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THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.
MIND AND BODY.
THE THEORIES
OF THEIR
RELATION.
BY
ALEXANDER BAIN, L.L.D.,
PROFESSOR OF LOGIC I'I THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.
NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON     & COMPANY,
549 AND 551 BROADWAY.
1874.


CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
QUESTION STATED..                          1
CHAPTER II.
CONNEXION OF MIND AND BODY                   6
CHAPTER III.
THlE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE, OR CONCOMITANT VARIATION...                17
CHAPTER IV.
GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY:-THE
FEELINGS AND THE WILL.                  43
CHAPTER V.
THE INTELLECT.                           80
CHAPTER VI.
HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?..    120
CHAPTER VII.
HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL...139


MIND AND BODY.
CHAPTER I.
QUESTION    STATED.
MANY persons, mocking, ask-What has Mind to do
with brain substance, white and grey? Can any facts or
laws regarding the spirit of man be gained through a
scrutiny of nerve fibres and nerve cells?
The question, whatever may be insinuated in putting it,
is highly relevant, and raises great issues.
The conceivable answers are various:
First. Granting mind and body to be in our present
life inseparable, yet the two might be supposed to have
their modes of existence altogether distinct, the one being
wholly unaffected by the other. Consequently, each would
have to be studied in its own way, and for its own sake
alone. On this supposition, the study of brain nmatter
might be interesting as Physiology and for applications


2                QUESTION STATED.
to Medicine and Surgery, but would be quite beyond
the province of the mental philosopher.
Although no intrinsic improbability attaches to this
supposition, it is scarcely in accordance with what we find
in the usual course of things. There is no example
of two agents so closely united as mind and body, without
some mutual interference or adaptation. Still, the union
of our incorporeal and corporeal parts is a case quite
peculiar, not to say unique; and we are not entitled
to pronounce beforehand as to the behaviour of two
such agents in respect of each other.
Secondly. There might be certain mental functions
of a lower kind, partially dependent upon the material
organization, while the highest functions might be of a
purely spiritual nature, in no way governed by physical
conditions.  For receiving impressions, in the  first
instance, we need the External Senses; we are dependent on the constitution and working of the Eye, the
Ear, the organ of Touch, and so on; yet the deeper
processes named Memory, Reason, Imagination-may be
pure spirit, beyond and apart from all material processes.
In such a case, the enquirer into mind would do well
to study the mechanism of the Senses; but, for the
purpose he has in view, it would be needless to go
farther.
Thirdly. There may be an intimate relation and dependence of mind and body all through, every mental
act having a concurrent bodily change; yet the two


VARIOUS SUPPOSITIONS.             3
modes of operation may be so different as to throw
no light on each other. No great laws may be traceable
on either side, or the laws may be couched in such
heterogeneous terms that we can make no comparison
of the two. A pleasure and a nervous current are found
to arise simultaneously; but the concurrence (we may
suppose) signifies nothing, suggests nothing. There is
something to be gained by connecting pleasure with
a repast, a concert, or a holiday; but the mention of
nerve currents gives no information of a practical kind,
and does not add to our knowledge of the laws of pleasure.
Fourthly. While allowing it to be possible that a
thorough understanding of the brain would contribute
to a knowledge of the mind, one might deny that anything yet known, or in immediate prospect of being
known, is of value in that way. Thus the obtrusion of
physiology at the present stage would be superfluous
and impotent.
Fifthly. The position may be taken that a knowledge
of the bodily workings has already improved our knowledge of the mental workings, and, as we continue our
researches, will do so more and more.
Which of these suppositions is the truth could be seen
only after examining the actual state of the case. On a
theme so peculiar and so difficult, the only surmise
admissible beforehand would be, that the two distinct
natures could not subsist in their present intimate
alliance, and yet be wholly indifferent to one another;


4                QUESTION STATED.
that they would be found to have some kind of mutual
co-operation; that the ongoings of the one would be
often a clue to the ongoings of the other.
The form   of the interrogation that the foregoing
remarks are designed to answer, may be objected to as
purely rhetorical and in some measure unfair. If the
matter of the brain were the only substance that mental
functions could be attributed to, all the knowledge that
we possess of that organ might not avail us much
in laying down laws of connexion between mind and
body.  But such is not the fact. The entire bodily
system, though in varying degrees, is in intimate alliance
with mental functions.  To confine our study to the
nervous substance would be to misrepresent the connexion;
and the knowledge of that substance, however complete,
would not suffice for the solution of the problem. Looking
at a child's cut finger, we can divine its feelings; if we see
a smiling countenance, we know something of the mental
tone of the individual.
It might seem that we must yet be a long way from
understanding an organ so minute and so complicated as
the Brain.  If we were to confine ourselves to the one
mode of post-mortem dissection, we should probably attain
but a small measure of success. But another road is open.
We can begin at the outworks, at the organs of sense and
motion, with which the nervous system communicates; we
can study their operations during life, as well as examine
their intimate structure; we can experimentally vary all.


OUTWORKS OF THE BRAIN.             5
the circumstances of their operation; we can find how
they act upon the brain, and how the brain re-acts upon
them. Using all this knowledge as a key, we may
possibly unlock the secrets of the anatomical structure;
we may compel the cells and fibres to disclose their
meaning and purpose.


CHAPTER II.
CONNEXION OF MIND AND BODY.
THE facts showing that the connexion of Mind and
Body is not occasional or partial, but thorough-going and
complete, are such as the following:In the first place, it has been noted in all ages and
countries, that the Feelings possess a natural language or
Expression. So constant are the appearances characterizing the different classes of emotions, that we regard
them as a part of the emotions themselves.
The smile of joy, the puckered features in pain, the
stare of astonishment, the quivering of fear, the tones and
glance of tenderness, the frown of anger,-are united in
seemingly inseparable association with the states of feeling
that they indicate. If a feeling arises without its appropriate sign or accompaniment, we account for the failure
either by voluntary suppression, or by the faintness of the
excitement, there being a certain degree or intensity
requisite to affect the bodily organs.*
* The following remarks of Mr. Darwin are in point:-Most of our
emotions [he should have said all] are so closely connected with their
expression, that they hardly exist if the body remains passive. A man,
for instance, may know that his life is in the extremest peril, and may
strongly desire to save it; yet, as Louis XVI. said, when surrounded by


EXPRESSION OF THE FEELINGS.               7
On this uniformity of connexion between feelings and
their bodily expression depends our knowledge of each
other's mind and character. When anyone is pleased,
or pained, or loving, or angry, unless there is purposed
concealment, we are aware of the fact, and can even
estimate in any given case the degree of the feeling.
From a variety of causes, we are deeply interested in
the outward display of emotion.   The face of inanimate
nature does not arrest our attention so strongly as the
deportment of our fellow beings; in truth, the highest
attraction of natural objects is imparted to them by a
fictitious process of investing them with human feelings.
The sun and the moon, the winds and the rivers, are less
engaging when viewed as mere physical agencies, that
when they are supposed to operate by human motives and
purposes, loves and hates.
The interest of the human presence, in all its various
workings, regarded as symptomatic of mental processes, is
laid hold of and heightened in the Fine Art of cultivated
nations. To the painter, the sculptor, and the poet,
every feeling has its appropriate manifestation. Not
merely  are the   grosser forms of feeling thus linked
a fierce mob, " Am I afraid? feel my pulse." So a man may intensely
hate another; but until his bodily frame is affected, he cannot be said
to be enraged. ('Expression,' p. 239.) 
To the like effect Dr. Maudsley observes: —"The special muscular
action is not merely the exponent of the passion, but truly an essential
part of it. If we try, while the features are fixed in the expression of
one passion, to call up in the mind a different one, we shall find it
impossible to do so." (' Body and Mind,' p. 30.)


8         CONNEXION OF MIND AND BODY.
with material adjuncts; in the artist's view, the loftiest,
the noblest, the holiest of the human emotions, have their
marked and inseparable attitude and deportment. In the
artistic conceptions of the Middle Ages, more especially,
the most divine attributes of the immaterial soul had their
counterpart in the material body: the martyr, the saint,
the blessed Virgin, the Saviour Himself, manifested their
glorious nature by the sympathetic movements of the
mortal framework. So far as concerns the entire compass
of our feelings or emotions, it is the universal testimony
of mankind that these have no independent spiritual subsistence, but are in every case embodied in our fleshly form.
This very strong and patent fact has been usually kept
out of view in the multifarious discussions respecting the
Immaterial Soul. Apparent as it is to the vulgar, and
intently studied as it has been by the sculptor, the
painter, and the poet, it has been disregarded both by
metaphysicians and by theologians when engaged in
settling the boundaries of mind and body.
A second class of proofs of the intimate connexion
between Mind and Body is furnished by the effects of
bodily changes on mental states, and of mental changes on
bodily states.
The embarrassment in dealing with this group of facts
is their number. I shall commence with a few of the
ordinary and recognised instances, and then refer to the
comprehensive generalities arrived at by physiologists.


THE BODY AFFECTING THE MIND.           9
As to the influence of bodily changes on Mental states,
we have such facts as the dependence of our feelings and
moods upon hunger, repletion, the state of the stomach,
fatigue and rest, pure and impure air, cold and warmth,
stimulants and drugs, bodily injuries, disease, sleep,
advancing years. These influences extend not merely to
the grosser modes of feeling, and to such familiar exhibitions as after-dinner oratory, but also to the highest
emotions of the mind-love, anger, msthetic feeling, and
moral sensibility.  "Health  keeps an Atheist in the
dark." Bodily affliction is often the cause of a total
change in the moral nature.
The bodily routine of our daily life is the counterpart
of the mental routine. A healthy man wakens in the
morning with a flush of spirits and energy; his first meal
confirms and re-inforces the state. The mental powers and
susceptibilities are then at their maximum; as the nutrition
is used up in the system, they gradually fade, but may be
renewed once and again by refreshment and brief remission
of toil. Towards the end of the day lassitude sets in, and
fades into the deep unconsciousness of healthy sleep.
Since the Intellectual faculties appear to be most
removed from the effect of physical agencies, I will quote
a few facts, showing that in reality they have no exemption
from the general rule. The memory rises and falls with
the bodily condition; being vigorous in our fresh moments,
and feeble when we are fatigued or exhausted. It is


10         CONNEXION OF MIND AND BODY.
related by Sir Ienry Holland that on one occasion he
descended, on the same day, two deep mines in the Hartz
mountains, remaining some hours in each. In the second
mine he was so exhausted with inanition and fatigue, that
his memory utterly failed him; he could not recollect a
single word of German. The power came back after taking
food and wine. Old age notoriously impairs the memory
in ninety-nine men out of a hundred.
In the delirium of fever the sense of hearing sometimes
becomes extraordinarily acute. Among the premonitory
symptoms of brain disease has been noticed an unusual
delicacy of the sense of sight; the physician suspects that
there is already congestion of blood, to be followed perhaps
by effusion.
Any person fancying that trains of thinking have little
dependence on the bodily organs should also reflect on
such facts as these. When walking, or engaged in any
bodily occupation, if an interesting idea occurs to the mind,
or is imparted to us by another person, we suddenly stop,
and remain at rest, until the excitement has subsided.
Again, our cogitations usually induce some bodily attitudes
(laid hold of by artists as the outward expression of
Thought) as well as movements; and if anything occurs to
disturb these, the current of thinking is suspended or
diverted. Why should sleep suspend all thought, except
the incoherency of dreaming (absent in perfect sleep), if a
certain condition of the bodily powers were not indispensable to the intellectual functions?


THE MIND AFFECTING THE BODY.          11
Much stress has been laid upon certain apparent exceptions to these sweeping rules. Under bodily weakness,
abstinence, fatigue, disease, and old age, individuals occasionally manifest high mental energy and elation, and
great intellectual power. The lives of martyrs and heroes
are repletewith such exceptional vigour. If the inference be
that the mind, notwithstanding a large amount of dependence on the body, is still, to a certain degree, self-supporting and independent, we must ask why the fact should be
exhibited only in a few rare cases? The supposition
resembles in partiality and capriciousness the Platonic
Immortality, conferred only on philosophers. Still, any
complete view of the relations of Mind and Body
should take account of these striking exceptions; and we
shall revert to them at a later stage.
The influence of mental changes upon the Body is supported by an equal force of testimony. Sudden outbursts
of emotion derange the bodily functions. Fear paralyzes
the digestion. Great mental depression enfeebles all the
organs. Protracted and severe mental labour brings on
disease of the bodily organs. On the other hand, happy
outward circumstances are favourable to health and
longevity.
In the personifications so common in our early poetry
the various passions are described by the marks that their
long dominance leaves on the bodily figure. In Sackville's
"Induction," Dread is described as follows:


12         CONNEXION OF MIND AND BODY.
Next saw we Dread all trembling, how he shook,
With foot uncertain proffer'd here and there:
Benumb'd of speech, and, with a ghastly look,
Search'd every place, all pale and dead for fear.
And Misery:His face was lean, and some deal pined away,
And eke his hands consumed to the bone.
In considering minutely the evidences of the connexion
of mind and body, we gradually perceive that the organ
most intimately associated with mind is the BRAIN. Other
organs have been assigned, at various times, as the special
seats of mental activity, but these are now abandoned.
Yet. although the Brain is by pre-eminence the mental
organ, other organs co-operate; more especially, the Senses,
the Muscles, and the great Viscera.
The peculiar structure of the Brain will be afterwards
adverted to. For the present, I remark that it is a very
large and complicated organ; it receives a copious supply
of blood, computed as    one-fifth  of the entire circulation, a circumstance betokening great activity of some
kind or other. Now the facts that connect the mind with
the brain are numerous and irresistible. Let us rehearse
a few of them, under the two aspects already stated; brain
changes affecting the mind, mental changes affecting the
brain.
Under the first topic, the commonest observation is the
effect of a blow on the head, which suspends for the
time consciousness and thought; at a certain pitch of
severity it produces a permanent injury of the faculties,


MIND AND THE BRAIN.               13
impairing the memory, or occasioning some form of mental
derangement. It may also remedy derangement; there
are cases on record, where a blow on the head has cured
Idiocy.
All those abuses and casualties that impair the mental
faculties act upon the nervous substance. Thus, stimulating drugs operate upon the nerves. Many instances of
imbecility of mind are distinctly traced to causes affecting
the nutrition of the brain.
The more careful and studied observations of physiologists have shewn beyond question that the brain as a
whole is indispensable to thought, to feeling, and to
volition; while they have further discriminated the functions of its different parts.
Next, as regards mental changes leading to brain
changes, or being associated with them, we can quote
very extensive observations.  Thus, after great mental
exertion or excitement, there is an increase of the
products of nervous waste. The alkaline phosphates
removed from the blood by the kidneys are derived from
the brain and nerves; and these are increased after severe
exercise of the mind.
Again, violent emotions are among the causes of
paralysis, which is a disease of the nerves or nerve
centres.
Most decisive of all, under this head, is the wvide
experience of the insane. Among the chief causes of


14        CONNEXION OF MIND AND BODY.
insanity must be reckoned excessive drafts on the mindas, for example, long and severe mental exertion, and
sudden mental shocks, usually of disaster and misfortune,
but occasionally even of joy.
The association of brain-derangement with mind-derangement is all but a perfectly established induction. In
the great mass of insane patients the alteration of the brain
is visible and pronounced. I may quote as evidence on
this head a pamphlet by Drs. J. B. Tuke and Rutherford,
"On the Morbid Appearances met with in the Brains of
Thirty Insane Persons."'The brains examined were those
of patients whose deaths occurred consecutively, and were
in no way picked on account of any peculiarity.' The
forms of disease exemplified were general paralysis, dementia with paralysis, chronic dementia, epileptic insanity. In every case there was noticed a marked departure in one form or another from the healthy structure of
the brain. The authors enumerate nine species of morbid
changes, discovered by microscopical examination. The
occurrence of a case that presented no visible derangement would not be a conclusive exception, inasmuch as
there may be alterations of substance that are not
visible.  It is believed, however, that in all cases of
pronounced mental aberration, disease of the brain is
present in a marked form.
A very instructive class of facts may be adduced, connecting mental action with the quantity and quality of


THIE MIND AFFECTED BY THE BLOOD.        15
the blood supplied to the brain.  No organ is active
without blood. The demand made by the brain corresponds
with the extent and energy of its functions. Deficiency
in the circulation is accompanied with feeble manifestations of mind. In -sleep, there is a diminution of the
supply of arterial blood to the brain. General depletion
lowers all the functions generally, mind included. On the
other hand, when the cerebral circulation is quickened,
the feelings are roused, the thoughts are more r&pid,
the volitions more vehement; great mental excitement
is always accompanied with an unusual flow of blood, often
outwardly shown by the throbbing of the vessels In
delirium, the circulation attains an extraordinary pitch
The blood must possess a certain quality, involving the
presence of certain ingredients and the absence of others.
Wholesome nourishment supplies the first condition of
nervous and mental activity; inanition or starvation,
feebleness of digestion, militate against the exercise of the
mental functions. Moreover, the blood may be abundant
and rich in nutritive matters, yet the organ of the mind
may be unduly depressed by the excessive drafts of the
other interests of the system, as, for example, the muscles;
under great muscular strain, there is very little capability
of mental effort.  Again, there are certain substances,
known as stimulants, that are considered to supply the
blood with an element specially provocative of nervous
change; as alcohol, tobacco, tea, opium, &c.
The substances that must be absent include the so-called


16         CONNEXION OF MIND AND BODY.
poisons, and the impurities of the body itself, which several
large viscera are occupied in removing. The chief of these
impurities are carbonic acid and urea; either of them left
to accumulate in the blood leads to mental depression,
unconsciousness, and finally death.  Hence the mental
tone depends no less upon the vigorous condition of the
purifying organs-lungs, liver, intestines, kidneys, skin
-than upon the presence of nutritive material obtained
from the food.


CHAPTER III.
THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE, OR
CONCOMITANT VARIATION.
THE dependence of one thing upon another, is ordinarily
shown by two classes of facts-the first, the presence of
the cause followed by the presence of the effect; the
second, the absence of the cause followed by the absence
of the effect: as when we prove that lighting a fire is the
cause of smoke, or oxygen the cause of putrefaction and
decay. Of the two methods, the second-the absence of
the cause followed by the absence of the effect-is the most
decisive; the preservation of meat by excluding air is the
best proof that air, or some ingredient of it, is the cause
of putrefaction. More especially convincing is the abrupt
removal of a supposed cause, leading at once to the suspension of an effect.
There are cases, however, where we cannot make the
experiment of removing an agent. We cannot get away
from the earth where we live. We cannot remove the
moon from its sphere, so as to see what actions on the
earth depend upon it; we cannot by an abrupt suspension
of lunar gravitation prove that the tides are very largely
dependent on lunar influence.


18   THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
For such cases, recourse is had to a third expedient,
which happily solves the difficulty, and furnishes the proof
required. If the agency in question, although irremovable, passes through gradations whose amount can be
measured, we are able to observe whether the effect has
corresponding changes of degree; and if a strict concomitance is observable between the intensity of the cause and
the intensity of the effect, we have a presumption that may
rise to positive proof of the connexion. It is thus shown that
the tides depend on the moon and the sun conjointly; that
the gaseous and liquid states of matter are due to heat.
In such a question as the connexion of mind and body,
the potent method of removing the cause is not applicable. We cannot dissect the compound, man, into body
apart and mind apart; we cannot remove mind so as to
see if the body will vanish. We may remove the body, and
in so doing we find that mind has disappeared; but the
experiment is not conclusive; for, in removing the body
we remove our indicator of the mind, namely, the bodily
manifestations-as if in testing for magnetism we should
set aside the needle and other tokens of its presence.
Neither can the method of absence be employed upon
the chief organ of mind-the brain. The removal of the
brain is undoubtedly the extinction of the manifestations
of mind, but it is also, except in very low organisms
the extinction of the bodily life. Important results are
gained by partial removal of the brain, and we can reason


SIZE OF BRAIN AND MENTAL POWER.        19
from  these to what would happen by removing the
whole. This is the nearest approach we can make to the
best form of experimental proof.
The method of Concomitance or Correspondence is, however, applicable to the full extent. We can compare the
gradations of the brain and nervous system through the
animal series, and observe whether there are like gradations in the powers of the mind.
A considerable time has elapsed since attention was
called by phrenologists to the connexion between size
of brain and mental development in human beings. The
large heads of men distinguished for high intellectual
endowments, or for great energy of character in other
ways, have been contrasted with the small heads of idiots.
The rule is not strictly maintained in every instance;
occasionally a stupid man has a larger brain than a clever
man. But these are only individual exceptions to a prevailing arrangement. When extensive statistics are taken,
the conclusion is established that great mental superiority
is accompanied with a more than average size of brain.
The following is a table of the brain weights of several
distinguished men:Cuvier...  645 oz.
Dr. Abercrombie..  63,
Daniel Webster..53'5 
Lord Campbell.  53'5 
De Morgan...  5275,,
Gauss...  526,,


20 THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
The average male brain (in Europeans) is 491 oz., the
female 44 oz. (Quain's Anatomy, 7th edition, p. 571).
Among idiots have been found brains weighing 27 oz.,
25- oz., 22- oz., 19- oz., 18} oz., 15 oz., 13 oz., 81 oz.
According to Dr. Thurnam (Journal of Mental Science
for 1866), the brains of insane persons are 2~- per cent.
below the average of the sane.
The concomitance of size of nervous system with
mental power, throughout the animal series, is sufficiently
admitted for the purpose of our general argument. The
agreement is not strict, because the nervous system serves
other functions besides those that are purely mental. The
mere propulsion of the muscles demands a large supply
of nerve force, and animals whose muscles are large and
active have correspondingly large brains.  Thus it is that
the maximum size of the brain is reached, not in human
beings, but in the elephant tribe, and after them the whales,
whose ponderous bodies demand an enormous muscular
expenditure. The elephant's brain weighs from 8 to 10
pounds. The whale's brain is said to weigh from 5 to 8
pounds.  The brain of one 75 feet long was found to
weigh 7 pounds; Dr. Struthers found the brain of a young
whale, 141 feet long, 3 lbs. 12 oz., of a tusk whale or seaunicorn 17 feet long, 3 lbs. 141 oz.
In addition to propulsion of the muscles, a considerable
amount of nerve force must be expended in supporting or
aiding the processes of organic life-digestion, respiration,


MANNER OF WORKING OF THE NERVES.          21
circulation, and other operations. The strongest proof on
this point is the very great falling off in these various
functions when the nerve force is monopolized for intense
mental or muscular exertion.
It is found that tall men, as a rule, have larger brains
than small men.
Comparing the increasing size of the brain with the
increase in mental power, we are struck with the smallness of the one increase as compared with the other. An
ordinary male human brain is 48 oz.; the brains of extraordinary men seldom reach Cuvier's figure, 64 oz. Now
the intellectual force of the ordinary man is surpassed by
Cuvier in a far higher ratio than this.  Taking the mere
memory, which is the basis of intellect, an ordinary man
could not retain one-third or one-fourth, perhaps not onetenth, of the facts stored up in the mind of a Cuvier. The
comparison of animals with human beings would sustain
a similar inference. There would be no exaggeration in
saying that while size of brain increases in arithmetical
proportion, intellectual range increases in geometrical proportion.
A still more important and suggestive correspondence is
discernible in the manner of working of the nervous
system. Notwithstanding the radical distinction of nature
between bodily action and mental action, we are surprised
to see how closely certain circumstances of the one are
conjoined with similar circumstances of the other. To
2


22 THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
understand this argument, a brief consideration must be
given to the plan or mechanism of the nervous system.
Undoubtedly the best way of approaching the nervous
structure is to commence from outside appearances.
Every one is aware of the existence of sense organs and
of moving organs; and more than that, each of us
could recount a great     many minute particulars respecting
both classes. Now a study of these familiar facts suggests
some of the deepest arrangements of the nervous structure.
The Sense Organs, usually reckoned five in number,
are all more or less open to view.  The organ of the
sense of touch is the entire covering or integument of
the body, the skin. The others are confined to special
localities. By a sense organ is meant a portion of the
body exposed to certain agents, and, when stimulated,
giving birth to feelings of the mind. Each sense is
suited to a particular class of influences: Touch to solid
pressures; Hearing to aerial pressures; Taste to liquid or
dissolved matters having certain properties of a chemical
nature; Smell to gaseous effluvia of a like nature; Sight
to the rays of the sun or other luminous bodies.
The Moving Organs are all parts of the body-head,
face, eyes, mouth, throat, neck, back, arms, legs, &c., &c.
Every one of these goes through a great variety of changes
of posture, alternations, combinations, and with greater
or less rapidity and continuance.- The motions are nearly
all visible to the eye. The moving agents are concealed


RELATIONSHIP OF SENSES AND MOVEMENTS.      23
from outward view, but can be easily got at by dissection. The red flesh of meat, called muscular tissue, is
a stringy substance made up into separate masses called
muscles, of the most various shapes and sizes, but all
agreeing in one property, called contractility or forcible
shrinking. A muscle has its two extremities attached
to bones or other parts, and in contracting it draws the
two attachments nearer one another, and thereby effects the
movements that we see. A broad spreading muscle placed
over the temple and attached to the skull at one end,
and at the other end to the lower jaw, when under contraction, closes the jaw in biting; the closure being
accomplished with a certain energy, according to the size
of the muscle and other circumstances.   The large
muscles of the fore part of the thigh are so placed as
to straighten the leg when bent at the knee.   The
numerous movements of the human hand need a corresponding number of muscles. There are between four and
five hundred muscles in the human body.
We must next consider the mutual relationship of these
two sets of organs, Sense Organs and Moving Organs.
Something needs to act upon a sense organ in order that
we may get a sensation; and something needs to act upon
a moving organ, or a muscle, in order to a movement.
Both the one and the other are of themselves inactive or
quiescent. The stimulus of the sense organs is generally
apparent; a solid body touching the skin, a morsel in the


24 THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
mouth, a perfume to the nostrils, and so on. The stimulants of the moving organs are not so apparent: their
origin is internal.
We are familiar with a large class of instances, where
a sense stimulus seems also to be a motor stimulus. A
light anywhere appearing suddenly makes us turn to look
at it. A morsel on the tongue awakens all the movements
of mastication. Let us examine the facts more closely.
My hand is lying quiescent on the table; something
touches it lightly, a fly, or a feather; there is a rush of
activity to certain muscles, and the hand is moved away.
Well, supposing the two things to be remote cause and
effect: the light contact-cause, the motion-effect: what
may we suppose as to the intermediate links? Unless
the process be something quite unique, there must be a
channel of communication between the skin of the hand
and the group of muscles in the shoulder, upper arm,
and forearm, that unite to withdraw the hand. Assuming
the concurrence of ten muscles, there must be a ramifying
thread of communication from any point in the skin of
the hand to all these ten muscles. If a similar effect were
to occur in the foot, the part moved would be the leg,
showing lines of communication between the skin of the
foot or leg and the muscles of the hip, thigh, and leg, of
which a certain group concur in the single effect of withdrawing the foot.
Suppose now, instead of a light contact, the hand is
sharply pinched in the very same place. The previous


WIDE RANGE OF COMMUNICATIONS.           25
case shows the evidence of lines of communication between
the skin of the hand and a group of muscles of the shoulder
and arm, and we are prepared for a similar manifestation,
perhaps more violent. We are not disappointed as to the
violence; the same group of muscles appear to be roused,
and to act more strongly; the withdrawal of the hand is
greatly quickened. We find, however, that this is not all.
With the mere arm movements are coupled a great many
more-in the other arm, the legs, the body, and the face,
besides the more concealed movements shown in the voice,
which emits a cry, shout, or other exclamation. We see
that any part of the skin of the hand is in connexion
with perhaps two hundred muscles; the notable circumstance being that a weak touch does not arouse the wider
circle of movements. At all events, here is a fact showing
the exceedingly numerous and complicated communications
between a given portion of the skin and the moving
organs. The complication grows upon us as we pursue
our reflections upon ordinary facts. We remark that a
similar pinch upon any part of the skin —hands, arms,
legs, back-will induce a similar wave of effects; so that
every portion of the integument of the body has its lines
of communication with a very large number of muscles.
Nay, farther, if we try similar expeiiments upon the other
senses, we shall find similar effects; with a slight application, a limited class of movements; with a severe application, a wide display identical in general character with
those due to a pinch of the skin. A very bitter taste, a


26 THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
malodour, a screeching discord, an intense flame, will each
awaken movements of limbs, body, face, and voice. Every
one of the senses is in the same extensive communication
with the organs of motion.
The effects of a sense stimulation are not ended in a
mere jump or attitude performed by a particular group of
muscles; very often there is a long succession of movements and attitudes. This raises the complication still
farther. The impetus of the sensation is sufficient to
stimulate first one movement, then another, and another;
showing a new class of lines of communication-those
between the moving organs themselves. The bending of
an arm is followed by its straightening; the closing of the
jaws is succeeded by a lateral grinding motion.  Now
continuous movements cannot be maintained without a
definite communication between each movement and its
successor; walking and flying are rendered possible by an
arrangement for connecting each movement with the one
that regularly follows it.
It is needless, at this stage, to probe deeper that
system of complicated intercommunication between sense
organs and moving organs, and between one set of
moving organs and another, involving hundreds or thousands of connexions. These are as yet mere matter of
inference; seeing that an effect is regularly followed by
another at a distance, we presume the existence of some
means of conveying an agency or force between the two
localities. Not till we examine the interior of the body


NERVES AND NERVE CENTRES.            27
do we know what is the medium employed. On such
examination we discover a set of silvery threads, or cords
of various sizes, ramifying from centres to all parts of
the body, including both sense-surfaces and muscles.
These are the nerves. The centres whence they ramify
are constituted by one large continuous lump, principally
of the same silvery material, occupying the skull or
cranium as a rounded mass, and continuing into the
back bone as a long flattened rod, about half an inch
across. The mass in the skull is the brain; the rod in
the back bone is the spinal cord. The vastly numerous
inter-communications, above shadowed forth, are effected
through the nerves and these central masses.
The centres are, in by far the largest part, made up of
the same material as the nerve threads; they contain,
however, an additional material. To the eye this second
material has a different tint, an ashy grey appearance,
as is seen by cutting into any portion of the brain or
spinal cord of a man or an animal. This visible difference enables us to trace the distribution, and discover
the proportions of the two kinds of material.  In the
brain of man and of the higher animals, we see a curious
arrangement of the surface into ridges and furrows, called
convolutions, running in various directions; and the convoluted surface consists of a thin uniform cake of the grey
substance, while the interior mass is principally made up
of the white nervous matter.
The peculiarities of these two sorts of material have


28   THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
been exhaustively studied, and the significance of both
is more or less perfectly ascertained or surmised.
Under the microscope, the White matter, constituting
the nerve-threads wholly and the centres in great part,
is seen to consist of fibres or very minute threads, every
visible nerve being a bundle of these. The Grey matter
is a mixture of these fibres with a distinct class of bodies,
called cells, vesicles, or corpuscles-small solid bodies,
round, pear-shaped, or irregular, with prolongations to
connect them with the nerves. These two elements-fibres
and cells-together with enclosing membranes, bloodvessels, and cellular tissue, make up the nervous system,
both centres and ramifications.
The first significant feature of the two nervous elements
is the SIZE. Both are exceedingly minute. The large
mass of nerve-substance is an aggregation of a very
great number of very small fibres and corpuscles. The
fibres range in thickness from T10-o to Tl-   of an inch, the
medium or average being -6yo of an inch. There are two
varieties of fibres; the chief, named " white," or "tubular"
fibres, appear to consist each (1) of an outer structureless
membrane; (2) of an interior surrounding layer of fatty
matter; (3) of a central core or cylinder, which is not
fatty, but albuminous (nitrogenous, or protein) in composition.  To this central axis is attached the proper
function of the fibres; and at the two extremities of the
nerves the axis appears alone, divested of its two envelopes: it does not exceed Vo,,,,,, of an inch in thickness.


MULTIPLICATION OF FIBRES AND CELLS.      29
The cells or corpuscles are of various shapes,-round,
oval, pear-shaped, tailed, and star-like or radiated. They
consist of pulpy matter, with an eccentric roundish body
or nucleus, enclosing one or more smaller nuclei, surrounded by coloured granules. They range from -0, to
3'0 of an inch in diameter. Although from the smallness in the amount of the grey matter as compared
with the white, and from the greater diameter of the
corpuscles, the number of these, in a cross section, is less
than the number of fibres, yet as they lie in three
dimensions, while the nerves lie only in two, their
numerical aggregate is much beyond the aggregate of
branching nerve-fibres, although not so great as the total
number of fibrous connexions.
The diagram Fig. 1, on the next page, represents the
cell in its various leading forms.
We may now judge of the immense multiplication of
nervous elements in the brain and nerves.  Estimates
have been made of the number of fibres in individual
nerves. The third cerebral nerve (the common motor of
the eye) is supposed to have as many as fifteen thousand
fibres. In the sensory nerves the fibres are smaller;
and in the large nerve of sight, the optic nerve, the
number must be very great, probably not less than one
hundred thousand, and perhaps much more. The number
of fibres making up the white substance of the brain
must be counted by hundreds of millions.
In this enormous multiplication of independent nerve


30   THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
elements we seem to have the suitable provision for the
vast number of communications needed in the ordinary
actions of human beings, as above exemplified.
There are some significant facts regarding the ARRANGEMENT of the nerve-elements. It is to be noted, first, that
the nerve-fibres proceed from the nerve-centres to the
extremities of the body without a break, and without
FIG. 1.*
uniting or fusing with one another; so that each unfailingly delivers its separate message. Without this, the
greatness of their number would not give variety
of communication.   The chief use of the two coatings
* Nucleated nerve-cells magnified 170 diameters; a and b from the
cerebellum; c and d from the medulla oblongata; n the nucleus of a
cell.
In Chap. V. a diagram is given (fig. 3) showing the continuation of
the fibres into the corpuscles or cells.


