poured down from the Alps, like an avalanche.
She was alarmed, but yet she met the emergency
with courage and resolution. Every artisan in the
city was busy in preparation; the senate were revolving deep schemes; generals held councils of war;
soldiers were recruited and trained. the people ran
to and fro in the streets, telling the last news, and
recounting some marvellous legend of the Carthaginians and their dreaded leader. All was bustle and
preparation.




HANNIBAL.               151
When the spring of the year 217 B. C. arrived,
two Roman armies took the field; one under the consul Flaminius, and the other under the consul Servilius. Hannibal first marched against Flaminius,
but in passing the swamps of the river Arno, his army
suffered greatly, and he himself lost one of his eyes.
Soon after this, Flaminius, who was a rash and
headstrong man, came up with him on the banks of
the lake Trasimenus, and gave the Carthaginians battle. Here, again, the genius of Hannibal triumphed.
The conflict was dreadful, and the water of the lake
where the armies met, was red with blood. But the
Romans were totally defeated.
After this event, a famous general, Quintius Fabius
Maximus, was appointed dictator of Rome, and, under
his direction, a new policy was adopted. Instead of
sending armies to act offensively against Hannibal at
a distance, the defensive system of warfare was rigidly
observed. This prudent course, adopted by Fabius,
has given a signification to his name; the Fabian
policy being a term which is used as synonymous
with prudent policy. It is thought that Washington,
in our revolutionary war, imitated this great Roman
general.
But the successes of Hannibal and the disasters of
Rome, had not yet ended. In the year 216, another
battle was determined upon, and Hannibal met the
enemy at Cannwe, near the present city of Naples.
Here, again, the Romans were defeated with dreadful
slaughter. Not less than forty thousand of their soldiers were slain. To this day, the relics of the fight
are ploughed up from the ground, and the spot where




152                HANNIBAL.
the battle took pl ee, is called the " field of blood."
If the red stain has long since vanished from the soil,
time cannot wash out the bloody record from the
memory of man.
Beside this fearful carnage, ten thousand Roman
soldiers were taken prisoners.  The Carthaginian
loss was small. We can only account for such events
as these, by the supposition that Hannibal, whose
army was scarcely half as large as that of the Romans, was a man greatly superior in capacity even
to the able and practised generals of Rome, who were
sent against him. Nothing in modern times has been
witnessed, to compare with his achievements, except
those of Napoleon, operating in the same countries,
and also contending against disciplined troops and
generals long practised in the military art.
The whole of lower Italy was now in the possession of Hannibal. He had entered the country by
the north, and, having passed Rome, was in the souther portion of the peninsula. It would seem that he
was now-near the consummation of his wishes, and
that the imperial city must fall before him; but such
was not the event. A defensive system was still observed, and the city being too formidable for attack,
Hannibal was obliged to look around for aid. He
applied to Philip of Macedon and the Syracusans,
but the Romans contrived to keep both occupied at
home.
Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, had charge of
the Carthaginian forces in Spain, where he conducted
the war with ability. In a great battle, he defeated
the Romans; and two generals, by the namne of Scipio,




HANNIBAL.                1b3
fell   Another Scipio was sent thither, and he
soon recovered in Spain what the Romans had lost
there. Hasdrubal now left that country to join his
brother, and, crossing the Alps without opposition,
reached Italy. Before he could effect the junction
he desired, he was met by the Roman forces, his
army'cut to pieces and he himself slain. Hannibal
was now obliged to act on the defensive. Yet he
continue(! to sustain himself here for a series of years
without calling upon Carthage for supplies.
Scipio, having finished the war in Spain, now
transported his army across the Mediterranean: thus
carrying the Cwar into Africa, and giving rise to an
expression still in vogue, and significant of effective
retaliation.  By the aid of Massanissa, a powerful
prince of Numidia, now Morocco, he gained two victories over the Carthaginians, who were obliged
hastily to renal their great commander from Italy.
He landed at Leptis, and advanced near Zama, five
days' journey to the west of Carthage. Here he met
the Roman forces, and here, for the first time, he suffered a total defeat. The loss of the Carthaginians
was immense, and they were obliged to sue for
peace. This was granted on humiliating terms by
Scipio, called Africanus, after this victory. Hannibal
would still have resisted, but he was compelled by
his countrymen to submit. Thus ended the second
Punic war, 200 B. C., having continued about eigh
teen years.
Hannibal now applied hirr self to the reform of
abuses in the government of Carthage. In this he
was supported by the people, out he incurred the dli



154                HANNIBAL.
like of certain leading men among his countrymen,
These, insensible to his great services, and only guided
by'their jealousy, sent to the Roman authorities certain representations, calculated to excite their suspicion and arouse their anger against him. Ambassadors were accordingly sent to Carthage, to demand
his punishment; but Hannibal, foreseeing the storm,
fled to Pyre. From this place he went to Ephesus,
and itrl.uced Antiochus to declare war against Rome,
B. C. 196. He had himself but a subordinate command, and when the war, which proved unfortunate,
was over, he was compelled to depart, and seek a
refuge with Prusias, prince of Bithynia, in Asia Minor.
The Romans, being uneasy so long as their formidable
enemy was alive, sent to Prusias to demand that he
should be given up. Hannibal, now driven to extremity, and sick of life, destroyed himself by poison, B. C.
183, in the sixty-fifth year of his age.
We have no accounts of this wonderful man except
from his enemies, the Romans, and nothing from
them but his public career. Prejudiced as are these
sources of evidence, they still exhibit him as one of
the most extraordinary men that has ever lived.
Many of the events of his life remind us of the career
of Napoleon. Like him, he crossed the Alps with a
great army; like him, he was repeatedly victorious
over disciplined and powerful forces in Italy; like him,
he was finally overwhelmed in a great battle; like
him, he was a statesman as well as a general; like him,
he was the idol of the army; like him, he was finally
driven from his country and died in exile. No one
achievement of Bonaparte's life was equal to that of
IHannibal in crossing the Alps, if we conside r the dif



HANNIBAL.                156
ficulties he had to encounter; nor has anything in
generalship surpassed the ability he displayed in sustaining himself and his army, for sixteen years, in
Italy, in the face of Rome, and without asking for
assistance from his own country.
During this whole period he never once dismissed
his forces, and though they were composed of Africans, Spaniards, Gauls, Carthaginians and Greekspersons of different laws, languages and habits-never
was anything like mutiny displayed among them.
How wonderful was the genius that held such a vast
number of persons-the fiery spirits of so many different nations-subject to one will, and obedient to one
authority! Where can we look for evidence of talent
superior to this? We cannot doubt that Hannibal, in
addition to his great mind, possessed those personal
qualifications, which enabled him to exercise powers
of fascination over all those persons who came into
his presence; and that, in this respect too, he bore a
resemblance to Napoleon.
We may not approve, yet we can hardly fail to
admire, the unflinching hostility of-Hannibal to Rome.
He had been taught this in his childhood; it came
with the first lessons of life, and from the lips of a
father; he had sworn it at the altar. Rome was the
great enemy of his country; and as he loved the last,
he must hate the first. His duty, his destiny, might
serve to impel him to wage uncompromising war
against Rome; for this he lived-for this, at last, he
died.
Nor can we believe that this sentiment, which
formed the chief spring of his actions, was unmixed




156                HANNIBAL.
with patriotism. Indeed, this was doubtless at its
very root. It was for the eclipse that she cast over
Carthage, that he would annihilate Rome. It was
from a conviction that one of these great powers must
give way to the other-that the existence of Rome
boded destruction to Carthage-that he waged uncompromising and deadly war upon the former.
That Hannibal was patriotic, is evinced also by the
reforms which he sought to effect in the government
of his country. These had for their object the benefit of the people at large. For this, he obtained the
confidence of the mass, while he incurred the hostility of the few. It is no evidence against him
that he fell a victim to the jealousy thus excited, for
such has too often been the fate of the lover of his
c )untry.




ALEXANDER, KING OF MACEDON.
IT is now somewhat more than two thousand years
since this warrior flourished; yet his image continues
to stand out from the page of history in bold relief,
se,eming not only to claim our attention, but to challenge our admiration. A brief outline of his history
may enable us to judge upon what basis this undying
fatne is founded.
Alexander was born 354 B. C., on the same day
that Erostratus destroyed the famous temple of Diana
at Ephesus, by fire. A wit of the time remarked
that "it was no wonder that the temple of Diana
should be burnt at Ephesus, while the goddess was at
Macedon, attending the birth of Alexander." Plutarch observes that this witticism was frigid enough
iI.-14




158               ALEXANDER.
to have extinguished the flames. Philip, Alexander's
father, being absent at the time of his birth, received
three messages in one day: the first informed him
thai his general, Parmenio, had won a great battle;
the second, that his horse had gained the prize at the
Olympic games; the third, that his wife had borne
him a son.
At the time of Alexander's birth, Macedonia, which
lay north of Greece, and now constitutes that part of
Turkey called Romelia, had become a warlike and
powerful kingdom. Philip was not only an able
warrior, but an ambitious and sagacious statesman.
He greatly civilized his own people, trained them to
arms, and added to his kingdom several adjacent
states. By a series of victories and crafty negotiations
he had also become the nominal protector, but real
master of Greece. It was against the insidious policy
of Philip that Demosthenes pronounced his caustic
speeches, which gave rise to the term " Philippics."
Although Philip was ruthless in war and unscrupulous in policy, still he was a very enlightened
prince. He understood many of the arts, customs
and feelings which belong to civilization; nor was he
destitute of noble traits of character. We are told
that a Grecian, named Arcadius, was constantly railing against him. Venturing once into the dominions
of Philip, the courtiers suggested to their prince that
he had now an opportunity to punish Arcadius for
his past insults, and to put.t out of his power to repeat them. The king took their advice, but in a difforent way. Instead of se'zing the hostile stranger
and putting him to death, he sent for him, and then




ALEXANDER.                159
caused him to be dismissed, loaded with courtesies
and kindness.
Some time after Arcadius' departure from Macedon, word was brought that the king's old enemy had
become one of his warmest friends, and did nothing
but diffuse his praises wherever he went. On hearing this, Philip turned to his courtiers, and said with
a smile, " Am not I a better physician than you are?"
We are also told of numerous instances in which
Philip treated his prisoners of war with a kindness
quite unusual in the barbarous age in which he lived.
Though dissolute in private life, as a prince he was
far in advance of his nation in all that belongs to
civilization.
No better evidence of his enlightened views can be
required than is afforded by the pains he bestowed
upon the education of Alexander, his eldest son, and
heir to his throne. He obtained for him the best
masters, and finally placed him under the care of
Aristotle, then the most learned and famous philosopher of Greece, and one of the most extraordinary
men that ever lived.  It cannot but be interesting
and instructive to trace the history of the greatest
warrior, who was, at the same time, the pupi. of the
greatest philosopher, of antiquity.
Alexander was an apt and attentive student, and
easily mastered the studies to which he applied. He
was somewhat headstrong if treated with harshness,
and he resisted, if an attempt was made to drive him.
He, however, was docile and obedient when treated
gently.'It would seem, that, in this at least, he was
very much like the clever boys of our own day. He




160                ALEXANDER.
mastered not only matters of science, but polite literature also. HIe was greatly delighted with Homer's
Iliad, and, it is thought, modelled himself upon the
warlike heroes of that poem. In after days, even in
his campaigns, he took a copy of this work with him,
and in the camp, read it at moments of leisure, ard
slept with it at night beneath his pillow.
Alexander was greatly attached to Aristotle during
his pupilage, though he changed both in feeling and
conduct towards him afterwards. Philip seems to
have formed a high estimate of the services rendered
by Aristotle.  The latter being born at Stagira-and
hence called the Stagirite-which had been dismantled, Philip ordered it, in compliment to the philosopher, to be rebuilt, and re-established there the inhabitants which had either fled or been reduced to
slavery.  He also ordered a beautiful promenade,
called Mirza, to be prepared on the borders of the
river, for the studies and literary conversation of the
people. Here were shown, even in the time of Plutarch, Aristotle's stone seats and shady walks.
It is interesting to remark here, that both Philip
and Alexander, powerful sovereigns and men of great
minds, were yet inferior, in what constitutes greatness,
to Aristotle.  They treated him, indeed, as their inferior-an object of their patronage; and it is also fue,
that both Philip and Alexander are remembered at
the present day; but the consequences of their actions ceased ages ago. Not so with Aristotle: his
books being preserved, have come down to our times,
and for two thousand years have been constantly exercising a powerful influence over mankind. There




AI EXANDER.               161
can be nu doubt, there-ore, that the school-master is
infinitely above the prince; the one lives for a generation, the other for all time; the one deals with external things which perish; the other with knowledge,
science-principles-which never die. The one is a
being of action, the other of mind; the one may
be great for a brief space in the eye of vulgar observation, but he is soon quenched in utter oblivion; the
other, though his body be dead, still lives. by the
power of the spirit. It is desirable to impress this
truth on our hearts, for it shows that true glory lies
in cultivating and exercising the mind; while, in
comparison, it is a poor and mean ambition, which
incites us to seek only worldly power or wealth or
station.
At an early period, Alexander displayed noble
qualities, amid some vices. He was exceedingly ambitious, and when news came that his father had
taken some strong town, or won some great battle,
"My father will conquer," he exclaimed impatiently,
" the whole world, and will leave nothing for me to
conquer."  Though in the light of our Christian philosophy, nothing more wicked than the feelings here.displayed' could exist, still it accorded with the education he had received, and was an earnest of that
love of war and conquest which signalized his after
career. It may be stated, also, that Alexander did
not value riches or pleasure, in his youth, but seemed
to be always excited by a love of glory; he did not'
desire a kingdom that should afford him opulence
and the means of luxury, but one that would bring
wars and conflicts, and the full exercise of ambition.
K        14#




162               ALEXANr)En.
A sid portrait this, viewed in the light of our datyyet the very description of a hero, and almost of a
god, in the age and country in which he lived.
When Alexander was about twelve years old, a
horse was brought for sale from Thessaly called Bucephalus. The price required was about ~2,500 sterling,
or $12,000.  Yet when any one attempted to nmount
him, he became restive and unmanageable. Philip was
incensed that such a price should be asked tfor so
vicious a beast, but Alexander had observed him carefully, and saw that he was indeed, a noble creature.
He therefore wished to try him. - His father rebuked
him sharply, but the prince persevered, and desired
to mount the horse. " If you are ndt able to ride him
upon trial," said Philip, " what forfeit will you pay?"
" The price of the horse," said Alexander. This produced a laugh rather at Alexander's expense-but the
forfeit was agreed upon, and he ran to the horse.
He had observed that he was startled at his shadow,.the sun shining very brightly; so he turned his head
to the sun, leaped lightly upon his back, obtained a
firm seat, and gave the animal the rein. The noble
beast felt, with that quick intelligence of which his
race is capable, that one worthy to be his master was
on his back, and set forward. Finding him inclined
to run, AleA.nder, nothing daunted, but with a spfrit
as wild and fearless as his own) and no doubt with a
bounding and joyous sympathy, gave him the spur,
and made him fly over the plain.
Philip and all his courtiers around him were
greatly frightened at first, but soon Alexander wheeled
Bucephalus about, and rode him back to the I lace




ALEXANDER.                163
from which he started. The animal was completely
subdued; yet there was something in his proud look,
as he now stood still before the hdmiring throng,
which seemed to say, "I yielded, but only to one
worthy of being a conqueror."  Alexai.der was received by a shout of acclamation —but Philip was
overcome by the noble chivalry of his boy, and wept
in very joy. " Seek another kingdom, my son!"
said he, in the fulness of his heart, " for Macedon is
too small for thee!" Such was the value in those
days set upon personal gallantry and courage; and we
know that these qualities are of the utmost importance, when hard blows usually decide the fate of empires.
Everything seemed to show that Alexander had
very early acted under the idea of being a king, and
of pursuing, in that character, a career of conquest.
No doubt all around him, the courtiers, his father and
mother, and his teachers had thus trained him, and
no doubt all this coincided with his natural turn of
mind. He not only showed personal courage, but a
precocious desire of practical knowledge. When less
than twelve years of age, ambassadors came to visit
the court of Macedon from Persia. Philip was absent, and Alexander therefore received them with
great politeness, and a sobriety quite astonishing.
He asked no trifling or childish questions; but made
a great many inquiries about the roads to Persia;
the distance from place to place; the situation of
certain provinces; the character of their king; how
he treated his enemies; in what the power of Persia lay, &c. All thJi astonished the ambassadors,




164.             ALEXANDER.
who, in their excitement, exclaimed, "The boasted
sagacity of Philip is nothing to the lofty and enterprising genius of his son! "  Such, indeed, were the
striking qualities of young Alexander, that the people
of Macedon, in their admiration, called the youth
king, and his fah(,r only general!
Philip was pleased with all this, but as hlexander
grew older, troubles sprung up between them. Olympias, the mother of Alexander, was a woman of fierce
and restive temper, and she was justly,incensed by
a foolish marriage which Philip made with a young
lady, named Cleopatra. At the celebration of this union
there was great festivity, and the king got drunk.
Alexander's mind, having been poisoned by his
mother, was in such a state of irritation, that he
spoke rudely at the feast. Philip drew his sword,
but his passion and the wine he had drunk, caused
him to stumble, and he fell upon the floor. " See,"
said Alexander, insolently-" men of Macedon, see
there the man who was preparing to pass from Europe into Asia! He is not able to pass from one
table to another!"  After this insult, he left the table,
and taking his mother, they repaired to Epirus.
Here they spent some time, but Philip at last induced them to come back. Other troubles, however,
arose, and fina.ly king Philip was slain by Pausanius,
whom he had injured. Olympias was thought to
nave incited the young man to this desperate act, and
suspicion of participation fell upon AIexander.
The latter, now twenty years of age, succeeded to
his father's throne. His dominion extended over
Macedon and the adjacent tribes to the north, includ




ALEXANDER.                 165
ing nearly the whole of that territory which now
forms a part of Turkey, and lies between Greece, and
the Argentaro mountains. Macedonia itself, was far
less civilized than the southern parts of Greece: the
people were, indeed, men of a different race, being
esteemed barbarous, though the kings claimed to
have been of Hellenic origin, and even to trace their
lineage to Achilles and Hercules.  The nation was
much softened in its manners by the wise administration of Philip, while, at the same time, they were
carefully trained in the art of war. The surrounding
tribes, still more savage than his own people, and
often giving exercise to his arms, still served to fill
his ranks with the most daring and powerful soldiery.
Greece, too, constituted a part of the kingdom now
left to the youthful Alexander. But his father had
only conquered, not consolidated into one empire, his
vast dominions. Upon his death, the barbarians on
the north, and the states of Greece at the south, feeling themselves liberated from a tyrant, and little
fearing a youth of twenty, either revolted or showed
a disposition to revolt. Alexander's advisers recommended him to give up Greece, and seek only to subdue the barbarous tribes around him, and to do this
by mild measures.
Such a course did not suit the young king. He
took the opposite course; marched north as far as the
Danube, defeating his principal enemy, and thus
securing submission to his authority in that quarter
He then pushed southward, and fell upon the restive
Thebans, destroying their city, and reducing the place
to a mere heap of ghastly ruins! No less than six




166               ALEXANDER.
thousand of the inhabitants were slain in battle, and
three thousand were sold as slaves!
In the midst of the horrors which took place
immediately after Thebes was taken-fire and the
sword, slaughter, rapine, violence, raging on all
sides-a party of savage Thracians, belonging to Alexander's army, demolished the house of Timocle.a, a
woman of high standing and quality. Having carried
off the booty found in her house, and shamefully
abused the lady, the captain asked her if she had not
some gold and silver concealed. She replied that she
had-and taking him alone into the garden, showed
him a well, in which she said she had thrown everything of value when the city was taken. The officer
stooped to look into the well, when the lady pushed
him down, and rolling stones down upon him, soon
despatched him. The Thracians, coming up, found
what she had done, and, binding her hands, took her
to Alexander. When he asked her who she was" A sister of Theagenes," said she, proudly and fearlessly, —" a Theban general, who fought for the
liberty of Greece, against the usurpation of Philipand fell gloriously at the battle of Cheronaea!"  Alexander was so much struck by her noble mien and
patriotic sentiments, that he caused her and her children to be set at liberty.  Such are the fez rays of
light, that flash across the dark path of the conqueror!
Greece was soon brought to a state of submission
and, as Alexander now contemplated an expedition
against Darius, king of Persia, the several states,
having held an a ssembly at Corinth, concluded to




ALEXANDER.                167
furnish their quota of supplies. Many statesmen and
philosophers came to Corinth, where Alexander was
to congratulate him upon this result; but the king
was disappointed to find that Diogenes, the cynic philosopher, was not among the number. As he desired
greatly to see him, he went to his residence in the
suburbs of the city, to pay him a visit. He found
the philosopher, basking in the sun; at the approach
of so many people, he carelessly roused himself a little, and happened to fix his eyes on Alexander-" Is
there anything," said the king, condescendingly-" in
which I can serve you? "-" Only stand a little out of
my sunshine," said Diogenes. This answer produced
a laugh among the crowd, who thought it mere vulgarity; but Alexander saw deeper, and, reflecting upon
that superiority, which could regard even his presence
without surprise, and look with disdain upon his gifts,
remarked, " that if he were not Alexander, he would
wish to be Diogenes."
Alexander set out, in the spring of the year 334 B. C.,
upon his expedition against Persia-from which, however, he never returned. He had thirty thousand
foot, and five thousand horse, and a supply of money.
His troops were well armed, the infantry bearing
shields, spears, and battle-axes of iron; the horse were
equipped with similar weapons, but defended with helmets and breastplates. The officers all bore swords.
The arms of thb  Persians' were similar, though many
of their troops used the bow: the forces of Alexander were, however, better provided, better trained,
and far more athletic than their Asiatic enemies.
We must pause a moment to look at that mighty




168               ALEXANDER.
power which had now swallowed up Assyria, Babylon,
and the countries from the Grecian Archipelago on the
west, to India on the east; an extent of territory nearly
three thousand miles in length, and comprehending
at once the most fertile and populous region on the
face of the globe.  Such were the power and resources of the Persian empire, that, about one hundred and fifty years prior to the date of which we are
speaking, it had sent an army, with its attendants, of
five millions of persons, to conquer that very Greece,
which was now preparing to roll back the tide of war,
and put a final period to its proud existence.
The reigning king of Persia was Darius III., a weak
but conceited monarch, who held his court at the
splendid city of Persepolis, which had long been the
capital of the empire. His situation was very similar to that of the sultan of Turkey at the present day.
The Persians, though their king ruled over almost
countless nations, were comparatively few in number.
His revenue was derived from the tribute of dependent princes, and the extortions made by his own
satraps or governors. His empire, consisting of se
many nations, required constant watchfulness, to keep
all parts m subjection; and as the Asiatic troops were
inferior, he kept in his pay, at all times, a considerable number of renegade Greeks, as soldiers.;
Being made aware'of the design of Alexander,
Darius sent a vast army westward, and marching into
Syria himself, determined there to await his enemy.
Alexander crossed the Propontis, now Sea of Marmora,
which immediately brought him into Asia Minor, and
the dominions of Persia. As soon as he landed, he