PLAN OF NERVE COMMUNICATIONS.           31
or envelopes appears to be to secure the isolation of the
central axis.
Remark, next, that the plan of communicating from
one part of the body to another,-as from the skin of
the hand to the muscles of the arm,-is not by a direct
route from the one spot to the other, but by a nervous
centre. Every nerve-fibre rising from the surface of the
body, or from the eye or the ear, goes first of all to the
spinal cord or to some part of the brain; and any influence
exerted on the movements by stimulating these fibres
passes out from some nervous centre. As in the circulation
of letters by post, there is no direct communication
between one street and another, but every letter passes
first to the central office, so the transmission of influence
from one member of the body to another is exclusively
through a centre, or (with a few exceptions) through some
part of the nervous substance contained in the head and
backbone. Every communication is centralized; and, in
consequence, there is not only great economy of the
conducting machinery, but also an avoidance of conflicting
messages.
When we speak of the nerves all ending in the nervous
centres, we mean the grey substance, or the aggregate
of fibres and corpuscles. Every nerve ends in a corpuscle;
and from the same corpuscle arises some other fibre or fibres
either proceeding back to the body direct, or proceeding
to other corpuscles, whence new fibres arise, with the
same alternative. Of the fibres of the brain and spinal cord


32   THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
the greater number connect corpuscle with corpuscle; a
small number go outwards to the muscles, forming the
pathway of communication with the moving members.
The Corpuscles are thus the medium of connexion of
in-going with out-going nerves, and hence of communication between the outlying parts of the body. In them
is organized that system of complicated correspondence,
whereby an influence in one part can arouse a wave of
effects in many other parts. They are the crossings or
grand junctions, where each part can multiply its connexions with the remaining parts.  There is not a muscle of
the body that could not be reached directly or indirectly
by a pressure on the tip of the fore-finger; and this ramified connexion is effected through the nerve-cells or
corpuscles; just as, by means of the distribution of postoffices and lines of road, a letter from any village in
Europe can be speedily sent to any other village.
A third point to be noted regarding the nerve elements
-fibre and corpuscle-is their MATERIAL, composition, or
quality. The active part (the core or central axis) of the
fibres is composed of particles of an albuminous substance.
The corpuscles are also made up of the same material,
combined with fatty substances   in  granules.  The
substance of both is highly unstable, or easily acted on by
external influences of every kind; but of the two elements
the corpuscles are considered the most susceptible to
change. We can but dimly conceive the precise mode of


THE MATERIAL OF THE NERVES.            33
change that goes on in the one or in the other; it is a
change that, when once begun, propagates itself along the
whole line of open communications; and it is a change that
finds a certain limit only by altering the structure of the
nerve. The restoration from the altered structure is due
to the blood, which circulates largely among nerve-fibres,
but still more largely in the grey matter which contains
the corpuscles; it has been computed (Herbert Spencer)
that five times as much blood circulates in the grey or
corpuscular substance as in the white or fibrous substance.
In these imperfectly understood changes of the nerve-tissue,
we have the embodiment of what is called the nerve-force.
This is an agent with various powers-mechanical agency,
heat agency, chemical agency; all which are due to the
molecular alteration of the nerve-substance, the complement of the change being a supply cf blood in proportion
to the force set free.
To return now to the tracing of correspondence and
concomitance between mental acts and bodily changes. One
grand correspondence is already implied, which will be
afterwards more fully discussed-the variety and multitude
of our mental acts on the one hand, and the multitude of
nervous elements on the other. If our nervous system
consisted at most of one thousand ultimate fibres, and one
thousand corpuscles, nobody could show how these could
be manipulated so as to execute all the variety of the outward manifestations of feelings and thoughts. But great


34   THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
as is the number and variety of mental states, the nervous
system, in its prodigious extent and multiplication, seems
to show a correspondence by no means inadequate.
The correspondence of number of elements with complicacy of function is seen to advantage in the senses.
The nerve of sight is the largest of the nerves of special
sense; its ramifications in the retina are numerous and
closely set. Nerve-corpuscles occur in that part along
with the fibres, to increase the susceptibility to disturbance
under a slight shock.
While in the more intellectual senses-Sight, Hearing,
and Touch-the nerves have their protecting and isolating
sheaths corresponding with the distinctness and separateness of the parts of the impression; in Smell, the. nerves
are a plexus of unsheathed fibres, corresponding with the
fusion of the odorous impression into one whole, without
distinction of parts (Spencer).
It has been pointed out by Mr. Spencer that to increase
the delicacy of Sight and Hearing, where the impulse on
the surface is very feeble, there are "multipliers of disturbance," or means of exaggerating the intensity of the
shock. Thus, in the Eye, the retina is composed of
ultimate fibrils unprotected by their medullary sheath,
and of nerve-corpuscles, which are more unstable than
the substance of the fibres. In the Ear, the little sand
granules (otolites) and the rods, by being set in motion
increase the action on the nerve of hearing.
The dark pigment of the eye, seen through the pupil as


CORRESPONDENCES IN THE SENSES.          35
a deep brown shade, is an essential of good vision, being a
means of intensifying the action of the light. Attention
has been drawn by Dr. Wm. Ogle to the fact, that pigment
occurs also in the olfactory regions, and he traces to this
fact an increase in the acuteness of smell. Dr. Ogle
attributes the acuteness of the smell of the negroes, to
their greater abundance of pigment. Albinos and white
animals neither see nor smell so delicately as creatures
that are dark-coloured. In the membranous labyrinth of
the ear also, black pigment is found. (" Anosmia," by Dr.
William  Ogle, Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol.
liii.)
Facts such as these show how deeply the mental
character may be affected by the structure of the material
organs.  A small difference in the pigment of a sense,
by giving that sense greater susceptibility, may determine
the animal's preferences, tastes, and pursuits; in other
words, its whole destiny. In a human being, the circumstance of being acutely sensitive in one or two leading
senses, may rule the entire character-intellectual and
moral. The contrast between a sensuous and a reflective
nature might take its rise in the outworks of the sense
organs, apart even from the endowments of the brain. In
this case the nervous system would follow the cue, instead
of taking the lead, of the special senses.
Next, as to correspondences between mind and body, in
respect to their mode of action. Notwithstanding the


36 THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
extreme difference of the two kinds of activity, bodily
and mental, we may yet find points of coincidence.
One remarkable coincidence is as respects Time.
By a series of very ingenious and conclusive experiments, the rate of passage of the nerve-force has been
shown to be about ninety feet per second. This measure
is made upon the course of the nerve-threads, and does
not include the passage through the grey matter of the
centres, with their mass of corpuscles.  Now the time of
a complete circuit of action, beginning at a stimulation of
the senses, and ending in certain movements, depends
partly on the time of moving along the nerves, and partly
on the time of passing through the centres, where a
number of corpuscles must be traversed. Estimates have
been made as to this last operation, which, from the nature
of the case, is likely to be somewhat various; for not only
may the central mass to be penetrated be of various
extent, but also there is a liability to conflicting currents.
The case of least internal delay is what is termed reflex
action, where a motion answers to a stimulus, without the
intervention of the will, as in the involuntary start from a
pinch in the hand.  By experiments on frogs, Helmholtz
found that a period of from -+ to -T of a second was
occupied by the reflex act; now the length of the entire
nerve-tract could only be a few inches, which would hardly
occupy the two-hundredth of a second, if that tract were
an uninterrupted nerve-thread.
The time occupied by a sensation and subsequent voli


CORRESPONDENCES OF TIME.           37
tion has been measured in circumstances where there were
no conflicting impulses.  This is done by ascertaining the
time elapsing between the sensation of a signal, and the
answering by the hand. A comparison is made between
two situations; one where the person is prepared beforehand, by knowing where he is to be affected and what
part is to move, in which case the attention is turned upon
the proper points. The other situation is where a person
does not know which part is to be struck, and which part
is to be moved; in this last case he has to exercise an act
of judgment or consideration, and the difference of time
is about the'-fTth of a second. Two persons are separated
by a screen; one is to utter a syllable and the other to
repeat it as soon as possible. If the syllable has been
agreed upon, the interval of repetition occupies from one
sixth to one fourth of a second; if it is not agreed upon,
the interval is one twelfth of a second more.
The example is put by M. Du Bois Raymond of a whale,
ninety feet long, struck in the tail by a harpoon; one
second would be occupied in transmitting the impression
to the brain; a fraction of a second, say one tenth, in
traversing the brain; a full second in returning the motor
impulse; so that the boat would have upwards of two
seconds for escaping the danger.
Thus we have physiological evidence on the one hand,
that a certain time is occupied by the nerve-force, and we
have mental evidence on the other, that an equivalent
time is occupied by sensation, thought, and volition. Our


38 THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
thinking can never transcend the physical pace of the
nerve-force. Seldom do we think so rapidly as the nerveforce can move; the reason is that we have so often to
balance opposing considerations; in other words, opposing
streams of nervous influence come together, and keep one
another in suspense for a longer or shorter time. The
experiments above quoted show the minimum time of a
mental decision.
Another correspondence related to Time is the period
required to produce a feeling or emotion. An appreciable
interval must be allowed for the operation of any stimulus,
in order that an appreciable feeling may be awakened-in
order that we may be distinctly made conscious of a state
of feeling. To become possessed of a sweet taste, some
time must be allowed after the first contact with the nerve.
Now this is in harmony with our legitimate inferences as
to the nature of the nerve-force; the molecular changes
in the nerve-centres, which accompany states of feeling,
occupy an appreciable interval of time. Farther, a sensation does not decay at once, when the object is withdrawn;
nor does the molecular activity set up in the centres
subside at once, when the nervous prompting ceases.
It is a safe conclusion, from our knowledge of molecular
forces, that the molecular changes taking place in the
nerves and the nerve-centres make an alteration of substance that soon reaches a limit, incapacitating the
nerves for farther change, until, by rest and assimilation,


SENSATIONAL EQUIVALENTS OF EXTERNAL AGENTS. 39
there has been a renewal of the old condition. Now to
this there is an exact counterpart in our conscious experience; every sensation or emotion is most lively when
first excited, becomes fainter after a time, and at last is so
completely worn out that the continuation of the stimulus
has no effect. The apparent exceptions, and the variations
of degree, prove the rule. One of the conditions of greater
persistence in any feeling is long previous remission;
during a protracted interval of inaction the nerves and
centres have been reinforced to a more than ordinary
degree by the constant presence of nourishment, while
no expenditure has been demanded.
In the employment of external agents, as warmth and
food, all will admit that the sensation rises exactly as the
stimulant rises, until a point is reached, when the agency
changes its character, too great heat destroying the tissues,
and too much food impeding digestion. There is, although
we cannot fix it with numerical precision, a sensational
equivalent of heat, of food, of muscular exercise, of sound,
of light; there is a definite change of feeling, a uniform
accession of pleasure or of pain, corresponding to an elevation of temperature of 10~, 20~, or 30~. So for each set
of circumstances, there is a sensational equivalent of
alcohol, of odours, of music, of spectacle.
It is this definite relation between outward agents and
the human feelings that renders it possible to discuss
human interests from the objective side, which is alone


10 THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
accessible. We cannot read the feelings of our fellows; we
merely presume that like agents will affect them all in
nearly the same way. It is thus that we measure men's
fortunes and felicity by the numerical amount of certain
agents, as money, and by the absence or low degree of
certain other agents, the causes of pain and the depressors
of vitality.  And although the estimate is somewhat
rough, this is not owing to the indefiniteness of the sensational equivalent, but to the complications of the human
system, and chiefly to the narrowness of the line that
divides the wholesome from the unwholesome degrees
of all stimulants.
The simplest term that we can employ for a mental
state is a shock; a word equally applicable to the bodily
side and to the mental side. A sudden stimulation of the
eye, the ear, the skin, the nose, is called a shock, from
its mere outward or physical aspect; it is also called a
shock mentally, not because the mental consciousness resembles a material thing operating on a surface of sense,
as a ringing bell, but because there is a rapid transition
from quiescence to excitement; in which circumstance
there is an accurate parallelism between the otherwise
distinct physical and mental facts.
The special modes of our sensations show many curious
correspondences of the physical and the mental. I select
the more prominent. In the first place, let us reflect upon
the ordinary experience of disease, into which mental


ACUTE AND MASSIVE SENSATION.          41
symptoms enter as a regular concomitant. There are
certain tissues that, from deficiency of nerves, are but
little sensitive, as the bones, nails, hairs, &c.; there being
a gradation in this respect according to the extent of
connection with the brain. Now, when any derangement
operates upon the brain, directly or indirectly, the physician
looks for definite corresponding mental symptoms. The
state of the mind is dictated by the state of the brain. As
an example, note the mental symptoms of typhus fever,
summed up in the phrase "febrile oppression."  "There is
great inaptitude for the exertion of the power of thought,
or of motion. The expression of the face is dull and
heavy, absent, puzzled; the patient has the appearance of
a person made stupid by drink, &c." In short, the mind
is completely at the mercy of the bodily condition; there
is no trace of a separate, independent, self-supporting,
spiritual agent, rising above all the fluctuations of the corporeal frame. The medical practitioner assumes that to
every mental change there corresponds a physical change;
he is, to this extent, a materialist.
There is an interesting correspondence between the
physical and the mental, in regard to a marked distinction
among the sensations, in all the senses, between the acute
and the voluminous or massive. A sharp prick in the
finger, or a hot cinder, yields acute sensations; the contact
of the clothing of the entire body, or a warm bath, yields
voluminous or massive sensations. Now it is observable


42   THE CONNEXION VIEWED AS CORRESPONDENCE.
that an acute sensation is due to an intense stimulus on
a small surface; a massive sensation to a gentler stimulus
over an extended surface. The contrast is noticeable in
every one of the senses. A gas-flame gives an acute
feeling; the diffused sunlight gives a massive feeling.
A high note upon the flageolet is acute; a deep bass note
on the violoncello or the organ is massive. The sea, the
thunder, the shouting of a multitude are voluminous or
massive from repetition over a wide area. Taste is acute,
digestive feeling is massive. Thus thoroughly does the
mere manner of external incidence determine one of the
most notable distinctions among our states of feeling.


CHAPTER IV.
GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY. 
WE shall now give an account of the most general laws
of connexion of Mind and Body. This is a difficult subject, and far from being mature; yet enough is known to
gratify curiosity, and to impart useful lessons.
We have already seen grounds to believe that for every
mental shock, every awakening of consciousness, every
mental transition, there must be a concomitant nervous
shock; and as the one is more or less intense so must be
the other. Such is the mostgeneral circumstance that we
are able to assign regarding the connexion.  Although a
very important point to establish, yet this is too vague to
satisfy us.
Mind is now generally admitted to have a three-fold
aspect,-three different functions-expressed by FEELING
(including Emotion), WILL or Volition, and THOUGHT or
Intellect. These are a trinity in unity; they are characteristic in their several manifestations, yet so dependent
* Of three papers contributed to the Fortnightly Review, in 1865, two
were occupied in bringing forward the chief views here advocated
respecting the physical side of the Feelings, the Will, and the Intellect;
and a third contained a Historical Sketch of the Theories of the Soul, of
which the last chapter is an expansion.


44   GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
among themselves, that no one could subsist alone; neither
Will nor Intellect could be present in the absence of Feeling; and Feeling manifested in its completeness carries
with it the germs of the two others. Hence, although, in
tracing out the bodily accompaniments of mind, we shall
view the three powers in separation, we may expect to find
certain great laws prevading the whole.
THE FEELINGS.
WE all know pleasure and pain, and we are familiar with
states of excitement that are neutral or indifferent.
When Feeling is opposed to Will and to Thought, it is
most characteristically represented by pleasures and pains;
these are never confounded with Thought, and although
they are motives to the Will, they do not make up the
Will. But there are many occasions when we are Excited,
roused, or rendered conscious, without being exactly pleased
or pained: and when we are not properly either willing or
thinking. Such is a mere shock of surprise; such also
are the excitements that often accompany the waning
of our proper pleasurable and painful states. After the
pain of a fright has passed away, there remains a state
of Feeling, as neutral excitement. Now there are laws
common to Feelings generally; and laws referring to
pleasures and pains particularly.
Next to the vague statement that every mental shock
is accompanied by a corresponding nervous shock, is the
~LJ  L~rVV~llr~LlV ~   hl~  W  VV~~VLIL~V~~ ~L-CLD


MENTAL SIDE OF RELATIVITY.           45
law that assigns a physical counterpart to the most fundamental and general attribute of the mind, commonly
termed the law or principle of Relativity.
LAW OF RELATIVITY.
(Applies both to Feeling and to Thought.)
CHANGE of impression is necessary to our being conscious.
First, on the MENTAL Side: —
It is a familiar observation that an unvarying action on
any of our senses has, when long continued, the same effect
as no action at all. We are not conscious of the pressure
of the atmosphere. An even temperature, such as that
enjoyed by the fishes in the tropical seas, leaves the mind
an entire blank as regards heat and cold.  The feeling
of warmth is not an absolute, independent, or self-sustaining condition of mind, but the result of a transition
from cold; the sensation of light supposes a transition
from darkness or shade, or from a less degree of illumination to a greater. To use a familiar illustration, a
watchmaker is not conscious of the unintermitted ticking
of his clocks; but were they all suddenly stopped, he
would at once become aware of the blank.
We should be astonished if a law so pervading had not
been frequently remarked and expressed in literature. It
has been recognized many times in forms more or less
definite. One of the most definite expressions of the law
was given long ago by Hobbes-" It is almost " (he should
lhave said altogetther) "all one for a man to be always
3


46 GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
sensible of one and the same thing, and not to be sensible
at all of anything."
The principle has been recognized more fully in its
application to the emotions. People are generally aware
that the first shock of transition from sickness to health,
from poverty to abundance, from ignorance to insight,
is the most intense; and that, as the memory of the
previous condition fades away, so does the liveliness
of the enjoyment of the change. Shakespeare speaks
of the miser's looking but rarely at his hoards for fear of
"blunting the fine point of seldom pleasure; " and makes
the versatile Prince Hal say thatIf all the year were playing holidays,
To sport would be as tedious as to work.
The blessings of leisure, retirement, and rest, are pleasant
only by contrast to previous toil and excitement. The
incessant demand for novelty and change, for constant
advances in wealth, in knowledge, in the arrangements
of things about us,-attest the existence and the power
of the law of Relativity in all the provisions for enjoyment. It is a law that greatly neutralizes one part of the
advantages of superior fortune, the sense of the superiority
itself; but leaves another part untouched, namely, the
range, variety, and alternation of pleasures.
It is beyond my present limits to show how the principle
of Relativity appears in all the Fine Arts under the name
of Contrast, how it necessitates that in science and in


PHYSICAL SIDE OF RELATIVITY.         47
every kind of knowledge there should be a real negative
to every real notion or real proposition; straight-curved;
motion-rest; mind-extended matter or extended space;
how, in short, knowledge is never single but always double
or two-sided, though the two sides are not always both
stated. I must be content with this very brief illustration of the principle itself, and now advert to the
physical counterpart.
Secondly, on the PHYSICAL side.
The chief point here is, to conceive by what arrangement
of the material organization a continued agency ceases to
produce that amount and kind of nervous action requisite
for consciousness.
One fact of the nervous action has already been
noticed. The nerve-fibres and corpuscles, on being stimulated, undergo a process of change, whereby their power
is gradually exhausted; in consequence of which they
need remission and repose. Hence, the first moments of
a stimulus are always the freshest, and give birth to the
most vivid degrees of consciousness. This is the condition
more especially requisite for maintaining a state of pleasurable sensibility.  The nervous system should be duly
refreshed or invigorated by nourishment and repose,
and never pushed in any part to the extreme limits
of exhaustion. The same condition applies to our power
of active energy in every department, whether intellectual,
voluntary, or emotional. Power is at the maximum, under


48  GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
a fresh start of renovated nerves, and fails as we approach
the point of exhaustion. There are certain exceptional
manifestations, as in the common experience of " growing
warm" to one's work; the maximum of energy usually
shows itself some time after commencing: an effect due
entirely to the increased supply of blood following on a
certain amount of exercise.
This fact is of the highest practical importance, and
corresponds to some of our experiences in connection with
the law of Relativity or Change of Impression; but it
does not amount to the full significance of that law. Two
circumstances still remain to be accounted for.
In the first place, the dependence of intensity of
consciousness on the degree of the transition-as when in
passing from one temperature, or one shade of light
to another-is the most precise and characteristic feature
of the Law of Relativity. Now, the degree of transition
is connected with the degree of disturbance of the nervous
currents, whether it be the quickening of the nerves
from a dormant condition, or the alteration of a settled
pace, to which the system has accommodated itself.
Two views may be taken of the physical adjuncts of
the state of unconsciousness, the state opposed to mental
wakefulness.  Either the nervous mass as a whole is
quiescent, that is, unagitated by currents of nervous
energy; which might be supposed to be the condition of
profourn slumber; or currents are still kept up, but at an


CONSCIOUSNESS AS DEGREE OF TRANSITION.     49
even, settled, unaltering pace.  There are facts and
analogies in favour of both views.  The mode of stating
the ultimate physical condition of all consciousness depends
upon how we decide between the two suppositions.
As regards the first, it would seem natural to suppose
that the nerves pass from the state of perfect repose to
a state of greater or less activity or excitement, according
as they are roused by stimulation, and that we are made
conscious accordingly; while the remission of the stimulus, and their own exhaustion, tend to quiescence and
to unconsciousness.  If we had no facts pointing to a
different conclusion, we should adopt this as the most
conformable to all analogy.  But there are facts pointing
the other way.  The nervous system   is rarely allowed
to fall into entire somnolence.  In profound sleep, the
reflex actions go on; these, however, we may disregard,
as having detached themselves from the conscious circles.
Still, although when awake, we keep up activity more
or less, and are under the stimulation of several senses, yet
we often become almost unconscious of either the activity
or the sensations; the only thing necessary for this
result is that these shall be for the time monotonous
or invariable. The most likely interpretation to be put
upon so familiaran experience would seem to be that there
are always currents of nerve-force, but that consciousness
disappears according as these are unvaried in their degree.
Many of the best established facts of the system are in
favour of a certain low degree of nerve action as existing


50  GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
under every variety of state; such, for example, as the
muscular tension maintained in the most perfect sleep.
On this hypothesis our conception is, that when all the
currents of the brain are equally balanced, and continue
at the same pitch-when no one is commencing, increasing or abating-consciousness or feeling is null, mind is
quiescent. A disturbance of this state of things wakens
up the consciousness for a time; another disturbance
gives it another fillip, and so on; the variety of stimulus
in the waking state forbidding the perfect equilibrium
from being attained. In harmony with this supposition is
the really fitful nature of the mind; the stream of consciousness is a series of ebullitions rather than a calm or
steady flow.  The calmness that we actually experience
belongs to a low or moderate excitement; let there be any
considerable intensity of feeling, and the ebullition character will start out convincingly prominent.
In the present state of our knowledge, no certain
decision between the two conflicting hypotheses should
be hazarded. We must wait for an experimentum crucis,
and perhaps the real state of the case is not accurately
expressed by either.
The foregoing discussion embraces the law of pure
Relativity, Change, or Transition, as connected with mental
wakefulness, or consciousness.  But in the concrete examples of the mental fact as above expressed, there is a
farther circumstance not involved in what has now been


FADING OF SECOND IMPRESSIONS.         51
brought out. We have made allowance for the decay of
an impression after a certain continuance; leaving still the
possibility that, after a suitable remission or interruption,
the impression may be renewed in all its fulness.
But now, among the features of those experiences given
from the mental side of Relativity, this stands out prominent, namely, that no second occurrence of any great
shock or stimulus, whether pleasure, pain, or mere
excitement, is ever fully equal to the first, notwithstanding that full time has been given for the nerves to recover
from their exhaustion. There is a certain amount of decay
in the force of every impression, on the after-occasions
when it is revived. Such is the statement of the law of
Novelty, with which we are all familiar.
In all probability, we have here only a new and more
complicated phase of the law of Transition. We need to
suppose that the system accommodates itself to every new
state of things, that a permanent trace is made (through
the operation of the retentive power), and that under a
fresh shock this accommodation operates by diminishing
the interval of transition, the difference between the
present impression and the pre-established attitudes and
arrangements of the nervous system.
It is needless to push this speculation beyond a general
surmise. Until a more precise expression can be given to
the modes of the nervous action under the single circumstance of mere transition, permanent accommodation being
left out of account, we cannot hope to deal with the com


52  GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
plication of two circumstances. Still, a reasonable proba.
bility attaches to the hypotheses of physical action that
have now been suggested.
LAW OF DIFFUSION.
When an impression is accompanied with Feeling, the
aroused currents diffuse themselves freely over the brain,
leading to a general agitation of the moving organs, as
well as affecting the viscera.
Illustrative Contrast.-The so-called reflex actions
(breathing, swallowing, &c.) are commonly said to have
no feeling; at the same time, they are accomplished in
a limited circuit or channel.
Note of Expclanation.-It is not meant that every
fibre and cell can be affected at one moment, but that a
spreading wave is produced sufficient to agitate the body
at large.
We have seen generally what it is that nervous action
consists in. A stimulus on a sensitive surface affects a
sensitive nerve.  It thence proceeds to some ganglionic
centre, there liberating a still more energetic force, which
passes by motor nerves to muscles. The completed fact
of a nervous shock is a muscular movement. But, owing
to the numerous cross connexions that make up the
aggregate of corpuscles, or the grey central matter, the
sensory stimulus proceeds first to one corpuscle, and then
is diffused to others successively, until it affects a great
many, before it reaches motor nerves; and when these


UNCONSCIOUS AND CONSCIOUS ACTIONS.    53
are reached they are so numerous as to actuate a wide
circle of movements. Now it is found that consciousness
or feeling increases with the extent of the wave, or the
number of the central corpuscles excited, and the consequent number of outward    movements commenced.
Feeling is only nascent in the case of a simple sensory
stimulus, one passing through a limited group of corpuscles,
and producing a simple movement. We cannot say that
even then consciousness or feeling is absolutely nonexistent; but it begins to be decisively manifest when
the wave spreads right and left, by the corpuscular
crossings; and it grows with the extension of this wave.
We assume, as a fundamental fact, that, with nervous
action, feeling begins. We cannot draw a line between
nervous action without feeling, and nervous action with
feeling; we can only indicate a scale of degree. Yet, to
all intents and purposes, there is a division of nervous
actions into unconscious and conscious, which is illustrative
of the general law of Diffusion.
The reflex actions,-breathing, the movements of the
intestines, the heart's action, winking, &c.,-are known to
be stimulated through the spinal cord, and its immediate
continuations at the base of the brain; they do not
involve the cerebral mass. The responding movements in
the case of each of them are limited to the work to be
done; to the chest, in breathing; to the intestines, in
propelling the food; to the muscles of the heart, in


54   GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
pumping the blood.   These actions are unaccompanied
with feeling.  So, in touching the hand of one asleep,
we see the hand curl up, or the arm move away. This
is called reflex; it is prompted through the lower centres,
without lateral diffusion or communication, and it is
directed to a single local group of muscles.  In such
examples, as formerly seen, the limitation is owing to
want of force.  There are ways open to the brain;
but they are not entered at the instance of a very
feeble contact. Still, the fact of limitation of range
is accompanied by the fact of unconsciousness: an
isolated response is our evidence for contraction of the
sphere of excitement; and such isolated responses are
little, if at all, accompanied with feeling.
Compare now what happens in a shock, say of acute pain,
as from a severe smart or a wound in the same part, namely,
the hand. A reflex influence would still operate, and give
birth to movements of the arm; but these would be a small
part of the case. The bodily members everywhere are put
in motion; the features are contracted with a well-known
expression; the voice sends out a sharp cry; the whole
body is thrown into agitation.  Nor do the effects stop
with mere muscular movements; the face is flushed,
showing that the circulation is disturbed; the breathing is
quickened, or the reverse; a temporary loss of appetite
proves that the gastric secretions in the stomach are perverted; the skin is deranged; and in the feminine constitution it would appear as if the mother's milk were


DEADENING EFFECT OF HABIT.           55
turned into gall. In order to cause this wide circle
of effects, the influence of the shock, the nerve-currents
set on, must be not merely intense in degree, but
highly diffused in their course through the brain; being
thus able to reach and to actuate the general system of
out-carrying nerves.
I have taken an extreme case to present the law in its
utmost prominence. We might vary the illustration, and
show that according to the strength of a feeling is the
extent of the diffusion, as well as the intensity of the
diffused manifestations. The rise and fall of these two
facts, in steady concomitance, is among our most common
experiences; indeed, our principal means of interpreting
the strength of one another's feelings is derived from this
uniformity.  It would also be easy to prove that the
apparent exceptions to the law are not real exceptions;
that in very mild states of feeling, or under a faint degree
of excitement, the diffused wave is not strong enough to
excite the muscles to an open display; that the will may
suppress the display; that habit may suppress it;
that, when the system is so strongly pre-engaged by another influence as to resist a new diffusion, impressions
are not felt (as in the insensibility to wounds in a
battle).
I will not dwell on these illustrations, and will merely
add a reference to the operation of habit in deadening
the feeling that accompanies our actions, to show that,


56  GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
wherever this deadening influence has occurred,the diffused
wave is proportionably contracted and suppressed. In our
first attempts to write, to cipher, to play on an instrument,
to speak, or in any other work of mechanical skill,-the inward sense of labour and difficulty is corresponded to by
the number of awkward and irrelevant gesticulations. On
the other hand, in the last stage of consummated facility
and routine, the consciousness is almost nothing; and the
general quietude of the body demonstrates that the course
of power has now become narrowed to the one channel
necessary for the exact movements required.  This is a
sort of educated imitation of the primitive reflex movement adduced at the outset; the comparison is so striking
as to suggest to physiologists the designation of secondary
reflex or automatic, for the habitual movements. A man
at a signal post, after long habit, is subjected to little
or no nervous influence, except in the single thread of
connection between a certain figure depicted on the eye
and a certain movement of the hand; the collaterals of
the primitive wave have died away, and the accompanying  consciousness has fallen to a barely discernible
trace.
The law of Diffusion might be called in to confirm the
hypothetical account of the process of accommodation
adverted to under Relativity. The failing intensity of
renewed impressions might be connected with a narrower
and weaker diffusion. Now, our study of the physical
basis of Retentiveness (see Chap. V.) shows the tendency


COMPREHENSIVE CONDITION OF CONSCIOUSNESS.    57
of all nervous states, by repetition, to narrow their compass of action, and to run into special channels of connexion with the states that happen to succeed them;
substituting intellectual trains for emotional outbursts.
It is by combining the two laws-Relativity and Diffusion-that we obtain the comprehensive statement of the
physical conditions of all consciousness:-An increase or
variation of the nerve-currents of the brain sufficiently
energetic and diffused to affect the combined system of
the out-carrying nerves (both motor nerves and nerves
of the viscera).
To all the varieties of human feeling, there correspond
(we must suppose) varieties of diffusion in the brain, as
there correspond, to a very considerable extent, varieties
in the external manifestation.  The outward signs are
only a small part of the wave of effects upon muscles
and viscera; many movements receive a mere incipient
stimulus, too weak for producing action (not to speak of
counter-impulses of suppression), and most of the visceral
alterations fail to show themselves to the observer. The
diffused wave of nervous energy is an inseparable adjunct
of feeling. The consequent manifestations of movement
and gesture are the universal language of feeling, and
possess a constancy that, among all the variations of
human character, is truly remarkable.  This is what I
previously put forward as the first argument for the
thorough connexion of mind and body; the region of facts


58  GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
most open to vulgar observation, and yet most persistently overlooked by the supporters of the dissociation or
independence of mind and matter.
The varieties of Expression of the feelings constitute a
study of great interest as regards our present theme; but
it will be enough to advert, under the following head, to
the one broad and characteristic distinction of pleasure and
pain.
LAWS OF PIEASURE AND PAIN.
Pleasure and Pain have certain well known agents or
causes, and they have also a characteristically distinct
outcome of demeanour and expression. It is an interesting,
although not very easy, problem to sum these up in a
general law, or laws, of concomitance of mind and body.
The principle that regulates feeling in general is liable to
considerable modification according as the feeling assumes
the character of either pleasure or pain.
As a preliminary remark, it must be allowed that
pleasure and pain are diametrically opposed, like cold and
heat, up and down, debt and credit, plus and minus. The
two are mutually destructive, they neutralize each other,
like cold and heat. Hence the circumstances present in
connexion with the one must be absent, if not reversed,
in the case of the other; whatever mode of nervous
excitement is allied with pain, its opposite must be
allied with pleasure.  Thus one explanation should
include both.


PLEASURES AND PAINS.             59
Law of Self-Conservation.
The remark has occurred to various speculators that
there is a close connexion between Pleasure and high
vitality, or the vigour of the system, and between Pain
and the causes of diminished vitality, or the feeblenesss and
exhaustion of the system. Plato and Aristotle, in their
views regarding Pleasure, included its being a restorative
to nature. Kant has a few striking expressions of the same
tendency, although their effect is greatly spoiled by the
context:-" Pleasure is the feeling of the furtherance,
Pain of the hindrance of life."  A very large number
of the facts may be included in the following statement,
which may be termed the Law of Self-Conservation:States of Pleasure are connected with an increase,
states of Pain with an abatement, of some or all of the
vital functions.
This principle resumes such well known experiences as
these:-The pleasures of healthy exercise, and of rest
after toil, the pain of fatigue; the pleasures of nourishment and pure air, the pains of hunger, inanition, or
suffocation; the pleasures of health generally, the pains
of bodily injury and disease.  These few instances sum
up the ruling facts of every one's daily life and bodily and
mental condition.
There are, however, a few startling exceptions. For
example:-Cold may be painful and yet wholesome, as in
the cold bath, and under the keen bracing air. But this


60 GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
exception, on closer view, confirms the general rule, while
rendering its application more definite. Cold undoubtedly
depresses, for a time, one very sensitive organ, the Skin,
perhaps also the Digestive Organs; while, in moderate
degree (that is, the degree constituting wholesomeness)
it exalts, through the capillary circulation, the lungs, the
heart, the muscles, and the nerves; and the contrast teaches
us that, as far as immediate pleasure is concerned, we
lose more by depressing the functions of the skin and the
stomach, than we gain by increasing the power of the heart,
the lungs, the muscles, or even the nerves themselves.
Another very remarkable exception is the painlessness
of many diseases, together with the occasional absence of
all pain, and even the presence of great comfort, in the
sick bed and in the final decay of life. This is the case
so often pointed to as evincing the triumph of the mind
over the body.
The remark already made in the case of cold, must be
still farther extended to meet this case.  The connexion
of pleasure with vitality, and of pain with feebleness or
loss of function, does not apply to all organs alike; some
are comparatively insensitive, their degeneracy and decay
seem unaccompanied with feeling; while in others
the smallest functional derangement is productive of pain.
Muscular weakness does not give pain, unless we are
compelled to efforts beyond our strength; also the
nervous system may be enfeebled as regards thinking
power without producing discomfort, provided we are


EXCEPTIONS TO THE LAW OF PLEASURE AND PAIN. 61
allowed perfect repose.  On the other hand, anything
that impairs nutrition, as indigestion, leads to immediate
discomfort; and still more decided is any partial stoppage
of the purifying organs, as the intestines, the liver, the
skin, the lungs, or the kidneys.  There are forms of
degeneration of the heart, the lungs, the kidneys, and
other parts, that do not interfere with   the usual
functions; their evil consists in preparing the way for a
sudden break-down.
The powers of the nervous system are various and even
mutually opposed.  Intellectual feebleness, decay  of
memory, and incapability of thought, are not painful in
themselves. There is, probably, a distinct power of the
nervous system, connected with the pleasurable tone of the
mind, which may not fail, when the intellect fails, or may
fail, while the intellect is yet vigorous; a function very
unequally manifested in different individuals.
The mental effect of diminished power in the various
organic functions is ultimately realized by some failure in
the brain itself. Could we suppose the brain to maintain
all its functions, derangement might exist in other
organs without depressing the mind. Strictly speaking,
this is an impossible concurrence.  But there is sometimes an approach   to this situation, namely, when
the blood, such as it is, flows in excess to the brain,
supporting its powers at the expense of all other.
interests; an arrangement that cannot be permanent,


G(2  GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
although it may last for a little time. In such a contingency there is an extraordinary exaltation of mental
function, including a hilarious and even ecstatic enjoyment.
It is the state that narcotics may produce, for a brief
moment, in a constitution partially wrecked; and it
occasionally occurs in the closing hours of life. We often
see patients in the last stage of consumption, still entertaining the most sanguine prospects of recovery; a proof
that, instead of being mentally depressed, they are in the
opposite or joyous condition. On this it is remarked by
Dr. Patrick Nicol (Medical Reports of West Riding Asylum
for 1872, p. 199) "that blood, from  which tubercle is
deposited, appears to have that peculiar injurious property
for the brain which excites delirizun;" in extreme cases, it
is productive of raving madness.
The general principle, connecting pleasure with increase
of vital power, receives farther confirmation from the out*ard displays under pleasure and pain; the animation,
stir, and vigour under the one, and the drooping and
collapse under the other.
The primary law of feeling, that movement is in proportion to intensity of stimulation, is greatly modified according as the feeling is pleasurable or painful. Mlere
intensity of stimulus operates to give intensity of movement; but the character of the feeling as pleasure, as pain
or as neutral excitement, must also be taken into account.
The designations for pleasure are very significant of the


STIMULUS OF AN ACUTE SMART.            63
difference: the epithets-lively, animated, gay, cheerful,
hilarious-are expressive of unusual activity; the epithetssad, miserable, woe-begone, depressed, sorrowful, dejected,
crest-fallen,-suggest languor, prostration, inactivity. With
the young, we see in especial prominence the union of the
two facts-mental delight and bodily energy. The examination of the organic functions conclusively shows that in
a pleasurable mood these are raised in efficiency; the respiration is quicker, the pulse is better, the digestive functions are exalted. In depression and pain, all is reversed.
An apparent exception to the law occurs in the stimulating effects of an acute smart, and in the contortions
and struggling of pain generally. This, however, is no real
exception, as the following considerations will show.
In the first place, many painful shocks are simply
and solely depressing; they have not even the pretence
or appearance of rousing the energies. A blow on the
shin is utterly prostrating; the irritation of a raw wound
has much the same effect. Certain parts of the body, on
being squeezed, compressed, or tortured, yield an intense
pain that at once quenches all the energies. Cold, in its
painful forms, excepting, perhaps, the contact with a small
congealed surface, which resembles a scald, is mainly
depressing; when it re-acts to exalt the functions, its
painful character disappears. Privation, calamity, severance of ties, shame, remorse, are accompanied with general
prostration of the energies.


64   GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
In the next place, the vehement muscular stimulation
due to acute pains oan be shown to be accompanied with
loss of power in the organic functions; it is thus a mere
spasmodic display, the result of a spendthrift energy.
The stomach, the heart, the lungs, are all depressed,
to support a wasteful exertion of muscle.
That the exertion is forced and factitious is farther
proved by the lassitude that succeeds; the muscles themselves show an exhaustion very different fiom what would
follow on a similar amount of healthy exertion, or in the
excitement of joy.*
Still, an acute smart is one mode of temporarily
raising the energies; the acuteness implying that the
pain is limited to a very small circle of nerves, so
that the    injurious  effects  are  confined, while    the
stimulus suffices to arouse a wave of force-bearing nervecurrents. The light smart of a horse-whip is enough to
waken the energies, without damaging the vitality. The
pain   of a   flogging, which   multiplies smarts of still
greater intensity, is utterly exhausting     to the whole
system.
* Therehave occurred many instancesof death, or mental derangement,
from a shock of grief, pain, or calamity; this is in accordance with the
general law. Instances are also recorded of death and insanity from
excessive joy; but they are so rare as to have the character of exceptions.
Extreme intensity of shock, whatever be its character, is unhinging;
but there is a wide difference in the consequences, according as it is the
intensity of pain or the intensity of pleasure. From the one shock,
people, as a rule, recover slowly and with difficulty; from the other,
they recover rapidly and easily.


EXPRESSION OF PLEASURE AND PAIN.        65
In this law of Pleasure and Pain, we have the key to
the leading varieties of Expression of the Feelings.  The
organs of expression by movement are primarily the
features, next the voice, lastly the movements and gestures
of the body at large-head, trunk, and extremities. In
pleasurable emotions, these are unquestionably rendered
active; the grimaces, gestures, and attitudes, show an
accession of active power. The notable circumstances in
this display are the general erection of the body, the
opening up of the features, the powerful exercise of the
voice; all showing that the extensor muscles, which
are by far the largest, are strongly stimulated. When
we have surplus energy   to expend, we stretch and
extend the body in preference to bending and relaxing
it; the weight of the body itself is borne in the one
case and not in the other. Any additional strain, as
in walking, lifting weights, rowing a boat, is borne by
the extensor muscles. It is the size of these that makes
the muscular figure, the fulness of the calves, the thighs,
and the hips.
On the other hand, pain (not violently acute), dejection,
depression, leads to the relaxation of all these powerful
muscles; hence a general stooping and collapse of the
figure, showing that the springs of muscular force have
dried up. The difference of the two situations, as regards
the carriage of the whole body, is most marked. Compare
the victor in a triumph with one of his captives-the
attitude of the beater with the beaten. And as regards


66  GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
the face, how much is suggested by the one descriptive
trait-" his countenance fell"!
To this general law we find a remarkable exception that
puzzled the great physiologist,  iiller of Berlin, and was
left unsolved by Sir Charles Bell. It refers to the expression of the Face. While the movements under pleasure
are obvious and energetic-the raising of the eye-brows,
the drawing outwards of the angles of the mouth; there
are also some apparently energetic movements characteristic of pain-the lowering of the eye-brows, the
wrinkling the forehead, the drawing down of the angle of
the mouth, the pouting of the lower lip.  Now, to have
one set of muscles acting strongly under pleasure, and
another set acting strongly under pain, would merely be
two modes of activity; it would not represent opposition or
contrariety. Yet pleasure and pain are as opposite as heat
and cold.  What causes the one arrests or destroys the
other; and no theory of the physical accompaniments
is complete that fails to bring out this contrariety. It
would be a self-contradictory account of solvency and
insolvency, to say that one was property in the funds, and
the other property in land; and there is an equal contradiction in having muscles of pleasure and muscles of pain.
One way of diminishing the difficulty is to carry out
a little farther the foregoing contrast of the attitudes
in pleasure and in pain - the one erect the other
collapsed. In addition to remitting the powerful exertion


MOVEMENTS OF THE FACE IN PAIN.          67
of extending the body, one might suppose the flexor
muscles exerted to make it still more thoroughly collapse,
to distend to the utmost the strong erecting muscles. Now,
one effect of this would be to release the muscular
currents, and to set free the blood and the nerve-force in
favour of the other interests of the system,-Digestion, &c.,
which are the first to suffer in great pain or in dejection of
mind. The cost of the flexor effort is but small, and the
return in the liberation of the nervous and muscular
currents might more than compensate for that cost.
The contrariety of the two states would be saved, while
there would still be an active prompting under pain.
Applying this explanation to the Face, we should have.
to consider whether the muscular opposition in it could
show, in the one case, the exertion of powerful muscles, and
in the other, their relaxation by the operation of those of
smaller calibre. A slight exertion of the small muscle that
corrugates the eye-brows, may be supposed to perfect the
relaxation of the more powerful muscle of the scalp that
raises the eye-brows; a small stream of energy in the
muscle surrounding the mouth relaxes more thoroughly
the strong zygomatic muscles, and the buccinator, which
are distended in smiling and laughter. By the employment of a slight force, we may be supposed to release a
greater quantity; so that, after all, the positive exertion of
those specific muscles of pain would merely aid in renouncing muscular energy on the whole. We should thus
assign as the reason why a forced " sadness of the coun


68 GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
tenance makes the heart better," that, by the employment
of a certain amount of stimulus, we more thoroughly abate
the stimulation of the moving organs at large, and allow
blood and nervous force to pass to the enfeebled viscerathe digestion, the lungs, the heart, the skin-by whose
amelioration the mental tone is decisively improved.*
* A new turn has been given to the explanation of the facial attitudes
under pleasure and pain, first by Mr. Spencer, in the new edition of his
Psychology, and next in Mr. Darwin's recent work on Expression. The
novelty lies in applying the doctrine of Evolution, or inheritance, to
account for the more special and characteristic modes of expression of
the face, as, for example, frowning, smiling, pouting, and depressing
the corners of the mouth. The same doctrine is also applied to
account for the expression of the more marked passions, as fear, love,
anger.
It does not lie within the plan of this work to discuss the details of
the human feelings, either in their internal characters, or in their outward display; nor is it my purpose to enter into the merits of the
doctrine of Evolution as applied to the mind. So far as I have here
gone, in assigning the most general laws of connexion of mind and body,
I am not at variance with any views set forth by these two great
authorities, although I have given far more prominence than either of
them to the law that connects Pleasure with an accession of vital
Power, and Pain withdepressed vitality. As regards my first law-called
the law of Diffusion-both Mr. Spencer and Mr. Darwin have treated it
under different phraseology, but in substantially the same way. It is
the third of Mr. Darwin's three Laws for explaining the phenomena of
expression-termed by him the law of the "direct action of the excited
nervous system."
Mr. Darwin furnishes incidentally many striking illustrations and
confirmations of the Law of Pleasure and Pain. Among the appearances of protracted grief, he remarks-" The circulation becomes
languid; the face pale; the muscles flaccid; the eyelids droop; the
head hangs on the contracted chest; the lips, cheeks, and lower jaw all
sink downwards from their own weight." (p. 178.) Let any one
compare this with the expression of a bride and bridegroom at the
beginning of their honeymoon.
Mr. Darwin's second law, called by him the principle of Antithesis.


LAUGHTER AND SOBBING.                    69
An examination, after Sir Charles Bell, of the two great
convulsive outbursts-Laughter and Sobbing-gives an
unequivocal support to the law; the one signifies in
all its points the accession of vital force; the other
equally signifies loss, failure, or deprivation of energy.
" The whole expression of a man in good spirits is exactly
the opposite of one suffering from sorrow" (Darwin, p. 213).
In both cases there may be energetic displays: but while
the energy of laughter leaves no sting behind, the energy
of convulsive grief is succeeded byutter prostration.
The law now illustrated is named the Law of Self-conservation, because without it the system could not be
maintained. Inasmuch as we follow pleasure and avoid
pain, if pleasure were injurious and pain wholesome, we
should soon incur entire shipwreck of our vitality, as we
often partially do, through    certain tendencies that are
exceptional to the general law.
occasionally leads him to exemplify the opposing effects of Pleasure and
Pain, as one of the various forms of Antithesis, or the tendency to pass
from one expression to its opposite, even although the opposing mental
state would not generate that opposed expression. The principle of
Opposition has been recognized in the text under two forms-first, the
fundamental law of Pleasure and Pain (Self-Conservation), and secondly,
the employment of the small flexor muscles to complete the contraction
of the powerful extensors, and secure a more perfect attitude of repose
and renunciation of nervous stimulus.
The violent contortions of acute pain are referred by Mr. Darwin to
inherited habits of exertion for getting rid of pain. He would even
regard the excited movements of animals under delight as partly
associations with hunting and the search for food; although he freely
admits that the state of pleasure is itself accompanied with increased
vigour of the circulation and the nerve-force.
4


70  GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
Law of Stimulation or Exercise.
To stimulate or excite the nerves, with a due regard to
their condition, is pleasurable; to pass this limit, painful.
The mere presence of nourishment, that is, blood, does
not evoke all the nervous activity that the blood can pay
for, and the nerves maintain with safety; the case is
rather that the blood yields up force at the instance of
stimulated nerve-currents. Now this stimulation, when in
the proper degree, is connected with pleasure, while there
is a degree that is always painful; both points varying
with the condition of the individual.
If we commence the illustration from the side of Pain,
we may notice as two leading circumstances, (1) Conflict,
and (2) Intensity.
First. To say that all conficting stimulations are painfill, is merely to state a consequence of the former position.
Conflict is waste of vital power, and is likely to be accompanied by a depression of the mental tone. This simple
and obvious maxim sums up a wide experience; it includes
the pleasures of harmony and the pains of discord; the
pleasures of a free scope to all our impulses and the pains of
constraint, obstruction, and thwarted aims; the pleasure of
discovering similarity, agreement, consistency, and unity,
the pains of inconsistency and contradiction.
Secondly. As regards intensity. Violent, excessive, and
sudden stimulations induce pain on various grounds. In
opposition to the law that connects pleasure with vital


PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF PAIN.          71
energy, they cause a momentary exhaustion of the power
of the nerves affected; and they may further be considered
as originating a conflict with the prevailing currents of the
brain, which do not adjust themselves at once to the new
impetus. Thus though, on the general principle of relativity, they waken up a strong feeling, they sin against
the conditions of pleasurable feeling.
Conflict and Violence, then, are two principal modes of
painful stimulation, and explain a very considerable number of our pains. In most, if not in all, of the painful
sensations of three of the senses-namely, Touch, Hearing,
and Sight-the pain is either discord or excess. The
smarting acuteness of a blow on the skin, of a railway
whistle close to the ear, of a glare of light-are due to the
mere degree or excess of the stimulus. In hearing and in
sight, there are, in addition, the pains of discord. In the
two remaining senses, Taste and Smell, we cannot make the
same affirmation. We do not know what is the mode of
nervous action in a bitter taste, as quinine or soot; and we
cannot say that the transition from sweet to bitter is a
transition from moderate stimulus to an excessive one. It
may be that the power of the nerve is exhausted under a
different kind of influence from mere violence of stimulation; but no certain knowledge exists on the subject. The
same remarks apply to smell.
These observations on the negative aspect of stimulation


72 GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
-the aspect of pain-contain by implication the positive
aspect.  Stimulation, as such, is pleasurable.  "Man
loves sensation," said Aristotle. For the eye to see, for
the ear to hear, for the skin to touch, are in themselves
agreeable. We cannot affirm, with respect to the ordinary
gratification of the five senses, that they increase vitality
-they may do so slightly; we can say only that they
draw upon the vitality to maintain nerve currents that
give pleasure. It is agreeable to spend a certain portion
of the forces of the system in nervous electricity; it
is not agreeable to push this expenditure beyond a
certain point.  And when the stimulation has passed
this point, degenerating into pain, the pleasurable tone
can be restored only by replenishing the vital power,
according to the principle that connects pleasure with
vitality.
I may remark, as confirming all that has been said,
what is our common experience and practice with regard
to pleasure, namely, the great value of the stimulants that
aie not intense but voluminous-that moderately affect a
large sensitive surface, or many nerves at once: a familiar
instance is furnished by the warm bath; another is the
music of a full band.  The same happy effect springs
from change or variety; the stimulation is multiplied,
and no one part pushed to exhaustion.
The last point that I will advert to is the obscure subject of Narcotic stimulants-alcohol, tea, tobacco, opium


THEORY OF PUNISHMENT.             73
and the rest. These operate a very little way, if at all, in
giving new vitality; they draw upon our vitality, even
till it is much below par, postponing the feeling of depression till another day. It is probable that the influence of
the narcotics is complicated, and not the same for all. We
may safely say respecting them, that they are the extreme
instance of the principle of Stimulation, as contrasted with
the principle of vital conservation; they are the large consumers, not the producers, of vitality; they expend our
stock of power in nerve-electricity in a higher degree, and
with a more dangerous licence, than the ordinary stimulants of the senses.
The physical theory of Pleasure and Pain has a direct
bearing on Punishment and Prison Discipline. I happened
to be present at a debate on that subject, in one of the
sections of the British Association, at the Manchester
meeting in 1861. The speakers were bent upon suggesting modes of punishment, painfully deterring, and yet not
injurious to the convict's health.  I could not help
remarking, from my conviction of the doctrine now expressed, that the object aimed at is all but a contradiction.
There is, if any, the barest margin between the infliction
of pain and the destruction of vital power. If the first
of the two maxims above stated (the connexion of pleasure
with vital conservation, &c.,) expressed the whole truth,
there would be no margin at all; but under the second
maxim (Stimulation), there might be room to operate


74   GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
as proposed.   Stimulants cannot, as a general rule,
be said to increase vital power; they are usually on
the verge of destroying it, and frequently do destroy
it.  Consequently, the withholding of stimulationalcohol, tobacco, tea, cheerful light and spectacle, the
sounds of busy life, society, amusing literature, &c.cannot be said necessarily to abate the vital forces, and
may be instrumental in conserving them. Nevertheless,
if these are withheld to the extent of making them
strongly craved for (and, if they are not, their loss does
not punish), the state of craving is an internal conflict
that lowers the general vitality. If the craving dies away
after a time, the depression ceases, and so does the
punishment. Then, again, it might seem that the application of what is painfully salubrious would exactly hit
the mark; as the cold bath, the well-ventilated and but
moderately-heated cell, cleanliness, measured food, steady
industry, and regularity of life. Yet unless the convict
takes kindly to these various measures, they are more
depressing than wholesome; and if his system does adapt
itself, that is, if they end in reforming his constitution and
habits, they are no longer punishment. In the debate in
question, one of the speakers, who I believe was officially
connected with a London prison, remarked that, as a rule,
discharged convicts are deteriorated in constitution. The
opposite allegation has sometimes been made; but
between the two I will venture to arbitrate by saying
that, in whatever cases the confinement operates as a


PHYSICAL BASIS OF THE WILL.                  7.5
serious punishment, the deterioration is almost certain.
The same speaker observed that corporal punishment has
this advantage    over imprisonment-that, while it is a
severe deterring smart, it does not to the same degree
inflict permanent damage. *
* The two modes of punishing by physical torture, are severe
muscular strain (hard labour, the crank, tread-wheel) and flogging.
The one operates upon the nerves through the muscular tissue, the
other through the skin. There is no intention of injuring either the
muscles or the skin in themselves; the sole object is to produce a
painful condition of the nerves. Yet, as it is hardly possible, in severe
punishments, to avoid permanent damage to the intermediate tissuemuscle or skin-some plan might be devised for affecting the nerves
alone. Recourse might be had to Electricity. By electrical shocks and
currents, and especially by Faraday's Magneto-electric machine, which
constantly breaks and renews the currents, any amount of torture
might be inflicted; and the graduation might be made with scientific
precision. How far the nerves would suffer permanent injury by a
severe application of electricity is still a matter for inquiry; probably
not more than by an equal amount of suffering through the muscular or
skin punishments; while, at all events, the damage would be confined
to the nervous tissue. The punishment would be less revolting to the
spectator and the general public than floggings, while it would not be
less awful to the criminal himself; the mystery of it would haunt the
imagination, and there would be no conceivable attitude of alleviating
endurance. The terrific power exercised by an operator, through the
lightest finger touch, would make more deeply felt the humiliating
prostration of the victim.
If capital punishments are to be permanently maintained, much
could be said for discarding strangulation, and substituting an electric
shock. But there being a growing opinion unfavourable to the extinction
of life, as a mode of punishment, the combination of imprisonment with
electric inflictions could be graduated to a severity of endurance that
should satisfy all demands for retribution to offenders. It was remarked
by Lord Romilly that imprisonment with periodic floggings would be
far worse than immediate execution. The idea would be too painful to
the community at large; while a more refined application of pain would
pass unheeded, except by the sufferer.


76 GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
THE WILL.
The Will, volition, or voluntary action is, on the outside, a physical fact; animal muscle under nervous
stimulation is one of the mechanical prime movers; the
motive power of muscle is as purely physical as the
motive power of steam; food is to the one what fuel is
to the other.  The distinguishing peculiarity of our
voluntary movements is that they take their rise in
Feeling, and are guided by Intellect; hence, so far as
Will is concerned, the problem of physical and mental
concomitance is still a problem either of Feeling or of
Intellect. The extension and improvement of our voluntary
power is one large department of our education; and the
process of education is wholly included under the Intellect.
I shall confine myself, then, as regards the Will to a short
statement of the fundamental processes involved in it,
one of which has just been before us under the Feelings,
and will again appear as playing a part in the Intellect.
In the Will altogether I reckon up three elements; two
primitive, instinctive, or primordial, and the third a process
of education or acquirement.
The first primordial element is called the Spontaneous
Energy or Surplus Activity of the system, or the disposition of the moving organs to come into operation
of themselves previous to, and apart from, the stimulation
of the senses or the feelings; the activity being increased


SPONTANEOUS ENERGY.               77
when such stimulation concurs with the primitive
spontaneity. I think there is evidence to show that the
profuse activity attendant on health, nourishment, youth,
and a peculiar temperament called the active temperament,
springs in a very great degree from inherent active power,
with no purpose at first, but merely to expend itself;
and that such activity gradually comes under the guidance
of the feelings and purposes of the animal. It is the
surplus nervous power of the system discharging itself
without waiting for the promptings of sensation.  In
the course of education the spontaneity is so linked
with our feelings as to be an instrument of our wellbeing, in promoting pleasures and removing pains.
The voice by mere spontaneity sends forth sounds, the
ear controls and directs them into melody, and the
wants of the system generally make them useful in other
ways.
Mere spontaneity, however, would not give us all that
we find in the impulses of the Will. Being the overflow
of vital power, it would show itself only whenever and
wherever there is such an overflow. We want a kind
of activity that shall start forth at any time when
pleasure is to be secured, or pain to be banished, and
that shall be directed to the very points where these
effects can be commanded.
For such a power we must refer to the great funda


78 GENERAL LAWS OF ALLIANCE OF MIND AND BODY.
mental law of Pleasure and Pain-the law that connects
Pleasure with increase of Vital Power, Pain with
the diminution of Vital Power. This law we may look
upon as in many respects the foundation, the mainstay, of our being; it is the principle of self-conservation
-the self-regulating, self-acting impulse of the animal
system. When anyhow we come into a mood of joyful
elation, the physical state corresponding is an exaltation
of vital energy to the muscles, the organic functions, one
or other, or both; and that exaltation is an increase of
the activity that is bringing the pleasure. The first act
of masticating a morsel of food develops a pleasurable
feeling to the conscious mind, and a concurrent stimulus
of heightened activity to the body; the heightened
activity vents itself in the parts actually moving at the
time-the masticating organs, the cheeks, jaw, and tongue,
which in consequence proceed with redoubled vigour, the
pleasure thus feeding itself. In that connexion we have,
as I believe, the deepest foundation of the will. On the
other hand, if, in the course of energetic movements of
mastication, a false step occurs, the teeth embracing
by mistake the skin of the lip or the tongue, there is
mentally a smart of pain, and physically, I think, a
destruction of nervous power through the shock, and the
destruction of power is at once and directly a cessation
of the active currents impelling the mouth and the jaws.
Such I conceive to be the groundwork of Volition,


PRINCIPAL FOUNDATION OF THE WILL.        79
greatly, but never entirely, overlaid in mature life by a
large superstructure of acquired  connexions between
feelings and specific movements.  Without some such
foundation I see no way of beginning the work of voluntary
acquisition, nothing to make our movements relevant to
our state of feeling at the time; moreover, it is the check
that is always ready to step in and supersede our acquired
habits. At any moment a burst of pleasure will raise
our energies, a shock of pain (not being an acute exciting
smart) will depress them; in the one case the cause of
the pleasure, if our over-activity, will be maintained with
increase; in the other case the energies are arrested, and
if they are causing the pain, it will cease with them.
The bursting out of a cheerful light in a dark labyrinth
spurs us on without our going through the formality of
what we call a resolution of the will; while a course leading
us to darkness, strangeness, and uncertainty will be
arrested by the mere sinking away of our energies before
we can even begin to deliberate.   Our course in life
from first to last, although most at first, is trial and
error, groping and feeling our way, acting somehow, and
judging of the result; and the general tendency of the
law in question is to sustain us when we are in a good
track, to turn off the steam when we are in a bad track.


CHAPTER V.
THE   INTELLECT.*
I NOW approach the most difficult part of the subject
of the physical basis of mind-namely, what regards the
Intellect.  That the Feelings are closely connected with
physical manifestations is patent and undeniable. But
Thought is at times so quiet, so far removed from bodily
demonstrations, that we might suppose it conducted in a
region of pure spirit, merely imparting its conclusions
through a material intervention. Unfortunately for this
supposition, the fact is now generally admitted, that
thought exhausts the nervous substance, as surely as walking exhausts the muscles. Our physical framework is involved with thought no less decidedly than with feeling;
and it is requisite to define, if possible, the terms of the
alliance.
In the positions already advanced, with respect to the
* This chapter may not perhaps be easily understood by readers
unfamiliar with the theory of our Intellectual Powers. It is not
essential to the general argument; while it is more purely hypothetical
and speculative than the foregoing chapter on the Feelings and the Will.
The purpose of inserting it is to give completeness to the account of the
most general laws of connexion of Mlind and Body, and to deal with
what must ever be the most'difficult problem growing out of that
connexion.


FOUNDATIONS OF THE INTELLECT.         81
Feelings and the Will, we have also some of the physiological foundations of Thought.
The First Position, named the Principle of Relativity, or
the necessity of change in order to our being conscious, is
the groundwork of Thought, Intellect, or Knowledge, as well
as of Feeling. We know heat only in the transition from
cold, and vice versa; up and down, long and short, red and
not red-are all so many transitions, or changes of impression; and without transition we have no knowledge. Relativity applied in this way to Thought, coincides with the
power called Discrimination-the Sense or Feeling of
Difference, which is one of the constituents of our Intelligence. Our knowledge begins, as it were, with difference;
we do not know any one thing of itself, but only the difference between it and another thing; the present sensation
of heat is, in fact, a difference from the preceding cold.
The Second Position, named the Law of Diffusion,-or
the connection of Feeling with spreading currents, as
opposed to impulses that go the round in a single line, —
has bearings upon Thought likewise. Taken along with
the principle of Relativity, or Change of Impression, it
allows us, as we shall see presently, to embody the power
of Discrimination, or to assign its physical connexions with
the currents of the brain.
The Third Position had reference to the radical contrast
of Pleasure and Pain, and was meant to bring out the connection between Pleasure and a rise of Vital Power, and
between Pain and a fall of Vital Power. Although com


82                 THE INTELLECT.
plicated with the fact that stimulus, as well as nourishment, is requisite to quicken the nerve-currents to the
maximum of pleasure, this principle is a clear startingpoint for our voluntary action, otherwise without a starting-point; for the will mainly consists in following the
lead of pleasure and drawing back from   the touch of
pain.
Our Intelligence, in the practical view, may be considered as an enormous expansion of the range of operations
under the First Law of Being-the Law of Self-Conservation. To work for the attainment of pleasure while yet
iM the distance, and for the abatement of pain also in the
distance; to perform actions that are only intermediate in
procuring the one or avoiding the other: all this is but
voluntary action enlarged in its compass by knowledge of
cause and effect, means and end; in other words, by our
intelligent cognizance of the order of the world.
Intellect has long been divided into a variety of functions, or modes of operating, called faculties, under such
iLames as Memory, Reason, Judgment, Imagination, Conception, and others; which, however, are not fundamentally
distinct processes, but merely different applications of the
collective forces of the Intelligence. We have no power
of Memory in radical separation from the power of Reason
or the power of Imagination. The classification is tainted
with the fault called, in Logic, cross-division. The really
fundamental separation of the powers of the Intellect is


DISCRIMINATION.                83
into three facts called (1) Discrimination, the Sense,
Feeling, or Consciousness of Difference; (2) Similarity,
the Sense, Feeling, or Consciousness of Agreement; and
(3) Retentiveness, or the power of Memory or Acquisition.
These three functions, however much they are mingled,
and inseparably mingled, in our mental operations, are yet
totally distinct properties, and each the groundwork of a
different superstructure. As an ultimate analysis of the
mental powers, their number cannot be increased or
diminished; fewer would not explain the facts, more
are unnecessary. They are the Intellect, the whole Intellect, and nothing but the Intellect.
Let us take them in order.
I. DISCRIMINATION.-This we have just seen is the
intellectual aspect of Relativity, or the Law of Change of
Impression. When any new currents are commenced, or
when existing currents are increased or abated, we become
mentally alive; and if we are already conscious, a change
comes over our consciousness. It can be easily made apparent that Discrimination is the very beginning of our
intellectual life. If we are insensible to the change from
hot to cold we are for ever disqualified from knowing the
phenomenon of heat; to be unaffected by changes of light
is another way of expressing blindness; to be affected, or
made conscious, by very minute shades of colour is to be
highly intelligent in regard to colour. Wherever a man
s more knowing than his fellows, he sees distinctions


84                THE INTELLECT.
where they see none. The banker detects a bad note
after it has deceived many other people.
As to the Physical Embodiment of this fact:-When we
consider the vast compass of our discriminative sensibilitythe seemingly innumerable shades of our consciousness in
correspondence with the variety of sensible appearances,
not to speak of our emotions and inner life-we begin to
be aware of the need of an apparatus of great range and
complication. Take any of the senses, as Sight, and consider all the degrees that we can mark between total
blackness and the highest solar refulgence. Consider next
the colours and their shades, and we shall find that the
sensible gradations of effect are very numerous; in a
mind highly endowed for colour, these felt gradations
would be counted by hundreds. Again, in the Ear, a
musician's discrimination of pitch extends, perhaps, to
several hundred sounds. Our discrimination of articulate
sounds is co-extensive with the combined alphabets of all
the languages known to us.
Assuming, as we have found reason to do, that every new
impression on the sense is an alteration of the currents
along the track of the nerves-both the main channel and
the collaterals of the diffusion-we are led to believe that
consciousness is varied in two ways. First, according to
the ingress made use of, or the particular organ and the
particular nerves employed. Thus, from the eye to the
ear is a perceptible transition and a new phase of con


VARIETIES OF CONSCIOUSNESS.           85
sciousness. So in touch, in taste, and smell, we have a
characteristic consciousness for each sense through all the
varieties of sensation of that sense. We should never
confound a colour with a taste. Nay more: in the higher
senses, and especially in Sight and in Touch, we have
differences of consciousness according to the part of the
organ affected; if it were not so, we should all be in the
proverbial position of not knowing the right hand from
the left.
In the second place, Consciousness is obviously varied
according to the energy, or other peculiarity, of the impression made on the same organ, or part of an organ, and
the same nerve. A greater impression makes a greater
feeling. This of course is what we are prepared for on
any hypothesis. The currents are made more intense,
and a change of nervous intensity is a change of consciousness. In the senses, however, we have qualitative
differences of sensation, which are more embarrassing to
account for. To define the change of current in the optic
fibres by red, yellow, and blue, and the subsequent course
of diffusion, is not within our present knowledge. It has
been supposed that there are separate fibres for the primitive colours, which would somewhat relieve the difficulty,
and reduce the different modes of action to mere differences
of intensity or degree.
These two circumstances, namely, the separate consciousness of separate nerves, and the changing intensity


86                 THE INTELLECT.
of the currents, we may regard as the primitive modes of
diversifying the consciousness; but it is in the countless
combinations of these simple elements that we are to look
for the physical concomitants of our ever-varying consciousness. The union of different stimulations in different fibres
and in different degrees, would unavoidably give birth to
a complex and modified consciousness.
II. So much for Discrimination. Let us now glance
shortly at Similarity, or AGREEMENT. Besides the shock
of difference, or change, the mind is affected by the shock
of agreement in the midst of difference. If a certain
sensation, as redness, is felt, and if, after we have passed to
something else, it recurs, there is a flash of recognition,
a re-instatement of the first experience together with a
feeling of recognition or identification.  This is the
feeling or consciousness of Agreement; it also is a great
intellectual foundation.  Coupled with Discrimination,
it exhausts the meaning of what we call knowledge;
to know anything, as a tree, is to discriminate it from all
differing objects, and identify it with all agreeing objects.
The extension of our knowledge of the tree is the extension of our sense of its differences and of its agreements.
Similarity, in another view, is a great power of reproducing
our past experience and acquisitions, an extension of the
resources of Memory. By it, principally, we "ascend the
brightest heaven of invention." We are perpetually reminded of objects by the presence   of something   of


SIMILARITY OR AGREEMENT.            87
a resembling kind. Looking at a cathedral, we readily
bring to mind other cathedrals; hearing an anecdote,
we are almost sure to recall some one similar. Our
reason essentially consists in using an old fact in new
circumstances, through the power of discerning the agreement; we have sown one field and seen it grow, and we
repeat the process in another field. All this is a vast
saving of the labour of acquisition; a reduction of the
number of original growths requisite for our education.
When we have anything new to learn, as a new piece of
music, or a new proposition in Euclid, we fall back upon
our previously formed combinations, musical or geometrical,
so far as they will apply, and merely tack certain of them
together in correspondence with the new case. The
method. of acquiring by patchwork sets in early, and
predominates increasingly.
III. I might go on to apply the views respecting the
cerebral structure and workings, in divining the physical
process underlying this power of Similarity; but we shall
be still better occupied in grappling with the remaining
intellectual function, RETENTIVENESS, or Memory, whose
explanation would make all the rest easy enough.
It is related by the younger Scaliger that two subjects
especially engaged the speculative curiosity of his father,
the celebrated Julius Caesar Scaliger; these were, the
cause of Memory and the cause of Gravity. With regard
to the last-named of the two-the nature of Gravity-we


88                 THE INTELLECT.
have, since the Newtonian discovery, learned to consider
that as a solved problem, and a good example of what
constitutes finality in scientific enquiries: namely, when
we have generalized a natural connexion to the utmost,
ascertained its precise law, and traced its consequences.
That matter gravitates-that the property called Inertia
or Resistance, is united with the separate property of
attraction at all distances, we accept as a fact, and, unless
indeed we saw our way to generalizing it one step further,
we ask no more questions. So in the subject before us.
There are two very distinct natural phenomena, the one
we call consciousness or mind; the other we call matter
and material arrangements; they are united in the most
intimate alliance. It is for us to study the nature of each
in its own way, to determine the most general laws of the
alliance, and to follow them out into the explanation of
the facts in detail; and then, as with gravity, to rest and
be thankful.
The great scholar might, however, be forgiven for
wondering at Memory. There is nothing marvellous in
Nature's having allied this and the other mental functions
with a bodily organization; for unless it be that the facts
called MIND and the facts called MATERIAL are the most
vwidely contrasted facts of our experience, and that we
have, as it were, a meeting of extremes, there is no more
mystery in this union than in the union of Inertia and
Gravity, Heat and Light. It is because we have something beyond the usual endowments of natural things,


PHYSICAL SEAT OF IDEAS.            89
in the possibility of storing up in three pounds' weight of
a fatty and albuminous tissue done into fine threads and
corpuscles, all these complicated groupings that make our
natural and acquired aptitudes and all our knowledge. If
there were sermons in stones, we should be less astonished
when they proceed from brains.
Retention, Acquisition, or Memory, then, being the
power of continuing in the mind impressions that are no
longer stimulated by the original agent, and of recalling
them  at after-times by purely mental forces, I shall
remark first on the cerebral seat of those renewed
impressions. It must be considered as almost beyond a
doubt that "the renewed feeling occupies the very same
parts, and in the same manner as the original feeling,
and no other parts, nor in any other manner that can be
assigned."
This view is the only one compatible with our present
knowledge of the working of the nerves, although there
formerly prevailed and still prevail other views; the
doctrine of a common sensorium or cerebral closet where
ideas are accunulated, quite apart from the recipient
apparatus. But that view is so crude as hardly to merit
discussion. If we suppose the sound of a bell striking
the ear, and then ceasing, there is a certain continuing
impression of a feebler kind, the idea or memory of the
note of the bell; and it would take some very good reason
to deter us from the obvious inference that the continuing


90                    THE INTELLECT.
impression is the persisting (although reduced) nervecurrents aroused by the original shock. And if that be so
with ideas surviving their originals, the same is likely to
be the   case with    ideas  resuscitated from   the  pastthe remembrance of a former sound of the bell.            All
observation confirms the doctrine. The mental recollection of language is a suppressed      articulation, ready to
burst into speech.   When the thought of an action excites
us very much, we can hardly avoid the actual repetition,
so completely are all the nervous circuits repossessed with
the original currents of force. The lively remembrance of
a pleasant relish will produce the same expression of countenance, the very smack of the reality.     Moreover, it has
been determined by experiment that the persistent imagination of a bright colour fatigues the nerves of sight.*
* Great consequences follow (as it seems to me) from this view of the
physical embodiment of Intellect. There grows out of it a tendency of
ideas to become the full reality; as when a person strongly imagining
a kick, can scarcely refrain from the performance. The comparative
weakness of the nerve-currents accompanying the idea, and the superior
force of present realities, render the manifestation unfrequent in
waking hours, and under ordinary conditions. Any circumstances, on
the one hand, tending to intensify the idea, or, on the other hand,
removing the pressure of the actual, exhibit the influence in full
operation. The mesmeric sleep is the extreme instance; the ideas
suggested to the mind of the patient exclusively determine his conduct.
No fact of the human constitution more decisively proves the connexion of Intellect with the nervous system and with the moving
organs and the senses. The intimacy of the alliance is shown at its
utmost.
This principle is a supplementary law of the Will; it is a stimulus to
action, over and above the primary and proper motives of the Will
(pleasure and pain), and often leads to conduct at variance with our
interests as represented by procuring pleasure and warding off pain.