ALEXANDER'.               169
went to Ilium, the scene of the Trojan war, and the
ten years' siege of Troy, celebrated in the Iliad. He
anointed the pillar upon Achilles' tomb with oiland he and his friends ran naked around it, according
to the custom which then prevailed. He also adorned
it with a wreath, in the form of a crown. These ceremonies are supposed to have been intended to enforce
the belief that he was descended from Achilles- a
claim which he always maintained.
Meantime, the Persian generals had pushed forward
and posted themselves upon the banks of the Granicus, a small river now called Ousvola, which empties
into the sea of Marmora. Alexander led the attack
upon them by plunging into the river with his horse.
He advanced, with thirteen of his troop, in the face
of a cloud of arrows; and though swept down by the
rapidity of the current, and opposed by steep banks
lined with cavalry, he forced his way, by irresistible
strength and impetuosity, across the stream. Standing upon the muddy slope, his troops were now obliged
to sustain a furious attack, hand to hand, and eye to
eye. The Persian troops, cheered by their vantage
ground, pushed on with terrific shouts, and hurled
their javelins, like snow-flakes, upon the Macedonians.
Alexander, being himself distinguished by his buck.
ler and crest, decorated with white plumes, was the
special obje-:t of attack. His cuirass was pierced by
a javelin, at the joint; but thus far he was unhurt.
Now he was assailed by two chiefs of great distinc.
tion. Evading one, he engaged the other; after a
desperate struggle, in which his crest was shorn
away, and his helmet cleft to his hair, he slew one of
I.- 15




170               ALEXANDER.
the chiefs, and was saved, at the moment of deadly
peril, by the hand of his friend Clytus, who despatched
the other.
While Alexander's cavalry were fighting with the
utmost fury, the Macedonian phalanx and the infantry crossed the river, and now engaged the enemy.
The effect of a leader's example was never more displayed. Alexander's exhibition of courage and prowess, made every soldier a hero. They fought, indeed,
like persons who knew nothing, and cared for nothing,
but to destroy the enemy. Some of the Persians gave
way and fled. Their hireling Greeks, however, maintained the fight, and Alexander's horse was killed under
him-but not Bucephalus. "When Greek meets
Greek, then comes the tug of war." The fight was,
indeed, severe, but at last Alexander triumphed. The,ictory was complete. The loss of the Persians was
twenty-five thousand slain; that of the Macedonians
less than fifty.
Alexander had now passed the gates of Asia, and
had obtained entrance into the dominions of the enemy. He paused for a time to pay the last honors to
the dead. To each, he erected a statue of brass, executed by Lysippus. Upon the arms which were taken
and distributed among the troops, he caused this inscription to be made: —" Won by Alexander, of the
barbarians in Asia!"
We may pause here to note that Bonaparte seems
to have imitated the Macedonian conqueror in this
kind of boasting. As he was on his march to Russia,
he caused to be graven on a stone fouhtain at Coblentz upon the Rhine, as follows:




ALEXANDER.               171
"Year MDCCCXII. Memorable for the campaign
against Russia. 1812."
The Russian commander, when Napoleon had been
dethroned, passing through Coblentz with his troops,
caused to be carved, immediately beneath as follows:
" Seen and approved by the Russian co nmander of
the town of Coblentz, January 1, 1814."
It is true that no such speedy retort awaited the
Macedonian conqueror, yet he was bound upon an
errand which was ere long to put a period to his proud
career.
Alexanderf soon pushed on to the East, and, meeting Darius near the Gulf of Issus, now Aias, and
forming the north-eastern point of the Mediterranean,
a tremendous engagement took place. Darius was
defeated, and more than one hundred thousand of his
soldiers lay dead on the field. Darius escaped with
difficulty, leaving his tent, and even his wife and
daughter, in the hands of the enemy. When the
fighting was over, Alexander went to see the tent of
Darius. It was, indeed, a curiosity to one like the
Macedonian king, little acquainted with eastern refinements. He gazed for a time at the luxurious baths of
Darius; his vases, boxes, vials and basins, all of
wrought gold; he inhaled the luscious perfumes, and
surveyed the rich silk drapery and gorgeous furniture
of the tent-and then exclafted, contemptuously" This, then, it seems, is to be a king,"-intimating
that if these were the only distinctions of a king, the
title deserved contempt.
While Alexander was thus occupie(d, he was told
that the wife and daughter of Darius were his cap



172               ALEXANDER.
tives. The queen was one of the loveliest women
that was ever known, and his daughter was.lso exceedingly beautiful. Though Alexander was told all
this, he sent word to the afflicted ladies that they need
have no fear; and he caused them to be treated with
the utmost delicacy and attention.  He refrained from
using his power in any way to their annoyance; and
thus displayed one of the noblest graces of a gentleman and a man-a nice regard for the feelings of the
gentler sex.  This anecdote of the conqueror has
shed more honor upon his name for two thousand
years, than the victory of the Issus; nor will it cease
to be cited in his praise, as long as history records his
name.
The historians represent Alexander as simple in
his tastes and habits at this period. He was temperate in eating, drank wine with great moderation,
and if he sat long at table, it was for the purpose of
conversation, in which he excelled, though given to
boasting of his military exploits.  When business
called, nothing could detain him; but in times of leisure, his first business in the morning was to sacrifice
to the gods. He then took his dinner, sitting. The
rest of the day he spent in hunting, or deciding differen2es among his troops, or in reading and writing.
Sometimes he would exercise himself in shooting or
darting the javelin, or in mounting and alighting from
a chariot in full career. Sometimes, also, he diverted
himself with fowling and fox-hunting.  His chief
meal was supper, which he took at evening, and in a
recumbent posture, with his friends around him.
He was not fond of delicacies, and though they were




ALEXANDER.               173
always found at his table, he usually sent them to
others. Such was Alexander during the early periods of his campaigns in Asia.
After various operations, Alexander marched against
Phoenicia and Sidon, which submitted at once. Tyre
resisted, but, after a siege of seven months, was
taken by storm. Eight thousand Tyrians fell in the
onslaught, and thirty thousand captives were sold into
slavery. Gaza was now taken, after a siege of two
months. Alexander then marched to Jerusalem, to
punish the inhabitants for refusing to supply him
with men and money. The high priest, Jaddus,'went forth to meet the conqueror, attended by the
priests and the people, with all the imposing emblems
and signs of the Jewish religion. Alexander was so
struck with the spectacle, that he pardoned the people, adored the name of the Most High, and performed
sacrifices in the temple, according to the instructions
of Jaddus.  The book of the prophet Daniel was
shown to him, and the passage pointed out in which
it was foretold that the king of Grecia would overcome the king of Persia, with which he was well
pleased.
The conqueror now turned his arms against Egypt,
which yielded without striking a blow.  Having
established the government on a liberal footing, he
set out, A. D. 331, to attack the Persian king, who
had gathered an army of a million of men, and was
now in Persia. About this time, he received a letter
from Darius, in which that prince proposed, on condition of a pacification and future friendship, to pay him
ten thousand talents in ransom of his prisoners, to
15*




174               ALEXANDER.
cede him all the countries on this side the Euphrates,
and to give him his daughter in marriage. Upon
his communicating these proposals to his friends, Parmenio said, "If I were Alexander, I would accept
them."  " So would I," said Alexander, " if I were
Parmenio." The answer he gave Darius, was, " that
if he would come to him, he should find the best of
treatment; if not, he must go and seek him."
In consequence of this declaration, he began his
march; but he repented that he had set out so soon,
when he received information that the wife of Darius
was dead. That princess died in childbed; and the
concern of Alexander was great, because he lost an
opportunity of exercising his clemency. All he could
do was to return, and bury her with the utmost magnificence.
Alexander, having subdued various places that held
out against him, now proceeded in his march against
Darius. He found him with his immense army encamped on the banks of the Bumadus, a small river in
what is now called Kourdistan. Alexander immediately approached, and prepared for battle. Being
near the enemy at night, the murmur of the immense
multitude, seeming like the roaring of the sea, startled
one of Alexander's friends, who advised him to attack
them in the night. The reply was, " I will not steal
a victory!"
During that night, though it was foreseen that a
dreadful and doubtful battle was to be fought the next
day, Alexander, having made his preparations, slept
soundly. In the morning, on the field, he wore a
short coat, girt close about him; over that, a breast.




ALEXANDER.                l 7.
plate of linen strongly quilted, which he had taken
in the battle of the Issus. His helmet was of polished
iron, and shone like silver. To this was fixed a gorget, set with precious stones. His sword was light,
and of the finest temper. The belt he wore was superb and was given him by the Rhodians, as a mark
of respect. In reviewing and exercising, he spared
Bucepha.us, but he rode him in battle, and when he
mounted his back it was always a signal for the onset,
Aristander, the soothsayer, rode by the side of
Alexander, in a white robe, and with a golden crown
upon his head. He looked up, and lo, an eagle was
sailing over the army! His course was towards the
enemy.- The army caught sight of the noble bird,
and, taking it for a good omen, they now charged the
enemy like a torrent. They were bravely resisted,
but Alexander and his troops burst down upon them
like an overwhelming avalanche, cutting their way
towards the tent of Darius. The path was impeded
by the slaughtered heaps that gathered before them,
and their horses were embarrassed by the mangled and
dying soldiers, who clung to the legs of the animals,
seeking in their last agonies to resist them. Darius,
now in the utmost peril, turned to fly, but his chariot
became entangled  in the slain.  Seeing this, he
nounted a swift horse, and fled to Bactriana, where
he was treacherously murdered by Bessus.
Alexander was now declared king of all Asia, and,
though this might seen the summit of his glory, it
was the point at which his character begins to decline.
He now affected the pomp of an eastern prince, and
addicted himself to dissipation. He, however, contin



176               ALEXANDER.
ued his conquests. He marched to Babylon, which
opened its gates for his reception. He proceeded to
Persepolis, which he took by surprise. Here, in a
drunken frolic, and instigated by an abandoned woman,
named Thais, he set fire to the palace, which was
burnt to the ground.
He now marched into Parthia, and, meeting with a
beautiful princess, named Roxana, daughter of a Bactrian king, he fell in love with her, and married her.
Some time after this, upon some suspicion of the
fidelity of Philotas, the son of Parmenio, he caused
him'to be put to the torture till he died. He then
sent orders to have his father, an old and faithful soldier, who had fought under Philip, and who was now
in Media, to be put to death, which were but too
faithfully executed. This horrid transaction was soon
followed by another, still more dreadful. Under the
excitement of wine, a dispute arose between Alexander and Clytus, the brave officer who had saved his
life at the battle of the Granicus.
Both became greatly excited: taunts and gibes
were uttered on either side. Alexander, unable longer
to keep down his rage, threw an apple in tie face of
Clytus, and then looked about for his sword; but one
of his friends had prudently taken it away. Clytus
was now forced out of the roonl, but he soon came
back, and repeated the words of Euripides, meaning
to apply them to Alexander:
" Are these your cuetoms?-Is it thus that Greece
Rewards her combatants? Shall one man claim
The trophies won by thousands?"
The conqueror was now wholly beside himself.




ALEXANDER.                177
He seized a spear from one of the guards. and, at a
plunge, ran it through the body of Clytus, whc fell
dead, uttering a dismal groan as he expired.
Alexander's rage subsided in a moment. SEeing
his friends standing around in silent astonishment, he
hastily'drew out the spear, and was applying it to
his own throat, when his guards seized him, and carried him by force to his chamber. Here the pangs
of remorse stung him to the quick. Tears fell fast
for a time, and then succeeded a moody, melancholy
silence, only broken by groans. His friends attempted
in vain to console him. It was not till after long and
painful suffering, that he was restored-to his wonted
composure.
Alexander now set out for the conquest of India,
then a populous country, and the seat of immense
wealth. After a series of splendid achievements, he
reached the banks of the Hydaspes, a considerable
stream that flows into the Indus. Here he was met by
Porus, an Indian king, with an army, in which were
a large number of elephants. A bloody'battle followed, in which Alexander was victorious and Porus
made captive. " How do you wish to be treated? " said
Alexander to the unfortunate monarch.  "Like a
king," was the brief, but significant reply. Alexander
granted his request, restored his dominions and much
enlarged them, making him, however, one of his tributaries.
The conqueror, not yet satisfied, wished to push
on to the Ganges; but his army refusing to go farther, he was forced to return.  On his way back, he
paid a visit to the )cean, and, in a battle with some
I.




178               ALEXANDER.
savage tribes, being severely wounded, he came neai
losing his life. On the borders of the sea, he and his
companions first saw the ebbing and flowing of the
tide,-a fact of which they were lefore entirely ignorant.  In this expedition the army suffered greatly:
when it set out for India, it consisted of 150,000 men:
on its retu.n, it was reduced to one fourth of that
number.
Coming to a fertile district, Alexander paused to
recruit, and refresh his men. He then proceeded,
keeping up a kind of bacchanalian fete, in which the
whole army participated. His own chariot was drawn
by eight horses: it consisted of a huge platform




ALEXANDER.                179
where he and his friends revelled, day and night.
This carriage was followed by ethers, some covered
with rich purple silk and others with fresh boughs.
In these were the generals, crowned with flpwers, and
inebriated with wine. In the immense procession
there was not a spear, helmet, or buckler, but in their
places cups, flagons, and goblets. The whole country
resounded with flutes, clarionets, and joyous songs.
The scene was attended with the riotous dances and
frolics of a multitude of women.  This licentious
march continued for seven days.
When he arrived at Susa, in Persia, he married a
great number of his friends to Persian ladies. He
set the example by taking Statira, daughter of Darius,
to himself, and gave her sister to Hephbestion, his
dearest friend. He now made a nuptial feast for the
newly-married people, and nine thousand persons sat
down to the entertainment. Each one was honored
with a golden cup.
On his return to Babylon, Alexander determined
to make that place his residence and capital, and set
about various plans for carrying tl is into effect.  But
his mind seemed haunted with superstitious fears.
Everything tha: happened was construed into an
augury of evil.  The court swarmed with sacrifices
and soothsayers, but still, for a long time, peace could
not be obtained by the monarch.
At last he seemed to be relieved, and being asked
by Medias to a carousal, he drank all day and all
night, until he found a fever coming upon him. He
then desisted, but it was too late. The disease increased, setting at defiance every attempt at remedy,




180               ALEXANDER.
and in the space of about thirty days he died. Sucl}
was the miserable end of Alexander the Great. His
wife, Roxana, with the aid of Perdiccas, murdered
Statira and her sister, and the empire of the mighty
conqueror was divided between four of his officers.
The great achievement of Alexander —the grand
result of his life-was the subjugation of the Persian
monarchy, which lay like an incubus upon the numerous nations that existed between the Indus and
the Euxine sea, and at the same time intercepted the.
communication between Europe and Asia. It was
an achievement far greater than it would be now to
overthrow the Ottoman throne, and give independence to the various tribes and states that are at present under its dominion. That he accomplished this
work for any good motive, we cannot maintain, for
his whole course shows, that, like all other conquerors, his actions began and terminated in himself.
The character of Alexander has been delineated in
the course of this brief sketch. We have not been
able to give the details of all his battles, marches, and
countermarches. His achievements were indeed stu
pendous. He crossed the Propontis in 334, and died
in 323. It was in the brief space of eleven years,
and at the age of thirty-three, that he had accomplished the deeds of which we have given a naked
outline. Nor was he a mere warrior. He displayed
great talents as a statesman, and many of the traits
of a gentleman. His whole life, indeed, was founded
upon an atrocious wrong-that one man may sa rifice
millions of lives for his own pleasure-but this was
the error of the age. As before intimated, considered




ALEXANDER.                181
tn the light of Christianity, he was a monster; yet,
according to the heathen model, he was a hero, and
almost a god.
In seeking for the motives which impelled Alexander forward in his meteor-like career, we shall see
Ihat it was the love of glory —an inspiration like that
of the chase, in which the field is an empire, and the
game a monarch. In this wild ambition, he was
stimulated by the Iliad of Homer, and it was his darling dream to match the bloody deeds of its heroesAjax and Achilles.  It is impossible to see in his
conduct, anything which shows a regard to the permanent happiness of mankind. He makes war, as if
might were the only test of right; and he sacrifices
nations to his thirst of conquest, with as little question of the rectitude of his conduct, as is entertained
by the lion when he slays the antelope, or the sportsman when he brings down his game.
Although we see many noble traits in Alexander,
the real selfishness of his character is evinced in his
famous letter to Aristotle. The latter, having puolished some of his works, is sharply rebuked by the
conqueror, who says to him —" Now that you have
done this, what advantage have I, your pupil, over
the rest of mankind, since you have put it in the
power of others to possess the knowledge which
before was only imparted to me!"  What can be
more narrow and selfish than this? Even the current standard of morals in Alexander's time, would
condemn this as excessive meanness.
We must not omit to record the last days of one
that figures in Alexander's annals, and is hardly less
ii.-16




182               ALEXANDER.
famous than the conqueror himself —we mean his
noble horse, Bucephalus.  This animal, more -renowned than any other of his race, died on the banks
of the Hydaspes. Craterus was ordered to superintend the building of two cities, one on each side of
this river. The object was to secure the passage in
future. That on the left bank was named Nicaa, the
other Bucephala, in honor of the favorite horse, which
had expired in battle without a wound, being worn
out by age, heat, and over-exertion. He was then
thirty years old. He was a large, powerful, and spirited horse, and would allow no one but Alexander to
mount him. From a mark of a bull's head imprinted
on him, he derived his name, Bucephalus; though
some say that lie was so called in consequence of
having in his forehead a white mark resembling a
bull's head.
Once this famous charger, whose duties were restricted to the field of battle, was intercepted, and fell
into the hands of the Uxians. Alexander caused a
proclamation to be made, that, if Bucephalus were
not restored, he would wage a war of extirpation
against the whole nation. The restoration of the
animal instantly followed the receipt of this notification; so great was Alexander's regard for his horse
and so great the terror of his name among the barba
rians. "Thus far," writes Arrian, " let Bucephalus
be honored by me, for the sake of his master."




ARISTOTLE.
THIS great philosopher was born at Stagiri, or
Stageira, in Macedonia, 384 B. C. His father, physician to Amyntas II., king of Macedonia, commenced
the education of his son, intending to prepare him
for his own profession; and the studies pursued by
the latter with this object, doubtless laid the foundation for that love of natural history, which he displayed through life, and which he cultivated with
such success.
Aristotle lost both his parents while he was still
young. After their death, he was brought up under
Proxenes, a citizen of Mysia, in Asia Minor, who had
settled in Stagira.  Aristotle testified his gratitude to
Proxenes an I his wife, by directing, in his will, that




184                ARISTOTLE.
statues of them should be executed at his expense
and set up as his parents. He also educated their
son Nicanor, to whom he gave his daughter Pythias
in marriage.
In his eighteenth year, Aristotle left Stagira and
went to Athens, the centre of letters and learning in
Greece-doubtless attracted thither by the fame of
the philosopher, Plato.  It appears, however, that
during the three first years of his residence there,
Plato was absent on a visit to Sicily. There can be
no doubt that Aristotle paid particular attention to
anatomy and medicine, as appears both from his circumstances in youth, and what we know of his best
writings. It is also probable, as is indicated by some
statements of ancient writers, that for a space he practised, like Locke, the healing art; he must, however,
from an early age, have devoted his whole time to the
study of philosophy and the investigation of nature,
and have abandoned all thoughts of an exclusively
professional career.
His eagerness for the acquisition of knowledge, and
his extraordinary acuteness and sagacity, doubtless
attracted Plato's attention at an early period; thus we
are told that his master called him " the Intellect of
the school," and his house, the " House of the reader;"
that he said Aristotle required the curb, while Zeno.
crates, a fellow-disciple, required the spur; some of
which traditions are probably true. We are likewise
informed that when reading he used to hold a brazen
ball in his hand over a basin, in order that, if he-fell
asleep, he might be awaked by the noise which it
would make in falling, Although Aristotle did not,




ARISTOTLE.                185
during Plato's life, set up any school in opposition to
him, as some writers have stated, he taught publicly
in the art of rhetoric, and by this means became the
rival of the celebrated Isocrates, whom he appears,
notwithstanding his very advanced age, to have attacked with considerable violence, and to have treated
with much contempt.
Aristotle remained at Athens till Plato's death, 347
B. C., having at that time reached his thirty-seventh
year.  Many stories are preserved by the ancient
compilers of anecdotes, respecting the enmity between
Plato and Aristotle, caused by the ingratitude of the
disciple, as well as by certain peculiarities of his character which were displeasing to the master.  But
these rumors appear to have no other foundation than
the known variance between the opinions and the
mental habits of the two philosophers; and particularly the opposition which Aristotle made to Plato's
characteristic doctrine of ideas; whence it was inferred that there must have been an interruption of their
friendly relations. The probability, however, is, that
Aristotle, at whatever time he may have formed his
philosophical opinions, had not published them in an
authoritative shape, or entered into any public controversy, before his master's death. In his Nicomachean
Ethics, moreover, which was probably one of his
latest works, he says "that it is painful to him  to
refute the doctrine of ideas, as it had been introduced
by persons who were his friends: nevertheless, that
it is his duty to disregard such private feelings; for,
both philosophers and truth being dear to him, it is
right tc give the preference to truth." He is, like16*




186                ARISTOTLE.
wise, stated to have erected an altar to his master
inscribing on it that he was a man " whom the wicked
ought not even to praise."
After the death of Plato, Aristotle left Athens and
went to live at the court of Hermeias, prince of Atarneus. He had resided here but three years, when
Hermeias, falling into the hands of the Persians, was
put to death. Aristotle took refuge in Mytilene, the
chief city of Lesbos. Here he married Pythias, sistei
of Hermeias, and who, being exposed to persecution
from the Persians, now coming into power there, he
saved by a rapid flight. For the patriotic and philosophical prince Hermeias, Aristotle entertained a
fervent and deep affection, and he dedicated to his
memory a beautiful poem, which is still extant. On
account-of the admiration he expresses of his friend,
he was afterwards absurdly charged with impiety- in
deifying a mortal.
In the year 356 B. C., Philip of Macedon wrote a
famous letter to Aristotle, as follows: "Kingo Philip
of Macedon, to Aristotle, greeting.  Know  that a
son has been born to me.' I thank the gods, not so
much that they have given him to me, as that they
have permitted him to be born in the time of Aristotle.
I hope that thou wilt form him to be a king worthy
to succeed me, and to rule the Macedonians."
In the year 342 B. C., Aristotle was invited by
Philip to take charge of the education of his son,
Alexander, then fourteen years old. This charge was
accepted, and Alexander was under his care three or
four years. The particulars of his method of instruction are not known to us; but when we see the great




ARISTOTLE.                187
ness of mind that Alexander displayed in the first
years of his reign,-his command of his passions till
flattery had corrupted him, and his regard for the arts
and sciences, —we cannot but think that his education
was judiciously conducted. It may be objected that
Aristotle neglected to guard his pupil against ambition
and the love of conquest; but it must be recollected
that he was a Greek, and of course a natural enemy
to the Persian kings; his hatred had been deepened
by the fate of his friend Hermeias; and, finally, the
conquest of Persia hal, for a long time, been the' wish
of all Greece: It was, therefore, natural that Aristotle should exert all his talents to form his pupil with
the disposition and qualifications necessary for the
accomplishment of this object.
Both father and son sought to show their gratitude
for the services of such'a teacher. Philip rebuilt
Stagira, and established a school there for Aristotle.
The Stagirites, in gratitude for this service, appointed
a yearly festival, called Aristotelia. The philosopher
continued at Alexander's court a year after his accession to the throne, and is said to have then repaired
to Athens. Ammonius, the Eclectic, says that he
followed his pupil in a part of his campaigns; and
this seems very probable; for it is hardly possible that
so many animals as the philosopher describes could
have been sent to Athens, or that he could have given
so accurate a description of them without having personally dissected and examined them. We may conjecture that he accompanied Alexander as far as
Egypt, and returned to Athens about 331 B. C., pro