PHYSICAL PROCESS UNDERLYING MEMORY.              91
The comparative feebleness of remembered states or
ideas is, we may presume, an exact counterpart of
the diminished force of the revived currents of the
brain.   It is but seldom    that the re-induced currents
are equal in energy to those of direct stimulation at
first hand.
And now, as to the mechanism of RETENTION.
For every act of memory, every exercise of bodily
aptitude, every habit, recollection, train of ideas,
there is a specific grouping, or co-ordination, of
sensations and movements, by virtue of specific
growths in the cell junctions.
For example, when I see a written word and, as a result
of my education, pronounce it orally, the power lies in a
series of definite groupings or connexions of nervecurrents in the nerve and centres of the eye, with currents
in motor nerves proceeding to the chest, larynx and
mouth; and these groupings or connexions are effected by
definite growths at certain    proper or convenient cell
crossings.
A complication of the principle has been greatly discussed of late,
under the designation of the "power of the Imagination over the body;"
according to which ideas can induce healthy and morbid changes on the
system. By thinking strongly on the hand, we affect the local circulation of the blood, and by persistent attention, we might set up a
diseased action in the part. Applications of this peculiar effect have
been suggested in medicine, and the conditions and limitations of it are
deserving of careful study. It has been happily made use of by Mr.
Darwin to explain Blushing.


92                THE INTELLECT.
The considerations that support us in hazarding this
proposition are such as the following:In the first place, it is merely stating the mode of
action appropriate to the structure and known workings
of the brain. If the brain is a vast network of communication between sense and movement-actual and idealbetween sense and sense, movement and movement, by innumerable conducting fibres, crossing at innumerable
points,-the way to make one definite set of currents
induce a second definite set is in some way or other to
strengthen the special points of junction where the two
sets are most readily connected, so that a preference shall
be established, and in that particular line of communication. The special growths accompanying memory must
operate at these cell or corpuscle junctions.
Our mode of conceiving the so-called Reflex actions
illustrates what I mean. A stimulus proceeds along a
given nerve to a central point-a group of cells; and
there is a definite response to a certain movement, as in
the closed hand of the sleeper. Now the higher connexions of mind are of the same essential character,
though far surpassing in complication; the system of
freely diffused lines of communication in the brain is an
obstacle to that ready selection of an outgoing channel;
and there is at first much conflict and distraction, until
circumstances shall determine preference outlets, and
until structural growths confirm these preferences.
The position is also fortified by the effect of diseased


LIMITS OF ACQUISITION.             93
points in the brain, which are known to destroy memory,
often sweeping away some definite class of acquisitions or
recollections, and leaving others untouched.  We have
now on record many remarkable cases of the destruction
of the second and third frontal convolutions of the brain
accompanied by loss of speech, while the intellectual
faculties generally were unimpaired.
- In the next place, Acquisition has a limit, determined
by the amount of the nervous substance, that is, the size
of the brain.
We are apt to be carried away with a vague notion that
there is no limit to acquirement, except our defect of
application or some other curable weakness of our own.
There are, however, very manifest limits. We are all
blockheads in something; some of us fail in mechanical
aptitude, some in music, some in languages, some in
science. Memory, in one of these lines of incapacity,
is a rope of sand; there must be in each case a deficiency
of cerebral substance for that class of connexions.
Then, again, there is a tendency in acquisitions to decay
unless renewed. Hence, a time must come in the progress
of acquisition when the whole available force of growth is
needed in order to conserve what we have already got;
when, in fact, we are losing at one end as much as we gain
at the other.
It is further to be remarked that much of our mental


94                THE INTELLECT.
last being gradually dropped. There is not necessarily
more room occupied in the brain by a good opinion than
by a bad, when once the good opinion is arrived at; or by
an elegant gesture as compared with an awkward one.
Even taking the regular student, whose life is spent in
amassing knowledge, we find that his memory at last, if it
does not refuse the new burdens, gives them place by
letting go much that has been previously learned. Moreover, a wide scholarship turns into a knowledge of the
places where knowledge is. It is only a limited range
of ideas that any one can command at any one time;
although in the course of a life we may shift into several
successive spheres of intellectual range.
Farther, we have seen, in alluding to the power of
Similarity or Agreement, that one acquisition is made to
serve on many different occasions. A new word is a group
of old articulations; a new air to a musician, a new
manipulation to a chemist, is merely a slight variation
of some previous acquirement.
Once more. In a vast number of instances, what we
retain is not so much certain ready-made combinations, as
the means for putting these together when required. This
is well exemplified in the economy of names.     By
means of combining generic and specific names, two
or three thousand words can suffice to name one hundred
thousand plants.  So in ordinary language: the suffix
ness," understood once for all, enables us to convert
thirteen hundred adjectives into abstract nouns; so that


ESTIMATE OF OUR ACQUISITIONS.         95
the recollection of these abstract nouns involves no independent effort. And, in like manner, instead of having
in the memory trains of formed sentences for every
occasion, we have a certain number of forms that can be
freely accommodated to the matter we wish to express.
And finally, the great principle of the Will is, by its
nature, self-correcting, after trial and error. This comes
in place of many nice adjustments, and renders a sentient
framework superior to all other machines.  It is not
necessary to the power of imitation that a sound heard
should at once suggest the exact vocal articulation for
reproducing the effect: something may be at first
suggested not quite up to the sound: the sense of discrepancy then checks it; other movements arise and are
likewise checked; and so on till the coincidence is reached.
I will now venture upon a hypothetical comparison
between these two things-our Acquisitions on the one
hand, and the number of the Nervous elements of the
brain on the other.
A certain number of definite groupings or co-ordinations
must be allowed to our various Instincts; as, for example,
the combined movements of the heart, intestines, and
lungs, and the special modifications of them in swallowing,
coughing, and sucking. The simplicity and the limitation
of these acts are such as to require comparatively few
pre-established groupings. When to the simple instincts
of Organic Life we add the higher instincts included in our


96                THE INTELLECT.
Feelings, and their embodiment in our Voluntary powers,
and evenn in our Intelligence, the number is enlarged on
a scale corresponding with the acquired aptitudes; and
the new theory is that these higher instincts are all hereditary, or transmitted acquisitions.
Our Acquisitions taken as a whole represent the great
mass of our nervous growths. I shall attempt to give a
rough classification of them:1. The simpler and earlier Voluntary Aptitudes, implied in the voluntary control of the various moving
members, as the hand. We have not originally the power
of moving any part in a definite way to execute a purpose;
we have to associate the several movements with the
effects to be produced. With the sight of a morsel of food,
and the state of hunger, we associate the definite movement of the hand to the mouth. With the feeling of morsel
in the mouth, we have to associate definite movements of
the tongue and the jaw. These are groupings of a considerable degree of complication. A visible image, with the
knowledge of what the vision suggests, as, for example, a
bit of sugar, and a feeling or craving based on a recollection of the past,-concur as a definite situation; and
that situation has to be followed by a grasping movement of the hand, and a subsequent movement towards
the mouth; to which succeeds a series of movements
in the mouth itself.   The exercise of the voluntary
powers is a manifold repetition  of the same fact —a


MUSCULAR ACQUISITIONS.             97
definite situation followed by a definite group or series
of movements.
2. The Muscular Groupings in the various experiences
of Resistance, Size, Form, and allied properties. These
are embodied in the hand, the arm, and the locomotive
organs generally, and in the allied nervous centres for
motor currents. Without the special senses, as Sight,
these notions are very vague, showing that the provision
for the nervous embodiment of movements is not great.
Still we can discriminate degrees of force, by the muscles
alone; to every distinguishable degree there must be a
definite and distinct nervous track; and to every association with each special degree, there must correspond an
appropriate nervous grouping, disentangled from all other
groupings. With every distinguishable weight we form
some separate associations, some actions to be performed
when that weight is felt, as in sorting, according to weight,
heavy and light things.
The groupings in the muscles of the Eye that correspond to visible motions and forms, are exceedingly
numerous.   These enter into our highest intellectual
acquirements of visible pictures and arrangements.  A
circle is a series of ocular movements, in definite march and
grouping; for this one effect hundreds of currents are
excited in individual fibres and cells.
The groupings of the Larynx, Tongue, and Mouth, for
vocal exertions, and above all for articulate speech, are


98                 THE INTELLECT.
on a vast scale. As with every simple form visible
to the eye, so with every separate articulate soundevery letter in the alphabet-there is a complex series
of situations, graduated and organized in the corresponding centres, whether pure motor, or motor and
sensory combined.
3. Although there is a propriety in viewing the muscular
associations as a distinct branch of our mental framework, they are, in point of fact, always blended with the
special senses; and the delicacy of discrimination is far
higher in the pure and proper senses than in the muscles
alone. By the pure senses are meant, Touch (without
strain or pressure), Taste, Smell, Hearing, Sight (in its
optical part). To every discriminated sensation there is
(we must believe) a distinct and characteristic group of
currents, actuating a separate group of fibres and cells,
and susceptible of being united with any definite movement or any other definite sensation.  Now even in
the inferior senses, the grades of discrimination are
numerous; in Taste and Smell, probably hundreds; in
Hearing and Sight, thousands. In the quality of musical
Pitch, a fine ear can discriminate a small fraction of a
tone; in a range of seven octaves a great many separate
sensations could be held apart without being confounded.
If to pitch we add Intensity, Volume, and Timbre, the
discriminations would be multiplied in proportion. Still,
however, the discriminations held in the memory are


ACQUISITIONS IN THE SENSES.          99
not so numerous as we might suppose from the delicacy
of comparing the actual sensations.
The Eye, by its optical function, takes in grades of
Light and Shade, mixtures of white and dark in the
series of Greys, and varieties of Colour. A good eye
might have several hundreds of distinct optical gradations in these various effects. But the eye shows its great
compass in the plurality of combinations of points or
surfaces of different light, making up what are commonly
called images: compounds of visible form  (muscular)
and visible groupings (optical). The multitude of these
that can be distinctly embodied and remembered would
seem to defy computation; yet every one must have its
own track in that labyrinth of fibres and corpuscles called
the brain.
4. Thus, in the muscular feelings, and in the sensations
of the special senses, there are all these various grades
of distinguishable states of feeling, and an enormous
number of connexions between them in our memory of
things and of events. Yet farther. Movements may be
associated with sensations in every one of the senses;
and there may be associations between each sense and
all the others:-Touches, with tastes, smells, sounds,
sights; Tastes, with smells, sounds, and sights; Smells,
with sounds and sights; and, most of all, Sounds with
sights. What we call our knowledge of a thing is the
union of all the sensations produced by it into a complex


100               THE INTELLECT.
idea of that thing. The idea of a shilling is a compound
of visible appearance, sound, and touch.
5. All these simpler combinations are themselves
re-compounded into still higher combinations.   The
far-reaching and all-embracing acquisition, called Language, is based on the articulate groupings; these are
formed into words, words into phrases and sentences;
and all the while there is a process of adhesion between
each verbal element and some object of sight or other
sense.  The vocal articulation in uttering the word
"sun," the sound it makes on the ear when pronounced,
the appearance of the thing,-are all united in one higher
grouping or complex intellectual product.  Words are
thus joined to things; trains of words are joined to
trains ot events. In learning foreign languages, words as
sounds are ioined to other words as sounds, visible
symbols to visible symbols; trains of words in both
capacities to other trains. As we can readily compute
the number of words making up the vocabulary of a
language, we, have a means of setting forth in a sort of
numerical estimate the extent of our acquisitions, and
the number of independent brain-growths that correspond
to these.
Every special acquirement is a re-compounding of the
elementary groupings above sketched.  A  science, for
example, such as Arithmetic, is a vast aggregate of new


SCIENTIFIC ACQUIREMENTS.          101
sensible groupings; the elements being our notions of
number gained from numbered things, the ten ciphers, and
their union in the decimal system. There is here a great
process of economy.  The multiplication table, which
contains 144 propositions, or statements of the equivalence
of numbers, is a weapon of indefinite power in computation. Still a great deal of independent acquisition
must succeed these embodiments of the multiplication
table; many farther rules must be learnt, with exemplifying instances. To work vulgar and decimal fractions
demands the forming of new and complicated ties.
Conceive, then, the amount of distinctive nervous embodiment in one arithmetical fact, as "six times ten is
sixty:" one hundred and forty-four such are needed for
the table; while the table itself is really a very small
portion of the growths in the mind of a fair arithmetician,
even allowing for the process, so abundantly exemplified
in science, of making the  old serve in the new.
Supposing the table were one-fiftieth of the memorial
embodiment of any one's Arithmetical powers; the
nervous growths would be upwards of seven thousand
for this one subject. Five more sciences of like compass
would give more than forty thousand groupings; but
there would be a very great condensation through unavoidable repetitions.  Still an accomplished mathematician might have upwards of twenty or thirty
thousand groupings of the degree of complicacy typified in the table; there being, however, a considerable


102               THE INTELLECT.
number of trains equal in length to several columns
of the table.
In learning an air of music, suppose the Old Hundredth
Psalm Tune, there is a definite succession of notes.
We may view the embodiment of such an acquisition in
this way. The first note suggests nothing; three or four
are needed to determine the air. With the sequence of,
say, four notes, is associated the fifth, and at the same
time the name and all other adjuncts of the air.  A
complex situation is thereby created, and with that the
succeeding notes are all associated in train. About thirty
notes are thus enchained in a fixed order; each note
being the associated sequel of a group of notes, or other
mental effects, of at least three or four members. There
are thus nearly thirty associations of some complicacy in
this single air. A good musician has hundreds of such
sequences; perhaps upwards of a thousand, but not less
than a thousand.  Great allowance must be made for
repetitions. A musical education would thus comprise
as many as twenty thousand separate associations of small
determining groups of notes with other notes.
It is on this analogy that we should have to express
the verbal memory for consecutive statements.   The
determining words of a passage-two, three, or four
in  number,-will commence    the  train; every new
word is associated with a prior group of words and
meanings.


EMOTIONAL GROWTHS.               103
6. In the acquired connexions with the Feelings or Emotions, and in those associations of Will called the "Moral
Habits," we might exemplify a distinct and somewhat
peculiar class of growths. The number is still very great;
as is apparent when we reflect upon the great multitude of
things connected in our mind with pleasurable and painful
feelings. The peculiarity lies in the greater impetus or
power in every wave that involves either feeling or an
exercise of will. To this impetus must correspond a burst
of nervous power, and for that burst we seem to need a
certain mass of nervous substance-a large body of corpuscles roused into activity. Think of the strain necessary to maintain a struggle of the will against a strong
present appetite. In such a case as this, the corpuscles of
the brain must act not solely as junctions for establishing
complicated groupings, but as sources of energy; and they
need to be multiplied in that view. Size of brain, or multitude of nerve-elements-fibres and corpuscles-does not
follow Intellect alone, but varies with the need of motive
muscular power; to which we must now add energy of
emotional manifestations and of will or volitional impulses.
Accordingly, a considerable share of the nervous elements
has to be assigned to the class of growths now mentioned.
There is a nice question raised, as to whether the three
functions-Intellect, Emotion or Feeling, and Will, are
separately located in the brain. The likelihood is that
Intellectual combinations and Feelings go together; with


104                THE INTELLECT.
this difference, that the currents of Feelings or Emotions
have a wider diffusion and more forcible impetus, and
find their way to the motor centres at large, evoking what
is called the Expression of feeling. The primitive shocks
of Feeling, are at once intellectual and emotional, but may
afterwards be developed more in the one direction than in
the other; yet every intellectual exertion has an emotional side, every emotional outburst an intellectual side.
The association of objects with Feelings is an immense
power in the Mind; it governs very largely the pleasurable
and painful susceptibilities of mature life. According to
the doctrine of Evolution, this class of growths becomes
hereditary, and accounts for our special emotions, as Fear,
Love, and Anger.
Let us put together these and other indications of the
extent of the human acquisitions demanding separate and
independent nervous embodiments. Take the case of learning languages, where the numerical estimate is approximately attainable. We can count the number of words in
a language; we can make allowance for the repetition of
the same root-word in different compounds. The association
of a word with a simple meaning, as sun, fire, hill, food,
presents a limited, though still considerable, degree of
complication. The association of one name with another
in a foreign tongue, is a still simpler conjunction.
I may cite as an illustration the Chinese language, with
its forty thousand characters.  The strongest memory is


LANGUAGE.-VISUAL RECOLLECTIONS.       105
incapable of retaining these: indeed a very unusual stretch
of memory is requisite to keep hold of the ten thousand
needed for the ordinary literature. Again, consider the
situation of a Philologist knowing six cultivated languages
and ten uncultivated vocabularies (of several hundred
vocables each). Such an acquirement would use up little
less than half the attention and plasticity of one's life. If,
then, this education were represented ly fifty thousand
cerebral connexions, of variable complication, but many
of them very simple, as word to word, we could assign
a rough valuation to the magnitude of our possible
acquisitions.
The rival department to language, as regards variety
and amount, is the department of visual recollections, or
pictorial groupings and spectacle.  Here, too, we reach a
limit. A datum for calculation might be, how many faces
could we remember, and associate with  names and
other accompaniments? Not certainly more than two or
three thousand.  So with the remembrance of localities,
as the streets of towns. A life would not suffice for laying
up in the memory the streets of London.
Such an object as the human face and figure might seem
an enormous complication. Every feature has its form,
size, and colouring; and the comprehension of such an
aggregate would appear to demand an immense aggregate
of sense impressions, and use up a very large area of nervous connexions. This complication, however, is delusive.
The memory does not retain a coloured photograph, but


106                THE INTELLECT.
only a few salient and deciding marks; perhaps not
more than from  six to ten indications of form, size,
and colour. These are enough for identification, and we
do not retain any more, except in cases of very peculiar
intimacy.
A Naturalist, with all the aids of classification, cannot
retain in his memory the marks of more than perhaps two
or three thousand species; for the rest he must be content
to refer to his books. Yet he, too, must have devoted the
larger half of the plastic energy of his brain to his special
studies.
The conclusion is that the cerebral growths, of a certain
typical complication, cannot be adequately stated in
hundreds; they amount to thousands, and even tens of
thousands; they scarcely count by hundreds of thousands.
Let us make a rough estimate of the nervous elements
-fibres and corpuscles-with a view to compare the
number of these with the number of our acquisitions.
The thin cake of grey substance, surrounding the hemispheres of the brain, and extended into many doublings by
the furrowed or convoluted structure, is somewhat difficult
to measure. It has been estimated at upwards of 300
square inches, or as nearly equal to a square surface of 18
inches in the side. Its thickness is variable, but, on an
average, it may be stated at one-tenth of an inch. It is
the largest accumulation of grey matter in the body. It
is made up of several layers of grey substance divided by


ACQUISITIONS AND NERVOUS ELEMENTS COMPARED. 1)7
layers of white substance. The grey substance is a nearly
compact mass of corpuscles, of variable size. The large
caudate nerve-cells are mingled with very small corpuscles,
less than the thousandth of an inch in diameter. Allowing for intervals, we may suppose that a linear row of
five hundred cells occupies an inch; thus giving a quarter
of a million to the square inch, for 300 inches. If one
half of the thickness of the layer is made up of fibres.
the corpuscles or cells, taken by themselves, would be a
mass one twentieth   of an inch thick, say sixteen
cells in the depth. Multiplying these numbers together,
we should reach a total of twelve hundred millions of
cells in the grey covering of the hemispheres. As every
cell is united with at least two fibres, often many more,
we may multiply this number by four, for the number of
connecting fibres attached to the mass; which gives four
thousand eight hundred millions of fibres. Assume the
respective numbers to be (corpuscles) one thousand, and
(fibres) five thousand, millions, and make the comparison
with our acquisitions as follows:With a total of 50,000 Acquisitions, evenly spread over
the whole of the hemispheres, there would be for each
nervous grouping at the rate of 20,000 cells and 100,000
fibres.
With a total of 200,000 Acquisitions of the assumed
types, which would certainly include the most retentive
and most richly-endowed minds, there would be for each
nervous grouping 5000 cells and 25,000 fibres.


108               THE INTELLECT.
This leaves out of account a very considerable mass of
nervous matter in the spinal cord, medulla oblongata,
cerebellum, and the lesser grey centres of the brain; in
all of which there are very large deposits of grey matter,
with communicating white fibres to match.
Such an estimate, confined to the hemispheres of the
brain, is enough for its purpose, which is to show that
numerous as are the embodiments to be provided for, the
nervous elements are on a corresponding scale, and that
there is no improbability in supposing an independent
nervous track for each separate acquisition.
It is not at all likely, however, that the entire brain
can be partitioned equally among the various subjects
to be remembered or acquired. Besides the fact that a
great part of the brain substance exists for mere battery
power-to propel muscles, and to keep up energetic volitions and manifestations of feeling-there seems often to
be a duplication of the same embodiment in different parts.
The two hemispheres apparently repeat one another;
when one is injured, the other keeps up the trains of
memory, although with weakened energies. It is even
supposed that in the same hemisphere there may be
duplicates; since injuries in the forepart of the head
have occurred without destroying any single class of acquisitions.  Moreover, it is most unlikely that a perfect
economy of the cells and fibres can be realized, however
well distributed the acquisitions may be. Could we bring


ISOLATION OF OUR TRAINS OF THOUGHT.     109
all the elements into full play, there might possibly
be room for many times our present average store of
recollections.
We may go one step further, and enquire how the various
groupings may arise, and how they can be isolated so
as to preserve the requisite distinctness in our trains of
thought. Let me first call attention to the difficulties of
the case.
If each set of sensory fibres had one definite connexion
with motory or outcarrying fibres, we should have always
the same movement answering to the stimulation of the
same nerves, as in the reflex system; the fibre a could do
nothing but effect the movement x. It is necessary to
the variety and flexibility of our acquirements, that the
fibre a should at one time take part in stimulating x, and
at another time take part in stimulating y, the circumstances being different. The stroke of the clock will
stimulate us at one time to set out in one direction, and
at another time in another direction, according to the ideas
that it co-operates with. Then, again, the degree of the
stimulation of the same fibres will determine, not merely
a greater energy of the same response, as would happen in
reflex stimulation, but a totally different response: a,
weak, determines movement x; a, strong, determines y.
The steersman of a ship making for port is guided by the
intensity of the beacon light.
These illustrations show the two chief conditions where


110               THE INTELLECT.
by the same nerve is instrumental in causing distinct
movements, namely1st. Its being differently grouped.
2nd. Its being unequally stimulated.
We shall begin with the case of difference of grouping.
The fibre a stimulated along with b gives x; so a c
gives y, and b c gives z.
Let us try and imagine how the structure is adapted to
this state of things. It requires us to assume, not merely
fibres multiplying by ramification through the cell junctions, but also an extensive arrangement of cross connections. We can typify it in this way. Suppose a enters a
cell junction, and is replaced by several branches, a', a',
&c.; b, in like manner, is multiplied into b', b', &c. Let
one of the branches of a, or a', pass into some second cell,
and a branch of b, or b', pass into the same, and let one of
the emerging branches be X, we have then a means for
connecting united a and b with X; and, in some other
crossing, a branch of a may unite with a branch of c, from
which crossing Y emerges, and so on. In every case
of united stimulation producing a definite movement, we
must suppose a set of cells where ramifications of the
stimulated nerves unite themselves, and find an outlet of
communication with that special movement.
The diagram  shows the arrangement.   The fibre a
branches into two a', a'; the fibre b, into b, b'; c into
c', c'. One of the branches of a unites with one of the


CASE OF DIFFERENCE OF GROUPING.       11l
branches of b, or a' b' in a cell X; b' c' unite in Y; a' c' in
Z. These cells X, Y, Z, are supposed to be the commencement of motor fibres, each communicating with a separate
muscular group, and rousing a distinctive movement. By
this plan we comply with the primary condition of assigning a separate outcome to every different combination
of sensory impressions.
Fig. 2.
J                     XC
_'_',,,                     __.
Y
We may compare this diagram with the following, given
by Dr. Lionel Beale, to show the manner of junction of
nerve fibres with caudate nerve cells. The crossing of
fibres from one cell to collateral cells is exactly what is
supposed in the foregoing representation. Dr. Beale is
not advocating any theory of the physical basis of our ina                    ^\                    y^


112                THE INTELLECT.
tellectual acquisitions; his object is to represent the connexions of fibres and corpuscles as actually exhibited. The
conformity of his diagram with the scheme of cross connections required by the foregoing hypothetical scheme, is
very striking.  But, indeed, without a most extensive
system  of these lateral communications, we should be
wholly unable to imagine the embodiment of our distinctive mental impressions.
Fig. 3.
We have taken the simplest case possible-binary
groupings of three elements, a, b, c.  The diagriam
shews that for these we need three primary fibres,
six branching fibres, and six cells.  Our acquisitions
involve far more complex groupings. To give a distinctive
character to the most ordinary impression on the eye, or


UNEQUAL INTENSITIES OF STIMULATION.      113
the ear, there is commonly a union of four, five, six, seven,
or more, separate impressions, as in the letters of a
word, the characters of a piece of furniture, the marks of
an individual person; and each of these elementary or
constituent impressions-a letter of the alphabet, a round
or square form,-is already a complex compound. Hence
the number of fibres and cells brought into action,
before the grouping can converge upon some one set of
cells definitely connected with an out-going motor arrangement, or with some other internal grouping,-must be
very great indeed; and but for the vast number of fibres
and cells, demonstrably present in the brain, the separate
embodiment of every separate impression and idea would
seem impracticable.
Next as to unequal intensities of stimulation of the same
nerves:-a, weak, is connected with X; a, stronger, with
Y; a, still stronger, with Z. When you taste a cup of
tea, you give utterance to the word "weak " under one
pitch of sensation; at another pitch, the same nerves
being affected, you give forth the word "good."  On a fine
ear, the same fibres may discriminate many shades of intensity, and may for every one be associated differently
with vocal exertions.  Now, a more energetic current
necessarily takes a more extended sweep, and affects a
number of cells and fibres that are left quiescent under a
feebler current.  The cells being viewed as crossings
-where a current in one circuit induces a current in an


114                THE INTELLECT.
adjoining circuit-there is, at each crossing, a certain
resistance to overcome, and the feebler current is sooner
exhausted and stops short of the distance reached by
stronger. It is like a larger wave on the sea-shore, whose
superior bulk and impetus are made most conspicuous by
outstripping all the rest as it rushes up the sands. We
may figure the action thus:A certain intensity makes an effective induction (in the
electrical sense of the word "induction "), suppose once;
the currents so generated do not produce a second induction of the same power. A weak current in a certain line
of fibres produces, we shall say, a hundred secondary
currents, which amount of diffusion gives to it its character
in the consciousness, and its local habitation where it meets
outgoing motor currents. But a stronger impetus will
determine all these hundred secondary currents, and a
hundred tertiary besides, which will make the character of
its diffusion; and the points where a number of the
secondary concur with a number of the tertiary will be the
points where a definite motor current may be associated
with it. So that what begins as mere difference of intensity in one track ends in difference of grouping, or in
characteristic points of meeting, whence a definite motor
current may take its rise, and be distinctively united.
The following diagram gives the supposed arrangement.
The fibre a enters a cell, and three others emerge, marked
a'. Each of these enters other cells, and there emerge a
new set of fibres, marked a2. One of the first branchings,


ILLUSTRATION OF VARYING INTENSITY.       115
a', is seen at the top of the figure proceeding with a
second branching, a, to the cell marked X.  This conX
2aa-                 a3
l0
Y
a1 and a2 give X
a2, a3, and a4 give Y.
vergence would represent the lowest degree of intensity.
A higher degree of intensity makes a larger sweep,


116               THE INTELLECT.
affecting both second, third, and fourth branchings; a
grouping made up of these is seen at the bottom of the
figure, converging on Y, whence would proceed a characteristic motor impulse. The branchings to Y are a2, a3
and a4.
For this arrangement there are at least eleven fibresprimary, secondary, &c.-and eight cells. A next higher
degree would involve many more, in order that a definite
grouping might converge at a point. There would be a
rapidly increasing demand for numerous elements, in order
to multiply the degrees of intensity-perhaps more so
than in the union of different impressions.  This is
probably confirmed in our actual experience; we embody
more freely distinctive combinations of different impressions than various intensities of the same impression:
we remember a parti-coloured object, as a piece of tartan,
better than the differing intensities of a light, or a sound:
and we have a much larger stock of recollections of
distinct groupings than of different degrees of single
effects.
Having thus considered how to provide, for every new
mental connexion demanded for our progressive acquirements, a special nervous track devoted to that connexion,
the remaining point is to consider by what means the
connexions are permanently fixed in the several tracks.
This is to assign the physical bond underlying memory,
recollection, or the retentive power of the mind.


FIXING OF THE TRAINS OF THOUGHT.        117
We know what are the conditions of making an acquirement, or of fixing two or more things together in the
memory.    The separate impressions must be made
together, or flow in close succession; and they must be
held together for a certain length of time, either on one
occasion, or on repeated occasions. Now to each impression, each sensation or thought, there corresponds
physically a group or series of nerve-currents; when two
impressions concur, or closely succeed one another, the
nerve-currents find some bridge or place of continuity,
better or worse, according to the abundance of nervematter available for the transition.  In the cells or
corpuscles where the currents meet and join, there is, in
consequence of the meeting, a strengthened connexion or
diminished obstruction-a preference track for that line
over other lines where no continuity has been established.
This is merely a hypothetical rendering of the facts:
yet it is a very probable rendering. In the nature and
number of the nerve elements, and their mode of connexion, there is nothing hypothetical; and there is no
departure from fact or strong probability, in assigning
special and distinct tracks for the currents connected with
each separate sensation, idea, emotion, or other conscious
state. As to the precise mode of the plastic growth that
unites separat imrn nt tran n rate impressions into trains and aggreates in
the memory,-we know that the corpuscles or crossings are
the points that must be operated upon; that a flow of
healthy blood must co-operate to the effect; and that the
6


118           CONNEXION OF MIND AND BODY.
process takes time. It is evidently a species of growth:
but the precise molecular change effected in the lines of
strengthened communication, or diminished obstruction,
we can describe only as increasing the conducting tendency
in those lines, as compared with the collateral openings
where no such operation has taken place.*
* In thus endeavouring to sketch the embodiment of our intellectual
functions in the cerebral system, I have been very much aided by the
views and the diagrams of Dr. Lionel Beale. Almost every one of the
views peculiar to him assist the foregoing speculation.
1. As regards the connexion of the nerve-cells, Dr. Beale maintains
that all true nerve-cells are continuous with nerve-fibres, and have at
least two such connexions.  The so-called apolar cells-having no
visible communication with fibres-are without meaning on any
hypothesis of nervous action hitherto suggested. Moreover, while it is
admitted that there may be as few as two nerve connexions, a large
proportion of cells must have more than two, otherwise nerve-fibres
would have to rise in the brain as loose ends.
2. With respect to the minuteness, and consequently the number, of
the ultimate nerve fibres, Dr. Beale supposes that the so-called ultimate
fibre (the dark-bordered fibre, varying from 1-3000th to 1-15000th of an
inch) may be in reality a bundle, and that the true ultimate fibres are
represented by the terminal ramifying fibres of 1-100,000th of an inch, or
less. Now upon the supposition of a distinct nervous track, or series of
connexions, for each distinct acquirement, the number of the fibres
must correspond to the number of acquirements; and the greater
the number actually proved to exist, the more credible is the hypothesis
of separate embodiment.
3. The manner of connexion of the nerve-fibres with the cell, and
with one another through the cell, is conjectured and figured by Dr.
Beale in a plan that facilitates our conception of the physical growths
underlying memory and acquisition. (I refer particularly to his paper
in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xiii., p. 386, onthe Paths of
Nerve-currents in Nerve-cells.) He observed, in certain specimens of
the caudate nerve-cells, a series of lines passing across the body of the
cell, and continuing into its branches, or communicating with the
nerves. He considers these lines as the tracks of nervous action through
the cell, being probably somewhat different in substance from the rest


BEALE'S VIEWS OF NERVE STRUCTURE.              119
of the matter of the cell. He couples with this appearance the doctrine
(maintained by him, although disputed by others) that the nerves
terminate in loops, and consequently form an unbroken nervous
circuit. He then suggests that the cell-crossing is the place where the
inner bendings of a great many independent circuits come into close
neighbourhood, and affect one another by a process of the nature of
electrical induction. Any one of the circuits being active, or excited,
would impart excitement to all that came near it in the same cell. (See
fig. 3 of the paper referred to.)
Now assuming such an arrangement, I can suppose that, at first, each
one of the circuits would affect all the others indiscriminately; but
that, in consequence of two of them being independently made active at
the same moment (which is the fact in acquisition), a strengthened
connexion or diminished obstruction would arise between these two, by
a change wrought in the intervening cell-substance; and that, afterwards, the induction from one of these circuits would not be indiscriminate, but select; being comparatively strong towards one, and
weaker towards the rest.