188                ARISTOTLE.
vided with the materials for his excellent History of
Animals.
Aristotle, after parting with Alexander, returned to
Athens, where he resolved to open a school, and
chose a house, which, from its vicinity to the temple
of Apollo Lyceus, was called the Lyceum. Attached
to this building was a garden, with walks, in Greek
peripatoi, where Aristotle used to deliver his instructions to his disciples; whence his school obtained the
name of peripatetic. It appears that his habit was
to give one lecture in the early part of the day on
the abstruser parts of his philosophy, to his more advanced scholars, which was called the morning walk,
and lasted till the hour when people dressed and
anointed themselves; and another lecture, called the
evening walk, on mor'e popular subjects, to a less select
class.
It was probably during the thirteen years of his
second residence at Athens, that Aristotle composed
or completed the greater part of his works which.
have descended to our days. The foundation of most
of them was, doubtless, laid at an early period of his'ife; but they appear to have been gradually formed,
and to have received continual additions and corrections. Among the works which especially belong to
this period of his life, are his treatises on Natural
History; which, as has been correctly observed by a
late writer on this subject, are not to be considered as
the result of his own observations only, but as a collection of all that had been observed by others, as well
as by himself.
It is stated by Pliny,.hat "Alexander the Creat,




ARISTOTLE.                1S9
being smitten with the desire of snowing the natures
of animals, ordered several thousand persons, over the
whole of Asia and Greece, who lived by hunting, birdcatching and fishing, or who had the care of parks,
herds, hives, seines, and aviaries, to furnish Aristotle with materials for a work on animals." We are
likewise informed that Aristotle received from Alexander the enormous sum of eight hundred talents,nearly a million of dollars, to prosecute his researches
in natural history' —a circumstance which did not
escape the malice of his traducers, who censured him
for receiving gifts from princes. Seneca, who states
that Philip furnished Aristotle with large sums of
money for his history of animals, had, doubtless, confounded the father and son.
Callisthenes, a relation of Aristotle, by his recommendation, attended Alexander in his expedition to
Asia, and sent from Babylon to the philosopher, in
compliance with his previous injunctions, the astronomical observations which were preserved in that
ancient city, and which, according to the statement
of Porphyrius, reached back as far as 1903 years
before the time of Alexander the Great; that is, 2234
years before the Christian era.
Aristotle had, at this time, reached the most prosperous period of his life. The founder and leader of
the principal school of Greece, and the undisputed
head of Grecian philosophy, surrounded by his numerous disciples and admirers, protected by the conqueror of Asia, and by him ittirnished with the means
of following his favorite pursuits, and of gratifying
his universal spirit of inquiry, he had, probably, little




190                AR LSTQTLE.
to desire in order to fill up the measure of a philoso.
pher's ambition. Bu he did not continue to enjoy
the favor of Alexander ill the end. Callisthenes, by
his free-spoken censures and uncourtly habits, had
offended his master, and had been executed, on a
charge of having conspired with some Macedonians
to take away his life; and the king's wrath appears
to have extended to his kinsman, Aristotle, as being
the person who had originally recommended him. It
is not, however, probable that- this circumstance
caused any active enmity between the royal pupil and
his master; even if we did not know that Alexander
died a natural death, there would be no reason for
listening to the absurd calumny that Aristotle was
concerned in poisoning him. Aristotle indeed appears
to have been considered, to the last, as a partisan of
Alexander, and an opponent of the democratic interest.
When the anti-Macedonian party obtained the superiority at Athens in consequence of Alexander's
death, an accusation against Aristotle was immediately prepared, and the pretext selected, was, as in
the case of Socrates, impiety, or blasphemy. He was
charged by Eurymedon, the priest, and a man named
Demophilus, probably a leader of the popular party,
with paying divine honors to Hermeias, and perhaps
with teaching certain irreligious doctrines. In order
to escape thi" danger, and to prevent the Atheniajis,
as he said, in allusion to the death of Socrates, from
" sinning twice against.philosophy," he quitted Athens
in the beginning of.the year 322 B. C., and took
reftige at Chalcis, in Eubcea, an island then under the




ARISTOTLE.               191
Miacedonian influence-leaving Theophrastus his successor in the Lyceum. There he died, of a disease
of the stomach, in the autumn of the same year, being
in the sixty-third year of his age. His frame is said
to have been slender and weakly, and his health had
given way in the latter part of his life, having probably been impaired by his unwearied studies and the
intense application of his mind. The story of his
having drowned himself in the Euripus of Euboea, is
fabulous.
The characteristic of Aristotle's philosophy, as
compared with that of Plato, is, that while the latter
gave free scope to his imagination, and, by his doctrine that we have ideas independent of the objects
which they represent, opened a wide door to the
dreams of mysticism-the latter was a close and strict
observer of both mental and. physical phenomena,
avoiding all the seductions of the fancy, and following
a severe, methodical, and strictly scientific course of
inquiry, founded on data ascertained by experience.
The truly philosophical character of his mind, and
his calm and singularly dispassionate manner of writing, are not more remarkable than the vast extent
both of his reading and of his original researches.
His writings appear to have embraced nearly the
whole circle of the theoretical and practical knowledge
of his time, comprising treatises on logical, metaphysical, rhetorical, poetical, ethical, political, economical,
physical, mechanical, and medical science. He likewise wrote on some parts of the mathematics; and,
besides a collection of the constitutions of all the
states known in his age, both Grecian and barbarian,




192                ARISrOTLE.
he made chronological compilations relating to the
political and dramatic history of Greece.
His works, however, though embracing so large an
extent of subjects, were not a mere encyclopedia, or
digest of existing knowledge; some of the sciences
which he treated of were created by himself, and the
others were enriched by fresh inquiries, and methodized by his systematic diligence.  To the former
belong his works on analytics and dialectics, or, as- it
is now called, logic; to the invention of which science he distinctly lays claim, stating that "before
his time nothing whatever had been done in it."
Nearly the same remark applies to his metaphysical
treatise.  "But of all the sciences," says Cuvier,
"there is none which owes more to Aristotle, than
the natural history of animals. Not only was he
acquainted with a great number of species, but he has
studied and described them on a luminous and comnprehensive plan, to which, perhaps, none of his successors has approached; classing the facts not according to the species, but according to the organs and
functions, the only method of establishing comparative
results. Thus it may be said that he is not only the
most ancient author of ctomparative anatomy, whose
works have come down to us, but that he is one of
those who have treated this branch of natural history
with the most genius, and that he best deserves to be
taken for a model. The principal divisions which
naturalists still follow in the animal kingdom, are due
to Aristotle; and he had already pointed out several
which have recently been again adopted, after having
once been improperly abandoned. If the foundations




ARISTOTLE                193
of these great labors are examined, it will be seen
that they all rest on the same method. Everywhere
Aristotle observes the facts with attention; he compares them with sagacity, and endeavors to rise to
the qualities which they have in common."
Among the sciences which he found partly cultivated, but which he greatly advanced, the most prominent are those of rhetoric, ethics, and politics. Of
rhetoric he defined the province, and analyzed all the
parts with admirable skill and sagacity. His treatise
on the passions, in this short but comprehensive work,
has never been surpassed, if it has ever been equalled,
by writers on what may be termed descriptive moral
philosophy. His ethical writings contain an excellent
practical code of morality, chiefly founded on the
maxim that virtues are in the middle, between two
opposite vices; as courage between cowardice and
fool-hardiness, liberality between niggardliness and
prodigality, &c. His remarks on friendship are also
deserving of special notice; a subject much discussed
by the ancients, but which has less occupied the attention of philosophers, since love has played a more
prominent part, in consequence of the influence of the
Germans, and the introduction of the manners of chivalry in western Europe. His treatise on politics is
not, like Plato's Republic, and the works of many
later speculatorI on government, a mere inquiry after
a perfect state, but contains an account of the nature
of government, of the various forms of which it is
susceptible, and the institutions best adapted to the
societies in which these forms are established; with
an essay though unhappily an imperfect one, on edux      IIu.-17




194                ARISTOTLE.
cation. This treatise is valuable, not only for its theoretical results, but also for the large amount o(
inforrriation which it contains, on the governments of
Greece and other neighboring countries.  Throughout these last-nlentioned works, the knowledge of the
world and of human nature displayed by Aristotle, is
very observable; and, although his mind appears to
have preferred the investigations of physical and metaphysical science, yet he holds a very high place in
the highest rank of moral and political philosophers.
Aristotle, it will be remembered, did not lead the life
of a recluse; but, as the friend of Hermeias, the teacher
of Alexander, and the head of a philosophical school,
he was brought into contact with a great variety of
persons, and learned by practice to know life under
many different forms, and in many different relations.
Of all the philosophers of antiquity, Aristotle has
produced the most lasting and extensive effect on
mankind. His philosophical works, many centuries
after his death, obtained a prodigious influence, not
only in Europe, but even in Asia; they were translated into Arabic, and from thence an abstract of his
logical system passed into the language of Persia.
In Europe they acquired an immense ascendency in
the middle ages, and were considered as an authority
without appeal, and only second to that of Scripture;
we are even informed that in a part of Germany his
ethics were read in the churches on Sunday, in the
place of the Gospels. Parts of his philosophy, which
are the most worthless, as his Physics, were much
cultivated; and his logical writings were, in many
cases, abused so as to lead to vain subtleties, and cap



ARISTOTLE.                195
tious contests about words. The connection between
soime of his tenets and the Roman Catholic theology,
tended much to uphold his authority, which the
Reformation lowered in a corresponding degree. His
doctrines were in general strongly opposed by the
early reformers. In 1518 Luther sustained a thesis at
Heidelberg, affirming that " he who wishes to philosophize in Aristotle, must be first stultified in Christ."
Luther, however, gave way afterwards, and did not
oppose Aristotle, as to human learning. Melancthon,
who was one of the mildest of the reformers, was a
great supporter of Aristotle. Many of his doctrines
were in the same century zealously attacked by the
French philosopher, Pierre Ramus. Bacon, afterwards, with others of his followers, added the weight
of their arguments and authority against him. Aristotle's philosophy accordingly fell into undeserved
neglect during the latter part of the seventeenth, and
the whole of the eighteenth century. Of late, however,
the true worth of his writings has been more fully
appreciated, and the. study of his best treatises has
much revived.
The most valuable of Aristotle's lost works, and indeed the most valuable of all the lost works of Greek
prose, is his collection of One Hundred and Fiftyeight Constitutions, both of Grecian and Barbarian
States, the Democratic, Oligarchical, Aristocratical,
and Tyrannical, being treated separately, containing
an account of the manners, customs, and institutions
of each country. The loss of his works on Colonies,
on Nobility, and on Royal Government; of his Chronological Collections, and of his Epistles to Philip,




196                ARISTOTLE.
Alexander, Antipater, and others, is also much to be
regretted. He likewise revised a copy of the Iliad,
which Alexander carried with him during his cam.
paigns, in a precious casket; hence this recension,
called the casket copy, passed into the Alexandrine
library, and was used by the Alexandrine critics.
His entire works, according to Diogenes Laertius,
occupied in the Greek manuscripts 445,270 lines.




DEMOSTHENES.
Tins celebrated Grecian orator was born about 384 or
385 years B. C., at a period when Athens had reached
the zenith of her literary, and had passed that of her
political, glory. Juvenal has represented him slightingly, as the son of a blacksmith —the fact being
that the elder Demosthenes was engaged in various
branches of trade, and, among others, was owner of a
sword manufactory. His maternal grandmother was
a Thracian woman-a circumstance noticeable because
it enabled his enemies, in the spirit of ill-will, to taunt
him as a barbarian and hereditary enemy o" his
country; for the Greeks, in general, regarded the
admixture of other than Greek blood, with the same
sort of contempt and dislike that the whites of America do the taint of African descent.
Being left an orphan when seven years old, Demosthenes fell into the hands of dishonest guardians,
17*




198              DEMOSTHENES.
who embezzled a large portion of the property which
his father had bequeathed to him. His constitution
appears to have been delicate, and it may have been
on this.account that he did not attend the gymnastic
exercises, which formed a large portion of the education of the youths in Greece; exercises really important where neither birth nor wealth set aside the obligation to military service common to all citizens; and
where, therefore, skill in the use of arms, strength,
and the power to endure fatigue and hardship, were
essential to the rich as well as to the poor. It may
have been on this account that a nickname expressive
of effeminacy was bestowed on him, which was afterwards interpreted into a proof of unmanly luxury and
vicious habits; indeed, the reproach of wanting physical strength clung to him through life; and apparently
this was not undeserved. Another nickname that he
obtained was that of "Viper." In short, the anecdotes
which have come down to us, tend pretty uniformly
to show that his private character was harsh and unamiable.
His ambition to excel as an orator is said to have
been kindled by hearing a masterly and much admired speech of Callistratus. For instruction, he
resorted to Isaeus, and, as some say, to Isocrates, both
eminent teachers of the art of rhetoric. He had a
stimulus to exertion in the resolution to prosecute his
guardians for abuse of their trust; and having gained
the cause, B. C. 364, in the conduct of which he
himself took an active part, recovered, it would seem,
a large -)art of hi: property. The orations against
Aphobu' and Onetor, which appear among his worls,




DE1MOSTMENES.              199
profess to have been delivered in the course of the
suit; but it has been doubted, on internal evidence,
whether they were really composed by him so early
in life.
Be this as it may, his success emboldened hiin to
come forward as a speaker in the assemblies of the
people; on what occasion, and at what time, does not
appear. His reception was discouraging. He probably had underrated, till taught by experience, the
degree of training and mechanical preparation requisite at all times to excellence, and most essential in
addressing an audience so acute, sensitive and fastidious as the Athenians. He labored also under physical defects, which almost amounted to disqualifications.
His voice was weak, his breath short, his articulation
defective; in addition to all this, his style was throughout strained, harsh and involved.
Though somewhat disheartened by his ill success,
he felt as Sheridan is reported to have expressed himqelf on a similar occasion, that it was in him, and it
should come out; beside, he was encouraged by a
few discerning spirits. One aged man, who had
heard Pericles, cheered him with the assurance that
he reminded him of that unequalled orator; and the
actor Satyrus pointed out the faults of his delivery,
and instructed him to amend them. He now set himself in earnest to realize his notions of excellence;
and the singular and irksome methods which he
adopted, denoting certainly no common energy and
strength of will, are too celebrated and too remarkable
to be omitted, though the authority on which they
rest is not free from doubt. He built a room under




200              DEMOSTHEBNES.
ground, where he might practise gesture and delivery
without molestation, and there he spent two or three
months together, shaving his head, that the oddity of
his appearance might render it impossible for him to
go abroad, even if his resolution should fail. The
defect in his articulation he cured by reciting with
small pebbles in his mouth. His lungs he strengthened by practising running up hill, while reciting
verses.  Nor was he less diligent in cultivating
mental than bodily requisites, applying himself earnestly to study the theory of the art as explained
in books, and the examples of the greatest masters.of
eloquence. Thucydides is said to have been his favorite model, insomuch that he copied out his history
eight times, and had it almost by heart.
Meanwhile, his pen was continually employed in
rhetorical exercises; every question suggested to him
by passing events served him for a topic of discussion,
which called forth the application of his attainments to
the real business of life. It was perhaps as much for
the sake of such practice, as with a view to reputation,
or the increase of his fortune, that he accepted employment as an advocate, which, until he began to
take an active part in public affairs, was offered to
him in abundance.
Such was the process by which he became confessedly the greatest orator among the people by whom
eloquence was cultivated, as it has never been since by
any nation upon earth. He brought it to its highest
state of perfection, as did Sophocles the tragic drama,
by the harmonious union of excellences which had
before only existed apart. The quality in his wri



DEMOSTHENES.               201
tings, which excited the highest admiration of the
most intelligent judges among his countrymen in the
later critical age, was the Protean versatility with
which he adapted his style to every theme, so as to
furnish the most perfect examples of every order and
kind of eloquence.
Demosthenes, like Pericles, never willingly appeared before his audience with any but the ripest
fruits of his private studies, though he was quite capable of speaking on the impulse of the moment in a
manner worthy of his reputation. That he continued
to the end of his career to cultivate the art with unabated diligence, and that, even in the midst of public
business, his habits were those of a severe student, is
well known.
The first manifestation of that just jealousy of
Philip, the ambitious king of Macedon, which became
the leading principle of his life, was made 252 B. C.,
when the orator delivered the first of those celebrated
speecbes called Philippics. This word has been naturalized in Latin and most European. languages, as a
concise term to signify indignant invective.
From this time forward, it was the main object of
Demosthenes to inspire and keep alive in the minds
of the Athenians a constant jealousy of Philip's power
and intentions, and to unite the other states of Greece
in confederacy against him. The policy and the' disinterestedness of his conduct have both been questioned; the former, by those who have judged, from
the event, that resistance to the power of Macedonia
was rashly to accelerate a certain and inevitable evil;
the latter, by those, both of his contemporaries and




202              DEMOSTtINES.
among posterity, who believe that be received bribes
from Persia, as the price of finding employment in
Greece for an enemy, whose ambition threatened the
monarch of the East. With respect to the former,
hlowever, it was at least the most generous policy, and
like that of the elder Athenians in their most illustrious days-not to await the ruin of their independence
submissively, until every means had been tried for
averting it; for the latter, such charges are hard
either to be proved or refuted. The character of Demosthenes certainly does not stand above the suspicion of pecuniary corruption, but it has not been
shown, nor is it necessary or probable to suppose,
that his jealousy of Philip of Macedon was not, in the
first instance, far-sighted and patriotic. During fourteen years, from 3"52 to 338, he exhausted every resource of eloquence and diplomatic skill to check the
progress of that aspiring monarch; and whatever
may be thought of his moral worth, none can undervalue the genius and energy which have made his
name illustrious, and raised a memorial of him far
more enduring than sepulchral brass.
In 339 B. C., Philip's appointment to be general
of the Amphictyonic League gave him a more direct
influence than he had yet possessed; and in the same
year, the decisive victory of Cheronea, won over the
combined forces of Thebes, Athens, &c., had made
him master of Greece. Demosthenes served in this
engagement, but joined, early in_ the flight, with circumstances, according to report, of marked cowardice
and disgrace. He retired for a time from Athens,
but the cloud upon his character was but transient,




DEMOSTHENES.              203
for, shortly after, he was entrusted with the charge of
putting the city in a state of defence, and was appointed to pronounce the funeral oration over those
who had been slain. After the battle of Cheronea,
Philip, contrary to expectation, did not prosecute hostilities against Athens; on the contrary, he used his
best endeavors to conciliate the affections of the people, but without success. The party hostile to Macedon soon regained the superiority, and Demosthenes
was proceeding with his usual vigor in the prosecution of his political schemes, when news arrived of
the murder of Philip, in July, 336.
The daughter of Demosthenes had then lately
died; nevertheless, in violation of national usage, he
put off his mourning, and appeared in public, crowned
with flowers and with other tokens of festive rejoicing. This act, a strong expression of triumph over
the fall of a most dangerous enemy, has been censured with needless asperity; the accusation of having been privy to the plot for Philip's murder, beforehand, founded on his own declaration of the event
some time before intelligence of it came from any
other quarter, and the manifest falsehood as to the
source of the information, which he professed to derive from a divine revelation, involves-if it be judged
to be well founded-a far blacker imputation.
Whether or not it was of his own procuring, the
&eatk Qf Philip was hailed by Demosthenes as an
event most fortunate for Athens, and favorable to the
liberty of Greece. Thinking lightly of the young
sucessor to the Macedonian crown, he busied himself the more in stirr'ng up opposition to Alexander,




204              DEMOSTHENES.
and succeeded in urging Thebes into that revolt,
which ended in the entire destruction of the city, B
C., 335. This example struck terror into Athens
Alexander demanded that Demosthenes, with nine
others, should be given up into his hands, as the authors of the battle of Cheronea and of the succeeding
troubles of Greece; but finally contented himself with
requiring the banishment of Charidemus alone.
Opposition to Macedon was now effectually put
down, and, until the death of Alexander, we hear little
more of Demosthenes as a public man. During this
period, however, one of the most memorable incidents
of his life occurred, in that contest of oratory with
_.schines, which has been more celebrated than any
strife of words since the world began. The origin of
it was as follows. About the time of the battle of
Cheronea, one Ctesiphon brought before the people a
decree for presenting Demosthenes with a crown for
his distinguished services; a complimentary motion,
in its nature and effects very much like a vote in the
English parliament, declaratory of confidence in the
administration..IEschines, the leading orator of the
opposite party, arraigned this motion, as being both
untrue in substance and irregular in form; he indicted Ctesiphon on these grounds, and laid the penalty at fifty talents, equivalent to about $50,000.
Why the prosecution was so long delayed, does not
clearly appear; but it was not brought to an issue
until the year 330, when JEschines pronounced his
great oration "against Ctesiphon." Demosthenes defended him in the still more celebrated speech "on
the crown."  These, besides being admirable speci



DEMOSTHENES.               205
mens of rhetorical art, have the additional value, that
the rival orators, being much more anxious to uphold
the merits of their own past policy and conduct, than
to convict and defend the nominal object of prosecu.
tion, have gone largely into matters of self-defence
and mutual recrimination, from which much of our
knowledge of this obscure portion of history is derived..schines lost the cause, and not having the
votes of so much as a fifth part of the judges, became
liable, according to the laws of Athens, to fine and
banishment. He withdrew to Rhodes, where he es'
tablished a school of oratory. On one occasion, for
the gratification of his hearers, he recited first his
own, then his adversary's speech. Great admiration
having been expressed of the latter, " What then," he
said, " if you had heard the brute himself?." bearing
testimony in these words to the remarkable energy
and fire of delivery which was one of Demosthenes'
chief excellences as an orator.
A fate similar to that of his rival, overtook Demos.
thenes himself, a few years later, B. C. 324. Harpalus, an officer high in. rank and favor under Alexander, having been guilty of malversation to such
an extent that he dared not await discovery, fled to
Greece, bringing with him considerable treasures and
a body of mercenary soldiers. He sought the support of the Athenians; and, as it was said, bribed
Demosthenes not to oppose his wishes. Rumors to
that effect got abroad, and though his proposals were
rejected by the assembly, Demosthenes was called
to account, and fined fifty talents, nearly $50,000,
as having been bribed to give false counsel to the
II. —18




206              DEMOSTHENES.
people. Being unable to pay the amaiint of the fine,
it acted as a sentence of banishment, and he retired
into.Egina. Like Cicero, when placed in a similar
situation, he displayed effeminacy of temper, and an
unmanly violence of regret, under a reverse of fortune.
In the following year, however, the death of Alexander restored him to political importance; for when
that event opened once more to the Athenians the
prospect of shaking off the supremacy of Macedonia,
Demosthenes was recalled, with the most flattering
marks of public esteem. He guided the state during
the short war waged with Antipater, the Macedonian
viceroy, until the inequality of the contest became
evident, and the Macedonian party regained its
ascendency. Demosthenes then retired to the sanctuary of Calauria, an island sacred to Neptune, on
the coast of Argolis. Sentence of death was passed
on him in his absence. He was pursued to his
place of refuge by the emissaries of Antipater, and
being satisfied that the sanctity of the place would
not protect him, he took poison, which, as a last
resort, he carried about his person, concealed'n a
quill.
Most of the speeches of Demosthenes are short, at
least compared with modern oratory. He rarely
spoke extempore, and bestowed an unusual degree of
pains on his composition. That style which is described by Hume as " rapid harmony, exactly adapted
to the sense; vehement reason, without any appear.
ance of art; disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, involved in a continued stream of argument " —instead
af being, as it would seem, the effervescence of a




DEMOSTH NES.               207
powerful, overflowing mind, was tne.abored produce of much thought, and careful, long-continued
polish.
If we compare the two greatest orators of antiquity
-Cicero and Demosthenes-it may seem difficult to
decide between them. By devoting his powers almost
exclusively to oratory, the latter excelled in energy,
strength. and accuracy; and as a mere artist, was
probably the superior. Cicero, by cultivating a more
extended field, was doubtless far the abler lawyer,
statesman and philosopher. Of the value of their
works to mankind, there is no comparison; for
those of Cicero are not only more numerous and diversified, but of more depth,'wisdom, and general
application. We must also remark, that while the
soul of Demosthenes appears to have been selfish and
mean, that of Cicero ranks him among the noblest
specimens of humanity, whether of ancient or modern
times.
If we compare the speeches of these great men
with the efforts of modern orators, we shall see that
the latter greatly surpass them in range of thought,
power of diction and splendor of illustration. The
question then arises, why did the orations of Cicero
and Demosthenes produce such electrical effects upon
their auditors? The reason doubtless was, that they
paid the greatest attention to action, manner and
tones of voice-thus operating upon their hearers by
nearly the same powers as the modern opera. There
was stage effect in their manner, and music in their
tones, combined with most perfect elocution-and the
application of these arts, carried to the utmost per



208              DOMOSTHENES.
fection, was made to the quick Italians or mercurina
Athenians. These suggestions may enable us to
understand the fact, that speeches, which, uttered in
the less artful manner of our day, and before oui
colder audiences, would fall flat and dead upon the
ear, excited the utmost enthusiasm, in more southern
climes, two thousand years ago.




APELLES.
APELLES n as a celebrated painter of Cos, a'ittle
island in the Egean Sea. The date of his birth is not
known, but he painted many portraits of Philip, and was
still flourishing in the time of Alexander, who honored
him so much that he forbade any other artist to draw
h's picture. His chief master was Pamphilius, a
famous painter of Macedon. He was so attentive to
his profession, that he never spent a day without employing his pencil,-whence the proverb of Nulla die
sine linea. His most perfect picture was the Venus
Anadyomene, which, however, was not wholly finished
when the painter died.
He executed a painting of Alexander, holding thunder in his hand, so much like life, that Pliny, who
saw it, says that the hand of the king with the thunder
seemed to come out of the picture. This was placed
in Diana's temple at Ephesus. He made another
picture of Alexander; but the king, on coming to see
it after it was painted, appeared not to be satisfied
with i; It happened, however, at that moment a
horse, passing by, neighed at the horse in the picture,
supposing it to be alive; upon which the painter said,
" One would imagine that the holse is a better judge
of painting, than your majesty." When Alexander
ordered him to draw the picture of Campaspe, one of
N       18 




210                    APELLES.
his favorites, Apelles became enamored of her, and
the king permitted him to marry her. He wrote
three volumes on painting, which were still extant in
the age of Pliny,-but they are now lost. It is said that
he was accused, while in Egypt, of conspiring against
the life of Ptolemy, and that he would have been put
to death, had not the real conspirator discovered himself, and thus saved the artist. Apelles put his narme
to but three pictures; a sleeping Venus, Venus Anadyomene, and an Alexander.
Apelles appears to have been not only an excellent
artist, but a man of admirable traits of character.
Being once'at Rhodes, he met with the productions
of Protogenes,* which so greatly delighted him that
* Protogenes, a painter of Rhodes, who flourished about 328
years B. C. He was originally so poor that he painted ships
to maintain himself. His countrymen were ignorantof his
merits, before Apelles came to Rhodes and offered to buy all
his pieces, as we have related. This opened the eyes of the
Rhodians; they became sensible of the talents of their country.
man, and liberally rewarded him. Protogenes was employed
seven years in finishing a picture of Jalysus a celebrated
huntsman, supposed to have been the son of Apollo and the
founder of Rhodes. During all this.time the painter lived
only upon lupines and water, thinking that such aliment would
leave him greater flights of fancy; but all this did not seem
to make him more successful in the perfection of his picture.
IIe was to represent in this piece a dog panting, and with
froth at his mouth; but this he could never do with satisfaction
to hilnself; and when all his labors seemed to be without success, he threw his sponge upon the piece in a fit of anger
Chance alone brought to perfection what the utmost labors ot
art could not do; the fall of the sponge upon the picture repre
sented the froth of the mouth of the dog in the most perfet




APELLES.                   211
he offered to purchase the whole. Before this, Protogenes was entirely unappreciated by his countrymen,
but the approbation of one so distinguished as Apelles,
brought him into notice, and his fame soon became
established.
Another story of Apelles is told as having given
rise to the well-known maxim, Ne sutor ultra crepidam:
Let the shoemaker stick to his last. Apelles placed
a picture, which he had finished, in a public place, and
concealed himself behind it, in order to hear the criticisms of the passers-by. A shoemaker observed a
defect in the shoe, and the painter forthwith corrected
it. The cobbler came the next day, and being somewhat encouraged by the success of his first remark,
began to extend his censure to the leg of the figure,
when the angry painter thrust out his head from
behind the figure, and told him to keep to his trade.
Apelles excelled in grace and beauty. The painter,
who labored incessantly, as we have seen, to improve
his skill in drawing, probably trusted as much to that
branch of his art, as to his coloring. We are told that
and natural manner, and the piece was universally admired.
Protogenes was very exact in his representations, and copied
nature with the greatest nicety; but this was blamed as a fault
by his friend Apelles. When Demetrius besieged Rhodes, he
refused to set fire to a part of the city, which might have made
him master of the whole, because he knew that Protogenes
was then working in that quarter. When the town was taken,
the painter was found closely employed, in a garden, finishing a picture; and when the conqueror asked him why he
showed not more concern at the general calamity, he replied,
that Demetrius made war against the Rhodians, and not against
the fine arts.




212                 APELLES.
he only used four colors. He used a varnish which
brought out the colors, and at the same time preserved
them. His favorite subject was the representation
of Venus, the goddess of love,-the female blooming
in eternal beauty; and the religious system of the age
favored the taste of the artist.
Apelles painted many portraits of Alexander the
Great, who, we are told, often visited his painting
room. It is not easy to reconcile his rambling life
with this account, unless we suppose that Apelles
followed him into Asia; a conjecture not altogether
improbable, if we read the'account of the revelries at
Susa, after Alexander's return from India, and of the
number of all kinds of professional artists then assembled to add to the splendor of the festival.




DIOGENES.
THIS eccentric individual was a native of Sinope, a
city of Pontus, and born 419 B. C.  Having been
banished from his native place, with his father, upon
the accusation of coining false money, he went to
Athens, and requested Antisthenes, the Cynic,* to
admit him among his disciples. That philosopher in
vain attempted to drive away the unfortunate supplicant. He even threatened to strike him; but Diogenes
told him he could not find a stoic hard enough to
repel him, so long as he uttered things worthy of
being remembered. Antisthenes was propitiated by
this, and received him among his pupils.
Diogenes devoted himself, with the greatest diligence, to the lessons of his master, whose doctrines
he afterwards extended and enforced. He not only,
like Antisthenes, despised all philosophical speculations, and opposed the corrupt morals of his time, but
also carried the application of his principles, in his
own person, to the extreme.  The stern austerity of
Antisthenes was repulsive; but Diogenes exposed the
* The Cynics were a sect of philosophers, founded by Antisthenes, at Athens; they took their name from their disposition
to criticise the lives and actions of others. They were famous
for their contempt of riches, their neglect of dress, and the
length of their beards. They usually slept on the ground,




214                 DIOGENES.
follies of his cotemporaries with wit ar d humor, and
was, therefore, better adapted to be the censor and
instructor of the people, though he really accomplished little in the way of reforming them. At the
same time, he applied, in its fullest extent, his principle of divesting himself of all superfluities. He taught
that a wise man, in order to be happy, must endeavor
to preserve himself independent of fortune, of men,
and of himself; and, in order to do this, he must despise
riches, power, honor, arts and sciences, and all the
enjoyments of life.
He endeavored to exhibit, in his own person, a
model of Cynic virtue. For this purpose, he subjected
himself to the severest trials, and disregarded all the
forms of polite society. He often struggled to overcome his appetite, or satisfied it with the coarsest
food; practised the most rigid temperance, even at
feasts, in the midst of the greatest abundance, and did
not consider it beneath his dignity to ask alms.
By day, he walked through the streets of Athens
barefoot, with a long beard, a stick in his hand, and a
bag over his shoulders. He was clad in a coarse
double robe, which served as a coat by day and a
coverlet by night; and he carried a wallet to receive
alms. His abode was a cask in the temple of Cybele.
It is said that he s)metimes carried a tub about on
his head which occasionally served as his dwelling.
In summer he rolled himself in the burning sand, and
in winter,lung to the marble images covered with
snow, that he might inure himself to the extremes of
the climate. He bore the scoffs and insults of the
people with the greatest equanimity. Seeing a boy




DIOGENES.               215
draw water with his hand, he threw away his wooden
goblet, as an unnecessary utensil. He never spared
the follies of men, but openly and loudly inveighed
against vice and corruption, attacking them with keen
satire, and biting irony. The people, and even the
higher classes, heard him with pleasure, and tried
their wit upon him. When he made them feel his
superiority, they often had recourse to abuse, by
which, however, he was little moved. He rebuked
them for expressions and actions which violated decency and modesty, and therefore it is not credible
that he was guilty of the excesses with which his
enemies reproached him. His rudeness offended the
laws of good breeding, rather than the principles of
morality.
On a voyage to the island of Egina, he fell' into
the hands of pirates, who sold him as a slave to Xeniades, a Corinthian. He, however, emancipated him,
and entrusted to him the education of his children.
He attended to the duties of his new employment
with the greatest care, commonly living in summer
at Corinth, and in the winter at Athens. It was at
the former place that Alexander found him at the
road-side, basking in the sun; and, astonished at the
indifference with which the ragged beggar regarded
him, entered into conversation with him, and finally
gave him permission to ask him a boon. "I ask
nothing," answered the philosopher, "but that thou
wouldst get out of my sunshine." Surprised at this
proof of content, the king is said to have exclaimed,
" Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." The




216               DIOGENES.
following dialogue, though not given as historical, is
designed to represent this interview.
Diogenes. Who calleth?
Alexander. Alexander.  How happeneth it that
you would not come out of your tub to my palace?
D. Because it was as far from my tub to your
palace, as from your palace to my tub.
A. What! dost thou owe no reverence to kings? 
D. No.
A. Why so?
D. Because they are not gods.
A. They are gods of the earth.
D. Yes, gods of the earth!
A. Plato is not of thy mind.
D. I am glad of it.
A. Why?
D. Because I would have none of Diogenes' mind
but Diogenes.
A. If Alexander have anything that can pleasure
Diogenes, let me know, and take it.
D. Then take not from me that you cannot give
me-the light of the sun!
A. What dost thou want?
D. Nothing that you have.
A. I have the world at command.
D. And I in contempt.
A. Thou shalt live no longer than I will.
D. But I shall die, whether you will or no.
A. How should one learn to be content?
D. UInlearn to covet,
A. (to Heyhokestion,) Hephazstion, were I not Alex.,nder, I would wish to be Diogenes.




DIOGENES.               217
H He is dogged, but shrewd; he has a sharpness,
mixed with a kind of sweetness; he is full of wit,
yet too wayward.
A. Diogenes, when I come this way again, I will
both see thee and confer with thee.
D. Do.
We are told that the philosopher was seen one day
carrying a lantern through the streets of Athens: on
being asked what he was looking after, he answered,
"I am seeking an honest man."  Thinking he had
found among the Spartans the greatest capacity for
becoming such men as he wished, he said, "Men, I
have found nowhere, but children, at least, I have
seen in Lacedaemon." Being asked, "What is the
most dangerous animal?" his answer was, " Among
wild animals, the slanderer; -among tame, the flat.
terer." He expired 323 B. C., at a great age, and, it is
said, on the same day that Alexander died. When he'
felt death approaching, he seated himself on the road
leading to Olympia, where he died with philosophical
calmness, in the presence of a great number of people
who were collected around him.
None of the works of Diogenes are extant; in these
he maintained the doctrines of the Cynics.  He
believed that exercise was of the greatest importance,
and capable of effecting everything. He held that
there were two kinds of exercise,-one of the body,
and one of the mind,-and that one was of little use
without the other. By cultivation of the mind, he
did not mean the accumulation of knowledge or science, but a training which might give it vigor, as
exercise endows the body with health and strength.
II..19




PLATO.
I? has been remarked by Coleridge, that all men
are born disciples either of Plato or Aristotle: by
which he means that these two great men are the
leaders in the two kinds of philosophy which govern
the thinking world,-the one looking into the soul, as
the great well of truth; the other, studying the outward world, and building up its system upon facts
collected by observation. The truth is doubtless to
be found by compounding the two systems.
Plato was born at Athens, in May, 429 B. C. He
was the son of Ariston and Perectonia. His original
name was Aristocles, and it has been conjectured that
he received that of Plato, from the largeness of
his shoulders: this, however, is improbable, as Plato




PLATO.                 219
was then a common name at Athens. Being one of
the descendants of Codrus, and the offspring of a
noble, illustrious, arni opulent family, he was educated
with the utmost care; his body was formed and invigorated with gymnastic exercises, and his mind was
cultivated and trained by the s.ldy of poetry and of
geometry; from which two sources he doubtless derived that acuteness of judgment and warmth of
imagination, which stamped him as at once the most
subtle and flowery writer of antiquity.
He first began his literary career by writing poems
and tragedies; but he was disgusted with his own
productions, when, at the age of twenty, he was introduced into the society of Socrates, and was qualified
to examine, with critical accuracy, the merit of his
compositions, and compare them with those of his
poetical predecessors. He, therefore, committed them
to the flames. During eight years he continued to
be one of the pupils of Socrates; and though he was
prevented by indisposition from attending the philosopher's last moments, he collected, from the conversation of those that were present, and from his own
accurate observations, very minute and circumstantial
accounts, which exhibit the concern and sensibility
of the pupil, and the firmness, virtue, and elevated
moral sentiments of the dying philosopher.
After the death of Socrates Plato retired from
Athen?, and, with a view to enlarge his stores of
knowlodge, he began to travel over different countries.
He visited Megara, Thebes, and Elis, where he met
with the kindest reception from his fellow-disciples,
whom the violent death of their master had likewise




220                  PLATO.
removed from Attica. He afterwards visited Magna
Grecia, attracted by the fame of the Pythagorean
philosophy, and by the learning, abilities, and reputation of its professors, Philolaus, Archytas, and Eurytus. He then passed into Sicily, and examined the
eruptions of Etna.  He visited Egypt, where the
mathematician Theodorus, then flourished, and where
he knew that the tenets of the Pythagorean philosophy had been fostered.
When he had finished his travels, Plato retired to
the groves of Academus, in the neighborhood of
Athens, and established a school there; his lectures'
were soon attended by a crowd of learned, noble, and
illustrious pupils; and the philosopher, by refusing to
have a share in the administration of political affairs,
rendered his name more famous and his school more
frequented. During forty years he presided at the
head of the academy, and there he devoted his time
to the instruction of his pupils, and composed those
dialogues which have been the admiration of every
succeeding age. His studies, however, were interrupted for a while, as he felt it proper to comply with
tile pressing invitations of Dionysius, of Syracuse,
to visit him. The philosopher earnestly but vainly
endeavored to persuade the tyrant to become the father
of his people, and the friend of liberty.
In his dress, Plato was not ostentatious; his manners were elegant, but modest, simple, and without
affectation. The great honors which were bestowed
upon him, were not paid to his appearance, but to his
wisdom  and virtue.  In attending the Olympian
games, he once took lodgings with a family who




PLATO.                221
were totally strangers to him. He ate and drank
with them, and partook of their innocent pleasures
and amusements; but though he told them his name
was Plato, he did not speak of the employment he
pursued at Athens, and never introduced the name
of that great philosopher, whose doctrines he followed,
and whose death and virtues were favorite topics of
conversation in every part of Greece.  When he
returned to Athens, he was attended by the family
which had so kindly entertained him; and, being
familiar with the city, he was desired to show them
the celebrated philosopher whose name he bore.
Their surprise may be imagined, when he told them
that he was the Plato whom they wished to behold.
In his diet he was moderate; and, indeed, to sobriety and temperance in the use of food, and abstinence
from those indulgences which enfeeble the body and
enervate the mind, some have attributed his preservation during a terrible pestilence which raged in Athens
at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. Plato
was never subject to any long or lingering indisposition;- and, though change of climate had enfeebled a
constitution naturally strong and healthy, the philosopher lived to an advanced age, and was often heard
to say, when his physicians advised him to leave his
residence at Athens, where the air was impregnated
by the pestilence, that he would not advance one sin.
gle step to gain the top of Mount Athos, were he
assured of attaining the longevity which the inhabi
tants of that mountain were said to enjoy. Plato
died on his birth-day, in the eighty-first year of his
age. ab, ut the year 348 B. C. His last moments
19*




222                 PLATO.
were easy, and without pain;. and, according to some
authors, he expired in the midst of an entertainment;
but Cicero tells us that he died while in the act of
The works of Plato are numerous; with the exception of twelve letters, they are all written in the form
of dialogue, in which Socrates is the principal interlocutor. Thus he always speaks by the mouth of
others, and the philosopher has nowhere mode mention of himself, except once in his dialogue entitled
Phadon, and another time in his Apology for Socrates. His writings were so celebrated, and' his'opinions so respected, that he was called divine; and for
the elegance, melody, and sweetness of his expressions, he was distinguished by the appellation of the
Athenian bee.  His style, however, though commended and admired by the most refined critics among
the ancients, has not escaped the censure of some of
the moderns. It is obvious that the philosopher cannot escape ridicule, who supposes that fire is a pyramid tied to the earth by numbers; that the world is a
figure consisting of twelve pentagons; and who; to
prove the metempsychosis and the immortality of the
soul, asserts that the dead are born from the living,
and the living from the dead. The speculative mind
of Plato was employed in examining things divine
and human; and he attempted to ascertain and fil
not only the practical doctrines of morals and polit'cs
but the more' subtle and abstruse theory of mystics
theogony —the origin of the gods, or divine power
His philosophy was universally received and adopted
in ancient times, and it has not only governed the




PLATO.                  223
opinions of the speculative part of mankina, but it
continues still to influence the reasoning, and to divide
the sentiments of the moderns.
In his system of philosophy, he followed the physics
of Heraclitus, the metaphysical opinions of Pythagoras, and the morals of Socrates. He maintained the
existence of two beings-one self-existent, and the
other formed by the hand of a pre-existent, creative
god and man. The world, he maintained, was created by that self-existent cause, from the rude, undigested mass of matter which had existed from all
eternity, and which had ever been animated by an
irregular principle of motion.  The origin of evil
could not be traced under the government of a deity,
without admitting a stubborn intractability and wildness congenial to matter; and from these, consequently, could be demonstrated the deviations from
the laws of nature, and from thence, the extravagant
passions and appetites of men.
From materials like these were formed the four
elements, and the beautiful structure of the heavens
and the earth; and into the active but irrational principle of matter, the divinity infused a rational soul.
The souls of men were formed from the remainder
of the rational soul of the world, which had previously
given existence to the invisible gods and demons.
The philosopher, therefore, supported the doctrine of
ideal forms, and the pre-existence of the human mind,
which he considered as emanations of the Deity, and
which can never remain satisfied with objects or
things unworthy of their divine original. Men could
perceive, with their corporeal senses, the types of




224                  PLATO.
immutable things, and the fluctuating objects of the
material world; but the sudden changes to which
these are continually liable, create innumerable disorders, and hence arise deception, and, in short, all
the errors of human life. Yet, in whatever situation
man may be, he is still an object of divine concern,
and, to recommend himself to the favor of the preexistent cause, he must comply with the purposes of
his creation, and, by proper care and diligence, he can
recover those immaculate powers with which he was
naturally endowed.
All science the philosopher made to consist in
reminiscence-in recalling the nature, forms, and proportions, of those perfect and immutable essences,
with which the human mind had been conversant.
From observations like these, the summit of felicity
might be attained by removing from the material, and
approaching nearer to the intellectual world; by curbing and governing the passions, which were ever
agitated and inflamed by real or imaginary objects.
The passions were divided into two classes: the
first consisted of the irascible passions, which originated in pride or resentment, and were seated in the
breast; the other, founded on the love of pleasure,
was the concupiscible part of the soul, seated in the
inferior parts of the body. These different orders
induced the philosopher to compare the soul to a
small republic, of which the reasoning and judging
powers were stationed in the head, as in a firm citadel, and of which the senses were the guards and servants. By the irascible part of the soul, men asserted
their dignity, repelled injuries, and scorned danger;




PLATO.                 226
and the concupisc:ble part provided the support and
the necessities of the body, and, when governed with
propriety, gave rise to temperance. Justice was produced by the regular dominion of reason, and by the
submission of the passions; and prudence arose from
the strength, acuteness, anti perfection of the soul,
without which other virtues could not exist.
But amidst all this, wisdom was not easily attained;
at their creation all minds were not endowed with
the same excellence; the bodies which they animated
on earth, were not always in harmony with the divine
emanation; some might be too weak, others too
strong. On the first years of a man's life depended
his future character; an effeminate and licentious
education seemed calculated to destroy the purposes
of the divinity, while the contrary produced different
effects, and tended to cultivate and improve the reasoning and judging faculty, and tt produce wisdom
and virtue.
Plato was the first who supported the immortality
of the soul upon arguments solid and permanent,
deduced from truth and experience.  He did not
imagine that the diseases and death of the body could
injure the principle of life, and destroy the soul,
which, of itself, was of divine origin, and of an incorrupted and immutable essence, which, though inherent for a while in matter, could not lose that power
which was the emanation of God. From  doctrines
like these, the great founder of Platonism concluded
that there might exist in the world a comr unity of
men, whose passions could be governed with moderation, and who, from knowing the evils and:niseries
t'




226                  PLATC
which arise from ill conduct, might aspire to excellence, and attain that perfection which can be derived
from a proper exercise of the rational and moral powers. To illustrate this more fully, the philosopher
wrote a book, well known by the name of the " Republic of Plato," in which he explains, with acuteness,
jutdglaent, and elegance, the rise and revolution of
civil society; and so respected was his opinion as a,egislator, that his scholars were employed in regulating the republics of Arcadia.
It was a characteristic of Plato's mind, that he
united a subtle intellect to a glowing fancy.  As an
illustration of his style, we may mention the passage
in which he shows the operation of the three principles in the human being —mind, soul, and body —or
the three powers of intellect, spirit, and matter.  It
occurs in the dialogue of Phoedrus, where he endeavors to illustrate the doctrine that the mind or reason
should be the governing faculty.
The soul is here compared to a chariot, drawn by
a pair of winged steeds, one of which is well-bred
and well-trained, and the other quite the contrary.
The quiet horse, the Will, is obedient to the rein,
and strives to draw its wilder yoke-fellow, the Appetite, along with it, and to induce it to listen to the
voice of the charioteer, Reason. But they have a
great deal of trouble with the restive horse, and the
whole object of the journey seems to be lost, if this
is permitted to have its way.  In this allegory, it is
shown that the object of Reason, in exacting obedience,
is not merely that discipline and subordination which
constitute the virtues of man, but to keep the mind




PLATO                  227
in a state to rise to the contemplation and enjoyment
of great and eterna. truths. In other words, a man
must be in a moral state, before he can place himself
in a religious state, so as to enjoy the summum bonum,
or greatest good. What, then, is this greatest good?
or,Xin the language of Plato, its idea?-for, with him,
idea and essence are synonymous. This is Godnot his image, but his nature, which is the sovereign
good.  Thus the greatest happiness of man was
placed by Plato in a mysterious union of the soul
with this source of goodness. How near an approach
to Christian communion with God, is this?
However fantastic many of the details of Plato's
system may seem, and however illusory its whole
machinery must appear, when viewed in the light of
modern criticism, one thing is to be observed,-that
the great results of his philosophy are true.  He
struggled through the thick mists of his age, and discovered the eternal existence of Deity; he perceived
and established, on grounds not to be controverted,
the immortality of the soul. He placed true happiness where philosophy and religion place it-in the
ascendency of the spirit over the body-the subjugation of the passions to the dominion of reason
and virtue. It appears that the germs of these great
truths had already manifested themselves in the minds
of Pythagoras, Socrates, and others; and Plato bor
rowed from them many of his noble ideas. But he
systemati.ed what they had left in t crude state; he
gave a more clear and distinct utterance to what his
great master, Socrates, had dimly conceived, and
ineffectually struggled to announce. He reached the




228                 PLATO.
highest point, in the search after divine knowledge
Ahich has ever been attained, without the direct aid
of inspiration. In the gradual development of God's
will to man, he was one of the great instruments.
Yet, in reviewing his works, we see how imperfect
was still his knowledge of things divine, and what
fearful shadows would rest upon the world, if Plato
were our only guide. How dark, uncertain, mysterious, weald be the ways of God-the destinies of
man-if left where the philosopher left them!