CHAPTER      VI.
HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?
A VAST deal of speculation has been expended as to the
manner of union of Mind and Body. The majority of
persons are disposed to treat the question as insoluble, as
unsuited to our faculties, as what is termed a "mystery."
This word "mystery" is itself greatly misconceived.
Such was the opinion of one of the ablest of biblical
critics-Principal George Campbell-as to the employment of the word in religious doctrine. In Campbell's
view " UvcrO7pLov" means simply what we call a secret-a
thing for the time concealed, but afterwards to be made
known. It is the correlative term to "Revelation," which
disclosed what had previously been hidden.
In another acceptation, Mystery is correlated to Explanation; it means something intelligible enough as a fact, but
not accounted for, not reduced to any law, principle, or
reason. The ebb and flow of the Tides, the motion of the
Planets, Satellites, and Comets, were understood as facts
at all times; but they were regarded as mysteries until
Newton brought them under the Laws of Motion and of
Gravity. Earthquakes and volcanoes are still mysterious;
their explanation is not yet fully made out.  The imme


MEANING OF EXPLANATION.             121
diate derivation of muscular power and of animal heat
is unknown, which renders these phenomlena mysterious.
The meaning of the correlative     couple-Mystery,
Explanation —has been rendered precise by the march of
physical science since the age of Newton. Mystery is the
isolation of a fact from all others. Explanation is the
discerning of ageement among facts remotely placed: it
is essentially the generlilng process, whereby many
widely scattered appearanic's are shown to come under one
commanding principle or Ja.w.  The fall of a stone, the
flow of rivers, the retAtion of the moon in her circuit,
are all expressed by the single law of Gravity.  This
generalizing sweep is  real advance in our knowledge, an
ascent in the scale (4f intelligence, a step towards the
centralization of the lemipire of science; and it is the only
real meaning of Epilanation. A difficulty is solved, a
mystery is unriddle,. according as the mysterious fact can
be shown to reseml e other facts. Mystery is solitariness,
exception, or it ma  hNo apparent contradiction; the resolution of th  istitry is found in assimilation, identity,
fiaternity. When ial natural operations are assimilated,
as far as assimilation can go, as far as likeness holds, there
is an end to explanation, and to the necessity for it; there
is an end to what the mind can intelligently desire;
perfect vision is consummated.
But, say many persons, after resolving the fall of a
stone and the sun's attraction into  one force called


122      HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?
gravity, there still remains the mystery-what is gravity?
Even Newton sought to explain gravity itself. Well, if
you must go farther, find some other force to assimilate
with gravity; you will then make a new generalizing
stride, and achieve a farther step of explanation. If, however, there is no other force to be assimilated, gravity is
the final term of explari:.,Juli, the full revelation of the
mystery. There is nothing farther to be done; nothing
farther to be desired. Nor have we here any reason to be
dissatisfied With this positionl, to complain of baulked
satisfaction, or of being on a    ilower platform than we
might possibly occupy. Our inteigence is fully honoured,
fully implemented, by the possession of a principle as wide
in its sweep as the phenomenon itself.
Apply all this to the union of Mini'd and Body. These
two phenomena have very little in common; they participate only in the most general attributes, namely,
Quantity, Co-existence, and Succes on, and even as
regards these their participation is lilr ted.
As to Quantity, Degree, or distinction of More and
Less, there is no exemption on the part of either. The
properties of every material body are distinguished as
more or less; magnitude, weight, colour, hardness, &c.,
have assignable degrees or amounts specific to each
substance. So also are the mental properties distinguished
as more or less; our pleasures, our pains, our thoughts,
may be numbered and measured, although the grades of


CONTRAST OF MATTER AND MIND.         123
intensity of the feelings cannot be assigned with the same
minute precision that belongs to the leading material properties, such as size, weight, or tenacity. Again, material
properties co-exist; a plurality may concur in the same
object; a diamond has size, form, transparency, and other
qualities, all co-inhering in the same unity. So mental
attributes co-inhere, are attached to a common subject;
the same mind feels, wills, and thinks. Lastly, Material
phenomena are in a state of change or mutation; they
show successive phases; and in their succession we recog-:nise the peculiar and remarkable bond termed Causation,
or Cause and Effect. A spark falls into water, it is
extinguished; it falls on gunpowder, there is an explosion.
The same fluctuation, mutation, succession, and causation,
may be traced in the workings of mind; a pain suddenly
ceasing, is followed by a re-action of pleasure.
The one feature usually signalized as present in all
material phenomena, and absent from all states of the
conscious mind, is that mode of Co-existence called Order
in Place, EXTENSION. A building or a tree is named as
an extended thing; a pleasure, a pain, a recollection, is
not felt to be extended; there is an incompatibility
between a feeling and a perception of extended magnitude. While we are mentally occupied or engrossed with
a genial warmth, we are not able to entertain the perception of a room, or a fire, as occupying space.
Bodily facts and mental facts are in themselves equally


124      HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?
conceivable, equally intelligible. When we see a table we
perceive it in the way suited to our faculties; there is no
reservation or mystery attached to it as a table. When
we feel a warm surface, we have a sufficient notion of
what warmth is. There is a marked difference of nature
between these two feelings; they differ much more than
a table differs from a house, or the taste of sugar from
the sound of an LEolian harp. Yet difference does not
interfere with knowledge, but on the contrary adds to it;
every new difference is the revelation of a new quality.
I repeat, what a piece of matter is, what an operation of
mind is, we know equally well; we see that they both
agree and differ from other kinds of matter, and from
other operations of mind. There is a much closer kindred
between material facts among themselves, and between
mental facts among themselves, than between material
facts generally and mental facts generally. Hence, we
resolve all the facts of nature ultimately into two kindsmatter and mind; and we do not resolve these into
anything higher. We come upon a wider contrast at this
point than we had in any prior stage of our generalizing
movement. The Plants and the Animals differ widely in
their details; both differ still more widely from Inanimate
Matter. Yet they agree in all the principal features of
material bodies; and are in total opposition to mind,
which has neither the distinctive features of either, nor
the common attributes of both. The inanimate and the
animate are not so different as body and mind.


PROPERTIES OF MATTER.             125
Extension is but the first of a long series of properties
all present in matter, all absent in mind.   INERTIA
cannot belong to a pleasure, a pain, an idea, as experienced
in the consciousness; it can belong only to the physical
accompaniments of mind-the overt acts of volition, and
the manifestations of feeling.  Inertia is accompanied
with GRAVITY, a peculiarly material property. So COLOUR
is a truly material property, it cannot attach to a feeling, properly so called, a pleasure or a pain.  These
three properties are the basis of matter; to them are
superadded, FORM, MOTION, POSITION, and a host of
other properties expressed in terms of these-At tractions
and Repulsions, Hardness, Elasticity, Cohesion, Crystallization, Heat, Light, Electricity, Chemical properties,
Organized properties (in special kinds of matter).
When we have laid out in full array the properties
peculiar to matter, and the properties peculiar to mind,
we present two distinct departments of study, having
each its difficulties to be overcome. Matter in many of
its properties is simple, intelligible, devoid of all mystery,
the very type of plainness; such are Extension, Inertia,
Gravity. It has other properties less known, but yet not
altogether unintelligible, as Heat, Light, Electricity,
Chemical attraction. A third class are still less understood, and verge on the mysterious, as the Vital properties.
We do not fully understand how the nutritive processes
yield muscular motion; we cannot assimilate the fact with
any other known facts, or bring it under any known law.


126      HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?
Mind, in some of its phenomena, is plain enough. We
distinguish Pleasures and Pains, we know many of the
laws of their rise, subsidence, and mutual action. We
know as a fact that our thoughts follow in trains, and we
can resolve many of the successions into general laws of
succession; which is, up to a certain point, to explain the
phenomena. We are less acquainted with the laws governing the successions in dreaming; these successions are
by comparison mysterious to us.
There are thus two knowledges, each advancing on its
own way, and gradually extending the region of the plain
and intelligible at the expense of the obscure, the isolated,
and the unintelligible. So far, there is nothing that any
one can complain of, excepting the slowness of our progress.
But now we have to take account of a new fact, namely,
that these two classes of properties are conjoined in the
unity of a sentient being-man or animal. The same
being that exhibits the mental powers, is a. lump of
matter, characterized by a great number of the most
subtle endowments of matter. A sentient animal has
two endowments, two sides or aspects of its being-the
one all matter, the other all mind. Notwithstanding the
cardinal opposition of the two sets of powers, they are
inseparably joined in the same being; they co-inhere in
the one individual, man or animal. This may seem
curious or wonderful, but there is nothing in it to take
umbrage at. If mind exists, it must exist somewhere and
somehow; for anything we know, it might have existed


MIND ASSOCIATED WITH MATTER.         127
apart, in a way that we cannot figure to ourselves for
want of some example within our reach. In actual fact,
it exists in company with a peculiar mass of matter,
containing in a very superior degree the properties known
as living or organized. Mind is not associated with
mineral or inanimate matter. Does this conjunction interfere with our study of the two separate departmentsmind and body-each according to its kind? Apparently
not.  It cannot interfere with our observation of all those
material properties in minerals and vegetables that exist
without an alliance with mental powers. It need not interfere with the study even of the highly organized functions
of animals, unless these are somehow or other controlled
by mental operations, which can be known only by actual
examination.
We might thus, to all appearance, proceed in our separate tracts of material and of mental investigation, in spite
of the incorporation of the mental with the material in
certain living subjects.  But now, are we to take any
notice of the fact of the union itself? Are we to enunciate as a property of matter, that a certain highly complicated material mass can be associated with mind; and as
a property of mind, that it is found in alliance with a
material body? Surely, if such be the fact, we are at
liberty to declare it. May we then call it a mystery? In
a certain sense we may. It is a fact isolated and unique,
if we look at matter generally; but it is yet of wide


128      HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?
prevalence, if we combine the number of individuals of
the human race with the still greater numbers of the lower
animals. The repetition of it over so wide a field redeems
the mystery by familiarity; although it does not take
away the bold contrast between the animal nature on the
one hand, and plants and minerals on the other.
The mystery will be still farther reduced if we can
resolve the connexion as stated in gross, to separate and
specific laws of connexion.  This would be a step of
genuine enlightenment in any region of nature. We
accept the union as a fact, just as we accept any other
union,-Heat with Light, Magnetism with the sesquioxide
of iron, Gravity with Inert Matter. We then endeavour
to express it in its simplest terms, or under the most comprehensive laws.  Let us resolve into the highest possible
generalities, the connexion of pleasures and pains with all
the physical stimulants of the senses, with all the suggestions of thought, with all the external manifestations in
feature, gesture, movement, and secretion; and when this
is done we shall have resolved one part of the mystery
by the only mode of resolution that the case admits of.
Let us go farther if we can: let us generalize the connexions of thought or intellect with nervous and other
processes; find out what physical basis specifically belongs
to memory, to reason, to imagination, and what are the
most general statements of the relationship: we shall then
fully, sufficiently, finally explain the alliance of mind and
body in the sphere of intellect. There is no other explana


MODES OF EXPRESSING THE UNION.       129
tion needful, no other competent, no other that would
be explanation. Instead of our being unfortunate, as is
sometimes said, in not being able to know the essence of
either mind or matter, in not rendering an account of their
union, our misfortune would be to have to know anything
different from what we do or may know.  There is surely
nothing to complain of in the circumstance that the elements of our experience are, in the last resort, not one
but two. If there were fifty ultimate experiences, none of
them having a single property in common with any other;
and if we had only our present limited powers of understanding, we might be entitled to complain of the world's
mysteriousness, in the one proper acceptation of mystery,
namely, as overpowering our means of intellectual comprehension, as weighing us down with a load of unassimilable
facts. But our actual difficulty is far short of this; the
institution of two distinct entities is uot in itself a crushing
dispensation.
It remains to consider the expression most suited to
this union of the two distinct and mutually irresolvable
natures. By inapplicable phraseology many a question
has been darkened and mystified to the point of despair.
In the History of Philosophy we find numerous instances
of contradictions brought about by inappropriate language;
most of all in this very case of mind and body, as will appear
in the closing chapter, on the History of the question.
The doctrine of two substances-a material united


130      HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?
with an immaterial in a certain vaguely defined relationship-which has prevailed from the time of Thomas
Aquinas to the present day, is now in course of being
modified, at the instance of modern physiology.  The
dependence of purely intellectual operations, as memory,
upon the material processes, has been reluctantly admitted
by the partisans of an immaterial principle; an admission
incompatible with the isolation of the intellect in Aristotle
and in Aquinas. This more thorough-going connexion of
the mental and the physical has led to a new form of
expressing the relationship, which is nearer the truth,
without being, in my judgment, quite accurate. It is now
often said that the mind and the body act 2uon each othe;
that neither is allowed, so to speak, to pursue its course
alone; there is a constant interference, a mutual influence
between the two. This view is liable to the following
objections:In the first place, it assumes that we are entitled to
speak of mind apart from body, and to affirm its powers
and properties in that separate capacity. But of mind
apart from body we have no direct experience, and absolutely no knowledge. The wind may act upon the sea, and
the waves may react upon the wind; yet the agents are
known in separation, they are seen to exist apart before
the shock of collision; but we are not allowed to perceive
a mind acting apart from its material companion.
In. the second place, we have every reason for believing
that there is, in company with all our mental processes, an


MUTUAL ACTION OF MIND AND BODY.          131
unbrokcen mnaterial succession.  From the ingress of a
sensation, to the outgoing responses in action, the mental
succession is not for an instant dissevered from a physical
succession. A new prospect bursts upon the view; there
is a mental result of sensation, emotion, thought-terminating in outward displays of speech or gesture. Parallel
to this mental series is the physical series of facts, the
successive agitation of the physical organs, called the eye,
the retina, the optic nerve, optic centres, cerebral hemispheres, outgoing nerves, muscles, &c. While we go the
round of the mental circle of sensation, emotion, and
thought, there is an unbroken physical circle of effects.
It would be incompatibl wwith everything we know of the
cerebral action, to suppose that the physical chain ends
abruptly in a physical void, occupied by an immaterial
substance; which immaterial substance, after working
alone, imparts its results to the other edge of the physical
break, and determines the active response-two shores
of the material with an intervening ocean of the immaterial. There is, in fact, no rupture of nervous continuity. The only tenable supposition is, that mental and
physical proceed together, as undivided twins.  When,
therefore, we speak of a mental cause, a mental agency, we
have always a twzo-sided cause; the effect produced is not
the effect of mind alone, but of mind in company with
body. That mind should have operated on the body, is as
much as to say, that a two-sided phenomenon, one side
being bodily, can influence the body; it is, after all, body


132      HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?
acting upon body. When a shock of fear paralyses digestion, it is not the emotion of fear, in the abstract, or as a
pure mental existence, that does the harm; it is the
emotion in company with a peculiarly excited condition of
the brain and nervous system; and it is this condition of
the brain that deranges the stomach. When physical
nourishment, or a physical stimulant, acting through the
blood, quiets the mental irritation, and restores a cheerful
tone, it is not a bodily fact causing a mental fact by a
direct line of causation: the nourishment and the stimulus
determine the circulation of blood to the brain, give a new
direction to the nerve currents; and the mental condition
corresponding to this particular mode of cerebral action
henceforth manifests itself. The line of mental sequence
is thus, not mind causing body, and body causing mind,
but mind-body giving birth to mind-body; a much more
intelligible position. For this double, or conjoint causation, we can produce evidence; for the single-handed
causation we have no evidence.
The same line of criticism applies to another phrase
in common use, namely, "the mind uses the body as its
instrument," or medium of operating on the external
world. This also assumes for mind a separate existence,
a power of living apart, an option of working with or
without a body. Actuated by the desire of making itself
known, and of playing a part in the sphere of matter,
the mind uses its bodily ally to gratify this desire; but


THE BODY THE INSTRUMENT OF MIND.         133
if it chose to be self-contained, to live satisfied with its
own contemplations, like the gods as conceived by Aristotle,
it need not enter into co-operation with any physical
process, with brain, senses, or muscular organs. I will
not re-iterate the groundlessness of this supposition. The
physical alliance is the very law of our' mental being; it
is not contrived purely for the purpose of making our
mental states known: without it we should not have
mental states at all.  The imparting our feelings to
others, and the setting outward things in motion, are
consequences of the alliance, but they are not its primary
motive. The resolve on our part to affect other minds is
already a physical fact, in company with a mental fact;
it is not a whit more physical when carried into overt
display.
If all mental facts are at the same time physical facts,
some will ask what is the meaning of a proper mental
fact?  Is there any difference at all between mental
agents and physical agents? There is a very broad
difference, which may be easily illustrated. When any
one is pleased, stimulated, cheered, by food, wine, or
bracing air-we call the influence physical; it operates on
the viscera, and through these upon the nerves, by a
chain of sequence purely physical. When one is cheered
by good news, by a pleasing spectacle, or by a stroke of
success, the influence is mental; sensation, thought, and
consciousness are part of the chain; although these


134      HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?
cannot be sustained without their physical basis. The
proper physical fact is a single, one-sided, objective fact;
the mental fact is a two-sided fact,-one of its sides being
a train of feelings, thoughts, or other subjective elements.
We do not fully represent the mental fact, unless we take
account of both the sides. The so-called mental influences,
-cheerful news, a fine poem, and the rest,-cannot
operate, except on a frame physically prepared to respond
to the stimulation.
While admitting that there is something unique, if not
remarkable, in the close incorporation of the two extreme
and contrasted facts, termed Mind and Matter, we must
grant that the total difference of nature has rendered the
union very puzzling to express in language. The history
of the question repeatedly exemplifies this difficulty.
What I have in view is this. When I speak of mind as
allied with body-with a brain and its nerve-currents-I
can scarcely avoid localizing the mind, giving it a local
habitation. I am thereupon asked to explain what always
puzzled the schoolmen, namely, whether the mind is all in
every part, or only all in the whole; whether in tapping
any point I may, come at consciousness, or whether the
whole mechanism is wanted for the smallest portion of consciousness. One might perhaps turn the question by the
analogy of the telegraph wire, or the electric circuit, and
say that a complete circle of action is necessary to any
mental manifestation; which is probably true. But this


MIND IAS NO LOCALITY.           135
does not meet the case. The fact is, that, all the time that
we are speaking of nerves and wires, we are not speaking
of mind, properly so called, at all; we are putting forward
physical facts that go along with it, but these physical
facts are not the mental fact, and they even preclude us
from thinking of the mental fact. We are in this fix:
mental states and bodily states are utterly contrasted; they
cannot be compared, they have nothing in common except
the most general of all attributes-degree, and order in
time; when engaged with one we must be oblivious of all
that distinguishes the other. When I am studying a brain
and nerve communications, I am engrossed with properties
exclusively belonging to the object or material world; I
am unable at that moment (except by very rapid transitions or alternations) to conceive a truly mental fact, my
truly mental consciousness. Our mental experience, our
feelings and thoughts, have no extension, no place, no form
or outline, no mechanical division of parts; and we are
incapable of attending to anything mental until we shut
off the view of all that. Walking in the country in spring,
our mind is occupied with the foliage, the bloom, and the
grassy meads-all purely objective things: we are suddenly
and strongly arrested by the odour of the May-blossom;
we give way for a moment to the sensation of sweetness;
for that moment the objective regards cease; we think of
nothing extended; we are in a state where extension has
no footing; there is, to us, place no longer. Such states
are of short duration, mere fits, glimpses; they are con


136      HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?
stantly shifted and alternated with object states, but while
they last and have their full power we are in a different
world; the material world is blotted out, eclipsed, for the
instant unthinkable. These subject-moments are studied
to advantage in bursts of intense pleasure, or intense pain,
in fits of engrossed reflection, especially reflection upon
mental facts; but they are seldom sustained in purity
beyond a very short interval; we are constantly returning
to the object side of things-to the world whose basis is
extension and place.
This, then, as it appears to me, is the only real difficulty
of the physical and mental relationship.  There is an
alliance with matter, with the object, or extended world;
but the thing allied, the mind proper, has itself no extension, and cannot be joined in local union. Now, we have
a difficulty in providing any form of language, any familiar
analogy, suited to this unique conjunction; in comparison
with all ordinary unions, it is a paradox or a contradiction.
We understand union in the sense of local connexion; here
is a union where local connexion is irrelevant, unsuitable,
contradictory; for we cannot think of mind without
putting ourselves out of the world of place. When, as in
pure feeling-pleasure or pain-we change from the object
attitude to the subject attitude, we have undergone a
change not to be expressed by place; the fact is not properly described by the transition from the external to the
internal, for that is still a change in the region of the


MATTER AND MIND DIFFERENT STATES.      137
extended.  The only adequate expression is a CHANGE
OF STATE: a change from the state of the extended
cognition to a state of unextended cognition. By various
theologians, heaven has been spoken of as not a place, but
a state; and this is the only phrase that I can find suitable
to describe the vast, though familiar and easy, transition
from the material or extended, to the- immaterial or unextended side of our being.
When, therefore, we talk of incorporating mind with
brain, we must be held as speaking under an important
reserve or qualification.  Asserting the union in the
strongest manner, we must yet deprive it of the almost
invincible association of union in place. An extended
organism is the condition of our passing into a state where
there is no extension. A human being is an extended and
material mass, attached to which is the power of becoming
alive to feeling and thought, the extreme remove from all
that is material; a condition of trance wherein, while it
lasts, the material drops out of view-so much so, that we
have not the power to represent the two extremes as lying
side by side, as container and contained, or in any other
mode of local conjunction. The condition of our existing
thoroughly in the one, is the momentary eclipse or extinction of the other.
The only mode of union that is not contradictory is the
union of close succession in time; or of position in a continued thread of conscious life. We are entitled to say


138      HOW ARE MIND AND BODY UNITED?
that the same being is, by alternate fits, object and subject, under extended and under unextended consciousness;
and that without the extended consciousness the unextended would not arise. Without certain peculiar modes
of the extended-what we call a cerebral organization,
and so on-we could not have those times of trance, our
pleasures, our pains, and our ideas, which at present we
undergo fitfully and alternately with our extended
consciousness.


CHAPTER VII.
HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
LET me first classify the different views that may be
held as to the ultimate component elements of a human
being.
I. Two SUBSTANCES.
1. Both Material.
a. The prevailing conception among the lower races.
b. Most of the ancient Greek philosophers.
c. The early Christian Fathers.
2. An Immaterial and a Material.
a. Commencement in Plato and in Aristotle.
b. The later Fathers from the age of Augustine.
c. The Schoolmen.
d. Descartes.
e. The prevalent opinion.
II. ONE SUBSTANCE.
1. Mind and Matter the same.
a. The cruder forms and expressions of Materialism.
b. The Pantheistic Idealism of Fichte.


140   HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
2. Contrast of Mind and Matter saved.
Guarded or qualified Materialism-held by many Physiologists and Metaphysicians: the growing opinion.
As the present historical sketch is principally occupied
with (1) the development, and (2) the decay of Immaterialism, let me further prepare the way by a summary view of the arguments of its supporters, which are
also the points of attack of its assailants.
1. The Soul must partake of the nature or essence of
the Deity.
2. The Soul has no determinate place in the body.
3. Reason or Thought-the power of cognizing the
Universal-is incompatible with matter (Aquinas).
4. The dignity of the Soul requires an essence superior
to matter.
5. Matter is divisible; Mind indivisible.
6. Matter is changeable and corruptible; Mind is a pure
substance.
7. Mind is active, or possesses Force; Matter is passive,
inert, the thing acted on.
8. The Soul is the primary source or principle of Life.
9. The Mind has a Personal Identity; the particles of
the Body are continually changing.
The interesting and elaborate inquiries, recently prosecuted with regard to the mental condition and modes of
thinking of the Lower Races, have contributed the first
chapter of the history of the soul.  I allude more


THEORIES OF THE LOWER RACES.         141
particularly to the writings of Sir John Lubbock, Mr.
McLennan, and Mr. Tylor, who have thrown a flood of
light on the primitive history of mankind; bringing the
development of religious ideas up to the point where
Greek philosophy took its start.
Mr. Tylor has appropriated the word "Animism" to
express the recognition, throughout all the races of
mankind, of the Soul as a distinct entity.  There are two
classes of souls: those of individual creatures, like ourselves, capable of continued existence after death; and
those of purely spiritual beings of all grades up to the
most powerful deities.
As regards our present subject, two distinct problems
(says Mr. Tylor) engaged the thoughts of men at a low
level of culture. First, What makes the difference between
a living body and a dead one-between one awake and
one either asleep or in some lifeless condition? Secondly,
What are those human shapes appearing in dreams and
visions?  In early savage philosophy, the two sets of
phenomena were made to account for and implement
each other, by the conception of an apparition-soul or
a ghost-soul. The absence of this constitutes the lifeless body; its presence as a visitor made the dream,
apparition, or ghost.
The matter, material, or substance of the ghost-soul is
a sort of vapour, film, or shadow, impalpable to the touch,
and invisible, except on the particular occasions when it
manifests itself in dream or vision; exercising physical
7


142     HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
power; bearing a likeness to the person that it belongs to,
and showing itself clad in habiliments and accoutrements;
capable not only of leaving the body, but of flashing
swiftly from   place to   place, with a perfect mastery of
distance; able to take possession of the bodies of other
men, or of animals, and to act through these. As a
matter of course, the soul is the principle of life and of all
mental activity in the individual that it primarily belongs
to.  (Tylor, " Primitive Culture," I. 387).*
The words for expressing the soul show the prevailing
conception of its nature or substance.       Foremost among
these is the "shadow" or "shade," so widely            diffused
* The possession of a Soul was not limited to human beings. That
Animals also had souls was an equally prevalent belief, and was the
foundation of numerous rites and customs. No radical distinction
could be drawn between men and animals, as to the possession of the
attributes grouped together under the Soul.
The analogy between men and Plants is much feebler; but it still
contains the marked features of life and death, health and sickness.
This was enough for endowing Plants too with souls.' The doctrine
of transmigration allows plants to enter into the line of successive
tenancy of a spirit. Moreover, the existence of tree-worship carries with
it by inference the belief in tree-souls.
The attributing of spirits, or souls, to Inanimate objects would seem
to proceed upon a very attenuated analogy. In the case of great
natural agents, as the winds, the rivers, the oceans, fire, the sun
the circumstance of exercising power is itself a strong point of
resemblance, although accompanied with great disparity; the personifying of nature has here its commencement. The so-called objectsouls, souls of useful articles-tools, implements, armour, houses,
canoes-have a place among the spirits of the inferior races: a purely
utilitarian conception of the soul. The often-cited worship of " stocks
and stones" is no doubt the lowest degradation of the human faculty of
reverence; but the reason of its existence has been assigned with great
probability. (Sir John Lubbock, " Origin of Civilization," chap v.)


EARLY MODES OF EXPRESSING THE SOUL.       143
among civilized languages. The "shadow" happily combined two of the requisites of the soul, the'unsubstantial
quality, and the form, of the individual man; although, if
critically considered, it would have various drawbacks.
Next comes the "heart," from the connexion of the pulses
with full vitality: allied to which is the widely-spread
identity of soul and "blood."   Thirdly, great use has
been made of the " breath " in designating the soul; the
connexion of breathing with life being obvious; psyche,
pneuntc, aaniimus, spiritus, are of this origin; and there
are parallels in the Semitic and other languages.  The
association of life with the "pupil of the eye," has also
been traced in various traditions, European and others;
from the marked difference between the eye in full health
and animation, and its appearance in sickness and in
death. (Tylor, pp. 388-391.)'
Thus, we may very fairly say that the sole theory
of mind and body existing in the lower stages of culture,
is a double materialism. This was within their grasp.
An Immaterial soul was entirely beyond their intellectual
comprehension. Until the Greek philosophy taught the
world how to use and abuse abstract notions, Immaterialism was not an attainable phase of thought.
In turning next, therefore, to the speculations of Ancient
* Mr. Tylor traces an interesting result of the plurality of figurative
designations for the soul, in the development of a plurality of functions,
and even a plurality of souls; so early did the ambiguities and confusions of language govern men's conceptions of things.


144    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
Greece, we are greatly helped by the well wrought-out
delineation of the theories that first constituted the
education of the Grecian thinkers. The bold originality
and intellectual acumen of the Greeks were displayed in
this, as in so many other fields; but they could not
entirely free themselves of their inherited bias.
Generally speaking, the Greek philosophers were double
materialists. They duly distinguished between the substance of the soul and the substance of the body; but
the substance of the soul was still accountedmatter-namely,
the two higher elements, Air and Fire; to which Aristotle,
subtilizing still farther, added an JEther, or fifth essence
(quintessence).  These higher elements made up the
celestial bodies, as well as the gods themselves; they were
distinguished from the lower couple, Earth and Water, not
merely by their subtle and impalpable consistency, but
by the regularity and perfection of their movements;
the gross matter below the sphere of the moon was
subject to great irregularity, and was on that account an
inferior essence. It was not to be expected that the
substance of the human soul would transcend the substance of the gods; the assimilation of mind to Deity is
common at all stages of culture.
We perceive from this summary view, which will presently be unfolded into details, that the ancient Greeks
made a step in advance of the earlier races, by availing
themselves of their new physical speculations, whereby
they classified the great elements,-Earth, Water, &c.-and


THE PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS.     145
distinguished the several characteristics of these. From
the "shadow" of the primitive thinker to the Air and
Fire of the Grecian sage, there was a great stride in
refinement of conception, although there was no essential
departure from a materialistic theory.
The ancients differed from  the moderns in not
admitting the separate existence of the soul (although
Aquinas understood Plato's pre-existence as separation).
Those of them that held the doctrine of personal
immortality coupled it with transmigration; the soul in
quitting one body found another ready for its reception.
After-existence was thus coupled with pre-existence.  It
was repugnant to these philosophers to suppose an absolute
beginning, or creation, either for matter or for mind.
Let us, however, descend to particulars.
The pre-Socratic philosophers made very little way with
the nature of the Soul. Several of them touched the
subject, and brought it under their peculiar scheme of
nature in general.  HERACLEITUS adopted the principle
of Mutation as his basis of explanation of all things; and
the Soul partook of the common attribute in a higher
degree. Its subtlety and fluency enabled it to know all
other things. EMPEDOCLES is the originator of the doctrine
of the FourElements-fire, air, water, earth; with Love and
Hatred as principles of motion, the one uniting and the
other disjoining the elements. The Soul is compounded
in the same way; and on the principle of like being known


146    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
by like, each of its elements knows the like element in the
world. ANAXAGORAS set up Nous or Mind as the great
prime mover of the world. While all material bodies
were mixtures of all the simple elements, Nous was the
pure, unmixed element; the thinnest and subtlest of all
matter, more so than either air or fire, but of great energy:
unacted on by matter, it was itself not only cognitive, but
active, and the source of all change.  DIOGENES, of
Apollonia, adopted Air as the constituent of the soul, at
once mobile, all penetrating and intelligent. DEMOKRITUS,
the Atomnist, gave to the element fire, and to the soul, the
atoms of spherical figure; it was their nature never to be at
rest: they were the sources of all motion.
PYTHAGORAS had called the soul a Number and a
Harmony, like everything else; but some of the
Pythagoreans looked upon it as an aggregate of particles
of extreme subtlety, pervading the air, and in constant
agitation.
In these views we see two distinct tendencies:
to regard the soul as subtle, ethereal, and refined, in
contrast with the grossness of solid matter; and to view
it as the active principle of nature, as self-moved, and the
cause of motion in corporeal things.
PLATO'S theory of the Soul was one of the influences
determining the modern settlement of the question. It
starts from his doctrine of eternal, self-existent Ideas or
Forms, which were anterior to what we call the universe,


PLATO.                   147
or the Kosmos. To the formation of the Kosmos, there
concurred two factors,-the Ideas and a co-eternal Chaos,
or indeterminate matter, in discordant and irregular
motion.  A Divine Architect, or Demiurgus, on contemplating the Ideas, made the world in conformity
therewith, so far as the things of sense could be made to
correspond with the eternal types. The Architect had
to contend with a pre-existing power, called Necessity,
represented by the irregular motions of the primitive
chaos; only up to a certain point could he control this
Necessity, and make it give place to regularity. With
such a difficulty to struggle against, the Demiurgus proceeds
to construct or fabricate the Kosmos. In its totality this
is a vast and comprehensive animated being; the model
for it is the Idea of Animal, —the Self-Animal (avrocoov).
As created, the Kosmos is a scheme of rotatory spheres,
and has both a Soul and a Body. The Soul, rooted at
tle centre, and pervading the whole, is self-moving, and
the cause of movement in the Kosmical Body.     The
Kosmos, in its peripheral or celestial regions, contains
the gods; in its central or lower regions of air, water, and
earth, are placed men, quadrupeds, birds, and fishes.
From the Divine part of the Kosmos there was a gradual
degeneracy in the creation of men and animals.  The
human cranium was a little Kosmos, containing a rational
and immortal soul, of adulterated materials; while in
the body there are two inferior and mortal souls: the
higher of the two situated. in the chest, and manifesting


148    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
Energy, courage, anger, &c.; the lower placed in the
abdomen, and displaying Appetite. The two lower souls
are the disturbers of the higher rational soul, confusing
its rotations, and perverting their harmonious properties.
Yet notwithstanding its superior dignity, the soul is
never detached from  the body; it has the corporeal
properties of extension and movement; and it is the
moving power of the whole system.
In comparison with the loftiness and purity of the
Eternal Ideas, the Kosmical Soul itself was but an
imperfect mixture, or compromise between the Ideal and
the Sensible; and the human Soul could be no better.
Still, in its participation of the Ideas (although conjoined
with sense), it was self-moving and immortal.
ARISTOTLE set himself to confute all previous theories
of the Soul. He rejected the doctrine of self-motion as
the property of Soul; he regarded as untenable the
favourite theory of perception —" Like is known only by
like"-and advanced very pertinent objections to that view.
As to self-motion, he considered it incorrect to say that
the soul is moved at all; looking more especially at the
intellect or Nous, we might rather say that the state is
not movement, but rest or suspension of movement.
Both in his criticism and in his constructive theories,
Aristotle made an advance upon his predecessors. His eye
for facts, and his sobriety of judgment, raised him above
fanciful and one-sided vagaries. He had studied the actual