SOCRATES.
SOCRATES was born at Athen: 468 B. C. H:s
father, Sophroniscus, was a sculptor of humble reputation and in moderate circumstances. He educated
his son to his own profession, in which it appears that
the latter made considerable proficiency. He did not,
however, devote himself wholly to this pursuit, but
spent a large share of his time in reading the works
of philosophers. Crito, an intimate friend, supplied
him with money to pay the masters who taught him
various accomplishments, and he became an audito
II.-20



230                SCRATES.
of most of the great philosophers xho visited Athens,
during I is youth. By these means, he received the
best education which an Athenian youth could command in those days.
In the early part of his life, he wrought at his trade,
so far as to earn a decent subsistence. Receiving a
small property at his father's death, when he was
about thirty years of age, he devoted himself entirely
to philosophical pursuits.  His habits were simple
and economical; his dress was coarse, and he seldom
wore shoes. By his frugality, he was thus able to
live without labor, and yet without being dependent
upon others.
With regard to his public life, it appears that he
served his country faithfully as a soldier, according to
the duty of every Athenian citizen.  He took part in
three campaigns, displaying the greatest hardihood
and valor. He endured, without repining, hunger
and thirst, heat and cold.  In a skirmish with the
enemy, his pupil, Alcibiades, fell wounded in the midst
of the enemy. Socrates rescued him and carried him
off, for which the civic crown was awarded as the
prize of valor. This reward, however, he transferred
to Alcibiades. In another campaigrn he saved the.life
of his puril, Xenophon, whom he carried from the
field on his shoulders, fighting his way as he went.
At the age of sixty-five, he became a member of
the council of Five Hundred, at Athens. He rose
also to the dignity )f president of that body; by virtue of which office, he for one day managed the popular assemblies and kept the key of the citadel and
treasury. Ten naval officers had been accused o0




SOCRATES.                231
misconduct, because, after the battle of Arginiusae,
they had omitted the sacred duty of buryinc the slain,
in consequence of a violent storm. Their enemies,
finding the people disposed to acquit them  procured
by intrigue, the prorogation of several assemblies. A
new assembly was held on the day when Socrates
was president; and the citizens, instigated by bad
men, violently demanded that sentence of death should
be pronounced on all the accused at once, contrary to
law. But the menaces of violence were unable to
bend the inflexible justice of Socrates, and he was
able afterwards to declare, on his own trial, that ten
innocent men had been saved by his influence.
When Socrates formed the resolution of devoting
himself to the pursuit of divine and human knowledge,
the sophists, a set of arrogant philosophers, were perverting the heads and corrupting the hearts of the
Grecian youth. He therefore put himself in opposition to these false guides, and went about endeavoring to instruct everybody in a wiser and better philosophy than that which prevailed. He was, in fact, an
instructor of the people; and, believing himself an
ambassador of God, he was occupied from the dawn
of day in seeking persons whom he might teach
either what is important to mankind in general, or
the private circumstances of individuals. He went
to the public assemblies and the most crowded streets,
or entered the workshops of mechanics and artists,
and conversed with the people on religious duties,
on tleir social and political relations; on all subjects,
indeed, relating to morals, and even on agriculture,
war, and the arts. He endeavored to remove prevail



232                SOCRATES.
mg prejudices and errors, and to substitute right principles; to awaken their better genius in the minds of
his hearers; to encourage and console them; to enlighten and improve mankind, and make them really
happy.
It is manifest that such a course must have been
attended with great difficulties.  But the serenity of
Socrates was undisturbed; he was always perfectly
cheerful in appearance and conversation.  In the
market-place and at home, among people and in the
society of those whom love of truth and virtue con.
nected more closely with him, he was always the
same. It cannot be doubted that a happy physical
and mental temperament contributed to produce this
equanimity. But it was, likewise, a fruit of self-discipline and the philosophy he taught. He treated his
body as a servant, and inured it to every privation, so
that moderation was to him an easy virtue; and he
retained in old age his youthful vigor, physical and
mental. He was kind as a husband and a father.
Though his wife, Xantippe, was a noted shrew, he
viewed her as an excellent instrument of discipline,
and treated her with patience and forbearance.
Although the Greeks at this time were zealously
devoted to their heathen mythology, Socrates was a
sincere worshipper of the Supreme Being; yet, from
his care not to offend his weaker brethren, he observed, with punctilious exactness, the religious uses
which antiquity and custom had consecrated.  He
was constantly attended by a circle of disciples, who
caught from him the spirit of free inquiry, and were
inspired with his zeal for the highest good, for reli



SOCRATES.               2'3
gion, truth and virtue. The succeeding schools of
philosophy in Greece are therefore justly traced back
to him; and he is to be regarded as the master who
gave philosophical investigation among the Greeks its
highest direction. Among his most distinguished disciples were Alcibiades, Crito, Xenophon, Antisthenes,
Aristippus, Phcedon,. Eschines, Cebes, Euclid, and
Plato.  From  the detached accounts given us by
Xenophon and Plato, it appears that he instructed
them in politics, rhetoric, logic, ethics, arithmetic, and
geometry, though not in a systematic manner.  He
read with them the principal poets, and pointed out
their beauties; he labored to enlighten and correct
their opinions on all practical subjects, and to excite
them to the study of whatever is most important to
men.
To make his instructions attractive, they were delivered, not in long lectures, but in free conversations,
rendered interesting by question and answer. He did
not reason before, but with his disciples, and thus exercised an irresistible power over their minds. He
obliged them to think for themselves, and if there was
any capacity in a man, it could not fail to be excited
by his conversation. This method of question and
answer is called the Socratic method.  The fragments
of his conversations, preserved by Xenophon, often
leave us unsatisfied; Plato alone has transmitted to
us tile genuine spirit of this method; and he was
therefore viewed by the ancients as the only fountain
of the Socratic philosophy,-a fact which has been
too much disregarded by modern writers.
Socrates fell a victim to the spirit of bigotry, which
20*




234                SOCRATES.
has sacrificed so many persons, who were in advance
of the age. The document containing the accusation
against him was lodged in the Temple of Cybele, as
late as the second century of the Christian era.  The
following is a translation: —" Melitus, son of MelitL s.
accuses Socrates, son of Sophroniscus, of being guilty
of denying the existence of the gods of the republic,
making innovations in the religion of the Greeks,
and of corrupting the Athenian youth. Penalty,death."
Melitus, who was a tragic writer of a low order,
was engaged as an accuser in this affair, by the
wealthy and more powerful enemies of Socrates.
Amongst them were Anytus and Lycon, the former a
rich artisan and zealous democrat, who had rendered
very important services to the republic, by aiding
Thrasybulus in the expulsion of the thirty tyrants,
and in establishing the liberty of his country. The
latter was an orator, and therefore a political magistrate, to which office the Athenian orators were enti
tied, by virtue of the laws of Solon.
Socrates was seventy years of age when summoned
to appear at the Areopagus. The news of this event
did not excite much surprise, as the people had long
expected it. Aristophanes, the celebrated comic poet
of Athens, had previously undertaken, at the instigation of Melitus, to ridicule the venerable character of
the philosopher; and when once he was calumniated
and defamed, the fickle populace ceased to revere the
man whom they had before looked upon as a being
of a superior order.
The enemies of Socrates were of two classes,-tho




SOCRATES.                2365
one consisted of citizens who could not help admiring
his genius and virtue, but who regarded him as a
dangerous innovator and subverter of public order.
They were ready, with him, to acknowledge that some
reformation might be made in the tenets of Paganism;
that the gods and goddesses were not patterns of
virtue; and that the conduct of the sovereign of the
skies, himself, was far from exemplary; but, said
they, the thunders of Jupiter exercise a salutary influence over the minds of some, and the pains of Tartarus still operate as a bridle upon the passions of others.
To bring in question the ancient faith, was at once to
attack the institutions of the republic at their base,
and excite revolution. The philosophy of Socrates,
even though true, must be suppressed; for the life of
one man is not to be put in the balance with the
repose of a whole people,-with the safety of the
country. It is better that Sedrates should die, than
Athens perish. Such was the reasoning of one portion.
The other class was composed of the superstitious
and bigoted,-of the vicious and imbecile, —who were
daily exposed to the censures and sarcasms of the
philosopher; in fine, of that set of narrow, jealousminded men, who looked upon the welfare and fame
of their neighbors with envy and with malice. The
race that had exiled Aristides, because he was great,
was ready to condemn Socrates, because he was wise.
The friends and disciples of the great philosopher
saw the danger that menaced him, and with anxiety
and fear they crowded around their master, supplicating him to fly, or to adopt some means of defence;
but he would do neither. Lysias, one of the most




236                 SOCRATES.
celebrated orators of the day, composed a pathetic
oration, which he wished his friend to pronounce, as
his defence, in the presence of his judges.  Socrates
read it, praised its animated and eloquent style, but
rejected it, as being neither man.y nor expressive of
fortitude. The anxiety and trouble of avoiding condemnation appeared to him of little moment, when
compared to the performance of his duty in upholding
to the last moment, the truth of his principles and the
dignity of his character.
Socrates, though both eloquent and persuasive in
conversation, was not capable of addressing a. large
assembly; therefore, on the day of his trial, he asked
permission of his judges to use the means of defence
to which he had been accustomed; namely, to speak
familiarly with, and ask questions of, his adversaries.' "Athenians," he said, in commencing, "I hope I
shall succeed in my 6efence, if, by succeeding, good
may result from it; but I look upon my success'as
very doubtful, and, therefore, do not deceive myself
in that respect.  But let the will of the gods be
obeyed."
The two chief accusations against Socrates, were
firstly, that he did not believe in the religion of the
state; secondly, that he was guilty of corrupting the
minds of young men, and of disseminating the disbelief of the established religion.
Socrates did not reply, in a direct manner, to either
of these charges. Instead of declaring that he believed in the religion of his country, he proved that
he was not an atheist; instead of refuting the charge
of instructing youth to doubt the sacred tenets of the




SOCRATES.                237
law, he declared and demonstrated that it was m,rality which he taught; and instead of appealing to the
compassion of his judges, he did not disguise the contempt in which lie held the means practised by parties
accused, who, in order to excite sympathy and compassion, brought their children and relations to supplicate, with tears in their eyes, the mercy of the
judges. "1, also, have friends and relations!" he
said, " and, as to children, I have three,-one a stripling, the other two in childhood; yet I will not
allow them to come here to excite your sympathy.
Why will I not do so? It is not caused by stubbornness, nor by any disdain I have for you. For my
honor, for your honor, for that of the republic, it is not
meet that, with the reputation, whether true or false
that I have acquired, I should make use of such
means to procure your acquittal. Indeed, I should be
ashamed if those that distinguish themselves for wisdom, courage, or any other virtue, should, like many
people that I have seen, although they have passed
for great men, commit actions the most grovelling-as
if death were the greatest misfortune that could befall
them, and that,-if their lives were spared, —they
would become immortal! "
When Socrates had ceased speaking, the judges
of the Areopagus found him guilty, by a majority of
three. On being demanded, according to the spirit
of the Athenian laws, to pass sentence on himself,
and to mention the death he preferred, Socrates, conscious of his own innocence, replied, —" Far from
deeming myself guilty, I believe that I have rendered
my country important services, and, therefore, think




238                SOCRATES
that I ought to be maintained in tne Prytaneum at the
public expense, during the remainder of my life,-an
honor, 0 Athenians, that I merit more than the victors of the Olympic games. They make you happy
in appearance; I have made you so in reality."
This reply in the highest degree exasperated his
judges, who condemned him to die by poison. When
the sentence was passed, Socrates remained, for a
few minutes, calm and undisturbed, and then asked
permission to speak a few words.
"' Athenians," he said, " your want of patience will
be used as a pretext by those who desire to defame
the republic. They will tell you that you have put
to death the wise Socrates; yes, they will call me
wise, to add to your shame-though I am not so. If
you had but waited a short time, death would have
come of itself, and thus saved you from disgracing
yourselves. You see I am already advanced in years
and must shortly die  All know that in times of
war, nothing is more easy than saving our lives by
throwing down our weapons, and demanding quarter
of the enemy. It is the same in all dangers; a thou.
sand pretexts can be found by those who are not
scrupulous about what they say and do. It is diffi
cult, 0 Athenians, to avcid death; but it is much
more so to avoid crime, which is swifter than death
It is for this reason that, old and feeble as I am, I
await the latter, whilst my accusers, who are more
vigorous and volatile, embrace the former. I am
now about to suffer the punishment to which you
have sentenced me; my accusers, the odium and in.
famy to which virtue condemns them."




SOCF ATES.               239
"What is going to happen to me," he acided, "will
be rather an advantage than an evil; for it is apparent, that to die at present, and to be delivered of the
cares of this life, is what will best suit me. I have
no resentment towards my accusers, neither have I
any ill-will against those who condemn me, although
their intention was to injure me, to do all in their
power to do me harm. I will make but one request;
when my children are grown up, if they are seen to
covet riches, or prefer wealth to virtue, punish and
torment them as I have tormented you; and if they
look upon themselves as beings of importance, make
them blush for their presumption.  This is what I
have done to you. If you do that, you will secure
the gratitude of a father, and my children will ever
praise you. But it is time that we should separate;
I go to die, and you to live. Which of us has the
best portion? No one knows except God."
When he had finished, he was taken to prison and
loaded with chains. His execution was to have taken
place in twenty-four hours, but it was postponed for
thirty days, on account of the celebration of the Delian festivals. Socrates, viih his usual cheerfulness
and serenity, passed this time in conversing with
his friends upon some of the most important subjects
that could engage the mind of man. Plato relates,
in the dialogue entitled The Phedon, the conversation which took place on the day preceding his death.
That dialogue, without exception, is the most beautiful that the Greeks have left us. We can give only
those passages which are more immediately connected
with his death.




aaO                 SOCRATES.
"After the condemnation of Socrates," says Phedon, " we did not allow a day to escape without seeing
him, and on the day previous to his death, we assembled earlier than usual.  When we arrived at the
prison door, the jailor told us to wait a little, as the
Eleven were then giving orders for the death of Socrates."
Speaking of the fear of death, Socrates said, " Assuredly, my dear friends, if I did not think I was
going to find, in the other world, gods good and wise,
and even infinitely better than we are, it would be
wrong in me not to be troubled at death; but you
must know that I hope soon to be introduced to virtuous men, —soon to arrive at the assembly of the just.
Therefore it is that I fear not death, hoping, as I do,
according to the ancient faith of the human race, that
something better is in store for the just, than what
there is for the wicked."
The slave who was to give Socrates the poison,
warned him to speak as little as possible, because
sometimes it was necessary to administer the drug
three or four times to those who allowed themselves
to be overheated by conversation.
" Let the poison be prepared," said Socrates, "Ias
if it were necessary to give it two or three times;"
then continued to discourse upon the immortality of
the soul, mixing in his arguments the inspiration of
sentiment and of poetry.
" Let that man," said he, " have confidence in his
destiny, who, during lifetime, has renounced the
pleasures of the body as productive of evil. He who
has sought the pleasures of science, who has beautl



SOCRATES.                241
flied his soul, not with useless ornamer.ts, but with
what is suitable to his nature, such as temperance,
justice, fortitude, liberty, and truth, ought to wait
peaceably the hour of his departure, and to be always
ready for the voyage, whenever fate calls him."
"Alas! my dear friend," said Crito; "have you
any orders for me, or for those present, with regard
to your children or your affairs?"  "What I have
always recommended to you, Crito,"-replied Socrates, " to take care of yourselves,-nothing more.  By
doing so, you will render me a service, my family,
and all who know you."
After Socrates had bathed, his children and his female relations were brought into his presence. He
spoke to them for some time, gave them his orders,
then caused them to retire. After he returned, he
sat down upon his bed, and had scarcely spoken.
when the officer of the Eleven came in and said,
" Socrates, I hope I shall not have the same occasion to
reproach you as I have had in respect to others. As
soon as I come to acquaint them that they must drink
the poison, they are incensed against me; but you have,
ever since you came here, been patient, calm, and
even-tempered, and I am confident that you are not
angry with me. Now, you knowv what I have told
you.  Farewell! Try to bear with resignation what
cannot be avoided."  Saying these words, he turned
away, while the tears were streaming from his eyes.
"I wili follow your counsel," said Socrates. Thep
turning to his disciples, he continued, " Obs e-ve the
honesty of that poor Inan.  During my irnprisoilnent,
he has visited me daily. and now, see with what sin
p      II.-21




242                SOCRATES.
cerity he weeps for me!"  When the slave brought
the poison to Socrates, the latter looked at him, ana
said, "Very well, my friend, what must I do? for
you know best, and it is your business to direct mne."'Nothing else but drink the poison; then walk,
and when you find your limbs grow stiff, lie down
upon your bed." At the same time, he handed the
cup to Socrates, who took it without emotion or
change of countenance; then looking at the man
with a steady eye, he said,-" Tell me, is it allowable
to make a drink-offering of this mixture? "   Socrates," the man replied, "we never prepare more than
what is sufficient for one dose."
" I understand you," said Socrates;" but nevertheless, it is lawful for me to pray to God that he may
bless my voyage, and render it a happy one." Having said so, he raised the cup to his lips, and drank
the poison with astonishing tranquillity and meekness.
When Socrates looked around and saw his-friends
vainly endeavoring to stifle their tears, he said,
" What are you doing, my companions? Was it not
to avoid this, -that I sent away the women? and you
have fallen into their weakness. Be quiet, I pray
you, and show more fortitude."
In the mean time, he continued to walk, and when
he felt his legs grow stiff, he lay down upon his back,
as had been recommended. The person who gave
Socrates the poison, then came forward, and, after
examining his legs and feet, he bound them, and
asked if he felt the cord. The dying philosopher answered,' No;" and feeling himself with his hand,




SOCRATES.               243
he told his disciples, that " when the cold reached his
heart, he should leave them."
A few minutes afterwards, he exclaimed, " Crito,
we owe a cock to Esculapius; do not forget to pay
the debt."  These were the last words of Socrates.
Such was the end of the great philosopher; and it
may be truly said that he was one of the wisest, best,
and most upright of all the Athenians.
In personal appearance Socrates was disagreeable:
he had a sunken nose, and his eyes protruded so as
to give him a strange appearance. It is supposed
that he knew the shrewish temper of Xantippe, before
he married her, and sought the alliance that she
might give exercise to his patience.  She tried
every means to irritate him, and finding it impossible
to rouse his anger, she poured some dirty water upon
him from a window. " After thunder, we generally
have rain," was the only remark the philosopher
deigned to make. Many other anecdotes are handed
down, which show the wonderful command Socrates
had acquired over himself.




ALCIBIADES.
Tins eminent Athenian general and statesman, was
born about 450 B. C. Descended on both sides from
the most illustrious families of his country,-born to
the inheritance of great wealth,-endued with great
personal beauty and the most brilliant mental qualities,-it seemed evident, from his early youth, that he
would exert no slight influence over the counsels and
fortunes of Athens.  His father, C einias, was killed
at the battle of Cheronaea, and being thus an orphan,
he was placed under the wardship of has uncle, Per



ALCIBIADES.              246
icles. The latter was too much engaged in affairs
of state to bestow that care upon Alcibiades, which
the impetuosity of his disposition required. In his
childhood he showed the germ of his future character.
One day, when he was playing at dice with some
companions in the s:reet, a wagon came up; he requested the driver to stop, and, the latter refusing,
Alcibiades threw himself before the wheil, exclaiming, " Drive on, if thou darest!"
He excelled alike in mental and bodily exercises.
His beauty and birth, and the high station of Pericles,
procured him a multitude of friends and admirers,
and his reputation was soon injured by the dissipation
in which he became involved. He was fortunate in
acquiring the friendship of Socrates, who endeavored
to lead him to virtue, and undoubtedly obtained a
great ascendency over him, so that Alcibiades often
quitted his gay associates for the company of the
philosopher.
He bore arms, for the first time, in the expedition
against Potidcea and was woundei.  Socrates, who
fought at his side, defended him, and led him out of
danger. In the battle of Delium, lie was among the
cavalry who were victorious, but, the infantry being
beaten, he was obliged to flee, as well as the rest.
He overtook Socrates, who was retreating on foot.
Alcibiades accompanied him, and protected him.
For a considerable time he took no part in public
affairs, but on the death of Cleon, 422 B. C., Nicias
succeeded in making a peace for fifty years, between
the Athenians and Lacedoemonians. Alcibiades, jealous of the influence of Nicias, and offended because
21 *




246                 ALC1BIADES.
Socrates saving Alcibiades.
the Licedaemonians, with whom he was connected by
the ties of hospitality, had not applied to him, sought
to bring about some disagreement between the two
nations.  The Lacedoemonians sent ambassadors to
Athens.  Alcibiades received them  with apparent
good-will, and advised them to conceal their credentials, lest the Athenians should prescribe conditions
to them.  They suffered themselves to be duped, and,
when called into the assembly, declared that they
were without credentials. Alcibiades rose imrmediately, stated that they had credentials, accused them
of ill-faith and induced the Athenians to form an




ALCIBIADES.              247
alliance with the Argives. A breach with the Lacedoemonians was the immediate consequence. Alci.
biades commanded the Athenian fleet several times
during the war, and devastated the Peloponnesus.
He did not, however, refrain from luxury and dissipation, to which he abandoned himself after his
return from the wars. On one occasion, after having
a nocturnal revel, in the company of some friends, he
laid a wager that he would give Hipponicus a box on
the ear; which he did. This act made a great noise
in the city, but Alcibiades went to the injured party,
threw off his garments, and called upon him to revenge himself by whipping him with rods. This
open repentance reconciled Hipponicus, who not only
pardoned him, but gave him afterwards his daughter,
Hipparete, in marriage, with a portion of ten talentsabout ten thousand dollars. Alcibiades, however, still
continued his levity and prodigality. His extravagance was conspicuous at the Olympic games, where
he entered the stadium, not like other rich men, with
one chariot, but with seven at a time —and gained the
three first prizes. He seems also to have been victoi
in the Pythian  and Nemaean games.  By these
courses he drew upon himself the hatred of his fellow
citizens, and he would have fallen a sacrifice to the
ostracism, if he had not, in connection with Nicias and
Pheax, who feared a similar fate, artfully contrived to
procure the banishment of his most formidable enemy.
Soon afterwards, the Athenians, at the instance of
Alcibirades, resolved on an expedition against Sicily,
and elected him commander-in-chief, together with
Niclas and Lamachus.  But, during the preparations,




948               ALCIBIADES.
it happened one night that all the statues of Mercury
were broken.  The enemies of A(ilbiades charged
him with the act, but postponed a public accusation
till he had set sail, when they stirred up the people
against him to such a degree, that he was recalled in
order to be tried. Alcibiades had been very successful in Sicily, when he received the order to return.
He prepared to obey, and embarked, but on reaching
Thurium, he landed, and, instead of proceeding to
Athens, concealed himself. Some one asking him,
" How is this, Alcibiades? Have you no confidence
in your country? "-he replied, "I would not trust
my mother when my life is concerned, for she might,
by mistake, take a black stone instead of a white one."
He was condemned to death in Athens. When the
news reached him, he remarked —" I shall show the
Athenians that I am yet alive."
He now'went to Argos; thence to Sparta, where he
made himself a favorite by conforming closely to the
prevailing strictness of manners. Here he succeeded
in inducing the Lacedvemonians to form an. alliance
with the Persian king, and, after the unfortunate issue
of the Athenian expedition against Sicily, he prevailed
on the Spartans to assist the inhabitants of Chios in
throwing off the yoke of Athens. He went himself
thither, and on his arrival in Asia Minor, roused the
whole of Ionia to insurrection against the Athenians,
and did them considerable injury. But Agis and the
principal leaders of the Spartans became jealous of
him, on account of his success,.and ordered theil
commanders in Asia to cause him to be assassinated.
Alcibiades suspected their plan, and went to Tissa