ARISTOTLE:-MATTER AND FORM.          149
phenomena of living bodies; had meditated deeply on the
wide chasm that divides the inanimate from the animate
world; animated beings as a whole were to his mind more
completely separated from inorganic bodies as a whole,
than animals were separated from plants.
But it was the characteristic of this extraordinary
genius to work at both ends of the scientific process; he
was alike a devotee to facts, and a master of the highest
abstractions. In this last capacity he originated many of
the subtle distinctions that have ever since permeated
human thought.
Whoever would begin at the beginning of Aristotle's
philosophy must first master his Four Causes, or conditions of all production:-(1) Matter, the material cause,
what anything is made of-marble, brass, wood, &c.; (2)
Form, the formal cause, the type, plan, or design of the
maker-the idea of the statuary, the working plans of
the architect; (3) the Efficient cause, or prime moverhuman muscle, water, wind, or whatever is the force employed; (4) the Final cause, the end or purpose of the
workman-his pleasure, profit, fame.
Having once seen the scope of these four exhaustive
conditions of every work of human industry, the reader
may let drop the two last, as of far inferior importance,
and concentrate his attention upon the distinction between
the two first-Matter and Form, which, more than any of
his other distinctions, lies at the root of Aristotle's general


150    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
thinking. He expands and diversifies the contrast in endless ways. We must observe, however, that Matter, as one of
the Four Causes, is not without Form, in the literal sense;
a block of marble has its form, although not the form
intended ultimately.  Now there is some ground for
supposing that Aristotle, in pushing the distinction to the
logical point of two abstractions,-an abstract matter and
an abstract form, separable in reasoning, but inseparable
in reality,-had still clinging to him the original contrast
of rough unshaped matter, and the fnished production of
the workman. At all events, his account of an individual
substance is to regard (1) the Form, (2) the Matter, (3)
the Compound of the two.
That he was unduly possessed with the distinction
between formed matter and raw material, to the obscuring
of the logical distinction, we may infer from his making
out a difference of dignity between form and matter.
Form is the higher, grander, more perfect entity; Matter
has only a second place. This remark is entirely out of
place in the logical distinction between the form of a brass
ring, and the matter of it (abstracted from the form).
Matter may be body, but it is not necessarily body. It
is intelligible only as the correlate of Form. Each variety
of matter has its appropriate form, and each variety of
form its appropriate matter. There are gradations in
matter, from the first matter (materia prima), which has no
Form at all, to the highest developments which approach
near to pure Form. The only meaning we can give to


ARISTOTLE:-POTENTIAL AND ACTUAL.       151
these last statements, is to suppose that he had in his
mind the different stages of elaboration of the material of
the globe, from a so-called shapeless mass of mud, to the
consummate organization of a living being.
Another distinction  struck  out and designated by
Aristotle, and permanently retained from its corresponding
to a difference in the nature of things, was the distinction
of Potential and Actual. Active agents have moments
of rest or remission; they possess power, but do not
use it. The eye awake is actually engaged in seeing; in
sleep, it is not deprived of the power, but holds it unemployed. Some form   of language was required to discriminate the situation of having power in reserve and
quiescence from total want of power; Great Britain, in
time of peace, is not to be confounded with nations
destitute of a navy.
The distinction of Potential and Actual serves its own
turn in its own way, and has no connection with the other
great distinction. But Aristotle could not help mixing up
the two; he sees in Matter by itself the Potential, in the
imparting of Form to matter, the Actual or full reality.
There is here apparently a reference to the distinction of
the two causes. Matter in the rough is still a compound
of matter and form; a block of marble from the quarries
is no more devoid of form, in the logical view, than a slab
in the frieze of the Parthenon. The transition from the
Potential to the Actual as regards bodies, is a transition


152    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
from one Form to another Form. Still, for understanding
what follows, we must keep in view the identifying of
Actuality with Form in the sense of some superior
product of formed material.
We are now to see how he applied these rather shaky
distinctions to the great problem of Soul and Body.
In the antithesis of Matter and Form-Potential and
Actual, the soul ranks not with matter but with Form,
not with the potential but with the Actual.  It has
Matter (the Body) as its correlate; and this matter is
highly organized, in other words, fitted with capacities
or potentialities, and to these the Soul is the complement.
The implication of Potential Matter and Actualizing
Form or Soul is the totality of the living being. In his
fondness for carrying out distinctions, Aristotle remarks
that the living being has its two conditions of dormancy
and full exercise, and the first or lowest stage of Actuality
is quite enough to distinguish it; the second or higher
Actuality, therefore, need not be introduced into the
definition. Accordingly the Soul stands thus: - "The
first actuality (entelechy) of a natural organized body,
having life in potentiality."
The strong point of the definition is the closeness of the
connection of MIind and Body. Indeed they are too
closely connected; or rather the manner of their connexion
is incorrectly stated. In point of fact, the two are not
relative and correlative, like Form and Matter (logically


ARISTOTLE:-UNION STATED TOO CLOSE.        153
viewed). Of correlative couples,-as light-dark, up-down,
cause-effect, parent-child, ruler-subject, supporting-supported,-the one can in no sense subsist without the
other; the existence of either by itself is a contradiction
in terms; a parent without a child, a thing supporting
with nothing to support-are absurd and unmeaning.
Now, although, in reality, there is a close alliance between
Soul and Body, there would not be a self-contradiction in
supposing them separate; for anything we can see, the
body might have its bodily functions without the soul, and
the soul might have its psychical functions in some other
connexion than our present bodies.   Indeed, Aristotle
himself reserves a certain portion of the Soul for independent existence. We must, therefore, pronounce the
comparison of Soul and Body to a correlated couple, as
irrelevant and unsuitable.*
Nevertheless, out of the alleged mutual implication of
the two, Aristotle obtains a very felicitous observation.
All the actions and passions of the mind, he says, have two
sides-a formal side as regards the soul, and a material side
as regards the body. It is the business of two different
sets of inquirers to   master these two sides.    The
physical philosopher (6 vuo-TKos) and the mental philosopher would view the same passions differently. Take,
* In a passing illustration of dialectical method, (Topica, Book V.),
Aristotle speaks of the soul as exercising command, the body as obeying
command. This is a familiar enough mode of representing the relation
of the two, but it has no scientific validity. The power commanding is
not pure, but embodied mind.


154    HISTORY OF TILE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
for example, the passion of Anger.  According to the
mental philosopher, anger is the appetite for injuring
some one (a truly mental fact). According to the physical
philosopher, it is a boiling up of blood about the heart,
with increase of animal heat (physical circumstances).
Now, this illustration is perfect as representing the two
sets of facts, different and yet inseparable. It was, however, but a casual glimpse, a mere incidental flash in a prevailing gloom. His attempt to carry out the illustration
to intellectual states, as memory, merely leads to some
correct remarks as to the necessity of a sound condition
of the sentient organs and body generally, in order to the
exercise of intelligence.
Other modes are given for stating the implication or
correlation. The Soul is the cause and principle of a
living body. Of the Four Causes, the body furnishes the
Material, and the soul comprises all the three remaining,
Formal, Movent or Efficient, Final.
So much for one phase of the Aristotelian doctrine-the
mode of stating the Union of the soul with the body. The
other phase respects the gradation of Souls-a succession
of Nutrient, Sentient, Intelligent principles.
The remark has already been made that Aristotle had
something like an adequate sense of the difference between
Inanimate matter and Living bodies. As, perhaps, the
earliest scientific naturalist, he perceived that the living
body was characterised by organization, and by the pos


ARISTOTLE:-NUTRITIVE AND SENTIENT SOULS. 155
session of remarkable powers or functions. He did not so
strongly realize the boundary between life without consciousness (as in Plants) and life with consciousness (in
Animals and Man).    Hence he treated as generically
homogeneous all living functions, all the active powers
belonging to organized  individuals.  He applied the
higher term  "Soul" (fvx7) to all the characteristic
functions of living bodies, from nutrition up to the loftiest
attributes of intellect.*
Accordingly, we must start from the NSutritive Soul, the
basis of all the others, the first constituent of the living
individual, the implication of Form  with Matter in a
body organized as a nutritive body; the soul of
digestion, nutrition, and propagation of the species. Like
all Soul (as will be seen) it partakes of the Celestial Heat,
through which animated bodies possess their warmth.
From the nutritive we pass to the higher soul, both
nutritive and Sentient.  Herein lies the characteristic
superiority of the Animal to the Plant. There is a great
advance in point of dignity, as we may suppose. Applying
the universal solvent-Form versus Matter-we are to
remark that the soul as sentient and percipient, receives
the form  of the thing perceived without the matter;
which is to beg the whole question of External Perception.
Nevertheless, Aristotle's discussion of the Senses and
* Mr. Tylor would say that the Plant-Soul of Aristotle was the
survival of the Plant-Soul of the lower races, rather than his own
independent reflections on the community of plants and animals as
living things.


156    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
Sensation at large is full of just and original remarks, and
was a real contribution to Psychology.
From the Sentient Soul, we pass to the Noetic, the
Nous, or Intelligence.  The drawing of too sharp a line
between Sense and Intelligence has been the fruitful
source of confusions in philosophy; and has lent itself to
the doctrine of the Immaterial Soul. At the same time,
Aristotle fully recognizes the dependence of intellect upon
sensation; we cannot cogitate or reason without sensible
images (phantasms). But to reconcile this with the views
that he took of the special grandeur and isolation of the
Nous, was beyond his might. He declares (against his own
definition of the Soul) that the noetic function has no bodily
organs, that it is Form, pure and simple (seeming to contradict farther the mutual relationship of Form and Matter).
At this point, however, he looks out for a new ally.
The scene changes from earth to heaven.  The human
soul is not to be finished without celestial fire.
The grand region of Form (pure and unadulterated) is
the CELESTIAL BODY, the entire concave of heaven,
with its eternal rotations, the abode of all divine natures,
comprising the invisible gods, and the sun, moon, and stars.
From this celestial region proceeds all life, all force; to
every Soul, every Form that animates the matter of a
living body, it imparts its vital properties. It is needless
to comment farther on the self-contradictory employment
of the abstraction, Form, to signify the heavenly sub


ARISTOTLE:-TIE ACTIVE INTELLECT.        157
stance.  Aristotle's Physics and Astronomy were his
weakest parts, and laid him open to the merciless scourge
of Galileo.  Even there he is not without brilliant
inspirations; but he is led captive, with the vulgar, by
the enchantment of distance.
The Nous emanated from a peculiar and select influence
of the celestial body; and its own operations are correspondingly dignified.  It cognizes the abstract and the
universal. It has two modes or degrees, on which hang
great issues. There is, on the one hand, the receptive
Intellect, Intellectus Patiens, and, on the other, the
constructive or reproductive Intellect, Intellectus Agens
(voVS OeoprPLKOS); the first perishes with the body; the
second, the Agens, is intellectual energy, in the purest
manifestation, separable from the animal body, and
immortal. The climax is now reached; logical consistency
is abandoned; and there is gained a transcendental
starting-point for the Immaterialism of after ages.
Of the best known Greek sects, the Epicureans denied
altogether the survival of the soul. The Stoics affirmed
the soul as well as the body to be material, and considered
it a detached fragment of the all-pervading soul of the
world, into which, after the death of the individual, it was
re-absorbed.
Our course takes us next to the Fathers of the Christian Church.


158    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
The early Fathers had been pagan philosophers before
they were Christians; they thus brought with them into
Christianity more or less of the tenets of their respective
philosophical sects. Accordingly, the double materialism
of antiquity was a prevailing tenet down to the fifth
century.  A proper immaterial,or spiritual substance,
as recognized by us, was as yet imcomprehensible to the
greater number of men.   Such a thing, no doubt, had
made a beginning in the Greek schools, but was not as
yet fully formed even there; and it received no aid, either
from  Judaism  or from  Christianity.  In these early
centuries, it was very generally held as essential to the
Christian doctrine of future rewards and punishments, that
mind should be a corporeal substance; for only matter
could be susceptible to physical pain and pleasure.
In general, we may say, that the early Fathers, whether
accepting the Oriental and Greek notions of transmigration and pre-existence, or, like Irenseus and Arnobius,
making the immortality of the soul depend upon the will
of God in his purposes for the salvation of part of mankind,
describe in nearly the same terms the essence of Deity
and the essence of the soul. Before and even after the
Nicene Council, God was often described as a "sublime
light." A converted Epicurean would add to this a human
form; a Platonist would use the term "incorporeal" in
the Platonic sense of the word, which was not the modern
sense.
From  Dr. Donaldson's History of Christian Doctrine


THE SECOND CENTURY APOLOGISTS.        159
may be gleaned the views on the Soul held by the
Fathers of the second century, named the APOLOGISTS.
They were influenced by Platonic philosophy much less
than is generally supposed. The only Platonist among
them was Athenagoras. They were much more influenced
by the prevailing materialistic tendencies; Stoicism being
what might be called the established religion of the time.
Justin Martyr's expressions on the nature of God and
the Soul are indefinite, but he would not seem to have
recognized wholly immaterial spirit: although he rejects
the Anthropomorphism of the Jews, he ascribes to God
shape and locality; and though nowhere definite on the
state of the soul after death, he considers it heresy to
say that the soul is taken up to heaven; and he holds
that men rise with the same bodies. Tatian, however,
the pupil of Justin, both is more definite, and recognizes
a wholly immaterial spirit conjoined with a material spirit
in the human body; God is immaterial, fleshless, and
bodiless. His doctrine is, that there are two spirits in
the universe, manifesting themselves in individual varieties
of form; at one time they lived in union, but the lower
spirit (the soul) became disobedient, fled from the perfect
spirit, and sought a baser fellowship with matter; yet
after all, when re-united as in man with the higher spirit,
it becomes immortal. Theophilus does not maintain the
immateriality of God; he only holds with Justin that
the form of God cannot be expressed.    Athenagoras
differed essentially from his contemporaries in regard to


160    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
the nature of the soul: he does not mention Pneurna, or
higher Spirit; and he speaks of the soul as purely
spiritual, though with a spirituality liable to be disturbed
by its material tendencies.
CLEMENT of Alexandria speaks thus of God:-" A
positive knowledge of God is impossible: we know only
what he is not. He is formless and nameless, though we
are right to call him by the noblest names. He is infinite;
he is neither Genus, nor Differentia, nor Species, nor
Individual, nor Number, nor Accident, nor anything that
any positive attribute can be ascribed to." This is certainly
not Corporeality, neither is it what we mean by an Incorporeal nature. It is merely working up a powerful
impression, by the rhetorical employment of negatives.
ORIGEN conceived of God as a purely spiritual being,not fire, not light, not rather, but an absolutely incorporeal
Unity or monad. Only on the supposition of Incorporeality
can he be considered absolutely unchangeable, for everything material is changeable, divisible, transitory.  This
is an obvious following out of the transcendental germs
in Greek philosophy. "In the world, God, who is himself
unextended, is everywhere present by his active power,
like the builder in his work, or as our soul, in its sensitive
part, is spread through the whole body; only he does not
fill evil with his presence."  "The human soul, as a
created spirit, was enclosed in matter because of sin."
With all this, Origen further remarks that the word


TERTULLIAN.                 161
"incorporeal" is not to be found in Scrip+ure, and that a
spirit strictly means a body.
TERTJLLIAN is represented (by Ueberweg) as joining,
in the manner of the Stoics, with an Ethics tending to the
repression of sense, a sensationalist doctrine of cognition,
and a materialistic Psychology. He is a coarse Realist.
"The senses deceive not: all that is real is body. The
corporeality of God does not, however, detract from his
sublimity, nor that of the soul from its immortality.
Everything that is, is body after its kind. The Deity is
a very pure luminous air, diffused everywhere. What is
not body is nothing. Who shall deny that God is body,
though he is a spirit? A spirit is a body of its own kind,
in its own form. The soul has the humanc form, the same
as its body, only it is delicate, clear, and ethereal.
Unless it were corporeal, how could it" (as the Stoics
also said) " be affected by the body, be able to suffer or be
nourished within the body?"  "AMan is made in the
likeness of God; God, in forming the first man, took for
pattern the future man Christ."
The materialism of Tertullian is thus pronounced and
decisive. Then, again, Melito wrote a treatise to prove
God's corporeality. Gregory Nazianzen conceives of spirit
as possessing only the properties of motion and diffusion.
Maximus could not accept the immensity of God, because
he did not see how two substances could exist together in
the same space.   Even when the Deity was called


162    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
incorporeal, this property was not incompatible with
visibility under certain circumstances; it meant only a
negation, somewhat in the manner of the ancients, of
the grosser properties of matter. That spirits could be
seen was a very common belief; many persons declared
that they had seen the souls of the dying as they left
the body. Gradually, however, the attribute of visibility
was abstracted from the nature of spirit; and the Deity
began to be considered incorporeal, meaning also invisible;
but the human soul did not rise at once to the same
august distinction. Thus in Origen, the soul would seem
to have a middle place between gross matter and the
one truly spiritual essence-the Deity. It is to him a
matter of astonishment that the material soul should
have ideas of immaterial things; and he concludes
that it must possess, if not an absolute, at least a relative
immateriality.
So much for the double materialism prevailing among
the early Fathers. We shall next see the beginning of
the spiritualistic movement within the Church. At this
point, however, we may bring in the Neo-Platonists, who
represent the closing influence of Pagan philosophy,
and acted perceptibly on the later Fathers and the
Schoolmen.
PLOTINUS (204-269, A.D.) agrees with Plato in the
grand distinction of the Ideal and the Sensible, and in
attributing to the soul an intermediate nature.  He


NEO-PLATONISTS.               163
differs from Plato with regard to the relation of the
Ideas to the One or the Good. While in the Platonic
system the One or the Good is included as the highest
among the Ideas, and all the Ideas are considered to
have independent existence,-in Neo-Platonism, it is
elevated above the Ideas, and is made the source whence
they emanate.
The One or the Good is the primary essence, the original
unity, from which all things have sprung. It is neither
Nous or Reason, nor anything cognized by Reason; for
each of these necessarily implies the other; and the
nature of the primary essence, as absolute unity, forbids
its being identified with anything implying duality.
Things emanate from the One, as rays emanate from the
sun. The direct product of the One is the Nous, which
is an image of it. The image involuntarily turns towards
its original in order to behold it, and, through this act of
comprehending what is supra-sensible, ii becomes Nous.
In the Nous the Ideas are immanent, not as mere thoughts,
but as its component parts.
The Soul is an image and product of the Nous, as the
Nous is of the One; and it also in its turn produces the
corporeal. It is turned partly to the Nous as its producer,
and partly to the corporeal, its product. There is, therefore,
in the Soul an Ideal indivisible element, and a divisible
element, from which the material world is produced. The
Soul is an Immaterial substance. It is not a body, nor is
it inseparable from a body; for not only the Nous, its


164    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
highest principle, but even memory, perception, and the
vegetative force are separable from the body. The body
is in the Soul, not the Soul in the body. Thus a portion
of the Soul is without any body; and for the functions
of this portion the co-operation of the body is entirely
unnecessary. Even the faculties of sense are not contained in the body; they are only present with it,
as forces given by the Soul to the various organs for the
discharge of their functions. The whole Soul is present
not only in the whole body, but also in each separate
part, not being divided among the members; it is entirely
present in the whole, and entirely in every part. In
one sense, indeed, the Soul is divided, since it is in all
parts of the body; but in each of these parts it is present
as a whole.
Here we perceive a distinct advance towards Immaterialism. In the Neo-Platonic doctrines are to be found
the germs of various ideas that afterwards played a
prominent part in the present subject. That the lower
powers of mind and life are separable from the body,
and that the body is contained in the soul, are tenets
reproduced in the subsequent development of the subject.
The notion that the whole soul is in the whole body
and in every part, was taken up by Augustine, then by
Claudian Mamertus, and from them passed over to the
Schoolmen, with whom it was a favourite maxim.
We now proceed to the later Fathers. The spiritualistic


LATER FATHERS.              165
movement may be said to be headed by St. Augustine,
the most profound and metaphysical of all the Latin
Fathers; by Claudian Mamertus, a priest of Vienne, in
the south of France; and in Asia, by Nemesius, Bishop
of Emesa.
But even anterior to Augustine (354-430), there were
indications of the coming change. In this view, Gregory
of Nyssa (331-394) is of importance. His work on the
Creation of Man (says Ueberweg) contains a number of
psychological remarks. Scriptural views are mixed up
with Platonic and Aristotelian opinions. The possibility
of the creation of matter, by the Divine Spirit, depends
upon its being the unity of qualities in themselves
immaterial. The human spirit interpenetrates the whole
body; it came into existence with the body, and neither
before nor after it. The spirituality of God, which is
beyond dispute, proves the possibility of immaterial
existence. The soul is a created, living, thinking, and
(so long as it is provided with organs of sense) percipient
entity. The thinking power does not belong to matter;
otherwise matter generally would exhibit it [a happy
hit], and in consequence would assume a variety of
artificial forms.
In AUGUSTINE'S discussion of this subject, the most
remarkable point is his clear conception of the contrast
between the respective properties of matter and of mind.
He maintairns that such attributes as length, breadth,
8


166    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
depth, hardness, &c., are attributes only of matter, and
are unintelligible when applied to mind.  "The soul
must not be conceived as in any way long, or broad, or
strong. These are corporeal properties, and so we are
inquiring about the soul after the manner of bodies" (De
Quant. Animse, cap. 3.). Thus while other qualities, such
as hardness and colour, are occasionally mentioned,
extension is always recognized as the great distinctive
attribute of matter.
On this definition of matter Augustine founds his proofs
of the soul's immateriality.  It does not possess this
characteristic property of matter, and therefore it cannot
be material. This position he very often states and
defends. His principal arguments are drawn from the
superiority of the soul to the body, from the nature of
consciousness and of memory, and from the equal presence
of the soul in every part of the body.
The soul is Superior to the body. From it alone are
derived life, movement, and sensation, none of which are
possessed by the body after the soul has fled. Thus the
soul, though working through bodily organs, must be, in
its own nature, superior to the body it animates. It is
invisible, incorporeal, spiritual.
Several arguments are drawn from our Consciousness of
mental states. The soul, he says, is known by us directly.
Our thoughts, desires, knowledge, ignorance, are better
known than the objects around us, since these last are
perceived through the medium of bodily organs. If, then,


AUGUSTINE.                 167
the soul be corporeal, it must be known to us as such.
Yet in this direct knowledge of it we have no cognizance
of corporeal qualities, such as size, shape, or colour; and
hence Augustine concludes that no such qualities belong
to it. Moreover, while we positively know that thinking
and feeling are properties of the soul, we can only suppose
that it is a material substance. That we have no real
knowledge of such a substance is proved by the variety of
conjectures about its nature. If we separate what we
really know from what we only think, there remain such
properties as life, thought, and feeling, which none have
ever doubted.
Another argument is founded on the nature of Memory.
In the mind are stored up the images of a great variety of
material objects. Though the body is small, the mind can
take in the images of the widest domains; "and that it
is not diffused through the places is shown by this, that it
is not as it were comprehended by the images of the
greatest places, but rather comprehends them, not by any
enclosing (non sine aliquo), but by a certain indescribable
power" (Contra Epist. Manich., cap. 17.).  If, then,
these images, which resemble bodies, are really incorporeal, we cannot believe otherwise of what has no
appearance of corporeal properties.  And if the things
contained in the mind are immaterial, so also is the mind
itself.
Augustine lays considerable stress on the Neo-Platonic
subtlety that the whole soul is at the same time in


168    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
every part of the body. "The soul is at the same time
wholly present not only in the entire mass of the body,
but also in every particle of it" (De Immort. Animae,
cap. 16.). "When there is any pain in the foot, the
eye looks, the tongue speaks, the hand moves; and
this would not occur unless what of the soul is in
those parts felt also in the foot; nor if not present in
the foot could it feel what has there happened" (Id. ib.).
And this presence of the whole soul in every part of
the body is not similar to the diffusion of bodies through
space; for these are larger or smaller according to the
space occupied. Nor is it like the case of a quality,
such as whiteness, being wholly present in every part
of some concrete object; for the matter that is white
in one part has no connexion with the whiteness in
any other part. Wherefore the soul possesses a peculiar
nature of its own, having qualities exhibited by no
material substance.
In addition to these general arguments, Augustine
brings forward special considerations to prove the
immateriality of the rational soul. The objects of the
Reason are incorporeal. The images of corporeal things,
which it compares and judges, though resembling matter,
are really unextended, and therefore immaterial. Truth
and wisdom, which are perceived by the reason, have
no trace of material properties.  Nor in the faculty
itself can we detect any such attributes.  It cannot
be divided into parts and extended through space in


AUGUSTINE.                  169
the manner of bodies. From   all this, therefore, it is
concluded that the rational soul is not material.
In answer to the objection that, if the soul has no
length, breadth, or thickness, it must be nothing,
Augustine maintains that there are many really existing
things that have none of these qualities. Justice, for
example, has no extension, and yet it is not merely
a real thing, but is of a higher nature than any corporeal.
object. The Deity is also without these attributes; and
whoever believes the soul to be corporeal ought in
consistency to hold the same opinion of God.    The
want of such properties, therefore, really proves the
soul to be of higher dignity and value.
Since, then, the soul is not matter, it may be asked
by what name we are to call it.    Augustine replies
that " whatever is not matter and yet has real existence,
is properly termed spirit" (De Quant. Animae, cap. 13).
This, he says, is supported by the usage of Scripture,
though the word is also applied there to the intellectual
part alone.
Having drawn so broad a contrast between mind
and matter, Augustine felt the standing difficulty of
conceiving how the immaterial soul can act on the
matter of the body in producing movement.    Hence
he thought that the soul does not act directly on the
denser parts of the body, but on a corporeal substance
nearer in its nature to the incorporeal. This substance
he calls light and air, and supposes that these are mingled


170    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
through the denser materials. The commands of the
soul are first communicated to this more subtle matter,
and by it are immediately conveyed to the heavier
elements.
As regards the immortality of the soul, Augustine holds
that no created being can be immortal in the same sense
as God, since the existence of every creature depends continually on the Divine will. At the same time he maintains that none of the changes we see occurring either in
the soul itself of in the body, tend towards the destruction
of the soul. Even matter is not destroyed by change:
however the form may be altered, it is still matter as
much as before. And if such is the case with corporeal
things, we cannot suppose that in this point the soul is
inferior to them, since mind of any sort is superior to all
material objects. Still farther, he reasons that the soul
cannot be destroyed by any other created being, whether
corporeal or spiritual. Matter, from its inferior nature,
cannot destroy it. Nor can any more powerful spiritual
being; for one mind is subject to another only in so far
as its own will may allow such subjection, and it is evident that no mind will desire its own destruction. Thus
the soul can be destroyed by nothing but the will of God.
If it be thought that the soul may die in the sense that,
though not destroyed, it may exist without life, Augustine
shows that such an idea involves contradiction in terms.
The soul is life, and the source of life to everything that
lives. " The mind, therefore, cannot die. For if it can be


CLAUDIAN MAMERTUS.             171
without life, it is not mind, but something made alive by
mind" (non animus, sed animatum    aliquid est-De
Imort. Animal, cap. 9).
The argument from the natural "longing after immortality " is frequently insisted on by Augustine.  All men,
he says, desire to be happy, and happiness cannot be
genuine unless its possessor also desires its continuance.
Now no man can be truly happy unless he have what he
desires; and so, life must be eternal or happiness cannot
be attained. Thus nature demands immortality. If it be
objected that this argument implies that all, including
even the bad, must attain to happiness, Augustine answers
that happiness is granted to the good, not because they
desire to live happily, but because they desire to live well.
Happiness is the reward of goodness; and since all do not
desire a good life, all cannot obtain its reward.
CLALUDIAN MAMERTUS, about the year 470, wrote a
treatise De Statu Anirnce, in reply to an anonymous
work, afterwards known to have been written by Faustus,
Bishop of Regium in Gaul. Faustus had maintained that
God alone is incorporeal; all created things are matter,
the soul being composed of air. Mamertus answers from
the Augustinian stand-point. According to Mr. Lewes, he
has exhausted all the capital arguments whereby Descartes
was thought to have established the doctrine of immaterialism. Omitting his discussion of various points not
immediately connected with our subject, and his extensive


172    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
array of authorities from philosophers, from ecclesiastical
writers, and from Scripture, we present in the following
sketch an outline of his reasoning:Man was made in the image of God, and, according to
tile admission of Faustus himself, the Divine nature is
incorporeal. Now since there can be no resemblance to
God in matter, we must believe that this image is to be
found in an immaterial soul. Moreover, the immaterial is
of a higher nature than the material; and since the Deity
is infinitely good, he will desire to create beings of the
highest dignity, without which his works would be incomplete, and, being omnipotent, he will carry out this
desire.
Again, the soul is not limited by place (illocalis.) It is
wholly present in every part of the body as well as in the
whole, just as God is present through the whole universe;
otherwise a portion of it would be lost when any part of
the body is cut off. Whereas no material object can be
present in more than one place at the same time, the soul
at once animates the body, and as a whole sees through the
eye, hears through the ear, &c. Its motion is not in space;
it takes place only in time; being simply, as he explains,
the change of thoughts and feelings.  When the body
moves, this local motion is not communicated to the soul.
The soul has no quantity, for place and quantity are
inseparable.  While no being except God is entirely
beyond the sphere of the Categories (Aristotelian), it is
only matter that is subject to them all; thus the soul has


CLAUDIAN MAMERTUS.             173
quality but not quantity.  In one sense, indeed, it has
measure, number, and weight; but then measure must be
understood of degrees of wisdom; number as the mental
perception of external numbers; and weight must be
applied to the will as the moving power in the mind.
The soul is not contained by the body, says Mamertus,
but in reality contains it-as had already been taught by
Plotinus. This point he endeavours to prove by Scripture, and then applies it to show that the soul must be
immaterial; for no material substance can at once contain
the body, and be within it as its animating principle. If
it be thought a contradiction that the soul is in a place and
yet is not bounded by place, Mamertus replies that the
universe itself presents a similar difficulty; it cannot
be contained in any place, else that place would require
another, and so on till we should have to attribute to it
the Divine perfection of infinity.
In addition to all these considerations, Mamertus also
mentions the argument-previously employed by Augustine, and afterwards by Descartes-that Reasoning is inherent in the substance of the soul; and as reason is incorporeal, so also is the soul. In a similar manner he also argues
from the will and the memory.
In refuting the arguments of Faustus, Mamertus displays force and ingenuity.  Thus he fully examines the
argument from the corporeal allusions in the parable of
Lazarus and Dives. He shows that if these allusions
prove the materiality of the soul, they must all be taken


174    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
in the most literal sense, which cannot be done without
producing inconsistencies and absurdities.
NEMESIUS, Bishop of Emesa, in Phoenicia (who flourished
about the year 450), deserves mention as having had an
influence in establishing Immaterialism in the Eastern
Church. He wrote a work on the nature of the Soul, in
which he occupies chiefly the ground of Neo-Platonism.
He holds that the soul is an immaterial substance. It is
involved, as Plato had taught, in eternal self-produced
motion, from which the motion of the body is derived.
He maintains the pre-existence of the soul, and holds that
its nature, as supra-sensible, involves immortality.
From the fifth century down to the great development
of Scholasticism, headed by Thomas Aquinas, in the
thirteenth, there occurred no important changes of
view in connexion with our subject.  In this latter
period it again emerges into prominence, but now
the point of view is changed.  All the reasonings of
the Schoolmen were cast in the moulds of the Aristotelian philosophy, and cannot be understood until Aristotle's leading modes of thought and expression are first
comprehended. (See above under ARISTOTLE, especially
the explanations of Form and Matter, Actuality and
Potentiality.)  Thus, although Aquinas was a decided
immaterialist, he does not aim, like Augustine and Claudian
Mamertus, to show that the soul is without the material


COURSE FROM ARISTOTLE TO AQUINAS.     175
attributes of extension, quantity, &c.; he endeavours to
prove that it is, in the Aristotelian sense, the Actuality of
the body and pure immaterial Form. Hence in order to
trace the development of the views culminating in
Aquinas, we must recur to Aristotle.
The course from Aristotle to Aquinas is shown in the
following summary from Ueberweg. "Aristotle regarded
as Form (his highest abstraction and antithesis to matter),
immaterial, and yet individual, the Deity, and the
Active Nous or Intellect-the only immortal part of the
human soul; leaving uncertain the relation between this
immortal Nous and the mortal compound of soul and
body. Among his immediate followers, as Dicearchus and
Strato, the prevailing view was that all Form is immanent
in matter. Alexander the Aphrodisian ascribes to Deity,
but to Deity only, a transcendental existence, free from
matter, and yet individual; he makes the human soul
depend entirely on matter for its individual existence.
The later commentators, given over to Neo-Platonism, as
Themistius, assert the human Nous to have the same
independent and individual existence as the Deity. On
this side Thumas Aquinas ranges himself."
ALBERTUS MAGNUS (1193-1280) deserves to be mentioned in this connection as having influenced the opinions
of his pupil Aquinas. He held that the Active Intellect
is a part of the soul, being in each man the principle that
confers Form and individuality. In this principle are


176    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
also contained the forces called by Aristotle, Nutritive and
Sentient, and hence these latter powers are separable
from the body and immortal.    Every human soul is
immortal by virtue of its community with God. 
THOMAS AQIUINAS (1225-1274) represents the highest
stage in the development of the Scholastic philosophy.
His views on the nature of the Soul are to be found in
several of his numerous philosophical and theological
works, but they are most conveniently gathered from the
First Part of his Summa Theologice, where the points
are fully and systematically set forth.  The following
abstract includes only such of his opinions on the soul as
concern our present purpose.
In maintaining that the Soul is not material, he says it
is the primary source of life in all living beings. Now
while body may be a secondary source of living operations,
as the eye, for example, is the source of vision, body as
such is not living or a source of life. It must have this
power as body of a particular kind (per hoc quod est tale
corpus), and the source whence anything receives its
character is its Actuality. "The soul, therefore, which is
the primary source of life, is not body, but the Actuality
of body; as heat, which is the source whence bodies are
made hot, is not body, but a sort of actuality of body."
(Sumn. Theol. I. 75, 1.)
The soul of man is an independent substance. For by
the intellect man cognizes the natures of all kinds of


THOMAS AQUINAS.                177
bodies. This could not be, if the intellect were matter,
since the thing knowing must have nothing in it of the
nature of the objects known; nor, if it cognizes by means
of body, because the determinate nature of the medium
would hinder it from knowing all kinds of bodies, just as
a diseased eye distorts vision, or the colour of a vessel
affects the colour of a liquid contained in it. Therefore
the intellectual principle works by itself without connexion with the body; and as only a substance can thus
work by itself, the soul of man is an independent substance. But this does not apply to the souls of brutes;
for the sentient soul cannot work of itself, but requires
the co-operation of the body.
Thomas holds, as already stated, that the soul is pure
Form, entirely without matter. As regards the intellect
in particular, it could not otherwise cognize the essence
of things.  Matter is the principle of individuality,
and would prevent the intellect from cognizing the universal, just as the sentient powers, which operate through
bodily organs, perceive only individual things.
While repudiating the Platonic doctrine of pre-existence,
Aquinas maintained the immortality of the soul as flowing
from its immateriality. It cannot perish by anything
external to itself; for since it is fitting that the beginning
and the end of existence should take place in similar
ways, what has independent being, can perish only of
itself. Nor can it perish in this way; for because Form
is Actuality (see above in ARISTOTLE), existence belongs