ALCIBIADE$.              249
phenaes, a Persian satrap, who was ordered to act in
concert with the LacedEmonians. Here he changed
his manners once more, adopted the luxurious habits
of Asia, and soon contrived to make himself indispensable to the satrap. As he could no longer trust the
Lacedemonians, he undertook to serve his country,
and showed Tissaphernes that it was against the interest of the Persian king to weaken the Athenians;
on the contrary, Sparta and Athens ought to be preserved for their mutual injury. Tissaphernes followed
this advice, and afforded the Athenians some relief.
The latter had, at that time, considerable forces at
Samos. Alcibiades sent word to their commanders,
that, if the licentiousness of the people was-suppressed
and the government put into the hands of the nobles,
he would procure for them the friendship of Tissaphernes, and prevent the junction of the Phaonician
and Lacedaemonian fleets.
This demand was acceded to, and Pisander was sent
to Athens; by whose means the government of the city
was put into the hands of a council, consisting of four
hundred persons. As, however, the council showed
no intention of recalling Alcibiades, the army of Samos chose him their commander, and exhorted him
to go directly to Athens and overthrow the power of
the tyrants. He wished, however, not to return to his
country before he had rendered it some services; and
therefore attacked and totally defeated the Lacedeemonians. When he returned to Tissaphernes, the
latter, in order not to appear a participator in the act,
caused him to be arrested in Sardis. But Alcibiades
found means to escape; placed himself at the head




250                ALCIB.ADES.
of the Athenian army; conquered the Laccdaemonians and Persians, at Cyzicus, by sea and land; took
*,yzicus, Chalcedon, and Byzantium; restorea the
sovereignty of the sea to the Athenians, and returned
to his count-v; whither he had been recalled, on the
motion of Critias.
He was received with general enthusiasm; for the
Athenians considered his exile as the cause of all
their misfortunes.  But this triumph was of short
duration. He was sent with one hundred ships tn
Asia; and, not being supplied with money to pay hi,'
-soldiers, he saw himself under the necessity of seekIng help in Caria, and committed the command to
Antiochus, who was drawn into a snare by Lysander
and lost his life and a part of his ships. The ene
mies of Alcibiades improved this opportunity to accusfe
him, and procure his removal from office.
Alcibiades now went to Pactya in Thrace, collected
troops, and waged war against the Thracians. He
obtained considerable booty, and secured the quiet of
the neighboring Greek cities.  The Athenian fleet
was, at that time, lying at ~Egos Potamos. He point.
ed out to the generals the danger which threatened
them, advised themn to go to Sestos, and offered his
assistance to force the Lacedoemonian general, Lysander, either to fight, or to make peace. But they did
not listen to him, and soon after were totally defeated.
Alcibiades, fearing the power of the Lacedmmonians
betook himself to Blthynia, and was about to go to
Artaxerxes, to procure his assistance for his country
In the meantime, the thirty tyrants, whom Lysander
after the capture of Athens, had set up there. requested




ALCIBIADES.'251
the latter to cause Alcibiades to De assassinated.
But Lysander declined, until he received an order to
the same effect from his own government. He then
charged Pharnabazes with the execution of it. Alcibiades was at the time with Timandra, his mistress,
in a castle in Phrygia. The assistants of Pharnabazes, afraid to encounter Alcibiades, set fire to his
house, and when he had already escaped the conflagration, they despatched him with their arrows. Timandra buried the body with due honor.
Thus Alcibiades ended his life, 404 B. C., being
about forty-five years old. He was endowed by nature
with distinguished qualities, a rare talent to captivate
and rule mankind, and uncommon eloquence, although
he could not pronounce the letter r, and had an impediment in his speech. He had, however, no fixed
principles, and was governed only by external circumstances. He was without that elevation of soul which
steadily pursues the path of virtue.  On the other
hand, he possessed that boldness which arises from
consciousness of superiority, and which shrinks from
no difficulty, because confident of success. He was
a singular instance of intellectual eminence and moral
depravity. His faculty for adapting himself to circumstances enabled him to equal the Spartans in
austerity of manners, and to surpass the pomp of the
Persians. Plutarch says, that "no man was of so
sullen a nature but he would make him merry; nor
so *churlish but he could make him gentle."




DEMOCRITUS.
IEMOCRITUS, one of the most remarkable of the
philosophers of antiquity, was born at Abdera, a maritime city of Thrace, 460 B. C. He travelled over
the greatest part of Europe, Asia and Africa, in quest
of knowledge. Though his father was so rich as to
entertain Xerxes and his whole army, while marching
against Greece, and left his son a large fortune, yet
the latter returned from his travels in a state of poverty. It was a law of the country, that a man should
be deprived of the honor of a funeral, who had reduced himself to indigence.  Democritus was of
course exposed to this ignominy; but having read
before his countrymen his chief work, it was received
with the greatest applause, and he was presented with
five hundred talents,-a sum nearly equal to half a
million of dollars.  Statues were also erected to his
honor; and a decree was passed that the expenses of
his funeral should be paid from the public treasury.
These circumstances display alike the great eminence of the philosopher, and an appreciation of genius
and learning on the part of the people, beyond what
could now be found in the most civilized communities
of the world. Where is the popular assembly of the
present day, that would bestow such a reward, on
such an occasion?




tEMOCRITMS.                  253
After his return from his travels, Democritus re.
tired to a garden near the city, where he dedicated
his time to study and solitude; and, according to some
authors, put out his eyes, to apply himself more closely
to philosophical inquiries. This, however, is.unworthy of credit. He was accused of insanity, and Hippocrates, a celebrated'physician, was ordered to
inquire into the nature of his disorder. After a conference with the philosopher, he declared that not
the latter, but his enemies were insane. Democritus
was so accustomed to laugh at the follies and vanities
of mankind, who distract themselves with care, and
are at once the prey to hope and anxiety, that he
acquired the title of the "laughing philosopher," in
contrast to Heraclitus,* who has been called the " weeping philosopher." He told Darius, the king, who
was inconsolable for the loss of his wife, that he would
raise her from the dead if he could find three persons
who had gone through life without adversity, and
*Heraclitus flourished about 500 years B. C. He was a
native of Ephesus; and being of a melancholy disposition, he
spent his time in mourning and weeping over the frailties of
human nature, aAd the miseries of human life. He employed
himself for a time, in writing different treatises, in which he
maintained that all things are governed by a fatal necessity.
His opinions, in some things, were adopted by the Stoics. He
became at last a man-hater, and retired to the mountains, so
as to be entirely separated from his fellow-men. Here he fed
on grass) which brought on a dropsical complaint: to get curec
of this, he returned to the town. He established his residence
on a dunghill, hoping that the warmth might dissipate his
disease; but this proved ineffectual, and he died in his sixtieth
year.
II.-22




254               DEMOCRITUS.
whose names he might engrave on the queen's mronument. The king's inquiries after such, proved una
vailing, and the philosopher discovered the means of
soothing the sorrows of the sovereign.
He was a disbeliever in the existence of ghosts;
and some youths, to try his fortitude, dressed themselves in hideous and deformed habits, and approached
his cave in the dead of night, expecting to excite his
terror and astonishment. The philosopher received
them unmoved, and, without hardly deigning to bestow
upon them a look, desired them to cease making
themselves such objects of ridicule and folly. He
died in the one hundred and fourth year of his age,
B. C. 357.
All the works of Democritus, which were numerous,
are lost. He was the first to teach that the milky
way was occasioned by a confused light from a multitude of stars. He may be considered as the parent
of experimental philosophy; in the prosecution of
which he was so ardent, that he declared he would
prefer the discovery of one of the causes of the works
of nature, to the diadem of Persia. He is said to
have made artificial emeralds by chemical means,
and to have tinged them with various colors; he likewise found the art of dissolving stones and softening
ivory.
He was the author of the atomic theory; he viewed
all matter, in which he included mind, as reducible
to atoms; he considered& the universe to consist only
of matter and empty space. The mind he regarded
as round atoms of fire. He argued that nothing could
arise out of nothing; and also that noth ng could




DEMOCRITUS.               255
utterly perish and become nothing.  Hence he inferred the eten ity of the universe, and dispensed with
the existence of a Creator.
He explained the difference in substances by a
difference in their component atoms; and all material
phenomena, by different motions, backward or for-:yard, taking place of necessity. He did not seem to
perceive that under this word, necessity, he concealed
a deity. He explained sensation by supposing sensible images to issue from bodies. In moral philosophy,
he only taught that a cheerful state of mind was the
greatest attainable good.
The theories of Democritus appear absurd enough
in our time; but philosophy was then in its infancy.
His struggles after light and truth display the darkness of the age, and the ingenuity of the philosopher.
They may also teach us by what a process of mental
toil, for centuries piled upon centuries, the knowledge
we possess has been attained.  The school he established, was supplanted, about a century after, by that
of Epicurus.




PERICLES.
Tins celebrated man, born about 498 B. C., was an
Athenian of noble birth, son of Xantippus and Agariste. He was endowed by nature with great powers,
which he improved by attending the lectures of I)a.
mon, Zeno, and Anaxagoras. Under these celebrated
masters, he became a commander, a statesman, and an
orator, and gained the affections of the people by his
great address, and well-directed liberality. When he




PERICLES.               257
cook a share in the administration of public affairs, he
rendered himself popular by opposing Cl..non, who
was the favorite of the nobility; and, to remove every
obstacle which stood in the way of his ambition, he
lessened the' dignity and the power of the court of
Areopagus, whom the people had been taught for ages
to respect and venerate.
He continued his attacks upon Cimon, and finally
caused him to be banished by the ostracism. Thucydides also, who had succeeded Cimon on his banishment, shared the same fate, and Pericles remained,
for fifteen years, the sole minister, and, as it may be
said, the absolute sovereign of a republic which always
showed itself so jealous of her liberties, and which
distrusted so much the honesty of her magistrates.
In his ministerial capacity, Pericles did not enrich
himself, but the prosperity of Athens was the object
of his administration.  He made war against the
Lacedaemonians, and restored the temple of Delphi to
the care of the Phocians, who had been illegally deprived of that honorable trust.
He obtained a victory over the Sicyonians near
Nemrea, and waged a successful war against the inhabitants of Samos.  The Peloponnesian war was
fomented by his ambitious views, and when he lad
warmly represented the flourishing state, the opulence
and actual power of his country, the Athenians did
not hesitate to undertake a war agains the most powerful republics of Greece-a war which continued for
twenty-seven years, and was concluded by the destruction of their empire and the demolition of their
walls, The arms of the Atheniansr were, fpt sam
Q?22




258                PERICLES.
time, crowned with success; but an unfortunate expedition raised clamors against Pericles, and'he
enraged populace attributed all their losses to him.
To make atonement for their ill-success, they condemned him to pay fifty talents.
The loss of popular favor did not so much affect
Pericles, as the death of all his children. When the
tide of disaffection had passed away, he condescended
to come into the public assembly, and viewed with
secret pride the contrition of his fellow-citizens, who
universally begged his forgiveness for the violence
which they had offered to his ministerial character.
He was again restored to all his honors, and, if possible, invested with more power and more authority
than before; but the dreadful pestilence which had
diminished the number of his family, and swept away
many of his best friends, proved fatal to himself, and
about 429 years B. C., in his seventieth year, he fell
a sacrifice to that terrible malady which robbed Athens
of so many of her citizens.
Pericles was forty years at the head of the admin
istration; twenty-five years with others, and fifteen
alone. The flourishing state of the country under
his government, gave occasion to the Athenians publicly to lament his loss and venerate his memory.
As he was expiring and apparently senseless, his
friends, that stood around his bed, expatiated with
warmth on the most glorious actions of his life, and
the victories which he had won-when he suddenly
interrupted their tears and conversation, by saying,
that in mentioning the exploits he had achieved,
and which were common to him with all generals,




PERICLES.               259
they had forgotten to mention a circumstance, which
reflected far greater glory on him as a minister, a
general, and above all, as a man: " It is," said he,
" that not a citizen in Athens has been obliged to put
on mourning on my account."
The Athenians were so affected by his eloquence
that they compared it to thunder and lightning, and,
as if he were another father of the gods, they gave
him the title of Olympian. The poets said that the
goddess of persuasion, with all her charms and attractions, dwelt upon his tongue. When he marched
at the head of the Athenian armies, he observed that
he had the command of a free nation, who were Greeks
and citizens of Athens. He also declared that not
only the hand of a magistrate, but also his eyes and
his tongue, should be pure and undefiled. There can
be no doubt that Pericles was one of the most eloquent orators and sagacious statesmen of Greece.
Yet, great and venerable as his character may appear, we must not forget his follies. His vicious partiality for the celebrated courtesan, Aspasia, justly
subjected him to the ridicule and censure of his fellow-citizens. Thle greatness of his talents and his
services, enabled him to triumph over satire and reproach for the time, but the Athenians had oczasion
to execrate the memory of a man, who, by his example, corrupted the purity and innocence of their morals, and who, associating licentiousness with talents
and public virtue, rendered it almost respectable.
Pericles lost all his legitimate children by the pestilence already mentioned; and to call a natural son
by his own name, he was obliged to repeal a law




260                PERICLES.
which he had made against spurious children, and
which he had enforced with great severity, This
son, named Pericles, became one of the ten generals
who succeeded Alcibiades in the administration of
affairs, and, like his colleagues, he was condemned
to death by the Athenians, after the unfortunate battle
of Arginuse.
ftQ~-oo




ARISTIDES.
T'Hs great Athenian general and statesman, who
took so conspicuous a part in the deliverance of Greece
from the Persians, and who has come down to us with
the enviable surname of THE JUST, was the son of
Lysimachus and born about the year 550 B. C. We
know little of the steps by which he rose to eminence.
He was one of the ten generals of the Athenian forces,
when they fought with the Persians at Marathon. According to the custom, each general held command of
the army fcr one day, in rotation. Aristides, perceixing the disadvantages of this system, prevailed on hib




262                ARISTID ES.
colleagues to give up their command to Miltiades.
To this, in a great measure, must be attributed the
memorable victory of the Greeks upon that occasion.
The year after this, Aristides was archon; and the
ambitious Themistocles, desiring to get rid of him
privately circulated a charge that Aristides was aiming at sovereign power.  He succeeded finally in
causing him to be exiled by the ostracism-a vote of
banishment, in which the Athenians used shells for ballots. While the voting, upon this occasion, was going
on, Aristides was among the people; a rustic citizen,
who did not know him, came up and asked him to
write the name of Aristides upon the shell with which
he intended to vote. "Has he ever injured you?"
said Aristides. " No," said the voter, " but I am tired
of hearing him called the' Just!"'"
Aristides left Athens, with prayers for its welfare.
He was recalled at the end of three years, and, forgetting his injury, devoted himself with ardor and
success to the good of his country. In the famous
battle of Platea, he commanded the Athenians, and
is entitled to a great share of the merit of the splendid
victory gained by the Greeks. He died at an advanced age, about 467 B. C. He was so poor that
the expenses of his funeral were defrayed at the public charge, and his two daughters, on account of their
father's virtues, received a dowry from the public
treasury, when they came to marriageable years.
The effect of so rare an example as that of Aris,
tides, was visible even during his lifetime.  The
Athenians became mcre virtuous, in imitating their
great leader. Such was their sense of his good qual



ARISTIDES.              263
ities, that, at the represehtation of one of the tragedies
of AEschylus, when the actor pronounced a sentence
concerning moral goodness, the eyes of the audience
were all at once turned from the players to Aristides.
When he sat as judge, it is sa d that the plaintiff in
his accusation-in order to prejudice him against the
defendant-mentioned the injuries he had done to
Aristides. " Mention the wrong you have received,"
said the equitable Athenian. "I sit here as judge;
the lawsuit is yours, not mine." On one occasion,
Themistocles announced to the people of Athens that
he had a scheme of the greatest advantage to the state;
but it could not be mentioned in a public assembly.
Aristides was appointed to confer with him. The
design was to set fire to the combined fleet of the
Greeks, then lying in a neighboring port, by which
means the Athenians would acquire the sovereignty
of the seas. Aristides returned to the people, and
told them that nothing could be more advantageous —
yet nothing more unjust. The project was of course
abandoned.
The character of Aristides is one of the finest that
is handed down by antiquity. To him belongs the
rarest of all praises, that of observing justice, not only
between man and man, but between nation and nation. He was truly a patriot, for he preferred the
good of his country to his own ambition. A candid
enemy, an impartial friend, a just administrator of
other men's money-an observer of national faith-he
is well entitled to the imperishable monument which is
erected in that simple title, THE JUST!




XESOP.
THIS celebrated inventor of fables was a native of
I'hrygia, in Asia Minor, and flourished in the time of
Solon, about 560 B. C. A life of him was written
by a Greek monk, named Planudes, about the middle
of the fourteenth century, which passed into circulation as a genuine work, but which is proved to have
been a mere fiction. In that work, AEsop is represented as being hunch-backed, and an object of disgust from his deformity. There appears to be no
foundation whatever for this story. This invention




Asso?.                  265
of the monk, no doubt, had for its object, to give eclat
to the leauties of.Esop's mind, by the contrast cf
bodily deformity.
Throwing aside the work of Planudes, we are left
to grope in obscurity for the real history of the great
fabulist.  After the most diligent researches, we can
do little more than trace the leading incidents of his
life. The place of his birth, like that of Homer, is
matter of question; Samos, Sardis, Cotikeum in Phrygia, and Mesembria in Thrace, laying claim alike to
that honor. The early part of his life was spent in
slavery, and the names of three of his masters have
been preserved: Dinarchus, an Athenian, in whose
service he is said to have acquired a correct and pure
knowledge of Greek; Xanthus, a Samian, who figures in Planudes as a philosopher, in order that the
capacity of the slave may be set off by the incapacity
of the master; and Iadmon or Idmon, another Samian,
by whom he was enfranchised.
He acquired a high reputation in Greece for that
species of composition, which, after him, was called
-Esopian, and, in consequence, was solicited by Crcesus to take up his abode at the Lydian court. Here
he is said to have met Solon, and to have rebuked the
sage for his uncourtly way of inculcating moral lessons. He is said to have visited Athens during the
usurpation of Pisistratus, and to have then composed
the fable of Jupiter and the Frogs* for the instruction
of the citizens.
* "The frogs, living an easy, free life everywhere among
the lakes and ponds, assembled together one day, in a very
II.-23




266                     LsoP.
Being charged by Croesus with an embassy to
Delphi, in the course of which he was to distribute a
sum of money to every Delphian, a quarrel arose between him and the citizens, in consequence of which
he returned the money to his patron, alleging that
those for whom it was meant were unworthy of it.
The disappointed party, in return, got up the charge
of sacrilege, upon which they put him to death. A
pestilence which ensued was attributed to this crime,
and in consequence they made proclamation, at all
the public assemblies of the Grecian nation, of their
tumultuous manner, and petitioned Jupiter to let them have a
king, who might inspect their morals, and make them live a
little honester. Jupiter, being at that time in pretty good humor, was pleased to laugh heartily at their ridiculous request;
and, throwing a little log down into the pool, cried,'There is
a king for you.' The sudden splash which this made, by its
fall into the water, at first terrified them so exceedingly, that
they were afraid to come near it. But, in a little time, seeing
it remain without moving, they ventured, by degrees, to ap.
proach it; and, at last, finding there was no danger, they
leaped upon it, and, in short, treated it as familiarly as they
pleased.
"But not contented with so insipid a king as this was, they
sent their deputies to petition again for another sort of one;
for this they neither did nor could like. Upon that Jupiter sent
them a stork, who, withoft any ceremony, fell to devouring
and eating them up, one after another, as fast as he could.
Then they applied themselves privately to Mercury, and got
him to speak to Jupiter in their behalf, that he would be so
good as to bless them again with another king, or to restore
them to their former state.' No,' says Jove,' since it was their
own choice, let the obstinate wretches suffer the punishment
due to their folly.'?"




.ESOP.                  267
willingness to make compensation for Esop's death
to any one who should appear to claim it. A grandson of his master, Iadmon, at length claimed and received it, no person more closely connected with the
sufferer having appeared.
It is a question of some doubt, whether.Esop was
the inventor of that species of fable which endows the
inferior animals, and even inanimate objects, with
speech and reason, and thus, under the cover of humorous conceit, conveys lessons of wisdom; and
which, from their pleasant guise, are often well received where the plain truth would be rejected. The
probability is, that, if not the originator of such
fables,.Asop was the first who composed them of
such point as to bring them into use as a powerful vehicle for the inculcation of truth.  At all
events, there is abundant proof that fables, passing
under his name, were current and popular in Athens,
during the most brilliant period of its literary history,
and not much more than a century after the death of
the supposed author.  The drolleries of.Esop are
mentioned by Aristophanes in terms which lead us to
suppose that they were commonly repeated at convivial parties.  Socrates, in prison, turned into verse'those that he knew;' and Plato, who banishes the
fictions of Homer from his ide.l republic, speaks
with high praise of the tendency of those of AEsop.
Many of the fables in circulation among us, under
the name of AEsop, are not his;-indeed, it is probable that but a small portion of them can trace their
origin back to the Phrygian. A good fable, as
well as a good story, however it may originate, is apt




268                   Esor.
to be attributed to one whose character it may suit —
and thus it happens that the same smart sayings are
credited, in different countries, to different individuals; and thus, also, we see that many of the fables
which we assign to Esop, are credited, by the Mohammedans, to their fabulist, Lokman.
The value of fables, as instruments of instruction,
is attested by Addison, in the following words. " They
were,' says he, "the first pieces of wit that made
their appearance in the world; and have been still
highly valued, not only in times of the greatest simplicity, but among the most polite ages of mankind.
Jotham's fable of the Trees is the oldest that is extant, and as beautiful as any which have been made
since that time. Nathan's fable of the Poor Man and
his Lamb is likewise more ancient than any that is
extant, excepting the above mentioned, and had so good
an effect as to convey instruction to the ear of a king,
without offending it, and to bring the' man after God's
own heart' to a right sense of his guilt and his duty.
We find Esop in the most distant ages of Greece.
And, if we look into the very beginning of the commonwealth of Rome, we see a mutiny among the
common people appeased by the fable of the Belly
and the Members; which was indeed very proper to
gain the attention of an incensed rabble, at a time
when perhaps they would have torn to pieces any
man who had preached the same doctrine to them
in an open and direct manner. As fables took their
birth in.the very infancy of learning, they never flourished more than when learning was at its greatest
height  To justify this assertion, I shall put my




.SOP.                  269
reader in mind of Horace, the greatest wit and critic
in the Augustan age; and of Boileau, the most correct poet among the moderns; not to mention La
Fontaine, who, by this way of writing, is come more
into vogue than any other author of our times."
"Reading is to the mind," continues the writer
"what exercise is to the body: as, by the one, health
is preserved, strengthened, and invigorated, by the
other, virtue, (which is the health of the mind,) is kept
alive, cherished and confirmed. But, as exercise becomes tedious and painful when we make use of it only
as the means of health, so reading is too apt to grow
uneasy and burdensome, when we apply ourselves to
it only for our improvement in virtue. For this reason, the virtue which we gather from a fable or ar
allegory, is like the health we get by hunting, as we
are engaged in an agreeable pursuit that draws us on
with pleasure, and makes us insensible of the fatigues
that accompany it."
In modern times, La Fontaine has given us an admirable collection of fables, and the artist Grandville
has added a new charm to them, by a very happy
conceit. With infinite wit. he has dressed up the
wolves, foxes, and other animals which figure in the
fables, in human attire, yet so skilfully as to seem natural-thus aiding the imagination, in conceiving of the
actors and speakers in the fables, as performing their
several parts. By the aid of his magical pencil, even
trees, kettles and kegs assume an appearance of life,
and seem to justify the wit and wisdom which they
are imagined to utter. The humor of these designs is
inimitable; and thus not only is greater effect given to
23 *




270                     ZsoP.
the particular fables illustrated, but greater scope,
to the fable generally. We are indebted; in this
country, for a most excellent translation of La Fontaine, with many of Grandville's designs, to Professor Wright.




SOLON.
SOLON, one of the seven wise men of Greece, was
born at Salamis, 637 B. C. and educated at Athens.
His father was one of the descendants of king Codrus,
and, by his mother's side, he reckoned among his relations the celebrated Pisistratus. After he had devoted part of his time to philosophical and political
studies, Solon travelled over the greatest part of
Greece; but at his return home he was distressed at
beholding the dissensions among his countrymen.
All now fixed their eyes upon him as a deliverer,
and he was unanimously elected archon. He might




272                     SOLON.
have become absolute, but he refused the dangerous
office of king of Athens, and, in the capacity of lawgiver, he began to make a reform in every department
of the government. The complaints of the poorer
citizens found redress; all debts were remitted. and
no one was permitted to seize the person of his debtor,
if he was unable to make payment. After he had
established the most salutary regulations in the state,
and bound the Athenians by a solemn oath that they
would fa'thfully observe his laws for the space of one
hundred years, Solon resigned the office of legislator,
and removed himself from Athens. He visited Egypt,
and the court of Crcesus,* king of Lydia-celebrated
Croesus was the fifth and last of the Mermadae, who
reigned in Lydia, and during his time he passed for the richest
of mankind. He was the first who made the Greeks of Asia
tributary to the Lydians. His court was the asylum of learn.
ing; and.Esop, the famous fable-writer, among others, lived
under his patronage. In a conversation with Solon, Crcesus
wished to be thought the happiest of mankind; but the philosopher apprized him of his mistake, and gave the preference
to poverty and domestic virtue. Crcesus undertook a war
against Cyrus, the king of Persia, and marched to meet him
with an army of 420,000 men, and 60,000 horse. After a
reign of fourteen years he was defeated, B. C. 548; his capital
was besieged, and he fell into the conqueror's hands, who ordered him tobe burnt alive. The pile was already on fire,
when Cyrus heard the conquered monarch exclaim, " Solon!
Solon! Solon!" with lamentable energy. He asked him the
reason of I is exclamation, and Crcesus repeated the conversation he cnce had with Solon, on humar. happiness. Cyrus was
moved at the recital; and, at the recollection of the inconstancy
of human affairs, he ordered Crcesus to be taken from the




SOLON.                    273
for his wealth, and "he vanity of desiring to be esteemed
the happiest of mankind.  HIe here declared to the
monarch that an Athenian, who had always seen his
country flourish-who had virtuous children, and
who fell in defence of his native land, had a happier
career than the proudest emperor on the globe.
After ten years' absence, Solon returned to Athens;
but he had the mortification to find the greatest part
of his regulations disregarded, through the factious
spirit of his countrymen and the-usulrpation of Pisistratus.  Not to be longer a spectator of the divisions
that reigned in his country, he retired to Cyprus,
where he died at the court of king Philocyprus, in the
eightieth year of his age. The laws of Solon became
established in Athens, and their salutary consequences
can be discovered in the length of time they were in
force in the republic. For above four hundred years
they flourished in full vigor, and Cicero, who was
himself a witness of their benign influence, passes the
highest encomiums upon the legislator, whose supetior wisdom framed such a code of regulations.
It was the intention of Solon to protect the poorer
citizens; and by dividing the whole body of the Athenians into four classes, three of which were permitted
burning pile, and he was afterwards one of his most intimate
friends. The kingdom of Lydia became extinct in his person,
and the power was transferred to Persia. Croesus survived
Cyrus. The manner of his death is unlknown. I-le is celebrated for the immensely rict presents which he m-ade to the
temple of Delphi, from which he received an obscure and ambiguous oracle, which he interpreted in his favor, but which
was fulfilled in the destruction of his empire.
R




274                  SOLON.
to discharge the most important offices and magistra.
cies of the state, and the last to give their opinion in
the assemblies, but not have a share in the distinctions and honors of their superiors; the legislator
gave the populace a privilege, which, though at first
small and inconsiderable, soon rendered them masters
of the republic, and of all the affairs of government.
He made a reformation in the Areopagus, increased
the authority of the members, and permitted them
yearly to inquire hqw every citizen maintained himself, and to punish such as-lived in idleness, an(c
were not employed in some honorable and lucrative
profession. He also regulated the Prytaneum, and
fixed the number of its judges to four hundred.
The sanguinary laws of Draco were all cancelled
except that against murder; and the punishment de.
nounced against every offender was proportioned to
his crime; but Solon made no law against parricide
or sacrilege. The former of these crimes, he said,
was.too horrible to human nature for a man to be
guilty of it, and the latter could never be committed,
because the history of Athens had never furnished a
single instance. Such as had died in the service of
their country, were buried with great pomp, and their
families were maintained at the public expense; but
such as had squandered away their estates, such as
refused to bear arms in defence of their country, or
paid no attention to the infirmity and distress of their
parents, were branded with infamy. The laws of
marriage were newly regulated; it became an union
of affection and tenderness, and no longer a mercenary contract. To speak with ill language against




SOLON.                  275
the dead, as well as against the living, was made a
crime; for the legislator wished that the character of
his fellow-citizens should be freed from the aspersions
of malevolence and envy. A person that had no
children was permitted to dispose of his estates as he
pleased; females were not allowed to be extravagant
in their dress or expenses; licentiousness was punished; and those accustomed to abandoned society,
were deprived of the privilege of addressing the public assemblies. These celebrated laws were engraved
on several tables; and that they might be better
known and more familiar to the Athenians, they
were written in verse.
If we consider the time in which Solon lived, we
shall see occasion to regard him as a man of extraordinary wisdom and virtue. Nearly all the systems
of government around him were despotic. That government should be instituted and conducted for the
benefit of the governed; and that the people are the
proper depositories of power-principles recognised
in his institutions —were truths so deeply hidden from
mankind, as to demand an intellect of the highest
order for their discovery.
Nor are his virtues and humanity less conspicuous
than his sagacity. While repealing the bloody code
of Draco, he substituted mild and equitable laws; he
shunned the harsh and savage system of Lycurgus,
which sacrificed all the best feelings of the heart, and
the most refined pleasures of life, in order to sustain
the martial character of the state; and while he
sought to soften the manners, he strove to exalt
the standard of public and private virtue, not only




276                  SOLON.
by his laws, but by his conversation and example.
He was thus, not only the benefactor of Athens and
of Greece, but-as one of the great instruments of
civilization throughout the world, and especially as
one of the leaders in the establishment of free government-tnankind at large owe him a lasting debt of
gratitude.




LYCURGUS.
Tins Spartan lawgiver is supposed to have been
born about 900 B. C. He was the youngest son of
king Eunomus, and was entitled to the throne upon
the death of his brother, Polydectes; but he relinquished it in behalf of his unborn son, and adminis
tered the government in his name. By the wisdom
of his measures, he won general esteem; and his
noble disinterestedness raised his glory to a height
which awoke envy against him in the minds of some
HI.-24




278                 LYCURGUS.
of.he most distinguished Spartans, who now conspired against him.  Partly to escape the danger
which threatened him, and partly to gratify the desire
of seeing foreigin nations, and learning their manners,
he left Sparta, and travelled in various countries.
After visiting Crete, and admiring the wise laws
of Minos, he went to Iona.  The effeminate and luxurious life of the inhabitants, and the feebleness of
their laws, which formed a striking contrast with the
simplicity and vigor of those of Crete, made a deep
impression upon him. Here, however, he is said to
have become acquainted with the poems of Homer,
which he collected and carried to Greece.  From
hence he is said to have travelled into Egypt, India,
and Spain; but this seems improbable.
In the meanwhile, the two kings who succeeded
him at Sparta, Archelaus and Charilaus, were esteemed neither by the people nor by the nobility;
and, as there were no laws sufficient to maintain the
public tranquillity, the confusion passed all bounds.
In this dangerous situation, Lycurgus was the only
man from whom help and deliverance could be expected. The peeole hoped from him protection against
the nobles, and the kings believed that he would put
an end to the disobedience of the people. More than
once, ambassadors were sent to entreat him to come
to the assistance of the state.
He long resisted, but at last yielded to the urgent
wishes of his fellow-citizens. At his arrival in Sparta,
he found that not only particular abuses were to be
suppressed, but that it would be necessary to form an
enttiely new constitution.  The confidence which his




LYCURGUS.                279
personal character, his judgment, and t. e dangerous
situation of the state, gave him among his fellow-citizens, encouraged him to encounter all obstacles.
The first step which he took, was to add to the kings
a senate of twenty-eight persons, venerable for their
age, without whose consent the former were to undertake nothing. He thus established a useful balance
between the power of the kings and the licentiousness
of the people. The latter at the same time obtained
the privilege of giving their voice in public affairs.
They had not, however, properly speaking, deliberative privileges, but only the limited right of accepting
-or rejecting what was proposed by the kings or the
senate.
The Spartans conformed in general to the institutions of Lycurgus; but the equal division of property
which he effected, excited among the rich such violent
commotions, that the lawgiver fled to the temple, to
save his life. On the way, he received a blow, which
struck out one of his eyes. He merely turned round,
and showed to his pursuers his face streaming with
blood. This sight filled all with shame and repentance; they implored his pardon, and led him respectfully home. The person who had done the deed, a
young man- of rank, and of a fiery character, was
given up to him. Lycurgus pardoned him, and dismissed him, covered with shame.
After having thus formed a constitution for Sparta,
Lycurgus endeavored to provide for its continuance.
He made all the citizens take a solemn oath that they
would change nothing in the laws which he had
introduced, before his return. He then went to Deli




280                 LYCURGUS.
phi, and, asked the gods whether the new laws were
sufficient for the happiness of Sparta. The answer
was, " Sparta will remain the most prosperous of all
states as long as it observes these laws." He sent
this answer to Lacedaemon, and left his country forever. He died of voluntary starvation, and ordered
his body to be burned, and the ashes scattered in the
sea, lest they should be carried to Sparta, and his
countrymen be released from their oath.
Though the patriotism of Lycurgps appears to
have been of the most exalted nature, his institutions
were exceedingly barbarous, in many respects. He
cherished no such thing as family ties, but required
everything to yield to the good of the state. The
children did not belong to the parents; feeble children
were destroyed; meals were all taken in common;
unmarried men were punished. Thus the private
liberty of the people was taken away, and they were
made slaves, in their daily habits, thoughts and feelings, to that power which was called the state. The
design of the lawgiver seemed to be to rear up a
nation of soldiers-not for conquest, but for defence.
He would not permit Sparta to be encircled with
walls, preferring that its defence should depend on
the arms of the citizens. The men were wholly
trained for martial life. Sensibility to suffering, and
tme fear of death, were treated with contempt. Victory or death, in battle, was their highest glory; cowardice was attended with the most deadly shame.
The difference between the institutions of Lycurgus and those of Solon, may be seen in their results.
The Spartans became a stern and haughty nation of




LYCURGUS.                  281
soldiers; but they have left nothing behind but their
story, to instruct mankind; while the Athenians, exalted by the genial breath of liberty, contipue to this
very hour to be the admiration of the worla, for their
literature, their arts, and their institutions.
24 




H 0 M DR.
TIE Iliad is often spoken of as the greatest production of the human mind; yet it has been seriously
questioned whether such a person as Homer ever
lived! This paradox is to be explained by admitting,
that, although the Iliad is a wonderful performance for
the time and circumstances of its composition, still, it is
by no means entitled to the supremacy which scholastic
fondness assigns to it; and that the doubts thrown
upon its authorship are but the mists engendered in
the arena of hypercriticism.
By Homer, we mean the author of the Iliad, whatever may have been his true name. The period at




HOMER.                    283
which he flourished is matter of doubt, but it is fixed
by the Arundelian Marbles,* at 907 B. C., which is
probably not far from  the true date.  A great many
tales are handed down to us, in relation to him, which
are mere fictions. The only well established facts,
in his life, are that he was a native of Asiatic Greece,
and a wandering poet, or rhapsodist, who went about
the country reciting his compositions, according to
the custom of those times. The story of his being
blind is without authority.
Such are the meagre facts which can be gathered
amid the obscurity of that remote age in which Homer
lived. There is something painful in this barrenness,-and we almost feel that the critics. in exploding
the fond fictions which antiquity has woven around
the name of the great poet, have performed an ungracious office. They have indeed dissipated fables, but
they have left us little but darkness or vacuity in
their place. Such is the yearning of the mind, in
respect to those who have excited its emotions, and
created an interest in the bosom, that it will cherish
even the admitted portraitures of fiction and fancy,
rather than content itself with the blank canvass of
nothingness. The heart, as well as nature, abhors a
vacuum.
* These Marb.es consist of a large collection of busts, statues, altars, inscriptions, mutilated figures, &c., formed by
Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, in the early part of the
seventeenth century, and presented to the University of Oxford,
by Henry Howard, the earl's grandson.  They were obtained
in various parts of Greece; many are of great antiquity and
of-great value, as well for the light they shed upon history as
upon the arts, customs, and manners of past ages.




284                 HOMER.
The fictitious history of Homer-which, however,
is of some antiquity, and has passed current for centuries-is briefly as follows. His mother was named
Critheis: she was married to Maeon, king of Smyrna,
and gave birth to a child, -n or near the banks of the
river Meles, from which circumstance he was ca.led
Meles.genes. The mother soon died, and he was
brought up and educated under the care of Mseon.
The name of Homer was afterwards given to him,
on account of his becoming blind.
The legends proceed in general to state that Homer
himself became a schoolmaster and poet of great
celebrity, at Smyrna, and remained there till Mentes,
a foreign merchant, induced him to travel. That the
author of the Iliad and Odyssey must have travelled
pretty extensively for those times, is unquestionable;
for besides the accurate knowledge of Greece which
these works display, it is clear that the poet had a
familiar acquaintance with the islands both in the,Egean and the Ionian seas, the coasts of Asia Minor,
Crete, Cyprus, and Egypt-which still bear the names
he gave them-and possessed also distinct informa
tion with respect to Lybia,.Ethiopia, Phoenicia, Caria
and Phrygia.
In his travels, as the legends say, Homer visited
Ithaca, and there became subject to a disease in his
eyes, which afterwards terminated in total blindness.
From this island he is said to have gone to Italy, and
even to Spain; but there is no sign, in either of the
two poems, of his possessing any definite knowledge
westward of the Ionian sea. Wherever he went,
Homer recited his verses, which were universally




HOMER.                 285
admi ed, except at Smyrna, where he was a prophet
in his own country. At Phocaea, a schoolmaster, of
the name of Thestorides, obtained from Homer a copy
of his poetry, and then sailed to Chios, and there
recited these verses as his own. Homer went soon
after to the same place, and was rescued by Glaucus.
a goatherd, from the attack of his dogs, and brought
by him to Bolissus, a town in Chios, where he resided
a long time, in the possession of wealth and a splendid reputation.
According to Herodotus, Homer died at*Io, on his
way to Athens, and was buried near the sea-shore.
Proclus says he died in consequence of falling over a
stone. Plutarch tells a different story. He preserves
two responses of an oracle to the poet, in both of
which he was cautioned to beware of the young men's
riddle; and relates that the poet, being on a voyage
to Thebes, to attend a musical or poetical contest at
the feast of Saturn, in that city, landed in the island
of Io, and, whilst sitting on a rock by the sea-shore,
observed some young fishermen in a boat. Homer
asked them if they had anything, and the young
wags, who, havihg had no sport, had been diligently
catching and killing as many as they could, of certain
personal companions of a race not even yet extinct,
answered,-" As many as we caught, we left; as
many as we could not catch, we carry with us." The
catastrophe of this absurd story is, that Homer, being
utterly unable to guess the riddle, broke his heart, out
of pure vexation; and the inhabitants of the island
buried him'with great magnificence, and placed the
following inscription on hi; tomb:



-286                 HOMER.
Here HIomnr, the divine, in earthly bed,
Poet of Heroes, rests his sacred head.
The general theory in regard to the poems ot
Homer, is that they were composed and recited by
him, to the people living upon the islands and the
main land along the coasts of Asia Minor. At that
lime books were unknown, and it is a question
whether even the art of writing was then practised.
Homer, therefore, published his poems in the only
way he could do it-by oral delivery. Whether his'verses wete sung, or only recited, we cannot determine; but there is no doubt that he obtained both fame
and maintenance by his performances.
So deep was the impressioni made by the poet, that
his verses were learned by heart, and preserved in
the memories of succeeding rhapsodists and minstrels.
His reputation was diffused over all Greece; and Lycurgus, who had heard of his compositions, is supposed to have taken pains, during his travels, to have
them written down, and to have brought them in a
collected form to Greece. -They were, however, still
in fragments, and the task of arranging and uniting
them was performed by Pisistratus, with the help of
the poets of his time  In this way, they received
nearly the form they now possess; the division of
each of the two epics into twenty-four books, corre.
sponding with the letters of the Greek alphabet, being
the work of the Alexandrian critics, some centuries
after. It must be remembered, however, that although
the poems of Homer were thus committed to writing
in the time of Pisistratus, they continued to be recited
by the rhapsodists, who were much favored in Greece,




ROMER.'287
and in this way alone, for several centuries. were
popularly known. It is probable that in these recitations, there was a good deal of dramatic action, and
that they possessed something of the interest which
belongs to theatrical representation.
The vicissitudes to which Homer's reputation and
influence have been subject, deserve notice. From
the arrangement of the Iliad and Odyssey, in the
time of the Pisistratidte, to the promulgation of Christianity, the love and reverence with which the name
of Homer was regarded, went on constantly increasing, till at last public games were instituted in his
honor, statues dedicated, temples erected, and sacrifices offered to him, as a divinity. There were such
temples at Smyrna, Chios, and Alexandria; and, according to.Elian, the Argives sacrificed to, and invoked the names and presence of, Apollo and Homer
together.
But about the beginning of the second century of the
Christian era, when the struggle between the old and
the new religions was warm and active, the tide turned.
Heathenism, says Pope, was then to be destroyed,
and Homer appeared to be the father of those fictions
which were at once the belief of the Pagan religion,
and the objections of Christianity against it. He
became, therefore, deeply involved in the question, not
with that honor which had hitherto attended him, but
as a criminal, who had drawn the world into folly'These times, however, are past, and Homer stands on
the summit of the ancient Parnassus, the boast and
glory of Greece, and the wonder and admiration of
mankind.




288                 HOMER.
The Iliad, with the exception of the Pentateuch and.
some others of the books of the Old Testament, is the
most ancient composition known. It is interesting
not only as a splendid poem, but also on account of
the light it throws upon the history and manners of
the remote ages in which it was written. We are
struck with the similarity of the customs of the Asiatic
Greeks to those of the Hebrews, as set forth in the
Bible; and also with the fact that the Jupiter of
Homer rises to that unchecked omnipotence assigned
to Jehovah.
The design of the Iliad seems to be to set forth the
revenge which Achilles took on Agamemnon, for depriving him of his mistress, Briseis, while engaged in
the siege of Troy-with the long train of evils which
followed. The admirers of Homer have pretended
to discover in the work the most profound art in the
construction of the poem, and have hence deduced
rules for the formation of the epic poem; but nothing
is more clear than that, in the simple lines of Homer,
the poet had no other guide than a profound knowledge of human nature and human sympathies; and
that he only sought to operate on these by telling a
plain story, in the most simple, yet effective manner.
The absence of all art is one of the chief characteristics of the Iliad;-its naturalness is the great secret
of its power.
That this poem is the greatest of human productions-a point often assumed —is by no means
to be received as true. It strikes us with wonder,
when we consider the age in which it was cormposed, and we feel that Homer was indeed one of the




ROMER.                      "-9
great lights of the world.  The following passage,
one of the finest in the Iliad, is full of truth, nature
and pathos-and it shows that the heroes of Troy,
nearly three thousand years ago, had the same feelings and sympathies as those which beat in tne
bosoms of our time; yet we can point to a great
number of passages in mnodern poems, far, very far
superior to this.  The scene represents Priam-who
has come to the Greek camp for the purpose of redeeming the body of his son Hector-as addressing
the chieftain, Achilles:
"Think, 0 Achilles, semblance of the gods!
On thy own father, full of days like me,
And trembling on the gloomy verge of life:
Some neighbor chief, it may be, even now,
Oppresses him, and there is none at hand,
No friend to succor him in his distress;
Yet doubtless, hearing that Achilles lives,
He still rejoices, hoping day by day,
That one day he shall see the face again
Of his own son from distant Troy returned.
But me no comfort cheers, whose bravest sons,
So late the flower of Ilium, all are slain.
When Greece came hither, I had fifty sons;
Nineteen were children of one bed; the rest
Born of my concubines. A numerous house i
But fiery Mars hath thinned it. One I had,
One, more than all my sonts, the strength of Troy,
Whom standing tbr his country thou hast slain,Hector. His body to redeem I come;
Into Achia's feet bringing myself
Ransom inestimable to thy tent.
Rev'rence the gods, Achilles! recollect
Thy father; for his sake comrassion'show
To me, more pitiable still, who draw
s       Ir.-25




290                    HOME0R.
Home to my lips (humiliation yet
Unseen on earth) his hand who slew mny son!
"So saying, he awakened in his soul regret
Of his own sire; softly he placed his hand
On Priam's hand, and pushed him gently away.
Remembrance melted both. Rolling before
Achilles feet, Priam his son deplored,
Wide-slaughtering Hector, and Achilles wept
By turns his father, and by turns his friend
Patroclus: sounds of sorrow filled the tent."
Beside the Iliad, another epic, divided into twentylour books, and entitled the Odyssey, with a number
of smaller pieces, are attributed to Homer, and doubtless
upon good and substantial grounds. The Odyssey is
a tale of adventures, like Robinson Crusoe, and Sinbad the Sailor, heightened by an object, and dignified
by a moral far above these works.  It tells us what
befel Ulysses, in returning from the siege of Troy to
his home in Greece; and is wrought up with wonderful powers of invention and fancy.  It is esteemed
inferior, on the whole, to the Iliad, and an eminent
critic has said, that, in the former, Homer appears like
the rising, and in the latter, like the setting sun.




CONFUCIUS
THIS greatest of Chinese philosophers was born in
the petty kingdom of Lui, now the prcvince of Shantung, in the year 549 B. C.-the same year that Cyrus




292               CONFUCIUS.
became king of the Medes and Persians. The Chi'
nese. in their embellishments of his history, tell us
that his birth was attended with heavenly music,
filling the air; that two dragons were seen winding
over the roof; that five old men appeared at the door,
and after consulting together, suddenly vanished; and
that a unicorn brought to his mother a tablet in his
mouth. It is also related that when he was born, five
characters were seen on his breast, declaring him to be
" the maker of a rule for settling the world." These
and other marvels are a part of the established biography of the philosopher, as received by the Chinese.
The father of Confucius, who was a magistrate of
the district where he lived, died when the son was
but three years old. The latter was poor and unknown during his youth —though his gravity and
attention to study attracted the attention of his townsmen.  When  he approached  manhood, he was
esteemed remarkable for his wisdom, and equal to the
learned men of the country in his knowledge of antiquity.
At the age of seventeen he received an appointment
as clerk in the grain department of the government;
and so attentive was he in his trust, as, two years
after, to be advanced to the general supervision of the
fields and parks, and the breeding of cattle. About
this time he was married, and two years after, his
only son was born. Upon this o tcasions Lord Chau
the governor of Lu, sent him two carp as a present,
and accordingly Confucius named his son Li or Carp
His humor went even farther, and he gave the boy the
additional title of Piyii, or Uncle Fish.