178    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
to it from  its very nature.' "Matter perishes through
being separated from its Form; but it is impossible that
Form should be separated from itself; wherefore it is impossible that existing Form should cease to have being."
(This is similar to the reasoning of Augustine given
above, and the latter half of the argument is equivalent to
the Platonic view in the Phaedo that life is inseparable
from the very notion of the soul.) Besides, says Aquinas,
adapting to his own modes of thought the argument from
the longing of the soul after immortality, "everything
naturally desires existence after its own manner, and in
things having the faculty of knowing, desire follows knowledge. Now while sense can know existence only under
the limits of space and time (cognoscit esse sub hic et
nunc), the intellect apprehends it absolutely and with
reference to all time.  Hence beings having intellect
naturally desire to exist always, and a natural desire
cannot exist in vain." (Sum. Theol. I. 75, 6.)
So much for the essential nature of the soul. In a
separate discussion, he considers the union of Soul and
Body. Here he inquires whether the intellectual principle is united to the body as its Form. He reasons that
whatever brings a thing into actuality is its Form; and
the principle that makes the body living is the soul,
from which it receives growth, feeling, motion, and also
understanding. And unless the intellect thus stands to
the body in the intimate relation of Form to matter, we


THOMAS AQUINAS.               179
cannot comprehend how its actions can be attributed
to the man as his.   The Platonic doctrine, that the
soul stands to the body merely in the relation of its
moving principle, is repudiated. Thomas adds to all
this that the higher any Form is, the less is it mingled
with matter, and the more does it excel matter in
its operations, And as the human soul is the noblest
of all Forms, some part of its operations has no
relation to matter, namely, the operations of the
Intellect.
Following his master Albertus, Aquinas holds that
the nutritive, the sentient, and the intellectual faculties
are exercised by one and the same soul.  He argues
that otherwise a man would not be really one, for
the unity of any object comes from   the same Form
that gives it being.  Besides, their identity appears
from the fact that any operation of the soul, when
intensely carried on, hinders any  other.  Thus the
higher Form really includes the lower one-the sentient
and the nutritive souls of Aristotle.  (This opinion
received dogmatic sanction at the Council of Vienne,
in 1311).
Aquinas holds the idea, originated by Plotinus, that
the whole soul is present in the whole and in every part
of the body. But he characteristically distinguishes three
kinzds of totality. The soul is not present in each part as
a whole in any quantitative sense, nor is it present in the
wholeof its powers. This presence as a whole in each


180    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
part must be understood as a presence of its whole nature
and essence.
In discussing the faculties of the soul, Thomas argues
that they do not all remain when the soul is separated
from the body. Some powers are connected with the
soul alone, as intellect and will; and these remain in the
incorporeal state.  Others are joined to the body, as
the sentient and nutritive parts; and these disappear as
to actual operation, when their bodily organs perish,
though they still potentially remain in the soul. Tle
Intellect is divided, after Aristotle, into Active, Theorizing,
or Reproductive (intellectus agens); and Passive, or
Receptive (intellectus patiens).  An Active Intellect
is necessary in order that the Forms of material
things, which are mingled with matter, may be made
intelligible in Actuality. This Active Intellect belongs
to the soul; for though  we may suppose (according
to the Platonic view) a higher and separate Intellect,
in  which the Intellect of man participates-which
Aquinas in one sense admits, making the Deity such
an Intellect-yet we must suppose that this participation gives the human Intellect the power of
separating the universal from  the particular; which is
to concede the operation of an Active Intellect within
the soul.
The following diagram  exhibits the transition from
Aristotle to Aquinas. Let the continuous lines represent


COMPARISON OF ARISTOTLE AND AQUINAS.          181
the material substance, and the dotted lines the immaterial.  Aristotle's scheme stands thus:
A. Soul of Plants.
Without Consciousness.
B. Animal Soul....... Body and Mind inseparable.
C. flhman Soul-Nous-Intellect.
I. Passive Intellect........ Body and Mind inseparable.
II. Active Intellect-Cognition of the highest principles;.......      Pure Form; detached from matter; the
Celestial substance; immortal.
Compare the position of Aquinas:A. Vegetable or Nutritive Soul.
-......    Incorporates an Immaterial part,
although unconscious.
B. Animal Soul.,.......   IHas an Immaterial part, with
consciousness.
C. Intellect.,....... Purely Immaterial.
DUNS SCOTUS (in the end of the thirteenth century)
drew  back somewhat from      the   extreme  position  of
Aquinas. He held that God alone is absolutely pure
Form; all created beings, including angels and the soul,
are composed of form and matter. The matter of the
soul, however, is very different from the matter that
constitutes bodies; it is a created something, the basis of
all finite existence, including corporeal matter itself.
But this protest was without effect.     Aquinas had


182    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
triumphed; the utmost limit of abstraction in the line of
dualism had been reached.
Coming down now to modern times, we have to recognize Descartes as, by pre-eminence, the philosopher of
Immaterialism (the word Spirituality is not used by him).
Still, it is not unlikely that John Calvin, who preceded
him by a century, had a considerable share in making
this the creed of religious orthodoxy.
CALVIN substantially adopted the settlement of Aquinas.
His views are found in his "Institutes," and in a short
treatise "On the Sleep of the Soul," written against the
doctrine that the soul is unconscious between death and
the resurrection, a view that some of the Reformers
were inclined to, in their opposition to purgatory. We
follow Calvin's phraseology in the "Institutes."  The
Soul is an immortal essence, the nobler part of man; it is
a creation out of nothing, not an emanation; it is essence
without motion, not motion without essence. Its power
of distinguishing good and evil, the swiftness and wide
range of its faculties (so opposed to the brutes), the power
of conceiving the invisible God,-are evidences that it is
incorporeal, being incompatible with body. Then as to
the vexed connexion with space: the soul is not properly
bounded by space; still it occupies the body as a habitation, animating its parts and endowing its organs for their
several functions. The strength of Calvin's reasoning is
still the "point-of-honour" argument.


DESCARTES.                 183
Now for DESCARTES. It is not uncommon to style him
the father of modern mental philosophy, so forcibly did he
insist on the fundamental and inerazible distinction
between matter and mind.   Matter, whose essence is
Extension, is known by the senses, and is so studied by the
physical observer; mind, whose essence is Thinking, can
be known only by self-consciousness, the organ or faculty
of the metaphysical observer. He made the distinction
(which Reid dwelt so much upon in his "Inquiry")
between the mental element and the physical element in
sensation; the feeling that we call heat being one thing,
the physical property of the fire being a different thing.
He stated it as a cardinal principle that nothing conceivable by the power of the imagination could throw any
light on the operations of thought; which was merely
stating, that the feelings and thoughts of the mind were
something very different from a tree, a field, a river, or a
palace, or anything else in the extended world. He argues
for the Immateriality of the mental aggregate, or thinking
principle.
Descartes was not without his theory of the physical
accompaniments of the immaterial principle. He assigned
to the soul a definite centre or locality in the brain, namely,
the small body near the base called the pineal gland. He
explained the mode of action of the brain by the flow of
animal spirits along the nerves; but then the effect of
these animal spirits was confined to the manifestations of
our animal life, and did not connect themselves with the


184    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
thinking principle or the proper soul. It is well known
that he refused mind to animals, treating them as automatons or machines. In the fifth chapter of his "Discourse on Method," he goes very fully into what he
considers the impassable distinctions between man and
the brutes.
For his clear conception of the difference between
matter and mind, Descartes deserves all praise; that was
to establish a fact.  His appended doctrine of an immaterial substance is an hypothesis, for which, even if
argument would suffice to make it intelligible and tenable,
his arguments were singularly inadequate. He gives the
often-repeated distinction between the divisibility of
matter and the indivisibility of mind; but although this
could impose even upon Bishop Butler, it was blown to
tatters like a cobweb by the materialists. True, a lump
of brass is divisible; but make it into a watch, and you
can no longer split it into two without destroying it as a
watch.  You can no more cut a man's brain into two
working brains than you can bisect his intelligence.
The great rival of Descartes in his own time was
HOBBES, with whom substance was body, or matter, and
nothing else. Spirit meant only a subtle invisible fluid,
or rether (whose existence, however, he took no account of
in his philosophy); or else it was a ghost, or mere
phantom of imagination.   But we must go on to the
eighteenth century aspect of the question.


LOCKE.                   185
LOCKE'S allusions to the subject are characterized by
his usual sagacity and sobriety. He cannot see that we
are in any way committed to the immaterial nature of
mind, inasmuch as Omnipotence might, for anything we
know, as easily annex the power of thinking to matter
directly, as to an immaterial substance to be itself annexed
to matter. These are his words:-" He who will give
himself leave to consider freely, and look into the dark
and intricate part of each hypothesis, will scarcely find his
reason able to determine him fixedly for or against the
soul's materiality."
About the close of Locke's career, begins the great
materialistic campaign of the last century, which may be
said to culminate in Priestley.  Before Priestley, the
most important names on his side (the materialist) were
Toland and Collins; while Samuel Clarke, a leader of the
opposition, attacked more especially the materialism of
the now forgotten Dodwell. Priestley had to contend with
Price; whom he always treated with respect, and with
Baxter, an extreme spiritualist, now a shade.  Bishop
Butler had argued for spiritualism in his "Analogy," but
had contributed nothing new to the defence. It will be
enough for us to advert to the Priestley stage of the
English controversy; but first let us dispose of De la
Mettrie and the continental materialists, who belong to
the earlier half of the century.
DE LA MIETTRIE is introduced to us by Carlyle, among


186    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
the boon companions of Frederick, in the early part of his
reign. He was a bon vivant, a diner-out, and a wit, as
well as a philosopher; and his tragical end has no doubt
been often used as a moral against too great fondness for
good eating.  His books, "Man a Machine," "Man a
Plant," are written with much vivacity and cleverness of
illustration, and were well suited to make an impression
upon the more sceptical of his contemporaries. They are
mainly made up of copious illustrations of the influence
exercised over the feelings by physical conditions, such,
for example, as food, stimulants, &c. " What a vast power
there is in a repast! Joy revives in a disconsolate heart;
it is transfused into the souls of all the guests, who
express it by amiable conversation or music." Again:
" Raw meat gives fierceness to animals, and would do the
same to man. This is so true that the English, who eat
their meat underdone, seem to partake of this fierceness
more or less, as shown in pride, hatred, contempt of other
nations."  So, "Man has been broken and trained by
degrees, like other animals.... We are what we are
by our organization in the first instance, and by instruction
in the second....lan is framed of materials, not
exceeding in value those of other animals; nature has
made use of one and the same paste-she has only diversified the ferment in working it up...  We may
call the body an enlightened machine...    It is a
clock, and the fresh chyle from the food is the spring.'
Hie goes slightly into the question whether matter has an


DE LA METTRIE.               187
inherent activity, adducing examples in the affirmative;
but we shall see this position better argued by Priestley.
He will not undertake to decide the existence of a Deity,
the arguments for and against are so nearly balanced in
his mind, and he is equally uncertain about Immortality;
but he thinks materialism the most intelligible doctrine,
as contenting itself with one substance, the most comfortable to entertain, and the most calculated to promote
universal benevolence.
A similar strain of argument, with less wit and more
logical concatenation, appears in the "Systeme de la
Nature " of Baron d'HOLBACH; but we need not occupy
space with him.
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY, besides being a voluminous and able
writer on theology, mental philosophy, history, and many
other things, was a distinguished experimenter in physical
science, as his well-known discoveries attest.  He commences his work on " Materialism" by an appeal to what
was emphatically the eighteenth-century logic-not the
logic of Aristotle, nor even of Bacon, but the logic of
Newton: for Newton was a logician by precept no less
than by example; his four rules of philosophizing were
not merely given at the outset of every work on natural
philosophy, but were laid to heart and acted out by scientific inquirers. Priestley was also, in consequence of his
scientific studies, the fit man to deal with the crude and
inaccurate notion, adduced as an argument for spiritualism


188    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
(8), that matter is a solid, impenetrable, inert substance,
and wholly passive and indifferent to rest or motion, except
as acted on by some power foreign to itself. In opposition
to this view, he shows that matter is essentially gifted
with active properties, with powers of attraction and
repulsion; even its impenetrability involves repulsive
forces. Indeed, he is disposed to adopt the theory of Boscovich, which makes matter nothing else than an aggregate of centres of force, of points of attraction and repulsion, one towards the other.  The inherent activity of
matter being thus vindicated, why should it not be able to
sustain the special activity of thought, seeing that sensation and perception have never been found but in an
organized system of matter? It being a rigid canon of
the Newtonian logic, not to multiply causes without
necessity, we should adhere to a single substance until it
be shown, which at present it cannot, that the properties of
mind are incompatible with the properties of matter. In
following out his argument, he presents a well-digested
summary of the facts referring to the concomitance of body
and mind; and cleverly retorts the doctrine that the body
impedes the exercise of our powers, by remarking that, on
that theory, our mental powers should be steadily increasing as we approach to dissolution. He urges the difficulties of having an immaterial and unextended substance
joined with matter in the relation of place, as well as mechanically acting upon matter-points that had never indeed been cleared up to the satisfaction of the immaterialists


PRIESTLEY.                139
themselves. As the Fathers had often said, there can be no
mutual influence where there is no common property. He
is especially indignant at the practice of shielding absurdity
under the venerable name of " mystery." He would doubtless have applied Newton's rule against multiplying causes,
to forbid the multiplying of mysteries without necessity.
And, in general, as to a spiritual substance, the vulgar, like
the ancients and the first Fathers, will never be able to
see the difference between it and nothing at all He then
takes up the Scripture view of the question, endeavouring
to prove that the language of the Old Testament implies
only a single substance with spiritual properties or
adjuncts; that the same view is most conformable to the
New Testament; and that the doctrine of a separate soul
embarrasses the whole system of Christianity. Of course he
will not admit a middle state, between death and the
resurrection; nor that such a state apart from the body
has anything to do with the immortality of the soul, which
doctrine he rests exclusively on the Scripture testimony
to a general resurrection.
Such is a summary of by far the ablest defence of the
single-substance doctrine in the last century. It became
the creed of great numbers at the end of that century and
the beginning of this. The celebrated Robert Hall was for
many years a materialist in Priestley's sense; and the occasion of his ceasing to be so can hardly be considered as a
refutation of the doctrine. He says of himself; that " he
buried his materialism in his father's grave."
9


190     HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
Coming down to the present century, we may take
DUGALD STEWART as a fair representative of the metaphysicians. We find him repudiating materialism; but
when we inquire what he understands by it, we see that
he really means the confounding of mind and matter
under one common phenomenon, or one set of properties —
the material properties; as in an unguarded phrase of
I-ume's, "that little agitation of the brain that we call
thought;" for though an agitation of the brain accompanies
thought, it is not itself the thought.*   Stewart says that
"although we have the strongest evidence that there is
a thinking and sentient principle within us essentially distinct from matter, yet we have no direct evidence of the
possibility of this principle exercising its various powers in
a separate state from the body. On the contrary, the
union of the two, while it subsists, is evidently of the most
intimate nature."    And he goes on to adduce some of the
strong facts that show the dependence of mind on body.
* It is not often that either single-substance materialism or double
materialism is exemplified by moderns, except through incaution in the
use of language. Robert Hooke (quoted by Dr. Reid, "Intellectual
Powers," Essay II., chap ix.) indulges in a materialistic strain, not
unlike some of the ancient philosophers. " In his lectures upon Light,
he makes ideas to be material substances; and thinks that the brain is
furnished with a proper kind of matter, for fabricating the ideas of each
sense. The ideas of sight, he thinks, are formed of a kind of matter
resembling the Bononian stone, or some kind of phosphorus."
A materialism of this kind pervades Darwin's Zoonomia, from which
the following expressions are quoted by Mill (" Logic," Fallacies, chap. iii.
~ 8):-The word idea " is defined a contraction, a motion, or configuration, of the fibres which constitute the immediate organ of sense;"
" our ideas are animal motions of the organ of sense."


DUGALD STEWART. —FERRIER.          191
He says that the mental philosopher is rightly occupied in
ascertaining " the laws that regulate their connexion, without attempting to explain in what manner they are united."
The late Professor FERRIER, who in his "Institutes of Metaphysics" has set forth, in a nomenclature of his own, the contrast or antithesis of mind
and matter, bestows a somewhat contemptuous handling
on the common-place   spiritualism.  We quote his
words:" In vain does the spiritualist found an argument for
the existence of a separate immaterial substance on the
alleged incompatibility of the intellectual and the physical
phenomena to co-inhere in the same sub-stratum. Materiality may very well stand the brunt of that unshotted
broadside. This mild artifice can scarcely expect to be
treated as a serious observation. Such an hypothesis cannot be meant to be in earnest. Who is to dictate to
nature what phenenoma, or what qualities inhere in what
substances; what effects may result from what causes?
Matter is already in the field as an acknowledged entitythis both parties admit.  Mind, considered as an independent entity, is not so unmistakably in the field! Therefore, as entities are not to be multiplied without necessity,
we are not entitled to postulate a new cause, so long as it
is possible to account for the phenomena by a cause
already in existence; which possibility has never yet been
disproved."


192    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
HAMILTON remarks that we cannot localize the mind,
without clothing it with the attributes of extension and
place; and to make the seat or locality a point only
aggravates the difficulty. We have no right to limit it to
any part of the organism; the mind cannot be denied to
feel at the finger points. The sum of our knowledge of
the connexion of mind and body is-that the mental
modifications are dependent on certain corporeal conditions; but of the nature of thesce conditions we know
nothing. (Lectures on Metaphysics, ii., 127.)
The reply may be given to Hamilton that, in one signification of thewords, it is correct to say that we know nothing
of the corporeal conditions of mind, namely, that they
are generically distinct from mind itself; that they cannot
be resolved into mind, and mind cannot be resolved into
them. In another signification, however, we know a great
deal respecting these material conditions, and may one
day know all. that is to be known about them. Indeed,
something has been known from the very beginning of
human observation.
It is quite true, as Hamilton remarks, that to localize
mind is to run into contradiction and absurdity. This,
however, may be averted by adapting our phraseology to
the peculiar nature of the things; in speaking of mind,
we must avoid the language of extension or place.
MANSEL (Prolegomena Logica, p. 138) remarks:-" To
this day we are ignorant how matter and mind operate on


MANSEL.                  193
each other. We know not how the material refractions of
the eye are connected with the mental sensation of seeing,
nor how the determination of the will operates in bringing
about the motion of the muscles."  Here there is the
erroneous assumption that power or efficiency belongs to
mind in the abstract. Assume the alliance of mind and
matter, and there is nothing hopeless in seeking an
explanation of their mutual action. The alliance itself is
an unaccountable, because an ultimate, fact; of it no explanation is competent or relevant, except generalizing it to
the uttermost.
Again, says Mansel, " We can investigate severally the
phenomena of matter and mind, as we can severally the
constitution of the earth, and the architecture of the
heavens; we seek the boundary line of their junction, as
the child chases the horizon, only to discover that it flies
as we pursue it."   The mistake is in looking for a
boundary line at all. We look for a boundary between two
parishes, two estates, two adjoining tissues of the animal
framework; but between the extended body, and the
unextended mind, the search for a boundary line is incompetent and unmeaning.
I now pass to the latest phase of this eventful history.
A  movement in favour of Materialism has arisen in
Germany within the last twenty years; which is in part
a re-action from the high-flown philosophy that so long
prevailed, and in part an application to mind of the


194    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
physical science of this century, as Priestley in his day
applied the physical science of the last century.
It is to be remarked, however, that spiritualism, in the
form  of dualism, was never the philosophic creed of
Germany.   Kant, who ridiculed alike materialism and
idealism, yet did not ascribe to matter a real existence
by the side of an independent spiritual principle. Fichte
and Hegel, being over-mastered with the idea of unity,
had to make a choice; and attaching themselves by preference to the dignified mental side, became pantheists
of an ideal school; resolving all existence into mind or
ideas.  People generally, when tired of Kant's critical
position, became either materialists, or idealists, and not
believers in two substances.
As regards the recent materialistic movement, scientific
men first broke ground. Emphatic utterances were made
by such men as Miller, Wagner, Liebig, and Du Bois
Reymond, all tending to rehabilitate the powers of matter.
But the outspoken and thorough-going materialism
begins with Moleschott, who in 1852, published his
"Circular Course of Life," a series of letters addressed to
Liebig.  In  1854, Vogt came into the field, in an
attack upon Wagner, the great physiologist, who had
said that, although nothing in physiology suggested a
distinct soul, yet this tenet was demanded by man's moral
relations.  In a series of subsequent works, Vogt has
urged the dependence of mind on body in extreme and
unnecessarily offensive language.  The third and most


RECENT GERMAN MATERIALISM.          195
popular expounder of these views is Biichner, in his
book " Matter and Force," which was first published in
1856, has run through a great many editions, and has
been also translated into English.
It is not necessary to expatiate upon the views of these
writers. Their handling turns partly on the accumulated
proofs, physiological and other, of the dependence of mind
on body, and partly upon the more recent doctrines as
to matter and force, summed up in the grand generality
known as the Correlation, Conservation, or Persistence of
Force. This principle enables them to surpass Priestley
in the cogency of their arguments for the essential and
inherent activity of matter; all known force being in
fact embodied in matter. Their favourite text is "no
matter without force, and no force without matter."
The notion of a quiescent impassive block, called matter,
coming under the influence of forces ab extra, or superimposed, is, they hold, less tenable now than ever. Are
not the motions of the planets maintained by the inherent
power of matter? And, besides the two great properties
called Inertia and Gravity, every portion of matter has
a certain temperature, consisting, it is believed, of intestine
motions of the atoms, and able to exert force upon any
adjoining matter that happens to be of a lower temperature. Then they ask with Priestley and Ferrier: " Why
introduce a new entity, or rather a nonentity, until we
see what these multifarious activities of matter are able
to accomplish?"  They also reply to the spiritualistic


196    HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF THE SOUL.
argument based on the personal identity of the mind and
the constant flux of the body, by the obvious remark, that
the body has its identity too, in type or form, although
the constituent molecules may change and be replaced.
It is not to be supposed that these writers are in the
ascendant in Germany, or that their language is always
metaphysically guarded. Still, having written intelligible
books, easily appealing to a palpable and determinate
class of facts, they have been extensively read; and their
ideas or the scientific facts that they are based on, are
modifying even the highest transcendentalism  of that
remarkable country.
The rapid sketch thus given seems to tell its own tale
as to the future. The arguments for the two substances
have, we believe, now entirely lost their validity; they are
no longer compatible with ascertained science and clear
thinking.  The one substance, with two sets of properties, two sides, the physical and the mental-a doublefcaced unity-would appear to comply with all the
exigencies of the case. We are to deal with this, as in
the language of the Athanasian Creed, not confounding
the persons nor dividing the substance. The mind is
destined to be a double study-to conjoin the mental
philosopher with the physical philosopher; and the
momentary glimpse of Aristotle is at last converted into a
zlear and steady vision.


Opinions of the Press on the " International Scientific Series."
I.
Tyndall's Forms of Water.
I vol., I2mo.   Cloth.   Illustrated........        Price, $I.50.
" In the volume now published, Professor Tyndall has presented a noble illustration
of the acuteness and subtlety of his intellectual powers, the scope and insight of his
scientific vision, his singular command of the appropriate language of exposition, and
the peculiar vivacity and grace with which he unfolds the results of intricate scientific
research."-N. Y. Tribune.
"The'Forms of Water,' by Professor Tyndall, is an interesting and instructive
little volume, admirably printed and illustrated. Prepared expressly for this series, it
is in some measure a guarantee of the excellence of the volumes that will follow, and an
indication that the publishers will spare no pains to include in the series the freshest investigations of the best scientific minds."-Boston Journal.
" This series is admirably commenced by this little volume from the pen of Prof.
Tyndall. A perfect master of his subject, he presents in a style easy and attractive his
methods of investigation, and the results obtained, and gives to the reader a clear conception of all the wondrous transformations to which water is subjected."-Churchman.
II.
Bagehot's Physics and Politics.
I vol., I2mo.   Price, $1.50.
"If the'International Scientific Series' proceeds as it has begun, it will more than
fulfil the promise given to the reading public in its prospectus. The first volume, by
Professor Tyndall, was a model of lucid and attractive scientific exposition; and now
we have a second, by Mr. Walter Bagehot, which is not only very lucid and charming,
but also original and suggestive in the highest degree. Nowhere since the publication
of Sir Henry Maine's'Ancient Law,' have we seen so many fruitful thoughts suggested in the course of a couple of hundred pages...  To do justice to Mr. Bagehot's fertile book, would require a long article. With the best of intentions, we are
cqpscious of having given but a sorry account of it in these brief paragraphs. But we
hope we have said enough to commend it to the attention of the thoughtful reader."Prof. JOHN FISKE, in the A tlanlic Mlonthly.
"Mr. Bagehot's style is clear and vigorous. We refrain from giving a fuller account of these suggestive essays, only because we are sure that our readers will find it
worth their while to peruse the book for themselves; and we sincerely hope that the
forthcoming parts of the'International Scientific Series' will be as interesting."A theneunm.
" Mr. Bagehot discusses an immense variety of topics connected with the progress
of societies and nations, and the development of their distinctive peculiarities; and his
book shows an abundance of ingenious and original thought."-ALFRED RUSSELL
WALLACE, in Nature.
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y.


OpSinions of the Press on the "International Scientific Series."
III.
Foods.
By Dr. EDWARD SMITH.
I vol., I2mo.  Cloth.   Illustrated.......               Price, $I.75.
In making up THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES, Dr. Edward Smith was selected as the ablest man in England to treat the important subject of Foods. His services
were secured for the undertaking, and the little treatise he has produced shows that the
choice of a writer on this subject was most fortunate, as the book is unquestionably the
clearest and best-digested compend of the Science of Foods that has appeared in our
language.
" The book contains a series of diagrams, displaying the effects of sleep and meals
on pulsation and respiration, and of various kinds of food on respiration, which, as the
results of Dr. Smith's own experiments, possess a very high value. We have not far
to go in this work for occasions of favorable criticism; they occur throughout, but are
perhaps most apparent in those parts of the subject with which Dr. Smith's name is especially linked."-London Examiner.
"The union of scientific and popular treatment in the composition of this work will
afford an attraction to many readers who would have been indifferent to purely theoreti.
cal details.... Still his work abounds in information, much of which is of great value,
and a part of which could not easily be obtained from other sources. Its interest is de.
cidedly enhanced for students who demand both clearness and exactness of statement,
by the profusion of well-executed woodcuts, diagrams, and tables, which accompany the
volume.... The suggestions of the author on the use of tea and coffee, and of the va,
rious forms of alcohol, although perhaps not strictly of a novel character, are highly in.
structive, and form an interesting portion of the volume."-N. Y. Tribune.
IV.
Body and Mind.
THE THEORIES OF THEIR RELATION.
By ALEXANDER BAIN, LL. D.
I vol., I2mo.    Cloth...........         Price, $1.50.
PROFESSOR BAIN is the author of two well-known standard works upon the Science
of Mind-" The Senses and the Intellect," and "The Emotions and the Will." He is
one of the highest living authorities in the school which holds that there can be no sound
or valid psychology unless the mind and the body are studied, as they exist, together.
" It contains a forcible statement of the connection between mind and body, studying their subtile interworkings by the light of the most recent physiological investigations. The summary in Chapter V., of the investigations of Dr. Lionel Beale of the
embodiment of the intellectual functions in the cerebral system, will be found the
freshest and most interesting part of his book. Prof. Bain's own theory of the connection between the mental and the bodily part in man is stated by himself to be as follows:
There is'one substance, with two sets of properties, two sides, the physical and the
mental-a double-faced unity.' While, in the strongest manner, asserting the union
of mind with brain, he yet denies'the association of union in place,' but asserts the
union of close succession in time,' holding that'the same being is, by alternate fits, under extended and under unextended consciousness."'-Christian Register.
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y.


Opinions of the Press on the " International Scientific Series."
V.
The Study of Sociology.
By HERBERT SPENCER.
I vol., I2mo.   Cloth........                        Price, $I.50.
" The philosopher whose distinguished name gives weight and influence to this volume, has given in its pages some of the finest specimens of reasoning in all its forms
and departments. There is a fascination in his array of facts, incidents, and opinions,
which draws on the reader to ascertain his conclusions. The coolness and calmness of
his treatment of acknowledged difficulties and grave objections to his theories win for
him a close attention and sustained effort, on the part of the reader, to comprehend, follow, grasp, and appropriate his principles. This book, independently of its bearing
upon sociology, is valuable as lucidly showing what those essential characteristics are
which entitle any arrangement and connection of facts and deductions to be called a
science. "-Episcopialian.
" This work compels admiration by the evidence which it gives of immense research, study, and observation, and is. withal, written in a popular and very pleasing
style. It is a fascinating work, as well as one of deep practical thought."-Bost. Post.
"Herbert Spencer is unquestionably the foremost living thinkerin the psychological
and sociological fields, and this volume is an important contribution to the science of
which it treats.... It will prove more popular than any of its author's other creations,
for it is more plainly addressed to the people and has a more practical and less speculative cast. It will require thought, but it is well worth thinking about."-Albany
Evening Yournal.
VI.
The New Chemistry.
By JOSIAH P. COOKE, JR.,
Erving Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Harvard University.
I vol., I2mo.    Cloth.........                         Price, $2.00.
" The book of Prof. Cooke is a model of the modern popular science work. It has
just the due proportion of fact, philosophy, and true romance, to make it a fascinating
companion, either for the voyage or the study."-Daily Grapchic.
"This admirable monograph, by the distinguished Erving Professor of Chemistry
in Harvard University, is the first American contribution to'The International Scientific Series,' and a more attractive piece of work in the way of popular exposition upon
a difficult subject has not appeared in a long time. It not only well sustains the character of the volumes with which it is associated, but its reproduction in European countries will be an honor to American science."-New York Tribune.
"All the chemists in the country will enjoy its perusal, and many will seize upon it
as a thing longed for. For, to those advanced students who have kept well abreast of
the chemical tide, it offers a calm philosophy. To those others, youngest of the class,
who have emerged from the schools since new methods have prevailed, it presents a
generalization, drawing to its use all the data, the relations of which the newly-fledged
fact-seeker may but dimly perceive without its aid..  To the old chemists, Prof.
Cooke's treatise is like a message from beyond the mountain. They have heard of
changes in the science; the clash of the battle of old and new theories has stirred them
from afar. The tidings, too, had come that the old had given way; and little more than
this they knew.... Prof. Cooke's'New Chemistry' must do wide service in bringing
to close sight the little known and the longed for.... As a philosophy it is elementary, but, as a book of science, ordinary readers will find it sufficiently advanced."Utica Morning Herald.
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y.


Opinions of the Press on the "I International Scientific Series."
The Conservation of Energy.
By BALFOUR STEWART, LL. D.
With an Appendix, treating of the Vital and Mental Applications of
the Doctrine.
I vol., I2mo.   Cloth...........                Price, $1.50.
Note to the A merican Edition.
"The great prominence which the modern doctrine of the Conservation of Energy
or Correlation of Forces has lately assumed in the world of thought, has made a simple
and popular explanation of the subject very desirable. The present work of Dr. Balfour Stewart, contributed to the'International Scientific Series,' fully meets this requirement, as it is probably the clearest and most elementary statement of the question
that has yet been attempted. Simple in language, copious and familiar in illustration,
and remarkably lucid in the presentation of facts and principles, his little treatise forms
just the introduction to the great problem of the interaction of natural forces that is required by general readers. But Prof. Stewart having confined himself mainly to the
physical aspects of the subject, it was desirable that his views should be supplemented
by a statement of the operation of the principle in the spheres of life and mind. An
Appendix has, accordingly, been added to the American edition of Dr. Stewart's
work, in which these applications of the law are considered.
" Prof. Joseph Le Conte published a very able essay fourteen years ago on the'Correlation of the Physical and Vital Forces,' which was extensively reprinted abroad,
and placed the name of the author among the leading interpreters of the subject. His
mode of presenting it was regarded as peculiarly happy, and was widely adopted by other
writers. After further investigations and more mature reflection, he has recently restated his views, and has kindly furnished the revised essay for insertion in this volume.
" Prof. A. Bain, the celebrated Psychologist of Aberdeen, who has done so much
to advance the study of mind in its physiological relations, prepared an interesting lecture not long ago on the'Correlation of the Nervous and Mental Forces,' which was
read with much interest at the time of its publication, and is now reprinted as a suitable
exposition of that branch of the subject. These two essays, by carrying out the principle in the field of vital and mental phenomena, will serve to give completeness and
much greater value to the present volume."
"The great physical generalization called' The Conservation of Energy' is in an
intermediate state. It is so new that all kinds of false ideas are prevalent about it; it
is so exact that these cannot be tolerated; and thus its circumstances are such as to
make so thorough and simple a treatise as this, by Prof. Balfour Stewart, a boon to
science and the world at large.
" The scheme of the book is simple, as is naturally the case when the subject-matter comprehends but one single law of Nature and its manifestations. The first two
chapters are devoted to the consideration of mechanical energy and its change into
heat, Prof. Stewart rightly devoting special attention to these two forms of energy,
compared with which all others are insignificant in practical, if not in theoretical, importance. The remaining forms of energy are then explained, and the law of its conservation is stated, and its operation traced through all varieties of transmutations. An
historical sketch of the progress of the science and an examination of Prof. Thomson's
correlative theory of the'Dissipation of Energy' follow; and the work concludes with
a chapter on the'Position of Life,' which is closely connected with a well-known essay
written some years ago by Prof. Stewart and Mr. Icckyer. The style is all that it
should be; it is difficult to understand how so much information can be contained in so
few words. Prof. Stewart could not have been nearly so successful in this respect had
he been in any degree a pedant. No such writer would permit himself to use the
quaint language and still quainter similes and and illustrations that make the book so
readable, and yet there is scarcely one that is out of place, or illegitimately used, or
likely to mislead."-Saturday Review.
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y.


THE INTERNATIONAL
SCIENTIFIC SERIES.
D. APPLETON & CO. have the pleasure of announcing that they
have made arrangements to issue a comprehensive series of books,
under the above title, from eminent men of different countries.
Although not specially designed for the instruction of beginners,
these works will be adapted to the non-scientific public, and will
be, as far as possible, explanatory in character and free from technicalities. The character and scope of the works will be best illustrated by a reference to the names and subjects in the following
lift:
Professor JOHN TYNDALL, LL.D., F.R.S.,
THE FORMS OF WATER IN CLOUDS, RAIN, RIVERS,
ICE, AND GLACIERS. (Recently published.)
WALTER BAGEHOT.
PHYSICS AND POLITICS. (Recently published.)
Dr. EDWARD SMITH, F.R.S.
FOOD AND DIETS. (Recently published.)
Professor ALEXANDER BAIN, LL.D.
RELATIONS OF MIND AND BODY (Recently published.)
HERBERT SPENCER, Esq.
THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY. (Recently published.)
Professor JOSIAH P. COOKE. Jr. (of Harvard University).
THE NEW    CHEMISTRY.
Dr. J. B. PETTIGREW, M.D., F.R.S,
LOCOMOTION OF ANIMALS.
Professor BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., F.R.S.
THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.
Pr W. B. CARPENTER, LL.D., F.R.S.
THE PRINCIPLES OF MENTAL PHYSIOLOGY.
1


International Scientific Series.
Professor E. J. MAREY.
THE ANIMAL MACHINE.
Professor SHELDON AMOS.
THE SCIENCE OF LAW.
Professor C. A. YOUNG (of Dartmouth College).
THE SUN.
Professor T. H. HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S.
BODILY MOTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS.
Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., F.R.S.
THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Professor RUDOLPH VIRCIOW (of the University of Berlin).
MORBID PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION.
Dr. H. CHARLTON BASTIAN, Mf.D., F.R.S.
THE BRAIN AS AN ORGAN OF MIND.
Professor W. THISELTON DYER, B.A., B.Sc.
FORM AND HABIT IN FLOWERING PLANTS.
Professor W. KINGDON CLIFFORD, M.A.
THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF THE EXACT SCIENCES
EXPLAINED TO THE NON-MATHEMATICAL.
Mr. J. N. LOCKYER, F.R.S.
SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.
W. LAJDER LINDSAY, M.D., F.R.S.E.
MIND IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.
Professor A. C. RAMSAY, LL.D., F.R.S.
EARTH SCULPTURE: Hills, Valleys, Mountains, Plains, Rivers,
Lakes; how they were produced, and how they have been destroyed.
Dr. HENRY MAUDSLEY.
RESPONSIBILITY IN DISEASE.
Professor MICHAEL FOSTER, M.D.
PROTOPLASM AND THE CELL-THEORY.
2


International Scientific Series.
Rev. M. J. BERKELY, M.A., F.L.S.
FUNGI: their Nature, Influences, and Uses.
Professor CLAUDE BERNARD (of the College of France).
PHYSICAL AND METAPHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF LIFE.
Professor A. QUETELET (of the Brussels Academy of Sciences).
SOCIAL PHYSICS.
Professor H. SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE.
AN INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Professor WURTZ.
ATOMS AND THE ATOMIC THEORY.
Professor D. QTUATREFAGES.
THE NEGRO RACES.
Professor LACAZE-DUTHIERS.
ZOOLOGY SINCE CUVIER.
Professor BERTHELOT.
CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS.
Professor JAMES D. DANA, M.A., LL.D.
ON CEPHALIZATION; or, Head Domination in its Relation to
Structure, Grade, and Development.
Professor S. W. JOHNSON, M.A.
ON THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS.
Profess~r ATTSTIN FLINT, Jr., M.D.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ITS RELATION TO THE
BODILY FUNCTIONS.
Pronsvr W. D, WHITNEY.
MODERN LINGUISTIC SCIENCE.
Other eminent authors, as WALLACE, HELMHOLTZ, PARKS, MILNEEDWARDS, ROSENTHAL, and H.ECKEL, have given strong encouragement
that they will also take part in the enterprise.
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers,
549 and 551 Broadway, N. Y.
3


THE FIRST VOLUME OF
THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.
FORMS OF WATER,
IN CLOUDS, RAIN, RIVERS, ICE, AND GLACIER9S
By Professor JOHN TYNDALL, LL. D., F. L S.
One volume, zmo. Cloth. Price, $z.o.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
" In this attractive volume we have the first instalment of the' International Scientific
Series,' a work devoted to the popular exposition of physical and social science, and to the
phenomena of life and mind. In the volume now published, Professor Tyndall has pre.
sented a noble illustration of the acuteness and subtlety of his intellectual powers, the
scope and insight of his scientific vision, his singular command of the appropriate language
of exposition, and the peculiar vivacity and grace with which he unfolds the results of in.
tricate scientific research."-New York Tribune.
" In some respects this book differs from any popularization of science we have ever
met. The author treats his reader as a companion. They take delightful rambles together. At one time they stroll beside the river and trace it to its source. They discuss,
as friends, the origin of clouds, through the action of the sun's heat upon the surface of the
sea and other bodies of water, causing an invisible vapor to rise to the regions of the atmos.
phere, where the cold condenses it and renders it visible. Tyndall acts as guide to his
reader through Switzerland. They visit the glaciers of the Alps together. The one listens
to the other's eloquent explanation of these wonderful phenomena."-The World.
"In the domain of physics, as what was once termed natural philosophy is now usually
called, Professor Tyndall has no superior. In addition to this, he is at the head of modern
writers on science. His books, like his lectures, are popular because they are interesting.
The reputation of the author is security for their accuracy; let us hope, too, that the world
has outgrown the fallacy that a' popular presentation of scientific facts necessarily involves
luitrth." —The Sun.
D. APPLETON & CO.,
549 & 551 Broadtuway, New        York.


Opinions of the Press on the " Inlernational Scientuic Series.n
FOODS.            By Lr. Eldward Smith.
I vol   I2mo.    Cloth.  Illustrated,..                     Price, $1.75.
From The Popular- Science Mont/hiy.
"When the editor of this periodical was in Europe, in I87I, arranging with authors
to write for the INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES, he was assured by good authority
that the ablest man in England to treat the subject of Foods was Dr. Edward Smith.
This gentleman had made important researches into the character and physiological
effects of aliments, and his results were accepted, among men of science, as of great
value. He was a government inspector of dietaries, and had published several works
upon food and diet. His services were secured for the undertaking, and the little
treatise he has produced shows that the choice of a writer on this important subject was
most fortunate, as the book is unquestionably the clearest and best-digested compend
of tie Science of Foods that has appeared in our language."
From the London Popular Science Review.
"It is certain that, much as has Deen written on the subject of food, there is still a
great deal of ignorance, even among medical men who are placed in the position of
medicai officers of health, as to the relative value of certain varieties. Knowing this
to be the case, we hope to see this want of knowledge removed by a reference to the
volume now before us. For, there cannot be a doubt that in the volume which he has
just written there is put together, both from original experience and from very careful
compilation, al amount of information which is very large, regarding the relative value
of the several different kinds of food-including air and water-which are used by man,
not only in the civilized but in the uncivilized parts of the world. We cannot but
thank him for the book, for it is a most valuable one, and one which we doubt not will,
as it merits, command a very large circulation."
From the Examiner.
"The ability of this writer is beyond all doubt. The book contains a series of diagrams, displaying the effects of sleep and meals on pulsation and respiration, and of
various kinds of food on respiration, which, as the results of Dr. Smith's own experiments, possess a very high value. We have not far to go in this work for occasions
of favorable criticism; they occur throughout, but are perhaps most apparent in those
parts of the subject with which Dr. Smith's name is especially linked."
From the N. Y. Tribune.
"The union of scientific and popular treatment in the composition of this work
will afford an attraction to many readers who would have been indifferent to purely
theoretical details. Perhaps even the author has gone to an extreme in his desire to
produce a volume of general interest, and has overburdened his pages with an exposition of facts relating to points with which the intelligent reader may be supposed to
be sufficiently familiar. Still his work abounds in information, much of which is of
great value, and a part of which could not easily be obtained from other sources. Its
interest is decidedly enhanced for students who demand both clearness and exactness
of statement, by the profusion of well-executed woodcuts, diagrams, and tables, which
accompany the volume.... The suggestions of the author on the use of tea and coffee,
and of the various forms of alcohol, although perhaps not strictly of a novel character,
are highly instructive, and form an interesting portion of the volume."
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 55I Broadway, N. Y


Opinions of the Press on the " International Scientific Series."
v.
The Study of Sociology.
By HERBERT SPENCER.
I2mo.   Cloth............       Price, $I.50.
" The Study of Sociology " was written for the purpose of conveying to the reading
public more definite ideas concerning the nature, claims, scope, limits, and difficulties,
of the Science of Sociology. It is intended to prepare the way for the author's great
work on the " Principles of Sociology," which is to follow the "Principles of Psychology." But, while serving thus as an introduction to the larger work, the present volume is complete in itself. Its style is exceedingly clear and vigorous, and the book
abounds with a wealth of illustration.
" The philosopher whose distinguished name gives weight and influence to this volume, has given in its pages some of the finest specimens of reasoning in all its forms
and departments. There is a fascination in his array of facts, incidents, and opinions,
which draws on the reader to ascertain his conclusions. The coolness and calmness of
his treatment of acknowledged difficulties and grave objections to his theories win for
him a close attention and sustained effort, on the part of the reader, to comprehend, follow, grasp, and appropriate his principles. This book, independently of its bearing
upon sociology, is valuable as lucidly showing what those essential characteristics are
which entitle any arrangement and connection of facts and deductions to be called a
science. "-Episcopalian.
"To those who are already acquainted with Mr. Spencer's writing, there is no need
of recommending the work; to those who are not, we would say, that by reading'The
Study of Sociology' they will gain the acquaintance of an author who, for knowledge,
depth of thought, skill in elucidation, and originality of ideas, stands prominently forward in the front rank of the glorious army of modern thinkers.'The Study of Sociology' is the fifth of' The International Scientific Series,' and for beauty of type and
elegant appearance is worthy of the great publishing-house of Messrs. Appleton & Co."
-Boston Gazette.
"This volume belongs to'The International Scientific Series,' which was projected
with so high a standard and which-is being so successfully carried out. The value and
character of the whole may fairly be judged by this and the preceding volumes. The
principle of the enterprise is that each subject shall be treated by the writer of greatest
eminence in that department of inquiry, and it is well illustrated in the present work.
Herbert Spencer is unquestionably the foremost living thinker in the psychological and
sociological fields, and this volume is an important contribution to the science of which
it treats..... It will prove more popular than any of its author's other creations, for
it is more plainly addressed to the people and has a more practical and less speculative
cast. It will require thought, but it is well worth thinking about."-Albany Evening
yoournal.
"Whether the reader agrees with the author or not, he will be delighted with the
work, not only for the beauty and purity of its style, and breadth and cyclopedic character of Mr. Spencer's mind, but also for its freedom from prejudice and kindred imperfections."-NAorwich Bulletin.
"This work compels admiration by the evidence which it gives of immense research, study, and observation, and is withal written in a popular and very pleasing
style. It is a fascinating work, as well as one of deep practical thought."-Boston Post.
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y.


Opinions of the Press on the " International Scientific Series."
VI.
The New Chemistry.
By JOSIAH P. COOKE, JR.,
Erving Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Harvard University.
I vol., I2mo.   Cloth............               Price, $2.0o.
" The book of Prof. Cooke is a model of the modern popular science work. It has
just the due proportion of fact, philosophy, and true romance, to make it a fascinating
companion, either for the voyage or the study."-Daily Grajphic.
"This admirable monograph, by the distinguished Erving Professor of Chemistry
in Harvard University, is the first American contribution to'The International Scientific Series,' and a more attractive piece of work in the way of popular exposition upon
a difficult subject has not appeared in a long time. It not only well sustains the character of the volumes with which it is associated, but its reproduction in European countries will be an honor to American science. It is, moreover, in an eminent degree,
timely, for, between the abandonment of its old views and the bewilderment caused
by the new, chemical science was getting into a demoralized condition. A work was
greatly needed that should relieve the discomfort of transition, and bridge over the
gulf between the old order of ideas and those which are to succeed them. Professor
Cooke's compendious contribution to the present exigencies of chemical literature will
give the students of the science exactly the help they need, and pass them over by an
easy and pleasant route into the new realm of chemical philosophy."-New York
Tribune.
"All the chemists in the country will enjoy its perusal, and many will seize upon it
as a thing longed for. For, to those advanced students who have kept well abreast of
the chemical tide, it offers a calm philosophy. To those others, youngest of the class,
who have emerged from the schools since new methods have prevailed, it presents a
generalization, drawing to its use all the data, the relations of which the newly-fledged
fact-seeker may but dimly perceive without its aid..  To the old chemists, Prof.
Cooke's treatise is like a message from beyond the mountain. They have heard of
changes in the science; the clash of the battle of old and new theories has stirred them
from afar. The tidings, too, had come that the old had given way; and little more than
this they knew.... Prof. Cooke's' New Chemistry' must do wide service in bringing
to close sight the little known and the longed for.... As a philosophy it is elementary, but, as a book of science, ordinary readers will find it sufficiently advanced."Utica Morning Herald.
"A book of much higher rank than most publications of its class. It treats only
of modern chemical theories-relating to molecules, combining proportions, reactions,
atomic weights, isomerism, and the synthesis of organic compounds-taking one into
the very arcana of chemical mysteries. Though there are no more recondite branches
of the science than those here explained and illustrated, such is Professor Cooke's
clearness that he may be said to make every thing plain to the average reader, who
will but take pains with his lessons. Professor Cooke reminds us, in his simplicity and
lucidity of statement, of Professor Tyndall, than which there can be no higher praise."
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taught a few years ago. The original lectures of Professor Cooke, enlarged and
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A New Magazine for Students and Cultivated Readers.
THPOPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY,
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NEW               SCIENTIFIC WVORKS.
The Beginnings of Life:
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2 vols., 8vo. With upward of Io0 Illustrations. Price, $5.00.
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By JOHN EVANS, F. R. S., F. S. A., Honorary Secretary of the Geological
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An interesting and valuable book. The high standing of the author is a sufficient guaranty for the excellence of the work, and will secure for it an extensive circulation.
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SPECTRUM ANALYSIS,
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Constitution of the Heavenly Bodies,
Familiarly expl:incd, by Dr. H. SCHELLEN, Director der Realschule
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From the Chemical News.
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JOURNAL OF RESEARCHES
MITO TMH
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t0 THE COUNTRIES VISITED
DURING THE VOYAGE OF H. M. S. BEAGLE ROUND
THE WORLD, UNDER THE COMMAND OF
CAPTAIN FITZROY, R. N.
By CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S.,
Author of "Origin of Species," etc., etc.
One vol., 12mo.            619 pages.        Price, cloth, $2.00.
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may feel assured he will meet with no difficulties or dangers, except in rare cases,
nearly so bad as he beforehand anticipates."-Extract.
" An intensely interesting work, written in a style that is a model of brevity and
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"Darwin was nearly five years on board the Beagle. A keen observer and a genuine philosopher, he has brought back to us a precious freight of facts and truths.
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Eleventh Edition, Entirely Revised.
PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY;
OR,
THE MODERN CHANGES OF THE EARTH
AND
ITS INHABITANTS CONSIDERED AS ILLUSTRA TIVE OF GEOLOGY.
In 2 Vols. 8vo. Cloth.
ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS, PLATES, AND WOODCUTS.
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In this last edition of PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY, Sir Charles Lyell has set the seal
of his matured experience and convictions upon a work which has for years held the
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no name exactly equivalent to the German Erdkunde, the PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY
may be looked' upon with pride, not only as a representative ot English science, but as
without a rival of its kind anywhere. Growing in fulness and accuracy with the growth
of experience and observation in every region of the world, the work has incorporated
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value which has been brought to bear upon, or been envolved from, the most recent
body of facts. Its successive editions thus stand as a series of landmarks, indicating
the gradual expansion or rise of geological knowledge during a lifetime happily prolonged over at least two average generations. In the impression now before us, the
veteran geologist might be expected to have comparatively little to add by way of novel
matter to the thoroughly revised and largely rewritten edition, the tenth in order, which
he put forth scarcely more than three years ago, separated as that edition was by an
interval of fifteen years from that immediately preceding it. There are, notwithstanding, sundry points of importance which call for notice as contributing to the facts comprised within his general scope, as well as enhancing the unity and force of the argument which runs through the length and breadth of his system. These editions have
reference in the main to three large questions which may be said just now to engross
among them the most lively and active interest among students of Nature. The first
of these questions is that of volcanic action, as manifested especially in geysers, or as
diversely affected by water. The second is the latest phase assumed by the discussion
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An Important Work for Manufacturers, Chemists, and Students.
A HAND-BOOK
OF
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY.
By RUDOLPH WAGNER, Ph. D.,
PROFESSOR OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WURTZBURG.
Translated and edited, from the eighth German edition, with extensive
Additions,
By WM. CROOKES, F. R. S.
With 336 Illustrations. I vol., 8vo. 76X Rages. Cloth, $5.00.
The several editions of Professor Rudolph Wagner's "Handbuch def
Chemischen    7echnologie" have succeeded each other so
rapidly, that no apology is needed in offering
a translation   to the public.
Under the head of Metallurgic Chemistry, the latest methods of preparing Iron,
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the Distillation of Spirits, the Baking of Bread, the Preparation of Vinegar, the Preservation of Wood, etc.
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Preparation of Phosphorus and Animal Charcoal, are considered as be'onging to the
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necessarily required much space; while the final sections of the book have been devoted to the Technology of Heating and Illumination.
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers.


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The World before the Deluge.
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The Insect World.
A Popular Account of the Orders of Insects. Revised and corrected by P. MARTIN
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NEW WORK BY MR. DARWIN.
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The Expression of the Emotions
in Man and Animals.
By CHARLES DARWIN, F. R. S., Author of the " Origin of Species," etc., etc.
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mass of minute and trustworthy information which must possess the highest value,
whatever may be the conclusions ultimately deduced from it."-Lonzdon Times.
" It is almost needless to say that Mr. Darwin has brought to this work vast stores
of erudition, accumulated treasures of careful observation, and all the devices of an
acute and fertile ingenuity; for these are qualities which are conspicuous in all he
writes. But it may be as well to add that the book is very attractive even to general
readers. It is comparatively light and easy reading, full of amusing anecdote; and the
illustrations, whether due to the sun's rays or to the engr ver's point, are excellent."Guardian.
" Those of our readers who know the charm of Darwin's former works, how he
leads his readers on to his conclusions in the clearest and most attractive English, will
experience more than their usual treat when they sit down to this book. Never was
more truly realized the saying about men laboring and others entering into the fruit of
their labors. The illustrations are excellent, and recourse has been had to photographs
in rendering the more telling of the physiognomical expressions. Even the most antagonistic of anti-Darwinians will not hesitate to admit how much he has learned from
a careful study of the work before us."-Science Gossip.
RECENTLY PUBLISHED.
A NE W EDITION OF
Darwin's Origin of Species.
FROM THE SIXTH AND LAST ENGLISH EDITION,
Containing the Auth-Zr's Latest Corrections and Additions.
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DESCHANEL'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY:
AN ELEMEINTA R Y TREA TISE.
By PROFESSOR DESCHANEL, of Paris.
Translated, with Extensive Additions,
BY J. D. EVERETT, D. C. L., F. R. S.,
PROFESBOR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE QUEEN'S COLLEGE, BELFAST.
I vol., medium 8vo. Illustrated by 760 Wood Engravings and 3 Colored Plates.
Cloth, $6.0. Published, also, separately, in Four Parts. Limp cloth, each $1.75.
Part I. MECHANICS, HYDROSTATICS, and PNEUMATICS. Part II. HEAT.
Part III. ELECTRICITY and MAGNETISM. Part IV. SOUND and LIGHT.
Saturday Review.
"Systematically arranged, clearly written, and admirably illustrated, showing no
less than than 760 engravings on wood and three colored plates, it forms a model work
for a class of experimental physics. Far from losing in its English dress any of the
qualities of matter or style which distinguished it in its original form, it may be said
to have gained in the able hands of Professor Everett, both by way of arrangement
and of incorporation of fresh matter, without parting in the translation with any of the
freshness or force of the author's text."
Atheneaum.
"A good working class-book for students in experimental physics."
Westminster Review.
"An excellent handbook of physics, especially suitable for self-instruction...
The work is published in a magnificent style; the woodcuts especially are admirable."
Quarterly Journal of Science.
" We have no work in our own scientific literature to be compared with it, and we
are glad that the translation has fallen into such good hands as those of Professor
Everett.... It will form an admirable text-book."
Nature.
" The engravings with which the work is illustrated are especially good, a point in
wlich most of our English scientific works are lamentably deficient. The clearness
of Deschanel's explanations is admirably preserved in the translation, while the value
of the treatise is considerably enhanced by some important additions.... We believe
the book will be found to supply a real need."
D. APPLETON & CO., New York.


DESCRIPTIVE SOCIOLOGY.
MR. HERBERT SPENCER has been for several years engaged, with the aid of
three educated gentlemen in his employ, in collecting and organizing the facts
concerning all orders of human societies, which must constitute the data of a true
Social Science. He tabulates these facts so as conveniently to admit of extensive comparison, and gives the authorities separately. He divides the races
of mankind into three great groups: the savage races, the existing civilizations,
and the extinct civilizations, and to each he devotes a series of works.  The
first installment,
THE SOCIOLOGICAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND,
in seven continuous tables, folio, with seventy pages of verifying text, is now
ready. This work will be a perfect Cyclopedia of the facts of Social Science,
independent of all theories, and will be invaluable to all interested in social
problems. Price, five dollars. This great work is spoken of as follows:
From the British Quarterly Review.
"No words are needed to indicate the immense labor here bestowed, or the great
sociological benefit which such a mass of tabulated matter done under such competent
direction will confer. The work will constitute an epoch in the science of comparative
sociology."
From the Saturday Review.
"The plan of the' Descriptive Sociology' is new, and the task is one eminently fitted
to be dealt with by Mr. Herbert Spencer's faculty of scientific organizing. His object is
to examine the natural laws which govern the development of societies, as he has examined in forme; parts of his system those which govern the development of individual
life. Now, it is obvious that the development of societies can be studied only in their. story, and that general conclusions which shall hold good beyond the limits of particua,a societies cannot be safely drawn except from a very wide range of facts. Mr. Spencer has therefore conceived the plan of making a preliminary collection, or perhaps we
should rather say abstract, of materials which when complete will be a classified epi-.tome of unive. sal history."
From the London Examiner.
"Of the treatment, in the main, we cannot speak too highly; and we must accept
it as a wonderfully successful first attempt to furnish the student of social science with
data standing toward his conclusions in a relation like that in which accounts of the
tlructnres and functions of different types of animals stand to the conclusions of the
biologist."


A thoughtful and valuable contribution to the best religious literature
of the day.
RELIGION AND SCIENCE.
A Series of Sunday Lectures on the Relation of Natural and Revealcd
Religion, or the Truths revealed in Nature and Scripture.
By JOSEPH LE CONTE,
PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
I2mo, cloth. Price, $1.50.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
" This work is chiefly remarkable as a conscientious effort to reconcile
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grapples with some of the gravest questions which agitate the thinking
world. He treats of them all with dignity and fairness, and in a manner so clear, persuasive, and eloquent, as to engage the undivided attention of the reader. We commend the book cordially to the regard
of all who are interested in whatever pertains to the discussion of these
grave questions, and especially to those who desire to examine closely
the strong foundations on which the Christian faith is reared."-Boston
Journal.
"A reverent student of Nature and religion is the best-qualified man
to instruct others in their harmony.  The author at first intended his
work for a Bible-class, but, as it grew under his hands, it seemed well to
give it form in a neat volume.  The lectures are from a decidedly religious stand-point, and as such present a new method of treatment."
-Philadelphia Age.
"This volume is made up of lectures delivered to his pupils, and is
written with much clearness of thought and unusual clearness of expression, although the author's English is not always above reproach.
It is partly a treatise on natural theology and partly a defense of the
Bible against the assaults of modern science.  In the latter aspect the
author's method is an eminently wise one. He accepts whatever science has proved, and he also accepts the divine origin of the Bible.
Where the two seem to conflict he prefers to await the reconciliaticn,
which is inevitableif both are true, rather than to waste time and words
in inventing ingenious and doubtful theories to force them into seeming
accord. Both a; a theologian and a man of science, Prof. Le Conte's
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best religious literature of the day."-New York World.
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THE DESCENT OF MAN.
DARWIN.
The Descent of Man,
AND SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX. By CHARLES DAR.
WIN, M. A., F. R. S., etc. With Illustrations. 2 vols., 12mo. Cloth.
Price, $2.00 per vol.
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection;
Or, the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Lite. Nev
and revised edition. By CHARLES DARWIN, M. A., F. R. S., F. G. 8,
etc. With copious Index. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth. Price, $2.00
ST. GEORG-E MIVART.
On the Genesis of Species.
By ST. GEORGE MIVART, F. R. S.  12mo, 316 pages. nlc.strated
Cloth. Price, $1.75.
SPFNXC:ER.
The Principles of Biology.
By HERBERT SPENCER. 2 vols. $5.00.
HUXLEY.
M       Pans Place in Nature.
By THOMAS H. HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S      1 vol., 12mo  Cloth,
Price, $1.25.
On the Origin of Species.
By THOMAS H. HUXLEY, LL. D., F. R. S. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth.'rice, $1,
G-ALTON.
lereditary Genius:
An Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences. By FRANCLi GALTro
New revised edition. 12mo. Cloth. Price, $2.00.
FPIGXJIEIR.
Primitive Man.
Illustrated with thirty Scenes of Primitive Life, and 233 Figures of
Objects belonging to Prehistoric Ages. By Louis FIGUIER, author
of " The World before the Deluge," "The Ocean World," etc. 1
vol., 8vo. Cloth. Price, $4.00.
LUBBOCK.
Origin of Civilization,
AND THE PRIMITIVE CONDITION         OF MAN. By Sir JobJ
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LIST OF A UTHORS AND SUBJECTS OF THEIR BOOKS,
TO BE PUBLISHED IN THE
IN rERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.
Rev. M. J. BERKELEY, M. A., F. L. S., Prof. H. SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, An Inand M. COOKE, M. A., LL. D., Fungi;  troduction to General Chemistry.
their Nature, Influences, and Uses.  Prof. WURTZ, Atoms and the Atomic
Prof. OSCAR SCHMIDT (University of Stras-  Theory.
burg), The Theory of Descent and Prof.      QUATREFAGES, The Negro
Darwinism.                           Races.
Prof VOGEL (Polytechnic Academy of Ber  Prof. LACAZE-DUTHIERS, Zoology since
lin), The Chemical Effects of Light.  Cuvier.
Prof. W. KINGDON CLIFFORD, M. A., Prof. BERTHELOT, Chemical Synthesis.
The First Principles of the Exact Sciences explained to the Non-mathemati- Prof. J. ROSENTHAL, General Physiology
cal.of Muscles and Nerves.
Prof. T. H. HUXLEY, LL. D., F. R. S., Prof. C. A. YOUNG (Dartmouth College),
Bodily Motion and Consciousness.     The Sun.
Dr. W. B. CARPENTER, LL. D., F. R. S.,  Prof. JAMES D. DANA, M. A., LL. D., On
The Physical Geography of the Sea.   Cephahlzation; or, Head-Characters
Prof. WILLIAM ODLING, F. R. S., The Old  in the Gradation and Progress of
Chemistry from the New Stand-point.  Lfe.
Prof. SHELDON AMOS, The Science ofLaw.  Prof. S. W. JOHNSON, M. A., On the Nutrition of Plants.
W. LAUDER LINDSAY, M. D., F. R. S. E.,FLINT J            M D    The er
Mind in the Lower A nimals.       Prof. AUSTIN FLINT, Jr., M.D., The Ne.
vous System and its Relation to the
Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., F. R. S., The  Bodily Functions.
A ntiquitcy of Man.               Prof. W. D. WHITNEY, Modern LinguisProf. W. T. THISELTON DYER, B. A.,     tic Science.
B. S. C., Frm and Habitin Flower- Prof. BERNSTEIN (University of Halle),
ing Plants.            fPhysiology of the Senses.
Prof. MICHAEL FOSTER, M   D., Proto  Prof. FERDINAND COHN (University of
plasm and the Cell Theory.           Breslau), Thallotyphes (Algae Lichens
Prof. W. STANLEY JEVONS, The Logic of  Fungi).
Statistics.                       Prof. HERMANN (University of Zurich),
Dr. H. CHARLTON BASTIAN, M.D.,F.R.S.,  Respiration.
The Brain as an Organ of Mind.   pProf. LEUCKART (University of Leipsic),
Prof. A. C. RAMSAY, LL. D., F. R. S.,   Outlines of Animal Organization.
Earth Sculpture; Hills,  Valleys,
Mountains, Plains, Rivers, Lakes,  Prof. LIEBREICH (University of Berlin),
how they were Produced, and how      Outlines of Toxicology.
they have been Destroyed.         Prof. KUNDT (University of Strasburg),
Prof. RUDOLPH VIRCHOW (University of   On Sound.
Berlin), Morbid Physiological Action. Prof. LONMEL (University of Erlangen),
Prof. CLAUDE   BERNARD   (College of   Optics.
France), Physical and Metaphysical Prof. REES (University of Erlangen). On
Phenomena of Life.                  Parasitic Plants.
Prof. A. QUETELET (Brussels Academy of Prof STEINTHAL (University of Berlin),
Sciences), Social Physics.          Outlines ofthe Science of Language.
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y.


THE DESCENT OF MAN,
AND
SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX
BY
CHAS. DARWIN, M. A., F. R. S.
Two Vols., 12mo.
WITH            ILLTTSTBRATIOlsS.
PRICE,.... $4.00
In these volumes Mr. Darwin has brought forward all the facts and
arguments which science has to offer in favor of the doctrine that man
has arisen by gradual development from the lowest point of animal life.
He had originally intended this work as a posthumous publication, but
the extensive acceptance of the views unfolded in his book on the " Origin
of Species " induced him to believe that the public were ripe for the most
advanced deductions from his theory of "Natural Selection." Aside from
the logical purpose which Mr. Darwin had in view, his work is an original
and fascinating contribution to the most interesting portion of natural
history.
From the London Spectator.
"For our part, we find Dr. Darwin's vindication of the origin of man a far more
wonderful vindication of Theism than Paley's' Natural Theology,' though we do
not know, so reticent is his style, whether or not he conceives it himself."
From the Citizen and Round Table.
" Even the charge of atheism, which was so violently urged against Mr. Darwin, is now rarely heard, and theologians, whose orthodoxy is unquestioned, have
ventured to admit that it is possible to believe both in Christianity and the Darwinian theory at the same time."
From the Charleston Courier.
"No one can rise from an ordinarily attentive consideration of Mr. Darwin's
treatise, without being impressed, not only with the extent and depth of the
knowledge which he has attained upon the subject under treatment, and his long,
unwearied labor in collecting facts, but also with his possession of qualities
equally rare-the true scientific temper, the transparent candor, and the truthseeking soberness, with which he expresses to you his conclusions, and the processes by which he reaches them.
"Whether you like his discourse or not-though you may refuse to acquiesce
in his conclusions-still you are compelled to bear your witness, that this man
~as not been laboring to find facts to support a preconceived theory, but that the
theory is the irrepressible outgrowth of his accumulated facts."
From the Evening Bulletin.
"This theory is now indorsed by many eminent scientists, who at first combated it, including Sir Charles Lyell, probably the most learned of living geologists, and even by a class of Christian divines like Dr. McCosh, who think that
certain theories of cosmogony, like the nebular hypothesis and the law of evolu.
tion, may be accepted without doing violence to faith."
Sentfree, by mail, to any address in the U. S., on receipt of the price.
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers.


D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICA TIOrS.
THE
Correlation and Conservation of Forces.
WITH AN
BI RODUCTION AND BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL NOTIOlI
By EDWARD L        YOUMANS, M.D.      12mo, 490 pages.
CONTENTS
L By W. R. GROVE. The Correlation of Physical Forces.
II. By Prof. HELMHOLTZ. The Interaction of Natural Forces.
Ill. B} J. R. MAYER.   1. Remarks on the Forces of Inorganic Nature.
2. On Celestial Dynamics.
3. On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.
IV. By Dr. FARADAY.    Some Thoughts on the Conservation of Forces.
V. By Prof. LIEBIG.   The Connection and Equivalence of Forces.
VI. By Dr. CARPENTER. The Correlation of the Physical and Vital Forces
"This work is a very welcome addition to our scientific literature, and will be
particularly acceptable to those who wish to obtain a popular, but at the same time
precise and clear view of what Faraday justly calls the highest law in physical science,
the principle of the conservation of force. Sufficient attention has not been paid to the
publication of collected monographs or memoirs upon special subjects. Dr. Youmans'
work exhibits the value of such collections in a very striking manner and we earnestly
hope his excellent example may be followed in other branches of science."-American
Jounrnal of Science.
"It was a happy thought which suggested the publication of this volume. The
question is often asked, and not so easily answered, What are the new doctrines of the
Correlation and Conservation of Forces? In this volume we have the answer, and
with the reasons of its chief expounders; those who are ignorant on that theme, can
thus question the original authorities."-Newm Englander.
"We here have the original exposition of the new Philosophy of Forces, accompanied by an excellent exposition of both the expositions and the expositors; the whole
will be a rare treat to the lovers of advancing scientific thought."-Methodis
Quarterly Review.
"This is, perhaps, the most remarkable book of the age. We have here the lates
llacoveries, and the highest results of thought concerning the nature, laws, and con
iectlons of the forces of the universe. No higher or more sublime problem can engage
bee intellect of man than is discussed by these doctors of science intent alone on ariv
64 at the truth."-Detroit Free Press.'Ihis work presents a praiseworthy specimen of complete and faithful authir.ahjr
mad Itb publication at this time will form an epoch in the experience of wm-ny thinl in
ialnda.- ibuma.


"One of the most accomplished Writers of the Age."
HISTORY
OF THE
RISE AND INFLUENCE
OF THE SPIRIT OF
RATIONALISM IN EUROPE.
By W. E. IE.:LECKY, M. A.
2 Vols. small 8vo. Cloth, $1
[From the Edinburgh Review.]
"We opened these volumes, never having heard the name of their author, and
entirely ignorant of his pretensions to a place in English literature. We closed
them with the conviction that Mr. Lecky is one of the most accomplished writers
and one of the most ingenious thinkers of the time, and that his book deserves
the highest commendation we can bestow upon it. Indeed, it has seldom been
our good fortune to take up an essay by an unknown, and we presume, a young
author, so remarkable for the purity and elegance of its style, so replete with
varied erudition, appropriately introduced to enliven argument, or so distinguished
for broad and dispassionate views. * * * * * * This book well deserves to be
universally read and carefully studied, for if the eye is dazzled at first by the brilliancy of the fervor, the mind is interested and occupied by the subtlety and perspicuity of a thousand observations which escape notice on a first perusal. In a
word, we hope to see this work take its place among the best literary productions
o? the age, and we doubt not that it will powerfully conduce to the ultimate triumph of that cause to which it is devoted."
D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers,
549 & 551 Broadway, New York.