CONFUCIUS.               293
At the age of twenty-four, Confucius lost his mother,
whom he buried in the same grave with his father,
who had been dead some time. He then resigned his
office, that he might mourn three years for his mother,
according to the ancient custom of the country. This
practice had fallen into neglect, and, consequently, the
examnple of Confucius, in following the holy custom
of the fathers of the country, gained him great renown for his piety. His reputation was thus extended,
and his example began to be followed.
The three years of his mourning were not lostfor he then devoted himself to study. He diligently
examined the books of the old authors, seeking to discover the means by which the ancient kings and sages
sought to attain the perfection of morals. The result
was, a conviction that the social virtues were best
cultivated by an observance of the ancient usages of
the country; and accordingly he resolved to devote
his life to them, and to their permanent establishment
in China. This great work he accomplished; and if
we consider the effect he has produced on the most populous nation of the globe, and during a space of nearly
two thousand years, we shall perceive the mighty
consequence of his labors.  The actual amount of
influence he has exercised, perhaps exceeds that of
any other human being, save Aristotle alone.
Appearing to have a clear view of his great work,
Confucius entered upon it with systematic diligence.
He resolved to establish schools where his philosophy
should be taught to pupils who would go forth and
spread his doctrines through the empire. He also
proposed to write a series of books, setting forth his
views.  All these things he lived to accomplish.
25 




294                 CONFUCIUS.
The greater part of the life of Confucius was passed
in travelling, visiting the courts of the petty princes,
whose states then constituted the empire under the
sovereign of the Chan dynasty. This course was,.as
might be expected, fruitless in reforming these states,
but it diffused a general knowledge of himself and his
doctrines, and procured him scholars. The prince of
Tsi was the first who invited him to his court, and
received him with distinction. This potentate heard
him with pleasure, and applauded his maxims; but, to
the chagrin of Confucius, he continued to live in luxury, and to allow his ministers to oppress his subjects
and abuse their power. He, however, offered him for
his maintenance the revenue of a considerable city,
which the philosopher thought proper to decline, alleging that he had done nothing to merit such a recompense. After sojourning a year in Tsi, and seeing
that his discourse produced no effect to reform the
abuses and evils of the country, he left it, and visited
some of the principal cities of China.
On the road between Tsi and Chin, he fell into a
difficulty. The prince of Wui having attacked Chin,
the lord of Tsui came to his relief, and sent an invitation to Confucius to join him; but the other party,
fearing that he would do them a disservice, sent people to intercept him. They surrounded him in the
wilderness, and would have starved him to death, had
not a friend come to his relief, after a detention of
seven days. After this narrow escape, he returned
home, and the prince of Lui gave him a carriage, two
horses an I a- servant, with which he set off for Kingyang, the capital of the empire.  Here he passed his




CONFUCIUS.                29&
time in observing the forms of government, the condition of the people and their manners, and how the
rites and ceremonies of the ancient kings were regarded. He held several interviews with the ministers
of the court, was permitted to visit the emperor's ancestral hall, and other sacred places, and had access
to the archives of the kingdom, from which he was
allowed to take extracts.
One object in the visit of Confucius to the capital,
was to see Lautsz', the founder of the Tau sect, or
Rationalists, who lived in a retired place, some distance from court. This old philosopher, accustomed
to visits from men of all ranks, received Confucius
and his disciples with indifference. He was reclining
on an elevated platform, and hearing that his visitor
had come to hear from his own mouth an exposition
of his tenets, and to ask him about propriety, he
roused himself to receive him. " I have heard speak
of you," says he, " and I know your reputation. I am
told that you talk only of the ancients, and discourse
only upon what they taught. Now, of what use is it
to endeavor to revive the memory of men of whom
no trace remains on the earth? The sage ought to
interest Limself with the times in which he lives, and
regard present circumstances; if they are favorable,
he will improve them; but if, on the contrary, they
are unfavorable, he will retire and wait tranquilly.
without grieving at what others do. He who possesses a treasure, will try to have everybody know
it; he will preserve it against the day of need; this
you will do if you are a sage. It seems, judging by
your conduct; that you have some ostentation in your




29S6               CONFUCIUS.
plans of instruction. and that you are proud. Correct
these faults, and purify your heart from all love of
pleasure; you will, in this way, be much more useful
than seeking to know what the ancients said.
La'utsz' also observed, "A discreet merchaat keeps
his affairs to himself as if he knew nothing; an excellent man, although highly intelligent, demeans
himself like an ignorant man."  Confucius remarked
to his disciples, "I have seen Lautsz'; have I not
seen something like a dragon?"  On leaving him,
La'utsz' said, "I have heard that the rich dismiss
their friends with a present, and the benevolent
send away people with a word of advice; whoever
is talented, and prying into everything, will run
himself into danger, because he loves to satirize and
slander men; and he who wishes to thoroughly understand recondite things will jeopard his safety,
because he loves to publish the failings of men."
Confucius replied, " I respectfully receive your instructions," and thus left him. Lautsz' advice seemed
directed against a too inquisitive philosophy, and
meddling too much in the affairs of the world; he
was rather of the Budhistic school of quietists, while
Confucius wished men to endeavor to make each other
better.
Confucius, like Aristotle and other masters, used
to teach his disciples while walking with them, deriving instruction from what they saw. Once, while
walking with them by the bank of a stream, he
stopped from time to time to'ook very intently at
the water, until their attention was excited, and they
were induced to ask him the reason of his conduct




CONFUCIUS.               297
Ile replied, " The running of water in its bed is a very
simple thing, the reason of which everybody knows.
I was, however, rather making a comparison:in my
own mind between the running of water and doctrine.
The water, I reflected, runs unceasingly, by day and
by night, until it is lost in the bosom of the mighty
deep. Since the days of Yau and Shun, the pure
doctrine has uninterruptedly descended to us: let us
in our turn transmit it to those who come after us,
that they, from our example, may give it to their
descendants to the end of time. Do not imitate those
isolated men, (referring to La.utsz',) who are wise only
for themselves. To communicate the knowledge and
virtue we possess, to others, will never impoverish
ourselves. This is one of the reflections I would
make upon the running of water."
This peripatetic habit, and the aptitude for drawing
instruction from whatever would furnish instruction,
was usual with the philosopher, and he seldom omitted to improve an occasion. Once, when walking in
the fields, he perceived a fowler, who, having drawn
in his nets, distributed the birds he had taken into
different cages.  On coming up to him  to ascertain what he had caught, Confucius attentively remarked the vain efforts of the captive birds to regain
their liberty, until his disciples gathered round him,
when he addressed the fowler,-" I do not see any old
birds here; where have you put them? "  "The old
birds,' said he, " are too wary to be caught; they are
on th.e look-out, and if they see a net or a cage, far
from falling into the snare, they escape, and never
return. Those young ones which are in company




298                CONFUCIUS.
with them, likewise escape, but such only as separate
into a flock by themselves, and rashly approach, are
the birds I catch. If perchance I catch an old bird,
it is because he follows the young ones."
"You have heard him," said Confucius, turning to
his disciples; "the words of this fowler afford us
matter for instruction. The young birds escape the
snare only when they keep with the old ones; the old
ones are taken when they follow the young.  It is
thus with mankind. Presumption, hardihood, want
of forethought, and inattention are the principal reasons why young people are led astray. Inflated with
their small attainments, they have scarcely made a
commencement in learnirng, before they think they
know everything; they have scarcely performed a
few virtuous acts, and straight they fancy themselves
at the height of wisdom. Under this false impression
they doubt nothing; they rashly undertake acts without consulting the aged and experienced, and thus,
securely following their own notions, they are misled,
and fall into the first snare laid for them. If you see
an old man of sober years so badly advised as to be
taken with the giddiness of a youth, attached to him,
and thinking and acting with him, he is led astray
by him, and soon taken in the same snare. Do not
forget the answer of the fowler, but reflect on it.occasionallv."
Having completed his observations at the capital,
Confucius returned, by the way of Tsi, to his native
state of Li, where he remained ten 5 ears. His house
now became a sort of lyceum, open to every one who
wished to receive instruction. His manner of teach




CONFUCIUS.                299
ing was to allow his disciples or others to come and
go when they pleased, asking his opinion on such
points, either in morals, politics, history, or literature,
as they wished to have explained. He gave then
the liberty of choosing their subject, and then he discoursed upon it.  From  these conversations and
detached expressions of the philosopher, treasured up
by his disciples, they afterwards composed Lun Yui,
now one of the Four Book-s. Confucius, it is said,
numbered upwards of three thousand disciples, or
perhaps we ought to call them advocates or hearers
of nis doctrine. They consisted of men of all ranks
and ages, who attended upon him when their duties
or inclinations permitted, and who materially assisted
in diffusing a knowledge of his tenets over the whole
country. There were, however, a select few, who
attached themselves to his person, lived with him, and
followed him wherever he went; and to whom he
entrusted the promulgation of his doctrines.
After several years of retirement, Confucius was
called into public life. The prince of Lu died, and
his son, entertaining a great respect for the philosopher,
and esteem for his instructions, invited him to court,
in order to learn his doctrines more fully. After
becoming well acquainted with him, and reposing
confidence in his integrity, the young ruler committed
the entire management of the state to him; and the
activity, courage, and d 3interested conduct which he
exhibited in the exercise of his power, soon had the
happiest effect upon the country. By his wise rules
and the authority of his example and his maxims,
he soon reformed many vicious practices, and intro



300                CONFUCIUS
duced sobriety and order, in the place of waste and
injustice. He occupied himself with agriculture, and
regulated the revenue and the manner of receiving it;
so that, in consequence of his measures, the productions of the state were increased, the happiness of the
people was extended, and the revenue considerably
augmented.
He carried his reforms into every department of
justice, in which, soon after he entered upon his duties as minister, he had an opportunity of exhibiting
his inflexibility. One of the most powerful nobles of
the state had screened himself from the just punishment due to his many crimes, under the dread of his
power and riches, and the number of his retainers.
Confucius caused him to be arrested, and gave order
for his trial; and when the overwhelming proofs
brought forward had convinced all of his guilt, he
condemned him to lose his head, and presided himself at the execution. This wholesome severity struck
a dread into other men of rank, and likewise obtained
the plaudits of all men of sense, as well as of the
people, who saw in the minister a courageous protector, ready to defend them against the tyranny of men
in power.
These salutary reforms had not been long in operation, before the neighboring states took alarm at the
rising prosperity of Luii; and the prince of Tsi, who
had recently usurped the throne by assassinating its
occupant, resolved to ruin the plans of Confucius,
To this end he appointed an envoy to the young
prince, with whose character he was well acquainted,
desiring to renew the ancient league of friendship




CONFUCIUS.               301
between the two countries. This envoy was charged
with thirty-five horses, beautifully caparisoned, a large
number of curious rarities, and twenty-four of the
most accomplished courteans he could procure in his
dominrions.  The scheme succeeded; before these
seductive'damsels, the austere etiquette of the court
of Lui soon gave way, and fetes, comedies, dances,
and concerts, took the place of propriety and decorum.
The presence of the sage soon became irksome to his
master, and he at last forbid him to come into his
sight, having become quite charmed with the fair
enchantresses, and no longer able to endure the remonstrances of his minister.
Confucius, thus disgraced in his own country, and
now at the age of fifty, left it, and retired to the kingdom of Wei, where he remained more than ten years,
without seeking to exercise any public office, but
principally occupied with completing his works, and
instructing his disciples in his doctrines.  During
his residence in Wei, he frequently made excursions
into other states, taking with him such of his disciples
as chose to accompany him. He was at times applauded and esteemed, but quite as often was the
object of persecution and contempt. More than once
his life was endangered. He compared himself to a
dog driven from his home: " I have the fidelity of
that animal, and I am treated like it. But what matters the ingratitude of men?  They cannot hinder
me from doing all the good that is appointed me. If
my precepts are disregarded, I have the consolation
in my own breast of knowing that I have faithfully
performed my duty." He sometimes spoke in a manII.-26




302                CONFUCIUS.
ner that showed his own impression to be that Heaven
had conferred on him a special commission to instruct
the world. When an attempt was made on his life,
he said, " As Heaven has produced such a degree of
virtue in me, what can Hwantui do to me?"  On
another occasion of danger, he said, " If Heaven means
not to obliterate this doctrine from thie earth, the men
of Kwang can do nothing to me."
At the age of sixty-eight, after an absence of eighieen years, Confucius returned to his native country,
where he lived a life of retirement, employed in putting the finishing hand to his works. In his sixtysixth year, his wife died, and his son, Peyii, mourned
for her a whole year; but one day overhearing his
father say, " Ah! it is carried too far;" he dried up
his tears. Three years after this, this son also died,
leaving a son, Tsz'sz', who afterwards emulated his
grandfather's fame as a teacher, and became the author of the Chung Yung, or True Medium. The next
yeatr, Yen Hwui, the favorite disciple of the sage, died,
whose loss he bitterly mourned, saying, " Heaven has
destroyed me! heaven has destroyed me1"  He had
great hopes of this pupil, and had depended upon him
to perpetuate his doctrines.
An anecdote is related of him about this time of
life, which the Chinese regard as highly creditable to
their sage. Tszkung, one of his disciples, was much
surprised one morning to meet his master at the door,
dressed with much elegance and nicety. On asking
him where he was going, Confucius, with a sigh,
replied, "I am going to court, and that too, without
being invited. I have not been able to resist a feeling




CONFUCIUS.               30O
which possesses me to make a last effort to bring &t
just punishment upon Chin Chen, the usurper of the
throne of Tsi. I am prepared by purification and
fasting, for this audience, so that if I fail, I shall not
nave to accuse myself." On presenting himself, he
was received with respect, and immediately admitted
to an audience; and the prince of Lui asked him
what important affair had called him from his retirement. Confucius, replied: " Sire, that which I have
to communicate, alike concerns all kings. The perfidious Chin Chen has imbued his hands in the blood
of his legitimate sovereign, Kien. You are a prince;
your state borders upon Tsi; Kien was your ally,
and originally of the same race as yourself. Any
one of these reasons is sufficient to authorize you to
declare war against Chin Chen, and all of them combined make it your duty to take up arms. Assemble
your forces and march to exterminate a monster
whom the earth upholds with regret. This crime is
such that it cannot be pardoned, and, in punishing it,
you will at once avenge an outrage against heaven,
from which every king derives his power; against
royalty, which has been profaned by this perfidy;
against a parent, to whom you are allied by ties of
blood, alliance and friendship."
The prince, convinced of the criminality of Chin
Chen, applauded the just indignation which inspired
the heart of Confucius, but suggested that before he
entered upon such an enterprise, it would be best to
confer with his ministers. " Sire," said the philosepher, "I have acquitted myself of a duty in laying
this case before you; but it will be useless to insist




304                CONFUCIUS.
upon it before your ministers, whom I know are ditinclined to enter into my views. Reflect, I pray you,
as a sovereign, upon what I now propose, and consult
only with yourself as to its execution. Your servants
are not sovereigns, and have no other than their ovwn
ends to gain, to which they sometimes sacrifice the
good of their master and the glory of the state. 1
have no other end in view than to support the cause
of justice; and I conjure you, by the sacred names of
justice and good order, to go and exterminate this
miscreant from the earth, and, by restoring the throne
of Tsi to its rightful owner, to exhibit to the world
your justice, and strike a salutary terror into the
hearts of all who may wish to imitate this successful
villany." On leaving, the prince said to Confucius,' I will think seriously on what you have said, and, if
it be possible, will carry it into execution."
Towards the end of his days, when he had completed his revision of the Five Classes, he, with great
solemnity, dedicated them to Heaven. He assembled
all his disciples and led them out of the town to one
of the hills where sacrifices had been usually offered
for many years. He here erected a table, or altar,
upon which he placed the books; and then, turning
his'face to the north, adored Heaven, and returned
thanks upon his knees, in a humble manner, for having had life and strength granted him to enable him
to accomplish this laborious undertaking; he implored
heaven to grant that the benefit to his countrymen
from so arduous a labor might not be small. He had
prepared himself for this ceremony by privacy, fasting
and prayer. Chinese pictures of this scene represent




CONFUCIUS.                305
the sage In the. attitude of supriication, and a pen.
cil of light, or a rainbow, descending from  the sky
upon the books, while his scholars stand around in ad
miring wonder.
In his seventy-third year, a few days before his
death, leaning upon his staff, Confucius tottered about
the house, singing out, -
"The great mountain is'broken!
The strong beam is thrown down!
The wise man is decayed."
He then related a dream he had had the night
before, to his pupil, Tszkung, which he regarded as a
presage of his own death; and, after keeping his bed
seven days, he died on the 18th day of the second
month, and was buried in the same grave with his
wife. Tsz'kung mourned for him six years in a shed
erected by the side of his grave, and then returned
home. His death occurred 479 B. C., the year of the
battle of Platma, in Greece, and about seven years before the birth of Socrates. Many events of great.
importance happened during his life, in western countries, of which the return of the Jews, and building
of the second temple, Xerxes' invasion of Greece, the
expulsion of the kings from Rome, the conquest of
Egypt; and establishment of the Persian monarchy in
its fullest extent, were the most important.
Posthumous honors in great variety have been conferred upon Confucius. Soon after his death, the
prince of Lu entitled him Ni fit, or father Ni; which,
under the reign of Linti, of the Han dynasty, 197 B.
C, was changed to Ni kung, or duKe Ni, and his
portrait was ordered to be hung up in the public
T          26 *




306                CONFUCiUS.
school. By the emperors of the Tang dynasty it was
made sien sIing, the ancient sage.  He was next
styled the royal preacher, and his effigy clad in king's
robes, and a crown put on its head.  The Ming
dynasty called him the most holy ancient teacher,
Kungtsz', which title is now continued to him. HIis
descendants have continued to dwell in Shantung
province, and the heads of the family have enjoyed
the rank of nobility, being almost the only hereditary
noblemen in the empire out of the imperial kingdom.
They are called Yenshing kung. In the reign of
KhInghi, one hundred and twenty years ago, the descendants of the sage numbered eleven thousand
males; the present is said to be the seventy-fourth
generation.  The chief of the family is commonly
called the "holy duke," and enjoys all the honors of
a prince. Whenever he visits the court, the emperor
receives him with almost the same respect and ceremony as he does ambassadors from foreign countries. P. Amiot relates that he was honored with a
call from him, upon one of his visits to court. "He
was a pleasant and modest man, whom knowledge
had not filled with conceit. He received, when he
came to our house, some religious books, which we
offered him in exchange for some Chinese books he
gave us. His name was Kung Chauhan, and he was
of the seventy-first generation in direct descent from
the sage, -in all probability the oldest family in the
world, of which the regular descent can be traced."
11n the Life of Confucius, written by Amiot, which
forms one of the volumes of the Me1moires sur les
Clinoises, there is a brief account of each of these




CONFUCIUS.                307
heads of this family, with notices of other distinguished
persons belonging to the house.
In every district in the empire there is a temple
dedicated to Confucius, and his name is usually suspended in every school-room in the land, and incense
is burned before it morning and evening by the scholars. Adoration is paid to him by all ranks. In 1457,
Jentsung, of the Ning dynasty, set up a copper statue
of the sage in one of the halls of the palace, and
ordered his officers, whenever they came to the palace,
to go to this room, and respectfully salute Confucius
before speaking of the affairs of state, even if the
monarch were present. But this custom was represented to another emperor as tending to the worship
of images, like the Budhists; and on that account the
memorialist represented that simple tablets, inscribed
with the name of him who was worshipped, kvere
much better. This advice was followed; the statues
of Confucius and his disciples were suppressed, by
order of the emperor Chitsung, in 1530, and simple
tablets have since been set up in the temples erected
to his name.
The writings of Confucius, as might be expected
are held in great veneration, and regarded as the best
books in the language.  He revised all the ancient
books, containing the precepts of the kings and emperors of former times, and left them pretty much as
they are at the present day. He explained the Yi
King, or Book of Changes, commented upon the Li
Ki, or Book of Rites, and compiled the Shi King, or
Book of Odes. He composed the Shu' King, or Book
of Records, and the Chun Tsaui, or Spring and Autumn




3(08               CONFUCIUS
Annals, -so called, it is said, because the commenda.
tions contained therein are life-giving, like spring, and
the reproofs are life-withering, like autumn.  The
bdoks are collectively called the Wfi K nig, or Five
Classics. The Hi/u King, or Memoir on, Filial Duty;
the Chung yung, or True Medium; the Tfi Hioh, or
Superior Lessons, and the Lun Yii, or Conversations
of Confucius, are all considered, by the Chinese, as
containing the doctrines of the sage; the first one is
sometimes ascribed to his own pen. The last three,
with the work of Mencius, constitute the Sz Shu, or
Four Books, and were arranged in their present form
by Ching ffitsz, about eight hundred years ago.
The leading features of the morality of Confucius
are, subordination to superiors, and kind, upright dealing with our fellow-men. From the duty, honor, and
obedience owed by a child to his parents, he proceeds
to inculcate the obligations of wives to their husbands,
of subjects to their prince, and of ministers to their
king, while he makes him  amenable to Heaven.
These principles are perpetually inculcated in the
Confucian writings, and are imbodied in solemn ceremonials, and apparently trivial forms of mere etiquette.
And, probably, it is this feature of his ethics which
has made him such a favorite with all the governments
of China for many centuries past, and at this day.
These principles, and these forms, are early instilled
into young minds, and form  their conscience; the
elucidation and enforcement of these principles and
forms is the business of students who aspire to be
magistrates or statesmen; anc it 1s no doubt owing,
in great part, to the force of these principles on the




CONFUCIUS.               30
national mind ant. habits, that China holds steaafastly
together — the largest associated population in the
world, Every one is interested in upholding doctrines
which give him power over those under him; and as
the instruction of his own youthful days has given him
the habit of obedience and respect to all his superiors,
so now, when he is a superior, he exacts the same
obedience from his juniors, and public opinion accords
it to him.  The observance of such principles has
tended to consolidate the national mind of China in
that peculiar uniformity which has been remarked by
those who have known this people. It has also tended
to restrain all independence of thought, and keep
even the most powerful intellects under an incubus,
which, while they were prevented by outward circumstances from getting at the knowledge of other lands,
was too great for their unassisted energies to throw
off. It cannot be doubted that there have been many
intellects of commanding power among the Chinese;
but ignorance of the literature and condition of other
nations has led them to infer that there was nothing
worthy of notice out of their own borders, and to rest
contented with explaining and enforcing the maxims
of their sage.
Confucius must be regarded as a great man, if
superiority to the times in which one lives is a criterion of greatness. The immense influence he has exercised over the minds of his countrymen cannot,
perhaps, be regarded as conclusive evidence of his superiority; but no mind of weak or ordinary powers
could have stamped its own impress upon other minds
as he has done. Hie never rose to those sublime heights




310                CONFUCIUS.
of contemplation which Plato attained, nor does his
mind seem to have been of a very discursive nature.
He was content with telling his disciples how to act,
and encouraging them to make themselves and others
better, by following the rules he gave; not leading
them into those endless disquisitions and speculations,
upon which the Greek moralists so acutely reasoned,
but which exercised no power over the conscience and
life. The leading features of his doctrines have been
acknowledged by mankind the world over, and are
imbodied in their most common rules of life. "Do
justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with thy God,"
is a direction of inspired Writ; and, so far as he knew
these duties, he inculcated them. He said little or
nothing about spirits or gods, nor did he give any
directions about worshipping them; but the veneration
for parents, which he enforced, was, in fact, idolatrous,
and has since degenerated into the grossest idolatry.